-.,Jwl.

s

THE

CYCLOPiEDIA

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

^rts, Sciences, anb ilittraturt.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

7? 5' THE MOST niSTTXGUISHED ylRTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXL

LONDON:

Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME. & BROWN, Paterxoster-Row,

F.r. AXD J. RIVIXGTOX, a. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELI.,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSOK AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

CYCLOPEDIA:

OR,. A NEVv'

UNIVERSAL DICTIONy\RY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES,

LIGHT-HOUSE.

LIGHT-HousE,. in the Mantle, is a building or watch-
■ tower erefted upon the fea-(hore, to ferve as a landmark
to mariners in the night, to avoid any roclis or other dangers.
The hght-houfe is generjUy a high tower, having at the top
an apartment called the lantern, with windows on all fides,
to exhibit the light made within it by the flame of an open
fire, or by lamps or candles. Ii is frequently of fervice to
navigation, to creft lighr-lioufes upon infulated rocks rifing
from the fea, to warn {hips of their approach to fiicli rocks.
Of this kind are the Eddyftone rocks off Plymouth, and the
Bell rock at the mouth of the Forth in Scotland. In thefe
fituations, the heavy fwell of the fea, when agitated by a
ftonr, ftrikes with fuch force againll the building, as to
require every precaution to feciire them from being over-
thrown by the continued action of fo powerful an enemy.
The Eddyftone rocks being the molt celebrated, as well from
their peculiarly e.Kpofed fituation, as from the great inge-
nuity difplaycd in the conllruClion of the light-houfes
erected at different periods upon them, renders them deferv-
ing of particular defcriptioii. The hiftory of the different
ereilions has been already given under the head of Eddv-
STONE. We here iiitend defcribing the conftruftion of each,
whir.h will be a fummary of all the different kinds of light-
houfes of wood or ilone.

Mr. Winllanley's light-houfe was begun upon the Ed-
dyftone rock in 1696, and was more than four years in
the eretlion, from the many interruptions of the wind,
which from fome quarters caufcs the fea to break over thcfe
rocks with fuch violence, as to prevent the poffibility of
landing upon them, though the lea around is very quiet.
This is occafioiied by the rocks being open to the fwell
from t!-;e Great Atlantic ocean, or from the Bay of Bifcay,
in all the fouth-wellern points of the compafs ; and is in-
creafed by the form and pofition of the rocks, which have

Vol. XXI.

a regular (lope to the fouth-weft from the deep fea to tlif
rock upon which the houfe is erefted, and which, therefore,
receives the uncontrouled fury of thefe feas, meeting no
otlier objea to break upon, and the'effeft of fo great an
extent of water, caufed by the hard S.W. winds, continue*
for many days, though fucceeded by a calm, and breaks
frightfully upon Eddyftone. When there is no wind, and
the furface of the fea appears fmooth, Mr. Winftanley's
light-houfe appears, from an engraved plate of it, publifhed
by himfelf, to have been a ftone tower with 12 fides, rifinx
44 feet above the higheft point of the rock, which is in-
clined fo as to be 10 feet lower on the oppofite fide of the
houfe. The tower was 24 feet in diameter. At the top were
a baluftrade and platform : upon this eight pillars were
erefted, and fupported a dome of the fame diameter as the
tower. From the top of this arofe a fmaller oftagonal tower,
I J feet in diameter and fcvcn in height ; and upon this was
the lantern to feet in diameter, and \i high, containing the
lights. It had a gallery or balcony furrounding it, to give
accefs to the outfide of the windows. The whole was fur-
mounted by a fanciful iron work with a vane. The entry was
by a door at the bottom, which was folid ftone, except the
aperture for the ftaircafe, 12 feet in height. Above this were
three floors, the loweft being the ftore-room, the next the
flate-room, and the third the kiichen. Thefe occupied the
height up to the level of the platform, or open gallery above-
mentioned. The dome above this contained the lodging-
room, and the oftagon above it the attending or look-out
room, immediately beneath the lantern. This edifice was,
as before-mentioned, more than four year* in erefting. The
firft fummer (for it is only in this feafon the rock is ac-
cefTible) was fpent in making J2 holes in the rock, and
fattening 12 great irons to hold the future work. In the
fecond year, a folid pillar 14 feet diameter, and 12 feet
• B high.

444002

LIGHT-HOUSE.

high, was built as a core or centre for the buildinfr. Thi>
third year the pillar was incrcafcd to i6 feet diameter,
and all the work was raifed, which to the vane wa^s at tliat
time So feet. The workmen lodged in the hoiife foon after
Midfummer, but were by bad weather iniprifoncd 1 1 days
before a boat co\ild relieve them. A lipht was exhibited on
the 14th of Nov. 169S. But findin^T tliat the fea frequently-
broke over the lantern, in the fourth year tlie whole
building was encompafled with a new work of four feet in
ihicknefs, made folid for near 20 feet high, and the lantern
was raifed 40 feet higher than at firft, making it 90 feet to
the top of the cupola of the lantern, above which the vane
rofe 22 feet. " Yet after all," Mr. Winftanley fays, " the fea
in dorms flies in appearance 100 feet above the vane, and at
times doth cover half the fide of the houfe and the lantern,
as if it were under water." The joints of the additional
ilone work of the fourth year, appear to have been covered
with an iron or copper hoop cncompafling the building, to
prevent the fea wafhing out the mortar. The building with-
stood the walb of the fea only till the year 1703, when the
inventor, being at Plymouth to fuperintend fcm? repairs of
the building, went off to it on fome of his friends intimating
the danger of the building, from a florm which fcemeJ
coming on. He expreifed a wifh that he might be pre-
fent ill tlie mod violent ilorm which ever blew, to obferve
its elfctt on the (Irufture. In this he was too amply gra-
tified, for on the 26th of November a violent (lorm arofe,
and the next morning no velh'ge of the light-hoiife remained,
except fome of the irons which were fallened in the rock,
and a piece of iron chain, which was jambed faft into a chink
of the rock, and nothing was ever afterwards found. Thus
perifhed the firll light-houfe with its ingenious, but unfor-
tunate, builder. A Welt Indian fiiip was loll on the rocks
foon after the light-houfe was overthrown. Thiscircumdance,
and the great utihty of the light while exhibited, ftimulated
the Board of Trinity houfe, who bad tlie manaijcment of
the building, to ereft another, and an aCt of parliament, of
the 4th of queen Anne, was pafTed in 1706, to enable the
Board of Trinity houfe to raife duties on ihips to rebuild it,
of which they granted a leafe of 99 years to Capt. Lovel, as
be engaged to build and maintain the houfe. In July 1706,
the work was begun under the direction of Mr. John Rnd-
yerd, who was at that time a lllk mercer on Ludgatc hJl,
London, but who appears to have pofTeffcd much ingenuity
and mental refource. He, like Mr. Winflanley, publiflied a
print drawn by B. Leus, aud engraved by J. Sturt, which
informs us, that it.was a conical fruftum of wood, formed
of 71 upright beams, united together by bein^ bolted to cir-
cular kirbs of woodwithinfide, upon which kirbs the floors
were framed. It, in fome degree, rcfembled an inimenfe conical
c&Pti, but without hoops : the diameter at the bafe was 23
feet, at the top 15 feet, and its altitude, from the highcll
point of the rock to the top of the upright, was 62 feet. At
the top of the buiidirg was a balcony, furrounded by a railing,
and in the centre ot the area thus formed the lantern was
fituated. It l;ad windows on all fides, asd wj.i of an oflagonnl
£gure, 10 feet in diameter, and 13 high, furmounted by a
dome with a fimple ball at top, inftead of the fanciful iron work
■vvhich ornamented tlic lirft edifice. Mr. Rudyerd, from prin-
ciples totally different from thofe of his predeccfTor, made his
building quite plain, without the leall projection or orna-
ment on which the water could ail when dafliing againft it ;
and he omitted no precaution of uniting all the parts toge-
ther, and fallenin^ the whole to the rock. As the furface
of the rock was naturally inclined, and the whole building
would have had a tendency to Aide down it, if merely placed
!;poa it, as Mr. Winitanley's was, Mr. Rudyerd wifhed to

reduce its furface into level ftcps, Upon which each timber
would have a horizon*.;! bearing ; but finding this to be the
mod difficult of the whole undertaking, it was imperfedlly
executed, only five deps being cut, and thofe did not t;ike
out all the inclined furface ; however, it was fufficicnt for the
purpofe.

The building was filled up quite folid for 19 feet from
tlie lowed point of the rock, and, excepting the well for
the (lair-cafe, was folid to the height of 37 feet. The folid
was formed of three beds of moor done, with drong floorings
of timbers between each bed, to unite them with the externid
uprights. The lower bed cont.iiiied five coui les of done, arid
was live feet thick ; the fecond was the fame, and the third
was four feet thick, containing four courfes. The whole
eredlion, in addition to the weight of this done, which was
about 280 tons, was fecured to the rock by 36 iron cramp.s,
part of them arranged in a circle about a foot within the ex-
ternal uprights, and the remainder, which were fmaller '
cramps, in an interior circle three feet didant from the
former, to hold down the floors of timber which had the done
beds between them. In the centre of the building a dronij
. jnad was eredted, feciu'ed by two cramps to the rock at the
hottom, and rifing above the folid to the height of 48 feet,
being united to I'lc framing of each floor it pafled through,
and thus forming :i central axis to flrengthen the whole. The
houfe above the loiid contained four apartments, the lower
being the (tore room, the next the date room, the third the
bed chamber, and the fourth the kitchen, immediately be-
neath the lantern. In the manner of fixing; the irons to the
rock, upon the duration of which the fecurity of the whole
work depended, Mr. Rudyerd fucceededmoft admirably. The
holes in the rock were made by drilling two holes rather di-
verging from each other, fo that they would be an inch more
afunder at I j or 16 inches depth, than on the iurface of the
rock. A third hole being drilled between thefe two, and the
three being broken into one, formed a hole larger at the bot-
tom than the top. The iron cramp was formed of two pieces,
which, when laid together, were of the fhape of the hole, but
when feparated, one was larger at the bottom than the top,
and the other fmalleft at the bottom ; therefore the former
being firll put down into the hole, and the latter driven in
by the fide of it, wedged it fad, and both being united by
the fame bolts which attached them to the timbers, ren-
dered it impoflible to draw them out. They were put in their
places hot, and a quantity of melted tallow being firit poured
into the hole, when the hot irons were put down the tallow
ran over on all fides, and thus certainly filled up all cavities.
A quantity of coarfe pewter, made red-hot, was now poured
into the cavity round the irons, and, being a heavier fluid, dif-
jilaced the tallow, and filled the fpace round them completely,
the tallow efFedlually preventing the entrance of the fea
water into the moll minute cavities. This method is worthy
of record, as it may be applied to many other ufeful pur-
pofes. Mr. Rudyerd, as before-mentioned, began his ope-
rations in July 1706 ; in July 1708, he had fo far com-
pleted it as to exhibit a temporary light ; and the whole was
complet^'d in the following year. This building had fiime
repairs of its timbers in 1723, and again in 1744, when a
violent dorm had carried away a great number of the up-
right timbers : but it fhewed itlelf, in the courfe of 49 years,
to be a very excellent condrutlion of its kind, and only
liable to dedrudtion from the porilhable nature of its mate-
rials, or the cataltrophe which awaited it on the night of the
2d of Dec. 1759, when one of the attendants, entering tfie
lantern to fnuft the candles, found it in flames, and, not-
withdanding every exertion, the fire communicated to the
uprights, and barntd downwards. The unfortunate men de-

fcendcd

LIGHT-HOUSE.

fcended from room to room as the fire increafed, and were
at lad obliged to take refuge, from the fall of burning tim-
bers, in a cavity of the rock, from which they were relieved
by a boat the next morning. The wind, unfortunately, blew
from the eaft, and though it caufed fuch a fwell as to pre-
vent landing, did not break on the houfe fo as to extinguifh
the fire ; and thus, in a few days, the whole was deftroyed,
except the iron cramps in the rock.

It is remarkable, that whilil; one of the light keepers, at
the commencement of the fire, was looking up at the fire in
the cupola of the lantern, a body of melted lead (howered
down upon him, and he declared a quantity had palTed down
his throat into his ilomach. He lived only 1 2 days after being
talien on fhore ; and on opening the body, a mafs of lead
was taken from the Ilomach, weighmg more than feven
ounces. The curious fact, of his having 12 days furvived fo
alarming an accident, was communicated by his attendant
furgeon, Dr. Spry, to the Royal Society, bat the ciicum-
llance appeared lo improbable, that it did not, at firlt, meet
that credit, which future experiments on animals proved he
was entitled to.

On the news of the fire reaching London, the proprietors
(for by the fde of Capt. Lovel's original leafe, the property
of the light-houfe was now in many hands,) immediately
took meafures to reftore it, and appointed one of their mem-
bers, Mr. Rob. Wefton, to the fole managefnent of their
affairs, and he being recommended to Mr. John Smea-
ton, F. R.S., by the prefident 01 the Royal Society, employed
this gentleman to devife the means, and fuperintend the erec

taining the fire-place L, from which the fmoke afccnds by,a
copper funnel m, through the bed room M and lantern N,
to the ball on the top of the cupola O. The afcent from room
to room is by the perforations through the middle of each
floor, a moveable ftep ladder being ufed for the attend-
ants; but llore may be drawn up from the lower room
into any other. P is the railing forming the balcony ;
its floor is covered with v.ry thick (beet lead, turned
down over the cornice Q, which furmounts the co-
lumn fif the building. R is the ftone bafeiiient of the lan-
tern, and N the glazed part : the cupola O is fupported by
eight caft-iron ftandards, bet^teen which the copper win-
dow frames are fixed : the ftandardi have claws at bottom,
which are fcrewed to flat iron bars relting upon the llone
work. By this means the whole lantern is framed together ;
and to ftrengthen it, the window frames are call with di-
agonal bars, as fiieun in Jg. 2. The whole lantern is held
down by eight bolts at its angles, paffing down through
the balcony floor ; one of thcfe is feen at ^ : S is the door
to the balcony. The lantern is lighted by 24. candles ar-
ranged in two iron circles, one fix feet four inches diameter,
containing 16 lights ; and the other, three feet four inches
diameter, holding eight candles. Tiiefe circles are fufpenced
by cords going over pullies, fo that they mutually rife
and fall parallel, and counterbalance each other. By this
arrangement either circle can be diawn down to fnuff the
candles, which is done every half hour, without lofino- the
whole light. Having thus defcribcd the general outline
of the building, the minutia of its ccnllruclion comes next

tion, of a new building. Mr. S., whofe originality of genius, to be defcribed, and the manner of uniting the ilones com-

and foundnefs of juiigment, have fince been fa generally pofing it. The feCtion,_^. 2, fhews the feveral fleps wiiich

known, was at that time juft entering into his profeflion as a were cut in the rock to engraft llie ftone work upon,

civil engineer, but immediately devoted himfelf to the confi- J^'S^- I, 2,3, Sec. denote the different courfes of llone, eacii

deration of the light-houfe, and foon determined upon of whichniakes a level furfacev/ich the ilep it is fitted into,

eredling a ftone building ; and reafoned, that by making the The feventh is the firft com.plete courfe. Fig. 2. is a plan

building very heavy, and uniting all the ftones firmly together,
he ihould obtain fuch a weight and ftrength, as would firmly
refift the united action of the wind and water. He determined
upon dovetailing the ftones together, as being a more fecure
method than cramping with iron, and not liable to inter-
ruption from the work getting wetted, as would almoil: un-
avoidably happen in fuch an expofed fituation. On the whole,
tlie building he erefted, and which is now ftanding, may be
confidered as the moft perfeft light-houfe in exiftence, and
gives exampies of the beft kinds of mafonry. We have there-
fore given drawings of it in the FUle of Light-houfe, which
are taken from a fuperb work in foho, publilhed by Mr.
Smeaton in 1791, entitled " Narrative of the Building, and
Defcription of the Conftruction of the Eddyftone Liight

of the rock, (hewing the courfes i, 2, and 3, laid in their
places, and exhibiting the dovetails which are cut in each
ftep to hold the feveral ftones in their places ; and thefe
ftones are fo formed as to enlock the others with them iu
a manner which will prevent any ftone quitting its pofition.
The dark fliaded ftones are moor ftones, while the lighter
forts are Portland ftone. Fig. 4. is a plan of the feventh
or firft complete cOm-fe, ftiewing a central ftone with four
dovetails uniting it to four others, and thefe tying in the
remainder. All the folid courfes arc laid in this manner to
the fourteenth, which, as before mentioned, completes the
entire folid. Every courfe is laid in fuch a manner upon the
one beneath it, that all the joints break each other, as
mafons term it, that is, immediately above and below the

The feveral courfes are retained upon each other, to prevc.it
them Hiding fideways, by means of joggles, which Ere
plugs or cubes of h^rd bl.ick marble, (hewn by the dark
fquares m fig. 2, and in the plan, jfj. 4, to be received
one-half through every two adjacent courfes. All the courfes
of the euiire fohds have a central joggle f, and eio-ht

houfe with Stone." It is from the fame fource the whole joints of any courfe the middle of a fohd ftone is difpofed
of this article has been compiled. --n, r . ,

Fig. I. is a fouth elevation of the whole houfe, andj^. 2.
a feftion of the fame. A reprefents the landing place ; B a
natural cave in the eaft fide of the rock; D an iron rod,
ferving as a rail to hold by in paffing up fteps cut in the
rock, to the foot of the ladder occaiionallv put out from

the entry door at E. At F is a cafcade of water, pouring others, g, arranged in a circle round it, as fliewn in Jig" ^
over a low part of the rock, but this j^ only momentary, for Above the entire folid, the centre ftone is omitted to leave
the fwell will in an inftant caufe it to iet the other way. In the well-hole for the ftair-caie, X, or rather, it is com-
Jig. 2. fl B ftiews the upright face of the rock, and the line pofcd of four ftones, united by hook or dovetail joints, to
«i the general direction of its ^rain or Hope. In this figure it form, when put together, one piece, large enough to Jiave
is feen that, as high as the firft 14 courfes of ftone work, the the well-hole through its centre, and the exterior ftones are
budding is entirely folid. Here the entry F comme-.ces, but united to it as a central piece in the lame manner, as_/ff, 4.
excepting this cavity, and the ftaircafe X, the foad ftiil con- In thefe courfes the continuity of the ftones being fomewhat
tinues to the floor of the lowell chamber G, which is the broken, double the number of joggles, h, and thole halt"
ftore room, and H the door at which the ftores are drawn up the fize, are introduced between the courfes. It is to be
and received. I is the upper ftore room ; K the kitchen c jn- obferved, that none of the joggles, except ihc centre OHes,

B .; come

LIGHT-HOUSE.

«ome immediately over the others, as the figure would in-
fer, but they break j.iiiit with each otlicr to give every
part of the foliJ an equal (Irenjjth. Above the folid, a
new fyilem of building was necclTanly adopted: the lower
courfes were coinpofed of Portland (loncs to fill up the
centre, and moor iiones, as being nioie durable, to make the
outfide. The whole of the upper works are of moor llone ;
and dovetailinjj hci'g no longer pradlicable, the Hones :re
united by iron cramps and joggles, as Ihevvn in^^. 7, which
is a plan of the upper or bed-room M. Each ftone is here feen
to have an iron crump to join it to its neighbour, and has a
fmall marble joggle to unite it with tliat above it. The ver-
tical joints are rendered impervious to water, by cutting a
notch between every two adjuceut Hones, fo that when they
come togeliier it forms a hole of a lozenge fliape, and a
piece of llune being put dovyn into this hole with mortar,
makes a perfcA joint, at the fame time increafing the bond
of the iiones. This kind of joint is partly feen in_y?f. 8, at
n, but one-half is hid by the iron cramps r, r, extending
over every joint. In this figure they are feen inclined, tliat
they may take firmer hold of the ftcnes s, s, forming the
fides of the apertures T, for the window. The (lones of the
different floors arc dovetailed together, as in ^/fj'j. 5 and 7,
and are rather arched on the lower fide, as flicwn in Jig. 2.
To retain the thrull of thefe arches, every courfe trom vvhich
a fioor fpriiigs, is bound by an eiidlefs chain inlaid in the
fione work, as in Jir. j, and run in folid with lead. The
chain is fiiewn enlarged in Ji^. 6. Fig. 7. is a plan of the
bed-room M, (liewing the diljiohtion of ihe three cabin beds
i, I, lit, with a window between each. The dark ipot m is the
fmoke funnel, and n is the place for a clock. — The reader is
now tolerably well acquainted with the conl'.ruftion of Mr.
Smeatoii's light-lioufe ; but in fudi a peculiarly expofed
fituation, every trifling operation was attended with diffi-
culty, and demanded thought and ingenuity to devife the
means of accomplilliing it. On this account we iliall briefly
follow Mr. Smeatoii through his narrative, though it relates-
circumllances which, if recorded in the account of a com-
mon building, wijuld appear impertinently minute. The
feaibn when Mr. Smeaton firll took up the bufmefs of the
liglit-houfe not being favourable for a vifit to the rock, he
did not attempt it till April 1756, before which time he had
deligned the general plinciplcs of the building. He fcund
upon the rock the irons of both the former erections, and
fcveral of the moor Rones of the late building lying in the
gut, wiiicii was a narrow channel of twelve feet deep be-
tween the houfe rock, and a reef of rocks to the well ward,
in which channel the boats coming to the houfe could lie
in fair weatlier. His firil vifit was employed in obferva-
tions on the rock, ancFin experiments of the time rcquilite to
drill and pick holes cf a certain dimenfion, that he might
elliraatc the time necelTary to complete the work on the
rock. In fucceeding voyages he took dimenfions of every
part to enable him to make an accurate model, to which he
could ada'Jt a model of the intended building. The unfa-
vourable days at fea were employed on fliore in examining
the (lone in the country round, a convenient fituation for a
work-yard, &c. The dimenfions of the rock were taken by
the foliov/ing means : He fiiced up the circle of ?. theodolite,
with its index, in the centre of tlie rock, and levelled it
with ti e fpirit-level ; a light rod was fixed to the index,
long enough, when turned round, to reach all parts of the
rock ; it was provided witli a fpirit-level to (hew when it
Hood horizontal. It is obvious that this rod, when turned
round, would defcribe a horizontal plane, and the depth of
any pcint of the rock beneath this plane was afcertained by
a rod fel u]) vertically upon the point in quelUon, and ap-

plying the horizontal ruler to it. The divilioiis on the ver-
tical rod fliewed the depth ; and tite divifiou of the horr-
zontal ruler fliewed the diitance from tlie centre, and the
degrees of the theodolite circle pointed out the direclion.
By thefe means the jjofilion and altitude of thirty-two
principal points were obtained, which were well marked
upon the rock, and a line being ftrctched from one of thelo
points to another, pave the means of determining the pt»-
fition of the iron ftanchioi;S, or any thing elle vshieh was
remarkable. Having thi:s, ill ten voyages, made all tl.«;
nccedary obfervations on the rock, and determined upon re-
gulations for the management of the work, he returned to
i^ondon, and, in his way, vifited the various ftone quarries in
Devonlhire, and the illes of Portland and Purbeck. He
was employed, till the month of July, in making cxaA mo-
dels of the building, when he returned to Plymouth, where
he found a velfel, the Neptune Bufs, whi. h had been fitted
up for exhibitini; a temporary light during the period of
rebui'diiig the hoiifc. From fome mifundcrC.anding be-
tween the Board of Trinity and the proprietors, this veffel
was not eu-.ployed in this manner, but was devoted to Mr.
Smealon's ufe, who immediately began tlic work.s upon the
rock ; mooring the Bufs near the rock to ferve as a retrejrt
for the workmen, who were frequently driven off by the
waves. In the month of September the three Icwer ll^ps of
the rock wore completed, and the upper ones in a Ihite
of great fur wardnefs ; after which time, bad weather pre-
vented much more being done that year, and In November
the Bufs left her moorings to return to Plymoutb, in which
voyage (lie was driven to fea, and narrowly efcapcd (hip-
wreck. Thus concluded the i perations of the year 1756..
The winter feafon was pafTed in preparing ftone work on
(hore, m building boats, and, by Mr. Smeaton, in a long
and valuable ieries of cxperin.ents on the different kinds ct
cements, which could be applied to the building.

In May 1757, the Bufs was carried out and moored, and
on the 1 2th of June the lowell and firll Hone was kid in its
place ; from the great uncertainty of the weather every ftone
was fo contrived, that it was of itfclf in a condition to rcfiit
the wafh of the fea,even when it was immediately laid, and be-
fore it was hardened. For this pnr^ofe, eath (lone had one or
two holes drilled through it before it left the work-yard,
and this hole being continued a few inches into the rock
or the llone ben.;ath, a ilrong trenail, or oaken pin, was
driven through it, to pin it fait in its place : as liie dove-
tails did not of courfe fit perfecVy clofe into each other, but
left fpace for the mortar ; notches were cut in the edijes
of each llone to receive ftrong oak wedges, which lield
them firm until the mortar came to its folidit.y. As a further
precaution to defend the nuirtar, all the outward joints were
coated over with plafter of Paris, as a temporary expedient.
The woi-k went on r.ipidiy in tliis manner, and the (ecund
courfe was nearly fct in a few days ; but a ga'e fprang up,
which obliged them to quit the work, le?,viiig a few Hones
of the fecoiid courfe, which could not be fet, lowered down
into their places, and chained Hrongly to the rock, by lines
inferled into the holes made in each of the Hones, to lift
them by ; and one o^ the moll expafed was fecured, by
laying upon it, when in its dove-tail, a weight of lead of
five cwt. in form of a hemifpherc. A llorm came on, and
it was afterwards found, that this weight had been lifted
by the waves, fo th.it the Hone beneath it had efcaped and
was loll, as were four others, from which circumftance the
force of the fea on the rock may be imagined. New Hones
were immediately prepared, and the work renewed. In tl'.e
progrefs of the work, it conilantly happened, after all pre-
cautions, tliiit the cement was waftied away in particuiair
I places.

LIGHT-HOUSE.

places, and it was always repaired the firft opportunity with
Pozzolana or Dutch terras ; which repairs, if they with-
ttood one rough tide, were never found to tail afterwards ;
b'Jt fome places were found fo difficult, that it became ne-
cefTary to mix oakum, chopped very Ir.'.all, witli tha mortar,
and this method always fucceeded. On the i ith of Augult
the Cxljafement courfes were completed, and the firll entire
courfe, N"' 7, was begun. All the (lones for this cuurfe
were fitted and put together in the work- yard, as Ihewn in
Jig. 4. They are numbered, fo that after being taken to
pieces, they could be rellored to the lame relative pofition
on the building ; but to do this accurately, while they were
in the work-yard, radial lines were drawn from the centre to
the circumference, fo as to iuterfect each ilone ; and concen-
tric circles were drawn through the middle of each tier of
Itones. Where any of thefe lines eroded the joints, a nick
was fawn in the edge of the Itone, that the mark might
be felt as well as feen ; and by the coincidence of thele
lines the ftones were fet with the greatell accuracy. On
the llones arriving at the work, the central ilone was firll
fet; the hole to receive the centre joggle was cut through
the centre of courfe fix, and the joggle fet up therein, as
fliewn \njig. 2, and the centre flone ot courle feven let down
upon it, a mortar bed being made beneath. When the
ftone was thus fixed, the joints round the joggle were iiiled
in by grouting, which is mortar made very thin and poured
in from ladles. Tiie four Hones furrounding the centre
were now fet, and the work proceeded thus to the circum-
ference, every Ilone being wedged snd trenailed as foon as
fet, and the joints grouted. To fix the eight fmaller joggles,
they were let, wedged, and grouted into their holes in the
lower courfe ; but the holes for their reception in the lower
fide of the upper courfe, being only cut half through, did
not admit of wedging ; they were therefore fixed by the
mortar only, as much being put on the top of the joggle
as would nearly fill the hole, but not quite, and the remain-
der was introduced through a hole previoufly drilled through
the ilone, and forced down by a wooden ramrod.

The mortar ufed in the building was compounded of
equal portions of lime and pozzolana. The lime was burned
from the blue Lyas limellone found near Watchet, a fmail
feaport in Somerletlliire. It was carried out in tight calks,
which W'ere opened at the rock, and a fmall quantity beat up
in a ilrong bucket with a wooden peltle, and ufed imme-
diately. The work proceeded in the fame manner without
any deviation or accident, except now and then loling a
few llones by llorms, until the end of September, when the
ninth courfe, being completed, the work was given up for
the year, and the Bufs left her m.oorings.

During the winter, the buoy of the moorings for the
Bufs was loll, but was recovered on the nth of May, 1758.
Y,f t, before any work could be begun, the chains were broken,
and the buoy of the anchors having got loofe, the moor-
ings were loll ; much time being confumed in preparing new
ones, it was the 2d of July before tiie work wa3 renewed ;
but by the Sth of Auguil, the 14th courfe, completing the
entire folid, was laid, and by the 20th the entry door was
covered in, and by the 24th of September, the whole of
the fohd, up to the ftore-room floor, was finilhed. Above
this the method of working was totally altered, but not
being now fo liable to the atlion of the fea, it became lefs
difficult, r.nd requires lefs defcription. In addition to what
has been faid before, the iron cramps were all filled in their
places with lead, and a whole courfe was done at once, by
putting each cramp into a kettle of red-hot lead, till it was
equally hot. A fmall quantity of oil was poured into the
holes ia the ilone, and the hot cramp put in ; this oil caufcd

the lead, when poured in, to occupy every cavity in the
ftone.

On the 3cth of September, the work had arrived at the
ftore-room floor, and here the iron chain, (hewn \a Jig. 5,
was let into the ilone, and filled in with lead in the to.low-
ing manner : — the chain was oiled before putting it in, and
the groove divided into four parts by dams of clay. Two
kettles were ufed, which together would hold lead enough
to fill the whole groove, which was 1 1 cwt. In thefe the
lead was made red-hot, and tv.o perfons with ladies filled the
lead into the fame quarter of the groove. As foon as it
was at all fet, they removed one of the clay dams, and filled
the next quarter, pouring the lead on the end of the firft
quarter, till it re-melted and united with the fecond. The
dam at the oppofite end of the firll quarter was now re-
moved, and the third filled, and then the 4th. By this means
the lead was all round united in one mafs.

The centering for the floor was next fet up, and the
floor partly put together, the outward llones being fet firil,
and then the centre ones. When the firll room had been
thus finilhed, Mr. Smeaton propofed exhibiting a temporary
light during the winter, and, by fixing three floors in the
well for the ilaircafe, to form ftore rooms, and lodging for
two men : but this idea was given up, as it did net meet the
approbation of the Trinity corporation, and .the work was,
on the 7 h of October, left for the year, the floor being
partly finilhed. The winter was Ipent in preparing the iron,
glals, and copper work for the lantern ; and the fpring in un-
iuccefbiul endeavours to recover the moorings which were
again loll, and on the 5th of July the work was begun again.
They found one of the llones for the floor, which was lodged
in the ilore room H the year before, had been walhed dowR
the well, and thence through the entry into the fea, though it
weighed four or five cwj. The flones for the building had
hitherto been railed out of the boats, by what are termed
Jhears, formed of two poles, united bt top, and their feet
pitched on the rock dole to the building, at a proper dif-
tance alunder. A block of puUics was fufpeuded from the
top of the two beams, to take up the Ilone. The fliears were
fupported by a tackle called a guys, which was attached to
the top of tile iliears, and hooked to the far fide of the
building, fo that the Ilone, being raifed up frgm the boat
by a windlafs fixed on the rock at Y, Jig. l, the guy was
drawn in to fuing the ftone over the building. When the
work got above tlie entry E, the ftones were landed into it,
and drawn up the well X by a tackle fufpended from a
fmall triangle fet over the well ; but when the floor was
covered in, the hole in the centre being too fmall to let
the llones come up, a fmaller pair of iliears were msde to
lie upon tlie buiiding and rife as it advanced. Thefe were
worked by a windlafs fet up in the ilore room H, and as
they hung over the fides of the building-, they drew up the
ftones clear of the wah. The work proceeded in this man-
ner till the 17th of Auguft, when the laft piece of the
cornice Q was fixed, which completed the i\liolecolumn,.and
the workmen W'ere enabled to lodge in the building. The
balcony rails P, and the Ilone bafement R of the lantern,
were foon completed ; and by the 26th, the flairs and a!l
the niafonry were finilhed. The iron frame of the lantern
was next fcrewed together in its place, ail the joints being
firft fmeared with thick white lead and oil to prevent them
from ruftmg : it was then raifed up ou wedges a Imall height,
and lead poured in the joint between it and the ftone to
make a folid bed for it upon the ilone. On the 17th of
September, the copper cupola O was fet up, by a parti-
cular kind of Ihears made for the purpofe, the guys, in dif-
ferent dircilions, being fatlened to booms projected out from

the

L 1 G

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tlis feveral windows of the upper room. The next day
the ball, which was douhk- gilt, was fcrewed on ; and by
Ottober the i6th, an eleftrical'conduftor was fixed, which
fiiiifhed the edifice. A Hght was then exhibited, which has
been continued ever fince without any particular occurrence,
or any accident produced by the inairy violent ftorms which
Tiave happened fince. Mr. Smeaton has, in the title page of
his narrativ..', given a reprelentation of the houfe in a (torm,
as fcen tlu'ough a telefcope from Plymouth, when the waves
dafh up againft the building, till they nieet the cornice O,
ty which the water is thrown off in all directions in a white
column, which envelopes the houfe like a (heet, and rifcs to
at leaft double its height, though the top of the ball is loo
feet above low water. See Beacon's.

Light Infantry. See iNtANTny. When the light in-
fantry companies are in line with their battalions, they are
to form and ail in every refpeft as a company of the batta-
lion ; but when otherwife difpofed of they may loofen their
files to fix inches.

The open order of light infantry is ufually two feet be-
tween each file.

The files may be extended from right, left, or centre ; in
executing it, each front rank, man mud carefully take his
diftance from the man next to him on that fide from u^iich the
extenfion is made : the rear rank men conform to the move-
ment of their file leaders.

When light infantry men fire in extended order, it is to
be a Handing rule, that the two men of the fame file are
never unloaded together ; for which purpofe, as foon as the
front rank man has fired, he is to flip round the left of tli-
rear rank man, who will take a (hort pace forward, and put
bimfelf in the other's place, whom he is to protcdl while
loading.

The extended order of light infantry varies according
to circumftances and fitu^tions. They may fometimes
loofen their files to three times the dillance of open order.
But the general rule is to allow convenient intervals for
the rear rank men to flip by, and return after they have
fired.

All movements of light infantry, except when firing, ad-
vancing, or retreating, are to be in quick time.

The officer commanding the company will be on the right,
covered by a ferjeant ; the next on the left, alfo covered by a
ferjeant. The youngell officer in the rear. In extended
order the poll of the officers and ferjeants is always in the
rear at equal diltances.

In marching by files the officer commanding leads : by
divifions each officer leads one. The fupernumerary officer,
if there be one, is in both cafes with the officer com-
manding, ready to obey any diredlions he may receive from
him.

The arms of light infantry in general will be carried floped
and with the bayonet fixed. Flanking or advanced parties,
however, or parties in particular fituations, may carry them
trailed, and without bayonets, for the purpofe of taking a
more cool and deliberate aim.

When the light infantry is ordered to cover the line to
the front, the divifions will move from their inner flanks
round tlie flanks of the battalions, and when at the diflance
of fifty paces, the leading flanks will wheel towards each
other, fo as to meet oppofite the centre of the battalion,
opening their files gradually from the rear, fo as to cover
the whole extent of the battahon.

The files are cot to wait for any word of command, but
to halt and front themfelves. In this pofition, and in all
pofilions of extended order, the poll of the officer com-
jaanding is iu tbt rear of the centre, and the movements

are to be regulated by the company belonging to the batta-
lion, which governs thofe of the line. For a fuller expla-
nation of light company manoeuvres, fee page 273 to page
281 of Infantry Regulations.

Light infantry men, like huiTars, are frequently detached
to act as fcouts on the Hanks, in the front, or with the rear
guard of the body of troops to whicli they belong. They
then acquire the appellation of ikirmifliers, and being prc-
vioufly told off for tliat fpecific duty, they advance and
form in the front in rank entire ; which is effeCled by each
man from the rear rank placing liimfelf on the left of his
file leader. The rank entire may be reforted to for various
puipofes during the movements of one or more battalions,
fince it may ferve not only to cover them from the enemy's
obfervatioii, but in fome cafes, efpccially in foggy weather,
will itlelf appear a larger body than it really is. Too much
attention cannot be given to the organization of light troops
on foot. They are very properly called the eyes of an
army, and ought always to be confidered as indiipenfably
necclfary.

\AC,nr-Room, is a fmall apartment inclofed with glafs
windows, near the magazine of a fliip of war. It is ulcd to
contain the lights by which tlie gunner and his affillants are
enabled to fill the cartridges with powder, to be readv for
aftion.

Light Troops, in MUilarx Language, generally denote all
horle and foot which are accoutred tor detached fervicc.

Light IVater-llm, in Naval ArchitcSure, tlie line of
floatation of the fhip, before fhe takes in her cargo.

LIGHTEN, in the Manege. To lighten a horfe, or
make him light in the fore-hand, is to make him freer
and lighter in the fore-hand than behind. If you would
have your horfe light, you ought to keep him always dif-
pofed to a gallop, when you put him to a trot ; and after
gallopping fome time, you fliould put him back to the trot
again.

LIGHTER, a large open veflcl, generally managed with
oars, common on the river Thames, and on other rivers and
canals ; where it is uled for the carriage of timber, coals,
ballall, and any goods to or from a fhip, when flie is to be
laden or delivered. Tliere are alfo fome lighter."; fiirnilhed with
a deck throughout, in order to contain thofe merchandizes
which would be damaged in rainy weather : thefe are ufually
called clofe-ligbters. See Bo.'VT.

LiGiiTER-Mi-n. See Co.mi'any.

LIGHTFOOT, John, in Biography, the fon of a clergy,
man, was born at Stoke upon Trent, in Stalfordfliire, in the
year 1602. He received his grammar learning at Moreton-
green, near Congleton, Chefhiic, after which he was en-
tered a iludent of Chrifl's college, in the univerlity of
Cambridge. Here he applied hinilelf with much diligence,
and made fo great a proficiency in claffical literature, a"d
the fludies connefted with it, that he was reckoned the bed
orator among the under graduates of the univerfity. At the
age of nineteen he quitted the univerfity, and engaged him-
felf as affiflaiit to his old fchool-mader, who had, at that
time, removed from Chefhire to Repton in Derbyfliire.
Having continued in this fituation about two years, he took
orders, and fettled as curate at Norton-under-Hale-'., in Shrop-
fhire : about the fame time he became chaplain to fir Rowland
Cotton, and retided in his family. This gentleman, being a
perfect mailer of the Hebrew tongue, engaged Mr. Light-
foot in the fludy of that and the other Oriental languages.
He followed his patron to London, and vvould have proceeded
with him to the continent, but the living of Stone, in Stafford-
fhire, being offered him, he preferred fettling there, as if like*
which gave him an opportuinty of entering upon the marriage
4 Hate,

L I G

1 I G

ftate, which he immediately embraced. Here he found the
means of ftudy exceedingly fcanty, and in the coiirfe of a few
months religned the Hving of Stone, and removed to Horn-
fey, near London, a fituation which he chofe, on account of
its vicinity to the metropohs, where the fourccs of learning
were very abundant. He was now a frequent attendant at
the hbrary of Sion-college, which afforded hini tlie moil
ample means of fuuplying all his literary wants. In 1629,
Mr. Lightfoot pubhihed his tirft piece, entitled " Erubhim ;

being enfy of accefs, affable, communicative, hofpitable, and
charitable. Asa writer he was one of the moil ingenious,
as well as learned, of our Englifh commentators, and has
furniilied his luccciTors with very valuable materials in the
lame line of ftudies: he had few equals, and no fuperiorin rab-
binical literature; and in this branch of learning his celebrity
was fo great, that many foreigners came to him for aliiilance
in it. His works were coUeClcd and publiflicd in 16S4, in
two volumes folio. A new edition of them was publifticd in

or Mifcellanies Chriilian and Judaical, and others, penned for Holland in 16S6, containing aU his writings that had been

the recreation of vacant hours." In i6^c, he was prefcnted originally given to the world, in the Latins lauguage, and S

by fir Rowland Cotton to the reftory of Afhly, in Stafford- Latin tranflation of thofe which he had written in Englidi :

fhire, and immediately removed to his parifh, in which he anda thii-d edition was publiihed at Utrecht in 1699, by .lolrn

lived twelve years, applying himfelf with indefatigable dih- Leufden : this imprefiiou contained fome poilhumoiis pieces.

gence in fearching the fcriptures, and in the performance
of various duties attached to his office, as a confcientious
clergyman. He was next appointed by the Long Parliament
a member of the affembly of divines at Wellminller ; and
as he could no longer relide among his parifhioners he re-
ligned the reclory, but obtained the prefentation for a

which were comprifed in a third volume. Thcie were, in the
following year, publifiied in an 8vo. volume by Mr. Strype,
under tlie title of " Some genuine Remains of the late
learned and pious Dr. John Lightfoot." The doctor was
not only indefatigable in his own purfuits, but an encourager
of other learned mt-n in their's. He gave great aJlidarce in

younger brother. He arrived in London in 1642, and was completing the Englifh Polyglott bible, by drawing up a
almolt immediately chofen miniiler of St. Bartholomew's^ chorographical table prefixed to it, and by fuperintendin"-

behind the Royal Exchange. In the afiembly of divines.
which met in June 1643, Mr. Lightfoot became diflinguiflied
for his eloquence in debate, and activity in bulinefs. He
was friendly to the Preioyterian form of church government,
which he declared in a fermon before the houfe of commons,
he verily believed was " according to the pattern in the
mount.". In 1643 he was appointed mailer of Catherine-
hall, m Cambridge, and in the fame year he was prefented
to the living of Much-munden, in Hertfordfliire. In 1644
he publiilied the tiril part of his " Harmony of the New
Tetlament," with a plan of his whole deiign, and conti-
nued afterwards to fend out, at different periods, the other
branches of the fame work. In i6j2, Mr. Lightfoot took

the (heets of tlie Samaritan verfion, as tiiey were printed :
he atTorded much pecuniary alTiflance to Dr. Callcll in the
publifhing of his Heptaglott Lexicon, which would other-
w,fe have occaiioned Ins entire ruin for want of fupport
from the learned world : and Dr. Lightfoot v/as tiie perfon
who excited Mr. Fool to undertake his valuable work en-
titled " Synoplis Criticorum." Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

LiGHTiooT, JoHX, a dillinguifhed Britifli botanift,
chiefly known as the author of the F/ira Scotica, was born
in 1735. He was educated at Oxford, where he took the
degree of Mailer of Arts, and having entered into holy
orders, became chaplain to the late duchefs dcuager of
Portland, " that great and intelhgent admirer and patronefs

the degree of dodor of divinity, and went through all the of natural hiilory in general," as he jufily denominates her
regular exercifes, on that occafion, with great applaufe. in the dedication of his book. He was recommended to

IniGjijhewas chofen vice-chancellor of the univerlity of
Cambridge, the duties of which important office he per-
formed with exemplary diligence and fidelity. Upon the
refloration of king Charles II. Dr. Lightfoot offered to re-
iign the maflerfhip of Catherine-hall iu favour of Dr. Spur-
ilovv, but upon his declining to accept it, our author ob-
tained a confirmation from the crown of that place, and of
his hving. For tliefe marks of royal favour he was chiefly
indebted to the kinduefs of archbifhop Sheldon, who, out of
pure refpe£l for his learning and talents, undertook to ferve
him. Soon after this he was collated, through the interell
of lord-keeper Bridgman, to a prebend in the cathedral
church of Ely. In 1661 he was appointed one of the alTill-
ants at the conference at the Savoy on the fubjeft of the
liturgy, but he attended only twice, on account of the violence
difplayed in the debates. He now gladly withdrew as much
as polfible from the world, in order that he might fpend his
time in fttidies to which he was attached, and which he piofe-
cuted with vigour to tlielall. His publications would have
been more numerous, but theexpetice of them was more than

this illuilrious lady, whofe accomplifhments gave a lullre to
her high rank, by his tafte for botany and conchology, as
well as his courtly and afEduous manners, which, accompa-
nied by an habitual pleafantry and cheerfulnefs, rendered his
company generally acceptable. By her grace's influence,
we believe, he obtained the reclory of Gotham, in Notting-
hamfliire, and'fubfequently the hving of Cowley, is .Middle-
lex.

In 1772, the late Mr. Pennant, fo well known as a
zoologilt, invited Mr. Lightfoot to be the companion of Ifis
fecQiid tour to Scotland and the Hibrides, advifing him to
undertake the "compilation," as he himfelf modeilly calls
it, of a Flora Scol'tca, which Mr. Pennant offered to ufher into
the world at his own expence. ' Tliefe generous and flatter-
ing offers Mr. Lightfoot gladly accepted, and m.ade the
mofl of tlie opportunity afforded him for " gratifying a fa-
vourite affedion he had long conceived for the fcience of
botany." He enjoyed " the enchanting profpecl," to ufe
his own words, " of examining a country whofe vegetable
produftions had been attended to by very few." Our

lie c;iuid bear, and he never was fulTiciently patronized by the author v.'as jullly aware that a fingle fummer could by

public to interell the bookfelLrs in his behalf. A fhort time no means be fulficient for the full Lccomplilhment of fuch

before his death he was, however, requelled by them to col- an undertaking, nor would he perhaps have ventured upon

iect and methodife his works, in order that they might be it, but for the afTiftance of " able and ingenious botaniils,

prirttcd in an uniform manner. He died in December 1675, who had refided in that country their whole lives," who per-

beforc he could accomphfh the talk required of him, in the mitted him " to examine their colledions, and freely com-

"4th year of his age. Dr. Lightfoot was indefatigable in municated the obfervations of many years." Thefe were the

ins purfuits, and extremely temperate in his mode of hving. late Dr. Hope, profeffor of botany at EJinbuvp-h ; the

Jie .lived in the greateft harmony among bis parifhioners, Rev. Mr. (now Dr.) John Stuart of Lufs ; aud the Rev

Df'

L I G

Dr. Burgefs, the venerable pador of Kirkmicliael in Dum-
fncsfliirc : Un-ee men whofc urbanity conferred upon their
beloved fcicncc her moll attractiNx- charm, as the writer of
t.in can well telbfy. Mr. Sluail was the companion of onr
travellers m their excmfion, and fnpplied eiich, in his own
Inie, with muc!.\ learned information, refpeain j the Erfe no-
menclature, as well as the real or fuppolVd ufes nnd hillory of
t.he native animals and plan's. Thus Mr. I'ennant was
miabled to prefix a compendious Fauna to the Flora of
his friend ; and thus Mr. Lightfor.t found his r^ath made
flraight and plani before him, and literally ftre'vved with
flowers. He profited likewife from the communications of
Dr. larfons, at that time profefTor of anatomy at Oxford,
and ot Mr. Ya!den, an ingenious young man, vvhofe pre-
mature death happened foon after. Thefe gentlemen had
cultivated botany in thecourft- of rlieir medical ftudics at Edin-
burg!!, the latter cfpecially, with eminent fiiccefs. When
Mr^Lighttout's materials were got together, the library,
herbarinm, and perfonal fuperintendance, of his fric-nd fir

jlius at Oxford, under the eye of the profeffor, oi
his fon Dr. J;din Sibtliorp, gave the fininiing IT

or rather of

rp, gavvT the tinilhmg ITrokc to his

labours. Thus the F/ora Scotica became ready for publica-
tion in 1777, when it appeared in two thick volumes 8vo.
With 35, rather indifTerenllv engraved plates, five of which
. are zoological. The work 'is dilpofcd according to the fyf-
tem of Linnxiis, with (liort eflential generic and fpccific
charafters copied from that author, and references to a few
of the bea ligiiresof each fp.-cies. EngH(h, Scottidi, and
Erfe names are fubioiiicd, with the general or particular
paces of growth, duration, &e.; and the account of every
plant rimHics with a longer or fliorter defcription in Enghfii,
various botanical remarks, and compiled notes of its eco-
Bomical or medical ufes.— The plan and the execution of this
work appear calculated to render it one of the moll popular
I'loras. it has found its way to the continent, u hero it is ge-
nerally quoted, efpecially for the Cryptogamous clafs, which
the author fays " cod more time and attention than all the
■other 23 claffes together." Yet we hare heard that this pub-
lication did not, ior a long time at lead, pay its expences.
This cer:ainly did not arife'from any want of merit ; for its
only great and radical fault was not known, or at leaft
fcarcely confidered fuch, till lately. Of this notice is taken
under the botanical article Fi.OHA. The fault we mean is
the compihng defcriptions from foreign authors, without
mentioning whence they are taken; fo that a Undent -can
never be certain of their jn(l application, but, on the con-
trary, often finds them erroneous or unfuitable, without
knowing why. Even in the lafl clafs, on which Mr. Light-
toot bellowed fo much pains, the fynonyins of Linnasus
and Dilleniiis often difa,;n-e, thougli in many cafes fuch con-
trarietics are properly indicated, fo aj to throw original light
on the fubjedi.

Mr. Eightfoot was for fome years a fellow of the Royal
Society, and was one of the original fellows of the Linna-an
Society, the formation of which he contemplated with great
pleafure, though his dpath happened before he could attend
any of i"s public nieetinjjs. Having married the daughter
of an opulent miller at Uxbridge, he refided in that town,
and died there fuddenly in the fpring of 178S, agi d 53,
leaving a widow and feveral daughters. He was buried in
Cowley church, where his grave remained, for fome time at
ieafl, without any memorial. He is fuppofed never to have
j-ecovered from a dilappoinlment, relpcding a living, which

L I G

his patron, the late duke of Portland, folicited from lord
chancellor Thurlow, but which the latter did not think fit
to bellow.

The fubjcft of our memoir had, in the courfe of his bo-
tanical (Indies, coUeftcd an excellent BritiPi herbarium, con-
fiding of abundant fpecimens, generally gathered wild, and
in many cafes hnportant for the illullralion of his work.
He had alfo amaffed, from fir Jofeph liaiikg and other
friends, a number of exotic plants. The whole w as bought,
after his death, for 100 guineas, by his majefty, as a pi'efent
to the queen, and depoiitcd at Frogmore, the price being
fixed by an intelligent friend of the family. The fpecimens
having been for fome time neglected, were, after a while, dii-
covered to be much infefted with iufcCts ; and as their royal
poded'or, having a genuine and ardent tade for the fludy of
botany, was anxious for their prefervation, the writer of the
prclent article was requeded to give his advice ai^d alfdlance
on this fubjcct. This led to his frequent invitation as a vifitor
at Frogmore, and to a regular courfe of conveifations,
rather than leflures, on botany and /oology, which her ma-
jcdy.and the priiicedes Angudaand Elizabeth honoured with
their diligent attention ; the queen regularly taking notes of
every ledfure, which flic read over aloud at its conclulion, to
prevent millake. 'J'he plan of this exemplary mother, on
which flie has often been heard to defcant, was, in the edu-
cation of her royal offspring, to open as many refourccs to
them as polfible, in a variety of iludics and purfuits ; out of
which they niight fubfequently make their own choice, and
thus be independent of circumllanccs for occupation and
amufement. Nor has the herbarium of Lightfoot been con-
figned to uftlefs repofe. It was allowed to be confulted fre-
quently, on the fubjedi of ScottKli Willows, and other doubtful
matters, while the Flurn Brilanmca was preparing ; and the
prefent blfhop of Carhfle was permitted to make all requi-
fite ufe of it, for the completion of his valuable paper 011
Britifh Caricei, printed in the fecond volume of the Linna?an
Society's Tranfac\iona. In the knowledge of thefe two ge-
nera of plants, Mr. Lightfoot excelled mod botanllls of his
day ; but the ipecimens of Linnsbs, being compared with
his, have brought errors to light, which were never fuf-
pofted before. S.

LIGHTFOOTIA, in Botany, fi) named by L'Heritier,
in lionour of the author of the Flora Scotica. (See Light-
foot ) L'Herit. Sert. Angl. 4. A^t. Hort. Kew. v. i.
217. ed- 2. v. I. 343. Wi Id. Sp. PI. V. J. 8S7. .IiifT. 450. —
Clafs and order, Pentanclria Momgynia. Nat. Ord. CamJ>a-
micea, Linn. Campanulaccs, .I'.ifl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of five equal, acute leaves, broad
at the bale, cncoinpafling the middle of thegenr.en. Cor.
of one petal, in live deep, equal, regular, oblong, fpread-
iiig fegments, rather longer than the calyx ; the very fliort
tube clofed by five valves, bearing the llamens. Slam. Fi-
laments five, linear, fiat, equal, much fliorter than the co-
rolla ; anthers fmall, rouiidilh, ineumbeut. . Pi/l. Germen
half inferior, ovate, llyle thread-fhaped, about the length of
the corolla ; lligma dilated into three or five, fomewhat
fpreading, fegments. Perk. Capfulc ovate, with three or
five cells, opening at the top by as many valves. Seeds nu-
merous, fmall, rouiidilh.

Efl". Ch. Corolla in five deco fegments, clofed at the bot-
tom by valves be;iring the damens. Calyx of five leaves.
Stigma of three or live lobce. Capfule half fuperior, of
three or five cells, and as many valves.

I . L. oxyceccoides. Cranberry-leaved Lightfootia. L'Herit.
Sert. Angl. 4. t. 4. Sm. Exot. Bat. v. 2. 19. t. 6q. — (Lo-
bclia tenella ; Linn. Mant. 120. Thunb. Prodr. 40. L.

parvifiora;

L I G

I. I G

■parviflora ; Berg-. Cap. 345'.) — Leaves plain, ovato-laneeo-
late, alternate, reflexetl. Stigma tlu-ee-clch. Corolla
wiilely fpreading. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, as
are the two following fpecies alfo. This was fent to Kew
ill 17S7, by Mr. F. MafTon. ft 13 kept in the greenhonfe,
and flowers from July to S''ptember. The^ro; is perennial,
fliriibby, of humble growtli, bufhy and ipreading, not prof-
trate, very much branched, often finely dawny. Leaves
mimerous, fmal', alternate, fefTile, rellexed, ovate or iome-
what lanceolate, acute, fmooth, thick-edged, entire, except
a fmall glandular tooth or two at each fide. Fiotvers (mM,
on little, terminal, naked, fimple flalks. Corolla white, with
a tinge of purple along the middle of each fegment.
Sli^ma purple. Capfule of three pointed valves forming a
cone.

1. L. temlla. Curve-leaved Lightfootia. (Campanula
tenclla; Linn. Suppl. 141.) — I.,eaves ovato-lanceolate, chan-
nelled, cluftered, recurved. Stigma three-cleft. Corolla
^videIy fpreading, with narrow linear fogments. Stigma
three-cleft. Gathered by Thunbcrg at tlie Cape. It fecras
a Ih-ar.ger to our gardens. L'Heritier confounded it with
the preceding, from which it differs in its very numerous, cluf-
tered, recurved, and deeply channelled kav.s, and the longer
and narro'.ver fegments of the corolla. We cannot but think
it more than a variety, though there is fcarcely any difference
befides what we have mentioned.

5. la.Jubuhta. Awl-leaved Lightfootia. L'Herit. Sert.
Angl. 4. t. J. — Leaves awl-fhaped. Calyx ahnolt altoge-
ther inferior. Corolla moderately fpreading, with linear
fegments. Stigma five-cleft.— Sent to Kew by Mr. Maflbn
in 1787, from the Cape. — This is diftinguifned bv its co-
pious, awl-fiiaped, very narrow haves, fometimes near an
inch long. The lhrubby_y?';ff;, with downy branches, accords
nearly with tin two former. The flowers (land on ihorter
italks, and have longer (liarper calyx leaves, tumid at the bafe,
and almcil perfeftiy inferior. Segnu-nts of the corolla mo-
derately fpreading, recurved, narrow, white or blueifh.
Stigma five-cleft. Capfule we prefume of five valves.

Nothing can agree more exaftly with this as to habit than
Campanula paniculata, Linn. Suppl. i:;q, and Trachel'mm
d'iffufum, 14;; ; but their corolla has a long tube. The cap-
fule of this fuppofcd Campanula has 'i\sz vnlves opening at
the top, exaftly as in Lightfootia, not by pores laterally, and
the calyx is half fuperior, fo that it certauily belongs to the
fame genus, the length of the tube of the corolla being of
much lefs importance.

LiGiiTFOOTiA is alfo the name of an arborefcent geniis
of the Pahanrlria Monogynin, in Swartz's Fl. Ind. Occ.
V. 2. 947, referred to Prockia in Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 12 14.
Thi^ is Lightfootia of Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 3.
LIGH TNESS. See Levity.

LIGHTNING, in Phyfn^ogy, is a large bright flame,
darting fwiftly tlirough the air, and extending every way to a
confiderable dillance, of inomentary duration, and commonly
attended with thunder. Some have accounted for tliis
phenomenon bv fuppofing, that, from the particles of ful-
plnir, nitre, and other combuftible matter, which are ex-
iialed from the earth, and carried into the higher regions of
the atmofphcre, is form.ed an inflammable fubitancc, which,
when a fufiicient quantity of fiery particles is feparated
from the vapour buoyed up into the air, with thefe particles
adhering to them by the coUifion of two clouds or other.
■wife, takes fire, and flioots out into a train of light, larger
or lefs, according to the ilrength and quantity of the mate-
rials. 0;hers have cxjiained lightning by the fermentation
of fulphureous iubilances with nitrous acid? : fee Thunder.
But in the prefent advanced .'late of the icience of tleftri-
Vol.. XXL

city, this i.s univerfally allowed to be iin eledrical phenom".
non. Philofopiicrs had not proce-dcd far in their experi-
ments and inquiries on thi.s iubjeft, before they were ilruck
with the obvious anaiogy between lightning and eieftricitv,
and they produced many arguments, a priori, to afcertain
tiicir fimilarity. I'mt the method of verifying this hypo-
tliefis was firlt propofcd by Dr. Franklin, who, towards
the clofc of the year 1749, conceived the practicability of
drawing lightning from the clouds: having fo.ind, bv prc\ii;i:s
experim.cnts, that the electric fluid is attradtcd bv points, \\c.
apprehended, that lightning might hkewife pollefs the fame-
property ; though the.cffi cts of the latter muft, in an afto-
iiilhing degree, fur])ars thofe of the forrrer. The other
circuniftancts of refemblance between lightning and elec-
tricity remarked by this ingenious pliilofopher, and abun-
dantly confirmed by later difcovenes, are ti.e following:
flafhcs of lightning, lie obferved, are generally feen crooked
and waving in the air ; and the eleftric fpark drawn from
an irregular body at fome diilance, and wlien it is dr.iwn bv"
an irregular body, or through a fpace in which the l>eft con-
duftors are difpoltd iu an irregular manner, always exhibits
the fame appearance.

Lightning llnkes the h'ghcll; and moft poiufcd ob;cas \\
its way, preferable to others, as high hiOs, trees,' fpires,
mails of fliips, &c. and all pointed conduclors receive and
throw off the eled'tric fluid more readily than thofe which are
terminated by flat furfaces. Lightning is obferved to take
the readiell and beil condiiclor ; and this is tlie cafe with
electricity in the difcharge of the Leyden phial ; v hence
the dodor infers, that in avhurdcr llorin, it would be fafcr
to have one's clothes wet than dry. Lightning burns, dif-
folves metals, (fee Fu.siON,'! rends fome bodies, has been often
known to flrike people blind, dcllroys anim.Tl life, dcpi;ive$
magnets of tlKi:- virtue, and reverfes their poles ; and tiiefe
are well-known properties of eleclricitv.

Lightning not only gives polarity to the magnetic needle,
but to all bodies that have any thing of iron in them, as
brick, &c. ; ami by obferving v.-hicii. way the poles of thefe
bodies lie, it may be known, witli the utmoll certainty, in
what diredlion the flroke jiaded. Kignior licccaria fuppules,
that pcrfons are fometimes killed by l-ghtning, witiiottt beinti-
really touclicd by it ; a vacuum t)f air only being fuddenfy
made near them, and the air rnfiiing out of their lungs to
fupply it ; and with fo much violence that they could never
recover their breath. In proof of this opinion he alleges,
that the lungs of fuch perfons are found flaccid ; whereas,
when they are properly kihed by the eledrical fhock, the
lungs are found inflated : but this hypothelis is controverted
by Dr. Priellley. In order to denionilrate the identity of
the eleflric fluid with the matter of lightning, by r.clual' ex-
periment. Dr. Franklin contrived to br'hig lightnincr from
the heavens, by means of an eleclric kite, whtcii lie railed,
when a florm of thunder was perceived to be coming on ;
and with the eledricity thus obtained, he charged phials,
kindled fpirits, and performed all other electrical experir
ments, which are ufually exhibited by an excited globe or
tube. This happened in .lune, 1752, a month after the
eleftricians in France, of v.-hom the moil aftive were MefTrs.
Dalibard and Delor, followed bv Mr. Mazeas and M. Mon-
nier, purfuing tlie method which he had propofid, had
verified the fame theory ; but witiiout any knowledo-e of
what they had done. In April and .lune, 1755, In: dif-
covered that the air wss fometimes eledrificd politivelv, and
fometimes negatively ; and found that tlie clouds would
change from pofilive to negative electricity feveral times in
the courfe of one thuiuler-guil. He foon perceived that this
important difcovery was capable of being applied to practical

C nlc.

LIGHTNING.

ofe, and propofcJ a method, whicli he oon accomplilhcd, of
fecuring buildings from being damaged by liglitniii^, by
means of conduftors. The Enghfli philofophers had no:
been lefs attentive to this fiibjcft than their neighbours on
the continent ; but for want of proper opportunities for
trying the nccefTary experiments, and from fome incidental
circumdances that were unfavourable, they had failed of
fuccefs. However, in July, 1752, Mr. Canton fucceeded ;
and in the following month, Mr. Wilfon and Dr. Bevis ob-
ferved nearly the fame appearances which Mr. Canton had
obferved before. Mr. Canton alfo foon after obfervcd, in a
number of experiments, that fome clouds were in a pofitive
and fome in a negative ftate of eleClricity ; and that the elec-
tricity of his conduftor would fometimes change f.'om one
ftate to the other, five or fix times in lefs than half an hour.
This variable llnte of thunder clouds was difcovered by S.
Beccaria, before he heard of its having been obfervcd by
Dr. Franklin, or any other perfon : and he has given a very
exaft and circumftantial account of the external apj)earances
of thefe clouds. From his obfervations of the lightning
abroad, and of his apparatus within doors, he inferred, that
the quantity of cleflric matter, in an ufual ftorm of thunder,
is almofl: inconceivably great, confidering how many pointed
bodies, as trees, fpires, &c. are perpetually drawuig it olf,
and what a prodigious quantity is repeatedly difcharged to
or from the earth. This quantity is fo great, that he thinks
it impofiible for any cloud or number of clouds to contain it
all, fo as either to difcharge or receive it. Befides, he ob-
ferves, that, during the progrefs and increafe of the (lorm,
though the lightning frequently ftruck to the earth, the fame
clouds were the next moment ready to make a ftill greater
difcharge, and his apparatus continued to be as much affccled
as ever ; and, therefore, the clouds mull ha%'e received at
one place, in the fame moment when a difcharge was made
from them in another t and, upon the whole, he infers, that
the clouds ferve as co- duClors to convey the eleftric fluid
from thofe places of the earth that are overloaded with it,
to thofe which are exhaufted of it. This eleclric matter,
the rife of which, from the earth into the higher regions of
the atmofphere, is afcertained by the great quantities of fand,
aflies, and other light fubftances, carried up with it, and
fcattered uniformly over a large tra& of country, wherever
it iffues, attracts to it, and bears up with it the wat(*ry par-
ticles that are difperfed in the atmofphere. It afcends into
the higher regions of the atmofphere, being folicited by the
lefs refinance it finds there than in- the common mafs of the
earth, which, at thefe times, is generally very dry, and
confequently highly eledlric. The fame caufe which firll
raifed a cloud, from vapours difperfed in the atmofphere,
drawe to it thofe that are already formed, and continues to
form new ones, till the whole coUefted mafs extends fo far
as to reach a part of the earth where tliere is a deficiency of
the qlectric fluid. Thither, too, will thofe clouds, replete
with elctlricity, be llronjjly attraAed, and there will the
elediric matter difcharge itfclf upon the earth : a channel of
communication being m this manner formed, a frefli fupply
of electric matter will be raifed from the overloaded part,
and will continue to be conveyed by the medium of the
clouds, till the equilibrium of the fluid between the two
places of the earth be rellored. When the clouds are at-
tracted in their paflage by thofe parts of the earth, where
there is a deficiency of the fluid, thofe detached fragments
are formed, and a'fo thofe uniform defcending protuberances,
which are, in fome cafes, the caufe of Water-fpouts and Hur-
rkanes ; which fee.

That the eletlric matter, which forms and animates the
thunder-clouds, ilTues from places far beiow the furface of

2

the earth, and that it buries itfclf there, is probable fronr
the deep holes that liave, in many places, been made by
lightning ; and from the flaflies that have been feen to arife
from fubterraneous cavitias and from wells ; as well as from
the inundations accompanying thunder-llorms, and occa-
fioned by water buriling out of the bowels of the earth.
The greatell difficulty attending this theory of the origin of
thunder-ltorms relates to the collection and infulation of
eletlric matter within the body of the earth. With refpeft
to the former, this ingenious philofopher has nothing to fay :
fome -operations in nature are certainly attended with a iofs
of the equilibrium in the_ elcflric fluid, but no perfon has
yet afiigned a ir.ore probiible caufe of the r(>dundancy of the
eleftric matter, which, in faft, often abounds in the c'otids,
than what we may fuppofe poflible to take place in the
bowels of the earth : and fuppofing the lufs of tiie eqi'.i-
librium poflible, the fame caufe that produced the cft'ecl
would prevent' the relloriiig of it ; fo that r.ot being able to
force a way, at lead one fufTiciently ready, through ths
body of the earth, it would ifl^ue at the fame convenient
vent into the higher regions of the air, as the better paflage.
3. Beccaria oblerves, that a wind always blows from tlia
place from which the thunder-cloud proceeds ; and it is cer-
tain, that the fuddeii congregation of fuch a prodigious
quantity of vapours muft dilplace the air, and repel it on all
fides. A great number cf obfervations rclati.ig to the de-
fcent of lightning, confirm his theory of the manner of its
afcent : for, in many cafes, it throws before it the parts of
condufting bodies, a::d diftribntcs them along the refilling
medium, through which it muil force its paifage. Upon
this principle, the longed flaflies of lightning feem to be
made, by its forcing into its v.-ay part of the vapours in the
air. One of the principal reafons wliy thofe flalhe.'i make fo
long a rumbling, is their being occafioned by the vail length
of a vacuum, made by the paffage of the eleftric matter.
For although the air coUapfes the moment after it has pafled^
and the vitjra'ion, on which the found depends, commences
at the fame moment ; yet, if the flafh was diretfted towards
the perfon who hears the report, the vibrations excited at
the nearer end of the track will reach his car much fooner
than thofe excited at the more remote end ; and the found
will, without any rcpercuflion or echo, continue till all tlie
vibrations have fucceffively reached him. Mr. Lullin, in
order to account for the prqduflion of eledricity in the
clouds, made a long infulated pole to projedt from one fide
of the Alps, and obferved, that when fmad clouds of va-
pour, raifed by the heat of the fun, rofe near the foot of
the mountain, and afcended along the fide of it : if they
touched the extremity of the pole only, it was eleftrilied j
but if the whole pole, and confequently part of the hill on
which it flood, was likewife involved, it was not elcftrified.
Whence he concludes, that the elcflricity of the clouds is
produced by their paiTfng through the air while the fun
ihines upo.i them. But to whicii of thefe two circumltances,
namely, the motion through the air cr the action of the
fun's rays, this was ov.ing, he could not dctern.ine, though
he made leveral experiments for this purpofe.

Upon liie whole, it is e, fy 'o conceive, that when pjrti-
cula- clouds or different parts of the ear;h pofllfs oppofite
eledlricities, fome being electrified pofi ively, and others
negatively, a dilcharga .vill take place within a certain dif-
tance ; or the one wi'l itrike into the other, and in the dif-
charge a flafli of lightning will be obfervcd. But how the
clouds or earth acquire this Hate, is lliil a qiicdion not ab-
folntely determined. Mr Canton queries, whether the
clouds become pofleffed of electricity b)' the gradual heating
and cooling of the air ; and whether air fuddenly rarcf ed,

SSMf

LIGHTNING.-

tnay tiot give ele'cirie fire to, and air fuddenly condenfed re-
ceive e^ecTtr-c fire from, clo'.ids and vapours pafling through
it. Mr. Wilcke fiippofcs the air to contract its electricity,
in the fatne manner as fulphur and other fubllances do, when
thev are heated and cooled in contaft with various bodies.
Thus the air, being heated or cooled in the neighbourhood
of the earth, gives eleftricrty to the earth, or takes it from
it ; and the electrified air, being conveyed upv.'ards by va-
rious means, communicates its eleftricity to the clouds.
Others have queried, whether, fince thunder generally hap-
pens in a fiiltry ftate of the air, when it feems repleniflied
with feme fulphureous vapours, the eleftric matter then
in the clouds may not be generated by the fermentation
of fulphureous vapours with mineral or acid vapours in
the air.

Dr. Franklin advifes perfons who are apprehenfive of
danger from ligiitninj, to fit in the middle of a room, pro-
vided it be not under a metal luflre fufpended by a chain,
fitting on one chair, and laying their feet on another. It
is ftill fafer, he fays, to bring two or three m'-tralfes, or
teds, in''o the middle of the room., and folding them double,
to place the chairs upon them, for as they are not fo good
conductors as the wall, the lightning wiU not choofe to pafs
through them : but the fafell place of all is in a hammock
hung with filken cords, at an equal diftance from all the
fides of a room. Dr. Prieftley obferves, th<?t the place of
niuft abfolute fafety mull be the. cellar, and efp^cially the
middle of it ; for when a perfon is lower than the furface
of the earth, the lightning m'.'ft ftrike it before it can
poffibly reach him. In the fields, the place of fafety is
within a few yards of a tree, but not quite near it. Never-
thelefs, S. Beccaria cautions perfons not to depend upon the
neighbourhood of a higher, or, in all cafes, a better con-
ductor than their own body ; fince, according to his re-
peated obfervations, the lightning by no means defccnds in
one undivided track ; but bodies of various kinds conduft
tteir {hare of it at the fame time, in proportion to their
quantity and condu6li:ig power. See on the fubjecl of this
article Frankhn's Letters ; Beccaria's Lettre dell' Elettri-
cifmo; Priellley's Hilloi-y, &c. of Eledtricity, paflim. Lord
Mahon (now earl Stanhope) obferves, that damage may be
done by lightning, not only by the main ftroke. and lateral
explofion, but likewife by that which he ca'ls the returning
flroke, that is, by the fudden violent return of that part of
the natural fhare of electricity (of any conducing body, or
of any combination of condu<3ing bodies) which had been
gradually expelled from fuch body or bodies refpedlively,
bv the fuperinduced elaftic eledlrical prefTure of a thunder
cloud's eleftrical atmofphere. See an account of his theory
and experiments, relating to this fubjeft, in his Piincipies
of EleClricity, &c. quarto, 1779.

The author of the Philofopliy of Agriculture remarks,
that the blalls occafioncd by lightning are more frequent,
he believes, than is ufually f'lppofed ; as he is informed by
tbofe who purchafe extenfive woods, that very many trees,
on being fawed through, are found cracked and much in-
jured by lightning. He had latt year (1799) a (landard
app'e-tree and a tall apricot tree in full leaf, blafted at the
fame time by lightning, as was beheved. They both loll
all their leaves ; the apple-tree, nevcrthelefs, put out a new
foliage and recovered, and bore fruit this year ; but the
apricot, which was nailed to a high wall, never iliewed anv
returning life. Mr. Tull, he remarks, afcribes one injury
to the health of wheat plants, and frequently their death,
to lightning, the elfefts whereof may be obferved by the
blackifh parts or patches vilible in a field of wheat, efpecially

in thofe years whicli have more thunder ftorms than ufuali
and adds, that againll this there is no remedy. The ereclion
of frequent metallic points could, as the dodor think?, alone
fecurc a garden or field from this misfortune ; which pro-
bably occurs more frequently on damp fituations than on
dry ones.

He conceives, that the manner in which lightning deftroys
the life of vegetables may be fim.ilnr to that in which it de-
ftr.sys animal life ; which is, he fuppofes, by its great (li-
mulus, exhanding the fenfurial power in the violent aiflion it
occafions, and thus producing total inirritability to the com-
mon ftiinuh, which ought to excite the vital adlions of the
fyilem. It may alfo affecl vegetables in another way fimilar
to that, which probably alfo happens when their young
fucculent roots are frozen ; that is, by burlling their veflels,
as it paaos through them by its expanlive power; as haopens
to the large branches of fome trees, and to Hone buildino-s,
and other bad condutlors of electricity, when they are
ilruck with lightning. The expanfive power of ele&ricity
is not only (hewn by trees and towers being rent by light-
ning, but by the found which fucceeds the paifage of
it through air; fince a vacuum, or nearly a vacuum, in re-
fpecl to air, muft previoufly be made by the prefence of the
eleftric fluid : and the iides of this vacu'.:m rufhing together,
when the ilream has pafled, occafions the confequent vibra-
tions of the air, which conftitute found, whether in the
audible fpark of electricity, or the tremendous crafh of
thunder. Some ether efFecls on vegetables have been af-
cribed by writers to h,jhtning, but they have not yet been fa-
tisfac^orily proved. See Electricity.

Lightning, Artificial. The phofphorus, when newly
made, gives a fort of artificial lightning vifible in the dark,
which would furprife thofe who are not ufed to fuch a phe-
nomenon : the ufual method of keeping this preparation is
under water, and if the corrufcations are defired to be feen
to the greateil advantage, the glafs in which it is kept (hould
be deep and cylindric, and not more than three-fourths filled
with water. The phofphorus put into this water will fend
up corrufcations at times, which will pierce through the in-
cumbent water, and expand themfelvcs with great bri^htnefs
in the empty upper part of the bottle.

If we compare this artificial corrufcation to the real light-
ning, we (hail find, that as in this the fire pades unaltered
through the water, fo in that the flaihcs of lightning, which
co.ne at intervals, pafs uninterrupted through the moil denfe
clouds, and are not obftrucled by the heavicft ftorms of
rain, but like the beams of the fun, or anv other fire, pafs
uninterrupted through glafs and water. The feafm of the
weather, as well as the newnefs of the phofphorus, muft
concur to produce thefe flalhes' for they are as uncommon
in winter as lightning is, but in warm weather both are very
frequent.

The flame of lightning is generally inoffenfive, aid does
not, except upon particular circumllances, fet fire to any
thing that it falls upon ; and, in like manner, the flafhings
of the phofphorus through the water will not burn tlie fleili,
nor even fire the mod combul'ible things ; though the phof-
phorus itfelf, like the lightning, under proper circum'lanees,
may be a very confuming and terrible fire. The warmth of
the air, or the immediate beams of the iun, will fet fire to
tiie condenfetl body of the phofphorus, and it then becomes
this terrible fire; and in the fame manner lightning, when con-
denfed and contracted, and wrapped up in 'a vehicle of air,
fo that it does not fo eafily diffufe itfelf through the yield-
ing ether, fe:s fire to trves, houfes, or whatever it conies
near.

C 3 The

LI Cr

~Tlie phofphorus, wliile burning, a£\s the part of a coi*-
rofivc, aiul when it jfots out rcfolvcs into a mcnllnnim,
which difTolvcs gold, iron, and other ir.otals j and hghininj;,
in the fame u-anticr, unt-lts the fume fubftances. From the
whole, it apnea's that there is much more rcfcmblance be-
tween this pliofphorus and lightning tlian between gun-
powder, or aurnm fiilminans, and that lire ; tkough theie
Lave often been fuppofed to be nearly allied to its nature..
See PiiOM'noill-s.

I.IGNAC, .losp.pii AnniAv i,e Laixgf. de, in liiogra-
fh\; a learned French, abbe, defcended from a noble fannly,
and burn at Poicliers about the commencement of the lall
century. He was brought up among the .Tefuits, and in
the courfe of time was chofen to fill different confidentijl
polls in that order, and in the Congregation of the Oratory.
During a vilil which he had occasion to pay to R'~me, he
was introduced to the pope Benedict XIV. and e.irdinal
P^iflionei, who honoured liim with attention and friendlhip.
He died at Paris in 1762, leaving behind him a confiderable
reputation as a philofopher, a uaturalift, and thcologiari.
He was author of " Elements of Mctaphylics deduced
from Experience :" " The Po.Tibi'.lty of Man's Corporeal
Prefence in different Places at the fame Time," in which he
attempts to prove that the doArine of trjnfubflantiation
tontains nothing in it incongruous with the principles of
found phihifophy. " An Examination of the Treatife de
l"Kfprit of Helvetius." As a naturali'.l, we have " Memoirs
iiluflrative of Aquatic Spiders:" '« A Eetter to an Ameri-
can concerning the Natural Hifiory of M. de BufTon :"'
and as a divine he publilheil " The Teflimony of internal
Senfe and Experience, oppoled to the profane and ridicu-
lous Creed of modern Fatalills,'" in three vols. At the
time of his death he was employed in compollng a treatife
" On the Evidences of Religion."

EIGNE', in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the I^ower Loire, a;id chief place of a canton, in
the dillrict of Ancenis ; 9 miles N.W. of Anccnis. Tlie
place contains 1642. and the canton 5770 inhabiUuts, on a
territory of \^~\ kiliometres, in 4 communci.

LIGNE.A. Cassia. See Cassia.

LIGNEVILLE, the Marciiese di,' in Biography, an
ingenious and learned dilettante at Florence in 1770, who
had ihidied coun'.crpoint fo ferioufly as to be able to fet the
hymn " Salve Regina'' in canon for three voices. The
tompolition is correft, and neatly engraved, copies of
which were given to his friends. In the titlo of this pro-
duftion, dated 1770, the maiquis de Ligneville is ftyled
prince of Conca, chamberlain to their Imperial majellies,
tii.'-eclor of the mufic of the court in Tufcjuy, and member
of the Philharmonic fociety of B.ilogna. He was fon of the
famous marfhal Ligneville, who was killed in the gardens of
Colorno, a villa belonging to the duke of Parma, during the
war of 1733, and was prince of Conca, in the kingdom of
Na':les, bv riijht of his mother.

LlGNiCEKSIS Tiv.-.KA, in the Materia Medka, the
name of a hue yellow hole d :g in many parts of Germany,
particularly about Enu-ric. in the circle of Weftphalia, and
ufed in cordial and ailringcnt compoiitions. It is a com-
mon fucccdaneam for the yellow Silcfian bole, where that is
not to be had, and is generally elteemed very nearly, if not
abfolutely, equal to it in its virtues.

It is moderately heavy, naturally of a fmooth furface, and
of a beautiful gold colour. It cafily breaks between the
lingers, and does not llain the flcin in handling, melts freely
in the mouth, and leaves no grittinefs between the teeth, and
is iiiuncdiateiy diffufiblc in water. It makes ao effervefcecce

L I G

with acid* r and burns to a fine red colour, and almod to a
ftony hardnafs.

Charlton (Foff. p. 5.) fays it is more frequently known
by the name of ierraJigiUaIn Gohhcrgaijii.

There is another white bole known by this name. See
Gc)LTiiEi((;i:N-.sis terra.

LIGNIE'RES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
(repartment of the Cher, and chi'T place of a canton, in
the dillriil of St. Amand ; 24 miles S. of Bourges N.
lat. ^6 4j'. E. long. 2 i^'. The pl.ice contains 1205,
and the canton 6955 inhabitants, on a territory of 265 kilio-
metres, in T I communes.

LIGNITE. This name is given, by Brongniart, to the
fpecies of inflammable foflils, called broun kohle (brown coal)
by Werner. The following account, froin Brongniart's
Traitc de Mineralogie, will fupply the omifiion of the arti-
cle Broiun CO::! in our work.

The couibullible minerals belcjnging to this fpecies aire
chsraderifcd by their fmell and the prcdufts of their com-
bullion. The odour which they emit in burning is pungent,
often fetid, and has no analogy with that of coal or bitu-
mens. They burn with a pretty clear flnmc, without bub-
bling and cakiui^, like coal, and becoming fluid in the man-
ner of the folid bitumens ; they leave powdery aflies iimilar
to thofe of wood, but often more abundant, more ferrugi-
nous, and more earthy. The afhes contain a fmall portion
of potafli ; at lead Mr. Majon has found about 3 in 100
in thofe of the bituminous wood of Callchiuovo. Thefe
combullibles yield an acid by di'lillation, which coal does
not.

Lignites vary in colour from deep and fliining black to a
dull earthy-brown : the texture of moll of the varieties in-
dicates their origin and explains their name. The ligneous
texture is ofteiiobfervable, though fometimes it has wholly
difappeared. Its fraclure is compad, often rcfinous and
conchoidal, or (hiniiig and even.

The external chtratlers of the varieties of this fpecies
vary too much to allow them to be farther generahfed.

I. Jet Lignite; Jayet. Pech lohle, Wern.

This fubllance is hard, folid, compaft, and fufceptible
of a bright polilh ; it is opaque and of a pure blnck colour;
its fradure is undulated, and fometim.es fhining like that of
pitch. Specific gravity 1.2 JQ. It is faid to be fometin cs
lighter than water ; but Brongniart thinks this prop^-rty rather
belongs to the following variety.

Is foiuid in flrata of little thicknefs, in marly, flaty, cal-
careous or gritty beds. It fometimes exhibits the organical
texture of wood.

It is found in France ; in Prcvence, at Beleflat in the
Pyrenees; in the department of the Aude, near the village
des Bains, fix leagues to the foulh of CarcafTone (this fomr-
times contains amber), and near Quilian, in the fame de-
partment, in the comnumcs of Sainte Colon.bt, Peyrat, and
Bailide ; it is fituatcd at the depth of ten or twelve yards,
in oblique flrata between flraia of fand-lione ; but thefe
ilrata are neither pure nor continuous Jet proper to be
worked is foiuid in mafTcs, the »veight of which is feldona
5j pounds. Thefe mines have been wrought for a Icng
time, and have produced a conliderable quantity of jet, which
was cut and poliflied in the fsmc country. It alfo occurs in
Germany, near Wittemberg in Saxony, where it is alfo cut
and poliihcd. Very fine jet has alfo been found in Spain,
in Galicia, and the /\ilunas. Is likewifo faid to occur in
Iceland, in the vvellcrn part of the ifland.

Befides thefe, proftllbr Jamefon has quoted the following
localities of pitch-coal or jet lignite : the coal diilridls of the

Lothians,

LIGNITE.

I>)thran?, Fifefrhre, Linlithgowfhire, rfland of Skyc, and
Cannoby and Sanquhar, in Dunifriesdiire, in Scotland;
Ne«-ca!lle, Tindel fcUs, Bolton and Whitehaven, in Eng-
land ;. Aullria ; Hungary, Binnat, Traiilylvania ; Upper
L,uf itia ; Silefia ; mount MeifTiier in HeiTia ; Wiirtenberg ;
Francoiiia J i5ava:ia ; Salzburg; Italy; Pruffia.

Of this combu'lible ornaments are made, particularly
iponrning trinkets ; it is pclifhcd with water on a horizontal
wheel of fatiditone. Jet mixed with pyrites is generally
rejected.

z. Fr'uibk Llgnhe ; Moor coal ; Moor lohl:, Wern.

This variety occurs in thick and exteniive beds. It is of
a lively black, but lefs (hining than that of the preceding
variety. Its great friability is particularly charafterillic of
at. Its furface is always cracked, and its mafl'es divide with
the greateil facility into a number of cubic fragments ; a
cliaracif r which is not found in jet.

Friable lignite is more abundant and confequeitly more
ufeful than the two firil varieties. It is found in horizontal
banks often thick and extenfive, but is never feeu in fuch
large maffes as coal, with which it has been confounded by
fome ; it differs not only by its properties but alfo by its
gcogiioflic li;uation. It occurs in thofe maffes of land
wtiich often till up vallies in cahareous mountains, or cover
the fides of the hills that fliirt them. Is alfo found,
though more ra-ely, in clayey marie.

Friable lignite is pretty common in the fouth of France,
fuch as in the department of Vaiiclufc*. Alfo as confider-
able mafs at Lnette, department des Forcts.

Other locaaiies cited by authors are Leitmeri:z, Snatz,
and EUenbogen in B-<l;emia ; Thalern near Krems in Auf-
tria ; Tranfylvaiiia ; Moravia ; the ifl.uid of Barnholm in
the Baltic, and the Faroe idands. It oijc^irs more fre-
fluently in Bohemia than in any other countr^ Jam.

It burns without diinculty, but fpreads a very difagree-
able odour. It can be made ufe of only in raanufaftures, or
to bur-7 lime. Smiths cannot ufe it in their forges.

3. Fibrous Liginti ; Bltumhi.us 'wood; Bilumhiofcs IjoJt^,
Wern.

Its colour varies from a clear blacklfh-brovvn to clove
brown ; it has a perfectly woody form and texture ; confe-
qiiently, its longitudinal fraiture is iibrous, and its tranf-
verfal fraclu'v Ihews tlie yearly layers of the wood. Jt is
more eafily frangible than wood, and takes a degree of
polifh whtn cut with a knife.

This bgr.lte often occurs in large mafies.

It Is found in France ; in the vicinity of Paris, near
.St. Germain, in the ifle of Chatou, which appears to
be entirely formed of it ; and near Vitry on the banks of
the Seine, where is a thick bed of trunks of trees well pre-
(erved. In the department of Arricge, tlie clef:s of this
lignite are filled with calcareous fpar. In Liguria, near
Ciflelnuovo, at the mouth of the Magra, it is found in
thick and exten.lve beds. In Heffia, in the .mountains of
Ahlberg, the ilratum is above two yards thick. /i.t Stein-
berg, near Miinden in Hanover, it forms two ftrata, one of
about ten yard?;, the other of fix, feparated by a bed of
rock from twelve to fourteen inches thick. In England,
EtBovey near Exeter, there are fevcnteen pretty thick llrafa,
(iiuated at a depth of about twenty two yards under fand
and in pott.-rs' cLy. In Iceland, w here it is very abundant,
it is called Sarturhrand i the trunks which form thefe beds
are very diilind, a'ld appear merely to ha-ve been comprciFed.

To tliefe locahties we add tlie following from Jamefon :
Scoilaiul, iii the fietz-trap formation, accompanied with
pitch-coa!, in the ifland of Skye ; in feparate pieces in
traiip-brectia in tlie ifluud of Cannay ; in Betz Lmc-llone, in

the iiland of Skye, and in the independent coal formation ia
the county of Mid Lothian ; Bohemia, in the Saatz and
Leitmeritz circles; Auilria ; Tranfylvania ; Moravia; Leo-
ban in Stiria ; Irfcnberg in Bavaria ; Upprr Palatinate ;
Landeck in Silefia ; Halle; Merfeburg ; .-^.rtern and Eifle-
ben in Tliuringia ; Kalten-Nordheirn near Eifenach ; Weh-
rau, Upper Lufatia ; Wiirtenberg; Freeienwalde and Ko-
nigfwalde in Brandenburg ; Weilerwald ; Salzburg ; Rufiia.

But this lignite is iliil more common in fmail detached,
maflcs ; it fometimes accompanies the preceding varieties;
fometimes it is found alone in (mail layers, in the mid It of
banks of clay or fand. It is met with almoil every where,
and is ufod as fuel in thofe places «here it is abundant.

This combuilible being fcarcely deconipofcd, and hence
rather vegetable than mineral, would not deferve to conlli-
tute a variety ir. a fyilem of mineralogy, if it did not p;.fs by
imperceptible degrees into the preceding varieties, and inti>
that which follows.

4. Earlhy Lignite; Enrlli coal ; Erd Ljhle, Wern.

Commonly called earth of Cologne, and fometimes^
though improperly, umber ; but the true umber, whicli comes
from Italy or the eaft, contains nothing that is combulLble,.
whence it cannot belong to this fpecies.

This fubllanee is black, or blackifh-brown mixed witk-
reddifh. Its fratlure and afpect are earthy ; it is fine-
grained, eafily frangible and even irial-le; it is rather foft to-
the feel. Its fpecific gravity is nearly that of water. It
burns, emitting a difagreeable fmell.

It not only often contains vegetable remains, but fome-
times it.Gflf preients the texture of wood, without ever pof-
feffing either the colour and luftre, or the hardnels of the
pr-ceding varieties. It burns fufficiently well to be ufed as
fuel. It gives a gentle and equal heat.

It is found in fecondary formation in the neighbourhood
of coal mines, and more frequently in alluvial land.

As an authentic example of this variety may be mentioned
the earthy lignite from the vichiity of Cologne, known ia
trade by the name of eai'th ot Cologne. It is dug up at a
little diilance from that city, near the villages Briihl and
Liblar, where it forms very extenfive beds of eight or ten
yards in thicknefs, v/hich are fituated under elevated ground.
It is immediately covered with a bed, more or lels thick, of
rolled pieces of quartz and jafper, of the fize of an eg.g,
and refts on a bed of white clay of an unknown thickntls.
The bed of lisjnite is homog-eneous, but foffil veiretables are
found in it in a good Hate ot prelervation ; they arc,

1, trunks of trees lying one on the other without order;
the wood is black or reddiih, generally comprefied', it readily
exfoliates by drying in the open air. Some of theie belong
to dicotyledonous trees, others are fragments of palms.
Among thefe M. Coquebert-Montbret has found fome that
are fi.led with a number of fmall round pyritic badies re-
fembling grains of fmall (hot. Similar fmall, but elongated-
round grains, refembhng a two-celled pod, have been found-
by Mr. Heim, in the lignite of Kalten Nordheim. This
wood burns very well, and even with a fmall flame..,

2. Woody fruits, of the fize of a nut, and which are con-
fulered as belonging to a fpecies of areca. The hgnite of
Cologne contains about twenty per cent, of a(hes rather alka-
line and ferruginous. Its uies are manifold ;. it is wxirked
in open air with a iimple fpade, but in ordei- to convey it
wiih greater convenience, it is moillened and moulded iti
veffcls which give it the fhape of a truncated cone. It is
generally ufed as fuel in the neighbourhood of Cologne., v
It burns (lowly but readily and wiihout flame, like fungu*
tinder, giving a llroug heat and leaving very fine allies.
The latter being conliuiicd as a very good manure, a paix

L I G

L I G

•f the lignite is burnt on the fpot where it is wrought, for
the fake of obtaiiiiiit^ them.

The earth of Cologne is particularly employed for paint-
ing in diftemper and even in oil painting. The Dutch ufe
it to adulterate fniilF, and if it is not added in too great a
quantity it gives the fniilf a defirable finenefs and foftnefs,
and cannot be in tl'.e leall injurious. Fanjas.

This lignite is faid to occur alfo in Hcffia, Bohemia,
Saxony, Iceland, &.c. ; but as there has been a confufion
between this fiibdance and the variety of ochre called umber,
we cannol be cert-,(in that thefe indications of localities are
referable to earthy lignite.

It may liave been obfervcd, from what has been faid on
the fituations peculiar to fome varieties of lignite, that this
foflil combuftible belongs to depofitions of the mod recent
formation, fince it is found only in alluvial fand or clay ;
it feldom or never occurs in (tony depofitions, except in
coarfe grained lime-done and under brfalt. In the moun-
tains of Hcffia called- the Ringe Kuhie, feveral thick beds
of lignite are feen leiling on fandllone, and leparated by
beds of potters' clay and fand. — (Mohs). On the fea-fliore
near Calais, fragments of lignite have been found that were
penetrated by very tranfpai'ent globularly aggregated quartz
cryftals.

The air which circulates where lignite is wrought is gene-
rally bad.

From what has been faid it appears (our author concludes)
that lignite is of a very different formation from that of
coal ; indeed, Mr Voigt thinks that there is no tranfition
between thefe two fub (lances.

The firft of Brongniart's varieties of li.'nite, is by Wer-
ner given as a fub-fpeoies of his fclnvartz ko'n.le, or black coal.
A variety not mentioned in the above account of ligi.itc, but
nearly related to the tibrous lignite No. 3, is the fub-fpecies
of Werner's brown-coal, called common bro'um-coal. Its
colour is light ijrowiiifh-black, pafiing into blackifli-brown.
It occurs maffive. Its fragments are indeterminately angular,
more or lefs (harp-edged. It is found at Bovey, and feveral
other places mentioned under tiie localities of (ibrous lignite
or bituminous wood.

LIGNON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of th'j Marne ; 9 miles S. of Vitry le Francois.
LIGNUM Ai.oES, or Wood of Aloes. See Aloes.
Lignum Bulfaml. SeeBAL-SAM.
L1GNI.1M Ciimpechianum. See Log-wood.
LiGNU.M Cnjfid!. See Cassia.

LiGNU.vi Colubrinmn. See SravcnNUS. Garcias tells
us of the wonderful elfefts of this xlrug againd the bites
of venomous f.rpents, and defcribcs two kinds of the plant
which produces it ; one having leaves like the pomegranate,
and the other like the peach-tree : thefe, he fays, both
grow in the iflar.d of Ceylon ; and Acofta mentions two
other fpecies of plants producing this wood, both different
from cither of thofe defcribcd by Garcias, and both grow-
ing in Malabar. We have alfo accounts in the Geograpluis
Nubienfis of another lignum colubrinum, different from
thefe, growing in Ethiopia, and po(fefled of the fame vir-
tues again'l the bites of ferpcnts as the others. This lad is
called in the /Vrabic haud alha'ic, the plain verbal tranflation
of which is fnake-wood, or lignum colubrinnni. He tells
«s, that it has fome refemb'ance in form to pyrelhrum, and
that the wood is always contorted.

Alha cararha is another of its Arabic names, and this is
the word by which Avicenna, and the other Arabian writers,
interpret \hii tyrcthrum of Diofcorides ; but it is not certain
whether the liijiilitudc of founds between two or more
Jft.rabic words, may not have occafioned fome confufion or

error here. Dicxarchus, in his fragment of mount PelioSi
defcribes the root of a tree growing there, which is not
only a fovereign remedy for the bites of fcrpents, but even
deftroys them by its fincU. This is alfu a lignum colu-
brinum ; but whetlier the fame with any of the others, or
dilferent from them all, we have not defcriplions enough to
determine.

It appears, upon the wht>le, that little can be depended
on in the accounts of the medicine called lignum colnbrinum
by any author, nnlefs he has himfelf experimented what he
relates, and defcribed the plant which produces the drug ;
for much imaginary virtue has been at all times given to
many things againd the bitings of fcrpents, and the lignum
colubrinum of one author is not the lignum colubrinum of
another.

LiGNOM Nephrlficum. See NEniniTic.
LuiNU.M Vitic, the wood of a genus of trees, called by
botanids thuya; which fee.

Lignum vita: is much valued by turners : making ex-
tremely beautiful cups, bowls, boxes, and other curiolities.
Lignum vitas is alfo a name given to guaiacum.
LIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in. the
diftridl of Bar-f, r-Orncin. The place contains 2S15, and the
canton 10,081 inhabitants, on a territory of 192^ kiliome-
tres, in 19 communes. ^

L,iasY-le-Chateau, a. town of France, in the department
of the Yonne, and chief-place of a canton, in the diilritl of
Auxerre ; 9 miles N.E. of Auxerre. The place contains
1249, and the canton 7301 inhabitants, on a territory of
182^ kiliometres, in l^ communes.

LIGOR, a town of Afia, and once capital of a king,
dom, now I'ubi^l to Siam, lituated on a river of the fame
name. Here "uie Dutch have a faftory for tin, rice, and
pepper. N. lat. 8' iS'. E. long. 100 35'.

LiGOR, or Tantalum, an ifland at the entrance of the gulf
of Siam, triangular in its figure, and about 130 miles in
circuit. N. lat. 810'. E. long, ico 50'.

LIGUA, a river of Cliili, which runs into the Pacific
ocean, S. lat. 32'. — Alfo, a town of Chili, on this river;
72 miles N.N.E. of Valparaifo.

LIGUEIT, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
triit of Loches ; 9 miles S.W. of Loches. The place con-
tains 1998, and tlie canton 9756 inhabitants, on a territory
of 32/7, kiliometres, in 14 communes.

LIGUNY, a town of Samogitia ; 44 miles E. of
Micdniki.

LIGULA, a word ufed by medical writers in very dif-
ferent fcTifes. Some exprefs by it the clavicle, others the
glottis ; others ufe it as the name of a meafure, for things
either liquid or dry, being a quarter of a cyathus, equal to
a forty-eighth part of a pint with us ; others finally ufe it for
a weight, lefs than half an ounce by two fcruples, or teu
fcrupks.

LiGUL.\, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of the moUufca or.
der of the chfs Vermes, according to the Linnxan fydem :
the charafter of this genus is body linear, equal, lon^- ; the
fore part obtufe, the hind part acute, with an impre(red dor-
fal future. There are only two fpecies, w's. i, k\k inttJVi-
nalis, which has a clear white, and very narrow body, and
which IS found in the intedines of the merganler and guille-
mot : about a foot long, and exactly relembling a piece of
tape. 2. The abdomineilis, of which there are feveral varie-
ties ; the body is of a palc-a(h colour, and rather broad ; it
is found in the abdomen of the loche, gudgeon, tench, cru-
cian, dace, bleak ; cyprinus vimba, and bream. Thefe ani-
mals

L I G

mats are foHnd chiefly in the mefentery, emaciating the fi/Ii
they infeft, and making them grow deformed : when they
efcape from the body they penetrate through the flcin ; they
are fometimes lolitary and fometimes gregarious, about one-
twentieth of an inch thick, and from fix inches to five feet
long.

LIGULATE Florets, in Botany, from Uguhi, a fmall
ftrap, are fuch as compofe the radiant part of a daify. See
Floret.

LIGURES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Cifalpina, who occupied a territory along the fea-coalf,
bounded on the N. by the Po, and feparated from Gaul by
the Alps, and the oblique winding courfe of the Varus.
Its eaftern limit, at different periods, was the Macra, and
the rapid Arnus. It comprehended the greater part of the
diftrids of Nice, Piedmont, Montferrat, Genoa, Modena, and
Parma. This powerful nation was compofed of many
tribes, the boundaries of whofe fettlements cannot now be
afcertained witli precilion. Thefe tribes were the Vediantii,
who inhabited a mountainous traft watered by the Varus, in
which were Nica:a or Nice, and Ceraenelium, or Cimia ;
the Intemelii, who occupied feveral places along the fea-coait,
■viz. Intemelium, or Ventimiglia, Tropjea Augulii, or
Torbia, &c.; the Ingauni, whole capital was Albingaunum,
or Albenga, and they alfo occupied the fea-port towns of
Vada Sabatia, or Vai, and Savo, now Savona ; the Epan-
terii, who inh;;bited a mountainous diftrift between the Van-
gieiini and Ingauni ; the Vangienni, who relided near the
declivity of Mons Vefiilus, mount Vifo, and the fources of
the Po ; the Statielli, who were cantoned at the bottom of
the gulf of Genoa, in a hiily territory, that extended north-
ward to the Tanarus ; the cities and towns in this diilriA,
occupied by the Statielli, and other inferior tribes of the
Ijigures, were Genua or Genoa, Portus .jDelphinus, or
Porto Fino, Segeftra or Selhi, Portus Veneris, or Porto
Venere, and Luna ; and the principal rivers of this dillritt
were the Macra and Boactes ; the inland towns in the terri-
tory of the Statielli were Aquas Statiella: or Aqui, Ceba
or Ceva, near the fource of the Tanarus, PoUentia, Alba
Pompeia, Afta or Aili, Bodincomngus or Induftria on the
P", Forum Fulvii, furnamed Valentinum, on the Po, Ca-
riftum, Dertona or Tortona, and Iria or Voghiera. The
Celelates and Cerdicates inhabited an inconfiderable dillrift
between the Trebia and tlie Po, now called Pavefan ; their
principal towns were Clallidium, Chiailezo, and Litubium.
The Briniates occupied a hilly traCl not far from the fea-
coaft, watered by the Bosftes. The chief town of the
Apuani was Apua, now Pontremoli, at the foot cf the
Apennines, near the fource of the Macra. The Ananes, or
Anamani were for fome time eftabiilhed in the territory now
called Parma and Modena ; the Lingoncs, in tlie northern
part of Bolognefe, and in Ferrara ; the Boii, in the S. part
of the Bolognefe, at the foot of the Apennines ; the Se-
rones, in the eftate of the church, along the coaft of the
Adriatic from Rimini to Ancona. To thofe tribes belonged
the following towns, "u/z. Parma, Bnxellum or Berfello,
Forum Novum or Fornovo, S.W. of Parma on tlie Tarus or
Taro, Tanetum or Tanedo, between Parma and Modena,
Calicarin, S. of the Po, Padinum or Buondena, N V/. of Forum
Alieni, now Ferrara, Hadrianum or Ariano, Neronia above
the mouth of the Po, and Spina at the mouth of the fouth
branch of the Po. The following towns were fituated on
Via iEmilia, between Parma and /-^rminiuin, -jia. Tanetum
already mentioned, Regium Lepidi or Reggio, Mutina or
Modena, Bononia now Bologna, Claterna or Claterva, New
Quadenio, Forum Cornelii or Imola, Favcntia or Faenza,

L I G

Forum Livii or Forli, Forum Popilii or Forlimpopoli. The
inland fettlements were Sufemontium, Aquinum, and Ra-
venna.

LIGURIA, a country of ancient Italy, which had on
the W. a part of the Maritime Alps, and the river Varus ;
on the N. the Po ; on the E. a part of Gallia Cifpadana,
and a fn-.all portion of Etruria. In the time of Scylax, who
wrote about the year 350 B.C., the Ligurians extended
themfelves to tlie Arnus. See the preceding article.

LIGURIAN Republic. See Geno.i.

LIGURINUS, in Ornithology, a name ufed by many-
authors tor the bird more commonly known by the name of
Jpinus, and called in England xhefi/hn.

LIGURIUS, in Jciu'ijh Antiquity, a precious (lone on
the high piriell's breall -plate. It is called lejchnn in Hebrew.
Theophrailus and Pliny defcribe the ligurius to be a llone
like a carbuncle, of a brightncfs fparkling like (ire.

The ligurius was the firit; ilone in the third row upon the
high priell's pedioral, and the name of God was infcribed
upon it. iElian, De Animal, lib. iv. cap. 17. Pliny,
lib. viii. cap. 38, and lib. xx.wii. cap. 5. Calm. Did. Bibl.
See LvNCUKius Lapis.

LIGUSTICUiVl, in iJotoyi, Xi^vriHov of Diofcorides, fi>
called from Liguria, in Italy, its native country. The an-
cient plant evidently appears by the defcription of this au-
thor to have been of the umbelliferous tribe, growing in
mountainous fituations, and of an aromatic pungent naiure.
So far it agrees with the Linnasan adaptation of the name ;
but among fo intricate a tribe, who (hall fay that the L'iguf-
ileum of LinuKus is, or is not, the very f me with that of
Diofcorides ? Linn, Gen. 137. Schreb. 187. Wil d. Sp.
PI. V. I. 1424. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Sm. F;. Brit. 309.
Prodr. Fl. Gra:c. v. i. 193. Ait. Hort. Kew. cd. 2. v. 2.
141. JufT. 222. Tourn. I. 171. Laii.arck. lUultr. t. 198.
Gaertn. t. 85. (Cicutarin ; Tourn. t. 171. Danaa ; Allion.
Pedem. v. 2. 34. t. 63.)- Clafs and order, Paitandria Digy-
r:ia. Nat. Ord. Umbellifene-

Gen. Ch. General iinilcl u[ numerous rays ; partial Cmilar
to it. General involucrum membranous, of about levcn un-
equal leaves ; partial of Icarcely mere than four, like-
wife membranous. Perianth of five teeth, fcarcely difcerni-
ble. Cor. Univerjal uniform ; flowers all ufually fertile ;
partial of five equal, involute, flat, undivided petals, keeled
inwardly. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, ftiorter than the
corolla ; anthers fimple. Fiji. Gernien inferior ; ilykstwo,
clofe togL'ther ; ftigmas fimple, obtufe. Peric. Fruit ob-
long, angular, furrowed, fcparable into two parts. Seeds
two, oblong, Imooth, marked with tliree elevated lines on
the outer fide, flat on the other.

Eff. Ch. Fruit oblong, with tliree ribs on each fide.
Flowers uniform. Petals involute, regular, undivided.
Calyx of five teeth.

Obf. Reichard obferves that fome male flowers are ccca-
fionaliy intermixed. The fruit has not five grooves or fur^
row<^, but three elevated ribs, at each fide.

1. L. Livi/Ucum. Common Lovage. Linn Sp. PI. 3^9.
Wcodv. Med. Bot. t. ly^. Zorn. Ic, t. 233. Ehrh. PI.
Off. 393. (Levilticum vulgare ; Dod. Pempc. 311. Ger.
em. ioc8. Morif. Seft. 9. t. 3. f. i.)— Leaves repeatedly
compound; leaflets wedge-fliaped at their bale, unequally
cut m the fore-part. Umbels many together. Native of the
Ligurian Alps, whence it is taken for the Ai-i/rixo; of Diof-
corides. In medico-botanical gardens it is prefcrved on that
account, but rarely elfewhere. The root is perennial, re-
quiring a rich, ra' her moul foil. Herb five feet high, of a
lijjht, rather glaucous, green, fniootb, ikongly aromatic

LIGUSTICUM.

and acrid. Leaves bipiiinate ; Iciiflcts about two or liiroc
Inches long, and one broad, deeply cut. C/),;ii/j aggregate,
ilalked, tlicir involiicrnl leaves dc-flexed, wbitidi. Floiutrs
f:nall, yellowifii, coniini; out in May and June.

This plant, el'pcciallv the root, " whofe flavour is Icfs un-
grateful (fays Dr. Woodville) than the leaves," abounds
with a ycllowilh fetid gum refin. It was thought to be
ufeful in removing obllruftions of various kinds, and even
to afiid delivery ; but h now laid aiide.

2. I" fco'ktim. Scottilh Lovage. Linn. Sp. PI. 359.
Engl. Bot. t. 1207. Fl. Dan. t. 107. — Leaves twice ter-
iiate, dilated, deeply ferrated — Native- of fea-fliores in Swe-
den, Canada, Scotland ; and recently difcovered, as Mr.

- Winch informs us, at Dun!tonburgh callle, Northum-
berland. It is of much humbler growth thin the firlt fpe-
cics, with twice terna'c, broader and ro'uider leaves, 'fnining
beneath, rather fen-ated than cut. Utr.lch fewer, white
vith a reddilb tinge. Mr. Lightfoot fays this is eaten raw
as a falad, or boiled as greens, in the ille of Skve, where
it is called Stuiias or Shiinis. The root is reckoned a good
carminative, and an infuliou of tiie leav:s in whey ferves to
purge calves.

3. Ij nod'iflorum. Nettle-leaved Lovage. Villars Dauph.
-V. 2. 60S. t. 13. (Smvniium nodiflorum ; Allion. Ptfdem.
•V. 2. 21. t. 72. Angelica alpina, ad nodos florida ; Tourn.

• 'Inft. 313 )-TLcaves twice or thrice ternate, dilated, tapcr-
yointcd, llrongly ferrated. Umbels very nuineious. Flowcr-
Halks whorkd, widely fpreading. — Native of fliady pine-
-forells on the Alps. Stem three or four feet high, folitary,
vith very numerous, whorlcd, divaricated, flender flower-
•iblks, and copious white imbeh, wliofc invoUicral leaves are
-very few and narrow. Radical /^^"folitary, large, fmooth,
4.wice or thrice tcrnnte, or fomewhat pinrfate ; the leaflets
.two or three irches loiig, ovate, taper-pointed, ftrongly fer-
rated in the manner of a nettle. Villars fays the root is fold
at Lyons by the name of Bohemian Angelica, and has an
aromatic flavour, lefs agreeable but more laiUng than that of
the true Angelica. It is dillinft, as Villars well obferves,
.from tiie Angel.-ca ■oertidUnrh of Linnaeus, and appears nevei-
■to have come under his obfervation.

4. L peloponnenfe. Hemlock-leaved Lovage. Linn. Syfl-.
;Veg. ed. 14. 283. (L. peloponncfiacum ; Linn. Sp. PI.
-360. .lacq. Aullr. 33. append, t. 13. Sefeli peloponnenfe ;
•Camer. Epit. 514. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 112. Cicuta latifolia
ioctidiffima ; Cler. em. 1062. Morif. Scft. 9. t. 6. f. J.) —
Leaves repeatedly pinnate ; leaflets lanceolate, decurrent,

taper-pointed, cut N?.tive of mountainous woods in Car-

-niola, Rhxtia, Switzerland, and, as it fliould feem, in the
Pelooonnefus ; but Dr. Sibdiorp <3id not find it. In gar-
<iens it is confpicuous, but too much like hemlock to be
cultivated for ornament. The leaves are very large, but
finely cut, of a fine fliiiiing green, their fegments numerous,
-crowded, remarkably decurreiit and taper-pointed. Utnlcls
•white, one very large, with fcveral fmaller in whorls, accom-
panied by leaves, at the bafe of its li'alk.

y. L. auftriacum. Auflrian Lovage. Jacq. Auftr. t. 151.
Allion. Pedem. v. 2. 15. t. 43 (L. n. 11 ; Gmcl. Sib. v i.
-196.1.45.) — Leaves twice pinnate; leaflets wedge-fhaped,
decurrent, cirt. Umbels leafy. — Native of the Alps of
Auftria, France, Italy, S:c. Much like the lafl, but the
Jlem is ivouter ; umlils larger and more leafy ; hai'cs not fo
rcg'.darly pmnate or pinnatllid, nor fo exatlly decurrent,
jiei'her are th-y by far fo taper-pointed.

6. \^. cornul/ienje. CornillV Lovage. Linn. Sp PI. 35'9.
jSm. Fi. Brit. 310. Ic. Pift. t. II. Engl. Bot. t. 683.
^L^ a^uilegifoLum ; WiUd. n. 3- L. altcrum belgarum ;

Lob. Ic. 786. Danaa aquilegifolia ; Allion. Pedem. v. 2.
34.1.63. Smyrnium lufitanicum minus, ajiii fohis ; Tourn.
Infl. 316.) — Radical leares twice cennpound. wedgc-fliaped,
cut ; Ifem-leaves ternate or fimple, lanceolate and entire.
Tieeds ovate, tumid, obfcuroly ribbed. — Native of bulhy
ftony place,^ in Cornwall, Piedmont, and Portugal. Ga-
tliered by Dr. Sibthorp on mount Athos. Itij perennial,
and known from ail the reft by its principal compound lea-Jcs
being all radical, theyAm he'.ring only a few ternate or liniple
ones, quite undivided. The umbels are few and fulitarv.
Invohicnnn fcarcely membranous, j'irfi'/ remarkably tuniid,
ovate, black, obfeurcly ribbed. — This plant, found in Corn-
wall in the time of Dillenius, who has figured it in hiscditicii
of Ray's Sympjis, t, 8, was long overlooked, and fuppofcd
to be loft, till It was recovered about 2J years ago. Speci-
mens fent by Prof. AUioiii to the writer of thi^ have proved
his Danaa to be the fame. (Sec Das.t.a.) Li'tle did the
late Prof. Sibthorp fufpcft he liad found fo celebrated an
Englifh plant on mount Athos, which from his herbariiiin
proves to be the cafe. AVilldenow perhaps learnt from the
EfTay on Dorfiferous Ferns, Mem. de VAcad. de Turin, v. c.
420, that it was a Ligu/lkum, but having never fecn it, either
as the Danaa or the Coruiih Lovage, he has it tw ice in his
Sp. PI.

7. L. ftyrenieum. Pyrencan Lovage. Willd. n. 8. Gouan.
Illuflr. 14, but not his t. 10. f. 2, which, thou<jh cited i)y
himfelf^ and copied by others, is Thapf.a gar^anica. (L.
alpinum perennc, ferulx folio, floribus aibis ; Sc>;i!. Veron.
V. 2. 41. t. 13.) — Leaves repeatedly compound ; leaflets pin-
nirtifid ; fegments nearly linear, awned. General invohicrum

flight. Seeds oblong, with membranous even ribs. Native

of the fouth of France aliout the Pyrenees ; alfo of mount
Baldus, nearVeroi-a. The /fj-ivj- are lari;e, very finelv di-
vided, light green ; their fegments inclining to elliptical', de-
current, obtufe, with a minute briflle. Stevi leafy. Umheh
rather large ; the general invohicrum wanting, or deciduous •
when prefent it is fometimes of one three-cleft leaf Flo-jueis
white, fmall. Fruit cliiptic-oblong, with ftraight, pale,
membranous ribs, and crowned with but a fmall jrlandular
floral receptacle, Style.^ refiexed. — Linnxus confounded this
with his Selinum Carvi/oiia, but thl-y appear to be Uifliciently
different.

S. L. muhlfidum. Fine-leaved Lovage. (I,, fuliis tri-
plicato-piiinatis, extremis lobulis brevi^ter muUindi.s ; Gmel.
Sib. V. I. 199. t. 4.6. Herb. Linn ) — Leaves thrice com-
pound ; fegments linear, channelled, decurrent, pointed.

Seeds ovate, with mem.branous, fomewhat crifped, ribs

Native of fields in the province of Ifct, in Siberia. Gmc-
lin's fpecimen is in the herbarium, but appears never to iiave
been noticed in the works of Linnccus, The root is faid to
have the talle and fliape of Carrot ; it is as thick as the mid-
dle finger at the top, long and taper downward, vcllowiili
without, white within. ,$■/£■« two cubits or more in hei'iht,
hollow, branched from about a third part of its heiglit up-
ward, the branches a foot long, fomewhat leafy. Radical
Laves with their long llalks about a fpan L)ng or .more, finely
tlirice compounded, the fegments uniformly narrow, acute,
fcarcely awned, channelled, entire, ail decurrent, h"l.t
green, fmooth; ft cm leaves much lel's divided, and fmailer.
Umbels not large, white ; their general Irmo'ucrum of about
eight lanceolate, membranous-edged, leaves, and I lie car; iai
ones are fim.ilar. Fniii fliort and roundifli, -with crifped
wings, and a very large floral di(k or receptacle. Siy/es di-
varicated, .'iti^mas very obtufe.

9. Y,. caniliciir.s. Pale Lovage. Ait. Hort. Kcw. cd. i.
v. I. 348. ed. 2. V. 2. 142. — Leaves repeatedly compound ;

« leaflets

L 1 G

L I G

leaflets %vedge-fliaped, cut, fmooth. General involucrum of
two leaves, fomewhat leafy. Ribs of the feeds membranous,
fmooth. — Introduced into Kew garden about the year ijSo.
It is faid to be a hardy perennial, flowering there in July and
Auguft ; but its native country is unknown.

10. L. peregnnum . Parfley-leaved Lovage. Linn. Sp.
PI. 360." Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 13. t. 18. — Leaves repoiit-
edly compound ; leaflets three-cleft, wedge-fhaped, cut.
Seeds ovate, obtufely ribbed. Umbels terminal. — Native
of Portugal i gathered by the late M. Brouffonet on the
rock of Gibraltar, flowering in May. The root is biennai.
The whole plant has the appearance, even the tafte and
fmell, of common parfjey, but is in every part ftouter and
more rigid. There can be no doubt of its clofe affinity to
that plant ; and great violence is offered to nature in referring
one to Ligujlicum, the other to j4piiim. Yet even the
Bauhins diitinguifhed them as fpecies.

11. Y.. d'tffufum. Spreading Lovage. Roxburgh MSS.
— Leaves twice compound ; fegments wedge-lhaped, de-
current, three-toothed. Seeds ovate, ftrongly ribbed.

L^mbels on lateral italks, oppofite to the leaves Native of

the Eaft Indies ; given by Dr. Roxburgh, with the above
name, to lord vifcount Valentia, to whom we are obliged
for the fpecimen. Its habit is fo like the laft, x\\^ fruit being
of the fame (hape, though more ftrongly ribbed, that it
confirms the genus of that fpecies. It differs in having
fmaller, lefs compounded, and blunter neatly tootlied leaves,
llrongly decurrent in their fegments, and umbels on folitary,
fimple, lateral ftaiks. The invo/ucral leaves are of a fuffi-
cient number, lanceolate, long, narrow, pointed, with mem-
branous edges. Ribs of the JieJs prominent and fomewhat
crifped, not membranous.

12. L. Meum. BrilUe-leaved Lovage, Spignel, Men,
or Bald-money. Crantz. Auftr. fafc. 3. 82. Roth. Germ.
V. I. 123. V. 2. 322. (Meum athamanticum ; .)acq. Auilr.

V. 4. 2. t. 303. Sm. Fl. Brit. 308. Engl. Bot. t. 2249.
Athamanta Meum; Linn. Sp. PI. 35'3. Hudf. 116.
CEthufa Meum ; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 287. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. I. 1447.) —Leaflets all in numerous, deep, briftle-like
fegments. — Native of mountains in Italy, Spam, Germany,
Switzerland and Britain, flowering in May. The propriety
of referring it to this genus was hinted in Fl. Brit, and
Crantz and Roth had previoufly fo arranged it. Where fo
many difl'erent opinions have been ftarted, the genus cannot
be fuppofed very clear, but we venture to remove the plant
hither. Its rOot is powerfully aromatic, with a flavour like
melilot, of which the herb partakes ; and an infufion of the
■plant is faid to give cheefe the talle of the Swifs Chap-z.le-
£ar. The finely divided leavus dillinguifh it readily. The
Jfoiuers are white, witii a blufli occafionally. Fruit oblong,
often curved, coloured ; its ribs llrong, not membranous,
even, not crifped.

13. L. baJear'uum. Balearic Lovage. Linn. Mant.
CI 8. — Radical leaves pinnate, rounded, ferrated ; the lower
leaflets auricled : llem-leaves pinnate, narrow, cut. Fruit
oblong. — Native ef the Balearic iflands, as well as of Italy
and Spain. M. Bronflonet gathered it at Gibraltar in
May. Linmus had this plant in the Upfal garden, but lays
it did not ripen feed, fo that he was doubtftd of the genus.
It appears to us rather to belong to Athamanta. The
joungfruit is ftriated rather than ribbed ; the involucral
leaves very flender, awl-fhaped, not membranous. The kaves
bave fomewhat of the afpect of Pajlinaca fativa in a wild
ftate. The umbels are wide, but (lender, yellow.

14. L Gingidwm. New Zeeland Lovage. Forll. Prod.
•22. Willd. n 12. (Gingidium montanum ; Forll. Gen.

21.) — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets ovate, crenate ; oblique and
■ Vol. XXI.

entire at t!ie bafe.— Native of New Zeeland. Its afpect i'
not unlike Stum angiijli folium, but the umbels are axillary or
terminal, and the leafett very finely, rather (harply, crenate,
all broad and ovate.

1 5. L.. longifolium. Long-Icaved Lovage. Willd. n.i^
— " Leaves twice ternate ; the radical ones doubly com-
pounded ; leaflets linear-lanceolate, entire." — Native of Si-
beria. Prof. Willdtnow faw a dried fpecimen. We know
this fpecies by his account only. He cites the PcuceJanum
majiis iW/'cHH; of Morilon, fed. 9. t. 15. f. i, (at the bottom,)
as feeming to agree with his plant — The leajlels are ftalked,
linear, entire, tapering at each e.\tremity. iix or feven inches
long, and three lines wide. General involucrum wanting 1
partial of many fetaceous leaves.

We have, in the above view of the genus Ligujlicum,
added three ipecies to his lift, although we have reduced two
of his into one.

L1GU.STICUM Leviflicum, or Comm'.n Lovage, in the Ma-
teria Meelica. The odour of this plant is very ilrong, and
peculiarly ungrateful ; its tafte is warm and aromatic. It
abounds with a yellowifli, gummy, refinous juice, very much
refembling Opoponax. Its virtues are fuppofed to be fimi-
lar to thofe of angelica and mafter-wort in expelling flatu-
lencies, exciting fweat, and opening obftrudions ; and it is
therefore chiefly ufed in hyfterical diforders and in uterine
obftrudions. A teacup-ful of the juice with Rhenifh wine,
or a decodlion of the feeds with wine or mugw'ort water,
was, by Foreftus, faid to be a fecret remedy cf extraordinary
efficacy in flow or laborious parturition. Tiie leaves, eaten
as ialad, are accounted emmenagogiie. The root, iefs un-
grateful than the leaves, is faid to poflefs fimilar virtues, and
may be employed in powder. Woodv. Med. Bot.

Lir,u.STicuM iMarmor, in Katural Hiflory, a name by
which fome authors have called the Carrara marble, the
marmor lunenfe of the ancients. It is a fine white marble,
harder than the Parian or llatuary kind, and ufed for tables,
chimnies, &:c. as the other for carving. See LuNjixsu
Marmor.

LIGUSTRL^M, in Botany, a name found in Pliny and
other Latin writers, by which the oriental Cypros {Larji' ■
fonia inermis) feems originally to have been intended, but
which is now univerfally received for our Privet. — Linn.
Gen. 9. Schreb. 12. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 41. Mart. Mill.
Dift. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 12. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.
v. I. 19. Tournef. t. 367. .luff. 106. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 7.
Girtn. t. 92. — Clafs and order, Dianclria Momgynia. Nat.
Ord. Sejiiarij. Linn. Jafmintcs, JulF.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
very Imall ; mouth four-toothed, eredt, obtufe. Cor. of
one petal, funnel-ftiaped ; tube cylindrical, longer than the
calyx; limb ipreading, cut into four ovate fegihents. Stam.
Filaments two, oppolite, fimple ; anthers ereCt, alnioit as
long as the corolla. Fiji. Germcn fuperior, roundilh ; ilvle
very fhort, ftigma cloven, obtufe, thickilh. Peric. Berry
globote, fmooth, frigle-celled. Seeds four, convex on one
lide, angulated on the other.

Obf. Gajrtncr more correcf ly defcribes Ligiijlrum a.s having
a two-celled berry ; the cells coated with a thin membrane,
having two feeds in each cell.

Elf. Ch. Corolla four-cleft. Berry fuperior, of twu
cells, with two feeds in each cell.

I. L. vulgare. Privet. Linn. Sp. PI. 10. Engl. Bot,
t. 7(14. Curt. I^ond. fafc. 5. t. i. — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
obtufe, with a little point. — Not uncommon in hedges aiid
thickets where the foil is moift and gravelly, flowering in

May and June, and ripening its berries in Auguft 'I'his

Jhrub rifesto the Iwight of live or fix feet. Biimehei wand-
. D ■ hk>

LIGUSTRUM.

like. Leaves oppofite, nearly fefTiIe, dark green, fmooth,
lanceolate, (now and tiicn elliptical,) eiitiri-, poin:ed, not
acuminated, generally remaining through the winter. Pa-
nicles terminal, denfe. Flowers white, fm. Hint: difagrceal)ly.
Berries &AtV. purple, or blacki(h, very bitter, like the toliajjc
and bark.

Privet is remarkable for thriving amidfl the fmoky atmo.
fphcrc of towns, being frequently planted for hedges in gar-
dens, for whieli purpofe it is particularly eligible, fince Jts
foliage fomewhat rcfembles that of the myrtle, and in mild
winters is almoll evergreen. It was formerly known by the
name of Print, or Prim-print, moil probably from its neat
and regular appearance wlien clipped and trimmed. The
beil mode of proj)agating this plant is by feed. It is ea'.en
by the Sphinx Liguftri, in its caterpillar (late, one of our
-finelt native infcifis. Curtis fays that the berries are recom-
mended in dyeing, colouriir.- of wines, and as affording a
purple colour to iiai'i prints, though at the fame time he re-
marks there are much better materials in common ufe for the
fame purpofcs. — This fpecics is fiibjeft to variation with re-
fpe<A to its leaves, which are fometimcs variegated, and
growing three at each joint. Tlie berries have alio been
found white, or rather yellow. We ought not to omit
mentioning that this fruit is one of the vejretable fubllances
which has been fufpefted to form a princitial ingredient in
the prefent popular gout medicine, the ran mediciiinlf d' Hiiffon.

2. L. japonicum. Broad-leaved Privet. Willd. n. 2.
Thunb. Japon. 17. t. I. — Leaves ovate, acuminate. Pani-
cle divaricated.— A native of .lapan, as its fpccific name
teftilies ; where it flowers in June and July, and ripens its
fruit late in the autumn — Stem eight or nine feet high, very
much branched. Branches oppolite, roundidi, rugofe, ath-
coloured, ereft, rather fpreading. Leaves oppofite, on foot-
ftalks, entire, with a deep furrow in their centre, green
above, pale underneath, fmooth, an inch broad, an inch and
half long. FootfiMs round, furrowed on the upper lide.
Floivers in terminal fpreading panicles. Berry ovate, fmooth,
the fize of a pea.

3. L. lucidum. Chinefe Privet. Wax-'.ree Ait. Hort.
Kew. n. 2. — Leaves ovate-oblong, acuminate, flmiing above.
Panicle greatly divaricated. — A native of China, and intro-
duced into Kew garden by the Right HonDura')le fir Jofeph
Banks, K.B. in th" year 1794. It flowers from July to
September. — 'YhKjhrub is only to be fecn at the place above
mentioned, where we arc informed it makes a beautiful appear-
ance, when covered with its copious white blofToms, in the
open air. It is to be regretted that fo defirable a plant
(hould ict be in general cultivation.

4. L pnenfe. Narrow-leaved Privet. Louroir. Cochinch. 19.
Mart. Mill. Dift. — Leaves lanceolate, downy, panicles ob-
long, both lateral and terminal. Found near Canton in
China. —This imall /r«, according to Loureiro, grows to
the height of about eight feet. Branches diffiife, (Iraiglit.
Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, entire, downy, dark-green.
i^fewtTj white, fmall, in oblong panicles. Arrv very fmall,
roundifh, of a brown colour.

LiGusTRtiM, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of the
hardy deciduous and evergreen fhrubby kind ; of which the
fpecies cultivated is the common privet (L, vulgare). It
is a (hrub, ufualiy about fix feet in h.-ight, bra.xhed, the
bark of a grrenifh afh-colour, irregularly fprinkled with nu-
mero'.is prominent poiHts ; branches oppofite, the yontig
ones flexible and purplifh ; the leaves oppofite, on very (hort
petioles, fmooth on both fide!>, perfeiUy entire, the lower
cnes at the bottoms of ti;c frrull ijranches lealt : the panicle
about t^vo inches in kn^thj clcfc »ud fomewhal pyra-

midal ; branches and pedicles appearing villofe wlicn magnf-
fied ; the corolla white, but foon clianging to a reddifii-

brown ; the flowers are fwcet-fcented ; berry (uj^erior,
flefliy, fub-globular, fliiuing, of fo dark a purple as to Item
black ; it is found wild in niofl parts of Europe, &c.
flov/eriurin July, and the berries ri[ien in autumn.

Of thefe plants there are leveraL varieties ; a; viththe
leaves in threes, and enlarged at the bafe ; with lilver-llriped
leaves ; with go'd-llripcd leaves, with wiiite berries ; and the
evergreen or Italian privet, which rifes with a ilron.'or lle::i,
the branches lei's pliable, and gro«3 more erett ; the bark
is of ali.jliter colour. The leaves much larger, ending in
acute points, of a brighter green, and continue till llicy are
thrull oft by the young leaves in the fpring : the liowers are
rather larger, and are not often fuccecded by berries in this
climate.

Method of Culture. — Thefe different plants are capable of
being increafcd by fseds, layers, fuckers,aiid cuttings; but the
firlf method aft'ords the bed plants : the feeds fliould be fowa
in autumn, in a bed of common earth an inch deep, or in drills

, the fame deptli ; but as they do not always grow freely the
firll year, they may be buried till next autumn, in pots of
fandy earth, in tlie ground, and then fown as above : when
r!ie plants come up they fliould be kept well weeded, and,
when a year or two old, be planted out in nurfery rows, to
remain two or three years, then removed where they are
wanted to remain : the layers fhould be laid down, from
fome ot the pliable young branches, in tiie earth, in autumn
or winter, when they will be rooted by the autumn fol-
lowing ; then take tiiein off from the ftool, with their roots,
and plant them in the nurfery for a year or two, or till of a
proper fize tor the pnrpofes they are intended : the fucker*
which arife annually from the roots fliunld be taken up in
autumn, winter, or fpring, with roots, and planted in the
nurfery as above ; the cuttings of the young Iboots, eight
or ten inches long, fhould be pl.inted in the autumn, in a Hiady
border, where they will be properly rooted by the following
autumn, when they may be p anted out in nurfery rows, to
acquire proper growth, in the manner directed above. The
varieties with itriped leaves may be increafcd by budding, or
inarching upon the pl.iin fort, or by laying do.vn tlie
branches ; but they feldom flioot fo fail as . to produce
branches proper for this purpofe ; and being more tender,
they fliould have a dry loil and a warm fituation : in a rich foil .
they foon lofe their varieg ition, and become plain. I'te
ItaUan or evergreen fort, which is now ge:;er;.l!y fiiund in
the nurferies, is equally hardy with the otljer fortSj and.
thrives in almoit any fituation : it is incrcafed in the fanK;
manner ; but as it feldom produces berries in this climate,
they mull be procured trom the pLise of its- native.
growth.

Th;fe plants may be introduced in the fhrubberics antl
other parts- by way of variety, efpecially the evergreen
fort.

But the chief ufe o^ the common fort is to form fuch
hedges as are required in dividing gardens tor (belter or or-
nament ; yet the Italian or evergreen kind (hould be pre-
ferred ; it bears clij.-ping well, is not liable to be disfigured
by infetls, and liaving only fibrou;) roots, it robs the grouwl
lefs than almoll any other flirub ; it is one of the few plants
that will thrive in the fmoke of large towns, though it fel-
dom produces any flowers in th- clofer parts after the firll
year : it alfo grows well under the drip of trees and in, fhade j
the fphinx ligullri, or privet hawk moth, and phalena fyrin-
garia, feed on it in the caterpillar (late, and nicloc vcficato-
rius, cantharides or blifler beetle, is found on it. From the
pulp cf the, bwries a rafe-coloured pigment may be pr«-

2 pared ;

L I L

L I L

pared ; with which, by the addition of alum, wool and filk
may be dyed of a good durable green : for which purpofe
they mull be gathered as foon as they are ripe.

LIHONS, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart,
ment of the Somme ; iS miles E. of Amiens. N. lat. 50'
15'. E. long. 2- 31'.

LIKA, a county and province of Dalmatia, or Auilrian
Croatia, bordering on the Adriatic, oppofite to the ifland of
Pago.

LIKAVA, a town and caiUe of Hungary ; 5 miles N.
of Rofenberg.

LIKE Quantities, in Algebra, are thofe which are cx-
prefll'd by the fame letters, under the fame power, or equally
repeated in each quantity.

Thus 2 h and 3 h, and g// and ^ff, arc like quantities ;
but %h and },hh, and ()ff and •,///, are unlike ones, be-
caufe the quantities have not every where the fame dimen-
fions, nor are the letters equally repeated.

Like Signs, or Symbols, are when both are affirmative, or
both negarive.

If one be affirmative, and the other negative, they are
unlike figns.

Thus -t- 64 ^and + 5 </, have like figns ; but -j- gy' and
— ~ f, have unlike figns.

LiKK Figures, in Geim;try, are fuch as have their angles
equal, and the fide* about thofe equal angles proportional.
See Similar.

Like Arcs, in the projefiion of the fphcre in piano, are
parts of leffer circles, containing an equal number ot degrees
with the cor-cfponding arcs of greater ones.

laiKEfoUd Figures, are fuch as are contained under like
planes, equal in number.

LIKEN.\S, jn Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Warmeland ; 60 miles N. N. W. of Philip-
Ibdt.

LI-KIANG-TOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in the province of Yim-nan, near the fource of the river
Yan-gong-kiang. This place is faid to be occupied by
defcendants of fome ancient colanies of Chincfe ; it has no
other city under its jurildidtion, but the mountains that fur-
round it feparate it from the land of the Lamas. Its
mountains are faid to contain mines of gold. Amher and
pine-apples arc plentiful. The adjoining land is fertile, and
is well watered. N. lat. 26 52'. E. long. 100 8'.

LIL A, a town of Abyffinia, on the coaft of the Red fea ;
48 miles S.S.E. of Arkiko.

LILAC, in Botany, or rather LiL'ih, the Turkifh name
for the Privet, Ligujlrum vulgare, according to Dr. Sib-
thorp ; fee Prodr. Fl. Grxc. v. r. j. It is generjUy known
in England as the appellation of the beautiful and popular
Syringa vulgaris, which was introduced into our gardens,
under the name of Lilach, or Lillach, in the time of queen
Elizabeth ; nor was this word bv any me3n< borrowed, as
Dr. Johnfon fuppofes, from the Lilas of ths French, though
they have, doiibtlefs, one common origin. The clofe affi-
nity and near refemblance between the Privet and tlie Lilac,
leave no room for wonder at their having the fame name
among the Turks. The common as well as the Pjrlian
L'.lac is cultivated by them, and tiie former at leall is found
wild in fome countries under their dominion. Mattliiolus
has given a tine cut of it (fee Lilac, Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 575-,
576.), from a drawing brought from Conftantinople under
this n^me ; and it is curious to obferve how the incorrect
delineation of its fruit led him to miliake it for a plant of
the Piliacia kind, and thence to fupf ofe it a fort of Ckns
Vnguer.tiria-) cr Ben nut.

LILjEA, in Ancient Geography, a town which, accord,
ing to Homer, was not far from the fprings of the Cephifius,
in the Phocide. When the Macedonians took poffeffion of
it, Patron, one of the citizens, roufed and armed the peo-
ple, and caufed them to evacuate it. In commemoration of
tliis evenf, hif feilow-citi/.ens erefted a ftatue to his honour
in the town of Delphi. In the time of Paufanias it had a
theatre, baths, and two temples, one in honour of Apollo,
and anot'ncr of Diana. The ilatues were formed of Ptn-
thelic marble.

LILBURNE, JoHK, in Biography, famous for his ex-
ertions in the caufe of liberty during the tyrannies of
Charles I. and Cromwell, was born in the year 1618, of aft
ancient fa;nily, in the county of Durham. At an early age
he was fent, with very little education, to London, and put
apprentice to Mr. Thomas Hewfun, of London-fione, a
who'efale clothier. He had, probably, imbibed thole prin-
ciples for which he was afterwards diilinguifned among his
o'.vn relations in the country, and having a bold tmi intrepid
n-.ind, he was, from this period, involved in that perpetual
feries of contention and fufTcriiig, of v.hich we (hall proceed
to give a brief account. The tiril difplay of his temper
was exhibited in a complaint which he laid before the charri-
berlain of London, againll his maimer for ill ufage. He
car.-ied his point, and obtained redieis, and ever afterwards
not only lived in peace with him, but he fays, in his " Legal
and Fundamental I.,iberties, &c." that he had in Mr. Hew-
lon " the trueft friend that ever fervant had of a mafter
in the day of his trial." While he was in his apprenticef?:ip
he had much leifure time, which he fpent in reading tfit
bible, the book of Martyrs, and the works of Luther,
Calvin, Beza, &c. From thefc he unqueftionably imbibed
an cnthuliallic paffion for encountering all dangers and fuf-
ferings in the caufe of truth. In 1636 he was introduced
to the acquaintanct of Dr. Baftwick, at that time a prifcr.er
in the Gate-houfe, whom he conllantly vilited, and for whom
he co.itracled fuch a friendlhip and affettioii, that he could,
he fays, have readily laid down his life in his defence. He
was foon engaged aftively in the popular caufe, and carried
to Holland one of the doftor's anti-epifcopal writings ia
order to get it printed. Shortly after his return he was
apprehended, tried, and convicted in the ftar-chamber court
of printing and publilhing libels and feditious books. At
his examinations he refufed to anfwer the interrogatories of
his judges, and in every inilance he jullified and maintained tlie
rights and privileges attached to his cliaracler as an Englifh-
man. He was ientenced'' on this occafion to receive joo
lalhes, and then to be let in the pillory, which fentence was
executed with great leverity, the whipping being inilicfed
with knotted cords, as ordered by the bloody decree of old
fir Henry Vane. His fpirit was not, however, fubdued,
for eveii on the pillory he uttered many invedftivcs againll
the bifhops, and threw pamphlets from hi.s pockets among
the crowd. For this conducl he was remanded to prilon,
and, according to his own account, endured a world of other
unheard-of miferies and barbarous cruelties for three years
together. Though double-ironed, and in one of the woril
eel's in the prifon, he contrived while there to get another,
libel printed and publifhed. Such wa^ the opinion held
refpecting his defperate rcfoluiion, that a fire havinsr takea
place near the cell in which he wa< lucked up, he was fuf-.
pected of being the occafion oi it, for the fake of obtaining
his dehvcrauce, and the other prifoners and neighbours,
jomed in an application to have bim repioved, by which h^
obtained a more airy fituation. On the meeting of the Long
Parl'.ament in 1640, he was allowed; he hberties of the Fleet,
an mdiil^ence that enabled him to appear a; a ricglesder of
t) ; gji

L I L R U R N E.

an armed mob which a(rembled at Weftniinfter, and cried
out for juilice ugainft the carl of Strafford, for whicli he
was brought to the bar of tlie lioiifc of lords on a charge of
treafon, but difmified. In the following year the houie of
commons voted " That the lenience of the (lar-chamber
againft Mr. Lilbnrne was illegal, barbarous, bloody, and
tyrannical, and that reparations ought to be given him for
his imprilonment, fuflerings, and lofles fiillained by that
illegal fentcnce." Ncvertlielefs, he tells us, that he never
received any remuneration, though he had been put to the
cxpence of from loon to i joo/., and had endured feven
or eijjht imprifoimients for nothing. When an army was
raifed by parhament, I.ilbnrnc entered into it as a volun-
teer, and, at the battle of Edge-hill, he acted as a captain
of infantry. He behaved with diilinguilhed bravery at the
battle of Brentford, where he was made prifoner, carried to
Oxford, and arraigned on a ciiarge of high-trcaibn. but was
faved by a declaration of parliament, threatening reprifalf,
and was foon after exchanged, was received with triumph b)-
his party, and rewarded with ^joo/. as a C(nnpcnfation for
his fiiffcrings. Cromwell and I'airfax would willinglv have
employed him after lliey had ncw-niodelled the army in
164,, and given him a high comiT\and ; but his dillike to
the Prefbyterian chiu'ch government would not permit him
to ferve the party then in power, and lie laid down his fword
to rcfume his pen, which he employed againft Prynne,
I^eiithall, and other perfons. He was in confetjucnce com-
mitted to Newgate on a charge of feditii>ns practices, but
no bill being found againll him, he was releafed without
trial. He next was brought before the honfc of lords for
certain reflections call on the earl of Manchefter, in a work
entitled " The Juft Man's .Tuftification :" being examined
upon interrogatories refpefting the writing of that work, he
not only retufed to aniwer q\ieftions, but protelled againtl
their jurifdiftion over him. He had llated the argument on
this point, in full, in his " Legal and Fundamental Liberties
of the People of England ;" which he had maintained in
the houfe, but wiiicli proved of no avail, as the houfe im-
mediately made an order " that he be committed a clofe
prifoner in Newgate, and that none have accefs to hiin but
his keeper, until this court doth take farther order ;" that
is, fail! Lilburne, "when they turn honell and jufl:, which
I confidently believe will never be." So much was he now
regarded by the people as a champion of liberty, that a
remonftrance, ligncd by many tluuifand names, was preientcd
to the houfe of commons in his behalf. This failing of
effeft, he continued to publilli pamplilets, in which he dif-
played his grievances in fuch bold and virulent language,
that he rendered tlie leading men of all parties his enemies.
It (hould, however, be obferved, that the leading men al-
luded to, were thofe who were either adherents to the king,
cr thofe who were attached to Cromwell ; but Lilburne,
perceiving that both parties were hoflile to the liberties of
the fubjeC'l, did not fcruple to oppofe all their projects,
which he fufpefted, and juilly too, would lead to the cda-
blilhmcnt of a tyraimy in (ome fliape or other. He charged
Cromwell with a delign of ufurping the fovereignty ; and
accufed him and his relation Ireton of high treafon, for
■which h-.; was ordered to be tried as a libeller. At this
period he had fo many friends among the people, that the
houfe ot commons judged it proper to difchargo him from
prilon, and make an order for remunerating him for his fuf-
f^rings. At the time of the king's death, Lilburjie was
bufy in plans for fetth»:g a new model of government.
Finding the leaders of the army refolved to keep the power
in theiv own hands, he oppofed them with his ulual ir.tre-
pij'.iy, and maintained the right of the people to form a

conftitution for themfelves. So dangerous now did he ap-
pear to Cromwell and his council, that he was again com-
mitted to the Tower, and was brought to his trial for high
treaion before a fpccial couunillion. On this occafion he
defended himlelf witli great firmncfs, never once (liewing a
difpofition to crouch to his profecutors or his judges : he
felt that he Hood on firm ground, and was determined not
to bend to the circumllances of the times. The trial laftcd
many hours, and when the jury were about to retire to con-
fider their verditl, the foreman afl<ed permifTion of the court
to take a cnp of fack among them ; to wliich the judge
replied, it was impolhble, they could have no manner of
refrelhment while impannelled in a cafe of high treafon.
One of the court was willing they fliould be indulged, but
the chief juilice faid he dare not permit it. Mr. I^il-
burne's jury retired for three quarters of an hour, and then
brought in a verdict of Not Guilty : which, fays the
reporter of the trial, was received with unanimous plaudits
from within and without, that continued without intcrmif-
iion for more than half an hour. The judges, who feem to
'have llraiiied hard for a verdi''t of guilty, were abaflied and
confounded. Lilburne Hood fdcnt, alTedted and oppreffed
with the gratulatiims of his ccnmtrymen, unable to exprefs
thofe fenfatioiis which he unqueilionably felt for the general
interell which was taken in his caufe. A medal was ftruck
of his head, with the following infcription : " .John Lil-
burne, faved by the power of the Lord and the integrity of
his jury, who are judges of law as well as of fail." The
names of the jurymen were given on the rcverfe ; names which
mull live fo long as England is a free country. Mr. Hume,
fpcaking on this fubject, and of thofe v.ho had ufurped the
government, and of their unwillingnefs to trull tlieir caufe
to the decifion of juries, chofen according to the ancient
conllitution of the country, fays, " They had evidently
feen in the trial of Lilburne what they could expeft from
juries. This man, the moil turbulent, but the moll up-
right and courageous of human kind, was tried for a tranf-
grefhon of the new llatute of trcafons ; but though he was
plainly guilty, he was acquitted to the great joy of the peo-
ple. Never did any ellablilhed power receive fo llrong a
declaration of its ufurpation and invalidity, and from no
inllitution, befides the admirable one of juries, could be ex-
pedled this magnanimous cllort."

A new offence which he gave to parliament caufed that
body to pais a fentence of heavy line and punifliment againit
him, upon which he retired to Holland. Here he remained
till the diffolution of the Long Parliament, when he uled all
his interell to obtain a paffport fi;r his rehirn to England,
and not iucceeding, he ventured, in June i')53, to come back
without one. He was very fion apprehended and com-
milted to Newgate, and being brought once more to trial,
he defended himftlf on the plea of illegality in his fentence
of banifhment, and was accordingly acquitted by his jury.
The government, however, ordered him to be immediately
fent out of the kingdom, but giving fecurity for his future
quiet behaviour, he was fuffered to remain. The nature of
the fecurity here referred to has excited fome doubts m the
hillorian ; but the writer of the article in the Uiographia
Britannica, makes it appear highly probable, that Lilburne'3
brother Robert became fecurity in this inllancc for his future
peaceable demeanour. Having brought together the argu-
ments in favour of this hypothelis, the writer referred to
fays, " Laying then all thefe circumllances together, can
there be any reafonable doubt who was the perfon that
averted Cromwell's wrath againll our author, and faved hurt
from tranfportation, and after going through an uncommon
variety oi llorms, tenipells, and fliipwrecks, fettling the

weather-

L I L

treatSer-beaten vefTel in a peaceful and (lill liar!)Our ; where,
partly through a full conviclion, that all polfibility of fuc-
ccfs in any farther ftrugglings againll his adverfary was cut
olF, and chiefly out of a religioufly affeftionate regard for
liis entirely beloved brother who flood refponfible for him,
he pafTed the remainder of his days in perfecl tranquillity,
equally undillurbcd by, and undifturbing his triumphant
competitor " Jolni Lilburne now lettlcd at Elthani, in
Kent, joined the fociety of quakers, and even preached at
their meetings in Woolwich, and other adjacent places, till
his death in 1657, at the early a^e of thirty-nine. He had a
wife, who pofltrlled the fame undaunted fpirit with that of her
hulband, and was his faithful and affectionate helpmate in
all his fuiferlngs. By Anthony Wood, Lilburne is flyled, " a
great trouble-world in all the variety of government :" by
other hillorians and biographers he has been reprefcnted to
have been of fo factious and quarrelfome a temper, that
" if there were none living but him, John would be againlt
Lilburne, and Lilburne againll John." Such charges were
brought againll him by his contemporaries, and in his
" Legal and Fundamental Liberties of the People of Eng-
land," he has taken pains to rebut the calumnies of his
adverfaries, and to fhew that his hand was never lifted up
but againll tyranny and tyrants : and at the clofe of that
work he fubfcribes himfelf " An honeft and true bred free
Englilliman, that never in his life feared a tyrant, nor loved
an opprelTor." If it were Lilbunie's misfortune to be a
trouble to the exilHng governments under which he hved ;
it mull be remembered that he vindicated the caufe of his
country in oppofition to the arbitrary meafures of Charles L
and the ufurpatiors of Oliver Cromwell ; and however he
might be regarded by his contemporaries, and mifreprefented
by partv writers, poilerity mull look to him with refpeft,
and (hould be thankful that fuch a man exilled, in times of
peculiar difficulty, when the will of the few had well nigh
fuperfeded the authority of the law, and when every thuig
holy and excellent in our coiillitution mull have been for
ever loll, but for the exertions of fuch patriots as Lilburne.
His efforts ill the public caufe were not more zealous than
they were pure and dilinterefted. What he conceived to be
jullice and the public good, he purfued againll all parties
with an invincible fpirit, and through a life of perfeeution.
He was, at the fame time, a firm fupporter of the laws of
his country, whicii, in return, often fupportcd him, and
proved effeitual barriers againll arbitrary violence. Biog.
Brit. Hume. Lilburne's Trial by Varax ; and his Legal
Fundamental Liberties of the People of England, revived,
afferted, and vindicated.

LILEN, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the province of Popayan ; 15 miles S.W. of Call.

LILESWARA, .in Hindoo I\Iylhology, a name of Siva,
the regenerative power of the deity. (See SiVA.) It
means Ifwara (or the lord) who gives delight, and was
alfumed with manhood, in one of the numerous metamifr-
pholes detailed in the Puranas,' by this deity, who in this
form became re-united to his fpoufe Parvati, giving delight
to her in her terrellrial manifelfation, under the name of
Lilefwari. (See P.vrvati.) The Puranas abound in this
delcription of incarnation of their male and female deities,
which, thus veiled in allegory, are fuppofed to conceal hil-
torical and philofophical fafts. (See PCK.\.\.v.) Mr. Wil-
ford, in feveral of the volumes of the Aliaiic Refearches,
has purfued this allegorical maze with great iudullry. See
more particularly vol. iii. vi. and viii. See alfo Hindu
Pantheon, p. 3^(9.

LILl, the name of one of the favourite remedies of Para-

L I L

celfus, the bafis of which is antimony ; but he has not given
us the proccfs for preparing it.

Lir.,I.-\, in Botany, a natural order of plant!, fo called
from LHlmn, the Lily, which is one of them. Touriieftirt,
who underllood this order in a wider fenfe than more recent
authors, denominated the plants which he referred to ii,
lUlacei ; Liuraus, and moll others, call them U/incea.

The /l/ia conllitute the fourteenth order in Jullieu's fvf-
tern, and the fourth of his third c'afs. The effential cha-
racters of this clafs are " Cotyledon one. Stamens inferted
into the calyx or corolla." He gives its dillinctions at
length as follows.

" Calyx of one leaf, tubular or deeply divided, fuperior
or inferior, fometimes naked, more generally attended by a
fheath containing one or many flowers, rarely by an involu-
crum refembling an exterior calyx. Corolla none ; for what
is called corolla by Tournefort, LiiuiiEus, and others, in the
opinion of the writer (Jullicu), is a real calyx. Stamens
definite in number, rarely indefinite, inferted either into the
lower or the upper part of the calyx, oppolite to its fr<r.
ments ; the filaments feparate, rarely united ; the anthers
feparate, of two cells. In a few inllances the gerinens are
feveral and fuperior ; with as many ilvles and fligmas, and
the fame number ot lingle-celled capfules, with one or manv
feeds, internally of two valves, which bear the feeds on their
margins. In moll cafes the germen is iingic, fuperior or
inferior; llyle lingle, rarely threefold, or wanting; flignia
fimple or divided ; fruit pulpy or capfular, of three cells,
with three feeds or many ; fometimes two of the cells are
abortive, or there is only one of the feeds perfected. Tlie
feeds of the berries are affixed to tlie internal angle of each
cell ; in the capfules, ufually of three valves, they are in-
ferted here and there upon the edges of an elevated recep-
tacle, conflituting the partition, in the middle of each valve,
and feparating along with it. The coreulum is fmall, in a
large horny albumen."

The order of Ului is thus defined.

Calyx inferior, coloured, in fix deep fegment?, ufually
equal and regular. Stamens fix, iulertcd into the bottom of
each legmeut. Germen fimple, fuperior; flyle one, rarely
wanting ; fligma in three divifions. Capfule fuperior, of
three cells and three valves, with many feeds, which are
ranged in a double row in each cell, and generally flat.

The_y?r;n is mollly herbaceous. Radical leaves fometimes
fheathing ; the reft fefTile, for the moll part alternate, rarely
whorlcd. Floti'ers either naked, or furniflied with a fheath,
{fpaiha,) or accompanied by a leaf refembling fuch ; often
drooping, the Ityle being longer than the llamens.

The genera are eight ; Tullpa, Erytlironltim, Gloriofa,
(for wliich lall JufTieu retains the name Methoulia,) Ui-u-
laria, Frltllhirla, Iniperlalls (the Crown Imperial, feparated
from Frildliiria, becaufe its nectariferous cells are round in-
flead of oblong), Lllhm, and Tueca.

Ijinnxus calls his lilla the Patrician order, or Nobility of
the vegetable kingdom, in his fanciful dillribution of plants
at the head of his Sr/lenia Vegetal/Ilium. We may fuppofe
that he had in view, la this inttance, not only the analogies
of the other orders, but elpecially the text, fo often quoted,
" conlidcr the lilies of the field, — ihcy toil not, neither do
they Ipiu," ixc. in which thele gorgeous plants feem more
particularly indicated. The very fpecies, which our Saviour
had then perhaps before his eyes, is thought ta have been the
fplendid ylmaryllls hitea, with which the fields of PalelUne
are over-run at the end of autumn. Poffibly this hint may
be of ufe to biblical chronologills. The learned Olaus
Celfuis ieenii not to have adverted to this text, as alluding

to

L I L

L I L

■to any particular plant. Some have, without any reafon,
taken for granted that the Garden Tuhp was meant ; but
that plant is not a native of Pale (line.

The order of liliaceous plants is now receiving mod mag-
nificent illuUration at Paris, in a work cxprefsly deftined to
ftiat purpofe, by M. Redoute, of which iivc volumes in
folio have reached us. The figures are printed in colours,
in the modern French manner. The defcriptions are in
French. Many plants, not properly belonging to the fame
family, are adn-.itted into this publication, as a few of the
OrchiJe^, and Scitatn'meit, which, though they interfere with
its ollenfiblo defignation, certainly do not lelTen its value,
either as to beauty or utility.

LILIACEOUS Plants, in CarJemng, all fucli as re-
femble thofe of the lily kind, in their Howers having fix
regular petals, in the form of a lily ; or three, or even one
petal deeply divided into fix fegments, afTuming a lily-flower
form : they have not, however, all flowers fo large as that
of the lily, fomc being confiderably fmaller ; and as the
common lily has no calyx, fo feveral of tlie liliaceous flowers
are alfo deftitute of a cup ; and others have cups, which are
principally of tliat fort called a fpathc. They may, there-
fore, be dillingulflicd into fuch as have cups and fuch as
have not.

Thofe ■wll/) cups are all the different forts of the common
lily : the tulip, all the kinds ; fritillarv, and crown im-
perial ; hyacinth ; flar of Bethlehem ; baftard ftar of Beth-
leheih ; tuberofe ; afphodel ; fqui:l ; hcnierocallis, or day-
lily ; anthericum, or fpidtrwort ; aloe ; yucca, or Adam'*
needle ; gloriofa, or fiipcrb lily, &c.

Thofe •with fpathes or cups are the crocus ; galanthus, or
common fnow-drap ; leucoium, or great fnow-drop ; daf-
fodil, narciffus, and jonquil ; crinum, or afphodel lily ; col-
chicum ; iris, or fiower-de-lucc ; hemanthus, or blood-
Hower ; gladiolus, or fuord-lily ; Virginia fpider-wort ; ama-
ryllis, including the Guernfey lily, belladonna lily, and Ja-
cobea lily, &c. ; pancraticum lily, &c.

It may be noticed, that the greater part of thefe liliaceous
plants of both kinds are bulbous-rooted : fome, however,
iave tuberous, and fome fibrous roots ; and all of them are
perennial in root, but annual in tlie ftalk or Item.

Thefe are all ornamental garden-flowers, and molt of them
fufficiently hardy to grow in the open ground ; though a
few are proper for the green-houfe and (love, at they require
proteftion. Sec thefe difterent genera.

LILIAGO, in Botany. See ANTilERlcuM.

LILIASTRUM, the beautiful St. Bruno's lily. See
Anthericum.

LILIENDAL, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Nyland ; ij miles N.E. of Borga. N. lat.
60° Z7,\ E. long. 26 _; .

LILIENTHAL, a town of the duchy of Bremen,
fituated on the river Worp ; 10 niilto N.N.E. of Bremen.

LILIO-Asi'iiODELUs, in Botany See Chinum and He-

MEROC.M.LIS.

LilLlo-Fritillaria. See Fritillaria.

Tu-UAO-Hyacinthus. See SciLl.A.

L,lLlo-Narri/fut. See A.MAUYI.MS and PA^xnATIl'^r.

LILIUM appears to be a name of rather obfcure
origin ; fome deduce it from the Greek ?.ei»iov, a lily, derived
from Xsio,-, fmooth, not rough, alfo hanilfome, becaufe the
plant is confpicuous for the beauty of its flowers. It has
moreover been called x^i>ov, from xfiuvr;, duf!, or pollen, be-
caufe the flowers feem in general to be fprinkled with a
powdery fubllance, from the abundance of their pollen.
Lltium ia adopted from Pliny and other Latin authors.

Linn. Gen. 165. Schreb. 218. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 5.84,
Mart. Mill. Did. V. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2.
240. Tournef. t. 19J. Jufl". 49. Lamarck, llluftr. t. 246.
Gsrtn. t. 83. — Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia,
Nat. Ord Coronariir, Linn. Lilij, .Tufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth none. Cor. bell-fliapcd, nar-
rower at the bafc ; petals fix, ereft, lying over each other,
obtufely carinatcd at their backs, more expanding and
broader upwards ; their tips obtufc, thick, retlexed. Nec-
tary a longitudinal line, tubular, forming a channel in each
petal from its bafe to the middle. Slam. Filaments fix,
awl-fliaped, ereft, (liorter than the corolla ; anthers oblong,
incumbent. Pfl. Gerinen fuperior, < blong, cylindrical,
marked with fix furrows; ilyle cylindrical, the length of
tho corolla ; fligma thiekifli, trianguhir. Peric. Capfule
oblong, fix-furrowed, hollow, triangular, and obtufe at
the top, of three cells and three valves ; the valves connected
by a netv\ork of fibres. Seeds numerous, incumbent in a
double order, flat, outwardly femicircular.

Obf. The nedary, in fome fpecies, is bearded, in others
naked. In fome the petals are totally revolute, in others
not fo.

EIT. Ch Corolla of fix petals, bell-fhapcd, each petal
marked with a longitudinal neCfary. Caplule with valves
connedled by a network of fibres.

Examples of this beautiful and fragrant genus are tlie
following. The c 'lour of their flowers is either white,
yellow, or red. The fourteenth edition of I^inna;us's Syf-
inna VegelabiUiim comprifes ten fpecies. Willdenovv has
fixteen, though his firll, /,. cordifoliuni, belongs to another
genus, which Mr. Salilbury, in Tr. of Linn Soc. v. 8. 1 1^
has propofed to call Suujfurea. (See Hilmkrocallls. )

L. candiclum. Common White Lily. Linn. Sp. PI. 43J.
Sm. Prod. Fl. Grxc v. i. 227. Curt. Mag 278. Re-
doute Liliac. t. 199. Woodv. Med. Bot t. 101. (L. al-
bum ; Rudb. Elyf. V. 2. 167.) — Leaves lanceolate, fcat-
tered, attenuated at the bafe. Corolla bell-fhaped, fmooth
on the infide. — This is the Kti»o» of Diofcondes, and K^i'vo
of the modern Greeks. Great doubts cxifted refpefting
the native habitat of this well knowm and elegant plant, till
Mr. Hawkins, the friend and companion of Dr. .Sibthorp,
found it growing wild in that truly ckiflical and celebrated
fpot, the vale of Tempe. It flowers early in the fummer,
and has been cultivated in our gardens from time imme-
morial. Root a large fcily bulb, from which proceed many
fucculcnt fibres. Stem firm, upright, limple, ufually rifing
to the heit^ht of about three feet. Leaves nnmnowi, long,
fmooth, feflile. Flotvers large, white, in a chiflcr at the
top of the ftem ; the petals are of a beautiful fliining white
on their infide, ridged, and not qnjte fo tranfparent or lu-
minous on their outlidc.

Pliny and Ovid have each added their teflimony to the
general admiration in which this plant has been univerially
held. The former fays, LiUum Rofs nol/ilitate proximum
eji. The latter has thus poetically alcnbcd its origin to the
milk of Juno :

" Dum puer Alcides Divx vagus ubera fuxit
Junonis, dulci prefla fapore luit ;
Aiiibrofiumque alto lac diltillavit Olympo
In terras fufum Lilia pulchra dedit."

Both thefe flowers have furnidied ancient and modern poet*
with their (hare of metaphor ; either fingly

" Vel mixta rubent ubi lilia multa

Alba roia ; tales virgo dabat ore calores."

N.\\. 1. xii. 63.

The

L I L I U M.

The flowers have a pleafant fvveet fnicll, and were formerly
ufed for ineeicinal piirpofes, particularly as an antiepileptic
and anodyne. A water dillillcd from them was ufed as a
cofmetic, and the " oleum liliurum'' was fiippofed to pof-
fefs anodyne and nervine powers : but the odorous matter
of thefe flowers is very volatile, being totally diffipatcd in
drying, and wholly carried off in evp-poration by reftihed
fpirit as well as water; and though both menflrua become
impregnated with their agreeable odour by infufion or dif-
tillation, yet no elfential oil could be obtained from feveral
pounds of the flowers. Hence the Edinburgh Colleo-c row
direi-ls the ufe only of the roots, whiih are mucilaginous,
and are chiefly employed, boiled with milk or water, iu
emollient and fuppuratuig cataplafms : it is not improballe,
however, that the poultices formed of bread or farina,

lagon. Curt. Mag. t. 893, the Purple Martagon, or Turk's
Cap I>ily ; both are very hardy — L. ti^rhium, Curt. M„g.
t. 1237, {L. f^cciofum; Andr. Bot. Repof 1.586.) is
however perhaps the moR fliowy fpecies of all. It was ift-
troduced from China, by fir Jofcph Banks, in the year
1S07, and is four.d to bear our climate if cultivated in a
border of bog earth, flowering in Auguil.
LiLiu.M ConvalUum. See Convallaiua.
Lir.iu.M, in Carilemng, containing plants of the bulbous-
rooted flowery perennial kind, of which the fpecies ufually
c'.ltivated are the common white lily (L. candidum) ; the
Catefby's lily (L Catefbei) ; the bulb-bearing or orange
lily (L. bulbiferum) ; the purple martagon lily, or Turk's
tap (JL. martagon) ; the pomponi:m lily (L. pomponium) ; -
the fcarlet martagon lily (L. chalcedonicuit) ; the great
yellow martagon lily (L. fuperbum) ; the Canada martagon
lily (L. Canadenfe) ; the Kamtfthatka lily (L. Cainfchat-
""' ' liy (L. riiila-

poflefs every beneficial quality afcribed to thofe of lily-
root. Gerard recommends them internally in dropfies. For

this purpofe, bread was made of barley meal, with the juice cenfe) ; and the Philadelphian martagoa

of the roots, and conftaiitly ui'ed for a month or fi;r weeks ; delphiciim).
but Dr. Lewis obferves, that there are inllances of fimilar In the iirft fort the principal varieties are, with ftriped

cures by the ufe of common bread ; and that probably, in flowers, or with blotched purple flowers, or with variegated

one cafe as \\-ell as in the other, abttiiience from liquids was ftriped leaves, or with yellow edged loaves, with double

the remedy. Lewis Mat. Med. Woodv. Med. Bot. flowers, and with pendulous flowtrs. But the firll: of thefe

L. bulblferum. Bulb-bea,'ing, or Orange Lily. Linn, varieties is now become common ; the purple ftain o-iving the

So. PI. 433. Jacq. Aullr. t. 226 — Leaves linear-lance- flower a dull colour, the common white is generally pre-

oiate, fcattered. Corolla bell-fliaped, eretl, glandular and ferred. The fecond is chiefly valued for its app-^Eiance in

rough on the infide, downy without.-— x\ native of Italy, winter and fpring ; for the leaves coming out early in the

Auftria, and North America. It flowers in June apd .luly. autumn, fprcading themfelves flat on the ground, and being

Bulb compofed of numerous thick, white, loofely imbri- finely edged with a fine yellow band, make a pretty ap-

cated fcales. Stem upright,, about a foot and half high, pearance during the winter and fpring months, a? it flowers

flriated and angular, . fmooth, or flightly hairy. Upper earlier than the plain fort. The third is of little value, as

leaves fpreading horizontally, having a roundiih pale-green the flowers never open well unlefs they are covered with

or purplifli bulb at their bafe. Flowers large and hand- glafles ; nor have they any of the rich odour of the common

fome, of a beautiful red or orange colour, paler on the out- iort. The fourth came originally from ConPLdr.tinople ; the

fide, inodorous

There are faveral varieties of this generally cultivated
plant, of which the moft common is that figured in Curt.
Mag. t. 36, but the darker tinted one of Jacquin is hand-
fomeft, bearing more bulbs and fewer flowers.

\.. fuperbum. Superb Martagon Lily. Linn. Sp. PI. 434.
Curt. i\Iag. t. 936. Redoute Liliac. t. 103. -Lower-
leaves whorled, the reft fcattered. Flowers forming a
branched pyramid, reflexed. Corolla revolute. A native
of North America, whence it was imported by Mr. Peter
Collinfon in the year 1 738. It flowers from .Tune vo

ftalk is much more flender ; the leaves narrCiver, and fewer
in number ; the flowers not quite fo bxge, and the petals
more contraded at the bafe ; they always hang downwards ;
the ftalks are fometimes very broad and flat, appearing as if
two or three were joined together : when this happens, they
ful'tain from fixty to one hundred flowers, and fometimes
more; this, however, is.merely accidental, as. the lame root
fcarcely ever produces the fame two years together, or io
fuccelTion.

The third fort has varieties with double flowers, with
variegated .leaves, with fmaller fteius, and the bulb-bearing

Auguft. Wild fpecimens of this beautiful fpecies are feldom fiery lily, which feldom rifes more than half the height of :

found with above three or four flowers, but they may be the <jthers ; the leaves are narrower; the flowers fmaller, ,

brought, by careful cultivation, to bear from twelve to and of a brighter flame-colour, few in number, and more

fifteen. Bulb white as ivory. Stem round, Imooth and erect: they come out a month before thofe of the common •

even, two or three feet in height, branched. Floivers large fort, and the flalks put out bulbs at moll of the axils, ,

and handfome, one, at the end of each branch, red or yelloW which, if taken off when the ftalks decay, and.plansitd out, .

with dark fpots ; their fmell is dilagreeable. they readilv produce new plants. .

One of the fineft figures that can be exhibited of this or In refpeCt to the fub -varieties, they are the great broad-
any other plant, m.ay be feen in the fecond number of Dr. leafed, the m.niy-flowered, the fniail, and the hoary bulb-
Thornton's lihiflration of the Linnaan Syftem, bearing l;Iy.

L. pbiladelphicm.ii Philadelphi n Lily. Linn,- Sp. PI. The fourth kind varies with white flowers, with double

435. Curt. Mag. t. 5191 Redoute Liliac. t. 104. — flowers, with red flowers and hairy ihilks, and wilJi imperial '.
Leaves whorled. Flowers erecl. Corolla "oell-fliaped ;
petals unguiculate. — Sent from Philadelphia by Mr. .lohn
Bartram in the year 1757. It flowers in July. Bulbs

fmall, white and fcaly. Stem rather more than a foot high, fpotted flowers, with white Ipotted flowers, xnth yellow

bearing two elegant flowers at the fummit , Petals red and fpotted flowers, with early fcarlet flowers, and. the niajor -

yellow, fpotted towards their bafe with darkiili red or fcarlet pompouy.
purple. And the fixth fort, according to Mr. Curtis, varies in the

Among the moft; common fpecies in the gardens are number of flowers, from one to fix, and tl'.c colour in lome

L chakedonieum. Curt. Mag. t. 30, which is the Scarlet is cf a blood-red ; alfo, with deep fcarlet flowers, with ;

Maj-tagon fo remarkable for its tine coiQur ; aitd L. Mar- purple flowers, aud with large bupctes of flowers.

0£ <

divided ftalks.

The fifth fpecies has varieties with double red flowers,.
with white flowers, with double white flowers, %«itli red

L I L

L I L

Of thr cij^hth fpecics there is a variety with larger
di'pper-colourcd flowers.

Method of Culture.— AW tliefe forts are capable of being
incrcaled by planting the off-fcts of the roots, and by fowing
feeds to obtain new varieties.

And the roots of all the forts afford plenty of o(f-fets
annually, which, when greatly wanted, may be taken off
every year in the autumnal feafon ; but once in two or three
years is belter, according as they are wanted ; the proper
time for which is in fummer and auttinm, when the winter
is pad and the llalks decayed, either feparating the off-fets
from the mother-bulbs ni the ground, or taking the whole
up, and feparating all the otf-fcts, fniall and great, from
the main bulbs ; the fmall off-fets being then planted in beds
a foot aHnukT, and three inches deep, to remain a year or
two, and the large bulbs fet again in the borders, &c.
fmgly. 'I'he off-fets in the nurfery-beds may alfo, after
)iaving obtained fizx and ftrength for Howering in perfetlion,
be planted out where they are wanted for ornament.

But the fowing of feed is chiefly pra<Sifcil for the mar-
tagons, to obtain new varieties, which fiiould be done in
autumn, foon after the feed is ripe, in pots or boxes of rich
light fandy earth, with holes in the bottoms half an inch
deep ; placing the pots in a funny flieltered fituation all
winter, refrefhing them often at firll with water, and the
plants will appear in the fpring^ when about April, remove
•them to have only the morning fun all the fummer, giving
moderate waterings ; in Augutt, the bulbs fliould be tranl-
planted into nurfery-beds in flat drills, an inch deep, and
three or four afunder ; when, as the bulbs will be very fmall,
■fcattcr the earth and bulbs together into the drills, covering
them with earth to the above depth : and after liaving grown
in this fituation till the Augull or September following, they
fhould be tranfplanted into another bed, placing them eight
or nine inches each way afunder, to remain to fhew their
firfl flowers ; after w'tiich they may be finally planted out
into the pleafure-groimd.

And new varieties of the other forts may be raifed in tlie
fame way. Likcwife, the bulb-bearing varieties may be in-
creafed by the little bulbs put forth from the axils of the
leaves, without taking up the old bulbs, where it is ne-
ceffary.

And the fame method of planting and general culture
anfwers for all the different forts and varieties.

It may be noticed, that the moll proper time for planting
and transplanting them is in autumn, as has been feen, when
their flowers and ftalks decay, which is generally about
September; the roots being then at rell for a iliort fpace of
time, as well as for procuring roots to plant o'lt. The
tulbs taken up at the above feafon may be kept out of
ground, if neceffary, till Odlober or November : the white
lilies, however, do not fucceed, if kept long out of the
«arth ; and all the olliers fucceed bed, when planted again
as foon as poflible. The bulbs of all the forts are fold at the
nurferies.

They fhould be planted lingly, as they foon increafe by
off-fets into large bunches, dilpofmg them in a femblage in
different parts of the borders, and towards the fronts of the
principal fhriibbery clumps; placing them three or four
inches deep, and at good dillances from one another, inter-
mixing the different forts, placing fome forward, and others
more backward, to effeft the greater (how and variety.
And fome may Ukewife be planted in feparate beds by them-
felves, twelve or fifteen inches afunder, either of different
forts together, or each in diffinft beds, or in feparate
rows, &c.

Whea they have been thus planted out, 'few of the forts

require any particular culture, as they are capable of en-
during all weather at every feafon. It is, however, necef-
fary to dellioy all weeds ; and, as fome of them run up with
pretty tall (lender llalks, to fnpport them witli (licks, to
prcfcrve effectually their upright pofition, by which their
flowers will appear to the bell advantage.

But fome of the more tender forts, as the fecond, fourth,
cigiith, and tenth Ipecies, fliouid be protected in fevcic
winters, by ajiplying tanner's bark, or fome other fimilar
fubflance over their roots. And they fliould all, as already
ilated, remain undillurbcd two or three years, or h>nger ;
as by remaining, they flower ftronger after the firfl year ;
and liaving increaled by off-fets into large bunches, many
flalks will rife from each bunch of roots, fo as to exhibit a
large duller of flowers : it is, however, proper to take up
the bulbs entirely every three or four years at leall, at the
decay of the llalk, to feparate the increafed ofl-kts, both
for propagation and to dilburthen the main roots, and
give theni room to take their proper growth in. As foon
as they are taken r.p in the autumn, ail the lorts fliould, as
already obferved, be replanted as foon as pofTible, efpecially
the while lily forts, as they foon begin to emit roots.

All the forts and varieties are valuable, as plants of or-
nament, for the beauty of their flowers, which have a nobl?
appearance : they are of courfe proj)er ornaments for the
plcafure-grouud ; and when the different forts are properly
intermixed, they effect a moll elegant variety, fucceedinj^
each other in blow upwards of three months. When wanted
particularly for fhady or clofe places, the common white
lily, orange lily, and common martagons, are the mofl
proper, as they thrive under trees. The orange lily alfo
anfwcrs well in fmall gardens, in the midft of buildings in
towns and cities. Befidcs planting the different forts for
tlie beauty of their flowers, many of the flriped-leavcd whiter
lily forts fhould be placed towards the fronts of the moil
confpicuous parts, for the beauty of their leaves in autumn,
■winter, and fpring, which, if dilpofed alternately with the
common white lily, whole leaves are entirely green, a mofl
flriking variety will be produced. But the tall-growing
forts arc only proper for large borders and clumps, in mix-
ture with other large kinds of the herbaceous plants.

LiLlUM lapiihum, a name given by the writers, in Natural
H'ljhjry, to a foffile body found in fome parts of Germany ;
which plainly Ihews, tliat it was once a fpecies ot llar-filh ;
though the animal be not, at this time, known in its recent
flate. Klein, who has well coniidcred this body, in com-
pliance to the vulgarly received names of things, calls this
the cnlrochus rnntofus, ar branched entrochus i and the refem-
blance fome of its parts have to the common entrochi, fhews
plainly, that their origin has been the fame, and that tliey
are fragments either of this fpecics or of the Magellanic
ftar-fifh. The recent filh not being found from which the
lilium lapideum is formed is no peculiar fate, but is com-
mon to It, .and to the cornua Ammonis, and many other ani-
mal remains.

LILLE, or Lisi.E, in Geography;, a city of France, and
principal place of a dillrict, in the department of the Nonlu
Before the revolution, it was the capital of French Flan-
ders. It is fltuated in a marfliy but rich foil, furrounded
with walls, and llrongly fortified by marflial Vauban. The
river Doule croffes it. It is faid to contain i^oftreets, 30
public places, 8000 houfes, and, by the moll recent Itate-
ment, 54,756 inhabitants, on a territory of 77- kiliometres,
in 14 communes. Before the revolution it had feveral re-
ligions houfes. It was divided into leven parifhes, and had
feven gates, fome of which were admired for the ffyle of their
arcliitecture. Its manufactures are llwfe of cloth, camlets,

aankeeus.

L I L

•ankeenS, JltufFs of (ilk and woollen, cotton, linen of all qua-
lities and defies, lace, ribbons, carpets, hats, ftockings,
paper, foap, &c. The citadel of Lifle has been reckoned
one of the beft works of Vauban, and, except Turin, the
ftrongeft in Europe. N. lat. jo" 38'. E. long. 3^ 7'.

L I L

Lilly, WlLLIA.^r, an-Englifli a(lrologer,wa5 bom atDif--
worth, in Lcicefterfliire, in the year 1602, and vas educated
at Afhby-de-la-Zouch. The knowledge he acquired at this
place was very fcanty, owing to the fhort time that he was
allowed to remain in it. In 1620 he came to London to

LILLEBONNE, a town of France, in the department feek his fortune, and was bound apprentice to a tradefman
of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- in St. Clement Danes. In 1624 he became book-keeper to
tricl of Le Havre ; 16 miles E. of Havre. The place con- the malter of the Sailers' company, on whofe death he mar-
tains 601 j and the canton 8685 inhabitants, on a territory of ried his widow. Being now his own mafler, and poflelTed
135 kiliometres, in 20 communes. "" *" "■ ' " .... . -

LILLERS, a town of France, in the department of the
Straits of Calais, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriiSl
of Bethune; 6 miles W.N.W. of Bethune. The place con-
tains 4107, and the canton 14,682 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 10) kiliometres, in 9 communes.

LILLO, George, in Biography, an Englifh writer of
tragedies, born in London in the year 169^, was the fon
of a Dutch jeweller, by an Enghfli mother. He was
brought up to his father's trade, and carried on the bu-
finefs with great reputation for feveral years. His firll
publication, as a literary character, was entitled " Sylvia, a
haliad-opera ;" but his fame is founded on his tragedies,
which are rcprefentations of domeftic dillrefs in common
Hfe, exhibited for a moral purpofe. By the choice and ma-
nagement of his Horses, he f\icceeded in rendering them
eminently pathetic, and he difplayed no inconfiderable

of fome fortune, he fpent much time in frequenting fermons,
leftures, 5;c. and became attached to the Puritan party. In
1632 he ftudied aftrology under a perfon named Evans, a
profligate clergyman, who, on account of certain immora-
lities, was obliged to quit a curacy. Lilly in a few weeks
obtained of his mafter all the requifite knowledge of his art,
and in a fnort time excelled him in calculation. The firil
fpecimen which he gave the public of his flcill in aftrology,
was an intimation, that the king had chofen an unlucky ho-
rofcope for his coronation in Scotland. About the year
1634 he got poffeffion of a book in MS. entitled " Ars
notoria," teaching the pretended occult fciences, from
wluch he eagerly imbibed tlie doclrine of the magic cir-
cle, and the invocation of fpirits, which he praftifed fer
fome time, ufmg certain prayers prefcribed in it, addrcfled
to angels whom it reprefents to be inftruftors of men ii\
thele grand arcana. Previoufly to this, few perfons, who
knowledge of the human heart. His tragedies are " George praftifed in the aitrological art, pretended to go farther
Barnwell,"' "Fatal Curiofity," and " Arden of Fever- than to endeavour to trace out and recover ftolen goods ;
(ham." The firil of thefe is, we believe, uniformly brought but Lilly treated this part of the myftery with great
on the ftage about Chriftmas in every year, and it generally contempt, and laid claim to the fupernatural fight, and
brings crowded houfes : the play entitled " Fatal Curiofity" the gift of predicting future events, which he well knew
is mentioned by the late James Harris, efq. in his " Philo- how to turn to his own advantage. In i6'6 he fettled
logical Inquiries,'" as a fine example of the gradual unfold- at Her/ham, near Walton on Thames, in Surrey, where be-
ing of a" fcene of horror, not lefs perfeft than that which remained till 164 1, when he came to London, with a num--
has been fo long and highly applauded in the (Edipus of ber of curious books, in his ov.-n art, which he had pur-
Sophocles. Attempts have been made to revive its reputa- chafed in the country. In 1644, he pubbdied his " Mer-
tion, but without fuccefs. The "Arden of Fevertham" linus Anglicus," an almanac, which he continued annually
was a pofthumous piece. His other performances have till his death, and feveral other works which were written
long fince been forgotten. He died in 1739, at the age of on the fubjefts of his art ; devoting his pen and other la-
47, and his works were collected and edited in 2 vols. 8vo, hours fometimes to the king's pavtv, and fometimes to that
by Mr. Davies, v.-ith a thort account of his hfe ; to wliich of the parliament ; raifing his forfjne by favourable pre-
the reader is referred for farther particulars. See alfo the dictions to both parties, at one time by prefents, and at
new edition of the Biographia Dramaiica. another by penfions. Lilly was certainly confulted refpeft-

LlLLO, in Giogrophy, a town of SpaiB, in New Cadile ; iiig the king's projefted efcape from Cari.^rook-caftle, and

by his advice and contrivance the monarch attempted feveral
times to make his efcape from his confinement : he procured
and lent aquafortis and files to cut the iron bars of his
priion windows, but advifing and writing for the other
party at tlie fame time. In 1648 and 1649, he read public
lectures on aftrology, for the improvement, as he pretended,
of young (Indents in the art, and managed matters fo well,
and profitably, that in 1651 and 1652, he laid out nearly
2000/. in an eitate at Herlham. During the fiege of Col-
cheiter, he and Booker, another aftrologer, who was alfo a
licenfer of mathematical books, were fent thither to encou-
rage the fcldiers, which they did, by aifuring them that the
town wouldfoon be taken, which proved true in the event.
In the year 1 650, having predicted in his almanac that the
parliamentary gevernment would be overturned, he was
lummoned to anfwer for his conduft, but during the inter-
val of four-and-twenty hours, which were allowed him, he
got the obnoxious leaves reprinted, and carried before the

28 miles E.S.E; of Toledo

LiLLO, a fortrefs of Brabant, on the E. fide of the
Scheldt, built bv the Dutch in 1584, and ever fince gar-
rifbned. This fortrefs, which guards the pafiTage to An-
twerp by large velTels, was taken by the French in 1794 ;
9 miles N.W. of Antwerp.

LiLLO, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Rhodians to
the labrus.

LILLY, John, in Biography, an Englifli writer, was
bom about the year 1553, and educated at Magdalen col-
lege, from whence he removed to Cambridge, alter he had
taken his degrees in arts. On his anival in London, he be-
came acquainted with fome of queen Elizabeth's courtiers,
by whom he was careffed as a poet and a wit ; and her nia-
ie'.ly, on particular feltivals, honoured his dramatic pieces
witk her prefence. He attended the court feveral vears,
yet fo little did he get by his attendance there, notwith-
Itanding his literary reputation, that he was under the ne-

cefTity of petitioning the queen for a fmalftipend to fupport committee fix copies thus altered, which he faid were co-

him in his old age. He died about the year f6oo. He was pies of his edition, the others having been printed with .-»

autho? of feveral plays, as Endmuon ; Campafpe ; Midas; view to ruin his reputation. By this trick and fa' ihood he

aaed before queen Elizabeth j the Maid's Metamorphofis, efcaped with only an iniprifonment of thirteen dave. In

&c. i-'jjj he was indicted for giving an opinion in the cafe *f

Vet. XXI. E iiolcB

L I L

L 1 L

fto'cn (^oocls, but the svidcncc being infufiicicnt to conviA LiLV .■•//'hoi^c/, m J^ct,ir.y. See Criki-m.

him he was acquitted.' In 1659, he received a haiHlfome "Lu.X, bH-idnnitti, ilaffodil, Gucritfiy, Mexican, znA Japan,

gold chain and medal from tlie king of Sweden, on account names ufed by di!fercut iiuthors It*- the amarylhs, or liUo.

of his havinjr mentioned that monarch in his ahnanac for narcitTus of Liiiiia;us and Touniefprt.

two fncceffive years with applaufc. On tlic reftoration of
Cliarlcs II. he was examined as to the perfon who decapi-
tated the late kinj,s and declared that it was cornet Joyce.
On account of the part which it was known he hid taken
during the commonwealth, he was glad to fue out a pardon
under the great feal, which was granted him. In i66j,
when the plague raged in London, he removed to Herfliam.
After the great fire of London in 1666, he was examined
as to the perpetrators of the deed, but he was unable by his
art to fatisfy his employers. Shortly after this he adopted
for a fon a perfon named Henry Coley, a taylor by trade,
and gave him the profits of his almanac. Lilly died at
Heriham in 1681, when he was about feventy-nine years of
age. I^tis works were numerous, the titles of which are
piven in the Biog Brit., and alfo in Hutton's Mathematical
Diftiorary : the chief of them are " Chriftian Adrology ;"
•' A CoUedion of Nativities ;" " Obfcrvations on the Life
and Death of Charles Lite King of England ;" and «' Annus
Tcnebrofus, or the Black Year."

Lilly of Paracelfus. See Tinctuke of Mdah.
Lilly Point, in Geography, a place of America, in King
William County, Virginia, in which is a pod-office; 134
miles from Washington.

LILOAN, a town on the E. coaftof the iflandof Sibu ;
J>I. lat. 10 40'. E. long. I2_5^4j'.

LILY, WiLLl.\.M, in Biography, a famous fchoolmaller
and grammarian, was born at Odiham, in Hamptliire, about
the year 1466. He was educated at Magdalen college,
Oxford, where he took a degree, and tlien went on a pilgri-
mage to the Holy Land. On his return he puifued iiis lludies
at Rhodes, which ifland, after the capture of Conllanti-
rople, was the refidence of feveral learned men, under the
protcftion of the knights, its potTetTors. Here he itudied,
and made great progrefs in, the Greek language ; but for
farther improvement in it, and in the Latin tongue, he vi

Lily, DaJfoillU Sec A.m.\kvl/,is and Paxckatiu.m.

Lily, Day, or Si. Rruno\<. Illy. See He-mkrolallis.

Lily, Hyacinth. See Scii.la.

Lily, May. See CoNVAi.LAiaA.

Lily, Pcrfan. Sec FiirriLLAiu.'V.

Lily, Superb. See Gi.oiuosa.

LiLY-?/or«. See Catesh.t'.a.

Lily of the Valley. Sec Coxvallaria.

Lily, lluiter. See Nymmi-t-a.

Lily, Lefer yellow luater. Sec Mexyaxtiics.

LILYTwEUM, nowylfi7r/(;/a, m Ancient Geography, ztowti
of Sicily, S.of Drepanum, and near the promontoiy of the fame
name, mow called Cape Bocco. It was the princij)al fortrefs
of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and ih.e only city that refilled
Pyrrhus wiien he paffed into this ifland in the 47 ^th year of
Rome ; but having been ineffeftually befic-ged for five years,
it was ceded to the Romans after the victory of Lutatius,
A. U. C. 511. The ifle Tligadcs, the modern Maretimo,
which is oppofite to Marfala, feenis to be the key of that
immcofe harbour. It is formed by rocks, little low iflands,
tongues of land, and fand-banks, which break the waves on
all fides, and form a large femi-circle, within which the fea
is always calm. It was from this fort that the formidable fleet
commanded by Scipio Africanus failed, when he let out for
Afiica in the fecond Punic war, A.U.C.548. The beauty
of this harbour induced the Saracens to call it " Marfala,"
fignifying, in their language, tl e " Port of God." The
number of inhabitants at Marfala is clUmated at a^jOoo.
Of this famous port and impregnable city, the traces that
remain are fome few ruins of the ancient walls W. of the
town, built with enormous mafles of llone, whicii no machine,
before the invention of cannon, could fliake. In front of
thefe wall.s were deep ditches, hewn out of the rock, fome
parts of which ftill exilt. Here is no longer any anchorage
for fliipping, and the port is only fit for the reception of

fited Rome, and attended tlie ledures of the moit celebrated fmall barks. It was dellroyed, as it is faid, by Don John

profeifors. He now returned to London, and opened a
fchool for the learned languages, rhetoric, and poetry,
which he taught on pure clalhcal principles. In 15 10,
when dean Collet founded St. Paul's fchool, he app;)inted
Lily the firft mailer, a ftatiou which he occupied v.'ith An-
gular utility for twelve years. He died of the plague in
1.J22, or 1523. Lily was much elleemed by his contempo-
raries, as well for his moral cliaradler, as for his literary
abilities. He was the author of feveral Latin poems and
tracls, but is bell known for the grammar that goes under
his name, and is llill ulcd in our public fchools. This was
not wholly of his own compofition, having been afillled in
It by the labours of cardinal Wolfey and dean Collet. Biog.
Brit.

Lily, Geor€;e, eldefl fon of the preceding, was born in
London, and educated at Magdalen college, Oxford, after
whicli he was made canon of St. Paul's and prebendary of
Canterbury. He was the firft perfon who publifhcd an
cxaft map of Britain : he died in 1559, and left behind
feveral works of merit, as " Antjlorum Return Chronices
Epitome ;" " Regum Anglix Genealogia ;" " Catalogus
five Series Pontificum et Casfarum Ronianorum," &c. He

of Audria, who being unable to defend it, would not leave
it open to the Africans, who were only at the difl.ance of
JO leagues. At prefent Marfila has only a fmail road, to
which veflels refort, in order to load with tunny, and the
aflies of kali, which are made here in great abundance, and
form the principal and almoft fole objetl of the commerce
of the country. The merchants of Marfeilles come hither
to purchafe it for their foap manufactories.

LIM.A, in Geography, an audience of Peru, ereftedin the
year 1542, which contains within its jurifdidion one arch-
bilhopric and four bilhoprics ; -ui^. thofe of Truxillo, Gua-
manga, Cu/,co, and Arequipa. The arcl.bllhopric of Lima
comprehends 15 jurifdiclions, w'a. the circuit of Lima, Chan-
cay, Santa, Canta, Canete, lea, Pifco, and Naica, which
three places form one jurildiilion, Guarachia, Guanuco,
Yauyos, Caxatambo, Sarma, Jouxa, Canchucos, Guyalas,
and Guamalies. The diocefe of Truxdlo contains fevea
jurifdiclions; that of Guamanga nine; that of Cuzco
fourteen ; and that of Arequipa fix.

Lima, a famous city of the audience of Lima, and capital
of the vice-royalty of Peru. This city, called " Civdad de-
los Reye?," or the city of the kings, from its having been

left likewife a MS. life of bifliop Filher, which is depofited founded by Don Francifco Pizarro, on the read of the Epi-

in the library of the Royal Society. Biog. Brit. phany, A. D. 1 5^3 ;, is fituated in the fpacious and de-

LlLY-, \n Botany. SceLlLlCM. ' lightlul valley of Rimac, whence, by corruption, the name

Lily, in Gurj/i-mn^, the common name of this well known Lima is derived: Rimac being the ap'^ellation of an idol

flower plant. See Amauxlus, and Lilil'M. to wliicb the. native Indians ufed to offer facrificcs, as the

Yiica*

LIMA.

Yncas alfo did, after they had extended their empire hither :
and as it was fuppofed to return an anfwcr to the prayers ad-
drefled to it, they called it, by way of diftinftion, Rimac,
or lie who fpeaks. The fituation of this city is peculiarly
advantageous, as it is placed in the centre of a valley, the
■whole of which it commands. Towards the north, at a
confiderable diilance, is the Cordillera, or chain of the
Andes ; whence fome hills project into the valley, the
neareft of which, to tlie city, are tliofe of St. Chriftopher,
and Amancaes. A river of the lame name walhes the walls
of Lima, over which is an elegant and Ipacions (lone brido-e,
with a gate of beautiful architedure, that forms the entrance
into thcvcity, and leads to the grand fijuare, wliich is large,
and finely ornamented. In the middle of it is a noble
fountain of bronze, and fuch olijefts, uletul as well as orna-
mental, are not uncommon. The form of the city is
triangular, the bafe, or longed lide, extending along the
banks of the river. Its length is 1920 toifes, or -jds of a
league; and its greateft breadth from N. to S., that is,
from the bridge to the angle oppofite to the bafe, is 1080
toifes, or |ths of a league. It is fnrrounded with a brick,
•wall, fianked with 34 baftions ; and in its whole circum-
ft-rence it has feven gates and three poiterns. On the fide
of the river oppofite to the city is a fuburb, called St. La-
zaro, which has lately increafed ; all its flreets, like thofe of
the city, are broad, parallel, and at right angles, forming
fquare? of houfes ; all well-paved, fupphed from the river
■with ftreams of water, arched over, fo that they contribute
to cleanunefs and falubrity, without the leaft iiiconveniency.
The number of ilreets is faid to be 35 j, and of houfes 3941 .
Towards the E. and W. parts of the city, within the walls,
are many fruit and kitchen-gardens ; and mod of the prin-
cipal houfes have gardens for amufemcnt, which are conti-
jiually refrelhed with water by means of canalj. The whole
, city is divided into five parilhes, and abounds with churches,
convents, nunneries, colleges, and charitable foundations,
which it would be tedious to recount, and it has alfo a famous
univerfity, founded in 1576. All the churches and chapels
are large, and adorned with paintings -and other decorations
of great value. The viceroys of Peru ufually refide at
Liima, enjoying all the privileges of rpyalty, and, befides
afhlling at the courts of jullice, and the councils relating both
to the finances and war, give every day public audience to
all forts of perfons ; for which purpofe, there are in the
palace three very grand and fpacious rooms. Under the
•viceroy there is a number of officers, and of tribunals for
the tranfaAions of the bufinefs of the city and audience.
The Cabildo, or Ayuntamiento, that is, the municipal
body of the city, enjoys particular privileges ; and the re-
venue of the capital exceeds 36,000 dollars. Since 1786,
tliere is alfo a judge of the police, afilfted by an able archi-
teft, and other officers.

Upon the whole, we may obferve, without reciting par-
ticulars, that Lima is not only large, magnificent, and dillin-
guilhed as the capital of the kingdom, by the refidence of
the viceroy, and the fuperior courts and offices, but that it
has an acknowledged fuperioijity over the other cities in that
part of the world, from the inftitutions that are eftablilhed
for the advancement of literature and the fciences. It is a
place v.'here lu.Kury prevails to a great degree ; the malls
are crowded with bandfome carriages ; the number of
coaches and calafh'cu being computed at 1400. Never-
thelels, amufements are rare, and literature is negleded.
Little encouragement is given to publications of a kind
moft likely to mtereil the inhabitants of the city and its
environs. The univerfity of St. Mark is condufted on the
plan of tlie Spanifh univerfitie*. The theatre is » neat

building ; but the exhibitions do not difplay much tarte.
Coffee-houfcs only began to be opened in 177 1. Cock-
fighting is a favnurife amufement on Sundays and feflivals ;
nor are bull-fightr, unknown.

The number of inhabitants in this city, according to
the lateft enumeration, amounts to ^2,627 ; the monks
and clergy being 1392; the nuns 1585; the Spaniards,
in general, 17,215; with 3219 Indians, and 8960 negroes,
the reft being Meftizos, and perfons of other calls. The
rich ecclefiaftics, proprietors of entailed eilatcs, mih'tarv
and civil officers, and phyiicians, advocates, attornies, and
artizans, may amount to 19,000 ; the reft being ilaves
or domeftics. The want of occupation leads many of
the females to vice ; and the men are rather inclined to
indolence and floth. The population has declined finre
the ereftion of the new vice-royally of La Plata ; and it
is likely ftiil farther to dccreafe, notwithllanding an i iflux
of 1400 perfons of all fexes and conditions, who annually
arrive aa a fupply ; not to mention the Spanifh j^irls, who,
from the province of Pinra in the north, and lea in the
fouth, come hither to difpofe of their charms either in mar-
riage or love, thofe provinces being celebrated for female
beauty. All the inhabitants of Lima, from the highcft to
the loweft, are fond of fine clothes, and they indulge their
pafiion to great excefs. The women's drefs confiils of a
pair of ftioes, a chemife, a petticoat of dimity, an open pet-
ticoat, and a jacket, which, in fummer, is of linen, and in
winter of ftuff, to v.hich fome add a mantelette. Women '
of the loweft condition, whofe whole ftock of apparel confifti
merely of two chemifes and a petticoat, wear bracelets, rofa-
rifs, and finall gold images, about their necks andarms, to the
valne of fifty or fixty crowns. The females are, in general, of
a middling ftature, handfome, genteel, of a very fair com.
plexion, withbeautitul hair, and enchanting luilre, anddiTnity
in their eyes. They are naturaUy gay, fprightly, jocofe, with-
out levity, and remarkably fond of niufic. The temperature
of the air at Lima is agreeable ; and though the difference of
the four feafons is perceptible, they are all moderate, and
none of them troublefome. Spring begins towards the clofe of
the year, ;. e. towards the end of November, or beginning
of December ; this is fucceeded by fummer, the heat of
which is moderated by the fouth winds : at the latter end
of June, or beginning of July, the winter begins, and con-
tinues till November or December, the autumn intervenino-.
As rain is feldom or never feen at Lima, the place is equally
free from tempefts, and tiie inhabitants are totally firangers to
thunder and lightning: there are, however, orhcr incon-
veniences and evils 10 which they are obnoxious. In fum-
mer they are tormented with fleas, bugs, and raofquiloes ; '
but the moft dreadful calamity to wliich this country is
fubjetl is the recurrence of earthquakes, of which they have
had feveral, which have almoft ruined the city. Thefe have
occurred in 1582, 1586, 1609: 1630, 1655, 167S, J687,
1696, 1697, 1699, 1716, 1725, 1732, 1734, '745' and
1746 ; the latter being the moft tremendous and deilruftivs.
As the beft fecurity againft carthouakes, they build their
houfes moftly of \*ood, and the walls of wattled oziers or
canes, covered with clay, and painted. The dillempers
moft common at Lima are malign;uit, intermittent, and catar.
lious fevers, pleurifies, and conilipations ; and thcfe rage
covitinually in the city. The fniall-pox is slfo known here ;
and when it occurs proves fatal to many. The wealth of this
city is chiefly derived from the mines in the province*
to the north and fouth-; but agriculture profpers very much
in the vicinity, and the" fii Ids fupply food for a multitude of
Iiorfes and cattie. The fertility of the foil was very much
improved iii ancient times bv the care of ilje Yocas, ta cut

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and arrange trenches in fuch a manner, as to condmSt the
water of the rivers to irrigate the foil j and when the
Spaniards took pofTcfTion of the country, they purfued the
fmie phin ; thus they watered the fpacioua fields of wheat
and barley, large meadows, plantations of fugar caaes, and
olive trees, vineyards, and gardens of all kinds, which were
rendered very produAivc. By the eartliquake in 1O87, the
foil was fo vitiated, that it hecame unfit for yielding wheat
and barley ; but after remaining 40 years in this (late of
fterility, it again fo far recovered itfelf as in a confiderablc
degree to become fit for grain as before. Hoivever, re-
peated earthquakes have been unfavourable. Tlie fields in
the neighbourhood of Lima are chiefly fovvn with clover,
of which there is a very great confuniption, as it is the com-
mon fodder for all beads, particularly mules and horfes, of
which there is an inconceivable number. The bread at
Lima is the bed in all this part of America, both with re-
gard to its colour and talle. The mutton and beef are alfo
very good ; and here is alfo plenty of poultry, pork, and
fifh ; which latter article is fuppliod by the Indians of the
coalt, from the bay of Callao, and the villages of CheriUo
and Luria. The river of Lima, and the coafts, furnifli
anchovies and various forts of {liell-tifli. The wines at Lima
arc of diflerent forts, white, red, and dark-red, and of each
fort fome are peculiarly excellent. ■ They are imported from
the coalls of Nafea, Pifco, Lucumba, and Chili, but the
latter produces the beft. That from Pifco has the greatell
fale, and from the fame place all the brandies ufed at Lima
or exported are brought. Many of the dried fruits are
brought from Chili, and by the trade carried on between
the two kingdoms, Lima is fnpplied with all lorts of fruits
known in Spain. At Lima tliere are no fabrics nor manu-
fadlures of any kind. Lima owes much of its magnificence
and fplendour to its being the capital of Peru, and the
general ftaple of the kingdom. As it is the relidence of
the government and chief tribunals, it is alfo the common
factory for commerce of every kind, and the centre of the
produces and niannfaiflures of the other provinces, together
■with tliofe of Europe, brouglit over in the galleons or regif-
tcr tbips ; and dillributed from hence through the wide
(rxteut of thefe kinj;doms. At the head of the commerce
is the tribunal del Confulado, which appoint commiflaries to
retide in the other cities of its dependencies, extending
through all Peru. The chief commerce of Lima is with
Valparaifo, Concepcion, and Coquimbo, in the kingdom of
Chili ; the ille of Chiloe, and Arica, Ilo, and Pifco in the
fouth i towards the north with Truxillo, Pacafmayo, and
Payta, in the viceroyalty of Peru ; with Guayaquil and Pa-
nama in the viceri>yalty of New Granada ; and with Realejo
in Giiatamala, and Acapulco, in Mexico. This trade is
conducted by 10 (hips, 11 merchant-frigates, 19 packet-
boats, and a balandra, »r fmall Irar.fport-boat ; amounting
in all to 351,500 quintals of tonnage, navigated by 460
feamen. After the dedru&ion of the fea-port town of
Callao by an earthquake in 1747 (fee Callao), a new
town or village was fou ded, at the didancc of a quarter of
a league, called " Ballavilla." There is a fortrefs called
" San Fernando," with a fufBcient garrifon to defend the
bav, which in the S.W. is fenced by a barren idand called
" San Lorenzo." Here all the fliips anchor about two
leagues from Lima. The coalls of Nafca and Pifco fend to
Lima wine, brandy, raifins, o ives, and oil ; and the king-
dom of Chili, wheat, flour, lard, leather, cordage, wines,
dried fruits, and fome gold. Every Monday, during the
whole year, there is a fair at Callao, whither the traders or
proprietors of commodities refort from all parts ; and the
goods are carried, according to the dircclioiis of the buyers.

on droves of mules kept for tliis purpofe by the mafterS of
the warehoufes. Copper and tin in bars are brought frdm
Coquimbo ; from the mountains dc Caxamarea and Chaca-'
poyas, canvas made of cotton for fails and other duffs of
that kind, and Cordovan leather and foap are made all over
Valles, the valley in which Lima is fituated. From the
fouthern provinces, as Plata, Oruio, Potofi, and Cuzco,
is fent Vicuna wool, for making hats and fome ilulTs of a
peculiar firinnefs. From Paraguay, the herb called by
that name is fent, of which there is a great cojifumptiorf.
The produce of the fales in the inland parts of the king-
dom is fent to Lima in bars of filver, and pignas, which
are porous and light mades of iilver, being an amalgam of
mercury and dull taken out of the mines. The Jilver is
coined at the mint in this city. I^ima has alfo its particular
trade with the kingdoms both of N'Tth and South America.
The mod conliderable commodity received from the former
is fnud", which is brought from the Havannali to Mt xico,
and after havinjj been there improved is forwarded to Lima,
and conveyed from thence to the other proviices Thero
is no province in Peru, that does not tranfmit to Lima its
products and manufatlures ; and fupply illelf from hence
with the neceflary commodities.

Lima alfo receives from the ports of New Spain, paph»
tha, tar, iron, and fome indigo for dyeing. 'Phe kingdom
of Terra Firma fends to Lima, kaf-tobacco and pearls,
which fuid here a good market, as no mulatto woman is
without fome ornament made of them. The ladies and
women of all ranks have an ancient cudom of carrying in
their mouths a " linipion," or cleanfer, of tobacco. The
intention of thefe is, as their name imports, to keep the
teeth clean. The limpions are fmall rolls of tobacco, four
inches long and nine_ lines in diameter, tied with a thread
which they untwift as the limpion wades. One end of this
they put into the mouth, and alter chewing it for fome time,
rub the tCLth with it, thus keeping them always clean and
white. All the timber nfed in building houfes, refitting
(hips, or condrnfting fmall barks at Callao, is brought from
Guayaquil, together with the cacao. S. lat. 12' 2' 31". E.
long. 282 27'. See ,Iuan and De UUoa's Voyage to South
America, and Eilalla, cited by Pinkerton's Geographv-
For further particulars, lee Peru.

IwMA, a river of Spain, which rifes in the province ot
Galicia, traverfes the province of Entre Duero e Minho,
and runs into the Atlantic, two miles below Viana. N. lat.

41° 40'. W. long. 8 30' Alfo, a town of Arabia, in

the province of Oman, near the coall ; 32 miles S.E. of
Julfa.

LIMACHU, a river of Chili, which runs into the Pa-
cific ocean, S. lat. 30 25'.

LIMACIA, in Botany, fo named by Lourciro, from,
lirr.ax, a fnail, in alluficn to the fpiral furrows on its nut. —
Loureir. Cochinch. 620. — Clafs and order, Diascta Hexan-
dr'ia, Nat. Ord. Sarmentaccx, Linn. /Ifparngt, .Tuff.

Gen. Ch. Male-flowers nearly terminal, crowded toge--
ther. Cal. Perianth inferior, diort, of fix acute leaves,
the alternate ones fmaller, arranged altogether horizontally.
in a triangle. Cor. Petals three, triangular, almod eredt,
longer than the calyx; neflary equal to the calyx, divided'
into fix, roundidi, concave, flelhy fegments. Slam. Fila--
ments fix, very diort, each placed upon a fegment of the
nectary, and altogether forming a triangle ; anthers of two
cells, rounilidi.— Female flowers axillary, in pairs, on a.'
fepanite plant. Ciil. as in the male. Cor. Petals fix,
ronndilh, curved, unequal ; nectary equal to the calyx,
divided into fix, turbinate, connivent fegments. Piji. Ger-
inen fuperior, fomewhat triangular; dylc none j iligmas .
1 three.

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three, many-cleft, fpreading. Peri: Driipa flcfliy, ratlier
kidncy-fhaped, containing a iingle feed. Nut fpirally fur-
rowed like a fcrew, the kernel funple.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of fix leaves. Corolla of three
petals. — Female, Calyx of fix leaves. Corolla of fix petals.
Stigmas three. Drupa kidney-ihaped, fpiral.

I. L. fcanJeris. Cay Me ga of the Cochinchinefe, and
found in the woods of Cochinchina Stem (hrubby, climb-
ing, wilLoitt tendrils, long, much branched. Leaves alter-
nate, ovate -oblong, acuminate, entire, fmooth. Flowers,
both male and female, yellovvi(h-green. Drupa imall,
fwooth, acid and efculent.

LIMADASI, in Geography, a town of Ciirdiftan, on an
ifland in the lake Van.

LIMANDA, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome
anthers have called the flat-filh, which we in Engiifh call the
Jab, the paJJr ajper of authors.

LIMARIA, a name given by Gaza and fnch other
writers to the thynnus or tunny-fifli, called the Spanj/lj
tnackrel.

LIMASOVA, in Geography, one of the fmaller Phi-
lippine iflands, near Leyta. N. lat. lo i'. E. long.
125= 2'.

LIMASSOL. See LiMESor,.
■ LIMATAMBA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Cuzco ; 25 miies W. of Cuzco.

LIMATURA Martis Pnparata. See InoN".

LIMAX, in Natural Hiflory, the Hug or fnail, a genus
of the Vermes Mollufca, clafs and order, of which the cha-
racter is ; — Body oblong, creeping, with a flefiiy kind of
Jhield above, and a longitudinal flat difk beneath ; aperture
placed on the right lide, within the fiiield ; feelers four,
fituated above the mouth, with an eye at the tip of each of
the larger ores.

This genus, of which there are fifteen fpecies mentioned
in the Syftema Naturae, comprehends thofe animals that are
commonly known by the name of flugs, or naked fnails,
which commit fuch depredations in our fields and gardens,
efpecially in wet weather. Of the fifteen fpecies Jix arc
common in our own country.

Species.

I^rvrs. Body black, and almoil wilhoutvvrinkles. It is
fbund among mofs late in the autumn, and is about half an
inch long. The body is glofly, with undulate tranfverfe
ftricE on the {hield ; narrov%-Er, and not fo much wrinkled as
the aler, which is the next mentioned.

Ater, or black (lug ; body black and furrowed with
ikep wrinkles. Of this fpecies five varieties are enumerated :
3'. The colour of this is deep black and pale beneath.
2. Bliiok, with a pale greeniih ridge down the back. 3. Black,
beneath white; mouth yeUowiih. 4. Chefnut-brown, be-
neath white; mouth yellowifh. J. Dudcy-brown, with a yel-
h.iwiih n.O'jth and llreak each fide. This laft is common in
woods, meadows, fields, and gardens ; and is from an inch
and a half to five inches in length ; it crawls vciy flowly,
;i»d leaves a flime upon whatever it paffes over ; feelers al-
ways black ; the back is convex ; the fliield rough, with
numerous dors ; abdomen wrinkled.

Albus. This fpecies, which is characterized by the white-
r.efs of its body, contains four varieties. I. llie entirely
white. 2. White edged with yellow. ^. White, with an
orange margin and hmd-head. 4. White, with black feelers ;
it inhabits woods and groves, and is from a quarter to half
an inch in length.

RuFUs. Body, above pale rufous, beneath while; it
inhabits fliady damp places, and the botloin of hills, is

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about an inch and a half long; the body has neither ^cts nci*
belts; its feelers are larger than thofe of the ater.

Flavu.s. Body am.bcr-colour fpotted with white, and
is found in herbage.

Maximus. Body cinereous, with or withoat fpots ;
there are fix varieties, ijiz. 1. Body immaculate; (hield
black-blue. 2. Shield fpotted with black ; body with
black longitudinal ftripes. 3. Shield and body fpotted
with black. 4. Body with five whitifh llreaks, the lower
one interrupted. 5. Body with white and cinereous
wrinkles, and black fputs in a double row. 6. Bodir
edged with v.'hite ; inhabits woods, gardens, and damp cel-
lars ; is from four to five inches long.

Hyalinus, takes itsj name from the colour of its body,-
which has a hyaline or glafly appearance ; feelers obfolete;,-
with a brown line reaching from the feelers to the fliield ;
this is found in damp molfy places, and is very deilructive
to the young fhoots of kidney-beans; belly with numerous-
interrupted wrinkles.

Agre.st!s. Ruftic fliig; body whitifh, with black-
feelers ; this fpecies is divided into four varieties, of which
the I, is entirely whitifh, immaculate; 2, whitifli, with a
yellowifli fiiield ; 3, whitifh, with a black head ; 4, whitifh,
with a cinereous back; 5, whitifli, with fcattercd black-
fpecks.

The mofl curious of the above varieties is the fecond,
that with a yellowifh Ihield, or that which is characterized
by Miiller, in his Hill. Verm. " Limax albidus clypeo
flavefcente," or by Gmelin, " Limax albus, clypeo flavef-
cente ;" it has been figured by Liller, but more accurately,
and with great care, in the fourth volume of the Linnxan
Tranfadfions, in which it is exhibited in a ftate of repole, •
as it is feen in its progrefTive motion on the ground ; and
alfo as it is obferved fufpended from the branch of a tree,.
&c. both with refpect to its upper and nnder furfaces. .
This variety is denominated in our own language the /pin- ■
^''"'S.f^"S' ^'"^ ^^ commonly about three quarters of an iucll^
long ; it inhabits woods and other fhady places. It vrzs
particularly noticed by Mr. Hoy, and defcribed in the ilrft
volume of the Tranfactions of the Linn-Tan Society ; at firlt
he faw it ful'pended from the branch of a fir tree, and was not
aware that it was a living creature. It was hanging by a
fingle line or thread attached to its tail. This thread was
in the upper part extremely fine, bnt near the animal it be- •
cam.e thicker and broader, till at length it exactly cor--
refponded with the tail. Its defccnt was at the rate of an ■
inch in three minutes, a motion fufficiently flow for the
minutell obfcrvations. The line by which it defeended was
drawn from the fiimy exudation gradually fecreted from ■
the pores that covered its whole body. .Apparently there
was much exertion required to produce a fufficient kipply
of the liquid, and to force it towards the tail ; it alter-
nately drew back its head, and turned it as far as poffible,
firfl to one fide, and then to the other, as if to prefs its
fides, and thus promote fecretion.

In addition to Mr. Hov's account, w« fhall give fome
farther particulars, taken iiom a curious paper by Dr. John-'
Latham, in the fourth volume of the Linnsran TranfacTtiuns;
a work that contains abundance of interelting matter, but
which is too expenfive to liave a ver}' general circulation be-
yond the members of the focicty. .Speaking of the curious
property belonging to the fpinning flng, the-dtjclor fays,
" that it is a cullom not unuiual for this fpecies of hniax:
to pafs from an height fecurcly to the ground, by means of
a thread of its own coultiudion feems manifeft ; for, on my
friend's (Colonel Montague, F.L.S.) putting one of them
on. the projecting frame of a w indow, it jwiuediatcly crawled

forward*

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forwards till it Ctme to the projefting anglf, from wlitnce,
without attariptiiig to fix itfelf by its fore parts to any
tiling, it became viiibly fiifpcndcd hy a thread from its tail.
'When it had dt.'fcendod two feet, the colonel took it up by
the thread, and carried it to a dillant room ; but trying to
fix it afrefli, in order more accurately to obferve its profrrefs,
the tliread broke. He chcn put it on a frame about four
feet from the gronnd ; in a few minutes it was again fuf-
pended, and obferving by his watch, it defccndcd at the
rate of th'-cc inches and a half in a minute." After re-
peated trials, tlie colonel, by means of glafTes, was enabled
to afcertain that the fecretion, of which the thread was
formed, \»a.s wliolly from the under parts, and not from the
back and lides, both of which appeared nearly dry, nor
did it proceed from any orifice in the tail. This creature
.feemj quite feiiiible of its abilities, for it extended itfelf
from the bottom of the frame, with its head downwards,
till the tail became fufpended ; and it was by means of an
undulating motion of die belly that the flow of the vifcous
fecretion was produced towards the tail, but in doing this
the belly was contracted, being furnidied with numerons
tranfverrc rvgtc ; at the fame time the body and tcntacula
were fully extended, indicating no alarm whatever ; the
head was occafionally moved from fide to^fide, which gave
ieveral turns to the right or left, as the centre of gravity
lay ; but as it as frequently turned one way as the other,
the thread was not in the leall twilled. The thread, on
firil leaving the tail, was five times as broad as it wa? at the
eighth of an inch diftant therefrom, but afterwards feemed
of an equal fize, and confiderably fmaller than the fineft
human hair. When a portion of this thread was placed
under a microfcope, it appeared contrafted ; it was pel-
lucid and elallic. By anotlicr writer on this fubjeft we
are told, that by the application of the microfcope, the
flimy humour will be feen to come out infcnfibly from the
jjlandnlar pore« of the flvin, like clear and minute points ;
thele, by continuing a gentie prefTure on the flcin, will be-
come fmall drops, and in the end form a confidcrable col-
ledion of matter. It may be alfo obfcrvcd, that colonel
Montague found feveral individuals of this variety that he
could not induce to fpin, and, as if fenfiblc of their inability
fo to do, readily turned back when approaching the pro-
jected edge ; while others at once let themfelves down
without hefitation ; fo that it might be known by their
motion, when near the brink of the precipice, whether
they were endued with the facuhy or not. After thefe ani-
mals have fpun for i'omc time, their fpinning power fecnis
to be for a while loll, but in all thofc on which experiments
ihave been made, it has been recovered again by keeping
them for a few hourr, among wet mols.

The fifth variety above-mentioned, or that with fcattered
black fpecks, is found in gardens, paltures, and groves, from
May till the end of the year, and is the animal which has been
recommended to be fwallowcd by confumptive perfons. It
is about half an inch in length, and when touched it ilicks
to the fingers as if dead.

CiNxrcs. This fpccies is yellowifli, with a cinereous
belt on the fhield and body ; it is commonly found in groves,
and is about two inches long ; body v/ithout fpots, and be-
neath it is white,

Marcinatcs, This is cinereous ; (hield with a duflcy
ftreak on each fide : the body is of a pale blneifh colour ;
it is found on the beech ; back with a white ridge, each
Jide of which is blueifii-a(h ; abdomen fometimes fpotted
black.

iifiiiCLiAXUS. Brown, with black dots on tlie fliield

and lines on the body ; it inhrtbits garden* in Denmark and
Germany ; it is an inch and a half long.

AuitliUS. Yellow, immaculate, vvith black feelers; it
inhabits the groves of Denmark and Norway, is about half
an inch long. The body beneath is white, with a black
line between the feelers.

Fu.scus. Tliis is of a reddift hue, with a bbckifh lateral
line and back.

Tenkllus. Greonifli, with black head and feelers ; is
found, early in the fpring, in hollows of woods filled with
dry leaves ; about an inch long ; the fliield whitifn with a
yellowifli call.

Lan'ckoi.atu.s. Linear-lanceolate and very fliarp at
each end ; the margin furroundcd with a membranaceous
border ; without tentacula or feelers ; found on the coall
of Cornwall.

Ll.M.AX Mariniis, in Zoology, a name gfvcn by fome to
the Upparls, or, as it is commonly termed in Engllih, the
fea-Jnail, caught in plenty at the months of rivers in York-
iliire, and fome other places. See Cvi.iNDliU.s.

1..IMAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart^
ment of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in
the diilricl of Mantes ; fituated on the Seine, oppofite to
Mantes. The place contains 1520, and the canton 9881
inhabitants, on a territory of Ij7-t kiliometres, in 17 com-
munes.

LIMB, in Anatomy, is ufed to denote certain parts of
the human body, proceeding from the trunk. See E.k-

TREMITIKS.

The limbs, as well as the life of a man, arc of fuch high
value in the eflimation of the law of England, that it par-
dons even homicide, if committed fe defcmkndo, or in order
to preferve them.

l..iMB.'^, ylmputatioii nf, in Surgery. See Amputation'.
LiMR.s, Ari'ificted. Under this denomination, furgical wri-
ters fpeak of the various machines and contrivances which
have been invented for fupplying the place, and in fome
meafure executing the office, cf limbs which are naturally
impcrfcft or wanting, or which have been amputated, or
othcrwile lofl. Anciently, it was as much the duty of the
fnrgeon to provide his patient witli a wooden leg after am-
putation, as to cut off the member, which endangered life
and could not be prefcrvcd. At prelent, however, the
bufinefs of furnilhing artificial limbs is left almoil entirely to
the mechanic, though it cannot be denied, that the atten-
tion of a judicious furgeon will often be well befiowcd in
taking care, that the preffure of fiieh machines is contrived
to fall as little as puitible upon that part of a f*ump which
is moll tender, stid inclined to ulcerate. The end of a thigh-
Ihimp, indeed, can ill bear the cflecls of preflure, and in
this cafe, it is ufual to mr.ke the thigh part of the wooden
member in the form of a conical box, which is calculated
to receive the flump, and at the fame time not allow the end
of the bone to meet with any material refinance below.
The preffure partly falls on the fides of the remaining por-
tion of the thigh, and partly on the pelvis, round which a
flrap proceeds from the upper part of the machine. The
makers of artificial limbs in this metropolis, however, have
in general brought their bufinefs to great perftction, and
fuch patients as can afford it, may be accommodated with
contrivances, which, v.'ithout being heavy and cumberfome,
bear a great refcmblance to tiie natural limb. Artificial
hands and arms may alfo be procured, which have moveable
fingers, and by the ingenuity of the nicchanifm, may be
made to perform many little uleful offices in grafping and
holding things.

LiWBS, Dl/locatkiu cj\ See LuiLAXiON.

LiMBSa

L I M

L I M

Limbs, Fra^urrs of. See FRACTURE.
Limb, Limhus, the cutermolt boi-dcr, or graduated
edi;o, of an allrolabe, quadrant, or the like laathematicai

iiiltrunient.

Tlie word is alfo ufed for the primitive circle in any pro-
jection of the Inhere in piano.

Limb alfo ligiuiics tlie oiitermoil border or edge of the
fun or moon, when the middle or diflc is hid in an ecliple of
either luminary.

Ailronomcrs obferve the lower and upper limb of the
fun in order to lind out its true height, which is that of the
centre.

Limb is alfo ufed, among Botnnifls, for the outer edge or
border rf plants, their leaves and flowers. See Petal.

LIMEE, in Geography, ao ifland in the Ealt Indian fea,
about 12 miles long^ and 3 broad, near the E. coall of
Celebes. N.lat. I'lS'. E. long, 1 25" 10'. — Alio, a fmall
town or village in the N.W. part of the illand of St. Do-
mingo ; fcven leagues W. by S. ot cape Frani^ois.

LIMBECK. See Alembic.

LIMBERG. in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria ; 12 n;iies S.of Voitfberg.

I^IMBERS, in Artillery, a fort of advanced train joined
to the carriage of a ca:'non, upon a march. See C.'iK-

lji.\iBEit-/Wfj-, in a Ship, little fquare holes cut through
her floor-timbers, ferving to let the water to the well of the
pump, which othervvife would lie between thofe timbers,
where the keel rope runs.

Every floor-timber has two limber-holes cut through it ;
Vfz one on each fide of the keelfon.

LlMBER-ioanij, are fliort pieces of plank, whicli form a
part of the cieling or lining of a (hip's floor, clofe to the
keelion, and immediately above the limber*. They are oc-
cafionally removed, in order to examine and clear the hmber-
holes.

LiMcr.u-rc^c, is a long rope, frequently retained in the
limber-holes of a fhip, and communicating from one to
another, in order to clear them, by pulling tlie rope back-
Avards and forwards, fo as to loofen the fa::d or dirt by
Vfhicli they may occafionally be choaked.

LIMBEUO, in Geography,^ a town on the E. :oaft of
the ifland of Celebes. N. lat. o^ 18'. E. lons^. 12^' 18'.

LIMBOBARYA, a town of Bengal; 30'milesN.W.
of Nattore.

LIMBORCH, Vnihiv,m Biography, a celebrated Dutch
divine, was born at Amllerdam m the year 163^. He was
educated among the Remonfirants, and had lor his inltruClors
among others, Barleins, and Gerard Voffius. Having com-
pleted the ufual courfes of learning, in ethics, philofophy, and
the languages, he ftudied theology under Curcellsus, the fuc-
ceifor of Epifcopius, in the profen'orfiiip of that facult)-,
among the Rcmonllrants at Amlterdam. Aftervvards he
went to Utrecht, where be attended the lefturcs of Gilbert
Voetitis, and other celebrated divines. In 1654 he undertook
the c;fjice of minilter at Haerlem, from whence lie removed
to Gouda. In 1660 he pubhfhcd an excellent colleftion of
the correfpondence of learned and celebrated men, under the
title of " Epiftola; pra:ft.antium, et eruditorum virorum,"
8vo. In 16^4 and 1704 he puhliflied new editions of it,
greatly cnhirg-ed, in folio. In tliis coUcftion, almolt the en-
tire hifl:ory of the affairs of the Remonftrants maybe traced
from the time of Arrainius down to the fynod of Dort. In
1G61 he pubiilhed, in the form of a dialogue, a ircatife in
defence ot toleration, which was excecdinfjly well received
by the friends of lilierty. In 1667 he undertook the paf-
toral charge of the church at Amllerdam, and in the foU

lowing year he was appointed divinity profeflbr. From
this period he wholly devoted his iludies to the enquiries con-
netled with his new office, and acquired a high reputation
by the manner in which he pertornied :13 duties. In the
year 1686 he publiflied his fyllem of theology, under the
title of " Theologia Chrilliana ad Praxim Pietatis ac Pro-
molioncm Pacis Chrillianae unice direcla." It pafled very
quickly throKgh four editions. In this fame year Limborch
had a difpute with Orobio, a Spanifli .Tew, who had efcaped
from the prifon of the Inquifition, and foon after he publifhed
the fubftance of it in a treatifc, entitled " Collatio Arnica
de Veritate Religionis Chriftianz, cum eruaito Judso."
This treatife very iatisfattorily repels the objeftions which
any confillent believer in the 'Old Teltament can advance
againll the New. He obtained, in 1692, "The Buok of
Sentences ot tlie Inquifition of Tholoufe from IJ07 to
13 13," which he pubhflied, and prefixed to it a hiltory of
that horrible and bloody tribunal drawn from the writings of
the inquihtors themfelves. The title of it is " Hilloria In-
quilitionis ; cui fubjungitur Liber fententiarum Inquilitionie
Tholofanae, ab anno 1307 ad 13 13, "410. This hiftorj- is
pronounced, by Mr. Locke, to be a work abfolutely perfect
in its kind ; it was tranflated by Dr. Samuel Chandler into
Englilh, in two volumes 4to. with additions by the editor,
by Antlwny Collins, efq. and by the author. Dr. Chandler
prefixed to his edition an introduftion, concerning the rife
and progrefs of perfccution. In 1694 he converted a young
woman to Chriitianity who had been drawn over to the
.Tewifli religion by a perfon of whom (he had learned the
Hebrew language. In 171 i Limborch publiflied his va-
luable " Commentarius in Adta Apottoiorum et in Epillolas
ad Romanos, et ad Hebr-jsos." He died in the month of
April 1 7 1 2, in the feventy-ninth year of his age. A funeral
oration was delivered on the occafion by Lc Clerc, who,
among other tilings, fays, *' He was, above all thi: gs, ani-
mated with the love of truth, and was indefatigable in
fearching for it, day and night, in the facred fcriptures and
th-,' beft expofitors, and whenever he found it, he adhered to
it inflexibly. His piety was pure and ardent, uiitinftured
by lupenfition, or any notions diflionourable to the benevo-
lence of the Deity. As a preacher he was methccical, argu-
mentative, and iulid rather than eloquent ; and fo invariably
was he governed by candour, moderation, and prudence, that
he never gave offence to any one. In his inltrudtions front
his prof^effional chair, he was diltinguiflied by the greatell
perfpicuity, and the moft exaft order ; to which iiis memory',
which retained whatever he had written, no doubt greatly
contributed. His behaviour towards ail who had the hap-
pinefs of being acquainted with him, was fo affable, kind,
and conciliating, that they faw him with delight, and re-
gretted, when they could no longer enjoy his converfation."
Gtn. Biog. Moreri.

LIMBOtfRG, John Piiilip de, a phyfician at Spa,.-
wIk) obtained a great re;)Utatiou by his knowledge of the
properties of the mineral waters, and by the fuccefs with
which he prefcribed them in many obllinate difeafcs, which
had refilled other reu'.edies. He rehded at Spa during the
feafon of drinking the waters. He publifttcd fevcral work-,,
the principal of which detail the refult of his obfervations on
their properties and ufes ; ir/a. '• Diflcrtation fur les Eaux
de Spa, foutcnue a Leyde, le 7 Aout, 1736, &c.'' Liege,
1749, l2mo. " Traite des Eaux Mineraies de Spa," Ley-
den, 1754, I2mo. " Differtations fur les Bains d'Eau Am-
ple, tant par immerfion, qu'on douches et en vapeurs,"
Liege 1757, i2mo. " CaraiStcres des Medccins, ou I'ldee
d6 ce qu'ils font communement, et cclle de cc qu'ils devroient
etrc, ccc." ibid. 1 760, 1 2mo, " DiflTcrtation fur les Aflinites

chymiquesy

L I M

L I M

:*hymiqu€8, qui a rcmportc le prix de Phyfiqile de I'aii
.1758, au jugemcnt de l'v\cadcmie de Rouen," ibid. 1761,
•lamo. " Nouveaux Amufemtns des Eaux Mincralcs de
■Spa," ibid. 1761, izmo. " DifTcrtation fur les doulours
•vagues, coniuics lous le nom do goutte vague, et do rlicu-
inatif'ne gouUeux, &c. ;" a prize efTay, ibid. 1'6^. " Re-
cueil des Ettets dei Eaux Minerales de Spa, de I'an 1764;
iivec des reuiarques fur le fytteme dc M. Lucas furies memes
€aux minerales," ibid. \~6^. Elov. DiCl.

Ll.MliOUlUi, Duchy of, in Geography, before the revolu-
tion, was a province of the Netherlands, bounded on the
"N. by the duchy of Juliers, on the E. by the elcdoratc of
(Cologne and duchy of Juliers, and on the S. and ^^^ by
the bilhopric of Liege ; about 30 miles long and 24 broad ;
but now annexed to France, and forming part of the de-
^lartment of the Ourte. It affords good arable ground, and
abounds with a fine breed of cattle. Near the town of
iinibourg are found mines of iron, lead, and calamine,

LlMBOUllO, late capital of the above-mentioned duchy,
now a town of France, in the department of the Ourte, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftridl of Malmcdy ; fituated
near the river Wa/.e, in a fertile country, on a pleafant
mountain. It was formerly fortified in a regular mauRcr,
and had a caiUe, built on a rock, and defended by towers
andbaftions, conllrufted of free- (lone. Wheii it was ceded
to the houfe of Auilria by the treaty of Baden, the fortifi-
cations were dellroyed. Near it are quarries of different
kinds of marble ; the adjacent racks are romantic ; the air
is healthy, and the inhabitants long-lived. Here is a confider-
able manufacture of woollen cloth ; and in its environs fome
excellent chcele is made. The town is faid to contain 14H4,
and the canton 12,759 inhabitants, en a territory of 152^
kiliometres, in 12 communes; 20 miles E.S.E. of Liegel
N. lat. jo' 36'. E. long. 2y 30'.

. LIMBR.A, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 35 miles
W. of Gogo.

LIMBRY, a town of Hindooflan, in Guzerat ; 68
miles AV. of Amcdabad.

LlMBURG, a lordfhip and principality of Germany,
belonging to the circle of Fraiiconia, but fituated in
Swabia ; extending from S. to N. almoft 20 miles, and from
\V. to E. 18 miles.- Alfo, a town of Germany, fealcd on
the Lahn y 26 miles N. of Mentz. N. lat. jo° 20'. E.
long. S 3'' — Alfo, a town and citadel of Germany, called
Hohen-Limbiirg, which gives name to a county, a fief of the
county of Mark, in which it is infulated ; about 15 miles
long and 12 broad ; 30 miles E. of Dufl'eldorp.

'LIMBUS, or Limb, is a term m the Roman Theology,
jifed for that place where the patriarchs are fuppofed to have
waited for the redemption of mankind, and wiiere they ima-
gine our Saviour continued from the time of his death to
that of his refurreftion.

Du-Cange fays, the fathers call this place limbus, eo quod
Jit limbus mferiorum, as being the margin or frontier of the
other world.

Limbus is -.ilfo ufed by Catholics for the place dellined to
receive the fouls of infants, who die without baptifm ; who
Jiave not deferved htll, as dying in'innoi ence ; nor yet are
.worthy of heaven, becaufe of the imputation of original
Jin.

Li.MBUS CoroUe, in Botany, the expanded part, or border,
flfa monopctalous corolla, fupported by the tube, and ana-
logous to the lamina of each petal in a polypetalous one.
-See Coi'.oLLA and La.mina.

LI ^^ BUY AN, in Geography, a town on the S. coaft of
. jtheiHandof Malbate. N. lat. iz S. E. long. 133 36'.

X-IME, LiWiisfONU, ia Mineralogy, KalLjleiu, Germ.

Pirrre calcaire, Ch'aux earlonalet, Vr. This fpeeies' of the
carbonates of lime is divided by Werner into four fub-
fpecies. 1. Compart lime-flone. 2. Foliated lioie-llone.
3. Fibrous lime-flone. 4. Pea-llone.

I . ComfiiUl linii'-Jlonr, is fubdivided into common compnft
lime-flone, and roe-Rone.

A. Common compnll liiiif-Jlane ; Ctmciner fUchler ialljlein,
Wern. Pierre ealcaire compatle commune, Broch. Chaux
carhonatie compnde ou groffure, Haiiy. Compail Ume-Jlonc,
Kirwan. Tdlt halhlhn, Swed.

Among the nnmerous colours of common compaft lime-
flone, the molt frequent are the various fhades of grey, fuch
as fmokc-grty, vcllowilh-grey, bluifli-grey, rediifli and
greenifh-grey ; it is alfo feen greyifh-white, greyifh-black,
flefli-red, with fome deep tints of red and ot yellow ; fevc-
ral of thefe colours often occur in the fame fragment, and
moftly in fuch veined, clouded and other delineations which
are dillinguiflied by the epithet of marbled.

It is moftly found mallive, fometimes in rolled, feldom in
tabular pieces, frequently with, and aiiuoil entirely com-
pofed of, extraneous follils, particularly fliells.

Internally it is dull. Its texture is always more or lefs
clofely conipaft, fometimes wax-like ; fratture I'mall and fine
fplintery pafTing into large and flat conchoidal, and fome-
times into even. Fragments indeterminately angular, more
or lefs fharp-edged.

The varieties having a clofe texture are tranflucent on
the edges.

It is femi-hard, fometimes approaching to foft ; brittle;
eafily frangible.

Specific gravity from 2. ,00 to 2.700.

It is chiefly compofed of lime, carbonic acid, and water ;
but is feldom without an admixture of fome argil and oxyd
of iron, and fometimes intlanuiiable matter.

This widely extended fubllance occurs principally as
fletz rock, but it is alfo found in the tranfition mountains.

The tranfition lime-llone is generally more tranflucent on
the edges, and very often exhibits variegated colours, parti-
cularly black, fnicke-grey, bluifli and greenilli-grey, and red.
It contains,»like the fletz lime-llone, petrifaflions, but moft-
ly of fea animals, the prototypes of which do no longer exift.
With regard to the pctrifaf'lion, both in the tranfition and
fletz lime-llone, it is to be obfervcd, that they occur pretty
regularly difpofed ; difl'erent ftrata being generally furnilhed
each with particular genera or even fpeeies.

Fletz lime-llone occurs, almofl without exception, dif-
tinttly flratified; the ftrata are fometimes very thin, of which
we have a remarkable inilance in the lime-ftone quarries of
Sollenhofen, near Pappenheim, in Germany. Tliefc ftrata,
which, as Mohs inf'jrms us, arc very regular and perfcftly ho-
rizontal, contain the well-known petrifactions which are
called after that place, but are much leis frequently found
than is generally imaeined.

M. de Bournon fays, that in the Alpe of Dauphine lime-
ftone is found in ftrata of no more than one or tv,o inches in
thickncfs, in which cafe it is not unfrequemly mixed with
quartz. This lime-ftone in tables, called laujcs in Dau-
phine, is employed for enclofing fields : a fimilar variety is
found at Grenoble at the foot of the mountains of Saf-
fenages.

Fletz lime-flone is frequently alternating with fubordinate
ftrata of niarle, and bituminous marie flate ; but in thefe cafes
the lime-ftone is generally greatly predominating. The ex-
terior of mountains coinpofed of iletz lime-ftone is of a
peculiar kind ; the hills formed by it are feldaim conical, but
blunt and malTv, and interfetled by deep valhes.

There are, befides the tranfitiuu lime-llone, fcveral other

formations

L I M E.

formations of compaift lime-Hone. That called by Werner
xhejirjljlctz, Ttms-Jhne is the oideil ; its lowell ftratuin is the
bituminous and cupriferous marie flate, or tiie kupjir-fch'.ej'tr-
fift^, as it is called by German miners : it extends round a
CTreat part of the oldell mountains of Germany, fuch as
the Hartz, the Thuringian foreil, Suabia, &c. rells on the
old red fand-ftone, and is covered by the oldeft flet/. gypfum,
or the variegated fand-flone.' It contains, bclldcs the above
copper (late ftrata, feveral ores of copper, cobalt, heavy
fpar, S:c. being the produdlions of veins.

The fecond formation of fletz lime- Hone is calledyJ.-//-
Tims-Jlom, on account of its abounding in petrifactions,
which, however, are not peculiar to it, nor do tliey confill
in (hells only, for the upper llrata contain likewife petrified
crabs, vermiculites, fpecies of afterias, &c. (See Shells,
peirified, and M.^rble. ) It is widely extended, and appears
molb charafteriftic in Franconia, Suabia, and Bavaria.
This formation is alfo remarkable, on account of the many
caves which occir in it almoft in all parts of the world, and
many of them filled with the oUeous remains of land animals.
The moft famous of thefe lime-ftone caves are thofe of
Muggendorf and Galenreuth in Cayreuth, at Eichitedt in
Franconia, the Baumanlliole on the Hartz, thofe of Dal-
matia, Carniola, Hungary, Siberia, &c.

There are fome other fubordinate formations of fletz-
lime-ftone ; which, however, require to be more clolely ex-
amined before their charafters can be determined with any
thing like precillnn. Of fuch apparently diftinft depo-
fitions the following are mentioned by profeffor Janieion.
I. A fletz lime-ftone, in Poland and_ Silefia, which alternates
with beds of lead-glance and calamine. It was formerly
called the calamine formation, and Karften confiders it as
fubordinate to the firll fletz lime-ftone, but, according to
Werner, it belongs to the fecond. 2. -V depofit of lime-
ftone between Drefden and MeilTen, particularly near Plauen
and in the vicinity of Gbttingen, which was confidered as a
third fletz lime-ftone formation, but is now clafled as a mere
variety of the fecond fletz lime-ftone : it is generally fandy,
or mixed with clay, and is therefore feldom ufed as lime,
but principally employed as a building ftone. It often eon-
tains petrifactions, fuch as corallites, ammonites. Sec. and
fometimes lead-glance is difteminated through it. 3. A
lime-ftone formation at Wehrau, in Upper Lufatia, contain-
i"g newer petrifaftions, fuch as peftinites, mytilites, S:c. :
It alternates with beds of fand-ftone, and the whole refts
upon alluvial land. 4. A fletz lime-ftone of a reddifli-brown
colour, frequently containing petrifaftions ; it is horizon-
frilly ilratiried, and contains beds of a variety of alum flate.
Alfo a conchoidal lime-ftone of Greece is mentioned as pro-
bably conftituting a particular formation.

The ufes to which compacl lime-ftone is applied are
various ; it is principally employed as a building ilone, and
burnt for makir^g lime and mortar; nor is it lefs important
to the agriculturift as a manure, to the miner as a flux for
the reduction of ores, to the foap-boiler, tanner, &c.

The iiiie-graincd and variegated varieties of compail lime-
ftone, many of which are highly valued, are known by the
name of marble ; a term which is more particularly applied
to the fine varieties of granular lime-ftone, and alfo given to
various mixtures of lime-ftone with other fubftances. See
Marble.

B. Roe-jlone ; Rocigeiiflan,Vilcrn. O-oiform lime-JIone,Y^iTV{ .
Oolite, Broch. Chaux carboiuitce globuUforme, Ha'uy. Me-
finite, pfammile. See.

its colour is generally yellowifli-brown, paffing into va-
rious deeper ftiades of brov.n, fuch as hair-brown, clove-
brown ; it is alfo found fmoke-grey, yellowifti, and reddifli-
VoL. XXI.

grey. The colour of the globules is often different from
that of the marley mafs by which they are cemented to-
gether.

It is found maftive. It i"; dull. Frafture fine fplinlcry, a
charafler not cafily obfervable, on account of the fmallnefs
of the diftin£t concretions. Fragments indeterminately an-
gular, blunt-edged.

It confifts of fpherical, granular, diftinft concretions ;
each of which is generally compofed of concentric lamellar
concretions, which are either cemented together by a marley
fubftance, or connected by limple contact ; the grains vary
in fize, and are often fo minute as to be fcarccly diftinguifh-
ableby the naked eye ; the largelt are nearly of the llze of
a pea, but thele are feldom fcen. In fome. varieties each
globule is an aggregate of fever. 1 fmaller globules.
It is opaque, feldom tranflucent on the edges.
It is foft and fcmi-hard ; brittle ; eafily frangible. Spe-
cific gravity 2.456 — 2.494, Ku'w.

Its chemical charafter is little diiTerent from that of the
common corapaft lime-ftone. The variety analyfed by Kir-
wan was compofed of 90 parts (jf carbonate of )ime and
10 of aluminc, with fome oxyd of iron.

This fub-fpecies is much lefs frequently met with than
common compaft lime ftone. It occurs, however, in con-
fiderable quantities at Brunfwic, in Thuringia, particularly
in the dittricl of Weimar, in that of Mansfeld, Sangerf-
haulen, Klofterroda, &c. in Tyrol ; in Englar.d, at Bath, in
Derby ftiire, at Purbeck.

It occurs chiefly, in more or lefs confiderable beds, in the
variegated fand-ftone forrrtition, to which it is fubordinate,
and between the ftrata of \v-hich it is generally intcrpofed
with great regularity. It contains no pelrifaftions, nor is
it metalliferous.

Roe-fto!ie, being very fubjeft to difintegraticn, is feldom
employed for the purpolos of building ; but it is in fome
countries ufed as a manure. The more compact varieties take
a tolerably good polifli.

The name of roe-ftone is given to this mineral on account
of its clofe refemblance to hlb.-roes ; indeed, the old mine-
ralogifts were fo far niifled by the imitative form of this
fubftance, that they realK conlidcred it as the petrified roes
of fifti.

The origin of the ftruflure of roe-ftone is not«eafily ex-
plained ; fome have confidered it as a conglomerate of rolled
pieces of hme-ftone ; others have afligned the fame origin to
It as to the pea-ftone ; but Werner confiders it as the refult
of cryftallization.

2. Foliated Ihne-JIune ; BHittnger Lalhjleiii of Werner, who
divides this fub-lpecies into two kinds : I. Granular lime-
ftone. 2. Calcareous fpar.

A. Granular lime-Jlarie. Koriiiger iali/lai!,Wern. Foliated
and granular lime-Jloiie, Kirw. Pierre calcaire grcnue, Broch.
Chaiixcarhonaiie faccardldf, Haiiy. Granular, or J'aline mar-
ble, Jlaluary marble, & c .

Its chief colour is white, often fnow-white, greyifli, yellovr-
ifli, and greenifli and reddilli-vvhite ; alfo bluifli, greenifli, a(h
and fmoke-grey, and greyiili-black ; from grcenilh-white it
paftes into yellowifti and olive -green', and /rom reddifli-white
into pearl-grey and .ftcflj-red. Its colours arc moftly uni-
form, but it alfo occurs fometimes fpotted, and with llriped
and veined delineations ; and on their rifts the mafl^es are
now and then marked with dendritic figures.

It is maflive. Internally it alternates from fliining to
glirtening and glimmering ; its luftre being intermediate be-
tween pearly and vitreous.

Fiafture foliated ; ionietimes, on account of the fmall-
nefs of the particles, it appears almoft compact and fplin-

F tery.

L I M E,

tenf. Frai^menJs Indeterminately aftgulnr, not particularly
(harp-ed'^ed. It occurs almoll rfKvays in graii'.ilar dilUnCl
concretion?, which arecoarfe, fmall, and finegrained.

1' is jTenorally trandiicid ; the dr.rk-coloiired varieties
tranfl'.Kvnt only on the cdj^es

It is feii.i-hard, fome^imes hard when mixed "ith liliccous
and argillaceous particles ; brittle ; cafdy frangible ; feldom
clalbc. .

Specific gravity 2.707 (white Cnrrara), Mufchenbr ; —
2.717 (the fame)', Kirwan ; — 2.837 (Parian), Bridon ; —
".849 (white Saxon), Gcllert ; — 2.8j6, (elallic var. from
Campo Lon^o), Fl. dc Bellevue.

Pure white granu'ar hV.e-ilone is infufible before the blow-
pipe, and only crumbles to piccef. In the charcoal cruci-
ble, that of Carrara was found by Klaproth to be burnt to
<|uicklime; while in the clay crucible it was fu fed into a
compaft, tranfparent, hard glafs of a light glafs-green co-
lour. It iifi'.ally ftrongly effervefces with nitric acid, and
•when pure is foon difiblved in it without leaving a refidue.

Granular lime-ftone is almoft alway.'! of primitive forma-
tion ; it feldom occurs as tranfition rock, and fcarcely ever
as a produftion of fLCOndary mouvitains, or if it be found in
thcfe, it is never in extcnfive depofitions, but only in beds of
rot very con uderable dimcnfion.s. As tranfilion rock it prin-
cipally occurs on the Hartz ; it is found there of a grey
colour, and of coarfe granular texture.

Primitive granular lime-ttone is fcidom feen very diftinflly
ftratified ; it moll commonly occurs in confiderablo beds in
gr.eifs, mica flate, and clay flate, in which latter the Iran-
fition lime-ilone appears, which, however, principally be-
longs to compaft lime-tlcne. It is generally iimple, bi:t alfo
font.iins ingredients which are characleriUic of it, fach as
mica, quartz, ferpcntine, tremoiite, hornblende, c!ay (late,
garnets, magnetic iron-ftone, blende. Sec. Mixe<^wi:h no'^le
ferpcntine it conditutes the ■uerik ant'ico.

The common varieties are employed for the fame purpofcs
as comnad lime-ftone ; the finer are among tiic muft fulendid
and defirable materials for ftatuary and architcftiire, and for
the decoration of the interior of houfes. See M.xreLE, under
which article alfo feveral of the numerous localities of this
fub-fpecies will be given.

Some varieiies of granular lime-ftone have manifcfted a
confider^le decree of flexibility ; one of thefe was dif-
covered by M- Fleuriau de Eellevne, at an elevation of 6000
leet, on Campo Longo, on mount Gothard. Tlie fame phe-
nomenon may be anificially produced by expofing granular
iime-ftone to a certain degree of heat.

3. Cakartous [par. Cak /par. Jam. Kalhfpath, Wern.
Civr.monfiary Kirw. Spalh cakaire, Broch.

Its principal colour is white, which is pure and fnow-
■whitc, or greyifli, yellowifh, greenidi, and feldom reddidi ;
it occurs alio olive, afparagus, piilachio and leik-green ;
greenidi-" rey, yellowifli-grey, honey, ochre, wine, ai^d wax-
yellow ; flelh-red, brov.n-red, and very rarely rofe-red ;
fmoke-grey pafTuig into black ; very feldom pearl-grey, and
light violet-blue.

It occurs mafiive and diffeminated, alfo drufcd and fta-
laftiticil, but molt commonly cryftallized.

The primitive figure of the cryftals is an obtufe rhomboid
of 101' 32' 13", and 73- 27' 47", according to Haiiy ; and
of TOl'^ 32', and 7S' 28', according to Bournon.

The integrant molecule, as obferved by Monf. de Bour-
ron, is a trihedral prifm with inclined bales. The number
of modifications derived from the primitive rhomboid is
very confiderable ; thofe enumerated in the laft mentioned
author's very elaborate " Trait e de Miacr.dogie," amount-
ing to no lefs than !ifty-nine.

The figures fuppofed fundamental by Werner, and from
which all the others may be derived, are : the fix-fidcd
pyramid, the fix-fided prifm, and the three-fided prifm.-
The followinir Wernrrian defcription of the different va-
rieties of calcareous fpar is from JanVefon's Mineralogy.

1. The fixfi(hd Prifm. — When perfetl it is acute, and
three alceruate lateral edges are more obtufe tiiaii the otheni.
It occurs I. Simple; either erect or inverted. The inverted
has three cylindrical concave, and three inwardly bent lateral
plants, and on the upper extremity it is flatly acuminated
by three planes, whicii are fet on the c)lindrically concave
lateral planes. 2. Double, where the lateral planes of the
one are obliquely fet on the lateral planes of the other, in
fuch a manner, that the edges of the common bafis form a
zigzag line, and the more obtufe lateral edges of the one
are oppofed to the lefs obtufe lateral edges of the othci-
pyrnmid. Of this figure the following varieties occur :
(7. The extremity of the pyramid is fometimes more or lefs-
deeply and flatly acuminated by three fomewhat convex
planes, which are fet on the more obtufe lateral e<lges ?
b. The angles of the common bafe are often more or lefs
deeply truncated; when the truncating planes become fo large
that they touch one another, the tr^nfitinn into the fix-fided
prifm is formed, c. The lefs obtufe edges are fometimes
bevelled, and the extremities fometimes more or lefs deeply
truncated, d. If two double fix-fidod jjyramids penetrate
one another in the direflion of their axis, and one of them
is turned around a fixth of its periphery, fo that the lefs ob-
tufe lateral edges of the one cryfta! come to be oppof«:d to
the lefs obtufe lateral edges of the other, the refult is a
twin cryllal, reprefenting a double fix-fided pyramid having
three alternate re-entering angles at the common bafe, where
the more obtufe lateral edges are oppofed to one another.

2. Sixfulcd Prifm. — It occurs ufually h idi three alternate
lateral planes broader than the oth.ers, and rather acutely
acuminated by fix planes which are fet on the lateral edges,
and t!:e acuminating planes m.eet alternately under more obtufe
angles, a. The fame prifm a fecond time flatly acuminated
by three planes, which are fet on the alternate obtufe lateral
edges of the firft acumination. b- When th.e planes of the
fecond acuminatioii enlarge fo much that thofe of the firll
entirely difappear, il\e.'-e refults the fix-fided prifm flatly
acuminated by three planes, which arc fet on the alternate
and alternating lateral planes, c. The apex of the acumi-
nation is often more or lefs deeply truncated, which pro-
duces the fix-fided prifm, in which Ihe alternate ar.d alter-
nating terminal angles are truncated, d. When the trun-
cr.tion of the apex becomes fo large that all traces of the
acum.i'iation difappear, the perfect fix-fii d prifm is formed.
e. When the prifm becomes lower, it paiies into the f:x-
fided table, which is often exrreir.ely thin.

3. I'hreefiiled Pyramid.— 1. Simple three-fided pyramid,
whofe fummit angle is of variou"^ degrees of magnitude, from
obtufe to acute. 2. If the angles of the preceding figure
are fo deeply truncated, tLit the angles of the truncating
places meet each other, an oftahedron is formed. 3. The
pyramid is often double ; in which cafe, the lateral planes
of the one pyramid are fet on the lateral edges of the other.
It prefents the following varieties : a. Flat double flx-fided
pyramid, which has fometimes convex lateral planes, b. If
a number of thefe flat or obtufe pyramids are piled on one
another, there is formed a fix-fiiled prifm acuminated by
three planes, which are fet on the alternate and alternating
lateral planes, c. When this pyramid becomes very obtufe,
it gives rife to the lens. d. When the fummits of the py-
ramid become lefs obtufe, and approach to right angles, a
figure differing but little from the cube is formed,, e. When

S> the

L I M E.

9 the fummits become ftill more acute, an acute double llirec-
lided pyramid is formed, f. The acute double three-lidod
pyramid is fometimes truncated on the lateral gdgcs, fome-
times bevelled : in the latter cafe, when the bevelling planes
become fo large that the original ones are very fmall, or even
difappear, the refult is an acute double three-fided pyramid,
having its planes length-v.ife divided ; or it is a double fix-
fided pyramid, g. If the fummits of the double fix-fided
pyramid are deeply truncated, it gives rife to the fix-fided
table, having its terminal planes fet on alternately in oppo-
lite dircAions.

Though the preceding defcription of the different modi-
fications of Calcareous fpar may poflefs the merit of fpeakin^
to the eye, yet it can by no means fuperfede the details of
a llriclly cryilallographical inveftigation ; we therefore fub-
join a fiiort abftraA of the excellent clafUlication given by
coimt B nu-non.in the firll volume of his " Tratte de Mine-
ralogie" lately publithed.

All the modifications of cryftallized carbonate of lime are
by this author divided into, i, prifmatic; 2, rhomboidal ;
and J, pyramidal modifications.

I. Prl malic Modifications.

1. Prifm from th: eigei of the hafc of the pr'tnuti-ve cryflal ;
or thefe edges intercepted each by a plane. — Of this, a
variety with very fnort prifm occurs in Cumberland and
Uerbyfhire. That with long prifm ( Chaux carbon, prifme,
Haiiv, pL 24. f. 10 ) is likewife found in Cumberland.
The variety in which the lateral planes form rhombf, fo that
the cryftal at firft fight has the appearance of the garnet
dodecahedron, is the Icarceft of this modification.

2. Prifm from the fol'td angles of the lafe ; thefe angles of
the primitive cryilalbcinginterccpredeachby a plane. — The
chaux carb. ImitaLli, Haiiy, (ib. fig. 12.) belongs to this
modification. It is generally feen in combination with
others. Sometimes two of the planes of the pyramid of the
primitifle rhomboid enlarge at the expence of the third ; and
fometimes one of them caufes, in the fame manner, the two
others to difappear. Found in Cumberland, Dauphine,
and on the Hartz.

3. Summit intercepted by a plane perpendicular to the axis. —
This modification feldom occurs in its finiple fiate. The
varieties in which this plane is of confiderable extent is called
chaux carb. liafee by Haiiy (pi. 23. fig. 8.) This is fre-
quently feen nnited with the preceding modifications; in
which cafe, if the new plane has caufed the j-'vramid of the
rhomboid entirely to difappear, the chaux carb. prifmatique,
Haiiy, (pi. 24. fig. 14.) is produced, the fineft groups of
which are found in Cumberland and on the Hart/. Some
of the lateral ])lanes of thefe prifnis frequently enlarge, at
the expence of the adjoining planes; fo that one, two, or
even three, entirely difappear. The cryflals of the regular
hexahedral prifmatic variety, from the Hartz, are not unfre-
quently feen with white opaque furface, and alfo fometimes
to include fimilar cryflals of fmaller diameter, which now
and then project above the terminal plane of the larger cryf-
tal. The prifm of this variety is often fo fhort as to repre.-
fent a thin fix-fided table. When both the fecond and the
firil modifications are united in the prifm, we have the chaux
carb. peridodicacdre of Haiiy (pi. 26. fig. 33.)

II. Rkomloidal Modifications.

A. Obtufe Rhomboids. Of thefe, Nos. 5, 6. 8, and 9, have
not before been noticed.

4. Obtufe rhomboid of l\^° "LC)', and G^,\\'. — One of the
moft common modifications, and more frequently than all
the rell (except the preceding) combined with otjiec

modifications.' It is produced by the edges of the pyranids
of the primitive rhomboid being replaced each by a plane
equally i-.iclining on thofe by which the edge itfelf is formed.
In its complete ftate, tliis modification is the chaux carb.
iquiaxe of H;iuy (pi. 23. fig. 2.), wiiich is much more fre-
quently met with than the different pali'ages of the primitive
rhomboid into this modification. The planes of this fourih
modification are often longitudinally itriated ; and when
they are arrived at tlieir limits, the llris run parallel to the

fhorier diagonal of the rhomboidal planes This is found

united principally with No. 2, reprefcnting various degrees
of elongation of the chaux carb. dodkacdre, Haiiy (pi. 24.
fig. j8.) : found alfo as twin cryftals in Derbythire ; with
No. 1, belonging to the chaux carb. bifur.itaire, Haiiy
(fig. 17.\ ch;tily from Cumberland (rare); with Nos. i
and 2, and witn Nos. 2 and 3, chaux carb. tqui-vaknte,
Haiiy (pi. 25'. fig. 28 ), both from Cumberland ; with
Nos. 2 and 3, and part of the primitive planes, whence it is
called chaux carb. Iriforme by Haiiy ifig. 26.). Tlie lall
mentioned variety is from the Hartz ; and both the fpecimcn
of Haiiy and that defcribed by M. de Bournon are remark-
able, for having part of the pyramid covered with cryftalline
matter, whicli appears to be depohted after the cryftal had
been completed, and is thus forming a paflage into the
regular hexahedral prifm.

5. Very obtufe rhomboid of \\y 56', and 6i' 4'. — It is
produced by tlie edges of the primitive rhomboid being re-
placed each by a plane, which is inclined towards its ium-
mit. This has hitherto been found only in combination
with other modifications, viz. Nos. 2 and 3. The cryflals
are all from the Hartz, where red filver ore is fometimes
accompanied with them. The variety of calcareous fpar,
called en rofe, generally belongs to the complete rhomboid
of this modification, as alio m.ofl of thofe known by the
names of coxcomb and lenticular ip.ir; but they are feidom
determinable by the goniometer.

6. Obtufe rhomboid 0/" 1 13 and G'f. — This is cafily con-
founded with the preceding modification. Count Bournon
has obferved it only in a few inllances, combined with the
planes of Nos. i, 2, and 36 {vide infra), in cryflals from
Derbyfliire and Cumberland.

7. Obtufe rhomboid of 107" 3', and 72" 57'. — This is the
refult of a decrement of the lamina;, ilniilar to tljat which
produces the preceding modification ; but the planes thus
formed are more inchned on the bafe of the primitive rhom-
boid. To this is to be referred Haiiy's chaux carb. guadri-
rhomboidale. (Ann. du Muf. d'H. Nat. t. I. pi. 8. fig. 4.)
It is always obferved in combination with other modifica-
tions, fuch as with thofe of Nos. i, 2, and with thofe of
the primitive cryllal. They come from Dauphine and
Derbyfhire. Th.is modification has not yet been feen pet-
feCl ; though nearly fo, in a variety which has very narrow
planes of No. i . One variety from Derbyfhire, which has
the prifm of No. 2 combined with this modification, and
part of the planes of the primitive rhomboid, might be cafily
miilaken for prifmatic rock cryllal, of which it has fome-
times the tranfparency. 'J^he planes marked / in Haiiy's
chaux carb. relrcgrade, (pL 26. fig. 36.) belong to this
variety.

8. Very obtifs rhomboid of 118' 34', and 61' 26'. — This
moll obtufe of a'l rhon;boids known to occur in calcareous
fpar, is the refult of a decrement of the cryftalline lamina?,
at the obtufe angles of the planes that form the fclid angle
of the fummit, which is thus replaced by three planes refling
on thofe of the primitive rhomboid. This modification,
which is fcarce, does not occur in its complete ftate ; befides
with planes of the primitive rhomboid, it has been obferved

F z in

L 1 M E.

in i-ombination with thofc of Nos. I, 3, 5, 8, 41, and 43 j
molt of them from the Hartz. Perhaps fome of the very
flat lenticular varieties of calcareous fpar may be alfo referable
to this modilication.

q. Sligkly ohtuji rhomboid of 95° 2ft', and 84' 32'.— This
very rare modilicHtion is produced by the obtufe anglrs on
the bafe of the primitive rhomboid being replaced, each by
a plane refting on the correfpondinir primitive planes. It is
obvious, that the cleavage of this rhomboid mail be different
from that of the hill mentioned modification, by being on
the planes of the fiimmit inltcad of the bafe; while that of
all the preceding rhsmboids, likewife at the bale, takes
T)lace on tlie edges. This rhomboid has been obfervcd per-
left in fpecimens from Siberia ; and in combination with
the planes of No. 36.

B. Acute rhomboiiU. Nos. lo, 12, 15, 16 and iS — 21 of
this divilion are new.

10. ylcute rhomboid of 6 J' 28', and 1 14° 32' The obtufe

angles of t'.ie primitive rhomboid replaced each by a plane,
as in the preceding ; but being the refult of a more rapid
decrement of the lamina:, its axis is three times longer than
that of the primitive rhomboid. Occurs, though rarely,
in Dcrbyfhire, both in its complete ilate, and in combination
with remains of the planes of No. 2.

1 1 . ylcute rhomboid of 45 '' 34', and 134° 26'. - The refult
of a decrement on the fame angles as in the preceding, but
the decrement prodiking a rhomboid much more acute.
It is the chaux carb. coiitrajiante of Haiiy (pi. 23. fig. 5.)
one of the moll common rhomboids that occur in calcareous
fpar. It occurs perfect, fomctimes with traces of the pri-
mitive planes, and in combination with Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, and
36. Is found in Derbvlhire, Cumberland, at Grenoble in
France, on the Hartz, &c. When the planes of the rhom-
boid of this modification are combined with thofe of the
common acute pyramidial dodecahedron, No. 36, they, re-
place the folid angles of the bafe of this dodecahedron in the
form of an elongated trapezoid.

12. Acute rhomboid of ^o'^ 36', and 139- 34'. — Decrement
on the fame angles as in the preceding, to which it ap-
proaches clofely. Occurs mollly in its complete ilate in
Uerbylhire, and has been feen combined in the fame cryllal
with planes of the primitive rhomboid, and Nos. i, 14, and
36, in which latter its planes are placed nearly in the fame
manner as thofe of the rhomboid of the preceding modi-
fication.

1 3. Very acute rhomboid of i j' and 165''. — Decrement on
the fame angles as in the preceding modifications, but giving
origin to a much more acute rhomboid. Count Bournon
has obferved it in its complete Hate. It is feldom feen, and
it is difficult to preferve it, on account of the great fragility
of the fine termination of the cryllals. Combinations of
the planes of this and No. 4 occur in Derbyfhire, on the
Hartz, &c. and in Cumberland, generally on cryllals of
fulphate of barytes ; the one called chaux carb. coniraSce
(Haiiy, pi. 24. fig. 20.) belongs to it. Fine groups of
this modification in its complete Hate have been found in
Wcftmoreland ; and in the lame fpccimen, combined with
planes of the very acute pyramidal dodecahedron, No. 54.

14 Slightly acute rhomboid of ?)■]' ^2' , and g2^ 18'. — This
is the chaux carb. cuhdide of Hauy, (pi. 23. fig. 7.) It
occurs complete, with planes of the primitive rhomboid, and
combined with the planes of fevcral other modification'',
fuch as Nos. 1 — 4, and No. 15, in Languedoc, at Stron-
tian, Bi»th, in Derbylhire, and on the Hartz. This modifica-
tion," combi:!ed with the planes of No. 3, is the chaux
carb. apoph'ine oiWixx)-, (pi. 24. fig. 15.)

15. Acute rhomboid c/84" 26', and g^" 34'. — This rhom-

boid, the preceding, and all the following, arc the refult
of a decrement of the cryftalline laminae on the obtufe

angles of the.bafc ; and the cleavage in all of them takes
place at the fummit, and on the edges of the cryllal. Though
combined with moll of the other modifications, the planes
of this rhomboid have never been mentioned by cryllallo-
graphers, a circumllance probably owing to their fmallncfs,
and tlieir having been confounded with the preceding, from
which it is, however, cafily dillinguilhed, even without the
alfidance of the goniometer. It is fometimes found in a
complete ftate on the Hartz, and at Strontian in groups,
accompanied with ililbitc and crofs-ftonc, or harmoiomc,
and in combination with the planes of Nos. i — j. and alfo
with the remains of thofe of the primitive rhom.boid.

16. Acute rhomboid of Si^ 19', rtni-/ 98^ 41'. — This is
oftcncr feen in its complete Ilate than combined witl; the
planes of other modifications, fuch as thofe of Nos. i, 2,
3, 4, and 36 ; it alfo occurs with traces of the primitive
rhomboid. Moll of thcfe were brought from the ifland of
Ferroe, and from Scotland ; the former mollly in groups,
with flilbite zeolite, the others with analcime zeolite. The
variety in which it is combined with No. 4, came from Caf-
tagna-moro, in Italy. Their gangue, in the above places,
is a wacke like rock.

17. Acute rhomboid of y ^^ 31', and 104' 29'. — This is
the chaux carb. invcrfe (Haviy, pi. 23. fig. 3.), fo called
becauie this rhomboid is, as it were, an inverfion of the pri-
mitive. Next to No. 14, it is the moll common of all the
modifications of calcareous fpar ; but a circumllance worth
remarking is, that it fcarcely ever occurs in any other but
(liell liine-ftone ; while the reverfe prevails with regard to
the primitive rhomboid which, in its pcrfcft Hate, is feldom
found in any brt the older formations of lime-flone. The
name of muriatique, given to this rhomboid by Ronre de
I'Ifle, is derived from the juil mentioned mode of oc-
curing. The complete rhomboid frequently occurs in
veins at Bath, in Derbyfiiire, and lining hollows of (liell-
marble in feveral other parts of Britain. In dill greater
perfcftion it is found, together with various combinations of
the phines of other modifications, in the (hell lime-ftone of
Coulon, near Lyons, and in thofe ofVougy, near Roanne,
in Forez ; in the former of thefe places it is generally feen in
the interior of filiceo-calcareous geodes ; in the latter in
geodes of black, earthy, and compacl black manganefe,
with mammillary internal furface. It has been obferved by
M. de Bournon combined with the planes of the primitive
rhomboid, and with thofe of Nos. i to 4, and Ncs. 11, 14,
36, 37, and 49. That with narrow remains of the primitive
planes is Haiiy 's chaux carb. an//a(V« (pi. 23. fig-9-)> '''^t
with remains of the primitive planes, and ihofe of the prifm
No. 2, has been defcribed by the fame cryflallograjiher
under the name of chaux carb. uniiinaire (Ann. du iVIuf.
Par, vol. i.) ; that w>lh the planes of the fame prifm No. 2,
and with thofe of No. 3, is Haiiy's chaux carb. perfiflanta
(pi. 25. fig. 29.) ; the fame with additional remains of
the planes of No. 4, is his chaux carb. coardonnee ; and
a variety in which this rhomboid is combined with narrow/
planci of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 37, is defcribed by hira.
under the name of chaux carb. quadruplante. (An». du
Muf. vol. i.)

1 8. Acute rhomboid of 70° 1 8', and IC9" 42'. — This rhom-
boid is very rare, ana has been feen in combination only
with the planes of the prifm No. 2, accornpanied by planes
of Nos. 23, 30, 36, and of the primitive rhomboid. Thefe
cryllals occur in Cum.berland and in Derbyfiiire.

19. Acute rhomboid of bl 12, a;«/iiS 48'. This has
been obferved by count Bournon, in its complete Ilate, im 2

m-dfs

LIME.

mafs of brown iron-floiie ; and alfo in combination with the
planes of the primitive rhomboid and tholL' of Nos. i, 2, 3,
4, 1 1, and 36. The cryllals exhibiting this modification are,
with a few exceptions, ail from Derbylhire.

20. ylcuU rhomboid of ^y ^^', and 12^ 26'.— This rhom-
boid, which has been obferved complete, and in combination
remains of the primitive planes, and thofe of Nos. 2 and 3, is of
ftill rarer occurrence than the preceding. Found in Derbylhire
and Cumberland. The preceding, and the next modiiication,
fometimcs exhibit, underneath"their pyramidal edges, the
planes of the priinitive rhomboid, which, elpcciahy when
of a diitcrent tint from the rell, are vifible througli the fub-
Itance of tlie cryftal ; a phenomenon produced by a fuper-
pofition of cryilalline matter on the cryllal already
formed.

21. Acute flximbotd of ^o" ^A^ , and 1 29° 6'. — This occurs
both fimple and combined with other modifications, fuchas
Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, II, 17, and 46, in the Hartz, in Cumber-
land, and more frequently in Derbylhire. It is often feen to
accompany (lalaftitical varieties of calcareous Ipar.

22. Very acute rhjmbohi of T^-j' 3 i', and 142 29' — This is
the chaux carb. ?7i:xtc of Hauy (pi. 23. lig. 6.) It is, like
the preceding, not unfreqnently met with, particularly as
accompanying ilaladtitical lime-ftone ; it occurs as often in
a complete (late as combined with the planes of other m.o-

difications, amonsc which are Nos.

'3>4.

and 46.

They are principally found in Derbylhire. Tlie variety
which is combined wdth the planes of No 4, has been de-
fcribed by Haiiy under the name of utilmixte (Ann. du
Iiluf. vol. i.) ; and that with the planes of No 1 1, and re-
mains of the primitive planes, is called by the fame cryftal-
lo'j-rapher chaux carb. tri-rhomhai(!a:e (Min. pi. 25. fig. 17.);
that with additional tr.ices of the planes of No. 7, is his
chaux carb. quadrl-rhomboidale (Ann. du Muf. vol. i.). When
the planes of this variety, and thofe of Nos. 11 and 3, are
united at the extremities of the prifmatic modification No. 2,
it is Haiiy's chaux carb. ar.ntilaire (ibid.)

23. Extremely acute rhomboid of 14' 6', and l6j'' 54' This

is the mod acute of all the rhomboids that belong to calca-
reous fpar. It is feldom feen in its complete Itate, both
on account of its minutenefs and its extreme fragility ; M. de
Bournon has, however, obferved it feveral times on the
groups of calcareous fpar from the Hartz, which are confider-
ed as filiform and indeterminable. The combination of the
planes of this with thofe of No. 4, is named ciiaux carb.
ddatee by Haiiy (pi. 24. fig. 31.}, which occurs alfo as
made ; that with traces of the planes of Nos. 3 and 17 is
the fame cryilaliographer's chaux carb. hyperaxide (pi. 25.
fig. ;o.) ; and that with Nos. 4 and 7, his chaux carb. rr/ro-
^rade (pi. 26. fig. 36.) It occurs alfo with the planes of
feveral other modifications. This rhomboid might eafily be
miltaken for that of No. 13, v/hicii is, however, the refult of
quite a different decrement of the cryilalline laminx, aud con-
fequently has a different cleavage.

III. Pyramidal Modif.calions.

The feveral pyramidal dodecahedrons belonging to this di-
vifion, are here diilinguifned from each other by the mealure
of the fohd angle of their lummit, taken on two oppofite
edges of the pyr.nnid.

A. Pyramidal obtufe dodecahedrons — The modifications of
this fub-divifion of pyramidal dodecahedrons are, upon the
whole, very rare, and almoft pccuhar to England, where they
occur in Derbylhire, Cumberland, and Durham. When the
planes of feveral of thofe modifications are combined in the
fame cryftal, theur narrownefs, together with the very obtufe

3

angles they form with one another, fometimcs produces curvi-
linear planes, efpecially when they are, at the fame time, com-
bined with the planes of feveral of tlie rhomboidal modifications.

The following ten modifications, with the exception of
Nos. 27 and 30, have not been noticed before.

24 Obtufe pyramidal dodecahedron of i'^^' 28'. — This modi-
fication (as well as thofe that follow), is the reiult of a retro-
gradation of the cryftalline laminx, along, and parallel with,
the edges of the pyramids of the primitive rhomboid, replacing
each of thefe edges by a double plane or bevelment. Three
of the edges in each pyramid of this modification muft, there-
fore, be exaftly in the fame direftion with thofe of the primi-
tive rhomboid. It has not been obferved either in its pallage
from the primitive rhomboid, or as complete dodecahedron,
but only in combination with very fhort planes of the prifm
No. 2 (from Cumberland) ; with thofe of Nos. 2, 4, and
36, in a pyramidal cryftal from Derbylhire ; and with thofe
of Nos. 2 and 3 j, from the fame county.

23' . Obtufe pyramidal dodecahedron &/' i 26 ^ 5 1 '. — This modi-
fication, if it exiiled in a complete Hate, woidd exhibit py-
ramids with planes forming ifolceles triangles, and conle-
quently with all the angles of the common bafeon the fame
level. M. de Bournon has but twice obferved this modifica-
tion ; and in both cafes combined with the planes of leveral
othei' modifications, among which thofe of the prilm No. 2
are the moft apparent. From Derbyfliire.

26. Obtufe pyramidal dodecahedron of 124' 36'. — This is
of much more frequent occurrence th;m the preceding, from
which it differs eflentially, in having fcalene triangles. The
complete dodecahedron comes from Derbylhire ; a combina-
tion of its planes with thofe of No. 2 from Cumberland.
In Derbyfliire it is alfo found combined with the planes of
feveral other modifications, of which thofe of Nos. 2 and 36
are the moft chaiaiSeriftic.

27. Obtufe pyramidal dodecahedron of 121° 26'. — Theplanes
that terminate Haiiy's chaux cavh . Joti/lraffive ipl. 26.fig.37.)
belong to this modification. They are alio feen in his
chaux carh. furcompofee (pi. 28. fig. 50.), in w'hich five mo-
difications are combined. Cryltals with planes of this dode-
cahedron are common in Derbylhire and Cumberland, where
it occurs combined with the planes of feveral other mod;fi«
cations. The complete dodecahedron is Icarce.

28. Obtufe pyramidal dodecahedron of 118" 26'. — Has not
yet been found in a complete llate. The fimpleft combina-
tion is that with the very Ihort planes of the prifmatic modi- ,
fication No. 2. But it generally occurs together with the
planes of feveral other modifications, fuch as with Nos. 4,
7, II, 27, 28, and 36, and in lome of thefe alio, with re-
mains of the planes of the primitive rhomboid. Found prin-
cipally in Derbylhire and Cumberland.

2 9. Cltufe pyramidal dodecahedron of 11 J 25 '. — Differs but
little from the preceding. It has not been found in a complete
ftate, nor are its planes often ftcn combined with thole of
other modifications j among thofe figured by M. de Bournon
are Nos. 2, 15, 17, and 36. The cryftals which exhibit its
planes are moftly from Derbylhire.

30. Oblufe pyramidal dodecahedron of T 1 ^ 17'. — Its planes-
are reprefenled in Hauy's chaux carb. diijainte (pi. 26,
fig, 38.), in which it is combined' with thofe of Nos. 2 and 36.
In the fame author's chaux carb. bint^enaire (Ann. du Muf.
vol. i. ) it is feen without the planes of tlie prifmatic modif.
No. 2, but with thofe of No. 36 ; and his chaux carb. additive
(ibid.) is the bifonaire, augmented by the planes of No. 4.
Thefe cryftals are faid to come from Derbylhire. M. de
Bour'ion has not iiimfelf ftcn cryftals with planes of this
modification,

51. Cltife

L I M E.

31. Obtuft ptramlJiil dodecahihoii of 100' 24'.— The
•planes produced by ihc retrogradAtiou of the cryftalliiie
lainiiire replace the edges of the primitive rhomboid, but
iiiftead of being parallel to them, as in the precedinj; modili-
CHtions, they become narrower towards the fummit ot the
rhomboid. The two pyramids of this dodecahedron arc, like
thofe of No. 25, compofcd of ifofcelcs triangles, whence
the angles of their hnfe mull be upon a level. It has not yet
been obferved in. it- complete (late; but in a variety compoled
of its planes and thofe of Nos. 35 ?,nd 2, M. de Bournon has
feen it terminate the cry Hal in a very regular manner. It
has alfo been obfervyd in a cryftal in which the planes of
No. 2, and in another in which llioi'e of No. 36. arc predomi-
nant. 'J^ic cry llals exhibiting the planes of this modification
are rare, and have been found only in Dcrbyfliire and Cum-
berland.

32. Obtufc pyramidal dodecahedron of lOl" 6'. — This has
not been feen complete, but in combination with the phinej
of feveral other moditicalions producing very complica'cd
<ry(lals. They occur in Dcrbylhire, but rarely. The
cleavage of this dodecahedron takes place at the bafe on the
lefs obtufe edges.

33. Qbtufe pyramidal dodecahedron of gy''. — The cryftals
in which are feen the planes of this moditication occur but
leldom, and are ilUl more complicated than thofe with the
planes of the preceding modification. One of the two
cryftals figured by M. dc Bournoii comprehends 72, and
the other no lefs than 84 planes, of which thofe of the prif-
matic modification, No. 2, arc the principal ones. They
Were found in Derbyfhire. The cleavage of this dodecahe-
dron is the fame as that of the preceding modHkation.

B. jlitite pyramidal dodecahedrons. — The following modifi-
cations, with the exception of Nos. 34, 56, 39. 48* and 50,
are all new.

34. ylcutc pyramidal dodecahedron o/'88" ^'3'. — The planes
of tins dodecahedron are the refult of a decrement of the
cryllalline laminx along the edges of the bafe of tiie primitive
rhomboid: cleavage at the fummit on the more obtufe edges.
Thefe planes are marked u in Faiiy' figure of his chaux
carb. li^emince (pi. 27 fig. 49.) Befides in this combination,
(in which the planes of No. 36. are the moft prominent,)
M.de Bournon has obferved them witli the planes of Nos. 2,
Z9, and 34, in two cryftals from Cumberland, where alio
the complete dodecahedron has been found. The planes of
this modification are of rare occurrence.

3J. Acute dodccahcdral pyramid of 78^ 40' — This is far
•lefs fcarce than the preccL.ing modificatifm, with which it
agrees in the nature of the decrement and the cleavage.
Has not yet been obferved in its complete ilate. Its planes
are reprefented in Haiiy's figure of chaux carb. afccndante
(pi. 27. fig. 44- «)' '" w-hich they are combined with tiiole of
Nos. 2 and II. Another cryftal has been defcribed by Haiiy,
under the name oi fjufquadniple (Ann. du Muf. vol. ii.),
which di!fers from the latter in having alfo traces of No 28.
The dodecahedron has not been feen in its complete Ilate, but
our author pofleffes cryftals in which the two pyramids are
■feparated from one anotiier only by ftiort planes of the prif-
matic modification No. 2. Befides this, its planes have
been obferved in combination with fome other modifications.
Thefe cryftals have been found in Derbyiliire.

36 ylcutc pyramidal dodecahedron o/" 48-' 22'. — This is
Haiiy's chaux carb. melajlatiqu: (pi. 4<S, iig. 70), a modifica-
tio:i which, both in its complete ftatc, and in conjunction
with the planes of other modifications, is of moft irequent
occurrence in the cryftals of calcareous ipar. We lliall
mention the more intexefting varieties.

When, in the progrefs from the primitive rhomboid mto
this dodecahedron, only fmall planes of the former remain
at the top of the pyramid, it is the chaux carb. linairc (T
Haiiy (pi. 24. fig. 11.) Tlie complete dodecahedron is ftill
more common than this ; it is fometimes found with plants
of the pyramids unequal, and not meeting in a point ; alfo
as made. Combined with fmall planesof No. 2, it is Haiiy's
chaux carb. bifalterne (pi. 25. fig. 23); which likewife
occurs as made. When ihc^planes of the prifmatic variety
are more confiderable than in the jull-mentioned variety,
and, confequently, hexagonal, it is the chaux carb. prifnu:
of Haiiy (pi. 2). fig. 24.) ; this is very common. If, in addi-
tion to the latter, fmall planes of No. 4. are leen, it is t! e
chaux carb. annlogique prifmee of Haiiy (pi 26. fig. 35.) ;
from which the chaux carb. analo^iqtie disjoiiile (Haiiy,
pi. 26. fig. 38.) only differs in the magnitude of the planes
of Nos. 4 and 36. The combination of Nos. 2, 4, and
36, is alio fometimes feen in the fliape of that beau-
tiful made called " heart-fhaped calcareous fpar," and ex-
plained and figured by M. de Bournon. 'i'he prifm of
No. 2, having planes of this 36th modification, togetln r
with remains of the primitive planes at the fummils of the
pyramid, is Haiiy's chaux carb. bibinaire (pi. 25. 'fig. 26.)
In combination with the jji-ifni of No. 1, and with Nos. i
and ^-J, this dodecahedron is feldom found ; in the latter tlie
line which feparates the pyramidal planes from the prifm is
fometimes im.perceptiblc, fo that the cryftal appears com-
pofed of curvilinear planes.

A variety, remarkable on account of its fimplicity, is the
chaux carb. analogigue (Haiiy pi. 26. fig. 34.) ; it is like-
wife compofed L>f the planes of this modilication, and thofe
of Nos. 2 and 4, forming altogether a cryftal of 24 trape-
zoidal planes, not unlike thole of the leucite, except that in
the former the planes are of three different dimtnfions.

This modification is alfo of;cn feen in combination with
the planes of No. 1 1 ; the variety in whi.li thefe latter have
much increafed in fize at the expence of the former, is
Haiiy's chaux carb. blnoleriiaire (pi. 2 ;. fig 25.) ; the fame
cryftal is alfo obfervt-d as made. A fimilar variety, but
which contains alfo narrow planes of Nos. 4 and 17, is the
chiuix carb. doublaute of the fame cryftallographer, (pi. 27.

The pyramidal variety of this modification with p'anes of
Nos 17 and 11, is Haiiy's chaux carb. progrejft-ve (pi. 27.
fig. 41.) ; and a fimilar one, but with the pbnes of 1
No. 2 inilead of II, is the fame auiiior's chaux carb.
emoujfee (pi. 26. fig. 40.) ; the latter occurs alfo as made.

Many more combinations of the planes of this modification,
with thofe of others, are defcribed and figured by count
Bournon ; among others a cryftal, compofeo of feven modi-
fications, contains, in all, fixty planes, and another, com-
pofed of eleven modifications, exhibits no lefs than 96 planets.
The fame author has ilhiftrated this modification by 129
fignres.

37. yseute pyramidal dodecahedron of 40' 14'. — Though
the dodcCdliedron of this modification is confidcrably more
acute than that of the preceding modification ; yet it ap-
pears to have hitherto been confounded with it. It has
been found in combination with the planes of the primitive
rhomboid, and thofe of Nos. 36, 2, and 11, and alfo ia its
complete ilate. The cryftals exhibiting this modification are
pretty large. They have been found only in the Dauphiiie
Alps of Loifan, and in Derbyfhire.

38. P yrnimdal dodecahedron of ^f' 5'. — This might eafily
{je miftaken for the dodecahedron of t lie preceding modifica-
tion. It has not yet been obferved in its complete ftatc, but

in

LIME.

in combination with tTie planes of Hos. 2, 5, ly, 17, 23,
and wil'i remains of thj planes of tlie primitive rhomboid.
Ha^ been found in Hungary, and other places ; but does
not appear to occur in Enirland.

39. PyramlLd doJ.'cah^dron of icp 58'. — The complete do-
decihedron occurs in Germany ; nearly complete, with planes
of Ml. t7 at the points of the pyramids, it is Haiiy's chaux

42', and three under one of 112^44'. The complete do.
decahedron of thss modilicaticn is fcarce, but occurs in Der-
by(hire. In combination willi the planes of other modifica-
tions, particularly with Nos. 2 and 14; 2, 14, and 47; 2, 4, and
50, it is found in Derbyfliire and Cumberhmd ; and com-
bined \yith planes of feveral other rr:odii;cations, count
B jurnon has fecn it among the cryHals of calcareous fpar

c^rh. fixilttodkhnih (p!..2J. fig. 22); with the fummit that accompany the filver ores of Potofi; one of thefe cr'\-f.
interceoted by N" 3, and with trapezoidal planes of No. 2, tals, the refult of eight moditications, has 66 planes
it cOTlH'.utes the fame crylhiiograplier's ciiaux carb. oc!ode- Haiiy's i haux carb. num!:riqui{\. des Min. No. 10

chn^lt (ib. fig. 51.) ; its planes are a!fo feen in his chau)i
cjrb. zon.iire (pi. 26. fig. 39.) in combination with thofe
of N.) I, and of No. 17, which latter are the characteriltic
planes. Alfo the variety defcribed by Hsiiy under the
name oi qu'tntiforme, (Ann. da Muf. vol. ii.) has fmall planes
of this :?9;h modification, which has hitherto been found
principally in Ger.nany.

40. Acute pyran'id^.l dodecahedron of 26^ 34'. — This dode-
cahedron is not unfrequently feen i;i its complete ftate, but

06.) ap-
proaches very near this modiiicalion in the meafurement of
its angles.

4j. Acute pyramidal dulecahedron of ^6' Jo'.— Mio-ht eafily
be miftaken for the dodecahedron. No. 36, in which, however,,
the cleavage takes place on the more obtufe edges. The do-
decahedron in its complete ftate ha.": been found in Derbviliire,
wliere this modification occurs in combination with the planes
of feveral others; the mo!f complic:ited among them is a
cryftal, produced by ten modifications, five of which belong

its points, on account of their great fragility, are generally to rhomboids and four to dodecahedrons, which, together
broken. It occurs in Germany, from wiiich country, and with the planes of the prifra No. 2, form a cryllal of 84
from Derbyfhire and Cumberland, are alfj procured groups plane?,
of crvltals, including the plaaes of this modification, in com-
bination with others, fuch as Nos. i, 2, 3, 17, 19, 21, 22,
59, and 50.

41. Acute pyramidal dodecahedron of 1 3 53'- — This is the
lail, and at the fame time the moit acute, of the feries of
pyramidal dodecahedrons produced by a decrement along the
edges of the bafe of the primitive rhomboid, and confe-

46. Acute pyramidal dodecahedron of 40 2^'. — Refembles
the dodecahedron, No 45, with regard tothe inclination
of its planes to each other ; but it is much more acute.-
On the otiier hand it approaches near the dodecahedron,
No. j6, in the meafurement of the folid angle of its fum-
mit ; but in thi« the inclination of the planes is different,.,
not to mention the difference in the cleavagfe. This dode-

{j'lently with cleavage at the fummit on the more obtufe cahedron in its compL te ftate is very fcarce, it has, however
edges of the pyramid. This dodecahedron occurs complete, been found in Derby fti.ire and Cumberland ; the combinations

of its planes with thofe of other modifications, fuch as
Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, 6, 17, id, and thofe of the primitive
rhomboid, are more frequently met with in thofe oarts of
England.

47. Acute pyramtiLd dodecahedron of 45" 2'.— This appears-
to be peculiar to the fame places, in which the cryftals wi'th
the planes of the preceding modification are found. The
complete dodecahedron is feldom feen. It is moft frequently
found in combination with theprifm No. 2: the ano-Ics of three
alternate edges being very obtufe, its pyittmid appears al-
moR trian^'ular. Thefe cryllals are in general very tranf-
parent and beautiful.

48. Acute py. amdal dodecahedron of 44" la'. — This is but
little more acute than the dodecahedron of the preceding
modification ; but the planes of the latter meet each other,
three under an angle of 163' 50', and three under one of
84^ ; while in this 48th modification the fame planes meet
three under 150° 8', and three under 97' 12'. The dode-
cahedron in its complete ftate has not yet been found. Its-
planes occur in cryftals from Cumberland and Derbylhire,
in combination with thofe of Nos. 2, 14, ^2, 36, and 4J.

48*. Acute pyram-dal dodecahedron of ifV 3.1'. — The planes,
of this modification are thofe marlted x in the figures of
Haiiy's chaux carb. paradoxal (pi. 27. fig. 42.)^ delojiquf
(ib. fig. 46.), -a-cA contplexe (ib. fig. 43.)

49. Acute pyramidal dodecahedron of ^g 9'. — The dodecahe-
dron of this modification in its compiote ftate is from Hun-
gary. Combined with the planes of (everal other modifica-
tions, it occurs principally in Derbyfnire; one of the cryl-
44. AcuJe dodecahedral pyramid of 61'^ 4"]'. — Thmigh the tals from thence, figured by count Bournon, is compofed of
olid angle of the fummit of this dodecahedron differs but 90 planes, being the refult of nine modifications.

hut, on account of its great fragility, is generally feen in a
broken ftate ; fometimes two oppofite planes of the pyramid,
having increafed is fize, fo that they meet no longer in a
point, give rife to cuneiform pyramids. Nor is it uncom-
mon to fee four oppofite planes in the fame cafe. Such
cryftals bear great refemb'aace to certain varieties of arra-
gonite, from which they are, however, eafily diftinguifhed
by their much greater fragility, and by their lamellar
ftruclure. It has been obferved with veftiges of the primi-
tive planes, and in combination with thofe of feveral other
modi'u-ations : in one cryftal there are no lefs than 60 planes,
being the refult of feven different modifications. The cryftals
exhibiting planes of this modification are moftly found in
Cumberland, Derbyftiire, and on the Hartz.

42. Acute pyramidal dodecahedron of 6-^^ ^y'. — With this
bf^gins the feries of thofe dodecahedrons which are the refult
of a decrement of the lamiris at the acute angles, on the
bafe of the primitive rhomboid. Hence the cleavage takes
place at the fummit on the lefs obtufe edges. Is found in its
complete ftate, and combine.! v/ith the planes of Nos. 36,
and 36 and 2, in Derbyihire ; but belongs to the more fcarce
raodilications of calcareous fpar.

43. Acute dodecakedral pyramid of 63' 36^ — This has
been found in a complete ftate in Derbyfhire, where, as well
as in Cumberlaiid, it occurs alfo combined with the planes of
feveral other modifications, forming, in fome inftances, very
complicated cryftals, fuch as that of fig. 476 in the work
before us, the 102 planes of which are the refult of eleven
modifications.

little from that of the preceding modification, yet there is a
great difference in the inclination of their planes ; in the pre-
ceding dodecahedron thefe meet each other under three angles
of I j8' 22', and three others of 96^ 40', while in this 44th
moiificatioa they meet three of them under an aiigis of 140''

90 planes, being '

JO. A.itte pyramidal dodecahedron of 2^" 25'. — To this pro-
bably belong the pyramidal planes of Haiiy's chaux carb,
acutangle. This modification has hitherto been principally
found on the Hartz, it occurs however alfo, combined witiu-
the planes of feveral others, in Derbyfhire apd otter parts

L I M E.

rf England'; the crylb's that exhibit its planes frequently
accompany ftalaclitical carbonate of lime. 'Die complete
dodecahedron has not yet been found.

5 1 . Acute pyramidnl iloJnahcJron of 14° 30'. — The planes
of the very acute pyramids of tliis modification are of rare
occurrence ; and in its complete ibue the dodecahedron has
not been feen at all. The cryilals from Dcrbylhire, en
which its planes have been obferved, are the refults, fome
of fix, others of leven and eleven, different modifications.

53. Acute pyramidal iloJucahcdron of 18° 26 . — Though this
and the two following dodecaliedrons are, like ihofe of the
preceding modifications, the reiult of an intermediate decre-
ment of the cryftalline lamince on the acute angles of the
planes at the bafc of the primitive rliomboid, yet they differ
from the latter in the cleavage, which takes place on their
more obtufe edges. This dodecahedron has not yet been
found in its complete ftate ; in combination with the planes
of feveral other'modifications, of which thofe of No. 36 are
the molt confiderable, it is found in Derbyfhire

5 5 . Acute pyramidal dodccahcdnn of 16 $^ '. — M. de Bour-
nonhas obferved the planes of this modilication only in two
cryllals from Saxony, where they fometinics accompany
red filver ore. This is undoubtedly the fcarcefl; of all mo-
difications of calcareous fpar, and one of the few that are
not found in England.

54. Acute pyramidal dodecahedron of 14° 4'. — This is the
moll acute of all dodecahedrons hitherto obfervedincalcareous
fpar. It differs but little in this refpeft from that of No. 5 1 ;
but independently of the confiderable diffe.-cnce in the re-
fpeftive inclination of their planes to each other, the cleavage
of the former is on the lefs obtufe edges, while that of this
modification takes place on the moll 'obtufe edges. M. de
Bournon has obferved the planes of this modification in two
varieties only ; the one is the dodecahedron in its complete
Hate ; the other exhibits its planes combined with thofe of
'Ho. 13, which latter happens to be the moll acute of all
rhomboids hitherto obferved of this fubllancc. Both
varieties were found in Weftmoreland.

5 J. Acute pyramidal dodecahedron o/"34^i2'. — This dode-
cahedron,like thofe of Nos. 25 and3 1, iscompofedof ifofcelcs
triangles. Count Bournon has obferved this rare modifica-
tion in a few cryllals from Derbyfhire, in combination with
the planes of the primitive rhomboid, and thofe cf Nos. 2
and 4.

IV. Dodecahedral prifmatic Alodiftcation.

c6. Dodecahedral prifm formed at the folid angles of the lafe.
(not before defcribed) Its planes arc produced by a retro-
gradation of the cryilalline laminse on the folid angles, fo a.s
10 replace each of them by two planes which meet under an
ann^leof 142 1' ■ Its planes are found combined with thofe
of the hexahedral prifm No. 2, which give the cryftal the
form of a prifm of 18 fides; in other cryllals which, be-
fidesthejufl mentioned planes, cchnprife alfo thofe of No. i,
the prifm is compofed of 24 fides. It has been likewife
found in combination with the planes of fix different modifi-
cations, four of which belong to dodecahedrons, one to the
prifm of No. 2, and one to No. 56, producing in all 66
planes. Another variety has been obferved by count
Bournon, which, in addition to the planes of the lall-men-
tioned variety, contains alfo thofe of the prifm No. I, and
is confequently compofed of 72 planes. This modification,
wl ich has been found in Cumberland, is rare, but it is not
improbable that its planes may be thofe of feveral of the
curvilinear x-arieties already mentioned, but which cannot be
determined by the goniometer.

Tiie cryftals of calc*reous fpar are varioufly aggregated,

and often fo deeply imbedded, that their fummits only are
vifible. They occur of all degrees of magnitude, from mi-
nute to 14 inches in length ; their furfacc is generally fmooth,
fometimes flreaked or drufed. Externally from fiiining and
fplendent, to dull, fometimes pearly ; internal luihe from
fplendent and fpccularly fplendent, to fhining ai/d gliilening ;
it is nioilly a vitreous lullic, the intenfity of which is gene-
rally in proportion with the tranfparency of the cryftal.

Fracture foliated, rarely curved foliated ; fragments
rhomboidal. The maffive is generally found in large-grained
diftinft concretions, but alfo fometimes in lellaceous, wedgt-
fhaped, and diverging, more or lefs flreaked prifmatic ctiu-
cretions.

Tranfparency both of mafTue and cryftallizej calcareous
fpar is various ; the former is however generally only tranflu-
cent, while the cryflals are mollly femi-tianfparent and
tranfpareiit ; and thefe poffefs the double refratlion in a high
degree.

It is femi-hard, between gypfum and fluor fpar, or, (ai
count Bournon charadlerifes its hardnefs,) jull Icratched
by common brafs. It is brittle, eafily frangible.

Specific gravity 27.17 as a mean. Bourn.

Some varieties, efpecially that of brownilh-yellow colour,
and part of thofe found in the fhell marble of Derbyfliire,
are pholphorefcent when laid on a hot coal. The fame qua-
lity has been obferved, by Schumacher, in varieties from Nor-
way.

Its chemical charaflers agree with thofe of the preceding
fub-fpecies. The purell Iceland fpar is compofed of
Lime 55,0 55.5

Carbonic acid 34.0 44.

Water ii.o o.i

100 Bcrgm. 100

~ f Phillips Phil.
1 Mag. xiv.

This fub-fpecies is found in motl parts of the world ; but
mod abundantly it occurs in England (where almoll all
modifications have been found), in Saxony and France.
Certain cryflal-forms appear to be peculiar to certain coim-
tries or localities ; but this requires farther obfervations.

With regard to the Iceland fpar it ihould be remarked,
that this very pure mafTive variety of calcareous fpar, is far
from being peculiar to that ifland ; at Pergine, in Italy, as we
are told by Buch, the fame occurs in mica flate, as nialTes
fufTiciently large to be cleft into rhomboids of upwards of
two feet in length.

Calcareous tpar is, almofl without exception, the pro-
duftioii of particular repofitorics ; it is never feen to form
independent beds or flrata. It occurs vcnigenons in the
rocks of almofl all formations ; in the oldell ; in Switzerland
and the Pyrenees, it is accompanied with feldfpar, rock-
cryftal, &c. Alfo frequently in various metalliferous veins
in gneifs, mica Dale, clay flate, fienite, porphyry, more
feldom in granite, frequently in granwacke, and with ores
of cobalt and copocr, in the older fietz lime-flone. The
newer fle'z lime-iione is fometimes travcrled by veins entirely
compofed of calcareous fpar.

The minerals ufually accompanying calcareous fpar are
granular and comoaft lime-llone, brown fpar, quart/., feld-
fpar, barytes, fluor fpar, clay fiate, chlorite, iron and cop-
per pyrites, fpathofe iron, brown iron-flone, galena, blende,
grey copper ore, malachite, &c.

3 . Fibrous limeflone.

Thi.s fuh-fpecies is divided into two kinds, a, common, and
b, flalaftitical fibrous lime-ftone (Kalkfinter, Wern.)

A. Common fhrous Umeflone Cemeiner fafriger kalljleiny
Wern. Satin fpar.

Its

LIME.

Its colours are white, greyiffi, rcddiffi and yellowidi-
^■hite.

It occurs madivc.

Internally it is between gliAening and fhining, with a
pearly or fatiny luftre.

Crols-fraclure compaft fplintcry ; longitudinal fraclure
ftraight or waved, fibrous; the fibres (wliicli may be con-
fidered as indeterminable cryftals) are cither llrongly ad-
hering to each other, and parallel, or partly detached, and
tapering ; they have alfo been feen reticularly aggregated.
Fragments in moll varieties fplintery, alfo flattened fibrous ;
flrongly traiiflucent. Hardnefs rather lefs than that of cal-
careous fpar, which it refembles in the remainder of its cha-
racters.

Its conllituent parts were found by Mr. Pepys to be
Carbonic acid 47-6

Lime 50.1

Water and lofs

100. o Phil. Mag. xij.

It is a produdl of veins.

The fmell variety of fibrous llme-ft one is that of Cumber-
laud, to which the name of fatin fpar is peculiarly appli-
<able. It forms veins or trmns of a few inches thick, in a
calcareous clay ; the ialbands or litis of thefe fmall veins are
thin layers of a blackifh clay flate mixed with iron pyrites.
This variety, which has fometimes a beautifnl pale rufe red
tint, and perfectly pearly luilre, is cut and poliflied, and
employed for inlaid and other ornamental works ; when cut
en cabochon, it fometimes paffes for white cat's-eyc, a name
■which is alfo fometimes erroneoully, fometimes fraudulently,
given to pieces of fibrous gypfiim, cut in the fame manner.

M. de Bourhon has defcnbed a pretty variety of this lub-
ilance from Matlock in Derbyfhire ; it forms a very light,
cellular mafs, in which the fibres, of a yellowilh-grcy colour,
€rofs and decuffate one another fo as to form the fame kind
of net which is feen in fome fibrous zeolites. A variety with
detached parallel fibres, which forms fmall veins of an inch
or two in thicknefs, is mentioned by the fame autlior ae oc-
curring in (hell lime-ltone ; its fibres, of a yellowilh-brown
colour, are very delicate, and feparable from one another
by the flighted touch. A variety with detached diverging
£bresis found at Schemnitz in Hungary.

B. Stalacl'itkal Jihi-ous lime-Jlone. Kalkfinter, Wern. Sta-
la3'tli or Sinter.

Its more common colours are fiiow, greyifh and yellowifh-
■white, v.hich latter pafles inJo wax and honey yellow, and
yellowith-brown ; lefs common are the green varieties of co-
lour, fuch as fiikin, pillacliio, afparagus, mountain, and
verdigris green, which latter paflls into i]<y blue ; fometimes,
though rarely, it is flefli, or peach-bloffbm red, and reddifli-
brown. When fevcral of thefe colours occur in the fame
piece, they are in llripes, fometimes running into each other,
at other times perfectly diftincl.

It occurs maflive, tubular, reniform, globular, botroidal,
coralloidal, llalaclitic, and tuberofe. Its iurface is generally
rough, or drufy, with minute indeterminable cryilais ; in-
ternal luilre commonly glimmering, and pearly.

Fradure from very delicately to coarfe fibrous ; fibres ge-
nerally llraight, ftellularly diverging, or parallel. Frag-
ments cuneiform and fplintery, alfo indeterminately angular.
It generally occurs in curbed lamellar diflir.dt concretions,
j)arailel to the external furface.

It is more or lefs tranflucent, palling into femi-tranfparent.
The remaining characters are thole of calcareous fpar.

Specif, grav. z.iir -a.876, Briflbn ; i.vj.! (ydlowifli-
MoL. XXL

white from Poland), Kirwan. This niuft of courfe vary ac-
cording to the different degrees of purity.

Staladitical fibrous lime-Hone is generally found in cavee,
crevices, and old fliafts, in tranfition, and fletz lime-done,
hanging from and covering the roofs, walls, and floors of'
the caves, and thus producing groups of figures, which
fancy readily transforms into (latues, pillars, pulpits, fonts,
&c. The moll celebrated llalaftite caves are, the grotto of
Antiparosin Greece, the Bauman's hole on the Hartz, the
caves of Baden, tlmfe of Orenburg and Nertfliinflc in Si-
beria, thofe of Matlock in Derbyfliire, of Yorkfliire,
Auxelles, d'Arcy, de la Balme in France, &c.

The maflive variety of this fubllance, produced by thf
trickling down from the roof and walls, and covering the
floor of caves, is fometimes diflinguiflied from ilalatlite bv
the appellation oi Jlalagmttcs.

Sometimes the conical or cylindrical flalaclites are tei^-
nated by a fmall cryllal.

The common varieties are ufed for burning to lime ; the
finer forts are employed by the llatuary and mafon, in coun-
tries where they occur in large maftes. They are called
marmo nlabajh'mo by the Italians. See MauhI-E.

The beautiful coral-like calcareous fubllance, called_/?3f
ferri, and commonly referred to (lalaftitical fibrous lime-
llone, is a variety of arragomte.

4. Pea-Jlone. Evlfenjiein, Werner. Pierre de pots on
Pifolhe, Broch.

Its principal colour is ycllowifh, reddifli, and greyifh, lefs
frequently fnow-whlte ; the yellowifh pafles through yel-
lowifli-grey into cream yellow and yellowilli-brown.

It occurs commonly maflTive, but alio reiiifonn and bo-
troidal.

Internally it is dull. Frafture even. Fragments indeter-
minately angular.

It is compofed of fpherical diftinft concretions, which are
again compofed of thin concentric lamellx. Thefe globules
are generally connecled either by a calcareo-ferruginous ce-
ment, or they are detached ; their fize values from that of 3
pea to that of a hazel-nut.

It is opaque, feldom rather tranflncent on the edges.
Soft ; brittle ; eafily frangible.

Specific gravity 2.396, Wiedenmann.

Its chemical characters and conllituent parts appear to be
thofe of the preceding fub-fpecies.

The principal locality of pea-ftone is Carlfbad in Bo-
hemia. A handiome variety, confiding of detached glo-
bules, which are generally compofed of fine granular diflinft
concretions, is found at the baths of St. Philip in Tufcany,
and known by the name of confetto di Tivoli. Pea-llone is
alfo faid to occur in Hungary and Silefia.

Several opinions have been broached to account for the
origin of thefe globular concretions, each of which is
furnifiied with a nucleus of various dimenfions, but generally-
very minute ; it is fometimes a fmall angular or rounded
grain of quartz, or a particle of flate ; and even fmall frag-
ments of granite have been feen in the centre of thefe glo-
bules. This circumttance points out the only poflible man-
ner in which thefe concretions can have been produced. The
fmall bodies which ferve as nucleus to each globule, muft
have been railed by, and kept floating in the agitated water
of the fprings, which being highly impregnated with calca-
reous particles, gradually depofited round each of them the
concentric lamiuic ; the globules thus produced afterwards
huik to the bottom, where, according as.circumllances per-
mitted it, they either remained unconnecled, or were ce-
mented into folid beds, fuch as they are feen near the hot
fprings of Carlfbad.

G The

LIME.

The fiinilarity which fom? writers find between the pca-
ftonc and the variety of compact lime-llone, called roe-ilone,
•is not found in reality.

Lime may he obtained in a (late of abfohite purity, by
feveral proceflcs from the native fubllanccR containing this
earth. The analyfia of the carbonats of lime is by far
the mod fimple, cfpecially when no other earth or metallic
oxyd is prcfent. This is pretty much the cafe with feveral
of the marbles, particularly the white or llatuary marble.
If the lime in any of thefe fuhdances be combined with no
other acid but the carbonic, let. loo grains in fine powder
be diffolvcd in m'.:riatic acid. If there be any rtTiduum, it
may be confidered as filcx, or fomc fait of lime not decom-
pofable by the muriatic acid, and mull be fet apart. Add
to the muriatic folution as much pure ammonia as will
make it fmell of this alkali, and all the earths, excepting

■lime, with metallic oxyds, if there be any, will be preci-
pitated, leaving the liir.e in folution. If no fubltance be

■fufpeftcd which is foluhle in am ronia, the lime may be con-
fidered as feparated from the o'her fiibllanccs, and if futh
a fui'picion iliould exiil, the fubftance may be feparated by
adding only jud as much ammonia as will make the folation
neutral. The lime may be precipitated from the acid with

■carbonat of potafli, or that fait cnnimonly called the fub-
carbonat, by which a carbonat of lime is obtained. This
white powder, being feparated, mull be expofcd to a llrong
heat in a platina crucible, to feparate the carbonic acid,
which leaves the lime in a ilate of purity. 'Ihe precipitates

-by the ammonia may confid of mai;neria, iron, and ibme-
times manganefe. The magnefia and manganefe will be
diffolved by adding a folution of fuper-carbonat of potafh,
leaving the oxyd of iron behind, which mull be wafhed and

•dried. The manganefe may be precipitated by the h) dro-
fulphuret of potafh in a flate of fulphuret of manganefe,
which being wafiied, dried, and expofcd to a (Irong heat in
a platina crucible to expel the fulphur, will leave the pure
oxyd of manganefe. The magnefia, which is yet held in
folution by the excefs of carbonic acid, may be, finally
precipitated by pure potafh. The precipitate, being fepa-

•rated, may be cxpofed to a (Irong heat in a platina crixible,
which will give this earth in a (late of purity. The refnlt-
ing r.ibllances, on being weighed, will not amount to the
original weight of the hme-llone; for, independent of the
lofs by analylis, alloivanee mull be made for the lofs of car-
bonic acid and water. The to;al amount of the latter filh-
ftances may be knov.n, by cxpofing a given weight in pow-
der in a platina crucible. The lofs by weight will be car-
bonic acid and water. If the carbon;c acid alone be
required, let a given weight in powder be taken, and let a
quantity of dilute fulphuric acid, amply fufificient to faturate
all the fubllanccs, be accurately weighed ; then let the
acid and powder be rr.i.xed together, and (lirred till the effer-
vefcence ceafes : afterwards weigh the mafs ; the lofs of

■weight will be carbonic acid. The fame may be afccrtained
by putting the powder iuto a gas bottle, and adding mu-
riatic acid by degrees from an acid hohler, and then col-
IcCling the gas in lime-water. The carbonat of lime fo col-
le£lcd being weighed, 4J of carbonic acid may be allowed
for every 100 of the carbonat.

The example given is fuppofed to be the mod compli-
cated of the carbonats of lime. If filcx be a component
part, it will be feparated in the lird folution, and mud be
wadied and dried. Manganefe is feldom found in lime-
ftone. It is faid to conttitute the property which fome
lime has of fetting under water.

The native fulphat of lime or gypfum may be analyftd
by the following procefs. Let a iumdred grains of the

cryftallized fait, in (lue powder, be cxpofed to a red heat
for fome time : the lofs by this treatment is the water of
cryihdhzation. Let the powder, after weighing, be boiled
for fome time in a folution of pure carbonat of potafh,
by which is obtained a carbonat of lime, and a fa phat of
potafti, the latter being foluble, and the forjner inloluble.
To the fulphat of potafh, when feparated, add muriat of ba-
rytes, and the fulphuric acid will be precipitated combined
with the barytes. For every 100 of this fait, allow 53.3
of acid, by which the proportion of fulphuric acid will be
known.

The infoluble matter firll produced will confid of car-
bonat of lime, and perhaps iron. By adding to this the
fupercarbonat of potalh, the whole of the lime will be
didblved, but the oxyd of iron will be left behind.

The lime which is diffolved by the fuper-carbonat of
potafli may be precipitated in the date of carbonat, and
made pure by a drong heat in a platina crucible, to drive
olf the carbonic acid.

Phofphate of lime is analyfed by diffolving the native
crylfals in nitric acid, and adding to the fol'.;tion acetat, or
nitrat of lead, till no more is precipitated : the fubllaiice is
the phofphat of lead, whicli being feparated and weighed,
will determine the quantity of pholphoric acid, by allowing
iS.4 of acid for every 100 of the phofphat of lead. The
lime which is dilTolved in the nitric acid may be precipi-
tated by carbonat of potadi.

The fiuat of lime may be analyfed by fird boiling it in a
date of fine powder with carbonat of potalh, or (oda, by
which a fluat of potalh or foda is obtained, from which the
fluoric acid may be again precipitated by acetat or nitrat
of lead, from which the proportion of fluoric acid may be
obtained.

The llrd refiduum, which is carbonat of lime, and gene-
rrlly oxyd of iron, mud be treated as in the analylis of ful-
phat of lime, to feparate the oxyd of iron from\he lime.

The native borat of lime contains more magnefia than
lime ; for its analyfis, fee the Borat of Alngnejia.

Chemical Properties of Lime. — To obtain lime in a pure
date, the moll perfect cryllals of the carbonat (hould be
put into a covered vefTel, and expofed to a drong heat, con-
llderably above redncfs, for feveral hours. The crydals
will retain their fhape, but will have lod their tranfparcncy,
and become beautifully white. By this procefs the car-
bonic acid and water of crydallization are expelled, leaving
the lime in a date of purity.

The lime thus cbt.iined has acaudic alkahnetade, and hke
bodies of thofe qualities, to a certain degree, dedroyi the tex-
ture of the fkiii, and in other refpefts afts upon animal fub-
flances in general : it alfo changes vegetable blues to green.
Its fpccific gravity is various ; according to Kirwan it is 2.3.
In this date it is called quick-lime. Its hardnefs, imme-
diately after it is produced from the carbonat, is not much
diminifhed ; but if expofed to tlie air for a certain time, it
falls into an impalpable powder, which appears of a more
fplendid white than in the folid date.

In afiuming this form by cxpofure, it is found to be
heavier by one-third of its original weight. For this fadl
we are indebted to Mr. Dalton, who terms lime in this
date an hydrat of lime.

If it be expofed to the air a longer time, it combines with
carbonic acid, and would ultimately acquire the original
weight of the sarbonat.

When water is poured upon newly burned lime, it
quickly fwells with a hifTing noii'e, abfurbing the water with
great avidity, while much heat and even light are evolved.

Thefe

LIME.

hefe phenomena do not ceafs till it has ahforbed one-lhird and clofed at one end, put fome pieces of phofphorus, fo u

to lie at the clofed end of the tubt. Lot the remainder of
the tube be filled with bits of newly burned quicL-lime,
about the fize »f large peas, and then Hop the end of the
tube with a chalk or dry clay Hopper, not lifting very tight.
Let the tube be now paffed through two holes of a port-
able furnace, the furnace being about lis inches in diameter.
One of the holes muft be a htlle below the other, lo as to
give the tube a fmali inclination to the horizon, the open
end being higheft. Let the middle part of the tube be
heated red-hot, and then draw gradually the end containing
the pholphorus into a heat fufiicient to fubhme the pbof.
phorus. The vapour of the latter will now pafs throucrli
the red-hot lime, a great portion of which will combine
with it, forming the phofphuret of hme. If t!ie vapour ef
the phofphorus come too rapidly it pailes by the loofe (lop-
per, but fo foon as the whole has been fublimed, let the
end be llopped more clofely ; and let the tube be witlidrawii,
keeping it well (lopped till it is perfectly cold. Tiie whole
of the contents of the tube may now be Ihaken out, and the
darkeft coloured pieces felefted, which mud be kept in a
well (topped dry bottle.

The phofphuret of lime, thus prepared, is of a deep
brown colour.

Wlien thrown into water it does not diflolve, but bub-
bles ot gas are feen to proceed from it, which coming ta

of its weight : in this ftate it is called y/urit^a lime.

Many other fubftances are capable of furniiliing lime in
a ftate of tolerable purity. Ot thefe are the ftaladtite of
Derbyfliire, chalk, white marble, and fome of the other
marbles.

Lime is not fufed by the greateft heats hitherto pro-
duced, although it is fufceptible of fudon by very flight
admixture of fome earths and metalhc oxyds.

The change which takes place in all thcfe bodies which
afford lime by burning, was not explained belore the dif-
covery of carbonic acid by Dr. Black. The pecuHar qua-
lities of quick-lime w^ere fuppoied by Boyle and by Newton
to arife from the fire fixed in it by the procefs of burning.
Others fuppofed its cauilicity to arife trom the prefei ce of
an acid formed by the heat. Dr. Black, ho^vever, demon-
ftratedthat the qualities of lime were njt to be atifibuted to
the prefence of any fubttance in lime, but to the a fence of
vater and carbonic acid, the latter of which he at the lame
time difcovered.

If lime be added to vrater at 60°, it dilTolves about .ooj
of its weight. It appears from the experiments of Dalton,
that cold water diffolves more lime than hot ; a property not
common to other bodies. According to this ingenious
chemift, water at 60 ' diffolves ^i-^ of its weight ; at 130 ,
^i, part ; and at 312°, -^Vo P^t-

The fohition of lime m water is commonly called lime- the furface burft, and inflame fpoiitaneoufly, producing a

'Ujalir. When lime-water is expoled to the air, it foon beautiful ring of white fmoke.

becomes covered with a pellicle, exhibiting the prifmatic Thele phenomena are occalioned by the prefence of a

colours, which gradually thickens into a cruft, and by its fubftance called phofphuretted hydrogen gas, which has the

weight falls to the bottom of the liquid. This has been lingular property of taking fire at the common temperature,

called the cream of lime. It is produced by the lime com- The water is decompofed by the phofphuret. The hydro-

bining with the carbonic acid of the acmofphere, by which gen combines with a portion of the pholphorus, forming

it becomes infoluble, and is feparated from the water. the gas above-mentioned, while the oxygen of the fame

The fame feparation takes place by breathing through
lime-warer, from the prefence of the carbonic acid afforded
by refpiration.

Lime combines with feveral of the combuftible bodies,
forming peculiar compounds. When two parts of lime and
one of fulphur are heated together in a crucible, they unite
in forming a reddifh mafs, which is the fulphuret of lime.
When this compound is moiftened with water, the latter is
decompoled. One portion of the hydrogen of the water
unites with a portion of fulphur, and efcapes under the form
of fulphuretted hydrogen gas. Another portion combines
■with a part of fulphur and lime, forming a triple compound
of fulphur, hydrogen, and hme, galled an hydroguretted
fulphuret of the earth, wliile the oxygen of the decompofed
water, with the remainder of the fulphur and lime, forms the
fulphat of lime.

The hydroguretted fulphuret of lime is of a greenidi-
yellow colour. If expofed to the air for fome time, it

gradually abforbs oxygen, and is converted into fulphat of and the colour dilappears.

combines with the remainder of the phofphorus, forming
pholphoric acid, w'hich with the lime fcrms phofphat of
lime. Befides this, a portion of the gas firil combines with
the phofphuret, forming an hydroguretted phofphuret, which,
if taken from the water belore it is decompofed, and wiptd
dry, retains the gas. On pouring muriatic acid upon it the
gas is hberated, and inltantly inflanies.

Lime does not combine with any other of the inflam-
mable bodies, but it combines with leveral of the metallic
oxyds.

When any of the oxyds of lead are boiled with lime and
water, a portion of the oxyd is diffolveJ. The folution, on
evaporation, aifbrds imall cryllals.

This compound has the property of ftaining wool, hair,
nails, horn, and fome other animal lubftances, of a deep and
agreeable brown, which by expofure to the air difappeari.
This colour appears to be the bro.vn oxyd of lead com-
bined with the fubilance. An acid initautly diffolves it.

lime. It, however, it be kept in folution in water in a clofe
veffel, fome of the fulphur gradually precipitates, leaving in
folution the hydrofulphuret of lime. See Sulphuretted
Hydrogen-.

The hydroguretted fulphuret of lime has the property of
difTolving charcoal as well as fome metals, and metallic
oxyds.

Lime alio diffolves the red osyd of mercury, of the fo.
lution affording yellow cryllals.

Lime has the property of combining with fome of the
other earths and metallic oxyds, forming mortars of different
qualities. Dr. Higgins, in his book upon cements, propoftd
the following as the bell compoiition for common mortar :
three parts of fine walhed fand, four parts of coarfcr fand.

The hydrofulphuret of lime is formed by palling ful- one part of newly flacked lime made up with as little water

Moitar,
1

phuretted hydrogen gas through lime-water. This gas
unites with the lime, forming a compound of a difagreeable
bitter tafte.

Phofphuret of Lime. — This fubftance may be formed as
follows; into an earthen tube about 12 inches long, or a of m.i king mortar, which is not known to the moderns,
glafs tube coated with equal parts of fand and pipe-clay, A great improveir.eut has lattly been made in making

G 3 ocmeut*

as poffible, which he recommends to be fott water
thus formed, becomes very hard m a little time, anU con
tinuesto become harder for a great length of time. Hence
has arifen the miftake, of the ancients being in fome fecret

LIME.

cements by combining lime with oxyd of iron and manganefe.
An iron ore aboundinij with clay , a calcareous matter, and
pyrites, have been introduced under the name of " Parker's
cement,'" from the name of the inventor and patentee.
After burning and grinding to powder, it has the pro-
perty of fetting rapidly when mixed witli water, and even
under water. This rapid induration can be explained, only
by fuppofing a great afTmity to exill between the different
earths and mctalUc oxyds in its compofition.

Lime had long been fufpcfled to be a compound body ;
but it is only lately that this facl has been verified by ex-
periment. From the general refemblance of the earths to
the oxyds of many of tiie metals, Lavoilier fuppofed tlicm
to be oxyds of metals, which had fo great an affinity for
oxygen as not to be reduced by ordinary means. Several
imfuccefsful attempts were made to realize this conjecture
by different philofophcrs.

In the late experiments of Mr. Davy, in which he dif-
covered the fixed alkalies to confid of metallic bafes united
to oxygen, this pliilolopher was led to iuppofe that the
earths, at leaft thofe having alkaline qualities, might be
compounds of peculiar bafes united to oxygen ; and in this
conjetbire he fcems not to have been mifled.

Mr. Davy did not fucceed in obtaining the mctaloid of
lime in a pure Hate, as in the inllanccs of potafh and foda.
He fufed a portion of lime and potafli together, and ex-
pofed tliis compound to the action pf ilic Galvanic battery,
in the fame way he had done potafli and foda. He ob-
tained by this means a metallic fubllance, which dillered
from the metal ef potafh in being Icfs fuliliie, and took fire
as foon as it was formed. He fuccecded better by nioif-
■ tening the lime, and mixing it vvilii red oxyd of mercury.
Thefe were placed upon a plate of platina, connected with
the pofitive end of the battery. A cavity being made in
the mixed mafs, a globule of mercury, weighing about
60 grains, was placed in it, and a connection formed be-
tween the mercury and the other end oi the battery by
means of a platina wire. By this means, the lime under-
went decompofition ; its metallic bafe combining with the
mercury. This amalgam was then diftilled in a glafs tube,
filled with the vapour of naphtha ; by which the mercury,
to a certain extent, was expelled, leaving a while mafs of a
metallic appearance, and of the colour of filvcr. This fub-
ilance, which no doubt was tlie bafis of lime, had fo great
an attraition for oxygen, that Mr. Davy could not fueceed
in examining its properties before it was burned and re-
converted into lime. He has given it the name of Cal-
tliim.

Salts of lAme. — Lime combine.^ with the different acids,
forming peculiar compounds called falts.

It pofTcfTes a ftrongcr attraction for the acids than aid-
mine, magnefia, or any of the metallic oxyds : hence the
exiftencc of aluminous, magncfian, and metallic falts arc
incompatible with lime. Several of the falts ot lime are
found native in great abundance, partieidarly the carbonat
and fulphat. We rarely find a mineral water free from fomc
of the falts of lime. They are molUy, however, the car-
bonat, fulphat, and muriat ; the reft of the native falts
being infoluble in water.

Sulphat of Lim:. — This fait may be formed by difTulving
lime in the muriatic or nitric acid, and adding fulphiirie
acid to the clear folution, till the precipitation ceafes. The
fubftance which falls to the bottom is the fidphat of lime,
in a ftate of white powder. It abounds fo plentifully in
nature, that it is never manufaftured for fale. The native
rrvllals are right-angled prifms, with rhomboidal bafes.
Jt is alfo found fomeiimes ia cryilals of the form of four

and fix-fided prifms, which are generally very tranfparent-
In fornc fpecimens thefe cryflals are very fmall, giving the
mafs a fibrous appearance. It occurs in Derbyfliire, in
large fenntranfparent maffes, modly abounding with yel-
lowifh-broun iireaks, occafioned by the prefrnce of iron.
Great quantities of this laft is worked into ornaments, and
ufed alfo i[i fculpture.

This fait is foluble in 460 parts of water.at 60''.

It is not altered by expolure to the air, at the common
temperature : if, however, it be heated to ignition, it lotes
its water of cryllallization, and falls into a fine wliite powder.
This powder, if left in the air, would re-abforb the water,
and aflume its chemical qualities. Wlieii this powder, newly
calcined, is mixed with water to the confidence of pulp, it
foon begins to lliftcn, becomes warm, and in a little tima
becomes very hard. During this Ihite it expands with great
force, fo*as to break very ilrong vell'els. It admits of
the nioR delicate calls being taken by means of it. The
fudden expanhon, at the time it is lofiiig its liquid f<ii;m, .
forces it into the moll minute cavities. It is employed b/'
artifls for makings cafls of bufls, and different ornaments.
The fame properties render it of great value to the manu-
facturers of pottery and porcelain. It is ufed in fome
countries for making the floors of upper rooms, as a fub-
flitutc for wood. In the laying of thefe floors, iome idea,
may be given of its expanlive force when fetting. Thin,
flips of wood, of a thicknefs equal to the expaufion of the
floor, arc placed between the wall and the pulpy mafs, till
tiie time it begins to afTume the folid form. Thefe flips are
then inllantly removed, to make room for" the expanfion.
If this precaution were not taken, fo great would be the
force, as to pulh out the wall in that part.

Sulphat of lime is compofed, according to Bergman, of
46 acid, 52 bafe, and 22 water, in the 100. Kirwan'5
analyfis gives 59 acid and 41 bafe in the 100. Wenzc!
makes it 59-1^4 acid and 40.16 baft.

Dalton makes the atom of lime 24, and fulphuric acid

13 +3 X 7 = 34: lience,

24 + 34

100

, which gives

34 5**-^

58.6 acid, and 41.4 bafe, =: 100.

This fait is faid to be ufed in America as a manure with:
much fucccfs ; but has not^been ufed in this country.

Sulphllc of Lime This fait may be formed by adding

fulphurous acid to the nitrat or muriat of lime. A white
powder is precipitated, which is fulphite of lime. This fait ,
is fiduble in lOO parts of water. It. is flightlv efflorefcent
in the air, and ultimately is converted into fulphat. Wlieii
heated, fome fulphur is fublimed, and it affumes the ftate
of fulphat. This fait is compofed of 48 acid, 47 lime, and
J water, = loOi It has not been applied to any ufe.

Nhrat of I, me. — The nitrat of lime may be formed by
adding powdered carbonat of lime to nitric acid, till the
efl'ervefcenct? ceafes. When the folution is evaporated to
the confiltence of fyrup, and placed in a very cold fitua-
tion, fmall needle-fhaped cryftals, after fome time, will ap-
pear : the fhape of thefe is fix-hded prifms. This fait is
cryflaUizable, but with difficulty, owing to its great folu-
bihty ; or, in other words, to its graat affinity for water ;
and when the cryftals are forn-sed, they fooii attract moillure
from the ai-, and difappear.

When the folution is evaporated to drynefs, and the heat
contiinicd a fhort time, the mafs actiuires the property of
(liining in the dark. This fait is known by the name of
Baldwin's phofphorus.

When a ftronger heat is applied, up to ignition, the fait
ie dccompofcd ; the acid is reiolved into nitrous gas, oxy-
gen.

LIME.

jren, and nitrogen. It might be employed, like nitre, to
obtain a tolerably pure oxygen for experiments of coin-
buftion. Its decompofition by heat alfo furnifhes an elegant
method of procuring lime in a ftate of purity. The analyfis
of this fait by Richter gives, in the loo, 63.9 acid, and
:56. 1 bafe. That of Kirwan gives, in the 100, 54.44 acid,
^2 bafe, and 10.56 water. Dalton makes the atom of

and concludes the loluble
19.4 X 2 + 24 _ 100
" c876'

nitric acid 5.4 -1-2x7 = '9-4'

nitrats to be fuper-falts : hence,

'^ 19.4 X 2

which gives 58.6 acid, and 41.4 of lime, = 100.

Muriat of Lime. — This fait is generally formed in
manufatluruig the carbonat of ammonia. The muriat of
ammonia is mixed with carbonat of lime, in a veffel which
is expofed to a heat capable of fiibliming the carbonat of
ammonia, which leaves behind the muriat of lime. ■ It may
b&alfo formed by adding carbonat of lime to muriatic acid.
When the folution is evaporated to the confillence of fyrnp,
and fet in a cool place equal to 32°, it cryftallizes into fix-
fided prifms, terminated by pyramids. Thefe cryftals,
however, foon deliqucfce, from their great attraftion for
meifture, and atfume the liquid form. Reduced to a ftate
of drvnefs, it is ufed tor the purpofe of drying different
gafes.

Water at fio' diffulves four times its weight of this fait ;
while at 100', it difFolves in any proportion. It diflblves
in alcohol in a great proportion, producing heat. Wlien
the dry fait is mixed with inow, it produces great cold, and
is employed to great advantage in freezing mixtures.
When it is expofed to heat above ignition, fome of the acid
efcapes, reducing it to the ftate of lubmuriat. In this ftate
it has the property of iliining in the dark, and has, in con-
fequence, been called the phofphorus of Homberg. It is
campofed, according to the analyfis of Bergman, of 3 1 acid,
44 bafe, and 25 water, in 100. Kirwan makes it 42 acid,
50 bafe, and 8 water; and Wenzel, 51 acid and 49 bafe.
Dalton makes an atom of muriatic acid 2 % ; then hme being

24-^-22 100 , r ,

24, — ^ — ■ ^ •. hence we have, from thefe data,

22 47.^3

47.S3 of acid, 52.17 of bafe.

Oxymuriat of L'tme. — It appears that fuch a fait does not
exift, except in the dry ftate. When it is thrown into
water, it is converted into the muriat, and oxygen efcapes.

The fait, which the bleachers call the oxymuriat of lime,
is in faft the hyper-oxymuriat. It is made by palling the
oxymuriatic acid gas through a mixture of lime and water,
in a Woulfe's apparatus. (SeeX,.M!OJiATORY. ) The lime
is at length taken up, and the liquid becomes colourlefs. It
is decompofcd by the muriatic acid, aft^ording oxygen and
oxymuriatic acid. It is ufed in bleaching to a great extent.
See Bleaciukc;.

Plwfphal of Lime. — This fait conftitutes the bafis of bones,
and is a component part of moft animal fubftaixes. It may
be prepared by adding muriat or nitrat of lime to phofphat
ef foda ; or, cheaper, by difTolviug the earth of bones,
which is a mixture of the fubphofphat and carbonat of lime,
in muriatic acid, and adding pure ammonia to the foUition.
The phofphat of lime will be precipitated alone, leaving the
cxcefs of lime diftblved in the acid. Tliis fait is in the form
«)f powder of a white colour ; ;he native fait, v^'hich has been
defcrifaed, being alone capable of the cryi{.tlline form.

Several of the acids, but particularly the fulphuric, de-
compose this fait, by taking a part of the lime, and leaving
it in the ftate of fuperphofphat. Phofjihat of hme is com-

pofed, according to the analyfis of Klaproth, of 39.5 of
acid and 69.5 bafe. Fourcroy and Vauquelin make it
41 acid and 59 bafe; Richter, 45 acid and 55 bafe; and

5 water. l3y Dalton's
X 7 = 2_j : then.

Eckeberg, 39 acid, 36 bafe, and
hypothelis, the phofphoric acid is 9
23 4- 24 100

^~ ~ 4M^

making the acid, in 100, 48.9 acid.

the bafe being 51. i.

SupcrpLofphat of Lime. — When fulphuric acid is added to
the phofphat of lime, the former being one-third of the latter
by weight, a portion of fulpiiat of lime will be formed,
which will be precipitated, leaving the fuperphofphat dif-
folved. It may alfo be formed by diflblving 47 parts of the
phofphat in 23 parts of real acid.

This fait cryftallizes by evaporation, in brilliant plate.=,
having a pearly appearance. The tafte of thefe iryftals is
ftrongly acid. Indeed it was once taken for the phofphoric
acid, and was diililled with charcoal, to obtain pliofphorus.
This fait is now decompofed by the acetat of lead ; and the
phofphat of lead is ufed for that purpofe, which is found a
great improvement in the preparation of phofphorus.

When this fait is heated in a crucible at a little more than
a red heat, it fufes ; and, on cooling, aiuimes the appear,
ance of a tranfparent glafs, which has been called phofphoric
giafs. Its compofitioii, according to the analyfes of Four-'
croy and Vauquelin, is 54 acid and 46 lime.

Fluat of Lime. — This lalt is not a product of art, but is
found native in Di^rbydiire, and other counties abounding
with lead. Its cryftals are in the form of cubes.

When this ialt is coarfely powdered, and laid upon a hot
plate, a little fliort of ignition, it gives a beautiful blueifli
light, not much unlike the flame of baruing fulphur in com-
mon, air. The artificial fluat alfo poflefTeS this property".

When the fluat of lime is expofed to a ftrong heat, it
melts, and, on cooling, becomes tranfparent. The facility
with which vit fufes, and renders other earthy fubftances
fufible, is taken advantage of in the reduftion of lead, and
other metals. Hence it has derived its name from acting as
a flux.

This fait is decompofed bythe nitric and fulphuric acid,'
by leizing the lime, wliile the fluoric acid gas is difengaged..
Guy LuiTac and Thenard have lately fliewn, that the gafeous
form of its acid is caufed by the prefence of (ilex ; lince,
when it is difengaged from any bafe where filex is not pre-
lent, the.acid adumes the liquid form. See Silkx.

Its analyiis, by Klaproth, is 32.25 acid and (J7.75 bafe ;
by Dr. Thomfon, 32; acid and67ilime. .

Borat of Lime. — This fair may .be' formed by mixing the
muriat of hme with a foluticn- of borat of foda. The fait
is precipitated in -the ftate of white powder, which is in-
■foluble in water : few of its properties are known.

Curlonat of Lime. — Tliis fait, in the native ftate, is the
moft abundant of all the calcareous falts.

,'\Uhough the primitive forms of the cryftals of it are-
rhomboidal prifms, this figure has been fo differently ar- •
ranged as to form a numerous variety of fecondary forms.' .
The^neutral fait of this fpecies is iiifolublc in water; but it
becomes foluble, to a certain degree, with an extra dofe of' .
acid.

The carbonat of lime may be formed by .adding carbonat "
of potaftt to muriat of lime. It coniifts of 45 acid and"
^^ lime.

According to the experiments of fir James Hall, when
the carbonat of lime is expofed to a red heat, in a clofe
vellcl, tuch as a guu barrel, it melts; and, on cooling, is ■

found ■'

LIME.

found to retain ita original properties, with the exception
of lofing fomething lefs than 4 or 5 per cent, of carbonic
acid.

Suprrcarbonat of lAme. — When the fiipcrcarbonat of pot-
a(h is added to muriat of lime, a portion of lime will remain
on folution, which is not the carbonat of lime, but a fuper-
carbonat. This fait is very frequently found in mineral
waters, efpecially- in lime-llone countries, and in countries
abounding with marie.

A carbonat of potafli being added to a folution of this
fait, takes one dofe of acid from it to form a fupercarbonat,
and the carbonat of lime is thrown down. When tlic fuper-
carbonat of potafh is added, no change taki-s place. When
lime-waten is added to water didolving the fupercarbonat ot
lime, the lime of both alFumes the Hate of carbonat, and
fall down together.

Wiien the fupercarbonat of lime is expoRd to a boiling
heat for fome time, the fecoiid dofe of acid is expelled, and
tile remaining carbonat is precipitated. This lalt, how-
ever, is not immediately decompofed by boiling, but re-
quires to boil for fome time.

Acetat of Lime. — If carbonat of lime be added to the
acetic acid, an eifervefcence will take place, and tlie lime
will be diffolved in the acetic acid, forming acetat of lime.
If the folution be evaporated, it affords fmall crydals of a
white colour, having a filk appearance.

It has a bitter acid tafte.

It is compofed of 65.1 1 acid and 34.89 lime.

Oxalat of Lime Tliis fait is formed by dropping the

oxalat of ammonia into any folution of hmc. It appears to
be the molt infoluble of all the falts of lime. It is in the
form of white powder, and is compofed, according to Berg-
man, of 48 acid, 46 lime, and fi water.

Tartrat of Lime. — If carbonat of lime be added to a folu-
tion of the fupertartrat of potafli, the excefs of tartaric acid
combines with the lime, wliich falls in the (late of infoluble
powder. It is from this infoluble tarlrat that the tartaric is
obtained, by means of fulphuric acid.

Citrat of Lime. — This fait, like the laft, is formed by
-adding the carbonat of lime to citric acid in the lemon
juice. The fait is the infoluble powder which falls to the
bottom. It is from this fait that the citric acid is obtained
pure, by the fuperior affinity of fulphuric acid.

It confills of 62.66 acid and ^^7.34 lime.

Prujftat of Lime The prufTiat of lime is formed bv dif-

folving lime in the pruHic acid. It is decompofed by all the
acids, and is of little permanence. The fait commonlv, but
improperly, called by this name, is a triple fait, containing
both lime and iron. It is made bv adding 56 parts of lime
water to two parts of Pruflian blue, well vvadied in hot
water, boiling ihem for fome time till the lime is fatnrated.
The folution is of an olive colour, and affords cryllals by
evaporation. The folution of this fait is a valuable tell for
iron in mineral waters.

The re it of the falts of lime are not of any importance, as
far as we at prefent know.

The arfeniats and molybdat of lime are infoluble in their
aeutral Hate : the former is foluble in excefs of acid.

Succinat of Lime is difficultly foluble.

Benzoat of Lime is foluble, and may be obtained in
eryllals.

Chromat of Lime is foluble and cryftallizable.

Suberat of Lime difTolves in hot, but little in cold water.

Camphorat of Lime is fparingly foluble.

Lime, in /l^ricuhure, a foft friable fubllance, obtained
6

by calcining or burning Tarious calcareous materials, fuch
as chalk, marble, lime-llone, fliells, &c.

This is a fubllance which is ii> different ftates, according
to the particular circuniftances under which it exilLs.
When newly made, from its great power ot deftroying the
texture of bodios, it is termed cauftic or quick lime. It is
alio fometimes called flicll-lime or rticUs. In this (late, when
ufcd as manure, it operates with the greatell violence, dif-
flpating and robbing the foils, to winch it is applied, of
their inoiflnre and other fluid mat'tr : but after being ex-
pofed to the atmofphere for fome time, from its property of
quicl'ly abforbing moilUue and carbonic acid from it, it be-
comes mild or effete, and is termed carbonat of lime.
When applied to land in this Hate, it ads with much more
mildi.el's, orily promoting the refoliition of the matters in
which it comes in contadt, by forwarding the natural procefs
of putrefai'tion. It has alfo lefs tendency to produce a
mortary hardnefs in the poorer forts of clayey foils. But
befides thefe dilTerence£, there are others arillng from tlie
fubllances which are combined with the calcareous matters
employed, as liar, been lately (liewn by the ingenious ex-
periments of Mr. Tennant, itatcd in the fecond part of tlie
Philofophical Tranfaftions for the year 1799. Having
been informed that two kinds of lime were uled in agricul-
ture, which differed greatly in their effeils,— one of which
it was neceffary to ufe fparingly, and to fpread very evenly
over the land, as it was faid that a large proportion of it
diminidied the fertility of the foil, and tliat, wherever a
heap of it had been lefc on one fpot, all vegetation was pre-
vented for many years ; and that of this kmd of lime, 50 or
60 bufhels on an acre were as much as could be uftd with
advantage ; wliile of the other fort of lime, a large quantity
was never found to be injurious, and that the (pots which
were entirely covered with it became remarkably fertile, in-
ftead of being rendered barren : — having analyled thofe two
kinds of lime, he found that the latter conlilted lolely of cal-
careous earth ; but that the former contained two parts of
magnelia, with three parts of calcareous earth. He after-
wards proved, that though vegetable feeds would grow
equally well in both thefe kinds of lime-llone, when (imply
reduced to powder ; yet that, when they were calcined ((*
as to become lime, and both of them flrewed about the tenth
of an inch thick on garden mould, the niagnedan lime pre-
vented nearly all the feeds which had been fowed from
coming up, while no injury was occafioiied by the calcareous
lime, when ufed under the fame circumdances.

It may be noticed, that this valuable difcovery feems in
fome meafure to explain the caufe of the variety of opinion
that has been maintained refpedting the application of lime,
which fome have fuppofed to be of little or no advantage,
and even injurious to land ; which has been owing probably
to their having employed the magiiedan lime, or ufed it in
too large proportions.

This philofophical inquirer firft found magnefian lime
near the town of Doncader, and afterwards at York, at
Matlock in Derbvfhire, at Breeden in Leicellerdiire, and at
Work(op in Nottingliamfliire. He alfcrts, that the cathe-
dral and walls of York are built with this magnefian lime-
done ; and that at Matlock the magnefian and calcareous
lime-dones are contiguous to each other, the rocks on the
fide of the river Derwent, where the houfes are built, being
magnefian, and on the other fide calcareous. He found
alfo, that in this fituation the magnefian lime-done was in-
cumbent on the calcareous : for, in defcending into a cavern
formed in that rock, he found a feparate vein of calcareous
lime-Hone, which was fuU of fliells, but contained no mag.-

nclia :

LIME.

nefia : awi concludes, tliat, in general, the magnefian lime-
ftone may be eafilv diflinguilhed from the calcareous, by its
folutio^ in acids beitii; much flower, and that it contains
generally very few (hell? ; but that thcfe, when prefent, are
impregnated with magnelia.

In the Philofophy of Agriculture it is remarked alfo,
that all lime-ftone may be divided into three kinds : firft,
the rocks which remain, where they were formed from (lieUs
beneath the ocean, except that they were afterwards ele-
vated by fub-marine fires ; fecondly, into alluvial lime-ftone,
as thofe which have been diftblved in water, and fimply pre-
cipitated, as the beds of chalk, which contain only the molt
infoluble remains of fea animals, as the teeth of Iharks ; and,
thirdly, thofe which, after having been diffblved and pre-
cipitated, have been long agitated beneath the fea, till the
particle? have been rolled fo againft each other, as to acquire
a (rlobular form, which is faid to refemble the roe or fpawn
of fiih, and which contain very few fhells, or none, as the
Ketton ftone, and that which he ha? feen on Lincoln heath,
extending almoft from Sleuford to Lincoln. Now, fays he,
as the falts of the fea confift of only two kinds ; common
fait, or muriat of foda, and vitriolated magnefia, commonly
called Epfom fait, %vhich, in the fea-waters furrounding this
idand, are found at a medium to exill in the proportion of
one-thirtieth part of common fait and one-eightieth part of
vitriolated magnefia, compared to the quantity of water ;
and, fecondly, as thefe falts are believed by many philo-
fophers to have been formed by vegetable and animal mat-
ters, which principally grew upon the furtace of the dry
land, after it was raifed out of the primeval ocean ; and
that, in confcquence, the faltnefs of the fea was pofterior
to the formation of the primeval rocks of lime-ftone ; we
may underftand why thofe lime-ftone ftrata, which have
not been diflolved or v.-aftied in fea-water fince the fea be-
came fait, are not mixed with magnefia. The chalk, he
fuppofes, muft hai-e been dinblvcd and precipitated from
water, as it exacllv refembles the internal part of fome cal-
careous ftalaftites which he has in his pofTefiion ; yet there
is no appearance *,of its component particles having been
rubbed together into fmall globules, and may not, there-
fore, have been removed from the fituation where it was
produced, except by its, elevation above the furface of the
ocean. But that alluvial lime-ftone, which confitts of fmall
globules adhering together, called Ketton lime-ftone, and
of which there appears to be a bed lo miles broad from
Beckingham to Sleaford in Lincolnfhire, and 20 miles long
fron Sleaford to Lincoln, he fulpefts may probably confill
of magnefian lime-ftone ; which is alfo faid in that country
to do no fervice to vegetation : tor this alluvial lime-ftone,
by having evidently been rolled together beneath the fea, by
v/hich the fmall cryftallized parts of it have had their angles
nibbed off, is moft likely to have thus been mixed with the
magnefia of the lea-water, which, as has been obferved, is
laid to contain one-eightieth part of its weight of vitriolated
magnefia.

It is further remarked, that at the lime-works at Ticknal,
rear Derby, there appears a ftratum of alluvial lime-ftone,
like K.e;ton lime-ftone, which they do not burn for fale,
over the bed of the calcareous lime-ftone, which they get
from beneath the former, and calcine for fale. It is pro-
bable, he thinks, tkat the fuperior bed may contain mag-
nefia, which has rendered it not fo ufeful in agriculture. It
is ftlU more probable that alluvial Iime-ftone has acquired its
mixture of magnefia from the fea-water ; as magnefia, in its
uncalcined ftate, will precipitate lime from water, as ob-
served by Dr. Alilon, who thence propofes to render water
pure and potable, wliich has been long kept at fea free from

putridity by having lime mixed with it, by precipitating"
the lime by the addition of mild magnefia.

The lime from Brcedon is magnefian, that from Ticknal
(which is fold) is calcareous, he believes ; and fome farmers
in the vicinity of Derby affert, that two loads of Breedon
lime will go as far, that is, will apparently do as much fer-
vice to their land, as three loads of Ticknal lime. Breedon
lime, he is alfo informed, is preferred in architeiture, and
is faid to go further in making mortar ; which, he fuppofes,
means that it requires more fand to be mixed with it. In
the Account of the Agriculture of the Midland Counties,
lime made at Brcedon, near Derby, is faid to be deftruftive
to vegetables, when ulcd in large quantities ; and in Not-
tinghamftiire it is aflerted, that the iime from Critch, in
Derbyfliire, is fo mild, that thiftles and grafs fpring up
through the edges of large heaps of it, when laid in the
fields. Dr. Fenwick of Newcaitle obfervcs, that the farmers
in that country divide hme into hot and mild; whicii Mr.
Tennant believes to mean magnefian and calcareous lime.

By experiments which were made by Mr. Tennaitt, by
fowing feeds of colevvort on various mixtures of calcined
magnefia with foil, and of calcareous lime with foil, he
found thirty or forty grains of lime did not retard the
growth of feeds more than three or four of calcined mag-
nefia : hence, what can we conclude, but that, as thev both
injure vegetation in large quantities, they may both affill
vegetation in fmall ones ? and that this is more probable, as
the farmers believe that they find both of them ufeful,
though in different quantities ; and as the magnefia would
form Epfom fait, if it met with vitriolic acid, which Dr.
Home found, from his experiments, to be friendly to vege-
tation, when ufed in very fmall quantities. More accurate
obfervations and experiments are, however. Dr. Darwin
thinks, wanting on this iubjeft.

The moft certain way to know whether any fort of ftone
be fit for making lime is to drop upon it a little aquafortis,
fpirit of fea-falt, or oil of vitriol. All Hones on which the
above, or any other ifrong acid, eflervefces or rifes in bub-
bles, are calcareous Hones, or will burn to lime ; and the
ilronger the effervefcence is, the titter they are for that pur-
pofe.

And as in the ufe of calcareous matter as a manure, much
depends upon its being brought into a fine powdery ftate,
it Ihould always, where fuel can be obtained at a moderate
expence, be prepared by burning, as that is the eafieil and
moft efficacious mode of reducing lime-ftone to powder that
ever was invented, and therefore ought always to be adopted
where neceffity does not prevent it. Reducing lime-ftone to
powder by calcination is alfo, he remarks, attended with this
farther advantage to the farmer, that it confiderably dimi-
nifhes his expence of carriage. Pure lime-ftone lofes about
two-thirds of its weight by being thoroughly burned ; fo that
the man who is obliged to drive this manure from a great
diftance, will find a very confiderable favingby driving it in
the ftate of ihells ; but if it were reduced to a powder by
mechanical 'rilure, he could not be benefited by this circum-
ffance. Many perfons choofe to drive lime-ftone from a
confiderable diftance and burn it at home ; but it is obvious
they then fubjedl themfelves to a very heavy charge in car-
riage, which would be avoided by an oppofite conduct. This,
therefore, ought never to be praftilcd but where other cir-
cumftances may counterbalance this unfavourable one. But
as lime-ftone is often in iti native ftate mixed with fand in
various proportions, and as fand lofes nothing of its weight
by calcination, it muft happen that thofe kinds of lime-ftone
which contain the largcft proportion of fand will lofe leaft
ill calcination, and of courie alford the weighticll lime-fhells.

Hence

L 1 ME.

Hence it is obvious, that thofe who are under tlie neceflity of
driving lime from a great diftancc ouglit to be particularly
careful to make choice of a kind of iime-ftonc as free from fand
a^ polhble, and to drive it in the Hate of fliells, as they will
thus obtain an equal quantity of manure at the leall expence
of carriage that is polfihle ; and the lightell (hells enight, of
ciurfe, to be always preferred. When lime is flaked, that
which contains moft fand fall? mod quickly, and abforbs
the fmallelt proportion of water. What is pure requires a
very lart^e pro;x)rtion of water, and is much longer before it
begins to fall. Hence it happens that thoi'e who drive fandy
lime-(hells in open carriages, mull be very careful to guard
againll rain, becaufe a heavy (hower would make the whole
fall, and generate fuch a heat as to be in danger of fetting
the carts on fire ; whereas pure lime-lhells are in no danger
of being damaged by that circumftance. The writer has
fecn a cart loaded with fuch fliells, which had been expofed
to a continued fliower of rain, as violent as is ever known in
this country, for more than three hours, and feemed hardly
to be affecled by it in the fmallell degree. He ought, he
fays, to obferve, however, that his experiments were con-
fined to only one kind of pure lime, fo that it is not from
hence demondrated that all kinds of pure lime will be pof-
fefled of the fame qualities. Lime-fliells formed from the
purefl lime-done require more than their own weiglit of
water to flake them properly-, whereas, fome kinds of lime-
ihells that contain much fand do not requite above one-
fourth part of that quantity. He has found, by experi-
ment, tliat pure lime-fliells cannot be flaked with lefs than
about one-fourth more than their own wciglit of water.
When^flaked in the ordinary way, the fame lime-fliells took
more thau double their weight of water.

Hence it is much worfe economy, in thofe who have pure
lime-fliells, to flake and carry them home in the date of
powdered lime, than it is in thofe who have only a fandy
kind of lime-fliells to make ufe of.

It is farther fuggeded that it is even, on fome occafions,
more advlfable for thofe who have very fandy lime, to drive
it in the date of powdered lime than m that of fliells ; for,
as it is dangerous to give that kind of limc-ftone too much
heat, led it fliould be vitrified, thofe who burn it can never
be certain that the whole of the done wi 1 fall to powder
when Viiater is, added, till they have actually tried it ; nor
do they think it a great lofs if fome part of it fliould be
imperfeAly burned, as it requires much lefs fuel on a future
occafion than frefli hme-llone ; and therefore they much ra-
ther choofe to err on this than on the oppofite extreme. But
fliotfld any one attempt to drive this poor fort of hme in
the date of ihells, he would be in danger of carrying home
many dones that would never fall ; which would more than
counterbalance the benefit he would derive from the want
of the fmall quantity of water that is required to flake it.
On tliefe accounts it is fuppofed it may be admitted as a
general rule, that thofe who can ha^'L• accefs to lime-done
which is free of fand, will fave a great deal in the carriage of
it by driving it in the date of fliells ; and that, on the con-
trary, it will be mod economical, in thofe who can only get
lime of a very fandy quality, to drive it in the Hate of
powdered hme. Hence it follows, that the praftice which
jio\r prevails, of carrying fliell-lime by water frim one part
■of the country to another, is only an imaginary laving, ob-
lained at a very high rifl<, to thofe who drive fliells ot a
fandy quality ; but a real and unequivocal advantage ot very
Jiigh importance to the community at large, if thefc fliel's
are obtancd from a pure lime-done. Thefe obfervations
relate only to the faving of carriage to the farmer ; which,
however, is.an article of great importance toiiiai.

But there are fome other particulars that may alfo equally
afleft him in this way, and in the application of the lime to
his ground. A vague opinion in general prevails in every
part of the country, that one fort of lime may be more
valuable than another ; but it does ijot appear that farmers
have hitherto had any rule to dircft them in the choice of
different forts of lime ; fome cdeeniing one fort drongcfl;,
as they term it, and fome valuing another fort more highly,
without being able to.:i/Ggn any fatisfaftory reafon for the
preference they give in eitlier cafe. It is of importance that
this matter Ihould be elucidated. Although it docs not
always happen, yet, in many parts of the country, the real
nature of lime is fo little underdood, that the weightied
lime is preferred as a manure to lliat which is lighter ; be-
caufe it is imagined the firll has more fubilance, and will
therefore produce a more powerful efleifi upon ground than
the tinelt and lighted lime. But tliere fceir.s to be no rea-
fon to think there is any diderence in the fpecific gravity of
difleient parcels ot pure calcareous matter when fully cal-
cined ; therefore, if there is any difierence in the v\ eight of
various forts of lime, it mud arile entirely from a variation in
the quantity or gravity of fome extraneous matter tliat i>
mixed with the lime ; and as land is alniod the only extraneous
body that is ever found in lime-llone, and is always of much
greater fpecific gravity than pure quick-llnie, it follows, that
the weighty lime only owes its fuperior gravity to a larger
proportion of fand that is mixed with it. But fand is of
no value as a manure ; io that he who voluntarily purchafe*
this kind of lime in preference to the other is guilty of a
great degree ot folly ; which will be tlie greater if he has
likewife to drive it from a confiderable dillance.

However, thole tarmers who have accefs to only .one fort
of lime-done, mud be contented with it, wliatever may be
its quality. But.fucli as have an opportunity of choofing
may be benefited by the oblervation, that pure lime-ftone,
when fully calcined and flaked, is reduced to a fine white
impalpable powder that feels loft between the fingers,
without the Imalled tendency to grittinefs ; while fuch
lime as contains land is never fo fine nor fo foff, but feels
gritty when rubbed between the liugers. See Aiiderfon's
Edays.

JlSion, Qjmnti/y, and yfjip/icatloti of Lime. — The author of
Modern Agriculture remarks, that there are few didrifts
where lime is not either in general ufe, or partially intro-
duced as a manure. With refpcdt to the ufe of hme, or
the benefit derived from it as a mean of fertilizing the foil,
fome are of op;,i:on that it promotes vegetation, by ilimu-
lating, or forcing the foil^ with which it is incorporated to
exert itfelf : others .niiagine it promotes vegetatiuu by en-
riching the foil, and thereby adding to the quantity of vege-
table food. Various other opinions, different from thefe,
and in fome indaaces oppollte to each other, have been
entertained refpeiiing the manner in which lime operates
upon land ; but all tliat we yet know with certainty on the
fnbiect, is collected fr-^m praflice and experience, whereby
it is proved that lime lomebow or other operates fo as fre-
quently to produce luxuriant crops on foils which, before
the application of that manure, were comparatively of little
value,; and farther, that on all foils which are treated pro-
perly after being thoroughly limed, its beneficial elfecls are
.diicernible by the mod curfory obftrver. Various other
modes in .which this fubdance may be ul'eful as a manure,
may be feen under the terms Cakareous Eautji, and Piios-
rjioitu.i.

The proportion or quantity of lime appUed to the acre
feenis hitherto, the fame writer obferves, fixed .by no certain
rule, either in. regard to the nature of the different foils, the

modes

L I M E.

modes of cropping afterwards adopted, or the fuperior qua-
lity' of one kind of lime-ftone beyond another.

It has been remarked, that fome require that it fhould be
applied in fuch fmall quantities as thirty or forty bufhels to
the acre ; and aVer, that if more is ufed the ground will be
abfolutely ruined ; while others maintain, that ten times
that quantity may be applied with iafety. A great varia-
tion m:\y no doubt be produced, in this fefpec^, by a dif-
ference in the nature of the foil, in the ftate of culture it

fpread. The field was paftured upon for feven or eight
years after that, before it was converted into tillage ; ■and
the heaps were by that time become fo fiat, and fo far funfc
into the ground, that they could hardly be difcovered.
Before it was p-'.oughed up, the whole of tiie field was
limed, and this part of it equally fo with the rell ; i:or were
the old heaps touched till the plough went tljrough them irr
tilling the field, when the lime was there turned up, with
only a very fmall mixture of foil. The conlequeiice was.

is under at the time, in the quantity of calcareous matter that at every one of thefe heaps, a tuft of corn fprung up
with which it may have been formerly impregnated ; and with fuch luxuriance as to be entirely rotted before harvtlt ;
perhaps a variation may fometimes arife from other cir- and for many years afterwards, thefe tufts could be dillin-
cumllances that have never yet been attended to. A differ- guiihed from the other part of the field at a very great dif-
ence will likewife arife from the quality of the lime that is tance, like fo many buttons on a coat ; and perhaps continue
applied, and from the manner in which it is employed, fome fo to this day. From thefe experiments, as well as other
kinds of lime containing, perhaps, ten times more calcareous confiderations, there fecms to be reaion to conclude, that
matter than others ; and a very great difference may pro-- on foils which do not naturally abound with chalk, or other
ceed from the mode of applying the lime itfelf. For it is calcareous m.atter, there is lefs danger in giving too much
common to hear thofe who have had little experience of lime than in applying too littk, except in ihofe cafes where
lime as a manure, recommend very great caution, left too an over luxuriance is to be apprehended previoufly to fuch
great a quantity be employed, for fear of burning the limings.

foil, as they exprefs it. This idea of burning has been It has been dated by a late agricultural writer, that iir
evidently adopted from what is experienced by applying the counties of Lanark and Weftmoreland, from one liun-
caullic lime to animals or vegetables in large quantities, as dred to five hundred bufhels of hme-lhells, after being re-
it often corrodes and (hrivels them up, and produces other duced to powder, are applied to the Englifh llatute acre ;
effeSs, which greatly refemble thofe of fire ; but it cannot and that the bulhel of lime-ltells, or calcined lime-ftone,
produce any fuch eifefts, unlefs there are vegetables grow- generally yields from two and a half to tliree bulhels of
jng upon the toil at the time. In that cafe the vegetables powdered lime ; the price of which at the kilns varies from
might indeed be corroded by the lime, if rain fnould fall fourpence to fixpence ; the general average over the king-
immediately after it was fpread when newly (laked ; but as dom being rated at fourpence halfpenny the bufhel. la
it lofes this liery corrofive power in a few days after it is the county of Nottingham, the ordinary quantity does not
fpread, nothing of that kind can be expefted to happen exceed feventy or eighty bufhels. In the counties of Cum-
to the foil. Accordingly, wc never hear of crops being berland in Engla::d, and Well Lothian, Fife, Perth, An-
bumt up with too great a quantity of lime in thofe coun- gus, Mearns, &c. m Scotland, from one hundred to one
ties where it has long been ufed as a common manure, al- hundred and fifty bufhels is the ufual quantity ; and this
though it is there often employed in much larger quantities lail may be i^ated as the general ave.-age quantity com-
than in other places where it is more rare. The writer has monly ufed in all the other parts of the illand.
himfeif had the experience of lime in all proportions, from It is afTerted to have been often heard urged as an ob-
one hundred to above feven hundred bufhels to the acre, ieftion to the tife of lime as a- manure, that althouTh it
upon a great variety of foils ; and has always found that does indeed promote the fertility of a foil in <1 higher de-
its effeft in promoting the fertility of the foil has been in gree at firlt, yet, in the end, it renders it much more
proportion to the quantity employed, other circumllances Iterile than formerly ; on which account, they fay, it ought
being alike. The expence, in moft cafe?, prevents farmers not to be at all employed. This, like many other objections
from employing this manure in greater quantities than thofe to ufeful pradices, takes its rile entirely from the avarice
above-mentioned ; but accidental circumllances clearly {hew, and unfkilfulnefs of thofe who complain. It is chiefly heard
that if it were apphed in much larger quantities, theeffeft of in thofe parts of the country where it is not common for
would on'y be to promot-e the luxuriance of the crop in a farmer, after once liming a poor foil, to take filteen. or fix-
a higher degree. A gentleman of his acquaiTitance, in whofe teen crops of oats faccellively, without any other drellino-
veracity he can confide, happening to be from home when or alteration of crops. It mtjft be a good manure that
a large field was limed, and having no occalion for the whole enables thefe loils to produce fuch a number of fucceifive
quantity of lime that had been brought for that purpofe, fcourging crops of any fort : but it would be a marvellous
and laid down in one corner of the field, his fervants, with- one indeed, if k fhould prevent thofe fields being exhaulled
outdriving it away, mixed what remained with the foil, by them. But is it not well known, that in all the riche:l
although the lime lay there about four inches thick over the
whole furface. The effecl was, that for many years after-
wards, the grain in that place was fo immoderately luxu-
riant, that It fell over, and rotted before it came to the
«ar. After many yean this luxuriance abated a little, fo as
to allow the grain to ripen ^ but it was there always much
more luxuriant thsn in any other part of the field. An
accidental experiment, nearly fimilar to this, fell under his
own obfervation. It happened that the fervants of another

and beil improved parts of the country, lime has been long
employed as a manure ? Yet, fo far are thofe foils from
being rendered flerile by it, that it is doubtful if any art,
without the aflilhmce of lime, or fome calcareous matter,
could ever have biouglit thefe fields to their prelent degre..-
of fertility. Thofe, therefore, who complain of the hurtfv.l
effects of lime as a manure, proclaim wh;;t they ought to
conceal ; that they have had in their pofleiuon a trcafure,
which might have enriched their pul^erity, but which la
farmer laid, by miftake, a few heaps of lime upon a grafs their own life-time they have idly fquandered away,
field that he did not intend fhould be broken up at the We are, however, not only unacquainted with the mode
time. The millake was foon difcovered, and no more lime in which the lime operates upon th* foil, butweareeven
was laid down at that place ; and the few heaps (about a i.i a great meafure ignorant of the aflu.-il changes that are
kulhel in each) were allowed to lie negleded, without being produced upon the earth after this manure ia applied, Ii
Vol.. XXI. H ' A

LIME.

is often alked, How long the efTcdls of lime maybe per-
ceived on the foil ? And, if by this qucllion it be meant to
afcertain the length of time that the effefts of lime will be
perceptible in promoting the luxuriance of the crop after
one manuring, it is no wonder that very different anfwers
ihould be given, as the effefts mud vary with the quantity
or quality of the lime employed, tlie nature of the crops
that follow, and many other circumllanccs, which it would
be impoffible to enumerate. But if it he viewed in another
light ; if lime be fuppofod to alter the foil, fo as to ren

ground, which has been once impregnated with calcareou*
matter, acquires qualities from that moment which it did not
poffets before, whicli it ever afrerwards retains, and never
returns cxaclly to its former (late. In addition to this it i»
obfervid, that although lime has fuch powerful cffefls on
the foil, it does not fecmever to incorporate witli tlie mould,
fo as to form one homogeneous mafs ; but the lime remain*
always in detached particles, which are larger or fnaller in
proportion as it has been more or lefs pcrfcflly divided when
it was fpread, or broken down by the fubfcquent meclianital

der it fufceptible of being affefted by other manures in a operations the foil may have been made to undergo. Hence

more feniiblc degree, fo as to make it capable of pro-
ducing crops that no art could otiiervvi'o have effected,
and to admit of being improved by mod<.s of culture that
would not otherwife have produced any fenlible benefit, the
anfwer to the queftion would be more cafy, as in this
light, it is pretty plain that its effects will be felt, pcrhap?,
as long as the foil exills. It is believed farmers are lel-
dom accuilomed to confider lime, or other ca'ca^eous ma-
nures, in this point of view ; although, when i comes to
be inquired into, it is not doubted but thi-- will lie found
to be by far the moft valuable effeft of ilicfe meafures. A
few fafts will bell illullAte the meaning In D-.rby(hire
the farmers have found, that by fprt adinL' 1 me in confider-
able quantities upon the furface of their hea'hy moo s, afier
a few years the heath difappcars, and the whole furface
becomes covered with a fine pde ot grafs, coiifiding cf
white clover, and the o.her valuable forii of pallurc graffes.

it happens, that in ploughing, if there chance to be any
lumps of calcareous matter in a dry Hate upon the furface,
they naturally tumble into the bottom of the open furrow ar
foon as the earth is edged up upon the mould-board, fo as
to fall into the lowed place tiiat has been made by the plough
before the furrow-flice is fairly turned over. In conlequence
of this circumdance, it muft often happen that, in the
courfe of many repeated ploughings, more of the lime will
be accumulated at the bottom of the foil than m any other
part of it ; and as the plough fometimea goes a little deeper
than ordinary, the lime that on thefe occalions chances to be
depofited in the bottom of thefe furrowp, will be below the
ordinary ilaple of the foil, it will be ufelefa for the purpofes
of the farmer, it is commonly thought that the lime has
funk through the foil by its own gravity, although it is cer-
tain that hme is fpecifically lighter than any foil, and can
only be accumulated at the bottom of the mould by the«

This (liews that lime renders the fod unfriendly to the growth means above defcribed : others think that the lime is chemi

of heath, and friendly to that of cluer. It is found by cally dilFolved, aud afterwards depofited there ; but this idea

experience, that in all porous foils wl.ih are net expofed to is not corroborated by the fafts that have been already

too much danipnefs, in every part of Scr.tland where lime brought to notice. The following direftions are apphcable

has not been employed, hea h has a natijral and almod irre- in either cafe. To obviate this inconvenience, it behoves the

fiftible propenfity to cftablilh itfclf. In thofe parts of the farmer, in the fird place, to be extremely attentive to have

-country where lime has been much ufed as a manure, we his lime divided into as fmall particles as jioffible at the time

find that the fields may be alloA-ed to remain long in grafs, of fpreading ; for, if thefe are fufficiently fmall, they incor-

without becoming covered with that noxious plant. Again, poratc fo intimately with the mould, as to be incapable of

it is well known by thofe who have been attentive, and have being eafily detached from it. On this account, as well as

had opportunities of obferv.ing the fail, that peas of any others, it is always mod advifable to fpread the lime when

fort can never be fuccefsfully cultivated in any part of the in its dry powdery date, immediately after flaking, before

country where the foil is not of a very drong clayey na- it has had time to run into lumps. It is alio cf importance

ture, or where lime or other calcareous manures have never to plough the foil with a more fliallow furrow than ufual

been employed. If the groe.nd be made as rich as poffible when lime is put upon it, elpecially the fird time it is

with common dung, although the peas in that cafe will ve- ploughed after the lime has been Iprcad upon its furface ; be-

getate, and grow for fome time with vigour ; yet, before caule, at that ploughing, the lime being all on the furface,

they begin to ripen, they become blighted, ufually die away a larger propoition of it is turned into the bottom of the

entirely before the pod is formed, and but rarely produce a lalt made furrow than at any fncceediiig ploughing ; and

few half-formed peas. But if the ground has ever been therefore more of it will be buried beneath the daple than at

limed, although, perhaps, at the didance of thoufands of any other time, if the furrow fhall have been very deep,

years before that period, it never lofes its power of pro- This circumdance becomes more elientially ncceflary in

clucing good crops of peas, if it is put in a proper tilth ploughing grafs ground that has been newly limed; becaufe,

for carrying them at the time. Again, in countries that in this cafe, the ime is lefs capable of being mixed with any

have never been hmcd, the i;inds of grafs that fpontaneoufly part of the .'oil than in any other. It aifo becomes extreme-
appear, if left to therafelves, are the fmaU bent-grafs and ly neceffary, in all luccceding times, to guard as much as

feather-grafs. In places where lime has ever been ufed, the poffible againft ploughing to unequal depths. See Ander-

ground, if eshaudcd, produces fewer plants of thefe grades ; fon's Ellays.

but in their dead white clover, the poa and fefcue grades. In the work on the prefent date of hufbandry in Great

chiefly abound. The foil in either of thefe cafes may become

equally poor ; that is, may produce equally fcanty crops : but

the means of recovering them will be fomewhat different. In

the hit cafe, a fallow feldom fails to prove beneficial. In the

fird, it is often of no eifeft, fometimes even hurtful. In the

lad, a moderate dreffmg of dun^ produces a much more

fenfible and lading effedt thjn in the other. In the lad the

quality of ihe grafs, as well as its quantity, rather improves

by age. In the firl't thefe ci'-cumdances are reverfed. Several

Other obfervations might be made, tending to fiiew that

Britain, it is fuggeded as probable, that the propriety or im-
propriety of repeated hmings depend more on the nature of
the foil, and the modes of management afterwards adopted,
th:in on any other circumdance connected with it ; and that,
as in iome didritis it is repeated two or three times in the
courie of twenty years, while in others a repetition of liming,
except ill mixture with other fubltances, is found injurious,
it is impoflible to account for fuch variations in the practice
or its effects on the foil, without obferving, m the fird place,
that although there has been as yet no general rule edabhfticd,

by

LIME.

by which a farmer can dcterTitne what quantity ef lime is bed
fuited to a particular foil, yet in praftice, a greater quantity
is hid on ftrong, denfc, itubborn foils, than on thofe of a more
friable nature. In the fecond place, that the diverfity of
meafures by which lime is fold at the different kilns, is often
fo great, as to leave it doubtful whether a farmer in one part
of the ifland, who applies three chaldrons to the acre, does
not ufe lefs than he who, in another dillrift, applies two.
And in the third place, that the quality of linie-fhells is
fo extremely different, that in forne cafes the farmer who
lays five chaldrons on the acre, does not apply a greater
quantity of effective manure than another who limes an acre
with three only. And from various circumllances which have
been already noticed, in fpeaking of calcareous earth, as
well as from the great and general advantage of this fub-
ftance on all foils and fituations, except fuch asareprevioudy
replete with calcareous matter, or too moid, the writer of
the " Philofophy of Agriculture" conceives, that its effedls
can only be underftood from the idea of its aftually fupply-
ing the nutrition of vegetables. This is ftill farther con-
firmed, by its contributing fo much to the amelioration of
the crops, as well as to their increafe in quantity, as noticed
by millers and bakers. If it be applied in a large quantity,
it likewife kills animals in the foils, and alfo fmall vegetables,
and from the dellroyed and decayed animals and vegetables,
the foil is rendered more fertile, by being impregnated with
mucilage. The fuperabundant lime is ufeful as it becomes
mild calcareous earth, by attracting carbonic acid from the
atmofphere, and afterwards gradually affording it to plants.
By the fermentation it brings on, and the finenefs of its par-
ticles, the texture of the earth is opened and divided.

It is evident that light fandy lands, containing only a fmall
portion of vegetable matter, (hould not be overdone with
lime, unlefs we can affift them liberally with animal manures.
Its great excellence on a fandy foil is its mechanically binding
the loofe particles, and preventing the different parts of the
manure from efcaping out of the reach of the crop. On
clay, by means of the gentle fermentation which lime pro-
duces, the ftubborn foil is opened ; the manure readily comes
into contact with every part of it, and the fibres of the plants
have full liberty to fpread. It is often faid that lime anfwers
better upon fand than clay ; but let the farmer treble the quan-
tity, and he will be convinced that lime is better for clay than
fand. Clay well limed becomes a marie, falling in water, and
fermenting with acids ; the air, rain, and dews are freely ad-
mitted, and the foil retains the nourifhment of each. In con-
fequence of a fermentation raifed in the foil, the fixed air is
fet at liberty, which in a wonderful manner promotes vege-
tation. It is the nature of Kme, in its aftive ftate, to dif-
folve vegetable bodies. Uporr this principle v/e may account
for the wonderful effefts it produces in the improvement of
black moor-land, which confifts of diffolved and half dif-
folved vegetable fubllances. And it may be obferved in ge-
neral, that the greateft quantity fhould be ufed upon the
deeped and richeil foils, and the leail upon thofe that are
thin and light. On drong clays and deep loams there is a
fubdantial body forit to operEte upon ; confequently, a con-
fiderable quantity will be required to pervade and give due
aftivity to the whole ; but as the foil is lighter, the quantity
mud be lefs, and the after-management in regard to crops
extremely cautious. In liming a fingle field, an attention to
the quantity will often be found neceffary : the foil of the
higher parts being for the mod part light and free, and that
of the lower more deep and compaft, v.here the ground is
unequal. On fome foils, particularly where the bottom is
chalk, lime-done, or marie, lime will be pernicious, efpecially
if the foil be thin.

Whatever be the method in which lime produces its bene-
ficial effefts upon land, it fhould always be reduced into ae
fine a powder ai poffible, and fpread out with the ^/reateft
equality upon the foil, as by thefe means it will be more
equally blended with it, and be more extenfively ufeful in
promoting the growth of crops,

Confidering lime as a fubdance operating upon the living
fubdances in the foil, as weU as mechanically upon the foil
itfelf, we perceive the neceflity of applying a fufficient
quantity at once, in order to produce thefe effects: for, if
the quantity employed be fmall, and the foil deep, its effcfts
will be fcarcely perceived. Many farmers imagine that hme
will not anfwer upon their lands, becaufe they have laid it on
in Imall quantities, whereas in all probability they would have
found a larger dofe highly beneficial. On clay, four or five
hundred budiels are laid on for wheat, but it can fcarcely be
expefted to anfwer theexpence. On mofs, bog, moor, &c.
to be reclaimed from a ifate of nature, the more is hid on
the better it is. The beneficial effe£t of Time on fandy land
may be explained from its binding quality. But when fuch
lands are fird broken up from their date of heath, the vege-
table matter is afted upon and reduced to manure by the cor-
rofive power of the lime. On fuch lands, the fird crop of
rye has more than paid the expences. By attracting water,
lime has a tendency to lay land dry. By infinuating itfelf
between the particles of clay, it dedroys their adhefions,
breaks the diffnefs of the foil, and gives readier accefs to the
operation of manures, and to the extenfion of the growing
roots of plants. By attiading carbonic acid, or fixed air
and water, and by its corrofive properties, it dedroys the
texture of bodies, and reduces vegetable matter to a date of
manure. It unites drongly with oils, and renders thera
mifcible with water. By being dedruftive to infefts and ver-
min, it may alfo contribute to preferve the fpringing corn
from their ravages.

Dr. Anderfon, however, fuggeds, that, from writers on
agriculture having long been in the cudom of dividing ma-
nures into two claffes, viz. enriching manures, or thole that
tended direftly to render the foil more prolific, however de-
rile it may be, among the foremod of which was reckoned
dung ; and exciting manures, or thofe that were fuppofed
to have a tendency to render the foil more prolific, merely
by adtiiig upon thofe enriching manures that had been for-
merly in the foil, and giving them a new dimulus, fo as to
enable them to operate anew upon that foil which they had
formerly fertilized : in which clafs of dimulating manures
lime was always allowed to hold the foremod rank ; it would
follow, that lime could only be of ufe as a manure when ap-
plied to rich foils ; and, when applied to poor foils, would
produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful effedts. He
acknowledges that he was fo far impofed upon by the beauty
of this theory, as to be hurried along with the general cur-
rent of mankind, in the firm periuafion of the truth of the
obfervation, and for many years did not fufficicntly advert
to thofe fads that were daily occurring to contradift it.
He is now, however, firmly convinced, from repeated ob-
fervations, that lime and other calcareous manures produce
a much greater proportional improvement upon poor foils
than on fuch as are richer ; and that lime alone, upon a
poor foil, will, in many cafes, produce a much greater and
more lalting degree of fertility than dung alone. In direft
contradiction to the theory it is added, that he never yet met
with a poor foil in its natural date, which was not benefited in
a very great degree by calcareous matters, when adminidered
in prooer quantities. But he has met v.-ith feveral rich foils
that v^-ere fully impregnated with dung, and therefore exactly
in that date in which the theory fuppofes that lime would
H 2 produce

LIME.

■produce the pfreatcft efFcA,— but upon wliiih lime, applied
in anv quantities, produced not t1u> fniallfft fenfible effert.

Tlic author of Pliytologia fiiggclls the idea of its fupplying
aftual nutrition to vegetables, which fcoms probable, as it
contributes fo much to the melioration of the crops, as well
as to their increafe in quantity — wheat from land well limed
being believed by farmers, millers, and bakers, to be, as
they fuppofe, thinner (l<inned : that is, to turn out more
and better flour; which it is fuppofed is owing to its con-
taining more flarch and lefs mucilage. Hence is perceived
another very important ufe of lime in the cultivation of land,
tvliich may be owing to its forwarding the converfion of
mucilage into (larch, that is, to its forivarding the ripening
of the feed, which is a matter of great confequence in this
climate of fliort and cold fiimniers. Mr. Young, from
various minutes made in his Eaftern Tour, concludes, that
lime agrees with almoil all foils ; that it fails, however, on
a thin loam or lime-ftone ; that it feems inefficacious on old
patlure; that it has a ftrong cffeA in killing weeds; but that
the greateft cfTeft is on heath and moor-lands; where, as in
the peak of Dcrbyfhire, it converts walle foils into fine paf-
tures, without tillage : but the fort is a ttrong llonc lime,
burning foft and foapy, and the quantity laid on is very
great, rifing to three hundred .Tnd fixty or even one tlioufand
bufhels. There is great reafon to attribute much of the
benefit to quantity : in waUes efpecially, too much can
hardly be laid on, becaufe diffolving the roots of heath and
other fpontancous growth requires a powerful agent. Of
their Itrong lime three hundred and fixty bufhels are pro-
bably equal to five or fix hundred buflicls of chalk lime.
\Vhat then are five or fix quarters, which is no uncommon
quantity, laid upon an acre ?

And the mode of uling lime, in improving their heaths
or moors, is firft to pare the ground in the beginning of
March, about an inch and- a half thick, to turn it about in
dry weather, when dry to gather it into heaps, and burn it
into alhes, to fprcad them even over the ground, to fet on
their lime, to fpread and harrow jj; altogether, to plough
the ground very thin, and to fow it with turnips or rape :
then the fpring following to fow with oats or barley, and
good grafs feeds : another good dreffing with lime after the
iirft crops of feeds is got ; and then it may lie for pallure.
Spreading the lime in a flaked ftatcis by far the belt method.
The fummer months are preferred, becaufe fewer coals are
necelTary for burning ; in other refpefts, the winter months
are julf as good for laying the lime upon the ground, provided
it be done in dry weather.

But in its application upon fallows it is found to produce
the beft eflcfts when laid on early in tlie feafon, and well in-
corporated with the foil while it is dry and powdery.

And the affiftance of this manure has been highly ufcful
in the cultivation of turnips; whole diftriAs, formerly ufc-
lefs, having been made to produce not only good crops of
them, but alfo valuable ones of corn and broad clover. Its
greatelt utility would feem to be upon light foils for thefc
crops ; as, where lime is the principal manure, they feldom
fow turnips, clovers, peas or beans, except upon lands that
have been previoufly limed. Inftances of this fort are often
met with upon the uplands ; where, if any of the broad-
leaved crops are fown, where a part has been limed, and a
part not, the parts where the lime has been laid will produce,
it is laid, a valuable return, while that which has been
dunged only will hardly repay the expence of feed and la-
bour. The methods of uiing lime upon turnip-lands are
various. Some farmers lay it on only before the lall plough-
ing, and plough it in without harrowing : they alio lay it
in heaps, hot from the kiln, without being flaked. But

probably the fooner it is laid upon the land, and the more
perfeftly it is mixed and incorporated with the foil before
the feed is fpwn, the more certain and extenfive will its ef-
fefts be found.

But the application of this fubftance upon clover-ley for
oats is a mode of praftice which ought not to be attempted.
It is generally laid on in this way in the autumn, and
ploughed down in the fpring, but the crops feldom repay
the expence.

This fubftance is alfo ufed as a top-dreiring in fpring
upon grals, or wheat and other grain ; but upon the httter
it is faid to be dangerous, uiikfs tiie lime be made into a
compofl with dung or earth ; in this form it will not only
be fafe but highly ufeful, except upon coarfe meadows
abounding with ruflies, and other trumpery, which it de-
llroys by abforbing the fuperabundant moiflure which fup-
ports them.

But upon light foils, if fcveral white crops be taken in
fncceflion after hiniiig, the land will be worn out ; a white
and green crop (hoald be taken alternately. Upon clay
lands a fummer fallow is fometimes indifpen fable ; in that
cafe the lime fliould be laid on in .July or Augull, and com-
pletely harrowed in before ploughing : two or three plougli-
ings at lenlt are required to incorporate it well with the loil,
and a fuitable harrowing after each (hould likewife be
given.

However, about Perth in Scotland, according to the
Report of that county, the quantity laid on llifT land, by
ficilful improvers in the low country, is from forty to fifty
bolls to the acre; on light land, with a gravelly fubfoil, '
thirty or thirty-five bolls are accounted a fiifficient dofe.
In fome parts of the carfe or clay land, which is not caiily
ftimulated, they lay on eighty or ninety bolls. It is fome-
times laid on fallows, immediately before the feed furrow ;
on barley and grafs feeds, either before or after the barley
is fown ; and in fome cales with the preceding crop, where
turnips are cultivated, to prepare the ground for barley.
Lime is in fome inllances mixed in compoil dung-hills, in
others it is fprcad on the green fward, before the land be
broken up from grafs. One infallible maxim with regard
to lime is, that the longer it is kept near the furface, at
lead within reach of the plough, until it be intimately
mixed with the foil, and its virtues imbibed, fo much the
better. The firft liming ot land has always a more power-
ful effeft than it has at a future but no dillant period,
the quantity being equal. Quick lime intended for wheat,
after a fallow, or for barley and grafs feeds, might be
ploughed in with a very fliallow furrow, before the feed
is fown : for oats after ley, it ought to be laid on during
the preceding autumn ; and for palhire or a top-drefling,
early in the fpring or autumn, rather than in fummer
or in winter ; becaufe, if the fummer be dry, the grafs is
burnt up by the lime, and in winter its virtues are leflened
by the froU, nor does it fo powerfully attracl the influence
of the air. It is common, but perhaps difficult to be ac-
counted for, when lime is fpread on fliort heath or other
barren ground, which has a dry bottom, to fee white clover
and daifies rifing fpontaneoufly and plentifully, the fecond
or third fpring afterwards, where not a vellige of either,
nor even a blade of grafs, could be difcovered before it was
applied. Dr. Darwin remarks that he has been informed,
that if a fpadeful of lime be thrown on a tuffock, which
liorles or cattle have rcfufed to eat for years, they will for
many fucceeding feafons eat it quite cluie to the ground ;
which is owing, he fufpefts, to the grafs containing more
fiigar in its joints, or to the lefs acidity of all itsjuices.

Where lime is to lie in a heap for any length of time, it
7 fhould

LIME.

fiould be coWred with earth, to preferve it from the air and
rain. It has been obferved, that the benefit of lime is not
apparent in a dry fummer, and that it does not aft fully as a
manure, till it has been thoroughly flaked in the foil, by
continued rains. In Effex an excellent praftice prevails, of
forming a compoft of lime, turf, and ditch earth, at the
gate of every field, ready to be apphed as a manure when
vantcd. Twenty bufiiels of lime mixed with forty buHiels
of fand form an excellent top-dreffing for an acre of wheat,
if laid on early in the fpring. But lime, as full noticed, is
apt to fubfide beyond the depth of the common furrow ;
deep ploughing in this cafe is the only remedy applicable.
In fome midland counties a fallow is feldom made without
being drefled with lime, under an idea that it mellows the
foil, and makes it work well, while in tillage ; and fweetens
cr improves the quality of the herbage when laid down to
grafs. For this pUrpofc it is fetched eighteen or twenty
miles. Anitwo forts of lime are in ufe in fome diftrifts, as
about Derby. The Breedon lime, burnt from a very hard
ftone, and of fingular rtrength as manure ; and the common
lime, burnt from common ilones, and called Ticknall or
Walfal lime. The load-heaps are generally watered as they
are thrown down from the waggon ; and always turned over
to complete the falling more effeftually. If a quantity of
lime be fetched in autumn or early in winter, to be ufed in
the fpring, when team-labour is more valuable, it is thrown
up into a regular roof-like heap or mound, and thatched as a
flack ; a fmall trench being cut round the fl<irts to catch,
with an outlet to convey away, rain water. Thus the heap
is prevented from running to a mortar-hke confidence by the
fnows and rains of winter, and thereby rendered more ufeful
as manure.

In the Rural Economy of the Midland Counties it is
noticed, that a turnip fallow was manured with Breedon
lime, in general five quarters to an acre ; part had double
that quantity, and part had none. The turnip crop re-
ceived no obvious advantage, but its effefts on the barley
were evident. The part not limed was the worfe crop,
nearly in the proportion of four to three. But the part
limed with ten qaarters to an acre was the beft crop.
Whence the common notion, that more than five quarters
of Breedon lime to an acre is ruinous to crops, feems to be
ill founded. And in the Economy of Norfolk, lime is faid
to be in good repute, though not in general ufe as a manure ;
different opinions being entertained refpefting the value of
it. This difference of opinion will ever remam, while gene-
ral conclufions are drawn from particular incidents. It is
ufed by many judicious farmers, even after marie, with fuc-
ccfs. Upon hot burning foils it is generally found of the
greatell efficacy, and is perhaps the moft effeftual cure of
fcalds or burning patches of land that has yet been difco-
vered ; from thefeand other circumftanceslime is there con-
fidered as a cold manure. The general method of applying
lime is to let it fall in large heaps, and to fpread it out of
carts upon fallowed ground either for wheat or barley.
The quantity fet on is about three chaldrons an acre ; the
price gs. or lo.v a chaldron. (Now much higher.) From
experiments made on turnips, barley, and wheat, it ap-
pears that lime does not aft as a manure until it has been
thoroughly flaked in the foil ; and it feems as if the rains of
fummer were necelfary to promote its operation. But in
fome parts of Yorkfhire lime is ufed invariably on every
fpeeies of foil ; and in mofl cafes with great fuccefs. On
the higher and more dry lands its utiHty is evident. At
Malton it is laid on the calcareous quarry foil with fuccefs.
Its ufe to the loofe fandy foils is fully etlabhfhed. The
prevailing crop is wheat on fallow. It it alfo pretty gene-

rally fet on for rape, turnips, or other crops, after fod-
burning, and fpread among the aflics. It is alfo fometinics
fet on for barley. But its cffeft on the firfl crop, except
of wheat or rape, is feldom perceptible.

But the benefit of lime to grafs is a matter of difpute ;
it is even thought by fome to be detrimental. It feems,
however, to be a generally received idea, that lime laid on
grafs is not thrown away ; for, whenever the land is turned
up again, its benefit to corn will have full efFeft. Tlie
methods of liming are various. The worll is laying it in
large heaps, and fuffcring it to run to a jelly before it i;
fpread. Next to this, is fetting it about tlie land in fmall
hillocks ; for, although they are fpread before they ap-
proach to a ftate of mortar, yet this method is injudicious.
Lime falling in the open air breaks into fmall cubical maffes,
which being once buried in the foil, remains in it for ages,
without being mixed intimately with it. Lime ought tliere-
fore to be fpread in a flate of perfect powder. It is there-
fore the praftice of judicious hufbandmen to fet lime upon
the land in load-heaps, and fpread it over the foil out of
carts, as foon as it is fufficiently fallen/ Or the load-heaps
are turned over, not fo much to finifh the falling, as to gain
an opportunity of burying the granulous furface of the
heaps ; by which means, the fragments are at leaft lefTened,
if not reduced to powder. In the moor-lands the heaps are
interlayered and covered up with moill turf or peat-mould,
which bringing on a rapid fall, the whole is fet on fire, and
the furface kept free from granules by a covering of dry
aihes. The heaps, therefore, whether great or fmall, fhould
be covered up with foil, either of the field they are let in, or
that of lanes or ditches carried to them for the purpofe ;
and if a fpeedy fall be required, water thrown over this
covering. If hme be ufed on fallows for wheat, it is gene-
rally fpread in July, har'uwed in as fafl as it is fpread,
and ploughed under with a fhallow furrow, as foon as con-
venient. The ufual quantity is three or four chaldrons t»
an acre.

And " much depends upon the mode of applying the
lime to the foil after calcination, according to Dr. Anderfon.
If it is fpread as foon as it is flaked, while yet in a powdery
flate, a very fmall quantity may be made to cover the whole
furface of the ground, and to touch an exceedmgly great
number of particles of earth ; but if it is fuffered to lie for
fome time after flaking, and to get fo much moillure as to ^
make it run into clods, or cake into large lumps, it can never ~
be again divided into fuch fmall parts ; and, therefore, a much
greater quantity is neceffary to produce the fame efFeft, than
it it had been applied in its powdery flate. But if the foil
is afterwards to be continued long in tillage (as thefe clods
are annually broken fmaller by the adtion of the plough and
harrows), the Hme mull continue to exert its influence anew
upon the foil for a great courfe of years : it will produce an
effeft nearly fimilar to that which would be experienced hy
annually llrewing a fmall quantity of powdered lime over
the furface of the foil ; but as the lime mud, in the firit
cafe, be paid by the farmer altogether at the beginning,
which only comes to be fuccefTivcly demaaded in the other
cafe, this deferves to be attended to, as it may become a
confideration of fome importance where lime is dear, and
money not very plentiful."

And it is conilantly an objeft worthy of attention to re-
move the fhells as foon as polfible after the lime is drawn
from the kiln ; for it is known from experiment, that a ton
of lime expofed twenty-two days to the air after calcination,
is augmented in weight to thirty hundred weight, and fome
kinds of lime even to thirty-five ; which is Ijitle lefs tb««
double.

LIME.

in ortlor to unJcrftand the gooilncrf of lime, it is re- loads of ^o biifliels : fucli a dreffing, when the fpace to be

marked by the fame writer, that the lime from pure lime- improved is large, demands tlie employiin-iit of regular

ftone is always of a bright white, when perfectly calcined teams to be kept continually at work. In fuch under-

without a teni'e:icy to any colour. When it has any co- takings, it is idle to be nice about the feafon of applying

lour it rr)ceods 'from the fand, or other uncalcareous matters the manure; convenience demands that the work Ihould

in its compolition. There are, however, fomc forts of fand go on at all feafons, but in the coun'ics where lime is moll

that are of fjch a pure whitenefs, as not to debafe the co- ufed, the common feafon is fumnier, and on fallows."

lour <:f the lime in the fmalled degree ; but thefe are rare ; And there cannot be any doubt but that it is the bed

and there are fome matters that alter the colour of the lime praftice to apply it either in the fpring, fummer, or early

a s;o:)d ded, without deballng its quality in any conlider-
able degree ; but thefe are lliU more rare than the former.
H-TCe it follows, that the bed lime for the piirpofe of the
farmer, is that which is lighted, fofteft to the touch, and
whiteft. Softr.efs to the touch is not, however, it is con-
ceived, an unequivocal proof of the purity ct the hme.
He has feen one kind of lime that contained a large propor-
tion of an uncalcareous in.palpable powder, that was as foft
to the touch as the piir'-(l lime ; but this was a fingular
exception to the rule that is very general. The more they
deviate from eiliier of thefe tefts of J^irity, the worfe ihey
are for the purpof -s of agriculture. But if the limc-llone
lofes much of its weight in calcination, and the lime-fliells
are extremely hght ; if the (hells require a very large pro-

part of the autumn, and in a (late as little moill as poffible,
as, under fuch circumdances, it may not only be laid on
with the grcated convenience, but be fpread out in the mod
even and regular manner, which is a point ot coniiderable
importance in this luifbaiidry, and be laid on with lefs in-
jury from treading the land, than could otherwife be the
cafe.

The above writer alfo flates, that " liming is, in many
didrids, connefted with paring and burning, and it is one
of the bell methods of applying this manure. From a peck
to a buOiel, according to its plenty, is added to, and mixed
with, every heap of allies, and they are then fpread together.
The effeft gener?t'y is coniiderable, but proportioned to the
foil. The greated efleft of this manure is upon land that

portion of water to flake them fully ; if it is long before has been long in a date of nature ; and particularly upon all

they begin to fall j if the lime-done is not apt to run (or peat foils, moors, mountains, and bogs. But upon all on

be vitriGed) in the operation of burning ; if it falls entirely which it is known to have elfedt, it is well applied in the

when it gets a fufficient quantity of water, after it has been aflies of paring and burning."
properly calcined ; if it fwells very much in flaking, and if But though the application of this fubdance properly

the li
may

ime is light, fine to the touch, and of a pure white, it belongs to (he occi piers of lands, it is neceffary that the

be concluded that it is extremely good, and may be proprietors tf them lliould render it as cafy and convenient

ufed in preference to any other lime that is inferior to it in as polTible, " eitder by fcarching for raw materials, opening

any of thefe refpefts. Thefe rules are perfefitly fufficient quarries, and eretliiig kilns upon the edates under their

to decide as "o the comparative value of any two kinds of care, or by bringing, from a didancc, materials, fuel, or

lime that -.iiiy be onpo-fed to one another, and may be relied lime itfelf, at the lead poUible expence, through the means

upo'i as fiiific-.ently accurate for the ordinary purpofes of the of improved roads, rail-ways, or water-carriage." And

Til-re are o'lier methods by which the qualities or good-
nefs of lime may be afcertdined with exaclneis, but which
are bed p.-ri'o' med by an '.x pert cheniid.

Proper S'jfon for ii/Ing Lime. — J n refpedl to the mod
proper time of uling lime to lands, there feems fome dider-
ence of opinion amon^^ farmers, as well as to the date in
which it Ihould be ufed ; fone fuppofin.; the bed time to
lay it on dry foils intended for turnips, is in autumn, while
others thi^ik the beginning of f immer, as May and June,
belter. S )me, like'vife, contend tht it (hould be applied
before it has been flaked ; while others think it -may be
employed when even in a date of confiderable moillure.
The writer of the Farmer's Calendar, after putting the
quedion, whether lime burnt in January fliould be then ufed
or kept till fpring, obferves, that " there are two motives
for burning done or chalk ; one is, for the lake of reducing
the material to powder, for accuracy in fpreading ; the

that the fame principle holds good " with rcfpedt to hiarles,
and other grofs fubilances, to be ufed in their raw Hate ;
as the advantages arifing therefrom will always, eventually,
find their way into the rent-roll."

Dodlor Anderfon thinks it may be necell'ary to obfervej
that when farmers employ a great deal of lime, it fome-
times happens that their horfes' feet are burnt by it ; which
is extremely troublefome, and fometimes proves even fatal
to the poor animals : a method of preventing or remedying
that inconvenience will, therefore, be of ufe. The bell
method of preventing any inconvenience of this fort is to
fpread the lime, when in its powdery date, upon the field as
evenly as polTible, and to allow it to lie in that date fome
time before you begin to plough it. If the lime has been
in fine powder, it will have become perfedlly effete in a
week or fo ; after which time it will be as little corrofive as
any kind of common earth, lo that the horfes may work
among it with perfeft fafety. But if it has been ludercd

other is. for the application of a caullic body dedrudtive of to run into clods before it was fpread, thefe, if not broken

living vegetables. For the former purpofe, the lime had fmall, will be longer in abforbing their air, and, of confc-

better be kept ; for the latter, it is ufiially laid on In fuch quence, will remain longer in an acrid (late, fo that the

large quantities, that it is not very material at what feafon ploughing may, in that cafe, be deferred for a week longer,

it is fpread, provided it be done frelh from the kiln. It nor will it be even then fo perfectly fafe as the other. But

will have a greater effedl in fpring and fummer, but the if it becgimes necedary at any time to plough in the lime

fuperiority is not fuch as to induce delay from a time in immediately after it is fpread, take care, fays he, to do it

which the teams have little to perform, to a ieafon in which
there is much work for them." And he further dates,
that " the grand effeft of this manure is on uncultivated
wade land. On moors, mountains, bog, and boggy bottoms,
the effeft is very great, but the quantity apphed is con-
fiderable. The more the better. • In Derbylhire, as far as
600 buffaels an acre have been ufed; or 20 one horfe cart

13

only when the foil is perfectly dryj and in leading your
horfes to the plough, take care to prevent them from g#ing
through any wet place, fo as to wet their hoofs or ankles ;
for lime adts not at all upon any dry fubdance ; but when
it is in its acrid caudie date, it will corrode the hair and
flefh in a moment, if it has accefs to water. As foon as the
horfes are unyoked, keep their feet dry till you have got

them

. , L I M

thfm carefully bruflied, fo as to wipe away all the dry
powdery lime that may adhere to them ; and if the lealt
fliower fhould fall, unyeke your horfco immediately, and
take them off the field. Witli thefe precautions, they may
work among lime for any length of time, without receiving
any damage whatever.

However, in cafe of any accident, by which a horfe or man
that is working among lime fliould be fcalded by it, it is
always advifable for every farmer who has work of that kind
going forward, to keep a tub of very four milk, or whey,
in fome place ready to walli the part affeded well with,
which will quickly deftroy the poignancy of the lime, and
prevent the mifchief that would otheruife arife from it.
The fourer the milk or whey is, the better it will be for
this purpofe ; it ought, therefore, to be long kept. For
want of this, vinegar may produce the fame effeift, or very
ftaU urine will be of ufe ; but the milk or whey is the
cheapeft and bell remedy, and ought alvrays to be in readi-
nefs where hme hufbandry is going on to any extent.

Lime, in Botany. See Lemon.

hiyiE-^ mmoniacal, a kind of phofphorus, invented by Mr.
Homberg, and made of fal ammoniac and hme. See ^m-
pionLical Phosphorus, and Lime, /uj>ra.

Lime, Bir^. See BiRD-//m:-.

Lime, BrooL See Brook-/;W.

Lime, Burning, a term figniiying the procefs of convert-
ing lime-ftone, chalk, marble, {hells, a:.d other calcareous
fubftances into lime, by means of heat, in kihis properly
CQnftruSed for the purpofe. Sje Kiln.

In thefe cafes, the calcination is effected by different forts
oF fuel, in different fituations, but principally by fofTil-coal,
peats, or woods ; thefe being laid in layers, alternately
with thofe of the calcareous materials, in the ki ns, and
the procefs of burning continued for any length of tir.ic,
"by repeated applications of fuel and calcareous matters at
the top, and drawing out the lime from below occafionally
as it is burnt.

But mineral coal, or culm, are unqaeftionably the mofl
convenient and fuitable materials for efl'efting this bufinefs,
where they can be procured in plenty, and at a fufficiently
cheap rate, as they burn the llone, or other calcareous
matter more perfeAly, and, of courfe, leave fewer cores in
the calcined pieces than when other forts of fuel are em-
ployed for the purpofe.

However, Mr. Dodgfon has had much fuccefs in burning
lime by the ufe of peats ; as he ilates, in the Farmer's Ma-
gazine, that he is " convinced, from experience, that lime-
ftone can be burnt to better purpofe, and at lefs expence,
with peat than with coal. When coal is ufed, the lime-
Aones are apt, from exceflive heat, to run into a folid lump,
which never happens with peat, as it keeps them in an open
flate, and admits the air freely. The procefs of burning,
alfo, goes on more flowly with coal. No lime can be drawn
for t'AO or three days ; whereas, with peat, it may be drawn
within twelve hours after tire is put to the kiln ; and in every
fucceeding day nearly double the quantity of what could
be produced by the ule of coal. The expence is compara-
tively fmall. A mail and a boy will dig as many peats in
one day as will burn 60 Carlifle bufhejs of lime, (the Car-
lifle bulTiel is equal to three Winchefter ones,) and the ex-
pence, including drying, will not exceed four, or, at mort,
five Ihillings ; while the coal neceffary for burning the fame
quantity of lime would have colt twelve fhilhngs at the pit.
The wetnefs of feafons is no argument againft the ufe of
peats, as they can be Hacked ne^r the kiln, when half dry,
at any time of furomer^ the moifture will be exhaled from

L I M

them during winter, and they will be in a fit flate for burn-
ing in the months of April or May. He lives in the north-
eallern diltriifl of Cumberland, where the farmers, in general,
burti their own lime ; a:.d though there is coal in ihe im-
mediate neighbourhood, he gives a decided prefere. ce to
peat, for the reafons above-mentioned." And it is well
known, that this kind of fuel has been occafionally ufid in
many parts of the kingdom for the fame purpcfe, from a
very early period, without any complaint of the want of
fuccefs.

In the praftice here ftated, no particular form of kihi
was found neceffary, nor any particular fort of management
in the procefs of calcination ; the proportion of peat de-
pending upon the nature of the Lme-ltone employed, and
other circumftances.

It has been confidered by Mr. Marihall, that " the manu-
fadlure of lime is an art of which tl-.e manajrer of an eftate
ought not to be ignorant." And he conceives, that "he
ought to have, at lealt, a fufRti n' knov^l dge of its theory,
to enable him, when occafion requl es, to fuptrintend or di-
reft its prailice. For it feld >m anfwers, uniefs where ma-
terials are plentiful and fuel cheap, for every tenant upon an
eftate to manufacture his own lime. A full-fi/.ed kiln accu-
mulates a (tronger heat, with a given proportion of fuel, than
a fmali one of the fame for.-n," whicU is without doubt a
great favifg.

It is fuppofed, that " the chief or fole intention of burning
lime- flone for manure, appears to be that of reducing it in the
readiefl; and cheapeft manner to an impalpable powder. For
experience fufficiently fliews, that quick lime is injurious,
rather than beneficial, to vegetation ; and that burnt hme-
fjone does not operate as a manure until it has regained the
fixed air, of which the fire deprived it. If it could be
reduced by mechanic powers to powder of equal finenefs,
its eftefl, as manure, would doubtlefsly be the fame as that
of dead hme (effete). It is in the perfeft folution which
well-burnt lime-ftone has received, by the expulfion of its
fixed air in the fire, fo as to have completely loofened
its texture, and unbound its every atom, that we are to
look for its prompt effect and the fhortnefs of its duration,
comparatively with unburnt calcareoi-s fubftances. Hence
the main point to be attended to is to expel the whole of
the air. For, uniefs this be accomplifhed, the foluticn be-
comes imperfeft ; the ftones, inftead of completely diffo'ving
into impalpable atoms, break into granules, or flakes ; leav-
ing, perhaps, a firm cere in the centre, to encumber, ra-
ther than to fertilize, the foil" on whicli they are apphed.
" There is, however, an oppofite extreme to be avoided, and
with greater care. For an unburnt ftone may be returned
to the kiln, but one which, by too intenfe a heat, is vitrified,
or changed to a ftate of impure glafs, is not only rendered
ufelefs, but has incurred an extraordinary wafte cf fucL
Conlequently, ftones that are prone to vitrification ought to
be broken down into fmall pieces ; otherwife, the fire is
required to be fo intenfe, that the furface becomes vitrified,
before the air from the centre can be expelled." And
" another fuggeftion, refpefting the proper iize of the ftones
to be burnt, may have its ufe. Where fuel is weak, or dear,
the materials require to be broken into fmaller fragments,
than where aftrong fire can be kept up at a fmail expence ;
while, under the latter circumftance, and where the ftone is
not prone to vitrification, much of the labour a-.d expence
of breaking may be fitved, by uling an extr.i quantity of
fuel, and keeping up a ftrong fire in the kiln," or place
where it is burned ; the form or conftruciion of which
depends partly on the quaUties and value of the mutenalf,
and partly on the kinds of fuel that are made ufe of, and

the

L I M

Ihe differences of their prices at the places where they are
■employed. Sec KiLS.

It is vifeful that the procefs of burning lime fliould go on
Auring January and February, as well as moll ni the winter,
and aUo in the fumnuT months. Perpetual kihis are wrought
in many diftricts, efpecially the northern ones, and in Ire-
land ; the lime, when not taken away, heing preferved, ,in
ftieds creeled for the pnrpofe, from 'h. wet. The ufual
mode of managing with them is, for t\.: farmers to contraA
for lome fort of meafiire, according to the cuRom or prac-
tice of the particular diftridl ; being cartful that it is well
burnt, and of a proper quality in other refpecis. The dif-
ferences in the cxpence of burning will depend on the abun-
dance or fcarcity of fuel, and the convenience of the ftoue
for carriage.

Li. MR, CJx, Calx viva, in the Materia Medica, &c. is
prepared by breaking a pound of lime-ftone into fmall pieces,
and heating it in a crucible in a very (Irong fire for an hour,
or until the carbonic acid i-: entirely driven off, fo that on
the addition of the acetic acid, no bubbles of gas Ihall be
extricated. Lime may be made by the fame procefs from
{hells previoufly wafhed in boiling water, and cleared from
ey.traneons matters. In the former pharmacopeias lime was
ranked among the articles of the Materia Medica, and taken
as prepared for its ufes in the arts ; but in the lad London
Pharmacopeia particular dircftions are given for obtaining it
in a purer liatc. Two varieties of the carbonate are feletled
from which it may be prepared, ij/^. lime-Hone and fliells
of oylters ; the latter of which contains the leall foreign
admixture ; but even the former, thus prepared, will be
much purer than that which is ufiially made from chalk.
According to Kn-vvan, carbonate of lime confifts of 45 parts
of carbonic acid and 55 of lime : but from whatever com-
bination it be obtained, lime is always the fame fubllaiicc,
poflefiing the fame charatters, and producing the fame
effeds, though it may be different with regard to the pro-
portion of heterogeneous matters with vvhicli it is mixed ;
and, therefore, the di(linftioi>s which were formerly made
between its medical qualities, as obtained from different
fources, were fuperfluous, and will not, in the prefent ftate
of fcicnce, be likely to be renewed by the introdii<Stion of
more than one. To the perfcftion of the lime it is neocffary
that the carbonic acid fhould b& entirely expelled; but in
the preparation of ordinary lime this is done very imper-
fectly ; for to all common purpofes it is lufiicient if it be
burnt fo as to flake on the addition of water ; on (he other
hand, it may alfo be noticed that where lime- ilone is em-
ployed, the heat may be urged too far and be too long coh-
tinued. The pure earths will not vitiify by heat, but many
firthy admixtures readily will ; and as moft lime-floncs con-
tain fome portion of otlier earlhs, they may, under thefe
circumllances, vitrify, ar.d form a coaling over the furface
T)f the lumps, which will defend thera from the aftion of
water, and thus prevent their flaking or folution ; fo that
lime may thus be over-burnt. The pieces of (tone ufed for
burning fhould be as nearly as pollible of equal fize. If
half i'3 weight of water be poured upon lime, it fwells and
f al s into a white powder, much heat is evolved, p.irt of the
water rifes m llcam, and part con.bines with the lime ; this
is called llakcd lime, and in this ftate carbonic acid from the
air cafily attaches to it. When perfectly dry it may be
kept in bottles far any lenglli of lime without alteration ;
but to obviate any ch.ice of its being impure from the
above caufe, it is Xifual to diredl its being employed newly
prepared. Lime newly (lakcd, and to which more water
is added, ought not to effervefce on the addition of an
scid.

L I M

Lime is much ufed by tanners, /kinners, &c. in thepe.
paration of their leather ; by foap-boilcrs for diffolving the
oil, and facilitating its union with the alkahne fait ; and by
fugar-bdkers for refining their fugar.

It is alfo of fome medicinal ufe ; being appKed externally
in deficcative and epnlotic medicines.

It is ufed alfo as a depilatory ; and has been fometimes
made into an unguent with lioney for rheumatic and other
obilinate fixed pains of the joints or limbs : this unguent
JG much commended by Fuller, who obferves, that it is
almoft cauftic. As an abforbent earth, it is anti-acid, and
capable of abforbing the acid matters which are produced
in digeftion from the weaknefs of the llomach, in difeafes
proceeding from a fpontaneous acid, fo well defcribed by
Boerhaave. It is the fitter in ihefe difeafes, which are com-
monly the effeft of the inaftivity and weaknefs of the fibres,
as it poffeffefs a tonic quality, which other abforbent earths
have not. Befides, perfons afflicted with tl.eie difeafes are
fubjeft to much wind, which is, perhaps, nothing elfe but
gas ; and quick lime is very capable of abf.rbing that fli-id.
As quick-lime is alfo drying, a little caullic, and confe-
quertly cicntriOng, it may contribute to cure certain ulcers,
efpecially thofe of the foft parts. Accordingly, fevcral
able phyficians have preicribed it fuccefsfully tor internal
fuppuration?, and in the plithifis pulmonalis. Moreover,
the property which quick-lime has of attenuating vifcid
matters, and of decompofing ammoniacal inks, has been ad-
vantageoufly applied to diffolve flones in the bladder and
kidnies. But the befl method of adminiilering quick-lime
internally has been thought to be by giving the lime-water ;
becaufe this water is fuppofed to polfcls all the medicinal
virtues of quick-lime, and bccaufe the earthy partielea are
thus reduced to the greateft finenefs, and are, confequeiitly
fufceptible of the molt perfect diftribution. However, this
Ihould be adminillered with great caution, and much diluted ;
and, after all, it is doubted, whether the lime-water, thus
diluted, has all the medical quahties which might be ex-
pefted from quick-lime. Macquer.

LlMK, Carbunat of, a term applied to lime when flaked
or in ihc ftate of hme-ftone : when thus faturated it is in the
leaft aftive condition. See hiymJIaiK.

Lime, Cream of. See Ckk.\.m.

Lime Efflle, that which has been flaked by the air and
moiilurc ot the atmofphere after long expofure.

L.ime-Gj//s, in Natural Hiflory, ?i fort of galls or vege-
table protuberances, formed on the edges of the leaves of
the lime-tree in fpriiig time ; they are very common in the
plantations of limes, and are irregularly (haped, but ufuaiiy
oblong and rugged, and of a reddifh colour ; they occupy
only the edges of the leaves, and are of a red colour, fome-
times very beautiful. As thefe are very plemiful, M.
Reaumur was of opinion, that ihey might be of fervice in
the dyeing trade ; he made trial by rubbing them on fome
parts of his linen, and found that they gave a very beautiful
red colour, which did not come cut in the firlt wafliings
afterwards. It is extremely probable, tliat there wants only
inquiry to prove that we have many valuable productions
of this kind, which, though difregarded at preient, might
prove of great ufe in the fcveral mechanical arts as well as
in medicine.

Thefe galls of the lime-leaves are ftiimed by a worm, w hich
inli.ibils them during its term of life, being found in ihcm
of all fi7.es, from the mofl minute to that of the full growth,
which is about half an inch in length ; but when Us period
of life, as a worm, draws near, it defcrts this habitation,
and goes elfewhert to pafs into its tliryfalis ftate. See

G.VJLLS.

LiMK

L I M

L I M

Lime Huflr.nJry, a term iifed to fignify that fort of ma-
Jiat-etnt-nt which relates to the application of lirae on land.
See Lime.

LiME-A';/n, a fort of kiln, conftrufled for tl:? purpofe of
burning lime. Kilns of this nacure are formed in a varicly
of dificrent ways to fr;ve expence, and anfvver to the parti-
cui.ir nature of tiie fuel. See Kiln.

LiME, Quid, a term applied to lime in its mofl pcHverful
or cauftic llate, before it has been rendered mild by the ;ib-
forption of carbonic acid gas, or iixed air, from either the
atinofphere or the foil.

l^isi'S.-Jlone, in yigrkuhure, a kind of calcareous ftone,
which is capable of beinj converted into lime by means of
calcination. It would feem from the remarks that have
been already made, in fpenking of the nature of lime, that
this fort of ftone exills in different ftates of purity, and con-
I'lds of different forts of fubllanccs in difTerent fituations,
from wliich much diverfity in its effecls, when converted
into lime, is prod'jced ; fome forts being more proper for
the purpofes of agriculture, while others are better adapted
to thofe of building, &c. Se; Lime.

It may be worthy of remark, that all fuch forts of iime-
ftone as contain impurities, fuch as clay, faiid, or ftony
matter in their compofitions, are more proper in general
for the purpofes of agriculture, than for thofe of build-
ing. Where lime-ftone is plentiful and fuel fcarce, it
might be employed for the purpofe of hufoandry with great
advantage in its uncalcined ftate, after being pounded or
ground into a fine powdery form, by means of mills or
other machines. And it is ftated in the Survey of the
County of Perth, that in Rannoch, a dillrict of that
county very remo;e from coal, a machine was erected by
the late commiflioners ot annexed eftates for this purpofe,
which was driven by a dream of water. Mr. Stewart, of
Crofmount, who faw the machine, the pounded lime-done,
and its effetl on the land, favoured the author with the fol-
lowing remarks ; " There were two pounders, and a third
was afterwards added, all from Carron, at a fmall expence.
The pounded lime-ftone was carried from the machine by a
fmall run of water to three different ponds, one above the
other. The upper pond contained the- groffeft particles,
and the lower pond the fmaileft or fincft parts of tlic lime-
ftone, which refenibled clay or marie from its fmoothnefs."
The middle pond contained that which, it would appear,
Mr. Ste%vart thought to be properly pounded ; becanfe he
adds, " the run of' water might have been ftroiiger, which
would have enabled the mill to double the quantity grinded,
which would ferve the purpofe of manure equally well, if
not better, than by being pounded fo very fmall. All that
was pounded before the machine was carried off by a flood,
or the moil of it, was uft-d by colonel Alexander Robertfon,
uncle to the prcfent colonel Robertfon of Struan, who had
■a farm in the neighbourhood of the mill. The effects of it
were vifible upon the ground, which were Sicwn by the
colonel to different gentlcir.cn, and approved of.' It
feerhs, however, that before its virtues could be fully afcer-
tained by repeated and varied experiments, a torrent in the
brook that drove the mill carried all the machinery away,
or at lead deranged it fo that it was never reftored. There
is, it is fjppofed, little doubt of its beneficial cffcfts on
land ; or of its eftefts being more povi-erful, in one ftiape or
other, than thofe of the fame quantity of calcined lime-
ftone, becaufe the virtues mull !)e in proportion to the
quantity of calcareous earth in each. Any given quantity
of raw lime-ftone lofes one-third of its weight when burnt
Jnto {hells. Nothing is here diffipated except the water ;
all the calcareous earth remains. It is alfo found, that any

Vol. XXI.

given quantity of nic-IIs produces double that quantitv of
powdered or flaked lime. Therefore, a quantity of raw
lime-ftone, a bulhel for inftance, has double the quantity of
calcareous earth which is in a buftiel of (iaked lime ; coii-
fequently its influence as a manure mull be double. Whr,t
is commonly fuppofed, and the writer thinks wi'h proba-
bility by thofe who ufed both kind?, without makin<»- any
accurate experiments, is that the effefts of the raw lime-
ftone are .ow, buf more lafting ; of the calcined lime,' more
immediate, but lefs durable.

And it has been ftated in a periodical work, that " tl.tf
difierence between lime-ftone, fiefli from the rock, and that
which has been cclcined, confifts in the former poffeffing,
as one of its principal component parts, a very confidcrabie
p.'-oportion of fixed air or carbonic acid, a principle of which
it is entirely deprived in the burning, if the operation is
properly conducted ; a circumftance well worth the atten-
tion of proprietors, as, in that ftate, its beneficial effefts
conlift chiefly in the power it poffeffes of ncutralifmg acids,
or decompounding metallic oxyds ; but upon the anim.al or
vegetable fubftances it meets with in the foil, it can produce
no alteration." For " many years ago, an attempt was
made by lord Karnes to ufe unburnt lime-ftone as a manure;
the fuccefs of which, it is believed, has not been recorded ;
indeed, the trial would probably, it is fuppofed, prove
abortive, if made upon mofs, or moorifti lands, which,
owing to the great quantity of vegetable matter they con-
tain, cannot poilibly be benefited by any fubftance poffeffing
lefs aftivity than quick or cauftic lime."

A maciiine for this ufe, that admits of being wrought by
fteam, wind, water, or the power of horfes, is reprefented
in Plate Anriculture, in which a reprefents a beam, fup-
ported by tour ftrong pofts joined together by tranfvert'c;
pieces of wood, as fecn in the figure, and at the top fufti-
ciently feparated to allow the wheel to work : /', a wheel
with a ijroove on the circumference, fufticiently deep to
receive tlie beam a, with a large iron fpindle or axis, move-
able in a bufli made of bell m.etal : c, a weight of a conical
ftiape, of caft iron ; the bafe ftudded with knobs or pro-
tuberances, about two inches long, of a diamond fliapc,
terminating in a blunt point, and about five inches in cir-
cuxference at the bottom : e, the face of the weight or
pounder, which is hidden from view in the cut: f, a circular
building funk below the furface of the ground ; the bottom
prepared by a ftratum of clay, well tempered, and mixed
with a proportion of burnt lime-ifcne, powdered without
being flacked, and forge aflies beat very fmall. When
this is properly dried, abed of fand, about 18 inclies in
thickncfs, is laid about it, and paved with common paving
ftones, of the kind ufed for ilreets ; which, after being well
beaten down, is covered with anotlicr bed of fand of the
fame thicknefs, which fhould be paved in the fame manner,
and afterwards well beaten down. The foundation of the
building fliould be, at leaft, fix feet below the common fur-
face ; which allocs iS inches for the clay, 36 inches for the
two beds of land, and 18 inches for the two courfes of pave-
ment. And the " circumference lliould conlift entirely of
hewn ftone, at leaft the uppermoll three feet of it ; the
ftones of which ftiould be ftrongly batted together with iron,
and fecured on the outlide with numerous wooden poft»
drove into the earth, and different courfes of pavcn ent,
extending at leaft fix feet all round, carefully laid and well
beaten down. A floor prepared in this manner, if it is not
ufed too foon, will refift any force that can be let fall upim-
it. The lime-ftone laid into it fliould not be too fmall, and '
fliould have a light bedding ot fand, in foil, to give it ftabi-
lily. The building may be of any ftzc, according to ^X\i

I powers

L I M

powers of the machinery, and ihe weight of the beater.
Others have fugffclUd, that the pounding of hnic-llone
may be greatly iacihtated by a very fimple contrivance ;
mciclv that of kindling a fire upon the fiirface of the rock,

or round any qviantitv of the hme-llone after it is quarried,
and expofing the (l^w'e to the heat of it for ten or twelve
hours. During the heating, a gvcat deal of it flics to
pieces, and the rcmaind-.r very readily gives way to the
ftroke of the hammer. It is alfo fuppofcd, that confider-
able advantage may be derived from a machine of this kind,
in reducing burnt lime-It one to a powder, before it is flaked
by the aftion of the air or raoilhire, as, in ihat ftate, its ope-
ration upon the fubllances it meets wiih in the foil is much
more confiderablc than after it has abforbtd the fixed air ;
and when cmplnyod in building, it cements immediately,
and may be ufed with fuperior advantage in the conflruttion
of aqueduAs, harbours, and other fituations expofed much
to water, and where halty dryiiig is of importance.

It may be noticed, that the expcnce of fuch a machine
will varv according to circumllances, but it cannot be jreat,
and in many places it may be addtd to thredv.ng a^ d corn
mills, and the expcnce be 'greatly KfTered in that way.

It is obvious, that the analyfia of liir.c-tlone may be
efTofted in the fame way as thofe of other calcareous ma-
terials, except that where the Hone is of a hard and firm
texture, it (hould be reduced into a Hate of powder, in order
to expedite its folution. Where the lim.e-ftcne fubjeded to
analvfis does not yield more than two-thirds of its weight
of pure chalk, it can feldom be burnt with profit ; unlefs
in a county where fuel is cheap and lime is dear. Good
lime-ftone yields upwards of ninety per cent. That of par-
ticular quarries is almoll vihoUy calcareous, as has been al-
ready feen.

hlMK-J!oue Gravel, a hard fort of calcareous marie,
that allir.nes the appearance of I'mall Hones or gravel,
which, when fpread upon the ground and mixed with
it, gradually falls into fmaller pieces, and fertilizes the
foil in proportion as it breaks down and mixes with it. _ It
is a fort of manure little known in Britain, although it is
common in many parts of Ireland.

But after what has been already obferved, little need be
faid as to the qualities or mode of applying this manure.
Tiie farmer will eafily be able to perceive, that if the pieces
of which this gravel confills are large, and di'Tolve but
flowly, the quantity at.-plied at one (!reffi:ig ought to be
great, and the eftedis will be flow ;:r.d lallinjj; but if the
gravel be fmall, it will require a fnr.iller quantity, wli;ch
will operate more quickly, and laft fcr a ftiortcr time, like
all other calcareous fubllances in the fame circumftances, or
which are applied in the fame manner to lands.
L.iME-J!oiK, in I^tineralogy. See Lime.
'LiyiE-Jonc, Ai ai^r.g'ian. See DoLOMiTc and Rhomb-
spar.

LmE-Jone, Quarlzy. See KosiT.
l^lMCjIoTie Fetid. See SwiS .JJone.
hiME-Jloite, Eccaitrk. Sec Arkagonite.
LlME-Wii/tr. liquor calc'ii, aqua calcis, aqua calc'is Jlmptex,
in t!ie JVJatc/ta Medico, is prepared by pouring twelve lunts of
boiling dilliUed water on haf a pound of iime, and ftirring
them togeiher : let the vcflel be immediately covered, and
left to Ihmd for. three hours ; then ktep the folutioii upon
the remaining lime in (topped g!afs bottles, and pour off the
clear liquor when it is wanted for ufe. Lime is foluble in
about 450 times its weight of water, »'r Imle ir.ore than one
grain in cue fluid-ouncr, forming a tranfparcnt fohition ; hence
the proportion here dirt-ftcd, is in f.ifl more than is it quired
for the faturation oi the water j but the larger quantity

2

L I M

allows, moreover, for any impurity contained in the lime,
and as it is a cheap article, the quantity ufed is fcarccly of
any importance. The i)rocefs here adopted is fimple, effica-
cious, and convenient, and by keeping the fohition (landing .
upon the lime it will always be faturatcd ; and the place of
any crull of carbonate of liine whicli forms upon the fur-
face, if expofed, will be fnpplicd from the lime, which re-
mains in a ftate read*- for lolution. I.,ond. Pharm. i8og.

The general opinion of lime acling as a caiiUic, and con-
fuming the 'bodies it was made to a£t upon, by means 1 f the
great quantllv of particles of fire it contained, Icmg denied
any preparation of it a place among ir.teriiat medicines ; at
length, water poured upon it was found to take in a part of
its virtues, and to be a valuable medicine, and very fafely to
be given infernall-/ in large quantities.

i'or this purp':fej a gallon and a half, or two gallons of
water, were ponrcd by degrees upon a pound of frelh-burnt
quick-lime ; the vcflel fliaken when the ebullition ceafed,
and then fet by, till the undidblved hme had fe:t!cd ; after
which, the liquor was poured oft, and paffed through a
filtre. Only a Imall portion of the lime is difi'olved by the
water, and the remainder gives a (Irong impregnation to large
quantities of frefli water, though not (o (Irong as the firlt ;
great part remaining at la(l undifTolvcd : this rcfiduum, cal-
cined again, becomes quick lime, as before ; and by repe-
titions of this procefs, nearly the whole may be difiolvcd.
The fohition has a flrong (typtic t:\lle ; and its eficdts in
chemical mixtures are fimilar to thole produced by quick-
linie. In vefTels quite filled with lime-water, and exadlly
clofedj it may be kept unchan:;ed for many months; but in
open veflels, the calcareous matter foon feparatcs from the
aqueous fluid, and forms a crull or cream upon the furface,
iiifipid and inditfoluhle as the earth in its natural (late, and
again convertible into quick- lime by repeated calcination.
It is obferved, that the quantity of calcareous matter that
is thus feparated from hme-vatcr, is even greater than it
ought to be, if it was exactly proportioned to the evapora-
tion of the water ; the cau(e of which is, that the quick-
lime grai'it-ally recovers from the air as much gas as is
neceffary to deprive it of its properties of qun k-limc, and
to relfore it to its fta'.e of fimple. calcareous earth, mild,
cfFervefcing, and unlbhible in water. Hci ce lime-water
by long cxpofure to air, lofcs much of its ftrength, and at
lall becomes almotl fhfipid It is neceflary alio, when this
liquor is employed as a menflruum, to add fome quick-lime
in lubltance, in order to continue the impregnation of the
water with the lime.

A 11 lime is not equally good for the making of tliis water ;
but the feveral kinds differ, according to the lubdances they
are made from. In Holland they make lime of fca-fhelk,
which they find in vafl: abundance on their fea-fhores. This
was alfo a praftice in the time of Diofcorides ; bur the lime
thus made, it h.ns been faid, is not fit for making lime-
water. The water made from it does not keep long, and
is lefs ftyptic, and fv.eetilh to tlie talle, and is greatly in-
ferior to the water m;c!e with lime burnt from ftoiics. The
newer the lime is, tlie lefs it has been expofed to the air,
and the drier it has been kept, and finally, .the more it has
held. together withoi-t crumbling, or mouldering to powder,
the better it is for making hme-water. Mem. Acad. Par.
1 700.

It appears now, from the ingenious Dr. Alflon's experi-
ments, that one part of quick-lirre is fufficieut for five or
fix hundred parts of water. Water will dlfTolve but a cer-
tain portion of quick-lime ; and how much that is cannot be
eafily afcertamed So far feem.s certain from Dr. Allton's
experiments, that out* pound of quick-lime is lufTicient for

making

L I'M

L I M

makinfr fix hundred pounds of good lime-water ; and that
thofe who with Charas have fuppofed, that the fecond and
third hrae-watcr is weaker than the tiilt, liave been led into
an error by the fmall quantity of water they ufed. And
it has been generally believed^ that in order to obtain good
lime-water, the quick-lime muft. not only be recent and
fully calcined, but alfo for one part of quick-lime only
eight, ten, or, at mod, twelve parts ol water taken ; as
if it could iaipregnate no more. But the doftor fays he
has found, by many experiments, that it is altogether indif-
ferent wheiher the waier be hot or cold, poured on gra-
dually, or at once, tlie water poured on the lime, or the
lime thrown into the water; whether the quick-hme be in
flieils or (hiked ; or even expofed to the air for fcveral
months, fcr fucii quantities cf the water as are commonly
iifjd ; and if tjic auick-lime be frefh, whether for one pound
of it, eight, ten, twci;ty, fifty, or five hundred pounds of
water be taken. Only it is neceffary, even for tlie firil
water after the ebullition is over, to ilir and mix the lime
with the water,- and allow it time to impregnate itielf;
which is bcif known by the cruil formed on its lurface.
Filtration indeed is not neceffiiry, if it be not to prevent
any undifFolved lime being mixed with it ; or cruils diuiinifh-
ing its traiifpavency.

The doftor, for his own ufe, poured about eiglit pounds
of boiling water upon a pound of Hone quick-lime in a
glazed earthen velfel. He drank about a pint and a h;ilf
ot this lime-water daily for about iixteen months; liiling
lip the veflel, when neceffary, with freih water, fiimetimes
hot and lometimes cold, without obferving any difference
in the lime-water, which he conltantly filtered through grey
paper before he drank it. He obferved, that the lime was
not exhaulled afrer two years and two months, nor was the
water fenfibly weaker, when it flood a fufficient time on
the lime, which he knew by the crufls that were formed.
But the lime becoming confiderably lighter, after ;t is long
thus ufed, it at length requires feveral days to fubfide, and
form the crufls, and after the crufts are formed, it does not
leave half the water clear as it did at firll. On the whole,
this fihgle pound of lime afforded the doftor about fix
hundred pounds of lime-water. He adds, tliat having taken
lime-water made indifferently of fime-flone, or of chalk, or
of fhelis, and tometinics made of all the three together, he
was never able to difcover any diflerence in their effects.
But fo much lime-water is not to be obtained from quick-
lime, unlefs it be frefh, completely calcined, and free from
heterogeneous fubuances ; for if defe&ive in any of thefe, it
will yield proporticnably lels lime-water. Liewis's Mat.
Med. and Macquer's Chcm. Didt.

Mr. Burlet has given an ample account of its efTcfts in
the French Memoirs, chiefly from his own experience.
But he obferves, it fucceeded much better in Holland, &e.
than in France. It is a powerful alterant, and, like a pure
a'ikaline water, fitted to blunt and deltroy acid ferments,
which are the principles of al" obftruftions, and the caufe
of oioil clironic difeales. Its principal ufe- is in cache.\ies,
green- ficknefs, dropfy, fcurvy, obUiuftions on the liver,
fpleen, &c.

Experience has fhewp. lime-water to be an exceUent me-
dicine in many cafes ; in the gravel and Itone particularly.
And it has alfo been found very ferviceable in the gout,
in habitual relaxations of the bowels, and in other cafes
of relaxation. In iome kinds of the fcurvy likewife it is
of ufe ; and is often applied with fuccefs externally to
ulcers, &c.

Fabricius ab Aqwapeudente affures us, he cured a fcir-
rhous fpleen, and the dropfy, by a continued ufe of fpon^je*

dipped in common lime-water, and placed near the part
alTefted. Boyle's Works, Abr. vol. i. p. 80.

Lime-water, which was long looked on as a caiillic, was,
in the lail century, found to be a very fafe and valuable re-
medy. It is uncertain who firft ventured to give it inward-
ly, but Willis, Bates, and Moreton, ieem to have ufed it
much.

Lime-water kills worms, and many other, if not all, in-
fetls. Kence Dr. Alllon concludes, it might prove a gc<<d
anthelmintic for children ; and ei;perience has confirmed this
notion.

It is probable, that lime-water may be of great i;fe in
long fea-voyages, preventing tiie corruption cf water, or
iiifefls breeding iu it, as well as curing the dilVafes to
which fea-faring people are moil fubjeft. The experi-
ment is certainly fafe, eafy, and attended with no expence ;
one pound of frefh well-burnt q-.iick-hme of any kind
being enough for a hogfiicad of water, which may not
only be ufed for common drink by the difeafed, of for
prevention by the healthy ; but alio by boiling and ex-
pofing it to the air for a ihort time, it may be reduced to
fweet water, and ufed in drcirmg the victuals of the moft '
delicate.

The virtues of lime-water do not depend on its abforb-
cncy ; and it may as julUy be called antalkahne, as ant-
acid.

Lime-water prevents, or long protrafts, the putrefaftion
of animal fabilances. Dr. Alllon alio thinks that quick-
lime in a fliip's well would effectually prevent the cor-
ruption of tlie water, and confequently the putrid fteams,
or foul air, thence arifing, which fonietimes prove fatal to
the crew.

The vu-tucs of lime-water outwardly applied in many
difeafes of the (Iciii, in excoriations, ulcers, gangrenes, &c.
are well known. Perhaps there is not a better gargarifm
for feveral forts of fores in the mouth and throat than lime-
water. It has alfo been known to be of great ufe in the
tooth-ache. Inwardly taken, lime-water has all tlie virtue*
of pure element, which are not a few ; and on wliich pro-
bably depend the good effedls of mineral waters, more than
on the minerals they contain. Dr. Alflon never found
it cauftd thirll ; on the contrary, he found it quenched
thirll as well as fi-.npie water, and culfom rendered it
agreeable. Lime-water is notably detergent and attenuat-
ing, even more fo than foap itfelf, of mucous, vifcid, and 1
other animal fordef, wliicli makes it preferable, in many
cafes, to the purefl, as well as to mineral waters. In
a word, lime-water may be faid, in general, to purify the
blood, with as good reafon, as any other medicine whatever,
efpecially from any putrid, purulent, or fcorbutic foul-
neffes.

Dr. Lewis obferves, that lime-water, drank to the quan-
tity of a quarter of a pint three or four times a day, ha»
been found ferviceable in fcrofulous complaints, fluxes, fe-
miiral weaknefTes, and other dilorders proceeding from aa
impurity of the fluids, or laxity and debility of the folids.
It generally promotes urine ; oftentimes tlie cuticular dil-
charge ; and, where the ftomach is opprefled witli vifcid
phlegm, expeCioration. It for the nviil part biniis tlie
belly, and fonietimes occafioiis a troiibl ■ionie coflivcnels,
unlefs this effetl be occafionaily provided againfV by the
iuterpofition of proper laxative.-. It auf.vers bell in cold,
fluggiih, phlegmatic, and corpulent habits ; and is to he
ufed more cautioufly in hot, bilious diipoiitions, and wher#
the patient is much en.aciated, or the appetite weak, aid
at the time of any critical or periodical evacuation. It
has been cullomary to i.-npregnate lime-water' with different
I 2 matcritd^i

L I IM

for this concrete, than that made from the flonc limes ; tfire
dilFolving iniwLT ot the oy llcr-fhcU lime-water fccmiiig,
from y)r. Wliyll's experiments, to be more than double to
tliat of the llonc lime-waters. Dr. Alllon feems to think
this a matter of indifference ; and was himfclf cured chiefly
of^fhavcd liquorice, and four drams and a ha f of bruifeJ by the ftonc quick-lime water before mentioned. This li-
nutmeirs • tlie college of London, half an ounce of faifafras thonlriptic quality of lime-water has been farther conlirmed
bark and one ounce of liquorice, with the addition, in fome by Dr. Alllon, who has (hewn the efficacy of hme-water ni
cafes of four ounces of rafped guaiacum wood, and three this refj;ett, not only when made by the firlt infufion, and
drachms of coriander feeds ; to be macerated for four days in afPUlcd by artificial lieat, but even alter fifty or more infu-
three quarts of lime-v.a'.er, and the licpiid drained ofl' for fions, and in the common air. The dodtor thinks that the

L I M

materials, partly for rendering it more acceptable to the
palate and llomach, and partly for improving its medicinal^
ofiieacy agaiull cutaneous defedations. 'I'hc college of
Edinburgh directed, in this view, three ounces of the (liav-
in^s of the wood and bark of faifafras, one ounce and a half
P ^ , ,• , r 1 1 „ v.„ (■ .,r K..,,;ro.(

«fe. Thefe infuiions are taken in the fame quantities as the
fimple lime-water, by thenifulves, or with the addition of
niiik. Ia-w1s*s Mat. Med.

But Dr. Macbride obferves, that the adivity of lime-
water is impaired by infuiing vegetable fub!lances therein,
which contain much lixed a\r, fueh as the guaiacum or faf-

energy of lime-water in this cafe probably confilts in its pe-
netrating detergeiicy, whereby, inlinuating illelf among the
folid parts of the calculi, or into their pores, it feparates
them, or diminidies their cohelion, but docs not difiblve
them. See Litiiontru'tic.

But the efficacy of quick-lime and canllic alkali in this

fafras- for thefe woods, abounding in rclln, give out their intention, is now known to de;;end principally, if not en-

cmetitinT principle, which, uniting with the didblved tirely, on its power of abforbing the air, which binds calcu-

quick liine, reilores it to its original itate of an inaftive cal- lous fub (lances together. However, the alkali, when com-

careous earth : therefore, when it is intended that thefe bined with oil, and made into foap, is not only fo greatly

woods, or any other fubdance of tlic like nature, Ihould give obtunded thereby, as to lofe much of its power, but the

ut their virtue to lime-water, and that the water (hould, at foap itlelf is fo naufeons, that few perfons can be induced to

the fame time, contain its due proportion of diifolved limC;
fome ouitk-lime ought to be added, during the time of ma
ceration. He alfo obferves, that as milk contains a large
proportion of fixed air, it ought not to be mixed with
lime-water, (ince it muft ncceflarily take off from its afti-
vity. To the fame purpofe, Dr. Alllon has obferved, that
there is fca-ceiy any thing that is ufually mixed and given
along with lime-water, that does not, more or Icfs, dellroy

take It in a quantity fufficient to prove of much elfedl : it
would, therefore, be a happy difcovery if any vehicle could
be found out that would (healiie the acrimony of the cauHi*
alkali, fo as to allow it to be taken in large and continued
dofcs. PolTibly, fays Dr. Machiide, veal broth, or a de-
codlion of marflimallow roots, might be found to anfvver
this purpofe; and lime-water might he taken at the fame
time, which would not at all interfere with the operation of

its efficacy ; for width realon he recommended it always to the alkali, but rather add to its activity. Dr. Chittick's

be taken alone. Macbride's Effays, p. 250. 271. noilrum, which is found, after a perfeverance of iome

It is obferved by Dr. Lewis, that lime-water diflolves, by months, actually to difiblve the (lone, is faid to be nothing

the afritla:ice of hei.t mineral fiilphur, vegetable oils and more than the caullic alkali, given in veal broth. But

refins ar d animal fats. It extracts alfo, in the cold, the lime-water, when taken alone, mult often tail in producing

virtues of fui'dry refinous and oily vegetables, and dillblvcs any conliderable cfiecl as a lithontriptic, becaufe it will lole

thick phlegm, and mucous matters, and the curd of milk, much of its power, as Dr. Macbride has fhewn, from the

with whicli lall i; forms a white liquid, nearly fimilar to fixed air of the alimentary fubtlances in the firll pafl'ages.

milk in its natural (late. But the ditiolvent power of quick
lime has been evinced by Dr. Macbride, and (hewn to ex-
tend to a "aricty of difteient fubliances, as camphor, myrrh,
gum guaiacum, afa fa;:ida, aloes, callor, balfam of Tolu,
mallich, jalap, and the cortex Peruvianus, which were
found to yield llrr,iig folutions and tindures ; and thefe, he
fays, are more elegant medicines, and perhaps may be found

who, therefore, recommends it to be drank when the
ilomach is empty ; and alio, a.' Dr. Whytt and Dr. Mac-
bride have proved by experiments, from the fixed air of the
urine itfelf, which will faturatc great part of the quick-
lime, even when it hath reached the bladder. Macbride"S
Effays, eff. 5. puflim.

Since there is but a fmall proportion of lime in the water.

more efficacious than the fpirituous tindures, fince they will it may be thought that taking a few grains of the quick

never become turbid, or feparate on being mixed in any lime in fubltance would prove much more eflettual in the

watery vehicle. And fince the folvent power of quick- done, than large quantities of lime-water. But this is a.

lime is found to depend on its depriving certain fubltances miftake ; and hence Mrs. Stephens's egg-fhells and fnail-

cf that fixed air or carbonic acid, which is their cementing (hells, if burnt to quick-hme, can never be equally fuccef*-

principle, it was natural to imagine that it might be ufe- ful with lime-water for the done.
fully applied to '.he foliition of the human calculus or done. As for the agtia lenedicla conipofitx, or compound lime-

Of the varioHS fubdances examined by Dr. Hales, waters, they are not to be compared with fimple lime-water

with a view of determining their relpeftive quantities of in the gravel ; nor, in Dr. Alvfton's opinion, in any difeafe

fixed air, the human calculus was found to contain the larged requiring this water.

proportion ; above one-half of this mafs confiding of fixed The dodor adds, in his Appendix, that though he cannot
air. Neverthelefs, if the cau'.lic alkali, or lime-water, yet determine how far lime-water may be proper, even in
could be fafely conveyed to it, tliele would abforb the fixed acute didempers, yet he has found it fafe in fcverilh colds ;
air, ;:nd the earthy parts, deprived of what bound them to- and by the cafes he there mentions, it feems probablft
gether, mud prefently fall to pieces. That lime-water is that lime-water, by its diluent and diuretic qualities,
lithontriptic has been (bcwn fufficiently by Dr. Hales, and may prove more ufeful in fevers than is at prefent be-
more fully by Dr. Whytt. See his Elfay on the virtues of licved.

Lime-water, in the Cure of the Stone, and Edinb. Eff. However this may prove on farther trials, it may be faid,

ice. vol. i. art. 23. p. 3B3. vol. v. art. 69. in general, that hme-water is dilut-ut, detergent, antilepue.

This gentleman prefers calcined oyder-lhell lime-water to anihelmiiitic, duuetic, and vuliiLrary ; uleful in all dileafes

any other ; wliicUj he fay^, proves a more adive mcnlliuum ptoceeuing from,, or accompanied wiLh, obflruclions in th»

bowels

L I I\I

L I M

bowels or glands, vifcitl phlegm, calculous concretions, or coimties of Clare and Tipperary, being fcparated from the

putrefaclioii ; and commended for the feurvy, fcrophulat, former by the river Shannon, on the weit by Kerry, on the

gravel, confumptions, empyema-allhma, arthritis vaga, iouth by Cork, and on the sail by Tipperary. Its length

cedematous fwellings, diabetes, fiuor albus, fluxes, &c. and from eail to weft is 40 Irifh (51 Englifli) miles. its

outwardly for difcafes of the (\dn, ulcers, gangrenes, &c. breadtli from north to fouth 2) Irifh (32 Englifli) miles.

It may be taken to the quantity of a pound, once, twice,
or thrice a day ; or ufed for commoi) drink. See Dr. Al-
fton's Diflertation on Quick-lime, and Lime-water, Edinb.

1752. See LiTIJONTIUPTIC.

L.im-IViiter. in Gardening, an ufefulkind of water, which
is prirpared by flaking cauitic lime in foft water, in the pro-
portion of half a peck of the former to thirtv-two gallons

It contains 386,750 acres, or 604 fquarc miles Irifh, equal
to 622,975 2cres, or 970 fquare miles Englifh. There are
125 panthes, which by unions form 60 benefices, of which
7,7, only had parifh churches at the time Dr. Beaufort pub-
iilhed. The parifhes are mollly in the diocefes of Limerick,
and Emly. The population was flated by Dr. Beaufort at
170^000, but it mult have confiderably increafcd. The

of the latter, letting them remain fome time before they are foil of Limerick is extremely good for tillage, and very pro

made ule of, ftirring them well, two or three times a day,
for two or three days. It is a liquid which, when the lime
has fiibfided, is found highly ufeful in clearing fruit-trees
from the ravages of the Aphis puceron, or vine-fretter. It
fhould be applied once a dav by means of an engine, fo as

dudive of grafs ; elpecially thofc grounds which are called
the coreacl.'s, whole fertih'ty is proverbial, and is caufed by
the rich manure which is annually depofited by the over-
flowings of the Shannon. The heaviell and fatteil bealls
that are flauglitered at Cork are fed in this county; much

to be thrown as much as pofTible on llie under fides of the butter is exported from it ; the orchards produce a very fine

leaves, and with confiderable force, prefhng the fore finger £yder, and it is by no means deftitute of trees and planta-
lipon the end of the pipe, to make it ipread like fm:i.il rain, tions. The patture fvftem, which has been on the decline
Esd taking care that every part of the tree be well watered, in mod parts of Ireland fince the introduftion of cora
It fhould be done as much as poffible in cloudy weather, and bounties, propofed by that enlightened friend of his country,
when the fun is off the walls. Where the trees have an the Rt. Hon. John Foiler, when chancellor of the exche-
earterly afpeft, they may be watered about half-pall eleven quer, ftill continues in Limerick, but is on the decline,
o'clock in the forenoon, and in a northern one, the firit Even when Mr. Young wrote in 1778, he obferved a great

thing in the mornings but in a fouthern afpeft, about four increafe of tillage ; " thrice the corn grown that there was,

o'clock in the afternoon. But when northerly ov eallerly formerly ; much pafturage broken up on this account, fome

winds and frolly nights prevail, it fhould be difcontinued till bullock land and fome llicep land." The fame inteUigenL

the weather becomes mild. The trees fhould always get dry writer alfo fpeaks of improvement in the ftate of the poor,

before night, and never be watered when the fun is upon but this ihil wants amelioration. Limerick, though diver-

them. Care mull likewife be taken that the grounds of the fified by fmall hills, is not at all mountainous, except on the

lime be not made ufe of, as it would make the trees have a foutli-eafl, where it is bounded bv the Galtees, a ridge o£

difagreeable appearance, and perhaps be injurious. See formidable mountains, that extend into Tipperary, and oa

Puceron and Vike-fretter. the borders of Kerry, where it grows uneven, and forms a.

LiME-W-'ori, fuch works or kilns as are conftantly em- grand amphitheatre of low but Ifeep mountains, which ex-
ployed in the maimfafturing of lime. A late writer has tends in a wide curve from Logliil to Drumcollohen. In the
thought it neceffary, that the managers of eltates fiiould firft of thefe rifes the river Maig, which crofies the county^
iinderlland the nature of this fort of manufacture, though and fills into the Shannon ; as do many fine llreams by which
it is feldom necefiary or eligible for a large proprietor of it is plentifully watered. In the vvelfcrn hills are the fourcea
land to carry on his own lime-works, " unleis during a of the Feale and the Gale, which run weflward through,
limited time, at the ouffet of new works, to afcertain their Kerry, and oix\\c Black water which flows in a contrary di-
value," as there are always enterprifing men who will give rcftion through the countv of Cork. Limerick is the
more rent for a vvork, than the profits arifing from it to a countv town ; for which fee the next article. There are
proprietor, even when under the direction and management no other towns of confequence. A colony of palatines from,
of the moft faithful perfon. They and the lands attached Germany was fettled in this county about a century ago^
to them fhould ra'her be confidered by fuch proprietors as by a former lord Southwell. Of thefe Mr. Young men-
farms, the building of kilns and (beds as erefting farm tions fome particulars which are interefting. " Thev have
offices, and the laying out and conftrufting of roads, rail- in general leafes for three lives, or 3 1 years, and are not
ways, &c. as general improvements of their ellate ; the cottars to any farmer, but if they vvork for them, are paid ia
tenants agreeing to work the quarries agreeable to articles, money. The quantities of land are fmall, and fome of them.
and to keep the kilns, building, and roads in ftates of pro- ha"e their feeding land in common by agreement. They are
per repair. different from the Irifh in fevcral particulars ; they put their

Lime, in Geography, a town of America, in Grafton potatoes in with the plough in drills, horle-hoe them while

county. New Hainpthire, fituated on the E. bank of Con- growing, and plough them out. One-third of the dung doe.'?

nefticut river ; 12 mil s N. of Daitmouth college, and con- in this method, for they put it only in the furrows, but the

taining 13 18 inhabitants. crops are not fo large as in the common method. They

LIMER, Lyemmer, or Lime-houn:!. See Blood- plough without a driver : a boy of twelve has been knowu to

HouN'D and Doc. plough and drive four horfes, and fome of them have a hep-

LIMERICK, ill Geography, a county of Ireland, in per in the body of their ploughs, which fows the land at

the province of Muntter, called from the town of the fame the fame time it is ploughed. Their courfe of crops, i, Po-

name, which was, from the earliefl times in Irifh hiiiory, a tatoes, 2. AVheat, 3. Wheat, 4. Oats ; or i. Potatoes,,

place of confiderable importance. At the time when the 2. Barley, 3. Wheat, 4. Oats: in which management they

Irifh chieftains did homage to Henry II. Daniel O'Brien, keep their laud many years, never laying it out as their

king of Limerick, was of the number. This prince ap- neighbours do. They prcferve fome of their Germaiv

pears to have been alfo fovereign of Clare, which was then cultoms ; they ficep between two beds: they appoint a.

called Thomond. Limerick is bounded on the north by the burgomavler, to whom they appeal in cafe of all dilgutes j.

L I M

and they yet (177S) prcferve their language, but that is
declining. They are very ipclultrious, and in confcquence
are much happier, and better fed, clothed, and lodged, than
the Iridi peafants. We mud not however conclude from
thence, that all is owing to this; their being independent of
other farmers, and having leafes, are circumftances which
will create indiillry. 1'hoir crops arc much better than thofe
of their neighbours. There are three villages of them,
about 70 families in all. For fome time after they fettled,
thev fed upon four crout, but by degrees left it off, and
took to potatoes ; but now Uiblill upon tliem and butter
and milk, but with a. great deal of oat bread, and fome
of wheat, fome meat and fowls, of which they raife many.
They have all offices to their iioufcs, that is, llables and cow-
houfes, and a lodge for their ploughs, 5:c. They keep their
cows in the houfe in winter, feeding tiiem upon hay and oat
flraw. They are remarkable for the goodncfs and c'.eanlinefs
of their houfes. The women are very indullrious, reap
the corn, plough the ground fomctimcs, and do whatever
■work may be going on ; they alfo fpiii, and make their chil-
dren do the fame." Tlie late Silver Oliver, efq. of Gallic
Olirer, planted another colony, taken froin this firll, of about
66 families, amounting to 700 Protellants, on his ellate, and
of thefe Mr, Young gives a funilar account. But with
thefe exceptions, the hulbandry of the county of Limerick
is perhaps the work in Munfler, which is attributed to the
natural richnefs of the foil, and to the greater prevalence of
the grazing fyftem. Mr. Young fays, that the rich land
reaches from Charleville, at the foot of the mountains, to
Tippcrary by Kilfenning, a Ime of 25 miles, and acrofs
from Ardpetuch to within four miles of Limerick 16 miles.
BrufF, Kilmallock, and Hofpital liave very good land abo«it
them ; the quantity in the whole coujeftured to be 100,000
acres. This is chiefly under bullocks. The /corceffcs on
the Shannon are from two to three miles broad. There is
alfo a light hme-llone land, for flieep and cows. Mr. Young,
fpeaking of the land near Caftle Oliver, in the rich dilhicT:,
fays, "it is a rich, mellow, crumbling, putrid, Hindy loam,
18 inches to three feet deep, the colour a reddilh-brown.
It is dry found land, and would do for turnips exceedingly
well, for carrot?, for cabbages, in a word for every thing.
I think, upon ihe whole, it is the richell foil I ever fa*, and
fuch as is applicable to every purpofe you can wilh ; it will
fat the largeit bullock, and at the fame time do equally well
for (heep, for tillage, for turnips, for wheat, far beans, and
in a word for every crop and circumlbince of profitable
hufhandry." After fome other particulars he concludes
thus : " The face of the country is that of defolation ; the
grounds are over-ruii with thiftles, ragwort, &c. to excels ;
the fences are mounds of earth, full of gaps ; there is no
wood, and the general countenance is fuch that you muft
examine into the foil before you will believe that a country,
which has fo beggarly an appearance, c;ui be fo rich and fer-
tile." Thefe remarks were written above 30 years ago, and
improvement has fince taken place, but they are ftill too ap-
plicable. Limerick is reprefented in the imperial parliament
by three members, two for the county, and one for the city.
This county has not yet had a llatiftical account of it pub-
lifhed. Beaufort. Young.

Li.MERicic, a city of Ireland, capital of the county
of the fame name, llrongly fituated on the river Shan-
non, on an ifland in which it is partly built. It is a
pod-town, and is reprefented in parliament. The new port,
which is conncited with the old city by a bridge, is called
Newtown Pery, from the Pery family, the head of which
is now earl of Limerick, whofe ellate it is. The buildiiic;s
are of brick, large, and uniform, fo that vfhilft the. old

L I M

town has a very ruinous appearance, this port will bear
comparifon with the bed dreets in almod any other city,
except v.-hcre public buildings contribute to ornament them.
The public buildings are not many, or deferving of much
notice. The cuftom-houfe is a plain building. The ca-
thedral is an ancient and venerable pile. The biflisp's pa-
lace is a comfortable modern houfe at the wed end of the
city. The corporation of Limerick is what may be called
a clofe one, as no perfon can be become a freeman, except
by favour of the courcil ; freeholders, however, can vote
at the election of members of parliament. The magiftrates
are a niavor, two Iheriffs, a recorder, a town-c erk, alder-
men and burgelTes ; it hath alfo a military governor, con-
ftable and town major, and is tlie relidence of the general
commanding a dillriA. The population probably exceeds
50,000. The trade of Limerick is very extenfive, and is
rapidly increafing. Its export of corn is perhaps the greateil
in Ireland, and its corn-market is very convenient. It muft
more and more derive benefit from tiie canal connecling the
Sliannon with the Llffey. There are fix churches, a Pref-
byterian meeting houfe, a Methodill meetinghoufe, a Qua-
kers' meeting-hoiife, and fc-veral chapirls for Roman Citlio'ic,
who form the greateil part of the population. I'here are
alfo fome charitable inftilutioni well attended to, and a pub-
he library, lately inililuted. The inhabitants are reckoned
gay and fond of fociety, and public amufements are in ge-
neral well fupportcd. Limerick, being naturally a city of
drength, and formerly well fortiiied by art, has always been
deemed a place of conliderable importance. In 1651 it w:,s
taken by Ireton, in the fervice of the parli iinjut, after a
vigorous fiege. In 1690, it was unfuccefafully befieijed by
king William in perfon. In 1691, it furrendered to general
Ginkle, afterwards earl of Atliloue, on terms of capitula-
tion very advantageous to the belieged, and all who pro-
feir?d the Roman Catholic religion, which are called the
articks of Limerick. Limerick is 94 Inlh miles S.W. from
Dublin. Beaufort, Young-, Carhde.

LlMRUlCK, a bidioprie of Ireland, in the ecclefiadical
province of Calhel, uni'ed to the b.ftioprics of Ardfert' and
Aghadoe, in the vear 1663. The two latter have been
lonj;- incorporated fo as to form but one diocefe ; the dignity
of archdeacon, and the ruined walls of aclnircli with around
tower, are all the memorials of the bidiopric of Aghadoe that
now remain. The whole union comprehends great part of the
county of Limerick, the whole of Kerry, and a few pariihes
in the counties of Cork and Clare. There are in all 176 pa-
riflies, which are uiiiied fo as to form 88 benefices, and of
thefe only 47 have churches, and 14 glebe houfes. It is to
be remembered, however, that the population is not Pro-
tedant. Beaufort.

Limerick, a pod-town of America, in York county
and date of Maine, near the confluence of Ofiipee river
with Saco, and oppofite to Gorham ; incorporated in

1787, and containing 995 inhabitants Alfo, a townfhip

in Montgomery county, PenufyK-ania, containing 999 in-
habitants.

LIMESOL, Li.M.vssor,, or Li.mi.sso, a town of the
idand of Cyprus, formerly Ncmofia, is now in a miferable
date, abounding with ruins and rubbifh. Its harbour, how-
ever, is not a little frequented ; here veflcls are loaded with
grain, cotton, and other produftions of the foil. The belt
Cyprus wines are made in its environs, and it is the em-
porium of all thofe of the iiland who are concerned in trade.
Not far from this town, if it delervcs that appellation,
ftood the ancient " Limaffol," whi^jh lUll, at a period of
remoltr antiquity, was called yimathus, celebrated for a
temple eonfecratcd to Vcnu3 and Adonis, in which was

preferved,

L I M

LI M

preferved, according to Paufanias, a rich necklace of pre-
clous ftoncs, ornamented with gold, the work of Vulcan,
■and "iven i:i the firft inflance to Hermione. But this an-
cient town is deftroyed. (See Amathus ) Near Limaflol, E.
of it, is the moft fouthern promontory of the ifland, for-
merly named the promontory of A^rothi, at prefent Cape di
Gatti or Gallo, on account of the great number of cats
k'.-T't bv tlie monks, who, in the 4tli century, obtained per-
mlliion to eilablifh themfelves there, as well as on mount
Oiympus, on condition of keeping many of thofe animals
fi)r huntitii; and de'lroying fnakes, which liad multiplied in
the idand. (See Gatto and Cyprus.) Limafibl is the
lee of a bifliop, fufFra^an of Nicofia. N. lat. 34^ 45'.
E. lonsr- 32 30'.

LIMESTONE, a poft-town of America, in Kentucky,
on the S. fide of Ohio river, and on the W. fide of a fmail
creek of the fame name. This is the ufual landing place
for people who come down in boats with an intention of
fettling in the upper parts of the ftate, and here the
champaign country on tlie E. fide of the river begins;
four miles N.E. of WaQiington, N. lat. 38"^ 40'. W.
long. 84 17'.

LIMETREE, in Gardening, is a tree of the deciduous
kind, occafionaliy ufed in plantations for its wood, &c. There
are four fpecies, each of which is capable of being raifed
from layers and cuttings!

It is fuggelled by Mr. Niccl, that this fort of tree fuc-
ceeds in the moft perfeft manner, in " low, deep, fub-
liumid loams," but that " in dry gravelly foils, it lofes the
beautiful glofs of its foliage, for which it is fo much ad-
mired in the early fummer feafon."

It may be noticed that the timber of the limetree is ufed
by carvers, it being a foft light wood ; as alfo by architefts
for framing tlie models of their buildings, &c. The turners
likcwife ufe it for making light bowls, dilhes, &c. but it
is too foft for any ilrong purpofes. See Citrl'S, in Botany,
GardemngtZnti Planting. See alfo Tjlia.

Ll.Mf.TREE Bay, i.i Geography, a bay on the S. coaft of
Santa C^uz. N. lat 17 45 . W. long. 63 27'.

LiMZUM, in Balanv, appears from Phny to be a name
of Gallic origin for a plant with which the ancient. Gauls
poifoned their arrows. This appellation, however, could
not have been originally applied to the prefent genu?, all
the fuecies of which are natives of the Cape of Good Hone.
L-nn. Gen. 184. Schreb. 246. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 291.
Mirt. -Mill. Dift. V. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. 337.
JisfF. 314. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 27J. Gsrtn. t. 76. — Clafs
a d order, Heptandria D'lgyma. N-it. Ord. Hohrjufte, Linn.
Porlulacees JufT.

Gen Ch. Ccd Perianth inferior, permanent, of five, ovate,
acuminated, carinated leaves, membranaceous at the margin,
two of them exterior. Cor. Petals five, equal, ovate, with
a (light claw, obtufc, fhortcr than the calyx ; neftary form-
ing a margin round the germen, bearing the llamens. Sta;n.
Filainents feven, av.l-fhaped, ihorter tha" the '-orolla ; an-
thers ovate. Pijl Girmen fuperior, glohofe. Stvle cloven,
cylindrical, {horte: than the flamens ; IHgmas rather obtufc.
Per'ic Capfule globofe, of two cells. Si.ds folitary, hemi-
fphcri: al, hollow.

O'jf. We are induced to follow the opinion of Li;ina:us
refpefting the capfule of this genus, as it undotibteyiy
belongs to the Porlulaceii of Juflleu. See Gartner and
Schreber.

EiT. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, equal. Cnp-
lule globofe, of two cells. Seeds folitary, concave.

1. L. africanum. Linn Sp. PI 48S. , Thunb. Prod. 68.
— Leaves obiong, on footllaiks. — A native ol' the Cape, .

whence if was brought by Mr. Francis Maflon in'o tTie
Royal Garden at Kew in the year 1774. It flowers in
June and July. Linnaeus jnftly remarks, that this fpccieS
has the appearance of Corrigiola or Telcphium. The root is
perennial. Stems proftrate, feeble, a fj an long, a gulatcd,
njked, perennial at the bafe. Leaves alternate, remote,
linear-lanceolate, or oblong, about ari inch i:i length. Co-
rymbs of green and wYalc Jlowcrs ter.minal, Mitary, com-
pound, naked, on long llalks. - Martyn fays that the leaves
of this are fnbjett to vary ; for that '■ in the B nkfian
herbarium may be feen linear, oblong, ovate, roundifh and
fpatulate leaves, if the f;iecimens be all of one fpecies."

2. L. eapenfe. Willd. n. 2. Thunb. Prod. C8. (L. in-
canum ; Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 3. L. aphyi'um ; Linn.
Suppl. 214.) — Leaves ovate, fcfiile. — It is curious thatHlie
younger Linnjeus fliould have given this the fpecific name of
aphyllmn, remarking tliat it appears to be with.out leaves,
when at the fame time 'he defcnb.'S them as ovate atid feffile.
Martyn, judging from Mafi'on's fpecimen in the Bankfian
herbarium, fays, that L. capmfe is a fmall plant, extremely
woody at the bottom. Leaves ovate, almoit feflile, and as
woolly as thofe of mullein ; radical ones numerous ; ftem-
leaves fewer.

3. L. athiopicam. Willd. and Thunb. — Leaves linear-
lanceolate. This fpecies is only k-^ou;i from being men-
tioned by Thunberg and adopted by Wilidenowand Martyn.
The laft author jultly obferves, that we have a deplorable
inflance, in thefe three fpecies of Limeum, of trivia! names
which are not given for the fake of true diftinclion : all
tlie plants being nati>.'es of the Cape, though feverally called
africanum, eapenfe, and ethiopicum.

We further learn from profeffor Martvn, that there is a
fourth fpecies in the Bankfian herbarium, which is truly a
ftirub, and may be called L.. fruticans.

LIMINGO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Ulea ; 1 1 miles S. of IHea.

LIMINGTON, a tov.m of America, in York county,
and Hate of Maine, bounded N. and E. by Saco river ;
50 miles N. of York.

LIMIT, in Mathematics. See LnilT.s.

'Li'snr cf J^/t-na I'ifiot!, m Optics. See Di/IinS ViSJOy.

LIMITATION, LiMiT.iTio, in Zccy, is a certain
tim.e afligned by fiatute, vvithin which an attion muft be
brought ; and hmitation of time is two-fold ; wis. to make
title to an inheritance by the common law ; and in writs by
fevcral llatutes There is a limitation in real and perfonal
aftions ; and in the former, he that will fue for any lands
or hereditaments, ought to prove, that he or his anceflors
were feifed of the lands fued for by writ of affize, or he
cannot maintain his action ; and this is called limitatir^n of
alTize. Stat. Weft. I. See IVrit of RlGlir and Slatul:s
of Li.MiTATlON infra, alfo Ixfokmation".

There is no limitation with re.ard to the time within
which any actions touching advowfons are to be brought ;
at Iea!\, none later than the times of Richard I. ai:d
Henry III. ; for by ilatute i Ma-, ft. 2. c. 5. the ila-
tute of limitations, 32 Hsn. VIII., c. i, is declared not
to extend to any vi^rit of right of advowfon, nuere impedit,
or lifVtte oi darrein prefentireiit, ut jus patrcnatus. And this,
fays ju.dge Blackftone, upon very good roafon, becaufe
it may very caiily happen, that the title to an advowfon
may cot come in'o queftion, nor the right have an oppor-
tunity of being tried, within '60 years ; which is the longeft
period of limitation afiigned by the Itatute of Henry Vlll.
See Appkal and Indictment.

LiMiT.A.TiON' of Entry. See Entry.

Ljjua ATio>c of Efiati, in a It gal fsnfe, imports how bng
, the

1- I M

Uie eftate (hall continue, or is rather a qualification of a
precedent cilate. As wliero one doth give lands to a man
to hold to him and his heirs male, and to him and the heirs
female, &;c. here the daughters fliall not have any thing in
it, fo long as there is a male ; for the ellate to the heirs
male is lirli limited. Co. Lilt. 31J.

A limitation is denominated l)y Littleton [§ 380. I Inft.
2^4.) a" condition in law." For where an eft.ite is fo ex-
prelbly confnied and limited by the words of its creation,
that it cannot endure for any longer time than till the con-
tingency happens, upon which tlie eilate is to fail, this is
<lenominatcd a " hmitation ;" as when land is granted to
a man, fo long as he is parfon of Dale, or wliile he con-
tinues unmarried, or until out of the rents and profits he
fliall have made 50c/. and the like. (10 R.ep. 41.) In
fuch cafe the cH ate determines as foon as the contingency
happens, and the next fubfequcnt eilate, which depends
upon fuch determination, becomes immediately veiled
without any att to be done by liim who is next in ck-
pedtancy. But when an ellate is, Ilriaiy fpcaking, upon
" condition in deed," (as if granted exprcfsly upon condition
lo be void upon the payment of 40/. by the grantor, cr
fo that the grantee continues unmarried, or providfd he goes
to York, 5cc. Rep. 41.) the law permits it to endure
beyond the time when fuch contingency happens, unlefs
the grantor, or his heirs or afligns, take advantage of the
breach of tlie condition, and make either an entry or a
claim, in order to avoid the ellate. (Lirt. § 347. Stat.
32 Hen. VIll. c. 34.) Yet though ftrici words of con-
dition be ufed in tlie creation of the ellate, if on breach of
the condition the eftate be limited over to a third perfon,
and does not immediately revert to the grantor or his re-
i)refentatives, (as if an ellate be granted by A to B, on
condition that within two years B intermarry with C, and
on failure thereof tlien to D and his heirs,) this the law
conllrucs to be a limitation and not a condition ( i V'entr.
202.) ; bccaufe, if it were a condition, then upon the breach
thereof, only A or his reprcfcnta'.ives could avoid the
ellate by entry, and fo D's remainder might be defeated
by their negletting to enter ; but, when it is a hmitation,
the eilate of B determines, and that of D commences, and
he may enter on the lands the inftant that the failure
happens. So alfo, if a man by his will devlfes land to his
heir at law, on condition that he pays a fum of money, and
for non-payment devifcs it over, this {hall be conlidered as
a limitation ; otherwifc, no advantage could be taken of
the non-payment, for none but tlie heir hinifelf could have
entered for a breach of condition. Cro. Eli/.. 201.
I Roll. Abr. 411. Blackll. Com. b. ii.

LliMITATJON of the Croiun. The ilatutes I W. & M.
cap. 8. 12 W. III. cap. 2. and i & 2 Ann. cap. 17.
4 Arm. cap. 8. Sec. arc atls for the limitation of the crown,
and fettling it on Protcllant heirs in the lioufe of Hanovei-.
See Crown.

Limitation, Statutes of, a fpecies oif plea in bar, in
which a perfon may plead the time limited by certain acts
of parliament, beyond which no plaintiff can lay iiis caufe of
adlion. 'This, by the ilatute of 32 Hen. VHI. c. 2. in
a writ of right \i fi.vty years ; in afiifes, writs of entry, or
other pofleffory aclions real, of the feilin of one's ancellors,
in lands ; and either of their feiiln, or one's own, in rents,
fuits, and fervices, fifty years ; and in adions real for lands
.gri.unded upon one's own feifin or poffeflion, fuch pofieffion
mull have been within thirty years. By Hat. I Mar. il. 2.
c. 5. this limitation does not extend to any fuit for ad-
vowfons. (See above.) But by the flatute 21 .Tac. L
.c. 3. a time of limitation was estended to the cafe of the

L I M

king, -viz, Jixty yein precedent to 19th February, 1623.
(3 Inft. 183.); but this becoming incHeftual by efflux of
time, the fame date of limitation was fixed by ilatutc 9 Geo.
IIL c. 16. to commence, and be reckoned backwards,
from the time of beginning any fuit, or other procefs, to
recover the thing in qucltion ; fo that a pofleffion for Jixty
years is now a bar even againll the prerogative, in deroga-
tion of the ancient maxim " nullum tempus occnrrit regi."
By another (laiute, 2 1 Jac. L c. 1 6, tivcitly years are the time
of limitation in any writ of formedon ; and by coiifequence,
twenty years are alfo the limitation in everyadlion of ejectment;
for no ejectment can be brought, unleis where the lefTor of
the plaintiff is entitled to enter on the lands ; and by the
ftatute 21 Jac. L c. 16. no entry can be made by any man,
unlefs within t<wenty years iifter his right iliall accrue. Alfo,
all aftioiis of trefpafs {quarc claufum fregil, or otherwife)
detinue, trover, replevin, account, and cale, (except upon
accounts between merchants), debt on limple contradt, or for
arrears of rent, are limited by the llatute lail -mentioned to
fix years, after the caufe of action commenced ; and anions of
alfault, menace, battery, mayhem, and imprifonment, mull be
brought withiii_/iHr years, and aftions for words wdtliin twa
years after the injury committed. And by the llatute
3 1 Eli/., c. 5. all fuits, indiiSlments, and informations, upon
any penal Ilatutes, where any forfeiture is to the crown alone,
fliall be fued within tiuo years, and where the forfeiture is
to a fubject, or to the crown and a fubjecl, within one year
after the offence committed ; unlefs where any other time is
fpecially limited by the llatute. Lallly, by llatute 10 W. IIL
c. 14, no writ of error, fire facias, or other fuit, fhall be
brought to reverfcany iudgmcnt, fine, or recovery for en'or,
unlefs it be profecuted witliin tiver.ty years. The ufe of thefc
ilat'.ites of hmitation is to preferve the peace of the kingdom,
and to prevent thofe innumerable perjuries which might enfue,
if a man were allowed to bring an attion for any injury com-
mitted at any diflance of time. Upon both lliefe accounts
the law therefore holds, that "interfl rcipubtici: ut fit finis
litittm," and upon the fame principle the Athenian laws in
general prohibited all actions, wliere the injury was com-
mitted^yfiif years before the complaint was made. If, there-
fore, in any fuit, the injury or caufe of action happened
earlier than the period exurefsly limited by law, the de-
fendant mav plead the Ilatutes of limitations in bar ; as
upon an ajiunpfit, or promife to pay money to the plaintiff,
the defendant may plead non affumpfit infra fex annos ; he
made no fuch promife within fix years ; which is an effeftual
bar to the complaint. Blackll. Com. b iii.

LIMITED Fek.s, denote fuch ellales of inheritance
an are clogged or confined with conditions, or qualifications
of any fort. Thefe are of two forts, viz. qualified or bafefees,
and fees-conditional, or fees-tail. See Bafe-l'EKx, and Fees-
lail.

I..lMiTi;r) Prohkm, is that which admits but of one fo-
lution. or which can only be folved one way: as to make
a circle pafs through three j)oints given, not lying in a right
line, to defcribe an equilateral triangle on a line given, &c.
See PiiOBLKM, and Detei'.mixati;.

LIMITROPHOUS Column. Sec Column.

LIMITS, in Mathemalics, a term fometimes ufed, in ge-
neral, for quantities, one of which is greater, and the other
lefj than another quantity. '^Ihus, in the quantities, a, X) b,\i
a be Ids than x, and b be greater than x, a arid b are faid
to be limits of x. The wurd occurs in this fenfe, when we
fpeak of the limits of the roots of equations.

Sometimes a quantity is faid to be a limit between two

others, when it is greater than the one and lefs than the

other. So a ratio is faid to be a limit between two other

C - ratios.

LIMITS.

ratios, wliea if is greater than the one, and lefs than the
otlier.

But limit is often ufed in a more reflricled fenfe j thus,
when a variable quantity approaches continually to feme de-
terminate quantity, and may come nearer to it than to have
any given difference, but can never go beyond it ; then is
tTie determinate quantity faid to be the limit of the variable
quantity.

Hence, the circle may be faid to be the limit of its cir-
cumfcribed and infcribed polygons; becaufe thefe, by in-
creafing the number of their fides, can be made to differ
from the circle lefs than by any fpace that can be propofcd,
how fmall foever.

The limit of a variable ratio, is fome determinate ratio, to
which the variable ratio may continually approach, and
come nearer to it than to have any given difference, b\it can
never go beyond it. Hence, the ratio of the ordinate to
the fub-tangent of a curve, is faid to be the limit of the
variable ratio of the differences of the ordinates, to the dif-
ferences of the abfciffi.

The word limit, in this fenfe, fignifies the fame as what
fir Ifaac Newton calls a firll or prime, and a laft or ultimate
ratio.

There arc two cafes of a variable quantity, or variable
ratio, tending to fuch a limit, ?.3 we have been defcribing.
In the firfl cafe, the variable quantity, or ratio, will not
only aj)proach to its limit within lefs than any given differ-
ences, but will aftually arrive at its limit.

In the fecond cafe, the variable quantity, or ratio, will
only approach its limit within lefs than any given difference,
but will never actually arrive at it.

Sir Ifaac Newton, to avoid theharihnefs of the hypothefis
of indivifibles, and the tedioufnefs of demonftrations, ac-
cording to the method of the ancients, by dedutlions ad
abfurdum, has premifed leveral lemmata, in the iirll feclion
of the tiril book of his Princ^jles, relating to the firlt and
lali fums, and ratios of nafcent and evanefcent quantities ;
that is, to the limits af fums and ratios. This doftrine
chiefly depends on the firft of thofe lemmata ; the words
of which are, " Quantitates ut & quantitatum rationes, quae
ad iqualltatem tempore quovis finito conllantcr tendunt, &
'ante finetn temporis illius propius ad invicem accedunt
quam pro data quavis differentia, Hunt ultimo squales.''

The learned gentlemen, who have written in defence of
fir Ifaac, againft the author of the Analyll, are not agreed
among themfclves as to the precile meaning of this lemma.
One of thefe gentlemen fays, that the genuine meaning of
tliis propofition is, that thofe quantities are to be elleemed
ultimately equal, and thofe ratios ultimately the fame, which
are perpetually to each other, in fuch a manner, that any
difference, bow minute foever, being given, a finite time
may be adigned, before the end of which, the difference of
thofe quantities, or ratios, fhall become lefs than that given
difference. See Pref. State of the Rep. of Letters for Ott.
l-^j, and for Oct. 17J6.

What fir Ifaac Newton intends we fliould underfland by
the ultimate equality of magnitudes, and the ultimate iden-
tity of the ratios propofed in this lemma, will be belt known
from the demonftration annexed to it. By that it appears,
fir Ifaac Newton did not mean that any point of time was
affignable, wherein thefe varying magnitudes would become
artually equal, or the ratios really the fame ; but only that
no difference whatever could be named, which they ftiould
not pafs. The ordinate of any diameter of an hyperbola,
is always lefs than the fame continued to the afymptote ; yet
the demonftration of this lemma can be applied, without
thanging a fingle word, to prove their ultimate equality.

Vol.. XXI.

The fame is evident from the lemma immediately following',
where parallelograms are infcribed, and others cirrtimfcribed
to a curvilinear fpace. Here the iirft lemma is applied ta
prove, that by multiplying the number, and diminifhiiig the
breadth of thefe parallelograms in tiifimtum, that is, per-
petually and without end, the infcribed and circurnfcribed
figures become ultimately equal to the curvilinear fpace,
and to each other ; whereas, it is evident, that no point of
time can be affigncd, wherein they are aftually equal ; to
fuppofe this were to affcrt, that the variation afcribcd to the
figures, though endlefs, could be brought to a period, and
be perfeflly accompliihed ; and thus we fhould return to
the unintelhgible language of indivifibks. The excellence
of this method confifts in making the fame advantage of
this endlefs approximation towards equality, as by the ufe
of indivifibles, without being involved in the abfurdities of
that doftrine. In fhort, the difference between thefe two
may be thus explained.

There are but three ways in nature of comparing fpaces :
one is by (hewing them to conlilt of fuch, as by impofition
on each other will appear to occupy the fame place : an-
other is, by (hewing their proportion to fome third ; and
this method can only be direCtly applied to the like fpaces
as the former ; for tliis proportion muff be finally deter-
mined by {hewing when the multiples of fuch fpaces are
equal, and when they differ : the third method to be ufed,
where thefe other two fail, is by defciibing upon the fpaces
in queftion fuch figures as may be compared by the former
methods ; and thence deducing the relation between thofe
fpaces, by that indireft manner of proof, commonly called
dcdudio ad ahfurdum; and this is as conclufive a demonitra-
tion as any other, it being indubitable, that thoil- things arc
equal which have no difference. Thus Euclid and .Vrchi-
medes demonllrate all they have written concerning the
comparifon and menfuration of curvilinear fpaces. The
method advanced by fir Ifaac Newton for the fame purpuie
differs from their's, only by applying this indirect form of
proof to fome general propofitions, and from thence de-
ducing the rclf by a direCt form of reafoning. Whoever
compares the fourth of fir Ifaac Newton's lemmas with
the firfl:, will fee, that the proof of the curvilinear fpaces,
there confidered, having the proportion named, depends
wholly upon this, that if otherwife the figure infcribed
within one of them, could not approach, by fome certain
diftance, to the magnitude of that fpace : and this is pre-
ciffly the form of reafoning, whereby Euclid proves the
proportion between the different circles. As this method of
reafoning is very diffufively fet out in the writings of the
ancients ; and fir Ifaac Newton has here expreffed himfelf
with that brevity, that the turn of his argument n^ay pof-
fibly eicape the unwary, the reading 01 the ancients mull
be the belt introduAion to the knowledge of his method.
The impoffible attempt of comparing curvilinear fpaces,
without having any recourfe to the foremenlioned indirect
method of arguing, produced the abfurdity of indivifibles.

As the magnitudes, called in this lemma ultimately equal,
may never abfolutcly cxiff umier that equality ; fo the va-
rying magnitudes holding to each other the variable ratios,
here confidered, may never exilt under that, which is here
called the ultimate ratio. Of this fir Ifaac Newton gives
an inftanee, from lines i-.icreafing tOi^elher by equal addi-
tions, and having from the firit a given difference. For
the ultimate ratio of thefe lires in the fenfe of this lem.ma,
as fir Ifaac Newton himfelf obferves, will bo the ratio of
equality, though thefe lines can never have this ratio ; fince
no po-nt of time can be afligned, when one does not exceed
the other.

LIMIT S.

In like manner, ihe quantities called by fir Ifaac Newton
Taniihing, may never fubfift under that proportion here
eftcemed the:r ultimate.

In the cafe of drawing tangents to curves, wliere the or-
dinate bears the fame proportion to the fubtanprent, as that
wherewith the diff^-rence <.f the or.linatcs, to the difference
of the abfcl(r.e, vanifh ; thefe lines mull not be conceived,
by the naine of an evanefcent, or any other appellation, cvi-r
to fubfifl under that proportion : for (hould we conceive
thefe lines, in any manner, to fubllll under _th!s proportion,
though at the iiiilanl of tlieir vaiiiihing, we (hall tall into
the unintelhgible notion of "indivilibles, by endeavourir.g
to reprefent, to the imagination, fome inconeei\able
kind of exillence of thefe lines between tlieir having a real
magnitude, and becoming abfolutely nothing. Sir Ifaac
Newton was himfelfapprehenfive, tiut tliis midakc might
be made ; for as lie thought fit (in compliance with the bad
tafte which then prevailed) to continue the uie ot fomeloole
and indillind cspreirioiis refembliiig thofe of indivifiblcs,
for which he has himfelf apologized, lie exprefsly cautions
lis againll railinteipreling him iu this manner, when he fays :
' Si quando di.Kcro qiiantitates quam minimas vel cvanef-
centes, vel ultimas, cave intcUigas qnantitates magiiitudine
dcterminatas, fed cogita femper diminuendas fine limite.''
Thus exprefsly has he declared to us, that vaniihing quan-
tities, or whatever other lefs accurate appellation he names
them bv, arc to be confidercd as indeterminate quantities
bearing' to each other, under their different magnitudes, dif-
• ferent proportions ; which the quantities themfelves can
never obtain, and the limit of thefe proportions is that,
for the fake of which thefe quantities are confidered: in-
fomuch, that fince thefe quantities have different propor-
tions, while they obtain the name of vaniiliing quantities, the
term ultimate is necefTarily added to denote that proportion,
which is the limit of an enJltfs number of varying ,ones.
Tne hke remark is necciTary, when thefe quantities are con-
fidered in the other light, as ariling before the imagination :
for then the proportion intended muil be fpecificd, by call-
ing it the firil, or prime proportion of thc(e quantities.
And as this additional epithet is neceffary to exprefs the
proportion intended, fo it is abfurd to apply it to the quan-
tities themfelves ; as fir Ifaac Newton fays, there are '< ra-
tjones prim.B quantitatuni nafccntium," but not " qnan-
titates primx nafccntes." Philofoph. Tranfadlions, N J42,
p. 205.

So that, according to the author we have been quoting,
all the examples given by fir Ilaac in the before mentioned
foftion, are to be underftood of fuch limits or ultimate ra-
tios, as are never attained to by the quantities and ratios li-
tiiited, but to which thefe may approach indefinitely, that is,
ib as to differ lefs than by a given quantity.

On the other hand, a learned gentleman, who affnmed
the name of Philalethes Cantabrigienfis, thinks that (ir Itaac
means, by the words of the lemma, and proves, in his de-
inondration, not that the quantities or ratios are barely to
be confidered as ultimately becoming equal, or are to be
clU-emed as ultimately equal ; though, in reality, they can
never have that proportion to each other ; but that they do
at lall become actually, pen'eAly, and abfolutely equal.
PreL State of the Republic of Letters for November 1733,

He alfo diitinguifhes, as above, between quantities and
ratios which arrive at their limits, and thofe which do not.
And it is innfted on, that every one of the examples given
in the lemmata of this firft feftion of the fw-il book ot fir
ifaac's Principles, are of fuch quantities and ratios as ac-
tually arrive at their refpcftive limits ; nor is there an in-

8

fiance there given of a quantity, or rati^ which never
arrives at its limit, except one at the latter end of the
fcholiupi of this fection (and that by way of illuHration of
a particular objection only) of two quantities, liaving a
given difFerenee, and being equally increaled, aJ hifiiiiiupi,
and whole ratio, it is admitted, never arrives at its limit.
But decreafing quantities may really and in faft be di-
mini(hed flc/ infnitum ; for they may vanifli and come to
nothing. The ratio, therefore, of thefe, fays he, may arrive
at its limit ; though that of the others cannot.

Neither are thefe learned gentlemen agreed ^s to the fcnfc
of the word I'ani/ling or evuru-futit, in the feholium of tiiis
firll tVclion of fir Ifa.:c's Principles.

The quelUon is, whether the quantities that vanilh are
underilood to fpcnd fom.e finite time in vaniihing, or to vaniHi
in an inftant, or point of time ; and confequently, whether
they bear one to another an infinite number of difierent fuc-
cefiive ratios during the vanidiing, or one ratio only, at the
point or inllance of their evauefcence.

This lall is the fenfe in which Philalethes takes the word
evanefcent, or vanifiiing ; and the difpute, on this head, as
he obferves, is of no otiier confequeiice than to determine,
wliether the fenfe in which he nfes the word be agreeable to
fir Ifaac Newton's, For, if the quantities vanilh in an in-
llaiit, I take the only ratio with which they vanidi ; or they
fpend a finite time in vanifliing, and I take the Inft of the
ratios, wiiieh they fucccliively bear to one another during
that time ; ftill the ratio, taken in either of thefe cafes, will
be one and the fame. Prefent State of the Republic of Let-
ters for November 1735, p. 3S3, 384.

We cannot pretend to give the whole detail of this con-
troverfy, but muft refer the curious to the Prefent State of
the Republic of Letters for 1735. We (hall only obferve,
that this difquifition is partly critical and partly fcientifical.
Tiie critical inquiry is into the fenfe of fir Ifaac, fo far as
it may be determined from his own words ; and here we can-
not help thinking that this is fomewhat doubtful. The
other inquiry is about the true or fcientifical notion, upon
which this doftrine ought to be founded. With relpett to
which we (hall only a(k two queftions, which every reader
may refolve for himfelf, to wit, whether the conception or
notion he has cf the ratio or proportion of evanefcent quan-
tities, at the point or inftance of their cvariefeence, be more
clear and diftincl than the notion of infinitefimals .' And
wliether the notion of infcribed or circumfcribed polygons
to any curve, attaining their lall form, and thereby coin-
ciding with their curvilinear limit, be more clear and dilliiic\
than the notion of polygons of an infinite number of fides in
the method of iufiniteiimalb ?

Before we leave this fubjeft, it may be proper to give
the fentiments of an eminent mathematician about the doc-
trine of limits, or of prime and ultimate ratios, and to Ihe^v
the conncftiou of this dodrine with that of fluxicns, Mr.
Maclaurin, in his Treat, of Flux., art. 502.

Sir Ifaac Newton coiifiders the fimulianeous increments
of flowing quantities as finite, and then invelligates the
ratio which is the limit of the various proportions wh:ch
thofe increments bear to each other, while he fuppofes thetn
to decreafe together ti;l they vanifii ; which ratio is the laiic
with the ratio of the fluxions. In order to difcover this
limit, he firil determines the ratio of the increments in gene-
ral, and reduces it to the moll fimple terms, fo as that
(generally fpcaking) a part at leall of each term may be in-
dependent of the value of the increments themfelves ; then,
by fuppofing the increments to decreafe, till they vanifii,
the limit readily appears.

For example, let u be an invariable quantity, # a flowing

quantity,

LIMITS.

•riuantity, and u any increment of a? : then the fimultaneoiis out them both; andhence the ofculator}' circle is fuppofej
increments of .r.r and rt A' will be 2«o+ooandao, which to have an equal curvature with the curve at that point. See
■ "' "" •■- ' ' --' ■ -:-.-- '1^1-;- Mr. Maclaiirin's Flux. art. ^g.y.

■ara in the fame ratio to each other as 2 x + o is to a. This
ratio o( 2 X- + 0 to a continually decreafes while o dccrcafcs,
and is always greater than the ratio of 2 x to a, while o is
any real increment ; but it is manifeft, that it continually
approaches to the ratio of 2 x to a as its limit ; whence it
■follows, that the fluxion of xx is to the fluxion of tin, as
2 .r is to a. If x be fuppofed to flow uniformly, ax will
likewife flow uniformly, but xx with a motion continually
accelerated ; the motion with which a x flows, may be
•mj-afured br a o ; but the motion with which 2 .v flows is
not to be meafured by its increment 2x0 + 00, but by the
•part 2. f 9 only, which is generated in confequence of that
motion; and the part 00 is to be rejefted, becaufe it is
generated in confequence only of the acceleration of the
motion with which the variable fquare flows, wliile n, the
increment of its fide, is generated; and the ratio of 2.1-0
to a <; is that of 2 >• to a, which was found to be the limit
of the ratio of the increment 2x0 + 00 and ao. See
Fluxion-.

It is cbjeflcd aijainft fir Ifaac Newton's method of in-
vcftigating this Imiit, that he firft fuppofes tliat there are
inorement'ri ; that when it is faid iel the increment I'aniji, the
former fuppofition is deilroyed, and yet a confequence of
this fuppofition, J. e. an expreffion got by virtue thereof, is
retained. But the fuppofitions that are made in this method
of inveftigating the limit arc not fo contradicfory as this ob-

fuppofes that

jeftion feems to imoort. He firft luppoles that tliere are ■ j • u 1 n- -

"increment^ generated, and reprefents their ratios by that of C"'"^-'d« with the elhplis ; but this fcems a confeq
" " ■:h is given fo as not to vary with the 'anguagc of nnhnitchmals. It would be more

two quantities, one of which is gi'

the increments. If he had afterwards fuppofed that no in-
crements had been geiicr.ited, this indeed had been a fup-
pofition dirtflly contradiAory to the former But when he
Xuppofrs thole increments to be diminilhed till they vanifli,
this fuppofition lurely cannot be faid to be fo contradictory
to the former as to hinder us from knowing what was the
ratio of thofe increments, at any term of the time, n hile
they lud ,i real exiftence ; how this ratio varied, and to what
limit it approached while the increments were continually
diminifhed: on the contrary, this is a very concife and jull
method of .hfcov -ring t!ie limit which is required.

Jt is to be obfjrved, that the limiting, prime, or ultimate
ratio of increments, (trittly fpeaking, is" not tlie ratio ot any that one fliall be greater and one lefs than the root required

Now if we conceive the ofculatory circle at the end of the
great a.\is of an ellipfis, it will fall entirely within the ellipfis ;
and the curvature of the ellipfis and ofculatory circle may
both be faid to be limits of the curvatures of all the circles
falling wholly within, and touching the ellipfis at the end of
its great axis. But the term limit will not in both ca.Q-i
have prccifely the fame meaning; for the ofculatory circle
is a limit mcluji-ve, being the lait of the circles limited ; and
the ellipfis is a limit exchfive, none of the circles limited
ever coinciding with it. As to the circles which fall wholly
without the ellipfis, and touch it at the end of its great axis,
they have no limit inclttfi-ve, no circle touching the cllipfii
fo clofely, that no other can pafs between ; the or.Iy huiit
here is exclu/ive, the ellipfis ilfelf.

The contrary of tiiis happens at the end of the lefl^er axi.'!.
At any other point of the ellipfis, one half of every ofculatory
circle is a limit incluftvs of the femirircles that fall within,
and the other half is a limit e.xclufivs of thofe that fall
without.

_ May we not aflv, if a curve is the limit of its infcribed or
circumfcribed polygons in any other fenfe, than the curva-
ture of the elliplis is the limit of the curvatures of the circles
before defcribed, which approach nearer and nearer to the
curve, but never coincide with it .' It is true we hear it
often faid, that the ofculatory circle is equicurval, and fo

uence of
accurate
to fay. that the curvature of the eHipfis is the hmit exclu/ive
of all the before mentioned circles, and that the ofculatory
circle is their limit indiifive. That excellent geometer, Mr.
Simfon, in his Conic Seftions, lib. v. prop. 36. cor. fays
only, after demonltrating the chief property of the ofcula-
tory circle, that eanciem habere cum Jl-f.ior.e conica curvaluram
Jicitiir, giving this only as an appellation, but not as a pro-
pofiion. See on the fubjeft of this article, Robins's Difc.
on Fluxions, in his Trafts, vol. li.

LiMlT.s of the Roots of an Equation.— 'V'c have already
obferved, that fey finding the limits of the roots of an ecua-
tion, is to be underfiood the finding of tuo fuch numbers, ■

real increments whatfoever. But as the tangent of an arch
is the right line that limits the pofition of all the fecants that
tan pafs through the point of contatt, though, llrictly
fpeaking, it be no fecant ; fo a ratio may hmit the variable
ratios of the increments, though it cannot be faid to be the
ratio of any real increments. The ra.io of the generating
motion may be likewife faid to be the lail or ultimate ratio
of the increments, while they are fuppofed to be diminiilied
till they vanilh, for a like reafon. It may jull be added,
that there being two cafes of variable quantities and ratios
tending to a limit, it might have conduced to pcrfpicuity,
and preventing difputei, to have dilfinguifhed thcfe different
limits by fome addition. As m the firll cafe to have called
It a limit or ultimate ratio i.irlufve ; becaufe the limit is the
lad of the quantities or ratios limited : and in the fecond to
have called it a limit or ultimate ratio exclufve ; becaufe the
quantities limited never attain to the limit, though they .ap-
proach t'l it indefinitely.

This dillinftion may perhaps receive fome farther ilhiftra-
tion from the following example. It is known that the
olculatory circle is a circle that touches a curve fo clofily
that no other circle can be drawn through the point of con-

iad between them, all other circles paflitng within or with- refults with contrary lign

by which means an approximation is evidently made to-
wards the true root, and the nearer thefe limits approach
towards each other, fo much the more accurate will be the
approximation. I.a Grange, in his " Traite de la Rcfolution
iiumerique des Equation,<!," has carried the method of
limits to itj utmoit poihble perfoftion, by {hewing, in all
equations, how the limits of each of its roots may be afcer-
tained, and has fliewn, tliat the method of approximation
employed by Newton, and in fact every method, except
that ot his own, is defective in this refpeif, iiir.. that be-
tween the hmits afcertained in their operation, there may
be one, two, or more roots, and confequently, that tliey are
not neceflfarily the limits of one root, but merely the limits
between whicli one at leall of the real roots of the equation
muft lie. The nature of this article will not admit of our
entering into an explanation of the procel's of this celebrated
analyll ; we can, therefore, only refer the reader to the
work itlelf, and mult content ourfelvcs in this place with
giving a few of the moil remarkable cafes relating to the
limits of the roots of an equation.

I. If we can find two quantities, which, being fnbftitutcd
for the unknown quantity in any equation, give two

, then will thcfe two quantitie»
>i- 2 be

LIMITS.

\)e the limits of the value of x, that is, a value of .r will
always be found between thefe two quantities.

Let .r- - A ^i"- + B .V—' - C x-" -•' + &c. + N = c. ;
and fuppofe that, by fubflituting any quantity p, inttcad of
X, we have

p-" - Ap" ' + B/)-" - - c/-" ' + s:c- -T >-' = R ;

and by fubftituting another quantity, q, for it, we obtain

5- -A 9"- + Bj-^-C^--^ + &c. N = -S:
then, t fay, that there is at leaft one real value o£ x between
the limits /. and 7 ; that ij, x is lefs than the former, and
greater tliau the latter. The truth of llic propofition, how-
ever, is better demonftraied from a partial than from a
general example.

Let us, therefore, afiumc the equation

.t^— ij.v' + 7.V — 1 =0;
here, if we fubftitute .v = 2, and x = 20, wc have a
refult in the firll cafe = - 3 1 ; and in the fccond = -r
-939 ; and it remains to be (hewn that there is, at leatt, one
real value of. x coniprifed between thefe limits. For this
purpole, the equation may be written

..'+ 7^- - ('3' + 0

found to be negative when x = 2 ;

the refult is pofitive, and x c= o, making it negative, a real
value of jr mull he between the limits/; and o. Again, the
above equation may be converted into anotlier, having th<?
fame roots, only with contrary ilgns, by writing — y for
X. And let us fuppofe, in the full place, that ni is even^
then the transformed equation will be

J- + Ay'"- + B.r' ' + Cj"-' &c. + N = o ;

and, conftquently, N will ilill have, with regard to^"*, the
fame fign, which, as above, we fuppofe to be negative ; then,
if y be fuch as will give a pofitive refult, and .i- =: o giving
a negative, it follows, that a real value of y will be found
between the limits g and o ; and, conlequently, in the
equation propofed, a real root is comprifed between the
limits — g and o.

But if tlie power m be odd, then the transformed equation
will be

+ Ay-

- C>"-5 -f &c. +
+ Cy-' ± &c. +

N

N:

: O,

which quantity is

'I'hat is, in the lirlt cafe, we

but pofitive when x = ;
liave

{x-> + 7-v) < ('i-^-' + 0'
and in the latter

(*■' + 7-^-) > (I.?-*"' + ')•
Now, it is obvious, that each branch of thefe cxpreffions
will increafe as .v is augmented, and that they will likewife
be each diminifhed as .v is diminiflied. Let us, theretorc,
conceive x, in the firft cafe, to be fucceffively mcreafed by
any fmall quantity, till it arrives at the value of .r in the
fccond cafe. Then, fince .v' + T x, which was at iirit lets
than H I- + 1, is now become greater than 13 x' + i. *}
muft neceffarily have palfed through that Hate, in whicli it
was neither greater nor Icfs ; that is, the two branches mutt
have palfed through that Hate in which they were equal ;
but when

x' + 7.r = (13X' + I),

we have alfo

x'^ — IS X- + •; X — 1 = o ;

and, confequently, this value of x is a real root of the cqua-

lion propofed. , , , • • 1

This reafoning, though employed only in a particular
cafe, is equally applicable to our general equation : for, by
puttinT the pofitive part of the equation = P, and the
negative = Q ; alfo, fuppofmg /> to be that value of ..•
which renders the refult negative, or, which is the fame,
v*-hich gives P < Q ; and y that value which makes
Y •-, Q, then we mav conclude the fame as above, that P,
from being lefs than Q, having paifed to that ftate in wliich
it is greater than (>, there mull neceffarily be a real value of x,
between p and 5,"which renders P = Q ; or the propofed
equation = o. We may alfo afcertain the limits of x be-
tween o, and fome real quantity, pofitive or negative. For
example, in the general equation

X-" - A*"— + B .v"-^ - C .x"-' + &c. + N = o,

T Bj'-"

± D/

and, confequently, y" and ^ N, have not the fame fign
with regard to each other. If, therefore, now, any value y
can be found, fuch that the refult may be negative, a root
of this equation will be found between the limits g and o,
and, therefore, in the original one between — j and o.

2. The greateil pofitive root of an equatioi. is always
contained between the limits S (- 1 and o ; S being the
greateil negative co-efRcicnt that enters into the equation.

In order to prove this, we muft demonftrate that in any
expreflion

.v" + A .r"--' + B-t""-' + Cr""-' &c. N.

The firll term may be made to exceed the fum of all the
other terms. Now, it is obvious, in the firft place, that
the cafe which prelents the greateil difficulty, it that in
which all the co-efficients are made negative, and each equal
to the greatefl ; let, then, S be the greateil negative co-
efficient, it is to be demonftrated, that fuch a value of x
may be found as will render

.i" > S (.x'"-' 4- .x"-' -1- .v"""' + &c. -f 1).

Or, fince the part within the parenthelis is equal to -
we have to fiiew, that we may find .v fuch, that

vS x" S

X- J

>

S {x--l)

— i , or .

>

X — I

Now, this will be manifellly the cafe, if we make
S .v" S

-, or X

S + I.

itis obvious, that by taking x = o, the refult will be nega- other negative

It is therefore obvious, that this value, fubftituted for x in
the propofed equation, will give a polltive refult ; whereas,
X = o gives a negative refult : tlierefore, from what is
ihewn above, a real value of x is found between the limits
8 + J and o. If the foregoing equation be converted
into another, with the figns of the roots changed, and if R
in that equation be the greateil negative ce-efficient, then
— (R -(- l), and o, will be the limits alfo of the greattlt
negative root.

it follows, immediately from what is fhewn above, that
every equation of even dinienfions, having its laft term nega-
tive, has at leaft two real roots, the one pofitive and the

live or pofitive, according as N is affedted with the fign
er + . Therefore, if, in the firft place, we find p fuch tliat

It may alfo be readily demonftrated, upon Cmilar princi-
ples, that every eqiKition of odd dimenfwna has at leaft one

real

L I M

L I M

rfal root ; a truth which it is difficult t» prove in any other
manner. See La Croix's Elemens de Algebra, and La
Grange's work above quoted.

Limits, in a Milkary Senfi, denote the diftance which a
centry is allowed on his poll, viz. fifty paces to the right,
and as many to the left ; and though the weather be ever fo
bad, he mull not get under cover.

Limits of a Flamt, its greateft excurfions or diftances
from the ecliptic. See Planet.

LIMITANEI, among the Romans, an appellation given
to the foldiers who were ftationed on the frontiers of the
empire.

LIMITROTOPHI, among the Romans, the fame with
limitaneL

LIMMA, or Leimma, an interval of the Greek Mufic,
which is a comma lefi than the feniitone maior, and, re-
trenched from a tone major, leaves behind the A^otom: ;
which fee.

The ratio of the limma is 24; to 256, and is generated
bv beginning at C, and moving by 5ths to B ; for then the
quantity by which the neighbouring C exceeds B, is pre-
cifelv in the ratio which we have ellablifhed.

Piiilolaus, and all the Pythagoreans, made the liinma a
diatonic interval, which anfwercd to our femitone major :
for, after two conjunctive tones major, there remains only
that interval to complete the true 4th, or tetrachord. So
that, according to them, the interval from E to F was lels
than that from F to Y -j^. Our chromatic fcale gives quite
the contrary. RoulTeau.

The abbe Roudier has given the mufical etymology of
the word leimma, according to Aritlo,\enu3. ^lem. lur la
Muf. des Anc. p. I42.

LIMMAT, in Geography, a river of Switzerland, which
rifes in the Alps, about 1 1 miles S. of Glarus, alluming the
name of Lint or Linth, and having pafled Glarus and joined
the Mat, near the lake of Wallenftadt, takes the name of
Limmat, and having traverfed the lake of Zurich, joins the
Aar, three miles N. of Baden. The llream of this river is
very rapid ; its water beautifully tranfparent ; and its bor-
ders, at tirft flat, afterwards gently riling into hills clothed
with pafture and wood, or divided into vineyards, and at
lail becoming quite perpeiadicular, and fringed to the water's
.edge with hanging trees. About a mile from Baden, where
the Limmat flows with the greatell rapidity, is a beautiful
wooden bridge, 240 feet long, and fufpended about 20 feet
from the furface of the water. It was the lall work of
Grubenman, the felf-taught architect, and is far fuperior in
elegance to *hat of Schaffhaufen.

ilMMEN, a town of Holland ; j miles S. of Alc-
maer.

LIMNiEUS, .ToHN, in Biography-, an eminent German
jurilt, was born at Jena in 1592, where his father was pro-
felTor of mathematics. Having received a good education
in ths elements of learning, he went to Weimar to purfue
his maturer lludies, and from thence to the univcrfity of his
native place, where he remained till the death of hus father
in 1614, when he removed to Altdorf. In 1618, he en-
gaged himfelf as travelling tutor to two young men of
Nuremberg, whom he accompanied to France, England,
and Holland. Having fmilhed his esgagement with thefe,
he took upon himfelf the office of private tutor to fevtral
young perfons of rank, among whom was Albert, margrave
of Brandenburg. In proccfs of time, this prince gave him
the poll of chamberlain and member of his privy council.
He died in the enjoyment of thefe offices in the year 1663.
His works are numerous, and valued for their erudition.
The ch>«f are, " Traclatus de Academiis," 4to. ; " Notilix

Rpgni Galliie," 2 vols. 4to. ; " De jure imperii Roraano-
Germanici," J vols. 410. Moreri.

LIMNER, corrupted from the French word fn/ummrar,
a decorator of books with initial or other pictures. Johnfon.

LIMNIA, in Botany. See Claytonia.

LIMNING, (trom enluminer, Fr. to aJirn tochs '■j.i'ttb
paintings), As thele paintings, or illuminationo, as tliey
are called, were always done in water-oolours. limning is
never properly employed, except it be to defignate thai
fpecies of art, which is now commonly known by the name
of miniature-painting, wrought in thofe colours, and on
paper ; indeed, it is become almoft obfolete, though, in the
minds of the vulgar, it is fometimes ulod to fignify the
art ot painting generally, and more particularly Portrait-
painting ; which fee. See alfo the articles Miniatuke and
Wa'tek-coi,oli«.

LIMNITIS, a word ufed bv the ancients to exprefs the
concretion of round reeds, or water-plants, by fome called
adarce : or fomewhat analogous to that.

LIMNOPEUCE, in Botany, from ^ly.r, a pool ot /air,
and rT-.y.r., a pine-trt-e, a name given by Vaillant to the
Pinajlclla of Dillenius, Hippuris of Linnxus, in allufion to
its fpiry (haoe and watery habitation. See Hii'PUKls.

LIMNOPHILA, from y.iu-.r., a pool or lake, and ;l^•.,
to loi'e, becaufe it inhabits fuch places. Brown Prod. Nov.
HoU v. I. 442. Clafs and order, JJiJynamia ytngiofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Perfenatte, Linn. Scrophulari^, Jiiff

Efl. Ch. Caly.x tubul^,' five-cleft, equal. Corolla fun-
nel-fhapcd ; limb in five nearly equal fegments. Stamens
within the tube ; anthers cohering in pairs. Stigma dilated,
oblique. Capfi.le of two cells, and two deeply divided
valves, the partition inferted into that edge of the valv.s
which burlls lateft.

Herbs that inhabit marlhes, with oppofite deep-cut leave?,
moltly divided into three parts to the bale, which gives
them the appearance of being whorled. Flo wer-llalk s
axillary, with two bradleas at the top.

The only fpecies named by the author is

L gratioloidcs. (Hottonia indica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 20S.
H. flore folitario ex foliorum ali=; proveniente ; Burm. Zcvl.
121. t jj f. I. Tsiudan-tfieia ; Rheede Hort. Malab.
V. 12. 71 t. ^6.) — Gathered in the Tropical part of New
Holland by Mr Brown, who fufpeCts that feveral fpecies
are confounded by botaaifts under the above denomination,
to be alcertained by examination of them in a recent ilatv^
only. It is remarkable that the plant of the Htrlus jilula-
laricus is faid to grow in a dry fandy foilf See HoT-
TO.NIA.

LIMO. See Citrus.

LIMOCINCTI, among the Romans, a kind of priefls,
who officiated at public lacrifices, and were drefled with a
garment called limus.

LIMOD.ORUM, in Botanf, XsiusJi^oj, a fort cf parali-
tical plant, or rather, as it fhoold feem, fome kind of tare, it
being faid to choke or fulTocate the fanum gitium. By
this latter name we are not perhaps to underltand literally
the fenugreek or Trigomtla, but may extend it to any other
plant cultivated for hay in Greece, as more th<)i) one of the
leguminous tribe are, or have been. Dodonius applied this
ancient name to the Oroiancbe, or Broom Rape ; Clufius to
the Orchis aiortiva of Linnaeus ; which at leail is what he
defcnbcd and intended, in his Stirp. Panncn. 241, though in
his Hijhria acut uiOphrys Nidus- Avu is, by millake, annexed
to that defcription. Linmus, having referred the plant cf
Clufius to the genus Orchis, adopted the name in quellion
for a new genus of the lame natural oraer ; but Swartz, m
his excellent trcatile on this order, havi:,£ referred the Lin-

4 G««»

•L I M

L I M

nsrui lAmoJorum to liis CymblJ'wm, very properly reftorss
the name to the original plant of Clufiua, whicli proves
dilliiict in (lenus from Orchis, as Tiiirnefort had done before
him. Cliif. Hid. V. I. 270. Toiirn. t. 2yo. Swartz.
Orchid, in Schrad. N. .Tourn. v. i. 84. t. I. f. 4. Ind.
Occ. 15:19. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 122 — Clafs and order,
Cynandria Monandna. Nat. Ord. Orchuleic, Linn. Jufl".
Brown. Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. 1. 309.

Gen. Ch. reformed. C<il. Perianth of three, generally
fprcading, equal leaves, rarely reverfed. Cor. Petals two,
generally fmaller than the calyx-Kaves. Neftary a fprcad-
ing lip, undivided or lobcd, concave at the bafe, projecting
hcliind in a fpiir, various in figure and lenffth. Stam. An-
ther an hemifpherical, fomctimes pointed, terminal, deciduous
lid, of two or four.celii; maflej of pollen ilalked, in pairs.
J'ijl. Germen inferior, oblong, or obovate. nearly upright,
furrowed ; ftyle femi-cvlindncal, often gibboiif, concave in
front ; lligma concave or convex, in the front of the ftvle
near the top. 'Per'ic. Capfule oblong, with three or fix ribs,
with one cell and three valves, opening by clefts between the
ribs. Seeds numerous, minute, each clothed with n chaflTy
tunic, inferted into the downy internal ridges of the valves.

E(f. Ch. reformed. Calyx-leaves fotnewhat fpreading.
Lip fpreading, elongated at the bafe behind into a fpur.
Anther a terminal lid, deciduous.

Dr. Swartz enumerates twenty-one fpecies, befides a
doubtful one, which is RodnguiT.ia of the Prodr. Fl. I'cruv.
etChil. t. TJ. Profeflbr Willdenow has twcnty-fcven fpecies,
•for though he omits the fix laft of Swart/.'s, having, perhaps,
not feen Schrader's New .Journal, in which, and in its re-
impreffion the Genera et Species Orchidcanm, ordy, they are
dclcribcd ; he has added twelve others, which Swartz had
only i" part indicated as doubtful. All thefe are adopted
by Willdenow from books ; the fix wliofe defcriptions he
had not feen, were all gathered by Dr. Af'zclius at Sierra
Leone.

This genus differs from Cymb'ulium in having a fpur to
the nectary, in whofe cavity the honey is lodged. We have
however already mentioned, (fee CvMiimiuM,) that this
chara(fter, though apparently decifive, is overfet by fome
iiondefcript Orchtdeu:, found by Dr. Buchanan in the liaft
Indies. Thefe, by every mark, except the abfence or pre-
-fencc of a fpur in which they totally differ among thcmfelves,
-mull form one genus, differing in habit from every thing
already known ; and we have little doubt that a critical
examination of them recent, would be the meai^s of detetl-
ing fonic oveiT-ruling charafter, which would ftamp this
genus, independent of all that concerns the fpur. In that
cafe, the latter might Hill remain a fufficient difUndlion
•between lAmodnrum and Cymildium.

Some remarkable fpecies of Umodorum are

L. TdiihervUlits. Banks in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. i. v. ^.
302. t. 12. Andr. Repof. t. 426. Willd. n. i. (Phauis
grandifolius ; Loureir. Cochinch. 529.) — Leaves radical,
elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, ribbed, plaited. Stalk fimple,

many-flowered. Lip convoluted, with a very (liort fpur

Native of China. It is treated in Europe as a (love plant,
flowering in th." fpring. We firll faw it at Lady Tanker-
ville's in 17S6, and it bloffomed that year at Haerlem.
The great li^e of the whole plant, which much exceeds
that of any other of rliis natural order, whether wild or
cultivated in Britain, and the fplendidly contralled colours
of the jlowers, render it mwon admired. The infide of
the calyx and petals is cinnamon-coloured, the outfidc of
the mod brilliant polilhcd white ; the netiary crimfon,
often compared, though certainly inferior in beauty, to the
foxglove.

L. alorhvinn. Willd. n. 26. (L. auHriacnm ; Tourn.
Inft. 437. Orchis abortiva ; Linn Sp. PI. 1 336. Jacq.
Audr. t. 193. Epipaftis, n. 1288. t. 36. Hall. Hdvet.
V. 2. 148.) — Leaves none. Stalk with feveral tubular
fhcaths. Flowers but little fpreading. Lip wavy. Spur
awl-fhaped, the length of the germen. — Native of fhady
woods in Germany, Italy, the fouth of France, and fome
parts of Switzerland, but rare even in that country of
Orehidca. That it has no right to a place in the Flora of
Britain, though admitted by Ray and Hudfon, is now
generally allowed. The millake arofe from its being con-
founded in old books with Orohnvche citrulca, Engl. Bot.
t. 423, as is minutely explained at length in Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 4. 164 — 169, and it appears that Lobel's Orcbanche
major, e Gramunl'w luco Alonfjxllienfiiim, Lob. Ic. v. 2. 269.
f. I, which is Orobanche monfpeliuca jlor'ibus oblongis, Ger.
em. 1 3 12, is cert^iinly this Limodorum. The root conhils
of two biennial cinders of thick, cylindrical, divaricated
fibres. Tlipjfali is fimpie and folitarv, eighteen to twenty,
four inches high, clothed with a few clofe pi!rplidi Ihealhs,
and terminating in a clofe Ipike of rather large jioivcrs,
variegated with paler and deeper purple.

L. Epipog'wm. Willd. n. 27. (Epipogium ; Gmel. Sib,
V. I. II. t. 2. f. 2. Satyrinm Epipogium ; IJnn. Sp. PI.
1338. Jacq. Audr. t. 84. Epipadtis, r, 12S9. Hall.
Helvet. V. 2. 149.) — Leaves none. Stalk Iheathed. Floweis
few, pendulous, reverfed. Lip three-lobcd, concave. Spur

ovate, afcending This fingular and rare plant grows in

foine (hady barren forells in Siberia, Germany, and .Swit-
zerland. Its pale hue and tlefhy habit, fo like EfipaRis
Nidus- A'c'is, indicate its being a parafitical attendant on the
roots of trees. See EpiPAni.s, n 9; and Epipooum.

Dr. Swartz refers alio to this fame genus the Cvprip'-dh.-m
hulhofum, Linn .Sp. PI. 1347. Sm. Spicil. t. n, a moft
curious plant, found in Lapland and Nova Scotia, of which
very little is known ; but the propriety of this mealure is
in our opinion very doubt rul.

LlMODOUi'M, in Gardejihi'^, contains plants of the bulbo-
tuberous rooted herbaceous perennial kind, of which the
fpecies commonly cultivated are the tuberous-rooted limo-
dorum ( L. tuberofnm) ; the tall limodorum (L. altum) ;
and the Cliinefe limodorum (L. Tankerviilix.)

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are increafed by plant-
ing the offsets from the roots in pots of bog-earth, and
plunging them, in the firil fort, in a mild tan-pit, and in the
others, in the tan hot-bed of the Hove. The proper time of
taking them off is \^•hen the plants are the molt deftitute of
leaves.

But the two lad forts fliould have a loamy mould, and
but little water in the winter feafon. And the fird requires
the proteAion of a good green-houfe in winter, but the
two lad fliould be kept in the bark-bed of the Hove.

All thefe plants afford variety in green-houfe and dove
collections.

LIMOGES, in Geography, a city of France, and capital
of the department of the Upper Vienne ; and before the
revolution, the fee of a bifhop. It is a place of coiiliderable
trade, and contains about 20,550 inhabitants, and 25,466 m
the t)vo cantons, on a territory of 292* kiliometres, in 11
communes. N. ht. 45 50'. E. long, i" 20'.

LIMON, in Botany, Tourn. 397, the Lemon. See Cr-
TRU.s inedica ,?

LiMoN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the W. fidis of the'
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60 44'. E. long. 17= 9'.

I^IMONA de la I'rou, a town near the N. coait of the
ifland of Hifpaniola ; 10 miles S.E. of Cape Franjois.

LIMONE, a town of France, in the department of the

Maritime

L I M

L I r,r

MaritJme Alps ; S. of Cani — Alfo, a town of t!ie ifland onelargeft. Branda z\gzzg snd t\endcr.~V:hcnt}i\s (OvV-

of Ncgropoiit ; 20 miles S. of Nogropont. flowered feme years lince at Vienna, it anfwered fo ill to

LIMONES, Grande, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; the charaaer of Limon'ia, in number of parts, that the cc-

50 miles S. of Hav.inna. lebratcd Jacquin was near making a new genus of it, which

LIMONEST, a town of France, in the department of he deltined to honour an Englifli bolanifl. There can be no

the Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the dillriCt of doubt however that it belongs to Limonia. " Le petit

Lyons. The place contains 750, and the canton ii,o8y citron doux" of Sonncrat, Voy. to New Guinea, jc. t. 6?

inhabitants, on a territory of 77^ kiliometres, in 12 com- is made a variety of this by WiUdenow, who, judging by

"™"^/- _-,-.^ f T- • , J r ^''^ ^g"'"'^' ""^ ^^^ dcfcription, improperly favs it has no-

• LIMONHE, a town of France, m the department of fpmes. The feffile Laves, and folitary /owo-j, give it a dif-

the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diflrid of ferent appearance.

Cahors ; i^ miles E. of Cahors. The place contains 1 1 75, Qf tiie unarmed fpecies are

and the canton 0270 inhabitants, on a territory 01 2fC kilio- t , „ ^- , ■ .■ . . „

- '^ ' -'^ l^. prniapbyUa Five-lcavcd Limonia. Retz. Obt fafc. j.

24. Roxb. Corom. v. i. 60. t. 84. — Spines none. Leaves
pinnate ; leaflets elliptical, erlirc, two pair with an odd
one. — Native of the Eaft Indies. The foiuers are fmall
and white, exquifitely fragrant, in axillary branched cluf-
ters. Fruit red, the fize of a currant. Stamens ten, dif-
tinft, fpindle-fhaped.

L. arhoren. Tree Limonia. Roxb. Corom. v. i. 60.
t- Sj. — Spines none. Leaves pinnate; leaflets ferrated,-
oblong, two pair with an odd one.- From the fame coun-
try. The _/owfrj are very numcrcu,';, in branched chillers, .
fragrant. Fruit fmall, brown. Sttimens thread-fliaped.

Li.MONlA, in Geography, an idand in the Mediterranean,
about three miles long, and one broad ; fix miles W. of
Rhodes. N. lat. 36 27'. E. long. 27^ 22'. On its eaft-
ern cuaft is a fmall haven, defended by a Ihoal, on the maro-in
of which (lands the only village in the ifland. At fomc
dillance from Limonia is Narki, or Karki, anciently Chal-
cia, or Chalcis, which feems by feveral ihoals that rife above •
the waters to have formerly joined with Limonia.

LIMONIUM, in Botany, derived, as it appears, from
ixiiy, a 7neailozv, (becaufe the plant occupies, to a great

metres, in i ^ communes.

LIMONIA, in Botany, in its prefent application, evi-
dently alludes to Liinon, the lemon ; the genus which is
lo denominated being next akin to Citrus, in charadters,
habit, and fenlible qualities. The word therefore can have
no reference to the ?.=i;ii'nz of the Greeks, Limonia of the
Romans, which is a fpecies of ylnemone, and derives its
name from X;iui,.», a meadoiu. — Linn Gen. 215. Schreb.
285. WiUd. So. PI. V. 2.571. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3.
Alt. Hon. Kew. ed 2. v. 3. 43. JufT. 261. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 353. Gsrtn. t. 58.— Clafs and order, Decandria
Monogynia. Naf. Ord. Aurantia, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth iufeiior, of one leaf, very fmall,
in from three to five, more or lefs deep, fegments, permanent.
Cor. Petals from three to five, oblong, obtufe, ereft, fprcad-
ing at the fiimmit. Stam. Filanients from fix to ten, awl-
fliaoed, erect, (horter than the cu'-olla ; anthers linear, ercft.
Fiji. Germen oblong, fuperior ; (tyle cylindrical, the length
of the ilamens ; Itigma capitate, flat. Peric. Berry ovate,
or nearly globofe, of three cells, with membranous parti-
tions. Seeds folitary, ovate.

Efl". Ch. Calyx in from three to five deep fegments, in
ferior. Petals three to five. Berry of three cells,
folitary.

Seeds ^''tent, low trafts of land on the fea-fliore,) is the old
name for feveral fpecies of Sea Lavender. (See Statice.)

Three fpecies of this genus, all tropical fpinous fhrubs, The fame name has been alfo applied to the Red Valerian,

and mich refe^nbling orange trees in miniature, were known ^° '''^. B"ck-bean, and even to the Pyrola rotundij'olia. The

to-Linn=eus. Five without fpines, adopted from Forfter, la"er indeed does grow on low fnndy commons in Holland,

Lamarck and Retzius. are added by Willdenow. Two and near Yarmouth, but hkewife in the molt elevated heathy

mor» from the Ead Indies, defcribed by Dr. Roxburgh, alp'ne places ; nor, as far as we know, in fcarcely any in

one with and one without fpines, "are mentioned in Mr.
Alton's new edition.

Examples of the fpinous fpecies are

L. fmnophylliu Simple-leaved Thorny Limonia. Linn.
Mant. 237. Roxb. Corom. v. i. jg. t. 83. (Limones

termediate ftation ; for what is fo named in books is often
P. minor. The coincidence of alpine and maritime plants, '
found in no other fituations, is a curious problem for the-
vegetable phyfiologift.

Li.MONiu.M-Gfl//, in Natural Hijhry, the name of a fpe-
pumili zeylanici fylvellre.< ; Bnrm. Zeyl. 143. t. 6,. f. i.) cies of gall or vegetable protuberance, ferving for the lodg- ■
— Leaves fimple. Spines folitary. — Native of the Ealt In- ing of an infefk, affording a very beautiful appearance
dies, in the extenfive foreds of the coall of Coromandel, on the plant, and very common in the eallern parts of the
where it is called by the natives the Wild Lime. This is a world.

ftirub QV fmall in:, with alternate, ftalked, ovate, entire, This of the limonium is fingular, in that it is produced
sfetufe, evergreen, fliining leaves, full of pelluad dots, as from a butterfly egg, and is inhabited by a true caterpillar.
are:hof? of ail tht- rell, and each accompanied by a (harp The butterfly depolits her eggs on feveral parts of the leaves
axillary thorn. Tlie_/ZoTOf/-.r are white, in axillaiy ciullers. and ftalks of this plant, and the young caterpillar, as loon;
Petals four. Sta.nens ten, united into a firm hemifpherica! as hatched, eats its way through the iurface ; and contiiiu— ||t
cup. Berry the lize of a very fmall goofeberry, brownifii, ing to eat when within, Ihs depredations occafion an abun-
of tour cells, thickly coated. — Nocwithttanding the mona- dant derivation of juices to the part, by means of which a
delphous ftaaaens and fimple leaves, this fpecies has too en- gall, or protuberance, is formed, which is iullained by a

pedicle, and in all rel'petts relembles a fruit. This i.s of a--
roundilh figure, and by degrees grows to the fize of a nut'
meg. It is compufed of leveral coats, or cruils f the ex-
terior ones are foft and fpungy, but the interior are harder,
and more woody than the galls of the oak. As the gere»
rality of other caterpillars feed on the fubllancfi of tlie leaves ••

tirely the habit of the retl to be leparated from them.

L. trifoliata. Three-leaved Limonia. Linn. Mant. 237,

Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 463. Andr. Repof. t. 143 Leaves

ternate. Spines in pairs. — Native of the Ead Indies. It
makes a pretty appearance in the (love, when decorated
eitiicr with its white blolToms, which are three-cleft and

hexandrous, or its fcarlet berries, which are fweet and of trees and plants, this ea'.s only the inllde of its lodgment ;
pleafantly acid. The kajett. are ewarginate, the central and nature fo readily lupplies thii defett by new matter, that

L I M

I. I N

tht cavUff in which it is lodged, is never found to be very
gioat.

This fceins the only known inflance of a gall formed by
a genuine caterpillar, the inhabitants of the willow galls,
though iifiially eftecmid fmooth caterpillars, being not fo,
but the worms of a four-winged fly. Reaumur'* Hill, of
Infeds, vol. vi. p. 2:7.

LIMOSA, in Oinhhohgy, the fcolopax glottis of Lin-
niws, the name of a long-legged water-bird, common in
Italy, and callei-1 by fome glottis, and pluvm/it major. See
alfo >Si;oi oi'Ax limofa, fufca and Fedoa, Tetanus, &c. &c_
and Recl'rviuostk \ Amtricana.

LiMOSA, iH Icliihyoli};y, a name given by Salvian to the
common' mackarel, and in his figures to the thynniis, or
tiiiiny-fiili, called the Sj>ani/h mciclarel. See Thynnvs

SrOMBKIl.

LIMOSANO, in Groj;raphy, a town of Naples, in the
county of Molife ; 17 miles N.E. of Molife.

LIMOSELLA, in Botany, derived from Umus, mud,
from the circumllancc of its growing and thriving in muddy
pools and ditches. For the fame caufe it lias obtained the
Englifli appellation Mudwort. — Linn. Gen. 320. Schrcb.
419. Willd. Sp. PL V. 3. 541. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 668. Ait. Hort. Kew. 2. 359. Brown
Prod. Nov. Holl. 443. Juff. 96. Lamarck lUullr. t. 53,.
.G^rtn. t. JO. — Clafs and order, D'tdyuamla ^ngiofpcrmia.
Nat. Ord. Precis, Linn. LyfimachU, JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, five-cIeft, ercft,
acute, permanent. Cor. of one petal, bell-fliaped, ereft,
equal, five-cleft, acute; divifions fpreading. Stum. Fila-
ments four, erect, two of them adhering to the iame fide,
•(horter than the corolla ; anthers fimple. Fiji. Germen
•fuperior, oblong, obtufe ; flyle fimple, as long as the lla-
Tneus, reclining ; ftigma globofe. Feric. Capfiile ovate,
half covered -by the calyx, of one cell and two valves. Seeds
iljumerous, o^ai. Rccept. ovate, very large.

Elf. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-cleft, equal.
■Stamens approaching each other in pairs. Caplule with
ene cell, two valves, and many feeds.

I. L. nquatica. Common Mudwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 881.
Engl. But. t. 357. Fl. Dan. t. 69. (Spergula perpufilla
ianceatis foliolis ; Loes. Pruf 261. t. 81.)— Leaves lanceo-
late.— Found in muddy pools where water has been Hand-
ing. Dr. Abbot fcnt it to Mr. Sowerby from Bedfordfliire,
and Dr. Smith has gathered it on the Denes at Loweib)ft
in Suffolk. It flowers in. July and Auguft. — /foo/ annual,
creeping. Stems prollrate, cylindrical. Leaves radical, on
■Jong footftiilks, fmooth, entire, not involute. Floiuers
finall, fleih-coloured. Calyx fomcwhat irregular, acute,
^fmooth. Capfule with a groove along its upper fide.

1. L. diandra. Diandrous Mudwort. Linn. Mant. 2J2.
"Kccnig — Leaves fomewhat linear. — A native of the Ealf
Indies and the Cape of Good Hope. — The habit of this
fpecies i« exactly fimilar to that of the lalf , but the plant
is only about a fourth as large in all its parts, fo that it
in may be confidered as one of the fmalleft of all plants. Stems
creeping, fliort. Leaves radical, linear, fcarcely widening
in the middle, obtufe. Linnjcus complains that on account
of the minutenefs of the Jlowers he could not defcribe them
■from a dried fpecimen, but that the acute difcoverer of this
•fpecies, Kocnig, found them to be diandrous.

3. L. anjlralis. New Holland Mudwort. Brown. Prod.
Nov. Holl. 44J. — Leaves fpatulate linear. — We know no-
■thing of this fpecies, but we infert it, on the authority of
Mr. Brown, as a native of New Holland, whojuilly obfervcs
that all the fpecies (land in need of further invelligation.
LIMOUIiS, in Ce-o^raphy, a town of France, in the

department of tlie Seine and Oife, and chief plare of a can-
ton, \u the diftritt of Verfailies ; nine niiies S. of Verlailles.
The place contains 858, and the canton 7304 inhabitants,
on a territory of 147! kiliometres, in 14 communes

LIMOUX, a town of France, and principal place of a
dillrid, in the department of tiie Aude. N. lat 43 ' 3'.
E. long. 2° 18'. The place contains 5142, and the canton
J 2, j;6 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres, in
13 communes.

LIMPET, in Conchyliolegy. See Patella and Cos-
ciioirwiv.

LIMUS, among the Romans, a garment reaching to the
ground, and worn by the priells, who on that account were
called Umocindi.

LINACAGAN, in Geography, one of the iHands in the
Eall Indian fca, called Calamianes. N. lat. 1 1 40'. E.
long. 120' 10'.

LINACRE, Thomas, in Biography, an eminent phy-
fician, and one of the moft elegant fcliolars of iii.i age, was
born at Canterbury about the year 1460. Having com.
pleted his fcliool-education, under a very emii.ent mailer, in
his native city, he entered at Oxford, and was chofen fel-
low of All-Souls' college in 14S4. His defire of farther
advancement in learning induced him to accompany his
former Ichoolmader, De Selling, into Italy, whither the
latter was feiit on an embaffy to the court of Rome by
Henry VII. De Selling left him at Bologna, with llrong
recommendations to Angelo Poliziano, who was at that
time accounted one of the moft elegant Latiniftsin Europe;
but whom our young ftudent, by his alTiduous application,
at length excelled in the purity of his ilyle in that language.
At Florence, Linacre had the good fortune to acquire the
favour of that munificent patron of literature, Lorcn-/,o de
Medicis, who granted him the privilege of attending the
fame preceptors with his own fons. He knew hsw to profit
by fuch an opportunity ; and under Demetrius Chalcon-
dylas, who had fled from Conllantinople when it was taken
by the Turks, he acquired a perfcA knowledge of the
Greek language. Thus accompliflied in claffical learning,
he went to Rome, and ftudled medicine and natural philolo-
phy under Hermolaus Barbarus. He applied particularly
to the works of Ariftotle and Galen, and is faid to have been
the firft Englifliman who was well acquainted with thofe writers
in the original Greek. On his return to England, he took
the degree of dottor of phyfic at Oxford, and gave lec-
tures on phyfic and taughtg the Greek language in that
univerfity. His reputation loon became fo high, that king
Henry VII. called him to court, and entrulled him with
the care both of the health and education of his fon, prince
Arthur. He is faid alfo to have inftrufted princefs Callieriiie
in the Italian language. He was made fucceflively pby-
lician to the kings Henry VII., Henry VIII., and Edward
VI., and to the princefs Mary.

In the reign of Henry VIII., indeed, he appears to have
flood above all ri\liiniip at the head of his profeffion ; and
he evinced his attachment to its interells, as well as to the
public good, by various acls ; but efpecially bv founding
two lectures on phyfic in the univerfity of Oxford, and one
in that of Cambridge, and by obtaining the inftitution of
the Royal Colleg'^ of I'hyficians in London. He faw with
concern, that the praftice of medicine was chiefly engrofl"ed
by illiterate monks and empirics, licences being eafily ob-
tained by improper perfons, when the bifhops were autho-
rifed to examine and licenle praftitioncrs in an art of which
they could not be competent judges. Through the intereit
of cardinal Wolfey, thcretore, Linacre obtained letters pa-
tent iit ijiy from Henry VIII., conllituting a corporiite

body

L I N

L I N

body of regularly bred phyf!c!ans in London, in whom wai
veiled the iole right of examining and admitting perfons to
praiflife within the city, and ffven miles round it ; and alio
of licenling pracftitioners throughout the whole kingdom,
except fuch as were graduates of Oxford or Cambridge,
who by virtue of their degrees were independent of the col-
lege, except within London and its precincts. The college
had likewifc authority given to it to examine prefcriptions
and drugs in apothecaries' Ihops. Linacre was the hrlt pre-
fident of the new college, and continued in the office during
the remaining feven years of his life; and, at his death, he
bequeathed to the colkge his houfe in Knlght-rider-ftreet,
in which its meetings were held. There is no doubt that
this inlhtution greatly contributed to the credit and diginty
of the medical profeflion in the metropolis, and many julUy
celebrated names are enrolled among its members. In pro-

gmce »nd chaftenefs of flyle, but intimates that he occa-
iionally facriiices fidelity to tlicfe qualities.

It was, indeed, on his reputation as a philologifl, that he
feems chiefly to have valued himfelf. liia lirft cffay was a
translation of '• Proclus on the Sphere,'' dedicated to his
pupil, prince Arthur ; and he alio wrote a fmall book ot
the rudiments of the Latin Grammar, in Englifh, for the
life of the princefs Mary, which was afterwards tranflated
into Latin by the celebrated Buchanan. But the work
which appears to have engaged a very large portion of hi»
time, and was univerfally acknowledged to be a work of
tlie moil profound erudition, was a larger grammatical
treatife, entitled " De emeiidata llrudura Latini Sermonis,
libri lex." This work, which was not printed till after
his death, in December 1524, when it appeared with a re-
commendatory letter from the learned Melanttho!i, was re-

cefs of time, however, its foundation became narrowed, and ceived with much applaufe by men of eiui'.itioii, and paCed

it fell into the ufual monopolizing ipirit of a corporation,
whilft its powers to controul the audacity of einjiirical im-
poftors (the principal objcA of its eftablilliment) have funk
into total difufe.

Towards the latter part of his life, in the year 151Q,
Linacre entered into holy orders ; a ilep to which, it would
leem, he was principally induced, from a deiire to obtain
a ftudious and ealV retirement, at a time when he became
exceedingly afRifted with that painful difeaie, the tlonc,
■which greatly incapacitated him for bufineis, and at length
put an end to his life. Sir John Cheke relates that, not
long before his death, when worn out by iicknefs and fatigue,
he firlt began to read the New Teltament ; and that when
he had perufed the fifth, fixth, and feventh chapters of St.
Matthew, he threw the book from him with violence, ex-
claiming, " either this is not the gofpel, or we arc not
Chrillians!" a declaration, if rightly underilood, equally
honourable to the morals he found there inculcated, and fa-
tirical to thofe of the age. He died in great agonies from
the ilone, on the 20th of Oftober, 1524, at the age of fixty-
four, and was buried in St. Paul's cathedral, where a mo-
nument was afterwards erected to his memory by his ad-
mirer and fucceiTor in fame. Dr. Caius.

In his literary character, Linacre ilands eminently diilin-
guilTied ; inaf[nuch as he was one of the firft, in conjunction

through Icveral editions : it was too complex h^nvever, and
too profound in metaphyfical diviiioaf, and in the philofo-
phy of language, for popular ufe. His friend Eraimus,
indeed, in his " Morix Encomium," b;liov.ed fonie good-
natured raillery upon the author, for having tortured him-
felf for twenty years by the fubtleties of grammar, and,
after forfaking other more important objects, thought him-
felf happy in living long enough to ellabliih certain rules
for diftinguilbing the eight parts of i'peech.

In his profeilional character, Linacre acquired univerfal
reputation, among his countrymen and contemporaries, for
fl<ill and practical ability, as well as for his learning j and
he was equally the fubjeCt of applaufe and ellimation as an
upright and humane phyfician, a fteady and affectionate
friend, and a munificent patron of letters. It were fuf-
ficient of itfelf to juilify this eulogiiim, to mention that he
was the intimate friend of Erafmus. That great and worthv
man frequently takes occaiion to exprefs his affedion and
efteem for his character and abilities; and writing to aa
acquaintance, wlien feizcd with an illnefs at Paris, he pa-
thetically laments his abfence from Linacre, from whofe
fliill and kindnefs he might receive equal relief. The fol-
lowing epitaph, written by Cams, will be acceptable to the
learned reader from the elegance of its compofition.

" Thomas Lynacrufi, Regis Henrici VIII. medicus; viret

with Collet, Lilly, Grocin, and Latimer, who revived, or y Grice et Latine, atque in re medica longe eruditifllmus.

rather introduced, the learning of the ancients in this ifland

IVanflations from the Greek authors into Latin were the

•chief occupations of the Kterati of thofe times ; and Linacre

conferred a beneiit on his profeflion, by trandating fevcral

of the moil valuable pieces of Galen. Thele were the

treatiles, " De Sanitate tuenda," in fix books, which was

printed at Cambridge in Ijl", and dedicated to king Henry

VIII.; "De Morbis curandis," in fourteen books, printed

at Paris in I J26 ; three books, " De Temperamentis," and

one " De insquali Temperie,'' firft printed at Cambridge juxta charus : aliquot annos anteqviam obierat Preibvtej-

in 1521, and infcribcd to pope Leo X.; " De naturali-

biis Eacultatibus,'" three books, together with one book

Multos sEtate fua hnguentes, et qui jam anim.a.m defponde-
rant, vits reflituit. Multa GiiL-n: opera in Latinam iin-
guam, mira et fingulari tacundia, vertit. Egregium opu»
de emendata ftrudura Latir.i iVrmonis, amicorum ro-Tatu,
paulo aute mortem edidit. Medicinj; ftudioiis Oxor.U
publicas leCliones duas, Cantahrigiif unam, in perpetuunt
ilabilivit. In hac urhe Collegium Medicorum fieri fua 111-
dutlria curavit, cujus et Pr.i'lidens proximus electus eit.
Fraudes dolofque mire perol'us ; fidus amicis ; omr.ibut

■*• De pulfuum Ufu," the firll time of printing, which is

unknown, but they were reprinted by ColiVixus in 1528, as

•*ell as his poilhumous tranflation of the four books " De

Morborum Syniptoniatibus." In thefe verfions Linacre

exhibited a Latin llyle fo pure and elegant, as ranked him

among the fiiietl writers of his age ; it was laboured, indeed,

\v\\.\i that folicitude of correctnei'i, which befpoke a Latinill

fornii-d in tlie Italian fchool of that time. His friend Eraf-

inns defcrjbes him as " Vir non exaCti tantura, fed feveri

judicii ;" and Huet, in his learned treatii'e " De claris In-

ierpretatoribus," gives him the praife of extraordinary elc-

Vui,. XXI.

faftus ; plenus annis, ex hac vita migravit, multum deiide-
ratus, anno 1524, die 21 Octobris. Vivit pyil funers
virtus. Thorns Linacro clariffirao Medico, Joliannes Caiui
pofuit, anno IJ57. See Aikin's Biog. Memoirs of Med.
Freind's Hill, of Phyfic. Gen. Biog.

LINAGROSTIS, in Botany, from \l^o■^, iir^aj, and
ayfT'''. grafi, the old name of the Cottun-gral's. See Emo-

PUOBUM.

LINAilES, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the king-
dom of Jaen, fix leagues from tlie Sierra Iktoreiia ; only re-
markable for a fountain with many jets, and the remains of
a Roman aqueduct, by which water was conveyed to the
actieat Calldo, now Cazlona. in the neigbourhood are
!• »ery

L 1 N

tery rich lead mines, and one of a fcmi-mctal, with which tRe
emerald tint is given to porcelain. Two leagues from this
town there is a filver mine, lamous in the time of the
Carthaginians, which belonged to the beautiful Himilci,
■wife of Aidriibal. The Romans alfo worked this mine.
It has a (haft 2000 feet deep, into, which numcro'is gal-
leries open. It was long negleclcd ; but re-opened in the
T7th century, when a vein of filver was found five feet
broad : however, it has fince been difregarded. It be-
longs to the town of Baeza.

LINARIA, in Botany,- fo called from having the habit
and foliage of L'murn, or Max, is tlie Toad-flax. (See An-
TIRRIUNUM.) The French b-.!lanills are partial to the name,
though certauilv none of the hell ; and as they divide the
genus, retain J.klirrh'mum for fiicli t'pecics only as iiave no
fpur.

LiNAUiA, in Ornhl.'.hj^y. See iMiiNOii.LA and Linnet.

LIN A R YD, in Gtography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Smahnd ; 1 1 miles S.S.E. of Wexio.

LINATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Olona, on the Lambro ; 5 miles S.E. of Milan.

LINBO, a fmall illand in the Adriatic. N. lat. 44 37'.
E.lone. 54 57'.

LINCH-Clout, in yirliHery, ihe flat iron under the ends
of the arms of an axle-tree, to llrengthen them, and dimi-
nilli the friftion of the wheels. See Cloi'I'.s.

LlNCil-P/n, in Rural Economy, the fmall pin, in carts or
ether carriages, that is put upon the end of tlie axle-trees,
to confine the wheels on them in a Heady manner. See

LlS:iPIN<i.

LINCfiANCHIA, in Geography, a town of Mexico,
in the province of Yucatan ; 25 miles N. of Mcrida.

LINCKIA, \n Botany, fo called by Michcli, in honour
ef John Henry Liiick, an apothecary at Lciplic, fellow of
the Royal Society of Londuii, who died in 1734, at the age
cf 60. He wrote an account of the coffee-tree, from one
which flowered in a garden near hi' refidencc, in 1724, and
his treatife may be feen in the Ephennrides of the Acad.
Naturi Curioforum, v. 1. 204. He is alfo the author of a
fplendid work in folio, on the fpecies of Star-filh, j^Jlenas.
The plant to which Miclieli has given his name, fee Mich.
Gen. 126. t. 67, is Tremel/a Nojloc of Linnjeus, See TuE-

MEI.LA.

LINCOLN, an ancient city in the county of that name,
England, and a place of confiderablc importance in the cc-
cleliailical and military annals of the kingdom, is Angularly
fituatcd on the top and fide of an eminence, which (lopes
■with a deep defcent to the fouth, wh;-re the river VVitham
runs at its bafe. A large portion of the city, or rather
fuburbs, extend-., in a long llreet, from the foot of the hill
10 the fouth. On the northern fide of it, without the walls,
is another fuburb, called Newport, fnppofed to have been
an outwork of the Roman (lation. Camden, and fonie
ether antiquaries, ftate, that this place was occupied as a
ftation, or itrong hold, by the Briton."!, anterior to the Ro-
man colonization of the ifland ; and that then it bore the
name of " Lindcoit, from the woods (for which fome co-
pies have, corruptly, Lintcoit)." By Ptolemy and Anto-
jiinus the name of the place is written Lind'.tm ; and, from
having the privilege of a colony, it was called Linduin colo-
jiia. As a military Itation, occupied by a ailony of Romans,
it mud have been a place of fome extent and confequence.
This is evident from the veftiges that remain, and from the
■various difcoverie= that have been made at different periods.
The form of the fortified Ration was that of a parallelogram,
divided into four equal parts by two- ftreets, which croffed it

LIN

atfight angles. At the extremities of thefe were four forti-
fied gates, nearly facing the four cardinal points. The
whole was encompaffed by an embattled wall, which, 011
three fides, was flanked by a deep ditch, but on the fouth
fide the lleepnefs of the hill rendered a fofs nnneceffary.
The area, thus inclofed, was about 1300 feet in length by
1200 in breadlh, and is ellimated to have contained thirty-
eight acres. The walls have been levelled with the ground ;
and three of the gales have been long fince demohlhed. The
remaining eate, to the north, which is called Newport gate,
is deleribed by Dr. Stukeley as " the noblcff remnant of this
fort in Britain, as far as I know ;'' and he expreffes much
furprile, that it had not "been taken notice of" before his
time. The great or central ^lateway has a femi-circular arch,
fixteefi feet in diameter, formed with twenty-fix large Hones,
apparently without mortar. Tlieheight is twenty-two feet ar.d
a lialf, of which eleven are buried beneath the ground. On
each fide of the arch are feven courfes of horizontal (lones>
called fpringers, lome of wiiieli are from fix to feven feet in
length. On each fide of the arch are tv. o fmall lateral door-
ways or pofterns. A mafs of the old Roman wall is ffill
to be feen eaftward of this gate ; and to the weft is another
large mafs, called the mint-wall, which was about fixteen
feet high and forty feet long, and had fcaftold-holes and
marks of arches. Mr. Gough fnppofed this to be part of
a Roman granary. Southward of the Itation above deftribed^
were other Roman works, which extended from the brow
to the bottom of tlie hill. It appears that a fortified wall,
with towers at the corners, continued from the top to the
bottom of the hill, where it turned at right angles by the
fide of the river. Thefe fortitications undcnvent feveral al-
terations and additions, during ih^ various wars to which t!ie
place was fubjefted. Hence it i- very difficult, if not wholly
impoffible, to define what is really of Roman origin, or of
Saxon or Norman workmanflii]). It is equally perplexing
to ifcertain the time of efhibliffiing the firlt colony here
forming the ftation, building the walls, or extending the
city. Various coins and other remains of antiquity have
been difcovered here. In 1739, three (lone coffins were
found at the loutk weft corner of the clofe, near theChec--
quer gate. Beneath thefe was a teflellatcd pavement, and
under that a Roman h\ pocauit. A fimilar difcovery was
made in 1782. In the tenth volume of the Archaeologia is a
delcripticn of an ancient place of fepultuie, difcovered in an
open field, half a mile from the eaft gate of the ancient
Lindum. In 1790 was found, abo.it three or four feet belo\ir
the furface, a very curious fepulchral monument, evidently
Roman, and of fome perfon of high rank. Many frag-
ments of antiquity were preferved by the Rev. Dr. Gordon,
the precentor of the cathedral, who gives an account of fe-
veral earthen and glais urns, which were difcovered in the
fame field, fome of which were of fingular (liape. He alfo •
delcribts a room, twenty feet by fixteen, which was difco-
vered in a quarry. The fame field having been broken up
for the purpofes of quarrying, feveral i-.one coffins of va-
rious fliapes have at dKferent times been difcovered in the
loofe ground, which covers a fubftratiim of rock. From
thefe, and from other cfrcumftances, it is highly probable
th.1t this was a Roman burial-ground.

Soon after the Romans quitted the ifla'id, Lincoln, in
common with other places of confequence, (hared in the
general calamities which cnfued by the incurfions of the
Pifts', Saxons, and Danes. At what period the Saxons firft
poffeffed themfelves of this city does not appear in hilloi^' :
but early in the fixth century we find Arthur, king of Bri-
tain, obtaining great advantage* over the combined ferccs of

li tke

LINCOLN.

t!ie two Saxon chiefs, Colgem and CerJic, and compelling
them to relinquilh the fiege of Lincoln. In thofe ftrugjrics
the old town was nearly dellroyed, and, as Leland fiippofes,
'" new Lincoln was made out of a piece of old Lincoln.''
The Saxons, for their better fecurity, fortitied the fouthern
part of the hill with ditches and ramparts, walled the town,
and erecled gates. At the time of the Norman conqueft,
Lincoln appears to have been one of the richeft and moll
populous cities in England : and of great importance as an
emporium of trade and commerce. The Domefday Survey
mentions 1070 manfions, 900 burgeffes, and 12 lagemen,
having fac and foke. On the acceffion ot the Conqueror to
the throne, he ordered four ftrong callles to be built ; of
which one was to be at Lincoln. In confeqoence of this, a
large and flrong calUe was erected on the ridge of the hill,
on which this city was fitiiated. The building was 644 yards
in circumference, and occupied the fpace on which it is af-
ferted that 166 houfcs had flood ; 74 more were at the fame
timedemolifhed without the limits, that the whole might be
iufiilated. In the reign of Henry I. a navigable canal was
made, or enlarged, from the river Witham at Lincoln to the
Trent nearTorkfey ; and was ])robably the firll canal of the
fort ever made in England. This was about feven miles in
length, and is at prefeiit called the Fofs dyke. By this a
communica'ion was formed with the Trent, and down that
by the Humber to the fea. Being thus acceilible for foreign
TciFels, and having alfo the advantage of an inland naviga-
tion, the city became populous and wealthy ; and, accord-
ing to Alexander Necham, a poet of that age, " Lincoln
was now ftored with good things, and became the fiipport of
the neighbouring country." At this period, it appear"; to
have polfeffed a large (hire of the import and export trade
of the kingdom. When, in the year 1140, the emprefs
Maud came to England to affert her title to the crown, (lie
took up her refidence at Lincoln, as a place of fafety, and
conveniently fituated for communication with her friends.
Stephen hearing of it marched quickly thither, clofcly hr,-
fieged the city, and took it : but the emprefs had efcaped.
Tke king, having poflefTed himfclf of the city, appeafed the
tumults of the neighbourhood, and tinding the country
quiet, left a garrifon, and proceeded to his armv, afting in
other parts of the kingdom. During the conteft between
the emprefs and Stephen, Lincoln acquired great notoriety ;
and thence obtained a degreeof confcquence in the ellimation
of future monarchs. After Henry II. had been crowned in
London, he was afterwards, according to Speed, crowned
at Lincoln in the year il)5. We find this city and its
caftle materially concerned in the contentions between king
.Tohn and the affociated barons. The caftle and bail of Lin-
coln appear to have continued in the occupation of the crown
till the time of Edward I., when Henry de Lacy died
feifed of them, and they paffed, with other parts of his in-
heritance, to the earl of Lincoln, and fo became annexed
to the duchy of Lancaller. John of Gaunt, duke of that
palatinate, greatly improved the caftle, and made it his fum-
mer reiidence ; having, according to a local tradition, built
himfelf a winter palace below the hill, in the (otithern
fubmbs. Several parliaments were held at Lincoln in the
reigns of Edward I. II. and III. In the year 1348, the
contrafted fpirit of monopoly fo far prevailed here, againft
the acta of parliament paffed in the years l,?^^ and i ^37, and
the king's refolutions to folier the woollen manufaftures,
that the weavers of Lincoln obtained a grant from Ed-
ward III., of what they confidered and called their A'^^rtoj.
By this charter they were iuvefted with the power of de-
priviHg any weaver not of their guild, of the privilege of
■working at his trade within twelve leagues of the city. This

and other fimilar monopolies were abolidied in ijyi, by an
adt called the Statute nf Ch/ths. In the following year, the
ftaple of wool was removed from Flanders to England ; and
Lincoln was one of the ftaple towns appointed on that occa-
fion. It was alfo made a ftaple for leather, lead, and various
other articles. This proved highly beneficial to the place,
for it thereby recovered from the lolTes it had fuftaindd by
military ravages, and was foon reftored to a flourifhing con-
dition. At the commencement of hoftilities between
Charles I. and his parliament, the king came to Lincoln,
and convened the nobility and freeholders ef the county. ,

The diocefe of Lincoln, after the fee was removed from
Sidnacefter, foon acquired a vaft accumulation of territorial
jurifdiftion and wealth. It included fo many counties, that
it was defcribed as ready to fink under the incumbent weight
of its own greatncfs ; and though Henry II. took out of it
the diocefe of Ely, and Henry VIII. thofe of Petei borough
and Oxford, it is Kill confidered the largeil in England,
As the jurifdiftian was great, fo, prior to the reformation,
the revenues were proportionably abundant. Except the
two archbifhoprics, and thofe termed the principality
bifhoprics, Wincheller, Durham, and Ely, no fee was fo
well endowed, which was the reafon that there is no record,
prior to the time of Elizabeth, of any bifliop of this fee
having been tranfiated to another, except Wincheller ;
though fince that time, Willis obferves, " no lefs than ten
out of feventeen have left this for more valuable ones."
Nor was it lefs remarkable for the number of epifcopal pa-
laces within the diocefe. Previous to the year 1547, it had
eight. In this county, Lincoln, Sleaford, and Nettleham ;
in Rutlandfliire, Ledington ; in Huntingdonfhire, Buckden,
the ufual refidence of the bilhops ; in Buckinghamfhire,
Woburii and Finghuril ; in Oxfordftiiro, Banbury Cattle :
there were alfo two others at Newark in Nottinghamlhire ;
and Lincoln Place, Chancery Lane, London. All thefe,
except that at Lincoln, with about thirty manors, were
given up, in the firll year of Edward VI., by Holbech, the
firft married biihop ; who, in order to gratify the wifhes of
fonie co'jrtiers, and to raife his own family, exchanged al-
moil every fpecies of landed property annexed to the lee for
impropriations ; fo that now only four manors remain of the
anciei.t demefnes. The prefent revenues, therefore, prin-
cipiliy arife from reftorial property or tythes.

The cathedral is not only the ir.oft prominent objeft of
this city, but is the moft interefting as a fubjeft of hifiory,
ar.tiquity, and art. This magnificent ftruClure, trom its
fituation on the fummit of a lull, and from the fiat ftate of
the country to the fouth-eall and fouth-welt, may be feea
at the'diftance of twenty miles. Railed at a vail expence,
by the munificence of feveral prelates, it difcovejrs, in many
parts, fingular ficill and beauty, particularly in its weftern
front, which muft attracl the attention of every traveller.
The fee being tranflated from Dorchefter to Lincoln in
1088, St. Remigius de Fefcamp, the firft bilhop, founded
a cathedral church, which was fo far advanced in the courfe
of four years as to be ready for confccratiou. All the
bifhops of England were fumraoned to attend on that occa-
fion. Remigius died two days before the intended folem-
nity. His fuccelTor, Robert Bloet, finilhed the cathedral,
dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, and greatly enriched it.
In his time, the biftiopric of Ely was taken out, and made
independent of that of Lincoln. The cathedral, having
been doftroyed by fire in 1 1 44, was rebuilt by Alexander
de Blois, then bifhop, ^\h() arched the new fabric with Hone,
to prevent a recurrence of a fimilar accident ; and gr-ratly in-
creafed the fize and au^jmented the ornaments of it, lo as to
render it the moll magnificent facred edilice in his time.
I.. 2 Biftiop

LINCOLN.

BilTiop Hugh Biirgundus enlarjjcd it by the ereftion of
what is now called the New Work. He alfo built the
chapter houl'e. This prelate died in woo. Two kings
(John of England and William of Scotland) alfillcd to
carry his body to the cathedral, whore it was cnfhrincd in
frivcr, acconlinjT to Stnkcdey ; but Sandcrfon fays the Ihrine
was of beaten gold, litlli'ip Gyncwell added to the cathe-
dral the chapel of St. M;iVy Ma^'dalen. Bilhop I-l.-niing
built a chapel on the north lide, in which lie was buriid : on
liis monument is his figure in free-ftone, pontifically habited.
Bifhop AInwiek was a conlldorable benefaftor to the cathe-
dral, and built the llately porch at the great fouth door.
Bifnops Jlufil'll and I.ongland built two chapels : to both
thefe prelates are altar-tombs, though the latter was interred
at Eton.

The cathedral church confifts of a nave, with its aides;
a tranlcpt at the well end ; and two other tranf^pts, one
rear the centre, and the other towards the calKrn end ;
alfo, a choir and chancel, with their aides, of correfponding
.height and width with the nave and ailles. The great traii-
fept has a nave towards the call : attached to the wellern
Me of this tranfept is a gallilee, or grand porch ; and on
the fouthern fide of the callern aide are two oratories, or
private chapel"^ ; while the northern fide has one of nearly
Similar (hape and charafter. Branching from the northern
fide are the cloillcrs, which communicate with the chapter-
houfe. The church is ornamented with three towers ; one
at the centre, and two at the weftern end : tliefe are lofty,
and are decorated with varied tracery, pillars, pilafters, win-
dows. Sec. The dimenlions of the whole ll/uiture, ac-
cording t« the accurate mealiirements of Mr. T. Efpin of
Louth, are as folbw : the height of the two weitern towers
j8o feet. Previous -to the year iSoS, each of thefe was
furmouiited by a central fpire loi feet high. The great
tower in the centre of the church, from the top of the corner
pinnacle to the ground, is ;oo feet ; its width 53 feet.
Extsrior length of the church, with its buttrelTes, 524 feet ;
interior length, 482 feet ; width of weftern front, 174 feet;
exterior length of great tranfept, 250 feet ; interior, 222;
width, 66 ; the leffer or ealtern tranfept 170 feet in length,
44 in width, including the fide chapels ; width of the ca-
thedral, 80 feet ; height of the vaulting of the nave, 80
feet. The chapter-houfe is a decagon, and meafures, in-
terior diameter, 60 feet 6 inches. The cloillers meafure
118 feet on the north and foutli fides, and 91 on the callern
and weftern fides. The grand wellern front, wherein the
preatefl variety of llyles prevails, is certainly the workman-
fhip of three, if not more, dillindk and dillant eras. This
portion of the fabric conlills of a large fquare-lhaped facade ;
the whole of which is decorated with door-ways, windows,
arcades, niches, &c. It has a pediment in the centre, and
two oftangular ftair-cafe turrets at the extreme angles, fur-
, mounted by plain fpirc-ftiaped pinnacles. 'J'he upper tran-
lept and the choir appear the next in point of d?,te. Tliefc
arc in the ft»arp-poinled llyle; and their architecture is very
irregular, having pillars \^•ith detached diafts of Purbeck
marble, in different forms, bnt all very light : thofe on the
fides of the choir have been llrengthened. The vaulting is
j^cncrally fimple ; the ribs of a few groins only have a fli-
rted moulding. A double row of arches or arcades, one
placed before the other, is continued round the inlide of the
aiftes, beneath the lower tier of windows. The windows,
which are lofty and narrow, are placed two or three to-
jcther ; the greater buttrelTes in front are ornamented in a
firgular manner with detached fhafts, terminating in ricK
foliage. This part of the fabric was probably built by
'ki^y St. Hugh. The great tranlept, {lie gallilee porch,

and the veftry, are nearly of the fame, but in a later Rytr.
The vcilry is vaulted, the groining having ftrotig ribs ; and
beneath it is a rrypt with groiii>-, converging into pointed'
arches. The nave and central tower wire next reliullt, pro-
bably begun by bifhop Hugh de Welle.';, as the llyle of
their architertnre is that of the latter part of the rei-n of
.lolin, or the beginning of Henry 111. Part of the great
tower was creeled by bilhop GrolUiead, wlm linidied tlie
addilrons which had been made to the old well front. The
part cxccnding from the finaller tranfept to the call end ap-
pears to have been built by bidiops Gravefend, Sutton, and
D'Aldeiby, about the conclulioii of the thirteenth, or com-
mencement of the fourteenth century. The latter prelate
built the upper llory of the rood tower, and added a lof'y
fpire, wliich was conllrucled of timber, and covered with
lead. Tliis was blown down in a violent llorm in the yc.r
I ^47 ; and the damagrs then fuilained were not wliolly re-
paired till 17-5. That nothing might be wanting to render
this church as fplendid in its furniture as it was elegant in
its workmanlhip, it received the moll lavifh donations. So
fumptuoudy was it fupplied wi;h rich duines, jewels, &c.
that, Dugdalc informs U6, Henry VI H. took away 2621
ounces of gold, and 4285 ounces of diver, beiides precious
flones of great value. This cathedral had formerly a great
number of coftly fepultures and monumental records : of
many, not a veitige remains ; nor are the places knov.ii
where they ftood. At the Reformation, what the ravages
of time had left, the zealots pulled down or defaced ; !o
that, at the clofe of the year 1 548, there was fcarcely a
perfect tomb remaining. .'\uior.g the illuilrious ))erloin
who were buried here, and had monuments ereC^a-d to their
memory, were Catherine Swinford, wife of John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancafter ; Joan, countcfs of Weftmoreland, their
daughter; and Bartholomew, lord Burgherfh, brother to
the bilhop of that name. Many of the bifhops were in-
terred here.

On the north fide of, and connefted with, the cathedral
are the cloiftcrs, of which only three fides remain in the ori-
ginal ftate. Attached to the eaftern fid'^ is the chapter-
houfe, a lofty elegant ftructure. It forms a decagon, the
groined roof of wliich is fupported by an umbilical pillar,
confining of a circular Ihaft, with ten fmall fiuted columns
attached to it ; having a band in the centre, with foliated
capitals. One of the ten lides forms the entrance : in the
otiier lides are nine windows, having pointed arches with
two lights each. Over the north lide of the cloiftert is the
library, which contains a large colleclion of books, and
fome curious fpeciniens of Roman antiquities. It was built
by dean Honey wood.

Beiides monafteries, nunneries, and other edifices for pious
ufes, I.,incoln had formerly more than fifty churches. Ele-
ven onlr, exclufive of the cathedral, now remain; and fcarcely
any of them merit a particular dclcrijjtim. Tluife molb
worthy of notice are, St. Dcnnct's, St. Mary de Wigford's,
and St. Peter's at Gowts : thefe have loity fquare towers in
the Norman ftvle. St. I'etcr's is a very ancient itruclure,
and appears to have been the chapel of fome religious houfe,
of which the remains are extant. The places of wordiip for
the different denominatious of Diflenters, are, one for Ro-
man Catholics, one for Independent Baptills, one for Pref-
byterians, and one for Methodifts.

The number of paridies within the city is twelve, which,
with the four towndiips within its iurifdiction, make fixteen.
TluTe, according to the government furvey in the year i8co,
contained 1574 houfes, which were inhabited by 739S per-
fons. Many of the honfesare nld, but there are fome very
good buildings, both upoa and below the iiilL The city

LINCOLN.

hit of Jate been confiderably improved, by making a new
road, paving the footways, and erecting a new market
place.

Lincoln has an extenfive trade in corn and wool, of which
great quantities are exported into York.(hi4-e, by veffcls
which obtain a back freightage of coals and other neceffary
articles for the life of the interior. This city is a county of
itfclf, having f'.ibjeft to it four townftiips in the vicinity,
])racebridge, Caiiwick, Branllon, and Waddiiigton, called
the " Liberty of Lincoln.'' This privilege wis conferred in
the third year of George I. ; and in official acts it is deno-
minated, " The Citv and County of the City of Lincoln."
Its vifcountial jurifdicliion extends twenty miles round ; a
privilege unequalled by that of any city in the kingdom.
In the 26th year of Edward L A. D. 129S, WiUielmua
Difney and Johannes Marmion were fummorted to parlia-
ment an its tirll reprefentatives. In the hillory of the bo-
rougiis of Great Britain, it is faid, " This city had fum-
mons, with London and York, to fend members to parlia-
ment, the forty-ninth of Henry III." The right of eleition
is coniidered to be in the freemen, and the number of voters
is about eleven hundred. The political influence, though by
no means abfolutc, is pofTefTed by lord Delaval, who has a
feat at Doddington, in the neighbourhood. The civil go-
vernment of Lincoln is veiled in a corporation, confilting of
a mayor, twelve alder:nen, two fherifls, twenty-eight com-
mon-coancilmen, and four chamberlains ;■ witli a recorder,
deputy recorder, lleward of the courts of borough-mote,
a town-clerk, four coroners, four ferjeants of the key, or
bailiffs, and other inferior officers. The city was incorpo-
rated fo early as the feventh year of Edward II. ; Henry
Bell being then th; lirll mayor. Leland, in his defcription
of Lincoln, enumerates live " Gates in t'le waulles of
the citie," and obferves, " It is eafy to be perceived, that
the towne ot Lincoln hath been notably builded at three
tymes."

Of the callle, built by the Conqueror, little now re-
mains ; and the area is occupied bv buildings appropriated
to ufes of the municipal power. The few remaining velliges
convey the fame idea of original Norman architedture as
tliat of York, erected nearly at the fame period. The
keep was not included, but Hood half without and half
within the callle wall, which afcendcd up the flopcs of the
hill, and joined the great tower. This being fituated on a
high artificial mo-int, it was equally inaccefTible from within
cr without t!ic callle area. It was nearly round, and covered
tl.e fumniit of the mount. The walls are above leven feet
in thicknefs. In a corner of the area is a curious fmall build-
ing, appearing on tlie outfide like a tower, called Cob's-
hall ; which Mr. King thinks was originally ufed as a
chapel.

Few places in the kingdom exhibit fo many ancient re-
mains as Lincoln. Saxon, Norman, and pomted arches ;
and door-ways with turrets, walls, mullions of windows,
2nd othyer fragments of old dilapidated buildings, appear in
'■very direction. Its numerous ciuirches and rehgious lioules,
the velliges of which occafioiially meet t.'ie eye of tire en-
quiring traveller, arc hig^iily interelling to the antiquary, as
tending to iiluftrate the progrefs of the arts, and thehiilory
ot pall ages. The Mint- .vail, mentioned by Mr. Gough,
u Hill remaining, and form* part of the inclofure .of a
garden.

Checquer gate, at the weft end of the cathedral, had two
gate-boufes ; the wellern one hai been recently taken down ;
the remaining one, to theea.l, has three ga.cvvays, and two tur-
rets between them. Ir. Eailgate-llreet are two very ancient
^tcways, one o£ which is nearly entire. At the bottom c£

the town, near Brayford water, are remains of a fort, caiicd
Lucy-tower. In the minfter yard is a large gateway, witli
grooves for a portcullis. A large oblong building, in Broad-
gate-ftreet, was appropriated to the Grey friars, and dill
difplays much of its ancient architecture : part ot this edifice
is now ufed as a free-fchool, and the other part as a hbrary.
The deanery-houfe was founded by dean, afterwards bifhop,
Gravefend, in 1254. The vicar's college, called the Old
Vicars, formed a quadrangle, of which there remain only
four good houfes, inhabited by the vicars. The bilhop's
palace, on the fouth fide of the hill, which, from being
iituated near the fummit, Leland defcribed as " hanging in
dechvio," was built by bifhop Chefney, to whom the Icite
was granted by king Henry II. It was enlarged by fuc-
ceeding prelates, and was fcarcely exceeded in gr;uideur by
any of our ancient call!e<;. Adjoining to St. Andrew's
church-yard formerly ilood the palace of the celebrated John
of Gaunt. Oppolite to this hoiife is a large building, called
John of Gaunt s llables. It was a large ftrudture, in the
Norman Ityle, and formerly confilled of a qnandran-'le, en-
cloling a fpacious area ; of which only the north and well
fronts remain. The Jew's houfe, on the fide of the hiil, is
an objed of great curiolity : it is lingularly ornamented in
front, and fome of its mouldings are limilar to thofe round
the well doors of the cathedral ; in the centre of the front
is a femicircular arched door-wav, with a projefting pilaller^
This houfe was polTeffed by Belafet de Wallingford, a Jewefs^
who was hanged for clipping in the iSth of Edward I. The*
Stone-bow, a large tower-gateway, crolling the High-ftreet,
is faid to have been erected in the reign of Richard II. ; but
the llyle indicates a later date. The High-bridge, over the
main llrcam of the Witham, conlilling of one arch, is con-
fidered to be at leall live hundred years old. Formerly here-
were two grammar fchools, one in the dole, the other in the
city : they were united in 1583. The principal modern
buildings are, the market houle, eredled 1736 ; the blue-
coat-fchool, on the plan of Chnll's-hofpital, London ; the
county hofpital ; the county gaol, coullruded on the plaa
of Mr. Howard for folitary confinement ; two alTembly*
rooms, and a fmall theatre.

Among the dillinguilhed natives of Lincoln was the late-
Dr. 'Willis, celebrated for his treatment of infanity, who
died at an advanced age December 1S07. Beauties of Eng-
land, vol.ix. I'he Hillory of Lincoln, izmo. 18 10.

Lincoln", a maritime county of America, in the Hate of
Maine, boiuided N. by Kennebeck cwunty, S. by the ocean^
E. by Hancock county, and \V. by that of Cumberland.
The i'ea-coail extends from that part of Fenobfcot bay, op-
polite to Deer illand callward, to Cape Small-point well-
ward. The lea-coall of the counties of Cumberland and
Lincoln is ico miles in extent, meafured in a llraight line^
but faid to be above 200 by the courfe of the waters. It
abounds with fate and commodious harbours j and the
whole fhore is covered by a line of illands, among which
velTels may generally anchor in fafety. Acrol's the country
there is a water communication by lakes, ponds, and rivers,
from the wllern to the eallern bounds ; fo that the produc-
tions of the country ma) be conveyed to the different fea-
ports. The chief towns are Wifcalfet, Waldoborough, and
Warren.— Aifo, a county of Upper Canada, divided into
four ridings and 20 townlhips, containing about Coco inha-
bitants, and furnifhing five battalions ot militia. It is faid
that ly covered waggons brought families to fettle in the
vicinity of the county of Lincoln, in June 1799. — Alfe, *
county of Morgan dillrid. North Carolina, containing
12,568 inhtibitants, of whom 1479 are Haves. In this
county are mineral fprings and miiiei of iron. The manu-

fadurc

LINCOLNSHIRE.

faftiire of iron is carried on in this county. Tiie chief town During the Anglo-Saxon dominion in England, Lincoln.

is Lincolntovvn. Alfo, a county »f Georgia, formed in fliiro was ineorporatfd witliin t lie kingdom of Merc;a, which,

I7g6, containin'T fcven townnups, and 47(16 inli^ibitanls, in- accordmg to an old clironicle quoted by Leland, was then

cludme 14^^ flaves. — Alfo, a county of Kentucky, con- divided into two provnices, nortli and foiith ; and as tlie Trent

tainin? 8c J J inhabitants, of whom 17 JO were (laves. The was the line of feparation, the county of Lincoln conlhtntcd

road from 'Danville on Kentucky river palTes through
fouth-wefterly, and over Cumberland mountain to Virginia.
— Alfo, a town in Mercer county, Kentucky, on the road
from D?.nville to Virginia; 12 miles S. E. of Danville. —
Alfo, a townlhip in Grafton county. New Hampfliire, in-
corporated in 1764, and containing 41 inhabitants — Alfo,
a townlhip in the N.E. part of Addilon county, Vermont,
containing 97 inhabitants. —Alfo, a toanfhip in Midd!efex
county, Malfachufetts, incorporated in 1754, and containing
756 inhabitanf! ; 16 miles N.W. of Bollon.

LINCOLNSHIi<E, a maritime county of England,
is bounded on the N. by the river Huinbcr, which fepa-
rates it from Yorklhire ; on the E. by the German ocean ;
on the S by Cambridgelliire and Northamptonfhire ; and
on the W. by the counties of Rutland. Leicefter, Notting-
ham, and York. It is in length 77 miles, and about 48 in
breadth ; and contained, according to the return made to
parliament m 1800, 42,489 houfcs, inhabited by 208,557
perfons, viz. 102,445 males, and 106,112 females: 24,263
were Hated to be employed in trade and manufafture ; and
(50,584 in agriculture. By a return to the houfc of lords
in 1805, the area of this county is Itated to be 27S7 fquare
ftstute miles, equal to 1,783,680 ftatute acres ; the number
of inhabitants on each fquare mile 75 ; and the total number
of perfoMS 209,025. The total amount of the money railed
by the poor's rate in 1S05 was 145,848/. at the rate of
3.f . y/i m the pound ; and the grofs amount of the alTeirment
under the property tax of 1806 was 2,704,736/. The
average of the deaths for ten years appears to he as I to 49!
of the population. Mr. Stone, in his view of the agriculture
of this county, eltimatesthe number of acres at i, $193,100 ;
of which he fuppofes there may be 473,000 acres of mclofed,
marfli, aid fen lands, 200,000 of commons, wafles, and un-
embanked fait mnrfiies, 268 000 of common fields, 25,000
of woodlands, and 927,120 of inclofed upland. Mr. Arthur
Young Hates the area of this county at 2888 fquare miles,
or 1,848,320 acres; of which he fays, the wolds contain,
234,880; the heath 118,400; lowland 776,960; and mif-
cellaneous foils 718,080.

That part of Britain which is now called Lincoladiire,
was, anterior to the Roman conquelt, poffelTed by a clafs
of Britons known by the name of Coritaiii. During the
Roman dominion, this dillrift was included within the pro-
vince of Britannia prima ; and was interfefted by different
roads, occupied by military llations, and fome of its natural
inconveniences removed by Roman fcience and induftry.
The principal roads were the Britilh Ermin-ftreet, afterwards
adopted by the Romans, and the Fofs-way. A. great work
of this county, generally attributed to the Romans, is the
Car-dyke, a large canal or drain, which extends from the
river Welland, on the fouthern fide of the county, to the
river Witham, near Lincoln. Its channel, for nearly the
whole of this courfe, an extent cf upwards of forty miles, is
fixty feet in width, and has a broad fiat bank on each fide.
This great canal receives from the hills ail the draining and
Bowing waters, which take an eaderly courfe, and which, but
for this Catchwater drain, as it is now appropriately called,
vffould ferve to inundate the Fens. Several Roman coins

a conliderable part of South Mercia. Crida was the lirlt
Mercian fovcreign, and began his reign in 586. At this
time Mr. Turner, (I-Iillory of the Anglo-Saxons,) fuppofed
that the whole illand was governed by eight Anglo-Saxon
monarchs ; whence it fliould rather be denominated an
octarchy then an heptarchy. During the ellablilhment of
thcfe petty kingdoms, the Saxons were in condant warfare
with the Romanized Britons; and after thefe were fubdued,
the former were repeatedly embroiled ip conflicts with eaeh
other. In the riiidll of thele civil conmiotioiis Chriltianity
was introduced, and gradually made its prOt;refs through the
ifland ; giving a new turn to human purfuits, and diverting
and cngrofiing the attention of the barbarous heathens.
Peada, the fon of Pcnda, wa« the reigning monarch here,
when this religion was accepted by the South Mercians ; he
founded a monallery at Medeii-hamlled, now Peterborough.
He was foon afterwards murdered, as luppofed, by his wite.
Edwin tlij Great, the Firll Chrillian king of Northumberland,
conquered the counties of Durham, Cliellcr, Lancaller, the
Ifle of Man, and .\nglefea, carried his arms fouthward over
the Trent, and obtained all the province of Lindley. Pau-
lino';, who converted him to Chnlbanity, preached thegofpel
wherever that king's power extended. He built the cathe-
dra' of Southwell, a little wed of Newark, baptized many
thoufands in the river Trent, near to Tiovulfingaccller, and
converted Blecca, the governor of Lincoln. This was about
the year 630 The learned and pious Alklrid kept his court
at Stamford in 658. After the death of Ofwy, king of
Northumberland, I'gfrid, his ion, mvadcd Wulfere, and
wre'.led from him the whole pro\inceof Lindfey in Lincoln-
(hire. I 1 677 he erected theepifcopal fee of Sidnacelter, in
favour of EaJhed, who had been chaplain to his brother
Alkfrid, king of Deira. In 683, Eadhed removed to Ripon,
where he remained till his death. The fouth Mercian king-
dom and bilhop's fee being thus edabliflied, but few public
events are recorded, till the incut fioii of the Danes, who, in
the year 870, laid vialle great part of Lincolnfliire, and
burned the monailcrics of Bardney, Croyland, and Meden-
hamiied, putting all the monks to the fword. After the
defeat of the Danes bv Alfred, the fovereignty of Mercia
fell into his power. He did not, however, avowedly incor-
porate it with Weflex, but di'.contiiiucd its regal honours ;
and during the reign of Edward the Elder, it was found ue-
cefTary to conilru6t and fortify feveral places on the borders
of Mercia joining Northumbria, particularly on the banks
of the Humber. Mercia was foon afterwards annexed to
WefTex, but fome places were ftill held by the Danes ;
among thefe were the towns of .Stamford and Lincoln, even
fo late as 941, when Edmund the Elder expelled them
hence.

The maritime counties of England being more direftly
expofed to attack from invading armies av.i piratical plun-
derers ; and in the early part of our civil ellablifhments,
being more populous than the midland ctuintry, were there-
fore frequently expofed to the confiitls of warfare; and
hence it is found that thele diftrifls abounded with military
works anc caftlcs or caftellated manlions. Bcfides the per-
manent nations of the Romans in Lincoln (hire, they threw

have been found on the banks of this dyke. The whole of up callrametations in different places; to guard the vallies,
tlie prefent county is fuppofed to have been named by the protedt the great roads, and detend the mouths of the rivers.
Romans Linduin, and the principal ftatjon or town hmdcm In the continued wars between the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms,
coloiiia. thele were again occupied by the conteniir.g parties ; and

after

LINCOLNSHIRE.

after tfie Normffn conqueit, forr.e of the moft commanding
were adopted by the conqueror's captains and barons, and
then became heads of extcnfivc 'nrdflitps. To defcribe or
difcriininate them, is, and ever will be, imp^ifUblc ; for docu-
ments are w.'.nting, and the innovations of the latter occu-
piers generally obfcured or annihilated all traces of their pre-
decefTors. Exctufive of the R:>:n;in itaticns, there are
notices or rcmaiT-s of the following fortifications in this
county. Encampment<; at or near Brocklefby, Hibberfton,
Broughton, Roxby, Winterton cliffs, Aulkboroiig-h, Yar-
borou^h, South Ormfbv, Burwell, Stamf>rd, Cultle-hill
near GainPjorough, Winterington, Humiiiijton, L'goldfby,
Callle Carleton, Burgh, Brough, north of Cafton, Barrow.
Caftles, or remains at Horncalile, Tatter.liiill, a noble re-
main, Bounie, only earth-works remaining, Caflor, Somer-
ton. Moor Tower, Stamford, Scrivelfby, Torkfey, a fine
remain, Sleaford, only earth-works, BoIIingbrook, Lin-
coln, with walls and gates, Folkingham, with large foffa:,
Kyrae tower, and Hufl'ey tower, near Boilon, Pinchbeck, a
moated manfion, Bitham.

According to the bell authorities, the cpifcopdl fee was
ellabbdiedat Lincoln towards the clofe of the eleventh cen-
tury, prsvious to which era, the diocefe had confiiled of the
two Anglo-Saxon fees of Dorchefter, now a village in Ox-
fordfhire, and Sidnacefler a place bordering on the river
Trent. The diocefe of Lincoln is the largell in the whole
kingdom, notwithftanding thofe of Oxford, Peterborough,
and Ely, have been taken from it. It comprehends the
counties of Lincolli, Leicefter, Huntingdon, Bedford, and
Buckingham, excepting the parifhesof Monks, Rifloroiigh,
and Halton, which are peculiars of Canterbury ; and Ab-
bot's, Afton, and Winflow, (whicii, with fifteen other
pariihes that are in Hertford (hire, and were taken hence,
being made of exempt jurildiftion, and appropriated to the
abbey of St. Albans, became, on the diflblution of that
monaftery in 1541, part of the diocefe of London.) The
fee alfo retains the greater part of Hertfordihire, and feveral
parilhes in the counties of Oxford, Rutland, and North-
ampton. The whole diocefe is divided into fix archdea-
conries ; thefe are fubdivided into fifty-two deaneries ; the
number of pariihes is ftated by Browne Wdlis to be, in-
cluding donatives and chapels, 1517, of v\'hich 577 are
impropriated ; and the clergy's yearly tenths in this very
extenfivejurifdiftion I'^xl. l^'.td. Camden fays there are
630 parifhes in this county. The monafteries, hofpitals, &c.
connected with the cathedral and its ecclefiallical eftablidi-
mtnt, were very numerous, and fome of very extenfive in-
fluence.

The ecclefiailical architefture of Lincolnfhire ha- long
been juiUy celebrated for its magnificence ; and its numerous
churches have been the fubje6ts of admiration. It is re-
n-.arkable that tiic moil fplendid edifices wliich adorn this
dictrid, were erefted chiefly in its lowed and moll fenny
fituations, where all communication mull formerly have been,
and even to this day is extremely difficult. The ecclefiailical
edificjs in the divilion of Lindfey, excepting the cathedral
of Lincoln, are in general inferior to thofe in Keftevcn and
Holland ; but in the north-ealtern part of this divifion,
which is bounded by the German ocean to the call, and the
highlands, called the Wolds, to the welt, there are feveral
churches, difphying much elegance in their architecture,
and built of excellent-rnaterial;. The divifion of Kefteven
abounds with churches fplendid both in their plans and de-
corations. In the central part, the greater proportion of
them is adorned with lofty fpirss ; wiiile many of thofe in
the northern and fouthern extremitiis prefent handlbme
towers, fre<^ueiitly divided into three or four diflia^ ftones,

and forr ed of excellent material* anJ naafonry. Tfic dat?
of the churches in this divifion, with the exception of thofe
of Sempringham and St. Leonard Stamford, is, in few
iiiflances, earlier than the thirteenrh century. It is princi-
pally in the divifion of Holland that Liner h.fhire Loafts of
iuperior excellence in ecclefiafticai architecture ; ?pd it is
really furprifing tliat fo many fine monaftic buildings, and
facred edifices, ihould have been crefted in a couniy lo in-
convenient for travelling, fo unpleafant to the eye, and fo un-
congenial with the common comforts of life ; yet in lliis
fenny and fvvampy diftrift, are the churches of Boilon,
Gofberton, Pinchbeck, Spalding, Hoibeath, Gedney, Long-
Sutton, Croyland, and many others, which have a jull
claim to univerfal admiration. The charafler and plan of
the churches in this divifion vary in different parrs. Some
are cruciform ; many have fpires in common with thofe of
Kefteven ; while embattled tov^ers at the weft end form the
prin-:ipal feature of the remainder. Of the fp'cndid church-
at Croyland, only a fmall portion of the original rtructure
now remains ; but fufficieiit to fhew that in its entire ttate, it
was not inferior to any of our cathedrals, either in fize or
architedural ornament. The ftone employed in the ereftion
of the edifices of this diftriil is univerfally found to be of an
excellent and durable fpecies, ftill retaining at the dillance,
ill many inftances, of fix or feven centuries, its original face
and firmnefs.

This county is more noted for its religious than for its civil
architefture. Though of great extent, it contains but few
manfions of confequence, grandeur, or elegance, and thofe
are chiefly of modern ereftion. The following are the
principal ; Grimfthorpe caftle ; the feat of the duke of An-
cafter-Nodlon J earl of Buckinghamfliire — Glentworth; earl
of Scarborough — Broklefby ; lord Yarborough— Belton ;
lord Brownlow — Redbourn ; lord WUham Beauclerk Bur-
ton ; lord Monfon— Doddington ; lord Delaval — Bloxholm ;
Hon.' colonel Manners — Manby ; Hon. Charles Anderfon
Pelham — Reveft)y abbey ; fir Jofeph Banks, bart.

Lincolnftiire, and the counties of Effex, Cambridge, and
Norfolk, have been generally defcribed as particularly un--
favourable to health ; . and from their contiguity to the fea,
with the nuniei-ous fens, merej, brooks, (See. with which
they abound, are commonly ftigmatized as producinor pelli-
lential climates; only calculated to excite agues, cramp?,,
and rheumatifms. Thefe general maxims, though frequently
originating in facts, are too often perverted, or extended
beyond due bounds. Lincolnlhire may be faid to be in this
predicament : far its name is commonly affociated with fens,
ilatnefs and bogs. Thole who refide in, or have travelled '
over it, are enabled to appreciate and define its chara£ier.
Arthur Young has pointed out and defcribed many features
and places in this county, that may be referred to as par-
taking of t;ie beautiful and piclurefque : — "About Belton,''
he fays, " are fine views from the tower on Belmont ; Lyna
and the Norfolk cliffs are vifible, Nottingham caftle alfo^
the vale of Belvoir, &c. And in going by the Cliff towus-
to Lincoln, there are many fine views. ' From FuUbeck to-
Leadenham, efpecially at the latter place, there is a moft
rich profpeft over the vale of the Trent to the diftant
lands that bound it. Thefe views, over an extenfive vale,
are linking, and of the fame features as thofe from the
cliff-road to the north of Lincoln, to Kirton, where is a
great view both eaft and well to the Wolds, and alfo to
Nottinghamfhire. Near Gain (borough there are very agree-
able fcenes ; Irom the plantation of H. Dalton, of Ki.aith,
and from the chateau battery of Mr. Hutton, of Burton,
the view of the windings of the Trent, and the rich level
plain of meadow, all alive with ^reat hcrtU of cattle,

)»oiuided

LINCOLNSHIRE.

bounded by di[l*nt hWU ni tultiTation, are features of an
»jri-eeable county. "But (lill more beautiful is that about
'I'l-cntfall ; froin fir Jolin SIiefTit-ld's lijiiging wood, and tin;
Ri-v. Mr. Slieffiold's oruaiticnted walk, foUowini,' the cliff
to Alkbornufjh, vhere Mr. Goulton's bt-autiful grounds
commaiid a groat view of the three rivers ; as tlie foil is
div, the woods lol'ty, a'ld tlu' county various, this muft be
rlleemeJ a noble ficiiery, and a perfeft contraft to what
I,incohiniire is ofti.-n reprefented by lliofc who have oidy
feen the parts of it that are very different. The svhole line
of the Ilumber henee to Grinilhy, when viewed from the
hii;her wolds, prefer.ts an objert that muft be intcrellnig to
all Tlii-s with the very great plantation of lord Yar-
■b.iTOUgh, are feen to much advantage, from that moll beau-
tiful building, the maufoleum at Brocklelhy.'' Many other
parts of the county might be pointed out as prefeniing in
themlclves, or commanding, intereiling fcenery. The coun-
try around Grantham, alfo in the vicinity of Louth, and
that more particularly between 15ourn and the former place,
including the noble and fpacious woods of Griinllhorpe,
abound with that inequality of furface, that divi-rlihed m-
lercliange of hill and dale, wood and lawn, which conlliiute
the pifturelque and beautiful in natural fcenery.

Lincolnlhire may be faid to piefent three great natural
features, each of which has a fpecific and nearly uniform
cluracter. Tiiefe are tlie wolds, heaths, and fens. Tlic
Jatter occupy the fGUth-eallern fide of the county, and
though formerly a mere walle and perfectly fterile, have
been, by means of drainage, S:c. rendered fubfervient to
agriculture ; many parts indeed may be pronounced un-
commonly fertile. On the fea coaft, towards tlie north
jiart of tiie county, this traft is narrow ; near the Hum-
ber it contracts to a mere (Irip of land. The heaths, north
and t'outli of Lincoln, and the wolds, are calcareous hills,
which, from their brows, command many fme views over the
lower regions. The rell of tlie county is not equally difcri-
minated, either by fertility or elevation. " The heath, now
jiearly indofed," fays .\rthur Young, " is a tract of high
country, a fort of back bone to the whole, m which tl\e
foil is a good fandy loam, but with c'ay enough in it to be
fiippery with wet, and tenacious under bad manai^ement ;
tut excellent turnip and barley land, on n bed of lime-llones,
at various depths, from li.\ inches to leveral feet, commonly
nine inches to eighteen. This hill flopes fharply to the
well ; the declivity of tlie fame nature, but generally good ;
and this extends fome dillance in the flat vale, for the firil
line of villages, (built alfo as the foil lies in a longitudinal
direction north and fonth. ) The foil is rich loam, con-
taining much pallurage." Between Gainfl)orough and
Newark, for twenty live miles, is a large tract of flat fandy
foil, the greater part of which has been inclofcd, and partly
<irained. The foil of the ille of Acholme may be laid to
be among the iineft in England. It confills of black landy
loams, warp land, brown land, and rich loams of a foapy
and tenacious quality. The under llratum at Stacey, Bel-
ton, &c. is, in HKiny places, an ini perfect plaller ftone.
Refpecling the general produces of the county, the higher
grounds are now mollly inclol'ed, and appropriated to til-
lage, and produce all forts of grain. Some of the wolds,
however, are not yet disidi'd, but are devoted to iheep and
rabbits. The lower lands that have been drained and in-
clofed, produce abundant crops of oats, hemp, flax, ^e.

Lineolnlhire has long been famouc for a breed of fine
horfes ; but the adjoining county of York has nww the
credit for rearing many that are aftually bred in this county.
In I'ome ditlrifts great numbers of rfiares are kept for the
fole purpolie of breeding, la liylkijsi Divilion alraoit every

farmer keeps fome ; and the number of colts reared is vpry
great. The neat cattle of this county are defcribed by Mr.
.Stone as being, for the greatefl part, of a large fort,
having great heads and fhort horns ; flout in the bone,
and deep in the belly ; with lliort necks and flcfliy quartert.
narrow hips and chines, high in their rumpK, and bare on
the Ihoulders. 'Die cows, he remarks, when fat, weigh
from eight to nine hundred, and the oxen from ten to twelve
hundred. The moil profitable flock of the county appears
to be (lieep. Numbers are bred and fattened in thii part
of the kingdom. Large quantities of wool are thence ob-
tained, to lupplv the demands of the neighbouring diftrlfts.
It is a euriou'i fai^l, that while fo much has bi-en faid in
commendation of the l.,eieellerniire breed, the Lincolnfhire,
which is the lame, fliould have been palled over in liltnce.
Mr Stone fays, ihele fheep are not even varieties. The-
Lincolnfhire, a large horned animal, adapted for the rich
grazing and marlh land of the county ; generally weighs
Will when fat, and bears a heavy fleece of coarfe but long
flapled wool ; the weight, per fleece, is eight pounds and
upwards. Mr. Young mentions a Iheep fold at Smithfield.
which clipped, the firft year, 2 jib. of wool, and in the
fecond year, 2 2, 'lb. Few manutaiJlures are ellaolifhed in
this county ; but here are two ob'ied.s of coiifidcrable mer-
chandize, rabbits' fur, and goole feathers Thefc ■were
formerly of great confequence, and furmflied articles of ex-
tenfive trade. I'Vom the fyftem of inclofing, now lo cxten-
fively adopted, both rabbits and gecle are much di.iiiniflied.
The rabbit warrens of this county were formerly much
more exteiifive than at prefent. and were prelerved on a
principle of im])rovement ; fome being broken up for tillage,
and others, which had been under tilth, being again laid
down for this purpol'e. The foil of old warrens, by the
rabbit* continually llirring and ventilating the earth in bur-
rowing, has been found incomparably better than lands of a
like nature left in their original flate. The fecundity ot
rabbits was a circumlVance of no fmall confequencc, wliea
the fkins of large well-chofen rabbits would produce 2s. 6J.
or ^s. each : at that time they were uled iu making mulls,
tippets, lining robes, &:c. : the dov^n was alfo employed in
hats. As the fl<ins conHitute tUe principal profit ijf the pro-
prietor, it becomes a primary object with him to attend to
the breeding, killing, &c, : Ikins that are free from black
fpotsonthe infide are faid to be in feafon. The trade is
now on the decline, not only from the diminution in the va-
lue of the flcins, but alfo from the means of conducting it
becoming daily more circumfcribed, it being now thought
good hulbandry to dellroy the warrens, and apply the land
to other ules. The number of warrens in this county has
been greatlv reduced, yet many thouland acres are flill de-
voted to this kind of llock.

Many of what are called the fens, are in a flate of wafle,
and ferve for little other purpole than breeding and rearing
geefe, which are confidered the teninan's treafurc. They
are a highly valuable llock, aud live where, in the prefent
flate of thofe lands, nothing elle will : they are very pro-
liiic, and the young quickly become laleable, or fpccdily
contribute to increafe the ftock. The feathers are very
valuable ; and however trifling it may appear, the fale of
quills alone amount, on a large flock, to a confiderable
fum. " During the breeding feafon," Mr. Gough lays,
<' thefe birds are lodged in the fame houfes with the inhabit-
ants, and even their very bed-chambers ; in every apart-
ment are three rows of coarle wicker pens, placed one above
another ; each bird has its feparate lodge, divided from the
other, which it keeps polfefTion of during the time of fitti«ig.
A gozzard, ur gooleherd, attends the flock, and twice a
0 <lay

LINCOLNSHIRE.

iiy drivea the whole to water, then brings them back to
their habitation, helping thofe that live in the upper flories
to their nells, without ever mifplacing a fingle bird." The
geefe are ufually plucked five times in the year : at Lady-
day for quills and feathers, and again at Midfummer, Lam-
mas, Michaelmas, and Martinmas. Goflings are not fpared,
as early plucking tends to increafe the fucceeding feathers.
Mr. Young Hates, that " the feathers of a dead goofe are
worth fixpence, three giving a pound ; but plucking ahve
does not yield more than three-pence a headier <3Hn«)n. Some
wing them only once evei-y quarter, taking ten featliers from
each goofe, which fell at five (hillings a thoufand. Plucked
gecfe pay, in feathers, one (hilling a head in Wildmore Fen.''
The common mode of plucking live geefe is confidercd a
barbarous cuftom ; but it has, perhaps, prevailed ever fince
feather beds came into general ufe. The mere plucking is
faid to hurt the bird but httle, as the owners are careful not
to pull before the feathers are ripe, that is, juft ready to fall :
if forced from the llcin fooner they are of inferior value.

The general improvements that have been effefted in this
county within the lad twenty years, and that are now gra-
dually making, liave co-operated to alter the general ap-
pearance, the agriculture, climate, &c. fo materially, that
the furface has afl'umed a new afpecl, the value of land is
greatly increafed, the means of focial and commercial com-
munication have been facilitated, and the comforts of do-
meftic life greatly promoted. Yet there is ftill fcope for
material improvements : for the roads, in many parts of the
county, are in a very bad (late ; and the traveller has not
advantages adequate to the tolls levied on him. In the vi-
cinity of Bofton, Spalding, and Louth, the commilTioners
have commenced a plan for forming firm and fubftantial
roads. This is moflly done by laying Ihingles, brought
from the Norfolk coaft, in the centre of the road, and
mixing them with the filt of the place.

The wolds extend from Spillby, in a Horth-wefterly di-
reftion, for about 40 miles to Barton, near the Humber.
They are, on an average, nearly eight miles in breadth, of
fand and fandy loam, upon flinty loam, with a fubllratum
of chalk. Beneath this line lies an extenfive traft of land
at the foot of the wolds, called the marlh, which is fecured
from the encroachments of the fea by embankments, and is
agriculturally divided into north and fouth marflics by a dif-
ference in the foil.

The fens of this county form one of its mod prominent
features. Tliey confift of lands which, at fome diftant
period, have been inundated by the fea, and by human art
have been recovered from it. Li the fummer they exhibit
immenfe trafts, chiefly of grazing land, interfered by deep
ditches, called droves, which ferve both for fences and
drains. Thefe are accompanied generally by parallel banks,
upon which the roads pafs, and are intended to keep the
waters, in flood time, from overflowing the adjacent lands.
They not only communicate with each other, but alfo with
larger canals, called dykes and drains, which, in fome in-
ftances, are navigable for boats and barges. At the lower
end of thefe are fluices, guarded by gates, termed gowts.
During the fummer, numerous flocks and herds are feen
grazing over this monotonous fcene, and many of the paf-
tures afford a luxuriant herbage : but in the vvmter, or in
the autumn, if it fhould prove wet, the afpect is changed ;
the cattle quickly difappear, and the eye mull pafs over
thoufands of acres of water or ice, before it can find an
objeA on which to reft. Several caufes combine to produce
this drowning of the lands. Many of the fens lie below the
level of the fea ; fome are lower than the beds of the rivers ;
and all are beneath the high-water mark of their refpeftive
Vol. XXL

drains. The fubdratum of the fens is flit, or fes-fand,
which i« a well-known conductor of water. Through this,
when the drains are full, the fea-water filters ; and, unable
to pafs by the drains, rifes on the fnrface, and is known by
the name of foak. Dugdale was of opinion, that there was
a time when thefe parts were not inundated. In his hiftory
of embanking, he obfcrves, that the ifle of Axholrae,
though for many ages it hath been a fenny traft, was not
anciently fo, but was originally a luoarly country, not an-
noyed with thefe inundations, as is evident from the great
numbers of trees which had been found in the moor. The
fame author, fpeaking of the great level, gives his opinion
that it was formerly firm and dry land, neittier annoyed with
ftagnation of frefli waters, nor inuni^.ations from the fea;
and this he fuppofes was the cafe of the fens in Lincolnfliirc,
and the adjoining counties : for it is an ellablilhed faft, that
large timber trees will not thrive in watery lands, and
fuch have been found lying in the earth abundantly in this
country.

The principal rivers which either rife in the county, pafs
through it, or are connefted with it, are the Trent, the
Ancholme, the Witham, the Welland, and the Glen.
The Trent, though not properly a river of this county,
forms the boundary of it on the north-weftern fide, from ths
village of North Clifford to that of Stockworth ; whence it
conliitutes the eallern boundary of the ifle of Axholme: it
thence flows to Aldborough, and having received the Dun
and the Oufe, mingles its waters with the Humber. From
Gainfborough, where it is crofTed by a jiandfome bridge, it
is navigable for coals, corn, and various articles of com-
merce. The Ancholme is a fmall river, rifing in the wolds,
near Market-Raifin, whence it is navigable to the Humber,
into which it falls fome miles below the junction of the
Trent. The Welland has its fource near SibertoflF, in
Northampton rtiire; and being increafed by numerous ftreams,
partes Market-Deeping ; where, enternig the fens, it leas'es
a portion of its waters and fludge, which it had accumulated
in its previous paflage through the rich lands of Northamp-
tonfliire, Leiceflerfliire, and Rutlandfliire. It afterward.^
meets the contributor}' Glen, and empties itfelf into F0I3-
dyke-Wafli, eaft of Bofton. The Witham, which is co.-n-
pletely a river of this county, derives its origin near Soulh-
Witham ; and thence flows almoft due north, through the
park of Eafton, and to Great Ponton. It proceeds through
a wide valley to Lincoln ; continuing its courle to Bofton,
it unites its waters with the fea at a place called Bofton-
Deeps. Much of the prefcnt bed of tlie river, from Bofton
upwards, is a new cut, made for the purpofe of widening
the channel, rendering it more commodious for navigation,
and better adapted to receive and carry off the water of the
contiguous fens. Thefe rivers, with thofe of the Grant,
Oufe, and Nene, in tke adjacent counties, from the obftruc-
tions they meet m delivering their waters to the ocean, form
one great caufe of inundating fo large a portion of valuable
land. In viewing the various inlets of the fea, it is fur-
prifing to obferve the immenfe quantity of fand and fludge
which is continually depofiting on the fliore. This is owing
to the nature of the tides, which, from the form of the
channel, flow with more violence than they ebb. Hence
the mouths of the rivers are choaked up, and the defcending
waters are thrown back on the low-lands. The great bay,
or eftuary, into which the diff"erent rivers, parting through
the fens, are emptied, is very (hallow, and full of ihifting
fands and filt.

That this diftrift was thus flooded at a very remote period,
is evid'nt from the plans of enibankitig and draining which
the Romans adopted, in order to countcrad the mifchievoui

M efferts

L I N

effefts of fiich inundations. Since their departure, mu^h
has been done at various times for the improvement of the
fen country ; and an immenfe cxpence has been occafionally,
and is Hill annually, incurred, to prevent the encroachment
of the water, and to ameliorate the foil. A very brief no-
tice of thefe endeavours will tend to give fome idea of the
country, and to illuftrate thofe periods of liillory. Decping-
Fen, on the banks of the Wclla-.id, appears to have re-
ceived the earlieft attention : for, at the beginning of Ed-
ward the ConfetTor's reign, (as Ingulphus relates,) a road
was made acrofs it by Egelric, forjnerly a monk of Peter-
borough, but at that time bifhop of Durham. In the time
of the Conqueror, Richard dc Rulos, the king's chamber-
Iain, inclofcd thi<! part of the fen-country from the chapel of
St Guthlake to Cardyke, and to Clevelake near Cran-
more ; excluding the river Wcltand by a large and cxtenfive
bank of earth. The Fofs-Dj ke is an artificial trench, ex-
tending about feven miles m length, from the great marih
Hear the city of Lincoln to the river Trent in the vicinity
of Torkfey. This was made or materially altered by king
Henry I. in the year i !2I, for the purpofe of navigation,
and for making a general drain for the adjacent 'evel From
its pafli;'g through fiich a Hat country, the watt r could have
but a flow current, whereby it became url^iavigable ii m the
accumulati'.ii of mud, fo that it was foon found ntceflary to
cleanfe it. Of themar(hes on the river Ancholme, the lirll
account on record is the i6th of Edward I. In luccceding
reigns, various ftatutes were enafted for rendering effettual
the drainage of this part of the country. The ifland of Ax-
holme, though now containing fome of the richeft land in
the kingdom, was formerly one continued fen, occafioned
by the filt thrown up the Trent with the tides of the Hum-
ber. This obftrufting the free paffage of the Dun and the
Idle, forced back their waters over^lie circumjacent lands,
fo that the higher central parts for.^leJ an ifland, which ap-
pellation they ftill retain. In the tirll of Edward III., and
in feveral fucceeding reigns, commidions were granted for
repairing the banks and ditches, as they fell to decay. Early
in Charles I.'s reign, that great work was commencLd, which
embraced not only the mardies of Axliolme, but of aU the
adjacent fens, called Dikefmardi and Hatfield chafe, in the
county of York. Thefe comprehended an extent of lands
which were not only drowned in winter, but e<-en in fum-
mer werefo deeply covered with water, that boats c'>uid na-
■vigate over 60 ooo acres. It is traditionally affirmed that
large velfels could fail up the river Vv'itham from Bofton to
Lincoln ; and from tlie ribs, timbers, &c. of fhips, that
have been frequently found near it, the tradition feems to be
(uilified. At prefent, it is only adapted for barges, and the
"iflow of '.he current is fo fmall, that it does not cleanfe the
bed of the river. The firft notice of the inconveniences
arifiug from the obilru('^ion of its waters, appears in the
iixth year of Edward III., when conimtlfioncrs were ap-
pointed for furveying the fame. In confequence of their
report, and of various furveys and prefentments in different
reigns, fueceffive regulations w-erc made for reftraining the
waters withm due bounds, and delivering the land-fioods
fpeedily to the fca. But in the fifteenth of Henry VII.,
more f ff- "hial meafures v/ere thought necelTary to be adopt-
ed for furthering the defign ; and an ab'e engineer, Mayhave
Hake, of Gr.iVfcling in Flanders, was invited over to put it
into execution. It was accordingly covenanted between him
and the king's commiffiom-rs, " that the faid Mayhave Hake
fhould bring with him from Flanders fourteen mafons, and
fotjr lab urers, to make him a proper fluice and dam near
the town of Bofton, fufficient for its future fsfeguard. For
which they were to be remunerated as follows : Mayhave

L I N

Hake, for himfelf and man, per diem 4/. ; mafons and flone*
hewers, per week, ^s. ; labourers, per week,, ^j. The faid'
Mayhave Hake to receive 50/. ir.' re on the completion of

the work Should any more workmen be, neccirary they"

fliould be provided at the expencc of the inhabitants of B(^f-
ton, and the level of Holland and Kefteven." To the
north and north-eaft of the Witham, are the large fenny
tradts called Wildmore Fen, Weft Fen, and Eaft Fen, in
the latter of which, it appears by a writ, 41 Elizabeth,
5000 acres were drowned. A plan is now executing under
the diredlion of that very fcie. tific and able engineer Mr.
John Rennie, by which thefe 'hree fens will be efiediually
drained, and the lowlands of this part of the county be rent
dercd productive and profitable.

Lincolniliire confiils of three great diviiions ; Holland,
Kefteven, aiid Lindfey ; which are fubdivided into 33
hundreds, wapeutakfs, and (okfs ; containmg in the whole
one city, 31 market-towns, 657 villages. Twelve members
are returned to parliament ; two for the fliire, two for the
city, and two from each of the boroughs of Bofloii, Gran-
tham, Great Grimfby, and Stamford Spalding and Wayn-
fleei were reprefented in the eleventh year of Edward III.
This county, from its extent and opulence, is n<t under the
influence of any individual ; and in contcited elections the
freedom of the people is not fo liable to corruption as in
fniallrr counties and property boroughs. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wsle.'!. vol. ix. Stone's Agricultural Survey of
Lincolnfhire. Young's Ditto.

LINCOLNTOWN, a poft-town of America, in North
Carohna, and capital of Linco'n county, containing about
35 or40 houfes, a court -houfe, gaol, and church ; 46 miles
from Morgantown.

LINCOLNVILLE, a town of Hancock county, in the
ftate i-f Maine, on the W. fide of Penobfcot bay ; 13
mi'.e? from Telfaft. 1

LI^CO''■ I \, in Bolany, a name given by Linnaeus, but
of whole 'gin or derivation we are unable to trace any
thing. — Linn. Mant. i^j. Schrc'o. 170. Wild. Sp. PI. v. r.
12 6. JufT. 4.p. C.'afs and order, Pentandria Dlgynia.
Nat. Ord. Incerta /edis, .IiifT. ^

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate, perma-
nent leaves, the inferior oppofite pair fliorter. Cor. Petals
five, lanceolate, fefule, ered^. Ni'dlary a cavity inipreiTed
at the bafe of the petals, fitrrourricd below by a margin.
Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped bordered, ereft, ofrr.id-
dhng length ; anthers obtufe. arrow -fhaped, burfltng to-
wards the bafe of each lobe. Pifl. Gerinen half inferior
with rcfpedl to the corolla, but fupi rior with relped^ to ilie
calyx ; ftvies tu'O, thrcad-fhaped, ftriated ; ftigmas fimple.
Pcrlc. Capfule of two eels. Seeds two ?

Lin xus obfcrves that if the perianth may be taken for
brafteas, the flower is altogether fuperior, but this does not
fcem coi'red^.

Eff. Ch. Petals five, having each a honey-bearing cavity
at their bafe. Capftde of two cells, half inferior.

I. L. alopecuroidea. Li n. Mant. 216. Syft. Veg. cd. 14.
261. — A native of n-.oimtainoi;s watery places at the Cape
of Good Hope. T\ns h z Jhnib fiirnifhtd with wand-like
determinate branches, fcarred with the bafts of the fallen
leaves, as in the fir tribe. Leaves fcattered, or fome-
what whorled, about five or fix in a whorl, almott fiffile,
linear, triangular, channelled, rigid, fhining, appearing cu-
rioufly granulated under a microfcope, an inch long, rough
at the angles, the upper ones fringed. Flo-u.'ers about the
tops of the branches, lateral, feffiK-, the length of the leaves,
permanent, flelh-coloured, or white.

UNC-

L I N

L I N

LINCTUS, a form of medicine, the fame as lamhatlve,
ioboch, and eclegma.

LINDA, in Geography, a fraall ifland in the Indian fea,
n«ar t!ie coal' of Africa, at the n^outu of the Zarrbefe.

LINDAHL, a town of Norway; 140 miles N. of Chrif-
tiania.

LINDANUS, William, in Biography, a celebrated
Dutch divine, was born at Dort, in Holland, in the year
152J. He pnrfued his academic 4 ftudies at Louvain, and
afterwards went to France to pcrfetl himfelf in the Greek
and Hebrew lariguages. Havmjr returned to Lou%-ain,_he
was ordained a prieil, and admitted a licentiate in divinity.
This was in the yenr 1552, and in the following ye^r he un-
dertook the ofEce of leAurer on ihe facred fcriptures at Dil-
liii;ien, which poll he filled for tiiree years with high reputa-
tion. H'» took his degree of D.D. in I5j6, after which
he was appointed dean of the Hague ; counfellor to the
.king ; vicar to the bifuop of Utrecht, and inquifitor of the
faith within the fame ecclefiailical jurifdidion. On account
of his great zeal in the latter office, the duties of which he
performed with miich feverity, he was nominated, by the
bigotted Philip II. of Spain, to the bilhopric of Rurc-
mond. In 1568 he went to Rome, and was received by
pope Gregory XIII. and the cardina's with Angular
murks of refpeft and efteem. On his return he exercifed
the fundlions of a Chrillian bifhopin a very honourable man-
ner, applying the revenues of his fee to the relief of the in-
digent, aad vifiting every part of his diocefe for the pur-
pofe of perfonally comforting, inilrufting, and alTilling thofc
who ftood in need of temporal or fpiritual aid. After a fe-
cond journey to Rome, he was appointed, in ij8S, to the
bilhopric of Ghent, an office which he held but three months,
when he died in the fixty-third year of his ag'^. He was
reckened a very learned man and an abl* divine. His
writings are numerous, confifting of Polemical treatifes ;
Paraphrafes on many of the Pfalms, and the Pfalter, il-
liiftrated with Greek and Hebrew texts : but his moll valued
publication is entitled " Panopha Evanp-elica.'' Moreri.

LINDAR, in Geography, a town of Illria ; J miles
N.E. of Mittenburg.

LINDAU, an imperial city of Germany, feated on an
ifland in the lake of Conftance, and communicating with the
continent by means of a bridge. The ifland is fo divided by
an arm of the lake, as to form another fmaller ifland, which
is feparated from the city, and conliftsof vineyards and gar-
den enclofed within a wall. Lindau, from its peculiar fitua-
tion, has been called the Venice of Swabia. Moll of the
burghers are Lutherans, This city contains, befides a parilh
church dedicated to St. Stephen, a well-;'ndowed hofpital,
and a grammar-fchool. The callle, and Heyden Maur, or
Heathen wall, as it is called, are reckoned Roman works ;
the latter being afcribed to Tiberius Nero, and the former
to Conllanlinus Chlorus, during their encampments here, in
their expeditions againft the Vindelici and Alemanni. It is
fuppofed that near this callle formerly flood a cliurch, and
that the little church of St. Peter here was built on the firll
introduttion of Chridianity into this country. The territory
of Lindau comprehends 14 villages ; 19 miles E. of Con-
ftance. N. lat. 47- 28'. E. long. 10' 35'. — Alfo, a town
<ind callle of Hungary ; 17 miles N.NAV. of Cfakatluirn.
— Alfo, a town of Weftphalia, in the territory of Eichfeld,
■jituated on the Rhine ; 1 2 miles N W. of Duderlladt. —
.Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principahty of Anhalt
Zerbll ; 5 miles N. of ZerblK — Alfo, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Bayreuth ; 8 miles N.W. of Bdyrenth.

LINDE, or Lis'desrf.rg, a town of Sweden, in Well-
manknd, filuated between two lakes ; built by q^uccn Chnf-

a medicinal fpring ;
N. lat. 59° 35'. E.

8r miles

long. 14'^
circar of

tina in 1644 ; near it is
W.N.W. of Stockholm.

56'-

LINDEAL, a town of Hindooilan, in the

Cuddaiia ; 25 mileiN. of Gandicotta.

LIXDECK, a town of the duchy of Siiria ; Smiles
N. of Cilley.

LINDEN, a town of Gci-many, in the. principality of
Culmbach ; 6 miles N. of Neuftadt.

LINDENAU, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Thorn ; 20 miles N.E. of Culm. — Alfo, a town of Siiefia,
in the principality of Neifle ; 6 miles N.W. of Patfchkau.

LINDENBERG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Bavreuth ; 9 miles E.S.E. of Bayreuth.

LINDENBRUCH, Frederic, m Biogrsphy,A]ezraed
philologiil of the feventeenth centurj', was a liative of
Flanders, and died in 1658. Fie wrote notes on Terence,
on the fragmente of certain Latin poets, and on Ammiant:.s
Marcellinus. He alfo publiflied " Codex Legum-Antiqua-
rum, feu Leges Wifigothorum, Burgundionum, Longo-
bardorum, &c." which is eft;eem.'d a very curious vmfk.
Moreri.

LINDENFELS, in Geography, a town of Gennany,
in the palatinate of the Rhine; 14 miles N.N. E., of
Manheim.

LINDENHARDT, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Bayreuth ; 9 miles S. of Bayreuth.

LINDER, a town of Illria; 12 miles N.N.E. cf
Pedena.

LINDERA, in Botany, a name dedicated by Thua-
berg to the memory of John Linder, a phy.lcian at Stock-
h.lni, afterwards ennobled bv the name ot Lindellolpe, whu
was born in the year 1678, and died in 1724. He was a
celebrated Swedifh botaniit, and author of the Flora WiLJher-
genfis, publifhed at Stockholm in 1728. His inaugural
thefis " de Hefper'idum pomh" was publilhed at Abo :a
1702. About fix years afterwards appeared his treatiie
" de Venenis" printed at Leyden ; a pollhumous editioi
of which was publillied at Leipfic in 1739, under the direc-
tion of M. Stenzclius. This is faid to be a mallerly difler-
tation on vegetable poifons. — He was alfo the author of aR
effay upon the colouring properties of feveral Swedifli
plants, particularly of fome Lichens. — Thunb. Jap. 9. Nov.
Gen. 64. Schreb. 232. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 230. JulT. 429.
Lamarck lUullr. t. 263. — Clafs and order, Hexandria Mo-
nogynia. Nat. Ord. Incerttt fedis, JulT.

Gen. Ch. CaL Perianth none. Cor. Petals fix, ovate,
obtufe. Stam. Filaments fix, many times (horter than the
corolla ; anthers very Imall. Pifi. Germen fuperior, ovate,
fmooth ; llyle erect, a little Ihorter than the corolla ; ftig-
mas two, reflexed. Perk Capfule of two cells. Seeds

EIT. Ch. Corolla of lix petals. Capfule of two cells.

I. L. vmbellata. Thunb. Japon. 145. t 21. Linn. Syft.
Veg. ed 14. 339. (Kuro Nosji ; Ksmpf. Anicen. 908.)
Found on the mountains of Japan, flowering in April and
May. — Stem ftirubby, branc!i.?d, fpreading .ind weak.
Branches alternate, zigzag, fmooth. Z-Mx;fj tlullered at the
extremity of the branches, on footftalks, oblong, acute, un-
divided, about an inch long ; fmooth and green above ;
hairy and paler beneath. Flowers terminal, in Cmple, many-
flowered umbels.

Thunberg informs lis that the .Taponefe make fmall
brulhes of the wood ■of this plant for cleaning tlie teeth.

LiNDF.R.i is alfo the name of a genus in Adanfon, Fi-
millcs dcs Plantes, v. 2. 499, by which he feems to have ia-
tended to honour Dr. Lmdern. (See LindeRSI.^.) Hil
plant appears to be a CharophyHuti.

M^ LINDtR.

L I N

L I N

LTNBF.RKRErZ, in Geography, a town of Saxorty,
in the circle of Koulbdt ; 8 miles NAV'. of Weyila.

LINDERXIA, \n Botany, fo called by Allioni, in ho-
noiir of Francis Balthazar voii Lindcrn, a phyfician at
Stralljurg, who lived in the early part of the lall century,
and appears to have graduated at Jena, where his inaugural
differtation, " de Vcrmibus ," was puhlillicd in 1707. — As
a botanill he is known from the following works, lountefor-
tins ^ilfalk-us, publilhed in Svo. at Strafburg, in 1728, -
and Hortiis ^Ufaticu!., in 1747. The latter contains an ac-
couat of the plants growing in the province of Alfatia, and
elpecially about Siraiburg. Both the works are accom-
panied by a few plates. — Allien. Ped. v. i. J7. Linn.
Mant. 1^4. Schreb. 4i(). Willd. Sp. PI. v, 3. 32J.
Mart. Mill. Diol. v. 3. .lulT. 122. Brown. Prodr. Nov.
Holl. 440. Lamarck lUuitr. t. 522. — Clafs and order,
Didjuamia yingiofpcrmia. Nat. Ord. Pcrfonatx, Linn.
Scrciphuluridc, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth of five, deep linear, acute,
equal, permanent divifions. Cor. of one petal, gaping,
two-hpped ; upper lip very (hort, concave, emarginate ;
lower ere<ft, trifid, the middle fegment rather larger. Stam.
Filaments four, in pairs, the two upper ones fim'ple, the
two lower afccnding, with a terminal, llraight tooth ; an-
thers twin, the lower ones as it were lateral. P'tjl. Germen
fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped ; ftigma emarginate.
Peru-. Capfule oval, of one cell and two valves. SaJs nu-
merous. Recept. cylindrical.

Eil. Ch. Calyx deeply tive-cleft. Corolla ringent, the
upper hp very fhort. The two inferior ilamens having a
terminating tooth and a fublateral anther. Capfule of one
cell.

1. L. Pyxidaria. Linn. Mant. 252. Allion. Mifc.
Taur. V. 3. 178. t. 5. Icon. Taur v. 16. t. S4. (Capraria
gratioloides ; Linn. Sp PI. 876. Pyxidaria repens annua ;
Liudern. Tourncf. Alfat. 156. t. y. Hort. Alfat. 269.
Gratiola floribus pedunculatis ; Gron. Virg. 3.) — Leaves
oval, entire, feflile. Peduncles folitary. — Originally a native
of Virgmia, in fpongy, inundated marrtics, whence it was
brought into Europe, and may at prcfent be found in fimilar
fituations, in Alface and Piedmont, flowering in .July and
Augutl. — Root annual. Stem fmooth, fquare, brittle, oc-
ealionally branched and creeping. Leaves oppofite, fmall,
(lightly notched, like thofe of Anagallis. Flowers axillary,
folitary, of a pale blue colour.

2. L. d'w.r.th.ra. Swartz. Prod. 92. lud. Occ. lOjS.
(Erinus procumbens ; Mill. Dift. n. 6 ) — Leaves on foot-
ftalks, ovate or roundith, llightly ferraied. Stem creeping.
— A native of moift fand or clay in Hifpaniola. — Root
thread-fhaped, with fliort fibres. Stem herbaceous, loolely
fpreading. Branches afccnding, fquare, fmooth. Leaves
oppofite, ribbed, fcarcely veined. Flowers fmall.

3. ]^. japomca. Linn. Syll. Veg. ed. 14. 567. Thunb.
Japon. 2^3. — Leaves obovate, toothed, the lower ones on
footflalks. A native of Japan, where it flowers through
flie fpring. Root annual. Stem herbaceous, branched,
weak. Branches alternate, from an inch to a fpan in length.
Radical leaves numerous ; Jlem-leaves few, feflile, all obovate,
obtufe, toothed, very ilightly hairy. Floiuers in chillers at
tlie extremities of the branches.

Thefe two fpecies lad defcribed are faid by the ingenious
Mr. Brown, in his Prodromus to the Flora of New Hol-
land, to be certainly different in gt'nus from L Pyxidaria.
The fame author defcribes the three following ne.w fpecies
of Lindirnia, all natives of the tropical part of New Hol-
land, though he remarks that they do not altogether ajCOrd
witli (he original charaftcr of iliis genus.

L. alfmoidts. Leaves ovate, entire or (lightly toothed r
ftein-leavcs dillant : floral-ones fmall. Tube of the coroSa
a little longer than the calyx. Stem ered.'

L.. fciipi:;era. Leaves broad-ovate, nearly entire: lower
ones cro^vded together: thofe of the item few and fmall:
floral leaves minute. Tube of the corolla twice as long as
the calyx.

L. fubnlata. Leaves linear-awl-fhaped, entire. Found
by the Rt. Hon. fir .(ofeph Banks only.

LINDERUPOE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Den-
mark, in the Little Belt, near the coall of Slefwick ; 8
miles W.S.W. of Aflens in the ifland of Funen.

LINUESNESS, or the Naxe, a cape on the S. coaft
of Norway, in the North fea, conneftcd with the land by a
very narrow iflhmus. The cape projefts into the fea about
a Norway mile towards the S.W., and is about half a mile
broad. The promontory is high, rocky, and barren, and
has upon it twelve houfes of peafants. N. lat. 58 l'. E.
long. 7' 12'.

I^INDEWEISE, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Neiffe ; 11 miles S.E. of Ncifle.

LINDISFARNE, or Holy IJland, an ifland fituatcd
in the North fea, oppofite to the toaft of that portion of
Durham which lies between the river Tweed and the county
of Northumberland, England. It was named by the Bri-
tons Inis-Mendicante. The appellation Holy Ifland was
given to it by the Englifh from being the refidence of feve-
ral of the primitive fathers of the Saxon church. The dif-
tance of this ifland from the Mainland is about two miles.
It is eafily acccflible at low water to all kinds of conveyance,
but the lands are dangerous to fuch perfons as are unac-
quainted with them. The circumference of this ifland is
about nine miles, and the number of acres contained in it
1020, nearly one-half of which are mere fand-banks. The
other grounds are rather of a rich foil ; but previous to the
)'ear 1792, when the common was inclofed, only 40 acres
were in tillage. The rental increaftd between the years
1790 and 1797, from 320/. to 396/. The town is fituated
on the wefl corner, and in 1 798 was inhabited by 379 perfons,
whiTwere chiefly employed in fifhlng. From the names and
ruins of feveral ilrcets it is con'iectured to have been at one
period much more i^onfiderable than it now is. In the year
635 this place was made a bifhop's fee by king Ofwald.
Its firft prelate was a Scotchman of the name of Aiden.
The church, or monaftery, originally confifled of timber
and thatch. St. Cuthbert, the faint to whom it was de-
dicated, was buried here ; but after the Danes began their
depredations, the monks removed to Cheller-le-flreet, and
carried the faint's body along with them. After their flight
the invaders dcilroyed the building, which however feems
to have been fubfequently rebuilt, at leail in part. Various
detached portions of this edifice are ftill (landing. Portions
of the church conltitute the principal ruins. The north and
fouth walls of it are ftill almoll entire, though mucli,out of
the perpendicular. So likewife is a part of the well wail,
but that on the eaft is nearly level with the ground. All
the arches of this church are circular, except two in the
chancel and one in the north aifle, but thefe, as well as a
pointed arch over the north aifle, feem to be of later date
than the reft of the building. The columns of the nave
are of four kinds, very maffy, and varioully ornamented.
The bafes and capitals are plain. Over each arch are large
windows in pairs, and over them again are fmallcr arches.
One of the ribs of the arch, which fupported the tower, is
ftill (landing. It is richly ornamented with Saxon zigzag,
as is alfo the wellcrn door and fome other arches. The
itones of which thia church is conftruded are of a deep red

colour.

L I N

colour. On the- fides mod expofed to tlie weather they are
eaten into the femblance of honeycomb. The reniairjs of
the priory and ofnces lie on the foiith fide. The in(idc of
their walls i.s built of whin-ftone, obtained from a rock
■which forms a lofty natural pier on the foutli fliore of the
idand. The pedeilal of fit. Cuthbert's crofs, anciently
held in great veneration, and now called the pellingjlone, is
. fitiiated a Ihort way to the eaft. When a bride cannot itep
the length of it, the fuperftitious reckon it ominous of fu-
ture unhappinefs in the marriage ftate. The parifli church
is a plain but fpacious (Irufture, having feniicircular arches
«n the one fide and pointed ones on the other. The win-
dows are long and narrow. The caifle ilands upon a lofty
whin-ftone rock on the fouth-eaft portion of the illand. At
the commencement of the civil wars it was garrifoned by
the king's forces, but (hortly after, fell into the hands of
the parliament. The Pretender attempted to obtain pof.
felfion of it in the year 1 7 15. A detachment of invahds
is now ufually ftationed here. Hodgfon's Beauties of
Northumberland, 8vo. 181 1.

LINDO, a town, or rather the remains of a town, in
the illand of Rhodes, anciently called Lindus, the native
place of Cleobulus, one of the feven wife men of Greece,
and of Chares, who made or at leall began the famous co-
lolTus, confecrated to the fun, and the fcite of a magnifi-
cent temple dedicated to Minerva. This temple is faid to
have been built by Danaus, king of Egypt, on landing
here in his fligh.t from his own kingdom. A teftival was
celebrated here, not with bleffings and prayers, but, as
Laftantius fays, with curfes and imprecations ; infoniuch
that if a good word efcaped from any perlon prefent, it
was deemed a bad omen, and the ceremony was begun anew.
The velliges of this city, called L'wdo, are feated in a ham-
let nearly in the middle of the E. fide of the illand, and
altogether peopled by Greeks ; its harbour, though far
from being fpacious, is niucli frequented by the fmall craft
of the country ; which there take in the commodities of the
iQand and bring thither merchandife from other parts. Ac-
cordingly ahnoft all the inhabitants of Lindo are addicted
to commerce, or to the carrying trade of the neighbouring
coafls and iflands ; they navigate with fmall lall-faihng
veflels conftrutled by themfelves, and to which they give
greater folidity than the Ihips which come oft the itocks of
Rhodes, on account of government. A few Lindians alfo
employ themfelves in rural labours, but as the part of the
ifland which they inhabit is lefs capable of tillage than any
other parts, on account of its ftony foil, their culture prin-
cipally confifts of plantations of vines, fig-trees, and iuch
others; 14 miles S.S.W. of Rhodes. N. lat. 36 17'.
E. long 27' ^8'. Sonnini.

LINDON, a fmall ifiand on the W,. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 60 5^'. E. long. j6 57'.

LINDOW, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark; 33 miles N.N.W. of Berhn. N. lat. 52 57'. E.
long. 13 . — Alio, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Franckfort on the Oder.

LINDSjEA, in Botany, a genus of ferns, fo named by
the late Mr. Dryander, after Mr. John Lindlay, " an
affiduous and feillful botanift of Jamaica,'' author of a
paper, printed in the Tranfaftions of the Linnxan Soc.
V. 2. 9J, on the germination and raifing of ferns from the
feed ; as well as of another paper, in the fame vol. p. 313,
concerning the raifing of feveral other cryptogamic plants
in the fame manner. Dryandr. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 39.
Sm. Mem. de I'Acad. de Turin, v. 5. 413. t. 9. f. 4.
Trafts on Nat. Kift. 242. t. i. f. 4. Swartz. Fil. 118.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. J5G. -Ciafs and order,

L I N

Ciyptcamla Fili:?!. Nat. Ord. Filices dorffirx, Lins*
Juil.

Gen. Ch. Capfules annulated, in continued, nearly mar-
ginal, lateral or ti-rminal, lines, twaohtcrum ariling from
the furface of the leaf, membranous, continued, entire or
flightlv ercnate, at length reflexcd, permanent.

Etl".' Ch. FruBifcatlm in continued, nearly marginal,
lines. Infolucrum from the furface of the leaf, continued,
feparating at the fide towards the margin.

Nine ipecies are defcnbed in Mr. Dryander's origin:^
eflfay, to which five are added by Dr. Swartz, one by M.
Labillardiere and one by Mr. Brown.

I. L.. fayjtlata. Dryandr. n. i. (Adiantiim fagittatum ;
Aubl. Guian. 964. t. 366 ) — Frond fimple, arrow or heart-
fhapcd, with a taper point. — Native of woods and fiiTurei
of rocks in Guiana. The roct is creeping, bearing five or
iix fronds in a clufter, near a fpan high ; ihejalis black and
fhmmg ; leaf fmooth, with dichotomous veins all fpringing
from its bale where the ftalk is infcrted ; line of fruftifica-
tion about a Itraw's breadth from the edge.

■2. L. renformis. Dryandr. n. 2. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
V, 3. t., 7. f. I. — Frond fimple, kidney-lhaped, obtufe. —
Native of Guiana and Surinam. - Much lilie the laft, of
which we are inclined to fuipecl it a variety.

3. L.. enffoHa. Swartz n. 3.- Frond pinnate; leaflets
alternate, "fword-lhaped. — From the ifland of Mauritius.
We have what anfwers to this charafter, from Madagafcar ;
but if right, it is very nearly allied to the following.

4. L. Lviceolata. Brown, n. 2. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2.
98. t. 248. f. 1. — Frond pinnate ; le.itlets alternate, linear-
lanceolate, fometimes pinnatifid ; ftalk fquare. — Found by
Labillardiere at Van Diemen's land ; by Mr. Brown in the
tropical part of New Holland. Each leafld is about one
and a half inch or two inches long, nearly felTiie. If the dicho-
tomous form, and great diftance of the lateral veins from
each other, which are very remarkable characters in La-
billardiere's plate, be correct, this fpecies is effentially
diltinCt from the laft, whofe veins compofe an uniform fort
of network, interbranching with each other over the whole
difli of the leaf. '

J. L.. grand folia. Frond pinnate; leaflets pppofite, ellip-
tic-lanceolate, pointed. Fructification lialf way between
the rib and the margin. — Gathered in Malacca. — We know
this merely from a pencil flvetch taken by the younger Lin-
ncEUS, marked with the native country of the plant, and a
note faying it " probably conftitutes a new genus, of which
Aublet's tab. 365 and 366, and an yldiaiilum of Smcath-
man's, are other Ipecies." This was perhaps written at fir
Jof. Banks's; but if fo, we cannot account for Mr. Dry-
ander's having omitted this fpecies, which appears to be
one of the moil rem.arkable of the whole number. The
/ron(/ confifts of Iwo pair of oppofite, (lightly ftalk ed, leaflets,
three or four inches long, with a terminal one ftiU longer.
A fine of fruftification lies midway between the rib and
the margin, on each fide of the former; but none of the lines
e.'itend either to the baie or the fummit, by near an inch.

6. L. linearis. Swartz n. 4. 318. t. 3. f. 3. — ^Frond pin-
nate, linear; leaflets very numerous, fau-ftiaped, finely cre-
nate and fruftifying a; their outer edge. — Native of various
parts of New Holland. We have it from Port Jackfon.
About a foot high, with a dark polifiiedy/j/i, tapering and
zigzag at the bafe. The leajets are imperfedly oppofite,
deflexed, fmall, broad and very ftiort, fo as to give a re-
markable narrownefs to the fliape of the whole frond.

7. L.falcata. Dryander. n. 3. t. 7. f. 2. —Frond pinnate;
leaflets fomewhat crcfcent-lhaped, entire, wavy,— Gathered
by Aublet in Guiana.— About a foot high, with feveral

pair

L I N

L I N

pair of ratlier clofe leaflets, each about an inch long, (lightly
falcate backward, wavy at their upper edge, along which
runs the line of frudilication. The terminal leajlet is irre-
gularly fhaped.

8. L. hdcrophylla. Dryjndr. n. 4. t. 8. f. i. - Frond pin-
nate; leaflets entire or ferratcd; the lower ones fomewhat rhom-
boid-lanceolate, pointed; the upper rhomboid and very ob-
tufe ; the upperinoll confluent. — Gathered by Mr. Robert-
fon at Malacca. A fpan high, with very various, lliglilly
dirtant leaflets, the longeft of which meafure fcarcely an inch.

9. L. iullreila. Swartz. n. 7. (Adiantum cultratum ;
Willd. Phytogr. fafc. I. 14. t. 10. f. 2.) Frond pinnate ;
leaflets oblong, obtufe, wavy at their upper margin ; the
terminal one elongated jagged. Native of the coait of Ma-
labar.—i^roW about five inclies high, with a green _//«//■, 10
or 12 pair of alternate, (lalked, horizontal leaflets, and a fingu-
larly jagged, elongated, upright terminal one.

10. h. flabellulata. Dryandr. n. 5. t. 8. f. 2. — Frond pin-
nate ; leaflets fan-fliaped, finely toothed ; the lower ones of
the old plants compound. Native of China, Macao, and
Sumatra The leaflets are almolt femicircular at their fructi-
fying edge, whicii ilands outwards, not upperinolt.

11. h. trapeziformis. Dryandr. n. 6. t. 9. —Frond doubly
pinnate ; leaflets quadrangular, abrupt ; the lowermolt: fan-
ftiaped.— Gathered in Grenada by Smeathman ; fee our n. j.
— A large and handfome fern, each branch of whole frond
confills of above a dozen pair of oblong quadrangular
leaflets, frutlifying at their upper and outer margins.

12. L.. guiatietifls. Dryandr. n. 7. (Adiantum guianenfe ;
Aubl. Guian. 962. t. 365.)— Frond doubly pinnate j its
branches fpreading, tapering ; leaflets crowded ; the lower
lunate; middle ones fquare ; upper fan-fhaped. — Gathered
by Aublet at the bottoms of little hills in the forefts of
Guiana. This is a very handfome/rt-n, two or three feet high,
■with a longifli JIa/i, and about fix pair of nearly oppofite,
tapering, widely fpreading branches, each compofed of in-
numerable, crowded, light green leeiflets, more or lefs rounded
in their upper or fore-part, which is bordered nith a broad
brown line of truftificatioii.

13. L.. JlriSa. Dryandr. n. 8. Swaitz Ind. Occ. 1722,
(Adiantum llriclum ; Swartz Prodr. 135.) — Frond
doubly pinnate ; branches ereft, contrafted ; leaflets tra-
peziform.— Native of .Tamaica, Porto Rico, and Panama.
—No figure of this fpecies has yet appeared.

14. 1^. media. Brown n. 3.- Frond doubly pinnate ; del-
toid ; leaflets obovato-rhomboid, coriaceous ; the lower
ones lobed ; the rell entire ; with a folitary uninterrupted
line of fructification at the fore edge ; the barren ones fer-
rated at the top ; ftalk fquare — Gathered by Mr. Brown in
the tropical pare of New Holland.

15. L. trichomamidcs. Dryandr. n. 9. t. II. — Frond
doubly pinnate ; leaflets membranous, bnear-clubfhapcd,
abrupt. — Gathered at Duflcy bay, New Zeeland, by Mr.
A. Manzies. A delicate fpecies, a fpan high, with (lender

'creeping downy roots, and fmooth hrov-njlalh. The leajlets
vary in fize and breadth, but are nearly wedge-fliaped, de-
current and confluent, of a light green colour and fomevvhat
membranous texture, fo as much to refemble a Trkhomanes
or Hymenophytlum ; their fummit abrupt, crenate or jagged.
Line of fruciificiition fometimes very ihort ; the involutrum
broadifti, fcarcely ever reflexcd, but finally deciduous, along
with the capfules.

16. L. tenera. Dryandr. n. 10. t. 10. — Frond triply pin-
nate, triangular ; leaflets obovate, fomewhat rhomboid,

.^ut. — Native of the Eaft Indies ; fent to fir Jofeph Banks
by the Moravian miffionaries from the ifland of Nicobar.
il appears to us as truly pinnate as any of the others, rather

than pinnatifid, though the ultimate divifions, or leajlets, are
decurrent ; ihefe are broader and more rounded than in tlic
lail, as well as lobed or cut.

17. L. mierophylla. Swartz n. 14. 319. —Frond lanceo-
late, trJply pinnate ; leaflets wedge-lhapcd, dilated and cre-
nate at the top. Gathered near Port .lackfon, New South
Wales, by Dr. White. This elegant fpecies is a foot and
a half, or more, in height j the whole frond of a narrow
lanceolate figure, with flender, lax, pinnate branches, and
fmall, light green dotted leajlets, which are wedge-lhaped,
tapering at the bafe, always crenate at the fummit, as is alfo
the involucrtim. Every leaflet is fuddenly dilated oppofite to
eac\i end of the frudlifying line.

Tlic three lad fpecies are naturally allied to the 'genus
Davallia (fee that article), with which they agree as to habit,
and occafionally even in the fhort round ligure of their
fructification and involncrum, which in general however are
continued in a fubmarginal line.

LINDSAY, John, in Biography, a learned nonjuring
divine, who was educated at St. Mary-Hail, Oxford. He
had a congregation in London, among whom he regularly
ofRciated, and was employed by Mr. Bowyer as a corrector
of the prefs. He tranflated Mafon's " Vindication of the
Church of England;'' and wrote "A Short Hiltory of
the Royal Succeflion ;" and " Remarks on Whillon's Scrip-
ture Politics.'" He died in 1768, aged 82.

Lindsay, 5/r David, a Scotch poet, was a native of
the county of Fife, and educated at the univerfity of St.
Andrews. He was at the battle of Pavia, and on his re-
turn to Scotland James V. appointed him mailer of the
herald's office. He wrote feveral poems, fome of which
have been printed, particularly his Sa'ires on the Clergy.
He died in 1557, aged 61. There was another of this
family named David likewife, who was born about the year
1527 : he was a zealous promoter of the reformation, and
died in 1592. He wrote the Hillory of Scotland from 1437
to 1 ^42.

LINDSEY, Theopiiii.us, was born at Miudlewich,
in Chefhire, June 20th, 1723, old ilyle. His father,
Mr. Robert Lindley, was an opulent proprietor of the
falt-works in that neighbourhood ; his mother's name was
Spencer, a younger branch of the Spencer family, in the
county of Buckingham. Thcophilus was the fecond of
three children, and f ) named after his godfather, Thcophi-
lus, earl of Huntingdon. He received the rudiments of
grammar learning at Middlewich, and from his early attach-
ment to books, and the habitual feriouinels of his mind, he
was intended by his mother for the church. He loll fome
time by a change of ichools, till he was put under the care
of Mr. Ijarnard of the free-ichool of Leeds, under whom he
made a rapid progrefs in clafTical learning. At the age
of eighteen he was admitted of St. John's college, Cambridge,
where, by exemplary dihgence and moral conduft, he obtained
the entire approbation of his tutors. As ioon as he had finifhed
his lludies at college, taken his firll degree, and had been
admitted to deacon's orders, he was nominated by fir George
Wheeler to a chapel in Spital fquare, London. Soon after
this, he was, by the recommendation of the earl of Hunt-
ill^;don, appointed domeftic chaplain to Algernon, duke
of Somerfet. The duke, from a great regard for his merit,
determined to procure him a high rank in the church, but
an early death deprived Mr. Liudfey of liis illuilrious pa-
tron. In 1754, he accompanied the prefent duke of Nor-
thumberland to the continent, and on his return he fupplied,
for fome time, the temporary vacancy of a good living in the
north of England, called Kirkby-Wilk : here he became ac-
quainted with Mr. archdeacon Blackburne, and in 1 760 mar-
ried

LIN'

ricd his daughter-in-law. From Kirkby Mr. Lindfcy went
to Piddletown, in Dorfetlhire, having been prefcnted to the
living of that place by the earl of Huntingdon : this, throngh
the interell of the fame patron, he exchanged, in i 764, for
the vicarage of Catterick, in Yorkfiiire. Here he refided
nearly ten years, an exemplary pattern of a primitive and
confcientious path>r, higiily refpetled and beloved by the
people committed to his charge. Befides his various and
important duties as a parifh clergyman, Mr. Lindfey was
ever alive, and iicartily aftive, in every caufe m whii h the
principles of truth a;id right rcafon were concerned. We
accordingly find him, in 1771, zealoufly co-operating with
Mr. arclideacon Blackburne, Dr. John .Jebb: Mr, Wyvil,
and others, in endeavouring to obtain relief in matters of
fubfcription !o the thirty-nine articles : the objeft of tliefe
gentlemen was fimply this, that the clergy of the ellabliftied
church migiit be permitted to held their preferments upon
condition of merely iubCcribIng their belief of the holy
fcriutures, inftead of the thirty-nine articles. The quellion
«as brought before the haufe of commons in 1772, but after
a very auiniated difcudlon, it vvas loll by a great majority.
Coiifidering the ilTue cf this debate as an abfulute difapponit-
ment and refufrd of ail their ju(l and righteous demands, lie
began to confider what courfe he ihould take to latisfy his
cou'.cience, and in a Ihort time explicitly avowed his i, ten-
tions of refigning his living. He had, probably, for fome
years, had doubts with relpect to the dodrine of the Tri:iity,
and other leading topics of the'eilabliflied faith, .Tnd early in
the year 1773 an anonymous writer, under the fignaturc of
Laslius, ftarted the fubjedl of the impropriety of perfons re-
maining in the church who could not confcientioufly conform
to her principles: to this Mr. Lindfey, in a letter to a friend,
mod feelingly alludes ; " The fubjeS: of Lxluis's lall letter
may give one many a pang. 1 cannot fay that I have been for
many years a day free from uneafinefs about it." In the fol-
lowing November he wrote to the prelate of his diocefe, in-
forming him of his intention to quit the church, and fignifying,
that in a few days he (liould tranfmit to him his deed of refig-
iiation. The bifhop endeavoured to perfuade him to remain
at his pod, but lie had made up his mind that duty required
the facrifice, and he was refoKed to bear the confequences.
When the act was done, he faidhe felt himlelf delivered from a
load which had long lain heavy upon him, and at times nearly
overwhelmed hirn. Previonfly to his quitting Catterick,
Mr. Lindfey delivered a farewell addrefs to his pariihioners,
in which he :'ated his motives for quitting them in a fimple and
very affecting manner, pointing out thereafons why he could
no longer condufl, nor join in their worfliip, without the
guilt of continu.d infincerity before GoH, and endangering
the lofsof his favour forever. He left C.:tterick about the
middle of December, a id after vifiting lome friends in dif-
ferent pans of the coimtry, he arrived in London in January
1774, where he met with fiiei.ds, who zeidoufly patronized
the idea which he entertained pf opening a ulace of worfliip,
devoted entirely to Ui itaria pri.iciples. A large room w<is
at firll fitted up for the pu pofe in Eilex-ftreet i;i the S'rand,
which, after overcoming fome 1-gal otillacles, thrown out by
the magillrates in the way of regilteriiig it, was opeoed
April 17, 1774. The fervice of the place was conduced
according to the plan of a liturgy which had been altered
from that ufed in the eltabliflied church by the late Dr.
Samuel Clarke, reftor of St. James's church, Piccadilly,
London. Mr. Lindfey publifhed the ftrnion whiih he
preached on the opening of his chapel, to whieh was added
an account of the liturgy made ufe of. About the fame
time he pubhthed his " Apology,'' of which leveral ed.lions
were called for in tlic courfe of a few years, 'i'his was fol-

L I N

lowed by a flill larger volume, entitled " A Sequel to the
Apology," which was intended as a reply to his various
opponents, and likewife to vindicate and eilablifh the leadii g
doctrines which he profeffed, and en account of which he
had given up his preferment in ihe church. This work was
publifhed in 1776, and in 1778 he was enabled, by the slu.t-
ance of his friends, to build the rhapel of Ef!i-x llri'ct, and
to purchafe the ground on whxh it itands. Till thefumnier
of 1793, Mr. Li'idfey, with the aid of his friend the Rev.
Dr. Difncy, condnttcd the fervices of the place, upon
ftrift Unitarian principles, to a refpectable and nnratrous
congregation. He th-.'n refigned the whole into the hands
of his very able coadjutor, notwithftanding theearneft wiflies
of his hearers that he fliould Hill continue a pait of the fi-r-
vices. Though he had quitted the duties of the pulpit,
he continued to labour in the caufe, by ids publiL-.tioiiS,'
till he had attained his eightieth year. In i8o3 he puhhflied
his lall work, entitled " Conferfations on the Divine Go-
vernment, fhewing that every Thing is from God, and for
good to all." The objeft of this piece, which has been re-
printed for general circulation by a fociety for promoting,
Chrillian knowledge, &;c. is to vindicate the Creator froin
thofe gloomy notions which are too often attached to his.
provide. ice, and to fhew that the govi-rr.mei.t of the world
is the wifeft that could have been adopted, and that a(Hic-
tions and apparent evils are permitted fur the general good.
From thisprincipilo Mr. Lindfey derived confolat ion through
life, and upon it he aded in every difficult awd trying fcene.
On his death bed he fpoke of his fufferiiigs with perfcA pa-
tience and meeknefs, and when reminded, by a friend, that he
doubtlefs was enabled to bear them with fo much fortitude
in the recolleftion of his favourite maxim, that " Whatever
is, is right ;" no, faid the dying Chrillian, wit'ii animation
that lighted up his countenance, " Whatever is, is bell.'' This
was the lall lentence which he was able dlltindly to articu-
late : he died November 3, 1808. Befides the wijrks already
referred to, he publilbed two differtations : i. On the Preface
to St. Jolin's Gofpel ; 2. On praying to Chrifl : "An Hif-
torical View of the State of the Unitarian Doftrine and Wor-
fhio from the Reformation to our own Times ;" and fevcral
other pieces. Among controverlial vvriters Mr. Lindfey takes
a very refpectable place, as his " Vindici.e PrieiUeiam," and
his ■' Examination of Mr. Robiufon's Plea for the D'vinity
of Ciinlt," will fhew. In every eharafter of life which this
excellent man fullained, he adted his part with iionour an-d
integrity, and for his exertions in the caufe of truth and
rational Chriilianity, whatever may be thought of lii.s peculiar
opinions, many will rife up and call him bletfed. O.liers,.
equally devout, equally humble, equally perfevering, will be
forgotten when the name of Thtophilus Lindfey fliad be held
in veneration, bccaufe to humility, piety, and perievorancir,.
he added a courageous avowal of wliBt he believed to be t!ic
truth : lie bore public teflimony, in oppoiltion to the penal
laws, in mattcrs-of faith, tliat llill exill on our liatutc-book,
to the Ui.ity of God at the hazard of all. Two voliimcs of.
hi.^ fermons have been pubhlhed fince his death. Montlily
Mag. Dec. l3c8.

LINDUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Britain, in
the country of the Coretani, which ty tiie jth Iter of
Antoninc is lituated between Caufenn* or Ancailer, and
Segelceum or I^ittleborough. This is univerfally agreed to
be Lincoln, which was a Roman colony, and ^ place o£
great in portance in ancient tinus. Baxter, without luffi-
cient authority, contends that Lindum was the Lendiniuiri'
in which fo many of the Romans were fiain by the Britons
in their gn at revolt under Boadicea. See LixcoLX..

Lil^DU.M was alfa the name of. a glace in the coiaitry of

the

L I N

L I N

tVie Dumnii ; whicVi, in both the fi)und and fignification of
the name, bears fo grerat a refemblance to Liiihthgow, that
it is moft probably the fame place, though its fituation
does not exaftly agree with that affigned by Ptolemy, who
is far from being correft in this particular,

LINDY, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Querimba,
S. lat. ()- 58'. E. long. 41' 4'.

LINE, in Geomtlry, a quantity extended in length only,
without either breadth or thicknefs.

A line is fuppufed to be formed by the flux or motion
of a point ; and is to be conceived as the termination or
limit of a furface, and not as a part of that furface, how-
ever fmall.

There arc two kinds of lines ; tiiz. nght lines, and curve
lines.

If the point A moves towards B ( P/. X. Geometry, Jig. I )
by its motion it defcribes a line: and this, if the point
go th.' neareft way towards B, will be a right or ftraight
line, whofe definition therefore is the neareft or fhortell
diilance between any two points, or a line, all whofe points
tend tlic fame way. It the point go any way about, as in
the lines A C B, or A c B, it will trace out either a crooked
line, as the upper A r B ; or elfe two or more ftraight ones,
as in the lower AC, C B.

Right lines are all of the fame fpecies : but curves are of
an infinite number of different fpecies ; we may conceive
as many as there are different compound motions, or as many
as there may be different ratios between their ordinatcs and
abfcifTas.

Curve lines are ufually divided \nXo gmmetrlcal 3^\A mecha-
nical. The former are thofe which may be found exaftly
and fecurely in all their points. (See Gkometrical /;nf.)
The latter are thofe, fome or all of whole points are not
to be found precifely, but only tentatively, or nearly.

Accordingly, Defcartes and his followers define geome-
trical lines, thofe which may be expretfed by an algebraic
equation of a determinate degree ; which equation is alfo
called locus.

The fame perfons define mechanical lines thofe which can-
not be exprefTed by an equation of a determinate degree.
Others,' confidcring that thofe called by Defcartes mecha-
riicalXvaa, notwithllanding their not being of a determinate
degree, are not Icls precife and cxaft, and confequently not
lefs geometrical than the others ; it being this precifion
which conflitutes the geometricity of the line : for this
reai'on, choofe rather to call thofe lines which are reducible
to a determinate degree, algebraical lines ; and thofe which
are not, tranfceiulcntal lines.

Lines are alfo divided into thofe of iha Jirjl order, feccnd
vrder, third order, &c. See Curve.

Sir Ilaac Newton enumerated feventy-two lines of the
tliird order, and Mr. Stirling found four more ; fince that
Mr. Stone has found two others, which had efcaped fir
Ifaac and Mr. Stirling. The two fpecies added are to be
reckoned among the hyperbolico-parabolical curves. Enu-
nier. Lin. Tert. Ordin. Linea. Tert. Ordin. Neutoniansc,
O.xon. 1717. Svo. Phil. Tranf. N^4;6. 5 6. SeeCuRVE.

Lines, confidered as to their pofitions, are e'llhur paral-
lel, perpendicular, or oblique ; the eonflruftios and proper,
ties of each whereof, lee under Parallel, Perpekuicu-

iAR, fvC.

Euclid's fecond book treat* moftly of lines, and of the
effefts of their being divided, aad again multiplied into one
another.

Lines, Algebraic, are divided into different orders, accord-
ing to the degree of thtir ecpiations, Thefe degrees are

S

ertimated, as in determined equations, by the degree of the
higheft term of the equation.

Thus a-\-by-\-cs=:o, is a general equation, es-
prelfnig the nature of lines of the firll order, or of ftraight
lines.

The equation tt -\- b y -\- c x ■\- d y y -\- e x y +fxx = o,
reprefents the lines of the fecond order ; that is, the conic
fcftions, and the circle, which is one of them.

And the equation a -\- by ■\- c x ■\- d y y -\- exy +
fxx -\- g y^ + /; X y y + i x'y + /.i-' = o, exprelTes in
general tlie lines of the third order. And the lines of the
fourth and higher orders may be exprefTed in the like man-
ner. Sec Cramer Introd. a 1' Analyfe des Lignes Courbes,
p. J2, feq. Mr. Cramer ufes tlie terms lines of tlie fecond,
third, fourth, &c. order, and curve of the fecond, third,
fourth, &c. order, iudiiferently. Sir Ifaac Newton has
made a diftinftion, according to him. See CuRVK.

LiKE.s. circular, converging, diverging, generalln:;, helifphe-
rlcal, hyperbolic, logijlic, nuigneticat, normal, proportional, qua-
drature, reciprtcal, roiervalian, and "vertical. Sec tlie refpedtive
adjectives.

J..1NE of the y]pfides, in Jljlronomy, is the line which joins
the apfides ; or it is the greater axis of the orbit of a
planet.

Line, Fiducial, the line Or ruler which paffes through the
middle of -.n allroiabe, or tlie like inilrument ; and on which
the fights are fitted ; otherwife c?\\i:A alliidade , index, dioptra,
and niedlellnliim.

Line, Horizontal, a line parallel to the horizon.

LiNE.s, Ifochronal and Meridian. See the adjeftives.

Link 0/ the Abodes, in yljironomy, is the line which join,?
the nodes of tlie orbit of a planet, or the common feftion of
the plane of the orbit with the plane of the ecliptic.

Line, Hnrti,ontal, in Dialling, is the common feftion of
the horizon, and the dial-plate.

Lines, Horary, or Hour-lines, are the common interfcftions
of the hour-circles of the Iphere, with the plane of the
dial. See Hou,\ry, and HouR-nVr/cj.

Line, Suh/lylar. See Substylah.

Line, Equinodial, is the common interfeAion of the equi-
noftial, and tlie plane of the dial.

Line, Contingent. See Conti^'Gf.nt.

Lines, Dialling and Meridian. See the refpeftive ad-
jeftives.

Line, in Fencing, is that part of the body direftly oppo-
fite to the enemy, wherein the fhoulders, the right arm, and
the fword, ought always to be found ; and wherein are alfo
to be placed the two feet, at the diftance of eighteen inches
from each other.

In this fenfe, a man is faid to be in his line, to go out of
his line, &c.

Line, in Fortification, is fometimes taken for a ditch, bor-
dered with its parapet ; and fometimes for a row of gabions,
or facks of earth, extended leiigthwifc on the ground, to
ferve as a fhelter againit the enemy's fire.

When the trenches were carried on within thirty paces of
the glacis, they drew two lines, one on the right, and the
other on the left, for a place of arms.

For the difference between trenches or approaches, and
lines, fee Intrenchment.

Lines are generally made to fliut up an avenue or entrance
to fome place ; the fides of that entrance being covered by
rivers, woods, mountains, morafles, or other obftruAions,
not eafy to be paiTed over by an army. When they are
conflrufted in an open country, they are carried round the
place to be defended, and ref'-mble the lines furrounding a
camp, called lines of circumvallation. Lines are iikewife

thrown

LINE.

thrown up to ftop the progrefs of an army ; but the term
is nioft commonly appHed to the line which covers a pal's
that can only be attacked in front. For conftrufting fuch
a line in the place moft convenient for the purpofe. let a
rope be run quite acrofs the way along^the intended place

top, feven or eight feet deep, and the fides of the ditch are
flopcd, fo as to leave only fix feet breadth at bottom ; the
breait-work, or parapet, is about feven feet thick on the
top or crown, and feven or eight feet high. The heights,
depths, and breadths, of the feveral parts of a line well

of the line, pegging it to the ground at the diftance of every defigned and finifhed, are exhibited in Plate VI. Fortification,

four or five yards ; and at the diilance of about ten or
twelve feet before the line, towards the enemy, let fuch
another line or row of flakes be carried in a pofition pa-
rallel to the firlt rope. When the labourers are properly
ranged within thefe limits, let them dig up the earth in this
breadth, and throw it on the other fide of the firit rope,
until a bank of about five or fix feet thick, and fix or feven
feet high, be raifed, floping the fides according to the decli-
vity neccflary for the earth's rolling naturally down the
bank ; and let the digging be continued till the ditch is
about five or fix feet deep, the breadth of the bottom being
about one-third of the breadth flaked out at top : the bank
may be rendered more firm by being trod or rammed down.
Llet the inner fide of the bank be pared with the fpade mto
fuch a flope, as a man flanding upright may eafily touch
with his arm extended flraight before him ; and at the iopt
of this bank, let a foot-bank or Hep be raifed, of fuch a
height, as a man flanding on it may eafily fire his m.u&et
over the bank, or let it be about four feet and a half lower
than the top of the bank or breaft-work. A gentle flope
may alfo be m.ade to the foot-bank, that the troops may
more eafily afcend it ; and let the crown or top of the
breaft-work be Hoped fo, that a muflvet laid fiat on it may
ftrike the ground xvith its fliot, about five or fix feet be-
yond the ditch. The bank or breaft-work will, in this
cafe, feture the troops behind the lines from the enemy's
fire ; and when they ftand on the foot-bank, they are more
than two-thirds covered, and, confequently, the troops
within may maka three of their ftiots tell for one of the
enemy ; and by going off the foot-bank, they may be quite
covered, while they load again ; fo that with this advantage,
they are in no great danger of being forced from the fines,
unlefs the enemy are greatly fuperior in number and
cannon.

The following Table ftiews the dimenfions of lines com-
monly conftrucled, and the rate of expence attending the
conftruftion of them.

Breaft-V\'or

k.

1 Ditch.

lixpence. 1

-^ 3

:l:l '

t-i

^■e

Si

o s
-J H

^-^

«f

U

Feet.

Feet.

[•>«.

Feet.

Feel.

Feet.

Feet.

4

Ik

6

8

2|

5

4f

I

S

7?-

0

lO

.-5i

?^

6A

I^

6

ih

6

12

4

6

8

2

7

Ik

6

H

4t

6i

lo

2i

•8

ik

6

i6

?i

7

12

3

9

Ik

6

i8

6

Ik

15

3k

The day's work here is for one yard in length ; and in
the firft, a hundred men will complete a hundred yards in
length of this kind of lines in one day ; two hundred men
in half a day, &c. The lines above defcribed are called
temporary lines, and chiefly ferve a prefent emergency.
When lines are thrown up at leifure, and defigned for longer
duration, then the ditph is ufually eighteen feet broad at

Vol.. XXI.

fs,- 3' '" which I L reprefents the ground line, or furface
ot the place ; A B the breadth of the ditch at the top ;
C D Its breadth at the bottom ; F A C the flope or fcarp
of the parapet and ditch ; 'D B K the counterfcarp ; £ F
the top or crown of the parapet or breaft-work ; E G the
inner flope of the parapet ; H G the top of the foot-bank ;
H I the flope of the foot-bank ; and B K L a fmall flooing
bank, called the glacis. This fedlion or profile inav be
drawn, by laying off in the ground-line, from any fcale of
equal parts, the diftances i a = 6 feet, ab = ^,'bc — i-i,
r ^ =. 7, </ A =: 4^, A /= 6, /^ = 6, ^ B = 6, and
B L := 5 feet. Through a, b, c, < ,/, g, B, draw lines per-
pendicular to I L. Make a H = 2^ feet = i G, <r E = 7
feet, dT = 6,fC = 8 feet =: ^ D. Draw I H, H G,
G E, E F, F A C, C D, and D B, which continue, till it
meets the line F L, and the profile is conftrufted.

When lines are made to cover a camp, or a large traft
of land, where a confiderable body of troops is pofled, the
work is not made in one ftraight, or uniformly bending line ;
but at certain diftances, the lines project in faliant angles,
called redents, redans, or flankers, towards the enemy.
The diftance between thefe angles is ufually between the
limits of two hundred and two hundred and fixty yards ;
the ordinary flight of a mu.&et-ball, point-blank, being ge-
nerally within thofe limits ; although muflvets, a little ele-
vat-jd, will do efFeftual fervice at the diftance of three hun-
dred and fixty yards. In Plate VI. Fortification, fig. 4,
are fliewn the forma of the ufual hnes, where the figures
CAB, c ab, are the redents or flankers ; A C, A B, ar,
a b, the faces ; C B, r b, the gorges ; A D, a J, the capi-
tals ; ByJ the curtin; and the angles CAB, cab, the
faliant or flanked angles. The diftance of the faliant angles
is about two hundred and forty yards at a mean; the length
of the capital is ufuaUy between forty and fifty yards, and
the length of the gorges is alfo about fixty or feventy
yards.

To make a plan of lines with redents ; draw the line
EEEE, &c. (Plate VI. ForfifieaUon,fg.^,) in fuch a.
manner, that, wherever there is a bend or angle, it may be
either at once, twice, or thrice, &c. the length of about
two hundred and forty yards from one another ; fo that
there may be a redent where there is an angle. In this
fine, lay ofi" the diftance of two hundred and forty yards
from E to E, E to E, &c. reckoning from the bends to-
wards each end, whether it happens that the line will or
will not be exactly meafured by a repetition of the two hun-
dred and forty yards. At each point, E, draw the capital
E F in a perpendicular pofition to the diredion of tiie fine
in that point, and make the capitals about forty or fifty
yards long. On each fide of E, take the half gc:ges E G,
EG, each of about thirty or thirty-five yards, and draw the
faces F G, F G ; and thus the out-lmc, or mafter-Iine, of
the curtins and redents is formed. Parallel to each curtin
and face draw lines, within, at the diftances from the mafler-
line of feven feet, eight feet, twelve feet, and eighteen feet ;
then the breadth of feven feet reprefents the plan of the
parapet, that of one foot its inner flope, that of four feet
the top of the foot -hank, and that of fix feet the foot-bank
flope. On the outiide of the niaftcr-line, draw lines at the
dirt..nce of lo^, 16^, and 22^ feet parallel to each curtin
and face ; and thefe will reprefent the plans of the fcarp,

N ' ditch.

LINE.

ditcli, aiiJ countcrrcarp ; obfervliii^ that the fahaiit angles
of the coiiiitcrfcarp arc rouiultd ^cfovc the an;^les ot iho
rodents. A plan of lljis kind fiiiiiicd from a Imnll Icalc,
as of twenty yards to an inth, is ulnully reprcfented by tour
parallel lines; one witlioul the nialUr-linc, reprcfentiiig the
counterfcarp or out-line of the ditch, and two within, re-
prcfenting the breadths of the parapet of the foot-bjnh.
In fome cafej, a fliort line is hallily formed by a number of
cbivaut lie fiijc chained together ; and in countries abound-
ing with wood, a line may be formed by laying, in a pofi-
tion pointing to the enemy, the Hems of trees and llielr
larger branches, piled on one another to a iufilcient heigiit,
and the inlerlllces filled with earth ; fuch a work is called
an ahbatis. See Roberlfon's Marino Fort. p. 2, &c.

l.INK, Fundnmtr.tal, is the finl line drawn for the pLin of
a place, and which (hews its area.

LiNii, Ciipilal, in Forlylcation. See Capital.
Link, Ctnlral, is that drawn from the angle of the cen-
tre, to that of the baftion.

Iasz of Defence. See Defence.
1a^& of Defence fichant. See Defence.
Iask of Defence razcnt. See Di-ir.NCE.
LiSE of ylpproach, or Attack, fignilies the work which
the befiegers carry on under covert, to gain the moat, and
the body of the place. See Afi'ROACIIEs.

hx'SK cf Coun/er-al)preach. St:eCoViiTEll-aJ>/>roach. See
Plate VI. Forlijicat'.oii, Jij. 6. >

Line of CircumvaUatwn, is a line or trench cut by the be-
fiegers, within cannon-rtiot of the place, which ranges round
their camp, and fecures their quarters againil any relief to
be brought to the bellegcd. See Cihcu.mvallation.

Line of Contrnvalhiti'jn, is a ditch bordered with a pani-
pct, which ferves to cover the befiegers on the iidc ot the
place, and to ttop the fallies of the garrifon. Sec CoN-

TltAVALLATIOy.

LiSES of Commmikation, are thofe which run from one
work to another. Sec Pl.iie'Vl. Fortification, fi^. 7. See
alfo Communication. But

Th Line of Communication, more cfpecially fo called, is
a continuad trench, with which a circumvaliation, or contra-
vallation h furrounded ; and which maijitains a communica-
tion with all its forts, redoubts, and tenailles.

Line of the Bafe, is a right line, which joins the points of
the two neared hall ions.

To Line a Work, fignifies to face it, chiefly with brick
or Hone; e. gr. to itrengthen a rampart with a firm wall, or
to euccmpafs a parapet or moat with good turf, &c.
Line, Indented, in Forliftcutian. See Redexs.
Lines, among Fo-wlers, arc nfed to exprcfs the ilrings by
•which they catch birds. The large and fmall land birds
are taken by them with equal eafe, and fometimes the water-
fowl.

Thefe lines are made of long and fmall cords, knotted in
different places, and containinir in length as many fathom as
the places where they are to be laid requiiv. Plovers, and
the larger wild-fowl, are very conveniently taken by them.
When tliefe llrin^-. are to be ufed, they mult be limed with
the ftrongeft bird-lime that can be got, and then coming to
their haunts before the evening flights, that is, before fun-fet ;
or, for the morning flights, at leail two hours before day,
the fportfman is to carry a parcel of fmall ilitks, each about
two feet long, and fnarpencd at both ends, but having a little
flit at one end like a fork. The plain end of each (lick is
to be ftuck into the ground, in fuch a manner, that the
ftick ftandiag aflant, its upper, or forked end, may be about
a foot and a h:ilf from the furface. The hmed llrings arc
viKD to be carried along all thcfe Hicks, in ditTerent rovvs;

fome higher ihan others. Every row of the flicks is thus
to be tilled, and the whole haunt covered with the lines.
I'hc plover, and other birds that fly low, when they come
to then- haunt?, fly directly in ainontjil the llrings, and are
taken ii: great numbers ; the whole flight coming in at once,
and covering all the place, fo that thofe which are not yet
aligliled, have no opportunity of feeing the diilreis of their
companions. There is no need for the fportfman to be con-
llanlly ujion the watch for the taking of the birds ; fur
when once they are taken they cannot loofen themfclves, fo
that he may come and take them up at his own time. The
water-iowl may beeafily taken, in the fame manner, by ob-
ferving their haunts, and flretching thefe lines, in feveral
rows, acrofs the brook, or river, iome higher, and fome
lower, the loweft lying a'moll at the edge of the water.
Thefe mud: never be ufed on moonlight nights on the occa-
fion ; for the fliadow of the llrings in the water \pill then
fright them away.

Line, in Genealogy, is a feries of fucceffipn or relations in
various degrees, all defcending from the fame common
father.

B4ne, DircS, is that which goes fiotn father to fon ;.
which is the order of aicendants and dcfcendants. See
DiitEcr.

Line, Collateral, is the order of thofe who defcend from
fome common father, related to the former, but out of the
line of alcendants and defcendants. In this are placed
uncle-, aunts, coufins, nephews, &c. See Collateu.vl.
See alfo Consanglinity and Descent.

Line, in Geography and Kavlgati-m, is ufed by way of
eminence for the equator or equinodial line.

The line in the heavens is a circle defcribed by the fun in
his courfe on the 20th dav of March, and the 23d of Sep-
tember. The line on the earth is an imaijinary circle
anfvvering to that in the heavens. It divides the earth from
call to well, into ti»'0 equal parts, and is at an equal
dillance from the two poles ; fo that thofe who live under
the lir.o have the poles always in their horizon.

The latitudes commence from the line.

The feamen have fometimes pratlifed the ceremony of
chrillening their frcfh men, and paffengei-:*, the lirft time
they crofs the line. See Bai'TISM.

Lines, in Heraldry, llie figures ufed in armories to di-
vide the fliield into different parts, and to compofe different
figures.

They are of difTerent forms, and were it not for this,,
many arms would be one and the fame, for a chief wavy
differs from a plain chief, by the lines -.hich compofe them,
and tlie heralds fliew particular reafous for ali thefe different
forms of lines.

Thefe lines, according to their forms and names, give de-
nomination to the pieces or figures which they form, except
the llraight or plain lines, which are carried evenly through
the efcutclieoa, and are four, "viz. the perpendicular line,
the horizontal-, the diagonal line dexter, and the diagonal
line finifler.

The crooked lines, which are carried unevenly through
the efcutcheon, rifing and tiHing, are thxfe : firit the iii-
grailed or engrailed, and inverted or invented ; thefe, when
reprefented together, arc fomewhat known the one from the
other, being oppofite to one another, both being made, as
it were, of femicircles : the ingralled with the points up-
ward, the invedled with the points downward. But this is
not a fufficient diflincliou : for fuppole the fpace between
them which they form be a fefs, then the whole is only in-
grailed, not invecled ; for the fefs ingrai'ed mud have the
points on both fidca turned towards the field, and the convex

or

LINE.

x>r gibbofe parts toward the fefs itfelF, and fo of a bend, writers : the fird is the falee or dovdail line, fo called from
chevron, and other proper figures of lieraldry ; and if thefe its refemblance to a fort of joint ufed by our carpenters, ia
be invefted, then the convex parts of the lines are towards' which one part goes alternately all the way down between

two others ; this is called by Morgan the inclave, or labelled
hne, becaufe the points, as they proceed from the ordinary,
fuch as the chief or fefs, reprt-fcnt not amifs the points, or
rather the ends of the labels. The other line is called
urdec or champagne by Frefne ; and by Upton, vnir, becaufe
its points are formed like pieces of the fur, called by heralds
-ca'ir.

The two laft of thefe are of very little ufe, the others are
the common lines of arms, and are called the attributes or
accidents of armorial figures which they form ; and if any

the fie'd ; but thefe line* are better diftinguillied wh.en

placed by way of bordure, with the letters within a bordure

ingrailed or invecied.

Thefe two lines are more hard to be diftinguiflied, when

the field is divided into two equal parts, of different colours,

as parted per pale, parted per fels, &lc. Here we know

not whether the line be ingrailed or invefted, except we

follow this rule, that the form of the hne muft be applied to

the colour firll nam.ed. The French terms for thefe two

lines are, for the engrailed, engrele, and for the invefted,

can h ; and the Litin writers exprefs ingrailed by //jj/v^/Za/vj-, other lines are found in the figures or engravings of arms

imbrkatus, and jlnalus, and the invefted by the words in- which are not reducible to the one or the other of thefe,

"■jcrtiis and canaUculalns. they are called irregular, and by the French heralds ckllc.

The v(-avy, or waved line, is f;?ch an one as is formed in The knowledge and ufe of thefe forms of lines are neceffary

reprefenlation of the waves of the tea, as parted per fefs in the fcier.ce of heraldry to diftinguifh and difference many

wavy in arms and other waved lines, as the wavy bai's all armorial bearings. '

L.INE, Lalelhd. See Labelled.

Line, Lateral, linca lateralis, in Ichthyology, a name given
by naturahUs to a line or (Ireak, with whicii many kinds of
fi(h are marked, pafiing along their fides. Few fi(h are
without this line ; but it is variottfly formed in the feveral

exprefs that the perfon got his honours by fea fervice.

Nebulee is another name of a line in heraldry : it exprefles
a clouded line ; the French call it nuance, and the Lafins
nebulofa linea. This alfo has been given to perfons who have
been eminently {killed in navigation

Crenele, or embattled lines, reprefent tiie battlements of kinds, and makes a very confiderable article in their defcrip-

a houfe, and are faid to reprefent in heraldry the fi<ill in
architecture, for which the firft of the family was famous ;
they were alfo given fometimes for eminent fervices, in af-
fauhing or defending catties in time of war, and fometimes
only as emblems of a houfe to exprefs a perfon who bore
them being of a noble houfe or family ; for of old, none
were fufFered to embattle their houfes but perfons of great
diilinftion.

The L.3tin writers in heraldry ufe for the words crenele,
the terms pir.natus and pinnis afperatns, according to ITredus
in his blazons, and Sylveller Petra Sandia in his w.urales
pinnalee.

There is another line of this kind in heraldry, which

tion, if not in the diftiii6tion of tiie fpecies. In fume fpecies
it is made of a feries of little poii.ts, or holes, as appears to
the eye ; of this nature is the line in eels, &c. In fame
others it is formed of a fort of dutt, running along the
centre of a great number of fcales. This is its ilructure ia
the generality of filhcs.

Tliis line, in various kinds of fifii, varies alfo in regard to
number, fituatiop, figure, and other properties. In regard
to number, there is no line obl'crved in the fyngnathi aiid
petromyza, in almofl all other fiih, there is one on each
fide ; and, finally, in foTne there are as it were two lines on
each fide : an inilance of ihis we have in the ammodytae. In
regard to the fituation, the diiferences are thefe: i. In

Leigh calls the battle-embattled line : this has one degree of fome it is near the back, as in the clupea, falmonf, perch.

embattling above another. When the upper points in this
kind of line are reprefented fharp, it is called campagne, as
if the lines ending in points reprefented baftions, or the
outer works of ciiies and camps ; and when the upper points
are rounded, it is called crenele embattled arrondi.

The indented hne is notched fo at the edges, that it re-
prefents the teeth of a faw, and has its name from the Latin
dens, a tooth, or from the law term indenture, a fort of
deed, the top of which is always notched hke the teeth of a
faw.

The dancette is another line, very much refembling the
indented line, but that it is always much fmaller ; it is
therefore faid by the heralds to be the fame in quality, but
rot in quantity. The dancette differs alfo from the indented
line, in that it aKvays confifts but of a few teeth, though
never lefs than' three, according to Mr. Holmes, in his
Office of Armory ; whereas the indented. line has always a
great many teeth. The French exprefs our indented line by
the term danche or deritille ; av.A the dancette, when it has
but very few teeth, and thofe very long, by the term •viiitre,
which Meneftrier takes to be the letter M, with its legs ex-
tended from fide to fide of the fliield, becaufe many who
carry a partition, or fefs, after that form, have the family
name beginning with that letter. The J^atin v/riters ex-
prefs the term indented by dentatus, indentatus, and denti-
euiatui f and when the teeth are very long, as in the dan-
cette, they call them denies decumani. See alfo Nebuly and
Raoui.ed.

There are yet two other lines mentionsd by the heraldry

and the like. 2. In others it is placed nearer the belly,
and runs parallel with it, as in the cyprir.i. j. In fome it
is placed in the centre of each fide between the back and
the belly, as in the caralTius. 4. In fome it is placed
a*ainft the interlliccs of the mufcles, or fpina derfalis, as ia
the murtena. And, j. In fome it is placed above the inter-
ilices, as in the ammodytE, &c. It has been fuppoied by*
many, that this litiea lateralis war. always parallel to the in-
terllices of mufcles ; but this is evinced to be an erroneous
opinion, by the obiervation of the perch and mackrel. In
regard to the differences of figure, this line is ia fome
ftraight, as in the coregone, falmons, &c. 2. In ethers it
is crooked, as in the cypriiii, the perch, &;c. and in the
generality of fifh is fmooth to the touch, but in fome it is
rough and aculeaied, as in the tracliurus and pleuroueCti.
See Anatomy cfFikijKS.

LlSEoflL'Banj^et, in the Manege. See Banquet.

Like of a Volt. Sec Squaue and Volt.

Line of Dircifion, in Mechanics and Gunnery. See Di-
rection.

Line of Gravitiition ef a heavy Bvly, is a line draw-n
through Its centre of gravity, and according to which k
tends downwards. ■

LiSE of the fKnftefi Deftnl of a heavy Body. SceJOc-
scent and Cycloid.

Linj: of a Frojc^iL: See PiiojnrTir si .;

Lines, in Mufc. Three, four, five, or fix horizontal

and parallel liix-: compofe the llafl", upor. which iv.A bp,

N 2 tw:ca

LINE.

tween which all mufic, I'mce the invention of counterpoint,
has been written.

The llafF in canto fermo, or plain fong, confided only of
a finale line, drawn through or between the points or dots
of different elevation, to aid tlie priells in chanting : then
two, three, and, finally, four, lines compofed the Itaff for
Gr-e^orian notes in the miffals and mafs books, in Roman
Catholic churclies ; and thefe liave never been incrcafed.
Secular mufic for the virginil, fpinnet, harpfichord, and or-
gan, from tile time of queen Elizabeth to the cud of the
feventeenlh century, was written on a ftaff of fix lines, both
in the treble and the bafe. At the beginning of the lall
century, all mufic, except the tablature for the lute and
o-uitar, began to be conltantly written on and between five
fines, called fpaccs, with the occafional ufc of fhort addi-
tional lines, for notes that go higher or lower than the re-
gular ftaff. The lines and fpaces in all mufic are counted
from the bottom, fo that the lowed is the firft, the highelt
in canto fermo the fourth, and in figurative mufic the lifih.
See Stave, Staff, Portee, and Righe.
■ Line, in Inland Namgatkn, is often ufed to cxprefs the
principal part of a canal, and thus to diftinguifli it from its
branches.

Lines of Deviation, denote lines on the parliamentary -
plans of fome canals, fliewiiig the diftances within a hill it
is intended that the cutting of the canal fhould be con-
tinued.

Line, Geometrical, in Perfpedive, is a right line drawn in
any manner on the geometrical plane.

Like, Horizontal. Sec Horizontai..

Line, Terrcjlrial, or Fundamental Line, is a right fine,
wherein the geometrical plane, and that of the picture, or
draught, inter-tdt one anotlier.

Such is the line NI {Plate I. PerfpeSive, jig. 3.) formed
by tlie iiiter!e£tion of the geometrical plane L M, and the
perfpeftive plane H L.

Line of the Front, is any right line' parallel to the ter-
reftiuil line.
. Line, Vertical, is the common fedlion of the vertical,
and of the draught.

Line, Vifual, is the line, or ray, imagined to pafs from
the objedl to the eye.

Line of Station, according to fome writers, is the com-
mon fection of the vertical and geometfical planes. Others
mean by it, the perpendicular height of the eye above the
geometrical p'aue ; others, a line drawn on that plane,
and perpendicular to the line expreffing the height of the eye.

Line, OijeSive, is any line drawn on the geometrical
plane, whofe reprefeiitation is fought for in the draught or
pifture.

L,inB of Dijlan<e. See Distance.

Lines on the plain Scale, in Trigonometry, are the line of
chords, fine of fines, line of tangents, line of fecants,
line of fcmi-tangentB, line of leagues. The conftruftion
and application of thcfe lines, fee under Scale, Sailing,
&c.

Lines on Gunter's Scale, are the line of numbers, line of
artificial fines, line of artificial tangents, line of artificial
verfed fines, line of artificial fines of rhumbs, line of arti-
ficial tangents of the meridian line, and line of equal parts.
The conllrudlion and application of thefe hues, fee under
Gunter's Scale.

Lines of the Sector, are the line of equal parts, or line of
lines ; fine of chord';, Uiie of fines, hne of tangents, line of
fecants, hne of polygons, line of numbers, line of hours,
^ line of latitudes, Kne of meridians, line of metals, hne of
folids, line of planes ; the conftruftion and ufe of thefe, fee
Sector.

Line, in the yfrt of War, is underftood of the difpolition
of an army, ranged in order of battle ; with the front ex-
tended as far as may be, that the feveral corps of cavalry and
infantry which compofe it, may not be cut off or flanked
by the enemy.

An army ufually confirts of three lines; x\\e JirJ} is the
front, van, or advance-guard ; the main body torms the
fecond, in which is the general's port ; the third is a referved
body, or rear-guard. The term line, as expreffing a mili-
tary arrangement for battle, was not known till the 16th
century. Before that period, wiien armies were ranged in
order of battle upon three lines, thefe feveral hnes were
denominated in the manner above ftated : but tlie terms
advance-guard, main body, and rear-guard, are never ufed
in modern times, except when an army is on its march :
when drawn up for aclion, or in the fiild for review, they
are denominated lines.

The fecond hue fiiould be about three huiulrcd paces
behind the firft, and the referve at about five or fix hundred
paces behind the fecond.

The artillery is likevvife diftributed along the front of
the firft line. The front line fiiould be llronger than the
fccond, that its fliock may be more violent, and that, by
having a greater front, it may more eafily clofc on the
enemy's flanks.

Each line is fo drawn up, that the vvinga or extremitie*
always confid of fome fqiiadrons of horfe, whofe inter-
vals are fupported by infantry platoons. The battalions
are potted in the centre of each line ; fometimes they are
intermixed with fquadrons of horfe, when a confiderable
body of cavalry is attached to the army. The fpace of
ground wiiich in each line feparates the different corps
from one another, is always equal in extent to the front
that is occupied by them. Thefe intervals are left in order
to facilitate their feveral movements, and to enable them to
charge the enemy without confufion. It is a general rule,
that the intervals or fpaces which are between each battalion
and fquadron belonging to the fecond hne Ihould invariably
correfpond with the ground that is occupied by the batta-
lions and fqu;idroni which conftitute ihc Jirfl line ; in order
that the Jirjl line, on being forced to fall back, may find
fufficient Ipace to rally, and not endanger the difpofition of
the y^coW line, by precipitately thronging and preffing upon
it. Each line is divided into right and left wings ; each
wing is compofed of one or more divifions : each divifion is
compofed of one or more brigades ; and each brigade is
formed of two, three, or four battalions. Battalions are
formed in line at a diftance of twelve paces from each other,
and this interval is occupied by two cannon, which are
attached to each battalion. For the difference between the
Pruffian and French mode of arrangement, and other par-
ticulars, fee Army, Battle, Column, Engagement,
and Tactics.

The Line is a term frequently ufed to diftinguifh the re-
gular army of Great Britain from other cftabllfliments of a
lefs military nature. All numbered, or marching regiments,
are called the line. The guards are an exception to this
rule. Tfie marines, fencible, militia, volunteer, and yeo-
manry corps, together with the life-guards, are not compre-
hended under this denomination. The term line, however,
has not been applied with fufficient precifion and difcrimina-
tiou. Striftly fpeaking, line, in m;htary matters, denotes
that folid part of an army which is called the main body,
and has a regular formation from right to left. Upon
the whole, it may be obfcr\ed, that the term is generally
mifapphed, and that it cannot, with ftrift propriety, be
ufed to diftinguifli any particular ellablifhment from an-
other.

Line,

LINE.

JLlNB, To, from the French aligner, is to drefs any given
body of men, fo that every individual part niiill be fo difpofed
as to form colleftively a llraight continuity of points from
centre to flanks.

Lime of March, denotes tlie orderly fiicceffiori of the
component parts of an army that is put in motion.

Lines of March, are bodies of armed men marching in
given points to arrive at any ftraight alignment on whicii
they are to form. The line is faid to be well drejfd, when
no part is out of the ftraight alignment. That this may
be effefted, at the word drsfs, which is given by the com-
mander, it is immediately to commence from the centre of
each battalion, the men looking to their own colours, and
the correiSing officers lining them upon the colours of their
next adjoining battalion.

LiiiiE-firings are executed feparately and independently
by each battalion.

L.1SE of Fire. See Fire.

Line, To form the, is to arrange the troops in order of
battle, or battle array.

Line, Inverfion of the, is a manoeuvre which is effefted
by facing a batcahon or line to the right about, inftead of
changing its pofition by a countermarch ; fometimcs it may
be neceflary to form to a flank with its rear in front. The
column, with its line in front, may arrive on the left of its
ground, and be obliged immediately to form up and fupport
that point, fo that the right of the Ime will become the left.
Part of a fecond line may double round on the extremity of
a firft line, thereby to outflank an enemy. Thefe, and
various other movements, may be found neceflary, and they
can only be praftifed with fafety and expedition by the in-
verhon of the line.

Lines, Retiring, denote bodies of armed men that have
advanced againlt an oppoling enemy in order of battle, with-
drawing themfelves with regularity from the immediate
Iccne of aftion. On this occallon, it is of the greateft
moment, that the line fhould be corre&ly drefled before
it faces to the right about ; and the battalions will prepare
for the retreat in the manner prefcribed for the fingle one,
by receiving the caution, that "the line will retire."

Lines of Support, are lines of attack, which are formed to
fupport one another. If there are feveral, the fecond fliould
oiitflank the firfl:, the thkd the fecond, the advanced one
being thereby ilrengthenra and fupported on its outward
wing.

To Line Men. Ofiicers and non-commiflSoneJ officers
are faid to line the men belonging to their feveral battalions,
divKioris, or companies when they arrive at their drafling
points, and receive the word drefs from the commander of
the whole. When a fingle battalion halts, it is dreffed or
lined on its right centre company, and muft, of courfe, be
in a ftraight hne. When feveral battalions drefs from the
centre of each on its next colour, the general line will be
ftraight, provided all the colours have halted regularly
in a hne. On thefe occafions, every thing will depend upon
the two centre dreffes of each battalion.

To Line a Coafl, under the immediate prefllire of invafion,
requires not only great ability and exertion in the com-
manding officer of the particular diftriA againft which an
inf.ilt may be offered, but itis moreover necelfary, that every
individual officer in the different corps fhould minutely at-
tend to the particular fpot on which he may be llationed.
The Englifli coaft, efpecially where there are bays, isalmoft
always interfered by narrow paffes through the rocks or
fand-hills. On this account, when any body of men re-
ceives orders to line a fpecifitd extent of ground, the cfficers
who are entruited with the feveral parts of a battalion or

brigade, (hould take care to make the moll of their men,
and to extend their files in fuch a manner, as not only to
prefent an impofing front from the crown of the hill, bul
to be able, at a moment's warning, to carry their whole
ftrength to prevent the enemy from getting upon the flanks
by fuddenly rufliing up the gap. Much coolnefs is required
on thefe occalions.

To Line Hedges, izjc. to plant troops, artillery-, or fmall
arms, along them under their cover, to fire upon an enemy
that advances openly, or to defend them from the horfe,
&c.

To Line a Street or Road, is to draw up any number of
men on each fide of the ilreet or road, and to face them in-
wards. This is frequently praftifed on days of ceremony,
when fome diftinguifhed perfon is received with mihtary
honours on his way throiigh places where troops are
ftationed.

Line, To Ircak the, is to change the direction from that
of a ftraight line, in order to obtain a crofs-fire.

Line, Turning out of the. The line turns out without
arms whenever the general commanding in chief comes along
the front of the camp. When the line turns out, the
private men are drawn up in a fine with the bells-of-arms ; the
corporals on the right and left of their refpedive companies ;
the picquet forms behind the colours, with their accoutre-
ments on, but without arms. The ferjeants draw up one
pace in the front of the men, dividing themfelves equally.
The officers draw up in ranks according to their commiffions,
in the front of the colours ; tvi-o cnfigns taking hold of the
colours. The iield-ofScers advance before the captains.
The camp -colours on the flanks of the parade are to be
ftruck, and planted oppofite to the bells-of-arms ; the
officers' fpontoons are to be placed between the colours,
and the drums piled up behind them ; the halberts are to be
planted between and on each fide the bells-of-arms, and the
hatchets turned from the colours.

Line, or Line of Battle, in Naval Tallies, is applied to
the difpofition of a fleet on the day of engagement ; on
which occafion the veflels are ufually drawn up as much as
poffible, in a ftraight line, as well to gain and keep the
advantage of the wind, as to run the fame board. See
Eng.^gexient.

This right hne, or long file, is prolonged from the keel
of the hindmoft to that of the foremoft, and paflTes longi-
tudinally through the keels of all the others, from the van
to the rear ; fo that they are, according to the fea-phrafe,
in the wake of each other. In the line, or order of battle,
all the fliips of which it is compofed are clofe hauled, upon
the ftarboard or larboard tack, about fifty fathoms diftant
from each other. When a fleet is drawn up in line, in pre-
fence of an enemy, it fhould be formed in fuch a manner •
as that the fhips may mutually fuftain and reinforce each
other, and yet preferve a fufficient fpace in their Rations, to
work or direft their movements with facility during, the
aftion. The line clofe -hauled is peculiarly chofen as the
order of battle, becaufe, if the fleet, which is to windward,
were arranged in any other line, the enemy might foon gain
the weather-gage of it ; and even if he thinks it expedient
to dechne that advantage, it will yet be in his power to
determine the dillance between the adverle fleets in an en-
gagement, and to compel the other to adlion. The fleet to
leeward, being in a line clofe-hauled, parallel to the enemy,
can more readily avail itfelf of a change of the wind, or of
the ncgleft of its adverfary, fo as to get to windward of
him ; or, at lealV, fo as to avoid coming to adion, if the
enemy is much fupcrior, or to prevent him from efcaping,
if he fhould attempt it. Belides, in this order, the fails of

each

LINE.

each fhip are fo difpofed as to counteraft cacli other, and,
tlicrcfore, the fhips in genera! neither advance nor retreat
during the aiElion, and are thus enabled to keep their fta-
tion, and to profeci:te the bailie with vigour, and without
diforder. Wliild tlie uniformity of the line is prcfervcd,
the admiral's orders may be readily communicated by fignals
from the van to the rear ; diilreded (hips may be more
eafily difcovered and relieved ; and the lltuation and circum-
ftances of the enemy's line will be open to the view of the
commander-in-chief. Moreover, the Ihips of the line fliould
not only be fufilciently clofe to fuftain each other, but tlicy
(hould be of the larger fort, with the weightier metal. Many
advantages concur to recommend the larger fhips in a line of
battle ; they overlook thofe of an inferior rate, which are
accordingly laid open to the lire of their mufeetry. In a
liigh fea they can more fafely employ the artillery of their
lower deck tlian a fmaller ihip ; and if both arc obliged to
Jhut their lower-deck ports, the advantage of the three-
decked (liips, with regard to their cannon, will yet be con-
iiderable ; they have lliree tier againd two, and two againll
one. The fame fuperiority fubiifls, in cafe they are dif-
mafted, when the upper deck is incumbered with the ruins ;
the large fliips, being higher between decks, are lefs incom-
moded wi-Ji the fmoltc, and their cannon is managed with
greater facility ; the large fltips, having greater folidity of
frame, are better calculated to relllt the cfFcdts of battle
and temped. In general alfo they fail better than the fmall
•ones, except in fine weather ; for, in a frelh wind, when the
fea becomes agitated, they have always the fuperiority. The
lire-diips do not fucceed fo well againft large fliips as the
fmaller ones ; the artillery will link them, or oblige them
fooner to rclinquiflj their dclign ; and they are eafily towed
away by the great long boats. The line of a fleet, which
has many capital dtips, need not be fo much inclofed as that
of an enemy which has fewer. The former may be alfo lefs
numerous, without being weaker. This circumdancc, how-
ever, flioiild not c.'iclude a certain number of the third and
Jo'.irlh rates, which are necefl'avy in all naval armaments.

The weather-line and the line to leeward have their feve-
■ral advantaiin'es and inconveniences. Tlic chief advantage
of tlie former are, that it may approach the enemy, fo as to
determine the time and didance of the action ; if it is more
numerous than the lee-line, it may eafily appoint a detach-
ment to fall upon the van and rear of the latter, and in-
clofe it between two fires ; it is little incommoded by the
fire or fmoke of the cannon, and n>ay difpatcii the fire-ihips,
oinder cover of the fmoke, upon the difabled fhips of the
lee line, or fo as to oblige tlie enemy to break the fine and
bear away. But the weather-line has alfo its defefts ; whf n
the fea is rou^h, and the wind boiderous, it cannot readily
fight with the lower deck battery ; it cannot decline the
action without the dangerous expedient of forcing through
the enemy's line ; and if it keeps tlie wind, the lee -line may
inclofe and totally dedroy it. The difabled diips of the
weather-line mud tack, to avoid falhng into the enemy's
fleet ; and if they are much diattcred, they may be alto-
gether feparated from their own £eet, particularly if they
are in the rear of the line.

The advantages of the line to leeward are thefe : the
fhips of the former may ufe the guns of their lower decks,
without t'ne hazard of taking in much water at the ports in
ftormy weather, which the line to v/indward cannot do with-
out great danger. The lee-line, though it cannot fo calily
.double upon the van and rear of the •enemy, and inclofe them
iietween two fires, may, ncverthelcfs, have opportunities of
lacking, and cutting olT a part of the enemy's rear. The
jdifobled fhips to leewiird ace more ealily removed from the

line than thofe to windward ; and the lee-line can with
greater facility avoid the aftioii than its adverfary, which is
a circumdancc very favourable to an inferior fqnadron. But
the defefts of the lee-liiic are, that it cannot decide the time
and didaacc of the battle, wiiieh may commence before it
is fufilciently formed ; and it will, j'crhaps, be attacked by
an enemy bearing down upon it in regular order. Tiie fire
and fmoke of the weather-line are a great inconvenience to
it ; and it cannot eafily break the enemy's line with its firc-
fhips, which are very flowly and with great difficulty con-
veyed to windward. The admiral's fliip always prefeVves
her dation in the centre of tlic YuiC. The line is faid to be
formed a-bread when the fliips' fides are all parallel to each
other, on a line which croffes their keels at right angles.
This is mod freq':cntly ufed in purfuing or retreating, with
the wind right aft, io that the line forms a perpendicular
with the direclion of the wind. Falconer's Mar. Diet.

Tlie two modes of engagement by the line to windward
and to leeward have been particularly illudrated ; and alio
the method of cutting or breaking the line of battle, lately
put in praftice to great advantage, by John Clarke, efq.
of Eldin, in his " EfTays on Naval Tatties ;" a fccond
edition of which was printed at Edinburgh in 1804, 4fo.
See Tactics.

Line is alfo a name given to feveral fmall corJs of dif-
ferent files, and ufed for various purpofes at fea. They
are fmaller than ropes, and formed of two or more fine
lirands of hemp ; as houfi-Une, made of three ftrand.'^, ufed
to feize blocks into their (traps and the cl'jes of fails, ami
to marl the flcirtsof fails to their bolt-ropes ; /of -//'nf, made of
three or more (Irands, ai d ufed for the log, &e. ; and mar-
lim, made of two drands, and ufed for the fame purpofes "as
houfe-line. Some ropes are, from their fitiiation, termed
lines, as boiv-line!, bimt-l'mes, dm or cleiv-lhies, FdncyHr.c,
which is a rope ufed to overhaul the brails of fomc tore
and aft fails ; fiirling-lims, girt-liih's, hcndl'ines, h-cch-l'ines,
which are ropes ufed to trufs up the fails ; life-lines, for the
prefervation of the feam^n, v^liich are worn hawfer-laid
rope, and made fall with two half-hitches round the llrap of
the lift-block, and jeer or tye-blocks in the middle of the
yard ; nave line, Jlal-linc, fpilling-lines, tow line, and tracing-
lines ; which fee refpeftively.

Li.VE, Ship nf the, is a vefTel large enough to be drawn
up in the line, and to have a place in a fea-fight. See
Smi'.

LlXE, Knave, in a Ship. See Kn.wk.

Link of Meafures, is ufed by Oughtrcd to denote the
diameter of the primitive circle in the projeftion of the
Ipherc in platio, or tliat line in which the diameter of any
circle to be projeftcd fails.

In the llercographic projection of the fphere in piano, the
line of nieafures is that line in which the plane of a great
circle, perpendicular to the plane of the projcition, and
that oblique circle which is to be projefted, interfects the
plane of the projection ; or it is the common fection of a
plane, paffiiig tlirough the eye-point and the centre of tlie
jirimitive ; and at right angles to any oblique circle which is
to be pro'iedlcd, and in which the centre and pole of-lucli
circle will he found.

Line, Meaftre of a. See MF..^.suRI•.

Line of Demarsalion, or A'icxandrlan Line, is a meridian
paffing over the mouth of t)ie river Maragnon, and by the
capes of Houmas and Malabrigo ; io called from pope
Alexander VI- who, to end the dilputcs between the crowns
of Caitile and Portugal about their boundaries, in 1493,
drew ani'Kaginary line on the globe, which was to tcrmiiiaie
the pretenfions of eacli. By which partition the Ead Indi<;s

8 fell

L I N

L I N

fell to tTie lot of the Portuguefe ; and ttic Weft Indies, then
newly difcovered, to the Caililians,

Line, BoiuHnq, Bunt, Cram, Furlong, Log, Rhumb, and
Jiakr } fee u:;dtr tiie refpt-.'itive adjeClivcs.

Line aifo d-Totts a fmall French meafure, containing the
i;th part of an inch, t-.r i44*h part of a foot.

Ttiegtorr.etricians, not'.viihftanding its fmalhiefj, conceive
the line fubdividtd into fix points.

The French line anfwers to the Englifh barley-corn.

Line. Angling. The bed materials for making thefe
lines sre line and even horfe-hairs : the hair (hould be round
and twilled even, for that greatly ftrengthens it ; and all the
hairs fiiould be of an equal bignefs, or as nearly lo as may
be. Tlicy (hould be laid in the water about a quarter of an
hour after twiftiiig, that it may be feen which will fhrink ;
they are then to be twilled over again. In this la!l twilling
fome intermingle fdk airoiig them, but that is not fo well.
Lines made entirely of filk are not bad ; but tliofc of filk
and hair mixed are never found to do well. The beft co-
lours for a line are forrel, white, and grey ; the two laft are
beft for ani^ling in clear w'uters ; the former in muddy ones.
The pale w-atery-grcen is alfo a very good colour, and may
be made thus: boil in a qu:nrt of alum-water a large hand-
ful of marygold-fiowers ; there will arife a fcuhi which mail
be taken off ; then add to tliis liquor copperas and "erdigris,
of each half a pound, beat to pov. der together ; boil thefe
up together; ihen put the hair into this liquor, and let it
lie ten or twelve hours ; it will obtain a watery biiieilh greea
colour, which will not wafii out afterwards.

LiXE of Equat.d Balirs. See Equated Bodies.

Lines, Gauge, Plumb, and Rear. See the feveral ad.-
jeftives.

Line. White, in Printing. See White.

LINEA Ai.B.\, in Anatomy, is a white line in the abdo-
men, formed Ly the union of the tendon.? of the abdominaf
mufcles. See Obliquus externus ahJumims.

LiNE.V Medh^nj. See \'ediAN.\.

LiNE.v Ntlul'jfa. See Nf.bulo.sa Llnea.

LlNE.l Semilunaris, is a line following the outer edge of
tlie Rectus abdominis mufcle ; which fee.

LiNE.E Tranjverfj, lines crcfling the re(Elus abdominis.
See Rectus.

LINEx^L Descent. See Descent-
Lineal .EA:c_f£/(>. See Exegesis.

LINEAMENT, a fine ftroke or line obferved in the
face, and forming the delicacy thereof; being that which
preferves the refemblance, and ocrafions the relation of like-
nef^, or unlikenefs, to any other face.

It is by thele that pliyfiognomills pretend to judge of
the temper'and manners of people.

Lineament is alfo ufed by the painters for the outline of
a face. See Contour.

LIKEANS PuxcTUM. See Punctu.m.

LINEA.R Leaf. See Leaf.

Linear Numbers, are fuch as have relation to length only.
See Nu.MBEa.

Such e. gr. is a number which repiefents one fiJe of a
plane figure. If the plane figure be a Iquare, the linear
iiumber is called a r» ^

LiNB.-\R Problem, in Mathemalles, is that which may be
ffilved geometrically, by the interfedlion of two right lines.
E. gr. to meafure an iiiaccefiible height by the means of two
unequal fticks, &c.

This is alfo cidled zjm^le problem, and is capable but of
one Iblu'.icQ,

LINE ATORES, in the Hippodrome at Conftantinople,
were tlie fame with the deftgnutores in the Circus at Rome.
See Hll'PODHO.ME, CiRc.u.s, ai.d De^ignatok.

LINEN, ill Geography, a town of Germany, in the county
of Tecklenbnrg ; 7 miles S.S E. of Tecklenburg.

Linen, in the Manufaclures. There are various forts'
of 'inen, the principal materials of which are cotton, flax^
and hemp. The linen trade of Europe is chiefly in the
hands of the Ruffians, Germans, Swiis, Flemings, Hol-
landers, and French.

Linen is the llaple of Ireland, as it was of Scotland ; but
it was long neglected. The Scots at prefent are not, 'how-
ever, in fo bad a fituation in refpeft to this trade, as the
French were in the reign of king Henry IV. or the Irifh at
the Revolution ; where, by the force of public encourage-
ment, it has arrived to an extiaordinary pitch, and it is to be
hoped will daily advance : the Scots have it not to begin,
and they are improving and extending it to a very greaC
degree.

The balance of trade between England and Scotland, and'
England and Ireland, is on the Englidi fide ; and fo far as
England and its dependencies can be lerved with linen from
Scotland and Ireland, inileadot Holland, France, Germany,
and Rufiia, fo far will England be a gainer by this change
in the courfe of trade. The more linen the Scots and Irifh
can fell in England, the more of the Englifh commodities
will they be able to purchafe ; and it may be reafonably
fuppofed that iheir demands from England will always in-
creafe in proportion to the incrcafe of their people and linen
manutajdures. It is then evidently the intereft of England
to promote and advance the manufafture of linen in Scot-
land and Ireland, and to give them all rtafonabJe advantages
in the trade, in preference to foreigners ; where the balancer
of trade is againff us, and this feenis to be the fenfe of the
nation, iince all foreign linen, for home confumption, pays a
duty. Poft. Did. Com.

The linen trade of this country is regulated by feveral
ftatutes.

No perfon Ihall put to fale any piece of dowlas linen, &c.
unlefs the juft length be expretfcd thereon, on pain of for-
feiting the fame. (28 Hen. VIll. cap. 4.) Ufing means
whereby hnen-cloth ihall be made deceitfully, incurs a for-
feiture of the linen, and a month's imprifonment. (Stat, -
I Ehz. cap. 12.) Any perfons may fet up trades for dreff-
ing hemp or flax, and making thread for linen-cloth, &c.
15 Car. II. cap. 15.

By the 43 Geo. III. c. 69. all tbrmer duties on linen
cloth, filks, cottons, and calicoes, are repealed; and in lieu,
thereof other duties are impofedupon all goods which fhall be
printed, itained, painted, or dyed in Great Britain, accord-
ing to a fchedule annexed to the atl : and by 50 Geo. III.
c. 26. certain export duties are impofed ; the faid duties
to be paid by the printer, llainer, painter, or dyer. By
49 Geo. III. c. 9S. certain duties and cufloms are impofed-
upon French linens, (or lawns.) By 43 Geo. Ill; c. 69.
every calico printer, and every printer, painter, or ilainer
of linens, cottons,, or fluffs, fhail pay annually for a licence
10/. The printing or ftaining of calicoes rauft be for ex-
portation ; becaufe by 7 Gee. ft. i. c. 7. the ufe of printed,
painted, ftained, or dyed calico for wearing apparel is pro-
hibited, on pain cf 5/. to the informer, on conviftion : and
a perfvin oft'ering fuch for fale, unlefs for exportation,
forfeits :c/., half to the informer, and half to the poor.
This prohibition, however, does not extend to calicoes dyed
wholly blue : and it fhall be lawful to ufe ftuff made of linen
yarn a.id cotton wool manufaftured, and printed or painted
m Great Britain, provided the warp thereof be wholly linen

LINEN.

yam. (9 Geo. II. c. 4.) By 14 Geo. III. c. 72. itisenafted
that no greater duty (hall be paid for ftiiffs made of raw cot-
ton wool within this kingdom than ^^d. a yard, 4:; Geo. III.
c. 69. and that any perfon may ufe the fame in apparel
or otherwife : and every piece is to have three blue ftripes
in both felvedges, and to be (lamped at each end with a
ftamp provided by the officers of excife, and inftead of the
word calico, ufed for foreign calicoes, each piece fhall be
marked with the words Brifi/h MaiiufaBory. If ftuffs
made wholly of cotton, and printed, painted, (lained, or
dyed fluffs, (mnfliiis, neckcloths, and fullians excepted,)
witliout fuch mark (hall be expofcd to falc, they (hall be
forfeited, and 50/. for each piece. If any perfon (hall
counterfeit fuch ftamp, or knowingly fell fuch ftuffs with
a counterfeit (lamp, he (liall be guilty of felony without
benefit of clergy. If any perfon (hall import any c.ilicoes,
muflins, or other (luffs made of hnen yarn only, or of linen
yarn and cotton wool mixed, or wholly of cotton wool, in
wliich (hdU be wove in the fclvedge any fuch blue llripe,
he fhall forfeit the fame, and 10/. for each piece. Every
fuch printer, painter, (lainer, or dyer, (hall give notice in
writing, at the next ofHce, of his name and place of abode,
and where he intends to work, on pain of 50/. (10 Anne,
c. 19. 2C Geo. III. c. 72.1 By I Geo. (I. 2. c. 34. anyperfon,
undertaking to print, paint, &c. any (ilks, linens, or fluffs,
at any other place than the place of his ufual refidence or
exercife of his trade, lliall firft make entry of the place, and
pay the duties, on pain of 50/., and forfeiture of the goods.
Officers may enter at all times by day or night to take ac-
count, &c. and the penalty of obftrufting the officer in the
execution of his duty is 200/. (loAnne,c. 19. 25 Geo. III.
c. 72.) Goods fliall be entered once in fix weeks on
oalh before the colleftor or fupervifor, on pain of 50/.
(10 Anne, c. 19.) No perfon fhall begin to print, ftain, paint,
or dye any goods before they have been meafured and marked,
on pam of forfeiting the fame, and alfo 20/. for every piece.
(25' Geo. III. c. 72.) If ar.y printer fhall wilfully cut out or
deface fuch frame mark, he fhall forfeit 50/. Concealing
goods, or avoiding duty, incurs a forfeiture of 50/. : and all
goods found in a place, of which no notice has been given,
or the value thereof, fhall be forfeited. (10 Anne, c. 19.
25 G"o. III.c. 72.) Nor fhall goods be kept in unentered
places on pain of forfeiting jo/. and the goods. 20 Geo. III.
c. 72.) Within fix weeks the duties (hall be cleared,
on pain of forfeiting double. (lo Anne, c. 19.) Nor fhall
they be removed before the officer hath taken account of
them and (lamped thfm, on pain of 5c/. and feizure.
(loAnne, c. 19. 25 Geo. III. c. 72.) Goods furveyed fhall
be kept feparaie from thofe unfurreyed, on pain of 50/. :
and goods unitamped may be fearched for and feized.
(10 Anne, c. 19. 25 Geo. III.c. 72.) The perfon in whofe
cuflody luch goods are found fhall forfeit 100/. 5 Geo.
c. Jl. 27 Geo. III. c. 31.

Calicoes, &c. that (hall not have three blue threads in
the felvtdge, fhill be deemed foreign calicoes, and on being
printed or dyed, fliall be marked at each end with the words
" fori'ign calicoes for exportation;" and every dealer who
fhall have any fuch goods in his cullody (except dyed
throughout of one colour) or any fluffs made wholly of
cotton wool wove in Great Britain, commonly called
" Britifli Munufaftory,'' (muflins, neckcloths, and fuftians
excepted.) not having fuch blue threads, (hall forfeit 200/.
and every luch piece found in his cullody. (25 Geo. III.
c. 72.) The owner or printer of any piece or remnant of
coflac or foreign muflins and calicoes fhall, before they be
prcfented to the officer, mark the fame at both ends with a
frame mark, containing his name and place of abode, and

alfo the name by which fuch goods are commonly knowa
(except fuch as arc dyed throughout of one colour) on
pain of forfeiting 10/. for every piece or remnant. The
owner or printer of any linens or ftuffs made of cotton
mixed, or wholly of cotton wool wove in Great Britain,
called " Britifh Manufactory or Muflins," fliall mark the
fame at both ends (fuftians, velvets, velverets, dimities, and
other figured ftuffs excepted) with a mark, containing his
name and place of abode, and the name and quality of fuch
goods, with the ready money price thereof, before the fame
are prcfented to the officer in order to be printed or dyed :
.on pain of forfeiture and feizure, and 20/. ; and if any fuch
piece be marked at a lefs price than the real value, the fame
may be fcizcd and forfeited, and the owner fhall forfeit 20/.
If the frame mark be defaced, the fame fhall be renewed on
notice ; but if any perfon fhall counterfeit or forge any
frame mark, he fhall forfeit lOo/. : and if any perfon coun-
terfeit the ftamp, it is felony without benefit of clergy.
(25 Geo. III. c. 72. 27 Geo. III. c. 31.) If any perfon
fliall knowingly fell any of the goods with a counterfeit
ftamp, he fhall forfeit 100/. and ftand two hours in the
pillory. (10 Anne, c. 19. 13 Geo. III. c. j6. 25 Geo. III.
c. 72.) By 27 Geo. III. c. 31. if any peribn fliall know-
ingly fell aay fuch goods with counterfeit (lamp, thus in-
tending to defraud his majefty, he (hall be guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy. Every perfon who hath paid 'the
duties, or bought the goods of any perfon who hath paid
the duties, may export the fame, and fhall be allowed all
the duties in drawback, as fet forth in 43 Geo. III. c. 69.
Sched. C. on conforming to certain prefcribed conditions.
(25 Geo. III. c. 72. 25 Geo. III. c. 74.) By the 4 Geo. III.
c. 37. which eftablifhes the corporation of the Englifh
Linen Company for making cambrics and lawns, it is enadled
that the commiffioners of excife, where there fhall be a ma-
nufa£lory of cambrics or lawns, or of goods known under
that denomination, fhall appoint the fupervifor or other
officer to feal the fame, for which they fliall have fuch fee
as the commiffioners fhall appoint : the manufacturer to give
notice in writing to the officer, of the finifliing of every
piece, before it is taken out of the loom, who fliall feal the
fame at both ends ; on pain that fuch manufacturer, taking
the fame out of the loom without having given fuch notice,
and having the fame fealed as aforefaid, fliall forfeit 5/. ; and
every fuch piece fhall be forfeited, and may be feized by any
officer of the cuftoms or excife, and the officer, with con-
venient fpeed after notice, fhall mark and alfo number
each piece ; and make entry in writing, in books to be pro-
vided at the expence of the manufafturer, of the number
fet to each piece, the length thereof, and the number of
threads in the warp, on pain of 10/. If the officer fhall
mark arry not made in England, or after the fame is taken
out of the looms, he fhall forfeit 50/. for each piece to him
who fhall fue, and forfeit his office, and be incapacitated
to hold any other office of truft under the crown. If
any perfon fhall offer to the officer any bribe, he fliall
forfeit 50/. ; and if he fhall by bribery, or otherwife, prevail
upon the officer to commit fuch offence, he fliall forfeit
100/., and ftand in the pillory two hours. And the officer
fhall yearly, in the month of June, tranfmit to the commif-
fioners an account of all goods which he fliall have ftamped,
and a copy of the entries made, on pain of difmiffion ;
and he, or his executors, fhall deliver up the feals, on de-
mand from the commiffioners, on pain of 200/. Cambrics
and lawns made in England found undamped, fhall ba for-
feited, and may be feized by any officer of the cuftoms or
excife, and after condemnation fhall be fold ; and every per-
fon who fhall fell or expofc to fale. or have in his cuftody

for

L I N

L I N

fbr that purpofe, any cambrics or lawns made in England,
\inmar!»"d, Ihall forfeit 30o/. fuch goods not to be fold,
or worn in this kingdom, but to be exported, and to be
fold only on condition of exportation. Nor fliall tliey be
delivered out of the warehoufe until bond be given, to the
fatisfattion of the coUedor, in double penalty of the goods,
that the fame fhall be exported, and not relanded. To
counterfeit the feal appointed by this att, or import any fo-
reign cambrics or lawns having fuch counterfeit mark
thereon, or expofe the fame to fale, knowing the (lamp
thereon to be counterfeited, is felony without benefit of
clergy. All goods condemned in purfuance of this act,
and all pecuniary forfeitures (not otherwife direfted) fhail
fee fued for and recovered in any of his majelly's courts,
in the name of the attorney-general, or of Inch ofScer as
aforefaid ; and applied, after dednftion of charges, half to
the king, and half to the officer feizing, informing, or fuing,
according to the direftions of this aft. The penalties may
be fjed for, levied, and mitigated as by the laws of excife,
or in the courts at Weftminlter ; ard employed half to the
kinn-, and half to him that fhall difcover, 'inform, or fue.
( 10 Anne, c. 19. 24 Geo. II. c. 40. 25 Geo. III.c. 72.)
AH utenfils and inftriinicnts for printing, painting, ilaining,
ci- dyeing fneh goods, in cuftody of the faid perfjn, or
any other, fhall be liable to all arrears of the duty, and
to all penalties concerning the fame, in like manner as if fich
perfon was the lawful owner. 10 Anne, c. 19. 25 Geo. HI.
c. 72. 28 Geo. III. c.'37.

Stealing of linen, fulUan, cotton goods, &c. from
whitening-grouncs or drying houfes, to the value of 10s.
or knowingly buying or rec-.-iving fuch ilolen goods, is
felony without benefit of clergy. (18 Geo. II. cap. 27.)
Such alfo is breaking into houfes, {hops, 5cc. and dettroying
any linen cloth, or implements uled in the manufatluring of
it, by 4 Geo. III. cap. 37. See Larceny.

A new manufafture was fet on foot fome time ago in
London, for embelliihing linen with flowers and other or-
naments of gold leaf. The linen looks whiter than mqft of
the printed linens ; the gold is extremely beautiful, and is
faid to bear wafiting well. See Stuff.

There are many fubftances from which a juice or dye is
obtained, that will ilain linen of different colours. The
juice of the anacardium, rubbed on linen or cotton, gives a
reddifii-browrt Ilain, which foou deepens in the air i;ito a
black, and which has not been difchirged by v/alliing and
boiling, with foap or alkaline ley. Hence the anacardium
is faid to be ufed for marking linen and cotton cloths, and
to be known ail over India by the name of marking-nut.
The juice of the calhew-nut, called by fome the anacar-
diuin of the Weft Indies, differs from the oriental anacar-
dium ill its colouring quahty ; that lodged between its iheiis
being :nuch paler, and giving to linen, cotton, or paper,
only a biownifh (lain, which is durable, but does not change
at all towards blacknefs.

Several fpecies of the toxicodendron, or poifon-wood,
contain in their leaves a milky juice, which in drying be-
comes of a deep black, and communicates the fame colour
to the linen on which it is dropped : tlie linen thus ilained,
boiled with foap, came out without the lead diminution of
iti colour, nor does llrong ley of wood-a(hes make any
change in it. Phi!. Tranf. vol. xlix. for 1755.

Dr. Lewis has found, that the milks oF wild poppies,
garden poppies, dcindelion, . .hawk-weed, and fow-thillle,
pare brown or browni(h-red llains, which were difcharged
by waihing with foap ; the colourlefs juice which ilTues
from hop-llalks when cut, llains linen of a pale reddidi or
browni(h-red, extremely durable : the juice of floes gave
Vol. XXI.

likewife a pale brownilh Ilain, which, by repeated wa(?ring§
with foap, and wetting with ilrong folution of alkaline fait,
was darkened to a deeper brown ; on baking the floes, their
juice turns red, and the red Ham which it then imparts to
linen is, on wafliing with foap, chan);cd to a pale blueifti,
which aifo proves durable. See Dyeing 0/ Thread.

Tlie late Dr. Smellie has recommended the following me-
thod of marking linen, fo as not to wafh out again : take
vermilion, as much as will lie on a half-crown piece, of the
fait of Heel a piece about the fize of a fmall nutmeg ; grind-
er levigate them well together with hnfced oil : tlie compo-
fition may be diluted or thickeneii at plcafure.

Linen-, Fojfd. See Amianthu.s and Asbestos.

LiNEM Mills. See Mill.

Linen, White. See ^VH•TB.

Linen, Bleaching of. See BLE.^cjiiNe.

LIN-FOU, in Geography, a town of Corea ; 20 miles
S. of H^-imen.

LING, in Agriculture, a provincial term applied to the
plant uiually known by the name of heath. See Heatk.

By 4 & 5 W. c. 23. no perfon fliall on any mountains,
hills, heaths, moors, foreils or chafes, or other waftes,'
burn between February 2, and June 24, any grig, ling,
heath, furze, gofs or fern, on pain of being committed to
the houfe of correction, for any time not exceeding one
m.onlh, nor lefs than 10 days, then to be whipped and kept
to hard labour.

Ling, in Ichthyalngy, the Englilh name for a kind of
fi(h, which is a fpecies of the gadus, with two tins on the
back, with a bearded mouth, and witii the upper jaw
longed. See Gadus Moha.

Ling is efteemed, both frefh and cured, for the table.

This fifh abounds about the Scilly Ifles, on the coafts of
Scarborough, and thofe of Scotland and Ireland, and formg
a confiderable article of -commerce. In the Yorklhire fea*
they are in perfection from the beginning of February to
the beginning of May, and fome till the end of that mo'nthi
They Ipavvn in June, at which time the males feparate from
the females. When the ling is in feafon, its liver is very-
white, and abounds with a tine fl.i>oured oil, which after-
wards becomes red, like that of a bullock, and affords no
oil. Thisoil is faid to be hoardpd up in the cellular mem-
branes of fiflies, to return into their blood, and fupport
them in the engendering feafon. Great quantities of this
iifh are falted for exportation, and for hoine-confumption :
for this purpofe it mull meafure twenty-fix inches or up-
wards from the fttouider to the tail, in order to be entitled
to the bounty on exportation. Thole under that fize ar&
called ilriz%les. Pennant.

LIKGA, in Geography, one of the fmaller Shetland
iflands, near the N. coall of Mainland. N. lat. 60 ' 44'.
W. long, i^ 27' — Alfo, one of the fame group cf iflands
near the E. coaft of Mainland. N. lat. 60' 34'.* W. long.
I ' 6'. — Alfo, one of the fame duller, near the S.W. coalt
of Uiil. N. lat. 61= 2'. W. long, i^ 12'. — Alio, one of
the fm;dl weilern iflands of Scotland, near the S. coaft of
South Uift. N. lat. 57' 3'. W. long. 7' 19'.

LiNGA Sound, a bay on the W. coall of the illand of
Stronfa. N. lat. 59'. E. long.-o" 2S'.

LiNC.\, or LIrigam, as it is pronounced in the fouthern
and eailtrn parts of the peninfula, in Hindoo Mythology,
is a fymbol to which great veneration is paid, and much
mylliciim attached, by the extenfive fed of Hindoos called
Saivas, or the worfliippers of Siva, the dellruttive, or rather
regenerative power of their triad. This type of Siva is re-
prelentcd of a conical form, and is feeu in almoft all parts of
India, of various fizes, in Hone, wood, clay, metals, &c.

O, It

L I N

It may be fuppofcd that Siva, being, among his other attri-
butes, a pcrfonitication of lire, as the molt dcllruclive of
elements, was typified by a cone willi its apex upwards, tiie
form naturally aftunicd by flame ; and that to this form cn-
thufiafts have, in the wildnefs of their ina^nnalion, fancied
alluiions, and diredcd analogies, that, in the progrefs of
time, have more and more bewildered them ; until at length
fiich an inextricable mafs of myllicifm luith been accumu-
lated rcferrmg to this fymbol, as to wear an appearance al-
moft of ridicule. The Linga being tiie fymbol of Siva, his
votaries are reminded of it, and of its archetype by any
thing conical or cred ; a hill, a tree, any pyramidal objeft,
a mafl or pole, &c. Lingas are feen of enormous fize ; in
the cavern of Elephanta for inllance, marking unequivocally
that the fvmbol in quelUon is at any rate as ancient as that
temple, as they are of the fame rock as the temple itfelf ;
both, as well as tlie iloor, roof, pillars, pilallres, and its
numerous fculptured figures, having been once one undillin-
cruifhed mafs of granite, which excavated, ehiifelled, and
poli(hed, produced the fire cavern, and forms that are ihll
contemplated with fo much furprizc and admiration. The
magnitude of the cones, too, farther preclude the idea of
f-.ib'.'equcnt introduction, and together with gigantic ftatues
of Siva and his confort, more frequent and more cololTal
than thofe of any other deity, ncccflarily, as before noticed,
coeval with the excavation, indicate his paramount adoration,
and the antiquity of his feci. (See Ei.F.rnASTA and Kakly.)
Lin'^as are fecn alfo of diminutive fize for domellic adora-
tion, or for perfonal ufe ; fome individuals always carrying
one about with them, and in fome Brahman families one is
daily conftrufted in clay, placed, after due fanditication by
appropriate ceremonies and prayers, in the domeftic fhrine,
or under a tree or fhrub facred to Siva, the Bilva (Cra-
tsva marmelos) more efpecially, and honoured by the ado-
ration of the females of the houlhold. This ceremony is
called Linga-puja, /. e. the worfnip of the Linga, a beau-
tiful plate of wltieh, with a particular defcription, is given in
Moor's Hindu Pantheon, where" apious female is reprefented
in plate 22, propitiating Mahadeva (another name of Siva)
in his generative character, indicated by the Linga, inftrtcd
in its appropriate receptacle the Argha, or Yoni, myftcrious
tvpes of nature, particularly dilcuiTed in future pages. The
devout female may be imagined as invoking the deities,
tvpified by their fymbols, for the blefling of fruilfulnefs,
its r'evei-fe being deprecated by both fexes, as the moll af-
fliclino- vilitation of divine difpleafure. It is explained
hereafter, how certain ceremonies called Sradha, to be per-
formed by tlie offspring of defunct parents, are effential to
the repofe of a departed foul." P. 68. See Sradha, Yoni,
and Meru.

A fctt of Hindoos worfhip almoft: exclufively the Linga,
as the fymbol of their deity : this feft is called Lin^aja,
LirfancitLi, and Liiigi. Another fe61, exclufive worfhippers
of the Ton!, or the female power, are called Y''onija ; the
former being apparently the fame as the Phalhc emblem
of the Greeks, the mrmbrum virik ; and the latter pudendum
m-dlebre, rarely, however, feen in India in an indecent form.
•' The myllery in which the real hiftory of ihcfe emblems
is veiled, renders it extremely difficult to give a clear ac-
count of the origin or tendency of the rites by whicli we
fee their votaries honour them. That they had their origin
in nature and innocence we may admit, without admitting
likewife the propriety of their continuance to a period when
nature and innocence are no longer feen unfophiilicated :
k.nowing, however, fo little of the genuine hiitory of tliefe
rites and fymbols, it is but'a rcafonable extenfion of charity
:o (uppofe that their origin was philofophical though myl-

L I N

terious, and that their obfervance, though ofTenfive to delicacy,
is not criminal.

" It is fome comparative and negative praife to the Hin-
doos, that the emblems under which tin y exhibit tlic dements
and operations of nature, are not extcrnnllv indecorous.
Unlike the abominable realities of Egypt and Greece, we
fee the Phallic emblem in the Hindoo exhibitions without
oflence ; and know not, until the information be extorted,
that we are contemplating a lymbol, whofe prototype is ob-
fcene. The plates of this work may be turned and exa-
mined over and over, and the uninformed oblerver will not
be aware that in fevcral of them he has viewed the typical
reprelentation of the generative organs or powers of hu-
manity. The external decency of the fymbols, and the dif-
ficulty with which their recondite alluiions are difcovered,
both offer evidence favourable to the moral delicacy of the
Hindoo charadter. I am not, however, prepared to deny
the appearance, in many inftanccj, of ilrong evidence to the
contrary; the difgulling failhfulnels of natural delineations,
and the combinations fo degrading to human nature, ob-
fervable on fome of the temples and facred equipages of
the Hindoos, are deeply offenfive to common delicacy and
decency ; and I continue of opinion that fuch objects of
depravity, publicly offered to juvenile contemplation, cannot
fail of exciting in fuch untutored, efpecially temale, minds,,
ideas obnoxious to the innocence that we love to think an
inmate there." (Hin.- Pan. p. 382.) Something on this
topic, and an inftance of the adoration of the Linga in a
magnificent temple, occur under the articles Idolatuy and
Jejlry. See alfo Phali.vs. The fimilarity of Phallic
and of Linga wordiip, and other Grecian, Egyptian, and
Hindoo coincidences, are learnedly difcuffed by major Wil-
ford in the third, fourth, fixtii, and eighth volumes of
the Aiiatie Refearches. See Gentoos and Lotos, in this
work.

LINGAJA, a feft of Hindoos, who adore, it is faid,
exclufively, the Linga, a fymbol of Siva. See LiXGA,
and Sects of Hindoos.

LINGAN, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which runs
into the Suir ; 1 miles below Carrick-upon-Suir.

LINGANCITA, a feft of Hindoos, the fame wuh
Lingaja, who exclufively worfhip Siva under the fymbol of
a Liiija or Phallus. See Linha, and Sects of Hindoos.

LINGAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in
Dowlatabad ; i^ miles S.ot Nei.rmul.

LINGA Y, one of the fmaller weftern iflands of Scot-
land, near the S.W. coail of Harris. N. lat. '^•j' 40V
W.loiig. f.

LING-CHAN, a town of Corea ; 76 miles E.N.E. of
Han-tcheoij.

LINGEN, a city of Weftphalia, and capital of a county
of the fame name ; formerly fortified, but now barely
furrounded with a ditch, and fmall. It is the feat of the re-
gency of the united counties of Lingen and Tetklenburg,
and of the deputations of the war and domain chamber of
Min'den, and has a Calviniff, a Lutheran, and a Roman Ca-
tholic church. The academical gymnafium of this place
was founded in 1697 by William III., prince of Orange.
About a quarter of a mile dillance from the town, N. of
it, is the paffage over the Embs, called the " Lingen Eerry."
— Alfo, a county of Wedphalia, bounded on the N. by the
bilhopric of Munfter, on the E. by the bifliopric of Ofna-
bruck, on the S. by the county of Tecklenbuig, and on the
W. by Bentheim. At the peace of Tilfit it was ceded by
Pruffia to Wellphalia. It has mines of coal and quarries of
(lone. The chief town of the upper divifion of the county
is Lingen, and tlut of the lavvcr Ibbenbuhren. — Alfo, an

iHand

L I N

L I N

ifland in tlie Eall Indian fea, near the S. coad of Malacca,
about loo iiiik's in circumference, and jo miles from the N.E.
coalt of tlie iflaiid of Sumatra. S. lat. o' lo'. E. long.
•104° 40'.

LINGENDES, Claude de, in Biography, a French
Jefuit, and one of the molt celebrated preachers of the pe-
riod in which he flouridied, was born at Mouhns in the
year 1591. He entered the order when he was fixteen
years ot apje, and'after completing his (Indies to the fatisfac-
tion of his fuperiors, became eminent as an inllruclor in rhe-
toric and polite literature. His chief talent was foon difco-
vered by the eloquence of his pulpit difeourfes, and for fix
and thirty years he attracted crowded audiences by the ex-
cellence of Ins compofitions, and by his fine elocution. Be-
fides the labours of the pulpit, he prefided eleven years over
■thecjllege of his native place, and afterwards filled the polt
of provincial of the order in France. He died in 1660,
fit the age of lixty-nine, while he was fupenor of the .Te-
fuits' feminary at Paris. He vvas author of a popular work,

LING-QUAN-Y, ill Geography, a tow» of China, ia
the province of Clien-fi ; 50 miles S.W. of Si-ngan.

LING-TAO, a town of China, of the firil rank, in
Chcn-fi, fituated on the Tie-tfan river, which falls into the
Hoang-ho, or Yellow river. Gold is found in great quanti-
ties in the fand of the neighbouring rivers and brooks.
The country is very mountainous, and abounds with wild
bulls, and an animal refembling a tyger, whofe fliinsare very
valuable. The vallies are fertile in corn, and the pailures
near the rivers fupply food for cattle. Upon this city de-
pend two cities of the fecond clafs, and three of the third.
N. lat. 25° 22'. E. long. 106 34'.

LING-TCHEOU, a town of Corea ; 28 miles S.S.V,'.
of Koang-tcheou.

LINGUA Gko.ssa, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Demona ; 9 miles W. of Taormina.

Li.NGUA, Tongue, in Anaiomy. See Deglutition" and
Tongue.

LiNGU.v Ams, Bird's-tongue, in the Materia Mcdica, the

entitled " Monitu qusdam ad Vitam bene Ordinandam," feed of the alli-tree, or afnen-keys.

which has been frequently reprinted : " Volivum Monu-
inentuni ab Urbe Molinenli, Delphino oblatum ;" and of
Latin iermons, entitled ," Concionum quadragefimahum
Argumenta," which have been publifhed in 410. and 8vo. and
■vviiich have been tranflated into the French language, and
much read m the original and trar.flation. Gen. Bios'.

Lingua Cervhia, in Botany, Hart's Tongue, a fpecies,
or with Plumier, Tournefort, and others, a genus of tlie
fern tribe. See Asplenium and Scolope.vdiuu.m.

Lingua Medietas, in Law. See Medietas.

LINGU/E Fk/enuiM, in Anatomy and Surgery. See
Fr.knum.

LINGHOLM, in- Geography, a fmail idaiid among the * LINGUADO, in Ichthyology, the name of a Well In

Orkneys, near the W. coall of Stronfa. N. lat. jo'' 59'
E. long, o" 27V

I>ING!, a left of Hindoos, worfliippers of the Linga,
a Pliallic emblem of Siva, the dellruftive and regenerative
power of the Indian triad.- See Linga, Sects of Hindo'js,
and Siva.

LINGICOTTA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Kullo. N. lat. 12° 30. W, long. 9- ro'.

LINGLEBACH, Joiiv, in Biography, a painter of
groiefque lubjecfs, fairs, mountebanks, landfcapes, &c.;
born at Frankfort on the Maine in 1625 ; who having

dian lllh, in Ihapc rcfemblmg a loal.

LINGUALIS, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to feme
parts about tae tongue. The lingual ar:ery is a large branch
of the external carotid. (See Akteuy.) For the lingual
glands, fee Deglutition ; for the lingnalis mufc e, fee
Deglutition ; and for the lingual nerve, fee Nerve.

LINGUATULA, in Ichthyology, a fpecies oi pleuro-
nePies ; which fee.

Linguatula, in Natural Hifiory, a genus of the
vermes niollufca clafs and order : body deprcfi'ed, oblong ;
month placed before, furrcunded with four pafiages. Of

early acqu.red fome knowledge of the art of painting, went this genus there is but a lingle fpecies ; w'n. the Serrata,

to Rome for his improvement, but returned to his na-
tive country at the age of 25, to practife in his own native
llyle. He did indeed acquire m Italy a flight tafte for the
clalTic, which he exhibited by introducing fplendid ruins
fometimes in his landfcapes ; but in general his talle is Dutch,
and his llyle alio, particularly in colouring and effeft. His
pictures are in general pleafnig, having very much the tone
of tliofe of Adrian Vandeveh, though not finiflied fo mi-
nutely, and indeed differing in choice of fubjeft. He was
frequently employed by eminent artills to inlert figures and
animals m their landfcapes ; and his ingenuity in the manage-
ment of his pencil, enabled himfo to afTimilate his touch to that
of the painter who employed him, that it is not cafy to dif-
coier hishand. He died in 16S7, at the age of 62.

LING-NGAN, ill Orography, a city of China, of the
firit rank, in Yun-nan. N. lat. 2^ 38. E, long. 102' 42'.

LINGNLANY, a town of Lithuania ; 32 miles E. of
Wiikomierz.

L INCOMES, in Aiidetit Geography, a people of Gallia
Cilalpina, near the Po, and north of the Boii, in the
ijorthern part of Bolognefe and in Ferrara. They formed
Ija^ues of anjity with the Boii, and, like them, they were
Gauls in their origin ; and their defcent has been traced by
fome authors from the Lingones of Gallia Tranfalpina, where
they inhabited a territory near t!ie prefcnt Langres. Their
-towriiin Italy were Forum Cornelii, Claterna, Favcntia, So-
lona;, and J5utrium. Traces of the fuir.c people have been
alio difcovcredin Upper Germany.

wliich inhabits the lungs of a hare.

LINGULA, in Ichthyology, the name of an extremely
fmall hih of the foal-kind. It is known from tlie relt of this
genus not only by its fmallnefs, but by a ridge of fmall
fcales, which run along the line over the fpine, and are much
more elevated and dillinguifhable, both to the eye and touch,
than tliofe of tlie rell of the body. It is a well-tailed hlh,
and much firmer in its flefli than the foal, but is very fcarce,
and is of little value, becaufe of itsthinnefs. It is caught in
the Mediterranean.

LINGULACA, a name by which fevcial authors, parti-
cularly fonie of the older natarah!ls, have called the Jial

LINGULATUM Folium, in Botany. See Leaf.

LINGUMPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
flan, m Mylore ; 30 miles S.W. of Tademeri.

LINHARES, a town of Portug:d, in the province of

Trns los Monies ; 19 miles S. of Mirandela Alfo, a town

of Portugal, in the province of Beira ; 5 miles S.W. of.
Calorico.

LINHAY, in Rural Economy, a provincial word applied
in Devonlhire to lignify an open (hed.

LINIE'RES, La, in Geogmphy, a town of France, in
the department of the Charente ; 15 miles S.W. of An-
goitlefnic,

LINIMliNT, LlMMENTUil, from the Latin Unire, to

anoint geiitiy, in Phaririaey, a torm of external medicine,

O 2 made

L I N

L I N

*iade of unAuousfubftances, ufcd to rub on any diftcmpcrcJ applied, it will alTeft the mouth more rapidly than the mer--

part. ciirial ointment will do.

The liniment is of a mean confiftcnce between an oil and Limmemtum Saponaceum, Linimtntum faponis camfofitum,

an unguent. or compound Joap-lmmeni, a form of medicine prefcribed ia

The ufe of liniments is to foftcn afperities of the fltin, the London Pharmacopeia, and meant to fupply the place

moillen parts that need humeftation, and refolve the humours of the ointment well known by the name of epodehlnc. It is

that afflift the patient and give him pain. There are various made thus : take fpirit of rofcmary a pint, liard SpanilH

kiflds of liniments \ifed, according to the various oceafions.

LINIMENTUM Album, P. L. 1745 ! Ungutrttumjper-
miueti, P. L. 1787 ; Unguentum cctcicei, P. L. 1S09, ointment
of fpermaceti, is formed as follows : take oil-olive three
ounces, fpermaceti ilx drachms, white wax two drachms ;
melt all together over a gentle fire, ftirring it till it is per-
feftly cold.

This liniment may be applied in cafes of excoriation,
■where, on account of the largenefs of the furface, the oint-
*>ent with lead or calamine miglit be improper.

LiNiMEKTUM Mrugtnis, Liniment of fcrJigris, P. L.
J 809; Unguentum jEgyptiacum, P. L. 1720; Md j£gyp-
iiiicum, P. L. 1745 ; Oxymel ,rrugini.t, P. L. 17S7, is jjrc-

foap three ounces, camphor one ounce ; diti'oKc the cam-
phor with the rofemary fpirit, and then add the foap ; and
macerate in the heat of a fand-bath until it be melted.

A liniment of tiiis kind may be prepared by rubbing. an
ounce ot camphor, with two ounces of Florence oil, in a
mortar, till the camphor be diflblved. This anti-lpafmodic
liniment may be uled in obdinate rheumatifms, and in fome
other cafes, accompanied with extreme pain and tenliou of
the parts. 1

LiNlMENTUM Terellnthint, Turpfiitine Uniment, is formed
by adding half a pint of oil of turpentine to a pound of
refin cerate previoufly melted, and mixing. This liniment
is very commonly applied to burns ) and its firlt introduc-

pared by didolving an ounce of powdered verdigris in feven tion into pradtice for this purpofe is owing to Mr. Kcntiill

£uid-ounces of vinegar, and ilraining it through a linen of NewcalUe.

cloth; then adding gradually fourteen ounces of clarified Linimentum ^o/fl/;Z?, P. L. 1745; Linimenlum ammoniat

honey, boil it down to a proper confidence. This prepara- P. L. 1787; Liiumenlum ammonia carlonatis, li/iimeni of car-

tion is intended only for external ufe

lonate of ammonia, is foi-med by fliaking togi-thcr a lluid-

LiNlMEKTUM Ammonie Furtius, flrong liniment of ammonia, ounce of fohition ot carbonate of ammonia with three fluid*
is formed by Ihaking together a fluid-ounce of folution o§ ounces of ohvc-oil, until they unite. Or this Kniment may
ammonia, with two fluid-ounces of ohveoil, until they unite, be prepared by Ihaking together an ounce of Florence oil>

See LiNiMENTuM and half an ounce of fpirit of hartfliorn. If tiie patient's
fkin is able to bear it, the liniment, made with equal parts
of the fpirit and oil, will be more eflicacious. Sir Jolia
Pringle obferves, that in the inflammatory quinfey, a piece
of flannel nioittcned wiih the liniment and applied to the
throat, to be renewed every four or five hours, is one of the
mull efficacious remedies ; and that it fcldom fails, after
bleeding, either to leffen or carry ofi" the complaint.

A liniment for burns may be made by fiiakmg well to-
gether, in a wide-moutlied bottle, equal parts of Florence
by diffolving half an ounce of camphor in two fluid-ounces oil, or of frefli drawn Unfecd oil, and lime-water. This
of olive oil. This is a fimple folution of camphor in oil, is found to be an exceeding proper application for recent
which readily diflblvesit. The fr.me folution alfo affords an fcalds or burns. It may either be fprcad upon a cloth, or

L.IKIMENTLI.M Ammonia Carlotiatis
Volatile.

LlN'tMENTUM And, P. L. 1720 ; Ungucntum e gummi
flcmi, P. L. 1745 ; Ungucntum eltmi compojilum, P. 1.. 17S7,
is a compofition formed by nicking a pound of elemi with
two pounds of prepared fuet ; then removing it from the
lire, and immediately mixing in ten ounces of common
turpentine, and two fluid-ounces of olive oil; then Ilraining
the mixture through a linen cloth. See Elemi.

LlNiMENTUM Camphora, Camphor liniment, is prepared

ufeful method of giving camphor internally in a liquid form,
by rubbing it in thi.s (late firll with mucilage, and then adding
any aqueous vehicle. One drachm of the oil contains, as thus
prepared, fifteen grains of camphor. See Camphor.

LiN'i.MENTUM Camphora Compofitum, Compound camphor
liniment, is prepared by mixing fix fluid-ounces of folution-
of ammonia with a pint of fpirit of lavender in a glafs retort ;
then, byJthe heat of a flow fire, diftilhng a pint ; and laftly
in this diilillcd liquor diffolving two ounces of camphor.
See CAMPiion.

LiNiMKNTOM Hydrargyri, Mercurial Uniment. confills of
the following ingredients ; t'/z. ilrong mercurial ointment
and prepared lard, of each four ounces, an ounce of cam-
phor, 15 minims (of which 60 make a fluiefrachm) of rec-
tified fpirit, and four fluid-ounces of folution of ammonia.
It is prepared by firil powdering the camphor with the ad-
dition of the fpirit, then rubbing it with the mercurial oint-
ment and the lard, and, laftly, adding gradually the folution
of ammonia, and mixing the whole together. This combi-
nation requires that the camphor fliould be powdered by
the fmallell poflible quantity of fpirit, and if the other fub-
llances be added in the manner above dircclcd, it will form a
naafs of uniform confidence without feparaliiig ; and it will
be confiderably thicker than the other liniments are. It is
ah ufeful combination for the difcuflTion of indolent fwellings
•r colleftions of fluid ; but if it be frequently or largely

the parts afiefted may be anointed with it twice or thrice
a day.

A liniment for the piles may be made by mixing tw»
ounces of emollient ointment, and half an ounce of liquid
laudanum, with the yolk of an egg, and working them well
together.

LINING, in Canal- Making, fig,nifies a thicknefs or coat
of puddle, fomelimes applied to the bottoms and fides of
canals, to prevent them from leaking, as qrtt, Plate I.
Can/ils, Jig. 1 5-

Lining of Hot-beds, in Gardening, is the art or praftice of
applying a proper layer of hot dung to the fides of the bedsj
to revive and keep up the declining heat of them. It is
eflentially neceil'ary, in the cidture of plants on dung hot-
beds, in the early feafons in winter or fpring, until May.
As thefc hot-beds generally, in from three or four to five or
fix weeks, according to their fubllance, begin to decline in
their degree of heat, they require of courte a revival to con-
tinue them in regular heat ; which, in dung hot-beds, can
only be effeftcd in this manner. It is applied to one or
both fides, as the>e may be occafion, or as heat may be
wanted.

Hence^ in this way, by the occafional repetition of two,
tliree, or more linings, a hot-bed may be continued in a
proper degree of heat feveral months, as exemplified in early
cucumber and melon hot-beds ; which, without the aid of

vccafional

L I N"

•ccafional linings, would not retain fuflicient heat to forward
tlifir relpective plants, ixc. to proper pcrfcftion.

The dung for this purpofe lliould be of the bell frefh
liorfe liable kind, moiil and full of a ftcamy lively heat,
being prepared in the manner defcribcd under Mor-Bed,
»iid in proper quantity to make the lining fubllantial, as i^
or i8 inches wide, and as high as the dung of the hot-bed;
as, when too (lender, they do not effeft the intended pur-
pofe, efpeciaily in early beds, or when the heat is confider-
mbly decreafed.

And in early hot-bed work, care (hould be taken, ac-
cording to tl;e extent of the bed or beds and feafon of the
year, to allot and referve a fufEciency of dung for linings ; -
early beds in very cold weather will generally require more
fubllantial and frequent linings than later made beds in the
advanced fpring months ; and^ fome hot-beds, for flight or
temporary ufes, jull to raile plants far two or three weeks,
will fometimea require but very little or no linings. Hot-
beds made late, as in the beginning or any time in May,
will need but very trifling linings, or fome not a: all, except
in particular ufes, as when plants are rather backward in
growth, the weather cold, and the bed declined mucli in
heat, when,- probably, even in May, or beginning of June,
a final moderate hning may become neceffary.

It is neceffary that the requifite linings rtiould always be
applied to the refpeclive hot-beds in proper time, which may
be afcertained by examining the (late of heat ; not letting
them dechne too confiderably before they are applied, but
to continue always a moderately lively heat, but never vio-
lent. Linings are fometimes applied by degrees, raifiwg
them only half-way at firll ; adding more in height in a few
days, and thus proceeding till they are raifed to the height
of the hot-beds.

And in application of linings, it is generally neceflary to
line only one fide at a time, commonly the back part of the
bed firll ; and m a week or fortnight after, to line the front
fide, and both ends, if neceffary ; or in particular cafes of
the hot-bed having fuddenly declined, or been permitted to
decreafe very confiderably in heat before applying the lining,
to line both fides moderately at once, about i 2 or i^ inches
in width, but only as high as the dung of the bed at firll ;
being afterwards a little augmented by degrees, according as
the dung of the lining fettles.

The general requifite thicknefs or fubdance of the linings
is from 12 to 15 or 18 inches width in dung, and as high as
the dung of the bed, or fometimes a few inches higher : but
for early beds of cucumbers, melons, or other plants of long
continuance in hot-beds, they fhould generally, be laid from
15 to 18 inches in width at bottom, as conceived necefTary,
luuTowing the width gradually upwards to 8, 10, or 12
itKhes at top, which may be raifed at once to the full height
of the dung of the bed, or a few inches higher up the fide
df the frame, to allow for fettling : but with a llrong lining,
great caution (hould be ufed in railing it much above the
dung of the hot-bed, elpecially when made of very lirong,
hot, ileamy dung, for fear either of its throwing in a too
ftrong heat above to burn the internal earth of the bed, or
imparting a copious rank ileam to penetrate within the
frame, which would lleam-fcald the tender plants which may
be contained thei-ein.

As foon as the hnings are raifed to the intended height, it
is proper in general to lay a (Iratum of earth at top two
inches thick, clofe up to the bed or bottom part of the
t frame, doping a little outward to throw olf the falH.ig wet
cf rain, fnow, &c. ; which top-covering of earth is efVential,
both to keep the heat of the linings from efcaping too con-
fiderably above, is order that it may be direded more ef-

* LIN

fei^ually to its intended purpofe of imparting its wholit
principal heat internally to the revival of that of the bed,
and prevent the ilrong fleam arifing immediately from the
rank dung from entering the frame at bottom, or through
any fmall crevice, or at top, when the lights are occafionaliy
niifed for the admilTion of frefii air ; as iie rancid dung Itcani
thus produced, without being moderated and correfted by
firll pafTing through a (Iratum of cartli, if it (hould enter
within the frame confiderably, vrould prove very pernicious
to moll plants, and b« the total dcllruclion of fome par-
ticular kinds.

And conllant care muft be taken, that as the heat of the
linings declines to any extent, they niuil, as jull noticed,,
be renewed by a fupply of frefii hot dung. This may fome-
times be elfeited by turning over, and (liaking up the fame
dung mixedly together, diredily for.Tiing it again into a
lining : or fome of the bell or leaft decayed or exhaulled
parts of the old hning may only be ufed, mixing it up pro-
perly with a good fupply of new dung, applying it immedi-
ately in a proper fubllantial hning as before. In eitherof
thefe ways, frefh air is entangled, by which a new ferment--
ation and heat is brought on. However, where the dung
of the hnings is greatly exliauded, frefli dung (hould moftly
be ufed in the renewal of the heat.

And linings of hot dung are fometime.rufed fubllantially,
in working fome forts of forcing-frames, in raifing early
flowers and fruits, by applying the dung againil the back
of the frame, two or three feet in width at bottom, car--
rowing gradually to a foot and a half, or lefs, at the top,,
railing the whole according to the height of the frame, from
four or five to fix or feven feet ; which heating ouufiderably-
againil the whole back of the frame, communicates the heat
internally, by which the different plants are forwarded to-
early production ; fuppurting the internal heat by renewin""
the linings, as already direcied. See YoRLisc-Frariw, and
Garili!i-¥ HAilE.

Linings of dung are alfo fometimes uled in fupporting the
heat of nurlery hot-beds for yoiuig pine-apple plants, and:
fome other exotics of the hot-houle or (love, both in dung
and tan-bark hot-beds, under proper frames and glalFes ; as
well as thofe wintered in thefe detached hot-beds dillinft
from the hof-houfe, &c. in which a conllant regular heat,
almod equal to that of the Hove, muft be fupported ; fo
that, when the natural heat of th'i bed is on the decline, a
(Irong lining of hot dung muft be applied, half a yard or
two feet wide below, narrowing moderately upward, and
contimied on both fides occafionaliy; and as the heat of
them fubfides, it muft be immediately renewed by a lupply
of frefti dung, either worked up with the belt of that of the
declined dung ; or, if this be too much decayed, wholly of
new :■ and thus the hot-beds maintained in a proper degree
of heat from the autumn until the fpring feafon, when they
become unnecelTary.

And the decayed dung of the dilTercnt linings, when
done with, becomes excellent manure far. the kitchen-garden
departments.

Lining, in Majl-Mah'ir.g., denotes the marking of the.
length, breadth, or depth of any thing, according to
defign, by a cord, rubbed with white or red chalk, fadened.
at the extremities, and foVcibly pulled up in the middle, or.
towards one end, then let fall perpendicularly, if meant to
be (Iraight, or thrown fideways to form a curve. . Accuracy
in the latter performance requires pradlice.

Ll-siNGS, in Sail-Making, fignify the canvas fewed on the .
backs and middle of a (ail, to llrengthen it.

LINITAN, in Ccosmphy, a fmall iiland in the Ead-
4 ludiaa

L I N

L I N

Indian fea, five miles north from t\ie ifland of Serangan, to
•wliich it belongs. S. lat. J' 36'. E. long 125 21'.

LIN-KIANO, a city of Cliina, of the firlt clafs, in tlic
province of Kiang-ii, fitiiatcd on the banks of the river
Yu-ho. Jts foil is good, and the climate is healthful ; but
it is fo much defcrted that the Cliinefe fay, " one hog would
be fuincient to maintain the whole city two days " Four
cities of the third clafs belong to its dlltricl. One of its
villages is tlie general mart for all the dnigs^ fold in the em-
pire ; and this circumltance gives it fome degree of celebrity.
N. lat. £7- j8'. E. long. iiy\

LINK 10, in Bnliiny, a kind of water-pl^nt among the Clii-
^nefe, the iruit of which is of a triangular pyramidical form,
prominent every way, with a green thick rind, that grows
reddifli towards the apex, and, when the fruit is dried, grows
black. The internal fubilaiice is cxcccdir.g white, its talle
like that of the chelnut, three or four of which it equals in
bulk. The plant is found in (landing waters, and has very
flender leaves, that fprcad themfelv^s over a large extent on
the furbce oi tlie water, and th: fruit lies concealed under
water in great nnmberi:.

LINKIOPING, in Geography, a fmall and neat town of
-Sweden, in Eatl Gothland, fituated on the river Stocng,
near lake Roxen ; containing an epifcopal palace, a catbe-
■ dral, and the lioufe wliich is the relidence of the governor of
Eall Gothland. It has three churches and a public femi-
nary ; 96 miles S.W. from Stockholm. N. lat. 58 20'.
E. long, i^ ' iS'.

LINKNESS, a cape of Scotland, on tlie N.W. coaft of
the ifland of Stronfa ; 1 \ mile S.W. of Huipfnefs. N. lat.
59^ 4 . E. long. O" 26'.

LiINLEY, Joux, in Biography, an eminent miilic profef-
'iorand organill, long relident at Bath, where he had ferved
.an apprenticefliip under Chileot, t!ie organift of that city.
Jjinley loved mufic, was a lludious man, equally vcrfed in
the theory and pratlice of his art. Having a large family
of children, in whom he found the feeds of gefiius had been
planted by nature, and the gift of voice, which, in order to
<:ultivate, he pointed his (ladies to lingiiig, and became the
bed finging mailer of his time, if we may judge by the fpe-
dcimens of his fuccefs in his own family. He was not only a
mallerly player on the organ and harpficlK^rd, but a good
compolcr, as his elegies and feveral compoiltions for Drury-
■lane theatre evinced. His fon, Thomas, who was placed
under Nardini at Florence,' the celebrated difciple of Tartii-ii,
was a hue performer on the violin, with a talent for compo-
lltion i which, if he Lad lived to develope, would havegiven
longevity to his fame. Being at Grimllhorpe, in Lincoln-
fliire, at the feat of the duke of Ancaller, where he often
.an'.uied himfelf in rowing, (idling, and failing in a boat on a
piece of water, in af<[nallof wind, or by fome accident, the
boat was overfet, and this amiable and promifing youth was
drowned at an early age, to the great affliftion of his fa-
ultily and friends, particularly his matchlefs fidcr, Mrs. She-
ridan, whom this calamity rendered miferable for a long time ;
during which, her affettion and grief were diftilled in vcrfes
of the mod iweet and alTeiting kind on the forrowful event.
The beauty, talents, and mental endowments of this
*' Sanfla Cxcilia redivivj," will be remembered to the !a(l
•hour of all who heard, or even faw and converfed with her.
The tone of her voice and exprefiive manner of (ingijig were
as enchanting as her (Countenance and converfation. In her
linging, with a mellifluous toned voice, a perfed (hake and in-
toiiati<ni, (he was poireficd of tlie double power of delighting
xin audience equally m pathetic (trains, and fongs of brilliant
execution, which is allowed to very few (Ingers. When (lie
lad heard the Agujari, and the iJiwu, afterwards Aladainc

Le Brun, fhe artonifhod all hearers by pcrforminsf tlieir bra-
vura airs, extending the natural compafs of her voice a tourtli
above the higheit note of the harpfichord, before additional
keys were in fadiion. Mrs. Sheridan died at Brillol in

1792.

Mrs Tickel, her fider, was but little inferior to her in
beauty and talents, and Mr. Linley's other daughters conti-
nued to excite the admiration of all who knew them, in a
manner worthy of the family from which they fprung.

Mr. Lniley, the father of this ned of nightingales, from
being alhdant manager of Drury-lane theatre, lived to be-
come joint patentee, and, for fome time, fole aeting manager ;
in which capacity, he gave more fatistatlion, and elcaped
cenfure, public and private, by Ins probity and Ready con.
duft, more than is often allowed to the governor of fuch a
numerous and froward family. This worthy and ingenious
man died Novemiicr 1795.

LINLITHGOW, in Geography, a royal borough and
county town of Liiilithgowlhire, or Wed-Lothiari, Scotland.
It is (ituated on the road between Edinburgh and Slirhiig, at
thediftance ot 16 miles from the metropolis. This town has
claims to confiderable celebrity, both on account of the con-
nexion of its hidory with fome of the mod important tranf-
aftions of the kingdom, and of the noble remains of former
magnificence with which it is adorned. As the reader will iind
mentioned in the following article, the name ot this place is
purely of Britilh origin, and peculiarly defcriptive in its appli-
cation. During the reign of David I., Linlithgow fornud
?. part of the royal demcfncs, and had a cadle and a grange,
at which that monarch and his fucced'ors frequently re- '
fided. When Alexander III. died, an event which hap-
pened before this town obtained Us charter, it was governed
by two bailies, as we learn from a writ addreded to them by
Edward I., dated the 2Sthof Augud 1296, requiring them
to make payment of fome arrears, due to the king ot Nor-
way, by the (irm of the town. In the year 1298, the fame
monarch encamped his army on the heiglit immediately to the
ead of Linlithgow on the night before the battle of Falkirk,
in which the celebrated patriot, fir William Wallace, was
defeated through the treachery of Gumming. This town
was formerly a place of very confiderable commerce, opulence,
and fplendour. but all thefe advantages began gradually to
decay, after the union of the two crowns, m the per(on of
James VI. It once had an exclufive right of trade from the
water of Cra nond to the mouth of the Avon. Blacknefs
cadle was then alligned to it as a port, and at this place
many warehoufes wereereirted, fome of which are llill (land-
ing. A cudom-houfe was hkewife lituated here, till re-
moved in the la II century to Dorrowdownefs, through the
ititered of the Hamilton family.

The period at which Linlithgow was fird condituteda
royal borough by charter is uncertain, but it has doubtlefs
exided in that capacity from a very early period. In th/
veign of David I. it is declared by aft of parliament one of
the principal burghs of the kingdom. Since that time it
lias received feveral charters, all of which were confirmed in
IJ.p by a writ of Novotlamns from James V. The govern-
ment of this town at prefent is veiled in a proved, four
bailies, a dean of guild, twelve merchant counlcUors, and
the deaeors of the eight incorporated trades. The princi-
pal manufa6lure now carried on is that of leather : (hoemak-
ing IS a thriving biifinefs. The woollen trade is alfo confi-
derable, and about a mile from the town there has lately been
cdabhdied a very extenfive bleach field, which gives employ-
ment to nearly 300 perfons.

Tlie prefent condition of Linlithgow, with refpeft to

exterior view, is .much inferior to what it formerly was.

6 From

L I N

L I N-

From tlie antiquity of many of t!ie hoiifcs, tlie whole ex- probably intended for muficians. Tlie parliamcnt-chambc/
hibits, at firil fight, a ruineus -.md decayed appearance. There in which the unfortunate queen Mary was born on the 8tii
are, however, a number of good buildings flill to bo found. ^^ ' .......

It confiils chiefly of one flrcet, extending nearly a mile in
lengtli, from eail to well. This is interfetted by a variety
of fmaller llreets or lanes. The ruins of the palace (land
on a rifing ground, immediately overlooking the town.
They are evidently the renvuis of a once magnificent and

December 1542, has li.kewife been an elegant apartment.
The whole was kept in good repair till the year 1746, wlitH
being ufed as a barrack, a great part of it was accidentally
burnt by the king's troops. Since that period it has been

fuffered to fall into ruins. The church of Linlithgow,
-^ , . . ^ which is appended to the palace, is a very fine building,

fuperb manfion. The fituation of thefc ruins is extremely Some of the window,9 are particularly beautiful
fine, and fuch as, in ancient times, would render it well cal- edifice the aide is liJU fhev/n, in which James IV.

culated for del'ence. The eminence on v/hich it is fituatcd
runs a confiderable way in an extcnfive lake, which conduces
greatly to the ornament both of the town and calHe. The firll
foundation upon this fpot is faid to have been at leaft coeval
with the period of the Gadeni. There feems reafon to
believe it was afterwards the fcite of a Roman ftation. For-
dun fays that Edward I. ereded a /i/c here in 1300. This,
however, is doubtful, as it is unqueftionably true that there
was a royal refidence here befcM-e that period, which cannot
be fuppofed to have been unfortified in thofe times. It is
very probable that this monarch only repaired it for his re-

In this

. is faid to

iiave leen an apparition, warning him of the impending fate
of the battle of Flowdcn, in which that monarch and the
flower of his nobility were (lain. As there is no doubt but
a perfon in an unufual habit did accoll that prince, when atl
tending the evening fervice in this aifle, it is fuppofed to
have been a Itratngem of the queen's, to dilTuade him from
his intended cnterprize againft England, which a credulous
and fuperllitious age converted into a fupernatural and pro-
phetic admonition . The church is adorned with a handfome
fpire, furmounted with an imperial crown. A number of
-ftatues formerly decorated the outfide, but were all de-

ception in ijoi.previoustopaffinghisChrillmasinit, which rtroyed by the reformers, except that of the patron of th^
he did that year. During the civil diiientions between Bruce chinch, the archangel St. Michael. The houfe from which
and Baliol, this caftle was taken by Rratagem, through the Hamilton fliot the regent Murray, in the rei'rn of queen

means of one Binnoch or Binny, who fecretly favoured
the caufe of Brace. Binhoch, being accullomed to fupply
the fortrefs with hay, was well known, and had free accefs at
all times. Under thefe circumilances he propofed to Bruce
to conceal fome armed men in his cart, which fhould^ be
apparently loaded with hay. Thefe being admitted, fecured
the guards, and made themfelves mailers of the place. For
this fervice Binnoch was rewarded with fome lands in the
neighbourhood. In the reign of Edward III. this callle
was again feized by the Englifh. In 14:4 it was deilroyed
by fire, as well as the greater part of the town. The name
of the perfon by whom the former was rebuilt is unknown.
It became a fixed royal refidence foon after the acceilion of
the houfe of Stewart to the throne of Scotland ; and was

Mary, is ftill Handing. This murder is one of the moft
deliberate recorded in the annals of hillory. The town-
houfe, eretled in i668, is a commodious and elegant Itruc-
ture. In front, but at fome dillance from it, there was
formerly an antique crofsj. ornamented with grotefque
figures, and having eight fpouts at different elevations, from
which the water was poured. This having become mucl*.
decayed, a new one, of fimilar conitruftinn, has lately beea
ereited. Linlithgow anciently poffeffed a variety of re- -
hgious eilablifhments. In 1290 the inhabitants founded a
convent of Carmelites, or White friars, on an eminence fouth
of the town, Hill called Friars' Brae. St. Magdalen's on ■
the ea(t, fituatcd at the foot of Pilgrim's hill, was formerly-
a hofphjum, or place of entertainment for llrangers. The

feveral times afligned as a jointure-houfe to the queens of Dominican or Black friars had likeivife a monaltery here

.1,.,. i.;„,..,5.™ T„ r-iA„k„„ . .Qo .i.;„„,i j„i: 1 ^jj ^hefe builclings were demohftied by the earl" of Argyle, ,

lord James Stewart, and John Knox, when they vifited
Linlithgow in their progrefs of reform. Linlithgow ren-
dered itielf confpicuous by the part its inhabitants took in
the grand rebellion. It had its full lliare in the miferics of
that dilfrafted period. The folemn league and covenant
was publicly burned here, on the anniverfary of the reftora-

that kingdom. In October i.|88, this pa'ace was delivered
to the rule of lord Hailes and Alexander Home, tv/o of the
principal leaders of the rebellion againtl Ja:nes III., o«; of
the mildell monarchs that ever graced a throne, whofe me-
lancholy fate every feeling heart muft pity and bewai'. In
IJ17 It was feized by Stirling and his followers, who had
attempted to aflafUnate Melburne ; but was foon afterwards

retaken by affault by De la Bailie, the regent's lieutenant, tion in 1662, by the inhabitants themfelve's, without any

when the ailaflins were fortunately fecured. James 'V. re- authority from government. This town ranks as the fixth

fided for the moll part in this palace, during his minority, among the royal boroughs of Scotland. Since the union it

The battle of Linlithgow was fought on the 4th September has been affociated with Lanark, Selkirk, and Peebles '

1526, with the view of refcuing that prince from the do- the privilege of fending one reprefentative to parliame

nnnation of the earl of Angus. In this atlion, the earl of ''"' • ^ ...

Lennox, the friend of James, was flain, after quarter given,
by fir .lames Hamilton, To the lail-mentioned monarch
and to James VI. this palace was indebted for much of ita
magnificence and grandeur. Over the infide of the grand
gate there form.erly flood a ftatue of pope Julius II. with

in

^ - „ . parliament.

vVinzet, the famous polemical antagonift of John Knox, .
was mailer of the I.,iniithgow fchool, when chofen by the
Catholic clergy to defend their principles and rights, .

1 he parifii of Linlithgow is about five miles in Ien<vth,
and three in breadth: it is in general well cultivated 'and -
enclofed. Coal is abundant in different parts of it, but no

the triple crown, who fent a confecrated fword and helmet pits are at prefent wrought.-. There ishkewife plenty of
to James V. This piece of fculpture,^ after efcaping for lime-Hone, but free-flone is fcarce. Copper-ore has been

found iri one fpot ; and in the fouthern extremity there is a •

more than a century the fury of the reformills, ultimately
fell a facrifice to the pious zeal of a blackfmith. The
whole palace is conltructed of hewn ftone, and covers about
an acre of ground. It has in the centre a handfome fquare,
one fide of which is more modern than the others, having
been built'by James VI. In one portion of this building is
a very fuperb room, 90 feet long, 30 feet 6 inches wide,
and 33 high. At one end is a giillcry with three arches,

filver mine, which is faid to have been formerly wrought tOhj
great advantage. The population of the whole pariln, ac-
cording to -the parliamentery returns of 1801, amounted to
3)9+ pcrfons ; the houfes were ellimated at 746. Sinclair's
Statiltical Account of Scotland.

LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West LoTHi.iN, a
county on the fouthern fliorc of the Frith of Forth ia s'tot--

l-iid^

LINLITHGOWSHIRE.

land. It is fcparated from EdinVurgliniire on the eaft and
♦• iouih-eall by the rivulets Briecii and Aniow, except at Mid-
calder, where the latter county intrudes fomewhat more
than a mile into Liiihthgowdiire. On tlie well it is divided
from Stirlingdiirc, firll by the Linn-burn, and after its
jundion witli the Avon, by that river, till it dilcharges it-
felf into the Torth. A part of I.anarklhire foinis the
boundary on the Ibuth-well, while the waters of the Forth
wa(h its coaft for the extent of fourteen miles on the north.
The form of this county is that of an irregular triangle.
Its medium breadth from north to fouth is little more than
fcvcn miles, and its medium length about fixtecn. It con-
tains nearly 112 fquare miles, or 57,008 Scottlfli acres. The
parilhcs amount to 13 in number, compriftng, according to
the parliamentary ref.-.rns of 1800, a population of 17,844
pcrfons.

The afpeft of this county, except towards the fouth,
vhere it confifts chiefly of moor-mol's afid morafs, is that
•of a level and well cultivated diftrift, divcrfifi-'d by a variety
of fmall hills : thcfe are moft numerous in the middle and
wcfl.ern parts of the county. Beginning at Bowdcn, the'
more remarkable of them form a range wliich runs through
the centre of the county in an oblique diredion from north-
weft to fouth-call. In the northern dillrift they are lefs ele-
vated than towards the i:,idd'c and wellern parts, and are
more varioully dillribntcd. In general they are both ufeful
and ornamental, nearly the whole of them affording abundant
paftiire ; many of tliem being cbthed with woods ; and
.not a few of them containing "aluable minerals.

Soj/fl/^/Cy/mn/f.—Tliis county exhibits a great diverfity
of foils, as well as variablenefs of climate.' Almoil every
ivind of clayey foil is to be found in different parts of it.
About 7000 acres are compofed of light gravel and fnnd,
:and nearly the fame extent of that fpecies which is lifually
trailed loam. The higli rocky land extends to about 10,000
nacres, and the rtolTes to fomewhat better than loco. Such
parts of this county astonler on the Forth, have a tempe-
rate and an excellent climate. The upper or fouth-weftern
part, however, is not fo much favoured. Its elevated iitua-
tioD with the proximity of the moors and moffes, Either in
this county or the neighbouring one of Lanark, render it
ileak and damp during the greater part of the year.

The lands of this county are poffeiTed by between thirty
and forty landholders whofe eftiites vary from 200/. to 60C0/.
per annum, befides a few of inferior rental. About a third
part of the county confifls of wood and pafture lands, or
is laid down with artificial grafTes. The caufe of this
great proportion of patlure grafs feems to be the vicinity of
Edinburgh. The agriculture of this county is fimilar to
that of the other Lothians. The upper portions are the
pooreil, but even in the highcit moors of that dittrid, art
-and indidlry are making rapid changes and improvements.
The grub-worm is perhaps more dellruclive in this than in
moft other counties. Tliis infeft geyerally begins its depre-
dattons in May or June, efpeciallj if the lands have been
formerly in grafs, or over-run with mofs,' and the crops are
ftunted, whxh is apt to be the cafe, from the dry eall winds
■which prevail during thefe months. Not above one-lixth of
the vvhol-- county remains uninclofed. Great attention is pa;«l
to the forming of plantations, particularly in the neighbour-
hood of gentlem.n's feats, which tend m no fmall degree to
enrich the fcenery of this cultivated diftritl. The fliores of
the Forth are peculiarly ornamented both by nature and
art. Barnhougle p^rk, the feat of the earl of Rofeberry,
is laid out v.ith plantations, formed in the very bell; tafte, and
in a manner ivcU calculated to flielter the foil, and exhibit
tlic aipcd of the country around to great advantage. On

the coaft, Linlithgowfliire rifes fudJenly into a ridge adornej
by culture and well wooded. From liencc wellward by the
ancient feat of the Dundas family, and by Hopetoun-houle,
a fcries of views are to be met with not inferior to any in the
kingdom. The fcenery in the immediate neighbonrliood of
Queensferry is peculiarly fine, the Forth here forming a nar-
row tlrait, which expands fuddeitly on both fides into an ex-
tenfive bay, with richly on* nented banks. At various
points of the coall the views are different, the water af-
fuming the appearance of a lake, a noble river or broad fea,
according to the fituation from which it is feen. In one fpot,
a httle dillance from the fliore. Hands Hopetoun-houfe, one
of the moll fuperb and magnificent feats in this kingdom.
It is fituated on a noble and extenfive lawn, flretching to the
diftance of more than a mile from the front of the lioufe,
and foniiing a foit of terrace along the banks of the Forth,
which winds round it, and prefeuts the view of a wide ex-.
teniive lake, interfperfed with iflaiids, and enlivened by a va-
riety of {hipping. Behind the lioufe the ground is more
various, breaking into hills, vallies, and promontories,
which (hoot into the Forth. To a confiderable dillance the
grounds fcem well wooded and enclofed ; the lioule itfelf is
flanked with a noble plantation, which ferves to flielter it
from the northern blalls. At the extremities of this vail
and magnificent iceuery a variety of mountains arife of dif-
ferent form^ and at different diftances. In Ihort, every thing
the eye can contemplate in the whole Icene, or its appendages,
is gre.it and noble. The fituation of the houie, and its ar-
chitedtiire, are alfo equally objects of admiration. It was
planned and begun by the celebrated architect fir William
Bruce, and finiflted by Mr. Adams. Some of the apart-
ments are grand and fpacious, but they are in general of
moderate fize, which is perhaps the only defeft of its con-
trivance. It abounds with paintings.

With the exception of free-ftone and coals, there are n»
minerals of any importance in the county. In the Balli-
gate-hills there ivas formerly a valuable lead mine, but
being now fought in vain is fuppofed to be cxhauiled. A
free-llone quarry, in the neighbourhood of Queensferry,
is one of the finell in the kingdom. More than three acres
have been already excavated. This flone is exported in
great quantity, both as materials for building, and m the
fhape of grinding.flones. Coal abounds in different pans
of the county ; but is chiefly wrought in the neighbonrliood
of Borrowflownefs. Here is one of the moil extraordinary
coal mines in the world : it extends under the Forth half
way acrofs. Formerly there was a building, or moat, about
half a mile from the fhore, where there was an entry down
into the pit formed under the fea. This building being in
the fliapa of a quay, vefl'els were brought along fide or" it,
and loaded with the coals raifed trom the pit and depolittd
lierc. This mine was extremely profitable, but at lall an
unexampled high tide overwhelmed the whole, before the
colliers could effeft their efcape. This did not dift;ourage
the dai'ing adventurers. A new mine was opened, and con-
tinues to be wrought at this day to a great extent. For
the purpofc of rendering the coal in the upper parts of this
county more extenfively ufeful, it has been propofed to cut
a canal from Glafgow to Edinburgh, which might like-
wife bring to the eailward, at a cheap rate, a portion of
the treafures contained in the hills of Lanarklhire. To
thefe ufeful productions \)f the mineral defcription in this
county, may be added iron-ftone, whin-fione, grey granite,
and fliell marie. On the fouth fide of Dundas-hill is a ba-
fsltic rock, 250 yards iu length, and 60 or 70 feet high.
The maffes are in an irregular ftate, formed like pilfers,
feparatcd by channels ; but not a few of them exhibit regu-
lar

L I N

L I N

lar and well defined prifms. The ftone of wliich thefe are
coTtipofcd is of a light bliieifh colour.

The royal boroughs in this county are Linlithgow and
Queensferry. The former is the fhire town, ar.d (ituated
in the interior of the county. The latter ftinds on the
coafi; of the Forth, about nine miles weft from Edinburgh.
It was formerly of more importance than at prcfent ; it
being- now totally deilitute of trade. A particular account
of thefe boroughs will be found under their refpeftive
names.

Borrowftownefs, or Bo-nefs, is the principal fea-port
town in rhis county. It is a borough of barony, governed
by a bailiff appoint^ by tV"> duke of Hamilton. The honfcs
in this place are low and crowded, and much injured in ap-
pearance, by the Imoke of tlie numerous fait pans with
which it abounds. The produce of thefe pans, and of the
coal-works in the neiglibourhood, are the chief articles of
export from this town. The harbor.r is confidered very
fafe. About thirty fail of fliipping belong to perfons refident
on the fpot. Many others frequent this harbour in the courfe
of trade. The imports are ufually tallow, hemp, timber,
flax, and flax-feed. The herri.yg fifhery is carred on here,
but, being hazardous ard precarious, fcarcely deferves notice
in mentioning the commerce of this port. Kineel houi'e,
belonging to the duke of HamiUon, is beautifully lituated
on the (hore of the Forth, not far from the town. The
village of Bathgate ftands on the fouthern declivity of the
hills which bear its name, and foim a part of the range al-
ready mentioned, as running through the centre of the
county. Here, as well as in the village ot Whitbuiti, fitu-
ated on the mod fouthern road between Edinburgh and
Glafgow, a number of weavers are employed by the Glaf-
gow manufafturers. At prelent neither of thefe places is
of much importance : but in the event of the propofed
canal, formerly noticed, being carried into effect, it is not
improbable thev would foon rife into confiderable dillinc-
tion. Befides thefe, there are tew other villages in this
county which do not, however, require particular notice.
Among the antiquities of this county is the termination of
the celebrated Roman barrier, or wall of Antoninus. It enters
Linlithgowfhire near the village of Inner Avon, and pro-
ceeds by Kineel houle to the village of Carriden, behind
the church of which, it is probable, the lall or nineteenth
fort, counting from tke Clyde, was ftationed, though no
remains of the work can now be difcovered beyond the in-
clofiires of Grange. Two miles eaft from Carriden, and
one and three quarters weft from Abercorn, is Blacknefs
cattle, which, from its fituation with regard to the wall,
feems not improbably to have been the Roman port on the
Forth. In Abercorn parifh, on a point north-eall from the
church, Abercorn ca'tle was formerly fituated: It was one
of the ftrong holds of the Druglafes, and was taken by
ftorm, after a long fiege, by James II. during his coiitell
with that family. After this it wAs never repaired, and
Buchanan mentions it as a ruin in his time. The moil an-
cient monaftery in Scotland was lituated here, as we learn
from the venerable Bcde, after whofe time it is not men-
tioned in hi'.lory. In Torphechen parifh was a houfe for the
knights of St. John ; it was founded by kinr David I. This
preceptory was a place of refuge, or funduary. In the
church-yard is a Ixono with a St. Jihn's crofs on it, and four
fimilar ones at the ditlancc of a mile each. This parifh is
alfo diftingnifhed by four great ftones, fituated about a
mile eall of the vilLge, which arc faid to have been a Drii-
idical temple. In Kirklillon parilh is anotiier remarkable
ftone, known to the iiil abitants by the name of the Cal
fione. It is four feet and a half high, and eleven feet
Vol. XXI.

and a half in circumference. The form is tliat of an ir-
regular prifm. On one fide is the following infcription,
rudely, but deeply, cut, the explanation of which hss puzzled
manyantiquaries. " In' oc.Ti;mvi.(> jACi uett.v D uicta.''
ThQ church of Dalmeny may likewife be ranked among the
anriquities of this county. Concerning the date of its
erection nothing is known. Its architefture is of that mid-
dle lort vvhi h has received the appellation of .Saxon. It is
a fmall building, apparently with Grecian windows, but
upon inveltigation, the fliafts are found to be difpropor-
tionate. The ealiern portion of this church is vaulted with
fjmicircular arches, having mouldings chiefly in the form of
liars and other decorations. Sinclair's Statiftical Account
of Scotland. Chalinrr's Caledonia.

LINNjEA, in Botany, {o caded in honour of the great
Swedilh naturalill, (fee LiN.v.i;i.s,) appears by the journal of
his Tour to Lapland to have been chof. n by himlelf to com-
memorate his own name, when he gathered it at Lykfele,
May 29, 173?. Former botani'ls had called this elegant
and fingular Irtle plant Campanula ferpyKfoYia ; but Lin-
nius, profecuting the iludy of vegetables on the onlv certain
pnnciples, the ftructure ot their parts of fructification, foon
found this to con'.Utute a new genus. He referved the idea
in his own breall, till his diicoveries and publications had
entitled him to botanical commemoration, and his friend
Gronoviu?, in due time, undertook to make this genus
known to the world. It was publifhed by Linnseus himfelf
in the Genera Plantarum, ed. I, in 1737, ar.d the fame year
in the Flora Lapfomca, with a plate, being moreover men-
tiored in the Critka Botaoica, p. 80, as " a humble, de-
fpiled, and neglected Lapland plant, flowering at an earlj-
»ge," like the pcrfon whofe name it bears. Linn. Gen. -319.
Schreb. 41S. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 340. Mart. Mill. Dic^.
v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 666. Juff. 211. Lamarck llluftr. t. 5:^6.
— Oafs and order, Didynamia Angiufpirm'ta. Nat. Ord.
Aggregoia, Linn. Ceprlfolia, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. C<j/. Perianth double ; that of the fruit inferior,
of two or four leaves ; the outennoft of which are oppofite
and minnte ; the others eUiptical, concave, ered, hifpid,
clofed around the germen, permanent : that of the Hower
(the proper one) fuperior, of one leaf, in five ereft, narrow,
acute, equal, deep fegments. Cor. of one petal, above
twice as long as its perianth, belLlliaped, its border in five
rather deep, ofetufe, nearly equal divificns. Stam. Fila-
ments four, awl-fnaped, mferted into the bottom of the
corolla, two of them much the fn-.allefi ; anthers comprefled,
verfatile. PjJ}. Germen roundifh, inferior ; flyle thread-
fhaped, ftraight, the length of the corolla, inclining ; lligma
globofe. Peril. Berry dry, ovate, of liiree cells, clothed
with the hif"id glutinous perianth of the fruit, deciduous.
Seeds roi:ndifh, two in each cell.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double ; that of the fruit of two or four
leaves ; that of the flower fuperior, in live deep divifions.
Corolla bell-lhaped. Berry dry, of three cells.

Obf. The two outer or fnialler leaves of the inferior calyx
are often wanting. When prefent thev are like the inner
ones in (hape, though fmaller in fize, and {land like them
clofe to the germen, being totally diftinft fioin the brae
teas, which are a little remote from them, lancsolate and
acute. i'

1. "L. borealis. Linn Sp. Fl. 880. Fl. Suec. 319. t. i.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 214. I. 12. f. 4. Engl. Bot t. 433. Fl.
Dar. t 3. (Campanula fcrpyllifoha ; Bauh. Prodr 3j.)-_
Native ot dry ftony moffy ancient fir woods, in Sweden,
Siberia, Rulfia, Switzerland, Scotland, and North Ame-
rica, flowerii^g in May and June. Linnzus defcribes it in
his Lapland Tour, v. 1. 20, as cluthing maffes of Hones,
P being

h I N

being intprwoTen with ivy, in a piiSurefque manner. It
vas firft difeovered in Britain, June 2d, 179 J, by tlie late
yrofelfor .lames Beattie of Aberdeen, in an old fir wood at
Mearns in that county.

The root is fibrous and perennial. Stems trailing, csecp-
ing, perennial, woody, round, leafy, fomcwhat hairy, often
jcddifTi, a little branched, very long and flender. Leaves
•vergreen, oppofitc, llalked, roundi(K or ovate, veiny, cre-
Tiatc in the fore-part, paler beneath, bearing a few fcattered
hairs on the upper fide. Flowering branches ereft, three or
four inches high, with a pair or two of leaves near the hot-
lorn, naked above, terminating in two equal floucr-flalks,
with a pair of fmall leaves at their origin, and each bcnving
•lie droopivg_^oa>fr, accompanied by two fmall, lanceolate,
flifhtly. remote, oppofite bradeiis, which, like the Ralks,
calyx and germen, are clothed with glandular vifcid hairs.
The JJoi^'eri are of a delicate pink, elpccially within, being
pale wliite or yeilowifh externally. They are f»id in the
Flora Suecka to be very fragrant at night, fmclling like
Meadow-fweet. An infufion of the leaves, witli milk, is
eiteemed a fpecific, among the Swedes, in rheumatic and
fciatic diforders. The inhabitants of Wed Bothnia cure
paintul complaints in the feet of their (heep, with a cataplafm
or fomentation made of this herb. The fmoke of it when
burnt is though: by the Norwegians beneficial in the fcarlet
fever, and its decoftion in the itch.

This is the only known fpecics of Linnita. The right
honourable fir Jofeph Banks is pofi'elTed of a drawing, made
by an artift; who was employed many years ago to delineate
plants in the Eaft Indies, which reprefents a plant'anfwcring
to the fame generic charafters, but of which no fpecimens
having ever been feen, the drawing is fuppofed to be a
forgery. The younger Linnxus, when in England, was
much interefled by the fight of it, but endeavoured in vain
to afcertain its truth.

LINN^AN Syjlem of Botany. See Botany, Flowers,
and Sexuaf, Syjletn,

LINNjEUS, Charles, afterwards Von Linne, in Bio-
graphy, the molt eminent of modern naturalifts, whofe la-
bours and abilities rendered his favourite fcience of Botany
firtl more phihifophical, and then more popular, thari it had
ever been in any other age, was born at "Radiult, in the
province of Smaland, in Sweden, May 13th, old *ftyle,
1 707. His father Nicholas Linnxus was alfiltant minifter of
theparifhof Stenbrohult, to which the hamlet of Rafhult
belongs, and became in procefs of time its paftor or reftor ;
havi.ig married Chrillina Broderfon, the daughter of his
predecefifor. The fubjedl of our memoir was their firfl-born
child. The family of Linnxus had been peafants, but
fome of them, early in the 17th century, had followed lite-
rary purfuits. In the beginning of that century regular
and hereditary furnames were firll adopted in Sweden, on
which occafion literary men often chofe one of Latin or
Greek derivation and ftrufture, retaining the termination
proper to the learned languages, as Melander, even when the
name itfclf was not taken from thence, as Retzius. A re-
markable Linden-tree, Tilla europsa, growing near the place
of their refidcnce, is reported to have given origin to the
names of Lindelius and Tiliander, in fome branches of
this llmily ; but the above-mentioned Nicholas is faid to
lave firft taken that of Linnxus, by which his Ton became
fo extc-nfively known. Of the talle which laid the founda-
tion of his happinefs as well a« his celebrity, tins worthy
father was the primary caufe. Refiding in a delightful Ipot,
on the banks of a fi. e lake, furioandcd by hills and valleys,
woods and cultivated ground, his garden and his fields
yielded hiin both amukmcut and profit, and bij infant foa

3

LIN

imbibed, under his anfpices, that pure and ardent love of
nature for its own lake, with that habitual exercife of tin
mind in obfervation and adivity, which ever after marked
his charafter, and which were enhanced by a redtitude of
principle, an elevation of devotional talle, a warmth of
feeling, and an amiablenefs of manners, rarely united m thofe
who fo tranfcendently excel in any branch of philofophy or
fcience, becanfe the culiivalioii of the heart does by no
means fo conltantly as it ought keep pace with that of the
iinderdandlng. The maternal uncle of Nicholas Linnxus,
Sucno Tiliander, who had educated him with his own fchil-
dren, was alfo fond of plants and of gardening, fo that
thefe taftes were in fome meafiire hereditary The young
Charles, as he tells us hinifelf, was no fnoiier out of his
cradle, than he alinoll lived in his fatlier'? garden. He was
fcarcely four years old when he heard his fallier defcant, to a
rural party, on thediilindions and qualities ol fome particu-
lar plants, culled from the flowery turf on which they were
fcated, and this firit botanical lecture was ever after remem-
bered as an cpocjia in his fcientific life. He neverceafed to
enquire of his father concerning the names and properties of
all the produflions of the garden and the fields, that he
could pofiibly procure ; nor did the economy of infedts, even
at this early period, efcape his attention. His youthful in-
aptitude for retaining the names of natural objecls, fome-
times tired and difpleafed his inllruclor, whofe wholefome
authority in time corrected this defeft, and perhaps early
prevented his falling into the error of tfarofe dciultory fpecu-
latorsof nature, who have agreed to dcfpife that methodical
and didaftic precifion of ideas, which, for want of early
dilcipline, they could never attain. The meinory of Lin-
nxus, indeed, like his powers of perception, was naturally
good, and his fight was always remarkably acute. The vi-
vacity and brilliant expreflion of his eyes are faid to have
lafted through life, and indeed are diiplayed in mail of his
portraits.

Thefe flowery ftudies however were obliged to give way,,
in fome meafure, to lefs agreeable occupations, and unhap-
pily the private tutor proved a man of lefs winning manners
than the beloved parent. Thus at feven years of age gram-
mar had but an unequal conteft with botany in the mind of
the young ftudent. Nor was he much more fortunate when
removed in i 7 1 7 to the grammar-fchool of Wexio, the mailer
of which, as his difgutted pupil relates, " preferred ftripea
and punifliments to admonitions and encouragements.'' Such
a fyltem was near extinguiihing all the talents it was inte: ded
to cultivate, and when the youth was committed, two years
afterwards, to the care of a more judicious and amiable pri-
vate tutor than before, the horrors of the rod feem ftill to
have predominated over his tafte for learning. In 1722 he
proved competent, neverthelefs, to be admitted to a higher
form in the fchool, and his drier ftudies were now allowed
to be intermixed and fweetened with the recreations of bo-
tany. In 1724, being 17 years of age, he was removed to
the fuperior feminary, or Gymnafwm, and his dellination was
fixed for the church. But the original inclinations of his
mind, and its early prejudices, here grew but the more ap-
parent. He had no talle for Greek or Hebrew, ethics,
metaphyfics or tlieology ; but he devoted himfelf with fuc-
cefs to mathematics, natnral philofophy, and a fcientific
purfuit of his d.irling botany. The Chloris Goth'ica of Bro-
raelius, and Ilorlus Up/aH:>ifis of Rudbeck, which made a
part of his little hbr.ny, were calculated rather to fire than
to fatisfy his curiofity ; while his Palmberg and Tilbnds
might make hurt fenfi;>!e how much more than they had ac-
compiiihea lliU remained to be done. His own copies of
thefe books, ufcd wiih the utmolt care and neatcefs, are

I)0\«

LINNJEU5.

mow before us. His literary i*pirrat!on ho^i'ever made fo
little progrefs, that, when his father paid a vifit to Wcxio,
in 1726, his tutors, hke the fapient inflrutlors of Newton
at Cambridge, gave him up as a hopelefs dunce. They ad-
vifed that he fhould be put apprentice to a fhoemaker, tai-
lor, or fome other handicraft trade, rather than be forced to
purfue an objett, for which he was evidently unlit. Fortu-
nately, the dilappointed parent met with a l^etter counfellor
in Dr. Rothmann, the letlurer on natural pbilofuphy, who
encouraged him to hope much from the inclination of his
fon to natural knowledge and praAical obfervation, and re-
comme::ded that he Should be directed to the ih'.dy of me-
dicine. This good advice was fupported with the gratuitous
offer of taking the young man into his own houfe, for the
vear during w hich he was ftill to remain at the Gymnafum,
which was gladly accepted. The worthy preceptor gave
his pupil a private courfe of inftrutlion in phyfiotogy on the
Boerhaavian principles, and was rewarded by the luccefs of
his endeavours. He tirft fuggefted to Linnaeus the true
principles upon which botany ought to be iludied, founded
on the parts of fructification, and put the fyftem of
Tournefort into his hands, in the knowledge of which he
made a rapid progrt's. Its very impcrfecElions proved ufe-
ful, in prompting him to attempt fomething mere complete
hereafter.

In 1727 Linnaeus was matriculated at the univerfity of
Lund, having, on the 19th of Augull, undergone with cre-
dit the examination of tiie Dean, and even of the Profeflbr
of Eloquence, Papke. He devoted himfelf to the (ludy of
medicine, lodging at the houfe of a phyfician. Dr. StobKus,
■whofe library and mufeum of natural hillory, afforded the
greatell delight and afliftance to his ardent mind, and the
itudy of which often robbed him of feveral hours of his
natural repofc. In the fame houfe was a German fludent
named Koulas, eager hke himfelf for inftruflion, and their
friendfhip was mutually beneficial. Dr, Stoboeus being in-
firm in health and fpirits, Linnzus was allowed to relieve
him occafior.ally from the labours of his profefhon, and foon
became a groat favourite. While botanizing in the country,
in the fpring of 1728, our young naturaliil met with that
accident, whatever it was, which he always attributed to
the iting or bite of his fuppofed Furia infimalis, an animal
whofe exiitence has been doubted by many perfons, and by
fome pofitively denied. We need not here repeat what is
faid under the article FuitlA. His pupil Solander has
recorded feveral cafes of this accident or difeafe, and
delcribes the animal as if he had feen it, in the Nova ASa
UpfdUtnJia, v. I. 55. In the enfuing fummcr Linnaeus
paifed the vacation under his paternal roof. Here he met
with his former patron Rothmann, by whofe advice he was
induced to quit Lund for Upfal. as a fuperior fchool of
raedicme and botany. But the llender fupport which his
father could afford him, a capital of about 8/. Iferling-, beinir
totally madequate, he was, in this new Iituation, reduced to
the greatell neceflity. Private pupils were not to be pro-
cured by a poor unknown Undent. He was obliged to
trull for chance to a meal ; and when he relates that he had
nu Way ot mendmg his fhoes but by folded paper, -feems to
hiive felt th;; want even of the cobler's education which had
been recommended to him. He had offeiided his old friend
Stobxus by quitting Lund, and thousrh he had brought
%vith him a fplendid Latin teftimonial, from the Redor of
that univerfity, in which he was called PoTiiiJfmus onuilijjl-
mufque dominus, and was declared " to have cundncled hun-
fell with no leis diligence than correctnefs, fo as to gain the
affection of all v.ho knew him," he feems to have obtained
Bothmg more than a royal ftholarfhip, which was conferred

upon him on the i6th of Dsc?mber, but of the value of
which we arc not informed. It appears however by the
above account to have been totally infufiicienr for his main-
tenance. He ncverthelefs did not relax in liis ftudies ; but
attended the lettures of the younger Rudbeck, then Pro-
feffor at Upfal, as well as the medical ones ef Profeffor
Roberg : and made critical manufcript remarks upou all
that he faw and heard.

In the .(utumn of 1729 his botanical tafle and applicatio*
raifed ur) for him a new and v.-ry eflimable patron, in the
learned Dr. Olaus Celfius, Prcfeflor of Divinity, who met
with him by chance in that academical garden, the fame of
which he was defined hereafter to immortalize. This gen-
tleman had then been inten*, for above 30 years, upon the
illuftration of the plants mentioned in the Holy Scriptures,
on which he publiflied a very celebrated work in 1745,
having travelled to the Eaft on purpole to rei.der it more
perfect. He foon difcovered the merit of Linnaeus, took
him under his proteftion, and allowed him the full ufe of his
own rich library. The fricndlhip of fuch a man foon pro-
cured him further advantages. The fon ot Pvofeffor Rud-
beck, and other young men, became his private pupils, by
which his finances were improved. Nothing howevi-r feem»
to have been recollected with fo much fatisfattion to himfelf,
in relating the events of this part of his life, as his intimate
fcientific friendfliip with Peter Ardedius, who af'erwards
called himfelf Artedi, and became lo famous in the know-
ledge of fifhes and of umbelliferous plants. They paffed.
fome time together fubfeqiiertly in Hoi aiid, when Li: mu»
witnelfed the melancholy fate of his friend, who was acci-
dentally drowned at Amfterdam ; of which he has prefixed
fo pathetic an account to the Ichthyologia of Artedi, pub-
lilbed by his means.

During his fludies, under the roof of Celfius, Linnxus
met with a review of Vaillant's trealife on the Sexes of
Plants, which firft led him to confider the importance, and
great varieties of form, of the llamens and piilils, and ther.ce
to form a new fcheme of arrangement founded on thofe
effential organs. He drew up an effay in oppofition to the
librarian of the univerfity, who had publilhed a work de
Nuptiis PLintarum, and iliewed it to Celfius, who communi-
cated it to Rudbeck. and the performai.ee was honoured
with the high approbation of both. This led the way to
his being appointed to ledure in the botanic garden, as an
alliftant or deputy to the latter, whofe advanced age ren-
dered fome relaxation neceffary. The lectures ot Linnxus
began in the fpring of 1730. He had previoufly folicited
from the Profeffor the humble appointment ot gardener t.o
the univerfity, which was refufed, only on the ground t f
his being fit for a better fituation Now fir.ding himic.f
authorized to take the direftion of the garden, he itforuieJ
and greatly enriched it. He was taken into the houfe cf
Rudbeck, as tutor to his younger children, and by this
means had the ufe of a vry fine collection of books and
drawings. His mornings being devoted to the duties of hit
llation, his evenings were fpent in preparing fome botanicil
works. It was now that he began to write his Biblfotbuct
Botanica. Claffcs Plantarum, Critica Boiailca and Gemra
Plantarum, though thele books were not given to the world
till about fcven years afterwards, v.hcn he printed them in
Holland, during his flay there.

A new object now engaged all the attention of our emu-
lous young naiuralift The convcrfations of Rudbeck, con-
cerning the natural hillorv of Lapland, and the curicfities
he had feen there, excited an irrefitlible defire in Linntus
to viiit the fame country. To this he was perhaps the more
immediately prompted, by fome little circumitauces, which

P 2 made

LINNjEUS.

made his refidence at Upfal uncomfortable. Thcfo were,
tlie jeal'iufy of Dr. Rofcn, wlio wns ambitious of fuccecdinij
RiiJbeck whenever his Prof fTorlhips fhoiild become vacant,
and who by his fuccefs as the only prailifinji- phylician at
Upfal, was likely to prove a formidable rival ; as well as
fome domellic chasrrin, which he thns relates. " The failh-
lefs wife of the librarian Norrclius lived at this time in Rud-
beclt's lioiife, and by her LiniKEus was made fo odious to
his patronefs, that he could no longer ftay there." — In the
end of the year 1731 he retired to his native place, and foon
received, from the Academy of Sciences at Upfal, an ap-
pointment to travel through Lapland, under the Royal au-
thority, and at the cxpence of the Academy.

After a viiit to Lund in the fpring of 1732, Linna»u5
fet out from Upfal, May 12th, on his Lapland expedition.
He travelled on horfeback, but flenderly provided with bag-
gage, and after vifiting the Lapland alps on fost, and de-
fcending to the coaft of Norway, of which he has given a
molt picbirefque and ftriking dcfcription, returned by Tor-
nea, and the call fide of the Bothnian gulf, to Abo, and fo
to Uplal, whiih he reached on the lotli of Oftober, having
performed a journey of near 4000 Engllfli miles. The par-
ticulars of his interefling expedition have lately been given
to the public, in an Englijh tranllation of the original journey
written on the fpot, illullrated with wooden cuts from his
own (ketches, making two ochr.o volumes. This docu-
ment, a faithful iranlcript of his own mind, and written
folely for his own uie, gives a moil amiable and refpedtable
idea of the chara«ler and acquirements of this celebrated
man, at this period of his life.

Having learned the art of afTaying metals during ten days'
refidence at the mines of Biorknas, near Calix, in the courfe
of his tour, he next year gave a private courfe of Icftures
on that fubjett, which had never been taught at Upfal be-
fore. The jealoufy of Rofen, however, ilill purfued him ;
and this rival defcended fo low as to procure, partly by in-
treaties, partly by threats, the loan of his manufcript lec-
tures on botany, which Linnaeus deteded him in furrepti-
tioufly copying. Rofen had taken by the hand a young
man named Wallerius, who afterwards became a ditlin-
guiflied mmeralogill:, and for whom he now procured, in
oppofitioii to Linnaeus, the new place of adjun8, or aflllk-
ant, in the medical faculty at Lund. But the bafell adion
of Rofen, and which proved envy to be the fole foiirce of
his conduft, was, that having married the niece of the arch-
bifhop, he obtained, through his lordlhip's means, an order
from the chancellor to prevent all private medical lettures
in the univerfity. This, for which there could be no mo-
tives but confcious inferiority and malice, deprived Liniiasus
of his only means of fubtittence, and the iludents of any in-
formation which might endanger their reverence for his
rival. He is faid to have been fo exafperated, as to have
drawn his fword upon Rofen, an affront with which the
latter chofe to put up, as, doubtlefs, became the profperous
nephew of an archbifhop ; but Linn:eus cannot be excul-
pated of hai'ing, for fome time afterwards, indulged feel-
ings of paffionate rcfentment, and even of meditated re-
venge. Thefe, however, bis better principles and difpo-
fitions, after a while, entirely fubdiied, and Rofen, towards
the clofe of his life, was glad of the medical aid of the
man he had in vain endeavoured to crufh.

Difappointed in his views of medical advancement, Lin-
PSEUS turned his thou-hts more immcdia'ely to the fubjedl
of mineralogy. In the end of the year 1 733, he had vilited
fome of the principal mines of Sweden, and had been intro-
duced to Baron Reutcrholm, governor i:f the province of
Palarne, or Dalecarlia, retiJcnt U Fahlun. This place

Linnneus has perpctuated^ in the tnemory of botanifts, by hi«
JAchen Fahlimenfis, a produtlion more refembling fome rami-
fication of the neighbouring copper ores, than any thing of
vegetable origin. At the perhiafion, as well as at the ex-
pence, of the governor, he travelled through the eaftera
part of Dalecarlia, accompanied by feven of his ablcfl pu-
pils, and the unpublilhcd journal of his tour exills in his
library. At F;4ilun he gave a courfe of leflures on the art
of alFaying, which was numcroudy attended, and here he
(iril became acquainted with Browallius, then chaplain to
the governor, afterwards bilhop of Abo. This judicious
friend advifed Linnaeus to take his doctor's degree, in order
to purine the practice of phyfic, in which he had already at
Fahlun met with much fuccefs, and he further recommended
him to aim at fome advantageous matrimonial conneftioii.
Dr. ,Tohn Morxiis, a phyfician of the place, though at firft
not prepoffetrcd in favour of our young adventurer, wliofe me-
dical fuccefs had encroached on his own, allowed him to pay
his addrelles to his eldell daughter ; but their union was for
the prefent deferred.

In purfuit of the plan pointed out by Browallius, Lin-
nxus, having fcraped together about i j/. ilerling, now en-
tered on his travels, with a view of obtaining his degree at
the cheapcil univerfity he could find, and of feeing as much
of the learned world as his chances and means might enable
him to do. In the beginning of the year 1735 he fet out,
after vifiting his father, lately become 'a widower, in com-
pany with another medical liudent, named Sohlbcrg. At
Hamburgh his (kill and honefty unfortunately Hood in his
way. The brother of one of tlie burgomailers was pof-
fe(red of a fpecimen of that reputed wonder, a Hydra with
feven heads, the awe and admiration of all who beheld it,
upon wiiich its owner, in the true mercantile (lyle, had fixed
an enormous hypothetical value. His golden dream was
deftroyed by Linnseus, who proved the monfter to be ar-
tificial.

After a (lay of eight days at Amderdam, Linnxus pro-
ceeded to Harderwyck, where, having offered himfelf as a
candidate, and undergone the requifite examinations, he ob-
tained his degree June 23, 1735- On this occafion he pub-
hlhed and defended a thefis, entitled Hypolhejis Nova tic
Febrium Intermiltiiitlum Caufd, in the dedication of which,
to his Alitcemiles ct Patrones, it is remarkable that, among
the names of Rudbeck, Rothmann, Stobsus, Mora:us, &c.
we find that of Rofen. The hypothefis here advanced,
moll correftly fo denominated, is truly Boerhaavian. Inter-
mittent fevers are fuppofed to be owing to fine particlta of
clay, taken in with llie food, and lodged in the terminations
of the arterial fyftem, where they caiile the fymptoms of
thedlforder ir. quelkion. If we fmil.' at the theory, v.-e can-
not but admire the ingenuity with which it is fupported,
and the extent of the author's knowledge and obfervation j
nor is the theory itlelf at all lefs refpeclable, than thofe
which make a figure in the humoral pathology, univerfally
taught at tlrat period, by fome of the greateit medical phi-
lofophers of any age.

In Holland Linnsus became acquainted with Dr. John
Frederick Gronovuis (fee GuoNOVJUii), whoalnfted him in
publifning the fir!l edition of the celebrated SyJIema Naturip,
confilting of eight larg- (hcets, in the form of tables ; whicti
edition is now a great bibhotjiecal curiofity. He alfo pro-
cured accefs to the illullrious Boerhaave, who encouraged
him to remain in Holland ; bat this advice could fcarcely
have been followed, had he not met with a patron in Bur-
mann, of Amfterdam, who was then preparing his Tbtfaurus
Zeylankus, and who received Linnxus into his houfe, as his
guell for fome months, during which period he printed his
I Fundamenla

LiNNiEUS.

Tunddmtnla Botamca, a finall od^avo of j6 pages, in tlie ligent and communicative friends in Dr. Shaw, the oriental

form of aphoiifnis, which contains the very eflence of bota- traveller, profcflTor Martyii the elder, the wcU-knowu Philip

nical philofophy, a'id has never been fuperfeded nor refuted. Miller, and the celebrated Peter Collinfon. (See Collin'-

The fubfequent performances of the author himfelf, and of son.) Thefe men of true fcicnce admiMd his genius and

his followers, have been excellent, in proportion as they have valued his friendlhip ; they promnlud his w ifiiea by '.very

kept to the maxims of this httle book.. After Liiinsiis had
been a few months under profefFor Burmann's roof, he was
introduced by Boerhanv.- to Mr George Clifford, an opu-
lent banker, whofe garden at Hartecamp was one of the

means in their lower, enriching him with hooks ; and I'up-
plying him plentifully with plants, both for his own h'.-rba-
rium, aid the garden of his patron at Hartecamp. He
was mtvh ftruck with what he faw of London, and has

richeft in the world, a.^d who thought himfelf happy in :he celebn.ced it in an expreffion which has cft.m been repeated,
opportunity of procm-ipg fuch a mjn to ftudy and iu;'cr- calling thi'. famous city the '■'■ pimSum fallen! in vittllo orbis."
intend his coUeftion, as well as to make known to the world Of his o'ifervations on the natural hiltory of this country,
any novelties it might contain. Linnsus was therefore re- nothing is prelerved but a tradition, that the golden bloom
moved to Hartecamp, where, as he lays, " he lived Ike a of the furze on the commons near London, efpecially Put-
prince," more glorious, no doubt, than an Aliatic delpot, ney-heath, delighted him fo much, thai he fell on his knees
in the innumerable vegetable tribes which daily offered their in a rapture at the fight. He was always an admirer of
homage at his feet. With an ample library, as well a:' gar- this plant, and laboured in vain to preftrve it through a
den, at his command, in both which he had unlimited Swedilli winter m his greenhoiife ; as we in England are
powers to fupply any defects that he might dilcover, he had obliged to Ihelter the Cape (hrub in a Hove, though it covers
DOW the means of cultivating his beloved fcience without walls in the open air at Paris.

reilriftion or impediment, ai'.d appears to have been truly On his i-eturn to Holland, he continued the impreffion of

fcnfible of the happinefs of his h)t. He now wrote and his Gi-fu-ra P/an/aru/n, which appeared in 1737. Li October,

printed his admirable Flora Lappon'tca, the plates of which 1736, he was made a member of the Imperial Academy

were fupplied by the contributions of a fociety at Amiler-
dani. This work, one of the happieft literary compofitions
of its author, is llrikingly charafterillic of the Hate of his
mind at the time it was written. It is redundant in obfer.
vation and refleftion, on every fubjeft whicli could be inter-
woven with its profefied object, conveyed m the moll engaging
ftyle ; a ftyle independent of ftud;ed phrafcology, flowing
direftly from the heart, and deriving its principal charm
from the delight which the author takes in what he has to
communicate. The enthufiafm with which his imagination
retraces every idea o£his Lapland expedition, turns the wild
fcenes of that country, even in the mind of his reader, into
a paradife, inhabited by all that is innocent and good. His

Nature Curiuforum, by the title, according to the cuflom of
that body, of Diofcorides fecundus. He was now tempted
by Boerhaave to undertake a botanical expedition to the
Cape of Good Hope and to America, at the pubhc ex-
pence, and flattered with the expectation of a ProfelTorlhip
in Holland at his return ; but he neither chofe to encounter
the hazards of the undertaking, nor to give up his profpetl*
at home. He would not however leave the bencfaftier to
whom he owed fo much, till he had accomplifhed all that was
to be expefted from him. He printed in 1737 the Firida-
rium Cliffbrtianum, an oftavo catalogue of his friend's gar-
den, difpofed according to his own fexual fytlem ; of whicli
he publifhed, later in the fame year, at Leyden, an exempli-

effufions refemble the longings of an exiled Swifs ; and are fication under the title of Methodus Sexualts, in which all the
in fail incipient fymptoms of that oppreflion of the heart, known genera of plants are fo arranged by name only,
which, after a while, rendered his abode in Holland, with This year alfo produced his magnificent Hortus differtlanus,
all its icientific charms, no longer tolerable, to one born in in folio, in which all the plants of Mr. Clifford's colleftion,
the purer air of Sweden, and nurtured amongll her Lapland
alps.

The profperous condition of Linnxus, under the patron-
age of Mr. Chfford, afforded him much more than a felfifh

gratification, when he met with his old friend Artedi, at
Amfterdam, dellitute of the means of profecuiing his ftu-

whether living or dried, are enumerated, with many defcrip-
tions and highly interefting remarks, an almoil complete
detail of fynonyms, and fome'of the moil exquilite plates
ever fcen in any book. This fplendid volume was not pub-
lifhed, but only given away by Mr. Clitlord. It was begun
and completed in nine months. In the intervals of this

dies, obtaining his degree, or even of fupporting himfelf labour the Critica Botanica, an octavo volume, was written
with credit or decency. " He hud fpent all his money in and printed. Tliis is an entertaining commentary and illuf-
London ;" an accident not peculiar to a poor Swedifh ilu- tration of part of the Fundamenta, from feclion 210 to 324,

relating to nomenclature and Ipecitic chara6lers. It is a
book not fo much known as it delerves, being very rare.
Thefe fevere labours however proved too much for the health
of Linnxus, and he conceived that the autumnal air of
Holland, as is very probable, did not agree with him.
Though he had every luxury and indulgence at his com-
mand, and was careffed bv his patron, and by all who came
near him, with the moll flattering attentions, he longed to

dent ; and would now have been dellitute but for the
exertions of !iis friend, who recommended him to Seba, to
whom the learning and abilities of Artedi were peculiarly
ferviceable, in completing the third volume of his magni-
ficent Thefiiurus, chiefly devoted to fifhes. We have already
alluded to the unfortunate catallrophe of this young man,
and a Ihort fketch of his life is given in its prcper place.
See Aktedi.

In 1736, after having written his Mufa Cl'iffhrhana, Lin- return to his nalire country. Having left Mr. Chfford. he
nxus was fent by Mr. Clifford to England, ai:d was intro- could not refufe his affillance for a while to Profeilbr Adrian
dnced to the lovers and teachers of natural fcience, at " "
O.^ford and London more efpccially. Of his reception
from the Sherardian ProfefFor, we have already fpoken.
(See Dll-LEMUs.) He was flrongly recommended by
Boerhaave, in a letter which flill exills, to fir Hans Sloane ;
but this indefatigable collector neitlier underilood nor cared
for thofe improTements in botanic fcience which he might
have learned from his vifitor. Linnxus found more intel-

Van Royen at Leyden, in the arrangement and dcfcription
of the garden there, which feems rather to have dilpleafed
his late patron, and not perhaps without reafon, after the
flrong inducements he had offered to retain him. Linnaus
exculed himtelf as well as he could, and while givmg his
affillance to Van Royen, compofed and printed the ClaJJct
Planlarum, which is a complete view of all the botanical
fyllcms ever known. Here alfo he publifhed his friend

Arttdi'e

1^

LINNJ^US.

Artedi's Ichlhfalogia. Tiotrhaave made another attempt to
iadiice him lo vifn forr.e exotic rc(;ions, otFering him ;i me-
dical appointment at Surinam, which it is happy he did not
accept. His friend and great fiivo' rue Bartfch, who was
fenl in his ftead, fell a facrilice to the climate, and to the
neglect on d ill ulage he received from the governor, as Lin-
naeus has feelingly related in his Flora Siucica, under the
genus Barlfia.

Jjinnxus remained at Leyden tillthe fpring of 1738, when
he had an interefting interview with the great Boerhaave,
then on his dea'h hcd. " I have lived out my time," faid
the venerable invalid. " I h^ve done what I could, may
God prelerve thee, from whom the world expects much
more. Farewell" Whether the climate of Holland co-
operated with dejecflion of fpirits in our young Swede, in
confequence of news he received refpetting a rival in the
afFeftions of his miilrefs, and in the elleem of his intended
father-in-law, or whether his literary labours were too unre-
mit'ing, his departure vvas prevented by a very formidable
intermittent fever. The ikill of Van Swieten, and the re-
newed attentions of the amiable Clifford, who received liim
again under his roof with the mod liberal and indulgent
kindnefs, after fome weeks reilored him fo far, that he was
able, though Hill weak, to fet out on his journey. On
reaching the more elevated country of Brabant, he felt in
one day quite renovated, his whole frame being, as he ex-
prclFes it, " freed from fome great burthen." He carried
a very handfome introduftory letter from V'an Royen to
Anthony de Jnfiieu, the phy'iciaii, who made him acquainted
with his brother, the famous Bernard de Juffieu. (See
Jussi.EA..) He infpecled the botanir garden, the herbariums
of Tournefort, Vaillar.t, the JuHieus. &c. ; vifited the
neighbourhood of Fontainebleau, which he has celebrated
for itf Orchiikx, formed an acquaintance with Reaumur and
other diltingnifhed naturaliils, and was admitted a corre-
fponding member of the yf endemic: dcs Si'icr.ies.

How he co:iverfed with Reaumur and others, who knew
no language but their own, and for the fame reafon, how he
contracted fo clufe a friendfliip with Mr. Colhnfon at Lon-
don, it is not eafy to conceive. He confefles a peculiar in-
aptitude, and, we think, a blarr.eable indifference, tor the
learning of languages, declaring in his diary that in all his
travels he learnt " neither Eiiglilh, French, German, Lap-
landiih, nor even Du'ch, though he Hayed in Holland three
whole years. Ncverth.'lefs, he found his way every where,
■well and happily." By the journal of his Lapland tour,
■ and other manulcripts, it appears that Latin was lufhclently
familiar to him ; and if fallidious critics, who are not com-
jjetent to follow his ideas, may fometimcs cenfure the ftyle
of part of his writings, they have chielly taken that liberty
with the ^mienitales y/caJemica; not remarking the great va-
riety of Itylc in the tUays whiclicompofe thole volumes, and
which are chiefly wntcen by the pupils whofe inaugural dif-
fertations they were. The matter indeed was molUy communi-
cated by the ProfefTor, whofe office it was to defend e.ich
thefis, in conjunftion with the candidate, againlt all op-
pofers. Thus thcfe elTa^'S are always quoted as the works
of Linnaeus, though their language is rarely his own ; and
is indeed fo various, that it could not be fuppofed all to
come from one aulhor.

After leaving Paris, Linnxus took his paffage at Rouen
for Sweden, and landed at HeKingborg, from whence he
proceeded to Fahlun, vifiting his father for a few days in his
way. His reception from the lady of his choice was favour-
able, and they were formally betrothed to each other. Be-
fore they could marry, it was necelTary that fome profpcft
»[ au advantageous eilablifhment fliould be difcovcrcd.

Stockholm was thought a pron-.irnig theatre for a yoiinf
man of talents in the medical profefTion, but talents are
ufualiy what thofe who cmpli>y a young pliyfician, are of
all things leaft able to judge of. If Crirtune or prejudice do
not Hand his friend, the fkiU of Hippocrates, Celius or
Boerhaave will fcarcely be difccrned. The fcicntific merits
of LinniBus were not overlooked, as he was unaiiimoufly
cholen a member of the Upfal academy, the only one then
in Sweden ; yet the homage he had fo lately received abroad,
feems to have made him a little unreafonahle on this head,
and he declares that he would certainly have quitted his na-
tive country, " had he not been in love." To this all-power-
ful deity therefore, amd not to his merits, or to the vvifdom
of his countrymen in Jifcerning them, was Sweden, in the
firll inilance, indebted for the pofieflion of her Linnarus.
From his country however flowed his mofl abundant reward ;
for whatever emolument his matrimonial connexion might
afford, it certainly brought him little liappinefs or honour.
.After paffiiig the winter of 1738 in the capital, he began to
make iiis way in fome departments of medical practice, fo
that by the following Marcii he had confiderable employ-
ment. At this time a plan was fori-ed for eftablilhing a
literary fociety at Stockholm, which afterwards rofe to
great eminence, and Hill continues to flouriili, having pub-
lifhed numerous volumes of TranfaCfions, in the Swedifh
language. Triewald, Hopken and Alllroem, (v. hole fa-
mily was ennobled by the name of Alftroemer,) were, with
Linna;us, the tirlt members : and the infant fociety, being
incorporated by royal authority, was augmented with all
the molt learned men of the country. Its objects were de-
clared to be natural philofophy, natural hiftory in all its
branches, chemiftry, inediciuc, anatomy, furgery, mathe-
matics, economy, commerce^ arts and manufadtures. So
wide a range might have been feared to have cnilangered its
fucecfs ; but though, in its progrefs, Jthefe various lludies
have, from time to time, predominated by turns, they feem
net to have clafhed with each other. Part of its tranfaClion»
has been publifhed in Latin at Venice, under the title of
^na/effa Trnujiifp'ma, which is fotne reproach toother coun-
tries of Eurt.'pe, where they are fo very little known.

A molt flattering mark of public approbation was, foon
after, conferred on Liunxus, without any folicitatioii.
Count TefTin, marlhal of the Diet, which was then fitting,
gave him an annual penfion of 200 ducats from the board
of mines, on condition of his giving public lectures on
botany and mineralogy at Stockholm. 'J'he fame nobleman
alfo obtained for him the appointment of pliylician to the
navy, and received him into his hcufe. His pracStice now
increafed greatly among the nobility, and he found himl'elf
in fo prolperous a condition that he would no longer delay
his marriage, which took place at Fililun, June 26. 1739.
After a month he returned to Stockholm. He was, by lot,
the firft prefident of the new academy ; and as that office
was to be but of three month.^' duration, after the French
plan, herefigned it in September, and on that occafion de-
livered an oration in Swedifli, on the wonderful Economy of
Infedts, which was printed in theTranfadlions ; and a Latin
verfion of it may be found in the j^msnilates jilcadimics, v. 2.
His example was followed by all the fucceedirg pretidents.

The death of profelfor RuJbeck in 1740, gave Linnaeus
a hope of fucceeding to the botanical chair at Upfal, one of
the grcatcit objedts of his ambition. The prior claims of
his torme|: rival, Rofen, on account of his handing m the
uiiiverlity, could not however be fet afide. Wallerius alfo
rofe up in oppofition to the claims of Linnseus. It hap-
pened however that Roberg religned the protefforfhip of
phyfic about this time, and by the exertions of count Teffin,

who

LINN^'EUS.

wTio applied to the chancellor, count Gyllenboror, a com-
promife took place. Rofon obtained the pnifefTorfliip of
botany, and Lii.nacus that ■ of medicii:e, whilil Wallerius
gained only cenfure for the illiberality with which he had
profecuted his clairrs. By an amicable adjiiflment which
\Tas confirmed by authority, the two new profefTors after-
v.ards divided their official duties between them, lo as bed
to fuit the talents of each.

A war chancing- to break out between Sweden and Ruffia,
Linns'^s was apprelicnfive that he ihould be obliged to at-
tend the fleet, inilead of which however, he received the
much more agreeable order to travel tlirough iEiand, Gcth-
land, &c. for the purpofe of inv- ftigaiing the n 'tural hif-
tory and produce of thole countries. He was accompanied
by fix of his pupils, and Ipent four months of the fummer
of 1741 in his expedition, of which an account was pub-
liihed at Stockholm in 174, ; before he began his leftures
at Uplal, to which place he removed in the autumn, he de
liven d a Latin oration " On the Benefit of travelling in
one's own Country," prinred in the 2d vol. of the Amceni-
tales, and tranflated by Mr. Stillmgfleet in his MifccUan ous
Trafts. Thi< compofition has been much and jultly admired.
The next year Linmus undertook the reform of the Up-
fal garden, a new grcen-houfe was ereiSed ; an old houle of
ftone, built by the great Olaus Rudbeck, who, having fuf-
fered fo much by fire, would not admit a bit of wood into
the ftruflure, "was converted," as Linnsus fays, "from
an owl's neil into a lodging fit for the ProfefTor." In 1743
the garden was in a (late to receive thofe copious fupplies of
exotics, which the new ProfefTor, in confequence of his ex-
tenfive foreign correfpondence, was enabled to procure.
He was this year chofen a tnember of the academy at Mont-
pellier. His reputation continued to increafe both abroad
and at home ; he became R-cretary of the Upfal academy,
and was employed on fome public occafions to do the ho-
nours of the univerfity. The death of his father-in-law
obliged hun to pay a vifit to Fahlun, but he fecms to have
gained little by this event, except the old medical library of
Dr. MorjEUs, which flill makes a part of his own. In 1746
he travelled to Weft Gothland ; an account of his journey,
vhich occupied two months, was publifhed the folic ving
year.

In 1745 Linnxns publifhed the firfl edition of his /"/orrt
Suecica, and in 1746 iiia fauna Sutcica came out. Thefe
works are mode's for fuch compofitions, efpecially their
fecond editions, publifhed many years afterwards, with
fpecific names, and many valu.ible additions.

A medal of this diftinguifhed man was ftruck by fome
cf his friends in 1746, dedicated to count TefTm. He
foon after received the rank and tit'e of Archiater, unfo-
licited, from the king, and was the only Swede chofen into
the new-modelled academy of Berlin. All thefe honours,
however, though he was by no means indifferent to fuch,-
appear to have given him lefs delight at this moment, than
the acquifition of the herbarium inade by Hermann in Cey-
lon, which an apothecary at Copenhagen unki/owingly
pofTeffed. Being defirous of becoming better acquainted
with the nature of this coUedlion, its owner was recom-
mended to Linnaeus, who foon difcovered to whom it had
originally belonged, and rejoiced at recovering a treafure
■which had been fuppofed irrecoverably lofl. He laboured
day and i.ight, as he tells us, in examining the flowers, and
hence originated his Flora Ztylanka, publifhed at Stock-
holm m 1747. This herbarium, as well as that of Clif-
ford, is now in the pofTeffion of firjofeph Banks.

The exertions, and dome lie as v; ell as foreign reputation,
•f Linnxus, bad now rendered botany extremely popular

in Sweden, and its interefts were cembined with thofe of
commerce in various diflant expeditions and fpeculations.
Many of the principal merchants, as well as the nobility,
had acquired a tafte for natural hillory, and were proud to
further the views of their diftinguifhed ProfefTor, who was
now confidered an honour to the nation. Several of his
m')ft intelligent pupils were fent to fuch didant countries,
a'! he thought moft worthy to be explored ; as the Eaft
Indies, China, North and Sou'h America, and the Holy-
Land. (See Has.'jelquist, Kalm, and LtEPLixciA.)
Their difcoveries enriched his works and his herbarium.
The latter alfo received important and very interefting com-
munications from Gmelin and others, who had vilited Si-
beria, and the original collections of Magnol and Sauvages^
were tranfmitted from Montpellier. Gronovius alfo fur-
nifhed many Virginian fpecimens, gathered by Clayton,
Such communications, from all parts of the world, grew
more and more frequent as Linna;us advanced in life, as
did alfo the academical honours which every literary body-
was proud to confer upon him. In 1749 appeared his yl/a-
term Medica, written in the fame fyilematic and didaftic
ftyle as the refl of his works. Of this numerous editions
have been publifhed on the continent, but none with any
additions or corrections from the author himfelf, though,
he has left behind him copious manufcript notes on the fub-
jeft. By the curieus fronlifpiece of this book, one would
fuppofe that he laughed in his fleeve at the ftate of medical
prai^ice in the world, though the body of the work proves
he laboured very feiiotifly to improve it. This year he
tra%-clled through Scania, &c. and, two years afterw-ard,
publifhed an account of this tour, as he had done of the
former. It is much to be regretted that thefe travels of
Linn^us are not given to the world in a language more
generally underftood. There are German tranflalions of
them, but we know of no others. He was this year reftor
of the univerfity, and it was memorable to him alfo for an
attack of the gout, fo violent as to end.mger his life. He
always attributed his rcftoration from tliis fit, and other
fubfequent ones, to his eating wood (Irawberries, t'nc ouly
fort, then at leaft, known in Sweden. Of this fruit his
fervants were ordered to purchafe, throughout the feafon,
all that were brought to his door, and it made a principal
part of his diet.

To this ,attack of the gout, however diftreffing to the
patient, the world is indebted for one of his moft valuable
and remarkable works, the Philofophia Bolanica. The iub-
ilance of this book mull have been comprehended in the
mind of its author when he wrote his Funilamenta Botanha ;
of which it is profefTedly a dilatation or exemplification, in
the form of a commentary on each aphorifm throughout.
But, though he had long meditated on the fubjecl of this
publication, which embraces the whole range of botanic
fcience, and indeed all the principles of natural knowledge;
he had made but a few notes, not being able to digell or-
feleft his ideas, fufficiently to his own latisfaiftion, to com-
municate them to others. This illnefs however prompted
him to relcue from the grave, to which he fuppofed him-
felf haftcning, whatever might be of fervice to thofe he left
behind ; and his pupil Lo-tling was employed, fitting by
his bed-fide, to write down v.-liatever the intervals of his
fufTerings would allow hiin to communicate. The manu-
fcript afterwards received his own correttions. and the book.
came out in 1751.

About this period the queen of Sweden, Loiiifa Ulrica,
fifter to the great FrerTerick of Prudia, having a talle for
natural hillory, which her royal contort king Adolphus
Frederick alfo patronifed, fliewed much favour to Lin-

E2Ut<

LINNiEUS.

nxui. He was employed in arranging her collefkion of in-
fefts and Ihelis, in the country palace of Drotuiiijjhohii,
or Ulrickfdalil, and was frequently Iioiioured with the
company and converfation of tlicir ma'iellii-s, during his
attendance there. The queen interclled hcifclf in the edu-
cation of his fon, and promifid to frnd liim to travel
thio'ie'h Europe at her own expence. She alfo liftencd very
graciiufly to any recommendation or pcution of Linna:iis,
in the f rvice of fcience ; redeeminor the papers and collec-
tion of HafT'-lqnilf, and caufintj Kcehler to be lent to the
Cape of Gord Hope ; whofe mifiion hovxever was rendered
abortive by the jealoufy of the Dutch, though he forwarded
many curio'is uifeiHs and plants to his mailer from Italy.
Linnxus devoted fome of his leifiire time in winter, to the
arrangeiiient of his friend count TeiTm's coUedlion of fof-
fils, at Stockholm, of which an account in Latin and
Swedilli, making a fmall folio, with plates, came out in
1753. The rcfuk of his labours at Drotningliolm was not
given to the public till many years after, ni 1 764, when
his Mufcam Reg'tnt: appeared, in 8vo being a fort oi Pro-
dromus of an intended more fpleudid work, that was never
executed. His moll magnificent publication appeared in
I75'4, being a large folio, entitled Mufcum Regis jiilolphi
Frcdviii, compreiiending defcriptions of the rarer quadru-
peds, birds, ferpents, fifhes, &c. of the kuig's mufeum, in
Latin and Swedifli, with plates, and an excellent preface.
This preface, one of the moft entertaining and eloquent
recommendations of the iUidy of nature, that ever tame
from the pen of an enthufiallic naturaliil, was tranflatcd
into Englirti by the writer of the prefent article, and iirll
printed ni 1786; appearing again, in a volume of Tracis
j-elaiing to Natural Hi/l-ory, in 1798. The queen of Sweden
took fo much plealure in the converfation of !ier diftinguifhed
naturalift, that (he allowed him his habitual indulgence of
fmoking, even in her apartments, that he might continue
his labours with the m<ne eafe and fatisfaftion to himfelf.
He was in every refpeft politely treated, as a vifitor to hij
royal miftrefs, nor were his fervices accepted, without fuit-
able returns of royal munificence. Whether, however, he
felt not fo entirely at eafe as in his own ftudy, or his atten-
tion was diftracled by a variety of objcfts, the Mufeum Re-
ginee is certainly not one of his mofl correil works, as
thofe who (ludy its Lep'ukplera and Ihells, with critical
«are, will not fail to difcover.

In the mean while, this eminent man was preparing a
lalling monument of his own talents and apphcation, which
even his rival Haller nobly denomii.ates " maximum opus
et aternum,'' the Species Plantarum, of which the firll edi-
tion was printed in 1753, the feccnd in 176;, each in
two volumes 8vo. The work is too well known to need
any defcription, but befides its importance as a complete
arrangement and definuion, with all neceifary indication of
fynonyms, of every plant of which its author had any fa-
tisfaftory knowledge, it is ever memorable for the adapta-
tion of fpecific, or as they were at firtl called, trivial names.
This cantris'ance, which Linnxus firit ufed in his Pan Sue-
cicus, a difi'ertation printed in 1749, extended to minerals
in his Mufeum Tejjinieinum, and fnbfequentlv to all the de-
partments of zoology, has perhaps rendered his works more
popular than any one of their merits befides. His fpecific dif-
ferences were intended to be ufed as namet ; but their un-
avoidable length rendernig this imprafticable, and the appli-
cation of numeral figures to each fpecies, in Haller's
manner, being Hill more burthenfome to the memory, all
natural fcience woidd have been ruined for want of a com-
mon language, were it not for this fimple and happy in-
vention. By this means we fpeak of every natural produc-

tion in two words, its generic and its fpecific name. No
ambiguous comparifons or references are wanted, no pre-
fuppolition of any thing already known. The diilinguifh-
ing charader of each objeft is mcllly llamped in its name ;
and if this perfeftion of the art cannot always be attained,
the memory is alTillcd, often ve-y ingenioufl), with collateral
ii:formation, indicating the colour, the habit, or the qua-
lities of the objeft of our examination. 'The philofophical
tribe of iiaturahlls, for fo thcv are called by themfelves
and their admirers, do not therefore depreciate Linnaeus,
wlien they call him a nomerclator. On the contrary, they
celebrate iiini for a merit which no other perfon has at-
tained, and without which their own difcoveries and re-
marks, of whatever value, would not be underllood.
Neither can fome of his fellow labourers, in the difcrimiiia-
tive departmetit of natural fcience, be jiillified, for either
flightint; this invrntion, or giving the credit of it to others.
The metht.d of Rivinus is not the fame ; as he defigi-.ed his
names for fpecific charafters, to which purpofe they are
neccflarily, from their brevity, inadequate. Whatever may
have been thought of the Linna:an trivial names at their
firll appearance, they are now in univtrfal ufe, and their
principle has been, with the greatcd advantage, extended to
chemiilry, of which the ;elebrated Bergman, the friend of
Linnxus, originally fet the example.

Thefe herculean literary labours, combined with the
praclice of pliyfic, were more than the bodily conllitution
of Linna:us could fupport. He was attacked with the
ilone, and had alfo, from time to time, returns of gout.
He confidered the wood llrawberry as a fpecific for both
dilorders, and they never greatly interfered with his com»
fort or his duties. Oil the 27th of April 1 753, he re-
ceived, from the hand of his fovereign, the order of the
Polar Star, an honour v.'hich had never before been conferred
for literary merit. A tlill more remarkable, if not more
grateful, comphment was paid him not long after by the
king of Spain, wlio invited him to fettle at Madrid, with
the offer of nobility, the free exercife of his religion, and a
fplendid botanical appointment. This propofal was con-
veyed to him in a handfome letter by the duke of Grimaldi,
then prime minifter, and was as handfomely declined by
Linnceus, who declared, that if he had any merits, they were
due to his own country. This patriotic moderation re-
ceived its juft reward in November 1756, when he wasraifed
to the rank of Swedifli nobility, and took the name of Von
Linne.

The Syflema Nalura had already gone through nine edi-
tions in different countries. Its author had, for feveral
years, a more ample edition of the animal department in
contemplation, on the plan of his Species Plantarum, and thit
conftituted the fn-ll volume of the tenth edition, pubhlhed
in 1758. The fccond volume, which came out the follow,
jng year, was an epitome of the vegetable kingdom. Here
the genera appear with fhort effential charaders, and the
fpecies are noted by little more than their (pecific differences,
with few references and no indication of their native coun-
tries. This fame great and important work appeared tlill
more enlarged, in a twelfth edition, in the year 1766: to
this the Mineral kingdom was added in a third volume on
the fame plan with the firll. We can readily pardon the felf-
complacency of its author, when, in his diary written for the
life of his friend Menander, he calls the Syjlema Naturs
" a work to which Natural Hiflory never had a fellow."
We may venture to predift that as this was tiie firll per-
formanceof the kind it will certaiidy be the lall ; the fcience
of natural hillory is now become fo vaft, that no man can
ever take the lead again as an umverfal naturaliil.

The

LINNiEUS.

The emoluments of Linnafus by liis various publications
were not great. He is reported to have fold the copy-
right of mod of them for a ducat, (about nine and fixpence,)
a printed fli^et. His different appointments, however, for
lie foon laid afide the general prattice of phyfic, had raifed
iiim to a confiderable degree of opulence. He purchafed
the eftates of Hammarley and Sbfja in I 758, for So, 000
dollars, above 2330/. fterling. He chofe the former for
his country refidence, and there, fome years afterwards, he
lodged his mufeum, in a building of ftone, fecured from all
danger by fire. Tliere he received the vifits of diftinguiflied
foreicrners and admitted liis favourite pupils ; to feveral of
whom he gave private courfes of Leftures, and completely
laid afiJe the ftate of the nobleman and profelTor while he
dilcourfed wi;h them on his favourite topics. In 1760 he
could not refill the temptation of writinj in fupport of liis
doftrine of the fexes of plant?, a handfome premium being
offered that year by the Peterlburg academy, as it was fup-
pofed with a view to awaken his attention to the fubjeft.
His Differtation was printed, and was trandated into Englifli
in 1786, with notes, by the prcfent pofienor of his library.
His patent of inability did not receive his Majefty's fign
manual till 1761, thotigh it was antedated 1757. It was
confirmed by the Diet in 1762, and he then took a coat of
arms exprefilve of the fciences he cultivated. That augull
body honoured him with a Hill more folid reward, upwards
of j2o/. flerling, for what feems to have been the leail va-
luable of his dilcoveries, the art of producing pearls in the
river mufcle. Tliis was accomplifhcd by wounding the
ihells in their natural fituation, as appears by fome fpecimens
■illuftrative of i: in his mufeum, but the praftice does not
feem to have been profecuted to any great extent.

He now became one of the eight foreign members of the
French Academy of Sciences, an honour never before con-
ferred on a Swede. Amid all his dignities however, his
ibndnefs for botany never declined ; he records in his diary
ttiat having made many trials in vain to obtain the lea plant
alive, he fucceeded at length in 1763, adding " that God
bleffed him even in this point." His view indeed \^■as pa-
triotic as we;l as botanical, aiming at bringing this (hrub
into ctiltivation with us, fo as, to ufe his own expreflion,
" to fhut the gate through which all the filver went out of
-Europe." It is much to be regretted that, from fome pe-
culiarity in the conftitution of this precious vegetable, all
.attempts to reconcile it to the climate of any part of Europe
have proved of no avail, at lead as to any economical pur-
pofe.

In 1763 Linnceus was permitted lo avail himfelf of the
alTiftance of his fon, now 21 years of age, in the labours of
the Botanical Prcf^efrorfhip, and the young man was thus
trained up for hk future fucceffor. His eldeft daughter was
married to an officer in 1764. His worldly concerns appear
to have been in a profpsrous train, except that he fuffered
this year from a dangerous attack of pleurify ; but it is
pleafing to read, in his private memorandums, the gratitude
he expreiTes to his old rival Rofen, for his Hvill and atten-
tion during this iilnefs, and the expreflions of intimate re-
gard by which they were now become attached to each
other.

This year the fixth edition, by far the mod complete, of
the Genera P/antarum was publifhed, nor did its autiior ever
prepare another. It was intended as a companion to the
Species Plantarum, but was greatly fuperfeded by tiie more
concife and commodious (hcrt characters of g.ncra, given
in the vegetable part of the Syjlema Nature. This laft-
mentio?;ed part was lubfequently prepared, under the in-
fpection of Linnseus, for publication by liis pupil Murray

VojL. XXI.

of Gottingen, with the title of Sv/lema Veretabilium, edition
13th, and printed in 1774. A 14th edition, with additions
from Jacquin and Thunberg, was pubhflied in 1784. Into
thefe editions were interwoven the new fpccles defcribed by
Linnaeus in his firll and fecond Mantype, two little volumes,
containing additions and corrediions, by way of fupplement
to the Species Plantarum. In them we cannot help perceiving
a decline of the wonted precilion and genius of their author,
efpecially in the latter part of the fecond Mantijfa, many
remarks in which are mifapplied, to plants different from
v.'hat were intended, and the errors to which they give birth
can be unravelled by the infpetlion of the Linnsean herba-
rium only.

Though Linna;us declares, in his diary, that he gave up
the general pradice of phyfic, on his eltabiifhment at Upfal,
attending only his friends and the poor, he appears ever to
have paid great attention to that noble and intricate fcience.
His ledlures on medicine, dietetics, and the animal economy,
were in high repute, nor is he at all beiiind-hand in com-
mending his own abilities in this li:'.e. Though undoubtedly
a great and fagacious obfcrver in every department of na-
ture, he was in this fomewhat too theoretical. If, hovvever,
he had peculiar ideas refpefiing the prevalence of the num-
ber five, his hypothefes in general role much above the di:!!
level of the humoral pathology in which he was educated ;
and when he applies his own didadtic talents to illuftrate
medical theories, or any thing elfe, he is always ingenious,
and as luminous as the fiibjecl will allow. His cunous
little Clavis Medicinie, publilhed in 1766, and his Generd
Morborum, which appeared three \T;ars before, are not only
ftriking, but inllruitive. His idea of a fyftematic arrange-
ment of difeafes by technical charafters, was followed up
and illuftrated on a large fcale, by his friend Sauvages of
Montpellier ; and the celebrated Dr. Cullen of Edinburgh,
juftly attributed to the Swedifii philofopher the foundation
of his own performance in this line. Such fchemes of
arrangement indeed can be confidered merely as helps to the
memory, and in themfelves altogether artificial. The abi-
hties of Linnius appear to the grcateft; advantage in hii
claffification ot natural objefts. He excelled in a happy
perception of fuch technical charatters, as brought together
things mod naturally allied. Thus his fexual didribution
of plants, though profefiedly artificial, is in many parts
as natural as any that pretends to be fo. Linnaeus, more-
over, was the fird who perceived and declared the dillinc-
tion between a natural and an artificial botanic fyftem, and he
has laboured at the one as much as at the other. His lec-
tures on the natural orders of plants were pubhlhed, long
after his death in 1792, from the notes of his pupils Gileke
and Fabricius, at Hamburgh. They evince his deep con-
fideration of a fubject, then in the infancy of cultivation,
the intricacy of which may well cxcufe tlie frequency of
error in the detail. In the zoological department, it is but
judice to obferve, tl.at his ckifTifications of birds and infects
are the mod original as well as the bed of the whole, la
the former, as in the lilammalia, the organs of feeding lead
the way to the moll natural diftin£tions pofTible ; but the au-
thor of this fydem, wlrich no one has yet attempted to fuper-
fede, was well aware that the fame principle would not hold
good throughout, particularly with refpedt to infefts, whnfe
detlination, in their perfecl ilate, is not lo much to take
food, as to propagate their fpecies. The mouth and its
appendages are therefore, in this tribe, but of far fubor-
diiiate confequence ; and Linnaeus had rccourfe to the more
natural, as well as far more eafy principles, deducible from
the chief peculiarities of thefe animals, the differences in their
wings, their llings, and their arienns. His pupil Fabriciui,

g fcr

LINNiEUS.

for this Teafon, however able and ingenious in entomology,
cannot be confidered as fortunate or ph\lofophical, in applying
his great preceptor's fchemc of arrangement of quadrupeds
and birds to infefts. Indeed, thofo who have followed
Fabricius in the detail of this lludy, declare, that he has
rarely proceeded on his own plan, but, leaving the mouth in
moft cafes unexamined, has trullcd to habit and general
configuration, which certainly produce natural atTemblagcs
enough, and true to the Linnxan rules, but dilforcnt from
his own. The arrangement of fifhes, by the relative pofition
of their ventral fins, was a no lefs happy and original idea
of the Swedilh naturalill ; as pointing out their leading dif-
ferences of form and habit, liy a diiliudive character, taken
from a peculiar organ of their own. Shells he was long
before he would lludy minutely at all, confidering them
merely as the houfes of particular animals, the knowledge
of vviiofe (Iructure and, economy wa«, in a great nieafiire,
inacceflible. At length, however, the uniformity of his
plan obliged him to clafs thefe popular obiefts of admira-
tion, in fome way or other, and he has fucceeded at leall as
well as any of his fellow-labourers ; though we are by no
means inclined to jullity fome of his terms, which are bor-
rowed from an anatomical analogy, not only falfe in itfelf,
but totally exceptionable. This leads us to cor.fider a
charge, often brought againft this great man, of pruriency
of phrafeology in many parts of his works. The moll atten-
tive contemplation of his writings has fatisficd us that in
fuch inllances he meant purely to be anatomical and phy-
fiological, and if his fondnefs for philofophical analogies
fometiraes led him allray, it was not in purfuit of any thing
to contaminate his own mind, much lefs that of others.
" Some of the defcriptions of Linnsus," fays a noble bo-
tanical author, " would make the moft abandoned perfon
blulh." His lorddiip ought to have added, " none but the
moft abandoned." That the mind of Linnxus was limple
and chafte, as his morals were confeffcdly pure, is evinced
by his Lapland Tour, written only for his own ufe, but
which is now, as we have already mentioned, before the
public. This is fuch a pifture of liis heart, as will ever
render any juftification of his moral charadter, and any ela-
borate difplay of his rehgious principles or feelings, alike
fuperfluous.

His apparent vanity, as difplayed in his diary, pubhihed
in Dr. Maton's valuable edition of Dr. Pulteney's Flew of
his Writings, is perhaps far lefs juftifiable. All we can fay
for him is, that this paper was drawn up for the ufe of hi.s
intimate friend Menander, as materials from which his life
was to be written, If it be unbecoming, and indeed highly
ridiculous in many inftances, for a man to fpeak as he does
of himfelf, the julUce and accuracy of his affertions, had
they come from any other perfon, could in no cafe be dif-
puted.

As the habits of Linnxus were temperate and regular,
he retained his health and vigour in tolerable perfeclion, not-
withftanding the immenfe labours of his mind till beyond
his Coth year, when his memory began in fome degree to
fail Iiim. In 1774, at the age of 67, an attack of apo-
plexy greatly impaired liis conltitution. Two years after-
wards a fecond attack rendered him paralytic on the right
fide, and materially affcfted his faculties. The immediate
caul'e of his death, which happened .Tanuary jotli, 1778, in
the 71ft year of his age, was an ulceration of the bladder.
His remains were depolited in a vault near the weft end of
the cathedral of Uplal, where a monument of Swedilh por-
phyry was ereded by his pupils. His obfequies were per-
torn-ied, in the moil refpeCtful manner, by the whole uni-
vcriity, jlie pall being fupported by fi.\teen dodlors of phyfic,

all of whom had been his pupils. A general mourning toofe
place on theoccafion at Upfal. His fovereign, Guftavns III.
commanded a medal to be llruck, expreflive of the publlt:
lofs, and honoured the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm
with his prefence, when the eulogy of this celebrated man
was pronounced there by his intimate friend Back. A ftill
higher compliment was paid to his memory by the king in
a fpeech from the throne, wherein his majefty publicly cele-
brated the talents of his decea'ed fubjed, and lamented the
lofs which his country had fo recently fu'.lained. Various
teftimonics of refped were given to the merits of Linnaeus
in the different parts of Europe, even where rival fyltems
or interells had heretofore triumphed at his expcnce. The
celebrated Condorcet delivered an oration in his praifc to
the Parilian Academy of Sciences, which is printed in its
memoirs. We cannot wonder that his memory was che-
lilhcd in England, where he had long had numerous corr?-
fpondents, and where two of his moll dillinguilhed pupil",
Solandcr and Dryander, have, in their own talents and cha-
rader, conferred fingular honour upon their preceptor.
Ten years after his deceafe anew fociety of naturalills, dif-
tinguilhed by his name, was founded in London, and has
fince been incorporated by royal charter, wnofe publications,
in ten quarto volumes of Tranfadions, fufiiciently evince
that its members are not idle venerators of the name they
bear. This name, in imitation' of them, has been adopted
by feveral fimilar inftitutionsin other parts of the world.

The appellation of Linniean Society was, with the more
propriety, chofen by this Britilh inftitution, on account of
the muleum of Linnaeus having fallen into the hands of its
original projedor, and hitherto only prcfident. This trea-
fure, comprehending the library, herbarium, infeds, fliells,
and all other natural curiofities, with all the manulcripts
and whole correfpondence of the illuftrious Swede, were
obtained, by private purchafe from his widow, after the
death of his fon in 1783. The authority which fuch an
acquifition gave to the labours of the infant lociety, as
well as to all botanical and zoological publications, the
authors of which have ever been allowed freely to confult
it, will readily be perceived. Nothing perhaps could have
more contributed to raile up, or to improve, a tallc for
natural fcience, in any country.

I.innreus had by his wife Sarah Elizabeth, who furvivcd
to extreme old age, two fons and four daughters. His'
eldeft fon Charles fucceeded him in the botanical profeflbr-
fliip ; fee the next article. The younger, John, died
March 7, 1757, in the third year of his age. The mar-
riage of his eldeft daughter, Elizabeth Chriftina, we have
already mentioned. This lady is recorded as having difco-
vered a luminous property in the flowers of tlie Nalhirtium,
Tropdohiin meijus, which are fometimes feen to flafli like
fparks of fire m the evening of a warm fummer's day. Of
the other daughters we know nothing materially worthy of
record. The late Danilli ProfelTor 'Vahl is reported, when a
ftudent, to have made an impreftion on the heart of the
youngell, which her father did not think proper to coun-
tenance, and which is fuppofed to have prevented his Ihewing
that favour and encouragerr.ent to the young Dane, which
his acutenefs and zeal in botjuiical ftudies certainly deferved.
Linnajus's Diary, publiflit^d by Dr. Ma'on, with another
in MS. of the early part of his hie. Stoever's Life of
Linn-JEUS by Trapp. Aikin's General Biography. Vari.
ous works of Linnaeus. S.

1,innm:l-.s, or 'Von Linnk, Charles, the eldeft, and

only furviving, fon of the preceding, was born January 20,

174I, at the 'houle ot hi;> a.aternra griirdii'.ther a: Falilin.

Hio father was anxioully defirous of his excelling in natural

2 huiory,

LINNiEUS.

■fciilovy, more particularly botany, anJ after endeavouring,
iram his moll tender years, to make him fond of flowers,
committed him, when about the age of nine or ten, to the
Diore particular care of fome of his own moft farounte
pupils. By them he was taught the names of the plants in
the Upfai garden, and fuch of the principles of natural fci-
ence as were fuited to his period of life, as well as to con-
verfe habitually in Latin. He proved a docile and ready
fchoiar, and appears to have given fatisfaftion to his father,
•who procured for him, at the age of eighteen, the appoint-
ment of Demonftrator in the botanic garden, an office then
iirll contrived on purpofe for him. Having learned to draw
from nature, he became an author at the age of twenty-one,
publilbing in 1762 his firft Dtcas Plantarum Rariorum Horti
Upfi-il'ienfis, the plates of which, in outline only, like thofe
of Pluinier, were drawn by his own hand. Tiiefe are fuffi-
ciently faithful and ufeful, if not ornamental. The de-
Icriptions are full and fcientiiic. In 1763 another Decas,
or collection of ten fpecies, came out on the fame plan.
Whether the Upfal bookfellers did not encourage him to
proceed, or for what other reafon we know not, he never
printed any more numbers under this title. In 1767 how-
ever, he publillied at Leipfic ten more plates and defcrip-
tions, like the above, entitled Plantarum Rariorum Horti
Upfalimfis Fafciculus Primus. To this he was perhaps inlli-
gated by his friend Schreber, who, the year before, had
given to the world a fimilar work, defcribing ten rare ori-
ental plants, drawn by himfelf. But neither of thefe pub-
lications was ever extended to a fecond Fafciculus. In 176^
he was nominated adjunct Profeffor of Botany, with a pro-
mife, hitherto unexampled, that after his father's death, he
ibould fucceed to all his academical funftions. In 1765
lie took his degree of Doctor of Phyfic, and began to give
leAures.

His progrefs would probably have been happy, if not
brilliant, but domellic chagrin lapped the foundation of all
his felicity, and damped his ardour in every purfuit. This
arofe from the conduct of his unnatural mother, another
example of that rare and detellable depravity exhibited by
the mother of Savage the poet. Not content with dil-
honouring her hulband's bed, and making his home as un-
comfortable as flie could, by the mear.ell parlimony and
difgulling petty tyranny, the wife of the great Linnajus
conceived a hatred for her only fon, which {he difplayed by
every affront and perfecution that her fituation gave her
the means of inflitling on his fufceptible and naturally
amiable mind. According to Fabricius, fhe forced her huf-
hand, who by fuch a conceffion furely partook largely of
her guilt and meannefs, to procure the nomination of his
pupil Solander to be his future luccelTor, in preference to
his own fon, and it was a part of her plan that he fhould
marry her elded daughter. Solander, however, difdaincd
both the ufurpation and the bait, refufing to leave England ;
and the mifguided father recovered his ienfes and authority,
caufing his fon, as we have laid above, to receive this truly
honourable diltinCtion. The mind and fpirit of the young
raan neverthelefs Hill drooped, and even when he had attained
his thirtieth year, he would gladly have efcaped from his
miferies and his hopes together. The authority of the king
was obliged to be exerted, at his father's ioliciiation, to
prevent his going into the araiy. This meafure of the pa-
rent wa^ happily followed up by kindnefs and encourage-
ment in his botanical purfuits, to which treatment the fon
was ever fcnfiblc, and he revived from his defpondency be-
fore his father's death, which happened when he was thirty-
feven years of age.

Though obliged by his mother to purchafe, at her own

prife, the library, manufcripts, herbarium, &c. which he
ought by every title to have inherited, he rofe above ever)'
impediment, and betook himfelf to the ufeful application of
the means now in his hands, for his own reputation and
advancement. His father had already prepared great part
of a third botanical Appendix, or Manliffa ; from the com-
munications of Mutis, Kccnig, Sparmann, Forfter, Pallas,
and others. To this the younger L;nna;us added thofe of
Thunberg from the Cape, which his father, " with half-
e.vtingnifhed eyes," as Condorcet beautifully relates, had
juil been able to glance over, but not to defcribe. Hence
originated the Supplementum Plantarum, printed at Brunf-
wick, under the care of Eiirhart in 1781. The ingenious
editor inferted his own new characters of fome genera of
Moffes ; which Hedwig has (ince confirmed, except that
fome of the names have been jiittly rejedled. This (heet
was, in an evil hour, iupprcifed by the mandate of Lin-
naeus from London, \\-here, at that period, the fubjeft of
generic charatterj of moiTes was neither iludied nor under-
tlood, whatever fuperior knowledge was difplayed concern-
ing their fpecies. Tlie plants of the ^uppiemmtum are
admitted into the fourteenth edition of the Syjlcma Vege-
tahilium by Murray, and figures of lome of the moit curious
have been publilhed by the writer of this prefent article, in
his Plantarum hones ex Herbaria Linnsano. Three bota-
nical differtations alfo appeared under the prefidency of the
younger Linnaeus, on Grafles, on Lavandula, and the cele-
brated Mstbodus Mufcorum, which laft was the work, and the
inaugural thefis, of the prefent Profedor Swartz of Stock-
holm. Thefe form a fequel to the 186 fimilar elfays, which
molt of them compofe the feven volumes of the ^Imoenilatei
Acadimiciz, the reit being publiihed by Schreber in three
additional ones.

Tile fubjecl of our memoir had always felt a ftrong defire
to vifit the chief countries df learned and civilized Europe.
For this purpofe he was obliged to pawn his juvenile her-
barium, made from the Upfal garden, to his friend Alllroe-
mer, for the loan of about fitty or fixty pounds. He
arrived at London in Mav 1781, and was received with
enthufiafm bv the farviving friends and correfpondents of
his father, and was in a maimer domefticated under the roof
of fir Jofeph Banks, whofe friendfhip, kindnefs, and libe-
rality could not be exceeded ; neither could they have been
by any one more gratefully received. Here the ardent
Swedilii vifitor had every affiftance for the preparation of
feveral works on which he was intent, as a fyllem of the
Mammalia, a botanical treatife on the Lily ai d Palm tribes,
and nevk- editions of feveral of his father's llandard books.
None of thefe however have yet been printed. An attack of
the jaundice rendered half his ftay in England uncomfort-
able as well as ufelefs to him. He proceeded to Paris in
the latter end of Augull 1781, accompanied by the amiable
and celebrated Brouffonet, with whom he became acquainted
at London. His reception in France was not lets flatter-
ing than what he h^d experienced in England. He was
enriched with duplicates of Commerfon's plant.s from the
herbarium of the excellent Thouin, which amounted to
about HOC fpecies, and had never been communicated to
any other foreigner. In the following fpring he vifited
Holland, tracing with filial piety every veiligc of his fa-
ther's fteps at Harcecamp and eliewliere, and receiving, as
he had done at Paris and London, ample contributions for
his herbarium, library, and mufeum of fliells and infers.
The next place in w^hich he made any flay was Hamburgh,
where feveral of his own friends were already fettled, and
from hence he returned by Copenhagen and Stockholm,
vifiting his friend Fabricius at Ivel, and his patron Baron
Q 2 Alllroemrr

L I N

L I N

Alftroemer at Gottenbiirgli, finally arriving at Upfiil in
February :783. In his progrefs lie had received fevcral
academical honours, as well as ample teftinvinies of fcieiitific
and i-crfonal refpc(^t, being a man of agreeable and iinalTiim-
ing manners, without "-anity or ollentation, though fome-
what, perhaps not unduly, tenacious, that his own difco-
veries and performances fliould not be confounded with any
thing left behind by his father. But the career of this ex-
cellent man was cut Ihort by a bilious fever, wliich con-
cluded with a itrokc of apoplexy, November i, i/S^j, in
the forty-fecoiul year of his ago. His remains were in-
terred with gi-eat folemnity on the 30th of the fame month.
His coiBn was laid by the fide of iiis father, and as t!ie
male line of the family concluded in him, l\un co-.it of arms
vas broken over the grave. After this ceremony the gar-
dener of the univerlity ftrewed flowers over the mingled
alhes of the father and the fon. A funeral oration in SwcdilTi
was. pronounced by M. Von Schulzer.heim, and was foon
after publifhed. This compolition, partly tranflated, and
much enlarged, in the Englilh edition by Trapp of Stoe-
ver's Life of Linna;u3, has afforded much of the fubftance
of this article, aflKled by feveral private communications.

The younger Linnaeus is faid to have had naturally a
ftrong and vigorous frame of body, and to have inherited
his father's keen and penetrating eyes, as well as his temper
and adlive difpoliticn. He was greatly beloved by thofe
who knew him, and died generally rcfpefted and lamented.
His mufeuna and library reverted to his mother and Cillers,
as he had never been married ; and the former indantly
fixed her eyes on fir .lofeph Banks, as the rrioll likely per-
fon to purchafe thefe relics at the high price, as ilie thought
it, of a thoufand guineas. On his refufal, and by his kind
recommendation and advice, they came iiito the hands where
they now are. The fale was precipitated before the return
of the king of S.vedcn, then on his travels, lell he ftiou'd
oblige the heirs to dilpofe of the whole at a cheaper rate to
the Univerfity of LTpfal. This would aftually have been
the cafe, as appears from the exertions made by his Majeily
on his return, who fent a courier to the Sound, and a velTel
by fea, to intercept the (hip that was bearing away the
prize. S.

LINNET, LlN'ARlA, in Ornith'.hgy, the denomination of
a tribe of birds, which fome authors have made a diilinft
genus, comprehending feveral fpecies, which are ufually
clalTed u'lder the genus FrlngiUa. Thofe who confider them
as a diilintl genus, ftatc their charafters to be thele : the
birds of it are fomevvhat fmader than the chaffinch ; their ge-
ne.-al colour is a greyiih-brown ; their tail is a little forked,
the outer feathers of it having white extremities ; and they
all ling very fwectly. We have in England four fpecies of
this bird.

1. The common brown linnet, the Fr'm^iUa linota of Gme-
lin, well kno.vn to every one. Thefe birds are much ef-
teemed for their fong : they feed on feeds of different ki:;Js,
which they peel before they eat : the feed of the linum, or
flax, is their favourite focd, whence the name of the hniiet
tribe. See Fkingilla L'mota.

2. The I'lr.aria rubra major, or grea'er red-headed linnet,
or greater redpole; the Frin^il/ci cannalina of Linnseus. This
has a fine red head, a grey neck, a duilcy reddilh brown
back, and its breall and bcily are fome'vhat reddilh. The
female of this fpecies, however, has no rcdnefs in its head
er breail, but has fomevvhat of a greenifh caft on the brown
of its back, and is yellovvifh on the breaft, with fome
brownilh fpots. It is a common fraud in the bird-lhops in
London, when d male bird is dillinguidied from a female by
a red breaCl, as in the cafe of this bird, to ihin or paint the

feathers, fo thr.t the deceit is not cafily difcovcred, withot;t
clofe infpeition. This fpecies of linnet is /requent on oup-
r..a-coalls, and is often taken in flight time near London. It
io a familiar bird, and becomes cheerful in five minutes after
it is cau '!;)•,».

^. Ti\<- llnnr'm rubra minor, or lefl'er red-headed linnet, or
Icller redpole ; the FringUlaliiinrla of Linnxus. This is the
lealt of all the linnets, and on the back is of the fame colour
with tlie common linnet ; the back part of its head is red,
and alio i-s breall, but the lower part of its belly is whitilh.
In this fpcoies, the female, as well as the male, has a red'
head, that of the male being ornamented with a rich fliining
fpot of a purplifli-red, and that of the female of a faffrou
colour ; and both have their beaks much fl-.arper, and their
feet and legs blacker than in the larger kind. This is a gro-,
garious bird, whereas the larger fpecies commonly flics lingle.
This feems to be the fpecies known about London by the
name of Hone redpole.

4. The lad fpecies is the I'maria tr.oniana, or Fr'mgiUa mon-
t'mm, or mountain linnet. This is the largell of all the lin-
nets, according to Willughby's defcription, though Mr. .
Pennant fays that it is in f:ze rather inferior to the connnon
linnet. Its beak is very fmall ; its head and back are of the
fame colour with thole of the common linnet, and the feathers-
of its breaft and belly are black, edged with white ; tha
rump of the male is of a fine and beautiful red, and thus
dillinguiflies it from the female. This fpecies is common in
Derbyfliire, but feems not fo frequent in other places. How-
ever, it is taken in the flight feafon near London with the lin-
nets, and called a tu-:te. It breeds, according to Mr. Pen-
nant, only in the northern parts of our ifland. Ray and
Pennant.

It is remarkable of the linnet, that when it builds in
hedges, and when in furze-bulhes on heaths, in both which
places the nefts are very common, they are made of different
materials. When they build in hedges, they ivfe the flcnder
filaments of the roots of trees, and the down of feathers
and thitUes ; but when they build in heaths, they ufc mnfs,
principally, for the outer part, finifning it within with fuch-
things a? the place will afford, chiefly with wool and hair.
Thefe birds will have young ones three or four times a year,
efpecially if they are taken away before they are able to
leave the nefts. They lay five whitifh eggs, ipotted like thofe
of the gold-finch.

When they are intended to be taught to whillle tunes, or
to imitate the notes of any other bird, they are to be taken
from the old ones when they are not more than four days
old ; for at this time they have no idea of the notes of the
old ones, and will readily be taught to modulate their, voice
like any thing that is molt familiar to their ears, and « lUiin
the compafs of their throats. The honourable Mr. Barnng-
ton ohferves, that in order to be certain that a neltling will
not have the call of its fpecies, it fliould be taken fron. the
nell; when only a day or two oid ; though a bird of this age
requires great trouble in breeding, and the chance is greatly
againft its being reared. There requires mere care in the
feeding them v/hen they are take", thus young, than when
they are left in the ncil till nearly fledged, bui; they will
be reared very well upon a food half bread and half rape-
feed, boiled and bruifed : this mult be given them feveral
times a day. It muil be made frcfll every day, and given
them fufficiently moift, but not in the extreme. If it be in
the leall four, it gripes and kills them ; and if too ftift', it is
as mifchievo'is, by binding them up.

They mull be hung up as fjoii as taken from the neff,
under the bird whofe note they are intended to learn ; or if
they are to Ije taught to whillle tunes, it mull be done by

b i-lVUlir

L r N"

L I N

ffiving them leffbns at the time of feeding ; for they will pro-
fit more while young in a few days, than in a long time after-
wards, and will take in the whole method of tlieir notes be-
fore they are able to crack hard feeds. Some have attempted
to teach them to fpeak, m the manner of the parrot, or othtr
birds, and they will arrive at fome fort of perfcclion in it
with great pains.

Mr. Birrington mentions a linnet, which being taken
from its nell when only two or three days old, almoil articu-
lated the words prMy boy, as well as fome other fhort fentences.
See Song of Binh.

LINNICK, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Roer, and chief place of a canton, in tlie
dillricl of Aix-la-Chapelle, feated en the Ruhr ; live miles
N.N.W. of Juliers. The place contains 2086, and the
canton 13,589 inhabitants. N. lat. 50° 57'. E. long. 6"

i-i •
'LINOCARPUM.in Bdany, fo called by Micheli, Nov.

Gen. 22. t. 21, from the refemblance of its fruit to that of

L'nium, Flax. See Radiola and Li-\l.m.

L.IN0C1ERA, a name given by Dr. Swartz, in honour
of Geoffrey Linocier, a French phyfician, who flourifhed
at the clofe of the fixteenth and beginning of the feven-
teenth centuries. Fie pubhflied at Paris in 1584 an ac-
count of the officinal aroraatics of the Eaft and Welt Indies.
This book is accompanied by wooden cuts. Linocier alio
wrote upon the natural hiftory of beads, birds, fi{hes, and
ferpents : but on thefe fifejecls he borrowed largely from
Gefner and other authors. The prefent genus was adopted
by Schreber, from Swartz, who lirit called it Thouinia,
in his Prodrcmus. Dr. Smith however fiiggefts that Llno-
cJera may probably not be a dillinft genus from Chionan-
thus, merely becaufe tney differ in the number cf cells of
the fruit : the former having two cells, the latter only one.
liut in fome genera of this natural order, the number of
cells in the ripe fruit has been difcovered conllantly to be
fewer than in the young germen. In Oka, in particular,
this was found to he regularly thi? cafe by the late M. Brouf-
fonet, though we know not that it had been before fiifpefted.
— Swarcz Ind. Occ. v. i. 49. Schreb. 7S4. WiUd. Sp. PI.
V. I. 154. (Thouinia; Swartz Prod. 14.) — Clafs and order,
Diandria Alonogynii. Nat. Qfd. S^biari^, Linn. Jafmiiuw,
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, very fmall, four-toothed,
obtufe, permanent. Cor. Petals four, equal, linear, chan-
nelled, creft, fpreading at the top, confiderably longer
than the calyx. &Mn. Filaments two^ very (liort and
broadilli ; anthers linear, two furrowed, the length of the
corolla, erect, each adhering ihghtly to ore fide of two of
the petals.. Pi/l. Germen luperior, ovate, quadrangular;
llyle (hort ; itigma oblong, cloven. Peric. Berry, or
rather Drupa, ovate, acuminate, of two cells. Ssei/s foli-
tary, oblong.

EC Ch. Calyx four-toothed. Corolla of four petals, the
two oppolite o; es connected at their bafe by the anthers.
Fruit of two cells and two feeds.

L. ligujlrlna is the only fpecies defcnbed by Swartz.
It is a native of dry open places in the Weft Indies,
cfpecially Jamaica and St. Domingo, flowering in June and
July.

LINONASME, the name of a melancholy and folemn
air of the ancient Greeks, on the death of Linus.

LINOS is fnppofed to imply the fame air. RoulTeau,
however, calls it a kind of rutHc fong among the ancient
Greeks ; thty had like wife a funeral long of the fame name,
which anfivered to what the Romans called Nisnia. Some

fay that the Linos was invented in Egypt ; while others
afcribe its invention to Linus, the Eubocan.

LiNOSA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Mediterra-
nean, not far from the coall of Tunis, near the ifland of
Lampedofa.

LINOTA, in Ornithology. See Linnet, aad Fringilla
L'lno'.a.

LINOZOSTIS, \n Botany, a name given by the ancient
Greek writers to two plants very different from one another ;
the one is the mercurialis, orEngliili mercury, a plant com-
mon in uncultivated places, and eaten by many boiled iri man-
Tier of afparagus ; the other the epillnum, or dodder, growing
upon the plants of flax.

Theophraftus, Diofcorides, and the ancient Greeks, ufe
the word in the firll fenfe, and the modern Greeks in the
latter.

The Latin authors call this Unozojlis, or epllinum, fome-
times angina lim, ^nA podagra lini, looking on it as a dift-afe
which choaks the plant it grows on, and caufcs gouty tumours
on the llalk?. See Dodder.

LINQUES, in Geography, a country of Celebes, lying
between the two ilates of Binano and Bankale, not far from
the bay of Tourattea ; which fee.

LINSCHOTTEN, a town of Holland ; eight miles-
W. of Utrecht.

LINSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ko-
nigingratz ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Geveriberg.

LIN3E, a town of Pruflia, in Oberlar.d ; 15 miles S.E. -
of Marienwerder.

LINSEED, or Line-seed, a fort of grain, being the feeds
of the common Jlax, (which lee,) which enters the com-
pofition of feveral medicines, and yields, by exprelTion,
an oil, that has moft of the qualities of nut oil, and is ac-
cording generally ufed, in lieu thereof, in paintings and for "
burning.

Thofe who manufafture it in large quantities have mills
turned by horfes or water, for the more expeditious dilpatcli'
of their work. See Oil.

Linseed, in the Materia Mediea. Thefe feeds have aa
unftuous mucilaginous fweetidi taile, without any remark-
able fmell. The oil which they yield in esprefTion, when
carefully drawn without the application of heat, has no par-
ticular tafle or flavour : and in fome properties differs con-
fiderably from moll other oils of this kind ; as congealing ill.
water, not forming a folid ioap with fixed alkaline falts,-
acting more powerfully as a menftruum on fulphurous bodies, .
than any other exprefi'ed oil that has been tried.

The feeds, boiled in water, yield a large proportion of a- •
ftrong flavourlcfs mucilage ; but to rcdtitied fpirit they give
out little or nothing. Thefe feeds have been fometimes ufed, .
in a feafon of fcarcity, iiiflead of grain ; but they appear
to be an unwholefome as well as an unpalatable food. They
afford little nourifliment, impair the ftomach, and produce
great flatulence, as Galen long ago ohferved. Tragus relates,
that thofe who fed upon tiiem in. Zeal.ind, had the bypo-
chondres in a (hort time dillended, and the face and other
parts fwelled ; and that not a few died of thele complaints.

Infufions and decoctions of thefe feeds, like other vege-
table mucilages, are ufed as emollients or demulcents in
hoarfeneffcs, coughs, and pleuritic fymptoms, which fre-
quently prevail in catarrhal affections ; they are alfo recom-
mended in nephritic pains and ftranguries ; a fpoonful cf the
feeds unbruil'ed is faid, for thefe purpofes, to be fufHcient
for a quart of water. The feeds are alio much ufed exter- .
nally in emollient and maturating cataplafms. The feeds -
from which the oil has been expreffed, boiled in milk, and ap»
plied warm, ca a clotb, to heiT.ix, are much recommended

ia.*

L I N

L I N

in the Satyr. Silefiac. Specim. 4. Obf. 4. The cxpreired
oil is an officinal preparation, and is faid to be of a more
healing and ballamic nature than the other oils of this clafs ;
it has therefore been very generally employed in pulmonary
complaints ; alfo in colics, and condipations of the bowels.
It is ufed in common with other oils as a vermifuge. Lewis
Mat. Med. Woodv. Med. Bot.

long, having at one end a piece of iron divided into two
branches, each of which has a notch to hold a piece of
match, and a fcrew to fallen it there ; the other end being
alfo Ihod with iron, and pointed to ftick into the ground, or
.in'the deck when it is ufed at fea. It is ufed by the gunners
in firing cannon. It is frequently ufed in fmall veffels, in
an engagement, where there is commonly one fixed between

Linseed Cakes, in ^griculliire, the name of fuch cakes every two guns, by which the match is always kept dry and
36 remain after the ex;)rcfilon of the oil from flax feed. They ready for tiring.

are at prefent m\ich ufed in the fattening of cattle, (lieep,
and other forts of live ftock, and of courfe of great value
and importance to the farmer. The price however has been
of late fo high as to greatly lelFen the demand for this article.
See Oil-cake.

Linseed, Infufwnof. See Infusion.

LINSELLES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the North ; five miles N. of Lille.

LINSENBAHRT, or as he is called in his works in
Latin, Lentilius, Rosinus, in Biography, a phyfician,
was bom at Waldenburg, in the province of Hohenlohe,
in February 1657. He commenced his fludics at Heidel-
berg at the age of fourteen, and thence removed to Jena in
1673. ^"'- '"^ fcanty means of fubfillence compelled him
tlie next year to engage as a teacher in the vicinity of Leipfic,
where he continued till 1677. He then travelled, with a
view to improve his fituation, through feveral of the princi-
pal towns in the north of Germany, and fettled at Mittan,
in Courland, in the fame capacity of teacher. To aid this
feeble refource, Linfenbahrt began likewife to praftife me

LINSTORP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Medelpedia ; 16 miles N. of Su:.dfwal.

LINT, in Surgery, is the icraping of fine linen, ufed by
furgeons in drefling wounds. It is made into various forms,
which acquire different names, according to the difference
of their figures.

Lint made up in an oval, or orbicular form, is called a
philgil ; if in a cylindrical form, or in the thape of a dale
olive-done, it is called a tf'^/^

Thefe different fiirms of linf are required for many pur-
pofes ; as, I. To flop blood in frefh wounds, by filling them
up with dry lint before the application of a bandage ;• though
if fcraped lint be not at iuuid, a piece of fine linen may be
torn into fmall rags, and applied in the fame manner. In
very large hemorrhages the hut, or rags, fliould be firft
dipt in fome ftyptic liquor, alcohol, or oil of tvirpentine, or
fprmkled with a ilyptic powder. 2. To agglutinate and
heal wounds; to which end lint is very ferviceable, if fpread
witii fome digeftive ointment, or balfam, or dipt in fome
vulnerary liquor. _v I" drying up wounds and ulcers, and

dicine, in which his fuccefs was fuch, that the marquis of forwarding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In keeping the

Anfpach appointed him phyfician to the town of Creillheim,
in Franconia ; whitiier he repaired in 1680, after having
been admitted a licentiate in medicine at Altdorf. He after-
wards fettled at Stutgard, and was patronifed by the mar-
quis of Dourlach ; aud, when that prince was driven by
tnc war to take refuge at Bafie, he was nominated honorary
phyfician to the duke of Wirtemberg, and became his firll
phyfician in 17 1 1. He accompan'ed the fon of this prince
in his travels, during three years ; and after his return, in
1716, remained in the tranquil exercile of his profeffion un-
til his death, in FebruHry 1733. Linfenbahrt was ardent
in his attention to the qualiiies and operations of di-ugs during
his whole life, regarding that fpecies of knowledge as the
mod important to the phyfician, and being fomewhat too

lips of wounds at a proper dillance, that they may not
hallily unite, before the bottom is well digeiled and healed.
5. They are highly neceffary to prelerve wounds from the
injuries of the air. Small portions of lint tied round with
thread are chiefly ufed in drefling wounds and ulcers of the
deeper kind. They are always applied to the bottom of
fuch wounds, the remaining cavity being filled up with otiier
portions of lint. By this njeans, the immediate removal of
the dreffings is not only provided for, but the poffihility of
leaving any part of them in the bottom of the wound is pre-
vented.

In very large wounds, and efpecially in amputations of
the limbs, which operations are frequently required in the
army and navy, at times when lint is very fcarce, it will be

negligent of the (Uidy of anatomy, and of the writings of very fufficient to drefs the bare bone and face of the wound

the ancients. He was the firll who recommended the ufe of
arfenic internally, for the cure of intermittent fevers, in
which its efficacy has been eftublifhed by recent obfervers, and
efpecially by Dr. Fowler, of York. He was a decided
enemy to blood-letting, which he ftrenuoufly endeavoured
to difcard from the praftice of medicine ; and particularly
condemned the cullom, then prevalent among the Germans,
of letting blood at the equinoctial periods, againll which he
publifhed a treatife in his mother-tongue, at Ulm, in 1692.
He was hkewife author of the following works. " Tabula
Confultatoria Medica " Ulm, 1696. " Mifcellanea Medico-
PraAica tripartita," ibiden', 1694. " De Hydrophobic
«aufa et cnra, Diflertatio," ibid. 1770 " Eteodromus
Medico-Practicus anni 1709," Stutgard, 1711. " Jatrnm-
nemata Theoretico-Practica," ibid. 171 2. Eloy Did.
Hill, de la Med.

LINSPINS, or Linchpins, are fmall pins of iron,
which keep the wheel of a cannon, or wajigon, on the axle-
tree ; for when the end of the axle-:ree is put through
the nave, the linfpin is put in to keep the wheel trom falling
off,

LINSTOCK, a (hort ftaff of wood, about three feet

with fcraped lint, filling up the cavity with tow, and cover-
ing all with a large comprefs.

Surgeons of former ages formed compreffes of fponge,
feathers, wool, or cotton, linen being fcarce ; but lint is
far preferable to all thefe, and is at prefent univerfally ufed.

LINTCIN, in Geography, a city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in Chan-tong, on the grand canal, much fre-
quented by veffels as a magazine for all forts of merchan-
uize. N. hit. 36 56'. E long. 115 31'.

LIN I'EL, in jlrchitetliire, the piece of timber which
lies horizontally over door-pofts and window-jambs; as well
tu bear the thicknefs of the wall over it, as to bind the fides
of the walls together.

LINTELI^, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Verden ; four miles N.E. of Verden.

LINTERNUM, or Liteknlm, in Am'unt Geography.

See LiTEKNUM.

LINTHAL, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in
the canton cf Claris ; 12 miles S.W. of Claris.

LIN-TIN, a town of China, of the fccond rank, on a
fma'i ifiand in tlie province oi Quang-tong ; 15 miles N.E.
of Macao.

LINTNER,

L I N

L I N

LINTNER, in Biography, an excellent performer on the
German flute at Berlin, in 1772, a difciple of the late
Frederic If king of Prufiia's flute-mafter, Qiraiitz.

LINTON, in Geography, a fmall market town in the hun-
dred of Chilford. Cambridgefhire, England, is fituated ten
miles from Cambridge, and forty-fix from London. The
toivn confifts of fevcral irregular llreets, the chief of which
is about half a mile in length ; the houfes are principally low
and covered with thntch ; for/ie however are of brick, and
neatly built. The church is a fpacious (Irudlure, and built
with Hints, intermixed with ftone and plafter. It confills of
two aiOes, a nave, a chancel, and a large tower. It contains
feveral monuments and fepulchral memorials, among which
is a handfome mural monument by Wilton, to the memory
of Mrs. Elizabeth Bacon, and her brother Peter Sand-
ley, efq. A Sunday fchool was recently ellabliflied in this
town by the exertions of the Rev. Mr. Filher, the vicar ; it
now affords tuition to upwards of an hundred children. A
market, principally for corn, is held on Thurfdays ; it was
originally on Tuefdays, and was granted in the year 1 245,
with an annual fair for three days. The fair has been dif-
continued, but two others have been eftabliflied ; one for
(heep, and one principally for hiring harveft men. In the
reign of Edward III. there was an alien priory at Linton,
fubordinate to the abbev of St. Jacutus de Infula in Brit-
tany ; being feized for the king in the reign of Henry V.,
it was given by his fucceflbr to the matter and fellows of
Pembroke hall, Cambridge. At Barham alfo, in this parifh,
was a priory of Crutched Friars, fo early as the year 1292 ;
the fcite was granted by Henry VIII. to Philip Panlh, efq.
and afterwards to John Millecent, efq. who was before pof-
felTed of the manor. In the Millecents the priory and manor
continued till the year 1 740, when John Milliccnt, efq. the
laft of the family, died ; his widow, afterwards married to
the Rev. C. Lonldale, left her ellates to the matter and fel-
lows of Pembroke hall. Barham hall, Mrs. Lonfdale's
feat, appears to have been formed out of the conventual
buildings : the hall, chapel, and cloifters, ftill remain : it was
appropriated, by Mrs. Lonfdale's will, as a country feat for
the mailer of Pembroke hall for the time being. In the
population return to parliament in the year 1801, the parifh
of Linton was ftated to contain 183 houfes, and 1157 in-
habitants. Lyfons' Magna Britannia, vol. ii. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. ii.

LINTZ, a town and citadel of Germany, furrounded
with an old wall, and fituated on the E. fide of the Rhine,
containing about 600 houfes ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Bonn.
N. lat. 50- 54'. E. Icng. 7 14'. — Alfo, a well-built and
populous town of Auttria, fcated on the Danube; confift-
ing of a (ingle ftreet, with fome annexed fuburbs, in which
is the fovereign's citadel, fituated on an eminence, com-
manding a fine profpeft. The trade of the town is confi-
derable, and it has fairs that poffefs privileges under proper
regulations, at Eatter and St. Bartholomew's ; 30 miles
S.E. of Paffau. N. lat. 48^ iS'. E. long. 14" 15 .

LINTZENEGG, a town of Auftria ; 10 miles S. of
Zwetl.

LINUFAR, in Botany, a name ufed by fome of the
writers of the middle ages, to exprefs the water-lily. The
Arabians gave this genus of plants the name of n'llufar, and
this word linufar is only formed of that, by tranl'polmg fome
of tlie letters.

LINUM, in Botany, the Xmi of Diofcorides, Theo-
phrailus, and other ancient Greek authors, appears to be
derived from Xwji,-, to hold, the fibres of this plant being fo
remarkable for their tenacity, that its herbage has always
been in the greatell eftimation for the manufacture of Imen

cloth, whilft its feeds by prefTure afi"ord a valuable oiU
(See Fla.X.) — Linn. Gen. j/,3. Schrcb. 206. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. iyj3. Mart. Mill Dift. v. 3. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 342. Prod. Fl. Grace, v. I. 214. Ait. Hort. Kcw.
ed. 2. V. 2. 184. Tournef. t. 176. Jiiff. 303. Lamarck
Illuttr. t. 2ig. Gsrtn. t. 112. — Clafa and order, Pentan-
dria Pftita^ynia. N.it. Ord. Gruinales, Linn. Caryophyl-
lacex, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five leaves, lanceo-
late, erect, fmali, permanent. Cor. funnel-fliaped ; petals
five, oblong, gradually broader towards the upper part,
obtufe, much fpreading, large. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
(haped, ereCt, the leng:h of the caiy.x ; (alfo five rudi-
ments alternating with -heir.) anthers fimple, arrow-fliaped.
Pifl. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyk-s five, thiead-fiiaped,
ereft, as long as the ftamens ; ttigmas fimj.le, reflexcd.
Perk. Capfule globofe, bluntly five-lided, of ten cells and
ten valves. Seeds folitary, ovate or flattifli, acuminated,
fmooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Capfule fupe-
rior, witii ten valves and ten cells. Seeds folitary.

In the 14th edition of Linnasus's Syjlema Vegclabilium we
meet with twenty-two fpecies oi Litium. Willdcnow has
twenty-nine, belides which, four, not mentioned by him,
occur in the Hortits Kcwenfis, and one in the Prodromus
Florte Gncc<s. But from the litt is to be deduSed L. Ra-
dio/a- which is the Radiola millcgrana of Dr. Smith's Flora
Britannka, 202. — The genus is divided into two fedlions,-
the firtt having alternate, the fecond oppofite^ leaves. — Es-
amples of the firft fedlion are

"L. ufitatiffimum - Common Flax. Linn. Sp. PI, 397. Engl.

Bot. t. 133-7, Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 22 Calyx-leaves

ovate, acute, three-nerved. Petals crenate. Leaves lan-
ceolate, alternate. Stem moftly folitary.— Not uifrequent-
in fields throughout the more temperate parts of Europe, in
confequence probably of its being a plant of fuch general
cultivation, flowering in July. Root annual, fibrous, fmall.
Stem erett, round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves entire, three-
nerved, fmooth. Floivers on ftalks, erett, of a Iky-b'ue
colour. Seeds elliptical, very finning. For the ufes and
management of this valuable plant, we need not repeat what
is already given under the article Fl.\x.

L. trigymm Three-ftyled golden Flax. Sm. Exot. Bot.
t. 17. iur. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. n. 3. Curt. Mag.

t. 1 100 Leaves alternate, elliptical, ferratcd, acute.

Styles tlxree. Capfule of fix cells. — A native of the Eaft
Indies, where it was gathered by colonel Hardwicke on the
fides of mountains flowering in December. Tl;e natives
call it Gul Afiorfte, from its fine golden hue, Ga/fignifying
a flower, and /fjborfee a coin of the fame metal current in
India, of the value of 2/. tterling. — i'/.-w flirubby. Branches
round and leaty. Leaves fmootli, dark green, jointed, on a
ihort footltalk. Flowers large and handfome, nearly ino-
dorous.

L. hirj'ulum. Hairy Flax. Linn. Sp. PI. 39S. Willd-
n. 4. .lacq. Aiulr. t. 31.— Calyx hirfute, acuminate.
Flowers fefi~i!e, alternate. Leaves on the branches oppo--
file. — A native of riuttriaaud Hungary, flowering in June
and July. i?oo/ perennial, woody. Stems from a foot and
a half to two feet in height, branching towards the top.
Leaves lanceolate or ovate, hairy at tlieir edges and on the.*
backs, fomctinies nearly fmooth. Floiuers blue ; the petr.ls .
fo clofcly united at the bafe as to refemble a moiiopetalous,
funnel-fliaped flower. Linmus remarks that this is very
cloiely allied to L. iiodijlorum.

L. hyptrkifelium Mallow-flowered Flax, Curt. Mag.

t. 104S,

L I N

XI N

t. 1048, approaches very nearly to L. hirftitum. Its flowers
however are larger, and of a reddidi or purplifli tinge.

L. arbon-um. Tree Flax. I.inn. Sp. Pi. 400. Curt.
Mag. t. 234. — Leaves wedge-ftiaped. Stems arborefcent.
^A. native of the Levant, from whence it was Tent to Eng-
land by Dr. Sibthorp in the year 17S8. It fluvvcrs fifom
May to Auguft. This beautiful fpecics is an arboreous
ftirub, rifinpj to the height of feveral feet. Sirms rather
{lender, leafy. Leaves on (hort footllalks, the upper ones
nightly embracing the flem, of a glaucous colour.

Tlie two following fpecies come under the other feftion of
this genus, from having oppofite leaves.

L. caihcirikum Purging Plax. Mill-mountain. I^inn.
Sp. PI. 401. Engh Bot. t. 382. Curt. Lo:id. fafc. 3.
t. 19. Fi. Dan. t. Syi. — Leaves oppofite, obovato-lan-
ceolate. Stem forked. Petals pointed. — Not uncommon
in elevated, dry pallures in all parts of Great Britain, bear-
ing flowers from June to Auguft.. — Root annual, fmall.
Stuns leafy, ereft, many-flowered. Leaves obtufe, entire.
Floivers fmall, white, pendulous before they expand. — Dr.
Smith obferves, in the Flora Britannka, that L. calkarticum
is very nearly allied to Geranium, for that its ftamens are
fometimes monadclphous. The whole herb is fmooth, bit-
ter, and has long been celebrated for its purgative qualities.
L.guaelri/olium. Four-!eaved Flax. Linn. Sp. PI. 4C2.
Curt, Mag. t. .|3 [. — Leaves four in a whorl. — A native of
the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in May and June.
' Root l\\\ck and woody, i'/ems numerous, about fix inches
in hti'^ht, forked, (lender, upright. Leaves four in a
whorl. Floivers yellow.

This is the original guaJrifolittm of Linnxus, that of Ray
having blue flowers.

LiNUM, in Gardenwg, comprehends plants of the herba-
ceous, annual, and perennial flirubby kinds, of which the
fpecies are the common flax (L. ulitatiffimum) ; the peren-
nial flax (L. perenne) ; the flirubby flax (L. fuffruticofum'i ;
the tree flax (L. arboreum) ; and the African flax (L. Afri-
canum.)

In the fecond fort there is a variety which is procumbent,
■with fmaller flowers.

Method 0/ Cultun. — AW thefe plants may be increafcJ by
feeds, layers, and cuttings.

But the two firil fort's are bell raifed by fowing the feeds
•i;i the early fpring months, as March, or the following
month, the' former in fields or plantation-grounds, where
■the foil is frefli, good, and well reduced into order, by fre-
.quent digging over, or ploughing and harrowing, in narrow
drills, or broudcaft, and raked or harrowed in with a light
harrow ; the plants being afterwards kept perfedlly clean
from weeds by repeated hoemgs.

About the end of Auguft, when the plants have attained
their full growth, and bejin to turn yellow at bottom, and
brown at lop, and their feeds to ripen, it is proper time to
.pull them ; though, if it were not fnr the fake of the feed,
they might be pulled a little before the feeds ripen, by which
the flax is generally belter coloured and finer ; but if fuf-
fercd to ftand till the feeds are fully ripe, it is commonly
ttronger, fomcwhat coarfer, and more in quantity. It
fhould be pulled up by handfuls, roots and all, fliaking off
all the mould ; then either fpreading them on the ground by
handfuls, or binding them in fmall bunches, and felling
them upright againft one another, for ten days or a fortnight,
till they are perfectly dry, and tl« feed fully hardened, then
houled, and the feed thralhed out, cleaned, and placed in a
dry airy fituation, being afterwards put up for ufe. The
ilax, after being rippled and forted, fliould be carried to
a pond of nearly ftagnant water, being placed in it v.ith the

bundles croITing each other in different dircflions, fo as to
keep tiic whole in a clofe compaft ftate, being kept juft be-
low the fnrface of the water, by proper weights applied
upon it. It fliould remain in this ftcep till the flems become
brittle and the bark readily fejiarates, wlun it muft be taken
out and ipread thinly on a flior' pafture, being occafionally
turned until it becomes perfectly bleached and drv, wiien it
is in a proper ftate for the purpofe of beir.g converted into
flax by the buckler.

With regard to the latter, or perennial fort, it fliould be
fown in a bed or border of good earth, in flialluw drills at
the diftancc of fix inches ; and when the plants are two or
three inches in height, they fliould be thinned to the fame
diftances, and in autumn be planted out in the places where
they are to grow. But it is probably a better practice to
fow them at once in the places where tliey are to grow, thin-
ning them out properly afterwards.

The three other for.s may be beft incrcafed by planting
{;uttings of the branches in pots of light frefti earth, plunging
them in the tan hot-bed, or by layers laid down in the later
fummer montlis. When the plants in cither mode have
ftricken good root, they may be removed into feparate pot.s,
and be managed as other tender exotic plants, that require
the proteftion of the green-houfe. And ihrv may likewife
be raifed from feeds when they can be procured, which
fliould be fown in pots, and placed in a hot-bed in the fpring
feafon.

The firft. fort may be faid to be one of the mnft valuable
plants in the whole vegetable kingdom : as from the hark of
its ftalks is manntaftured flax or lint, for making all forts of
linen cloth ; from the cloth, when worn to rags, is made
paper ; and from the feeds of the plant linfeed oil is ex.
prefled, which is much ufed by painters, and in other arts 4
and the refufe, after cxpreffion, forms the pil-cakes To va-
luable in the fattening of cattle, fheep, and other forts of
live ftock.

A few plants of this, and the fecond fort, may be intro-
duccd in the clumps and borders of the [Lafnre. ground ;
and the three other forts afford variety in green-houfe coU
leftions among other potted plants.

LlNL'M Carpafmm, CarpafianJIax; or Uiieii, a term often
occurring in the old writers, and ufed by different authors
in very different fenfes.

The firft ufe we find made of the word, is for the cx-
preffing a kind of flax which was finer and finaller, as well
as brighter and more, gloffy, than any other. Pliny ufes the
word in this fenfe, and tells us, that fnch flax was princi-
pally brought from Spain ; and that both it, and the linen
made of it, were, in his tiine, called by the name cavpafian :
from this it became a cuftom to call all very fine flax, or
fine linen, carpafian linen, and the word fignified no more
than delicate, or fine.

The modern Greeks ufe the word in this ftnfe, and
Suidas expreffes the fineft linen veils by the term carpafian.
The author of the Periplus Maris Erythrxi, who was con-
temporary with PHny, calls the flax, of which the Indian
linens were made, carpafos ; but none of ihe older Greeks
have the word. This author is not, however, to be ap-
pealed to for afcertaining the purity of the language of the
ancients ; for it is plain that he has taken in many words
which are not good Greek, nor ever were ufed by any
author of credit, but are ihe mere technical terms of the
tradefmen and merchants of that time.

Paufanias ufes the woi d carpafium linum in a very different
fenfe from all thefe ; for with him it is made to exprefs the
flax made of the ftone aflieftos, and the linen made of thi-;,
which was thrown into ihe fire to Dc cleaned. Solinus ufes

the

L 1 N

L I N

tlae word alfo in the fame fenfe : he fays, that in Caryftos
lliere was found that kind of flax which remained unhurt in
the fire; and Hieronymus Mercurialis thinks that the far-
li:lfvj of tlie ancient Romans was a word properly uled only
to I'pjnify the carpali.vn flax of Paufaiiias, which was not to
be deltroyed by the iire, and was the true linum ir.combujiihite,
or threads of the aibeitos ftone, or hnen made of that ma-
terial. Thi?, however, is not the fcrrle of the word in la!i-r
"limes, for we find it evidently ufed tor all linen manutaCtures
of whatever kind.

Linum, Carj(/lium, in Natural HiJIory, a name given by
Paufanias to the alheitos. It was found plentituily in- tlji*
author's time, near Caryftos, a town in the Negropont, and
thence obtained its name.

LiN'UM Cctharticunit Purging Jljs; in Meiiiclne, makes a
common purge among the country people. It is almoll as
rough as that of gral'iola.

It is a fpecics of wild flax, diftingeiHicd by the name of
meadow flax, with fmal! flowers which appear in July, and
commonly called mountain-flax, growing without culture on
chalky hills and dry pafture grounds in m:iny parts of Eng-
Lnd, and is taken in infufion in ale.

This herb is faid to be an efTeftusl and fafe cathartic ; ;m
infufion of a handful of the frefh leaves in wVey or white
■wine, or a drachm of the leaves in fubftance with a little cream
of tartar and anifeeds, is direQed for a dofe. Linnsus
recommends an infufion of two drachms of the dry leaves as
a mild laxative.

It is greatly recommended by fome in dropfies, and to
prevent its griping they mix aniie or fome other of the car-
minative feeds with it. It is given in mod chronic cafes,
where people's conftitutions are ftrong enough to bear it,
and often with great fuccefs.

Linum Fi-Bum, or wcomluflihile, cloth made of a fc ffile,
{lony fubllance, of a whitifh colour, and woolly texture,
feparable into threads, or filaments, which will endure the
fire without confuming. See Ami.wthu.s and AsBf;.STUs.

As to the art of managing this mineral, and of fpiiining
and weaving it, &c. the accounts we have are various.

Marco Polo, the Venetian, gives us the manufafture of
the linum, found in the province of Chinchinthelas, in Tar-
tary, from one Curfica, a Turk, fuperintendant -of the
mines of that country, as follows. The lanuginous mineral,
being firll dried in the lun, is then pounded in a brafs mor-
tar, and the earthy part feparated from the woolly, which
is afterwards well feparated from filth ; being thus purged,
ic is fpun into thread, like other wool, and afterwards woven
into cloth, which, if foul or fpotted, they cleanfe, he fays, by
throwing it into the fire for an hour's time, whence it comes
out unhurt, as white as fnow : which very method, accord-
ing to the account given us by Strabo, feems to have been
ufed, in ordering the Cretan amianthus ; with this addition,
that after it was pounded, and the earthy part feparated
from the woolly, he fays it was combed ; and fo does
Agricola.

Signior Ciampani, after defcribing four fiirts of the
linum, whereof he had fpecrmens in his mufeum ; the firil
fent him from Corfu, the fecond from Sefiri di Poiiente,
the third coarfer and darker than the reft, and the fourth
from the Pyreneans ; and rifter obferving, that though be
kept it three weeks in a glafs-houfe fire, yet he found it un-
altered, though it could not preferve a (tick wrapped in it,
from the fire ; he proceeds to fhew the man-ner of fpinning,
and makmg it into cloth, which he eftefted thus : — He
firft. laid the ftone in water, if warm the better, for fome
time to foak ; then opened and divided it with his hands,
that the earthy part« might fall out of it, which are wlntifti

Vol XXI.

like clmlk, and ferve to bind the thready parts together.

This makes the water thick and milky. That operation be
repeated fix or feven times, with frcth water, opening and
fqueezing it again and again, till all the heterogeneous
parts were wafhed out, and then the flax-like parts were col-
letted, and laid in a fieve to dry. As to the fpinning, he
firft fliews a method difcovered to him, which is thr.s : —
Lay the linum, cleanfed as before, between two card.%
fuch as they card wool with, where let it be gently carded,
and then clapped in between the cards, fo that fume of it
may hang out of the fides ; then lay the cards fall on a
table, or bench ; take a fmall reel, made with a little hook
at the end, and a part to turn it by, fo that it may be eafily
turned round ; this reel mufl be wound over with white
thread ; then, having a fmall veflel of oil ready, with which
the fore finger and thumb are conllantly to be kept wet,
both to preferve the flcin from the corrofive quality of the
ftone, and to render the filaments thereof more foft and
pliant, by continuing to twift about the thread on the reel
in the afbeftos hanging out of the cards, fome of the latter
will be worked up together in it ; and, by little and little,
the thread may, with care, be v.'oven into a coarfe fort
of cloth ; and, by putting it into the fire, the thread
and oil will be burnt away, and the incombullible cloth
remain.

But finding this way, of uniting the ftone with the
thread, very tedious ; inltead of the thread, he put fome
flax on a diftaff, and, by taking three or four filaments of
the albetlos, and mixing them with the flax, he found they
might be eaUly twilled together, and the thread thtis made
much more durable and ftrong ; fo that there is no need
of carding, which rather breaks the filaments, than does
any good : only open and feparate the filaments, after
wafliuig, on a table, and take them up with the flax, which
is fufficieat.

As to the making of paper, he fays, in the walhing of
the ftone there will remain feveral fliort pieces in, the bottom
of the water, of which paper may be made in the comm.oa
method. He concludes with the beft way of prcferving
the cloth, or any thing made of the linen, which, by rea-
fon of its exceffive drynefs, is very apt to break, and twift ;
and It confifts in keeping it always well oiled, which is the
only prefcrvative. When the cloth is put in the fire, the
oil burns off, and the cloth comes out white and purified.

Linum, in ylncicnt Geography, a country of Afia Minor,
in the province of Hellefpont, between Parium and Priape.
— Alfo. a promontory of Illyria, in Chaonia.

LINUS, in Biography, fuppofed to be the firft biHioji
of Rome, was born at Voltt rra, in Tufcany. According
to Iren:eus he received his hilhopric from the hands of the
apoftles Peter and Paul, which he is fuppofed to have re-
tained twelve years. He is mentioned by St. Paul in the
fecond epiftle of Timothy, and is faid, by fome writers, to
have been the fon of Cla?idia, who is mtnticned at the
fame time. Nothing more is known of him which can
be relied on, though it has been faid that he teftified to the
truth of his principles by fuffering martyrdom ; and tw(»
letters in the fecond volume of the liiblicth. Patr. have been
alcribed to him, but there i« no goed authority for tLele
facts. See I^ardner, vol. ii. edit. 17SS.

Linus. This perfonage and Orpheus feem to have
been the moft ancient poets and m.ufici;tns of Greece; but
to determine whether Linus was the mafter of Orpheus, or
Orpheus of Linus, would be as vain to attempt, as difficult
to accomplifli. All that can be done at this diftance of
time, is to compare the opinions of rtacicnt writers upon
the fulijecl, and to incline to the molt nurserous and r?-

R fridzble

I, I N

L I N

IpcCtaWe evidence: and in purfuing this meihod, it appears
that tlie majority are in favour of the fuperior antiquity of
I.inus. No teilimouy places hiui in a more remote period,
or does more honour to liis memory, than that of Hero-
dotus; who tells us (Eutcrp.) "that among other memorable
cu'.loms, the Egyptians ling the fong of Linus, hke that
which is fung by the Phccnicians, Cyprians, and other na-
tions, who vary the name according to the different lan-
guages they fpcak. But the perfon they honour in this
iong, is evidently the fame that the Grecians celebrate : and
as I confefs mv furpri/.c at many thnigs I found among the
Egyptians, fo I more particularly wonder whence they had
this knowledge of Linus, becaufe they feem to have cele-
brated him from time immemorial. The Egyptians call
him by the name of Muncros, and fay he was the only fon
of the fu'ft of their kings, but dying an untimely death, in
the flower of his age, he is lamented by the Egyptians iu
this mourning fong, which is the only conipofition of the
kind ufed in Egypt."

According to archbi(hop Uftier, Linus flourifhed about
1280 years before Chrill, and he is mentioned by Eufobius
(Prj;p. Evang.) among the poets who wrote before the time
of Mofes. Diodorus Siculus, who is very diffufe in his ac-
count of Linus (lib. iii. cap. 85.) tells us from Dionyfius
of Mitylene the hiftorian, who was contemporary with
Cicero, that Linus was the firft among the Greeks who in-
vented verfe and mufic, as Cadmus firll taught them the ufe
' of letters. The fame writer likewife attributes to him art
account of the exploits of the firft Bacchus, and a treatife
upon Greek mythology, written in Pelafgian charafters,
which were alfo thofe ufed by Orpheus, and by Pronapides,
the preceptor of Homer. Diodorus fays, hkewife, that
he added the ftring hchanos to the Mercurian lyre, and
gives to him the invention of rhythm and melody, wliich
Suidas, who regards him as the moft ancient of lyric poets,
confirms. He is faid by many ancient writers to have had
feveral difciples of great renown, among whom were Her-
cules, Thamyris, and, according to fome, Orpheus.

Hercules, fays Diodorus, in learnmg of Linus to play
upon the lyre, being extremely dull and obftinate, pro-
voked his mafter to Itrike him, which fo enraged the young
hero, that inftantly feizing the lyre of the mufician, he beat
out his brains with his own inilrument. Heroes are gene-
rally impatient of controul, and not often gifted with a talte
for refined pleafures ; hence, relying merely on corporal
force, their mental faculties, feeble perhaps by nature, are
fcldom fartified by education.

With refpeft to the dirges, which Plutarch, from Hera-
clides of Pontus, mentions as written by Linus, we find no
account of them in any other ancient author. It appears,
however, that his death has given birth to many fongs of
that kind, which have been compofed in honour of his
memory. A feftival was likewife inllituted by the name of
l.'mla, for the celebration of his virtues ; and fo numerous
were his inventions, and various the periods and places in
which different authors fix them, that fome have tried to
reconcile thefe jarring accounts, by fnppoiing that there
were three feveral illuftrious perlbnages of that name ; a
fuppofition which we (hall not pretend eitlier to affirm or
deny.

" The Thebans, fay« Paufanias (in Biotic,) afTure us, that
J>inus was buried in their city ; and that Philip, the ion of
Amyntas, after the battle of Cheronaea, which was fatal to
the Greeks, excited by a dream, removed his bones into
Macedon, whence, by counfel received in another dream,
he fent them back to Thebes ; but time has fo defaced his
tomb, that it is bo longer difcoverable,'^

Homer (lib. xviii. ver. 569.) has paid a tribute to the
memory of Linus, in his defcription of the fhield of
Achilles.

" To thefe a youth awakes the warbling firings,
Whofe tender lay the fate of Linus lings ;
In meafur'd dance behind him move the train.
Tune foft the voice, and anfwer to the ftrain.''

Pope, in his note on this paflage, fays, from Paufanias,
that " before the yearly facrifice to the mufes on mount
Helicon, the obfequies of Linus were performed, who had
a llatue and altar eredted to him in that place. Homer
alludes to that cuflom in this paflage, and was doubtles fond
of paying thisrefpeft to the old father of poetry."

LlO, in Geography, a lake of Thibet, about 30 miles in
circumference. N. lat. 31^ 22'. E. long. 86' 34'.

LIOI-KIA-LANC-TSA, a town of Thibet, Too
miles S.S.E. of LafTa. N. lat. 28 8'. E. long. 92° 44'.

LIOIPOU, a lake of Thibet, about 30 miles in cir-
cumference. N. lat. 34- 27'. E. long. 90" 34.

LION, Leo, in the Linnaean fyllem of Zoology, is a
fpccies of quadrupeds belonging to the fells or cat kind,
with a long tail and pale-red or tawny body. See Fells.

The lion is an inhabitant of all parts of Africa, and the
hot parts of Afia, fuch as India and Perfia, and fame fewr
are found in the defarts between Bagdat and BafTorah, on
the banks of the Euphrates ; but they mofl abound in the
torrid zone, where the fize is the largeft, and their rage
moft tremendous, being inflamed by the influence of a burn-
ing fun and a very dry feil. It is obferved, that, though
they reign abfolute mailers over every beaft, their rage di-
minilhes and their timidity increafes as they approach the
habitation of the human race. They have been alfo known
to fpare the weaker animals, and many inftances are related
by A. Gellius, jElian, and Pliny, ,&c. of their gratitude.
Lions are capable of being tamed ; and the monarch of
Perfia is faid, on days of audience, to have two large lions
chained on each fide of the paffage to the room of ftate,
led there by keepers in chains of gold. The lion preys on
all kinds of animals ; having roufed them into view by his
roar, he ilarts on his prey, ftriking it with his talons, and
tearing it to pieces. He alfo invades the folds, leaping over
the fences with his prey, and his ftrength is fo great, that
he can carry off a middling ox with the utmoft eafe. He
fometimes feizes his prey by furprize, and mankind falls a
viftim to his hunger, more through neceffity, as it is faid,
than choice. The Arabs have a notion of his fparing the
tender fex, but Dr. Shaw informs us in his Travels, p. 244,
that the lion obferves no diftinftion in thefe days. The
fleih is often eaten in Barbary, and is faid to referable veal
in taile. Pennant's Brit. Zool. p. 165, &c.

LlON-Moniey. See SiMl.v Oedipus.

Lion, Seal. See PilocA Leonina.

L.JOyi-Puceion, in Natural Htftory, the name given by Mr.
Reaumur to a genus of worms which deftroy the pucerons
in the fame manner that the formica leo does the ants.

Thefe little iiifcfts are a prey alfo to a fort of worm
hatched from the egg of a two-winged fly. This has no
legs, and is of feveral colours. See V t.v.- P uceron .

Though thefe lion-pucerons be all hexapodes, yet they
are of different origin ; fome being produced from the eggs
of a four-winged fly, others from thofe ot a beetle. As the
formica leo has two horns, the extremities of which fcrve
him by way of mouths, our lion-puccron has the fame kind
alio ; but as the former of thefe infetfs can only move back-
wards, and is forced to make fnares for his prey, not being
able to bunt it, this creature runs very nimbly in the com-

5 J»oa

L I O

L I O

mon way, and feizes its prey, without having recourfe to
fuch ilratagems.

The body of the lion-puceron is longer than that of the
formica leo, and is flat ; the breaft is the thickeft and
broadeft part of it, and from this it gradually tapers off to a
point at the tail ; it has two legs fixed to the breaft, the
other four to the anterior rings of the body ; and when it
moves, the pofterior end of the body ferves it in the place
of a feventh leg, for it always bends ic downward, and draws
it along the furface it walks upon. The back of this crea-
ture is not fmooth or gloffy, bat is every where rough, and
full, of wrinkles, -and feems as if every ring of it was com-
pofed of feveral other fmaller rings.

This is the general defcription of the creature, treating
of h in the general way, thefe characters fiiiting all the kinds
of it. There are others, however, by which the u holt clafa
may be divided into three principal kinds.

Thefe are much more voracious dtvourers of the pucerons,
than the worms which feed on them. A (mail puceroii,
feized by one of them, is eaten in an inftant, and the very
largeft is not the work of half a minute for them.

Thefe creatures are very fmali when tirft produced from
the egg, and yet they immediately begin to feed. They are
fo ravenous of food alio, that whenever they can they catch
and eat one another. But as the pucerons, among which
they hve, are eafier to be caught, they ufually efcape one
another's fury pretty well ; unlefs where there is a fcarcity
of the pucerons, or when they offend one another.

It is eafy to conceive that a creature, which feeds fo v:ry
faft, mull foon arrive at its full growth ; and this is the cafe
wth thefe animals, for within five or fix days of their being
hatched from tlie egg, they are ready for their final tranl-
formation, or the putting on the form of the animals to
whofe eggs they owed their origui. In order to this, the
creature leaves the place where he has hitherto fed, and feeks
the folds of a leaf, or fome other fuch convenient receptacle,
where it fpins a web of very fine filk, every way furrounding
its body wiih it, and under this cover pafTes the ftale of a.
nymph or chryfalis. The filk of this web is not only very
ftrong, but the threads are very clofely laid together, fa
that it is much firmer than the webs of any of the caterpillar
kind. It is of a roundifh figure, and is fomewhat fmaller
than a pea.

This round figure is owing to the form into which they
roll up their body, which ferves as a mould for it ; and the
orifice, out of which the filky matter is produced, is at the
extremity of the polterior part of the boc'y. The creature
continues in this (late about three weeks, if it be in the be-
ginning of fummer that it goes into it ; but if toward autumn,
it remains in it all the following winter ; and is afterwards,
in fpring, feen to come out in the form of a very beautiful
fly, of a remarkable large fize, in proportion to the creature
it is produced from, and the web out of which it comes. It
is a very long-bodied one, and much refembles the libella or
dragon-fly, only that its wings are larger in proportion to
Its body : thefe wings are of a moll delicately fine ilruClurc,
the fined gawfe being coarfe and thick in comparifon to
them, Tiicfe, when the creature is at reft, are placed in an
angle over the body, and form a fort of canopy or tent for
it ; but they are fo perfectly tranfparent, that the body is
eafily feen through tliem. The body and breaft are all
green, and that of a very beautiful tinge ; but the moft re-
ni^rkable beauty of this creature is its eyes : thefe are large
and prominent, and are of a fine gold colour, and of greater
luftre than the moft highly polilhed metal.

The eggs of this fly are a very Angular objeft, and cannot
. have efcaped the eye oi any perfon who is converfant among

the infeSs which live on trees ; though oF the many who
have feen them, perhaps few or none ever found what they
really were. It is common to fee oh the leaves and pedicles
of the leaves of the plum-tree, and feveral other trees, as
alfo on their young branches, a number of long and {lender
filaments, running out to about an inch in length, and being
of the thicknefs of a hair : ten or twelve of thefe are ufually
feen placed near one another, and a vaft number of thefe
cli'fters are often found on the fame tree. The end of each,
of thefe filaments is terminated by a fort of fwelling or tu-
bercle of the ftiape of an egg. People who have obferved
thefe, have generally fuppoled them to be of vegetable ori-
gin, and that they were a fort of paralitica! plants, growing
out of others, as the midetoe, mofles, &.c. from the oak
and other trees. They very much refemble in figure thoie
fwecies of mouldinefs, which Malpighi and others have
figured under the fhape of little muflirooms, only they are
much larger than thofe little plants, and bear the heat of
the fun and other accident.: uninjured, which would deftroy
the tender plants of that kind. There is a time, when thefe^
egg -like balls, which terminate every one of thefe filaments
are found open at their ends, and m this ftate they very muc!a.
refemble flowers, and they are in this ftate figui-ed by fonit
authoi"s under the name of flowers of a finffular kind, founii
on the leaves of the willow. All this, however, is wliolly er-
roneous, and the purfuing the hiftory of our lion-pucerone
fliews their true origin to be from the fly of that creature.
What thele authors took for flowers of the willow were only
the eggs of this fly, out of which the young animals hai
been hatched, and had made their efcape. The leaves a: J
branched, on which thefe eggs are found, are ufually feen
covered over with the pucerons ; and the creature providifij'
a place where her young ihall find nourilhment as foon a»
hatched, places her eggs in the niidll of thefe harmlefs and
defencelels animals, fixing each on a llender pedicle, yet fuf-
ficiently ftrong to bear its weight. If thefe eggs be nicely
examined, a worm may be difcovered in them while jet
whole ; but the moft certain way of judging of the -a is, to
put feveral of them into a box, in which cafe every one of
them is found at a proper time to hatch, and to give an in-
fect ; which, when viewed by the niicrolcope, appears
plainly to be a hon-puceron in all its parts, and requiring
only increafe in fize, without any change of (hape, to be
one of thofe we have already dcfcribed, as feeding fo vo-
racioufly on the pucerons. Reaumur's Hift. Inf. yd), vi.
p. I4i.

Lio.v, yfni, in Zoology. See Formicv. Leo.

Liox's Foat, Candiii, in Botany. See CatanANCHE.

Lion's Leaf. See Leontice.

Lion's Tail. See Leonurus.

Lion's Cove, in Geography, a fmall bay in the ftraits of
Magellan, furrounded by rocks. The water is deep, the
ground is good, and water may be obtained, but no wood.
The only refreftiments which this bay afiords are limpets,
mufcles, rock fiih, and celery. S. lat. jj- 26. W. long.

74 -5'-

Lion Mountain, a mountain of Africa, near the Cape of
Good Hope, deriving its name trom a fuppoled rcleinblance
to the lion. It confilts of the Lion's head, which is a bare
rock 2160 feet high ; and the Lion's tail or rump, which is
alfo rocky, but covered with a flight ftratum uf earth, 1143
feet high. This earth yields an inferior kind of grafs, 10
which every one's cattle has accefs. Upon both thefe i.im-
mits are erected enfign ftafl^s, upoa which fignal flags are
hoilled as foon as any (hips are perceived at fca. Thefe
fignals, whilft the Cape remained in poiTeiTion of the Dutch,
were changed every mouth ; and advices were fer.t two years
R 2 bcfcre

L I O

L I P

before lo Hulland and the India Ctttlements ; and fe-uiftd tlie lips are rrcqucnlly excited and kept up by a diford

letters, containing llie detail of them, ^re given to the com- ilate oF the a'odoniinal vifcera, and many iiiilances at firll

inanders of vefTcls, who are to touch at the Cape ; which taken for cancers, have in the end yielded to different reme-

Ictters are opened when they arrive within fight of the dies. Thus, a painful induration in the lip, which was fup-

mountains, that they may afcertain whetlier or not the place pofcd to be an occult eanccr, is recorded to have been cured

be in the hands of theit countrymen, and accordingly avoid by the employment of emetic and purgative medicines,

it or proceed to an anchorage in the bay. A cannon is alfo elpccially the helleborus niger. (Jourdain, Maladies de la

Jired on Lion's head, fo often as to correfpond to the num- Bouclie, toni. ii. p, 172.1 Richter and other continental

her of fhips that appear, in order to give notice to Cape lurgeons confider it as afcertained, beyond doubt, that many

Town ; and this notice is facilitated by the reverberation bad ulcers of the lips are connedled .villi gaftrie dilcales,

which the found makes againll the lleep lides of the Table by which we are to underlland diforders of the vifcera fub-

niountain. fcrvient to digellion, as the ftomach, liver, bov\'cls, &c.

L.I»N ii'ylii^ers, I.c, a town of France, in the depart- We are informed of a malignant-looking lore of the lower

metrt of the Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton, lip, which proceeded from the projection of an unnaturally

in the dillrio^l of Segre ; to miles N.N.VV. of Angers.
The place contains 1728, and the canton gjyS inhabitants,
on a territorv of 2474 kiliometres, in 12 communes.

LIONARDO DA Vinci, in Bkgraphy. See Da
Vixci.

LIONCELES, in Herahhs, a term for lions when there
are more llian tfto of them borne in any coat of arms, and
:io ordinary between them.

long iucil'or tooth of the upper jaw, and which healed ot"
itfelf as foon as the irritating tooth was cxtrafted. (Jour-
dain, 1. c. p. ig6.) Scorbutic lores upon the lips have
fometimcs been niiflaken for cancers, and at length yielded
to anti-icoibutic medicines. (Metygcr Adverlaria, vol. ii. )
Even fores wliich iiave been occalioncd on the lips by chil-
blains, have fonietimes been erroneoufly regarded :<3 cancers.
Many ulcers on the lips which at firll are quite of an harin-

LIONINE, or Lionade, in the hiHory of the Cotns lefs nature, are rendered malignant bv the llimulating and

rurrent in Ireland, a name given to certain coins, imported caullic applications made ufe of, alinoft every unheaitliy

privately from France and other places. There were, be- fore in this lituntion attrafting a fuf])icion of carcinoma,

iide thefe, many others of tlie fame fort, imprefled with and leading the lially praftitioner to dreis it with irritating

eagles, roles, and the like, and called by names fignitying and efcharotic fubdances. But the cafes which, of all

thofe jmprefiions. They were a very bafe and poor fort of others, are the moll liable to be tnillakcn for cancers of the

money; the penny lionade, or lwn':ne, not coming up to the lip, are venereal ulcer.";. Thefe are faid to have been fome-

vaKie of the halfpenny of the coin of the kingdom. They times cut out by indifcriminating furgcons, who, in (lead of

were difcountenanced in the year 1300; and good money feeing the wound heal favourably, have had the double mor-

being ftruck there, it was made death, -and confifcation of
goods, to import any of them, and the run of them was thus
itopped.

Lions, in Ciogniphy, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure, and chief plaee of a canton, in the dillridt
of Lcs Andelys ; nine miles N. of Grand Andelys. The
place contains 1828, and the canton 9905 inhabitants, on a
territory of 12 J kiJionietres, in 1 ^ communes

tification of witnefTing the return of more cxtenlivc fypln-
liiic ulceration in the part, and on the adminillration of
mercury, having their blundering conduft dctefled by the
offended patient, and expofed to the obloquy of the world.
Whoever meditates on the foregoing iacls, mult be con-
vinced of the impropriety of making halty and polilive de-
cilions, concerning the nature of ulcers on the lips. B.id
i!l-lookiniJ- fores are, indeed, formed with particular frc-

LIOSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of quency on thefe parts of the face; but molt of them are

Troki ; 20 miles W. of Grodno. not cf fo malignant and incurable a characfer, as -to merit

I^IO TARD, .loHN' Stki'Hf.m, in Biography, a painter the appellation of cancer. Many of them, as we have al-

in enamel, crayons, and miniature, who was born at Geneva ready listed, are exafperated by wrong modes of treatment,

in 1702. He went to Paria to (ludy in 1725, and thence and the lips:, in confequence of their inceflTant motion, arc

iiccompanicd the marquis de Ptnheux to Rome, wh.ere the unquellionably a difadvantagcous place for cicatrization in

earls of Sandwich and Belborough engaged him to accom- general.

pany them to Condantinople. There he became acquainted The dlfeafes lo which cuftom has affigned the name of

with fir Everard Fawkener, our ambaffador, who perftiadcd cancer of the lip, may begin in different ways, and afTume

him to come to England. various appearances. They often commence in the form of

He attempted to make himfelf confpfcuous by adopting a warty excrelcencc, which, after attaining a certain fize,

the habits and manners of the Levant, and acquired by that breaks out into ulceration. They frequently come on in

and his talents, which were far from contemptible, (parii- the fliape of a pliagedeiiic ulcer; while, in other initances,

fiilarly in enamel,) a confiderable degree of encouragement they begin as a bard lump, which at lall falls ii.to the ulce-

umong the nobility and gentry of this country. But his rated flate. In fonie cafes much pain is expericiiced ; in

pictures want grace and talle ; he v/as too clcife a copyiH of others, the degree of fuffering is inconliderable. The occa-

what he faw, and did not make his pictures pleafmg enough fional caufcs are fubjeft to equal variety. Sometimes the

to hold his practice when llofalba became his competitor cv.'^eafe appears to come on of irfelf. In other examples,

in crayons. its origin is referred to a fm=)ll pirrple, chap, or excoriation

J..IP, or Lips, in .'Inatomy. See Dr.ci.UTiTlox. of the lip. We arc told of a cafe, where a cancerous ulcer

Lip, Ca!u:er cf, in Surgery. Such cafes as ufually go cf the tongue and one fide of the mouth occurred, in confe-

under the denomination ot cancers cf the lip, are attended qiicnce of inadvertently drinking foine liquor, with which an

with confiderable variety, both in regard to the manner ui i^kerated cancer of the breafl had been wafned. Gooch,

v.liith they begin, and the appearances which they put on Chirurgical Works, vol. ii; p, 127.

in their progrcfs. It i% often exceedingly difficult to pro-
nounce, with certainty, whether particular ulcers of the lips
ought to be called cancers or not. For, if we can trull to

The lower lip is that which is commonly aiTefled, tire
upper one being attacked only in a fmail proportion of the
cifes which prcfent themfelves in praifice. It is alfo ai

■the reports of furgrcal authors, very inveterate fores upon Icged, "hat the dife;ife is much more frequent ia the mala

than

L I F,

tl\an the female fex. (Richerand, Nsfographle Cliirr.rgi-
cale, torn. iii. p. 255, edit. 2 ) One important fad, iu which
all the belt informed I'urgeons afrree, is, that cancers of the
lips and face in general are far lefs mahgnant than carcinoma
of the bread, or at leall, admit of being effeftLially extir-
pated with the knife or cauftic witli more exterilive fiiccels.
The prudent furgeon, before removing a cancerous breaft,
feels himfelf obliged to explain the poffibihty of a return of
the ditlemper ; but when the lip is the part affefted, and
care is taken to remove every particle of the difcafe, he may
be much bolder in his promifes.

The medicines uiually tried in other cafes of carcinoma,
mav be exhibited in thofe of cancerous lips. (See Cancer.)
The internal employment of arfenic has in particular been
much praif^d. On the whole, however, we have httle con-
fidence in any thing but extirpation, and it is only in doubt-
ful cafes, that delaying the operation to try the effeft of
medicines or apphciitions can be very juftiiiable. Wafting
time till the difeafe affefts the lymphatic glands under the jaiv,
or fpreads fo extenfively, that the wound after the opera-
tion cannot be united, is ferious mifconduft in the furgeon,
for the ill conlequences to the patien'. are irremediable. In
the firll cafe, the diftemper under the jaw moflly cannot be
taken away ; in the fecond, if the lower lip be affefted, as
is commonly the cafe, great deiormity, imperfect fpeech,
and (what is more terrible) a contmual Havering mull for
ever remain ; or at moft, admit of only flight palliation by
artificial contrivances.

There are now only two modes of extirpating cancers of
the lip ; one with caultic, the other with a knife.

In thefe cafes, cauftic has been very extenfively employed,
and fuccefs may be expcfted from the method, when the
whole of the diieafe admits of being at once deftroyed by a
fiO'^le application. But when the cauftic mull be repeatedly
ufed, it not only proves in many inftances ineffeftual, but
often aggravates the difeafe. Nearly all the varieties of
cauftic have been employed by different practitioners. The
great thing is to have one that is exceedingly active, and the
kali puruin with quick-lime is as good as any. We have
read of a cafe vfhich was cured by means of a burning
glafs, though we do not perceive any advantage that this
plan can have over the employment of cauftic. Comte,
Hiltoire de I'Acad. Pvoyale de Mcdeeine, ann. 1776.

Let it not be inferred from the foregoing oblervations,
that we are advocates for the ufe of cauftic, as we frankly
own, that although it was our duty to mention the practice,
we Ihould be alhamed of adopting it. In every cafe where
cauftic can be employed, the knife can always be ufed with
advantage. It does its office more quickly, and with lefs
pain, at the fame time that it accomplidies the removal of
the difeafe, and furrounding fubftance with greater certainty
and exactnefs. But the grand recommendation is, that the
wound made with a cutting inftrument is fuch as can be
evenly united by the hrft intention.

Notwilhftanding tlie teftimony of the beft fiirgical writers,
in fupport of the very frequent fuccefs attending the extir-
pation of cancers of the hp, one modern autlior is advcrfe
to making fuch attempt at all, ei'her v.ith cauftic or uith
the knife. (Juurdain, Mai. de la Bouche.) This doftrine,
we confcfs, furprifes us a good deal, as being fo repugnant
to the fentiments which we have derived, not merely from
the moft accurate books, but from the ebfervaticn of nu-
merous cure?. If M. Jourdain has, in his own individual
praftice, met with many inftances of a return of the difeafe
after the operation, we cannot help fufpedling, that his mode
of extirpation muft. have been faulty and incomplete.

Although it is an important maxim in the operation, to

make tlie wound of fa:h a fhape as will admit c£ an even
union, it is a ftill more important point to remove every
particle of the difeafe. The majority of rclapfes are ur-
qucftionably imputable to the neglect of this material ob-
ject, and not t« the incurablenefs of the complaint. It is
always better to remove too much rather than too little,
for the lips are fo very yielding, that, in numerous cafes,
nearly the whole lip has been cut away, and yet the wound
has been united without deformity. At the tin.e that vvf
are writing this article (namely Auguft 181 1,) there is la
St. Bartholomew's Hofpital a cafe, where the greater part
of the lower lip was removed by Mr. Vincent on account of
a cancer ; but, notwithftanding this great lofs of fubftance,
the edges of the wound were eafily brought into contact.

The operator ought not only to take away all that is
manifeftly fwollen, ulcerated, or indurated ; he fhould be
careful likewife not to leave any parts which are at all dif-
coloured. In ftiort, it is fnfeft to make the incifions at fome
little dillance from, the perceptible boundaries of the diftem-
per. The extent of tlie difeafe upon the infide of tjie iip
will always demand careful examination.

When the whole lip is thorouglily cancerous, tlie prafti-
tioner is under the ncccftity of cutting every particle of it
away, in which circumftance the wound will not admit of
union, but muft heal by granulations. On the contrary,
when the extent of the difeafe is more moderate, the opera-
tor fliould always make the wound in the maoner of that
practifed for the cure of the hare -lip, fo that it n/.iy be
united by means of the twifted future. (See Hare-lip.)
As the lips are very tenfile, this method is generally practi-
cable ; and it is well known, that the twifted future may be
fuccefsfully employed, though two-thirds of tlie lip have
been cut away.

The fooner the operation is undertaken, the greater is tlie
chance of fuccefs. Cafes only become irremediable through
delay, or an ineffectual ufe of cauftic or the knife. The
more extenlive the malady is, the more difficult it is to cure.
The cafe indeed is paft relief, when the diftemper has fpread
to the bones, the gums, the glands beneath tlie jaw, or anr
other parts which cannot be removed. The furgeon, how-
ever, muft relinquifh no cafe where there is a poilibility of
making an effectual removal of the morbid parts.

The mere magnitude of a cancerous tumour is not pro-
hibitory of the operation. In one cafe, excifion was per-
formed moft fuccefsfully, notwithftanding the excrefcence
was fo large as to hang down on the breaft. (Le Drsn,
Obferv. torn. i. p. 78.) In another example, the operation
had the happiell confcqucnces, although the infide of the
lip and cheek felt as rough as if it had been fmeared all over
with faiid. (Richtcr's Anfangfgr. &c. Band 2, p. 356. 1
Richerand upbraids with timidity, furgeons who are ftopped
by the extent of the malady, and he contends, that extirpa-
tion ftiould be undertaken, even though it be rccelTary to
feparatc the fott parts from the lower jawbone, provided
the glands under the chin are free from diieafe. He intjrms
us, that Chopart, after removing in one cafe the whole ot
the lip, and a portion of the cheek, was obliged to cover
the denudtd jaw with the integument;, of the neck. Not-
withftanding fuch lofs of fubftance, the wound healed ; the
opening of the mouth remained for a time contracted ; bv.t
it fervcs (fays this author) for the admiflion of aliment,
and gradually becomes larger, the power of better pronu.n-
ciation alfo returning. Nofographie Chirurgicale, torn. iii.
p. 2C2, edit. 2.

Whenever the cafe is fuch, that an attempt to unite the
wound can be praCtifed, the furgeon muft take away a tri-
angular portion of the dileafed lip, fo that the iaciConmay

ff^rr.U!-

L I P

rcremble the letter V, and its edges be eafily brought toge-
ther with the tvviftod future, as in the operation for the
liarc-hp.

The union of wounds of the lower lip is an exceedingly
importaiit objeft, fincc, bcfides the deformity, a more ferious
grievance arifcs from the feparation, namely, the continual
involuntary difcliarge of the faliva, which is naturally con-
fined within the mouth by the lower lip. Nothing can be
more annoying than fuch an infirmity, and by impairing
digelliou, it alfo proves extremely hurtful to the health.
A patient whofc lower lip is fo extenlively difcafed, that
extirpation cannot be effeftcd, without inducmg this afflic-
tion, is in a truly pitiable ftate.

That- the health fuffers greatly from the inceffant lofs of
the faliva, is a fad confirmed by numerous cafes. A wo-
man had a cut throuu'h her lower lip, and the wound, being
neglefled, fuppuratcd, and its margins healed. The con-
fequence was tliat the faliva conftantly efcaped from her
mouth, and from being a healthy-looking woman before the
accident, flic became rapidly emaciated, afflifted with fto-
mach complaints and difficulty of digelliou. Tronchin,
being confulted, faw that her iiidifpofition proceeded from
the lofs of a nutritious fluid. He advifed uniting the divi-
fion by the operation for the hare-lip. This was actually
done by Ferrand. The lofs of the faliva was prevented,
and the patient foon regained her heahh and good looks
again.

It would feem that children can bear the lofs of a large
quantity of the faliva better than adults. A little girl,
fix years old, was brought into the hofpital of St. Louis,
affliifted with a gangrenous carbuncle, that had not only
fpread to the whole lower lip, and foft parts about the
chin, but alfo to the body of the jaw. The floughing
having flopped, the dead parts were detached, the body of
the lower jaw-bone feparated from the rami at the places
of anatomical divifion. In this cafe, the circumftance par-
ticularly worthy of notice is, that although the faliva was
inceflantly running out of the mouth, fo as to wet all the
girl's clothes, flie enjoyed, during the fix months fhe was
in the hofpital, a good appetite, and had every appearance
cf being well nouriflied. See Richerand's Nofographie
Chirurg. torn. iii. p. 255, edit. 2.
Lip, Hare, \

Lip, Preternatural F'tjfure of, j
Lip, Wounds of. In thefe cafes the chief indication is
to place the edges of the divifion in exact and even contadt,
in order that they may unite by the firll intention. The
twilled future will generally be found the moll advantageous
for this purpofe. It is to be applied in the manner
explained in the article Hare-lip, in conjundtion with
narrow ftrip; of adhefive plaftcr, and a bandage that will
prefs forward the integuments of the face. Whether one
or two pins ought to be tiled mud depend upon the length
of the divifion. When the wound is lacerated, or contuled,
it often cannot be hindered from fuppurating, and union by
the iirll ivtention is prevented. However, in fuch in'.lanccs,
a pin may frequently be employed with bL.-nefit, as a partial
adhefioii may take place, though the agglutination is not
<reneral. And even when thefe wounds ftippurate, main-
taining the edges near each other with llrips of adhefive
plaller wll materially leflen the breadth of the fear, and
expedite the cure. Sometimes it may be proper to poultice
a contufed or lacerated injury of the lip, where there is no
immediate profpecl of adhelion, and the part has a flougiiy
afpect ; but this plan fliould only be continued till the
wound putB on a cleaner appearance and begins to granu-

See Hare-lip.

L I P

late ; the proper method being now to applv adhefive plaf*
ters, and a pledget ot any common unirrit.iting ointment.

Lip of a Horfe, in the Mniie^e, is the Ikin that covers
the fides of the mouth, and ftirrounds his jaws. A horfe is
faid to arm or guard himlelf with his lips, when his lips arc
fo thick that they cover their bars, and keep ofl the pref-
fure of the curb.

LIPA, of Xiiro:, fat, a word ufed frequently by Hippo-
crates to exprels any thing fat or oily. He call.s certain
ilools, which have a fatty appearance, by this name. Thefe
are erteemed a fign of great colliquation. He alfo applies
it to a iort of fatty fubllatice, often feen fwimrriiig on the
furface of the urine like a fpider's web : this the fame great
author gives as a lign of a confumption.

LlPA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Novogrodek ; j2 miles W.N. W. of Sluck

Alfo, a town of Croatia, on the river Dobra ; 10 milef
S.W. of Carlftadt.

LII'ARjEUS L.\pi.s, in the Natural Il'flory of ihi An-
cients, the name of a itone ulnally tound in L>ipari, one of
the jEolian illands, and brought thence in the tune of the
Greeks among the pumices, of which liiat place always
afforded them a large quantity.

It was a fmall ftone, about the bignefs of a filbert, of an
irregular and unct rtain fliape, and porous and friable conlli-
tution, like that of the pumices, but more eafily falling to
pieces on rubbing between the fingers than even the loftelt
of them ; the colour was a dulky grey, and the whole exter-
nal furface plainly fliewed that it had fullered changes by the
means of fire. The ftone at prcfent, however, is fo littk
regarded, that the. writers on fuch fubjefls have even forgot
to name it. They are fometimes brought to us, to this day,
among the pumices from the burning mountains, but are not
regarded.

LIPARI, in Geography, a volcanic ifland. or rather a
group of Inch iflands, in the Mediterranean, about twenty-
four miles from the N. coad of Sicily. They were formerly
called jEolian JJlands, which fee ; and now Ifole di Lipari,
from the name of the chief of them. Thefe iflands were
anciently known to be volcanic, and called Volcanian, but it
is in modern times that their volcanization has been coufi-
dered as an objeft of interelling refearch to philolophers,
among whom M. de Luc, fir W. Hamilton, Dolomieu, and
Spallanzani have dillinguiflied themfelves. Thefe iflands are
commonly reckoned ten in number, though fome by omitting
and others by comprehending fome barren rocks, have diini-
niflied or increafed their number. The largeft is Lipsri,
being 19I Italian miles in circuit. Accordingly this ifland,
from its extent, the city wkieh renders it illuftrious, the num-
ber of its inhabitants, its agriculture and commerce, claims
pre-eminence above all the others by which it is furrounded.
Nor is it Icfs important in the eftimation of tlie naturalill
from the quantity, variety, and unufual beauty of the vol-
canic products which it contains. It is well known, by the
tellimony of Diodorus CI- 5-)' '^'^' ^^^ ''"^ ^olian ifles were
fiibjeil to great eruptions of fire, and that their craters and
mouths were vifible in his time. As to Lipari, however,
very few memorials have been preferved of its ancient con-
flagratiwns. Of the antiquity of the ifland, and of its ex-
illence before the Trojan war we are certain, fince we learn
from Homer, that, after the taking of Troy, Ulyffes landed
there, and was treated with the utmoll urbanity and courtefy
by king ./Kolns, during the whole month of his continuance
there (Odylf 1. 10. ) ; and though we allow to the poet the
ufual licence of poetry, it is ftill moil certain that he could
not have named this ifland, and the city it contained, unlefs
they exilled at the time when he wrote his poem, above

3000

L I P A K r.

3000 years ago. But if we confult other ancient and ere- fwcUed fo mucli, that tliO-y rofe fcveral tinies above tlie edges

dible writers, we fhall find that before jEohis, Liparus
reigned in this iflanJ, and that from him it took its name,
being before called " Melogonis," or, according to others,
" Meligimis." The antiquity of this ifland may alfo be
inferred from the manner of its produdlion by fubler-
raneous eruptions, in which the decompofilion of volcanized
matters is neceflary, which requires a conllderable interval of
time. If, therefore, Lipari had inhabitants and cities, and
was a cultivated country before the dellruition of Troy, it is
evident that it mull have exilted many ages prior to that event.
But from the time when mention is made in hillory of this
ifland to the prefent day, it is pretty certain that no true

of the crucible, and flowed over its ildcs. The tivo kinds
of pumice, though both derive their origin from the fame
feldfpar, which is the bafe both of the lava and the glafs,
afford different refults in the fame fire ; fince their volume,
inifead of being augmented, is diminiftied, only retaining it*
former colour.

Tiie haven of Lipari forms a curve in the fhore, which
to the louth bejiins at the foot of the Monte Capifullo,
and ends to the north-ea(l at the bottom af the Monte della
Rofa. After having examined that part of the fhore
wliicii is contiguous to the harbour, lying under the caftle,
and on the right fide of Monte Capifullo, our author made

eruption or current of lava has taken place in it ; for if this the circuit of the remainder of that curve to the bafe of

liad been the cafe, fome memorial would have been pre- Monte della Rofa. The objefts that here attracted his

ferved of it as well as of thofe of Stromboli and Vulcano. notice were firil a tufa, which the induftry of the in-

The ftoves and the warm baths of Lipari are the only places) habitants had converted into a foil fuitable to fmall vine-

jn the whole ifland where any figns remain of unextinguiflied yards, and next a mafs of crags and precipices, partly

volcanos. Spallanzani made a circuit of this ifland for the fallen into the fea, and partly threatening to fall ; among

purpofe of firft examining its fhores, and he then afcended which, befides fcorije of an iron colour, he met with

its mountains in its interior parts. In examining its (hores
he beiran with the city of Lipari, which extends along the
fhores in the form of an amphitheatre ; and in his refearches
in the harbour itfelf, under the caftle of the city, he found
that it is erected on an immenfe rock of lava, that riles per-
pendicularly from the watcr,'and is entirely dcftitute ot all
vegetation, except a few ftalks of the Indian fig (C'aClus
opuntia, Linn.) which grew in its filTures. This lava has
for its bafe feldfpar, is of a fine compaft grain, of a fcaly
fracture, dry to the touch, and gives fparks, like flint, with

beautiful volcanic breccias of lava of a petrofiliceous bafe,
containing fmall particles of glafs and pumice. At the foot
of the Monte della Rofa, where the harbour of Lipari
ends, our author perceived on the fhore a (tone, which, froin
its fingularity, drew his attention. It formed a rock rihng
in part above the fea, and in part concealed by the water.
It was at firft taken for a iafper : its ground was of a red-
blood colour ; it gave fparks ffrongly with fteel, was of a
rather fine grain, and had alnioft the hardnefs of quartz.
On a more attentive examination this ftone was perceived

ileel. The colour is cinereous, approaching in many jilaces not to be fimple like the jafper, but of a compound forma-

to that of lead. This lava is joined to large maffes of glafs, tion, containing in it reddifh fcales of feldfpar and fhorls,

which form a whole with it, without any feparations or divi- which gave it the character of that kind of porphyry

fions in the middle. It is therefore the fame lava, cither which has for its bafe a hard horn-ftone. This fubllance

retaining its own nature or tranfmuted into glafs. This our author, after careful invelligation, cannot exclude from

glafs, like the lava, gives fparks with fteel ; but the lava is the number of true and real lavas, though he cannot affirrr»

opaque, whereas the glafs, in the angles and thinner edges, that its rednefs is an effeft of calcination, as is the cafe m

has a confiderable degree of tranfparency. The ancient ex
iftence of fire in this place is evinced by another circum-
fiance, w'a;. that the vitreous fubftances already noticed are
frequently accompanied by pumice, which are, in faft, only
an imperfedl glafs. In viewing the fteep mafles of glafs and
lava, which rife perpendicularly from the fea, like a wall,
they are fecn to be interfperfed with different ftrata of pu-
mice, which is of two kinds ; the one heavy and compadl,
the other light and porous, and both of a cinereous colour.
The firft fort is of the fame nature with the lava of the
rock ; but the other kind is rather fcaly than filamentous,
and its fcales have a degree more of vitrification than the
other. This pumice is ufually a continuation of the other,
and, according to our author, derives its origin from the
greater degree of heat which it has fuftained. Upon atten-
tively examining this mixture of lava, glafs, and pumice
which forms the body of the rock, it appeared evident that
there muft have been feveral currents that had flowed down
the fides, and, perhaps, from the fummit,of the contiguous
mountain Delia Guardia, into the fea ; fince the diredlion of
their defcent is found on that fide, and even the filaments of
the pumices point towards that mountain. The lava, glafs,
and pumice exhibited neither feldfpars, ftiorls, nor any other
extraneous body, either, as our author conceives, becaufe
they have''hielted by the fire, or, perhaps, becaufe they never
exilled in them. The lava and glafs of the rock, when ex-
pofed to the furnace in fcparate crucibles, fnfed into a light-
grey glafs ; the globules which before appeared in them
melting at the fame time ; during liquefadion thefe fub-

other lavas, fince of this it does not exhibit the flighteft
indication. The reafons ot faft on which Spallanzani
grounds his opinion, that this porphyritic rock has pafled
into the iLite of lava, are two ; the great number of minute
cells it contains in many parts of it, and the direction of
thofe cells. Hence he concludes, that this ftone is rot only
a true porphyritic lava, but that it once flowed from the
mountain to the fea, and in its motion the naturally cir-
cular figure of its pores or cells was ch.inged into an oval.
The fame appearance has always been oblerved, on a fmaller
fcale, in re-mehed lavas, and glafles. All the fpecies of this
kind of lava are not, however, of a blood-red colour ;
fome of them are of n duller red, though the component
principles of both are eirentially the fame. This lava, when
fufed in the furnace, doubled its volume, and its upper
part affumed a vitreous convexity, which was fmooth,
fhining, femi-tranfparent, and of a greenifh tinfture ; but
internally it was a very black vitreous fcoria, extremely po-
rous, and fufficiently hard to give fparks with fteel.

In purfuing his tour our auth.or found that Lipari, hke
the other jIIoIkui illes, is at its bafe more or lefs corroded
by the fea, which is frequently in a llate of violent agitation i
the lower excavations caufe the parts above them to give
way, and, in a feries of years, great maffes fall into the fea.
To this the nature of the lava, wl.-ich is full of cracks and
filTures, conlidcrably contributes ; not to mentioa the in-
fluence of the humidity of the atmofphcre, and other de-
itruftive elements. Large heaps ot thefe fragments accu-
mulate on the fhore, and make room for others, and thus

ftances, which filled only one t^uarter part of the crucible, a gradual diminution ot the iilaod takes place. Beyond the

Wbour

L I P A R I.

tiarSmir ?nd the por,>liyritic rock, our atitlior found the fea to the fifTurcs of the glafTes, there is no veftigc of a fingle

forming a kind of bav withiu tlie land, round which a few living vegetable over tlie whole Monte della Caftajnia ; and

cottages arc built, alFordiiig flicker to a fmall number of in- on Campo Bianco they are extremely rare. Rcyond the

habitants, who fub fill by the profits of a vineyard that ill pumices, the lavas again appear, begiiuiing from the " Punta

repays their labour. The name of this place is Car>neto ; del Segno Nero," and extending in a chain of feveral miles.

s^nd above it is a current of lava, of an argillaceous bafe,
fmiilar to that of the Arlio in li'chia. At the dillanceof
three miles from the haven of Lipari is Campo Bianco (the
White iieldj, fo called, becaufe it is a lofty and extenfive

For the
we refer to

mountain, compofcd entirely of white pumices.
nature, production, and properties of PumjVf, we

■gno Mcro, ana extenduig
wliich on the fide of the fea defcends in precipices and
craggy declivities: and procccdimr further, the fea makes
an incurvature and forms a fmall bay, called the Valle di
Mnria, on tlie fides of which rife high and fteqi rocks of
lava, half demolidicd, and among the lava enamels and pu-
roicec. In examining the interior of the ifland, Monte

that article. The mountain, wiiich is a prodigious mafs of Kan Angclo, fituated to the north of the city of Lipari,

pumice, riles almoll perpendicularly from the fea, and, feen is the higheft mouniain, on the fummit of which is a cir-

at a diftancc, appears to be about a quarter ot a mile in cular plain, furrounded by eminences flielving towards the

hci'-^ht, and above half a mile in breadth. No plants grow infide, wliich M. Dolomieu imagined to be the remains of an

upon it, except a few without fruits, like thole on the tops ancient crater, and which he fuppofes to have been the

of the Alps. Its fides are ilreaked with numerous furrows, firft that was formed in the ifland, about a mile above the

widenine and deepening as they ajiproaeh the bottom, and fea, through which the volcano burft forth, and which

formed by the rains, which ealily corrode and excavate ierved as a bafe and fupport for the other mountains that

a fuhliance fo loft and yielding as pumice. The fea at the were thrown up afterwards. Soon afterwards rofe its com-

Lottom lias likewife occalioned great devaftations, by means panion, the Monte della Guardia, which looks towards the

of which is laid open to view a large vein of horizontal louth, and little inferior to the other in height. Tliefe two

lava on which the laft wave dies away when the fea be- mountains formed two iflands in the fea, which, enlarging

comes calm. The formation of this lava was, therefore, each its refpedive bafe, united into one. To thefe two

prior to the vail accumulation of pumices which rell upon mountains fubfequent eruptions made new additions, until

it. This mafs of pumice is an agcrregation of numerous at length the whole ifland of Lipari was produced, which,

beds or llrata, of pumices, fucceflively placed on each from the erofions of the rain and fea, is now certainly

other, diilinguilliable by their colour ami by their projedion Icls than it once was.

from the mountain. Some of thefe pumices are lo compatt Lipari, if we except fome few fiat places and praiElica-*

that the fmallell pore cannot be dileemed, nor do they ex- j^j^. declivities, v.liich the inhabitants have rendered culti-

hibit the leall trace of a filamentous nature. V. ith a lens vable by great labour, is a ruinous pile of horrid precipices,

they appear to be an irregular accumulation ol fmall rugged cliffs, and enormous maffes ; and there is no fum-

flakes of ice. Others are full of pores and vacuities of a p^jj^ f,or projefting part of a m'-UHitaia, which does not

larger fize, ufually round ; and their texture is formed by exhibit manifeft indications of its future fall and deflrudion.

filaments, and ftreaks, generally parallel to each other, and 1^1,^ materials of which thefe ruins are formed are pumices,

of a ftiinin* filvcry whitcKcfs. Of thefe pumjces^ there are enamels, and glaffes, fimilar to thofe which we have already

three kinds, which the people of Lipari dig for fale.' One
kind is employed in poliiliing different fubdanccs, and the
other two kinds arc ufed in the conftruftion of arched vaults,
and the corners of buildings. There are other kinds which
merit the attention of the natural hiflorian. In examining
tlicfe pumices our author obtained the following refults :

I'umice of tlie

rncl< ot" tlio
caHIp of Lipari.

ill Species
of Campo

Bia:iru.

Silex

AUimine

Magnefia

Lime

Iron

60.3

6

6

2d

Species.

80

6

3

4-7

4.8

aa

Spciies.
80
4

4
5-3

4ih
Species.

6 1
32.7
6
5.8

3

63
2+
5.6

2

mentioned.

The celebrated ftovcs of Lipari have exercifed the curio-
fity of travellers. Thefe lie four miles W. of the city,
and fomcwhat beyond the funinit of a mountain, which,
next to thofe of San Angelo and della Guardia, is one of the
higheft in the ifland. The road from the city to the ftovcs
is formed by a deep excavation, chiefly the work of rain-
waters, in an immenfe mafs of tufa. Our author conceives
that the volcanic tufas have been formed by flimy eruptions ;
without denying, however, that aflies, fand, and other fub-
tile matter* ejedled by volcanoes, and penetrated either by
the rain-waters, or thofe of the fea, where they covered the
bafes of the burning mountains, have been confolidatcd into
fome tufas.

The tufa of Lipari, to which we now refer.

Beyond Campo Dia,nco and its adjacent hills, rifcs a has every appearance of having bien an earthy current in

5untain of another kind, called the Monte della Caftagna, our author's opinion. It begins at about 100 paces from

; part of it dcfcending to the fea, is about the city, and continues, without interruption, to beyond the

xtent, and above four miles in circumference, fummit of the Monte della Stufa, or Mountain of the Stoves.

in, according to Uolomieu and our author, is (See Tula.) The floves, terminating a defcent of about

200 feet in length, form a group of four or five caves, more
like to the dens of bears than the habitations of men, and
exhibiting much lefs art than the tidifices formed by the
Monte'della Caftagna, though apparently ifolatcd, are in beaver. Every cave has an opening at the bottom, through
reality a conneded groun, taken in its whole extent, having which the warm and tumid vapours enter, and another m the
a circuit of ei'rht miles '; nor is the extent of its vitrilica- top, through which they pafs out. On one of tbefe ftovcs
tionslefs, it in" thefe we include hkewife the puraiccs, which the thermometer flood at only .}«} ; but the vapour pof-
are in faft only a lefs perfect glafs. The fterility of thcl'c feffes fomewhat of a fuft'ocating nature. The lloves now
mountains is a confcquence of their vitreous nature, which, retain little more than their name, and whatever may have
in the courfe of fo many ages, has not been decompufed been their fuppofcd virtue in the cure of dilorders, they are
;'ile a ven-etable earlh ; if w e except .a few lichcas attached now nearly dcfcrled. Under the lloves, and the adjacent
* 6 ground,

mountain

■which, in the

one mile in ex

This mountain, according

entirely compofed of enamels and glallcs. For the defcrip-

tion of thefe in their number and variety, -ive mull refer

the reader to the work before us. Campo Bianco and the

L I P

L I P

ground, there is reafon to believe, that fomo remains of ful-
phureous conflagrations ftiU continue.

Lipari, we have already obferved, is the largcft, and it is
a]fo the mod populous of thofe called the iEoliau iflcs ; the
number of its inhabitants amounting to between nine and
ten thoufand, moll of whom refide in the city of the fame
name. If the illand be divided into four parts, aboiit 2^
will be found to be cultivated, and the remainder overgrown
with wood, and barr3n. Thefe barren trafts, however, are
gradually converted into fruitful fields, from a kind of
ceceffity arifing from the continually incrcafing population
of the ifland. Lipari produces cotton, pulfe, and ohves,
in fmall quantities. The corn is fcarcely fufficient for the
fupply ijf the city. The principal of the ufeful productions
of this ifland are the grapes, of which there are feveral
kinds. The firft furnifhes the common wine that is drank
in the ifland, and of which they export aimually two or
three thoufand barrels. The paflole and paiTolina, as they
are called in the ifland, are two other kinds of grapes that
are dried. The lad is that fort which is ufually called the
Corinthian grape. Of this they commonly fell 10,000 bar-
rels annually; and of the other about 12,000. From a
fourth kind of grape is made the famous Malniley of Lipari ;
which is a wine of a clear amber colour, generous and fweet.
The grape producing this wine is fcarce, and does not
furnifli more than 2OCO barrels annually, which are fold for
foreign markets, as well as the paffole and patTolina. The
▼intage is in the month of September, which is a fcafon of
relaxation and feftivity to the Liparefe. Another plant of
domeftic ufe to the Liparefe, if it does not form a branch of
foreign commerce, is the Indian fig (Cailus opuntia,
Linn.) Nothing can be more wretched than the filliery of
Lipari. In June and July they fifh for coral ; but owing
10 a want of ikill, this fishery is very unproductive. At
Lipari large and fmail cattle are very fcarce ; and the few
oxen and cows which are flaughtered there are brought
from Sicily, and are very lean. Of wild quadrupeds, the
country only produces rabbits, which make their burrows
in the mountainous parts, where the volcanic matters, prin-
cipally of the tufaceous kind, permit them to dig with their
feet. The birds ftationary here are but few, iiiz. the par-
tridge, green-f.nch, fparrow, gold-finch, horn-owl, and raven.
Of migrating water-fowls, here are different kinds of fea-
gulls and the cormorant. The birds of paffage are the
turtle-dove and the quail, which come for a few days in
April ^nd September. Several kinds of fwallows are
common.

Foreign commerce has begun to be introduced into the
iiland by the mariners; they every year buy, at the fair of
-Sinigaglio, linen, muflins, veils, and other commodities of
•hat kind ; and fell them at MefTina, Catania, Palermo,
ind other parts of Sicily. The trade is very advantageous
to the country, and rnany have acquired confiderable wealth ;
though it injures the fiihery and raifes the price of fifh.
Strabo, Diodorus, and Diofcorides fay, that the fulphate
of alumine (alum) was procured in great abundance at
Lipari ; but none of this fait is now extrafted in the ifland.
The political adminiflration of Lipari is compofed of a
^:riminal judge, a fifcal, a governor, who has the chief autho-
rity both in military and civil affairs, and who is commonly
an old invalid ; and a civil judge. The bifhop, fevcnteen
canons of the firfl order, and fourteen of the fecond, and
from 120 to 130 priefts, form the eccleliaflical eflablifli-
ment. The Lipa'-efe are, in general, of a prompt and
lively wit, ready to learn, of acute penetration, and very
.defirous of obta.ning knowledge. A beggar is fcarcely
ever found in thi; ifiand ; for the poorefl pcrfons have fome
Vol.. XXI.

fmall piece of ground which they cultivate, and by the pro-
duce of wliich they live. The natives are rather of a large
(iZQ, robuft, and comely. The heat of the fun, however,
injures their fine complexions, producing tanned fkins and
fwarthy countenances. The Liparefe, in general, value
themfelves upon being good mariners, both in theory and
praftice. Spallanzani's Travels in the Two Sicilies. &c.

Lipari, an ancient city of the above ifland, forming an
amphitheatre a'ong the fhore, with a chain of mounrains
behind it, not of an extenfive circuit, and confifling rather
of narrow alleys than ftreets. The caflie is furrounded with
a wall, on which are erefted a few cann in, and is defended
by a fmall garrifon. The houfes are iLdifferent buildings ;
but three edifices are diftinguilhable fror.; the reft ; vii. the
palace of the billiop, the houfe of tht- governor, and the
cathedral church. The latter contain? very coftly facred
utenfils, a great quantity of plate, and a number of filver
images, among which is the ftatue of St. Bartholomew,
their patron faint. The value of this treafure is faid to
amount to go,ooo Neapolitan fcudi ; the fcudi being worth
about 4f. ^J. N. lat. 38 3;'. E. long, ij'- 12'.

LIPARIA, in Botany, io named by Linnseus, in his
fecond Mantijfa, m allulion either to the fmooth or fleek
habit of L. j'phxrica, from which his idea and character
of the genus was taken, or to its rich and fplendid ap-
pearance, for the Greek word Xtrrx^t,; will juftify either ex-
planation. Profeflbr Marty n gives the former; we prefer the

latter Linn. Mant. Ij6. Schrcb. 499. Willd. Sp. PL

V. 3. II 14. Mart. Mill. Dick. v. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 123.
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. i. v. 3. 48. Juff. 3^3. — Clafs and
Older, Diadelphia Decandrla. Nat. Ord. PapUionaccay Linn.
Legumlnofie, JufF.

Otn. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, very ob-
tufe at the bafe, divided half way down into five acute feg-
raeiits, the lowermoll of which is very long, elliptical, and
refembling a petal. Cor. papilionaceous, without any fpurs
or elongations to the keel or wings. Standard oblong,
folded, flraight, reflexed at the fides. Wings oblong,
ftraight, narrower at the bafe, two-lobed at their inferior
margin. Keel lanceolate, flightly afcending, divided deeply
at the bafe. Stam. Filaments in two diitinft fets ; one
fimple ; the other in nine divifions, which are thread-fliaped,
three of them fhorter than the reft ; anthers ovate. PiJI.
Germen feflile, very fliort ; ftyle thread-fhaped, of a mode-
rate length ; ftigma fimple. 'Perk. Legume ovate. Seeds
few.

EfT. Ch. Calyx in five fegments, the lower one elongated.
Wings of the corolla two-lobed at the lower fide. Three
of the united ftamens fliorter than the reft. Legume ovate.

This fplendid genus of lhrub«, from the Cape of Good
Hope, is in every refpeft clofely allied to Borbonla, next to
which it ought to ftand in the Linnxan fyftem, though
Murray, who has been heedlefsly followed by others,
widely feparated them. Liparta differs from Borbonia in
being truly diadelphous. How far the other charaders
indicated in their defcriptions hold good, we have not fuffi-
cient acquaintance with all the fpecies of either genus to
determine, but there is no difference with regard to habit
or appearance. Two fpecies are defcribed by Linnius,
Mant. 268, 269, and four more indicated with doubt, amongll
which is Spartium capenfe, [Crolalaria oppofita, Linn. Suppl.
322.) The refl ftand as Liparia in Syft. Veg. ed. 14.
665, making five in all, to which eight are added by Thun-
berg, and the whole thirteen are admitted by Willdenow.
The habit of the genus is rigid, with numerous, fcattered,
fharp, ufually elliptical, rarely linear leaves, which are either
fmooth, hairy, or filky. Flowers, as far as we know, of a
S line

L 1 P

L I P

fine rich yellow, in terminal heada or umbels. Examples
are

1^. fphtrka. Litin. Mant. 268. Andr. Repof. t. 568.
Curt. Mag. t. 1241. — Flowers inimcrous, in brafteated
drooping heads. Leaves ellip'ic-lanccolate, ribbed, fmooth.
— According to Andrews this was raifed by Mr. Milne,
gardener at Fonthill, Wilts. We received it from Mr.
Anderfon, curator of the fplendid collcftion of James Vere,
efq. at Kenfington Gore. The Jhrub is live or fix feet
high, clothed with numerous, fpreading or recurved, glau-
cous leaves, above an inch long, entire, and ftrongly ribbed.
The large drooping round heads of golden Jlowcrs, are fin-
gularly magnificent, accompanied by numerous reddifh
braHeeu, differing from the leaves cliiefly in colour and
fituation. The whole plant unavoidably turns as black as
ink in drying. It bloffoms in May.

L. gramimfolla. Linn. Mant. 268. — Flowers capitate.
Calyx hairy. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth. — Grows in
a fandy foil at the Cape. We have feen it in a dry Hate
only, nor is any figure extant. The very narrow haves, an
inch or inch and u half long, and about a hue wide, are
peculiar, as well as the hairy heads aijlowers, much fmaller
than thofe of the foregoing. The branches are angular and
fmooth.

LIPARIS, a name given by fomc authors to the pin-
guicitla, butter-wort, or Yorkfliire fanicle.

LiPARIS, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Cyclopterus ; which
fee.

LiPARis Nojlras, the name of a fmall fifh, common on
the coafts of Yorklhire, and fome other parts of England,
and called in Englifh the fnail, and limax marinus by fome
authors. It is about five fingers long ; on its back and fides it
is of a briglit brown, and on the belly of a fine white : thefe
are its colours, when frefh taken, for when it has been kept
ten or twelve hours, the whole furface of the body, except
the fins, becomes of a paler and bright brown. The head
is thick, and not flat, but rounded ; it has no teeth, but its
jaws are both rough like files.

The whole fifli, head as well as body, is very foft and
unftuous, and eafily melts into a fort of oily liquor. It
is caught principally at the mouths of great rivers where
they open into the fea.

LiPAROCELE, from \'T-,:, fat, and y.v.\r, a tumour,
in Surgery, any kind of tumour compofed of fat.

LIPAVINA, m Geography, a town of Croatia; 12
miles E.N.E. of Creutz.

LIPCZANI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 60 miles W.S.W. of Braclaw. ^ Alfo, a town of
Moravia, on the Pruth ; 24 miles S.S.E. of Choczim.

LIPENIUS, Martin, in Biography, a German Lu-
tberan divine, known only by his works, which are " On
the Navigation of Solomon's Ships to Ophir," 1661 ; " A
Treatife on Chriilmas-Boxes or New-Year's Gifts :" but
his moft important work is entitled " Bibliotheca Realis,"
in 6 vols, folio ; confifting of a view of all the fubjefts into
which the different fciences ars branched, with a catalogue
of the names and works of the various authors who have
treated concerning them. Moreri.

LIPES, in Geography, a town of Peru, and capital of
a jurifdiftion, under the N-iceroy of Buenos Ayres ; 150
miles S.S.W. of Potofi. S. lat. 21^40'. W. long. 68 '
16'.

LIPETSK, a town of RulTia, in the government of
Tambov, on the Voronez ; 40 miles W.N.W. of Tambov.
N. lat. 53'. E. long. 40' 24'.

LIPETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
jratz ; 9 miles S. of Neu Biezow,

LIPINSKOI, a town of Rulfia, in the government of
Novgorod ; 16 miles S.E. of Novgorod.

LIPNISKI, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Lida.

LIPNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau ;
6 miles W. of Teutfch-Brod.

LIPNO, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 12 miles N.
of Dobrzyii.

LIPODERMUS, or Leipodermos, (from Xhtu, to
leave, and iipua, the Jim,) in Surgery, wanting the prepuce.

LIPORANO, m Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Otranto ; 3 miles S. of Tarento.

LIPOTHYMIA, or LipopSYCHlA, in Medicine, from
^!lTw, deficio, and Si/juoj, animus, or vLi/j^r;, anitna, fignifies a
fudden faintnefs, or temporary deficiency of the nervous
power, and of all the funftions depending upon it. It is
called alfo deliquium animi, fwooning, fyncopc, &c. See
Syncopk.

LIPOWE, in Geography, a town of Lithuania ; 25 miles
N.N.E. of Braclaw.

LIPOWIEC, a town of Auftrian Poland, on the Vif-
tula, to which belongs a caftle on a rock, ufed as a prifon
for ecclefiaftical offenders ; 20 miles W. of Cracow.

LIPPA, a town of Hungary, on the Maros ; 22 miles
N. of Temefwar.

LIPPE-Shaumbrrg, AVilliam, Count, in Biography,
fon of Albert Wolfgang, ceunt Lippe and Shaumberg,
by a daughter of count Oynhaufen, was born in 1724
at London, but was fent, in 1735, to Geneva, to complete
his education. Here he devoted much of his time to the
ftudy of mathematics, as connected with the military art.
In 1740 he returned with his brother, ar.d in the following
year they were both fent to the univerfity of Leyden, from
which they removed in a ftlort time to MontpcUier, in France.
At the age of eighteen he repaired to England, and obtained
an enfign's commiflion in the firft regiment of guards. On
the death of his elded brother he returned to Buekebourg,
the family refidcnce, in Germany, and foon after accompanied
his father, a lieutenant-general in the Dutch fervice, during
the campaign in the Netherlands, and was prefent as a vo-
lunteer at the battle of Dettingen, where he was diftin-
guilhed as well for his good conduft as for his bravery. In
the year 1745 he joined the Auftrian army in Italy, and was
promoted, in confequence of his fervices, to be a colonel in
the Auftrian army, but he declined adling under the commif-
fion. In 1746 he travelled over a confiderable part of the
continent, and from thence he came to England, where he
remained till he fucceeded to his paternal eftates in 1748,
when he repaired to Berlin, to furrendcr into the hands of
his Pruflian majefty the order of the Black Eagle, which
had been conferred on his father. Here he formed an ac-
quaintance with many perfons of diftinguifhed literary merit,
and he was elefted a member of the .Academy of Sciences.
After this he was diftinguiftied as a military man in the Pruf-
fian army, raifed a regiment of grenadiers from among his
own fubiefts, and was honoured by Frederic with the order
of the Black Eagle. In 1754 he etlabliftied a foundery at
Buekebourg, where he had all the cannon call which he af-
terwards employed in the feven yeari' war againft the
French. In 1756 he entered into a treaty with Great
Britain, by which he engaged to alTift liis Britannic majefty
in the defence of his German dominions againft the arms of
the French, and to furnifti for that purpofe a regiment of
infantry of a t>lioufand men, a corps of artillery, and another
of carbineers and chaffeurs. He was prefent at the battle
of Minden, and in many other pofts of much danger. In
1 7 j8 he was ordered to withdraw his forces from the allied

army.

L I P

L I P

army, and join the Auftrians againft the king of PruiTia ;
he refufed, though at the rifle of being put under the ban of
the empire, and continued faithful to the engagements which
he had entered into with England. In 1759 the count
obtained the command of the whole artillery of the allied
army ; took a confiderable (liare in the battle of Toden-
haufen, and the furcefs of the day was in a great meafure
owing to the artillery of which he had the command. He
was in the fame year fuccefsfuUy engaged in the fieges of
Marpurg and Munller. On his return home, in 1760, he
formed an anificial ifland in the Steinheederlake, which is a
mile in length, and half a mile broad, and being furrounded
by moraffes, is without the reach of cannon. Here he con-
ftrufted a fortrefs, which was confidered as impregnable, and
it contains, befides the ufual apartments, a chapel, and a
library furnifhed with the beft books on engineering, a col-
leftion of models, another of natural curiofities, and lodg-
ings for the officers, with a fchool for engineers, and an
obfervatory. In 1761, when the war broke out between
Spain and Portugal, count Lippe was appointed by his Bri-
tannic majefty as commander-in-chief of the Britifh troops
fent to the affiilance of the latter. He was afterwards
entrufted with the command of botli armies, and m 1762
proceeded, by way of England, to Portugal. Soon after his
arrival, the king ordered the fum of forty thoufand crufa-
does to be paid him for his ellablifhment, but he immediately
dillributed one-half of the money among the foldiers, and
fent back the remainder, except what was fufficient to pay
for his uniform of field-manhal, to the king His majelty
even offered him a pension of 3000/. but this the count de-
cHned, and nothing could induce him to accept of that re-
muneration of his fervices to which he was unqueilionably
entitled. By his exertions principally, Portugal was pro-
tefted from the danger threatened to it by her powerful and
ambitious neighbour. The king of Portugal, Jofeph I. who
knew how to appreciate count Lippe's talents, employed him
in a civil as well as military capacity, and, in confequence of
his advice, introi!uced many improvements into the political
adminiftration of the kingdom, and particularly into the
financial department. His principal objeft was to eiliablifh
the army on a refpeCtable footing, and to infpire the foldiery
with a more delicate fenfe of honour. The war which he
carried on with Spain was merely a defenfive one, but he ef-
fected more by it than he could by one of a contrary defcrip-
tion, as he was enabled to throw to many obftacles in the
way of the enemy, that their plans were rendered entirely
fruitlefs. In 1763, before he left PortUi^al, he eilabliihed
a fchool of artdlery, and conilrutlcd on the Spaniih fron-
tier a very ftrong fortrefs, which, in commemoration of his
name, was called Fort Lippe. At the general peace the
count returned to Germany, carrying with him abundance
of prefents from the kings of Portugal and England, in tef-
timony of their efteem and approbation. He now employed
much of his time in the tludy of the military art, and in
bringing his theories to the teft of praftice. As the refult
of his experience and obfervations,he wrote a treatiie on the
art of defenfive war, in fix imall volumes, which is faid to
poffefs much merit, but of which he had only ten copies
printed. In 1767 he rcvifited Porttigal by the king's invita-
tion, ^nd completed the reform which he had begun in the
Portuguefe army. In the following fpring he returned to
Germany, and loon after was honoured with a vifit from
Frederic II. of PrulTia. The remainder of his Ufe he em-
plf^yed in promoting the profperity of his dates, and the
happinefs of his fubjefts. He died in 1777, in the fifty-
fourth year of his age. SubUme thoughts and heroic fenti-
ments had been as familiar and natural to his mind as they

were to the nobleft charafters of Greece and Rome. The
animation of his features announced the elevation, fagacity,
penetration, kindnefs, virtue, and ferenity of his foul. In
his retirement he amufed himfelf with the arts and fciences,
but his favourite ftudies were philofophy and ancient hiftory.
He pofTefTed an extenfive knowledge in every department of
literature, and by his travels in foreign countries he had be-
come familiarly acquainted with the French, Englidi, Ita-
lian and Portuguefe languages : he was an excellent draftf-
man, a great connoiffeur in paintings ; and excelled fo much
io mufic, that he was able to direct the concerts which were
given in the evening at his rcfidence. Gen. Biog.

Lippe, in Geography, a county of Germany, W. of the
biihopric of Paderborn, divided into fevcral branches,
which derive their names from the different towns and parts of
the principality belonging to each. The country, gener Jiy
mountainous, contains fome good arable land. Its chief
towns are Detmold and Lemgow, and the principal rivers
are the Emmer and the Werra. It now forms a part of the
kingdom of Weftphalia. — Alfo, a tows of Weilphalia,
called L'lppjladt, on a river of the fame name ; 14 miles
W. of Paderborn. N. Jl 39'. E. long 8° 24'.

LIPPEHNE, a town of the New Mark of Branden-
burg; 26 miles N. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 53^4'. E. long.

'5^ 3'-

LIPPI Fra. Filippo, in Biography. Concerning the
exaft date when the birth of this very excellent hiilorical
painter took place, authors differ extremely. The moft
probable account fixes it about the beginning of the fifteenth
century, as he was a fcliolar ef, and of courfe nearly con-
temporary with, Maffaccio. At the age of fixteen, being
entered a noviciate in the convent of Carmelites at Florence,
where he was born, he had there an opportunity of feeing
that extraordinary artift at work upon the aftoniiliing fref-
coes with which he adorned the ch pel of Brancacci, in the
church there ; and became eager to embrace the art he faw
capable of fo much effect in affording gratification, inftruc-
tion,and intercft to the mind.

Such was his fucccfs, and fo did he enter into the princi-
ples and manner of his great malter, that after the death of
the latter, it was faid, by common confent, that the foul of
Maffaccio (till abode with Fra. Filippo.

He forfook the habit of his convent, and devoted himfelf
entirely to painting ; but his ftudies were for a time dif-
turbed by his being unfortunately taken, while out on a
party of p'eafure, by fome Moors, and carried prifoner to
Barbary ; where he remained in llavery 18 months. He
obtained his liberty by his talents. He drew the portrait of
his mailer upon a wall with fo much fpirit and accuracy in re-
femblance, that he, being flruck with the ingenuity of his
ilave, and generoufly feeling compunftion in confining a man
of fuch ufeful talents, gave him his freedom as a reward.

On his return home he painted fome works for Alprlionfo,
king of Calabria. He employed himfelf alfo in Padua ; but it
was in his native city of Florence, that his principal works
were performed. He was employed by Cofrao di Medici;
who prelentcd his pictures to his friends ; and one to pope
Eugcnius IV. He was alfo employed to adorn the palaces of
the republic, the churches, and many of the houfes of the
principal citizens ; among whom his talents were held ia
high ellimation.

The holy mode of life into which he was condu<5ted in
early years, and the fine endowments of mind which he en-
joyed by nature, did not teach him the folly of vice ; and
he met in this world with a fevere puiiilhment, jultly due
to a guilty amour he indulged in at Spolcto ; where he was
employed at the cathedral to paint the chapel of the Bleffed
S 3 Virgin.

L 1 P

L I P

Virgin. There, in his fixty-fcvcnth year, he was poifoned
by the relations ot the lady whole favours he was iuppofcd
to enjoy. Lorenzo di Mi'dici eroded a marble tomb in the
cathedral to his memory, which Aiigelo Politiano adorned
with a Latin cpitapli.

Ln'i'i FiLirro, fou of the former, was renowned for ex-
cellent imitations of architeftural ornaments, ile died in
150J, at the age of 45.

Lii'Pl LonKNZO, alio a Florentine painter, born in 1606.
He was hkewife a great mullciaM and a poet. In the latter
charafter he pubhfhed " II Malmantile racquiftato." He
died in 1664.

LIPPIA, in Botany, was fo named by Houftoun, in ho-
nour of A\igullinc Lippi, a French botanifl, as we learn
from Linnxus's Critica BoUnica, p. 93. He is alfo men-
tioned by Bothmer, in his diifertation di plant'is in ciiltonnn mc-
mor'iam nominaUs, as having travelled into Egypt, ai.d as
having died in Abvffini.i. — Reliq. Houit. 6. Linn. Gen.
32:. Schreb. 399. 'WiUd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 356. Mart. Mill.
Diet. V. 3. Micl^aux Boreal. A mer. v. 2. 15. Jacq. Amer.
176. Juir. 109. Lamarck Ihillr. t. 539. Gaertn. t. 56.—
Clafs and order, Didyr.jinia Gymnofjy.'rmia . Nat. Ord. Stel-
late, Linn. Vitkes, JuiT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of two diftant, acu-
minated, keel-fliaped, erecfl, permanent leaves. Cor. of one
petal, unequal ; limb divided into four fegments, the upper
and lower ones larger, the upper one erect. Stam. Fila-
ments four, (horter than the corolla, two of them ihorter
than the reft ; anthers fimple. Pifl. Germen fuperior, ovate,
compreffed or flattifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, Handing between
the ilamens, and of equal length ; itigma oblique. •Perk.
none, except the permanent calyx in which the feeds are
enveloped. Seeds two, adhering together, ovate, fomewhat
bony, convex on one fide, ratlier fmooth, flat on the other
fide, or fomewhat concave, wliitiih.

EfT. Ch. Calyx four-toothed, two-valved when mature.

Corolla funnel-fhaped, four-cleft. Seeds enveloped in the

calyx.

1. L. amerkana. Linn. Sp. PI. SR3. Reliq. Houft. t. 12.
— Heads of flowers forming a pyramid. Leaves ovate,
ferrated. — Found by Dr. Houlloun at Vera Cruz, and
cultivated by Mr. Miller before 1733- -This is a_/f'r!/i which
rifes to a confidcrable height. Stems round, comprefied at
their joints. Leaves lanceolate, ovate, rugged. Flowers
forming little oblong heads, about the free of a large
pea.

2. L. henufphtrka. Linn. Sp. PI. S83. Jafq. Amcr.
t. 179. f. 100. — Heads of flowers hemifpherical. Leaves
oblong, entire. — A native of South America. — -Stems eight
or ten feet high. Branches woody, bending down uniefs
fupported. Leaves oppofile, two or three inches long,
fmooth. Flo'Ujers fmall and white. The whole fhrub is
odorous and aromatic.

3. la. hirfuta. Linn. Suppl. 288. Willd. n. 2. (L. um-
bellata; Willd. n. 4. Cavan. Ic. 7^.1. 174.) — Heads of

■ flowers ovate. Leaves oblong, broad, ferrated, downy be-
neath.— A native of Mexico and other parts of America. —
Stem four-fided, rough with white hairs. Leaves oppofite,
long, hair)' above, downy and hoary beneath. Floiuers
fmall.

From examining the Linnsean fpecimcn of L. hirfuta, lent
originally by ETcallon, a pupil of Mutis, we are enabled to
tlate that L. umbellata of Willdenow and Cavanilles is not
a diftinft fpecles. The flowers of that are faid to be of a
deep yellow, and v/e find thofe of hirfuta tinged with the
£ame colour, in a dried (ialo. As the younger Linnxus faw

it in no other condition, he appears to have gueffed thctn to
be white, but crroneoufly.

4. L. cymofa. Willd. n. 5. Swartz. Prod. 93. Ind.
Occ. V, 2. 1066. (SpirtEK congener, fpinofa, &c. Sloan.
Jam. V. 2. 30. t. 174. f. 3 and 4.) — Flowers in cymes.
I^earcs ovate, acute, nearly entire. — A native of woody
favannahs, in the fouthern parts of Jamaica, flowering in
May. — Stems feveral from three to fix feet iiigli, about the
fize of a goofe-quill. Leaves almoft round, yellowilh-grcen,
fmooth, fceiited like thofe of Penny-Royal. Floivers many
together, of the colour and fomewhat refembling thofe of
Spiraa Theophrnjli.

L. ovala. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 574. Mant. 89, is
properly referred by I'Heritier and Willdenow to Sclago. —
Michaux places Verbena Nodiflora of Linnxus in Lippia,
though with doubt, and adds another fpecies, L. lanceolata,
which we prefume is nearly allied to y notliflora

LIPPIE, a corn meafure in Scotland ; four lippies being
equal to one peck.

LIPPITUDO, (from %«x, blear-eyed.) The fignifica-
tion of this term, iii Surgery, is rather indeterminate. Celfus
attaches the fame meaning to it as ophthalmy. Lippitude,
or blearednefs, according to Wifeman, is a Hate of the eyes,
in which they are dimmed with rheum. We believe that, at
prefent, furgeons generally underftand by lippitudu a chro-
nic inflammation of the ciliary glands, and of the edges and
iiifide of the eye-lids, attended with a fecretion of vifcid
matter, by which the eye-lids are glued together during
flecp, and cannot be opened in the morning without trouble,
pain, and a copious emiilion of tears. The cale is frequently
accompanied by more or lefs inflammation of the conjunftiva,
and always by a weak impaired fight. In bad calcs, the
margins of the eye-lids are lludded with little ulcerations ;
the eye-laflies fall off; and either an entropium or an eftro-
piiim taking place, the difeafe is rendered more complicated.
One of the bell remedies for lippitudo is the unguentum
hydrargyri nitrati, a fmall quantity of which is to be applied
once or twice every day to the edges and inner furfacts of
the eye-lids. Care is to be taken that thele parts Hre well
fmeared with the ointment, which Ih.ould be melted in a
fpoon, and apphed by means of a camel-hair pencil. Se-
veral other ointments will anfwer the purpofe, particularly
fuch as contain hydrargyrus nitratus ruber, tutty, Arme-
nian bole, &c.; but that above recommended will always
anfwer when others will, and very often fuccccds when they
will not. The eflFefl; of the ointment may frequently be ad-
vantageoufly promoted, by wafhing the eye feveral times a
day with a collyrium, compofed of rofe-water ^viij and zin-
cum vitriolatum, from gr. x to gr. xx, according to the
fenfibility of the organ.

Writers on furgery mention cafes of difeafe of the ciliary
glands, which are faid to depend upon icrofula, a fcorbutic
habit, and the venereal difeafe. We cannot vouch for the
accuracy of this ilatement, but we think it certain that nu-
merous inftances are kept up by conilitutional caufes, which
prevent the eflScacy of local applications and fimple me-
thods, and often create a necefilty for relorting to intei-
nal as well as external treatment. In the examples alluded
to, it wasjulUy remarked by Mr. Warner, that the ordinary
means will fail uniefs affilled by proper regimen in diet, and
alteratives of different kinds, fuch as calomel, Plummer's
pills, extraftum cicutK, alkaline abforbents, decodtions of
the woods prepared in lime-water, or common water, bark,
vinum antimoniale, &c. Coftivenefs is at all times to be pre-
vented. Warner alfo approves of applying, in certain cafes,
blillers to the head, neck, or betwixt the ihoulders. He
thought that they aited not only as ilimulants and eva-

cu?.nts.

L 1 P

tcants, but as alteratives, by the cantharides being freely
abforbed into the circulation. He was likewife an advocate
for JfTues. See Defcript.of the Human Eye, and its prin-
cipal Difeafes, by J. Warner, F R.S p, 13.

LIPPOMAN, Lewis, in Biography, a learned Italian pre-
late, defcended from a noble Venetian family, flourifhed in
the fixteenth century, bnt the time of his birth is not known.
Being intended for the church, he purfiied his ftudies with fo
much diligence and fuccefs , that he was confidcred one of the
ableft divines of his time : he was likewife diftingniflied for his
capacity for bufinefs. He acquired confiderable reputation
by his attendance at the council of Trent, and was fixed en
by pope .Iiilius HI. as one of the three prelidents of that
council. He went as nuncio into Germany, and was after-
wards fent in the fame high capacity into Poland, by pope
Paul IV. who made him his fecretary. In Poland he was
the unrelenting pcrfecutor of the Jews and Proteftants ; and
by his zeal in defence of his own religion, he obtained, fuccef-
fively, the bifhoprics of Verona, Modena, and Bergamo.
As a writer he pubhfhed " Catenas'' of the Greek and Latin
fathers, upon " Gencfis," " Exodus," and the " Firft
Ten Pfalms." He made alfo a new colleftion of " The
Lives of the Saints,'' in eight vols, folio. He died in 1559,
and is mentioned by De Thou as one equally illullrious for
the purity of his principles, and the innocence of his hfe.
Moreri.

LIPPSPRING, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia,
in the bifhopric of Paderborn, at the fource of the Lippe ;
rcadered famous by Charlemagne's obliging the Saxons to
embrace Chriilianity in thi^ place, and holding in it three
councils; four miles N. of Paderborn.

LIPRAZZO, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 17 miles
W.S.W. of Maufredonia.

LIPS, Laiiia, in Anatomy, the edge, or exterior part,
of the mouth ; or that mulculous extremity which {huts
and covers the mouth, both above and below. See Deglu-
tition and Lip.

Lips are alfo ufed to fignify the two edges of a wound.

Lips, in Geography, a town and caftle of Hungary ;
four miles N. of Neulol.

LIPSE, or LlPsiUB, Ji'STCS, in B'lography, a very emi-
nent philologill and critic, was born at a village, near Bruffels,
in the year 1547. He (hev\-ed an early difpofition for the
purfuits of literature, which was cultivated at the .Tefuits'
tchool in Cologne, whither he was fent when he was about
12 years of age. From thence he went to Louvain, and
engaged in the lludy of the civil law, ftill retaining a ftrong
predileftion for the belles lettres. His tirft work was en-
titled " Variarum Lettionum Libri Tres," which he de-
dicated to the cardinal Granvelle, who patronized him, and
received him into his houie at Rome, where he arrived when
he was twenty years of age. He fpent two years with the
cardinal in the quality of Latin fecretary, and employed
every leil'ure hour in collating MSS. in the Vatican and
other libraries, and cultivating an acquaintance with the
eminent fcholars then refiding in the metropolis. On his re-
turn to Louvain he paffed fome time in youthful gaieties,
but becoming fenfible of the danger of diffipated habit;,
lie rcfolved to quit the fcene, and vifit Vienna. In 1572
he accepted the profefforlhip of hillory at Jena, though a
Lutheran univcrfity : he quitted Jena in two years and
went to Cologne, where he wrote his " Antiquae Ledliones,"
conlilling chiefly of emendations of Plautus ; and at the
lame period began his notes upon Tacitus. After this he
went to Louvain, and was created a doctor of laws : from
thence he proceeded to Leyden, accepted the profeifonhip
of hiftory, aad exchanged the Roman Catholic religion for

L I (^

that of Calvinifm. Here he fpent thirteen of the moil valu-
able years of bis life, and obtained much reputation by the
works which hepubhfhed Thefe were upon various topics,
critical, hiftorical, and philofophical : but his commentaries
upon Tacitus were particularly efteemed by the learned.
In two of his v.-orks, -viz. " Politicorum Libri VI." and
" De una Religione," he openly maintained the maxims that
no flate ought to permit a plurality of religions, but ought
to excrcife the utmoft feverity againft all thofc who dillunt
from the church. Such fentiments, carried to the extent in
which he carried them, gave great offence to the government
of this country, and he was glad to withdraw into Flanders
for fafety. There he abjured the Proteftants, and joined
the Catholics, with whom he lived the remainder of his hfe.
He fettled again at Louvain, and taught the belles lettres
v/ith great fuccefs : he received liberal propofals from vari-
ous fovereigns and other perfons of diftinAion to relide
under their protection, but preferred to continue at Lou-
vain, where he pubiiflied feveral works, fome of which were
not only of inferior merit, but difplaycd the weaknefs of a
very fuperftitious mind ; he did not fcruple to give an ac-
count of the wonders and miracles performed at the fhrine?
of two images of the Virgin Mary : in this he adopted
every puerile and abfurd tale that he found current among
the vulgar. Lipfuis died at Louvain in 1606, in his fifty-
ninth year. His works have been collected in fix volumes
folio, divided, according to their fubjects, into facred hillory,
Roman and foreign hillory, political and moral difcuflions,
&c. He was a very able Latin fcholar, and wrote com-
mentaries upon Plautus, Tacitus, Valerius Maximus, Vcl-
leius Paterculus, and Seneca. Moreri. Bayle.

LIPSK, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the pala-
tinate of Novogrodek ; 2S miles W.S.W. of Sluck Alfo,

a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Sandomirz ; 30 miles
N. of Sandomirz.

LIPSO, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, about
eight miles in circumference ; fix miles S.S.E. of Patmos.
N. lat. _;7" 24'. E. long. 26- 23'.

LIPTOTES, in Rhetoric, a figure, wherein, by deny-
ing the contrary of what we intend, more is fignified than
we would feem to exprefs. Thus in the following verfe of
Virgil. ^

" Quid proJeil, quod me ipfe animo non fpernis, Amynta."

See VofTuis, Rhet. lib. iv. p. 183.

LIPYRIA, in Ancient Medicine, >.uz-jfia, a term applied '
to thofe varieties of continued fever, in which a burnin«-
heat was felt in the vifcera, while the extremities and ex-
ternal parts were cold. It was afcribcd by Galen and Ae-
tius to an eryfipelatous inflammation of fome of the abdo-
minal or thoracic vifcera. See Galen, Comment. 2. in
Prog. & Com. ad Aph. 48. lib. iv. — Act. Tetrab. 2 lib. ii.
cap. 89. — Alfo Foefii CEconom. Hippocrates.

LIOUAMEN Pyriticum, in Natural Hi/lory, a nam.e
given by fome authors to the liquid matter remaining in
the pans in which the common vhriol is made ; after which
no more of that fait will fhoot. It is otherwife called li-
quamen of vitriol.

LIOUAMUMIA, a term invented by fome of the dif-
penfatory writers, to lignify human fat.

LIQUEFACTION, an operation, by which a folid
body is reduced into a liquid ; or the aftion of fire or heat
on fat, and other fufible bodies, which puts their parts into
a mutual intcfline motion.

The liquefaftion of wax, &c. is performed by a moderate
heat, that of fal tartari, by the mere moifture of the air.

All falts liquefy ; fand, mixed with alkalis, becomes li-
1 2 quefied

L I Q^

quefied by a reverberatory fire, in the making of glafs.
In fpeaking of metals, inltead of liqucfaftion, we ordinarily
ufe the word fiifwn.

LIQUET. See Non Liquet.

LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidity;
and, befides that, a peculiar quality of wetting other bodies
immerged in it, arifing from lome configuration of its par-
ticles, which difpofes them to adhere to the furfaces of
bodies contiguous to them. See Fluid and Liquidity.
Liquids, Denfity of. See Density.
Liquid a/«m, amber, confeBs, laudanum, meafures, Jlorax,
fuhhur. See the refpeiftive fubftantives.

Liquid, among Grammarians, is a name applied to certain
confonants oppofed to mutes.

L, m, n, and r, are liquids. See L, M, N, &c.
LIQUIDAMBAR, in Botany, from liquUum, fluid,
and ambar, a fragrant fubllance, generally taken for amber-
grife ; alludmg to the aromatic liquid gum which dilhls
from this tree. Linn. Gen. 499. Schreb. 649. WiUd. Sp.
PI. V. 4. 475 Mart. Mill. Did. V. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. I. V. 3. 36c. JufT. 410. Lamarck lUullr. t. 783.
Gasrtn. t. 90. Michaux Boreal-Amer v. 2. 202. — Clafs and
order, Menoecta Polyandria. Nat. Ord. ^mentaceit, Linn.
JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male flowers numerous, in a long, conical,
loofe catkin. Cat. a common involucrum of four ovate,
concave, deciduous leaves, the alternate ones Imaller. Cor.
none. Stam. Filaments numerous, very fhort, in a mafs
which is convex on one fide, flat on the other ; anthers ereft,
of two lobes and two cells, with four furrows.

Female flowers coUedted into a globe, at the bafe of the
male catkin. Cal. an involucrum, as in the male, but dou-
ble, the proper perianths being feveral within it, connefted
together, bell-fliaped, angular, warty. Cor. none. Pift.
Germens two, fuperior, united to the perianth and to each
other ; ilyle to each folitary, long, avvl-fliaped ; itigma re-
curved, downy. Peric. Capfules two, coriaceous, beaked,
of one cell, opening at the inner edge. Seeds feveral, ob-
long, comprefled, (hining, with a membranous point.

Efl^. Ch. Male, Catkin with a four-leaved involucrum.
Corolla none. Stamens numerous.

Female, Catkin globofe, with a four-leaved involucrum.
Perianth of one leaf, pitcher-fhaped, two-flowered. Corolla
none. Styles two. Capfules two, furrounded by the pe-
rianth at their bafe, each of one cell, with many feeds.

I. L.. Jlyraci/lua. Maple-leaved Liquid-amber, or Sweet
Gum. Linn. Sp. PI. 1418. Duhamel Arb v. i, 366. n. I.
t. 139. Sm. Inf. of Georgia, t 48. Ehrh. PI. Off. 129 —
Leaves palmate, ferrated, acute ; veins hairy at the bale of
their ramifications — Native of fwampy ground in mod parts
of North America, near rivulets. It is a tall, ftraight, and
handfome tree, with a round head of alternate, ftalked, ele-
gant and fliining leaves, palmate like fome kinds of maple,
fmaller than thofe of the Plane. Flowers terminal ; the
male a ftalked, hairy, branched, conical catkin, or rather
perhaps a clufter of globofe flowers, nearly a finger's
length ; female a globular head, on a long fimple brafteated
ftalk, fpringing from the bafe of the former. Fruit fmaller
than that of the Plane, befet in every direftion v>ith the long
prominent points of the capfules. This tree is hardy in our
gardens, and very ornamental, changing in autumn to various
rich hues of red and orange, but does not bloifom in Europe,
at leaft not till it is very old. The gum, which exudes from
any wounds in the trunk, in the warmer parts of its native
climate, is feldom produced here. We have once collefted
it from a tree in Kew garden. Its fcent is very fragrant and
agreeable, like Benzoin or Storax.

L I Q^

2. L. imberbis. Oriental Liquid-amber. (L. orientalis ;
Mill. Diet. ed. 8. n. 2 Platanus orientalis ; Pocock's
Travels, v. 2. t. 89 Willd.) - Leaves palmate, bluntly cre-
nate, or wavy, ob'ufe ; veins naked. — Native of the Le-
vant. Seeds were fent to France by Peyfonel, and fome
were forwarded to Miller, who raifed plants from them at
Chelfea. Whether any of thefe trees exift in England at
prcfent we know not. Some were to be feen at Paris 25
years ago, and probably ftill remain. This fpecies differs
from the former in having fmaller leaves, whofe lobes, as
well as their notches, are all blunt, their margins wavy, not
ferrated, and their veins nearly or quite deftitute of all pu-
befcence at their origin.

For L. afplcnifoUum of Linnxus, a name which he after-
wards changed, much for the worle, to peregrinum, fee

COMPTONIA.

LiQUiDAMBAR, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the
hardy deciduous tree kind, of which the fpecies culti-
vated are the maple-leaved liquidambar, or fwect gum
(L. ftyraciflua ;) and the oriental liquidambar (L. im-
berbis. )

Mdbod of Culture. — Thefe two plants are increafed by
feeds and layers. In the former mode the feed fliould be
fown as fuon as it is procured from abroad, in fpring, in a
bed of light earth, half an inch deep, when the plants will
rife fome the fame year and others not until the fpring follow-
ing, moderate waterings being occafionally given, keeping
them clean from weeds all fummer, and protefling them
from fevere frail the firll two winters. When the plants
are two years old, plant them out in fpring, in nurfery
rows, two feet afunder, to remain three or four years, or
till wanted for planting in the flirubbery, and other places.
But fome fow the feeds in pots, or boxes, in order to move
them to different fituations as the feafoii requires ; and
when the plants do not come up the fame year, the pots
may be plunged in a hot-bed in the following fpring, to
forward their rifing.

In the latter, or layer method, the layers (hould be made
from the young (hoots of the preceding fummer, by flit-
laying, when molt of them will be rooted in the following
autumn, though, in a dry poor foil, they are fomctimes
two years before they are fufficiently rooted for being re-
moved to plant out.

Thefe trees have great merit for ornamenting fhrubbery
plantations, in affemblage with others of fimilar growths,
being handfome, ftraight-growing trees, with fine heads, as
well as adapted for planting detached as fingle objefts,
in fpacious fliort grafs openings, in which they appear very
ornamental, perfuming the air all round in the fummer
months. They lucceed in any common foil and fituation,
and endure the fevereft cold without injury. They are
ufuallv kept in the nurferics for fa'e.

LIQUIDATE an Aaion. See AcTiO!;.

LIQUIDATION, the aft of reducing and afcertaining
either fome dubious difputable fum, or the refpeftive pre-
tenfions which two perfons may have to the fame fum.

Liquidation, the termination or winding up of accounts,
fueh as paying or receiving debts, &c.

LIQUIDITY, in Chemijhy, one of the three ftates of
bodies between the iolid and the aeriform ftate. The liquid
and elaftic ffates of bodies have the common denomination
of fluids, hence the word fluid cannot be ufed to exprefs
either of thefe llates particularly. Before the improvements
in modern chemiftry, the fame explanation was applied to
account for the properties of a liquid and an elattic fluid,
under the general appellation of fluid ; although bodies in
eacii of thefe forms are differently conilituteJ.

Sir

LIQJJIDITY.

Sir Ifaac Newton and the philofophers of his time fiip-
pofed, that fluidity was occafioned by the fpherical form of
the particles of the bodies by which they were fuppofed to
move with facility in all direftions. Since, however, the
conftitiition of bodies in different Itates is better under-
ilood, fuch an hypothefis is not neceflary. Haiiy has ren-
dered it very probable, that the particles of bodies are of
the form of their primitive cryftals, which are flat-fided
folids of the fame regular form.

When we recoUetl that the particles of bodies, in the
moft folid ftate in which we find them, are far from touching
each other, their fpherical figure would not avail in giving
them fluid properties, when they are changed into that form
by the agency of heat.

Since bodies are found to expand by heat, and contraft
when the heat is withdrawn, it feems obvious, that the
particles of bodies are afted upon by two forces ; the one
attraftion, refiding in the particles of the bodies ; and the
other, the repuliion of the particles of caloric for each ; and
which being combined with the attraftive particles, give
them the tendency to recede from each other, at the fame
time that the attraction is not altered.

The eqnihbrium, between the two forces, is kept up by
the different diftances of the particles, on which the relative
volumes belonging to different temperatures depend. If
we gradually raife a rod of tin, or any other metal, from
the common temperature to its fufmg point, we firft ob-
ferve its progrefSve expanfion, by which we are to infer,
that the coheiive force is diminifliing in fome ratio of the
expanfion. When it has 'arrived at a certain temperature,
the pillar of metal will lofe its form, and if it were not
confined by the fides, it would become extended into a flieet
of a thicknefs proportionate to its degree of fluidity. In
Other words, when the cohefion of the particles is fo dimi-
niflied, as to be exceeded by the atlion of gravity upon the
particles individually, the folid will affume the liquid form.
This hypothesis perfetlly explains all the phenomena at-
tendant on the liquefadion of thofe bodies which are not
fufceptible of cryllallization, fuch as wax, refin, tallow,
and feveral other fubftances. Such bodies, we obferve, firft
begin to foften by the partial lofs of cohefion, and gra-
dually become more and more liquid, till tlie degree nf the
heat fliall occafion their deconipofition, or give them the
elaftic form.

Thefe bodies, as we (hould expeft, increafe in volume to
the point of extreme liquidity, and the fohd mafs is of much
greater fpecific gravity than the liquid.

The clafs of bodies that ■ are fufceptible of the cryf-
talline form, which takes place at the point of liquidity,
appears to depend upon fome other caufe than the mere
prefence of caloric, and on that account will prefent many
anomalies to the above theory. Thefe anomalies, however,
are alone obvious at the point when cryftallization is taking
place. In fome of thefe bodies, fuch as water, we do not
obferve any medium between perfeA folidity and almoft per-
feft liquidity.

The folids are in general of lefs fpecific gravity th^n the
liquids, and confequently float upon them. And it is ob-
ferved, that the point of maximum denfity is at a higher
temperature than the point of congelation. The greateft
denfity of water is, according to the enquiries of Dalton,
at ^6 , the point of congelation being at 32°. If, however,
a mafs of water be cooled, while the veflel holding it be
kept at reR, it may be reduced as low as 18 , and even 16 ,
without congelation, contrafting in volume all the time.
When, however, the veflel is agitated by giving a tremulous
Jnotion to the table, the whole becomes inftantly folid, with

a certain degree of expanfion, and the temperature rifes tc
32^ at the fame moment of time. It would therefore feem,
that the contraction and expanfion by the prefence or ab--
fence of caloric would be perfeftly confonant with the chapge
of temperature, were it not for the interference of this myf-
terious law of cryftallization.

'I'he circijmftances under which the congelation of cryf-
talhnc bodies takes place, clearly fliews that fomething more
is wanting than the mere abftraftion of caloric. Salts are
found to cryftallize by ftanding for a certain time, although
the temperature and quantity of water remain the fame. It
would therefore appear, that the integrant particles re-
quire time to arrange themfelves ; and that the falted form,
as well as their regular form, is dependent on their arrange-
ment : or that attraftion of aggregation is the greateft
when the integrant particles are placed in one particular
direftion. And it appears, fince the ftrongeft aggregation
exifts when the cryftals are beft formed, that the attraftion
caufing folidity is the greateft when the homologous fides of
the particles are parallel to one another, taking it for granted,
that the particles are of the form of the primitive cryftal.

The idea of a polarity in the particles of bodies is not
new ; and, from many recent fadls, does not appear very
gratuitous. Bodies which are magnetic or eleftrical,
appear to be capable of arranging themfelves in fuch order,
that their poles fliall be reverfed to each other, from the
attraftions of oppofite poles. We have already a ftriking
inftance of this eleftrical polarity in cryftals of the tour-
nuilin. And from fome late experiments by Malus, it ap-
pears that even the particles of light are pofleffed of
polarity, confirming what Newton had before conjectured.

When we apply heat to a folid cryftalline body, fuch as
a piece of ice, caloric does not effeft its hquefaftion by re-
moving its particles to a greater diftance, becaufe the ice is
not fo denfe as the water ; confequently, the particles are
nearer in the liquid than in the folid form. It would ap-
pear, in this inftance, that the caloric had the power of lef-
fening, and perhaps deftroying altogether, the polarity of
the particles, an effeft which is not more unlikely than that
of a certain temperature deftroying the polarity of a magnet.
When, however, the caloric is removed, the polarity may
return, but this alone is not fufficient to render the water
lolid. A certain time, with a certain degree of agitation,
is neceffary to allow the particles to affume their moft
favourable pofition for conftituting the greateft aggregation,
and their greateft Regularity. We alfo fliould infer, that
during this change, in which much force is exerted, the
particles occupy more fpace, by which the expanfion is
occafioned. Similar effefts take place in the congelation
of moft of the metals ; and it will, doubtlefs, be found, that
the folids of" all bodies will be of lefs fpecific gravity than
their reipeftive liquids, in proportijn to the fufceptibility of
cryftallization, or, if we may be allowed the expreffion, as
the polar force of their panicles.

The particles of thofe bodies which are not fufceptible
of cr)'ftallization may have little or no polarity, and hence
may owe their fohdification to the mere abfcnce of caloric.
Their tranfition from the folid to the liquid form will be
gradual and flow, and their hardnefs will be iuverfely as the
caloric they contain. This is not the cafe with cryftalline
bodies ; their tranfition from the liquid to the folid form
is governed by feveral circumftances, and their hardnefs is
not immediately in the inverfe ratio of their caloric, but
more dependent upon their polar arrangement. In all pro-
bability, if it were not tor this latter caufe, the point of
congelation would be much lower in the thermometrical
fcale. What we termed confufed cryftallization, may be
9 a ftate

L I Q^

a ftate of lolidity in which the poles of the particles arc
deranged.

The want of fluidity in liquids may .depend upon two
caufes. In the liquids which <irc homogeneous, the fluidity
will be more or lefs perfedt, according to the temperature
by which the attraction of cohcfion becomes greater ov lefs.
In fluids which are liable to change in their properties by
cxpofure to the air, the want of fluidity ariles from a'fub-
ilancc being formed which is lefs fluid. This is the cafe
with oils, botii the fixed and volatile : fuch fluids are faid
to be tenacious. That the particles of liquids have ftill con-
fiderable attraiflion for each other, is apparent from a fluid
affuming the form of drops. The drops wilt be more or
lets fpherical according to the fluidity, and tlic fizc of the
globules will be inverfcly as tke dcnfity of the fluid. Hence
we fee the drops of fulphuric acid fmallcr than tliofe ot
water, and the di-ops of mercury fl;ill fmaller.

That the attraftion of the particles of liquids becomes lefs
according to temperature, is obvious from the law of their
e.xpanfion. It is found that the increments of expanfiou
arc greater than the increments of heat. Mr. Dalton is
of opinion, that the expanfion of liquids is as the fquare of
the temperature, and has propofcd a new divihon of the
thcrmometrical fcale agreeably to this law. The fame law
that obtain^ in liquids which are fufceptible of cryftal-
lization, will not probably hold good in bther fluids, in
which there does not appear to be any quick, tranhtion from
folidity to hquidity. In order that the expanfiou may be in
the duplicate ratio of the temperature, it would be neceflfary
that the aitraftion fliould diminifli in an equal degree with
the incieafe of caloric. If the caloric, at the different
points of ti.tie, be i, 2, 3, &c. the attratlions at the cor-
refpop.ding points (hould be i, i, {, Sac. fo that being in-
verted and multiplifd into the increments of heat, they will
make the increments of expanfion a feries of fquares. The
fame law, according to Dalton, does not obtain in the ex-
panflons of folids and elaitic fluids. A feries of experiments,
which would fettle finally the relations between the incre-
ments of expanfion and temperature, in different bodies,
would be of great importance.

LIQUOR. See Drink, Fujib, &c.
Liquor Amnii, in Mldtuifery, a clear pellucid fluid, or
lymph, contained in the amnios, or inner membrane of the
bag invefting the foetus while in the uterus. The quantity
varies very much in different women, or in the fame woman
in different pregnancies. In fome women, when at their
full term of gcftation, there is not more of this fluid than
three or four ounces, more commonly there are eight, ten,
or twelve ounces ; and in fome rare cafes, in women of n
leucophiegrtiatic difpofitionjmanifefted by oedeniatous fwell-
ings of the legs, thighs, and labia pudendae, two or three
pints have been found Its ufe appears to be to prevent
the fridlion of, the child againll the amnios, or of the limbs
of the child againlt each other, or againfl; its body, which
might occafion an ^brafion of the cuticle, and an unnatural
coalefcence of the parts. Its purpofes, therefore, are the
fame as thofe of the fluid found in the pericardium, and
in all the cavities of the body in which any of the vifcera
are contained. It was thought to ferve the further purpofe
of affording aliment to the foetus ; but as children born
without heads are found to be in other refpecls as perfeft,
as lively, ftrong, and plump as thofe with heads, it is
evidently not neceffary, at lead for that purpofe. See
Conception, and Embryo.

Liquors, Fermented. See Fermentxd Liquors.
Liquor, Tejl, among dealers in brandy. See Spirit, and
"Jz^T-liquors.

L I (^

Liquor yllum'm'u Compofitus, in the Materia Medica. See
Aqua Alununh Compofila.

hlCiVOR AmmonU, ov Aqua Ammonlce Pure, P. L. 1787.
See Ammoniacal Preparations.

Liquor Ammsnin Acetatis, Aqua Ammonite Acdata, P, L.
1787, is prepared by addi.ig four pints of the acetic acid to
two ounces of carbonate of ammonia, until bubbles of gas
no longer arife, and then mixing. If the acid predominate,
the folution is more grateful to the tafte, and if the acid be
corre£tly prepared, the proportions above ilated will be
fufliicient ; but where the ftrength of the acid cannot be de-
pended upon, it will be rit^ht to regulate ihcm by the ceffation
ol eflervefcenco rather than by quantity.

Lkjuor //mmo«i<f Carbonalis, Aqua Ammonij:, P. L. 17B7.
Spirilus Salts Ammoniaci, P. L 1745, ''' formed by diffolving
eight ounces > t carbonate of ammonia in a pint of dillilled
water, and filtering the folution through paper. See A.M-
MONIACAJ. Preparations.

Liquor Arjenicalis, or Arfenical Solution of Fowler, l^c.
See .'\r.senic.

Liquor Calcis. See LiME-wu/fr.

LiQUOU Cupri Ammoniati, Aqua Sapphirina, P. L. 1745.
See Copper.

Liquor Ferri Alkalini. See Iron, in the Materia
Medica.

Liquor of Flints. See Flints.

Liquor Hydrargyri Oxymuriatis is prepared by diffolving
eight gra ns of the oxymuriate of mercury in fifteen fluid-
ounces of diftiUed water, and then adding a fluid-ounce of
reftified fpirit. This folution is directed for the purpofe of
facilitating the adminillration of divifions of the grain of
this aftive medicine. Each fluidrachra contains y^th of a
grain of the fait. The fpirit, though it aifills, is not abfo-
lutely neceffary to the folution of this quantity, but it pre-
ferves it afterwards, and prevents the vegetAtion of mucor,
to which all faline folutions are liable.

Liquor Mineralis Anodynus, the same given by Hoffman
to a liquor of his own invention, famous at this time in Ger-
many, and fuppofed by Burggrave to be made in this
manner : take oil of vitriol and Indian nitre, of each four
ounces ; diftil the fpirit gradually from this by a retort ;
pour two ounces of this fpirit cautioufly and fucceffivcly into
fifteen ounces of fpirit of wine highly rec-tified ; diftil this, and
there comes over a very fragrant Ipirit. This is to be again
diftiUed, to render it perfedly pure, adding firll to it a fmall
quantity of oil of cloves, and u quantity of water, equal to
that of the fpirit ; after this, as foon as the watery vapours
begin to arife, the whole procefs is to be flopped, and the
fpirit kept alone in a bottle well flopped. This has great
virtues as an anodyne, diaphoretic, antifeptic, a:;d car-
minative. It is not certain that it is exaftly the fame with
Hoffman's, that author having never publiftied his manner of
making it ; but it appears the fame to the fmell and tafte,
and has the fame virtues.

M. Macquer fays, that it is a mixture of very reftiiied
fpirit of wine, of ether, and of a Httle of the fweet oil of
vitriol ; and that it is made by mixing an ounce of the fpirit
of wine, which rifes firft in the dillillation of ether, with as
much of the liquor which rifes next, and which contains the
ether, and afterwards by diffolving in this mixture twelve
drops of the oil which rifes after the ether has paffed. This
liquor has precifely the fame virtues with the ether which
phyficians now fubftitute for it. See Ether.

Liquor, Boyle's fuming. See Solphuhet of Ammonia,
and Ammonia.

Liquor Plumbi Acetatis, and LiQUOR Plumbi Acetatis
Dilutus. See Lead, E.vtra{t of. %

LiQUOr.

L I Q_

Liquor Poiaffx. See Lixivium Saponarlum.

Liquor Potiijfi SubcarboniUu. See Lixivium Tartan.

Liquor, or Smoaiing Spirit of Libaniius, or Smoaiing
Miiriat of Tin, is a marine acid, cr fuper-oxydated muriat of
tin, very concentrated, fmoaking, and impregnated with
much tin. (See Tik.) It is made by well mixing an

L I Q^

beft on a deep, loofe, rich mould ; and if it is freffi land that
has not for many years borne corn, the proiit will be the
greater, as the crop will be larger, and the roots of a finer
quality. A rich fandy foil, provided it is deep, will do
well for this plant ; and it muft always be remembered, that
too much moillure is its greatcft enemy : let no one, there-

amalgam of four parts of tin, and live parts of mercury with fore, attempt to plant it on a damp clay, lell the whole crop

an equal weight of corrofive fublimate, by triturating the be cankered.

whole together in a glafs mortar, or it may be prepared Soils intended for liquorice nio\ild be trenched two or

by melting, in an iron ladle, 5 oz. of pure tin, adding to it three fpades deep, if the depth of them will admit : then

five drachms of mercury, itirrmg them together, and pouring having the fets ready, proceed to plant them byline and

out the amalgam into a marble mortar ; and then putting
20 oz. of conofive mercurial muriat in fine powder, and
mixing the whole thoroughly. This mixture is to be put
into a glafs retort, which is to be placed in a reverberatory
furnace. To the retort is to be luted, with fat lute, a
receiver, with a fmall hole in it, in the fame manner as is
done for the dillillation of concentrated mineral acids ; the
diftillatioh is begun with a graduated and well managed fire ;
with an Argand lamp, or a fand-bath. A very fmoaking
liquor pafles into the receiver, and towards the end of tlie
dillillation a very thick and cvtn concrete matter. When
the operation is ilnilhed, the liquor in the receiver is to

dibble, planting the fets a foot diftant in each row ; putting
them perpendicular into the ground, with the tops about an
inch under tlie furface, and let the rows be a foot and a half
afunder ; though fome fcarccly allow more than twelve
inches between row and row. A crop of onions is alfo
fometimes fown on the fame ground the firft year ; whiih,
as the roots of the onions are flender, and the ftems fpread
but little at top, may be done witho'it any detriment to the
liquorice or the onions, as the former feldom rifes above ten
or twelve inches high the firll I'ummer. Tk'? ground muft
be kept clean from weeds, during the fum.T.cr fcafon, by
hoeing ; and if there is a crop of onions, ihe fmall hoe Ihould

be poured quickly into a cryllal glafs bottle, with a glafs be employed, cutting them out to four or five inches dif-
ftoppcr. When this bottle is opened, a white, copious, tancc, and clearing away all fuch as grow immediately clofe
thick, and poignant fume iffues, which remains long in the to the liquorice plants ; and when they are gathered, give

air without difappearing. (Macquer's Chem. Dift.) Prouft
gives, as the beft proportions, 8 oz. of powder of tin (pro-
bably fuch as is made by melting the metal and fliaking it
iti a box), and 24 oz. of corrofive fublimate, which afford
g oz. of the fmoaking liquor. See Ether.

Liquors, Slygian. See Stygian Liquors.

Liquor.';, Ckartng of. See Clarification.

the ground a thorough hoeing with a large hoe, to loofea
the furface, and deilroy all weeds effectually. In autumn,
cut down the decayed ilalks of the liquorice, and nothiaci-
more is neceffary till fpiing. But in February or March, a
flight digging ihould be given between the rows; ard,
during ipring and fummer, all weeds be kept down by
broad-hoeing ; and in autumn, when the ftalks are in a de-

LIQUORICE, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia caying ftate, they muft be again cut down to the furface of

Medial. See Glvcyrrhiza. the earth, as has been juft oblerved. The fame manacrcment

Liquorice, in jlgriculture, a plant of the long tap-rooted muft be repeated every fucceeding year; but after the firit

kind, often cultivated for medicinal and other ufes in the or fecond year, the ftalks of the liquorice will ihoot ftrongly,

field. It grows to about four or five feet in height ; its and foon cover the ground, fo as to retard the growth of.

ftalks are hard and woody ; its leaves fmall and roundidi, weeds in a great degree. Likewife every autumn, about

Handing together on the two fides of a rib, and making OAober, when the ftalks begin to decay, and they have

what botanifts call a winged leaf. There are two fpecies of been cut down to the ground, as has been advifed before,

this plant in cultivation, the fmooth padded and the prickly they fliould be wholly cleared away. It is remarked, that

podded ; but they differ little, except in the feed-pods of the land cannot be made too fine, or dug too deep for liquorice ;

latter being armed witli prickles. It is remarked that both that it fhould be at leaft moved vvitii the fpade to the depth

thefe fpecies are very hardy perennials, bat that the firft is of two feet and a half; and if a little deeper, fo much the

the fort commonly cultivated for ufe, its roots being fuller better. And that if the land on which the Uquonce fets are

of juice, and iweete.- than the other. to be planted is frefh, ricli, and in good heart, it needs no

It is chiefly grown for the root, which is perennial ; but manure for the firft crop ; but that if it has been for fonic

the ftalks rife in fpring, and decay in autumn. years in tillage, the planter will do well to give it, in the

It is a plant which deliglits in a deep light foil, in which fummer time, a good drefilng of very rotten dung, lime,

its roots may run down three or four feet deep, and attain and coal-a(hes, or foot, mi.\ed together, fome months be-

a large fize, efpecially when permitted to ftand three or four fore, into a compoft : the quiintity mtilt be regulated by

years. From the main root fmaller ones generally run off the ftate of the land, always remembering that this plant

horizontally; and from thefe horizontal roots, that run near requires a great deal of nouriftiment, and is a great im-

the furface, cuttings for fets or young plants are taken fur poveriftier of the foil, though it extracts much of its nourifli-

propagation, which are generally procured at the time when raent or food from a confiderable depth,
the liquorice is taken up for ule, which is in about three Cut in another mode, after the ground has been properly

years after planting : but cuttings for planting may occa- prepared, apd reduced to a very fine tilth, and laid level,

fionally be taken off before that period, if wanted. At the fome fets are to be procured. Thefe are directed to be

time of planting, the cuttings fhould be divided into lengths planted in roKs, with dibbles armed with iron points,

of fix or eight inches, each having one or more good buds or Some prefer rows at two feet afunder, patting the fets fif.

eyes, being put into the ground at any time, in open weather, teen inches from each other, and three rows are planted on

from October till March ; but from the middle of February a fix-feet bed ; they are allowed two feet more of interval

till the middle of March is the beft feafon for this work : betwixt bed and bed. And in putting in fets with a dibble,

and an open fituation is always the moft proper for a planta- the upper end of each fet is left juft level with the furface of

tion of this kind. the ground : and when the whole fpot of ground is pbnted.

It has been longr fince obfcrved, that tkis plant thrives labourers dig up the intervals one fuit deep, and fpread the

vot. XXI. '^ '' "^ rj, ^ ^ y ^^^^

L I Q^

earth on the beds ; wliich raifcs them about two inches above
the heads of the fets, which, by lowering the intervals,
ferves in wet feafons to drain the beds. It is generally con-
trived to get this work done by the lad week in September ;
but in favourable years, the middle of Oftober is not too
late. If the weather proves mild, no further trouble is
taken with them during the winter ; but if it is likely to
freeze hard, the beds are covered with peas-haulm, or long
dung, or fome fuch matters, to forward the growth of the
roots in the fpring, and proteft them during the winter from
the frofts. Early in the fpring, on the firft appearance of
the weeds, the lifpiorice is allowed a thorough hoeing ; and
this is feveral times repeated in the dry weather of the fum-
mer. The winter following, they are again covered with
long dung^ and in the fprnig, before the roots begin to
ihoot, the fpaces betwixt the rows on the beds are looiened
with a fpade, and the intervals dug: immediately after
which, the land has a flight drefling of coal-foot given,
which is fown by hand : this (hould be thick enough to make
the land look black, which, by the firft rains walhing it in,
greatly pufhes and invigorates the plants. The fecond and
third fummers, it is only neceflary to keep the crop clear of
weeds.

About the third year after planting, the roots of the
liquorice will be in a ilate to take up ; and the proper feafon
for this is any time from the beginning of November till
February, as they (liould neither be taken up before the
ftalks are fully decayed, nor deferred till late in the fpring ;
othervvife the roots will be apt to flirink and diminifli in
weight.

Manner of taking k/.— The mode of taking up the li-
quorice roots is by trenching the ground, beginning at one
end, and opening a trench clofe to the firft row three fpades
deep, or to the depth of the roots ; at which work, three
or four fpadcfmen are generally employed at each trench :
one goes on with the top fpit, a fecond with the next fpit,
another with a third fpit, and the fourth fpadefman com-
monly gets to the bottom of the roots, having a mattock to
affift him occafionally in clearing them ; and, as he takes
them up, throws them on the top of the ground. In this
way they proceed from row to row, till the whole plantation
is taken up. The fmall f;de-roots are then trimmed off',
and the beft of them divided into lengths proper for frefti
fets, and the main roots tied in bundles for the purpofe of
fale. It is of much confequence to fell them as foon as pof-
fible after they are taken up, as they are apt to lofe much
of their weight by keeping.

After a crop of this root has been taken up, if it was
planted on frefti land, the fame ground is generally prepared
to yield another crop ; and this takes up nearly a year. In
doing which, it has given it, during the winter, a thorough
good drefling of well-rotted dung, mixed with lime : of this
large quantities are laid on, ftill having regard to the condi-
tion of the foil, and ploughing it well in the enfuing fummer.
In fuch loofe foils as are proper for this plant, there is no
occafion to dig the land for this crop a fecond time, the
taking up the roots having ftirred it to a fufficient depth :
this, with three or four fummer ploughings, is as much as
is TiecefTary. In other refpefts, it is managed the fame as
for the preceding crop.

But if the land wliich has borne a crop of liquorice root
was not frefli when it was planted, but had been fome time
in tillage, it is fcarcely ever chofen to plant again with the
fame crop, without allowing feveral years to elapfe.

ylfter-Cuhure. — In whatever way this crop is cultivated,
it fhould be kept perfedly clean by effeftual hoeing in May
and June ; and for this reafon it is better not to fow onions,

10

L 1 R

or ;Miy other fmall plants,' upon the land with this fort of
plants. In the liquorice huft^andry, the land ftiould likcwife
be very highly manured, and be kept well water-furrowed
for the fpring mouths.

In order to difcover how much liquorice-root is wafted
by being kept in dry places, a choice was made of a piece of
fingle root thirteen inches long, and full three-fourths of an
inch diameter throughout, which weighed five ounces ; and
nine fmall roots, thirteen inches long each, and from one-
fourth to one-eighth of an inch in diameter, which weighed
alfo five ounces. All thefe were put into a drawer in a dry
room, the beginning of February, and were weighed the
beginning of Auguft following ; when the largeft fingle
i-oot weighed two ounces and three quarters, and the nine
fmall roots alfo weighed full two ounces and three quarters :
fo that in fix months thefe roots loll almoft half their weight.
They were green and juicy when put into the drawer, and
were now pretty dry and hard ; but not quite fo dry and
hard as fome of the fame liquorice that had lain all that time
in tlie open room. But liquorice may be kept in moift fand,
or laid in the earth as long, with very little wafte or lois of
weight.

As liquorice is an upright growing plant, and not apt to
lodge, and its roots dcfccnding deep, it is very proper for
the horle-hoeing culture ; in wliich it will probably arrive to
greater perfeftion than in the ufual method of cultivating it,
as defcribed above.

However in Yorkfliire, where liquorice is cultivated in
rich fandy foils, its roots fometimes penetrate to the depth
of three or four feet, fometimes more ; but the digging of
the ground all over to that depth, when it is taken up, is
very expenlive. Asa faving in this refpect, the planters, in
digging up the ground, lay it in a proper form, and re-
plant it, making one digging fcrve for both purpofes, which
is a good method ; but tlicy fet the plants much too clofe :
whereas, if they planted them in rows, at about four feet
diftance, and horie-hoed it, the weeds might be deftroyed,
and the land greatly improved, efpecially if trench-hoed ;
and the produce would probably be very great, after fo full
a preparation of the land. And in addition to this, it may
be obferved, that this method of cultivation is much cheaper
than by hand-work, which is the ufual method.
Liquorice Vetch. See Astragalu.s.
Liquorice Vetch, Knohbed-rooted. See Glycine.
LiQUOKiCE, Wild. See Annus.

LIR.A, or Lire, a money of account in Italy, and alfo a
filver coin, particularly at Milan and Venice.

LIRELLA, the diminutive of lira, a ridge or furrow, is
ufed by Acharius for the peculiar fruftificat'on, or recepta-
cle, of the genus Opegrapha (See Liciienes.) Its colour is
generally very black, though fometimes hoary with a fort of
cfflorelcence ; its form oblong, fefiile or immerfed, fimplc,
aggregate or branched. The diHv is ufually narrow and
linear, occafionally fomewhat dilated ; tli.- margins parallel,
various in thicknefs and elevation, lu Englilh this recep-
tacle is termed a cleft.

LIRIA, or LlikIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, in the province of Valencia ; iS miles S. ot Segorbe.
This is a very ancient town, wliich is f?.id to have exilted
before the arrival of the Phecnicians in Spain. Under the
Carthaginians it bore the name of Edcra, and under the
Romans of Edeta and of Laurona, when it was the capital
of the country of the Edetani. There arc fome Roman
monuments remaining. The tov.n was almoil deftroyed
during the wars of Sertorius and Pompey ; but being after-
wards rebuilt, it was taken by the Goths from the Romans,
from the Goths by the Moors, and from them, in 1252, by

James

L I R

L I R

James the Conqueror, king of Aragon, who fomewhat
changed its politioii.

It is lituated between two little hills : it has a parifli
church, two chapels of eafe, two convents of Trinitarian
and Francifcan monks, and a population of about fix or feven
thoufand perfons. This town has tlie title of duchy. King
Philip V. gave it to marfhal Berwick, and his dcfcendants
ilill poffefs it.

LIRIODENDRUM, in Botany, from Aifio;, or ?.Fif»o>,
a/i/y, and ht^pt, a tree ; the Tulip-tree. Linn. Gen. 278.
Schreb. 373. WiUd. Sp. PL v. 2. 1254. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 329. JufT. 281. Lamarck
Illuftr. 4.gi. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. i. 326. Gxrtn.
t. 178. — Clafs and order, Polyandria Polygynta. Nat. Ord.
Coadunaia, Linn. Magnolia, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of three oblong, obtufe,
concave, fpreading, equal, petal-like, deciduous leaves. Cor.
bell-lhaped, regular, of fix oblong, obtule, equal petals,
concave at the bafe. Stam. Filaments numerous, inferted
into a conical receptacle, (horter than the corolla, linear ;
anthers terminal, longer than the filaments, but dill fliorter
than the corolla, linear, ereft, of two cells, burfting longi-
tudinally- at the outer fide. P'l/l. Germens numerous, dif-
pofed in the form of a cone ; ftyles none ; ftigmas all crowded
together, obtufe. Peric. Cafes numerous, imbricated in the
form of a cone, lanceolate, compreffed, leaf-hke, triangular
and tumid at the bafe, each of one cell, not buriling. Seeds
two, ovate.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Petals fix. Anthers

burfting outwardly,
the form of a cone.
I. L. tulipifera.
755. Curt. Mag. t.

Seed-cafes lanceolate, imbricated in

American Tulip-tree. Linn. Sp. PL
273. Sm. Inf. of Georgia, t. 102. (L.
foUis angulatis truacatis ; Trew Ehret, t. 10.) — Leaves
lobed, abrupt. — Native of hills in molt parts of North
America, where it is vulgarly called the Poplar. This fine
tree was cultivated by bifhop Compton, at Fulham, in 1688,
and is now not unfrequent in England, though feldom
flowering till an advanced age. We have however known it
bloom when about 16 years old. The firft which produced
bloffbms in this country, is faid to have been at the earl of
Peterborough's, at Parfon's green, near Fulham. There
were feveral, early celebrated for their fize aud beauty, at
Waltham Abbey, one of which remained lately, and per-
haps ftill flourifhes.

June and July, Itanding folitary at the ends of the branchct
The young bark of this tree is very aromatic.

2. L. Urtifera. Indian Tulip-tree. Linn. Sp. PL 755.
(Sampacca montana ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 2. 204.
t. 69.) — Leaves lanceolate. — Native of lofty mountains in
Amboyna. Linnsiis adopted this fpccies entirely from
Rumphius, led, as it feems, by his delineation of the fruit,
which indeed fomewhat refembles that of a Liriodendrum.
There is much in hjs defcription, as well as figure, that ac-
cords witii Alagnolia pumila, Andr. Rcpof. t. 226. Curt.
Mag. t. 977, a plant cultivated in various parts of the Eaft
Indies, as well as in China, but whofe native countrv-, like the
ftrufture of its fruit, is really unknown. M. Correa de Serra,
whofe botanical acutenefs is fo well known, has pointed out
to us what he conceives to be a certain criterion to diftin-
guilh a Liriodendron from a Magnolia, the cells of the anthers
opening at the inner fide in the latter, at the outer fide in
the former, which difference is confirmed by the total differ-
ence in their fruit. By this rule the pumila is a Magnolia;
but refpefting the fuppofed Liriodendrum liliifera, nothing
can be gueffed, except from its habit. We fufpect more-
over that the pumila, when its fruit is known, may exhi-
bit charafters m that part, fufficient to feparate it from
both thefe genera ; as may alfo be the cafe with M. fufcata.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 331. .-\ndr. Repof. t. 229. Curt.
Mag. t. 1008, whofe anthers hkewife burll inwardly.

What the L. liliifera of Loureiro, Cochinch. 346, mav be,
is very doubtful. He defcribes the anthers as opening by a
terminal pore. — Here then may be another diftintf o-enus.
The flowers are faid to be large, pale and fcentlefs. Seeds
imbricated in the form of a cone. He defcnbes two more,
which Willdenow has adopted from the German edition of
his book, as we guefs from the mifquotation of pages. Thefe
are named i,L. Figo, which has a fingled-leaved fpathace-
ous calyx, and a pale flower, dotted with red ; and 2, L.
Coco, which has a three-leaved calyx, and large, very white,
fweet flower. Both are cultivated at Macao and Canton.
The defcription of their fruits is hke that of the genus be-
fore us, but we much doubt their belonging really to it.
Nothing, in fliort, requires more inveSigation than the
genera of this tribe, becaufe fcientific botanitls had very httle
opportunity of feeing their whole fruftification. We would
recommend the confideration of their anthers and feed-veflels.
The calyx is perhaps of lefs importance, except for fpecific
diftinftions.

Liriodendrum, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the
Botanifts indicate two varieties in North America, one of hardy deciduous ornamental kind, of which the fpecies culti-

which is figured in Plukenet's Phytographia, t. 68. f. 3, and
appears to differ from the common kind, reprefented in the
•plates we have quoted above, in having four flight lobes, in-
ftead of two great ones, at each fide of the leaf. We have
indeed obferved the leaves to have occafionally divided fide-
lobes, in our gardens ; but as there are faid to be differences
alfo in the colour and quality of the wood, it is much to be
fulpefted that thefe make in fact two fpecies. In fome trees
the wood is faid to be yellow, foft and brittle ; in others
white, heavy, tough and hard ; but no one has obferved
whether each particular variety has either form of leaf ap-
propriated to it, which would fettle the queftion. The re-
markable fhape of the leaves of the Tuhp-tree, cannot fail
to iirike the moil carelels obferver. They feem as if
cut off with fciflars at the end. The elliptical obtufe deci-
iuoasjiipulat, which curioufly enfold the young leaves, are
alfo remarkable. The f.otvers, though not glaring nor
fcented, are Angularly beautiful, refembling a fmall tulip,
variegated with green, yellow, and orange. They appear in

vated is the common tuhptree, L. tulipifera.

Method of Culture. — Plants of this kind may be railed by
fowiiig the feeds, imported annually from America by the
feed-dealers, in fpring, either in the full ground, in beds
of rich light earth, in a warm fituation, placing the feed
lengthwife, and covering it nearly an inch deep ; or in pots or
boxes, plunging tliem in a gentle hot-bed. When the
young plants appear they fliould be well fcreened from the
fun, and have free air. They ufually come up tlie fame fea-
fon ; when in the former method water fliould be given them
in dry weather ; and if tlie bed be arched over with hoops,
to have occafional fliade from the mid-day fun in fcorching
weather, it will be beneficial to the germination of the feeds
and growth of the young plants ; continuing the waterings
with care occafionally during the fummer ; and in winter,
flieltering them with mats in froily weather to preferve their
tops, which are fometi'.nes a little tender the firft year, and
apt to fuffer in this way.

When ihe plants are two years old, they fhould be fet out
T2 in

L T R

in fpring in nurfery rows, two feet diftant, and a foot afmider
in the rows; to remain a ftw years, till from three to fix
or eie;ht feet high, when they may be planted where they are
to remain.

But they are raifed bcfl in the open ground, where the
beds are prepared of good mellow rich earth, blended with
old rotten cow-dung, fiftinjr over the feeds tine turf-mould,
mixed with fine fea or pit-fand. And tlu-y fucceed bell
afterwards in a light foil, not too dry. They fliould have
their roots and branches as little pruned as poflible.

This is aplant that grows fo large as to become a tree o
the firft magnitude in its native fituation, and it is gene-
rally known by the title of poplar : of late there have
been great numbers raifed from feeds in this country, fo
that they are become common in the nurfeiies, and there
are many of the trees in difierent pans which annually pro-
duce flowers.

At Allerton-hall, the feat of William Rofcoc, efq. there
is a very large tree of tliii kind which flowers well.

Tkefe trees are highly ornamental in large plantations,
among others of fimilar growth, and have a fine effeft when
planted out fingly in large openings, kept in {hort grafs, in
plcafure grounds, or other fituations, when they flower in any
full manner.

LIRIOPE, in Bo/any, a genus dedicated by Loureiro to
the mother of Narciffus ; a plant of the fame natural family
having been deftiiied to commemorate her fon. The blue
colour of the prefent flower is thought alfo, by this author,
to accord with the epithet Cjirula Lir'iope ; fee Ovid's Me-
tamorphofii, lib. j?. 342. — I.onreir. Cothmch. v. i. 200. —
Clafs and order, Hexandiia Monogytna. Nat. Ord. Spatha-
les, Linn.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Sheath ovate, incurved, Cngle-flowered,
fmall, permanent, of one leaf. Cor. inferior, bcll-fhaped,
fpreading, divided into fix deep, obibng, reflexcd, flelhy,
equal fegments. Stam. Filaments fix, awl-rtiaped, ereft, equal,
fhorter than the corolla, infertcd into the receptacle ; an-
ihcrs oblong, ereft. Pifl. Germen fuperior, roundilli; ftyle
thick, furrowed, reflexcd, as long as the ft^amens ; IHgma
Ample. Peric. Berry ovate, fmooth, flelhy, fingle-feeded.
Seed ovate.

Eff. Ch. Corolla in fix deep fegments, inferior. Sheath
evate. Berry fingle-feeded.

1. L. fpkata. Loureir. Taic lien of the Cochinchinefe,
Mac Ian of the Chirefe. — Found commonly both in rtide
and cultivated ground of thofe countries. Roots peren-
nial, oblone, fohd, brown bulbs, connefted by creeping
radicles. Stem none. Leaves numerous, crowded together,
fword-fhaped, ftiff, fmooth, nearly ereft, a foot long.
Flomicr-Jlaik naked, round, flender, llraight, about as long
as the leaves. Flowers fpiked, rather fmall, of a pale blue
colour, without fmell.

The herb before us is faid to have a cooling quality, and
a decoflioji of its leaves is thiniglit to llrengthen the hair.
We know not what to make of Loureiro's defcription as to
referring it to any known plant.

LIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, which an-
ciently bounded the territory of Latium towards the fouth.
This river, called alfo Clanis and Giants, and now Garigllano,
defoenJs from the country of the Marfi towards the Apen-
nines, or by the lake Fecinus, receives many dreams in its
flow progrefs fouthward, and at length lofes itfelf in the
bay of Cajeta or Gaeta. Towards its mouth, and at fome
diftance from a grove confecrated to the nymph Marica, the
river formed extenfive marflie.s. Pliny obferves that the
waters were there hot, whence SilJus Italicus gives to the

L I S

Liris the epithet fulplmrcous. It is related, that in the year of
Rome 660, MariuF, purfued by the faction of Sylla, con-
cealed himfelf in thefe marflies, with his body under water
and his head covered by rofes. The fame place ferved alfo
as an afyhim to Varus, one of the perfons j)rofcribed by tlie
triumvirate of Oftavius, Antony, and Lepidus.

LIRIUM, \u Botany, Xufiv, of the Greeks, is fyiioni-
mous with Lilium, but Van Royen, in his Flor,e Leydenfu
Prodromus, retains it as the name of that genus, becaufe he
ufes L'dia for the appellation of the natural order ; and for
this meafure he is fomewhere commended by Linnxus, under
whofe infpeftion the book was written. Lirium is liowever
become entirely obfolete.

LIS, in Geography, a lake of Ruffia, in the (government
of Tobol(l<, in the midfl. of an extenfive morafs. N. lat.
0;' j'. E. long. 99"' 14'. — Alfo, a river of the fame name,
which runs into the Enifei. N. lat. 62° 20'. E. long. 90*
14'.

Lis, Fleur de. See Yl.OVi'Ef^-de-Luce. This flower was
not only borne in the ancient arms of France, but adopted
by our kings till the late union with Ireland. Theeleftoral
cap, as emblematic of Hanover, ai^d the fliamrock for Ire-
land, have been fubilituted for it.

Ll.s, or Lt, an itinerary meafyre of China, equal to 1897';
Enghfli feet : fo that \<)i\ lis meafure a mean degree of the
meridian nearly ; but European mifhonaries in China have
divided the degree into 200 lis, each h making 1826 Eng-
lifli feet.

LISARA, m Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Albania ; 52 miles S S E. of Albafano.
LISBON, Olisipona or Olifbcna, the metropolis of
Portugal and royal refidence, fituated in the province of Ef-
tramadura, and forining a kind of crefcent or amphitheatre,
on the right bank of the Tajo or Tagus, on leveral hills.
The Portuguefe compuie the length of the city at two
leagues ; and the dillance from Bclem to the eallern extremity
is Hated by Link to be a full German mile, or about 4^ Eng-
lifh miles. The breadth of the town is very various, often
but fmall, and fometimes quite inconfiderable, not exceeding
one ilreet, but never much more than half a league. It
formerly contained feveral magnilicent churches, jo colleges
and convents, two elegant palaces, a caftle commanding the
town, and feveral handiome fquares. It was furrounded by
a lingle wall, on which were 77 antique towers of no great
ftrength. On the river fide it had 26 gates, and on the land
fide 17. The llreets were narrow and dirty, and fome o£
them very tteep. The houfesof the citizens v.-ere generally
very mean, but thofe of the nobility and gentry were built
with ftone, and exhibited an elegant appearance. Such was
the flatc of this city before it was almoll totally deilroyed
by the earthquake, which happened Nov. j, A. D. 175;.
Since this cataflrophe it has been built on a regular plan.
The population is not eafily afcertained. According to the
decennial cenfus in the year 1790, the 40 parilTies of Liftion
contained 38,102 fire-places or hearths ; thefe include the liib-
burbs of junqueira and Alcantara, but not the villages of
Belcm and Campo-Grande, though thefe, particularly the
firft, are coi^ncftcd with the town, being within the boundary
of Lifljon. Including Belem, a market town Mhu:h com-
pletely joins Junqueira, the population may be ellimated,
accordiniT to Link, at above 300,000, exclufive of the mili-
tary. Lifljon is quite open on all fides, having neither walls
nor G;ates, nor even any fortifications, except a fmall caftle in
the middle of the town, and a number of batteries or fmall
forts on the river. The ground on which the city ftands is
very hilly, and, according to the Portuguefe writers, is fitu-
ated)

LISBON.

ated, like ancient Rome, on feven liills, but it may be more there is not one particularly diftinguifhed, and a eonflant
properly regarded as (landing on thr<.c hills. The firft be.t;ins noife of little bells and bad' chimes renders them ftill more
at the bridge of Alcantara, formincr the proper vveftern limit impleafant. The patriarchal church is famous for the royal
ofthe to .vn, and extending to St. Beiiedict's ftreet. This hill fepulchrcs which it contains. This was conftructed in the
is the highell, and much celebrated for the falubrily ot its air. year 1706 by pope Clement XL, who granted to it achap-
At the weftern extremity it is but little cultivated, but farther ter. The patriarch has been generally a cardinal, and its
to the eailward up to its fummit, forming in that diredtion revenue is computed at 114,000/. Lifbon was erefted into
a plain, on which Itands the new monadery. In many parts a biihopric in the yth century, and when it was retaken
it is fo ileep, that it is laborious to walk along the ftreets, from the Moors by Don Alphonfo, the bifhopric was re-
and even the lower (Ireet, which runs along the river, has efhibliilied by pope Eugenius III.; and in the year i30oi»
confiderable declivities, and is much incommoded by torrents vvas ere<£led into an archbiihopric. The cathedral is a Gothic
occalioned by heavy falls of rain. Jn this part many hand- editice, dedicated to St. Vincent, who is faid to have fuf-
fome houfes are erecled, intermixed with thofe of a meaner fered martyrdom on the cape which bears the name, and it
fort, in Itreets that are irregular, ill paved, and often nar- is richly ornamented. The royal palace, which fronts the
row. Among thefe fcattered houfes are g;ardens and even Tagiis, is a large and magnificent edifice, and contains a
corn-fieUs. On this hill the late queen built a church and library colledled at a vaft expence by John V. There are fome
convent, to which (he was much attached. The church is other public buildings, which are conllrufted in a maTni-
handfome, but conitruded in a bad tnde, and overloaded ficent (lyle. Along the river to the E. of Li(bon there is
with ornaments. Not far from this church is the Protellant a fuccefHon of fmall houfes and villages. To tlie W. Belem
burial ground, which is planted wi;h cypre(res and Judas fo nearly joins Li(bon, that their refpfftive boundaries are
trees (cercis liiiquailrum). Beyond the libufes is a pleafant not eafily diftinguilhed : and the fuburb of Alcantara is only-
plain, called Campo de Ourique, feparated from the neigh- feparated by a bridge over a fmall brook which here falls into
bouring hills by deep va'lies, and ufed as a promenade by the Tagus. This fuburb is only feparated by an artificial
the lower and middling clalfes. The fecond hill is a conti- boundary from that of Junqueira, as the latter is from Be-
nuationof the (irll, from which it is feparated by a valley of lem, which is a confiderable market-town, where many
no great depth ; it' extends from St. JBunedicl-ilreet to the perfons of property and tradefpeople of the higher clalfes^
valley in which are three new (Ireets built by Pombal. At have houfes. Formerly the royal family relided here, but
the foot of the cattern lide of this hill the earthquake did the caRle being buruf: they removed to Quelus. (See Be-
great damage, of which traces remain, and thus made way LE.M.) Befides the church of the monaftery of Hieronymites,
for the erection of feveral handfome houfes. On this eaftern which is in a Gothic but grand (lyle, there are in Belem two
declivity is the opera-houfe. Above the public promenade new built and very handfome churches. Near to one of
this hill rifestoa conllderable height, and is very Ileep to- thefe are the botanic garden and mufeum, and a royal
wards the next valley. This eminence affords a very fine garden with a menagerie and feveral aviaries. Beyond Be.
view; in the valley beneath appears the bell part of the town ; lem is a park of confiderable fize belonging to the prince,
to the left are olive -gardens interfperfed wilh many houfes, in which are olive-trees and broom ; and the'chace on th^N.
monalleries, and churches ; oppolite is the high (leep hill on of the river is appropriated to the prince, but that on the S.
which the caille (lands ; to the left the Tagus covered with is for the ufe of the public. To the N.W. appear the-
(hips. This hill is fucceeded by .an even valley of confider- mountains of Cintra, which lie N.E. and S.AV. The Ta-
able length and breadth, which forms the broadeft part of gus walhes the foundations of the houfes throu'i-liout Li(bon -
the town, which was entirely rebuilt after the earthquake of being towards the eallern part about two or three leagues
1755. On the bank of the river is a handfome fquare, broad; to the W. it becomes naiTower, and as far as its
formerly the terrace or parade of the royal palace, 6io feet mouth it is only about a league broad. The river is often
by ,-50. The quay, and the groups of people where the covered with (liips, and large men of war may he oppoijte
fli'ips and boats,are landing and taking in their cargoes, excite to the towm. The fcene is interefting ; and the market-
attention. The eall fide is formed by a large building with town called Almada, with its church on the fummit of
an arcade, terminating in a pavilion, wliich is ufed as an ex- the hiil, and the Englidi hofpUal at the foot of it, enlivens
change. Oppofite to it is a fimilar building without a pavi- the piclure. The fide of Lilbon towards the country confills
■ lion. In the centre of this fquare, the avenues of which are entirely of hills, from which are feen only the highelt
unfinidied, is an equedrian llatue of Don Jofeph in bronze, edifices of tiietown, and the traveller arrives fuddenly in the
on a pededal of (lone adorned with various fymbols. The city before he k aware of it. The adjacent country, par-
three principal llreets rebuilt fince the earthquake, are ticularly on the N. and E. fides, to a confiderable dillance,
formed by large buildings of confiderable elevation and good is covered with large gardens furrounded with hio-h walls,
appearance. The line that divides Eall and Wed Lilbon, Thefe gardens are called in Portuguel'e " quintas," and they
which is an ecclefiadical diilindion (the former belonging to generally contain plantations of orancre and olive-trees, and
the bidiop of Lilbon and the latter to the patriarchate) pades fometimes corn-fields and even vineyards. Beyond the
through thi^ part of the town. Near this fpot is the great wedern part of Lirtjon the country prefents naked and Vocky
palacc of the Ir.quifition. Another fmall fquare not far dif- hills; but fome of thefe are luxuriantly fertile. The hills,
tant is ul'ed as a promenade, and forms a garden, with feveral indeed, form the meadows of Li(bon. The foil round tha
avenues of various kinds of trees and hedges. Behind this city confills of lime-llone and bal'alt. Clofe to the N. fide
garden are the p'ay-hoafe and the fquare uled for bull-fights : of the town is the famous aqueduct, conltruifted of a kind
and at a fmall diltance are marketplaces. The third hill of white marble, and completed in 1738. It ferves to con-
begins with an eminence, on which is the cadle of Lilbon, vey water from feveral fprings fituated at a didance of three
from which it continues, with fome interruption of plains, to leagues, near the village of Bellas, being in tome parts con-
the eadern extremity of tlie town. The caltle is a fmall fort, dueled under ground. Near the town it paffes over a deep
Tills part of the town confills of narrow, irregular, iil-paved valley, and reds on feveral bold arches, the targell of which,
ftreets, in which occur a few neat houfes. The buildings is 2jo feet 10 inches French high, and 107 feet eight
are conllruded oj» bad models ; and even amoag^he churches inches brcxtd. Its poiated arche* feem ckiDged, when

viewed

LISBON.

viewed from beneath it, into majcftic vaults tliat re-echo quently artifan;. The place ufed for bull-fights is a large
every found. The whole length of the aqucduft is 2400 feet, quadrangular edifice, furrounded with wooden baluftrades

In the middle is a covered arch-way of fevcn or eight feet,
where the water flows on each fide through a tunnel of ftone.
Without this arched way and on each fide is a path, where
two perfons can walk abreail, with a parapet. The water
enters the town at a place called da Amoreira, when it di-
vides into feveral other aquediifts, and fupplies the foun-
tains, which, though formed in a bad tafte, are ornamental.
Here the gallegos draw water in fmall barrels, and cry it
about the itreets. The water is very good, containing a

and benches. In fummer there are bull-fights almoll every
Sunday, and from twelve to fifteen beads are killed in an
afternoon : in winter this amufement entirely ceafes. As
to the religion of the city. Link fays, that people go to
mafs becaufe they have no oiher walk, and that they love
the ceremonies of religion as a paftimc, and follow pro-
ceihons as they would go to an opera. Lifbon is by no
means deftitute of literary inllitutions. The firll and mod
important is the Academy of Sciences. (See Academy.)

portion of oxygenated calcareous earth ; its fources being The Geographical Academy, principally pertaining to the

in lime-ftone hills. The trees that grow on the N. fide of geography of Portugal, was inftituted in January, 1799.

Lifbon are chiefly olive and orange trees. The latter are Lifbon has alfo public libraries ; and it has alfo fome mu-

propagated by feed and afterwards grafted. In December feums, and public hofpitals.

and January the oranges begin to turn red, and at the end The harbour of Lifbon is fpacions and deep, and by

of January and in February, before they are ripe and fweet, the Phoenicians, who firil traded hither, was denominated

they are gathered for exportation. Toward the end of " Olifippo," i. e. the Agreeable bay, whence, as lome have

March and in April they are very good, but delicate per-
fons will not eat them till the beginning of May ; at which
time they begin to be perfettly fweet and well-flavoin-ed.
One tree frequently bears 1500 oranges, and fometimes
2000, and rarely 2500. The climate of Lifison is reck-
oned very falubrious. A heat equal to 96' Fahr. is not un-
common in Pc.rtugal. The medial heat is generally about

faid, was formed the appellation of Lifbon. Others have
fabuloufly afcribed the foundation of this city to UlyfTes,
and hence derived its ancient name UlyfTippo. The entrance
of this port is difficult and dangerous, and requires the
afTiftance of a pilot. The trade of Lifbon is extenfive ; and
many foreign merchants. Catholic and Proteftant, refide here,
as it is the grand mart of all commodities brought from

60 . From Midfummer-day to the rniddle of September Brazil and other colonies belonging to the Portnguefe.
■ "" "~ " ■ N. lat. 38 42'58". W. long. 9 4' 40".

Operas at the court of Lifbon, before the earthquake in
1755, ufed to be the mod fplendid and bed performed in
Europe. See Perez, Gizziello, and Gu.^dagni.

Lifbon and the whole of Portugal keep accounts in rees,
or reas, 1000 of which make a milree. The crufado of
exchange, or old crufado, is 400 rees, and the new crufado
480 rees ; the tedoon 100 ; the vintin, or vintim, 20 rees.
Hence it appears that the milree is = 2^ old crufados =;
2^', new ditto = 10 tedoons = 50 vintins.

The coins of Portugal are gold pieces, coined before
1722, which are now 20 per cent, higher than their original
value ; fo that the old dobras, coined at 20,000 rees, are

rain is very uncommon ; in November and December heavy
rains with frequent dorms occur. Days of perpetual filent
rain are very rare ; for in general it comes down in tor-
rents. In January cold clear weather often prevails, but
becomes milder in February, which is generally a very plea-
fant month. The days of fair weather amount to 200 in
the year, and thofe of fettled rain feldom exceed 80. In
this city grates for fire are almod unknown. Ventilation
and coolnefs are chiefly confnlted ; and in winter a warm
cloak fupplies the want of a fire. In the vicinity of Lifbon
the harvell is in May, and the corn is thrafhed as it is with
us ; but in fome parts it is trodden out by horfes or oxen,
for which purpofe a floor is made in the fields. The Por-

tnguefe hve chiefly on meat and fifh, but are not fond of worth 24,000 ; the Lifbonnines, or moidores, coined at 4000

vegetables. In Lifbon the bread is generally bad. It is rees, are worth 4800, and the halves and quarters are in pro-

ufually made of wheat flour, fometimes of maize, and never portion ; but there are few of thefe coins in circulation,

of rye. Potatoes are not cultivated, but imported from The gold coins, ftruck fince 1722, are the dobra =z 12,800

England and Ireland. Both the rich and poor confume rees, the meia dobra or Joanefe = 6400 rees, the half

great quantities of bacalhao, of which the Englifh export Joanefe = 3200 rees, the dezefeis tedoon =: 1600, the

thither to the value of a million and a quarter of dollars, quartinho = 1200, the oito telloon = 800, the old crufado

The Sardinha, or pilchard, is alfo the food and comfort of
the poor. The fruits mod common are oranges and grapes.
In the vicinity of Lifbon is a frnall vineyard, that of Car-
cavella, or Carcavelos, yielding a peculiar grape, which gives
name to the Lifbon wine or to Carcavella ; a wine that is faid
to be generally fabricated in London. The badncfs of the
police llrikes every foreigner on entering Lifbon. The
filth is luffered to lie in heaps in the ftreets, unlefs it fliould
be wafhcd away by the rains. The dreets are rendered dill
more inconvenient by want of light ; a hod of dogs, without
maders, and preying on the pubhc, wander about like hungry
wolves ; and, dill worfe than thefe, an army of banditti.
The fociety of Lillion is dull and melancholy, efpecially
when compared with that of large Spanifh cities. The in-
habitants neither walk nor ride for mere amufement ; there
is little luxury, nor are there any fine equipages. Many
fervants are kept by the iiigher families, but they are poorly
clad and ill fed. One of the principal amufements of the
rich is the Italian opera, which is fupported by private indi-
viduals. The play-houfe is little vifited by perfons of- con-
dition ; here no women, perform ; and the players are fre-

=; 400 (now fcarce), and the new crufado ;;: 480 rees.
The filver coins are the new crufado = 480 rees, halves,
quarters, and eighths, or pieces of 240, 120, and 60 rees,
the tedoons of 100, and halves of ^o, and vintins of 20 rees.
The copper pieces are of 10, 5, 3, and l^ rees.

The gold piece of 6400 rees is worth 3jj. Mel. derling.
The old crufado is worth 2/. ^d , and the milree, value in
gold, is worth 6']\d. derling. The new lilver cruiado is
worth about is. ()d. ilerhng, and the milree, valued in filver,
is worth 68^(7. derling. Gold is to filver as 16 to i.

The commercial weights are the quintal = 4 arrobas,
the arroba = .i2lb., the pound or arrate = 2 marks, or
16 ounces, the ounce = 8 outavas ; 13^ quintals =: a ton.
The pound of Lifbon is = 9552 Dutch afes, or 70845-
grains Englifh troy weight ; fo that Sjlb. of Lifbon z=;
S4lb. avoirdupoife weight. <•

The meafure for corn, fait, and other dry commodities,
called moyo, is =: i j fanegas ; the fanega =: 4 alquieres
= 8 meyos = 16 quartos =32 outavas = 64 mequias.
The alquiera meafures 675 French or 817 Englifh cubic
inches; fotlratzi alquieres are nearly =; i Englifh quarter.

L I S

L I S

or JO alquieres = 19 Englidi bulhels. For liquid meafure,
the tonelada of Lifton is = 2 pipas, the pipa = 26 al-
mudes = 312 canadas = 1248 quartillos. The baril is =
rS almudes. The ftandard gauge, at the cullom-houfe of
London, of a pipe of Lifbon is 140 gallons = 51 almudes,
and the almude is 4i Engllfh gallons nearly. The long mea-
fures of Lifbon are the vara = 5 palmos, and the covado
= ; ; the palmo = 8 inches of Lifbon, or 8^ Engli(h inches ;
the" covado is = 264 Englilh inches ; the Lifbon foot is 3^
half a covado, or 13^ Enghfli inches ; and 9 feet of Lifbon
= 10 Englifli feet. In the freight of fhips, 4 cherts of
fugar, 4 pipes of oil, 40oolb. of tobacco, and 3ooolb. of
fumac, are reckoned for i lafl. Kelly's Un. Cambift. See

E.XCHANSE.

Lisbon, a town of America, in New London county,
Connefticut, lately a part of Norwich ; containing two
parifli churches, and 1 168 inhabitants.

LISBURN, a poft and borough town of Ireland, in the
county of Antrim, and province of Ulfter, now the fecond
in the county for fize and population ; but in the reign of
Elizabeth only a fmall village, called Lifnegarvey. It lies
about feven miles S of Belfaft, on the river Lagan, which
feparates it from the county of Down. In the reign of
James I. fir Fulk Conway obtained a grant of it, and
fettled fome Englifh and Wellh famiHes there. In 1 64 1 a
viftory was obtained by fir George Rawdon over the rebels
under fir Phelim O'Neil and others, little more than a month
after the breaking out of the rebeUion. In 1662 the church
of Lifburn was erected into a cathedral for the united dio-
cefes of Down and Connor, and the inhabitants had the
privilege granted of fending two burgeffes to parliament,
although not a corporate body. Thefe privileges were given
on account of their loyalty to Charles I. and II. In 1699
a patent was granted to fome French refugees for eltablifhing
a manufafture of linen in the town, to which circumllance
it chiefly owes its profperity. The virtuous conduft and
civilized manners of thefe good people were of great ad-
vantage to it, and their fkill and induftry fet an example to
thofe who were concerned in the fame bufinefs as they were,
which foon had the efFeft of raifing the quality of their
manufacture to a degree of excellence unknown till then ;
and the linens and cambricks made in the neighbourhood
and fold in Lifburn market, have until this day kept up
their fuperior character. Though the vicinity of Lifburn
to Belfaft prevents it from bemg a place of much trade,
there is a great deal of bufincls done in it, in various ways.
On market-days it is much frequented from the quantity of
linen and other things brought to it, and it is well known
as the firft place to meet w'lh oats ot the bell quality for
feed. A few years ago a fine fpire of cut ilone was built
to the church ; and lately a fteeple and cupola on the mar-
ket-houfe. The houfes of worfhip are, a fpacious church,
a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe, a Quaker's meetmg-houfe, a
handfome Catholic chapel, and a Methodilt chapel. There
are alfo fome good charitable iuftitutions. The number of
houfes is 800, which at 6A gives a population of 5312. It
is faid by Carlifle to be noted for the neatnefs of its build-
ings and the urbanity of its inhabitants. It fends one mem-
ber to parliament, and is 73 miles N. by E. from Dubhu.
Dubourdieu's Statiftical Account of Antrim.

Li.SBUUN, CaJ^e, a cape on the W. coaft of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 69" 6'. W. long. 165 . — Alfo, a cape on the
ifland of Spiritu Santo, one of the New Hebrides. S. lat.
IJ 40' 45". E. long. 166" 57'.

LISCA-BIANCA, one of the fmaller Lipari iflands,
near Bafiluzzo. This ifland, as well as Bottero and Dat-
tolo, in its vicinity, is rather a rock, abounding in crulls of

fulphate of alumine, and for the moft part formed of lava*
whitened, and fo decompofed that they are eafily reducible
to powder.

LISCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaf-
lau ; 8 miles N. of Czaflau.

LISCIANO, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto ; 8 miles S.E. of Taretito.

LISIANTHUS, in BrAany, from Ai,-, fmooth, and y.-Ao:,
ajlower, in contradiftinCtion, as one would fuppofe, to cer-
tain other flowers, nearly allied in many refpedts to this, but
remarkable for fome fort of fringe or hairinefs, as Menyanthes.
Yet Browne, who gave the name, does not advert to this
idea ; and by a flip of the pen he quotes Burmann as being
the firft author of it, m his Thefaurus Zeylanicus, 14J. t. 67 ;
whereas the plant there exhibited is called Lyfimachia, and is
Chironia trinervia of Linnaeus! — Browne Jam. 157. Linn.
Mant. 6. Suppl. 135. Schreb. in. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 826.
Mart. Mill. Di£t. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 318. JufT.
142. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 107 — Ciafs and order, Pentandrta
Monogyma. Nat. Ord. Rotaceii, Linn. Genliana, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, divided, more or lefs
deeply, into five, lanceolate or roundifti, ereft, permanent
fcgments, membranous at the edge. Cor. of one petal,
fuunel-lhaped ; tube longer than the calyx, fwelling up-
wards, contrafted juft above the bafe within the calyx ;
lin.b in five deep, lanceolate or roundilh, recurved fegments,
much Ihorter than the tube. Slam. Filaments five, thread-
fhaped, fmooth, inferted into the tube, juft above its con-
traftion, generally fhorter than the limb ; anthers ovate,
two-lpbed, incumbent. Fi/l. Germen fuperior, ovate-ob-
long, pointed ; ftyle thread-ihaped, the length of the flamens,
permanent, finaUy twifted ; ftigma compreffed, of two pa-
rallel plates. Perk. Capfule ovate-oblong, pointed, of two
incomplete cells and two valves, the partitions formed of the
inflexed margins of the valves. Seeds numerous, minute.

Eft". Ch. Corolla funncl-fhaped, inflated ; its fegments
recurved. Stigma of two plates. Capfule oblong, imper-
feftly two-celled ; partitions from the inflexed margins of
the valves. Seeds numerous.

Fifteen fpecies of this elegant genus, little known in Eng-
land, are collected by Willdenow, of which glaber and
frig'idus are one and the fame. Whether the reft all truly
conftitute one genus, may perhaps be doubted. The cari-
nated calyx, fuppofed an effential mark, in thole of Browne,
is not faund in thofe of Aublot, the fegments of whofe
calyx moreover are rounded, and their corolla fomewhat
irregular and curved. Thefe more accord with L. glaher of
Linnaeus, and very corredtly with his cheknoides found in the
fame neighbourhood.

The following examples will eiwble the reader to judge of
the habit and leading charaftersK)f thefe different fets of
fpecies.

L. longifolius. Linn. Mant. 43. Browne Jam. t 57. t. 9.
f. I. — Calyx taper-pointed, keeled. Leaves lanceolate,

acute. Branches round, fomewhat downy Native of the

mountains of Jamaica, in a dry fandy foil. It forms a
humble y7jra^, with round, oppofitc, more or lefs downy,
level-topped, leafy branches. Leaves oppofite, on fhort
footftalks connefted by a very fhort, annular, iutrafolia-
ceous Jlipula ; their form is variable, ovate-oblong or lan-
ceolate, acute, entire ; the lurface fmooth, or finely downy.
Fhtuers (m fliort, terminal, downy llalks, fohtary, or two
or three together, about an inch and a half long, of a
pale delicate yclknv, very elegant. Their ca/yx and corolla
are very fharply pointed ; the former ftrongly keeled or
winged, as in many plants, of the Gentian family ; the
Jligma fhort and almoft capitate^ yet of two parallel lobes.

This

L I S

L I S

Tliis fpecies is iV.id to bloffom in the ftove at Kcvt in June
and July. Little or no bitternefs is perceptible in the drii-d
Ipecimen.

L. cordifollus. Linn. Mant. 43. Browne t. 9. f. 2, is
probably but a mere vafiety, having (horter, and pcrfeiStly
■heart-fliaped leaves, which, in our fpecimcn from Brownt,
are ratlier more downy, as well as the branches.

L. latifolius. Suartz. Ind. Occ. v. I. 34S. never feen by
us, is not by his account very clearly dillingniilied from
thefe ; for lotigifolhts certainly has, by no means, " very long
ttower-ftalks, widely fpreading at their diviiions," whicli he
attributes to it, but rather ftalks " fimply thrce-.''orked,
fcarcely longer than the leaves," fuch as he defcribes in his
latifolius.

lu. glaucifoUus. Jacq. Coll. v. i. 64. Ic. Rar. t. 33. — Ca-
lyx taper-pointed, as long as the tube. Leaves elliptic-
oblong, feffile, glaucous, fmooth. Stem round. — This
feems to agree fufficiently in genus with the above, though
its calyx appears not to be keeled. The root is perennial.
Stem! herbaceous, annual, (lender, nearly hmple. Flowers
purplilh-bl'.ie, on very long limple ftalks. ItbloCTomed witii
.lacqiiin in the Hove, from July to September, but he knew
not its native country.

L. alatiis. Aubl. Guian. v. i. 204. t. 80. — Leaves elhptic-
oblong, tapering at each end, fmooth. Stem fquare, winged.
Segments of the calyx rounded. Corolla declining. — Ga-
thered by Aublet in cultivated as well as wafte ground in
Guiana and Cayenne. One of his fpecimens before us has
the habit of a Clielone. Its calyx is blunt and rounded.
Corolla declining, as well as \.\k fiamens and Jlyle, and fome-
what irregular. The plant is faid to be bitter, and its qua-
lities deobitruent.

L. cheknoliles. Linn. Siippl. 134. — Leaves oblong, flightly
confluent at the bafe, fmooth. Stem round, without wings.
Branches of the panicle racemofe. Calyx rounded. — Sent
to Linnxns from Surinam, and marke(i No. 141. in the
Plantit Surinamenfes. It is fo like a Chelotie or Pcntjlemon,
that LinniEus actually took it for fuch. His fon afterwards
referred it to Lifiantlnis, miftaking it for the above fpecies
of Aublet, from which it differs in the roundy/cm, deltitute
of wings ; more elongated and racemofe flowering-branches ;
and nearly ftraight regular coro/Za.

1^. glalter. Linn. Suppl. 134. Sm. Ic. ex Herb. Linn.
t. 29. (L. frigidus ; Svvartz. Ind. Occ. v. i. 352.) — Smooth.
Leaves ovate, llalked, acute. Flowers fomevvhat corym-
bofe. Stem fquare below. — Native of South America and
Jamaica. A large and handfome herbaceous plant, with
yeWow Jloiuers , whofe corolla is regular and dilated. The
iegments of the calyx are indeed more rounded and obtufe
in the Jamaica fpecimens than in thofe of Mutis, but we
cannot think that difference effential, every other part being
fo alike in both. The lower portion of the Jlem is wanting
in Miitis's fpecimen, which cauled that part to be defcnbed
as round, the branches being fo, as well as in Swartz's.

L. exfertus. Swart/.. Ind. Occ. v. i. 346. -Leaves ovato-
lanceolate, on longifli Italks. Calyx taper-pointed. Sta-
mens and llyle much longer than the corolla. — Native of
the cloud-capped fuinmits ot the Blue Mountains of Ja-
maica. Szvart-z. It is iaid to have been alive at Kew, but
not to have flowered. Tliey/f/n is flirubby. Leaves nume-
rous, elliptic-lanceolate, tapering at each end, fmooth, on
(lender footllalks from half an inch to an inch long. Flowers
rather fmall, in three-forked compound panicles ; remark-
able for the very long, (lender, projecling orijans of frufti-
ficatioii. If this fpecies be carefully conlidered, it will
perhaps be found to conciliate, in fome meaiure, the dif-
ferences bctweeu the difcordant ones above defcnbed. Its

lalyx agrees mod with the former, thougli neither kecli-d
nor winged ; its corolla with the latter ; its habit is akin t9
both ; its /Lmimt peculiar to itielf.

LISICZNIK, ill Geography, a town of Poland, in Podo-
lia ; 28 miles W. of Kaminiec.

LISIEUX, a town of France, and prinrina! place of a
dillrid, in the department of the Calvados, and before the
revolution, the fee of a birtiop. The place contains 10,192,
and the canton 28,293 inhabitants, on a territory of 260
kiliometres, in 30 coliiuiunes. N. lat. 49'^ 8' 50''. E.long.
o 13' 32".

LISIGNANO, a town of Iftria ; 14 miles E. S.E. of
Pola.

LISKE.^ RD, a borough and market-town in the hun-
dred of Weil and county of Cornwall, England, is lituatcd
partly on rocky hills asd partly in a bottom ; and through
this Inequality of the ground, the flreets have the appeiir-
ance of being difpofed with ftudied irregularity. The bafe-
ment itories of the houlcs are confcqncntly diverfdied ; the
foundations of fome buildings being on a level with the
chimnies of others. The church confifts of three ipacions
aifles, and has a tower built moiUy of granite ; the foutli
fide of the church is ornamented with pinnacles and battle-
ments, alio of granite ; but the greater part of the iirufture
is compofed of flatc-llone, which likewiFe conltitutes the
foundation of the town. The town-hall is fupported on
granite columns, in the fpace between which a confiderable
market is held on Saturdays. Here are fix annual fairs.
On an eminence north of the town are the mouldering found-
ations of a callle, but every trace of its fliape ai.d archi-
tefture is nearly obliterated : near it is a large lield, ftill
called CalUe-park ; but no fragments appear of the " Chapel
of our Lady," mentioned by Browne Willis to have flood
therein. There is, however, a houfe ftanding at the boltom
of the town, which, from its windows, gateway, and (cidp-
tured ornaments, feeras to have been connefted with fome
religious eflablilhnicnt. Liflieard was conllituted a free bo-
rough by Richard, brother to Henry III. by charter dated
June ^, 1240. Queen Elizabeth, in the year 1580, granted
a charter of incorporation, by which the civil government
was veiled in a mayor, recorder, eight capital bnrgeifes, and
fifteen affiilants, who, with the other freemen of the borough,
elcdl two members of parliament. Lilkeard is 16 miles
dillant from Plymouth, and 237 from London : in the year
1800 the parifli was returned to parliament as containing 507
houies, and 2708 inhabitants.

In the parifh of St. Cleer (to the north of Liflveard) are
various Druidical and other antiquities ; particularly the
Hurler?, which conlilled, whei\ perfeft, of three contiguous
circles of upright Hones from three to five feet in height ;
the Cheefc-Wring, a natural pile of rude rocks, rifuig to the
height of thirty-two feet ; the Other Half-ltone, which ap-
pears to have been the (haft of a crofs which originally flood
upright. To tliefe may be added, a cromlech of great
magnitude, called Trevethey-flone. St. Cleer's well, of whicli
fome remains are ftill extant, was in the' times of ignor-
ance and fuperftition eiieemed a bath of fovereign virtue.
South of Lillteard is St. Keyne's well, which is claffed by
Carew among the natural wonders of Cornwall. Of this
faint, and of the well, many poetical and legendary tales
are extant. The fprin<r is arched over, and on the mould
which covers this arch five large trees are growing. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ii.

LISLAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ;
fix miles S. of Benatak.

LISLE, Claude de, in Biograp/.y, a celebrated French
writer in hiftorv, was born at Lorrain in the year 1644.

He

LISLE.

He was received a member of the Jefuits' college at Pont- Lisle, Joseph Nicholas de, young-er brother of the
a-MoufTon, took his degrees in law, and was admitted an preceding, was born at Paris in i6S8. Havi.ig received a
advocate. Conceiving, in a very (hort time, a great diflike good education in ih.' elements of learning, he attended Ice.
to the la«-, he devoted himfelf to the lludy of iiiftory and tures in the Mazarine college. The total eclipfe of the fiia
geography. For the fake of the fuperior advantages to be which occurred in March 1706, led him to purfiie withavi-
obtained in the metropolis, he removed to Paris, and applied dity mathtnialical learning, particularly in its application to
himfelf to the inftruftions of the mod diftinguilhed pro- allronomy, and he foon exhibited a furprifing genius for ir-
felTors. Having obtained a large fund of knowledge on
the fubjec\.s referred to, he commenced private ledurcr, and
acquired fuch a high reputation in his profeffion, that he
could boart of having been mailer to the principal nobility
at the French court. M. de Lide died at Paris in 1720,
in the feventy-fixth year of his age. He was author of
" An Hill»,rical Account of the Kiugdoni of Siam ;" "A
Genealogical and Hilloncal Atlas, on engraved Plates;"
" .^»n Abridgment of Univerfal Hillory, from the Creation
of the World to 1714," in 7 vols. izmo. ; and feveral other

vention, combination, and calculation. In 1709, he obtained
leave to occupy the cupola of tiie Luxembourg palace for
an obfervatoiy ; he was now enabled to make a wooden
quadrant, which he divided with great tare, and which he
found to anfwer his purpofe in his early obfervations. Short-
ly after this, his father's numerous family made it neceflkry
for him to endeavour to procure for hinifelf tl^e means of
fupport ; and in doir;g this he found himfelf obliged to ren-
der his allronomical (Icill fubfervicnt to the reveries of judi-
cial allrology, tor which he was not only remunerated bv

works, one of which was " An Introduction to Geographv, pecuniary prefents from the regent, marfiial de Noailies, and

with a Treatife on the Sphere ;" pubhfhed in 1740, in the other great men, but had the grant of a penfion of 60a

name of his eldell fon. Moreri. livres. This was in the year 17I5, when he was deeply en-

Li.sLE, William de, a learned French geographer, fon gaged in calcuhting the tables of the moon according to the

of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1675. He difco- theory of fir Ifaac Newton. He had, previoufly to ihii,

vered at a very early age a genius for geographical lludies, been eledled a member of the Academy of Sciences, which

and defigned maps before he was nine')'ear5 of age. In the gave new energy to his exertions, and the memoirs of that

ye?r 1696 he pubhihed a map of the world, maps of the

four quarters, as they are called, viz. Europe, Afia, Afi'ica,

and Am.erica, a map of Italy, one of Ancient Africa, ar.d

two globes, a celedial and terrcllrial or.e. Thefe perform-
ances were not only well received, but etUiblifhed the author's

fame. In 1702 he was elefted a member of the Academy

of Sciences, and in 171S he was appointed firll geographer,

with a penfion. He was about the lame time appointed

geographical tutor to the young king, Lewis XV., for

whofe ufe he drew up feveral works, among wliich was a

general map of the world, and another of the retreat of ihe

ten thoufand. He alfo gave the world " A Treatife on the

Courfe of all the known Rivers." The reputation of M. de

Lide was now fo great, tliat all authors of refpeilability

body were in a (liort time enriched with his valuable reflections
and dilTertations. He made many obfervations on the foots
in thi fu!T, and was led to form from them a theory to de.
terniine the fun's rotation on his axis. In 1720 he delivered
a propolal to the Academy for afcertaining in France the
figure ot the earth, and fome years afterwards his defigns
relative to that object were carried into execution. la
17:4. M. de Lille paid a vifit to England, obtained the no-
tice and triendlhip of Newton and Haiiey, and was admitted
a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1726, by the invita-
tion of Catharine, emprefs of Ruffia, he went to Peterf-
burg, to fill the pod of alhonom.er royal in the Imperial
Academy of Sciences. In this fituation he occupied the
houfe of the obfervatory built by Peter the Great, in

■who wrote on hidory or fubjefts connecfted witli it, were which he fpent nearly twenty-one years, in inceffant labours

dejlrous of embellifl'.ing them with his maps ; and many, fo- for the improvement of ailronomy and geography. The

vereign princes endeavoured to tempt him to enter into their firll feries of his obfervations were employed in afcertaininff

fervice. The emperor, Peter the Great, paid him a vilit the longitude end latitude of Peterfburg, and the refractions

with the view of obtaining from him a knowledge of the in that northern region. After this he devoted feveral years

extent and fituation of his own dominions. He died in the to an alTiduous obfervaticn of the meridional height of all the

fifty-tirft year of his age, while he was engaged in many planets, and of the fixed liars of the three firft magnitudes,

ufetul and important works. Moreri. and pubhihed memoirs illuflrative of the hiftory of allrono-

LlsLE, Lewis DE, brother of the preceding, celebrated my, in two vols. 4to. In the year i 740, a tranfit of Mercury-

for his knowledge in allronomy, rendered foir.e important was expefted, which, as it would not be vifible m Europe,

fervice to the interelts of fcience, by the hazardous journies he was determined to travel into Afia to obferve. His firll

and voyspes which he undertook to promote them. In the
year 1726 he went to Ruffia with his brother Jofeph, who
had been appointed allronomer to the Academy of Sciences
at Peterlburg. Lewis, at this time, made e.'vcurfions be-
yond the utmoll boundaries of the immenfe Ruffian empire.
He took ieveral journies to the coails of the Icy fea, to

obfervations in the climate of Siberia, were on the iiitenfe-
nefs of the cold, which was greater than had ever been
pointed out by a thermometer, or tlian it was conceived pof-
fible for human nature to futlain. He publilhed a memoir
on this fubjeft in the volume of the TranfaCtions of the
French Academy for 1749. When the time for obferving

Lapland, and the government of Archangel, to determine the tranfit arrived, the cloudinefs of the weather totallv

the fituation of the pnncipal places by allronomical obferva- frullrated the defign of his journey. His time and labour

tions. He afterwards traverfed a great part of Siberia, were not however wholly loll, as he employed hinifclf ia

with M. MuUer and M. Gmelin, profeffors of the academy making geographical and phyhcal obfervations, and 111 draw-

at Peterlburg. In 1 741 he proceeded alone to Kamtfchatka, ing up a delcription of the couutrv, wliich defcnutioir is ic-

and went from thence to Cape Beering, to examine the un- ferted in the eighteenth volume of tjuerlou's Hidory of

known northern coalts of America, and the feas between Travels, &c. Another fruit of his expedition inta'thj

them and the --Vtlantic continent. He died in the iame year. Ruffian dominions, was an atlas ot" the country, fiid puh-

On account of his great merit he obtained a feat in the Aca- lilhed in the Ruffian language, and afterwards in the, LjIiV.

demy of Sciences, and was author of fome papers in the Connected with his meteorological obfervations, he condriiit-

•' Memoirs" of that learned body, and of the Academy of ed a thermometer, which »vas differently graduated from thofe

Sciences at Peterlburg. Moreri. then in ufe : the de2rces began at the heat of boiling watsr,

Vol, XXL U c ^j

L I S

L I S

ami thence incrcaled to 150, wliich was the freezing point.
In the ycnr 1747, after much ill treatment on the part of
the Ruflian government, he obtained his dilmifl'ion, lett Pe-
tcrlhurg in the month of May, and arrived in Paris in .Sep-
tember of tlie fame year. On his return he was appointed
profeilbr of the mathematics at the college royal, in which
fittiation he lived to render the greated fervicc to the interell-!
cf fcicnee, by training up pnpils worthy of fncli a mafter,
iimnn<T whom was the celebrated M. de la Lande. fie now
fitted up and furniflied an obfervatory, in which he continued
his labours, without interruption, tor feveral years. In the
year 174H, his pupil M. Moniiier took a voyage to Scotland
to obferve an annular cclipfe of the fun, which furnilhed an
opportunity for meafuring the diameter of the moon at the
time when it thould be entirely vihble on tlie fun's difl<. On
this fubjeft De I.ille publifhcd a large advertifement, which
was reckoned a complete treatiie on annular echples. He
afterwards entered more fully on the confideration of the
theory of eclipfes, and he communicated a part of his re-
fearches on the fubjedtothe Academy in 1749. He was lo
expert in calculations, that he made many tounded on the
obfervations of Greenwich, Berlin, Scotland, and Sweden.
He publifhed " New Charts of the Difcoveries of Admiral
de Fonte, orFuente, made in 1640, and thofe of other navi-
gators, Spanilh, Portuguefe, Englilh, Dutch, French and
KaJiiaf) i" ^''^ Northern feas, with explications." This
•work was prefented to the public in 1750 and l75^ In
the latter of thefe years he publiftied a curious map of the
world, in which he reprefented, for the benefit of allrono-
mers impatiently waiting for the tranlit of Mercury over
the fun, the effcft of the parallaxes of Mercury in different
countries, in order to point out the proper places for making
fuch obfervations on the tranfit, as fliould, ft-om the difference
of their refult, furnifh a method of determining the dif-
tance of the fun, in a manner fimilar to that apphed by Hal-
ley to the tranfit of Venus. Another work of this la-
borious and indefatigable philofophcr, publifhed in the
Tranfaftions of the Academy, was on the comet of 1758,
■which had been firft difcovercd by a peafant in the neigh-
bourhood of Drcfden, and which was vifible feveral months ;
but he was principally attentive to the one predifted by Dr.
Halley, forty years before, as to make its appearance in
1759, and which was firft feen in January of that year. He
gave an account of his obfervations on that comet in the
firft volume of the " Mercure," for July 1759. He was
afterwards afiiduoufly engaged on the fubjeft of the tranfit
of Venus, which was expelled in 1761, in order that he
might correft the error of Halley, and thus prevent perfons
from undertaking long voyages for the fake of obferving it,
■whofe labours would have proved ufelefs with refpeft to the
objeft in view.

M. de Lifle had, fome years previoufly to this, been ap-
pointed aftronomical geographer to the marine, an office
■which had been' eftablifhed many years, with the exprefs
■view of having a depot, in which might be prefervcd all the
defigns, pla.!S, charts, &c. of the (Joafts of France, and of
the colonies and eftabhfhmcnts in different parts of the
world, with the memoirs relating to them : to M de JLifle's
office was attached tlie bufinefs of collefting and arranging
the plans and journals of naval captains, and to extraft from
them whatever might be found beneficial to the king's fervice
in this department. His majelly now purchafed, with a
penfion for life, all M. de Lifle's rich aftronomical and geo-
graphical colleflions, which were added to the MSS. in the
depot. In the year 1758, our author felt fome fymptoms of
decline, and withdrew as much as he could from pub-
lic life, leaving the care gf his oblervationj to M. Meffier,

aad obtaining from the minifter the appointment of M. deli
Lande for his coailjutor at tlic college royal. He went to
refide at the abbey of St. Genevieve, where he fpent much
of his time in devotional exercifes, and devoted the greateft.
part of his income to afts of benevolence and charity. In
his retirement he cherifhed his tafle for aftronomy and geo-
graphy, correfponded with men of fcience, read new works,
and even ("elected fome of his own in M.S. with a view to publi-
cation. He died on the nth of July 1768, being in the
Sill year of his age. As a man of fcience his merits are
very great, and in private life he was diftiiiguiflied by unaf-
fected piety, pure nior.als, undeviating integrity, and raoft
amiable manners. Gen. Biog.

Ll.StK Ui: 1.A DREVEllKltK, Lf.W IS-Fr.\XCIS DE, a

French dramatic writer, was defcended from a noble family,
and born in the province of Dauphine. His friends intend-
ed him for the bar, but his own inclinations were decidedly
againft the profeffion of the law, and as his father could not
fupport him in the ftyle which his diflipated turn required,
he was relolvcd to maintain himfelf by his talents, and began
to write for the ItaUan theatre. In 1721 he prefented for
public exhibition his comedy of" Arlcquin Sauvaj^e," which
was fuccefsful, and which is even now occafionally brought
before the public. His " Timnn le Mifantlirope" acquired
a much larger (hare of popularity : he publifhed and brought
on the ftage many other pieces, chiefly of the comic call :
and he compofed a tragedy entitled " Danaus," and a poein
entitled " Effai fur 1' Amour Propre ;" which, with feveral
other pieces, were colle£iedin a fingle volume. He died in
1756, and has been defcribed as a haughty, taciturn, and
thoughtful charafter.

Lisle, in Geography,. See LiLLE.

Lisle, a town of France, in the department of the Dor-
dogne ; 9 miles N.W. of Perigueux. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Yonne ; 24 miles S.E. of
Auxerre.

Li.sle, a poft-town of America, in Tioga county, Ne^w
York ; through which paffes a branch of the Chenengo,
uniting with the Chenengo in the S.E. corner of the town-
fliip. It contains 660 inhabitants.

LiSLENA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-
land ; 16 miles S.S.W. of Upfal.

I^ISMORE, an ifiand of the Hebrides, in the county of
Argyle, Scotland. It is fituated at the month of the great
arm of the fea called Locli-Linnhe, and extends about ten
miles in length and two in breadth. The whole of this
illand lies on a Ifratum of excellent lime-ftone, unfirtunately
rendered of little value to the inhabitants by the deficiency
of fuel to burn it. Mr. Pennant fays the derivation of its
name is from I.iofmor, or the great garden. According to
tradition, however, it was not a garden, but a decr-forell,
and as a proof of this, multit-.ides of (lags' horns of un-
common fi-/.es are frequently dug up in the moffy parts of it.
At prefent there is very little wood, but the foil being fer-
tile, the leffer vegetables fhoot up with uncommon vigour.
The chief produtlions of the ground are beans and oats.
The former are moftly applied to the purpofes of diftillation;
and the latter go to the dilcharge of rents, fo that the in-
habitants are obliged to import large quantities of meal for
their fubfiftence. There are a conliderable number of cattle
reared in this ifiand, but they are generally of very fmall
llature. The author already mentioned thinks they mirll
have greatly degenerated from their original growth, for he
informs us that he faw the IkuU of an ox dug up here, which
was of much larger dimenfions than any now living ui Great
Britain. About a hundred head of the largeft are exported
annually. The horfes bred here are extremely fhort-hved.
2 They

L I S

Tlif y are harnefled when only two or three yearj old, which
pradlice will no doubt affift in (hortening the period of their
exifteiice. Neither foxes, hares nor rats can be found in the
idand ; otters and mice however are abundant. It contains
three fmall lakes, two of which are famed for excellent trout,
and the third for eels.

Lifmore was formerly the feat of the bifhop of Argyle,
who was thence ilyled Epifcopus Lifmorenfis. Mr. Pen-
nant fays there are no remains either of the cathedral or the
bilhop's palace. In the Beauties of Scotland, however, it
is alTerted, that velliges of both arc ftill to be fcen. The
chancel of the former is there ftated to be ufed as the parilh
church, and the walls of the latter arc faid to be pretty en-
tire, and dillant about four miles from the cathedral. Several
fortified camps can yet be difcovered in ditFerent parts of the
idand. A Danifh fort, furroundcd by a deep fofle, is like-
wife in tolerable condition. The walls are noiv 1 7 feet high,
having a gallery within, and round the area a Itone feat, which
Mr. Pennant fuppofes might have been intended as a general
retting place for the chieftains and their loldiers. The
church, fays tl^e fame author, in conformity with his alTer-
tion that there are no remains of the cathedral, " is a mean
modern building." In the church-yard feveral old monu-
ments are Hill Handing, one of which is very remarkable, as
confilling of nothing more than a thick log of wood. Its
antiquity muft be very great, as there is no word in the
Erfe language to denote this kind of monument. On a rock
are cut the radii of a dial, but the index is deftroyed. A
fmall bafin is excavated in another rock, which was probably
ufed by the Druids in fome part of their religious cere-
Bionies.

There is no fpecial return of the number of inhabitants
in this ifland, but they are reckoned to exceed 1 100 fouls.
Pennant's Tour in Scotland. Beauties of Scotland.

LiSMOiiE, a poll-town of Ireland, on the river Black-
vater, and in the county of Waterford. The bridge over
the river is a tine erection of the duke of Devonlhire's.
The fpan of the principal arch is 190 feet. There are ex-
cellent falmon weirs at this place, which return a confiderable
profit. The appearance of Lifmore from the bridge is aw-
fully fubhme and interefting. The catlle is feated upon a
rock, which rifes in perpendicular (helves from the river to a
tremendous height. The rude rocks are richly crowned
with trees, whofe verdant boughs in fome parts embrace the
placid ftreams, and in others afcend to Ihelter the ruined
towers, and {hade the antique windows of the fort. This
venerable and extesfive caltle, the property of the duke of
Devonfhire, was built by king John, in 1 iSj, on the ruins of
the abbey of St. Carthagh. It afterwards became the
epifcopal refidence, till Myler Megrette, bifiiop of the fee,
conveyed it to fir W. Raleigh. From fir Walter it was
purchafed, with the retl of his property in Ireland, by
Richard Boyle, afterwards the firtl earl of Cork, and his
youngell fon, the celebrated and defervedly efteemed phitofo-
pher Robert Boyle, was born in it. It has iince become the
property of the duke of Devonfhire, who is defcended by
tke female line from the eldeft branch of the Boyle family.
In the town of Lifmore are a neat court-houfe, in which
the feffions are held, a fmall prifon, and a very refpeclable
inn. The church, which ferves both as a parilh church and
as the cathedral of the bilhopric, is old, and was lately in
indifferent repair ; it is however, according to Dr. Beaufort,
ipacious and handfome, and will probably be thoroughly re-
paired. The dean of Lifmore has z peculiar junfdic^ion
over this, and two adjoining parilhes. It has been already
mentioiii'd that St. Carthagh founded an abbey here. This
was in the fe.venth century, and the abbey wa« erected int«

L I S

a bifhopric in ^33. A number of monks repairing hither,
feveral churches and cells were built, and thefe being ufually
the feat of any learning that exilled during the middle ages,
a fchool was foon inititutcd, which, for a long period, be-
came the great refort both of natives and foreigners. In
1536, this fee was united to that of Waterford, under which
an account of it will be given. Before the union, Lifmore
returned two members to the houfe of commons, but this
privilege has ceafed. It is loi Irifli miles S.W. by S. from
Dublin, and 26 N.E. from Cork. Beaufort, Robertfon,
&c.

LISNAKEA, apoft-townof Ireland, in the county of
Fermanagh ; 70 miles N.E. from Dublin.

LISS, a town of Holland ; eight miles N. of Leyden.

LISS.\, a town of Sileiia, in the principality of Brellaw,
on the Weiftritz ; feven miles W.N.W. of Breflaw. N. lat.
51" 7'. E. long. 16' 50'.

Li-i-S-A, anciently /fa, (which fee,) an idand of the
Adriatic, near the coall of Dalmatia, once famous for the
commerce, wealth, and power of its inhabitants, is a moun-
tainous and thinlv inhabited ifland, 30 miles in circuit. In
many parts the foil is good, but not fufficiently cultivated.
In its aiKient ilate it was in alliance with Rome, and carried
on war againft the kings of Illyrium ; but with the decline
of the Roman empire, it funk into a fucceffive dependence
on Narenta, Lelina, and Venice. Its mountains contain
marble, and are interfected by fertile valiies. It produces
wine, fruits, and excellent honey. But its principal fource
of wealth is its fidiery, particularly that of fardines. The
ruins of its capital of the fame name appear above the har-
bour, near a village of the fame name. It has alfo a well-
built populous town, called " Comifa," near the fea, on
the E. fide of the illand, where are the ruins of the ancient
cityof Meo. N. lat. 43 ' 25'. E. long. 16^ 1 8'.

Lis>A, or Lecino, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
raifed from the condition of a village to that of a town, by
the influx of Proteftants driven by perfecution from Silefia^
Bohemia, Moravia, and Aullria. The inhabitants carry on
a good trade. In this town are a Lutheran and alfo a Cal-
vinitl church, and a feminary ; 44 miles S.S.W. of Pofen.
N. lat. 51° jy'. E. long. 16 35'.

L1S.SA, or Thymus Lv/fa, in Ichthyology, a name by which
fome authors have called the fidi more ulually called ^i^;, ft
large fea-fidi of the tunny kind.

LISSABATTA, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft
of the ifland of Ccram, inhabited by an ad'emblage of dif-
ferent people, which have been troublefome to the Dutch.
S. lat. 1 55'. E. long. 128 44'.

LISSANTHE, in Botany, fo named by Mr. R. Brown,
from \iu7'j-, Jmooth, and x-.hr, aJ{o'j.>cr, bccaule of the naked
and beardlefs limb of the corolla ; that part being denfely
coTered with hairs in Leucopogon, and more or lefs fringed
or tufted in feveral other genera, of the fame natural order,
found^n New Holland. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 540.
Clafs and order, PentiinJria Menogjnia. Nat. Ord. Efa-
crideit. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five equal, concave,
permanent leaves, fometimes accompanied by two rather
fmaller ones at the bafc. Ccr. of o-ne petal, funnel-diaped ;
tube nearly cylindrical, generally hairy within ; hmb in five
lanceolate, equal, fpreading, beardlcis fegments. Neftary
a iive-lobed gland, at the bafe of the germen. Siaw. Fila-
ments five, Ihort, within the tube ; anthers roundith, of two
cells, burfting lengthwife. Pi//. Germen fuperior, globular,
with five dight angles ; llyW pentagonal, rigid, (horter than
the tu',e ; lUgma obtufe. Pcrie. i)rupa fucculetit. A'ui
hardj of five cells.

U2 EC

L I S

L I S

F.lT. Cli. G;ilj-x ;>f five or feven loaves. Corolla fiinncl-
fiuped ; its limb boardlcfs. Stamens infcrtej into the tube,
very iliort. Dnipa kicculcnt. Nut hard, of five cells.

Mr. Brown defines lix fpccies of ihis genus, leparated by
him from the Sly/i/.r/ia of preceding jjiitanills, whicii are
difpofcd in tliree leitions. Tliey are fmall, rigid, upright
Ihriibs ; u ith fcattercd leaves, furrowed beneath ; and ratiier
fmall white Jlowers.

St ft. I. Calyx of only five haves. Cltijiers axillary, of
fervjloivers, the'ir partial Jlalksf uriii/heil luilh a pair ofhraSlcas
at the lafe. Tube of the corr.lla hairy within.

1. L.fapiiii. " Clilllerr. of two or three flowers, re-
curved. Leaves obloiig-iincar, (harp-pointed, rcvolute ;
■whiteand ftriated beneath." Br. — Gathered by Mr. Brown
rear Port .lackfon. New South Wales. — By the name, we
prefume the fruit is eatable.

2. L..ful/ulata. " CUiiters of four or five flower';, crefV.
I.eavcs linear-awlfliapcd. Branches fmooth. Fruit with
ten furrows." — Gathered by Mr. Brown in the fame
country. The leaves are about half an inch long.

3. L,.flrivofa. (Styphelia ftrigofa ; Sm. New Hull. 48.)
Clufters colledted towards the ends of the branches, eretf,
of few flowers. Leaves linear-awlfliaped. Branches downy.

Drnpa with five flight angles Sent from Port Jackfoii by

Dr. White in 1793. Found there alfo, as well as in Van
Diemen's land, by Mr. Brown. The flem is (lirubby, rigid,
finely downy, with numerous, fhort, crowded, Icaty, lateral
branches. Leaves fcattered, fometimes impcrfeftly whorled,
nearly feflile, about half an inch long, rigiil, pungent, re-
volute ; fmooth, even and convex above ; ribbed beneath.
Chifltrs axillary and terminal, generally crowded about the
ends of the branches, fliort, eredi, of very few flowers,
their ftalk downy, with feveral pale, concave, fringed
lra3eas. Calyx-leaves like the bracteas. Tube of the co-
rclla thrice as long as the calyx ; limb acute, one-third the
length of the tube. /Inthers nfing juft above the mouth, ac-
companied by a few ereA hairs from the infide of the tube.
Germen and lower part of the flyle clothed with tine, fliort,
hoary down.

Seft. 2. Calyx of fevcn leaves. Corolla f^ort, its tube ami
Tnouth without hairs. Spiles axillary, cf few fluiDers,
' 4. L. montaua. "Leaves oblong-linear, obtufe, ' point-
kfs ; glaucous beneath." — Gathered by Mr. Brown at Van
Diemen's land.

Seft. 3. Calyx of feven leaves. Corolla elongated, its moulh
bfet with dtjlexecl hairs within the tube. Flowers axillary, fo-
litary.

5. L. daphnoides. (Styphelia daphnoides ; Sm. New
Holl. 48.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceelate, llightly concave,
wqth a blunt callous point; iheir edges naked, roughilTi.
S^t from Port Jackfon by Dr. White, in 1792. Mr.
B|"Own found it both in the tropical part of New Holland,
and in Van Diemen's land. The flcm is much branched,
leafy, and finely downy. Leaves fcattered, from ^;h to
i;hs of an inch long, very various in breadth, more or lefs
elliptical, fmooth, flightly concave, entire ; minutely rough-
i.Ti at the edges ; furniflied with numerous branching ribs be-
neath. Flowers numerous, axillary, folitary, on fliort hairy
ftalks. Calyx-leaves all nearly of equal fize and appearance,
ovate, pointed, fmooth, finely fringed, two of them external.
Corolla much like that of L.firigofa, but with rather longer
and narrower fegments, whofe uy per fide appears, as far as
we can judge from the dried plant, to be finely downy from
their bafe to the middle. Mr. Brown however, wlio faw it
alive, defcribes this part as entirely fmooth. The afpeft of
this pretty fpecies is much like that of fome of the f.-naller
kinds of Daphne.

6. L. ciliata, " Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, flat, with a
pellucid point ; their edges finely I'errated and fringed.
Limb of the corolla roughifli." — Gathered by Mr. Brown
in Van Diemen's land. We have feen no fpeeimens of this
fpecies, nor of any others, except the third and fifth, Ror do
we know of any of them bein^ introduced into the gardens
or tins country.

LISSER, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Ghilan ; 60 miles N.W. of Reflid.

LISSOUEN, a town of Pruflia, in Natangen ; 15 miles
S. cf iVlarggrabowa.

J.ISSU.S, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria, in
Dalmatia, between the mouth or the Drin and the frontier
of Macedonia. Ptolemy. Phny calls it " Lin"iim Oppi-
dum," and adds that it was a colony of Roman citizens,
100 miles from Epidanrus, where Macedonia commenced.

LLST, in the Mamificlures, denotes the border of a fluff",
or that whicli bounds its width on each fide.

Du-Cange derives the word from liciie, which, in the age
of corrupt Latin, was iifcd for the inclofures of fields and
cities, as being anciently made with cords interlaced ; or
from ///?<?, quia campum clavdchant injlar liflarum panni ; as in-
clofing the ground after the manner that a liil dues a piece
of c!cth.

All cloths, and fluffs of filk, wool, or cotton, have
lifts. Liils contribute to the goodnefs of the ttufP, and far-
ther ferve to flicw their quality ; which has given occation
to feveral regulations relating to their matter, colour, work,
&c.

List is alfo ufed to fignify the inclofed field, or ground,
wherein the ancient knights held their jufls and combats. It
was fo called as being hemmed round with pales, barriers, or
flakes, as with a hit.

Some of thefe were double, one for each cavalier ; which
kept them apart, fo th;t they could not come nearer each
other than a ipear's length. See Tournament, and Duel.

Ll.ST, Liflel, or Liflello, in Archiled.ure, called alfo cinc-
ture, fillet, fquare, and rcgkt, is a little fqiiare moulding,
ferving to crown or accompany larger mouldings j and, on
occafion, to feparate the flutings of columns.

Llst, in the Sea Language, the fame with Liifl.

Li.sT, Civil. See Civil if}, and Revenue.

LISTENING, according to Rohault, cc-nfifts in ex-
tending or bracing the tympanum oi the ear, and putting it
into fuch a condition, as that it fliall be the more affected
by any tremulous motion of the external air. See Eah.

Listening, in the Manege, as when we fay a horfe goes
a lillcning pace. See Ecoute.

J^JhTKSiSG Trumpet. See TRUMPET.

LISTER, M.M'.ilN, in Biography, a phyfician and na'u-
ralift, was born about 1638. He was of a Yorklhire fa-
mily, (fettled in Buckiiighamflilre,') winch produced a con-
fiderable number of medical praftitioners of reputation ;
among whom was fir Matthew Eiller, phyfician to Charles I.,
and prefident of the College of Phyficians. Martin was edu-
cated under the direftion of his uncle, fir Matthew, and
fcnt to St. .John's college, Cambridge, v.'here he took his
firft degree in arts in 1658. In i66o he was made fellow
of his college by royal mandate. Having made choice of
the profcffion of medicine, lie purfued his fludies with zeal,
and travelled to the continent for the purpofe cf farther im-
provement. On his return in 1670, he fettled at York,
where he praftifed his profeflion for many years with ccmfi-
<lerable reputation. At the fame tim.e he applied all the lei-
fure, which his avocations allowed him, to the invelliga-
tlon of the natural hiftory and antiquities of the mrth of
England } and having communicated feveral papers on thefe
3 fubjefti

L I S

L I T

fabjecb to the Royal Society, he was cleftcd a fellow of
that body. He contributed many coins, altars, and other
antiquities, together with a great number of valuable natu-
ral ciiriofities, to the Afhmolean niufeum at Oxford. His
various productions having made him well known to the
learned in the kingdom, upon the fohcitatii n of his friends
he removed to London in the year i6{!4. Ke was at tliat
time created dotlor of pliyllc by diploma at Oxford, upon
the particular recommendation of the chancellor ; and was
foon afterwards elefled a fellow of the College of Phyficians.
In 169S he accompanied the earl of Portland in his embafly
from king Wilham to the court of France ; when, having
obtained introductions to the mod eminent men of fcience at
Paris, he viewed all the curiofities of that capital. On his
return he publifhed an account of this journey, which con-
tained fome things of a tritlaig nature, and gave occalion to
a bnrlefque imitation, entitled " A Jourr,ey to London,"
by Dr. WiUiam Kmg. At that time, indeed, when the
ftudy of natural hillory was little attended to, a man who
had written on (nails and fpidcrs, and bcllowed his attention
on the minutelt parts of natural ki-.owledge, was particularly
liable to incur the ridicule of wits. In confequence ot the
illnefs of Dr. Hannes, in 1709, Dr. Lillcr was made fecond
phyfician in ordinary to queen Anne ; an appointment which
he did not hold long ; for he died in February 1711-12.

The medical writings of this piiyfician are not void of va-
luable oblervations, deduced from his own experience ; but
they are marked by a propenhty to hypothefis, and too
ftrong an attachment to ancient doftrines. Thefe are two
works on Englifh medicinal waters, entitled " De Fontibus
Medicatis Anglix, Exercitatio nova et prior," 1682, "al-
tera," 1684: " Excrcitationes fee Medicinales, de quibuf-
dam morbis chronicis," 1694, which was republilhed, with
additions, in 1697. The dileafes here treated of are dropfy,
for which he recommends the ufe of draftic purgatives ; dia-
betes, hydrophobia, fyphihs, for which he admits that
mercury is a fpcciiic, but avers that the mercury itfelf re-
quires an antidote, which is found in the guaiacuni ; fcurvy,
gout, Hone, and fmall-pox, for which iaft he extols the re-
medial efFefts of the alexiplurmic medicines, and condemns
the cooling practice introduced by the fagacious Sydenham.
In general, indeed, he is a keen controvcrilaliil, and indulges
in fevere remarks upon fome of his contemporaries, efpe-
cially Sydenham. In his "^iffertatio de Humonbus,"
1709, which is full of hvpothefes, he is not lefs fevere in his
treatment of Drake and Ruyfch.

The reputation of Liller is principally founded on his rc-
fearches in natural hillory and comparative anatomy. He
publiflied nearly forty papers in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, Nos. 2) to jSj inclufive, in addition to the following
works. " Hilloris Anmialium Anglis Tractatus tres :
unus de Araneis : alter de Cochleis, turn terrcftribus, turn
fluviatilibus : tertius de Cochleis marinis," 167S, 4to.
" Exercitatio Anatomica de Cochleis maxime terreltribus et
Limacibas," 1694. 8vo. " Exercitatio Anatomica altera
de Buccinis fluviatilibus et niarini.-,," 1695, Svo. " Exerci-
tatio Anatomica tertia C(.nchvIiorum bivalvium," 1696,
4to. In all thefe works Dr. Liiler has difplayed great ac-
curacy of obfervation, and ind.faigable induilry, in de-
tecting the moll minute and curious partif ulars of the eco-
nomy of thefe creatures. He alfo edited a correft and better
arranged copy of Goedart's Treatife on Iiiteits, in 16S5 ;
and an edition of SanSorius's " Medicina Statioa," with a
commentary, in 1701. His "Journey to Paris," notwith-
llanding the efforts of ridicule, was well received, and con-
tains a variety of curious matter. Gen. Biog. Hulchin-
foc, Biog. Med- Eloy Did. Hiit.

LISTERLANTD, in Geography, .1 cape on the S. Coa&

of Norv.ay ; 20 nulos N.W. of LinJefnefs.

LISTING, or Ini,i.sti.\c;, in Military Lan^un^e, de-
notes liic retaining and enrolling foldiers, as volunteers, for
tile national fervice. When any per Ton is iiilided as a fol-
dier, he (liall within four days, but not fooner than twenty-
four hours, be taken before the next julticc of peace, or
chief magiilrate of a town corporate, not being an officer
in the army ; and before him fliall be at lit)e)-ty to declare
his dilFeiit to fuch inlilUng ; and on fuch declaration, and
returning the in'.i'.ling money, and paying ics for the
charges ex[>er.ded on him, he Ihall be forthwith difcharged,
ill pretence of luch magillrate. But if he (liall refufe or,
negleft in twenty-four hours to return and pay fuch money,
he Ihall be deemed to be inlifted, as if he had given his &{-
fent before the magiftrate. If he declare that h^e volun-
tarily inlilted himfelf, the magiftrate fhall certify under his
hand, that fuch perfon is duly inhfted, fetting forth the
place of his birth, age, and calling, if known ; and that '
the third and fourtli articles of the fecond fefiion, and the
firll article of the iixth feftion of the articles of war againft
mutiny and defertion were read to him, and that he has
taken the oaths mentioned in the faid articles of war ; -vnz,
the oath of fidelity and the oaths in the fcheduLs marked A,
and B ; except in the cafe of recruits inhfted either in his
Biajefty's fervice or m the Eail India company's forces under
39 Geo. III. c. 109, in which cafe each recruit flial!, in-
Head of the faid oath of fidelity, and that contained in the
fchedule A or B, take the oath of allegiance diiected by
the 39th of the king, and contained in Ichedule E, and
the juitice or maglllrate Ihall certify luch inliftmtnt and
fwearing according to the fchedule F ; and if any ptrfon
fo certitied as duly inlifted ftiall refufe to take the laid oath
of fidelity before inch maglllrate, &;c. the officer, from
whom he hath received luch money, may detain and confine
him till he (hall take it ; and every military officer that iball
herein offend, (hall be calhiered and dilplaced from their
office, and difabled from holding any mihtary poll, and
forfeit jo/. See Foreign yt/n'itf.

LIS rOWHILL, or LisTOWELL, in Geo^nrp/iy, a poft-
town of Ireland, in the county of Kerry, fjtuated on thjji
river Feale. The caiUe, on the fummit of a lleep precipice
above the river, was the lad ftrong hold which held out
againft queen Elizabeth in 1600. It is 131 miles S.W,
by AV. from Dublin, and 13 N.E. from Tralee.

LISTVENNISCHNA, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkut(k, on the Argun, on tlic confines o£
China. N. lat. 51 44'. E. long. 121 20'.

LIT, a town of Sweden, in Jamlland ; 10 miles N. of
Ofterfand.

LITA, in Botany, fo named by Sclireber, from >.i'of,
/tmph, nahcd, or dcjVuute, becaufe the plant confifts chiefly
of flowers, with a very trifling Hem, and no leaves, but a
few fmall fcales. Schreb. 795. Willd. Sp. PI v. 1. 107 1.
Mart. Mill. Diet, V. 3. (Voyria; Aubl. Guian. v. i. 2Cti.
Vohiria; Jufl. 141. Lamarck Illuftr. t. IC9. — Chifs and
order, Pentcuulr'ia Monogyaia. Nat. Ord. R</tcue£x Linn.
Gcntinnj:, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, tubular,
ereft, coloured, five-cleft, acute, permanent. Cor. of One
petal, falver (haped ; tube cylindrical, very long, dlla'ed al
the top and bottom ; limb in five equal, ovate, ipreadlng,
deep fegments. Siani. Filaments (carcely any i anthers five,. "
roundifli, two-lobed, nearly feOUe, in the throat of the tube.
Pi/i. Gcrmen fuperior, ovate-obiong ; llyle thread-ihaped»
the length of the tube ; ftigma capitate, abrupt. I'tria.
Capfule oblong, of oue cell and twa valves. .SVcv/r ver^

auir.cr>;ut»

L I T

L I T

numereus, minute, chaffy, attached to the inflexed margins
o/ the v;ilvcs.

Eff. Ch. Corolla falver-lhapod. Anthers feffile, within
the tube. Stigma abrupt, undivided. Capfule of one cell
and two valves.

I. L. rnfea. Willd. n. i. (Voyria rofea; Aubl. Guian.
V. I. 309. t. 83. f. I.) — Flowers in pairs. Segments ot the
corolla acute. Root tuberous. — Gathered by Aublet in
the forclls of Guiana, where the natives call it Foyr'ui, and
eat the roafted root, which is tuberous, rcfembling a potatoe
in (hape and flavour, and throws out various fprcading
fibres. The Jlein is fohtary, feveral inches long, chiefly
concealed under the ground, fquare, knotty, fmooth, hear-
ing feveral, oppolite or ternate, little, acute, flefhy fcales,
inllead of leaves, in the manner of a Laihrea, and dividing
at the top, where it rifes above the furface, into feveral
branches about an inch long, with more frequent knots, and
rather larger fcales. Each branch bears two large and
handfome, rofe -coloured flotvers, whofe tube is near two

inches long, fwelling at the top as well as at the bafe, but for.

X.ITAKY, in II modern fcnfe, denotes a form of prayer,
fung or faid in churches ; confiding of feveral periods, or
articles ; at the end of each of which is an invocation in
the fame terms.

Before the lall review «f the common prayer, the litany
was a diftinft fervice by itfelf, and ufed lome time after the
morning prayer was over. At prelent it is made one office
with the morning fervice, being ordered to be read after the
third collect for grace, inllead of the intercefliolial prayers
in the daily fervice.

It has been obferved, that none but thofe who arc avowed
Trinitarians can confcientioudy join in this pari of the
church fervice ; it has been alfo obferved, that in the peti-
tion to be delivered from " all deadly fin," there fecms to be
an intimation of the popilh doctrine of venial and mortal or
deadly fin, and that the petition in the mafs-book, from
which a great part of the litany is taken, for deliverance from
" fudden death," is more guardedly expreiied, " a fubita et
improvifa morte," i. e. from death fudden and unprovided

contracted again at the orifice. The linii is about half an
inch in diameter, fpreading like a ilar, with (harp points.
Ca/yx fhort, bell-fliaped. Sometimes the Jloivers are
folitary.

2. L. cdTiilea. Willd. n. 2.' (V'oyria casrulea ; Aubl.
Guian. v. 1. 211. t. S3, f. 2.) — Flowers in pairs. Segments
of the corolla rounded, ohtufe. Root tuberous. — Native
of palm foreils in Guiana, where it blofToms in May. This
differs from the preceding in having blue fonvers, whofe
limb is larger, with round or obovate blunt fegments, and
a more dilated orifice ; as well as a more deeply cut calyx.
Aublet fays the flowers are occafionally fix. cleft, with fix
ftamens.

3. L. hilea. (Gentiana aphylla ; .Tacq. Amer. 87. t. 60.
f. 3. Helleborine aphyllos, flore luteo ; Plum. Cat. 9?)

Stems limple, fingle-flowered. Segments of the corolla

acute. Root fibrous, fafciculated. Gathered by Jacquin,

LITAO, in Geography, a town on the N W. coaft of
the ifland of Timor. S. lat. q 2'. E. long. 124^ 42'.

LITCHFIELD. See LirnriEi.D.

LiTPHKiKi.ii, a townlhip of America, in Lincoln county,
Maine, 4, miles from Hallowell ; containing 1044 inhabit-
ants.— Alio, a townfhip in Hilllhorough county. New
Hamplhire, Ctuated on the E. fide of Merrimack river,
about J4 miles W. of Portfmouth : fettled in 1749 and
containing, in 1800, 372 inhabitants. — Alfo, a popuU)US
and hilly county of Connecticut, bounded N. by MafTachu-
fetts, S. by New Haven and Fairfield counties, E. by
Hartford, and W. by New York. It is dinded into 20
townihips, containing 41,214 inhabitants. Although the
face of the country is generally mountainous, the foil is
fertile, yielding large crops of wheat and Indian corn, and
affording fine paiture. The inhabitants are almoil univer-
fally farmers, and wholly detached from maritime commerce.

flowering in May as well as December, in the extenfive — Alfo, the chief and poft-town of the above county,
damp mountainous foreils of Martinico. It is a fmall and feated on an elevated plain, expofed to the cold winds of
tender plant, evidently akin, as Aublet remarks, to his two winter, but enjoying a large portion of the refrefliing
fcecies above defcribed ; though the root confifts only of breezes of fummer. Its fituation is handiome, and it con-
thick entangled fibres. Stems four inches high, of a (hining tains about 60 or 70 compaft dwelling houfes, a court-
ftraw-colour, jointed, fingle-flowered, bearing feveral pairs houfe, a meeting-houfe, and 4285 inhabitants; 32 miles
of minute, oppofite, acute fcales. Flotvers an inch long, W. of Hartford. N. lat. 41' 46'. W. Iong^73' 37'. On

flcnder, yellowifh, inodorous, with a fmall, acute, ilellated
"border. TVitvc JUgma is defcribed as fimple, capitate, and
^btufe, as it ought by analogy to be, though in the figure
reprefented cloven.

LITAD A, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Nogro-
ponte, in the Grecian Archipelago ; 48 miles N.W. of Ne-
groponte.

LITANY, an old churcli term, applied to the pro-
ceflions, prayers, and fupplications ufed for appeafing the

feveral fmall (Ireams, fome of which fall into Great Pond, a
beautilul Iheet of water, are three iron-works, an oil-mill,
and a number of faw and grill-mills. — Alfo, a townfhip in
Herkemer county, New York, taken from German Flats,
incorporated in 1796, and containing 1976 inhabitants.
Morfe.

LIT-CHI, or Licrii, in Botany, .Sonnerat Voy. v. 2.
230. t. 129, a valuable Chinefe truit, which, after being
dried in an oven, becomes an objeft of commerce. It is

wrath of God, averting his judgments, or procuring his globofe, the fize of a fmall walnut, confilling of a thick

tuberculated coat, enclofing a large hard feed, enveloped in
a quantity of pleafantly acid pulp. See Euphouia, Scy-

TALI.\, and DlMOCARPCS.

LI-TCHUEN, in Geography, a town of Corea ; l^
miles N.W. of Long-kouang.

LITE, the name of a plafler much commended by the

mercies.

The word comes from the Greek Xiravsia, fupplicat'ton ;
ef Xiravtwi', / befeeeh. Pezron would go farther, and derive
the >.iTo/ixi, or Aio-e-ofixi, of the Greeks, from the Celtic lit,
Jeqfl, fokmnity.

Ercclefiaftical authors, and the Roman order, by the

word litany ufually mean the people who compofe the pro- ancients: it confilled of verdigris, wax, and refin. What-

ceflion, and affitt. at it ; and Du-Cange obferves, that the ever virtues this plafler poffelfed, might be probably found

word anciently fignified*ror<^on. in the melilot plafler of the (hops in general, till the late

Simon of Thcffalonica mentions, that, in the ancient reformation made by the London Pharmacopeia, the colour

litanies, the people went out of the church, to denote the being generally given by our wholefale dealers with verdigris,

fall of Adam ; and returned into it again, to ihew the not with the juice of the herb from which it took its

«eturn 01 a pious loul to God by repentance. name.

LITERS

L I T

I. I T

LITERjE Commun'ICATORI.-f,, in Church Hi/lory, lotteri
granted by the bilhops to penitents, when the timt- of tlicir
penance was nnifhed, by which they were again received
into the communion of the faithful.

LITERAL Algebra. See Algebra.

Literal Characier. ' See Character.

LiTERALis Caku'us. See Calculus.

LITERARY Property, is that property wliich an
author, or his afllgnee, mav be luppofed to have in his own
literary compofitions ; fo that no other perfon without his
leave may publilli or make profit of the copies. Tlie
Roman law adjudged, that if one man wrote any thing on
the paper or parchment of anatlier, the writing iliould be-
long to the owner of the blank materials (.lull. 2. i. 33.) ;
meaning thereby the mechanical operation of writing, for
which It directed, the fcribe to receive a fatisfaftion ; for,
in works of genius and invention, as in painting on another
man's canvas, the fame law gave the canvas to the painter.
As to any other property in the works ot the underllanding,
the law is filcnt ; though the fale of literary copies, for the
purpofes of recital or multiplication, is certainly as ancient
as the times of Terence (Prolog, in Eunuch. :o.). Martial
(Epigr. i. 67. iv. 72. xiii. 3. xiv. 194.), and Statius (Juv.
vii. 8j.) Neither with us in England hath there been, till
fome few years ago, any final determination upon the right
of authors at the common law. In cafe of a bargain for a
fmgle impreffion, or a lale or gift of the copy-right, the
reverfion is plainly contmued in the original proprietor, or
the whole property is transferred to another. It has been a
queftion much agitated in our iuperior courts of judica-
ture, and at length determined by the houfe of lords againll
authors and their alTigns, whether the copy-right of a book
belongs to the author by common law. But, exclufive of
fuch copy-right as may fubiill by the rules of the common
law, the ilatute S Ann. cap. 19, amended by ftatute i, Geo.
III. c. 53, has protected, bv additional penalties, the pro-
perty ot authors and their afligns for the term of fourteen
years, and hath directed, that if, at the end of that term
the author himfelf be living, the right (hall then return to
him for another term of the fame duration ; and this is the
fole right now velted in the proprietors of copies. By the
ftatute ij Geo. Ill c. J3, iome additional privileges in this
refpeft are granted to the univerfities, and certain other
learned focieiies. A fimilar privilege is extended to the in-
ventors of prints and engravings, for the term of twenty-
eight years, by S Geo. II. cap. 13. and 7 Gee. III. cap. 38.
befides an action for damages, with double colls, by Ilatute
J7 Geo. III. c. y". All which parliamentary protections
appear to have been fnggellcd by the exception in the ftatute
of monopolies, ;i Jac. I. c. 3, which allows a royal patent
of privilege to be granted for fourteen years to any inventor
of a new manufacture, for the fole working or making of
the fame ; by virtue whereof it is held, that a temporary
property tlierein becomes veiled in the king's patentee.
I Vern. 62.

LiTEiiARY Critleifm. See Critici.sm.

LITERATI, Letrados, lettered, an epithet given to
fuch perfons, among the Chinefe, as are able to read and
write their language.

The literati alone are capable of hei,ig made mandiiriiis.

Tiie literati form the moll diftinguillied part of the
Chinefe nation. Since the dynafty of Han, i e. for more
than 2000 years, they have conftantly held the chief rank
in the empire ; and it is always from among them that
mafters are chofen for the education of youth ; minifters,
for the adminiftration of public affairs ; and magiftrates.
Tor judging the people : in a word, the fiterati arc, in fomc

mcjifure, the foul of the Chinefe nation, fmce it is from
them that it receives its moral cxillence, and its civil and
political being. The literati muft therefore be very nume-
rous in a Hate, where they enjoy every diltinction attached
to pre-eminence, and where every thing favours their increale.
Since learning is the only means that conduct to honours, it
is nccciTary that tliofe who alpire to them Ihould cultivate
letters ; and they mull malcc it appear, that they have cul-
tivated them with fuccefs, before they can obtain any civil
employment. To guard againil impolition, government has
fixed for every city of the firll, fccoiid, and tliird clafs the
number of literati who can be legally promoted every year
to the firft degree of literature, which is that of " fieou-
tfai,'' and which anfwers to bachelor of arts in our univer-
fities. Every " ficou-llai" is accounted noble, and is
never enrolled among the taxables. Of thefe there are
reckoned to be in Chin.: 24,701 individuals, who are an-
nually introduced to the firll degree of literati ; ar.d the
number of thofe admitted before may be fuppol'cd to le at
leall 20 times as great. According to this elliinate there
are always in China 494,020 liter.iti, who liave taken de-
grees, and who are, coufequently, not included among the
taxables. See Mandarins.

Literati is alio the name of a particular feet, either in
religion, pliilofophy, or politics; confiding principally of '
thelearned men of that country : among wlium it is called
Juki JO, i. e. learned.

It had its rife in the year of Chrift 1400, when the em-
peror, to awaken the native affection of the people for
knowledge, wriich had been quite banifhed by the preceding
civil wars among them, and to llir up emulation among tlis
mandarins, chofe out forty-two of the ablelt among their
doctors, to whom he gave a commilhon to compofc a body
of doctrine, agreeable to that of the ancients, which was
then become the rule, or ilandard, of the learned. The
delegates applied themfelves to the bufinefs with very great
attention ; but fome fancied them rather to have wrelted the
doctrine of the ancients, to make it confitl with their"s, than
to have built up their's on the model of the ancients.

They fpeak of the Deity, as if it were no more than
mere nature, or the natural power or virtue, that produces,
difpofe.s, and preferves the feveral parts ot the uni\erfe. It
is, fay they, a pure, perfect principle, without beginning
or end ; it is the fource of all tilings, the ctience of every
being, and that whicli determines it to be what it is. They
make God the I'oul of the world : they lay he is ditfufed
throughout all matter, and produces all tlie changes that
happen there. In (hort, it is not caly to determine, whe-
ther thev refolve God into nature, or litt up nature into
God ; for they alcrlbc to it many of thole things which we
attribute to God.

This doctrine, iu lieu of tlie idolatry that prevailed be-
fore, introdueet! a refined kind of atheifm. The work,
being compoied by fo many [jerlons of learning and parts,
and approved by the emperor liimlelf, was received with in-
finite applaufe by all the people. Many were plealed with
it, becaufe it teemed to fubvert all religion; others approved
it, becaufe the bttle religion that is left them, could not
give them miicii trouble. And thus was formed the left of
the Literati ; which confifts of the maintainers and adherents
to this doctrine.

The court, the mandarins, and the perfons of fortune
and quahty, <xc. are generally retainers to it ; but a great
part of the common people llill hold to their worlhip of
idols.

The literati freely tolerate the Mahometans, becaufe they
adore, with them, the king of heaven, and authvr of

caiure ;

L I T

L I T

nature; but they bear a porfeft averfion to all forts of
idolaters among tliem : niul it was once rcfolved to extirpate
them. But the dil'order this would have occaf'ioned in the
empire prevented it : tliey now content themfi-lves with con-
demning them in ;i.Tncral, as liercfies ; wliich tlicy do fo-
lemnlv every year at I'ekin.

LITERNUM, or LiNTEHNUM, in ylndent Geogrjphy, a
town of Italy, in Campaijia, at the mouth of the C'anis,
and near the hike called by Statius " Linterna Pahis." It
was a Roman colony, improved and enlarged by Aufruftus.
The ruins of it, confilling of fome heaps of ilones, may be
traced on the' edge of a large -pond in a dreary Hat fliore,
between the mouth ot the Viiltm-nus and the promontory of
Mifcnum. Hither Scipio Afncanus withdrew from the accu-
fatious of his enemies, and here he fpent his days in retire-
ment. Tradition fays, that his alhes were depofited in this
place.

LITHAGOGI, of AiOo,-, y?owc, and aya:., I irinj; azvny,
an epithet given by fome medical writers to fuch medicines
as work by urine, and are fnppofcd to have the virtue of
expelling the (tone.

LITHAGROSTIS, in Botany, from >.Ao;, aJJonc, and
Byfif'f, S''"/'' '' "3me faulty in itfelf, as compofed of that
of another eltiblifhed geiuis, and quite unneceflary. Gxrt-
iier contrived it for the Coix of Linnxus, .Tuffieu, and others,
becaufe the xoi^ of Theophraftus feems to be a fort of palm.
But there is no end of lueh critical alterations, efpecially
when tliev arc not founded on any thing like certainty.

LITHANTfiRAX, oi' \Aor, Jo„i; and a.O^a?, coal, in
Naturitl Hijlory, is ufed as the name of the common pit
coal. See CoAt,.

LITHARGE, compofed of ^l&o--, a Jlone, and xifv/o;,
Jllvcr, a metallir.'- lubftance, formed of the fpume of lead ;
or, it is a calx of lead in an imperfetl ilate of vitnfication.
When fiU-er is refined by cupellation with lead, this latter
metal, which is purilied, and which caufes the fcoritication
of the imperfett metals alloyed with the filver, is transformed
into a matter compofed of fmall femi-tranfparent Ihining
jilates, refenPibling mica, which is litharge. See yjlloys of
Lead.

This preparation of lead is of great ufe in roafting the
ftubborn ores of gold, filver, and copper ; for it melts all
kinds of ilones and earth into glafs, fooner than the metals ;
and by this means the metal, which is heavier, will fall
through the glats, which is a thin and light fubftance, and
will be collected under it into a regulus, with only a few
duity fcorix adhering to it. But if it be copper that is
thus leparated, a imall portion of it is always deftroyed ;
and if gold or filver, a like fmall portion is always lodged
and detained in the fcorice.

But as the litharge penetrates through all forts of veffels,
and while melting riles into a fcum, that often runs over
their edges, the affayers never life it alone, but always mix
with it fuch fi.bllances as may give it a claniminefE, fuch as
flints, fands, clay, or the like: they mix two parts of litharge
with one part of any of tliefe fubllances, and add fome
nitre, or common fait, that the whole may run the more
eafily. They ftuit up the vefil-ls, which mud be made very
thick and folid, with a fmall cover or lid, cut clofe, and
placing this i i a wind-furnace, they keep it in fufion a quar-
ter of an hour, looking at times li.to the afli-hole, to fee if
the glals have not efcaped through tiie vefTel, and run down
thither. Very often it is found fweating through the fides
of the vefTel, like water, and falling in drops into the aih-
hole ; and in this cafe, there is no way to preferve the re-
inainder, but to take the veflel out of the fire.

When the whole is cool, the velTel mull be broke, and at

the bottom there will be found a fmall quantity of a regulu»
of lead, revived by means of the fait ; ia the middle, th'^
glafs of lead, wliich mult be kept for ufe ; and at the top
a faline crull, which is to lie thrown away.

Litharge is more or kfs white or red, according to the
metals with wliich the filver was alloyed. Accordingly the
white is called litharge of filver, and the red has been im-
proix>rly ca'led litharge of gold.

Litharge may be eafily revived into lead ; accordingly,
much of that which is produced by refining in great is re-
duced, by being melted upon burning coals. The part
which is leafl altered by mixture with other metals is thus
reduced, and thus good and faleable lead is obtained. I'lic
reft of the litharge of tbelc refineries is lold and ufed for
various purpofes.

The potters ufe much of it to give a beautiful glofs to
their wares ; it is alio employed in the tompofiiion of lome
glafles, tor it is very fufibic, and alhlls the fiillou of other
fubtlances ; and it is alio uied by painters, dyers, flcinners,
and glaziers. When mixed with wine, it gives it a bright
fprightly colour, but renders it extremely unwholeforae. In
general, it has the fame properties with the other calces of
lead. The litharge commonly lold is obtained from refine-
ries, and the quantity thus procured is more than iuiBcieiit
for the demand. It is employed for the preparation of
fome plaflers and oilier external remedies. See Lk.vd.

LiTIlAUGE, Pliijhr of. See Lmi'LA-strum comniUBf.

LlTHAiUJE, V'tmgar of. SeeVl^KdMi of L.'ad.

LITHAY, or Ln.w, in Geography, a town of tlie-
duchy ot CarnloLi, on the Save; i) miles E. of Laybach.
N. lat. 46 ^'. E. long. T J ■.

LITHIASIS, (from Aim;, a Jlone,) m Surgery, the dn-
order in which calculous concretions are formed in tlie urinary
organs, and more efpecially in the bladder, occafioning a
variety of fymptoms dependent upon their fliape, fize, and
fituation. For further details upon this lubjec't, fee Li-
thotomy and Stone.

LITHIC, or Uitic Acid. See Ukinaky Calculus.

LITHIDIA, a name which, in Hill's Hiftory of Foffils,
is given to an afiemblage of flones of the iiliceous clafs, be-
longing to the quartz and flint tribes.

LITHOPjOLIA, AiGoJo/ia, in yltuiquiiy, a feltival ce-
lebrated by the Iriczenians, in memory ot Lamia and Auxe-
fia, two virgins, that coming from Crete to Tra;2ene, in a
time of tumult and fedinon, became a facrifice to the fury
of the people, by whom they were Honed to death.

LiTiiOBOLiA, or Lapidatkn, was alfo a common punilh-
ment inflicted by the primitive Greeks upon fuch as were
taken in adultery.

LITHOCOLLA, or Litiioc-ollti.m, formed of thr
Greek >.iH'i , Jlone, and kOAcc, glue, a cement ufed by the
lapidaries to fallen their precious flones, in order for cutting-
them.

It is compofed of refin and brick-dull. For diamonds,
they ufe melted lead, putting them into it before it he quite
cold : for other cements, they mix marblc-dufl with flrong
glue ; and, to fallen their fparks, add the white of an egg,
and pitch See C.>;mknt.

LITHODiEMON, or Lapls Ddmonum, a name given
by fome authors to ji-t.

LITHODENDRON, a name by which, according to
Diolcorides, many of the ancients expiefs the common red
coral.

LITHOGENESIA, a term ufed by fome authors to
exprefs the formation and original of Hones.

LITHOLABON, a name given by fome chirurgical

■writers

L I T

I, I T

•writers to an inC.rament ufed in the operation of litliotomy ; UTIIONTR IPTICON TctPii, the name of a famou»

it is a forceps intended for taking hold of the Hone. diuretic medicine, invented by Tulpius, and jjiven with

LITHOLOGY, the fyftematical arrangement of Hones; great fucccfsin cafes of tlie Hone, but requiring great judg-

vvhich fee. ~ "^ '

LITHOMANTIA, \i9ojMVTiia, in JnUquily, a fpecies
of divination performed with ftones Sometimes the (lone
called fldcr'tlcs was ufed : this tiiey wallicd in fpring-water
in the night by candle-light ; the perfon that confulted it,
was to be purified from all manner of pollution, and to have
his face covered : this done, he repeated divers prayers, and
placed certain charafters in an appointed order ; and then
thtf ftono moved of itfelf, and in a foh, gentle murmur (or
as fomc fay) in a voice hke that of a child, returned an
ar.fw^r. By a ftone of this nature, Helena is reported, to
have foretold the deftruiSion of Troy.

LITHOMAKGE, StoVw.-ir^, Wern. Argik nthomcir-e,
Hn'iy. Ste nmiifg, or Sjqfjum, Swed.

Thii fubftance, which is related to the fmedtic kinds of
clay and to Iteatite, occurs fri^hle and compatl.

r. Friable llthomarge. Zernlblirhcs j2;lr!n:ari, Wern.
Its colour is fnow-white, oflener yellovviih, and fometimcs
reddifii-white.

It is found mafllvc, dilTeminated, and in crufts, con.'^'fting
of fine, dull, fometirrtes feebly glimmering fcaly particles,
which arc either coherent or loofe.

It is light, rather greafy to the touch, but adheres to the
tongue. Streak fliining.

It occurs in Saxony, on the Hartz, &c. generally in fmall
Tnaffes, particularlv in metalliferous veins.

A variety from the Hartz, where it occurs in grey
wacke, (hews phofphorefcfnce by friftion.

2. Compa3 or induraled Ihliomarge. Fe;,esjii-inm(irk, Wern.
Irs colours, befides thole of the friuhle lithumart^e, are
pearl-grey, lavender and purplilh-blue, yellovvifh-grey,
fcveral (hades of ochre yellow, and alfo flefli-red ; feveral
of thefe colours frequently occurruig together as clouded,
veined, Itriped, and fpotted delineations.
It is found malTive.
Irternally it is dull. Streak (liiniug.

mept and caution in the adminiftering of it.

The preparation is this : take a drachm of cantharidea
without their wings, and a drachm of lefTer cardamoTi*
without their hu(l<s, powder them fine, and pour upon tL<-m
an ounce of reftified fpirit of v.ine, and half an ounce of
fpirit of nitre ; fct them to infufe, without heat, for hve or
fix d,i)s, ftirring them from time to time. The phial miiit
not be (lopped riofe ; becaufe, if it be, the contin'ial fef-
mentaiion will burl! it. The dofe is from fe^urteen to (iftetn,
or twenty drops, in a glal's of wine and water. It is to be
taken iii a morning, an hour after eatin;; a mefs of broth,
and may be repeated for three o: four days.

It is rcira-kable, that this mixture never ceafes fermenting
for many \ eirs ; but if it be too fall corked, will break tlie
glafs ; if it be (lightly (lopped, it only throws out the cork
with an explofion. Mem. de I'xlcad. Par. 1709. p. 35S.
edit. Par.

LITHONTRIPTICS, or as it is perhaps more cor-
reftly writitn, Lithontiiuvptics, in Medicine, from tiie
Greek Ai5o.-, a Jlotie, and ?jtJ7rTa, I break, fucli medicines 33
were fuppofed to poffefs the property of difTolving the ftoiie
in the bladder and kidnies. See Stone.

Various fiinple and compound drugs were believed to be
capable of didolving the calculous concretions of the uri-
nary palTages, in ancient times. Thefe medicines, however,
had been but too generally found, by modern practitioners,
to be dellitute of any adlive power of this fort, when, in
the former part of the lall century, a new folvent for the
Hone was announced by a lady, with fo much evidence in
favour of its efficacy, that the Englilh parliament granted
her a large pecuniary reward for divulging the fecret, and
medical prat'titioners reforted to it with cagcrncfs, and in-
velligated its properties with great care, and in many in-
(lances had the fatisfaftion to obferve a temporary, removal
of the dillre(Ihig fymptonis fuccced to its ufe. It appeared,
FraAure' large and flat conchoidal, palTing into even I'owever, ultimately, that the folvent power of Mrs. Sle-
J fine earthy ; fragments indeterminately angular, blunt- phens's medicine wa-s a gratuitous fuppofition ; for en ex-
amining, after death, the bodies of the perfons in thofe very
inflances, on the fuccefs of which the reward was given, it
■was difcovered that the ilones had all the time remained in
the bladders of the patients, though they were fuppofed to
have been voided by the gradual lolution of them effected
by the medicines.

The principal inllance of a fuppofed cure which was
brought forward, was that of Mr. Gardiner. This man was
examined in December 1748, by able furgeons, and found
to have a (lone in his bladder ; after this he took Mrs.
Stephens's medicines for eight months without intcrmiilion ;
and at the end of th.it time he decl.nred himfelf free frcim all
his ufual complaints ; and on fcarching him no llcue was
perceived in the bladder. Mr. Gardiner died about three
years afterwards, ard his body was opened. When the
At Zoblitz, in Saxony, it bladder was examined, there were found in it fix preter-
natural apertures of dilferent fixes, the largcfl of which was
capable of admitting the end of a finger. Thefe pa(rages
led to morbidly formed facs in the internal coat of the blad-
der, which (liielded the calculi from the touch of the fur-
geon's founding Haft'. In a word, though the fubjedl was
taken up by Dr. Hartley and others, and the medicine be-

and
edged

It is very foft and mild, and eafily frangible ; greafy to
the touch, but llrongly adheiing to tlie tongue. It is

The variegated bluifh and purpli(h eanh, vulgarly called
lyunder-crde in German, or Terra miracidufa Saxoiiicci, is
one of the bell known and finell variety of lithomarge. It
ia found ac Planitz, near Zwickau, in Saxony, in beds of coal.
A fine (lefii-red variety occurs at Rochlitz in Saxony, in
difintegrated porphyry. Lithomarge is alfo met with in
fevei-al other parts of Saxony, and on the Hartz, in Bohe-
mia, Moravia, Bavaria, and Siberia.

Compatl hthomarge is partly found in veins, fuch ss tin
(lone veins, partly, as that of Planitz, on beds of coal ; alfo
(the yellow variety) in the cryllalline gei-des of the Topaze

rock, in bafalt and amygdaloid ' ~

occurs in ferpeiitine.

Tills fubHance, of which we are (lill without a good che-
mical analyfis, appears Co pals into Iteatile, meer-fchaum,
and a!fo into variegated clay.

It has been frequently confounded by authors with por-

celain earth, fullers' earth, bole,

The variety of lithomarge occurring in ferpentine, is ufed licved by fome to podefs all the powers which had been

for poliOiing this latter (tone. It was alio formerly em- afcribed to it ; it was not only found, in feveral inftaiiccs,

ployed in medicine, particularly the variegated variety, which that the calculi Hill remained in the bladder after death;

was dignified with the appellation oi tfrra niiraMlojli. but the dillrcfilng fyniptoms were faund to recur, or even

Vol. XXI. X io

L I T

L I T

to refifl the influence of the medicine, in a great many
others.

Mrs. Stephens's medicine confiftcd principally of foap,
and }\mc, prepared from fhcUs ; /. c of lime, a lixcd alkali,
and a little oil. From theoretical notions, the celebrated
Dr. Mead pronounced that a medicine containing fiich
cauftic materials as I'me, mull injure the bladder by its cor-
rofi-vc powers, and therefore condemned the internnl admi-
niftration of it. Yet he did not know whether the lime
could aftually reach the bladder through the r.iediiim of the
•circulation with its caiillic powers unchanged ; a circum-
ilance wiiich the inveftigations of modern cliemiftry render
improbable. And as for the fubftitute, foap-lees, which
had been propofed for the lime, he thought it fcarcely lefs
fife than the former. Dr. Whytt, of Edinburgh, after con-
fidering the inconveniences of this celebrated fpecific, re-
folved to omit the foap, and to try what virtues lime-water
might have in diflblving calculus; and he made many experi-
ments on the qualities of the varieties of l!i>^.':-water, made
with the lime from lime-done, and that from oyfter fliells,
upon fragments of urinary calculi immerfed in it. He con-
cluded by recommendincr the copious potation of hme-water
from fliells, and adduced feveral inliances of the beneficial
efFeSa of this remedy.

Now the truth appears to be, according to the refult of
more accurate obfervation, that all the alkaline and abforb-
ent medicines, pota(h, foda, lime, magnefia, &c. and efpe-
cially the alkalies, are capable of affording very material
telief to the diftrefiing feehngs, connected with the prefence
of calculi in the urinary paflages ; that they operate as pre-
ventives of a farther increafe of the bulk and quantity of
tbefe concretions ; but that they do not reach the urinary
organs (after having paffed the organs of the digettion,
been taken up by the lafteals, and mixed and circulated with
the blood) unchanged in their chemical quahties, or in a
furfieient quantity to produce any diminution of the calculi
already exiding there.

They fecm to pofTefs this preventive power, however, by
their operation in the firft paflages. It is now known, that
the ordinai-y calculus of the bladder and kidnies confilts of
a peculiar animal acid, which lias been called the urk ox Mnc
acid, from its abundant exiftence in the urine and its calculi.
Now, although this acid is not formed in the chyle, or any
of the fluids in the firlf paflages ; yet its rudiments appear
to exill; there ; and experience has determined, that what-
ever diminifties the formation of acidity in the organs of
digeftion, diminiflies alio the quantity of the urk acid which
fhews itfelf in the urine, and 'vice ■verfd. But it is the pecu-
liar property of the alkalies and abforbent earths, to neutra-
lize acidity of every defcription ; and the alkalies are poflefled
of this property in a greater degree than the earths. Whence
we may readily perceive how the ufe of thefe medicines, by
neutralizing the acids, which are produced by a morbid or
imperfeft digeftion of the food, and preventing the forma-
tion of that matter, which concretes in the urine into cal-
f:tili, fliould give material relief to the patient. It is not,
however, very eafy to underitand how the prevention of this
Kirmation fliould give fo much relief, while the original con-
cretion remains in the .bladder, undiminiflied in weight and
fize. Whether its furface becomes more uniformly fniooth
and lefs irritating, therefore, to the internal coat of the blad-
der, under the ufe of thefe medicines, it would be very diffi-
cult to afcertain, fince we have no opportunity of comparing
its previous condition.

It is farther to be obferved, however, that there is one
variety of calculus found in the urinary paflages, for wliich
tlie alkalies and ablerbents are iucapable of affording any

relief; as, from its chemical compofition, it is altogether
infoluble in thefe fubftances, even when direflly immerfed
in them. It is a triple fait formed by combination with the
phofphoric acid, and is, therefore, only to be diflblved or
decompoted by an agent of a direftiy oppofite quality to
that of the alkalies; namely, by a mineral acid, which unites
with the earthy and alkaline bafe. See Nephralc.ja and
Stone.

Dr. Hartley has publiflicd, in the London Gazette, the
following receipt for making a lithontriptic eledtuary. Take
five pounds of Alicant foap, fliavcd, and one pound of
oyfter-fliell-lime : put them into a tin veflel, and pour upon
them five quarts of water ; make tiie water boil, till the
foap be perfe6\ly diflblved in it, and then ftrain all into a
glazed earthen veflel. Expofe the mafs to the air, ftining
it every day till it becomes both mild to the talte, and of a
proper confiftence to be formed into pills, or long pellets,
without flicking to the lingers. This may be expefled to
happen in two or three months. If it becomes fufficiently
mild before it has acquired a due confiftence, it may be
brought to this, by being heated over the fire, in a tin veflel :
if it acquires a too hard confiftence, before it is fufficiently
mild, it niuil be foftened with water. This is what the
dodlor calls the lithontriptic mafs or eleAiiary ; which he or-
ders to be made in a tin veflel, becaufc a brals or copper one
would make it emetic.

He gives another more expeditious way of making it,
which is this : pour two g:illons of water upon a pound of
oyfter-fhell-lime ; llir it two or three times, and when it has
fallen to the bottom, pour off the clear part of the water.
Repeat this fifteen or twenty times, or till the clear water,
which is poured off, be almoft taftelefs ; leaving about five
pints of water upon the lime, after the laft ablution. Then
pour this mixture of water and dulcified hme upon five
pounds of Alicant foap, fliaved ; and proceed as diredted in
the firft receipt. The mafs, prepared in this manner, will
be fit for ufe in a few days, or even immediately ; but then
the doflor prefers the foregoing receipt, where time can be
allowed for it.

If the mafs of foap, and oyfter-fliell-lime, dulcified in
either of the above-mentioned ways, be made of the con-
fiftence of an elealuary, it is then called the lithontriptic elec-
tuary ; which for cure is more convenient than the mafs, for
thofe who defire to take the medicine diflblved in a hquid
vehicle, as m.ilk, water fweetened with honey or fugar,
water flavoured with brandy or rum, and fmall beer.

Where a perfon is fuppofed to have a large ftone in the
kidnies or bladder, he ought to take every day as much of
the mafs or eledluary as contains two ounces of the foap,
unlefs his pain and provocation to make water be violent ;
in which cafe it will be proper to begin with about half this
quantity, and to increafe it as he can bear. The medicine
ought alfo in this cafe to be dulcified in an extraordinary
degree. _ , •

By this medicine, the doftor thinks the generation of
gravel, and gravel-ftones, may be entirely prevented. See
Stoxe.

It is likewife recommended in diforders of the ftamach
and bowels, arifing from, or attended with, acidities' there ;
and in gouty habits. The patient' may, in many of thefe
cafes, begin whh fuch a quantity every day as contains an
ounce of foap, and afterwards increafe or lelfen this quantityj
as he finds occalion.

LITHOPHAGI, o{ ?d5o;,Jlotie, and Caf^:, to eat, a name
given to thofe who are capable of eating and digefting ftones :
inftanees of which are given by Boyle, Exp. Phil. p. :

eff.

L I T

L I T

ffr. iii. p. S6. Bulwer, Artificial Cliangeling, p. 307. and
Paiilian, DA. Phvfiqiie, art. Dlgijlion.

LITHOPHAGUS, or Stone-eater, in i^alural Hif-
tory. Under this name Defbois dcfcribes a fmall worm,
which deftroys and feeds upon ftones. It is covewd by a
fmall, very tender^ and brittle (liell, of afh-grey and grecnifh
colour. Tliis fhell is pierced at bo'h cxtren-.ities : the worm
evacuates its excrements through one oF the apertures, while
the other fervcs for an outlet to the head and legs. Tlie
animal itfelf is blacki(h ; its body is compofed of rings with
fix feet, three at each fid- ; each foot with two joints.
Traces of this worrw are, according to the fame author,
fometimes feen in the layers of frhii'his. Its progreflive mo-
tion is effetted bv its head, with wh ch it works its way,
while the remainder of it> body refts on its feet. It has four
jaws, which ferve the purpofes of teeth ; and from its mouth
ilTues a thread, of which it conftrufls its fliell. It is fnr-
nifhed wi h ten fmall black eye<, ffve on each iide, and dif-
pofed in a curved Hne like;i crefcent. This worm undergoes
a metainorphofis in its (liell, but it is not yet known what
new form it adopts. Defljois adds, that more than forty
worms have been feen to iflTue from out the chryfalis : their
heads were black, the feet very diilinft, and the, body partly
of a yellow and partly of a red colour, iatreille conjec-
tures this to be the larva of an infjft belonging to the tinea
tribe.

LITHOPHIL/^., ill Botany, fo called by Dr.' Swartz,
being derived from y.Am *i>.o-, a lo-ver of roch, or Jlones, for
it is an inhabitant of barren, ftony places. Swartz. Prod. 14.
Ind. Ooc. V. 1.47 Schrcb. 784. Willd. Sp. PL v. i.
154. Mart. Mill. Dift. V. J. -Clafs ana order, DiarJiia
Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Caryophylle'i, Linn. Caryolhylhh
affir.e, JnfT. *

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of three lanceolate, acute
leaves. Cor. Petals three, ovate-lanceolate, ere£l, meeting
together, the length of the ca'.yx-leaves. Neftary of two
oppofite leaves, fmallcr than the corolla, carinated, acute,
ereft, comprefTed. Stam- Filaments two, awl-(haped, ereCl,
from the bafe of the germen, as long as the neftary ; anthers
roundifli. Pi^. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle erect,
equal in length to the ftamens ; itigma oblufe, emarginate.
Peric. two-celled ? Seeds unknown.

EflT. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Corolla of three petals.
Nectary of two leaves.

I. L. mufcoides. Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. r. 48. t. I. — A
native of rocks in the defert ifland of Navaza, in the Weftern
ocean. — i?oo/ very firmly attached to the rocks. Stems nu-
merous, branched, very Hiort, thickjlh. Branches fct with
withered, whitifh fcales. Leaves fmall, a'mtitt felTile, nar-
rower and embracing the ftem at their bafe, linear, obtufe,
<:hannelled, fpreadirg. Florvers crowded tog;e:her, whitilTi,
on axillary and terminal llalks ; each flower the fize of a
fmall pin's head. The whole plant is extremely minute,
fcarcely half an inch high, and the parts of fructification are
fo fntall as to require a maguifyuig glafs for examination.
Tiiis is the only foecies known.

LITHOPHOSPHORUS, the ftony fubftances de-
fcribed under thi.s name, in the -works of ancient mineralo-
gifts, belong partly to a variety of fulphate of barytes (Bo-
ronian ftone), partly to fome varieties of flnor fpar ; the
name being derived from the property they poffefs of giving
out lijrht when fcratchcd, or thrown on burning coals.

LITKOPHYTA, in the Linnean fyilem of Natural
Htjlory, the fourth order of vermes or worms ; being com-
pofite animal?, affixed to, and fabricating a fixed calcareous
tafe, called coral: this order contains 59 fpecics under four

genera ; viz. the lulipora, or red tubular coral, madreporat
or brain-ftones, millepora, and ccUipora. See G.ikgoma.

One of the mull remarkable fpecie-i of the fmall lithophyta
we have any where an account of, is that defcribed by Mr.
Lcwenhoeck, thoutjh wi'hout any ptfi-ticular name, in the
Philofophicai Tranfaftions, N~286. p. 1430.

LITHOPTP.RIS, Stgne-Feun, in Natural Hifloiy,
a name gi en by Mr. Lhuyd to fonje of the foffile plants of
the fern kind

LITHOSPERMUM, in Botany, from ?.%{, a J! one,
and trT=?r/.K, the feed, alluding to tlie marble-like hardnefs
and polifit of that part. Linn. Gen. 74. Sebreb. 91;.
Wild. Sp. PL v. 1. 75-1. Mart. Mill. Didt. v 3. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 213. Ait. Hort. Kcw. ed 2. v. 1. 2S6. Juff,
130. Tourn. t. 5J. Lamarck Illudr. t. 91. Gxrtn.
t. 67. - Clafs and order, Pen.'andria Monogynla. Nat. Ord.
ylfpcrifolir, Linn. Borraginsa-, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, oblong, erefl, in five
deep, a\\l-fliaped, acute, keeled, permanent fcgments. Cor.
of one petal, funnel-fnaped, as long as tiie calyx ; tube cy-
lindrical ; limb' obtufe, ercft, cloven half way down into five
fegments ; throat pervious. Stam. Filaments five, very
fliort ; anthers oblong, in the mouth oP the corolla. Pifi.
Germens four ; ilyle central between them, thread-fnaped,
the length of the tube ; (ligma obtufe, cloven. Peric. none,.
except the calyx become fpreading, and lodging the feeds,
which it exceeds in length, in its cavity. Seeds four, ovate,
pointed, hard and fmooth.

Obf L. difpermum has an inflated calyx, and but two
feeds, each, as in the others, of a fingle ctll.

EfT. Ch. Corolla funnel-ftiaped, its mouth pervious and
naked. Calyx in five deep fegments.

The genera of the order of Ajperifolite have been thought
bv fome to have been diftinguiflied with too great minutcncfs
by Linnxus. The character of the prefent chiefly differs
from Pulmaxaria in the deep divifions of its calyx ; which
part, neverthelefs, in fome fpecies of the latter, is very
nearly as much divided, \yilldenow has fixteen fpecies of
Lkhofpermum, of which three are Britifli, officinale, arven/e,
and purpuro-ceruleiim. The flowers are generally blue or
whitilli, rarely yellow ; the habit herbaceous, rarely in fome
degree Ihrubljy, very hairy or brillly ; root often annual ;■
leaixs fimple, undivided, entire, alternate, almoll univerfally
fellile. The following examples may iuffice.

L. officinale. Common Gromwell, Grey Mill, or Grey
Millet. Linn. Sp. PI. 189. Engl. Bot. t. 134. — Seeds
even. Corolla fcarce longer than the calyx. Leaves lance-
olate, veiny, rather acute. — Native of wafte ground, where
the foil is dry, gravelly, or chalky, in various pai-ts of
Europe, being perennial, and flowering in May. The-
whole hi-rb is of a dull duflcy green, hairy, about two feet
high ; the leaves paler beneath, the fiioil and copious hairs
of their upper furface each fpringing from a minute white -
polifhed tubercle. Flozcers fmall, pale buff-coloured, in
leafy fpikes, which are at firll recurved, then eredt. The
feeds, two of which only are ufiially perfedted in each calyx,
are remarkable for their poliflied pearly whitenefs, though
fometimes tinged with broun. Their ilony hardncfs has
given occafion to a report of their cflervefcing with vinegar,
as if really calcareous, but this appears to be without founda-
tion ; as well as their fuppofed utility in calculous com-
plaints, which foems to have arifen from the fair.e circum-
ilance ; juft asfpottcd or biiltery vegetables were preiumed
good for the lungs.

L. arvenfs. Corn Gromwell, or Baftard -Alkanet. Linn;

Sp. PI. J 90. Engl. Bot. t. 123. Fl. Dan. t. 4:0. —

X 2 beeds

L I T

L I T

Seeds nigpfed. Corolla fcarce longer than tlie calyx.
Lttavcs obtufe, without lateral veins. — Native of fields and
walle places, in a dry fandy foil, throughout Europe. The
rcot is annual, its bark affording a fine red llain, like Al-
kanet, vi-ith which the country girls, in the north of Swe-
den, arc accufed by I^innasus of llaining their cheeks. The
_/?fm is bu(hy, fpreading, hardly a foot high. Corolla \v\i\te.
SeeJs brown, rugofe.

L. piirpuro-cicruhitm. Creeping Purple Gromwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 190. Engl. Dot. t, 117. Jacq. Aullr. t. 14. —
Seeds even. Corolla much longer than the calyx. Leaves
lanceolate, acute, without lateral veins. — Native of bulhy
•walle ground, in the more temperate climes of Europe,
cfpecially where the foil is calcareous, flowering in May.
With us it is elleemed a rare plant. The root is perennial,
black and creeping. Stems herbaceous, fcarcely branched,
■ while barren procumbent and rooting, othcrwife crett,
rour^d, leafv, about a foot high, terminating in a forked leafy
duller, of feveral handfon-.e purple^o-tccrT, with a pale reddilh
tube. The fads are often abortive. There are five blunt
hairy fwellings round the orifice of the tube, which, though
ihey do not clofe that part, render the generic charafler
fomevvhat ambiguous. Such however are found in all the
Britifh fpecies, and in fome, though not all, of the e.\otic
ones.

L.. fruticofum. Shrubby Gromwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 190.
(Anchufa lignofior monfpelienfium, flore vlolaceo ; Barrel.
Ic. t. 1168.)— Stem fhrubby, erect. Leaves hnear, hifpid.
Segments of the corolla flightly pointed ; tube hairy. — This
beautiful plant occurs on rocky e.-ipofed hills and cliffs in the
louth of France, Italy, and the Levant. Its fhrubby bufhy
(km, and copious rofemary-hke leaves, diftinguifh the fpecies.
'The jloivers are of a mofl vivid blue.

L. h'ijyiJuhm. BrilUy Woody Gromwell. Sm. Prodr.
n. Grsc. Sibth. V. 1. 114. Fl. GrKC. iued. t. 162 —
Stem flirubby, dilfufe. Leaves clliptic-oblong, cbtufe,
hifpid. Branches hoary. — Gathered by the late Prolcffor
Sibthorp, on rocks in the ille of Rhodes Its jlrjtucrs are
nearly as beautiful as the laV., but their fegments arc more
rounded, and the throat more inflated, that part being, in
both thefe, deftirtite of any marginal fwellings or appen-
dages. The prefent is 110^ mentioned by Willdenow.

"L. trientak. Yellow Perennial Gromwell. Linn. Syft.
Veg. ed. 14. 1S5. Willd. n. 9. Curt. Mag. t. J15.
(.■Anchufa orientalis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 191.) — Seeds rough
with fliarp points. Spikes long, leafy. Leaves oblong,
wavy.— ^Native of the Levant ; hardy and perennial in our
gardens, floivering in May and June, and diilinguiflied by
Us full-yellow corolla, whofe fegments are rounded, and
orifice without fwellings. The floral leaves are fometimcs
iieart-fhaped, fometimcs ovate or lanceolate ; thofe of the
llcm oblong or lanceolate, wavy at the edges ; all hairy.

Several peculiarly briftly fpecies of this genus were found
and defcribed by ForflciiU, which have been adopted by Vahl
and Willdenow.

LlTHOSPERMUM Offic'ttink, feu Milium Soils, Common
GrcnittieU, in the Materia Medica, is found in various parts
of England, on a dry gravelly foil, and flowers in May and
June. " According to Haller, this plant poffelfes narcotic
powers; but its feeds only have been medicinally employed.
Thefe feeds have long excited the attention of naturalifls, on
account of their exqiiihtely polifhed furface, and llony
hardnefs. The internal fubltance is foftcr, and feems to con-
fift of a farinaceous, fvveet, and oily matter, which becomes
lancid on being long kept. The llony appearance of theie
feeds formerly fuggefted their efficacy in calculous and

gravelly diforders, to perfons whofe ju<igmcnt w.ia influenced
by fuperllitious and abiurd conceits. But though modoru
writers do not allow the lithontriptic charafter of the fem.
milii folis, yet they generally afcribe to them a diuretic
quality, a power of cleanfiiig the urinary palfages, and of
obviating iirangury, efpecialfy when emplovcd in the form
of an emulfion ; but Woodville obferves, that the free ufe
of any bland diluent would probably aiilwer thefe purpofes
equally well. The abforbcnt virtue alcnbed to theie feeds
is wholly groundlels, being irreconciltable to the priiicipk*
ofchemillry. Woodv. Med. Bo'.

LITHOSTROTA, among the Ancients, pavements
made up of Imall pieces of cut marble of diHercnt kinds and
colour. See TE.s.srii-ATED.

LITHOSTROTION, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of
a fpecies of foflile coral, compofed of a great number of lonir
and flendor columns, fometimes round, fonictimes angular,
jointed nicely to one another, and of a Harry or radia'^ed
furface at their tops. Thefe are found in confiderable
quantities in the northern and wcftcrn parts of this kingdom,
fometimes in fingle, fometimes in complex fpecim.ens.

LITHOTOME, from XiSo- and rrfiva, a name that lias
beer, given to a variety of cutting inftruments, which have
been employed for making an opening into the bladder, in
order to extraft the flone. The mofl celebrated of all is the
lithotome, cache of Frere Cume, of whofe inltrument and
methods of operating v,e fliall have to fpeak in the following
article.

LITHOTOMY, from >.i?o;, a Jlone, and tsuh-, ta cut^
figr.ifies, in Sur^try, the operation by which a Hone is ex-
tratled from the bladder.

Surgical writers inform us, that urinary calculi admit of
being extradled from three different fituations, viz. from
the kidney, the urethra, and the bladder. The queflion,.
whether a Hone ought ever to be cut out of the kidney, vvil
have due confideration given to it under the head Nepiiko-
TOMV ; and the removal of calculi from the urethra will be
treated tjf in the article Uretiir.\. Our prefent obferva-
tions will be confined to the Hone in the bladder, a fubjec^
of infinite importance, whtlher we contemplate the feverity
or frequency of the afRi>!:lion ; its incurableiiefs by medi-
cines, or the perils and difficulties of the operation for its
relief; the numerous modes of cutting for the Hone, or the
nice judgment requifite i:ot only iii the choice of a method,
but alfo in the leleftion of inllruments ; the anatomical
knowledge which the operator ought to pofTefs ; or, finally,
that happy, though rare, combination of gentlenefs, dex-
terity, and relolution, fo effential in conintuting a diilin-
guiflicd and furcelsful lithotomift. We have heard of a
Pott, who would finifh the operation by four or five move-
ments, and fill every fpedlator with admiration of his fuperior
flcill. True Hcili, however, rather confiHs in doing a thing
as fafely as pofiible, than with the utmoH qiiicknefs. Now,
if it be certain that litho-tomy is more likely to be followed
by the patient's recovery, when no manual roughnefs is ex-
ercifed, rapid operating muH be condemned by the judicious
and difcerning, however calc^dated it may be to excite the
applaufe and admiratian of the inexperienced Hudent. Pott,
we are informed, was remarkably fuccefsful in his operations
for the Hone ; but, it mull be afl;ed, did he not lofe fome
of his patients ? If he did, — great as his fucccfs .iiight be,
we are juHified in thinking that it wonld have been Hill
greater, had it been his cultcci to aim at gent'enefs mere
than expedition. The example of Pott, therefore, is not
to be imitated in this refpeft ; and that lie even afled in rp-

poCtion

LITHOTOMU

prfition to Ill's own principles is fuily proved by the fol-
lowing pafTage : " I cannot omit this opportunity of adding
a fow words on a lubject, wliich appears to me highly dc-
fcrving of fome notice, as its influence may be very cxtciifive,
and very prejudicial : it is the falfe idea which the by-ilanders
at an operation genera'ly have of chirurgic tlexterily ; to
which word thry annex no other idea tlian that of quickncfs.
Tiiis has produced a moll abfurd cuilom of mcafuring the
motion of a furgeon's hand, as iockeys do that of the feet
of a horfe, i);;;. by a llop-watch ; a practice which, though
it may have been encouraged by operators themfelves, mull
Live been productive of moll mifchievous confequences.
7'«// et telsrlier are both very proper charactcriftics of a good
chirurgic operatiwi : but lute Hands, as it fliould do, in the
fir;l place; as the patient, who fuffers the fmalletl injury
from the hurry of liis operator, has no recompence from the
reputation which the latter obtains from the by-llanders.
In moft of the capital operations, unforcfeen circumlla'.ices
w ill fometimes occur, and muft be attended to ; and he who,
without giving unnecefTary pain from delay, finilhes v/hat
he has to do in the moft perfedl manner, and the moll likely
to conduce to his patient's fafety, is the bell operator."
(Pref. to Obf. on Fill. Lachrymalis. ) We fhould not have
premifcd thefe remarks, had we not often feen furgeons
guilty of unwarrantable hurry and roughnefs in the per-
formance of lithotomy ; and did we not believe that the in-
flammation of the bladder and peritoneum, of which patients
urually. die after the operation, may, in numerous inftances,
be imputed to fuch a caufe.

The Hones, which are met with in tlie human bladder, are
not all originally formed in this vifcus : many defcend
through the ureters from the kidnies ; but yet it is not to
be denied, that moll of them are firfl produced in the bladder
itfelf, by a fpontaneous concretion of particular falts con-
tained in the urine. It may be inquired, Is the exigence
ef a centre, round which the calculous materials are de-
pclited and arranged, abfolutcly neceflary to the formation
of fuch concretions ? It is well known, that whenever an
extraneous fubilance lodges in the bladder, it becomes the
nucleus of a Hone; but, on the other hand, the centre of
many calculi prefents no particular appearance, nor any
mark from which we can infer that they had any central
fubllance, upon which they increafed to their prefent fize.
Puffibly, fays Richerand, a clot of blood, or a piece of
thickened mucus, may ferve as their bafe, and yet, after a
time, difappear. However this may be, urinary calculi
offer numerous differences in refpedt to their fize, (hape,
number, denlity. compofition, and the manner of their being
contained in the bladder. Nofogr. Chir. torn. iii.

In fome cafes, the bladder only contains one (lone ; in
others, it includes feveral. In this iall circumilance, the
calculi are always fmaller ; their diminifhed fize being in
proportion to the greatnefs of their number. It has been
ellimated that, on the average, about three-fourths of cal-
culous patients have only one Hone in their bladder. Our
Own individual experience would make the proportion much
highe^> perhaps five or fix out of every feven. Sometimes
the bladder contains two calculi ; but a larger number may
occur from three to fixty, or more. Their fize varies from
that of a bean to that of a cocoa nut. The mufeums of the
Ecole de Medecine at Paris, arid that of profeflor Fourcroy,
exhibit fpecimens of calculi, which filled the whole cavity
cf the bladder. In the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1 809,
.fjr James Earle has defcribed an enormous Hone, which
could not be extra£ied from the bladder; the attempt
having been made in vain by Mr. Cline. Indeed the cal-
culus filled almofl the whole of tlie pelvis^ and could not

be taken : out of the dead fubjcft witliout corrSdcrable diffi.
culty. The weight of this immenfe Hone was forty-four
ounces ; its form elliptical, with a long axis of fixteen, and
a lliorter one of fourteen inches. ' This, however, was an
extraordinary cafe ; and the average fize of calculi, met with
in the bladder, is from the bulk of a pigeon's to that of a
hen's egg.

The varieties of fhape are innumerable : moft of the
(lones, however, v.hich are found in the bladder, are oval,
and more or lefs flattened. Their furface is fometimes fmooth
and rounded ; very often it is irregular and rough. Stones,
fludded «'ith afpcrities, are frequently termed mulberry cal-
culi, and that thefe mull produce confiderable irritation of
the bladder, and a vail deal of pain, is a fact which re-
quires no comment. We faw a (lone extradled a few weeks
ago, the outer furface cf which was quite fir^ooth and of a-
light colour ; but on breaking a portion of it away, the
inner part of the calculus prefented a granulated and dark
brown appearance. The generahty of flcncs taken from
the human bladder are hard and refiPdng ; but fome are
exceedingly friable, giving way to the flighteft prefTure, and
breaking into fmall pieces, or even into a fort of gritty
matter.

The chemical compofition of urinary calcuU is far from
being always the fame. The lea'-ned invefligations of
WoUallon, Pearfon, Fourcroy, and Vauquehn, have difco-
vered, that the materials may confill of uric acid, urate of
ammonia, phofphate of lime, ammor.iaco-magnefian phof-
phate, oxalate of hme, filex, and a peculiar modification of
animal matter. The bafis of thefe concretions was afcer-
tained by Scheele to be the uric acid. Other fpecies were
afterwards detefted. Dr. Wollafton, whofe difiertation wrs
pubhfhed in the Philofophical TranfaCtions two years be-
fore the memoir cf Fourcroy and Vauquelin was read to
the French National Iiillitute, anticipated nearly everr
thing which the French chemills announced as their own
difcoveries ; and it is very remarkable (as profeflor ^furra7
has noticed), that although the experiments of Pearfon,
publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfaclions the year after
Wollafton's, are referred to in that memoir, not the
llightell mention is made of the difcoveries of this latter
gentleman ! As our department is furgical, and not chemi-
cal, we fliall quit this fubjeCl with briefly flating, that
Dr. Wollafton has arranged urinary calcuh into four fpecies.
I ft. The uric acid concretion, zdlv. The fufible calculus,
or phofphate of ammonia and magnefia. 3dly. The mul-
berry calculus, or oxalate and phofphate of lime. 4tlily. The
bone earth calculus, or that compofed of the phofphate of
lime.

It will be with regret, that we fhall prefently have to
ftate^tlie little pr^-dlical advantage hitherto derived from the,
knowledge of the chemical compofition of urinarv calculi.

Thefe concretions are ufually quite free and unconneclcd,
fo that the particular lltuation, which they occupy in the
cavity of the bladder, is fubjcft to change, being deter-
mined entirely by their own weight, or the contractions of
the organ containing them. In fome inllanccs, however,
they are adherent to the parietes of the bladder, and con-
tinue fixed in one place. Such adhefion may happen in
three manners, i. The ftone may have been formed in a
cul-de-lac appendage, confilling of aprotrufion of the lining
of the bladder between the fibres 01 its mufcular coal ;
or, after being originally lodged in the common cavitv of
the bladder, it may have been torced into a pouch of this
kind by fubfequeut contractions of this vifcus. 2. The
ftone mav be lodged in that portion of the ureter wliich
runs obliquely between the coats of the bladder. 3. Laftly,

the

LITHOTOMY.

ihe irregular furface of a calculus may be, as it were, im-
planted in the fun;^ous granulatiaus, which occnfionally'
avife from the infidc of the bladder, and, in this circum-
ftance, the ftoiie can only be exirafted by tearing its con-
nedlion.

The calculi, which lie in a fort of cul-de-fac protrufion
of the lining of the bladder, are often named enc^ed. We
believe that a Hone, thus ciicumllanced, is not hkely to
caufe fevere pain ; the containing pouch becomes habituated
to its prefence ; and the fenfible inlide of the bladder is not
expofed to any irritation or inj"ry from it. We conceive
it poffible for fome of the alleged diffolutions of Hones
to have^bcen cafes, in which the extraneous body became
thus. protruded, between the fafciculi of niufcular fibres,
into a cyrt; formed of the inner membrane of the bladder.
A ftone encyled in this manner would, in all probability,
neither require extraftion, nor admit of it.

Blundering and baffled operators are generally eager to
lay hold of any excule for their mifconduct, or ill fucccfs.
The adhcfion of the ftone has been frequently employed
as a defence againft ccnfure, when the attempts to extrai^t:
the foreign body have failed. Encyfted calculi, generally,
■cannot be touched with a found, and both on this account,
and becaufe the fymptoms are far more lenient than thofe
■of a ftone in the bladder, fuch cafes do not demand the
performance of lithotomy. A ftene in the lower part of
the ureter could not be touched with the found, and would
be attended wi'h efTefts different from thofe of a calculus
in the cavity of the bladder. Now, thefe are the only ex-
amples where the extraftion of the Hone would be imprac-
ticable on the ground of adhcfion, and they are certainly
inllances in which an inteUigent furgeon would never be-
gin the attempt. But we alTert with confidence, that when
a calculus is fairly lodged iu the cavity of the bladder,
no adhefion can be a juft excufe, or reafon, for its not being
extraded. We inuft be convinced, with that eminent fur-
geon Le Dran, that an animated body, which fubfills by a
circuLition of fluids, and another body, which owes its
bulk en'irely to an appofition of matter, can never become
one and the lame by any kind of adherence, let it be ever
fo ftrong. Le Diaa made no doubt, that there were fuch
things as adherent ilones, becaufe he had feen inllances of
them, but thefe adhefions ought not to have hindered
the (lone from b'-ing extracted, provided it could be laid
hold of with the forceps. In 1730, this furgeon cut a
•lady, ar.d extratted a (tone, that weighed feven ounces and
a hall. One fide of it was uneven, and in a manner en-
tirely ii'.crulted upon that part of the bladder which is con-
nedled with the reilum, Tliis incruftation was occafioned
ty the inequalities of the Cone, which had produced an
excoriation ot that part of the ■ bladder upon which they
prefied.arid, in conlequence thereof, a num.ber of flefhy
or fungous excrefcentes arofe from the excoriated furface,
and had lodged therafelves in the cavities of the ftone. The
adhefion was broken with hardly any pain. Le Dran, at
fubfequent periods, extradled from three patients ftoncs,
which adhered in the fame manner. In 171 5, he was
prefent at an operation, performed by M. Marechal, when
a ftone was extrafted, which was (liaped like a cilaballi, or
gourd, ai:d brought out with it a fungus, that encircled
the ftone at its naiTOweft part. As this fungous excref-
cence paffed round, and covered the middle of the ftone,
no new ftrata could be formed in that part, but were made
zt the two extremities, which was the reafon of its boi: g fo
fliaped ; and the fungus fixed it fo completely in the blad-
der, that it could riOt poRibly change its fituation. Tiaite
(des Operations de Chii-uigie.

Of all animals, man is faid to be the moll fubjefl to uri-
nary calculi. The human urine contains a particular acid,
fo little foluble, and fo difpofed to produce concretions,
that, frequent as the diforder is, it is rather a matter of fur-
prife, that it is not even more common. In warm countries,
like Spain and Africa, as well as in nations much to the
north, fuch as Sweden, the difeafe is exceedingly rare. In
temperate climates, it prevails the moil in cold damp coun-
tries, like England and Holland ; and, accordii;^ to Ri-
cherand, it occurs in fome of the provinces of France
much more than in others, patients with the ftone being
more numerous in the northern, than the fouthern depart-
ments of that empire.

Children and old people arc more frequently afHidled
than adults, and women are lefs expofed to the diforder than
men.

Symptoms of a Jlone h the bhiihler. — A ftone in the blad-
der occafions pain, and derangement of the excretion of the
urine ; and when a futpicion of the difeafe is excited by
thefe ambiguous fymptoms, it can only be confirmed by
introducing an inftrument, called a found, into the bladder.
The pain produced by the prefence of a calculus in l!'C
bladder, has the particularity of always affefling, in a very
remarkable manner, the extremity of the penis. The glans
becomes the feat of an itching fenfation, which daily in-
crcafes in violence ; and patients, efpecially children, often
get i;to the habit of pulling forwards the prepuce, in or-
der to obtain relief. Hence, this part is frequently elon-
gated in an extraordinary degree. This fympathetic fort
of pain is more acute the larger the ftone is, and the greater
the irregularity of its furface. When the bladder is full of
urine, the pain is not infupportable ; but juft at the period
when the difcharge of that fluid is finiflied, the fuffering
becomes intolerable, becaufe, at this inftant, the bladder
contrafts, and embraces the foreign body with confiderable
force. All rough exercifes augment the pain ; but walk-
ing over an uneven country, riding on horfeback, and the
jolting df a carriage particularly, have fuch an effeft. When
the patient is fubjefted to thefe exercifes, he not unfre-
quently difcharges a few drops of blood from the urethra.

The defire to make water comes on very often, and the
urine, as it flows, is attended with a fenfation of heat,
which changes into a burning kind of pain at the extremity
of the penis. The ftreaci of water is fometimes inter,
rupted all on a fudden. The patient vainly endeavours to
continue the evacuation ; he applies his hand to the peri-
neum ; he moves about, lies down, or, in fome way 01'
another, alters his p'ofture, and the urine then begins to
run again. The moveablcnefs of the ftone makes it every
now and then fall againft the orifice of the neck of the
bladder, and thus prevent, for a time, the exit of the urine.

The inceflant irritation, produced by the prefence of the
calculus, extends to the reftum ; the patient is continually
tcazed with an inclination to go to ftool, and the efforts,
which his imaginary want caufes hrlh to make, bring on, ii--
many inflances, hemorrhoidal csmplaints, or even a prolapfus
ani.

In the courfe of time, the pain becomes more acute and
unremitting. The ftone increafes in fize, and, by continu-
ally preffing upon the inferior part of the bladder, makes
the patient experience a moft painful fenfe of weight about-
the reftum. The evacuation of the urine is attended with
more and more difficulty. The parietes of the bladder
inflame, and are rendered thicker; its inner furface u!ce»
rates ; the urine becomes blended with matter and blood ;
a How fort of fever occurs ; and the patient, after lingering
a great while in roifery and pain, fall-s a vi£lim to the
A diforder.

LITHOTOMY.

diforJcr. Ofl opening the body after death, the bladder is
found contracted, and its coats tliickened, indurated, and
more injefted with blood, than in the healthy (late.

The fatal termination, to which thcfe cafes tend, when
unreheved, is fubjeft to confiderable variety. Some pa-
tients have been known to live with a Itone in their bladder
ten, twenty, and even thirty years, without the pain being
fo fevere as to incline them to fubmit to litliotomy. Iliche-
rand moreover affuies us, that calculi, of very large fize, and
irregular furfaces, have fometimes given rife to no fymp-
toms, by which their prefence could be fufpedled. This
author tells us, that, as he was once pracUfmg operations
on the dead fubjecl in the HApital de la Charite, he extradled
an enormous mulberry calculus from the bladder of a pa-
tient who had died of fome other difeafe, and who, while
living, had betrayed no complaints, indicating that he was
afflifted with the ftone. This calculus, which was compofed
of the oxalate of lime, was exceedingly heavy, and by its
weight, darknefs of colour, and the manner in which its
furface was ftudded with obtufe points, bore a great re-
femblance to a fcoria of iron. It is preferved in Four-
croy's mufeum, where it was depofited by Bbyer.

The fymptoms of a ftone in the bladder are fo fallacious
and equivocal, that every prudent furgeon avoids deliver-
ing a pofitive opinion, before he has founded the patient.
Certain complaints mjy make him fufpeCl the nature of the
cafe; but he muft never prefume to be certain, uijtil he
has aftu:Jly touched and felt the ftone, by means of a me-
tallic inftrument, paiTed through the urethra into the bladder.
I The general fymptoms of a Hone in the bladder are liot
peculiar to this diforder ; they belong to feveral other af-
fections, for which the praftiiioner may be confulted. An
enlarged proftate gland produces many effedls, like thofe of
a ftone in the bladder. There is this difference, however,
riding in a carriage, or on horleback, does not increafe the
grievances when the proftate is afteCted ; but it does fo, in
an intolerable degree, in cafes of ftone. It alfo generally
happens, that the fits of ftone come on at intervals, whereas
the pain from a difeafed proftate is neither lo unequal, nor
fo acute.

At this prefent time, (September iSli,) there is a man
in St. Bartholomew's hofpital whofuffers many of the com-
plaints'ufually attending a ftone in the bladder ; he has been
founded, but no calculus can be difcovered : and it is now
afcertained that his fymptoms are dependent upon a contrac-
tion iituated fome diftance up the reclum. The ftrifture is
fo confiderable, that the feces can only pafsin a liquid form,
and the introduiSlion of bougies above a fmall fize is quite
obftnicled.

Who would fuppofe that fymptoms, exaftly fimilar to
thofe of a ftone in the bladder, could proceed trom the ve-
nerea! difeafe, and be cured by mercurial treatment ? Yet,
iuch a fact have we recorded by Richerand, now an eminent
furgeon at Paris. See Nofographie Chirurgicale, tom. iii.
p. 506, edit. 2.

Nothing, therefore, except founding the patient, will give
the furgeon certain information of the prefence of a calcu-
lus in the bladder. The fymptoms which prevail may ex-
cite ftrong lulpicions of the nature of the cafe ; but liuce
they may proceed from fo many other different caufes, they
are not alone a fufficient warrant for venturing on the pei--
formance of lithotomy. When the furgeon undertakes this
important operation, lie muft know, with certainty that there
is a ftone in the bladder, and fuch pofitive knowledge can
only be acquired by aclually feeling and hearing the fteel in-
flrument, called a found, ftrikc againft the fojcign body. Nay,

further, as the ftone may be in the bladder to day, but be pro-
truded to morrow on the outfide of the mufcular coat of this
organ, fo as to become as it were cncyftcd and incapahle of
cxtradlion, " it is an invariable maxim among all prudent fur-
geons never to begin the operation of lithotomy unlt-fs they can
clearly and diftindly perceive the (lone with the found, or at
leaft with the ftaif at 'lie time when the patient isbrouglit forth
to be operated upon." If the calculus cannot be plainly felt at
this period, the operation is net juftifiable. The im:.ortance
of this precept cannot be too highly appreciated by evVry
practitioner who va'ues eitiier hi-; patient's welfare or his
own reputation ; for were a different line of condu£t pur.
fued, an opening might be made into the bladder, no ftone
be found, and, unfortunately, the patient lofe his life from the
operation, which, however well executed, is never free from
a ferious degree of danger.

The method of founding will be defcribed in a future vo-
lume of this Cyclop;Edia. See SouNDiNG.

The ftone in the bladder is a diforder that is to be regard-
ed as more grievous the longer it has exilled, and the older
and more debilitated the patient is. The cafe is particularly
afflitiing when the fevere pain in the kiddies renders it not
unlikely that there may be at the faiiie time other calculi iu
the fub fiance of thefe organs.

A ftone is feldom known to be .in the bladder until it is
too large to pafs out through the urethra. Should a very
fmall one be deteCled, we are recommended to try the effect
of introducing a large found or bougie, making the patient
drink abundantly of fome diuretic liquor, and deliring him
firft to retain his urine, and then expel it as forcibly as pofli-
ble, at the fame time that the found or bougie is withdrawn.
In tins manner, it is conceived, the ftream of the urine
might fometimes carry the calculus outward. Default had
it in contemplation'to adapt the port-crayon pincers, invented
for the urethra by Mr. Hunter, to a common catheter, for
the purpofe of taking fmall calculi out of the bladder. This
projeft, however, would be attended with much difficulty,
and the fides of the bladder would be liable to laceration in
confequence of becoming pinched. lailruments made on this
principle, however, are fometimes fuccefsfuUy employed for
taking fmall ftones out of the urethra.

DiJf'Julwn of Jloiies in the bladder. — The poflibility of dif-
folving ftones in the bladder was a thing believed for a very
long fpace of time, and even ^t the prefent day is a fcheme
not altogether abandoned. The diflolution has been at-
tempted both by internal medicines, and by certain fluids in-
jected into the bladder.

The knowledge of the compofition of urinary calculi at
once apprifes us that, as they confift of very different mate-
rials in different cafes, the fahie folvent cannot be applicable *
to all of them.

It is obferved by Murray, one of the learned profeffors-
of chemiftry at Edinburgh, that long experience has fuffi-
ciently cftabliftied the advantage derived in calculous affec-
tions from the ufe of alkaline remedies ; and as the calculi,
compofed of uric acid, are thofe which appear to be muft
abundant, it is fuppofed to be from the chemical action they
e.-iert upon it that the benefit is derived. Where tiie pure-
alkali is ufed, a r>jal folvent power may be exerted ; and it
has been proved that the alkah is fecreted by the kidnies, fo
as to render the urine fenfibly alkaline, and ever.^apable of
afting on the calculus out of the body. Yet the folvent
power is very incon'iderable, and the remedy at the fame
time proves fo irritating, when taken to any confiderable ex-
tent, that the folution of a calculus, even of fmali fiza, cao^
perhaps be Ccarcely expelled.. The pain and irritation which

atteaii

LITHOTOMY.

, Mtcnd the difeafe, however, are confideiMbly alleviated by
>licir habitual ufe, and this even when the alkali is faturated,
or fnper-faturated with carbonic acid, a circiimftance with
regard to which there appears fome difficulty in giving an
explanation, fince the alkalies in this Hate have becniluppofed
not to aft on the \n-ic acid. But, from the experiments of
Dr. E;ran'(Philof. Magaz. vol. 23 awl 24), this appears to
he a millake ; though the relief obtained from the ufe of
thei'e may alfo be in part derived from the faturation of the
other acid, whether phofphoric or acetic, which is iikewife
fecreted ; the urine is tlius rendered Icfs irritating, and the
tendency to a dcpoiition of uric acid diminilhcd, all acids
Iiallenins; the precipitation of this acid from the urine. It has
accordingly been found, that under the ufe of alkaline reme-
dies, th» fediment of uric acid from the urme, fo often
abundant in cafes of calculus, rapidly dimituflies. The in-
creafe of the concretion is thus prevented, and the principal
caufe of irritation removed.

So far, therefore, profefTor Murray acknowledges that the
alkalies may aft as palliatives ; but he contends, that it mull
be very doubtful if they can be given to fuch an extent as to
exert an aftual folvcnt power. Befides, there is an effeft
which may attend their continued ufe, efpecially in large
dofes. It has been remarked by Mr. Brande, that the
phofphates of lime and magnefia are held in folution in urine,
chiefly by its escefs of acid; if this be faturated, therefore,
by the ufe of an alkali, although the depofit of uric
ncid may be checked, that of the phofphates will be favour-
ed, and it appears that it is principally from a depofition of
tliefe that a calculus in the blander increafes in fize. Some
cafes, adduced by Mr. Home, appear to fupport this con-
clufion.

Lime, under the form of lime-water, has been employed
as a folvent. The experiments of Dr. Egan have ihewn, that
lime-water afts with more energy than an alkaline folution
of fimilar llrength in deftroying the aggregation of urinary
concretions, and Murray found the fame thing. The lime
probably operates more upon the albumen or animal matter,
which appears to ferve as the cement or connecting fubllance,
than upon the uric acid ; and Murray thinks that in cndea-
vouriuT to difcovtr folvents for tliefe concretions, our views
ought perhaps rather to be direfted to this operation than
to tlie effeft on the faline matter. If, fays he, lime,
when received into the llomach under the form of lime-
water, can be fecreted by the kidnies, as the alkalies unquef-
tionably are, it would appear to be fuperior to them as a
folvent. But when we confider the fparing folubility
of lime , and the fmall quantity of it therefore that can be
• brought to the kidnies, the poflibility of its fecretion may

^e doubted. Mr. Brande has even fuppofed that, v.-ere it
fecreted, it would rather prove hurtful, by forming an infohi-
ble compound with the phofphoric or carbonic acids, which
are always contained in the unue. Murray owns this to be
pofTible ; but he argues that if the concretion of thefe fub-
itances into a calculus is owing principally to the aftion of
the animal matter, fince this mull be prevented, any depolit
would be difcharged, and perhaps the aggregation of an ex-
iting concretion be destroyed. Under this view, Murray
thinks that the proper praftice would be the exhibition of
alkali and lime together, the former neutralizing the excefs
of acid in the urine, and allowing the latter to exert its
power ; and it deferves to be remarked, that the celebrated
.Stephens's remedies are a combination of this kind. Cal-
culi, compofed of oxalate of lime, phofphate of lime, or
phofphate of magnelia and ammonia, not being foluble by
.alkalies, the objedt has been attempted by the attion of weak

acids, like that of lemons. It is quctlionable, however,
whether any acid can be given fo as to communicate to the
urine a folvent power. Befides, though an acid were to
remove the phofphale.s, or at leafl prevent their depoiition,
it might promote the formation of uric acid concretions.
If, however, the lime-water and alkalies, by operating on the
animal matter of calculi, tend to deltroy their aggregation,
thele remedies may prove foiv.ewhat uicful in all the varieties
of ftone. See Murray's Syftem of Chemittrv, vol. iv.
p. 6ji, et fcq.

Setting afide all chcmiqal reafoning, we are forry to be
obliged to coafcfs that praftice does not judify any ftrong
hopes of the fufficient efficacy of internal medicines to dif-
folve ftones in the bladder. But though lithontriptics are
not equal to this effeft, they certainly aifuage the feverity of
the fymptoms, which is a benclk of intiniie importance to
the afflided.

Ivledicines conveyed into the ftomach having failed to dlf-
fi'lve urinary calculi, various pradlitioners have placed confi-
derable expeftation in the plan of introducing a folvent injec-
tion through a f atheter directly into the bladder. It will be
feen, from the article Catheter in this work, that the an-
cients knew how to introduce fluids into the bladder many-
centuries before Mr. J. Foot publifhed upon the " Veficpe
Lotura.'' Foiircroy and Vauquelin afcertained, that a ley
of potaffa or foda, not too ftrong to be fwallowed, foftens
and diffolves fmall calculi, compofed of the uric acid and
urate of ammonia, when they are left in the liquid a few
days. They have proved that ?j beverage, merely acidulated
with nitric or muriatic acid, difiblves with Ifill greater
quicknefs calculi formed of the phofphate of lime, and of
the ammoniacomagncfian phofphate. Tliey have made out
tint calculi compoicd of the oxalate of lime, which are the
moll difficult of folution, may be foftened ard ulmoil quite
diffolved in nitric acid, greatly diluted, pro^ided they are
kept in the mixture a fufficient time. We know then liquids
that will diflblve calculi of various compafitions ; but much
difficulty occurs in employing them effeftually in praftice.
For although we can eafily injeft them into the cavity of the
bladder, tlus organ is fo extremely tender and irritable, that it
cannot bear the contaft of any fluid, except that which it is
dcilincd by nature to contain, and the aftion of fuch hquids
upon it as would be neceflary to diffolve a itone in its cavity
would not fail to produce fuiferings which no man could en-
dure, and the moft dangerous and fatal effefts on the bladder
itfelf. Another ohjeftion to this experiment is the ignorance
iiv which the praftitioner is with regard to the chemical com-
pofition of calculi before their extrattion, and of courfe
tlieimpoffibility of knowing what folvent ought to beinjeft-
ed. Upon this reafon, however, it is unneceirary to lay
much llrcfs ; for were the previous more weighty objeftiou
done away, the latter difficulty might perhaps be ob-
viated.

Defirable, therefore, as an effeftual lithontriptic is, as it
would be the means of freeing the alflifted from the terrible
fufferings occafioned by a ftone in the bladder, and of re-
moving all occafion for a painful and hazardous operation,
it is a melancholy truth that, notwithftanding every expefta-
tion, arifing either'from chemical reafoning, from quackifh
boafting-S, or from the palliation and temporary relief really J
obtained, we have no prafticable means of difiblving a ftone \
in the living bladder. Until this grand difcovery is made,
lithotomy will ever be an iudifpenlabie operation, and the
views of enlightened iurgeons fhould Hill be direfted to ren-
der it as free as poffible from pain and dangerous confe-
qiieuccs. 6

V> e

LITHOTOMY.

We ftiall now endeavour to give an impartial defcription
of the priixipal methods of cutting for the ftonc, beginning
with fuch dJ are mo.1 ancient, and concluding with thofo
vhich have been very recently fnggetled.

Of the Apparatus minor, Methodus Celfana ; or cuiUng on
the grip:. — The operation which v.e are about to explain is
by far the oldeil fpecics of lithotomy, its antiqnity extending
back to time immemorial. Ahhoiigh we are indebted to the
immortal Cclfiis for tlie firll defcription of it, he vvai in all
probability not the original inventor. We learn from hiftory,
that Hippocrates made his pupils take an oath that they
would never attempt to cut for the Hone ; and, according to
Florus, the Latin hiflorian, the fon of Alexander, king of
Syria, periilied, when about ten years of age, in confequence
of this operation, wliich had been villainoufly undertaken,
though there was no Hone in the bladder. It is plain then,
that, long before the time cf Celfus, the ancients were ac-
quainted with fome mode of lithotomy, which we may infer
was what is now called the apparatus minor. This lad ap-
pellation, deduced from the fmall number of inllruments re-
quired, was not employed till the commencement of the fix-
teenth century, the period w hen another method, named the
apparatus major, had its rife. The phrafe of " cutting on
the gripe," came into ufe in confequence of the furgeon
having to cut upon the (lone, while he grafped it, with his
fingers introduced within the rectum.

The manner of doing the operation is this. You iirft in-
troduce the fore finger ai^d middle finder of the left hand,
dipped in oil, up the anus, and prc-fling foftly with your
right hand above the os pubis, endeavour to bring the ttone
towards the neck of the bladder ; then making an incifion en
the left fide of the perineum, above the anus, dircftly upon
the (lone, you turn it out through the wound, either with
your fingers or a fcoop. Sharp on the Operations,
chap. 1 8.

M iny objeftions have been urged againil this method by
furgical authors.

1. In the firil place it is not applicable to adults, as, in
fuch patients, it would ft-ldom be found poffible to fix the
flonc by the fingers introduced within the reclum. Celfus
confined the operation to fubjefts betwem the ages of nine
and fourteen, which is rather extraordinary, as it is more cafy
of perlormaiice the younger the child is, though certainly it
hardly admits of being done at all after the patient is more
than fourteen.

2. The fame parts are not always cut, as this depends very
much upon the degree of force with which the ftone is
made to projeft in the perineum, and the leaft incliration to
one fide or the other mull alfo make a confiderable difference.
When the incifion is favourably executed, the parts cut are
nearly the fame as thofe divided in the modern and mod ap-
proved mode of operating. But as the operator always cuts
dircftly on the projecting Hone, the parts expofed to the
knife muil vary in different cafes for the reafons already al-
leged ; and the records of furgery prove, that in perform.-
ing the apparatus minor, ti.e urethra may be quite detached
from the proftate, or the velicula feminalis and vas deferens
be injured.

3. The neck of the bladder mufl fuffer very much from
rough ftones, when confiderable force is exerted in prelTing
them towards the perineum. That this is not mere con-
jechirc, is confirmed by the obfervatioas of Celfus, from
whofe account it plainly appears that, in his time, many
aftually died from the violence done to the bladder, in en-
deavouring to bring the ilone forwards, though the operators
failed in their attempt, and the patients were not cut. Fa-
bricius Fildanus was well acquainted with all the uncertainty

Vol. XXI. '

of cutting on the gripe, and he endeavoured to improve the
method Ly introducing a flafi" through the urethra into the
bladder, fo that the operator might avail himfelf of the
guidance of this indrumcnl in making the requifitc opening
for the cxtradion of the ftone. Fabricius brought the ftone
into the neck of the bladder with his fingers, which were
paffed up the rectum, juft as Celfus dcfcribes, and then,
fiuidod by the ftaff, made fuch a divifion of the proftate and
reck of the bladder, as fuificed for the paffage of the cal-
culus outward. The extraftion was accomplifhed with a
fort of hook.

The apparatus minor, done in this manner, is by no means
an ineligible operation for young male children, v.henthe
furgeon can eafily grafp the ftone with his fingers, fro;n
within the reftum. We do rot mean to fay it is rafh to
make an incifion into the bladder with a common fcalpcl,
guided by a itafi", even though tlie ftone cannot be fixed
with the fingers, only the operation wou'd then not be that
of "cutting on the gripe," to which, at prefent, our re-
marks are limited. We agree entirely with Mr. John Bell,,
who, in commending the improved Celfian method, as
praftifcd by Fabricius, takes occafion to rem.ark, that you
cut upon the ftone, and of courfe m.ake, with perfcft fecu-
rity, an incifion cxadly proportioned to its fi/.e. There is
no difficult nor dangerous difi'eflion ; no gorget, nor other
dangerous inftrument, thruft into the bladder, with the rifle
of Its palTing between that and the retlum ; you are per-
forming, exprefsly, the lateral incifion of Raw and Che-
felden in the molt finiple and favourable way. John Bell's
Principles of Surgery, vol. ii.

Of the Apparatus major, or SeS'io Alariana. — This me-
thod of cutting for the ftone was named Apparatus major,
from the great number of iaftruments ufed in the operation ;
and Sedio Mariana from one M,irianus, who publifhtd the
firft defcription of it. Johannis de Romanis, a furgeon at
Cremona, was the inventor about the year 1523, or 15251
though the exadt period is very uncertain. Marianus was
the ftholar of Romanis, and having learned his niafter's art.
of operating, printed an account of it in Latin. The date
of this treatife fecir.s rather undetei mined, Douchis irakin<T
It 1522, Sharp 1524, and Sabatier a period fubiequent to
1540.

Lxperience has repeatedly proved, that, in co fequenee
of the ftiortnefs and dilatable nature of the female urethra,
calculi of crnfiderakle fize m.ay be extivfled fro:ii women
without employing any cuttii^g inftrumeiits at all. Tlie paf-
f ;ge may be gradually dilated, fo as to allow the forceps to
be introduced into the bladdtr, and the ft ne taken hold of,
and extiaiSed. The adapt;ition of this plan to male pa-
tients was the principal objci^ of the Marian operation. ,
With this view, an incifion w as made into the urethra at the
bulb. That part of the can-.l which was Gtuated between
the wound and the i^eck of the bladder, being (hort and
fomewhat ftraight, was thought to bear a refem.blance to the
female urethra. Ir:flruments were therefore paffed into the
opening, for the purpofe of dilating fuch portion of the
urethra, fufjicicntly to let the forceps be introduced, and
th; ftone extratfed. It was never recollected that the male
urethra, where it is furrounded by the proftate gland, could
not rightly be compared with the m.eatub urinarius of the fe-
male, fince it was totally incapable of being dilated in a de-
gree at all adequate to the objects in view. Hence m.oll
dreadful injury was done to the parts, which, inftead of
yielding, were torn and conlufed in a manner fhocking to re-
late.

. There were various mode.; of executing this barbarous

operation ; the following partic-jlars, we prefumc, wal at

^ oacft

LITHOTOMY.

once fatisfy the curiofity of the profeffional reader, and
make liini for ever abhor a method that is fo repugnant to
the principles of good furgery, and the diftates of humanity
and common fenfe.

The patient was bound in the pofition ufually adopted in
the more modern mctliods of cutting for the ftone. After
an opening had been made into the urethra, clofe behind the
bulb, much in the fame way as is praftifed in the performance
of tiic hiteral operation, the furgeon uled to introduce into
the bladd:T, along the groove of the itaff, an inllrument re-
fembhiip; a (Irong iron probe, and called a male conduttor.
The (lair was then taken out of the urethra, and the fe-
male, or grooved couduftor, guided along the male one into
the bladder. By means of thefe two implements, endea-
vours were next made to dilate the undivided portion of the
urethra, and the neck of the bladder, fufficiently to enable
the operator to introduce the forceps. After much time
fpent in ilretching the parts, the forceps were palled into
the cavity of the bladder, and the ftone was drawn out,
though, in general, not without confiderable force and vio-
lence. Sometimes the dilatation was attempted with a blunt
gorget ; fometimes by expandnig the blades of the forceps.
Many operators ufed different inlfrumcuts for the pi:rpofe,
called dilators.- Franco, Toilet, the Collots, and Alghili,
employed ihem.

When we refleft that, in. this method, the proflatic por-
tion of the urethra was left undivided, a part which is very
incapable of much dilatation, we mud know that the open-
ing through which the forceps was introduced, and the ilone
taken out, was not formed by the claflic yielding of the
parts ; but by an adlual laceratioii of them, attended with
an immenfe deal of contufion and violence. In what a de-
gree luch mifchief muft have taken place in cafes where the
ftone was of large fixe, is eafdy conceivable. We cannot
wonder, therefore, at the fevere, aiid frequently fatal, con-
fequences of fo barbarous an operation. The patients very
often perilhed of inflammation of the bladder and abdominal
vifcera. An extenfive effufion of blood in the fcrotum,
ahfceffes and fiftula; in perineo, incontinence of urine, and
jmpotency, were alfo common confequences. With thefe
fafts before us, we muft feel furprife that the operation of
Marianas ftiould have been pradtifed for the fpace of two
hundred years, by fon^.e of the moft diftinguilhcd furgtons
in E".rope, as Pare, Le Dran, Lc Cat, Mery, Morand,
Ma'-cohal, Raw, &c.

The foregoing account will ferve to convey a general no-
tion of the apparatus major, fo faniwus a fubjeCl in the
hittory of lithotomy ; hut fuch readers as wi(h to be ac-
quainted with all the different modes in which it was
praftifed by the clj furgeo^.s, ought to confult De la Mcde-
cine Operatoire, par Sabatier, torn. ii. ; and the Principles
of Surgery, by Mr. John Bell, vol. ii. Very clear and
more concifc dcfcriptions of the apparatus major may be
found in Sharp's Trcatife on the Operations, or in Ber-
trandi'sTraite des Operations.

Apparatus altus. — Thi.^ is the technical name given lo the
method in which the ftone is extracted from the bladder,
through an incifion praftifed in the fundus of this organ
from above the pubes. The inventor of this mode of cut-
ting for the ftone was Pierre Franco, a fm-geon at Tour-
rieres, in Provence. He was led to attempt the operation,
from having under his care a child with a calculus, that
could not be brought towards the perineum on account of
its magnitude. Although the Httle patient fuffered much
in ii'p.jiition aft»rwards, the wound healed, and a pcrfeftrc-
'covery foUo-.ved. The profperous event of this cafe, it
fecms, was not enough to convince FraucOj that wounds of

the bladder were lefs perilous than lie apprehended them tr,-
he, and at the lame time that he details the particulars oi'
the plan he purlued, he cautions us not to imitate him.
See Traite des Hernies, Lyon, 1561.

Doubtlefs, the advice delivered by Franco intimidated
his contemporaric's ; for we lind no notice taken of the
apparatus altus again till 1597, when this plan of ope-
rating was recoinmendtd by Roffetti, a well-informed and
judicious phylician, in a work entitled " Partus C:clariu3.''
This author reprelents it as the belt and fatell mode of cut-
ting for the ftone ; but though he had clear ideas of the
poffibility of the method, his obfcrvations are not fupported
by any adtual experience of his own. Afterwards, the
operation was at firft reprobated, and then adopted by Fa-
bricius Hildanus, in cafes where the ilone was of confider-
able fize. It was commended by Riolan in his remarks upon
the anatomy of Vefliiigius ; and Simon Pietre, a phylician
at Paris, wrote a memoir in favour of the operation in the
year 1635. Since this period, the apparatus altus is men-
tioned by numerous writers, though few furgcons ventured
to perform it. However, it is faid to have been practifed
by Bonnet, an old furgeon of the Hotel-Dieu. At length
the faculty of Paris recommended the parliament to autho-
rife fom'e additional experiments- in regard to the apparatus
altus, and Francis Collet was appointed to make the requi-
fite trials of the operation. The refult was, that, in his
opinion, the method was attended with great danger, and,
confequently, the prattice in France was prohibited.

The apparatus altus, however, was not every where aban-
doned. Proby, a furgeon at Dublin, praflifed it for the
purpofe of extrafting from the bladder of a young woman
a long pin, covered with a ftony incruftation, which he was
unable to get out through the urethra. (See Phil. Tranf,
for 1700,) Groenvelt, a Dutchman, who, in 1716,., ptib-
lifhed a treatife on lithotomy in Englifti, lays, that he was
under the neceffity of removing a ilone from the blad-
der by cutting above the os pubis. At length, in 171S,
Dr. Douglas wrote a dilTertation in praife of this method of
operating, which was foon afterwards put to the tell of ex-
periment by his brother, the furgeon, who was imitated by
feveral Englifli and German praftitioners. In confequence
of thefe proceedings, the operation was again revived in
France, and it was prailifed at St. Germain-en-Laye by
Berryer, a furgeon of that town, and by S. F. Morand, at
the Hotel des Invalides. The latter attempt proved un-
fiiccefsful. An account of both thefe cafes was pu: I !hcd
by Morand in 1727. Tlie t>peration v/as afterwardi much
on the decline in France, and probably would have been
tota'ly given up, had not a nev.' method of ['erforming it
been propofed by Frere Come. See Nouvclle Melhode
d'extraire la Pierre de la Vcflle Urinaire par deffus le
Pubis, a Paris, 1779.

In the apparatus altus, the defign of the furgeon is to
make an opening into the anterior part of the bladder above
the OS pubis. The patient is to be placed upon a table, or
bed -of fuitable height, with his legs reaching over the
edge and relling upon a ftool. Two affillants are to keep
the patient's body and arms fteady, while two ethers take
hold of his thighs. The patient's trunk (liould be fome-
what bent forwards, in order to relax the abdon.inal mufcles j
but it is highly neceffary for the pelvis to be rather more
raifed than the cheft, fo that the inteftines may not gravitate
towards the bladder, and by deprefiing this vifcus, make it
more difficult to be got at. Befidcs, raifing the pelvis above
the level of the thorax prevents the ftone from falling to-
■wards the neck of the bladder, from which fituation the ex«
traftion would be lefs eafy.

The

LITHOTOMY,

The operation has "been execHted in Tei-eral ways.
Tlie moll ancient mode was tliat of cutting direclly upon
the ftone, wliich was puihed upwards and forwards, towards
the lower and-front part of the abdomen, by two fingers in-
troduced into the rectum. Franco operated in this manner,
and he was imitated by Bonnet, Heifler, &c. While an al-
fitlant puilies the (lone uprvard, the furgeon is to make an inci-
fion through the (kin juft above the os pubis, and through the
lower portion of the linea alba : he is then to puntture the
bladder, enlarge the opening from above downwards with
a probe-pointed crooked biftoury, and, lallly, take out the
ttone with a pair of forceps.

RotTctti was the inventor of a particular method. In
the apparatus altus, it is an objctt of tlie grcateft confc-
quence to make an opening into the hLidder without wound-
ing the peritoneum. Hence Rod'etti adopted the plan
of dillending the bladder with warm water, which was in-
jefted through a catheter placed in the urethra, and thus
made the vifcus rife to a convenient height above the pubes.
The fluid was injefted in the moli flow and gradual manner,
in order that it miglit give as little pain and uneafinefs as
pcflible. The quantity iutroduced was, in general, from
eight to fixteen ounces. Some authors objecl to an injec-
tion, and recommend the patient to retain his water till the
requifite diltention of the bladder has taken place. When
ihis receptacle had been lilled, the catheter was withdrawn,
and the fluid kept from efcaping by an affiftant, who com-
preffed the urethra. The integuments and linea alba were
then cut, as in Franco's method. A punCture was next made
in the bladder with a biiloury, having its edge turned towards
the pubes; and the furgeon with his left index finger, which
was direiJtly paffcd into the opening, kept the bladder from
defcending, while he finifhed the incifion of that vifcus,
by cutting from above downwards below the os pubis. The
bladder was ilill kept up with the index finger, until the
ftone was extrarted with the forceps. In order to be fure
of having the bladder diilended, and to be able to introduce
more injection if neceffary, Mr. Middleton ufed to keep the
catheter in the urethra till the incifions were completed. On
the other hand, Douglas was in the habit of cutting down
to the bladder betore he introduced the catheter.

The apparatus altus has been objefted to as unadapted to
perfons who are either inclined to be fat, or wliofe bladders
are not capacious. Unfortunately, in the generality of
itone-patients, the bladder is much contrafted. Tlie iutro-
duClion of the injection has likewife been found a painful
and uncertain proceeding ; for, very often, a fufRcient quan-
tity could not be got into the bladder, fo that in operating
there was fome rific of wounding the peritoneum. The
method has alio been accufed of frequently giving rife to an
■extravafatir-n of urine, and' floughing and abfcelTes in the
pelvis, in confequence of the greater facility with which that
fluid efcapes through the wound of the bladder than through
the urethra. Thefe unpleaiant events have been faid to take
place the mere eafily, as when the bladder contrafts, it
defcer.ds behind the os pubis, and the wound in it no longer
continues oppofite to that in the linea alba and integuments.
Keeping a catheter in the bladder, or the patient in an hori-
zontal podurc, has not, it is faid, availed in preventing the
frequency or fatality of fuch mifchief.

However, Frere Come's method of performing the ap-
paratus altus, which we (hall hereafter notice, if repreiented
by the French furgeons as being free from theprc ceding incon-
veniences. When the account of this form of the apparatus
altus has been read, we entertain little doubt that the ope-
ration will appear, to all good judges, to have merit. Frere
Cume is faid to have cut nearly a hundred patients, in the

manner alluded to, with alrr.ofl uninterrupted fuccefs. The
plan has the advantage of enabling a furgeon to cxtraft
larger Hones than can be taken out of the bladder by any
other method, as the incifion may be enlarged in proportion
to their fize, and the bladder is here more yielding than in
the vicinity of the proflate gland. Nor is the paflage of a
large ftone here reliited by any bony obftacles, as in other
modes of operating. See Sabatiers Mcdccine Opcratoirc,
tom. ii. p 5 [.

It muil be confelTed, that fome difficulty might arife in
cafe the ftone were to break, as the fragments could not be
fo eafily taken out as in other methods. We are to re-
member, however, that this accident is lefs likely to happen,
bccaufe the parts through which the cidculus has to pafs
are all foft and yielding. Were it to take place, the larger
pieces of the calculus might be extrafted by means of
proper forceps, and the Imaller ones would be carried out
with the urine through the tube in the perineum.

This method, againll which the records of furgery appear
to adduce no ferious objeclions, founded on as pofitive expe-
rience, has been entirely abandoned. Want of fimplicity is
alleged againll it ; but we think without much reafon, for
the operation, as will be feen frum the defcription, is not
difficult ; nor is the number of inftruments immoderate.
If, what Richter mentions be true, that Frere Come cut
nearly a hundred patients in this way with almoft invariable
luccefs, the jullification of further trials cannot be doubted.
The method, as modified by 13efchamps, who, inftead of
cutting the perineum, perforated the bladder from the rettum,
has received the high fanction of Dr. Thomfon of Edin-
burgh. See Edinburgh Surg. Journ. N^ 13.

Latsrul operation. — Since the ill eonfequences of the ap-
paratus major were chiefly owing to the difiention, contufion,
and lacer.ition wjhich the membranous and proftatic portions
of the urethra, and tlie neck of the bladder itfelf fuffered,
the idea ot preventing luch mifchief, by cutting thefe parts
to a fufiicient extent, feemed almoft a certain and natural
effeiit of any reflection beftowed on the fubjecl. The
making of fuch an incifion conftitutes all the particularity of
the lateral operation ; but as the lower fide of the urethra
cannot be divided far enough without the reftum being
wounded, the cut is directed fideways, from which circum-
ftance the name of the method is derived.

The lateral operation being that which, under various mo-
difications, has now taken the place of every other method
of cutting for the (lone, it feenis proper to give fome ac-
count of its origin and progreflive improvement, and of the
different modes of executing it, with gorgets and a variety
oi, lithotomes and knives.

In September, 1697, a fort of monk, named Frere
Jacques de Beaulieu, went to Paris, taking with him nume-
rous certitlcates of the many cures which he had accom-
pliftied in fundry places, and announcing his defire to teach
the furgeons of that city a new method of cutting for the
ftone. He paid his refpeds to Marechal, then principal
furgeon to La Cliarite, and requefted leave to operate upon
fome of t!ie patients in that hofpital. Marechal, however,
did not think proper to trull the living to a man, of whofe
qualifications he was entirely ignorant, and ail that Frere
Jacques could get granted, was permiffion to exhibit his
mode of operating upon a dead body. The relult was,
that his plan was not confidered advantageous, and, diflTatis-
fied with the reception he had experienced, he quitted Paris
in Oilober, and repaired to Fcntalnbleau, the feat of the
court. Here he cut for the ftone a lad, who, in three
weeks after the operation, was feen walking quite well about
the ilreets.

Y i Frere

LITHOTOMY.

Frere Jacques put his patientsunder no preparatory treat-
ment before the operation ; he placed them on the edge of
a table, with a pillow under their heads, and with their legs
and thighs bent and feparated from each other, in fnch a
way, that their heels approached their buttocks. He did
•not bind his patient, in this pollure ; but made lome llrong
. alTiflants ho'd them. Then, having introduced into the
bladder a round, iolid, ungrcovcd ftaif, he took a long nar-
row knife, and made an oblique incifion in the perineum,
along the internal part of the tubcrofity and ramus of the
jfchinni, cutting from below upwards. In this way, he
cut all tlie parts which prefented tli.-mfelves, without taking
out tiie ftafT. He now introduced his finger into the wound,
in order to afcertain the fuuation of llie itone, and enlarged
the in'.ernal opening with an inllrument much like a fcratch-
ing knife, but which only had one cutting edge. On this
inllrument, which he called his conductor, he pafied the
forceps into the bladder. The folld ftaff was then with-
drawn from the urethra, and the calculus extrafted. Laltly,
fome linen dipped in a mixture of oil and wine was applied
to the wound, and the operator took final leave of his pa-
tients, te'ling them, that the operation was done, and that
God would complete the cure.

Frere Jacques' fuccefs at Fontainbleau changed the pub-
lic opinion fo much in his favour, that it was determined to
let him o;"-rate, in the enfuing fpring, on the patients in
the Hoiel D'.eu and La Chaiite. He was direfted, how-
ever, to make fome previous triaU of his method upon the
dead fubjed in the prefence of Meiy, who was ordered to
■furiiifli a report on the matter. Mery's firft declaration
was qu'te favourable to Frere Jacques, as it ftated, that the
neck and b idy of the bladder were cut inftead of being
dilated, as they were in the ordinary method at that time ;
that as tlie ftcne was extracted at the wideft part of the
arch of the pubes, the fympt.ims were likely to be milder ;
and, among other circumilances, that the internal parts were
lefs ex])ofed to be torn and bruifed. Mery thought Frere
Jacques' inltruments not fo eligible as thofe in previous
ufe, and pariicularly objeftcd to the ftafF, which, having no
groove, fei-ved as a very indifferent guide to the knife.

Under Mery's infpeftion, Frere Jacques made further
trials of the new method on dead bodies, and a fecond re-
port, dra.vn up by the former, wa^ much lefs propitious
than that which had been previouily delivered. Bat nei-
ther this cirjumftance, a^or fome untor'.unate operations
which Frere Jacques had lately performed at Verfailles and
Paris, led to a rejeiiion of the ne^v plan ; for forty-two
ftone patients, in the Ho el Dieu, and eighteen in La
Charite, were now put under his care. Nothing could
furpafs the general eagernefs to fee him operate. There
was not a phvfician, iiur a furgeon, who was not proud of
being his atfiilant. In ihort, fo vail was the concourfe
of fpeclators, or rather, 'of thofe who willied to be fueh,
that guards were found neceffary to preferve order. Of
the above fixty patients, twenty-three died. Only thirteen
were perfetily cured, and even in fome of thefe the wound
is faid to have afterwards brok:-n out again. The other
trtentv-four remained in the hofpitals ; fnme with an incon-
tiriense of urine ; others with fiftulie; and all in a reduced
ftate, from «hich they are laid to have, never recovered.
On exa.-nining the bodies of the deceafsd, it appeared that,
in fome inilanoes, the fundns of the bladder was wounded,
while ii others, the neck of this vifcus was entirely fepa-
rated from the urethra i that, in women, the vagina was
conft^ntly pierced in two oppofite places ; that, in both
fexes, the reituni was frequently opened ; and that, in all
cafes, the parts were terribly liacked, in conl'equence of no

guide for the knife, and no conductor having been em-»
ployed.

The ill fuccefs of Frere Jacques' operations did not pro-
duce fimilar fcntiments in every mind. Felis and Fagon,
in France, thought that his method had merit, and that,
when improved in particular points, which they fuggeftcd,
it might be made far fuperior to any other mode of cutting
for the ilone. Frere Jacques profited fo much by their
advxe, that, in 1 699, he operated on about fixty perfans,
moil of whom got quite well. He fpent the enfuing winter
at Verfailles, as an inmate with Fagon; and there repeat-
edly praCtifcd lithotomy on the dead fubjeft. Duvcimey
diffected the bodies, and though he found Frere Jacques'
method far preferable to the apparatus major, which was
then the only other plan in ule, he was of opinion with
Mery, " that the ftaft would be .better with a groove, as
its round and foHd form was ill fuited for the guidance of
the knife." Frere Jacques, ever ready to receive inftruc-
tion, loft no time in adopting the improvement. He had
new ilaffs conlbudled, and continued to employ them the
reft; of his life.

In the fpring of 1 70 1, this celebrated lithotomifl cut
thirty-eight patients for the ilone at Verfailles. Thefe all
recovered. Fagon, who was afflidled with the difordcr,
could not refolve to put himielf under the care of the new-
operator ; but was operated upon and cured by Marcchal.
Frere Jacques, fomewhat piqued at this circumitance, quit-
ted Verfailles, with the intention of never returning thither;
but, in 1702, he was induced to re-vifit the place at the in-
ftance of the Marfhal de Lorges, who was afRitled with the
ftone, and under whofe roof were lodged twenty-two poor
patients with calculi. Thefe were all operated upon with
fuccefs ; but the Marflial, whofe bladder contained fun)j;ous
excrefcences, and leven Imall flones, the extraclion of which
was tedious, died the day after fuhmitting to the opera-
tion. In confequence of this accident, Frere Jacques de-
termined to go into Holland. Here his fuccefs mull have
been very confiderable ; for he was thrice engraved ; and
at Bruffels, whither he was fent by the magiftrates of Am-
fterdam, a medal was llruck in honour of him, with this
infcriplion : Pro feyuatls civiliis. The motto of one of the
engravings is the toUosving pafiage from Cicero : JEari,
quia non omnes canvakfcunt, jion iddrco ars nulla medicina cjl.
This alludes to the many hoilile criticifras which had been
iflued againft him.

In 1712, Fi ere Jacques, being fixty years of age, re-
turned to Befangon, his native place, where he foon after-
wards died.

While he was at Amfterdam, his mode of operating had
been obferved by the famous Raw, who at once perceived,
that the method was infinitely preferable to the apparatus
major, and who, after fome trials on the dead fnbjed^, put
it in practice on the living.- Raw's fuccefs exceeded every
thing heard of before : befidcs extracting the Ilone with the
utmoil eafe, he cured all his patients wi'hout oxce: tion.
His reputation fpread every wiiere. Surgeons flocked from
all parts to Amllerdam, in order to fee him operate and
receive his inftruftions. He cared not how many fp--ftators
he had ; but no one could prevail on him to divn'ge the
particulars of his plan. To every folicitation on this point,
his ufual reply was, " Celfum legitote," which feems to hint,
that he was in the habit of cutting the fame parts as were
divided in the ancient operation of the apparatus vninor.
It is afferted, that he cut for t'ne Hone 1540 patients, and
(what is almo (I incredible) they are all Hated to have re-
covered, fo that there was never any opportunity of dilfedf-
jng the bodies of any of his patients.

It

LITHOTOMY.

It ^ns for a lon^ while prefumcd, that Raw made an
opcninjr into the bladder, without touching the neck of
this vifcus, or cuttinir the proftate gland. This, at Icaft,
was the feiitiment of Albiiius the father ; hut, in latter
times, the general conclufion has been, that Raw mud have
divided theie parts.

After Raw's death in 1719, experiments were made, in
order to afcertain his mode of performing lithotomy. Anaong
others engaged in this objcft was Chefclden, who, when
the bladder was diftended with an injedion, fitccceded in
making an onenirfg into this vifcus, without injuring its
neck, ilaring tried this plan, however, on Ibme of his pa-
tients, he foon found, that it «'a'i very liable to be followed
by a fatal extravafation of urine in the pelvis, and, confe-
quently, he renounced it for ever. His experiments were
ftili carried on, and at length he was convi:iced, that in
operating with the indruments, and in the manner of Raw,
as dcfcribed by A'biius, it was impoffiblc to make an
opening into the bladder, without cutting the membranous
part of the urethra, and the proftate gland. Chefelden
■ow flopped his inveftigations, and direfted all his abilities
to the eafy accomplifhment of fuch an operation. The
knife, commonlv empiayed on o'.her occafions, feemed to
Chefelden much more convenient than the pointed lithotome
ufed by the Dutch furgeons. luilead of the male and fe-
male conduttor in ufe with Raw, Chefelden preferred a
blunt gorget for guiding the forceps into the blidder ;
but iie altered the handle, which, inltead of reprefenting a
{brt of croC-:, was now oval, and made to incline to the
lef^.

Having abandoned the method imputed to Raw by Al-
binu'', Cl'.efelden tried a fecond plan, which was as follows :
the patient being placed in the pofture ufually chofen for
lithotomy by modern cperalors, a grooved ftaff was intro-
duced into the bladder. The handle of this inftrument was
inclined towards the right groin, and firmly held by an af-
fiilant with one hand, while, with the other, the fcrotum
was f.:pported. The fl-cin of the perineum having been
made tenfe with the opera'or's left thumb, a free oblique
jncifion was made with a convex edged fcalpel, much in the
fame way as is commonly done at the prefent d.iy. The
fat was next deeply cut through. Th- left index finger was
then introduced into the upper angle of the wound, and the
groove of the fluff being felt throUi;h the parietes of the
ure'hra, a cut was made into this canal The afliTant that
h.».d the care of the Itaff, was now directed to draw its con-
cavity upward as- clofely as polTible under the arch of the
pubes, away from the refturr^ All that remained 10 be
done, was to divide the membranous part of the urethra and
the neck of the bladder. This was executed by pulliing
the point of the knife along the groove of the flaff, under
the guidance of the left index finger, which, in this flep
of the operation, was kept on the back of the fcalpel.
Having reached the prollate gland, the incifion was com-
pleted by the knife being moved downwards and outwards,
with its edge turned towards the tuberolity of theifchium.

The left index linger, remaining in the wound, ferved to
guide the beak of the blunt gorget into the groove of the
ftaff. The operator now took* hold of the h.indle of this
lall inftrument, and, after bringing it downwards and
forwards, condufted the gorget into the bladder. The
ftaff was withdrawn, the forceps introduced along tiie con-
■cavity of the gorget, and the flone extratled. Such was
Chefelden's fecond method. It was this operation which
Morand gave an account of to the French furgeons, after
teing it performed during his vifit to England at the ex-
pence of the Royal Academy of Sciences j and it is par-

ticularly worthy of notice, tiiat foreign furgical writers
feem unaware, that Chefelden afterwards gave the preference
to a third plan of operating, which has been defcribed by
Douglas in his fecond Hiflory of the Lateral Operation,,
pubhfhcd 1 73 1.

We are not very well acquainted with the reafons which
led Chefelden to abandon his fecond method. He had,
however, candidly confelTed to Morand, that in pufhing the
knife backwards along the groove of the flaff, he had in
two inflances wounded the reftum. Befides, it is con--
jeftured, that the incifion of the proftate gland was often
too fmall for the free tranfmilTion of the flone.

Chefelden's third, and what he confidered as liis befl me-
thod of cutting for the flone, did not differ in point cf
principle from his fecond plan. The fame parts were cut,
namely, the membranous part of the urethra, and the pr<;f-
tate gland. The change confided in a different mode of
executing the incifion, " which was now performed by
moving the knife from behind forwards," inflead of froms
before backwards, as in the fecond method.

The following is the defcripticn of Chefelden's laft and
moll improved plan, as given to us by Douglas. " In per-
forming the lateral operation, he makes the firfl, or outward
incifion, from above downwards ; beginning on the left fide
of the raphe, or feam, betwixt the fcrotum and the verge of'
the anus, ahnoft as high as where the fl<in of the perineum
begins to dilate and form the bag that contains the teflicles,
and from thence he continues the wound obliquely out-
wards, as low down as the middle of the margin of the-
anus, at about half an inch diflant from it near the (kin,
and, confequently, beyond the great protuberasce of the
03 ifchium.

"The firfl or upper part of this incifion is cut fuperHcial;
after that, • he plunges his knife much deeper by the fide
of the reftum, and fmilhos it by drawing his knife obliquely
towards himfelf.' Thefe three motions may always be ob-
ferved iu his external incifion ; but the.- la(l is performed
pretty much at random ; his knife firll enters the groove of
the ' rollrated or ftraight part of the catheter, through the
fide of the bladder, immediately above the proilate ;' and
afterwards, the point of it continuing to run in the fame
groove, in a direction downwards and forwards, or towards
himfelf, he divides that part of the fphiniter of the bladder
that lies upon the gland ; and then he cuts the outfide of
one-half of it obliquely, according to the direction of the
whole length of the urethra that runs within it, and finithes
his internal incifion by dividing the muftular portion c£ the
urethra on the convex part of the llafi."

The fecond and third of Chefelden's methods,. then, refem-
bied each other in the parts cut ; but the firfl ar,d third
"were effentially different, notwithltanding the knife was in
each of them plunged at once into the body of the bladder
behind the prollate gland. Chefelden, in his firfl operation,
only imitated Frere Jacques and Raw, and paffed his kuite
into the bladder betwixt the veficulse femiiiales and tuber
ifchii. He flopped at the back part of the proftate gland. .
All his incifion lay behind this gland. " He cut the body
of the bladder only." But, in his lall operation, he cut no
part of the body of the bladder ; " he introduced his knife
c'ofe behind the prollate gland, and in drawing it towards
him, he of courfe cut only the neck of the bladder where
it is furrounded by that gland." Ji^iin Bell's Prinaples,
vol. li. p. 153.

In operating after the manner afcribed to Raw, Chefelden
loft four patients out of ten ; bar in purfuing his own im-
proved method, his lucccls wa^ mod brilliant, for, of rifty-
two patients whom he fucceffyvely cut for the ftone, all were

faved-j

LITHOTOMY.

favcd exceptiiiff two ; and it is well known, that out of two
hundred and thirteen perlons, of all ages, conftitutions, &c.
on whom lie operated, only twenty died. What lithotomill
of the prefent day can boaft of cqnal fuccefs ? We have
feen lithotomy performed rather frequently with cntting
gorgets of different dcfcriptions, in the manner that has
been of late years moll prevalent. Out of every feven or
eight operations, at lealt one has had a fatal termination.
We make this ftatement with fome degree of confidence, as
.we know it might be confirmed by the mod refpcftab'e and
impartial evidence. To what then are we to refer the few
failures which Chcftlden experienced, and the vaft number
.of deaths confeqiient to the prefent common plan of cutting
for the Hone. The reply, in our opinion, is obvious. Che-
feldcn made an ample and direft incifion into the bladder
with a fli.jrp knife, the inllrument, of all others, the betl cal-
culated for effecting a clean fmooth divifion of the parts,
without a:iy.kceratiin, contufion, or other additional injury.
The moderns often niiike their external incifion too fmall,
and too high up, while the internal cut, which is executed
•with a g«'rget, is almolt always too diminutive for the eafy
padage of any calculi above a very moderate fize. The
difficulty of extraction mull evidently be increafed by tiie
external wound being confiderably higher up, than the in-
ternal divifion of the proilate ghnd and neck of the bladder,
iince the paffage through wliicii the Hone muff be drawn
out, betides being too Imall, does not lead dlredlly into the
.cavity, of the bladder. Chefelden, in ufing the knife, had
cccation to exert no force nor roughnefs. The moderns,
whofe ijorgets are fotnetimcs very badly conilrucled, are
often under the neceffity of pulhmg fuch inffruments moft
forcibly, ere the epening into the bladder can be made.
The violence and injury which the parts" mull thus fuffer, in
addition to their fimple divifion, require from us no comment.
Chefelden, having the advantage of a free and direft opening
into the bladder, never bruifed and injured the interior of
this vifcus by tedious fearches after the ftone with the for-
ceps ; nor when he had gralped the foreign body, did he
ever bruife and lacerate the parts in drawing it out. His
conftant plan, on firft introducing the forceps, was ;o fcarch
«wi//y for the Hone luilh their blades Jimt. When he had got
Hold of the ffone, he ufed to extratlit " with a very »Tow
motion, in order to let the parts yield as much as poflible."
On the contrary, the moderns, generally having too fmall an
.opening, are often obliged to introduce and withdraw the
.forceps twenty or thirty times before they can accomplilh
the extraction of ilie ilone. Defirous of Ihortcning the
bufincfs, they are guilty of manu d roughnefs and violence;
xind not only the bladder, but the parts through which the
ilone has to pals, are dreadfully bruifed and injured. Some
operations which v/e have vvitncffed have been fo lone, and
executed with fuch awkwardnefs and want of gentlenefs,
that we cannot help fufpefting, that the bladder mud
■actually have been in a Hate of intlammation betore the
■poor patients were removed from the operating table.

Chefelden undoubtedly was one of the moff expert and
fuccefsfal lithotomiits that ever lived in any counry, and
his mode of operating, which is fully explained to us, ought,
in our opinion, never to have been abandoned for the em-
.ployment of cutting gorgets.

Of the hejl -way nf e.xecuiing the lateral operation with cut-
ting gorgets. — We fuppofe it muff iiave been ignorance of
anatomy, joined with timidity and want of judgment, that
could induce furgeons to give up fo excellent a plan of
.operating as that which was invented and pnictifed by Che-
felden ; for, admitting that it is fomewhat ealier to make
.the lateral incifion with a cutting gorget, there is yet a

more intereffing and weighty matter for confideration,
namely, whether the recoveries after the latter operation are,
upon the whole, as numerous as thofe which followed Che-
feldeii's method. Thij emnient furgeon, as we have already
■noticed, cut for the ffone fiftytwo patients in fnccefiion,
of whom only two died. No furgeon of the prefent day,
in the habit of i>fing a cutting gorget, can boall of fuccefs
at all equal to this. Our obfervation tends to'thc conclu-
fion, that about one out of every feven or eight patients
cut for the ftone, with fome kind of fharp gorget,' falls a
victim to the operation. According to our lentiments, a
furgeon fiionld not regulate his conduft fo much by the
facility, as the fuccefs of any plan; and a little more trouble
and difficulty ought to be no objections, where they ferve
to give the patient a greater chance of prefervation. We
know that a man cannot imitate Chefelden, without having
a requifite knowledge of the anatomy of the parts in the
perineum, and about the neck of the bladder. We can
conceive at the fame time, that a perfon might learn to
operate mechanically with a gorget, and yet be totally un-
acquainttd with the ffruclure and fituation of the parts in-
terelted in the operation. It is this removal of all occafion
for lludy and application, that has had more effec't, than any
thing elfe, in keeping up the prefent fyilem cf doing the
office of the knife, with that very obje6iionable inllrument a
cutting gorget.

The patient is to be placed at the edge of a firm table,
and the ffaff is to be introduced into the bladder.

Then two garters, each about two yards long, are to be
doubled, and put, by means of a noofe, round the patient's
wrills. The patient is now to be defircd to take hold of
the outfide of his feet with his hands, in fuch a manner,
that the fingers are applied to the foles, and the palms to
the inlleps. The two ends of the ligature are then to be
carried round the ankle, next over the back of the hand,
and under the foot. Laftly, they are to be tied. In this
manner, each hand and foot may be fecurely conneftcd toge-
ther, and the patient is fixed in the pofition the bell fuited
for the operation.

The ftaff, the firll inftrument with which the furgeon has
any concern, is in faCt'nothingmore than a direftor, adapted
in ffiape to the courfe of the urethra, and furniffied with a
groove for guiding a cutting inllrument into the bladder.
(See Surgical Plites ) It is Ihaped very much like a found,
or catheter. However, it is generally fomewhat longer and
more curved, and while the handle of a found is as imooth
and highly poH.lied as poffible, that of a ilaff ought to have
a rough iurface, in order that it may be held with greater
tteadinefs and firmnefs. Two advantages arife from having
the ftaff fufficiently curved ; viz. its convexity is more
plainly dlltinguiihable in the perineum ; and on depreffing
the handle of the inftrument, that jiart cf the groove which
is at the neck and within the cavity of the bladder, may be
more readily made to affunie a direction correlponding to
the axis of this viicus. The utility of the length of the
inftrument is very obvious, as the operator is thereby lels
li;ible to fuppofe the extremity of the ilaff to be within the
bladder, when it is not fo ; and it is plain, that the groove
fliould always extend beyond the bc-ik of the gorget, even
when the latter inftrument has been pulhed as far as the
operator judges requilite.

An affiftant is to hold the ftaff, making its convexity pro-
minent in the perineum, by preffing the whole inllrument
downwards, and inclining its handle towards the patient's
abdomen. The perfon who has charge of the Ih-.ft', ihouid
alfo turn the groove a little towards the left fide of the peri-

I neum,

LITHOTOMY.

neum, and raife the fcrotum with his left hand, in order to
cxpofc the peiineiim completely to the furgeon's view.

The next confideration is the manner of making the ex-
ternal iiicifion, A moll common error is that of beginninjr
the cut too high up. Nearly all the old furgeons commit
this fault, by commencing the incifion over the bulb of the
urethra, 'i'his pradice is above all things difadvantageous,
efpecially when the operator makes the outward wound
rather too fmall. Suppofe, for inllaiice, that the furgeon
begins the incifion as high as the bii b of the urethra, and
does not carry it fufRciently far downwards ; and that he
next divides the prollate gland and neck of the biaddpr wi'h
the gorget. Now, on attempting ro take out the flonc, the
external part of the wound is too high, in regard to the in-
ternal portion ; and the paffage, through which the (lone is
to be extracted, .not being ftraight and direct, as much im-
pediment to the cxtraftion is thereby occafioncd as from *he
circumftance of the wound being too fmall. We are de-
cidedly of opinion, that " a free and direCl opening for the
palTage of the ilone ought always to be made in the opera-
tion of lithotomy ;" and ;hat tlie fatal termiisation of nume-
rous cafes is entirely owing to the wound not being fuffi-
cieiitly ample and diredl: The laceration of the parts,
■which mud happen under fuch circum.llances, is too fre-
quently produdlive of peritoneal inflammation, the mod
alarming confeq\ience of the operation. Nothing has a
greater tendency to render the wound indirect, than making
the incifion through the fl<in too high up ; or, in other
words, fo high as to inte-cfl; the bulb of the urethra.

On the contrary, the wound (hould commence over the
membranous part of the urethra, at the place where the
operator means to make his firft cut into the groove of the
flafF; and the incifion is to extend about three inches ob-
licjuely downwards, to the left of the raphe of the perineum.
The point to which it ought to be direfted, is the centre
of a line drawn from the anus to the tuberofity of the
ifchium.

Mr. Serjeant Hawkins has made his name exceedingly
famous, by his having been the inventor of cutting gorgets.
We have already related how the ancient furgeons fomctime*
employed blunt gorgets for dilating the parts, in the per-
formance of the apparatus major. A reference to the fiir-
gii:al plates of this work will more readily convey an idea of
what a gorget is, than any verbal defcription. There we
have given reprefentations of the blunt gorget, as well as of
(harp gorgets, devifed by Hawkins, Cline, and Abernethy.
The gorget of Mr. Cline appears to us the moft eligible, as
it will make the freeft opening into the bladder, and cut in
the nioft dcfirable direction. lis edge, being quite flraight,
may be readily g'-ound very (harp, and is bell fuited for
making an even clean in -ifion. By cutting laterally, inllead
of more or lefs obliquely upwards, a larger incifion may be
fafeiy made with it than with molt other gorgets, which,
having their edges turned upwards, cut in a direction where
the rami of the ofia ifchium converge, and leave lEfufficient
room for the eafy paflage of a lar^^e (lone ; and where alfo
the trunk of the pudendal artery is liable to be injured, in
making a wound even of moderate extent. We are firmly
perfuaded of the truth of Ponteau's opinion, that the (lone
ought alwavs to be extracted where the arch of the pubcs is
widell Cline's gorget, befides having the material advan-
tages of making the freed opening, and cutting in the mod
defirable direction, a'fo pofTeffes the excellence of being di-
verted of that very ufelefs and objectionable part, the blunt
prominence on the left hand of the beak, fometinies termed
the fhoulder of the gorget. This (hould always be filed
away, as it can only ferve to render the introdudtiou of the
infirument more difficult.

We (hould like Mr. Abernethy's gorget very well, if its
edge were foniewhat more extenfive, and had a more hori-
zontal direction. But the fird improvement would be im-
proper without^ the lall ; fmce a freer cut fo much upwards
mud endanger the pudendal arter^'.

Every furgeon, before undertaking lithotomy, (hould be

The requifite divilion of the integuments being made, the careful that the beak of the gorget and the groove of the

next object is to divide the tranfverfalrs perinaei mufclcs, daff fit each other v.'ith precilion. The embarralTment and

and to make an opening into the membranous part of the rid^ of doing mifchief, into which the operator would fall,

urethra, fo as to be able to feel didincily with the finger the could he not make the beak Aide along tlie groove, mud be

groove and edges of the (b.fF. plain to every underdanding.

The operator has now to accomplifh a very important Having divided the urethra a confiderable way towards

objedl, and one that is for the mod part fadly neglecftcd
we allude to cutting the left fide of the urethra with the
knife, as far as poffible along the groove of the daft" to-
wards the bladder. In doing this, the point of the fcalpel
(hou'd be pla ed in the groove of the daff, and the edge be
turned to the left, v-hile t!ie operator's left fore-finger, ap-
phed to the back of the blade, ferves to guide its courfe
with greater deadinefs and fecurity. When this part of the
operation is carefully done, very little remains to be effected
by the gcrget.

Were the furgeon, with too much boldnefs, to lay open
the lower part of the urethra onward to the bladder, he
■would inevitably wound the rectum ; " becaufe,'' as an
excellent writer has obferved, " the incision being carried

the neck of the bladder, m the manner explained above, the
operator is to place the beak of the gorget in the groove of
the dafF; and, being Aire that this is accompliflied, he is to
rife from his chair, and take hold if the handle of the dalT
with his left hand, while with his right he hods the gorget
with its beak carefully mainiained in the groove of the llafF,
along, which it is to glide ino the bladder. But,' before
piifhing the gorget onward, a moll important thing is to be
obierved: this is " to bring forward the handle of the ftnfF,
fo as to elevate the extremity of the indrument in the blad-
der ; by uhich meats, the gorget can be introduced along
the groove of the ilaff, in the direction of the axis of the
above vifcus. In fa6t, the gorget (hould always be intro-
dueed nea-ly in a direction corrcfponding to a line drawn

on from the urethra, it will necelFarily lead to that part of rrom the os coccygis to ihe umbilicus." Bv following this

the neck of the bladder that lies upon, and is contiguous to, plan, the gorget can hardly ever v.ound the reCtum, or in-

the redtum." (Jiharp in Critical Inquiry, &c. p. 212. (innate itfclf into the cell'.' ar fubdance between this intedine

edit. 4 ) But when the urethra is divided in the manner and the bladder. It is evic" 'nt, ho^tever, that there can be

above recommended, with the ed^e of the fcalpel turned no fafety, if the beak of liie gorget rtiould happen to (lip

fidoways, no ri(k of cutting the intedine is encountered. out of the groove, which isdeiigued to guide it.

The next important dep is to f'.ivide the prodate gland Immediately the gorget has been introduced, the ftafF is

and neck of the bladder; for wlic purpole, the gorget, to be \\ithdrawn, and a fuitable pair of forceps is to be

that difgracef'J indrument, which we Ihould like to lee ex- paffed, along the upper fuiface of he gorget," into the

pelled from furgery, is deiigned. bladder, for the purpofe of feizing and extrafting the done.

Wliilc

XITHOTOMY.

Wlulc the operator is pafTinsr the forceps nlong the gorget,
the latter inllrumcnt muft be kept'quite niotior.lefs, lell its
fl\arp edge diould do mifchicf ; and as foon RS the forceps is
ill the bladder, the cutting gorget is alfo to be taken away.
Delineations of the fovceps, ufed in lilhotomv, will be

forceps, the furgcon niould introduce his finger, in order to
feel whether any fragments lliil reniain bihind. If they
fliould do fo, his bell plan, provided they are very fmall, is
to injecl lukewarm WHter, with moderate force, thron^h the
wound into the bladder, for the purpole of wafliing them
found in the furgical plates of this work. We fhall only out. A fort of fcoop, ufiially contained in every cafe of
obferve, refpeAing this inftrument, that the operator fhould inllrnments for lithotomy, may fometimcs be ufcf\;l in ex-
'be provided with at lead three or four pairs of different fizes ; trading pieces of broken calculi. See the furgical plate?.
and that they are commonly made of too thick and clumfy Tie operator outjht always to examire a flone as foon a$
a conftruftion, whereby they of themfelves almoll occupy it is cxtraded ; if its whole furface be rough, it is a pre-
the whole of the paflage through which the Hone is to be fumptlvc fign that there is no other calculus prefcnt ; if its
drawn. outfide (hould be fmcjoth on one fide and rough on the other.

Our defcriotion has now advanced to that point of the it is not improbable that there are other (lones. But in
operation, when the (lafF and gorget have been withdrawn, every inflance, the furgeon fliould introduce his fore-linger,
leaving the forceps introduced. The next objeft is to get in order to obtai.i decifive information en this point ; for it
hold of the ftone with the forceps. In doing this, the fur- would be unpardonable to put the patient to bed while

geon will do %veU to remember the judicious mode parfued

by Chefelden, as detailed in our account of this gentleman's

■improvements. He fliould not unmeaningly expand the in-

Itrument, as foon as it is in the bladder ; neither flionld he

another Rone remains in his bladder.

Sometimes Hones cannot be grafped with the forceps, un-
lefs raiftrd by the index and middle finger of the left hand,
introduced into the reftum. Firll Lines of the Practice of

awKwardly tlirull it about at random, without any deter- Surgery, p. J32 — Jjy. edit. ii.
minate fclieme. The moll advifable method at firft is not Of the oLjcaions to cutt'wg gorgets. — Mr. John Bell of
to open the forceps, but ufe the inilrunient as a kind of Edinburgh, in his Principles ot Surgery, vol. ii. has freely
probe, for afcertainlng the exaft fituation of the ftone. If delivered his fentiments on the daggers iiid difadvantages of
this body fliould be lodged at the lower part of the bladder, the cutting gorget, and as we think there is much reafon and
juft behind the neck of this vifcus, as is moftly the cafe, and truth in what he has faid, his obfervatiois appear to us well
be diftintily felt below tlie blades of the forceps, the operator worthy of the mofl ferious coiifideration. They tend to
is to open the inllrument immediately over the (tone, and, fliew that there i.s no method of performing lithotomy fo ex-
after depreffing the blades a little, is to fliut them, fo as to cellent as that with only a llaff and a fcalpej, and that if fur-
grafp it. Great care, however, ntuil be taken not to fhut geons would take the trouble to quahfy themk4vt-s tor this
the inllrument in any other than a gentle manner, as breaking laft mode of operating, a thing by no means diflicult, all
the Hone is an exceedingly unpleafant and troublefomc oc- cutting gorgets might be for ever laid aiide, to the great be-
currence. Chefelden, we are informed, ufed, when the nefit of mankind, and the real improvement of lurgery.
flone was found foft, to interpofe his finger between the Mr. John Bell reminds us that " thf i;oigc/J!ips .' and all the
blades of the forceps, in order to keep them from making furgeons of Europe confefs it ! it flips in the hands of the
too much prefTure. Certainly it is far more fcientific to ufe moil fliilful furgeons, and no one can be rtfponfible for the
the forceps at fir.1, merely to afccrtain the pofition of the coPifequences of a thrull fo defperate, and requiring fo
ftone; for, when this is known, the operator can much much force. It fl^ps fo frequently, and is avowciily fo liltle
more eafily grafp the extraneous body in a fl<iiful manr.cr, under the controul of the opera'.or, that 1.0 man ventures to
than if he were to open the blades of the inftrunient im- blame his brother for a misfortune which rrray happen in his
mediately, without knowing where they ought next to be own hand. So imperfedl is the inftrument, aiul fo dangerous
placed, or when fliut. No man can doubt, tiiat the injury this plunge, that to prevent the gorget being driven through
•which the bladder frequently fuffers, from reiterated and the fundus of the bladder, is a poiiit of fo much iinportaiici:
awkward movements of the forceps, has a conliderable fliare as to occupy, to this day, the genius of inventors, who have
in giving rife to fuch inflammation of the vifcus, as often thought to guard the edge by a double, or flipping gorget !
fpreads to the peritoneum and bowels, and occafions death. and fo far is the incifion, after it is fafely made, from being
When the ftone is found to be fn large, that it cannot be adequate to the extraciion of the ftone, that the fize and
■extracted without violence and laceration, the furgeon may form of the gorget, and efpeeially the expanfion of its
either break the ftone with a ftrong pair of forceps, con- blade, and the broadnefs of its cutting edge, varies every

ftruCtcd with teeth for that purpole ; or by means of Mr.
H. Earle's inftrument ; or elfe he may enlarge the wound
with a common fcalpel, or a probe-pointed biltoury, intro-
duced under the guidance of the fore-iinger ul the left
band.

day. The inftrument was once conica', but is now cylin-
drical ; it was once narrow, but is now broad ; it was once
double, with the beak in the centre ; it is now fingle, witii
the be.ik on one fidq ; when firft fliarpcned by fir Cifar
Hawkins, it was round, becaufe it had been im.mediately

To the employment of the knife, in this circumftance, we before a mere dilator ; it is now flat, and entirely refcmbles
have to exurefs our decided preference. Breakino; the ftone a knife.
in the bladder fhould always be avoided, if pofliblc ; as it
creates fuch a chance of calculous fragments being le t be-
hind, and obliges the furgeon to diflurb and hurl the bladder
too much by the repeated introduftions of the forceps.
We wifti it, however, to be well underftood, that when the

" It is not without reluctance, (proceeds Mr. John Bell,)
that I rank this among the inventions, where mechaniim is
fubllituted for fl;;ll. If this form of inftrument were iound
fafe in pr.iclice, I fhould be as little apt as any man to be
infeftcd by fpeculative fears ; but it is a murderous weapon !

ftone is excefiively large, and cannot be brought through as When the dafti is made with, the gorget, ei!hc?r It is at once

free an opening as can be prudently made, without the em- fucccfsful, or, if wrong, is irretrievably fo ; for thoiigii in

ployment of unwarrantable force, it is the duty of the operating w ith the knife, you can make a fecond ii cifion,

operator to try to break it. in operating with the gorget, if you fail in the firft, you

When this has been done, and as many of the broken can make no fecond plunge. The belt opeiators in this

pieces have been taken out as can be ilifcovercd with the country, among whom I have no doubt I may reckon Mr.

8 Earle,

LITHOTOMY.

Earle, acknowledge the dangers of this operation in the
fulled and mod uiiqualiflLxl terms : ' I have more than once
known a gorget, though pafled in the right direftion,
piilhed on fo far, and with fuch violence, as to go through
the oppofite fide of the bladder." (Earle on the Stone,
p _^?.) I have myfelf, (fays Mr. John Bell,) feen it driven,
God knows where, deep out of fight, up to the hilt, with-
out one drop of urine iffuing, without the operator ever
reaching the rtone. Obferve but the force witli which the
operator drives in the gorget ; mark the tti-uggle with
which he difengages the beak of the gorget from the groove
of the ftaff ; hearken to the audible clack with which the
beak of the gorgef fiioots off from the groove of the Itaff ;
and if this moment of violence do not confpire with the out-
cries of the unhappy patient to perfuade you of the dangers
of this ope/ation, you can have but little pretenfion to either
feeling or knowledge. Such is the rude violence with
which the gorget is driven inwards, tliat Bromfield, even
when operating with a bluiit gorget, a mere dilutur burft
through the bladder and peritoneum ; his gorget went almoll
beyond his reach into the abdomen, while the bowels of the
boy fell down into his hands.

" But, (lays Mr. J. Bell,) there is one paramount ob-
jection, independent of the many dangers which atrend this
pu(h of the gorget ; ' the inftrumcnt, guide it how you
will, makes an inciilon inadequate to the ealy cxtiaCtion of
the (lone !' I have often compared the incifions I have
made with the knife and with the gorget, upon the dead
body. I have obferved alfo, in the time of operating, how
difficultly the opening of the proftate admits even the for-
ceps, how impoffible that fuch an imperfedf incifion flionld
eafily allow the e.xtrattion of the ftone. In all cafes of par-
ticular difficulty, where, ufing the privilege of an afiiitant,
I have introduced my finger, I have felt diftindtly the
ftridure of the gland, the greater part of it being left en-
tire. The incifion in the gland otten admits the forceps fo
difficultly^ that I am well affured the gland itfelf has fome-
times, by the mere pulhing of the forceps againll this firm
and narrow opening, been entirely fepavated from the urethra !
and after the forceps are pulhed fuccefsfully through this
narrow opening, and the ftone caught betwi.xt their blades,
all that remains of the gland is inevitably lacerated with
much danger and pain. But I would more willingly quote
any authority than that ef my own difl'ettions, or experience.
Camper, who has ftudied this fubjeci, fays " incredibile ell,
quam parva plaga ab omnibus etiam dexterrimis infligatur ;
nunquam forcipem robuRam exciperet nifi dilataretur.
Kawkenfius folo conduftore, cujus margo dexter in aciem
affurgit, idem praeftat ; oimies plagain dilatant, ut calculum ex-
trahant ; dUacerdur igitur fempL-r vejics ojlium et projhita."
P. 14.

" But, (continues Mr. J. Bell,) higher and better autho-
rity remains behind. Deafe was, if I judged rightly of his
talents, a ilern and rude furgeon, but perfect in all the
theory and praftice of his art ; he was not very explicit in
his communications with me, but from the manner and the
movement of his hand, in demonftrating to me, rather than
from what he faid, I conclude that he cut after the manner
of Raw, making the nicifion with the right hand, while he
held the llafF with his left. " In all the trials, (fays Deafe,)
that I have made with the gorget on the dead fubjedl, I
have never found the opening into the bladder fufficiently
large for the extratlion of a Itone of a middling iize, with-
out a confiderable laceration of the parts. I have frequently
taken the largell fized gorget, and could not find, that in
the idult fubjeft, I ever entu-ely divided the prollate gland,
if It was any way large j and in the operations that were

Vol. XXr.

performed here on tlie living fubjeft, the extraftion \va«
painfully tedious, and effected with great difficulty, and in
fome cafes not at all." See John Bells Principles of Sur-
gery, vol ii. p. 173—176.

We coincide entirely with Mr. J. BcU refpccling the dan-
gers and difadvantages of the cutting gorj^et, and could ad-
duce feveral cafes where operators have committed, with this
inltrument, the moll fatal blunders. It is alfo our con-
vitlion that many deaths, after the operation, are owing to
the confequenccs of the opcnuig being, in general, too
fmall, fo that the forceps are fometimes introduced and with-
drawn twenty times before the ftone can be cxtrafted, and
when this is aceompliflied, it is with immeufe violence and la-
ceration. The moil perfect lithotomy appears to us only to
ad.r.it of being done with a fcalpel and a llaff ; and the more
we reflett on the fubjeft, the more we are convinced of the
excellency of Chefelden's praftice.

0/ fome particular methods and bijlruments. — The fi.bjecl of
lithotomy is almoft an endlefs one, and many ftieets of this
work would be taken up by a full explanation of all the
various methods. Such readers as wifh for lo minute and
lo::g an account, are particularly referred to Sabatier's Me-
decine Operatoire, torn. ii. and to Mr. John Bell's Principles
of Surgery, vol. ii. May it be fufficient m this publication
to make mention of fome of the moll intereiling of thefe nu-
merous propoials. 111 doing which, we fhall avail ourfelves of
fome remarks contained m an inllrudlive paper inferted in the
Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. iv. by Mr. Allan
Burns, lefturer on anatomy and furgery, Glafgow.

Frere Come's method •with the lithotonie cache. — John de
Saint Come, of the order of Feuillans at Paris, was the
inventor of a knife, concealed in a iheath, out of which
the blade fprings, on touching a kind of lever at the fide of
the handle of the inllrument. The diftance to which the
blade Harts out, may be regulated by the furgeon before the
operation, according to the extent of the wound that he
may be defirous of making. The patient being placed as in
the lateral operation with the gorget, and a ilaff introduced,
the furgeon, with a fcalpel, is to begin the firft incifion on
the left fide of the rapht; of the perineum, about ten lines in
front of the anus. This cut is to be continued obliquely
downwards and outwards, as far as the centre of a line ex-
tending from the anus to the infide of the tuberofity of the
ifchium. The external incifion is to divide the integuments
of the left fide of the perineum, the accelerator urin^e, the
erector penis, the tranfverfus, and the front fibres of the le-
vator ani. Thefe parts having been cut, the index finger of
the left hand is to be introduced into the left angle of the
wound, with its radial fide downwards. The right edge of
the groove of the ftaff is to be placed between the nail and Ikin
at the end of the finger. Tiie point of the fcalpel is to be
condudted into the groove of the ilaff along the nail, which
faces the left. The index finger is now to be turned, in order
that its extremity may prel's upon the point of the knife,
which all along is to be held with the right hand, like a
writing pen. The urethra is thus to be flit open to the ex-
tent of five or fix lines. The nail of the left index finger is
next to be placed in the groove of the ftalf, and is to ferve as
a means of guiding the end of the lithotome iiito that groove.
As foon as the latter objed has been accomplilhcd, the linger
is to bo withdrawn ; the furgeon, with his lett hand, is to
take hold of the handle of theftaff ; and by one fimultaneous
movement, he is to raife the two ends of the inllruraents to-
gether towards the fymphvfis of the pubes, by which means
the litho»ome will be eafily conduded into the bladder. The
entrance of the lithotome into the cavity of this vifcus will
be Indicated bvcclTation of n-fi (lance, and the freer iffae of

Z the

LITHOTOMY.

t!ie urine. The end of this inftrumcnt, being in conta6\ with
the ciil-de-fac extremity of the groove of the Itaff, mull be
difcugaged by a flight lateral movement. The llaff is now
to be withdrawn. The operator, with his left thumb and
index finger, is then to talce hold of the lithotome, about
the place wliereiits flie ath and handle meet. He is to conduft
the iiidrumcnt under the fymplufis pubis, turning the edge
downwards and towards the left lide ot the perineum, in the
direction of the external incifion. On prelfing -j lever, the
blade of the lithotome quits the flieath, when the inllrument
is to be drawn out horizontally. Thus the prodate and neck
of the bladder are divided. The forceps are then introduced,
and the ooeraticn finidied in the orduiary way.

Tlie lithotome cache of Frere Come is yet employed at
the Wedminfter hofpital, and has been lately tried by Mr.
A. Cooper. It is Hill more commonly ufed in Frar.ce.
The 'objections, however, which ha%'e thrown difcredit upon
it, are, that from its mechanifm, and the ilrudure of tiie
parts about the pelvis, it is likely to wound the pudendal
artery ; that the bladder, if coUapfed, may be injured in
more than one place ; and .that if the knife be directed down-
wards too obliquely, the reftuin is apt to be cut.

Apparatus alius as modified by Frire Come and Def-
thamps. — Abfolute neceffity led to the introduction of the
high operation by Franco in 1561 ; and the fame caule oc-
cafioned its revival, in 1658, by Frere Come. The opera-
tion, as performed by Franco, was defective : a high inci-
fion was alone made into the bladder; this vifcus was opened
above the pubes, below the point where the peritoneum is
refle£ted over the abdominal mufcles : the Itone was eafily
extracted ; but as there was no dependent opening from the
bladder, the urine was apt to infinnate it'.elf into the cellular
membrane about the pubes, to irritate and iBilame the parts,
and to produce either gangrene or fuppuration, and the
formation of finufes. Thefe difadvantages led to th^ difufe
of the apparatus altus, till revived and new-modelled by
Frere Come, who propofed to open the bladder in perineo,
and then, through an opening made juil above the pubes,
he introduced a fcalpel with a button point, with which he
flit up, for an inch or two, the linea alba ; the knob on the
end of the knife pufhing afide the peritoneum. After this,
he introduced, by the aperture in perineo, a flaff, with
which he made the bladder project through the opening be-
tween the recti mulcles. This done, he cut into the front
of the bladder, and either with his finger and thumb, or
with a pair of forceps, he took out the Itone. In this way
he extracted from the bladder a calculus, that weighed
twenty-four ounces. On this method Mr. Allan Burns re-
mark-, that it might with propriety be adopted, were it not
for the danger attendant on tne double incifion into the
bladder, and the protraction of the operation by the difiec-
tion about the penneum. Indeed, as modified by Def-
champs, who, in place of the mmdture in perineo, per-
forates the bladder from the reftum, it has met with the ap-
probation of Mr. Thomfon of Edinburgh, who confiders
this, on particular occafions, to be the moll advifable me-
thod of operating. Mr. A. Burns thinks, however, that
if the bladder be thickened and indurated, it will be impoi-
lible to raile it with the cannula above the pubes. Hence,
this plan is only adniiffible, wlieri we have reafon to fuppofe
that the Hone is too large to be removed by the pcri:;eum,
and that the bladder is healthy. Flere the punCture from
the rectum ishmple, attended with no increafc of the danger,
allows the bladder to be elevated with the cannula, and fe-
cures a dependent outlet for the urine. Thus we avoid the
r.eceflity of any difeharge by the wound above the pubes ;
lye run no riji: of the urine mfmuatiiig itfelf into- the cellular

3

membrane, no inflammation is excited, no finu-fes are formed}
conKiiuentiy, the perlon ought fpeedily to recover. lidin.
Med. and Surg. .lo.rn. vol. iv.

Invenllon of Jlajfs, from '■juhicli the gorget eannot fTip The

danger »f the gorget (lipping out of the groove of the flaJ
has been already iufficienlly commented on. L.e Cat, in
1747, and fir C. Blicke, more lately, endeavoured to ob-
viate Inch rilk, by propoling to ufe ilafi's with contra6ted
grooves. Tlie beak of the gorget is locked and fixed in the
groove of the llaff, till it has arrived near the end of this
latter inilrument, where the groove luis a wider coiillruction
Notwithllanding the plaulibility of this contrivance, there
are reafons which have deterred practitioners from employing
it. Few furgeons have been inchned to truft to the fort of
gorget that muit be ufed ; the point of contact of the beak
and body of the inilrument being neceffarily fo fmall, that
on the flightell deviation from the direct line, in pufhing
fuch a gorget into the bladder, the beak brertks off, the
gorget feparates from the flair, and the feminal vefl'els and
rectum are expofed to injury. Befides, another objeCtioa
n, that the gorget is frequently flopped in the groove
of this kind of fluff, at the moll critical period of the
operation.

Methods of Le Dmn, Deafe, and Mu}r. — Le Dran, iir
1741, publiihed his Operations of Surgery. In this work,
the author defcribes an operation, the introduction of which
has been claimed by leveral lince his time. The principle of
the plan alluded to was to reduce the male into the date of
the female urethra.

The late Mr. Deafe of Dublin, and Mr. Muir cf Glaf-
gow, reflecting that the great caufe of the gorget flipping
from the daft depends upon the former being pulhed along
a curved furface ; and obferving, that fuch an accident fel-
dom or never happens ou females ; have propofed, like Le
Dran, to make the male urethra relemblc the female. To
accomphfh this, they introduce, as ufual, a curved grooved
flaff into the urethra, and make the common incifion in
perineo : they then open the membranous part of tha
urethra ; but, inltead of nov/ introducing the gorget, they:
conduit along the groove a female flaff, and immediately
withdraw the curved one. With the left hand they take
hold of the handle of the ftraight italT, and withthe right
introduce the gorget.

Double Jlciffs. — It is faid that feme operators have ex-
perienced confiderable diiT-culty iu finding the groove of the
flaft in the perineum. To facilitate this bufinefs is the prin-
cipal defign of the double daft", an inilrument which is novi^
quite laid afide. In fact, the trouble of cutting into the
flaff is not great enough, to render any invention of this
fort at all important.

The fird inilrument for this purpofe we find defcribed by
Defchamps, as the invention of Jarda, a furgeon at Mont-
pelher. According to Mr. A. Burns, it refembles Earle's
double daft"; but is more complex. It confifts of a curved
flaff, intended to be introduced along the urethra into the
bladder, and having connected to its handle, by means of a
hinge, another ftafl, fhorter than the former, and fharp at
its end. When Jarda had applied the fliort ftatf to tlie pe-
rineum, he puflied its point through the fl;in, behind the
bulb of the urethra, into the groove of the long llaff already
paffed through this canal. This fupplementary flaff, in
both Jarda and Earle's indrtvment, is intended to conduft
the knife into the groove of the ftafi. But Jarda aimed at
more : he wiflied to fecure the rectum from injury, by in-
troducing into the anus a limb of the inilrument, which he
expected would pulh the gut afide. By machinery, he alfo

coiitriveit

LITHOTOMY.

cor:trived to fupport the fcrotum. Edinb. Med. and Surg.
Journal, vol. iv.

Mr. Allan . Burns' method. — The plan introduced by
Chefesden, and revived by Mr. John Bell, is that whicii Mr.
A. Burns would afTume as the bafis ef the operation ; but
with it he propofes to blend Mr. Deafe's mode.

" For more than twelve months," fays Mr; Burns, " I
liave been in the habit of (hewing fuch an operation, which
is as fiir.ple in its performance as the one in general ufe, is
attended with lefs danfrer to the patient, permits of an inci-
fion varying in fize according to the wifli of the operator,
and completely prevents injury of the reclum or pudic
artery. To perform this operation, I introduce into the
nrethra a common curved ftaff, then make the ufual incifion
into the perineum, divide fully and freely the levator ani, fo
as to expofe the whole extent of the membranous part of the
urethra, the complete extent of the prcllate gland, apd a
portion of the fide of the neck of the bladder. When this
part of the operation is finiflied, I open the membranous
part of the urethra, and introduce, through the flit, a ftraight
or female ftaff, with which 1 feel the ftone, and then with-
draw the curved ftaff. Next I feel beyond the proftate for
the inftrument, and then perforate the coats of the bladder
with a curved knife, the point of which is to be inferted in
the groove of the ftaff. This done, I grafp the handle of
the ltaf7 firmly in my left hand, and with the right lay ho'd
of the handle of the knife. Having afcertained that the two
inttruments are in fair contatt, I re!t the one hand upon the
other, preffing them together, and then, by a fteady ex-
trad^ion, I pull out the knife and ftaff together, which is
preferable to drawing the knife along the ftaff: it prevents
the rifle of the one Qipping from the other ; it guards the
bulb of the urethra, and every other part from injury ; for,
between them and the cutting inftrument the ilaff is inter-
poled. In the introduction of the knife, however, fome
caution is neceffary, and a clear knowledge of the relative
fituation of the parts in the pelvis is requifuc ; but this in-
formation is equally neceftary in operating with tke gorget.
When introducing the knife, the fide of the blade niuft be
laid flat along the fore-iinger of the ri^ht hand, which is to
project a little beyond the point. In this ftate, the finger
and knife are to be entered into the wound, oppofite the
tuber ifchii ; but, in proportion as they pafs along, they
are to be inclined forward, till at laft, with the point of the
finjer, the ftaff be felt throuah the coats of the bladder, a
little beyond the proftate, and rather higher than the orifice
of the urethra. Here the knife is, with the finger, to be
pu filed tiirough the bladder; and when the point is fairly
fixed in the groove of the ftaff, the operation is to be finifhcd
by the fteady extraction of both intlriiments. In operating
with the gorget, it is neceffary that the bladder be more or
lefs diftended ; a circuiiiflance, in fome cafes, with difficulty
accomplilhed, from th? irritability of this vifcus. In
operating with the knife, the parts can be as fafely cut
when the bladder is empty as when fiUl ; indeed, perhaps,
with greater fafety : for, when not dilated, the llioulder of
this vifcus can more eakly bo pufned in, fo as to permit the
finger to reach the ftaff". Some have imagined, that the in-
troduiSion of the point of the knife into the cavity of the
bladder mnft be dangerous, inafmuch as we are liable to
wound the tides, in fearching for the groove of the ftaff.
This objection is the refult of an inaccurate knowledge of
the ftate of the parts : for, in faft, we never grope in the
bladder with the point of the knife ; but, with the finger,
pufii in the fide of this vilcus into clofe contact with the ItafF,
into the groove of which the knife enters, as foon as it has
paffed through the coats of the bladder. Others again have

objefted to this mode of operating, on the idea of its beiii?
more tedious in performance than with the gorget. This ia
alfo founded on a miftaken notion. True it is, indeed, that
were a furgeon, who has been much in the habit of operating'-
with the gorget, to exchant>e it for the knife, he would un*^
doubtedly be longer of performing the operation in the latter
way : but the fame does not hold good refpecting thofe
who lia^;e never before operated in either mode. From all
that I have feen, I would fay, that the one operation may
be as expedi'ioufly performed as the other: but even ad-
mitting that the operation with the knife uniformly required
a little longer time, ftiU I think that, if fafer, it ought to
have the preference." Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal,
vol. iv. p. Q^ — 67,

The inftruments, ufed by Mr. Burns, are reprefented in
the furgical plates of this Cyclopedia.

We (liall merely fay, that we think that the above plan
of operating is much better then the common mode of cut-
ting for the ftone with a gorget ; nor can it be found fault
with on the ground of difficulty. Notwithftanding its
merit, however, few feem difpofed to give it a fair trial ;
but coiitinue the employment of that dangerous and infuf-
ficient inftrument, the gorget, as much as ever.

Oflithciomy, as performed ivtlh common Jcalpds, and fome
other kinds of knh-es. — The fa6t of Ciiefelden having cut for
the ftone fifty-two patients in fucceflion, of whom all re-
covered, excepting two, is an invincible argument in favour
of his method of operating. It may be expected, that v.e
ftiould defcrihe the mode of executing the operation with
a fcalpel ; but after the full account which we have deli-
vered of Chefelden's plan, this duty in reality becomes fu-
perfluous. The few judicious furgeons of the prelent day,
V.I10 have given the preference to the common fcalpel, have
all operated either after Chefelden's fecond or thud man-
ner. The laft has been chofen by Mr. .lohn Bell, and is
that which was crowned with luch matchlefs fuccefs in the
practice of its inventor. The lateral operation, as thus
executed by Chefelden, was truly once the price of EngUlli
furgery, to ufe an exprefGon of that able pnieflor. Dr. J.
Thomfou of Edinburgh. Other operators have preferred
operating after the manner of Chefelden's fecond irethod,
v'fz. by cutting from the urethra towards the bladder.

Mr. Cliarles Bell has propofed the employment of a ftaff,
the groove of which, towards the extremity of the inftru-
ment, runs along its right fide or edge. Operative Sur-
gery, vol. i.

It would be a tedious and endlefs bufinefs to defcribe all
the various knives which different furgeons have fuefefted
for lithotomy. The late Mr. Hunter had a particular one.
Mr. Aftley Cooper has ufed a knife, much refcmbhntr a
common diffedting fcalpel, but having a beak, by wiuch
it may be guided along the groove of the ftaff. AVc hear
that this diftinguiflied furgeon is now trying Frere Come's
lithotome cache. A much approved knife for lithotomy
was fome time fince invented by Mr. Gibibn, and another
by Mr. T. Bhzard. Engravings of all thefe will be found
in the furgical plates of tiiis work. Our objection to thefe
beaked knives is, that they are in reality gorgets.

Of lithotomy on Women. — Women fuffcr much lefs from the
ft^one than men, and far lefs frequently ftand in need of
this operation. It is not, however, that their urine will
not fo eafily produce the concretions, which are termed
urinary calculi. The reafon is altogether owing to the
fhortnefs, largenefs, and very dilatable n:\ture of the fe-
male urethra ; circumflances, which in general render the
expulfion of the ftone with the urine almoft a matter of
certaini,y. The records of furgery prefent us with numerous
Z 3 inflances.

LITHOTOMY.

inftances, where calculi of vaft fr/e have been fpontaneo'.'.fly
voided through the meatus urinarius, cither fuddciily with-
out pain, or after more or lefs time and fufFerinT'. Heifter
mentions feveral well authenticated examples of this kind.
Middleton has alfo related a cafe, where a Itoiie, weighin:^
four ounces, was expelled in a Ht of coughing, after lodg-
ing in the paflTage a week. CoUot fpt-aks of another in-
ftance, where a ftone, about as large as a goofe's egg, after
> lying in the meatus urinarius feven or eight days, and cauling
a retention of urine, was voided in a paroxyfm of pain. A
remarkable cafe is related by Dr. Moiineux in the early
part of the Philofophical TranfaAions : a woman voided a
tlone, " the circumference of which meafured, the longed
way, 7x^ inches, and round about, where it was thickell,
51 inches, its weiglit near 2| ounces troy."

Sometimes, after the pafTage of large calculi, the patient
has been afflicted with an incontinence of urine ; but this
grievance, in general, lalls only a Ihort time.

The naturally large iize, and dilatable nature of the female
urethra, have fuggeTled the plan of endeavouring to expand
this paffage by various means, fo that a ftone in the bladder
may be taken out with a pair of forceps, without ufing any
cutting inllrument at all. This method was propofed by
Douglas nearly a century ago, who not only recommended
fponge for the purpofe, but alfo dried gentian root, as
being more gradual in its expanfion, and better adapted to
the objeft.

Mr. Bromfield has given the cafe of a young girl, where
he effefted the dilatation by introducing into the meatus uri-
narius the appendicula csci of a fmall animal in a collapfed
ftate, and then filling it with war.ti water, by means of a
fyringe. The piece of gut, thus diifended, was drawn out,
in proportion as the cervix veficse opened, and in a few
hours the dilatation was fo far accompliflied, that the cal-
culus had room to pafs out. See Chirurgical Obf. and
Cafes, vol. ii. p. 276.

Mr. Thomas lately met with a cafe, where, after dilating
the meatus urinarius with fponge tent, he fucceeded in ex-
ti"afting an ear-picker, which lay acrofs the neck of the
bladder. The palTage was fo much enlarged, that the left
fore-finger was moll eafily introduced, and, (fays this gentle-
man,) " I beiieve, had the cafe required it, both thumb and
finger would have pafled into the bladder without the fmalleil
difficulty.''

After adverting to this cafe, and other fafts proving the
eafe with which the female urethra can be dilated, Mr.
Thomas remarks ; " If thefe relations can be credited, and
there is no reafon why they fhould not, I can hardly con-
ceive any cafe, in a young and healthy female fubjeft, and
where the bladder is free from difeafe, wliere a very large
ftone may not be extracted, without the ufe of any other
inftrument than the forceps, the urethra having firll been
fufficiently dilated by means of the fponge tents. For this
purpofe, the blades of the forceps need not be fo thick and
ftrong as thofe commonly employed." See Medico-Chirur-
gical Tranfaftions, vol. i. p. 123 — 129.

Some furgeons have extrafted rtones from the female
bladder as follows : the patient being placed in the pofition
commonly adopted in the lateral operation, a ftraight ilaff,
with a blunt end, is introduced into the bladder through the
meatus urinarius. The furgeon then paffes along the groove
of the inftrument the beak of a blunt gorget, which, be-
coming wider towards the handle, eiTefts a part of the ne-
cetTary dilatation. The (lafF being withdrawn, and the
handle of the gorget taken hold of with the left hand, the
right fore-finger, viith the nail turned downwards, is now
introduced (lowly along the concavity of the iuilrument.

When the urethra and neck of the bl idder have thus been
fufficiently dilated, the finder is withdrawn, and a fmall
pair of forceps paffcd into the bladder. The gorget is
now removed, and the flone taken hold of arid extracted.
See Sabatier'.s Med. Opcratoirc, torn. ii. p. 10^.

Notwithilanding thefe favourable accounts of the prac-
tice cf dilating the female urethra, fur the purpoie of
removing calculi from the bladder, the genen.lity of fur-
geons prefer an incifion. It is certain, that fonie patienls
have found the method inlufferably painful ai'.d tedious.
But the Urongcft objedion to the praftice has arifen from
the incontinence of urine, which occafionally follows any
great diftcnfion of the urethra and neck cf the bladder.
Mr. Thomas believes, however, that this unpleafani fymp-
torn is quite as often a confequence of the opcraticn of
lithotomy, as now ufually performed. Medico-Chirurgical
Tr-2iif vol. i. p. 127.

Lithotomy on females is much more eafy of execution,
and lefs dangerous, than the fame operatiuB on the male
fex. It mav be done in various ways ; but the furgeons of
the prefent time conllantly follow the mode of making the
requifite opening; by dividing the urethra and neck of the
bladder. A ftraight ftaff, or direftor, is introduced through
the meatus urinarius ; the groove is turned obliquely down-
wards and outwards, in a direftion parallel to the ramus of
the left OS pubis ; and a gorget or knife, is thus condufted
into the bladder, and makes the neceliary incifion. Some
operators prefer the lithotome cache, which, after being in-
troduced, is opened as far as is deemed proper, and then
drawn out with its edge turned obhquely outwards and
downwards.

The French furgeons Louis and Flurant were the inven-
tors of particular biftouries for dividing both fides of the
female urethra at once ; the inftrument of the former cf-
fefted this purpofe, in pafling from without inwards ; that
of the latter in pafllng from within outwards. Flurant's
biftoury bears fome refemblance in principle to Frere Come's
lithotome cache, or to the cutting forceps w'ith which
Franco ufed to divide the neck of the bladder. The reafon
afligned for thefe biftouries is, that they will ferve to make
a freer opening for the paftage of large ftones, than can be
fafely made by cutting only in one direction. At prefent,
however, they are never ufed. Were the ftone known to
be very large, Sabatier feems to prefer the apparatus
altus.

A cafe may prefent itfelf, where the pofterior part of
the b'adder, drawn downwards by the weight of the ftone,
might difplace a portion of the vagina, and make it pro-
trude at the vulva, in the form of a fvveUing. Here, there
would be no doubt of the propriety of cutting into the tu-
mour, and taking out the foreign body contained in it.
Rouftet performed fuch an operation, and Fabricius Kilda-
nus, in a cafe where the ftone had partly made its way into
the vagina by ulceration, enlarged the opening, and fuccefs-
fully extrafled the extraneous body.

M. Mcrv once propofed the method of making an open-
ing into the pofterior part of the bladder, tlirough the
vagina, after introducing a common curved ftaff"; but the
apprehenfion of urinary fiftuls made him abandon the
projedl.

The exiftence of extraordinary circumftances may always
render a deviation from the common modes of operating r.ot
only juftifiablc, but abfolutely necen"ary. Thus, Tolet net
with a cafe, where a woman had a prolapfus of the uterus,
with which the bladder was alfo difplaced. In the latier
vifcus, levcral calculi were perceived. An incilion wad
made into it, and the ftones extratttd, afier which opera-
2 tloll

L I T

L I T

tion the difplaced parts were reduced, and a cure fpeedily
enfued. Sabatiei's Med. Operatoire, torn. ii. p. 107.

Treatmeii! after the operation. — Whatever method of per-
forming lithotomy has been felefted, the great danger af-
terwards is tlie accefs of inflammation of the bladder,
peritoneum, and parts within the pelvis and abdomen in
general. This alarming diforder is the common caufe of the
numerous deaths which follow the ordinary modes of ope-
rating. The bell method of preventing it is, as we have
repeatedly explained, to make a free and ample opening for
the paflage of the ftone, and to avoid all manual roughnefs
and violence in the operation. But fuppofing tendernefs
and tenfion to have begun about the hypogallric region,
attended with a fmall frequent pulfe, pain over the abdo-
men, ficknefs, thirft, &c. not a moment mult be loft ; as
ncthing v.-ill fp.ve the patient but the prompt and decifive
employment of antiphlogiftic nieafures.

This much dreaded and fatal diforder is particularly to be
expected, when the patient is of a full fanguineous habit,
when the operation has been lung and difficult, when much
violence has been ufed in drawing out the i\one, or when the
bladder has been bruifed by the reiterated introduftion of
the forceps, whether for the purpofe of taking out one cal-
culus, or feveral, or the fragment of one that has been
broken. The perilous inflammation within the abdomen,
however, may come on, even when the operation has been
executed in^the moft expert and eafy manner. The moft
effectual means againil the complaint, are copious vene-
feCtion, and placing the patient for fome hours in a warm
bath. Thefe meafures (hould be taken immediately when
the complaint is indicated by the leaft pain and tenfion about
the lower part of the abdomen. But, befides bleeding and
the warm bath, an endeavour fhould be made to prjcure
ftools by giving the oleum ricini. When the patient is
removed from the bath, a bhfter, or elfe leeches and fomen-
tations, may be applied to the hypogallric region.

Were we to judge from the obfervations derived from the
praftice which it has fallen to our lot to fee, we Ihould fup-
pofe, that the danger of hemorrhage after lithotomy has
been generally exaggerated ; for out of a va'l many opera-
tions which we have been fpedlators of, there has not been
one death from lofs of blood. But as wounding the pu-
dendal artery may happen more frequently with fome opera-
tors, whom we have had no opportunities of noticing, we
are inclined to believe, not that the danger is unjuftly mag-
nified, but that the particular furgeons whom we have
feen operate have generally eluded it.

In order to ftop the bleeding from the trunk of the pu-
detidal or pudic artery, authors advife us to introduce into
the wound a cannula wrapt round with lint, for the purpofe
of making prefTure on the wounded part of the veflel.
Boyer is faid to have fupprefTed the hemorrhage in feveral
inftances, by introducing deeply into the wound a large
dolRl, round which is tied a ligature, the ends of which,
being feparated, are to be forcibly tied over a fecond dofTil.
The conllriftion tends to draw outwards the firtl doffil, at
the fame time that it propels inwards that which is more
external. Richerand, Nofographic Chir. t. iii. p. 533,
edit. 2. .

Secotidar)' hemorrhages fometimes occur in old debili-
tated fubjecls feveral days after the operation, and may
prove fatal. They require the fame treatment as the fore-
going bleeding, though, notwithilanding the moll Hcilful
comprefiion, the blood will often continne to ooze from day
to day, till the patient falls a victim.

Were a patient to bleed profufcly from a wour.d of the
pudendal artery, the veflel might be taken up and tied by a

good furgeon, which would be a much fafer method than
compreffion. It feems, that in one example, Mr. Abcrnetky
tied the trunk of this artery, where it paflfes along the
inner furface of the tuberofity and ram.us of the ifchium.
See Medical and Phyfical Journal, vol. ix. p. 393.

The drcflir.gs after the lateral operation are fuperficial,
and kept on with a T bandage. As feparating the thighs
pulls afunder the edges of the wound in the perineum, it
is alfo cultomary to confine them together, when the patient
is put to bed by means of a garter applied jjft above the
knees.

LITHOXOS. See Col.\ptice.

LITHOXYLON, in Mineralogy, Woodjlone, Hohjlein of
Werner, a fpecies of filiceous genus in the arrangement of
Kirwan. Its colour is generally blackifh, or blueilh-grey ;
the former frequently pafTma; into the greyilh-black, and the
latter into the greyilh white; and this from the light reddilh-
grey, into the blood or cochenille red. Seldom ochre yel-
low or mountain green ; fometimes rcddidi or yellowifh-
brown. Thefe colours commonly appear together in fpots,
blotches, or ftripes, in the fame fpccimcn. It always mani-
fefts its priftine Itate, either by its branchy form, or its
knots or roots. Its furface, like that of the wood from
which it originates, is fometimes rough, fometimes uneven,
fometimes coarfely ftreaked in the direction of its length.
Its internal lullre, i ; its trarfparency, 1.2. Its fracture
conchoidal ; fometimes imperfedtly, or approaching to the
fine fplintery, fometimes llaty ; and generally, by its inter-
laced fibrous flrudture, difcovers its origin Its fragments
3. Often fplintery ; its hardnefs, 10; the fpecific gravity
of different (pccimens extended, upon Mr. Kirwan 's trials,
from 2.045 '" --^IS- ^^ '* commonly, but not always, the
fubllance of petrified wood. It often withers by expofure
to the atmolphere. Its tranfitions are into quartz, _calce-
dony, and, as fome fay, into pitch ilone or opal. Kirwan's
EI. of Min vol i.

LITHOXYLUM, in Botany, a term ufed by Linnseus
to exprefs a heterogeneous fubilance on marine productions,
which has fruftifications in impreffod points. See GoR-

GOMA.

LITHOZUGIA, in Natural Hipry. the name of a
genus of foffils, of the clals of the icriipi, compofed of a
cryftalluie matter a little deoafed, and containing witiun
them various extraneous bodies, as pebbles, &c.

Dr Woodward has ranked this genus among the pebbles,
becaufe of the pebbles they contain ; which is by no means
a futticient reafon foi confounding two fuch different ioffils;
the liihozugia approachiiig to tlie nature of flint.

Mercatus and other naturali'ls have called the lithozugia,
oculati lapiiles ; and among Englifli lapidaries they are known
by the name oi pudiling-ltcms ; which fee. ♦

LITHUANIA, \n Geography, a country of Europe of
coiiliderable extent, anciently a feparatc duchy, and after-
wards united to Poland. Its capital was Vilna or Wilna,
but its principal town was Grodno. When it was goveri;ed
by its own fovereigns under the title of Great-Dukes, a
rivalry fubfilled between this duchy a:^d the contiguous
llatts of Ruffia and Poland, which was the occafion of fre-
quent contells. At fo early a period as the nth century,
the Lithuanians, defcended from the ancient flock of the
Slavonians (fee the article Lettes,) are enumerated by
Neller in his chronicle, under the appellative Litva, among
the nations tributary to the Ruffian monarchy ; nor could
they find means to rensJer themfelves an independent nation,
till the time when dangerous intelline divifions fprang up in
Ru.Tia, under the fuccelfurs of Vladimir the Grwat, v,ho
died in the year 1C15. At this time they wers freed from

the

L 1 T

L I T

■the 'Riifrian fiipremacy, enlarged their borflers at the ex-
pence of their former nr.vHers, and at length grew to be
•formidable to all their neighbours:. In the year 1386, the
great duke Ladidaus Jaghellon, or Ya<;hello, having ef-
poiifed the Po'ifli queen Hndfvigc, and embraced the Chrif-
■tian religion, was raifed to the Polifh throne, and reigr.ed
over both Poland and Lithuania. In confequence of the
union of the two countri.'s, the conquered RulTwn provinces
devolved to this united kingdom. Ladifians nianifefted the
reality of his converfion, by endeavouring to propagate the
Chriliiandoftrinesamonjjhis idolatrous fubjefts in Lithuania;
accordingly he cut down the hallowed groves, dellroyed the
oracular flirine. cxtin«-n;fhed the facred fire, and flew the
ferpents that were wordiipped as gods by his fuperftitious
fubjefts. A belief univerfally prevailed among the people,
that whoever profanely attempted to dellroy thefe objefts
of their worlhip, would be ftruck with inliantaneous death ;
but the falfity of this tradition was evinced bv the impunity
of thofe who were concerned in the fuppoied facrilege. The
Lithuanians flocked in fuch crowds to be converted, that
the priefts could only confer feparate baptifm oh pcrfons of
diftinftion ; but diftributcd the multitude in ranks, and
■fprinkling them with water, gave one Chriftian name to
each rank without dillinftion of fex. I^adiflaus, having
thus introduced the Chriftian religion into Lithuania, nomi-
nated his brother Cafimir Skirgello governor of the duchy,
and returned to Poland ; but a civil war being- excited by
the ambition of Alexander, furnamed Vitoldus, and by the
difcontents of the people, ftill attached to their Pagan rites,
Lithuania was for fome time a fccne of tumult and hoftili;y.
At length, by a compromile in i J92, Vitoldus was appointed
great duke, and Ladifians contented hirrfelf with a nominal
fovcreignty. In 1401 the nobles of Litliuania a(!';mbled at
Viln,i, and entered into an offenfive and defenfive alliance
with the king and republic of Poland. In 141,^, it was
ftipidiiled in a diet of Poles and Lithuanians, held in the
town of Hrodlo, that, upon the demife of Vitoldus, the Li-
thuanians (hould acknowledge no other great duke but the
perfon who fliould be appointed by the king, and with the
agreement of the two nations ; that if Ladiflaus died with-
-out ilTue, the Poles fhould elett no king without the confent
of Vitoldus and the Lithuanians, and that a diet, compofed
of reprefentatives from both nations, (hould meet at Lublin
or Panzow. From the demife of Vitoldus, who expired in
J439, in the 80th \ear of his age, the great dukes were
fometimes, in conformity to this compaft, nominated by the
kings of Poland, at other times in violation of it by the
Lithuanians. At length Sigifmund I. fortunately united
in his perfon the two fovereignties, and was fuccceded in
both by his fon Sigifmund Augullus. T'he conne&ion be-
tween the two nations whs, however, more an alliance than
an union ; but Sigifmund Augufhis having no children, and
being the only furviving male heir of the Jaghellon family,
planned the union of Poland and Lithuania, lell: upon his
deceafe the two nations (hould again be governed by dif-
ferent princes. For this purpofe a general diet was held at
Lublin in 1569; and upon the ratiiication of the union,
Sigifmund Augulfus renounced all hereditary right to Li-
thuania. From this time the fame perfon was uniformly
eletted king of Poland and great duke of Lithuania, and
the two nations were incorporated into one republic. Since
•this period, Lithuania has ihared the fortunes of Poland ; and
with the gradual extinction of it, has likewile fallen a prey
to her ftronger and more powerful neighbours. At the
partition of the year 1773, Lithuania furnifhed the whole
share which Ruflia at that time obtained, and out of which
the prefeut vice-royalties of Mohilcf and Polotik are formed.

Tn the fubfeqnent partition of the year T79J, this grani
duchy again loll 1731 fquare miles, and 890,000 foiiU-,
which now belong to the vice-royalty of Miiiik ; and in the
final oartition of the year 1795, '■''^ ^^^ remains of Lithua-
nia alfo fell to the Ruffian empire, of which at prefect the
vice-rovahies of Viliia and Sloninilk are formed. TheiJe
provinces of the Ruffian empire are therefore thofe in which
I.,ithuanians refide ; but the number of people of which
this nation confilts, can hardly be given with any d<-gree of
accuracy,, as they are every where mingled with RuiTuuis
and Poles. '

Lithuania was formerly a very woody country, but the
greateft part of it was uncultivated. However, under the
tranquil reigns of Sigifmund I. and his fuccelTors, the
woods were cleared in a great degree, and agriculture was
encouraged. Pot-a(hes and wood-afhes are made here in
great abundance, and the country produces much corn. It
alfo yields a great quantity of honey, from which are made
the liquors called Lippitz, Maliinieck, and Mead. Its mea-
dows and paftures are fertile, and fupply food for numerous
flocks and herds. The wool is very fine. The lakes abound
with iifli ; and the forefts are the haunts of bears, wolves,
wild boars, buffaloes, deer, and large flights of woodcocks-
All forts of provifions are cheap, but cafli is fo fcarce, that
10 percent, is the common intereit for money. The com-
mon people are generally vafTals, and the nobility are nu-
merous, but poor ; fome of the principal of them excepted,
who poffels princely revenues, occupy the chief polls in the
country, and live in great pomp and fplendour.

Lithuania, Litlle, or Prujj'uvi, a province of PrulTia,
about 100 miles in length and half as much in breadth.
This country was anciently over-run with thickets and
woods ; and in the year 17 10, it was almoll depopulated by
a pellilence. In 172c, Frederick William, at a great ex-
pence, induced many Switzers, French Proteflants, Pala-
tines and Franconians to fettle here, and in 1732, 350,000
dollars were diftributed among a frefli colony of 12,500
Saltzburgers. Thefe emigrants changed the face of the
almoft defolated country, and its fertility appeared in the
multitude and variety of its productions ; fuch as corn,
horned cattle, numerous flocks of Iheep, excellent horle.':,
butter, cheefe, &c. It afforded hkewife plenty of lifh and
game. Several manufadures are alio efiablifhed here, for
coarle and fine cloth, leather, &c. 'I'he ancient inhabitants
of this country have a language peculiar to themfelvcs, into
which the bible and fome religious books have been lately
tranflatcd. The colonills of this country are engaged in
various employments, to which their difpolition and habits
incline them ; and with refpeft to religion, the Switzers,
French, and Franconians, are Ca'virrifls; (o that there are
10 German and French reformed pariflics, as they are deno-
minaled, in Little Lithuania. The red are Lutherans, in-
termixed with a few PapiRs. The princijial towns are
Memel, Tilfit, Ragnit, and Ifterburg.

LITIZ, or Lkdi'I'^, a to.vn, or rather village, of Ame-
rica, in Lancaiier county, pennfylvania ; lituated in . tite
townfliip of Warwick, containing about 50 lioufts, and an
elegant church with a fteeple and bell, fettled m 1757, ai;d
inhabited by the United Brethren, amounting, in 17S7, to
up-.vards of 302 ; eight miles N. of Laneailer.

LITMUS, or Lacmus, in the Arts, is a blue pigment,
or violet red palle, formed from archil, which fee. It is
brought from Holland at a cheap rate ; but nuy be pre-
pared by adding quick-lime, and purified urine, or fpirit of
urine diltilled from lime, to the archil previouily bruifed by
grinding. The mixture, having cooled, and the fluid Aif-
fered to evaporate, becomes a mais of the coniiltence of

a pall. .

L I T

8 parte, which is laid on boards to dry, in fquare lumps.
The following is given as the exact pcocels for preparing it.
(Nicholfon's Journal, 4to. vol. ii.) The lichen is tirft dried,
clcaiifed, and piilvcrii'ed, in a null like the oil-mill. The
powder is then thrown into a trough, with one-half its
weight of pearl-a(h, and moiftened with a little human urine,
and allowed to ferment. This fermentation is kept up for
fome time, by fucceflivc additions of urine, till the colour
of the materials chiuiges firft to red, then fo blue. In this
ftate it is mixed with a third its vveight of very good potaih,
and fpread upon deep wooden trays till dry. A quantity
of chalk is added at lail, apparently for the mere purpofe of
increaiing the weight. It is only ufed in miniature paint-
ings, and cannot be well depended on, becaufe the Icail ap-
proach of acid changes it initantly from blue to red. This
property renders the colour a valuable tint to the chemift,
in deteftincj the prefence of uncombined acids. Dut when
reddened by an acid, the blue is rcllored by an alknli : fo
that litmus mav thus become a telt both of acid and of al-
kah. The bell litmus is very apt to change and fly. It is-
much employed for the purpofe of giving a glofs or iTniih
to the more deep and permanent colours, by the dyers of
filk, iluffs, and ribbons. Marble foaked with litmus-liquor
innbibes it in fome days, and becomes beautifully tinged
with a colou.', 'w'luch will remain for a conliderable time un-
impairad..

LITOTES, AiTOTj;-:, in Rheta-h. See Liptotes.
LITOWISCH, in Geography, a town, of Poland, in
Volhynia ; 56 miles S.W. of Lucko.

LITRA, in yhici.'/i! Coinage. See LlBRA.
LITRE, or Ciil/ic D.'dmdre, a French meafure of ca-
pacity, equal to 60.O2S0.0 Englifh cubic inches, or nearly
2 J wine pints. See Measuue.

LITRON, a rreafure for corn and dry commodities, in
the old fvllem of France ; 16 litrons being equal to a boif-
feau, each boiiTeau being = 7S0 Englilh cubic inches,
and 1 1 boifieaux = 4 Englifh bufhels.

LITROTOND, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, on the fouth-w^ell coall of Natoha. N. lat. 36 51'.
E. long. 37" 35'.

LITSCHAU, a town of Auftria; 70 miles N.W. of
Vienna. N. lat. 49' 48'. E. long. 14' jj'.

LITTAU, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz ;
S miles N.N.E. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49- 28'. E. long.
]6 59'. ^

LITTER, Lectica, a kind of vehicle borne upon
fhafts, anciently elteemed the molt eafy and genteel way oF
carriage.

Du Cange derives the woi-d from the barbarous Latin,
hder'ia, jlraiu or bedding for beajfs. Others will rather have
it come from leSus, bed, there Ijeing ordinarily a quilt and a
uillo-.v to a litter ; in tiie fame manner as to a bed.

Pliny calls the htter the traveller's chamber ; it was much
in ufe among the the Romans, among whom it was borne by
flsives kept for that purpofe ; as it ftill continues to-be in the
Eaft, where it is called a palanquin.

The Ronian IrSica, made to be borne by four men, waS'
called itrraphorum ; that borne by fix, he.vaphorum ; and that
borne by eight, oHophorum.

The invention of litters, according to Cicero, was owing>
(o the kings of Bithyni;i : in the time of Tiberius they were
beco.TiC viory frequent at Rome, as appears from Seneca;,
and even (laves themfelves were borne in them, though never
by more than two perfons, whereas men of quality had fix,
or eight.

LlTTf:il, in Agriculture, a name applied to draw, fern, or
srthcr dry fubftauccs,. that arc placed under horfes, cattle,

L I T

&c. in the llables, cow-houfes, farm-yards, or other places-
for the purpofe of keeping the animals clean, and the pro-
viding a large fupply of manure. In this lalt view, all forts
of dry materials ihould be carefully coliefted, and ftacktd.
up for winter ufe. And it is of vaft importance, in different
views, to have it properly employed in foddering the cattle,
as well as in littenng them down in the Hall and yards ; as,
without proper economy, much difadvantage may arife to-
the farmer in the way of converting it into manure. See.
Soii.ixi; and Faum-vakd.

Merely as litter, wheat-draw is always to be preferred for
horfes ; but for cattle and other animals, the other fort of.
ilraw, fern, &c. may anfwer equally well.

LITTERMORE, in Geography, an iHand on the coaft.
of the county of Galway, Ireland. It is on the fouth-ealL
of Kilkerran bay, and is about four miles long by two wide.
N. lat. 53 17 . W. long. 9 40'.

LIT TLE Algoxqui.v.s, Indians who inhabit near the
Three Rivers, and can raife about 100 warriors..
Little Bairam. See Baiha.m.

Little Britain, a poll-town of America, in Orange
county. New York ; 294 miles from Walliington. — Alfo,.
a townfliip in Lancaller county, Pennfylvania, containing
1365- inhabitants. — Alfo, a tovvniliip in Cheftcr county,, in.
the fame ftate.

Little Capjlan. See Capstan;

Little Compton, in Geography, a townlhip in Newport
county, Rhode ifland, containing 1577 inhabitants, and
affording greater quantities of meat, butter, cheefe, ve-
getables, &c. than any other town of its fize. The in^
habitants, who are niduftrious, manufadlure lin^n and tow-
cloth, flannels, &c. of an excellent quality, and in con-
fiderable quantities for fale.

Little Creeh, a town of America,. in Kent county,

Delaware, containing 1908 inhabitants Alfo, a town \\\.

SufTex county, Delaware, containing 2164 inhabitants.

Little Harbour. See PijjCat.vqua.— Alfo, a bay in
the (Iraits of Magellan, on the coall of Patagonia; 5miles
N.W. of Bachelor's river.

Little IJland, or Little Salvador, one of the fmaller
Bahama iflands. N. lat. .23 46'. \V. long. 75^ 26'. — Alfo,
an ifland in the river Lee, in Ireland, about three miles ia,
circumference; 6 miles E of Cork. •
Little Alafs. See Mas:;. •

Little River, in Geography, a beautiful and rapid river
of America, in Georgia, which, at its confiuence with Sa-
vannah river, in about 50 yards wide. — Alfo, a river whicH
partly feparates North and South Carolina. — Alfo, a planta-
tion in Keanebeck county, Maine.

- Little SoJus, a harbour of lake Ontario; ij miles S.
of Ofwego.

LITTLEBOROUGH, a town on the well ccaft of the
ifland of Nevis ; 2 miles N. of Charlellown.

LITTLETON, Ar>A.\j, in Biography, a learned philo-
logiil, was born in 1627 at Hales-Owen, in Shropfliire, of
which place his father was vicar. He was educated at
Weflminiler, under Dr. Bufljy ; and in 1644 was admitted-
a fl;udent of Chrill's college, Oxford. He was, on account
of his principles, ejefted by the parliamentary vifitors in
L64S, and was under the neccfiity of obtaining a. living as
ufuer at different fchools. At the relloration, he was ap-
pointed fecond mailer of AVefl.min(ier fcliool, king's chap-
lain, in ordinary ; and in 1674, having already obtained his !
d<iftor's degree, he was inducted to the redlory of Chelfea..
This preferment was followed by being appointed a pre-
bendary of Wcilm.inilcr, and aftei-wards fub-dean. He.
died oatlie 30th of Juiie 1694, Icaviag behind liimthe ciia-

rafter

LIT

rafter of an amiable man, and very confiderable fcliolar.
He was converfant in the Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Arabic
lang^iiages ; and was converfant with the higher parts of
mathematics. He pubhihed many works in divinity and
philology, but is chiefly known for his " Latin Diftionary,"
whicii was in general ufe in our fchoolp till that of Ainfworth
was pubhlhed. He had received a grant of king Char'es II.
to fucceed Dr. Bu(by, as head mealier of Weilminilcr
fchool ; but death prevented the execution of the king's in-
tention.

Littleton, Sir Thomas, an Englifli lawyer and jndp-e,
who flourifhed in the fifteenth century, was elded fon of
Thomas Weftcote, cfq. of Devonfliire, by the hcirefs of
Littleton, of Frankley in Worcellerfliire, wliofe name he
affumed. He was reguhtrly educated for the law ; and, in
the reign of Henry VL, he was made judge of the niar-
fhalfea court and king's ferjeant, and in 145'5 went the
northern circuit as judge of the aflife. In 14O6 he was ap-
pointed one of the judges of the common pleas, and, a {hort
time after, was created a knight of the Bath. He died in
148 1, leaving three fons, from whom many confiderable
families are defcended. He was author of a valuable work,
entitled " Tenures and Titles by which Eftates were an-
ciently held in England." It was written in French, and
a tranilation of it, with a comir.entary, forms the firft book
of Coke's " Inftitutes." Sir Thomas, during the troubles
and confufions of the times, fo comported himfelf, as to
enjoy the favour of both the contending fovcreigns ; and, at
the fame time, acquired the efteem of all, for his great Ikill
in the laws of England.

Littleton, Edward, dillinguifhed for lils great know-
ledge in tiie common law, fon of fir Edward, a WeKh judge,
was born in 1589, and purfued his college exercifes in Chrilt
church, Oxford, from whence he removed to the Inner
Temple, to purfue the fludy of the law. He was an adlive
member of parliament in the year 1628, and, together with
fir Edward Coke and fir Dudley Digges, carried up the
Petition of !vight from the Commons to the Lords. He was
alfo a leading manager in the accufation againil the duke of
Buckingham, in which his judicious conduft obtained for
him the good opinion of the prince and people. He fuc-
ceeded his father as WeKh judge, and was cbofcn recorder
of London. In 1634 he was made by Charles I. iblicitor-
general, and knighted; in 1639 he was fworn lord chief
juflice of the common picas; and, in the foliowing year, he
was advanced to be lord keeper of the great feal of England,
and called to the honfe of peerc by the title of lord Littleton.
He afterwards loft the favour of the king, though it is be-
lieved without reafo'i, which he could never after regain.
He died in Auguft 164J, at Oxford, where he was buried
on the north fide of the choir in the cathedral of Chrift
church, and had a funeral oration pronounced over him by
Dr. Henry Hrimmond. He publilhed a book of Reports
of Cafes in the Courts of Common Pleas and Exchequer,
from the fecond to the eighth of Charles I. ; fome fpeeches
in parfiament, feveral arguments and difcourfes. Biog.
Brit.

Littleton, in Geography, a pnft-town of America, in
Middkfex county, Mafiachufetts, 28 miles N.W. of Bof-
ton ; containing 904 inhabitants. — Alfo, a poil-town in
Grafton county, New Hamplhire, incorporated in 1784,
and containing 381 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip, now
called T.'aterford, in Caledonia coimty, Vermont, on the
weft fide of Connecticut river, containing 565 inhabitants.

Littleton's IJland, a fmall ifland in the Florida ftream.
N. lat. 24 42'. W. long. 81 40'.
LITT08.AL Sheils, among writers of Natural HiJ-

L I T

tory, are fuch fea- (hells as are always found near the fliorcs,
and never far off in the deep.

Thofe which are found in the bottom of the fea, remote
from the fliore, are called pcLigian.

LITTORELLA, in Bolnny, the diminutive of ////«/, a
(hore, this plant being generally found in the neighbourhood
of lakes or pools. Indeed its Enghdi name, Sliore-weed,
is alfo cxprelfive of its place of growth. Linn. Mant. i6o.
Schreb. 629. VVilld. Sp. PI. v. 4. 330. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. ion. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 3.
335. JuflT. 90. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 758 — Clafs and or-
der, Momec'iaTetrandria. Nat. Ord. Planlagiiies, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of four leaves, ereft.
Cor. of one petal ; tube the length of the calyx ; limb four-
cleft, creft, permanent. Slam. Filaments four, thread-
ftiapcd, very long, inferted into the receptacle ; anthers
heart-fhaped.

Female on the fame plant. Cn!. none. Cor. of one
petal, conical, permanent, its mouth unequally three-cleft.
Pifi. Germen oblong ; ftyie thread-ftiaped, very long ;
ftigma acute. Pcric. none, except the permanent corolla.
Seed a nut of one cell.

Eif. Ch. Male, Calyx four-leaved. Corolla of one petal,
four-cleft. Stamens very long.

Female, Calyx none. Corolla of one petal, unequally
three-cleft. Style thread-like, very long. Nut of one
cell.

I. L. lacnjlris. Plantain Shore-weed. Linn. Mant. 295.
Sm. Fl. Brit. ion. Engl. Bot. t. 468. (Plantago uai-
fiora; Linn. Sp. PI. 167. Fl. Dan. t. 170.) — A native
of the fhores of lakes in various parts of Europe, and of
marfliy fandy fpots in Great Britain, but not very common.
It flowers in June. Root perennial, fpindle-fliaped. Htrb
fmooth, (lemlcfs. Lta-ves linear, entire, convex underneatli.
Ma!c Jloiuers on ftalks, folitary, creft, whilifh, refembling
thofe of Plantain : female ones radical, feffile, having an
ereft, prominent, thn-ad-fhajied ftyle.

The whole habit of this curious genus is that of a Plan-
tago, from which however it is fnfficiently diftinft on ac-
count of its fruit being a fingle feed or nut. It was ori-
ginally feparated from that genus, by Bergius, in the
Stockholm Tranfaftions for 1768. The Rev. Mr. Williams
of Shropfhire has found this plant occafionally to vary with
hairy leaves.

LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general be-
longing to divine fervice.

The word comes from the Greek ^.ciTHoyix, fer-vice, pullic
m'mlfiry, formed of Xsilo;, pullic, and s^-'w, 'work,"

In a more reitrained fignification, liturgy is ufed among
the Romanills to fignify the mafs ; and among u.. the com-
mon-prayer.

All who have written on liturgies agree, that in the pri-
mitive days, divine lervice was extremely fimple, only
clogged with very few ceremonies, and confifting of but a
fmall number of prayers; but, by degrees, they increafed
the number of external ceremonies, and added new prayers,
to make the office look more awful and venerable to the
people. At length thingo were carried to fuch a pitch, that
regulation became necefiary ; and it was found proper to put
the fervice, and the manner of performing u, into writing ;
and this was what they called a hturgy.

Liturgies have been different at different times, and in
different countries. We have the liturgy of St. Chryfollom,
that of St. Peter, of St. James, the liturgy of St. Bafil,
the Armenian liturgy, the liturgy of the Maronites, ef the
Cophtsc, the Roman liturgy, the Galliijan liturgy, the

EngliOi

I- I T U R G Y,

tnglifli liuirs;)', th? Ambrofian liturg)-, the Spaiiilli and
African litiir^ijies, &c.

In the more early an^es of the charch, every bifhop had a
power to form a liturgy for his own diocefe ; arid if he kept
to the analogy of faith and doftrine, all circumllances were
left to his own difcretion. Afterwards the practice was for
toe whole province to follow the fervice of tlie metropolitan
chnrch, which alfo became the general rule of the ciiurch r
ard this Lindwood acknowledges to be the common law of
the church ; intimating, that the ufe of fcveral fervices in
the fame province, which was the cafe in England, was not
to be warranted but by long cuftom. Gibf. 2 jg,

The lituryy of the church of England was compofed in
the year 1547, and cllablifhed in the 2d year of king Ed-
waid VI., by ilat. 2 & 3 Edw. VI. cap. 1.

In the fifth year of this king it was reviewed ; beca\ife
fome things were contained in that liturgy, which Ihewed a
comphancc with tlie fuper'Htion of thole times, and fome
exceptions were taken againft it by fome learned men at
h'lme, and by Calvin abroad. Martin Bucer was confulted,
and fome alterations were made in it, which conlifted in
adding the. general cor.felHon and abfolution, and the com-
munion to begin with the ten commandments. The ufe of'
oil in confirmation, and extreme unftion were left out, and
alfo prayers for fouls departed, and what tended to a belief
of Chrift's real pretence 111 the eucharift. This liturgy, io
rtformed, was eilablifhed by the act of j & 6 Edw. VI.
cap. r. However, it was abohfhed by queen Mary, who
enaclcd that the fervice (hould (land as it was moll commonly
ufed in the laft year of the reign of king Henry VIII. The
liturgy of 5 5c 6 Edw. VI. was re-ellablifhed with fome
few alterations and additions, by i Eliz. cap. 2. All the
birnnps prffcnt dint;i:ted both in this and the former afts ;
and, therefore, th? cxprclllon " lords fpiritual" doth not
occur in either of them. (Gibf. 268.) Some farther al-
terations were introduced, in confequence of the review of
the Com.mon Prayer Book, by order of king James, in the
lira year of his reign ; particularly in the office of private
baptifm, in feveral rubricks and other palTages, with the ad-
dition of five or fix nevv- prayers and ihankfgivings, and all
that part cf the catechifm which contains the dottrine of
th'i facraments. The book of Cemmon Prayer, fo altered,
remained in force from the iirit year of king James to the
fourteenth of Charles II. But the lall review of the liturgy
was in the year l6(il, and the laft aft of uniformity eu-
juining the obfervande of it, is 13 Sc J4Car. II. cap. 4.
(See Co.\[MOX Prayer. ) Many applications have been iince
made for a review, but hitherto without fuccefa. See Free
and Candid Difquifitio:.s relating to the Church of Eng-
land, S:c. 8v.-). L<jnd. 1749.

We fhdll here fubjoin fome pertinent remarks on liturgies by
archdeacon Paley, together with fome additional reflections.
Liturgies, or preconcerted forms of public devotion, being nei-
ther eiijcined in fcripture, nor forbidden, there can be no good
reafon tor receiving or rejecting tlieni, but that of expediency ;
w hich expediency i.s to be deduced from a coniparitouof tliead-
vanlages and difadvantages altendingthis mode of worlhip with
thofe which nfnally accompany extemporary prayer. The ad-
vantages of a liturgy are thcfe : i. That it prevents ablurd,
extravagant, or impious addrefies to God, which, in an
order ot men fo numerous as the facerdotal, the folly and
entbufiafm of many mull always be in danger of producing,
where the conduct of the public worlhip is entrulled, with-

not likely often to occ.ir ; tJiat a miniftcr who is capable of
addreffing a congregation acceptably and ufefuily, would
not be in danger of offending iir the manner here fuppofed,
when he conducted their fecial devotion, more efpecially a3
he would conceive it to be his duty to make previous pre-
paration for the one fervice as well as the other ; that the
mode of performing public worHiip muil be left to th?
choice and approbation of thofe who concur in ft ; that ths
occafional perverlion and abufe of a privilege carnot be
juftly pleaded againft the ufe of it j and that if the evil
were greater than it is, there is no method of avoiding it,
but by the impoiition cf preconcerted liturgies, which
tvould encroach on liberty in the province cf r'ehgion.
Ellablilhed liturgies, it might be faid, are not eafily accom-
modated to the fentimentsof the worlliipper, who dilbelieves
the creed on which they are founded ; and tliey muft lead
him to the avowal of principles, and to the ufe of language,
which his judgment difapproves. If every officiatiro- mi-
nifter be allowed to adopt his own mode of conduCtin"^
focial worltiip, whether it be by extempore prayer, or b^
forms, for each of which he has made previous pkparation,
he is not likely to give offence to thofe who ^oin with hi.r;.

Our author further obferves* 2. Tiiat a liturgy prevents
the confujion of extempore prayer, in which the c'ongiegatiori
being ignorant of each petition before they hear it, and
having little or no time to join in it after they have
heard it, are confounded by their attention to the niinifter,
and to their own devotion. The devotion of the hearer is
neceffarily fufpended, until a pc iiion be concluded ; and
before he can affent to it, or properly adopt it, that i«, before
he can addrefs the fame requelt to God for himfelf, and
from himfelf, his attention is called off to keep pace witli
what fucceeds. But the advocate for free prayer will
naturally enquire, if this be not the cafe, in a greater or Icfs
degree, in every continued fervice? If he has the words
before him, which he ufes in his devotion does he dwell
on a fingle fentence as foon as the officiating miniiter uiters
it ? Is not his attention drawn on to fucceeding parts of
the prayer that is pronounced, as foon as they arc delivered ?
But in neither cafe is his mind kept long in a Hate of fuf-
pence ; and he has this advantage, that whiill: he is joining
in exercifes of devotion with the minifter of his choice, he
is not likely to hefitate in concurring with turn. As to
the novelty with which he expedts to be gratified, this mav*
probably be more likely to excite his attention and impreis
his heart, than a recurrence of fentimcnts and expreffions
that are familiar to hir.', and v. hich long-continued ufe
will prevent from intc'-eiling and fixing "^the (perhaps)
wandering mind. Johii prayer, it is further faid by the
learned archdeacon, which, among all denominations of
Chriflians, is the declared defign of " cominfr together," i4
prayer in which all jo-n ; and not that which one alone in
the conp-regation conceives and delivers, and of which the reft
are merely hearers. This objettion, fays our anther, feem»
fundamental, and holds even where the miniiler's office is
dilcharged with every polUble advantage and accompUni-
ment. But in the ufe of preconcerted and ell.iblifhed litur-
gies, are not ail befidcstlie officiating miniikr hearers, unlefs
they concur in thofe refponfes, w hitii have been obfervcd in
many inllances to jiroduce confi-fion, and to render devotion
a kind of mechanical bufinefs ? The advocate for extem-
pore prayer will ailege, that he is not lefs capable of joining
in a worlhip, conducted by a minidcr who ufes words, fnt
■ ' m;

out rellraint or affutance, to the difcretion and abihtics of gelled at the moment, than in that whi^h is performed by"a

the officiating minilter. On the other hand, the advocate recital of words prcviouily written or printed. The ob-

for free prayer might allege, that the cafes to which the jeAion to this mode of public worfhip, founded on the

ingenious author refers are uf the extreme kind, that are labouring recolkftion, and emb.-.rralTcd or tumultuous de-

Vol. XXI. A a liver r

LITURGY.

Kvery of irany extempore fpeakers, evinces the neceflity of
talents for tlie difcharge of this part of public duty, and of
previous preparation, but does not prove that the adopl^.ni
of a liturgy is either moll expedient or moft ufetul when
extempore prayer is properly performed ; and it is prefunied,
that perfons v^'ho are accullomed to cxereiles of devotion
will acquire a facility in tlie performance of tlieni, which
will, in a great degree, obviate the objeiftion now dated,
and prevent the pain that would be n;iven to the ferious part
of a coiii;re'^ation, or the profane diveriion which might he
occal'ioned by the levity of the other part.

The advantages of a liturc;y, our author candidly allows,
are connected with two principal inconveniences ; Jirjh that
forms of pravcr compofed in one age become unlit tor
another by the unavoidable change of language, circum-
ftances and opinions : fecondly, that the perpetual repetition
of the fame form of words produces wearinefs and mattcn-
tiveuefs ia the congregati<jn. Both thefe inconveniences,
ho'.vever, arc in their nature vincible. Occafional revilions
of a liturgy may obviate the firll, and devotion will fupply
a remedy for the fecond ; or, as our author thinks, they may
both fubfitl in a con fidcrable degree, and yet be outweighed
by the objcflions which are'iufeparable from extemporary
prayer. Nevertheltfs, this is a conceflion, which will not
be admitted by the advocates of the latter mode of worthip ;
nor adverting to pad experience, finee tlie year 1661, will
they lay much ftrcfs on occalional reviews of the liturgy.

Hovsr far the Lord's prayer is a precedent, as well as a
pattern, for forms of prayer, is a queilion, concerning which
writers, who have directed their attention to this lubjedl,
are not agreed.

Archdeacon Paley fpeclfies the following properties as re-
quifite in a public liturgy ; vin. that it be compendious ;
that it exprefs juft conceptions of the divine attributes ;
that it recite fuch wants as a congregation are likely to
fee!, and no other ; and that it contain as few controverted
propofitions as poflible. As to the firll property, he ob-
ferves, that it would be no difficult talk to eontracl the
liturgies of moil churches into half their prefent compafs ;
and yet retain every diftinct petition, as well as the fubllance
CI every fentiment, which can be found in them. Although
cur author does not admit the propriety of (ludving brevity
too much, he is of opinion, that the too great length of
church fervices is unfavourable to piety. It begets in many
an early and unconquerable diilikc to the public worlhip 4f
their country or communion. They come to church feldom ;
and enter the doors when they do com.e under the appreheii-
fion of a tedious attendance, v.'hich they prepare for at firfl,
cr foon after relieve, by conipofing theinfelves to a drowfy
forgetfulnefs of the place and duty, or by fending abroad
their thoughts in ■ fearch of more amufing occupation.
Although there may be fome few of a difpofuion not to be
wearied with religious exercifes, yet, where a ritual is pro-
lix, and the celebration of divine fervice long, no effetl is in
general to be looked for, but that indolence will find in it
an excufe, and piety be difconcerted by impa.nence. It
might further be obferved, that the extent of our eltablifhcd
liturgy does not leave time fufhcient for pubhc inilruction ;
that the attention is fatigued before this part of our
p'lbiic fervice commences ; and that excefs in our public
difcourfes, which admit of variety, is more exculable than
the iame fault in our devotional exercifes, during which the
attention ought to be kept alive, and the underftanding
and heart properly engaged. Our author remarks, that the
length and repetitions complained of in our hturgy are not
fo much the fault of the compilers,, as tlie effeft of uniting

into ont fervice, what was originally, but with very littlf
regard to the convcniency of the people, dillrlbutcd into three.
Accordingly we obferve, with the autiiors of the " Free and
candid Dilquilitions," that the Lin-d's prayer in particular
is ei;joined to be pulilicly tiled every I^ord's day in our ordi-
nary lervicc, when there is no communion, no lefs than feven
times, ^i;». five times in the morning a:.d twice in the after-
noon : and when there is a communion, and alio atteriiooii
icrmon or lecture, then nine times : and if the office of infant
baptifm (to fay nothing of that of adults), and the other of
churching of women, happen to come iiv, as they may and
do fometinies, botii morning and afterncon, then thirteen
times. The " Gloria Patri" is introduced commonly, and
moil ufually, feven or eight times ; not unfrcquently nine
or ten ; and may alfo occur eleven times, in the courfe of
our morning fervice only, Notwithllandiiig that dread of inno-
vation, in religion, which, lays archdeacon I'alcy, feems to have
become ihc panic of the age, few, as he fuppofes, would be
difpleafed nith fuch omiflions, abridgments, or change in
the arrangement^ as the combination of ieparate fervices
iniift necelTiirily require, even luppoiing each to have been
faultltfs in itfelf. If, together with theie alterations, the
epilUes and gofpelf, and coUefts which precede them, were
compofed and lelefted v.ith more regard to unity of fubjeft
and dellgn ; and the pfalms and lelfons either left to the
choice of the miiiiller, or better accommodated to the ca-
pacity of the audience, and the edification of modern life ;
the church of England would be in pofTciTion of a liturgy,
in which thofe who alTent to her doftrines would have little
to blame, and the difl'atisfied mull acknowledge many beau-
ties. The ftylc throughout is excellent ; calm, without
coldnefs ; and, though every where fedate, oftentimes affeft-
ing. Tiie paufes in the fcrvic~e are dilpofed at proper inter-
vals ; the traniitions from one office of devotion to another,
from confeffion to prayer, from prayer to thanklgiving,
from thankfgiving to " hearing of the word," arc contrived,
like fcenes in the drama, to fupply the mind with a fuccef-
fion of diverfihed engagements. As much variety is intro-
duced alio in the form of praying as this kind of compoiitiau
icems capable of admitting.

TheyiVoHi/ property of a liturgy, itiz. that it fhould ex-
prefs jull conceptions ef the divine attributes, is an article
deferving particular care. The popular notions of God arc
formed, in a great meafure, from the accounts which the
people receive of his nature and character in their religious
affemblies. An error here becomes the error of multitudes :
and as it is a fubjt A in which almoft every opinion leads the
way to lome practical confeqtience, the purity or deprava-
tion of public manners will be afFeclcd, among other caufes,.
by the truth or corruption of the public forms of worfhip.
The i'/>/V^ requilite of a liturgy is that it recite fuch wants
as the congregation are hkely to feel, and no other. It were
therefore to be wiilied that every part of a liturgy were per-
fonally applicable to every individual in the congregation ;
and that nothing were introduced to interrupt the paffion,
or damp a flame which it is not eafy to rekindle. Upon
this principle, \.\iejlatr-prajiers incur liturgy ihould be fewer
and lliorter. The Jliite-/lyle hkevvife leems unfealonablv in-
troduced if.to thefe prayers, as ill according with the anni-
hilation of human greatnefs, of which every act that carries
tlie mind to God prefents'the idea. It is required, fourthly,
that a liturgy contain as few controverted propohtio;iS as
poffible. Why, fays our author, iliould every pofition
which a church maintains be woven with fo much induftry into
her forms of public worfliip ? Some are offended, and fnme
are excluded ; this is an evil in itfelf, at lead to them : and

J what

I

L I T

L I T

vvTiat advantage or fatisfaftion can be derived fc the rtfl from
the reparation of their brethren, it is difficult to imagir;; :
unlefs it wvre a duty to pi;bli(h our fyftem of polemic divi-
nity, under the name of making confelfion of our faith every
time we worfliip God ; or a fin, to agree in rehgious exer-
cifes with thofe from whora we differ in fome religious opi-
nions : indeed, where one man thinks it his duty conilantly
to worlhip a being whom another cannot, with the afTent of
his confcience, permit himfelf to worfhip at all, there feems
to be no place for comprehenfion, nor any expedient left
but a quiet feceffion. All other differences may be compro-
n-.ifed by filence. If fefts and fchifms be an evil, they arc
as much to be avsided by one fide as th€ other. If feclaries
arc beamed for taking unnecefTary offence, eftabhlhcd
churche^lfcre no lefs culpable for unneceffarily giving it :
they art^ound at lead to produce a command, or a reafon
of equivalent utility, fjr fliuttiiig out any from their commu-
nion, by mixing with divine worfliip, doctrines which,
whether true or falfe, are unconncfted, in their nature, with
devotion. Paley's Principles of Moral and Pohtical Philo-
fophy, vol. ii. chap. j. See Ph.vyer.

Of all the forms which Chrifiianity has taken in difFel-ent
parts of the world, of all the fects which refufe communion
with regular eftabiifhments, mulic, or rather chanting, has
been the language of devotion. It has been farcalbcally
afked, whence this impuUe to fr)'a/o« J originated ; was it from
the thundering mufic of the fingers of Jofliua round Jericho,
the fweet llrains of the harp of David, the pompous and
proud clangor and vociferating of the myriads of inuficians
at the temple of Solomon, or the pious chant of the canti-
<;le which .Tefus Chrill and his apoliles fung at the firlt infti-
tutlon of prayer, that we derive our choirs, hymns, pfalnis,
and fpiritnal fongs, which in every communion of Chnllians
conlhtute, and always have conitiluted, a confidcnible part
of the public worfhip regulated by liturgies ? We have no
<]oubt but that the primitive Chriftians, when their religion
was founded on that of the Jews, (at leafl as far as the be-
lief and worlhip of one God,) in oppofition to Paganifmand
idolatry, fung the Pfalms of David, which they had adopted,
in imitation of the royal pfalmift and his nation.

But there wa-- no Pagan tem.ple, .or facrilice at an altar,
without mufic, and at prefent, even the favages of America
iioDour their divinities with finging. Indeed fongs, of
which the fubJK-ft and poetry correlpond with the rites and
ceremonies of the Pagans, conflituted all their liturgies, to
the exaft celebration of which it is well known they were
fcrupuloudy attached. It is true that the Chrillian.s differ
very much in their mufical tafles. The Quakers have no li-
turgy ; they wait till the fpirit moves them to fpeak, and
never fing ; they only figh and groan. Calvin ilript mufic
of harmony and meafure, and allowed of nothing but uni-
fonous and fyllabic finging in tke conventicles, without the
afiiftance of that box of ivhiflks, as the Scotch reformers
ufcd to llyle the organ. The modern methodifts like
light, airv, and familiar mufic fo much better than folemn
flrains of f up plication, that they admit ballad and barrel-
organ tunes out of the ftreet to be adapted to their hymns.
The mufic a cappella.. in the cathedral fervice of the Roman
Catholics and Proteilants of the fixteenth and Icventcenth
centuries, feems the molt folemn and revereod fpccies of mu-
fic with which to addrefs the divinity ; at Icall it is the moft
grateful to cultivated cars. In parifh churches, under the
guidance of a powerful organ, or a judicious chantor, pfal-
niody in parts, provided iome refpedl were paid to accent,
and dillinction were madcbetween long and fhort fyllablcs, as
in the 104th pfalm and other melodies in triple-time, would

ceafe to be abfurd and ridiculous to lovers of mufic, and
rendered a gratification, inilead of a torture, to cultivated
cars.

LITViNTZOVA, in Giosraphy, a town of Ruflia, in

the government of Irkutfic ; 36 miles S. of Ilimflc.

LITUS, in the Materia Medico, the fame ^i linlmatt ;

which fee.

LITUUS, among MeJaliJls, the ftaiT or wand twifted
round at the top, ufed by the augurs, made in the form of a
crozier, and the badge of the augurfhip.

We frequently fee it on medals, along with other pontifi-
cal infiruments. Aulus Gelhus fays, it was bigger in the
place where it was crooked than elfewhere. In fome coins
of Nero the lituus appears at his bread.; and from badly
prefervcd coins has been taken by fome mcdalhc writers for
a ferpent.

LiTVL's, in Natural HiJIory, a name given to a genus of
fhells of the clafs of the polythalamii, or thofe which confifl
of feveral concamerations or chambers, parted from one
another by fiielly diaphragms, and communicating with one
another by means of a fiphunculus, which runs through the
whole length of the fhell. To this general character of the
clafs, it is to be added, that the lituus is always a conic
fhell, running in a fi;raight line from the mouth, through a
great part of the length, and from the end of this ftraight
part to the extremity, twifling into the Ihape of a corna
ammonis, or fpiral fhell of that kind.

It is thus named from its refembling the inflrumeut called
lituus among the ancients. The fiiony matter often found
caft in this fhell, and refembling all its lineaments, is called by
authors litultis, as thofe ftones formed in the peifien, peftinites,
and thofe in the echini marini echinitx. See Cokchology.

LlTUU.s, in Rcrrian /Intiquhy. The Romans had a
crooked military mufical inlirument called a lituus, in the
form of the augural ftafT, whence it had its name. It was a
fpecies of clarion, or octave trumpet, made of metal, ar.d
extremely loud and fitrill, ufed for the cavalry, as the ftraight
trumpet was for the foot. Horace diftinguillies it from the
tuba, or trumpet.

" Multos caftra juvant, et lituo tuba:

Permiftus fonitus, Od. i. zi.

as Claudian does from the flute :

" Tibia^ro lituis, et pro clangore tubarum
Molle lyrae, fuftumque canant."

On our mufic plates are engraved a double lituus and a
ftraight trumpet, from an ancient bas-relief in the Vitalefchi
palace at Rome, reprefenting a facrifice : as is a genuine an-
cient metalHne lituus, now in the poffeflioH of the right ho-
nourable fir Jofeph Banks, K.B. and prefident of the Ro)-al
Society. It was found vvitli many other antiquities, both
Roman and Anglo-Saxon, in clearing the bed of the river
Witham, near Tatterlhall, in Lincolnfhirc, 1761, and is
periiaps the only inlirument of the kind that is now extant.
It is a long narrow tube, with a fwtUing curve at the end.
like the double lituus, but refembling ftill more an in-
lirument fculpturcd on the bafe of Trajan's pillar at Rome.
It is neatly made of very thin brafs, with three joints or
pieces, like German flutes, and has been well gilt. Its
length is upwards of four feet, though the upper end has
been evidently broken off.

Aninftrument of this kind, made of caft brafs, was found

in digging a well, near Battle in Suflex, and was then filled

■with fmall fliells. We have an engraving of it in Grofe's

A a 2 Mihtarv

^ L 1 V

L 1 V

Military Antiquities, vol. ii. A fimilar trumpet is engraved
in Montfaiicoii's Roman Antiquities.

This inCi-umcnt frequently appears on ancient medals as a
fymbol «f wai , and-is torraiuatctl with the head of a boar,
and fometimes with that of a fnake, as on an ancient family
medal of Albinus, (truck during the time of the republic,
between the iirll Punic war anJ the reign of Augull'JS.
, LITYERSA, the .fong of the reapers, in the /iiic'iml
Mufic. Theocritus, Apollodorus, Julius Pollux, Suldas,
and others, mention this fon^, and call it Litycrfg, from Ly-
tiurfas, .the natural Ion of Midas ; a rude and ferocious
prince, wlio oblij^ed llrangers to work with Iiim in the
ilelds at harvcll-timc, and thofe who were too feeble and
unable to Wv,rk, he put to death. Hercules killed hijn -in
the life-time of his fatlier. ■' '

Julias Pollux fays that this fonrr was injurnful, und fung
round the (hearers, to confole Midas for the death of his
foil.

LITZEND'OiRF, in'Gcograplyy, a town of Bavaria, in
the hilhopric of Bamberg ; 6 miles E.N.E of Bamberg.

LIVADIA, aBrovinceof European Turkey, bounded
on the N by Theffaly, on tde E. by the Archipelago, on
the S. by the gulf of Lepanto, which fcparates it from the
Morea, and the gulf of Egina, and on the W. by the Medi-
terranean ; i8o miles long from N AV. to S.E., and about
35' miles in its medial breadth. This province comprehends
what was properly called Greece (fee G(t.T:ciA Propria) ;
and the mountains, fo much celebrated by the ancients, tn'c.
Parnaffus, Helicon, and Cythsron. The places that are
now moll noted in ir are Lepanto, Livadia, and Athens.

LiVADiA is alfo a large, populous, commercial town, in
the p/ovince of the fame name, fituated near the gulf of
Lepanto, and b lilt round a mountain terminating in a peak,
and on whicli is a caflle ; 28 miles N. of Corinth. N. lat.
38^37'. E. long. 23 54'.

LIVADOSTA, a town of Livadia, on the E. extremi-
ty of the gulf of Lepanto ; 20 miles S.E. of Livadia.

LIVAROT, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift rf
Lilieux ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Lifieux. The place con-
tains 1210, and the- canton 1 1,279 inhabitants, f'" a terri-
tory of 195 kiliometces, in 29 communes,

LIUBIM, a town of RuiTia, in the government of Ja-
roflavl ; 40 miles N. E. of Jaroflavl. N. lat. 58' Jj'.
E. long. 40° 50'.

LIUBITCH, a town of RufTia, in the government of
Tcliernigov, on the Dnieper; 20 miles W. of Tchernigov.
N. lat. 51° 22'. E. long. 26" 44'.

LIUDER, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land ; 31 miles W. of Calmar.

LIVE Caye.s, in Mining, a phrafe ufed by many people
to exprefs fuch taverns in the earth as have but little com-
munication with the external air, and are found to abound
with mineral produfticiis. The v.'oikers in the lead-mines
on Min.lip-hiiis dilHnguifh the numerous caverns in tho'e
places into the Il-x or quid caves, and the dead caves ; the
Utter are fuch as adn.it the air into them tvi'o or three ways,
and are barren of any thing valuable ; the others have only
one palfage, and that hut narrow and winding, and generally
lie at great depths. Thefe abound in numerous elegant pro-
du61ioas. They alinoft always contain ore in fome form or
other, and ufualy abound in elegant fpars. Mr. Beaumont
mentions one of thefe in the Philofophical Tranfailions,
which lay at thi'tyfive fathom perpendicular depth,
in whii h there was found a fme liver-coloured earth, of
ihc nature of boie armenic, v/hich' in many places Choot

up in a wonderful manner in a fort of fpires of the height
of three or four inches, formed with ridges and furrow;;,
and ufually covered with fp-ar at the top ; fometimes all
the way down, to the bed of earth. Phil. Tranf. N^ 129.
Ltvii Ever, in Bo!any. See Oupine.
LlVf. ill Idlrmjs. See Violei .

Livii //fi^cr, in Rural Econunn;, fuch as are conftituted
of living materials, fuch as white-thorn plants, &c. See
Fksci:.

l^iw.-StocJ:, ill ylgricuhure, is a term wliich (Ignifies all
tlial fort of animal Hock which is raifed or kept upon a
farm, either for tlu- purpofc of ufe or profit. It compre-
hends all forts of (lomellic animals, whether thofe of the
cattle, liorfe, and fivine kinds, or thofe of the rabbit and
poultry deicriptions. In one of the reports of the Hate of
agriculture, drawn up for the board, it is flated flJRt this is
a fubjeft wliich " is, perhaps, the nioft important in the
whole range of rural economics. The poorell and mo(t
backward nations contrive to raifc bread for their confump-
tion, equal to the demand ; and to increafe the quantity
with the increafe of their mouths. Their wheat, in the moll
niik-rable hufbandry, is nearly equal, and much of it fupe-
rior, to that of our highly cultivated fields ; and we feel con-
Jtantly in our markets the cScR of their competition : but
with all that concerns live-ftock tlie cafe is abundantly dif-.
ferent ; it is by great exertions only that a people can be welL
fupplied, and for want of fuch exertions, many nations are
forced to content themfelves with fuch meat as others would
not touch. Look at a fample of French and Swifs wheat,
no difference is found ; but examine the cows of SwifR-r-
land and Lorraine, what a difference ! Compare the mares
of Flanders with the ponies of Bretagne, the (heep of
England and of Fr-ince : nay, let us come nearer hom.e, and
reflect on the wool in competition ; examine the fleeces of
Segovia and of Italy, in the fame parallel of latitude."'
And it is added liiat, " next to the cultivation of wafte lands
(which by the way much depends on the weJl ordering of
live-llock), this, it is conceived, is the greatell defidcratum
in the agriculture of Britain.".

And it has been remarked by the author of " Praftical
Agriculture,'' that there is fcarcely any brinch cf huibaudry
that is of more confequence to the farmer, or which, of late,
has been more attended to and improved. He fuppofes, in-
deed, that it might calily be imagined that, as the means of
lupporting doinellic animals became more perfe£lly kiiowi;,
and more extenfively provided, great and beneficial changes
would take place in the nature, form, and other properties of
the animals that were to be kept for the purpofes of the far-
mer, and confequently advantages to be derived both in the
amelioration of the land and ihe improvement of tSe live-
llock, which it fupportcd. It is alfo conceived, that the
greatly increafed demand for this fcit of (lock, either for
the purpofes of food or hibour, may have likewife had much
effect in promoting and forwarding their improvement ; but
that, thoutjh much has lately been aeconiphflied in this de-
partment of rural economy, much llil! vernams to Le done,
which may in fome meafure be cfFeiled by the judicious com-
bination of proper improved breeds of animals of different
kinds, with the various improvements in the cultivation and
management of herbage or other forts of green food by
which they are to be fupported.

Mr. Middleton hkewife contends that, where it is intend,
ed '"to attempt any coufiJerable improvement in the ra'ure
of the live-llock of alarm, care flionld be previo.iOy taken
that there is a fufScient degree of (heller, fhade, and warmth,
as well as a high degree of ferti'ity of the land, and a fuii-

able

L I Y

L I tr

aBIe ft'ate of drainage, as it is only by the richnsfs and
abiiTidance of food that fuch changes can be effefted in the
rm!l advivitageous way, or the ftock be bn:^g'ht t(* any hi ^h
djjjree of pcne£tion.'' The ciixumllances which are to be
;.ioie particuhirly confidored, in undertaking improvL-ments
in the nature of hvo-ftock, cfpecially in wliat relates to them-
f<.lve"=, arc thofc of the f.iape, the fiz;, the difpofition, the
hardmcfs, the arriving quickly at maturity, the peculiar na-
ture of the flelh, the property of fattening with expedition,
the affording milk in furacier.t plenty, the quality of the
hide, the fitnefs for performing labour, and the [)articular
quality or nature of the breed, of whatever fort of animal
it may be. All of which are particuiar'y confidercdin eif-
plaiiiing the nature and raeihods of management that are the
inoft proper to be adopted in breeding, rearing, and bring-
ing to r.ei^edtion diiTerent forts of animals of the domelUc
kind for the nfes of the f.irmer. See Bueeding.

In refpcft to the introduction of all forts of live-dock
upon a farm, the cultivator (hould conilantly and carefully
confider the nature and extent of his keep, or the means
■which he has of providing them with proper fupplies of
proper kind of food, as on this, the fize and other proper-
ties ef the animals mull in a great meafurc depend. The
idea of good keep is conftantly neceiTary to be kept in
view, as without it, little can be t-ilefted in this part of
htiibandry. It h:is been forcibly remarked by the writer of
the Staffordfhire Agricultural Report ; that " all good
Rock muit be both bred with attention and well fed; and
that it is neceffary, that thcfe two eiJentials in this fpecics of
improvement fliould always accompany each o:her; for
without good refourccs for keeping it would be in vain to
attempt fnpporting a capital ftock, and with fnch refources,
it would be abfurd not to aim at a breed fowewhat de-
cent in quality." Tins fort of improvement mull, how-
ever, be much regulated by the ci.-cumllances of the farmer,
and be often only gradually edecled on account cf the want
of money for the purjsofe of making a more full change in
the ftock of the farm.

In the Agricultural Report for Perth, it is ftated,
that, " there is one circumftanee, relative to the introduc-
tion of all new breeds, whieh mnft not be paiTed over in
Glence, becaufe no farmer can negleft it without a certain
L)fs. Every kind of pailure is litted to raife animals to a
particular lize. When bealls of a larger fize are brought in,
than the quality of the food is ca'culated to fupport, thefe
animals, whether cows, or horfesj or (heep, or any other
kind, will degenerate apace, and never prove ufeful, until
they come down to that llaudard or fize adapted to their
fituation and fuited to their food." And that, " on the
other hand, when a fnialler breed than ordinary is brought
in, they continue to increafe in bulk, until they come up to
the pitch which is fuited to their nourifiiment. But there
is.tkis rem;;rkable difference betwixt thefe two progrelBons,
in refpeS to profit, that i i the retr Jgrade progrefs, when
animals are brought from rich pafture^and a comfortable
iltuation to the reverfe, thev are in every inftance worfe
than the indigenous breed ; whereao the animals, which are
brought from worfe to better, continue to improve, till
they arrive at that perfeftion, which the change in their
fituatiim is calculjied to produce. Tiicfe caufes may not
immediately have tlicir full eflecl ; but in a few years they
certainly and evidently will. He makes, for this reafon, a
much fafer experiment, who brings cattle from worfe to
better, ihan he who brings them from better to worfe.
Tliis reafoniiiff applies to all plants, as well as animals.
Highland cattle rife to a great fize, not only by the keep-
ing iu South Britain, but in rich pallures at ho.ne.'' And

he adds, tliat it is " in vain to attempt to improve a breed
of animals beyond the circumflances of the country as to
climate and pailure ; while, at the fame time, it is no eafy
matter to difcern, without proper trials, how far thefe clr-
cumtlances can fupport a better llock. Kere is great room,
he fuppofes, for the ingenious to cxercife their judgment
in improving the breeds of different animals. One fpccies
has evidently dcgejierated in this country, by a change m
their fituation to the worfe. The red or foreft-deer i.- but
a puny animal in comparifon of thofe of former times.
This will be apparent to any perfon, wlio compares the
horns of a deer that is killed at prefent to thofe of the
fame fpecies, which arc iu different places dug out of the
moffes:. The caufe is obvious." It is therefore conceived,
that " the improvf^ment of the foil ought to go hand iu
liand with the in'roduftion of a larger breed of cattle : and
a large breed ought, for the fame reafon, to be introduced,
in that degree, in which the flyle of agriculture is im-
proved.''

Ill fupport of this, Mr. Middleton, in the Agricultural
Report of Middlefex ttates, that " the richeft grazing land,
and the moll nourifhing artificial food, will certainlv pay
more in feeding large bu'locks, (heep. ar.d fwine, than it
would do in feeding the fmaller fizes of the fame fpecies,"
and that " it is crpially obvious that the fmaller breeds will',
anfwer better on the poor pafture than the large.''

Further, the particular qualities which the farmer has in
contemplation, islikewile a point which muft be attended to
in fixing upon breeds of domellic animals for particular
farms. Confidering the various breeds of domellic animals,
as the machines by which the farmer is enabled to fend his
herbage and other forts of food to market, Mr. Donaldfon
thinks he ought, by the lludy of every proper mean, to
advance their improvement, in refpeft to form as well as the
difpofition to fatten, that the produce of his farm maybe-
difpofed of in th- mod advanta.:eous manner ; and that be-
fides the benefit he would derive individually, from their
being thus rendered lefs tedious in the procefs of fattening,
and lefs produitive of offal, the community would gain vait
advantage in .the great increafe of animal food.

As foon as proper forts of live-dock have been introduced
according to the particular circumftances of the land,, the
farmtr fliould be extremely careful in the management of
them, whether they be of the catt'e, flieep, or other kinds, iac
the providing them vi'ith due and full fupplies of food, -
whether in the changes of padui-e during the fummer fea-
fon, or in that of other forts in the winter; fo as to keep
them condantly in a proper thriving condition ; in affording
them fyitable degrees of (helter and warmth, and in having
them properly littered down, when confined to the yards or
ilalls ; and under all circumflances well fupplied with good
water ; as all thefe have much cffeCl in promoting the i.m-
provement of the ftock. and, of courfe, that of the advantage
ot the farm.'r : different methods are purfucd in different
didriils, with this view, in animals of different kinds, which
will be particularly noticed under the heads to which they
belong. See Cattle, Sueep, Horse, Sivise, &c.

In many parti of the ifland, great advances have been .
made to a more perfeft flate in the nature of different forts of,
live-dock, by feletliiig and employing the bell and mod per-
feftly formed animals, both ma'e and female, but cfpecially
the former, as llock to breed from ; and in the midland, as
well as fome other counties, vaft advantage has been gained '
in the fame view, by the pradlice of the large and more opu-
lent breeders and graziers letting their fuperior male ftock
of different kinds of animals ; and it would probably llill
further promote this material objeft, if the more cxtenfive ■

proprieters

L I V

I. T V

•proprietors of lands were attentive to tli? circuniftauce, by
-citiier providing fuch male (lock thcmlelvc?, or enabling
their tenants cfTeftually to do it, where tlu-ir fituations ren-
der it inipofTible. By fome well concerted plan of this na-
•tiire, a great and general charge, fo as to render the differ-
ent forts of domcltic animals much more perfeft than they
are at prefoit, as well as better adapted to their fituatior.s,
might be effected. But without fome fort of aid of this
kind it does not feem probable, from the great expence at-
tending the biifinefs, that any general improvement of them
can take place, though it may be carried to a confiderable
extent in particular cafes and circumilances.

LI'VKNSK, in Geo^^r.npky, a town of Rnflia, in the go-
«vernment of \''oronez ; 36 miles W.S.W. of Vorojiez. N.
>lat. jTS'. E. long. 38 14'.

I>IVER, in Anatomy and Pkyfw'logy, is the largeft gland
in the body, and performs the iecretion of the bile. That
fluid is conveyed from the liver by its excretory duc^,
called the Iicpatic ; which fometimes tranfmits it to the
duodenum, and fomelimes, through a fecond tube called
the cyllic duft, into the membranous bag connefted to
the liver, and named the gallbladder. The anatomical
(lefcription of thefe organs, and the explanation of their
.funftioiis are, the objedts of this article.

The liver is a fingle organ, like the others of the organic
'life, not fymmetrical in its figure, yet tolerably conftant in
its peculiar fliape ; occupying the upper part of the cavity
of the abdomen, whei-e it is plar-d obliqi'.ely from right
to left, tiie thickeft portion filling up the right hypochon-
drium, or fpace included by the falfe ribs of the right
iidc, and the thinner part extending acrofs the middle of
the body in the epigaftric regio'i to the left hypochondrium.
it is more deeply covered by the ribs in the male than in
.the female fex. In general it is fma'ler in proportion as the
individual is more healthy -. it generally becomes enlarged in
.iize when difeafed.

• It is lituated immediately under the diaphragm, of which
the tendon intervenes between it and the pericardium ; and
above the ftomach, arch of the colon, duodenum, little
omentum, gall bladder, and right kidney. Behind, it lies
againft the vertebral column, the crura of the diaphragm,
the oefophagus, the aorta and the inferior vena cava : and it
is bounded in front by the cartilaginous edge of the cheif.
The right falfe ribs are on its right, and the fpleen on its
•ieft.

The preffure of the fiirrounding organs juft enumerated,
the connedlron which the inferior vena cava has to it, but
more particularly certain folds of peritoneum, called its li-
gaments, retain it in its fituation, leaving it however a con-
Jiderable power of changing its relative pofitiwn. Anato-
mills enumerate four or five ligaments, all of which conneft
the liver to the furface of the diaphragm ; but they feem to
be merely fo many parts of one and the fame prodnftion.
From the middle of the diaphragm, beginning at the apex
-of the enfiform cartilage, and extending bjckwards with a
■■little obliquity to the right, and from the aponeurolis of
,the tranfverfus abdominis, almolt as low as the navel, a fold
<sf peritoneum, confuting of two laminre, a right and left,
paftes to the convex furface of the liver, and is attached
to it from the fofla umbilicalis to the notch that receives
the vena cava. This, which is called the ligamentum la-
tum, or fufpenforiiim liepatis, is narrow below and in front,
grows broader in the middle, where it arrives at the dia-
phra;;m, and then becomes again very narrow behind : it
pofTeifes in fad a falciform fhape, the convex margin being
turned upwards, the co!icave downwards, and the apex
backwards. Tlie frijiit aad lower edge of the hgament is

thick and roundci^, and contains the reinains of the nmbi-
lical vein of the firtus, furrounded by more or lefs fat ;
this part, which is implanted in the front no'.tli of the
liver, is called the ligamentum teres hepatis. The two
fides of the ligament confill of broad and fniooth furfaccs ;
of which one is turned forv^'ards and in contsft with the
parietcs of the abdomen below, and the diaphragm above ;
the other, turned backwards, lies againll the liver above and
the abdominal vil'cera below. Befides the iimbiliuil vein,
the two layers of this ligament include feveral lymphatic
trunks proceeding from the liver to the cheft. Its laminx
are continuous on one fide with the peritoneum lining the
abdominal cavity, and on the other with the external peri-
toneal covering of the liver. Its functions feem rather
connefted with the tranfmiihon of the umbilical ^vein, than
with any confinement of the liver to a particular fituation :
for all the broad anterior portion is fo loofe, that it does
not at all limit the motiois of the organ : where it is nar-
rower, it may perform this office. It will confine the liver
principally in its lateral motions. It is laid to have been
foraetimes deficient ; but the obfervation ajjpears doubtful.

The two laminx compofiiig the broad li..;aiKent feparate
from each other towards the polKrior part of the organ,
and, as they proceed towards the right and left fides, take
the names of right and left or lateral ligaments of the liver.
Thefe conneft the relpetlive lobes to the diaphragm ; they
have a triangular form ; one fide is loofe, one connctVed to
the liver, and the third to the diaphragm. They confilt,
like the broad ligament, of two layers of peritoneum, in-
cluding a fmall quantity of cellular fubllance, and fome
lymphatic veficls. The left is commonly rather larger than
the right.

The coronary ligament of the liver is a broad adhcfion
between the poiterior part of the organ and the furface of
the diaphragm : the two parts are united by a clofe cellular
tifTue through a furface of confiderable extent. The bound-
aries of this union are formed by a very fhort reflexion of
peritoneum, by the brv.-ad ligament in front, and by the
lateral ligaments at the fides. The nature of the connexion
between the liver and dia]>iiragm, will be beil underftoo<l by
obferving the furface of the former after it has been removed
from its fituation. We then fee the two laminse of the
broad ligament ft-'/arating from each other behind, and de-
p;.rtirig towards each fide to form the lateral ligaments,
which are aljb connedied in a llraight line along the back
edge of the liver. The broad fpace, included between all
thefe parts, and forming a furface of adhefion between the
liver and diaphragm, is the coronary ligament. This con-
neftion acts very powerfully in maintaining the organ in its
proper pofition, and preventing it from moving loofely in
the abdomen.

We fliould alfo enumerate, among the conncdlions of the
liver, a portion of peritoneum pafiing from it to the right
kidney ; and the little omentum which joins it to the llo-
mach. (See Epii'LOOx.) It mull be remembered, that the
connexions jull enumerated do not fupport tiie weight of the
liver in the living fubjec^, as they appear to do after death,
when t!ie abdomen has been laid open. In that cafe the
liver finks downwards from the diaphragm, becomes fepa-
ratcd from it by a confiderable interval, and is fupported iit
a great meafure by the broad ligament. During life the
furrounding oigans maintain the liver in its place, and thefe
are all fupported and held in their relpeftive .fituations by
the adtion of the refpiratory niulcles. Hence the organ is
liable to changes of pofition according as ihele parts are
moved, and it may be very varioufly atfefted in this way, at
the« are fo many organs m contatt with iL Whenever \h«

dia^whragm

LIVER.

diaphragm defcend?, tiic liver is carried downwards ; and it The fupcrior or convex fiirface, is convex, and adapted

moves ill the contrary direclion again when this mufcle pafles every where to the hollow of the diaphragm, to which it is

towards the chell. In the latter Rate, the thin edge of the contiguous throughout, except at the back part, in the fi-

liver is completely covered by the margin of the cheft : tuation of the coronary ligament, where it adheres firmly

hence, when we widi to p.refs on the liver, we direft the to the organ. The convexity is much greater behind and

patient to infpire ftrongly, tliat its edge may be thrull below towards tlie right, than in front and on ihe left. Its par-

the ribs. EfFufion into the chell drives downwards both the ticular direftioii is fuch, that on the left it is tUrned upwards'

diaphragm and liver: dropfy, pregnancy, or any other fwell- and rath;'r forwards; in the middle upwards and rather

ings in the abdomen, purti them up towards the cheft. more forwards ; and on tlie right, backwards, upwards

When the ftomach and intcllines are empty, the liver and outwards. It is divided into two parts, called lobes,

defcends : in the oppoiite llate of thefe parts it is puHied by the broad ligament ; the right divifion, which is verv

upwards : hence the defcent of the diaphragm is performed much the largeft, forms the right or great lobe ; and the

Icfs eafiiy after a full meal. In any erect polture of the left the left or fniall lobe.

trunk, the liver defcends about two finger's breadths, and The inferior or concave furface is a little inclined back-
is higher in about the fame proportion in the recumbent pof- wards,' rather lefs extenfive than the preceding, and (lightlv
ture. Wken we He on the right fide, the liver is fuoported and unequally concave. It exhibits eminences and de-
in the concavity of the correfponding falfe ribs, and prefles prelTions, arifing apparently from the relations of the organ
on none of the furrounding organs ; hence we commonly to the furrouiiding parts, and deep notches giving paflage
fleep in that attitude. In lying on the other fide, the to blood-vcflels, which, as in all important vifcera, are
weight of the liver comes upon the ftomach, which pro- formed in the moft concealed iltuation about the organ,
duces unpleafant feelings after a meal. Be'ides thefe changes The following are t'.ie objects which this furface prcfents
of pofition, which may happen generally in any fubjects, in fucccflion from left to right. In their figure and arrann-e-
there are others of a more peculiar and individual nature, ment they are fubject to fuch numerous varieties, that

ariling from different uze of the organ, greater or lets con-
cavity of the diaphragm. Sec. However the pofition may
be altered, the relations to furrounding parts are the fame.

The volume of the organ varies according to age, reji-
men, and difeafe. The former varieties will be confidered in
fpeaking of its developement. In general, it is the largell

hardly any two livers agree together in this refpecl.

1. A broad fuperficial deprefTion correfponding to the
fuperior furface of the llomach, and belonging to the left
lobe.

2. The horizontal fiftiire or longitudinal groove (foffa
umbilicalis or longitudinalis, or iiniltra) divides all the in-

and heavieft vifciis in the abdomen. It has been obfervcd ferior furiace from before backward?, from the anterior edge
to be largeft in thofe who lead an iiiaftive life, and who in- to the left fide of the palfage of the inferior vena cava,
dulge in the pleafures of the table : the ancient epicures and thus marks the feparation of the right and left lobes on
ufed to produce an inordinate growth of the liver in geefe their furface. The fides are fometimes partially united bv
by particular diet and management. But the moft remark- a fmall portion of liver, fo as to form a canal. Its anterior
able variations in the fize of the liver are thofe which occur part lodges the umbilical vein, and the pofterior narrower
in chronic difeafes : fometimes it is diminilhed and very portion (toffa ductiim venofi) contains the canalis venofus,
manifertly indurated ; much more frequently it is enlarged, which, like that vein, is changed in the adult into a kind of
foxetimes fo much as to weigh ten or twelve or even more ligament.

pounds. When it increafes in this way, it ufually takes up 3. The great tranfverfe fiffure (foffa tranfverfa, or vena
a proportionally greater room in the abdomen. Boyer, portarum,) is placed nearer to the potlerior than to the an-
however, faw it weighing eleven pounds, without having terior edge, and runs from right to left in the direttion of
paifed beyond the edge of the cheft : it had driven the dia- the great diameter of the inferior furface, of which it occu-
phragm upwards, alnioll to the firft rib, and had reduced pies about the middle third portion. It interfefts the hori-
the right lung to a very fmall voUinie. The fubjeCt was ex- zontal filTure at right angles. Its depth is confiderablc,
ceedingly fat. (Traitc d'Anatomie, torn. iv. p. 393.) The particularly in the middle, and it is never covered by thofe
ordinary weight of the liver in a liealthy adult is about three tranfverfe bridge-like portions, which have been mentioned^
pounds : Soemmerring fays it may vary from two to five in the former fifl'ure. It is occupied bv tlie trunk and firll'
poHnds. Its fpecific gravity is to that of water as 15203 divifion of the vena portarum, by the primary ramifications
to 1 0000. of the hepatic artery, and by the biliary tabes, which unite

The colour is a brownifti-red, often inclining towards at their departure from the liver into a fingle duft. The
yellow. It is infltienced very confiderably by the quantity lymphatics and nerves of the liver are fc'cn alfo in this fitua-
of blocd in the veffels, and conlequently is different in dif- tion. Thefe parts are aii united, by a tolerably clofe cellular
■fcrent modes of death. The organ is very pale in death tiflue.

from hemorrhage, and of a deep colour in cales where its 4. Two eminences, fometimes called porta:, of which
venous fyilein is much dillended. Its deviations from the one is placed before and the other behind the middle of t!ie
brovvn-red, which conlHtutes the proper liver colour, are great trrinfvcrfe fiffure. The former (lobulus quadratus or
generally into lighter and particularly yellow, tints. The anonyn-.us) is broad and llightly elevated, refembles a m'>re
edges and i^.ferior furface are often quite livid. The colour or lefs regular parallelogram, and varies in fize, according
on tlie whole is clearer the younger the individual. as the gall-bladder and tranfverfe fiflure, which bound it.

The figure of the liver i> fo irregular, that it is not eafy are more or lefs approximated. It extends even to the front
to delcribe it with clearnefs : we may ftate generally th;it edge, and feparater, the anterior half of the horizontal fiffure
it is thick towards the right and back part, thin towards from the gall-bladder. The other eminence has been called
the left and front, flattened from above downwards, and the fmall lobe of the liver, (lobulus Spigehi or papillatus. )
elongated rather obhqucly from the right and below, to- It is fometimes triangular and fometimes quadrilateral in its
■wards the left and upwards. We dilUnguilh in it a fuperior figure. It is more prominent than the preceding, and placed at
and inferior furface, an anterior and a poftcrior edge, a right the pofterior edge of the hver, under the trunk of the vena
and a left extremity. portarum. It is fingle in this fituation, and rells on the \er-

tebra-.

LIVER.

vbrx, l)ct\vecn the vena cava ant! afophagns ; thence it
afcends towards the front o'.i the iiifcrior furfaccof the liver,
and is immediately divided into two otiier fmalf eminence?.
One of thefe is I'lipcrior and poftcrior (l(;buhis caudatus),
connects the fmall lobe to the rell. of the liver, and palTos
obliquely towards the right, f.;parating the vena portarum
from the vena cava. It then becomes broader, and forms a
(liort fuperiicial groove, coatiKUOus wiih the riglit extremity
of the trunfverfo fiiTiire, and on which the vena portanmi
reds as it enters that lifl'i!re. Tlie other eminence is more
conliderable, and forms a kind of obtnfe papilla directed
forwards and downwards : this is the part properly calLd
lobiiliis Spigelii. Separated from the reft of the liver in
front by the tranfvcrfo lifiiire, behind by the vena cava, on
the left by tlie horizontal filTu-e, ar.d the canalis venofus
contained in it, on the ri^ht by the vena portarum before its
entrance into th • tranfverfe filT.re, tjiis eminence appears to
be coniie£led to the org^n only by the kind of root \:Ht
defcribed, and which palTes uiidcr the Tight lobes, between
the vena cava and vena portarum. But behind it is fartiitr
connedled by a fmall elonga ion, formed fometimes by the
fubftance of the liver, fometimes by a fold ot pcri'ont-um,
which ferves to complete a very fhcrt canal traverfed by the
vena cava. This lobulus Spigelii is placed between the two
orifices of the llomacli: it correfponds below to the panerca",
above to the right and left lobes ; in front of it is the li'.tle
om.entum.

5. In the right lobe, in the front cf the right cx'remity
of the tranfverfe fiffure, and on the right of the lobulus
quadratus, appears the excavation that lodj^es the gall-
bladder. Tiiis is of an oval fignre, fuperfjcial, more or
lefs dil'ant from the longitudinal liflure, not covered by pe-
ritoneum, and lined only by the proper meirbrane of the
liver, and by cellular tiliue, which connetls it (Irongly to
the gall-bladder.

6. Two Ihll more fuperiicial excavations are found q\iite
to the Tig'ht. Th" aiit'.rior correfponds to the hepatic
flexure of the colon, and the potteriwr to the right kidney
and renal -cap file.

The aiTterior or thin edge of the liver is thin, ai^d inclined
downwards. In the natural fituation of the organ it corre-
fponds nearly to the level of the balls of tlve ehcft, being
fometimes a little above, but feldom. below it. Its direction
may be eafily conceived from the general defcription we
have given of the organ. It is turned ahnoft diredtiy down-
vards on the right, ar.d becomes more direftly anterior to-
wards the left. A notch is always feen in it towards the
left, and forms the commencement of the horizontal fiflure :
to the right of this there is a broader fuperiicial excavation
accommodated to ihe fundus of tho gall-bladder.

The pollerior or thick margin is inclined upwards, not
fo long as the anterior, very thick on the right, and grows
gradually thraner towards the left. Its middle is clofely
connefted to the diaphragm by the coronary ligament ; and
the extremities are more loofely attached to the fim.e organ
by the lateral' ligaments. Two excavations may be oblerved
on this edge : a very deep and narrow one at the poflerior
edge of the horizontal liflure, between the great lobe and
the lobulus Spigelii, for the pafiiigc of the inferior vena
cava ; in this the orifices of the hepatic veins are feen. It
is very (lightly oblique from the left and below to the riglit
and upwards, and covers about three-fourths of the' cir-
cumference of the vein, fometimes indeed the whole of it,
forming a complete canal in the fubftance of the liver.' The
fecond hollow, much broader and more fuperiicial, formed in
the left lobe, correfponds to the vertebral column, the aorta,
a.id oefophagus.

The right cxtre.-.iity of the liver is fitu.ited much lower
than the left, and is the moft bulky part of the organ. The
left is Very thin, extends more or kfs into the left hypo-
chondrium, reaching above tlie fpleen in iome lubjects.

Organifili'jii of //'■■ liver. — This is very complicated ; bc-
fides its peculiar tiffue or parenchyma, the nature of whicii
is perhaps more oblcure than that of other glands, it re-
ceives a larger number of veffels. The greater part of the
blood, brought from the placenta to the fa-tus by the urn-
bilical vein, circulates throu.;h this organ; in the adult
we find only fome impervious traces of this vclfel. A pe-
culiar venous fyllem, that of the vena portarum, is at all
ages entirely diftributed in the liver. To thefe two orders
©f vefTels, wh'ch are not found in other fituation?, we niuil
add the ramifications of the hepatic anery and veins, the
nerves, which are fmall for the organ, the lymphatic icdelf,
the excretory tubes, and the j/eculiar til'ue luciolcd by a
double membrane ; all of which mull be lep.ira'.ely con-
fidcred.

Of the umbilical vfenous fyflem, which is fo remarkable
in the ioerus, nothing mote can he difucrned in the adult
than the fibrcus remains cf 'he umbilical vein and tannlis ve-
ni fus in the hori-zoiitul tffure of the hver.

The general arrangement and the organifa'ion of the
vena portarum are defcribed in the article Heart, under the
head of Abdoir.hwl f\Jl(m of black blood. We h.'.ve to add here
only a few details belonging to their defcri; tion.

1 . A numberof veins varying from three or four to feven or
eight, cf co!:fiderable fizc, come out of the fpleen, and run
torinouily in the fold ef peritoneum, which fixes that organ ti>
the ftcm.acli. After a Ihort courfe, in which they receive
branches from the latter, ihey unite near the pancieas into
a (ing'e trunk, called the fplcnic vein.

2. The pancreas produces a confiderable number of fmall
irregular Vranches, joining indifferently cither of the prin-
cipal trunks of the vena portarum, but more particularly the
fplenic vein.

3. Five orders cf venous branches come from the ftomach,
and end either in the trunk or in ih.e large branches, which
make up the vena portarum. i. Several go from the great
extremity to the conftitucnt branches, or to the trunk of the
fplcnic vein. 2. The pyloric vein, belonging to the fmall
curvature, opens into the trunk of the vena portarum.
J The fuperior gaftric or coronary ftomachic vein, follow,
ing the artery ot the fame name, joins the fplenic trur.k.
4, J. The right and left inferior gaftric veins run along the
great curvature, and join relpectively the trunk of the vena
portarum, and the Iplenic vein.

ii-. The duodenal veii:s join either the right inferior gat-
trie, the fuperior melenteric, or vena pcrlarum.

5. The veins of the fmall inteftine an.iilomofe, like the
arteries, and form a moll exterffive net-woik between the
two lamina? of the mefentery. The communications becom.e
fewer and the trunks larger, in proportion as they are m.ore
dillant from the inteftine : they form atlaft i^ or 20 veins,
which join fucceflively the large trunk of the fuperior
mefenteric vein accompanying the artery of the fame
nam.e.

6. The veins of tlie ca:cum, right portion of the colon,
and right fide of the arch, loUow the courfe of the arteries,
and end, under the nan;es of ileo-caecal, right cohc, a.od
m.iddle colic, in the trunk of the fuperior mefenteric.

7. The vcii.s, which return the blood from the left fide
of the arch of the colon, from the defcending colon, the
figmoid flexure andreflum, form as many principal branches
as there are chief divifions of the inferior mefenteric artery ;
a large trunk, accompanying that artery, is farmed by their

% uaioa.

- LIVER.

\mion, and is called the inferior mefenteric vein. From
the redlunv, of which the veins are often called the hemor-
rhoidal, the inferior mefenteric trunk afcetids parallel to the
in'eftine, goes behind the tranfverfe mefocolon, and termi-
nates behind the pancreas, at a right angle, in the fpicnic
,*Ein. This vein is very fmall at its origin, where it anaf-
tomofes with thofe of the hypogaftric plexus : it grows
larger as it afcends, and is nearly equal in diameter to the
fiiperior mefenteric vein at its termination.

Thus we obferve, that there are two principal trunks
forming the vena portarum, and receiving nearly all the veins
of the organs, from which this peculiar venous fyftem de-
rives its origin ; thefe are the fuperior mefenteric and the
fplenic ; fome branches, however, direftly join the trunk.
The fplenic, formed in the manner already fpecified, is not
tortuous like the artery, runs in company with, but below
j', along the upper edge of the pancreas, in an horizontal
direction from left to right. In front of the vertebral
column it ends, at nearly a right angle, in the vena por-
tarum. In this ccurfe it receives veins from the great
end of the ftonach, the left inferior gailric vein, the inferior
mefenteric, the fuperior gaftric, and feveral pancreatic veins.
The fuperior mefenteric vein, in the greateil part of its
Courfe, accompanies the artery of the fame name, being
placed 'to the right, and a little in front of it. It arifes
where the artery ends, that is, near the csecum and the right
fide of the colon ; it afcends, following the fame courfe with
the artery, between the two layers of the mcientery, and
becomes larger as it receives new branches. At the pof-
terior edge of the mefocolon it goes behind the pancreas,
and joins at a fomewhat obtufe angle the fplenic vein, to
form the trunk of the vena portarum, or the ventral or ab-
dominal vena p., as it is fometimes called, to diltinguifh it
from that end which ramifies in tlie liver, and which is called
the hepatic vena p. In this fituation it is more than an inch
<3iftant from the end of the inferior mefenteric vein. It re-
ceives, on the concave fide of its curve, the three veins from
the right portion of the large inteftine ; on the convex or
left Gd" the numerous veins of the fmall inteftine. Several
duodenal and pancreatic veins join it where it paffes between
the duodenum and pancreas.

The trunk of the vena portarum, the diameter of which
is much lefs than the united diameters of the two preceding
veins, goes obliquely upwards to the right, and a little
backwards, and palfes through a fpace of about four or
five inches in the adult, from the vertebral column to the
great tranfverfe fiffure of the liver. At firft it is fituated
behind the right extremity of the pancreas, and the fecond
portion of the duodenum ; it then forms a part of the faf-
cicul'.is of biliary veffels contained in the capfula Gliffoni
(fee Epiploon), where the biliary dufts and the hepatic
artery cover it in front. Like the lail mentioned parts, it
is furrounded by numerous nerves, lymphatic veflels and
glands ; and thefe organs are all connected by a tolerably
denfe atul copious cellular tifTiie. When the trunk has ar-
rired at the notch of the liver, it is bifurcated, and each
branch forms with it nearly a right angle ; fo that the two
taken together reprefent a horizontal canal lying in the
Rotch of the liver, connefted ciofcly on each fide to the
correfpondirig divifions of the hepatic artery, and having
the trunk of the vena portarum opening perpendicularly
into its middle. This canal, fometimes called by auatomills
the fi;ius of the vena portarum, does not immediately touch
the fubilince of the liver; a thick layer of denfe cellular
tiffue feparates it, and is continuous with the general ex-
ternal covering of the divifions of the vein in the organ.
The right branch, fhorter, but much larger than the left.
Vol. XXI.

enters the great lobe by the corrcfponding extremity of the
tranfverfe notch, and divides into an uncertain number of
branches. The other pafies horizontally towards the left,
as far as the notch containing the umbilical vein, of which
the remaining fibrous cord is firmly attached to it, and fpliti
into branches diftributed through the left lobe. The pri-
mary and fecondary divilions generally piirfue a horizontal
conrfe ; they then divide into an infinite number of ramifi-
cations, the dillribution of which we cannot regularlv follow,
and which end at lalt in a capillary fy Hem extending through-
out the fubllance of tlie organ. Each of the ramifications,
which we can ealily trace in the liver, is accempani.d by
a branch of the hepatic artery, by one or more biliary
dutts, fome nervous filaments, and lymphatic veflels. Thele
parts are connefted and furrounded by a fine byer of cel-
lular tiffue, which adlicies clofely to the fubftance of ihc
liver, and is often defcnbed by the name of capfule of
Gliffon ; it feems to infulate the parts which it funounds,
as it fepai'ates them from the proper tiffue of the liver. It
has no conneftion with the peritoneum, and the fnppofitions
of its mufculariry and its propelling the b ood by that
power are fupported by no proofs whatever. Boyer re-
gards it as a prolongation of the proper membrane of the
liver, which, he lays, is reflected over all the veflels that
enter or quit the organ. As the parts contained in thefe
capfules are connefted to each other by loofe cellular tilfue,
which enters the liver with them, the orifices of the vena
portarum, on a feftion of the organ, have a loofe plaited
appearance, diftinguirtiing them from thofe of the hepatic
veins, which, as they are intimately connefted to the proper
tiliue of the liver, preferve their circular area, and prefcnt
a much cleaner cut.

The hepatic artery is a branch of the celiac trunk, and
has been deicribed in the article Artery. Its branches
enter at the great notch, and every where accompany the
ramifications of the vena portarum.

The defcription of the hepatic veins is given in the article
Vein*. We have to notice here only the circurallances that
delerve attention, concerning their dittribution in the liver.
They return, to the general venous fyftem, the blood which
is brought into the iivcr both by the hepatic artery and the
vena portarum. They arife, therefore, out of the capillary
fyftem, in which the two orders of veflels, juft named, ter-
minate. They unite fucceflively into larger and larger
branches, which form ultimately three principal and fome
fmaller trunks, opening into the inferior vena cava, juft
under the diaphragm. This proximity to the heart ac-
counts for their being fo often diftended with blood in the
dead body. Befides the direftioii, in which the blood paffes
through them, the hepatic veins are diftinguiflied by two
principal circumftances. Their fides are rather thinner than
thofe of the vena portarum ; and they have n« trace of the
cellular covering, delcnhed above, as belonging to tht
ramifications of the latter vedei, but adhere immediately
to the. tiffue of the liver, fo as to prefent a perfeftly cir
cular area on a lectio.).

The nerves, which are fmall in comparifan to the bulk
of the organ, come chiefly from the plexvs of ca:liac gan-
glia ; but feveral filaments from the eigith pair join thefe.
See Nervi .■

The ly-nphatic vcfTels of the liver are very numerous, in*
fomuch tiiat no other organ feems to be move ahund ntly
fuppHed with them. They are diftingui(hed into two orders,
the fuperficial and the dcep.fea.ed. The former cover the
whole external furiace, and are eafily diftinguilhed hy ihe
contrail of their colour, with that of the tiffue of the liver.
The latter, arifing in the fiibitaiice of tiie organ, foUow
£b the

LIVER.

tl.e ramifiontions oF the vena portanim ami the hepatic
artery. They comnuinicate frequently together, mul end
by numerous trunks in the thoracic duil, after pafling
through ditferent gland?.

Tlie biliary duAs arife in all parts of the liver by capillary
extremities, which are too minute for our molt delicate
means of refearch. Thev unite together, in the manner of
veins, into larger and lartfer trunks, which at lall end in
producing two or three principal ones, quitting the liver
at the tranfverfe notch, and then united into a hngle tube,
of about a line and a half in diameter, called the hepatic
duft.

All the branches of the hepatic duft in the liver, accompany
the divifions of the veiu portarum, and are inclofed with
them in tiic cellular covering already defcribed. They are
^aiily dillinguilhed, on a fedtion, by the yellow tint which
they acquire from the tranfudation of the bile, and the ori-
fices arc then called pori biharii. Indeed, we may eafily dif-
tinguifh, on a cut piece of liver, all the veflels belonging to
it. The yellow colour and greater thickiicls mark the
tiliary tubes ; tlie coats of the arteries arc not quite fo thick,
and not coloured ; the branches ot the vena portarum are
next in order of thicknefs, and are remarkable for their cel-
lular covering ; the hepatic veins are the thinnefl.

Whether the capillary beginnings of the biliarv dndis
come from the acini ot the liver, and concur with the cnpil-
lary blood-vefTels in furmmg thofe acini, is a point which we
reallv cannot determine.

Of the peculiar tiffiie or parenchyma nf the liver. — The fiib-
ftance of the organ is next, in point of denlity, to that of
the kidney ; y«t it yields with tolerable facility to the pref-
fure of the finger.

When we cut into itc fubHance, we obferve the colour
diftinguifted from that of the exterior by a flight yellowilh
tint. It is porous from the groat number of vefiels dillri-
buted through it, and feveral yellow points are dillinguilhed,
vhich are the fniall biliarv tubes. The different orders of
veflels may be recognized by the chara£ters already ex-
f I?'ined ; the veins contain more or lels blood, which may be
eafily fqueezed out. The cut furface is fmooth, and made
up of imall points alternately of a reddith-browii and an
cbfcure yellow. The fubliance of the organ may be eaJily
toi-n ; the furface is then unequal and granular, compofed
indeed entirely of imall granular bodies with every variety of
figure, about the fize of millet feeds, of an obfcure red co-
lour, and foft conliilence. Thefe are the acini of anat^imifts,
and are united together, as well as all the veflels that ramify
in the organ, by a fine cellular tiiTue. Long ccntroverlies
have exiited concerning their nature ; but we have nothmg
to add on this fubjeit to what we have Hated in the article
Gland.

In faft, wc are entirely ignorant of the nature of thefe
fmall bodies, which compote the proper tiffue of the liver,
and we know no more concerning its jiiimite organiiation
than about tliat of other parts. We fee blood-vefftls both
cf the arterial and venous kind, a ptx;uliar order of veins not
found in other organs, lymphatics, excretory tubes, nerves,
fniall foft and reddifh granular bodies, cellular .tifTue to con-
nei£l all thefe together, and common coverings to infulate the
organ ; fuch is the account of our knowledge concerning
the organifation of this part. Chemillry does not difclofe
to us any thing more fatislaiSory ; we know that it is the
flowell of all jjarenchymatous organs in putrefat^ion, after
the kidney; that it lofes much of its weight, and acquires
Something of a fatty nature by drying ; that it is foftened
fcy <.43ullition ; diflbhed in fulphuric acid, which it tinges of
a deep violet colour ; and rendered coriaceous and greyilh in

nitrous acid. But thefe fads do not much illuftrate its or-
ganiiation. We find, lallly, that difeafe produces in its
llruAure changes as numerous as they are diillcult of expla-
nation.

The liver is covered by two membranes, a ferousand a cel-
lular one, which are very difierently arranged.

The external is formed of peritoneum, and covers the
wJiole furface, except tlie pofterior edge, in the fituation rf
the coronary ligament, the excavation fi)r the inferior vena
cava, tliat for the gall-bladder, and the two fifTures of the
inferior furface. It relembies the peritoneum in genc?ral ;
is fmooth and polidicd on the external furface, and connedted
very clolely by the internal to tlie proper membrane of the
liver, except in the lituations already fpecified.

'J'he other membrane, called by ijoemmerring membrana
celluiofa hepatis, lias been moll minntely defcribed by the
French anatomill.-, who aflign the difcovery of it to M.
Laennec. Boyer defcribes it as covering the external fur-
face of the organ, and moreover reflcded over the veflels that
enter it. Its internal furface corrcfponds to the tifiueofthe
liver, to which it adheres very clofely. It fends flieaths over
the veflels ; the mofl confpicuous of thefe is the capfula-
Gliifoni. already defcribed; but the hepatic veflels have one
clofely connected to them and to the furrounding fubliance
of the liver, and the umbilical vein in the fcctus is furnlflica
with a fimilar covering. This proper membrane of the liver
is thin, tranfparent, and of a {lightly yellow tint. It is
flronger than the peritoneum; hardly admits of extcnfion,
and exhibits nothing fibrous in its texture. It may be bell
fliewn in the lituations where it is not covered by peritoneum :
by maicing an incifion, and introducing the handle of a
fcaJpel, it may be eafily feparated from the fubliance of the
orgaiu

If the hepatic artery be injccled, in a healthy liver, with
any fluid kind of injeftion, as fize coloured with vermilion,
iio point can be diicerned in the whole organ, more particu-
larly if the microfcope be employed, in which branches of
this veflel are not vifible- The fame obfervation may be
made concerning the vena portarum, the hepatic veins, and
the hepatic dudt. If the injeclion be pufhed farther, it will
pafsout of one of thefe veflels into the others; that is, it will
pafs from the hepatic artery into the vein of the fame name,
into the vena portarum, and into the biliary duft ; or, -vice
■Dcr/a, from either of thefe into the artery, &c. Injeftions
do not pafs from the artery into the abforbents, unlcfs when
there has been an eifufion into the fubliance of the organ.
It is faid that the abforbents have been filled with liquors
throw'n into the vena portarum ; and that the fame circum-
ftance readily takes place where mercury is introduced into
the hepatic duft.

Thefe fafts concur with the refult of the mofl careful in-
fpeclion, aided even by the microfcope, in proving that there
IS an uninterrupted palfage from one order ot veflels into the
other, and nothing of a cellular or veficular nature inter-
pofed between them.

Of the appai-atus conntdeJ 'with the excretion of the lik The

tube, which we have already defcribed, as being formed by
the union of all the excretory canals in the liver, under the
name of the hepatic duft, paflTes from the gTcat notch of the
liver towards the left, being at the fame time inclined {lightly
downwards and forwards, and is continued to the duodenum,
in which it opens. It runs between the two laminae of the
httle omentum, furrounded by fat and cellular tiffue, which
is generally dyed of a yellow colour by the tranfudation of
the bile. It hes on the anterior edge of this omentum, in
front and rather to the right of the veua portarum, with
wluch it is eitenHveiy in coutaft, and to the riglu of the
5 hepatic

LIVER.

Iiepatic arter\'. Its fize is about that of a large writing
quill, its figure cylindrical, and its length from four to fix
inches. At about an inch or an inch and a half from tlie
liver, we obferve in it the fimple round opening of the cyftic
fludl. From this part to its termination it generally goes
by the name of ductus communis choledochus ; but the
dilbnction is quite an artificial one. • When it arrives tit-ar the
duodenum, it becomes covered by the pancreas, which ad-
heres clofcly to it, and advances along the poiterior and in-
ferior portion of the fecomi flexure of the duodenum. It
penetrates the niufcular coat and that intcilinc, and receives
tiie termination of the pancreatic dutl. Having pafTed ob-
liquely between the raufcnlar and mucous coats, for tlie
fpace of an inch nearly, it penetrates the latter, and opens
into the inteftine by a Imall orifice on OTie of its folds. 1"he
mucous coat of the latter, and the internal furface of the
duel, are here contirmous. When we examine the opening of
the canal, we fee a fmall eminence, nearly of the fi/.e of a
pea, rounded, rather oblong, and divided in the middle ;
thrt^e is no valve, nor anv mufcular fibres arranged like a
fphinfter. The oblique courfe of the canal between tlie in-
teilinal coats prevents the paffage of the contents of the in-
teftine into the du£t, even when the inteftine is the nioft fully
diftended. The du6t is comprefTed whenever the gut is
filled, and more powerfully in proportion as the diftention is
greater. If the duodenum be inflated, and the duCl cut
through, no air efcapes. Ordinarily, too, we cann»t doubt
that the particular fenfibihty of the canal enables it to j-ejeft
matters tliat arc extraneous to it.

Sometimes this duct does not receive the pancreatic. Ob-
fervations are recorded, in which it is faid to have opened
into the ftomach, and clofe to the pylorus ; but their cor-
rcctnefs is doubtful.

The cyftic duft, of which we has'e mentioned the opening
into the Iiepatic, is a fliort canal, leading ft-om the latter tube
into the gall-bladder, and conveying into that receptacle a
portion of the bile, before it goes tO the duodenum.

The gall-blaHd^r. — This bag does not exill in leveral genera
of the mammalia ; it has fometimes, but very rarely, been
deficient in the human fubjecl, without caufing any fenfible
derangement of funftions. Sometimes alfo there have been
two gall-bladders.

It is placed obhquely, under the front of the great lobe of
the hver, in the excavation already defcribed, above the
colon and duodenum, to tke right of the horizontal filfure
and the lobulus quadratus, and in front of the right end of
the trasfverfe notch. Its moft ufual figure is pyriform ;
fometimes it is rather oval, or cylindrical. We remark in
it an external and an internal furface, an anterior extremity
called the fundus, a pofterior named the neck, and a middle
portion or body. The fundus, or large extremity of the gall-
bladder, is direfted forwards, a Httle to the right and down-
wards, and the fmall end backwards, to the left and up-
wards. But the direction varies confiderably according to
the attitude of the body. In the lupine potture the fundus
is higher than the neck ; the contrary is the cafe in lying on
the right fide.

The external furface of the gall-bladder correfponds above
to the excavation in the right lobe of the liver ; this part has
been called the hepatic furface. Here it is not covered by
peritoneum, but adheres immediately to the proper mem-
brane of tlie liver, by means of a copious cellular fubftance,
containing numerous blood-veflels. Sometimes it has been
connected to the liver by a fmall kind of mcfentery, and
covered univerfally by peritoneum. The inferior part is
imooth, covered by peritoneum, and contiguous to the colon

and firft ^rtioti of the duodenum ; it is called the loofe or
abdominal furface.

The anterior extremity, or fundus, turned forwards, down-
wards and to the right Grounded, fmooth, and covered
partially or entirely by peritoneum. It correfponds to an
excavation in the anterior edge of the liver, and protrudes
more or lefs beyond this according to the quantity of bile it
contains. When it is empty, its fundus does not extend be-
yond this edge ; but, in the diftended ftate, it projects from
the liver, and is applied againft the abdominal parietes,' below
tlie middle of the cartilage of the fecond falfe rib.

The neck, or pofterior extremity, which is directed rather
upwards and to the left, is bent upon itfelf, the convexity
of the curve lookiiig upwards, and the" concavity down,
wards. It is terminated by the cyftic duct, which, after a
courfe of about an inch and a half, unites with the hepatic
diict at a very acute angle. The internal furface of the gall-
bladder prefents a deep yellow or greenifti tint, according to
tlie colour of the bile ; indeed, all tliis excretory apparatus is
tinged after death in tlie fame manner, but not fo deeply as
the furface of the gall-bladder. Tiiis effect takes place verv
quickly after death : when the coats of the parts, that imme-
diately contain the bile, are coloured, tlie continuance of the
tranludation affefts all the neighbouring organs to a greater
or lefs dt^gree. This internal furface of the gall-bladder is
extremely irregular ; it is univerfally covered with rifiufj
lines, decuflating each other, and intercepting fmall areola; of
various figures. Thefe are again covered by other more mi-
nute hues, which divide the furface into ve.ry fmall fpaces.
Similar rifing lines, but more elevated, are found towards
the neck ot the gall-bladder, and throughout the cyftic
duft. The whole lurface of thefe parts, in confequence of
this ftrufture, exhibits a very beautiful rugous and cellular
appearance. Befides thefe ruga; of the internal coat, the
neck of the gall-bladder exhibits four or five tranfverfe femi- ■
lunar folds, projecting into the cavity, and formed by du-
plicatures of the mucous coat.

The capacity of the gall-bladder may be eftimated at about
one ounce.

The cyftic dn£t is a contradted continuation of the neck
of the gall-bladder, about equal to a large crow-quill in dia-
meter. It forms at its commencement a remarkable turn, of
which the convexity is towards the livei* and the concavity
dow^nward. From the gall-bladder it firft afcends, then
makes this turn, and afterwards paftes downwards, between
the laminx of the little omentum, parallel and clofe to the
hepatic duct. After a courfe of about an inch and a half it
opens into that duiftat a very acute angle. The cyftic duct
has an irregular knotted appearance on its external furface,
which arifes from numerous femilunar folds, analoo-ous to
thofe at the neck of the gall-bladder, projecting into its ca-
vity, and very much narrowing its dimenfions.

Two coats, a ferous and a mucous, compofe the gall-
bladder. The former, derived from the peritoneum., gives
only a partial covering to the organ. This membrane is
raifed from the hver, at the circumference of ilie Jeprefiioa
lodging the gall-bladder, and covers this vifcus cvjry where,
except at its adhefion to the furface of the hver. It is con-
tinuous below with the fuperior layer of the little omentum.
Tlie peritoneal coat is connected to the mucous by a tolera-
bly thick and uniform layer of cellular liffue, the cellular
coat of forae writers. Some firm and rather fnining threads,
moftly of a longitudinal direttion, are oblerved in this tiffue,
and liave been often con'.idered of a mufcular nature. The
blood-veffels and abforbcnts form a net-work in this cellular
fubftance, which fometimes contains a little fat. The inter.
Bb 2 r.a!,

LIVER.

nal, mucous, or villous coat, as It is fipqviently called, is
eoniieaed below and at the fides to the peritoneal covering ;
above to the proper membrane of the liver. The inner fur-
face prefents the rugx already noticed. It is of confiderable
thicknefs, and has a kind of fporgy texture. During life
it is white ; the tint of the bile never bemg communicated
until after death. Several anatomiils have defcribed mucous
elands and follicles in this membrane ; but tlicy cannot be
fitisfadorily afcertained. Soemmtrring, however, dcfcnbes
glands near the neck as large as millet feeds. On account of
the folds and rugsc of the internal fiirfacc, its extent is much
increafed when the cellulir fubdance is removed from the
cutfide. Afterafuccefsfulinjeftion of thehlood-vefl'els, this
coat appears to confift entirely of a vafcular net-work.

The artery of the gall-bladder is a branch of the hepatic ;
the veins join the vena portarum. The lymphatics, v,fliich
are numerous and large, join tliofe of the inferior furface
of the hver. The nerves come from the hepatic plexus.

Anatomiils formerly admitted the exillence of velTels
palling direftly from the liver into the gall-bladder, under
the name of hepatico-cyllic di.Cts. Such vcffels exill in
birds, but they certainly do not belong to the human fub-
jecl ; the only conneftion between the liver and gall-bladder
being through the medium of the hepatic and cyllic
dudts.

The organifation of the hepatic and cyflic duels is elTen-
tially the fame. They have two coats, an external fibrous
one, and a mucous or internal lining. The former is thick,
denfe, and llrong, and compofed apparently of whitifh lon-
gitudinal fibres, vvhich have nothing mufcular in their ap-
pearance, and the nature of which is not well underilood.
The mucous coat is thin and foft, and prefents in fome parts
the fame areolated texture as on the internal furface of the
gall-bladder : the whole of the cyllic duCl has this peculiar
arrangement, and its internal membrane forms the tranfverfe
folds already mentioned. The hepatic duel, from the liver
to near the point at which it enters the intelline, is frnooth :
it has fome longitudinal folds about its middle, and is reti-
culated near the duodenum.

Thefe dufts poffefs very great extenfibility : they are fomc-
times dilated, by the pafTage of calculi, to the fize of a
thumb. They, as well as the gall-bladder, acl on their
contents by the infenfible organic contraclility, or tonic
power. They are never feen to contrail fenfibly in any ob-
fervations of living animals, nor do the ftimuli, which excite
contraflions in the mufcles, produce the fame effect on
them. Probably the paffage of the food over the orifice of
the dud in the duodenum is the exciting caufe of their aftioils.
Although they are not fenfible in the natural ftate, difeafe
developes this property in them to a remarkable degree.
No pain is more acute than that produced by calculi in thefe
dufts.

Divelsprmcnt of the Fiver. — This organ is difcerned in the
embryo before any of the other vifcera ; and it is propor-
tionaUy larger in the early months of conception, than at any
fjture time. Wrifberg faw it in a foetus of ten weeks fo
lari-e, that it occupied nearly the whole abdomen. Walter
fays that it can be feen at twenty-two days. At thefe periods
it appears to be net much lefs than half the weight of the
body. This great bu!k of the organ does not lad tlirough the
whole of gelliition ; after the fourth month, it does not
proceed fo rapidly in its growth, although it maintains a
remarkable predominance over the other viicera till the time
ef birth. As a general obfervation we may affert, that it is
larger in proportion as the animal is nearer to the time ef its
6rit formation.

During fetal fxidenee, the blood of the umbilical vein
circulates through the liver, on Us way to the heart : but
the whole of this blood is fent to the left lobe. (See the
defcription of the umbilical veiFels in the article Embryo,
and the article CiKCUl.A riox.) Hence that lobe is quite as
large, if not larger, than the right. From this great bulk
of the organ, as well as from the breadth of the bafis of the
chell, and the fmall concavity of the diaphragm, the rel.itiona
of the liver to the furrountling parts are very didi-rcnt from
what we obferve in the adult. It not only fills both hypo-
chondria and the epigallric region, but deiccnds below thet
ribs, as far as the umbilicus, and fills halt the abdomen;
It is placed at this time more perpendicularly in the body, fo
that the convex and concave furlaccs, which are fupcriorand
inferior in the adult, are nearly anterior and pofterior in the
fcEtus. The anterior furface is extenfively in contiift wit!«
the abdominal parietes : the pofterior covers the llomach,
fpleen, and even omentum. Its tidue at this time is foft and
fpongy, and contains a large quantity of blood : the latter
circumltanee gives to the organ a darker colour than it has
in the adult.

We are entirely ignorant of the funfiions performed by
the liver during fetal exillence, of the relation between its fize
and any of the procefics of the animal economy, and whether
any changes are produced in the blood as it paiies through
the organ.

The excretory part of the hepatic fyftcm is not propor-
tioned in its developement to the fize of the liver in the
fostus : for the latter circumllance is conneftcd with the
circulation, and not with the biHary fccretion. The inter-
nal furface of the gall-bladder is at fird Imooth, and dees
not exhibit the areolated (IruClure until the latter months of
gellation. According to ilifierent authors this bag contains
no bile, but merely a reddifh mucus, until the 4th, j'h, or
6th month : its fundus is coir;pletely concealed beluid the
edge of the liver. At the time of birth it is always i'M of
bile ; but the fluid is ftill reddifh and mucou-s and peffefles
but little tafte.

The fudden revolution that oceurs in the circulating fyf-
tem at birth, produces a remarkable change in the liver. The
interception of the blood, which was conveyed to the organ
by the umbilical vein, is followed by a very marked reduftion
in its fize affefting particularly the left lobe. The tiifue of
the organ is rendered more denfe, and its colour acquires a
brighter red tint, or becomes pale. After a certain time
the organ participates in the progrefs of the other parts of the
body. Tlie excretory apparatus undergoes no remarkable
change : it is not fo readily tinged with bile, as at a more ad-
vanced age, probably from fome change in ihe nature and pro-
perties of that fluid. In the old fubjtft the organ fometimes
is reduced in fize, and frequently becomes more ioft. On the
whole, however, after the changes confequent on birth have
been completely efieiled, and the liver has acquired its per-
manent relation to the other organs, very little change takes
place in it.

Thefecret'ionandcourfeofthebile. — That this fluid is fe-
parated in the liver, and conveyed from that organ by the
hepatic du<El, are points fo clear, that they do not require aiiy
exprefs proof. From which order of veflels in the liver this
fecretion takes place, is a queftion not fo cafily anfwered.
Phyfiologilts have generally afcribed this office to the vena
portarum, and have confidered the hepatic artery to be the nu-
trient vefiel cf the organ, as the bronchial arteries are of the
lungs. They give the following reafons for this opinion.
J. The excretory duft is larger than tlie artery, a circum-
ltanee wliich does net occur in any other gland : its fize how*

ever

LIVE R.

wer is fuitatle to that of the vena portariim. 2. The ngree-
Itient of the properties of the bile, particularly its thick oily
ratnre, acrid tafte, and dark colour, with the fiippolcd pe-
culiar nature of the blood returned by the vena portarum.
This blood, it is faid, is brought from very waitn andmoilt
parts, loaded with fatty matter from the omenta mefen-
tery, &c. and with alkaline and acrimonious particles from
the intelllnes, particularly the large ones. Its fuppoied
ftagnation in the cells of the fpleen has been conceived to
impart to it fome further peculiar propei-ties, favourable to
the formation of the bile. 3. Experiments on living animals,
in which the fecretion has been (lopped by tying the vena
portarum, and not interrupted by tying the hepatic artery.
4. The peculiar diftribution of the v<rin, after the manner
of an artery, in the liver, combined with the particular qua-
lities of tlie blood circulating in it. 5'. The artery is larger
in lize in the foetus, in proportion to the greater bulk of the
organ, although the fecretion of bile is very fmall in quan-
tity at a time when digeition has not begun.

As a proof that bile may be fccreted from arterial blood
a faft may be adduced, that occurred to Mr. Abernethy,
and is recorded in the Philofophical Tranfaclions. In a well-
formed and nourifiied cbild, whofe gall-blae-Ider contained
bile, the vena portar-.im terminated in the interior vena cava
near the renal veins.

There are feverat other confiderations tending to weaken
our confidence in the received opinion. Much reliance can-
not be placed on the relative diameters of the artery and
du£l : if the latter be too large for the fornrer, it mull be
regai-ded as too fmall in proportion to the vena portarum.
According to Bichat there is the fame relation between them
as between the renal artery and ureter.

We know of no comparative analyfis of the blood, con-
tained i;i the vena portarum and the hepatic artery, that war-
rants us in afcribing to the former qualities particularly fuited
to the fecretion of bile. Certaiily we do not fee in it thole
properties which are faid to charadlerife it : we do not dif-
cover oily particles in it, and we beHeve the fuppofition of
its imbibing any thing from the excrement to be perfeflly
gratuitous. Indeed Haller exprefsly acknowledges that the
properties, which the blood of the vena portarum mt/Jl necef-
farily acquire in its circulation, cannot be difcovered by che-
mical analyfis, Why is venous blood fo particularly fuited to
the fecretion of an oily fluid? are not fat, the medulla of bones,
and cerumen formed from materials conveyed in the arteries ?
That any thing acquired by the blood in the fp'een cannot
be eiTential, is proved by the faft, that extirpation of that
organ does not injure the hepatic fuiitlions. We do r.ot un-
dariland clearly how the retarded motion of the blood in this
vein (if in reality it be retarded) affids the formation t)f bile ?
Huw happens it that flownefs of motion is more favourable
to this than to any other fecretion ? We cannot reafonably ap-
ply inferences drawn from what takes place in an animal after
fuch a ferious injury as the ligature of the vena portarum or
hepatic artery, to the natural functions of the organ. How
long did the animals live after thefe experiments ? and in what
way were the fafts of the fecretion or non-fecretion of the bile
afcertained ? " Thefe different reflcftions," fays Bichat,
" may convince us, that our proofs ai-e not as yet fufficient to
decide whether the bile U fecreted from arterial or from the
abdominal fyllem of venous blood. I do not attribute the ftmc-
tioa to one rather than to the other : but merely endeavour
to Pnew that a, frelh examination of the queflion js neceffary,
and to prove by this example that the moil generally received
phyiiological opinions, fuch as feem to be placed beyond all
doubt by the concurring affent of the moit celebrated men,
often rell on very uncertain foundations. We arc yet far

from the time when this fcienc; rtiall confift only of a feries
of fatls rigoroufly deduced one from the other." Anatoinie
Generale, torn. i. p. 457.

The great fize of the liver, the number and magnitude of
the parts which compofe its complicated vafcular machi-
nery, its enormous magnitude in the early i\aj,es of fetal
exiftence, and its efpecial connexion with the circulating
organs at that period, all lead us to conclude that it an-
fwers fome other purpofe in the economy befides the fecretion
of the bile. This probability, and the reafons on which it
is grounded, are fo well Hated by Bichat, in his Anatomie
Generale, that we fhall avail ouri'elves of his labours on this
point.

" From fervingas the point of termination for the abdo-
minal fyllem of black blood, as the lungs do for the general
fyllem of the fame defcription, the liver derives a degree of
importance, whicii does not belong to any other fecretory
organ. The difprnportion between the lize ef the organ
and the quantity of fluid it fecretes, has led fome authors
to fulpett that the organ mull have a further office : and
this fulpicion feems to be almoll a certainty. Compare its
excretory tubes and refcrvoir to the analogous parts in the
kidnies, the falivary glands, the p-.mcreas : you will find
them inferior to the firll, and hardly fuperior in fize to the
others. Yet the mafs of the liver at leall equals ail the
other glgnds in the body put together. This great fize of
the organ contrails remarkably with the fmall quantity of
its fecretion : calculate how much is confuraed in colouring
the feces, open the intellines to fee how much they contain
at different times, and you will be convinced that the quantity
of the bile is much lefs than that of the urine, not to mention
the other fecreted fluids, fuch as the faliva, pancreatic liquor,
femen, mucous fluids, &c.

" We are altogether ignorant what the other ufe of the bile
may be. Probably it is connected with the abdominal .
fyllem of black blood. The following confiderations prove
that it mull be a very important one. The organ exifts in
almoll all claffes of animals, even where fome other important
vifcera are very imperfeft. Many of the paffions affed it ;
fome of them have an exclufive eifeft on it. It performs in
difeafe as prominent a part as any of the important vifcera
of the economy. In hypochondria, melancholia, &c. its in-
fluence is very confiderable. We know hov>- eafily its funftions
are diSurbed. If it be unconneiled with many affedlions
called bilious, and which have thfir feat in the ilomach, it is
certainly effentially concerned in the greater part. The yel-
lowifii tint of the face in many of thefe affections mull be
produced by the fame caufe, which, in a higher degree,
produces jaundice. The affeftions of this organ, obferved
after death, are more numerous than thofe of any Smilar part-
It is a matter of common obfervation, that this organ has a
great influence on the temperament. Its predominance
communicates to the external habit of the body, to the
funftions, to the paffions, even to the charafler, a peculiar
tint, which was obferved by the ancients, and the reality of
which has been confirmed by modern obfervatior. Nothing
like this can be obferved of tlic other glands. AVith the
heart and brain this is the part firll formed : its develope*
ment precedes that of all other organs, and is incomparably
fuperior to that of other glands. It has been latterly fup-
poied that the liver aflills the lungs in removing from the
blood hydrogen and carbon. I know not on what proofs
this affertion may reft : but the colour of the fluid is cer-
tainly not affefted by its palTage through the liver : neither
is it altered in confidence, nor in any way that can be recog-
nized by the touch."

CiAtrJe of tie I'lh — There are two kinds of this fluid,

dzfferinsr

LIVER.

differing confidi-rably in their properties, aiid dHlinpuifhed
by tlie names ol" hepatic and cyllic. The former, which is
containi-d in the hepatic duft, and in tlic branches of that
tube dillributed through the liver, approaches in fluidity to
water, is of a bright orange colour, and not bitter : fo far,
indeed, is it from containing any qualities ofienfive to the
tafle, that the livers of animals, which mull always contain
nuich of it, are commonly employed tor food. The latter,
or bile of the gall bladder, is a thick ropy fluid, of a deep
orange brown, or even green tint, and moll intenfely bitter.
Both thefe kinds are fecreted in the liver, and originally
are not different. The gall-bladder receives what it con-
tains through the cyllic duft, and produces in it the changes
jull delcribud while it remains in this rclervoir. A copious
mucous fecretion takes place from its lining, and the aqueous
parts of the bile are removed by the numerous and large
abforbents of the receptacle. The cyllic bile is, therefore,
nothing more than hepatic bile in a concentrated rtate. It
is eafy to prove that the gall-bladdtr can receive bile only
through the cviHc duct : we have already obfcrved, that
the liepatico-cyllic duCls are imaginary ; we may add, that
if the bladder be removed with its contents, the cyftic duel
tied, and ijreiiure then applied to the part in every direftion,
not a panicle of the fluid efcapes. If the /:yllic duft be
obllrutted by a calculus, or obliterated by dil'eafe, no bile
is contained in the gall-bladder, which, on the contrary, is
filled with a colourlefs mucus, if we evacuate the receptacle
in a living animal, and tie its duft, it will be found under
the fame circumllances ; and the cyllic duct, from its open-
ing into the hepatic to the ligature, will be dillended.

The gall-bladder, from the view of its funttions, does not
feem to be a very important organ in the economy. Several
animals, among the mammalia, do not poffefs it, as the horfe,
ftag, elephant. No ill effects have been obferved, where
the cyllic dn£l has been obliterated ; nor where there has
been a natural deficiency of the organ.

That the fluid fecreted in the liver flows in part direftly into
the intelline, would be naturally inferred from obferving the
fize and favourable direftion of the hepatic dutl for this courfe,
and the comparatively unfavourable direction, tortuous courfe,
and fmall diameter of the paffagc leading into the gall-bladdeiv
Thefe circumllances, indeed, would lead us to expeil that the
bile would enter the gall-bladder in very fparing quantity. If
an animal be opened, when the inteilinal functions are not
going on, the hepatic duft, and the duftus choledochus, con-
tain hepatic bile ; the furface of the duodenum and jejunum
is tinged with the fame kind of fluid ; and the gall-bladder
is dillended with cyllic bile, of which the properties are the
more llrongly I'larked in proportion to the length of the
previous abllinence. While the ftomach is e.xerrtng its
action on the food, the fame appearances are exhibited.
When the aliment has paffed into the duodenum, the ductus
choledochus contains dark-coloured cyllic bile, and the gall-
bladder is lefs full. At the end of digcilion, and a little
after, the hepatic and common duels, and the gall-bladder,
all contain a light -coloured bile ; which is obferved alfo in
the duoderuim. The gall-bladder is flaccid. Thefe obfer-
vations arc deduced from experiments made by Bichat, and
recorded in his Anatomic Generale, p. 459. •' They were
repeated,"' fays he, " a great number of times, and fliew
clearly, that the fecretion goes on to a certain amount at all
times, but that this quantity is increafed during digeilion.
The bile furnidied when the action of the intelline is not
going on, is divided between the intelline, which is always
coloured by it, and die gall-bladder, which retains it with-
out pouring out any through the cyllic dudl : while it is
thus retained, it acquires its acrid charailer, deep tint, and

the properties which feem to be required for the pnrpofes of
the digeilion that is to enfue. When the food, after under-
going the aAion of the ilomach, enters the duodenum, all
the hepatic bile flows into the intelline, and even in greater
quantity than before. The gall-bladder at the fame time
pours out its contents. When the aiftion of the intelline is
concluded, the quantity of fluid fecreted by the Irver is dimi-
nifhed, and it flows partly into the duodenum, and partly
into the gall-bladder, whereit is then feen in fmall quantity,
and of a bright colour, becnufe there has not yet been fuf-
ficicnt time for it to be colleiled more abundantly, nor to
acquire a deeper colour." liichat is of opinion that the
Ilomach always contains a certain quantity of bile. " In
its empty ilate," fays he, " we always find in it more or
lefs mucous fluid, fometimes mixed with fmall globules of
hydrogen gas, and almoll alwavs tinged of a yellowilh colour
by bile, which has entered through the pylorus. Haller fay.-i,
that this reflux does not always take place; but it is con-
llant, according to Morgagni. I have opened no dog where
it could not he manifellty difcerncd in the empty ftomacli,
particularly when it had been long empty. The bodies of
perfons, who die of difeafe, are not ht for deciding this
quelliou, as the diieafe may alter the courfe, nature, and
colour of the bile. When the ftomach was full, I could
not fometimes afcertaiii the prefence of bile : in other in-
llances I obferved a yi-ilowifli fluid between the alimentary
mafs and the coats of the ftomach. The bile entering the
ftomach has always appeared to me, from its colour, to be
hepatic ; I have never feen that dark fluid which is con-
tained in tlie gall-bladder, and which is vomited in fome
difeafes. This accords with the obfervation made above,
that hepatic bile only enters the duodenum during ab-
ftinencc. It is evident that the paffage of the food from
the ftomach, at the commencement of inteftinal digeftion,
at which time cyllic bile certainly flows into the duodenum,
muft prevenc that bile from going through the pylorus."

We have mentioned, in the article Dige.stios, the effcfts
produced on the contents of the intelline by the admixture
of the biliary fluid. On this fubjeft, indeed, the amount
of our knowledge is very trifling : that the prefence of the
fluid is effcntial to the right performance of the inteftinal
fundlions, and that the colour of the fjcces is derived from
its admixture, are obvious fatts, and they include nearly all
that is hitherto proved.

The chemical compofition of the fluid is confidercd under
the article Bile.

The fympathies of the liver, with other organs, are very
numerous and important ; and render its phyfiology very
interelling to the phylician. It is connected primarily or
fecondarily, as caule or effecl, with various diforders of the
head, cheft, and abdomen.

LlVEU, Chromatic difeafes of the, in Medicine. — Having
already treated of the acute inflammatory affections of the
liver (fee Hkpatitls), and of the various obftruclions to
the exit of the Wle into the intelline.^, which give rife to
Jaundice (fee that article) ; it remains for us to defcribe,
in this place, the other morbid changes to which this organ
is liable, and which are of a (low or ihronic kind. Thefe
are, principally, the flow inflammation cf the liver, or
chronic hepatitis, as it has been called ; induration, or a
fcirrhous ftate ot the organ ; foftnefs of it ; enlargement, or
diminution of its bulk ; the formation of tubercles in it ;
adhelions of it to the contiguous parts, &c. The formation
of thofe veficular cyfts, which are denominated hydatids, in
the liver, has been already difcuffed under ilie general head.
Sec Hydatids.

'i'he chronic inflammatioQ of the liver is a difeafe, which

is

LIVER.

is more common in this country than the -acute ; and is
often if) inlidious in its pro^refs, and accompanied by fo
few fymptoms of ferious indiipofition, as to have advanced
to a complete fiippuration, before'its exillence was fufpected.
In fome meafure, indeed, a fimilar oblervation applies to all
'the chronic derangements of the fubilance of the liver,
•which often excite no alarm, by the fymptoms which might
be expected to accompany them, until they are fully formed.
The (ligkt indifpofition that occurs is attributed to indigef-
tion, flatulence, or fome other affedlion of the ilomach ; the
pain of which the patient occafionally complains is fallcly
referred to that organ ; and its continuance is fo (hort, and
the degree of it frequently fo inconfiderable, as to demand
'bat a flight attention. The relief obtained by erudation
and the difcharge of air aifo tends to confirm the opinion,
that the feat of the difeafe is in the ftoraach : but this relief
may be explained on the principle of removing tlie diftention
of the ftomach, and fo taking' off the preffure of this organ
from the liver.

Where this flow inflammation and gradual obftru£tion is
going on in the liver, the patient is lubjeft to occafional
pain in the right hypochondrium, extending to the fcapuls,
or to the top of the flioulder, a quick pulfe, an increale of
heat, alternating with chilly ferifations, difficult breathing
on quick motion, fome difficultv of lying on the left lide,
flatulence, indigeftion, acidity, ooftivenefs ; and, together with
a gradual diminution of ilrength and flelh, he has a pale or
•fallow complexioTi. The complexion, indeed, of a perfon af-
fetted with chronic oliftruction in the liver, although often
not wearing the appearance of jaundice, yet has frequently
a. peculiar ialiownefs, or a dirty-greenifh hue, which Dr.
Darwin, frcna its refemblance to the colour of a full-grown
filk-worm, has aptly enough denominated bombycineus. The
extent and duration of pains. Dr. Saunders obferves, ariling
from difeafe of the liver, are fo various, as frequently to
deceive both the phyfician and patient ; they extend to the
fhoulder, fcapuloe, mufcles of the neck, along the arm, even
to the joints of the wrilt. Every change of pofture either
relieves an old pain, or induces a new one, as does the mere
bending of the body in any direction, or even extending the
arms. The paics are greater in a fupine, than in an ereft
pofture.

Thefe fymptoms, af:d fome others which make their ap-
pearance in the more advanced ftages, are fufBcient to point
out the exillence of chronic difeafe in the liver : but it is to
be regretted, that they are not pectihar to chronic inflam-
mation of the organ ; and that the varieties of hepatic
obftruction are not diftinguiihed from each o.her by any
particular combinations of fymptoms ; for it muft be ob-
vious, that the fame remedies cannot be adminiftered with
advantage in difeafes, which are effentially fo different in
their nature, as thofe which we are about to defcribe.

The term fchirrus, when applied to the hver, has been
employed in two acceptations, or at leail to denote two
different ftages of a difeafe, if not two different difeafes :
aamely, an induration of the fobftance of the liver generally,
and the formation of tlie common tubercle in it ; the former
of which is', in the opinion of Dr. Baillie, the firft ftep to-
wards the latter. When an indurated liver is examined by
diffeaion, no peculiar alteration of llrudure is obferved ;
only the fubftancc of the gland is found uniformly of a
inore compaft and folid confidence, or lefs foft and porous,
it is fomewhat diminifhedin bulk, and the lower edge is
bent a little inwards ; the colour, too, is fomewhat paler, ia
confequetice of a diminirned fecretion of the bile, or of a
lefs free admiffion of blood into the fubftance of the. organ.
UpoB the furface of fuch a liver, Dr. Baillie remarks.

" there is not uncommonly a thready appearance of mem-
brane, difpofed lomewhat in a radiated form. This, I be-
lieve to be the firft flep in the progrijfs towards the forma-
tion of the common tuberculated liver. I have fometimes
feen fmall tubercles formed upon a part of the furface of
fuch a liver, which were exactly of the comm.on fort, &c.
This hardened llate of the liver is fometimes accompanied
with a beginning afcites, and fometimes is without it.''
Loc. cit.

Dr. Saunders obferves, that in thefe cafes of induration of
the Hver, there is, together with a diminution of bulk, alfo
fome degree of lofs of weight. This, however, he believes,
occurs only in the latter ftages of the difeafe, ivhen it is
ufiially feen by the anatomift. For, confidering that the
dilcafe is commonly the refult of one of the two following
caufes, Mz. a'longrefidence in a hot chmate, or the immo-
derate ufe of fpirituous liquors, both of which tend to pro-
duce an over-excitement of the circulation, and a hurried
fecretion, he deems it moit probable, nay he is perfuaded,
that in the more early fla'jes of fchirrofity, the liver is
not only not fenfibly diminilhed in bulk, but that there is
at that period an increafeboth of bulk and weight, which is
followed by a gradual diminution of both. *' To produce
an increafed fecretion of bile,'' he argues, " it is plain tliat
there muft be an increafed aSion of the brandies of the
vena portarum, and an acceleration of fluids through thofe
branches ; hence a condition of veffels is induced, approach-
ing in fome refpeds to that of inflammation; with this
dilterence, that- it is an inflammation in which the vein, or
fecreting veflel, i« more concerned, than the artery or nu-
trient veffeL The effect of this action, efpecially when
protraited for a confiderable time, muft neceffarily be that
of inducing ah alteration in the ilrufture of the part ; an
alteration fimilar to what obtains in other organs, labouring
under indolent and chronic iuflammatioii. 'I'his change of
ftrufture, from its (Jolidity and compactnefs, feems to de-
pend on the effulion of the coagulable lymph into the
pareuchymatous fubftance of the liver ; with this peculi-
arity, that while it is, in active inflaminations, depofited by
arteries, it is, in the chronic kind, effufed by tlie veins, &c."
This effufion, however, he adds, impedes the fecretion of
bile ; and, where a part has loll the power of performing
its functions, the abforbcnts often become active, and re-
move it ; whence the diminution of weight as the difeafe
advances. ( Saunders's Treatife on Structure and Dif. of
the Liver, ijdedit. p. 282, etfeq.) At all events, the view
of the dileafe, which alcribes the cfFuilon of the interiiici;d
matter, and the cor.fequent induration, to a previo\!s ex-
citement of the veffels and hurried fecretion, accord both
with the general laws of the animal economy, and with the
known ordinary' caufes of tliis difeafe.

With refpect to the other modification of fchirrous liver,
which is one of the moft common of its difeaies, we can-
not do better than repeat Dr. Baillie's accurate defciip-
tion. "This difeafe,'' he fays, " is hardly ever met With
in a very young perfon, but frequently takes place in per-
fons of middle or advanced age ; it is likewife more cocunon
in men than in women- This feems to depend upon the
habit of drinking being nior-e common in the one fes than
in the other; for this difeafe is moil frequently found ia
hard drinkers, although we cannot fee any neceffary con-
nection between that mode of life and this particular difeaf?"
in tlie liver. It happens, however, very commonly, that we
can fee little connection between caufe and effect in changes
which are going on in every other part of tlie body.

•" The tubercles, which are formed in this dileafe, oc-
cupy generally the whole mafs cf the liver, replaced very.

ccsr

LIVER.

near each other, and are of a rounded diape. They frive
an appearance every where of irivgularity to its fiirface.
When cut into, they are found to conlill of a brownifh
or ycllowidi-whitc folid matter, lliey are fometimcs of a
very fmall fize, fo as not to be larger than the heads of
large pins ; but moll frequently they are as large as fmall
hazel nuts, and many of them are fometimcs larger. When
the liver is tinis tuberculatcd, it feels much harder to the
touch than natural, and not uncommonly its lower edge is
bent a little forwards. Its fize, however, is generally not
larger tlian in a healthy Hate, and I tliink it is often fmaller.
If a feftion of the lis-er be made in this ftafe, its veflels
fetm to have a fmaller diameter tlian they have naturally.
It very frequently happens that in this ftate the liver is of
a yellow colour, arifing from the bile accumulated in its
fubftance ; and there is alfo water in the cavity of the ab-
domen, which is yellow, from the mixture of bile. The
gall-bladder is generally much contracted, and of a white
colour, from its being empty. The bile, from the prcffure
of the hard liver upon tlie pari biliarii, docs not reach the
tiuclut hepat'ictis, and therefore cannot pafs into the gall-
bladder. The colour of the fl<in in fuch cafes is jaun-
diced, and it remains permanently fo, as it depends on a
ftate of liver not liable to change. This is the common
appearance of what is generally called a fchirroi^s liver :
but it bears only a remote refemblance to fchirnis, as it
fhe\Ts itfeif in other parts of the body. I (hould therefore
be difpofed to confidcr it as a peculiar difeafe afiefting this
'vifciis." Morbid Anat. chap. ix.

This account of the ftate of the indurated and tubercu-
latcd liver renders it unneceffary to explain, at any length,
th( origin of the dropfy, jaundice, &c. which accompany
thefe difeafes, when inveterate. It muft be obvious to thofe
who underlland the ttrufture of the parts, that if fome
bile is fecreted in the liver, but, from the compreffed ftate
of the dufts, it cannot pafs into the inteftines, it will be
abforbed into the circulating blood, and produce jaundice.
(See jAtiyniCE. ) And dropfy will enfiie, in confequence
of the impermeability of many of (lie blood-veffels of the
liver, which arc comprefled by the fnrrounding tubercles ;
whence, as in all cafes of fuch ohllruftion to the circu-
lation, the thinner parts of the blood will exude from the
exhalant extremities of the over-dilteiided vefTels behind.
(See a R0vs\, eaufis of.) From the fame obftruClion, and
■the over-dillention of the venous fyllem, thefe velfels are
liable to give way; whence hemorrhagies, or difcharges of
dark blood, are liable to occur, under fuch morbid tlates of
the liver, from the ilomach, inteftines, nole, and other in-
ternal paflages; but efpecially from the two former, fince
the blood which circulates through them, as we 1 as through
the fpker., pancreas, and omentum, muft pafs through the
liver to reach the heart ; the circulation, tl>erefore, muft be
particularly impeded in the organs juft mentioned, when that
of the liver is ob!lru£led ; and the blood will force its way
through other palTages, if the veftels are not ftrong enough
to refift any extraordinary difteiiding force.

The liver is liable to be aifeftcd with other varieties of
tubercle, of a larger fize than thole above defcribed : Dr.
Baillie has ir.entioned three varieties of thefe, which he
calls the large white tubercle, foft brown tubercle, and
fcrofulous tubercle. The tiril of thefe, which is by no
means fo frequently met with as the common tubercle, re-
/embles more nearly the ordinary appearance of fchirrus
in. other parts of the body. Thefe tubercles are hard
whitilh maffes, of a jjlobular form, and firm opaque fub-
iftance, often as large as a chefmit, and fometimcs much
ilarger, or on the other hand, eonfiderably fmaller. ".They

are to be found near the furface of the liver," Dr. Baillie
obferves, " in greater number, than near the' middle of ita
fubftance : two or three frequently lie contiguous to each
other, with a confidcrable portion of the liver, in a healthy
ftate, interpofed between them and a cluftcr of fimilar tu-
bercles. The liver in this difeale is frequently a good deal
enlarged beyond ita natural fize." Dr. Baillie adds, that
" thefe tubercles appear to be tlrft formed round the blood-
veflels of the liver, as is feen in making fedions of a liver
in this ftate. While the liver is under fuch circumllances
of difeafe, there is fometimcs water in the cavity of the ab-
domen, and fometimcs none ; the liver is fometimcs tinged
ill its colour, from the accumulation of bile, and fometiines
the colour of its fubftance, between the tubercles, is per-
fettly natural.'' (Loc. cit.) The two other fpecies of tu-
bercle are very rare ; the one conlifts of a fmootli, loft,
brownilh matter, the nature of which is not thoroughly
known ; the other bears a itrong refcrablance to the tubercle
of the lungs. See Cox.sumi'tion.

There arc no peculiar fymptoms, by which the exiftence
of thefe diiierent tubercles can be difcriminated in the living
body. When the parietes of the abdomen are thin, and
there is little dropfy, and efpecially when the liver is en-
larged, the tubercles can fomttimes be diftincitly felt by the
fingers, upon an attentive examination, along the lower
edge of the vifcus. Dr. Baillie corrocUy ftatcs, th,it the
large white tubercle is not fo often attended with jaundice
and afcites as the common tubercle. We witneffed the ex-
emphfication of thefe obfervations, in a ftriking inftance,
fome years ago ; in which a' woman, addidled to Ipirit-
drinking, had been afFetted with the large tubercle of tlje
liver for feveral years, but had complained only of lo(s of
appetite, and occalional ficknels ani^i pains in the fide, had
been pregnant and brought forth twins, and never had any
appearance of dropfy to the lall, nor of a jaundiced com-
plexion, until within eight days of her death. Yet in this
perfon, the liver was not only found about three times its
natural bulk, (filling half the cavity of the belly, and being
diftinftly felt, before death, extending down the uml/ilicus,
and thence to the fpine of the pelvis,) but appeared, on
making^ a fection, to confift. of a mere mafs of tubercles,
with fome loofe intcrfticial matter, but without any fem-
blance of the natural fubllance of the vifcus. The firftion
prefented an appearance not unlike the pudding-ftone of
mineralogifts. It would feem that, from the laxity of the
intervening fubftance between the tubercles, the circulation
through the branches of the -vena porU was not materially
impeded ; and hence no dropfical eifufion took place from
the vcO'lIs of the peritoneal vifcera. The patient was con-
fined to bed only eight days, and was apparently cut off^ by
an inccflant agonifing pain in the dileafed organ, which firlt
induced delirium, and afterwards wore out the powers of
life.

The liver is not unufually found fofter and much more
flaccid in its fiibftance than natural, without any other ap-
pearance of difeafe. It feels, in fuch inftances, nearly as
foft as the fpleen, and is commonly of a leaden colour.
This ftate of liver is feldom, if ever, found in young per-
fons ; moft commonly in perfons advanced in life. Some
other rare morbid changes have alfo been feen in the liver ;
fuch as the convcrfiun ot part of its coats into cartilage, and
the formation of cartilaginous cyfts in its fubftance, con-
taining an earthy matter of a foft fmooth quality, and
browniih-whiie colour.

It. is not unufual, or. diffcftion, to fee adbefions formed

between the liver and the contiguous parts, wiiich are the

coafecfuence of a previous inflammatiou in. the membrane

4 covering

LIVER.

covering tlic liver. Thefe adhefions are formed from the
coagulable lymph of the blood, which undergoes a gradual
procels of elongation from the motion of the parts, lo as to
produce little inconvenience, and in fome circumilances of
difeale much advantage. They confift very commonly of a
thin tranfparei't membrane, which joins the furface of the
liver to the neighbouring parts. This juntlion may either
be general over one extended furface of the liver, or it may
coniill of a number of procelTes of adhefion : the adhefion is
fometimes by a membrane of confiderable length ; and fome-
times it is very clofe, the furface of the liver being immedi-
ately applied to the neighbouring parts. Thele adhefions
are moil coiunionly found on the anterior furface of the liver,
by which it is joined to the periionaum lining the mufcles at
the upper part of the cavity of the abdomen. When an

.abfcefs is formed in the fubftance of the liver, and points ex-
ternally, thefe adhefions are of great ufe in preventing the
pus from efcaping into the general cavity of the abdomen.
Adhefions are alio frequently found connecting the polferior
furface of the liver to the ftomach and the duodenum : and
thefe may alfo be ufeful in abfceffes of the liver, near its
pofterior furface, by preventing the matter from pafling
into the general cavity of the abdomen, and conduiSing it
either into the llomach, or the upper part of the mtetlinal
canal. See Hepatitis.

Profeffor Portal of Paris, an able and fedulous cultivator
of morbid anatomy and medicine, has pointed out fome

.difficulties in forming an accurate diagnoiis, between difeafes
of the liver and of lome of the neighbouring organs, elpe-
cially of the lungs. On the one hand, he obferves, that
obllructions and congeftions in the right lobe of the lungs,

"and the right cavity of the cheft, fometimes occafion fuch
an alteration in the iitnation of the liver, by prefTing down
the diaphragm, as to produce a fulpicion of difeafe m it, by
occafioning the appearance of a tumour in the right hypo-
chofidrium. He relates a cafe of this fort, in which he was
deceived, by this apparent tumour, in a patient who died of
pulmonary confumption, where little or no expettoration
took place : and he cautions praditioners not to be milled
by fuch an appearance, which is common in all congeftions
of the cheft. He affirms, too, that a degree cf jaundice is
occafionally produced, where the bile has free paifage into
the intellines, but is there detained, in confequence of me-
chanical impediments, as I'olvuliis, ftrangulated hern'ui, ac-
cumulations of hardened fxces, &c. when it is taken up by
the lacteals, and enters the blood-vcifels. On the other
hand, he remarks, if we fometimes attribute difeafes to the
liver, which have their ft-at ellevvhere, there are other ma-
ladies, actually feated in the liver, which are frequently
afcribed to other organs. Thus the contiguous vifcera,
fuch a* the right kidney, the diaphragm, the lungs, the
ftomach, and the colon, are fometimes fuppofed to be af-
fefted with difeafe, which is feated exclufively in the liver.
Many examples of this are to be found in the writings of
Morgagni and Lieutaud. Mr. Portal relates two cafes of
fevere and continued vomiting, connected with difeafed liver,
the firft of which proved fatal ; and the other was cured, in
confequence of the leflbn taught by the previous diffection.
An enlargement of the liver was felt externally, with great
tendernefs m the epigaftrium. See Mem. de I'Acad. des
Sciences, Ann. 1777 ; or Mem. fur plufieurs Maladies, par
Ant. Portal, torn, i p. 228.

Where there is eviden(;e of the exiftence of a confiderable
degree of difeafe in the liver, the progiioific mull be always
Ainfavourable, on the whole : for, in the tirll place, it is
extremely difficult to afcertain the exact ftate of the organ ;
and, fecoiidly, if we actually knew it, the moil judicious
Vol. XXI,

application of the mod powerful remedies would be unequal
fometimes to remove the difeafe. The moft favourable
fymptoms are, an improvement in the complexion, the
ftrer.gth remaining unimpaired by the adtion of the medi-
cines, and a return of appetite. Dr. Pembcrton thinko
that if the patient decidedly gains bulk in the folids of the
body, you may fafely pronounce that he will recover. The
molt unfavourable fymptoms are, the colour of the f]<in re-
maining the fame, or becoming more fallow, tlie general
ftrength being much diminilhcd, the abdomen beginning to
fwell, and the patient lofing bulk in the upper extremities,
while the lower become more enlarged. Pemberton on Dif.
of the Abdom. Vilccra, p. 4^.

\Vhen the liver is fo far difeafed as to have become
fchirrous, tubercular, or in any other way much altered in
its ftrucl.ure, it mult be obvious that medicine cannot effeft
any effential change. The treatment, therefore, which i;;
to be recommended mull be confidered as applying to that
flage of difeale, which precedes any extenfive organic al-
teration. It is not improbable, as Dr. Saunders fuggefts,
that the original mifchief is commonly in the ftomach and
bowels, and that the liver becomes difeafed by fyrapathy :
for dyfpeptic complaints generally precede the chronic af-
fections of the liver ; and they are induced by intemperance
in eating or drinking, but particularly by the abufe of vinous
and fpirituous liquors, by long falling, by a fedentary mode
of life, by grief and anxiety of mind, &c. (See D'is-
I'KP.siA.) Whatever weakens the digeftive powers of the
ftomach, Dr. Saunders maintains, ultimately weakens alio
the power of the liver, and diniinifhes the fecretion of bile.
(Saunders on the Liver, p. 192. J And again, he confiders
the diminilhed fecretion of bile, or its diminifhed protrufion
into the duoJenum-, (which he afcribes to an hypothetical
conftrittiou of the bile -ducts,) as reciprocally acling upon
the ftomach, and weakening its tone. One proof of the
exiftence of the fuppofed fpafmodic conftriction of the ori-
fice of the common dudt he deduces from an obfe.rvation,
that, in a lit of fick head-ache, if bile is brought into the
ftomach, and thence ejedted, by the violent ftraining to
vomit, the termination of the fit is much more fpeedy and
complete than when this does not happen.

When the diminilhed or altered fecretion of the bile, then,
is preceded by affeftions of the ftomach, fuch as lois of ap-
petite, indigertion, and flatulent eruttations, the diet of the
patient fhould be attentively regulated, the art of cookery
itiould be rendered merely fubfervient to digeftion, and the
preparation of healthy chyle ; and the general regimen
fliould be fuch as has been already recommended in diforders
of the digeftive organs. (See iNDiGivnoN.) The quan-
tity of food taken at one time Ihould be moderate, and
water fhould be the only liquid drunk with the meals, as
more efFeflually promoting digeftion than fermented bquors
of any kind. AH raw or unboiled vegetables fhould be
avoided ; but ripe fruits may be jnoderately taken, and al-
molt all boiled vegetables admittov. Animal food fhould
be well boiled, or moderately roalled, and taken with its
own gravy. Pye-cruft, every thing fried, butter rendered
rancid by being melted, &c. fhould be cautiouily avoided.
The patient fhould ufe regular and moderate exercife.

It is of the higheft importance, in order to keep up a due
fecretion of the bile, to adminiller a fucccffion of gently
purgative medicines. Upon this principle, the benefits
ariftng from the waters of Cheltenham (which cannot be too
highly recommended in thefe complaints) are obvioufly to
be explained. Ne'vcrthelefs, fo far as the mere operation of
thefe waters is concerned, no good reafon can be afllgnjd
for any fuperior efficacy to be expected from them rtilu-r
■ Cc tlu=n

LIVE R.

ffian from the adminiftration of an equally aflive dole of
the fulpiiate of magncfia, or other faline laxatives, dilFolvcd
in a proper quantity of water. Three dr^ms of this fait in
half a pint of fluid, as in the Scidlitz water prepared by
N. Paul and Co., may be taken every morninjr, or every
other morning, accoidiiig to the llrcni^th and Hate of bowels
of the patient. The regularity, temperance, and cxcrcife,
and likewife the abfence of the anxieties of bufinefs, which
contribute materially to alTift the beneficial influence of thofe
■waters, when drunk at tlie fprings, flnonld, however, be
conjoined with the employment of thefe fubllitutes at
home.

In the chronic derangements of the liver, producing a di-
jniiiirtied fccretion of bile, and particularly when fuch affec-
tions have avifen from inflammation, niercury has been found
one of the moll effeftual remedies. It is only, however, in
the chrnnic ftate of inflammation that this remedy is ad-
miniftcred with advantage. But tlie facccfs of it, in thefe
cafes, has led perhaps to an empirical practice, of exhibiting
it without fufijcient difcrimination between inflammations of
a more indolent, and thofe of a more active nature, on the
one hand, and between inflammation and the tuberculated
Hate, &c. on the other. But, as Dr. Saunders remarks, to
exhibit a medicine without due difcrimination, is to abufe it,
and at length to bring it into contempt and negleifl. And
this fate may perhaps await the ufe of mercury in complaints
of the liver, if, by a blind empirical adminiftration of it, it
be incautioufly employed in the aflivt pei'iods of inflammation,
when, from its ftimulant properties, it appears better calcu-
lated to accelerate than to retard the fuppurative procefs.
But upon this point we have enlarged, when treating of the
cure of Hepatitis; and (hall now only repeat, that it is
in the chronic ftate of inflammation alone, that the exhibi-
tion of mercury can be reforted to with benefit ; for it now
afts as a fpur upon the vafcular fyfl;em of the liver, and,
by its moderately ftimulating efiefts, occafions at length a
(degree of aftion, by which the bile is properly elaborated,
and health gradually refl;ored.

That a great variety of complaints, both loeal and gene-
ral, which have been comprehended under the terms nervous,
hypochondriacal, bilious difeafcs, &c. originate from dimi-
Tiifhed fccretion of bile, which, under fuch diminution in
quantity, is alfo hable to be vitiated in quahty, prailitioners
are again coming to admit. By obfervmg phyficians of all
times, indeed, this general faft had been noticed ; and upon
it, a principal part of the ancient humoral pathology, which
afcribed thofe difeafcs to tlie prevalence of tilt: and t/aci htle,
was founded. We cannot now, with all the additional lights
afforded by a better cultivation of anatomy, phyfiology, and
the collateral fciences, lay down a perfeft theory of the fub-
ieft. A learned and ingenious phyfician to Guy's Hofpi-
tal has long invelligated the point, and has long been pledged
to lay the refult of his praftical inquiries before the public.
They have not, however, yet appeared. But from the
pubUcation of a fmall pamphlet, as the precurfor of his
volume, it would appear that he has fatisfied himfelf, both
with refpedl; to certain means of praftical difcrimination, and
as to the mode of operation of the mercurial remedies. It
would feem, from this pamphlet, that the author confiders
mofl: of thefe difeafes as dependent on a conftrifted or
obftrufted fl;ate of the hepatic dufts, and mercury, admi-
tiiftered in fmall dofes, and in its milder forms, as poflefring
the property of " emulging'' the duft?, efpecially when ir-
ritation about the parts is foothed by opiates : in other words,
that thefe mercurials are, in the llrift fenfe ot the word,
'tholago^ues. After having dcfcribed the cafe of a dthcate
female, affected wjth great irreguiarity of bowels, termi-

nating in dvfentevy, and accompanied with paVncfs, languor,
dejedtion of fpirits, lofs of appetite, quick fmall pu!fe, &c.
which had been rather augmented than relieved, by repeated
dofes of calomel and rluilwrb, alternated with opiates, and
which yielded to fmall dofes of the fnhila hydrargyrL pre-
ceded by an opiate, and followed by a dofc of cailor-oil ;—
he thus ftates his view of the difeafe, and of the mctiiis opt-
rnnrll of thefe remedies. " The deprefled aftion of the braia
which anxiety occafions, produced a correfponding defcft of
aftion in the liver ; whence the intefljncs, from not being fup-
plied with bile in fufficicnt quantity, or healthy in quality,
became irritated by the food paflTing through them in an un^
digefled ftate. The purgatives, aftringents and opiates,
which were firft employed, gave temporary rchcf, but left
\.\vi fource of the diforder as it was ; whilft thccahmiel, sitt-
ing merely as a fimple evacuant, carried off nothing but ths
exifting contents of the inteftines, and ftill farther weakened
tiieir tone. But, by allaying intcftinal irritation by opium,
then relaxing the liepatie dufts by the ^/7. hytirargyn, ?nd
laftly, emulging them by the aid of a mild cathartic, tile
order of nature was rcftorcd, and that harmony of ftinftion
between thefe parts, which is ntceflary to healtii, complete-
ly eftablifticd." (See An Examin.^tion of the J'rejudices
commonly entertained againft Mercun', &c. by .lames
Curry, M.I)., &c. 2d edit. p. 20, note. Lord. iSlC.)
This explanation of the alleviation of the difeafe is fuffi-
ciently plaufible ; it is, however, but an hypothefis ; for tlie
previous conJlriBion, the fubfequent relaxation, and the ulti-
mate cmKi^/nj- of the biliary dufts, are incapable of demon-,
ftration ; neither is the firft afl'umcd circumftance adequate
to explain the altered quality of the bile, nor the two latter
its changes to the healthy ftfte. It is fufficient, however, if
it be piaftically afcertained, that this mode of mercurials,
preceded or combined with anodynes, and followed by gentle
cathartics, is an efficient mode of treatment in thefe cafes of
diminiflied or vitiated fecretion of bile.

In thofe cafes of difeafed liver, which have been fome-
times denominated fchirrous, when, either from previous
acute inflammation, or from frequent accelerated fccretion
of bile, during along refidence in a warm climate, the vcf-
fels of the liver have poured out, into tlie parenchjmatous
fubftance, fo much coagulable lympli, as to render it firm and
indurated, — then it is often neceflary to pufli the ufc of mer-
cury farther, fo as to produce a gentle falivation, which,
when kept up for a length of time, often effefts a cure, by
promoting abforption. In the exhibition of mercury for
this purpofe, a preference has been given to its introduilion
by friftion on the ll<iu, through the cutaneous abforbents ;
and the part oh which the mercurial ointm.ent has been
rubbed is the right hypochonilnum, from a notion of its cS-
cacy being greater when applied to the vicinity of the
difeafed organ. But it is pretty obvious, that, except in
fo far as friftion mav ferve the purpofe of gentle cxcrcife to
the part, and thus aifTift in emulging the biliary dufts, there
is no material advantage derived from this ; and that it is of
little importance what part is made choice of, provided the
effefts produced on the' general fyftem be equally itrcng.
The knowledge derived from anatomy rcfpefting the ftruc-
ture, origin, and direftion of the abforbent veffels, fiiffi-
ciently proves that, whether ufed internally, or intrwduced
by external friftion, none of the mercury can be made to
pafs through the liver in its way into the conftitutlon : it
cannot, therefore, aft on the liver, but by being firft intro-
duced into the blood-veffels. Such parts of the body as have
the fineit cuticle, as in the infide of the thighs, between the
fingers, in the groin, &c. which afford the befl ahforbing
furface, ftiould be chofen for the purpofe of the friftion.

Go

LI V

L I V

"On the other hand, the tuberculated ftate of the liver is
■perhaps always beyond the power of mercury to alleviate,
and often it would feem even aggravated by its exhibition.
Medicine may contribute greatly to relieve diftrcfling fymp-
toms, in fiich caies, but cannot be expefted to change the
jnorbid (Iructure. Flatulence, pains in the fides, ilomach,
and belly, indigcftion, Sec. may be greatly diminiflied by
laxatives, abforbents, gentle tonics, and occalional autifpal-
modics ; ar.d the digeltion may be favoured by the choice of
light diet, taken in moderate quantities. But it cannot be
expeflcd that the fyllcm fhall be put under the iiimulus of
a mercurial courfc with impunity, much lefa with advantage
under fuch circumllanccs.

LiVEU, Infarakns of the. See Hepatitis Infarala.

Liver, in Antlquhy, was mucii ufed in divination. See
Hepatoscopia.

Liver of Antimony, in Cbcmtflry, refults fi-om the deto-
nation of antimony with an equal weight of nitre. Thefe
two matters reduced into powder are to be mixed together,
and put into a large crucible. The cnafs is then to be kin-
dled, and the detonation to be made. When it has detonated
it is to be kept in fulion, and then cooled. When the
crucible is broken, at tiie bottom two diiltndl matters are
found, which may be feparated from each other by the llroke
of a hammer. The upper matter is afaline fcoria, nearly of
the fame nature as the fcoria of the regulUs of antimony.
This is a true antimonial liver of fulphur, mixed with a cer-
tain quantity of vitriolated tartar. The lower matter is hea-
vier. It is opaque, compaft, red, and brittle. This is the
liver of ancimony. Its colour and appearances have been
fuppofed fimilarto thofe of the livers of animals, whence its
name. It is principally coiupofed of the metallic part of
antimony, half deprived of its fulphur, and dephlogifticated
by nitre. This fubftance is of no ufe in chemiftry, nor in
medicine, fince the kermes mineral and emetic tartar have
been introduced. Macquer's Chem. Dift. See Anti-
410 NY.

Liver of Arfen'ic, is a combination of white arfenic with
iiquid fixed vegetable alkali, or by the humid way. Tiie
operation for making liver of arfcEiic is eafy and fimple :
to ftrong and concentrated liquid fixed alkali, previoufly
heated, fijie powder of white arfenic muflbe added, till the
alkali is laturated, or has loft its alkaline properties. While
the alkali diflblves the arfenic, it acquires a brownifh colour,
"and a fingularly difagreeable fmell ; and the mixture gradually
thickens into a gluey confidence. Chem. Diet. See
Arsenic.

Liver of Su/jiLurh the combination of fulphur with al-
kaline matters : and this combination may be made either in
the dry or humid way. In the dry way, or by ful'ion, a
mixture of equal parts of fixed alkali and fulphur is put
into a crucible, and quickly fufed. The melted mafs is then
poured on a greafed llone, and then tlie hvt-r of fulphur
congeals and acquires a brown colour. If it be required to
be kept dry, it mull be foon broken to pieces, and put,
while it is hot, in a bottle well corked, becaufe it readily
imbibes moifture from the air. In the huniid way, which
is lefs common, concentrated liquid fixed alkali, and fine
powder of fulphur, are to be boiled together, till the alkali
has diffolved as much as it can : the liquor is then to be fil-
trated and evaporated.

Liver of fulphur is an important combination in che-
millry, becaufe it is in general a very powerful folvent of me-
tallic matters ; to all uiuch, excepting zinc, it attaches', par-
ticularly in fufion. It fecms to dilfolve gold more effectually
than other metals. It dilfolves alfo vegetable coals even by
the bumid way : and the folution is of a green colour. Par-

ticular kinds of livers of fulphur may be formed by the
combination of volatile alkali, of quick-lime, or of abforb-.
ent earths, all which attack fulphur more or lefs. Chem.
Did. See Sulphur.

M. Navier has lately difcovered, that the liver of fulphur,
and particularly of liver of fulphur of Mars, hath the mod
falutary eflefls as an antiilote againfl arfenic, eoirofive
fublimate, verdigris, and lead. Nav. Contre Poifons de
I'Arfenic, &c. 1777- See Lead.

hiVEn-Jlone See Lapis ffepatkus.

L.1V Ell-wort, in Botany. See LiCHEN".

L.iVER-'U'ort, Noble, Hepat'tca, a fpecies of the anemone,

LIVERMORE, in Geography, a town of America, in
Cumberland county, Maine, htuated on both fides of Aii-
drofcoggin river; 19 miles N.W. of Hallowell, and contain-
ing S63 inhabitants.

LIVERNON, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot, and chief place of a cairton, in the dillrift of
Figeac ; eight miles W.N.W. of Figeac. The place con-
tains 713, and the canton 7786 inhabitants, on a territory
of 285 kiliometres, in 17 communes.

LIVERPOOL, a market town, borough, and fea-port,
in the county palatine of Lancii Her, England. It is placecf
on the eaftern bank of the river Merley, which flows into
the Irifli fea, not far north of 'Liverpool. The population
of this town, according to the parliamentary returns of
1800, amounted to 77,653 perfons, who occupied 11,44^
houfes.

The etymology of the word Liverpool is much involved
in obfcurity, tiiough many ingenious antiquaries have en-
deavoured to afcertain it. The moft general opinion is,
that it owes its origin to a fpecies of bird called the lever,
great flocks of which are faid to have frequented a pool in
this neighbourhood, during their wanderings from their na-
tive climes. Accordingly a bird has, from time immemorial,
been the impreflion on the corporation fcal. The early
hillory of this town is equally as unknown as the derivation
of its name. Fortunately, however, the deficiency of rcr
cords concerning it cannot be felt as a great lofs, as there
feems little reafon to fuppofe it was of any importance,
either commercially or politically, previous to the com.
mejiccment of the iafl century ; hence it ;nay be called 3
modern town.

" Yet fcarce an hundred annual rounds have run.
Since firft the fabric of this power begun ;
His noble waves inglorious, Merfey roll'd.
Nor felt his waves by labouring art control'tL
Along his fides a few fmall cots were fpread.
His finny brood their humble tenants fed."

MountPlcafant, a poem by Rofcoe.

To the aftive, pcrfevcring, and hberal conduft of tlie
author of thefe liiie.s, I..iverpool is materially indebted for
its prefent increafe of buildings, commerce, &c. and it
would have reflefled credit on the free burgefles of the
town, had they continued to eleft him their member.

In the Conqueror's furvev, it is llated, that all the land
between the rivers Ribble and Mcrfcy belonged to Roger
de Poitliers ; but there is no mention either cf a town or
village. Hence it may be veafonably fuppofed none extfted
at this time. A caftlo, however, i.'! noticed by Camden, as
having been built ihorlly after the conqueft, the command
of whicli was bellowed on Vivian de Molyneaux, a French-
man, in vvhofe family it continued till the ^oth year of the
reign of queen Eli'zabeth.

Neither hiilory nor tradition determine any thing certain,

citliKr conceraing its founder or the period of its ereftion.

C c a The

LIVERPOOL.

The tower, which forms part of a prifon in Watir-flreet, is
the only buildinj^ of antiquity v.-hic!i Livt-riJO'il can now
bualt of poHffling. The original foinidcr of this tower
we arc as ignorant of as wc are of the founder of the caftle.
Seacombc, in his Meiiioirs of tiic Stanley /aniily, is the fivft
author who mentions it. He tells us, that it was the pro-
perty of lir Thomas Latham, in the reign of Edwaid III.,
whole daughter and heircfs married fir John Stanley ; but
fays nothing of its erection. The croVs which formerly
flood at the corner of Pinfold lane, oppofite thq Flalhes,
has been long demohflied. This tradition reports to have
been placed there in commemoration of St. Patrick, who,
it is faid, rellvd m this neighbourhood on his way from Eng-
land to Ireland.

Th? firll charter in favour of Liverpool, according to
Enfield, who publillied a hillory of Liverpool, was executed
in the reign of Henry L, but the accuracy of this ftatcment
is extremely doubtful. It is certain, however, that in the
charter granted by king .John in 120^, v<"i'"ly a century
afterwards, this town is called a borough by prefcription,
Henry III. confirmed the privileges of the corporation in
the year 1227. From this period to 1555, we are totally
in the dar'k as to its hiltory or condition ; nor is there any
thing worth remarking for the 16 years following, when
the inhabitants fent a memorial to queen F.lizabeth, praying
relief from a fubfidy which her minillers had impofed upon
them. In this petition they ftyle themlelves " her ma-
jefty's poor decayed town of Liverpool." How the town
became lo " decayed," it is now difficult to comprehend,
as, from the records feveral years previous, it does not feem
to have been any better than a fifhing hamlet, containing
about 13S houfeholders and cottagers, and poflefiing 12
barks, navigated by 75 men. Camden, however, who
wrote in 1586, confidered it in his time as more famous for
its beauty and populonlnefs than for its antiquities. To
reconcile thefe oppollte ilatements, it is only neceffary to
admit, that a very trifling village may arrive at confidcrable
opulence in the fliort period of 2[ years; and wlio will deny
the poflibility of fuch an event at the prefent day ? From
Camden's time nothing is recorded of Liverpool deferving of
notice till the year 1644; when the town and its caftle
■were pofTeired by the parliamentary troops, under colonel
Moore. It was fortified and feeured on the land fide by a
high mud wall, and a ditch twelve yards wide and three deep.
Batteries were erefted at different points, and the ends of
the ftrects were defended by artillery. The garrifon was
numerous, and being well ftored with provillons, made a
molt vigorous defence for the fpace of a month. At Ia(t,
however, the king's army, under the ordtrs of prince Ru-
pert, fucceeded in taking the town, when the callle fur-
rendered without further refiUance. Some traces of this
iieg: can yet be difeovered at different points. When the
foundation of the prefent iidirmary v\'as funk, the marks of
trenches weredillinftly vifible, and many articles of modern
warfare were found within their fcope. A few years ago,
as fome workmen were removing the earth in a field where
Glouceilcr-llreet now ftands, they laid open the foundation
of a battery, and difeovered military utenfils of different
kinds. From the time of the fiege till 1680, we have a
tolerable account of the progrefs of the town in extent and
population. After this period, iiovvever, we are again left
in obfcurity, and receive no authentic information on that
head till the year 1765, when we find a plan of the town
made i)y Mr. Jolm Lyes. About this time, fays Enfield,
Liverpool contained about 4200 houfes, and 2j,coo inha-
bitants. It had, in the interval laft-meutioned, been con-
ftituted a diftintt parifli from that of Walton, to wliich its

churdi had formerly been enly a dependent chapel. This
event took place in i6g8, when the inhabitants were like-
wife authorifed to build a fecond church. Thus emanci-
pated from parochial fubfervicncy, Liverpool began to dif-
play its energies. In the fliort ipace of little more than
half a century, this town, aided by a few favourable cir-
cumllances, has rifen to great commercial importance,/ and
may be confidered to be next to the metropolis itlelf She
firll rivalled, and latterly furjjafied, Briflol, which had long
been confidered as the weilern emporium of trade.

The following table exhibits the progrelTive increafe of
the dock duties for feveral years, and ferves to difplay the
vail and rapid increafe of the commerce of the town. It
fliews the number of veflels that have been affefled in each
year, with the aggregate fum paid to the dock companies.

7'eari. Ships. £. s. d.

1760

I24J

2'33°

6

7

J 76 J

1930

MSi

8

4

1770

2-7.?

4,142

'7

2

1775

2291

5'ZH

4

9

1780

2261

3-52^

7

9

178J

.^42')

8,411

5

3

1790

4223

10,037

b

2

1795

394«

19,368

16

4

1800

4746

5'3..?37

•3

(i

1802

4781

28,192

9

10

1805

4618

33'3^'4

'3

I

1807

579'

62,831

5

10

1809

6023

97,580

19

3

The boundaries of I.,iverpool extend confiderably beyond
the town in different direftions. Thefe are marked out by
flones called by the inhabitarrs meer-flones, and the ground
contained within them is denominated the liberties. The
extent of the liberties from eafl to well, is fomewhat more
than a mile and two furlongs, and from north to foutli con-
fiderably above two miles. This town exhibits, in general,
the appearance of opulence and refinement. The flreets
are well paved, and during winter tolerably furniflied with
lamps. Of late years it has received many great alterations
and improvements, which ilill continue to proceed notwith-
flanding the preflure of the times. In the year 1790, i*.
confided of 8865 houfes, but their number now is little
fhort of 13,000.

Liverpool poU'efTes fifteen churches belonging to the e(la-
blifhment, fome of which are worthy the particular atten-
tion of the ilranger. Near the old church, which is dedi-
cated to our Lady and St. Nicholas, there formerly flood an
image of the hitter, to which the failors were accullomed to
make offerings on going to fea. This church has been
lately rebuilt. The tower of St. Peter's, which was eredled
in 1704, is a well-proportioned oClagon, each fide of the
angles having a candleltick and gilt vafe rtprefenting a flame.
This and St. Nicholas are the parifli churches, and have two
reftors over them. The church of St. George, built on
the feite of the ancient caftle already mentioned, is a fine edi-
fice of the Doric order, crowned vi'xih an attic wall, and
adorned with a variety of vafes. On each fide is a terrace
with recefles underneath. The interior is handfomely fitted
up, the fronts of the galleries being mahogany. This is
the mayor's chapel, where he attends every Sunday, and
where pews arc appropriated for the gentlemen, including
flrangers, who choofe to accompany him. St. Thomas's
church is of the Ionic order, and has a handfome appearance.
It was confecratcd in 1750. St. Paul's church was eredled
by the town in 1769. At the weft end is a portico with a
pediment, having i« the centre, on an octagonal bafe, a dome
5 with

LIVERPOOL.

with a lanthorn, ball, and crofs. The interior is fupported
by eight Ionic pillars. The altar is plain and neat. The
church dedicated to St. Ann, on the road to Everton, is a
neat building of brick and ilone. It was ere^ed at the
joint expence of two private gentlemen. It has a tower de-
corated with pinnacL's. St. John's church is a new building
of ilone, with a tower. 6t Mary's and the other churches
hive nothing connected with their ftruAures or appearances
doferving of particular notice ; rfiough all of them are en-
titled to be called neat. Bciides the places of worfhip be-
longing to the eft ablilhment, there are a great number of
diflenting meeting houfes, or chapels, for various defcriptions
of religionifts.

The public edifices conneSed with the trade and com-
merce of the town are, the exchange buildings, town-hall
and manfion houle, cullo.ii-houfe, corn exchange, tobacco
vi'arehoufe, and other warehoufes. Qf thefe the Liverpool
exchange is the moll fpacious in plan, and ornamental
in its ex-prior anhitefture. It has been erected by a fub-
fcription of 80,000/ raifed by 803 transferable (hares. The
buildmgs occupy three fides of a quadrangle, having the
town-hall on the fouth fide. The whole furrounds an area
of 194 feet by 180. It has been built by John Forfter,
efq. (architect, engineer, and dock mafter.to the corpo-
ration) from defigns by James Wyatt, efq. architect ;
and is appropriated to a public exchange rooms, coffee
rooms, and various offices. The town-hall, formerly called
the exchange, is a large infulated pile of buildin,r, the
greater part of which was erected in 1750, from the de-
ligns of Wood of Bath. The whole of its interior was burnt
in 1 79 J- It was foon repaired, and appropriated to the ufe
of the mayor, for offices belonging to the corporation,
feflions rooms, &c.

The infirmary is another excellent building of brick orna-
mented with ftone. This ellabliihment not only extends to
all proper objects within Liverpool, but to every perfon
whom Ucknefs or bodily misfortune may lead to apply, pro-
vided they are recommended by.a fubfcriber. The feamen's
hofpital forms a portion of the buildings of this infirmary,
being attached to it by a handfome colonnade. The blue-
coa; hofpital is placed in an airy fituation adjoining to St.
Peter's church-yard. It is a large handfome building of
brick ornamented with ftone. The number of perfons who
annually receive the benefits of th^ charity are about 280.
The expence of this mftitution is defrayed chiefly by Lene-
fedtions.

The poor-houfe is a handfome edifice, 90 feet long and
24 broad, built in a plain ftyle, and in a manner very fuitable
t to its ufe. On the eall fide of this ftrudture is a handfome
fto.ne bLiitding, called the " recovery ward,'' where perfons
infetted with fevers, and coming under the cognizance of
phyficians and fargeons of the difpenfary, are received. A
variety of alms-houfes range out on both fides of the poor-
fcoufe. In Church-ftreet is the difpenfary, which is a very
good brick building, with a large circular portico, and
having in front a imall bas-relief of the good Samaritan.
This inftitution is conducted by a prefident, two auditors,
feven phyficians, three furgeons, and one apothecary, who
officiates as fecretary. Two phyficians and a furgeon at-
tend every day at certain hours. About 10,000 perfons are
faid to receive medicine and advice here annually. The
Luiiatic-afylum is contiguous to the infirmary, but, like
moft other inftitutions of the kind, cannot be called a com-
plete charity, as patients are not admitted free of expence.
At the entrance into the town, on the road leading from
Prefect, ftands the fchool of indullry for the indigent blind.
The original projeAor was Mr. John Chriftie, who was him-

felf unfortunately deprived of his fight at the age of if.
In this fchool pupils are taught various trad- :, which enable
many of them to make a comfortable pro.vifion for hfe.
Befides thefe charitable inftitutions there are a number of
others, under different names, intended for the relief of dif-
ferent defcriptions of perfons, wiiich the limits of an article
like this will not permit us to mention particularly.

Liverpool abounds, as may be fuppofed from its great
tr^de, with rooms appropriated for pubhc correfpondence,
and the tranfatting of bufinefs. The Atheneum, which
comprifes a news-room, a hbrary, &c. is fituated on the
fouth fide of Church-ftreet, and is a handfome building of
ftone. The fubfcribers to this inftitution, about 450 in
number, are fupplied with the London and provincial newf-
papers, the fhipping and trade lifts, and various periodical
publications. Every fubfcriber is allowed the privilege of
introducing his friend, provided he be a non-refident of the
town. There alfo feveral more inftitutions of a fimilar kind
in different parts of the town. Of thefe, the Lyceum is
the firft and moil worthy of attention. It is fituated at the
bottom of Bold-llreet, and is another remarkable inftance of
the munificence and public fpirit cf Liverpool. An acade-
my, for the encouragement of the fine arts, has reccnlly
been eftabliftied in this town. The places of public amufe-
ment are now httle inferior to thofe in the metrepolis. The
theatre is a fpacious and commodious building, and but Uttle
inferior to that of Covent-garden in the extent of its ftage.
It generally opens at the time the London houfes fhut,
when many of the firft performers refort to it. In Bold-
ftreet ftands the Mufic-hall, which was opened in 1785. It
is a large building, hnifhed with great elegance. The new
prifon, according to the Howardian plan for folitary con-
finement, is on a very estenfive fcale, and has every poffible
convenience.

Liverpool abounds in docks lor the fafety and repair cf
its numerous fhipping. The firft dock was conllrudled here
in 1 7 10. Its fcitp was the pool, from which the town de-
rived the latter portion of its name. This bafon of water
is called the old dock, and is principally the receptacle of
Weft India and African ftiips, being contiguous to the ware-
houfes of the merchants engaged in thofe branches of com-
merce. The King's dock is 290 yards in length, and 9a
wide. On the caft fide of this dock ftands the tobacco
warehoufe, where that article is lodged by the cuftom-houfe
officers till the duties are paid. It was erected by the cor-
poration, and is rented by government at 5C0/. fa- anr.um.
St. George's dock was the third made in Liverpool. It is
about 2)0 yards long, and 100 broad; and is tfteemed
commodious. The largeft, laft conftrutted, and beft finillied
however of the Liverpool docks, is the Queen's dock,
which is fituated at the bottom of Parliamcnt-ftreet. Salt-
houfe dock, which is the fecond oldeft of the whole, com-
prifes an area of 21,928 fquare yards; and has a length of
quay of 640 yards. Befides thefe there are five graving
docks, and three dry docks, independent of a imall one,
which belongs to the earl of Bridgewater, for the ufe of the
canal flats. Some of thefe docks communicate, fo that (hips
can pafs from one to the other, and into the graving docks,
without being obhged to go into the river. All the wet
docks are likewife connected by large tunnels, for the pur-
pofe of one dock cleanfing or walhing another. WT.en
large fhips loaded arrive at neap tides they are compelled
to remain in the river till the flow of the fpring tides, as the
dock gates have not depth of water fufficient to admit them-
This circumftance is certainly a great inconvenience, but it
is amply compenfated by the capacioufnefs and excellent
arrangement of the docks themfelves.

The

L I V

Tlie cuftom-lioufe is fituateJ at tlie cad end of the old
dock. It is built of bnck, in rather a neat llyle. A fmall
flight of ftrps leads to a piazza, over which is the long room,
and behind it are extcnfive wareli'uifes. At the fouth end
of the town is St. James's walk, from which the fpeclator
has a fine view of the town, th- harbtnir, the river, the
fea, and the WeKh mountain';. B.hmd 'his lies an excel-
lent quarry, the entrance of which is by a fubtcrrancous
paflage, fupported by arches. B lotlc-fprings, about fo\ir
miles diilant from Liverpool, fnrply I'.e town with water,
which is conveyed by means of pipeb.

The principal manufadliires are thofe of china and earthen
■ware, the feveral branches of the watch making, and exten-
five fait, iron, and copperas works. It is computed that
about 3000 Ihipwrifchts are conftantly employed in the dif-
ferent dock-yards of this town. The river, which is here
about 1 200 yards broad, abounds with falmon, cod, floun-
ders, and turbot. Ships of any burden may come up to
this town with perfeft f.fety, even at the lowed tides. The
accommodations for fea bathing have, of late years, received
vail improvements, and arc nut perhaps inferior to any in
•the kingdom.

Liverpool undoubtedly owes all her opulence and gran-
deur to the fpirit and entcrprife of her merchants. She
exhibits, to the eye of the datefman and philofopher, a dif-
tinguilhed indance of the rapid progrefs of commercial
greatnefs. A century ago, a few coading veflels ard petty
traders formed the whole of her wealth. For the fird fifty
years her advance was comparatively flow. After this pe-
riod, however, the increafe of trade which die every year
acquires, is truly adouilhing. She Ihares a portion of the
commerce of almod every country in the world. Of late
years, Liverpool has confiderably dccreared,in common with
.that of all the other towns in the kingdom. What effedl
the abolition of the flave-trade may ultimately have upon
Liverpool, it is not poflible to prognodicate. For the
prcfent, however, the mercantile' houfes, formerly engaged
in that traffic, mud undoubtedly fuffer confiderable dif-
ficulties before they can turn their capital and attention to
fome objeft more honourable tlian the purchafe and fale of
human beings.

Independent of the advantages Liverpool pofieffes for
•foreign commerce, it has communication with all the in-
terior counties by canals. Tliefe again, being joined by
others at different points, extend themfelves to the Severn,
■to the Humber, and to the Thames ; thus connefting the
four principal trading ports in England. To the bene-
ficial effefts of jhefe canals Liverpool has to attribute
•much of her prefent greatnefs.

,The markets of Liverpool are well fupplied with every
necedary of life, and every article of luxury. About 3000
•cattle and flicep are brought into the town weekly. The
market days are Wednefdays and Saturd.iys. Liverpool
fends two members to parliament. The number of eletlors
amounts to above one thoufand. The corporation confifts
of a mayor, two bailiffs, and a common-council. The
mayor and bailiffs are aflided by a recorder, a town clerk,
and other neccffary officers. The revenues of the town are
very great Enfield's Hidory, &:c. of Liverpool, folio. A
General and Defcriptive Hidory of Liverpool, by W^lace,
Svo. 1797. The Pifture of Liverpool, i2mo. 1805. Beau-
ties of England, vol. ix.

Liverpool, a town on,thc S. fide of the bay of F'undy,
4n Queen's county. Nova Scotia, fettled from New Eng-
land. Between this town and Annapolis lies a confiderable
iake, called RofligBoL It is 32 miles N.E. of Shclburne,

a

L I V

and 58 N.^.^. of Halifax, and was formerly called " Port
Rofliguole."

LIVERY, properly fignifies a colour, to which a perfoii
has fome particular fancy, and by which he clioofes to dif-
tiaguifli himfelf, or his retainers, from others.

Liveries are ufaally taken from fancy, or continued in fa-
milies by fucceffion. The ancient cavaliers, at tlicir tourna-
ments, dillinj;uinied themfelves by wearing the liveries of
their niidredes : thus people of quality make their do-
medic* wear their livery.

Father Menedrier, in his Treatifc of Caroufals, has given
a very ample account of the inixturcs of colours iu liveries.
Dion tells us, that CEnair.aus was the fird who invented
green and blue colours for the troops which, in the Circus,
were to rcprelent land and fea-fights.

The Romifti church has alfo her feveral colours and li-
veries ; white, for confeffors and virgins, and in times of
rejoicing; black, for the dead; red, for the apodlcs and
martyrs ; blue or violet, for penitents ; and green, in times
of hope- '

Formerly, great men gave liveries to fevcra', who wore
not of their family or fervants, to engagc^them in their
quarrels for that year; but this was prohibited by the da-
tutes I Rich. 11, i Hen. IV. cap. 27. z & 7 Hen. IV.
8 Hen. VI. cap. 4. 8 Ed. IV, cap. 3. and no man, of
whatever condition, was allowed to give any livery, but to
his domedic officers, and council learned in the law. How-
ever, mod of the above datutes are repealed by 3 Car. I.
cap. 4.

Livery, in Latv, alfo denotes the delivery of pofftTfion
to thofe tenants which held of the king in capite, or by
knights' fervice. See Possession.

LiVEUY is alfo ufed for the writ, which lies for an heir
to obtain the poffefllon or feifiii of his lands at the king's
hands. By 12 Car. II., cap. 24, all wa?dfliips, liveries, Sic.
are taken away. See Coukt of Warih.

Livery of JVifm, is a delivery of poffeffion of land or tc-
nemejits, cr things corporeal, to him who hath right, or
probability of rii;ht, to them.

Livery of feifin is a ceremony ufed in the common law,
on conveyance of landi, tenements, Sec. where an cdate in
fee-funple, fee-tail, or other freehold, fliall pafs ; and is a
tedimonial of the willing departing of him v\!io makes tlie
livery, from the thing whereof the livery is made, as well
as of a willing acceptance by the other party, of all that
whereof the firft has divefted himfelf. (See FuEEiiom. ) On
the creation ef a freehold remainder, at one and the fame
time with a particular eftate for years, at the common lav?
livery mud be made to the paiticiilar tenant. (See Estate
and Rem.mndeu.) But if fuch a remainder be created af-
terwards, expcftant on a leafe for years now in being, the'
livery mud not be made to the leffee for years, for then it
operates nothing ; " Nam quod femel meum ed, ampliiis
meum effe non poted ;" but it mud be made to the remainder-
man himfeli, by confent of the leffee for years : for without
his confent no livery of the poffefllon can be given (Co,
Litt. 48.) ; partly becaufc fuch forcible livery w-ould be an
ejettment of the tenant from his term, and partly for the rea-
fons afligned for introducing the doftrinc of attornments.

Livery of feifin is either in deed or in laiu.

Th? ufual manner of livery of feifin in deed is thus per-
formed. If it be jn the open field, where is no houfe nor
building, and if the edate pals by deed, the feoffor, leffor, or
his attorney, openly reads it, or declares the effedl of it ; and
after that is fcaled, the feoffor takes it in his iiand, with a
clod of earth, or a twig or bough, which he delivers to the
Lodct, in the name of poffellion, or ieifin, according to

the

L I V

the purport of the deed. If there be a hotife or building
on the land, the ceremony is to be done at the door of •:,
none beipg then left within ; and the ring or latch of the
door is delivered to the feoffee, who enters alone, (Tints the
door, and prcfently- opens it again. If it be a houfe without
knd or ground, the livery is made, and poffeffiou given, by
delivery of t!ie ring or latch of the door and deed only ;
and where it is without deed either of lands or tenements,
there the party declares by word of mouth, before witnefles,
the ettate he parts with ; and then delivers feifin, or poflef-
iion, as aforefaid : in which cafe the land pafles as well aS by
deed, by virtue of the livery of feifiH. Co. Litt. 48. Well
Symb. 2 J I.

If the conveyance or feoffment be of divers lands, fcat-
tered in one and the fame county, livery of feifin of any
parcel in the name of the reft, fuflicetii for all (Litt. j 414-) ;
but if they be in feveral counties, there mull be as many
liveries as there are counties. If the lan4s be out on leafe,
though all lie in the fame county, there muil be as many
liveries as there are tenants. (Dyer 18.) In all thefc cafes
it is prudent to endorfe the livery of feifm on the back of
the deed, fpecifying tlie manner, time, and place of making
it, together with the names of the witnefTes. Livery in laiu
is where the fame is not made on the land, but only hi fight
of it ; the feoffor faying to the feoffee, " I give you yonder
land, enter and take pofreffion." However, this livery in
law cannot be given or received by attorney, but only by
the parties themfelves. Co. Litt. 48. 52.

Anciently, there were a pair of gloves, a ring, knife,
an ear of wheat, S:c. dehvcred in fign of livery and feifin.

LIVERYMEN vf London, are a number of perfons
chofen out of the freemen of each company. (See Compaky.)
Out of this body the common-council, (herifTs, aldermen,
and other officers for the government of the city are
elefled ;- and they only have the privilege of giving their
votes in common-hail for members of parliament, &c. from
• which the rell of the citizens are excluded. If any one of
the company refufe to become a livei vman, he may be fined,
and an aclion of debt will lie for the fum.

LlVERYiMEN, in N'litiiral Hi/lory, a name given by authors
to a fort of caterpillars, remarkable for their variety of
colours. Thefe are of that clafs of caterpillars whi'^h live
in communities, and build themfelves nefts to defend them
from the injuries of the weather. They may be ranked
among the procefiionary kinds, always following one another
with great order in their marches ; but what is moll furprif-
ing, is to fee them ftraggle very far from their nells, and this
often, by feveral repeated windings and turnings, witliout
lofing their way. Their art, in doing this, deferves notice,
acd IS the fame by which Thefeus got, out of the labyrinth of
Crete. PhiL Tranf. N" 470. p. 459.

LIVIA DuusiLLA, in Biography, a celebrated Roman
ledy, daughter of Li\-iu5 Drufus Calidianus, who joined the
party of Brutus and CafTuis, and killed himfelf after the
battle of Philippi. She married Tiberius Clandius Nero, by
whom fhe had two fons, Drufus and the emperor Tiberius.
The attachment of herhiifband to tiie caule of Antony was
the beginning of her greatrefs. Odavianus, afterwards the
emperor Auguflus, law her as fhe fled from the danger which
threatened her hufband, and refolved to marry her, thsiigh
fhe was then pregnant. He accordingly divorced his wife
Scribonia, and with the approbation of the augurs he cele-
brated his nuptials with Livia. She from tliis moment en-
joyed the entire confidence of the emperor, and was in fa A the
partner of his whole reign, enjoyi; g a large faare of his
power and imperial dignity. She gained a complete afcend-
■ ancy over the mind of Auguflus b) a conltant obedisnce to

,L I V

his will : by nerer expreffing a defire to dive into liis fecrets,
and by affecling ignorance of his amours. Her cluldren by
Druius were adopted as his own by the complying emperor;
and that (he might make the fucccifion of her fon. Tiberius,
Drufus bemg dead, more eafy and undifputed, Livia has
been acciifed of fecretly involving, in one common ruin, th?
heirs and nearell relations of A^ugnftus. There are fadls
adduced which feem to render the fufpicions of her bafenef*
and cruelty wholly without fojndation. She has been
charged with adminiileriiig poifan to her hufband, which is
rendered exceedingly improbable by the account we have of
his lallillnefs, and by the tendernefs he exprefl'ed for her in
the laft words he uttered. By his will fhe was inllituted co-
heirefs with Tiberius, adopted as a daughter, and directed
to affume the name of Julia Augulla. On his deification
file became the prieilefs of the new god. Tiberius, whofe
elevation had been the objeft of her policy, difappointed her
expectation of fharing with him ihe imperial power. He
took pains indeed to fubjetl her to various mortifications ;
and at length there was an open rupture between them. She
died in the yesr 29.

Tiberius negleded her funeral, and would not permit public
or private honours to be paid to her memory. Tacitus has
drawn her characfter, faying, that " in ilriitnefs of conduift.
file was not inferior to the Ro'i.an matrons of old, though
her demeanour was freer than they would have approved ;
that fhe was an imperious mother, a compliant wife, and a
match for her hufband in art, and he'r fon. in dilarau-
lation."

Livia, in Ornithology, a name given by fome authors to a
particular fpecics of pigeon called />f/<.-fl^ by the Greeks. It .
IS very like the common pigeon in ihape, but is fomewhat
fmaller, its legs are red, and its beak white, except that it .
is a little purplifli about the nolirils.

It is all over grey, but that the endof its tail-feathers are
bljck, and there is a purphfh and greenifli variegation about
the fides and fhoulders. And its wing-feathers have fome
white variegations, as has alfo the lower part of the neck.
It is fuppof';-d by Mr. Ray, and lome others, to be the fame
with the falforolla of the Italians, or coJumba ruptcoJa. See

COLUAfBA.

I.IVINEIUS, John, in Biography, a learned Flemift .
divine, was born at Denderniond abo;:t the year i '4c.. Be>-
ing intended for the dluirch, he purfued his academical fludics
at Cologne, entered into holy orders, and .waS' in a fliorl
time prefented to a rich benefice at Liege. . He was after-
wards promoted to a canonry. and appointed prece-.tor in
the cathedral church of that city. . He engaged in the fu-
perintLiidance cf the edition of .P-'antin's Greek bible, and
tranflated into Latin ion-.e of the works of the Greek
fathers, and was about giving to the public all the works of
St Gregory of Nyfleii, wlien he was cut off by death in
15:99. He publifhed " Emeiidationes et Noti in XII.
Panegyricos Veteres," and other learned works : and left
behind him in MS. tranJlatious of the tragedies of Euripides,
and of the works of Athcnacus. Gen.Biog.

J^IVINETHAL, m Geography. See Levaxtixe

yr II ^ i ^

y alley.

LIVINGSTON, a cou;;ty of Keii'ueky, in America, .

boundc-d N. by the Ohio, W. by the MiflLilippi, and.S. by

Teneffee ; 70. miles long and 60 broad. Tiie principal

rivers are the Cumberland and Tenefl'ee. It contains 2787 ■

inhabitant;-, of whom 444 are Haves. Alfo, a large town-

fhip in Columbia county. New York, extending from the

E bank of Hudfon river to the Maifachufctts line. S. of

Hudfon adjoining. It conuins 7405 inhabitants, of whom

213 are ilavcs...

LIVIS. -

L I V

I.IVISTONA, in Botany, named by Mr. Brown, in
memory of the right honourable Patrick Murray, lord Livi-
ftone, the friend of fir Andrew Balfour, who, when the Edin-
burgh botanic garden was tirll eilablilhed, greatly enriched it
from his own private colleftion, where he had above a thou-
fand fpecies in cultivation. This nobleman travelled over
France in fearch of plants, where he died of a fever, about the
niddlo of the feventeenth century. Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. V. I. 267. - Clafs and order, Hcxandna Mono^ynia.
Nat. Ord. Pnlmi.

Ed". Ch. Calyx deeply three-cleft. Corolla deeply thrce-
cleft. Filaments feparate, dilated at their bafe. Germens
three, cohering. Styles three, united into one. Stigma
imdivided. lierry folitary, of one cell. Seed folitary ;
albumen with a ventral cavity ; embryo at the back.

A genus of Palms, whofe leaves are palmate, or fome-
what pinnate, their fegmcnts cloven at #he extremities. It
(hould ftand between Corypha and Chamnrops. Latan'ia
chlnrnfis of .lacquin's Fra^menta, p. 16. t. 1 1. i. I, is thought
by Mr. Brown to belong to this genus. 'rw9 fpecies of it
were found by him in the fropical part of N'ew Holland.

t. Ij.'tnennls. Segments of the leaves with intermediate
threads. Footllaiks without thorns. Stem from 14 to 30
feet high.

2. L. hiimilis. Segments of the leaves with intermedi-
ate threads. Footllaiks thorny. Stem from four to fix
feet high.

LIVIUS AxDRONKUs, in Biography, is regarded as
the moft ancient of the Roman poets. He was the firft who
attempted to compofe r. drama in verfe, which he himfelf
fung and acfted, while a player on the flute accompanied him
in unifon to keep him in tune. He was encored and obliged
to repeat his pieces fo often, that he loft his voice ; and be-
ing unable to fing or declaim any longer, he was allowed to
have a Have to fmg, while he only aCted the part behind him.
Hence came the cuftom of dividing the declamation or
melody of the piece, with which the Roman people were
Extremely delighted. This poet flourifhcd 240 B. C. Livy
and Prieltley.

I.,IUNG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft
Gothland ; eight miles S. of Uddevalla. — Alfo, a town of
Sweden, in Eaft Gothland ; eight miles N.N.W. of Lin-
kioping.

LIUNGBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sko-
nen ; 16 miles E. of Helfnigborg.

LIVNI, a town of Rufiia, in the government of Orel,
on the Sofva ; 84 miles E. of Orel. N. lat. 53" 58'. E.
long. 38 22'.

LIV OE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in Lymfiord gulf;
having upon it a village. N. lat. 56^ 53'. E. long. 9 6'.

LIVC)NIA, the name of an ancient province of Ruffia,
which, including EJlhonia (which fee), lies in N. lat. 5S ,
ami is bounded on the N. by the gulf of Finland, on the
E. by Novogorod, on the S. by Poland, and on the W. by
the Baltic ; being 190 miles from N. to S., and iSo trom
W. to E , and containing 72^,300 inhabitants. This pro-
vince abounds in lakes, forells, marfhes, and rivers ; but
many dillricts are exceedingly fertile, yielding great quanti-
ties of rye and other grain, flax, hemp, and iinfeed, which
are exported to Sweden, Germany, and other countries ; fo
that Livonia has been called the granary of the north. It has
feveral pood harbours conveniently fituated for trade. Peipus
•lake, about 15 leagues long, and ten broad, has a commu-
nication with the gulf of Finland by the river Narva. This
country, formerly claimed by feveral neighbouring princes,
frequently changed mafters. Livonia, or Lettland, as it was
called, together with Efthonia, Courland, and Semigallia,

L I V

being provinces on the Baltic, belonged in tlie earliell times
to the Riiilian (late, and had even a fliare in the founding ol
it. (See Lkttks.) But Livonia had then no fettled con-
ftitution, nor was it bound to the parent ftate by any firm
political tie. To the reft of Europe it remained generally
unknown, till in the year iijS it was difcovered by fome
merchants of Bremen, in their fearch of new branches of
commerce towards the north. Thefe mariners landed at the
mouth of the Duna, opened a trade with the inhabitants,
returned thither feveral times, and at length proceeded, with
till? confent of the natives, along the (horea of the Duna, or
Dwina, many miles up the country. About eighteen years
after the difcovery, an AuguHine monk, named Meinhard,
fettled in Livonia, profelyted the Livonians to Cliriftianity,
and became their bifliop, upon which many Germans, at va-
rious times, weie induced to repair thither alfo. The
time of the arrival of Meinhard is not precifely aicertained.
Some pretend that it was in 11 70, others in 11S6. The
fuccefs of the monk was promoted by the fervice which he
rendered to his own countrymen, in repuliing the Lithua-
nians, who had made an incurfion upon them. He Hated
to them the necefTity of conllrutling a ttrong fortrefs, and
he aided them in aceomplifliing this objtft, on condition of
their being bapti/.ed. But they were reludant in complying
with this condition, and many of them relapfed to P.iganifm.
Ml inhard was difappointed in his benevolent efforts, and
prevented by force from returning with his clergy to Ger-
many, hcj died among them, more of grief than of age.
After his death, Berthold, abbot of the monallery of
Loc.kum, in Hanover, was eletled bifho^, and arriving in
Livonia, though not without reludlance, in the year 1197,
he recommended himfelf by giving them frequent entertain-
ments : but the ardour of their attachment foon abated, and
he was conftrained by ill ufage to leave the country. Heap-
plied to Gothland and to Lower Saxony for fuccour ; and
the pope afiiftcd liim by caufing a crufade to be preached
againft the heathens of Livonia. In 1 198 he returned hither«
with an army of foldiers. The Livonians prepared to fight,
took the field to relift the invaders. A truce was concluded,
which was foon broken on the part of the heathens, by the
affafTination of feveral Germans. Berthold declared war,
and in a bloody battle which enfued, fell by the fvvord. The
heathens, however, were at length routed, and when their
corn-fields were laid walle by the Chriftians, they lued for
peace, and flocked in numbers to be baptized. Upon this
the Germans returned home ; but they were no fooner cm-
barked, than the Livonians bathed in the Dwina, in order,
as they faid, to wafh away their baptifm and Cliriftianity to-
gether. They alfo plundered thofe that remained, and put
upwards of 100 to death. The Livonians alfo refolved,
that all priefts «ho ftiould be found in the country after-
Eafter 1199, fhouldbe flain. A fimilarfate alfo awaited the
merchants. Thefe ranfomed their lives, but the clergy
were forced to fly to Lower Saxony. The monk Mein-
hard, and the abbot Berthold, were lucceeded by Albrecht,
who, being eleftcd bifhop, arrived in Livonia with twenty-
three ftiips. The Livonians became Chriftians for fear of
ftarving. Albrecht employed vaiiant men, from whom the
bifliopric might expeft continual protedlion ; and with this
view he gave ample fiefs to fome courageous nobles. He
eftabliflied alfo a ftanding army, and deviled other methods
for eftablilhing Cliriftianity in the country. In I20l he
built the city of Riga, and transferred hither the cathedral
chapter, where he alfo built a monaftery. In the mean
while the clergy difperfcd tliemfelves thiough the country,
in order to teach and to baptize. In procefs of time other
means were ufed to accamplilh the converfion of the Livo-
nians.

L I V

L I V

tiians. In tlic year 1 105 Andrew, archbifhop of Limdcii,
vifited Ri^a, and bavint; acquired the reputation of a learned
<iivine by his Itudies in Italy, France, and England, gave
leftures of theolojjy to the clergy of that city ; and by his
advice the vicar of the bifhop of Riga fcnt priefts among the
Liivonians, divided the country into dillinift parifhes, and
caufed them not merely to be baptifed, bnt to beprevioudy
inftrufted. Churches were a!fo erefted. From Livonia
Chriftianity was diffufed, againit much oppofition, among
the Elthonians. In the year 1522, the reformation found
its way into Liefland, by a preacher, who, having been
driven out of Pomerania, fled to Riga. The doClrine of
Luther was eagerly embraced ; and the Popifli ritual, after-
wards patronized on the part of Poland, had, on the whole, no
influence to its detriment. By the tenth article of the treaty
of Ny (ladt, the Greek religion is fecured in the free exercife of
its rites. In Riga there is a church for the ufe of the Cal-
vixifts, and the Catholics ai-e allowed the exercife of their
■worfhip. In Liefland it may be julUy faid that every man
may follow his own perfuafion in matters of religion without
the leaft moleftation. Here alfo count Zinzendorf has found
many friends to his church inftitution.

Saon after the converfion of the Livonians, the bifliop, in
the year 1 201, founded the order of the Sword-brethren, af-
terwards called Knights-Templars, and granted them the
third part of the country with all rights of fovereignty, for
conquering and preferving Livonia. Thefe knights were
all Germans, who profelyted the natives to Chriftianity with
great fuccefs, though not without bloodflied, and made them
their vafTals. They afterwards united themfelves with the
Teutonic order in Pruffia, to whom Valslimar III., king of
Denmark, in 1386, fold Efthonia for the fum of 18,000
marks of llandard gold. In the year ij2i the Livonian
heermeifter Plettenberg again feparatcd from the Teutonic
order, and was admitted by the emperor Charles V. among
the princes of the German empire. The attempts made by
Czar Ivan Vaffillievitch II, to reconquer thefe provinces
which had been torn from the Ruffian empire, and the weak-
nefs of the order, which felt itfelf not in a capacity to reiift
fo po'.vertul an enemy, at length, in 1561, effected the com-
plete reparation of the Livonian Hate. Efthonia put itfelf
under the protettionof Sweden, Livonia united with Poland,
and Courland was a peculiar dukedom under Polifli fupre-
macy, which the iall heermeifter Gotthard Kettler held as
a fief of that crown. From this era Livonia became the
unhappy object of contention, for which Sweden, Ruflia,
and Poland, for an entire century, were continually exhauft-
ing themfelves in bloody wars. Sweden at laft obtained the
dominion, and at 'the peace of Oliva in 1660 added this
province to the pofTeflion of Etlhonia. Both countries finally,
after a war of 20 years, came to the Rnflians by the treaty
of Nylladt in 17^1 ; and form at prefent the viceroyalties
of Riga and Revel. Thefe two governments are fuppofed
to contain 24,000 geographical fqnare miles. This country
formerly contained a conGderable number of towns and vil-
Uges, but by wars and inteftine commotions, moll of theni
•were dcttroyed. See Riga and Revel.

The tra£t of country called Polifh Livonia, which, under
the government of the Teutonic order, formed likewife a
part of the Livonian ftate, reverted in the year 1561, with
the whole province of that name, to Poland. At the peace
cf Ohva, by which Livonia came under the fovereignty of
Sweden, this fole diftrift however remained to the Pohfli
ftate, retaining from that time its name in contradiftinttion
to Swedifh Livonia. On the partition in 177?, this country,
which had liitherto conltituted its particular voivodefliip, was
annexed to RuiTia, and now comprehends the two circles of
■ Vol. XXI.

Dunabnrjj and Refitza, in the viceroyalty of Polatfiv.
Tooke's View of the Rufiian Empire, vol. i.

LIVONICA TiiKH.A, in the Maicna Mcd'ica, a kiiid of
fine bole ufed in the fliops of Germany and Italy, of which
there are two fpecies, the yellow and the red. (See BoLE.)
The dillinguidung charafters of which are thefe.

The ycUo'df lA-vonian carib is a pure and perfectly fine bole,
of a fliattery friable texture, confiderably heavy, and of a
dull dulky yellow, which has ufually iome faint blufli of
rednefs in it. It is of a fmooth furface, and does not ftain
the hands ; it adheres firmly to the tongue, and melts freely
in the mouth, leaving no grittinefs between the teeth, and
ferments not at all with acid menftrua. In a moderate fire
it acquires fome additional hardnefs, and a darker colour.
It has been efteemed a fndorific and an aftringent.

The red Lh'onlan earth is an impure bole of a loofe texture,
and a dull red. It is of a fmooth furface, breaks eafily be-
tween the fingers, and flightly ftains the hands. It melts
freely in the mouth, has a very ftrong aftringent talte, but
leaves a grittinefs between the teeth, and is alkaline. It ac-
quires a conlidcrable hardnefs in the fire, and becomes of a.
paler colour with a Itrong caft of yellowilh-brown.

Thefe earths are both dug out of the fame pit, in the
place from whence they have their name, and in fome other
parts of the world. They are generally brought to us made
up in little cakes, and fealed with the imprefCon of a church,
and an efcutcheon with two crofskeys, and recommended in
diarrhccas, dyfenteries, &c.

LIVORNINA, an old coin of Leghorn, equal in value
to 4J. ^id. fterling.

LIVORNO, in Geography. See Leghorn.

l.IUR, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 33 miles
N-E. of Gotheborg.

LIVRE, a French money of account, in the old fyf-
tem, confining of twenty fols ; each fol containing twelve
deniers and four liards.

The origin of the word is derived hence, that ancientlj
the Roman libra, or pound, was the ftandard by which the
French money was regulated ; twenty fols being made equal
to the libra. By degrees the libra became a term of ac-
count ; fo that any com juft worth twenty fols was a livre,
or libra; and fince the time of Charlemagne, all contraft*
have been made on the foot of this imaginary coin ;
though the fols have frequently changed their weight and
alloy.

The livre is of two kinds, Tourrois and Parl/is.

LiviiE 'Tourriuis, as above, contains twenty lols Tournoi',
and each fol twelve deniers Tournois.

Livre Parijis, is twenty fols Parifis, each fol Parifis
worth twelve deniers Parifis, or fifteen deniers Tournois ; fo
that a livre Parifis is equivalent to twenty-five fols Tournois ;
the word Parifis being ufed in oppofition to Tournois, on
account of the rate of money, which was one-fourth higher
at Paris than at Tonrs.

The franc and livre were formerly fynonimous ; but in
the coinage of 179), the franc was made too heavy, and its
value was accordingly raifed i j per cent. : thus, So franci
= 81 hvres. In 1796, it was ordered that the piece of
five francs fliould pafs for five livrcs one fol three deniers
Tournois, from which the proportion ot the franc to the
livre of 100 to 10 1 x is determined ; but the accuracy of thig
proportion has been queftioned by writers of the firft autho-
rity, who have calculated it to be as 100 to loii. Sep
Coi.vs, Exci!.\NGE, and Money.

For an account of the coin and money of account, both
under the old and new fyftem of 1795, fee Monfy.

There have fince been pieces of gold Uruck ul twenty foI»
-. D d value ;

L I V

▼aliie; and under Henry HI. in ijyj, pieces of filver of
like value : both the one and the other were called francs ;
and thus the imai;iiiary coin became real. It appears that
the Romans had alfo a kind of money, which tliey called
libra, or Itbclla ; which was the tenth part of their denarius ;
fo called, becaiifc equivalent to an as, w hich at firft weighed
a libra or po'jnd of copper. Scaliger adds, .that they iifed
libra as a term of account, not as a coin : " Libra erat col-
leflio nummorum, non nummus."

I.IVRE Ouvcrl, Fr. Ill MiJ:c. To fine: or play a lii-re oaverl,
is equivalent to playing or luigmg a:/ight, at the opening of a
book. All mulicians pique themlelves on being able to
perform a mufical compofition at fight, without previous
Itudy or praftice ; but RonfiVau very jul\ly obferves, that
there are few who, in this kind of execution, feize tlic true
fpirit of the autiior, and who, though they hit tlie right
notes, do not millake the cxpreffion.

LIUSD.VL, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Helfingland ; 32 miles W.M.W. of Hudwickf-
wal.

LIUSNABRUCK, a town of Sweden, in the province
•f Helfingland ; J miles S. of Soderhamn.

LIUSNAN, a river of Sweden, which rifcs in the
mountains of Hariedalen, and diicharges i'.felf into the gulf
of Bothnia; 8 miies S. of Soderhamn. N. lat. 61 15'. E.
long. 17".

LIUSTARNO, an ifland of Sweden, in the Baltic.
N. lat 99 jo'. E. long. 18 _:;o'.

LIUSTORP, a town of Sweden, in Medelpadia ; 15
miles N. of Sundfwall.

LIUSUDBORG, a town of Sweden, in Nericia ; 40
miles N. of Orcbro.

LIUTPRAND, in Biography, an hillorical writer of
the tenth century, faid by fome authors to have been a
Spaniard, by others an Italian. His father was in the con-
fidence of Hugo, king of Italy ; and the fon, while very
young, was placed in the court of Berenger II., who ob-
tained the kingdom by difpofrefling Hugo, and was fent by
him ambaffiidor to the Greek emperor, Conflantine Porphy-
rogcnitus, on account of his intimate acquaintance with the
Greek language. Lofing the favour of his own mailer, he
was obliged, in 958, to go an exile to Germany, where he
compofed the hillory of his own times, which is extant.
The fall of Berenger, who was ilript of his dominions, in
061, by Otho I., rcflored Liutprand to his country; and
he was foon after confecrated bilhop of Cremona. In
quality of this office, he attended an afiVmbly of bilhops at
Rome in 96J, in oppofition to the pope, John XII. He
was again lent an.bafT- dor to the court cf Conllantinople, in
the name of Otho, to f^jlicit the daughttr of the Greek em-
peror f >r the fon of 0:ho : he was unfuccefsful ; and being
much hurt at the reception lie met wi;h, he fatiri/.ed the
pride and ignorance of the court in an account of his cm-
balTy, an exed to his hiflory. The time of his death has
not been afcertained ; but his figaature occurs in a fynod
held at Ravenna in 970, under the title of Liuzio, bi(hop
of Cremona. This hiilorical work of Liutprand confifts of
fix books, of i\ hich fome of the latter chapters arc fuppofed
to have been written by another hand. It has patTed
througli feveral editions : the laft is that of Muratori, in his
«• Sciintorrs Rernm Ital "

LIUrZIN, in Geography, a town of Rudia, in the go- .
Ternment of Puljtik ; 60 n.ilos N.N.VV. of Polotdc. N.
lat, 56 25'. E. long. 27- 34'.

;1.IVY, Tnus Livius, in Biography, an eminent Ro-
min Iiiftorian, is fuppofed to have been a -'.live of Padua.
He came to Rome iii the reign of Aiiguflus, and was ad-

8

L I X

mitted to the familiarity of feveral perfons of rank, and of
the emperor himfelf. He made himfelf known by fome
piiilofophical dialogues ; but his literary reputation was
principally built upon his Roman hiftor)-, which enjoys a
perpetual celebrity : no work of the kind was ever reeeiv'.d
with greater :ipplaiife. Few particulars of his life are
known ; yet his fame was fo univcrfaliy fpread, even in his
life time, that a perfon traverfed Spain, Gaul, and Italy,
merely to fee the man whofe writings had given hiin fuch
pleafurc and fallsfaition in the peruial. Livy died at
Padua irj his 67th year, and, according to fome, on that
fame day Rome was alfo deprived of another of its brightcll
ornaments by the death of Ovid. I^ivy wrote a letter, ad-
dreffed to his fon, on the merit of authors, which is greatly
commended by Quintilian, who expatiates with great
v.'armth and ardour on the judgment and candour of the
writer. His Roman hillory was comprehended in 140
book?, of which only 35 are extant. It began with tlie
foundation of Rome, and was continued till the death of
Drufus in Germany. The merit of this hiflory is well-
knoH'n, and the high rank which l.ivy holds among hif-
torians will never be difputcd. His llyle is clear and intcl-
ligible, laboured without affeftation, difiulive without tcdi-
oulnefs, and argumentative without pedantry. His defcrip-
tion.s are fingularly lively and pifturefque ; and there are-
few fpecimens of oratory fiiperior to that of many of the
fpeeches with which his narratives are copionlly intcrfperfed.
Of the editions of Livy, thofe moll elleemed are tiiat of
Gronovius cum Notis variorum, 3 vols. Svo. Lugd. B»
1679; of Le Clerc, Amft. 10 vols- ; of Crevier, 6 vols. ;
of Drakenborch, Amll. 7 vols. Livy's works have been
divided by fome moderns into 14 decades, earfi confilling
ot 10 books. The iirft decade comprehends the liiflory of
460 years. The fecond decade is loll, and the tliird in-
cludes the hillory of the fecond Punic war, or a fpace of
about 18 years. In the fourth decade, Livy treats of the
wars with Macedonia and Antiochus, which contain 2^
years. For the firft five books of tlie fifth decade we are
indebted to the refearches of the moderns.' They were
found at Worms, in tlie year 1451. Thefc are the remains
of Livy's hillory. Freinfliemius, with great induftry and
attention, has made an epitome of the Roman hillory, which,
is now incorporated with the remaining books of Livy.

LIW, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
40 miles E. of Warlaw.

LIXEME, a town of Pruffia, in Cberland; 5 miles
S.S.W. of Saalfeldt.

LIXIVIOUS, Lixivi.M., or Ll.tlvlak, in Cbemljlry,
is underltood of falts extraded trom burnt vegetables by
lotion.

Lixivious falts are the fixed falts of plants, &c. extraiJled
by calcining the plants, or reducing them to tlhes, and after-
wards making a lixivium of thofe afties witii water.

Mr. Boyle obferves, that the differejicc betv.-ccn lixivious
and urinous falts confills in this, that the former change
the dilTnlution of fublimate in common water into a yel-
low colour, which the latter do not. See Alkali ai.d
Salt.

LIXIVIUM, Lev, or Lees, a liquor made by the in-
fufion of wood-alhes ; or, it denotes any alkaline fclulion,
made by lixiviating peail, or wood, or other allies.

What is left after ihe evaporation of fuch a liquor is called
a lixivious fait ; fuch as all thofe are which are made by in-
cineration.

Lixiviums are of ufe, not only in medicine, but alfo \n
bleaching, fiigar-work«, See. See raE.\ciiiNc;, Sugab,
awl Pot-ashes.

Lixivium

L I X

Lixivium Mm-th, in Med-dne, a form of medicine intro-
duced into pradice in the London Difponfatory. The
manner of preparing it is to fet the matter remaining in the re-
tort after tlie fubliming of the £ores martis, in a damp place,
where by means of the moiiiure of the air it will run into a
liquor. See Flokes Martiaks, and Irox.

Lixivium Saponaiivm, Soap-lees, Aqua lal'i purl, P. L.
T7S7; Liquor pot njfie, P. L. 1 809 ; a liquor that has been
iT!ucli ufed in medicine in cafes of the ilone (fee LlTllON-
TRli'Tic) ; and when intended for this ufe, it is to be made
fomething kfs ftrong than for the foap-boilers' ufe, and
fhould be prepared in the following manner. Take Ruflia
pot-afh, and qnick-lime, of each an equal quantity ; though
pure alkaline fait requires commonly about twice its weiglit
of qiiick-'.ime to render it completely cauftic, which is known
by the ley making no effervefcence with acids : throw water
on them in fmall quantities till the lime is Piaked ; then throw
on more water, and ftir the whole tocjether, luffering it to
ftand for a day or two, that the fait of the afhes may be dif-
foived ; after fome time pour the liquor, filtered through
paper, if needful, into another veflcl. A true itandard
wine-pint of this liquor meafurcd with the greateft exa6\nefs,
onght to weigh jult fixteen ounces troy. If it be found
on trial to be heavier than this, for every drachm it exceeds
that weight, an ounce and a half of water is to be added
to each pint : but if it be hghter than this, it muft be either
boiled to this ftandard, or elfe poured upon treih lime and
aihes. -

The makers of foft foap with us prepare their lees fo
much llronner than this, that to be reduced to this ftand-
ard, it requires to be diluted with an equal quantity of fair
water.

Quick-lime has the property of increaftng confiderably the
caulticity of all fixed alkalies, by abforbing their fixable air
or gas. See Lime.

This caullic ley, evaporated to drynefs, furnifhes an alka-
line fait exceedingly acrid, which being melted in a crucible
becomes what is called common csujlh ; becaufe when it is
applied to the f!<in, it rriakes an efchar, pierces it, and leaves
an ulcer, the fuppuration of which, when continued, is
call.'d an l^:ie. Caultic alkali has not only much greater
diHolving power, but it isalfo much more deliquelcent, and
attracts much more powerfully the ir.oifture of the air, than
ordinary alkali. This inconvenience is avoided by boiling
down the foap ley only to one-fourth part, and then, while
the liquor continues boiling, fprinkling in, by little and
little, io much powdered quick-lime as will abforb it, fo as
to form a kind of pafte.

The liquor potajfs, or folution of potafs, of the laft Lon-
don Pharmacopeia, is prepared by diffolving a pound of
fubcarboiiate of potafs, i. e. the kali praeparatum, P. 1,.
1787, or fal abfinthii, fal tartari of P. L. 1745, '" '■^^'"
pints of boiling diltiiled water ; then adding three quarts of
the water to a pound of lime nevvly prepared : mix the
liquors while ihey are hot, ftir them together, then fet by
the mixture in a covered veffel, and, after it has cooled,
ftrain the folution through a cotton bag. If any diluted
acid, dropped into the folution, occafion the extrication of
bubbles of gas, more lime muft be added, and the mixture
llraincd again. This folution is more denfe than water,
and, when (haken, appears like oil.

LrxiviuM Tartari, the name given in the London Dif-
penfatory of 174J to the liquor called by moll authors, as
in P. Ij. 1720, oil of tartar per deliquium ; in P. L. 17S7.
aqua kali praparati ; and in P. L. 1809, liquor potajpe ful-
carbonatis. This is made of tartar, which is to be calcined
to a whitenefs, and then fet in a damp place, where it will

L I Z

liquify by the moiflure of the air. The liquor thus pra-
cured is more pure than if the calcined tartar were diftblved
diredlly in water.

In the lall P. L. it is direfted to be prepared by dif-
folving a pound of fubcarbonate of potafs m twelve fluid
ounces of dillilled water, and then ftraining the folution
through paper. I'his folution will, in the ordinary ftatd.ot
the fubcarbonate, amount to nearly 18 ounces in bulk.

LIXURI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cepha-
lonia ; 1 2, miles \V . of Cephalonia.

LIZARD, in AJlronomy. See Lacbrta.

Lizard, in Natural Hijlory. Having, in various parts of
our work, referred to the article Lacekta, of w4iich, in its
proper place, we were difappointed, we Ihall now, it bei;:g
the firft opportunity aft'orded us after the omilTion, give an
account of the ivhole genus, including a great variety of
animals, which, although they poii'efs many charafters in
common, yet exhibit confiderr.ble diflerences in their eco-
nomy and habits, and alio in their ftrufture and erternjl
form.

For the anatomical defcription of this genus, we refer to
the article Reptiles.

The genus lacerta has by fome naturaliils been regarded
as a drllintl order, and as fuch has been divided into feveral
genera ; but following the Linnxan arrangement,' we (hall
confiderthe fubject under the divifionsor fections into which
Linnaeus feparated the genus.

Dr. Shaw has thus enumerated them :

1. Crocodiles, furnilhed with ftrong Icales.

2. Guanas, and other lizards, either with ferrated or ca-
rlnated backs and tails.

^. Cordyles, with denticulated, and fometimes fpiny
fcales, either on the body or tail, or both.

4. Lizards proper, fmooth, and the greater number
furnidied with broad fquare fcalcs, or plates on the ab-
domen.

J. Chameleons, with granulated Hcin, large head, long
milDIe tongue, and cylindric tail.

6. Geckos, with granulated or tuberisulated ilcin, and lo-
bated feet, with the toes lamellated beneath.

7. Scinks, with fmooth, fi(h-like fcales.

8. Salamanders, newts, or efts, with foft llcins, fome of
which are water-hzards.

9. Snake-hzards, with extremely long bodies, \'ery fhort
legs, and minute feet.

This is an active tribe, and, with the exception cf tiie
aquatic animals, feeds o'n inleCts : the crocodiles have both
jaws moveable, and the largell mwutls ot all animals : their
body is covered with ca!k)fities : the chameleons have a pi-e-
lienfile tail ; fit on trees ; walk flov.-ly and irregularly ; have
no teeth ; eyes large, fixed in a wrinkled focket ; tongue
very long, worm-lhaped, with which they dra%v in flies ;
head angular, covered with very thin lucid tubercles or
fcales.

The foregoing divifions, it is admitted, neither are nor can
be perfeftly prccife, fince fpecies occur which may, with
nearly equal propriety, be referred to either of the neighboir-
ing feftions : on this account naturaliils have not been
agreed as to the exaft number of fpecies in each lei^ion, nor
even as to the number of fedlions tiicmfeivcs. Dr. Shaw, a>
we have feen above, has feparated the genus into nine fcftions ;
he has been followed by many other leipedtable writert, but
in the laft edition of Gmclin, as given by Dr. Turton, the
genus is divided into eleven fcCtiuns, which (Uail be given
in their order.

Section A. Tail two-edged, divided into fegments;
tongue verj- ftioru

D d i Species.

LIZARD.

Species.

Crocodu.IS, or Crocodile of the Nile ; has a mailed '
iead ; nape carinate, tail above with two lateral crclls.

This animal, as its name imports, is chiefly found in the
river Nile, or on its banks. It fometimts arrives at a very-
great lize : the common lize of a full grown crocodile is from
iS to 25 feetlonir, though fome have been ftin that meafiire
full forty feel in length. The colour of the upper part is a
blackilli-brown, but beneath it is of a yellowi(h-\vhlte. The
upper parts of the legs and lides arc varied with deep yellow,
and in fome parts tinged with green. The opening of the
mouth is of valt extent, and both jaws are furnilhcd with
numerous iharp-pbinted teeth ; thole in the middle part of
t!ie jaw being largeft, and refcmbling the canine teeth of vi-
viparous aiunials. The external openings of the ears are
placed on the top of the head, above the eyes, and tlie eyes
themfelves arc furnifhcd with a nid'titating membrane, fimi-
lar to that of birds. The legs are ihort, Itrong, and mufcu-
lar. The tail is long, compreffcd on the fides, and furniflied
above with an upright procefs, formed by the gradual ap-
proach of two elevated crelh, which proceed from the lower
part of the back. The upper part of the body of the cro-
codile is covered with a llrong armour, which in its ftruc-
ture exhibits the appearance of the moll curious carved
work, and is indeed a fine piece of mechanifm. The croco-
dile depofits its eggs in the fand or mud on the banks of the
rivers which it inhabits, and as foon as the young are hatched,
they proceed to the water. The crocodile is a native of
Afia and Africa, but it ftems more common in the latter than
in the former country. It inhabits only large rivers, and
iivcs chielly an fi(h, but being extremely voracious, it feizes
any other animal that comes witliin its reach. The crocodile
has long been regarded as one of the moft for'hiidable ani-
mals of tliC countries in which it is found, but fnme late tra-
vellers fecm to have entertained a lefs formidable opinion of
them. M. Denon, fpeaking of the French army in Egypt,
fays that the foldiers and himfelf bathed daily in the Nile,
and vet they were never once attacked by them, nor did they
ever meet wit^i a fingle crocodile at a diilance from die water.
Hence he inferred that they find, in the river a lufficient
quantity of ealily procurable food, which they digell (lowly,
being, like the lizard and ferpent, cold blooded, and of an
inaftive Itomach. " Bcfides," fays llie traveller, « having
in the Egyptian part of the Nile no enemies but each other
and man, they would be truly formidable, if, covered as
they are with an almolt impenetrable defenfive armour, they
■were fl-:ilful and alert in making ufe of thofe means which
nature has given them for attack.'' He farther adds, that
they faw three crocodiles, one of which was nearly twenty,
five feet in L-ngth ; they were all afleep, fo that they could
approach tbem within about twenty yards, and had an op-
portunity of diftinguifhiiig them very accurately. He fays,
that in that poiitioii they refembled difmountcd cannon : he
fired on one, the ball ilruck him and rebounded from his
fcales. He ir<ade a leap of ten feet,^ and dived into the
river.

In the large rivers of Africa, and in certain parts of thofe
ri\-ers, they may be feen in vail (lioals fwimniii)g together,
where they exhibit the appcarai>ce of floating timber. A
variety of the common crocodile has been found in the
river Senegal, it has a longer fnout, and is ahriall entirely
black. It IS very fwift, voracious, and of amazing flrength ;
it roars fiideourty; devours every vhing that comes in its
■way ; fwallows llones to prevent hunger, and cannot be
killed bf a muflcct ball unlefs ftruck on the belly : it feidoin
moves but la a Ilralght line, and may accordingly be

avoided : the female lavs her eggs in the fand, which are
not much largiT than thofe of a goofe.

G.VNtJLTicA, or Gangetic crocodile. This animal has
long, roundilh, or fub-cyhndric jaws ; its tail 611 the upper
fide has two crells running into one.

Tliis fpccies is found in the Ganges, where it is nearly
equal in fize to the common crocodile. In this the llruclure
of the fnout is very remarkable, it being nearly three times
as long as the head. The eyes are extremely prominent,
and it is faid they are fo condruflcd, that they may be
railed above the water, when the refl of the body is under
the furface, by which the animal is enabled to fee its prey
either on the furface of the water, or on the banks of rivers.
In the general form and colour of the body and limbs, this
fpccies refembles the common crocodile. In the Biitilh
Mufxum is a fpecimen of this creature, meafuring eighteen
feet in length.

Ai,LiG.\TOU. The head of this animal is flat, imbricate^.
nape naked ; tail above witli two rough lateral lines.

It inhabits the middle parts of America, is lefs than a
crocodile, but refembles it in habits and voracity. The
larged in fize, and the greatell numbers of alligators, inhabit
the torrid zone, neverthelefs the contim-nt ten degrees more
north abounds with them, particularly as far as the river
Neus in North Carolina. In the latitude 33 , which anfwcrs
to the northernmoll parts of Africa, where they arehkewile
found, they frequent not only fait rivers near the fea, but
llreams of frdh water in the upper parts of the country,
and in lakes of fait and fiefti waters, 011 the banks of which
they he lurking among the reeds to furprifc cattle and other
animals. They are found in Jamaica, and many parts of
the continent, full 20 feet in length. But we are told they
cannot be more formidable in their afpeil tlinn terrible in
their nature, fparing neither man nor bead which com«
within their reach, pulling them under water and drownnvj
tliem, in order that they may with greater facility, and
without a llrnggle or refillance, devour them.. They fubfill
chiefly on filh, but as Providence, for the prefervation, or
to prevent the extinction of defencelefs creatures, has ia
niauy inftances reilraiiied the devouring appetites of vora»
cious animals, by fome certain impediments ; fo th'.s deilruc-
tive montler can proceed only in a ftraight forward direc-
tion, and is confequently dii'abled from turning with th;-.t
agility requilite to catch his prey by purfuit ; therefore a!.
h'gators do it by furprife in the water, as well as by land :;
they have the power of deceiving and decoying their prcy^,
by a fagacity peculiar to themfelves, as well as by the OHter
form and colour of their body, which on bnd refembles a
log or tree,, and in the water lies (ioating^ on the furface, and
has the like -ippearauce, by which, aud their fileiit artifice,
filh, fowl, and turtle,, are lured into their grai'p, and fud-
denly catched and devoured.. Carnivorous aniuials get their
food with more difEculty, and lefs certainty than thofe
which fubfiil on vegetable fubili-.nces, and are frequently
obliged to fail long, which a flow dig-edion enables them to
endure. Reptiles pai-ticularly, by fwallov iug whole what
ibey eat, can. live long witluiut food. Alligators fwallow
dones and wood, to dillend tlie lloniach and prevent its con-
traclion by emptinefs. They lay a great number of eggs
£X one time on fandy banks of rivers and laj-.es, which are
hatched by the heat of the fun, without any care of the
parent. The young, as. foon as they are difeogaged from the
(hell,, run to the water by a natural inftind. and fliift for
themfelves, and while young they fervc as a prey not onl/
to ravenous filh of other tribes, but to their own fpecies.
In South. Carolina they are numerous, but Ur.aller than thole
towards the equator, but they attack, men and cattle, ani

1 airft

LIZARD.

are great t'evourers of tlie race of fwine. In Carolina they
lie torpid during the winter in caverns and hollows in the
banks of the rivers, and at their coming out in the ipring
make a hideous bellowing noife. According to Catefby, in
his hillory of Carolina, fome parts of alligators are reckoned
very delicious food by the Indians. They depofit their
eggs at two or three different periods, and more than twenty
ot them at each laying. They have been obferved to raife
a Imall hillock near the banks of the river, and after hollow-
ing it out in the middle, to collect a quantity of leaves and
other vegetable mattei-s, in whicli they depofit their eggs.
Both the alligator and crocodile are fuppofed to be long
lived animals. It has been thought the crocodile, or fome
of the fpecies, was the leviathan mentioned in the book of
Job, chiefly, perhaps, becaufe thedefcription of this monfter
does not tulHcientij- correfpond with the general ftriiclure
of the whale ; neverthelefs, the leviathan there mentioned
uill correfpond full as little with any of the fpecies of the
crocodile now known as with the whale, antl it is more pro-
bable, that, hke the mammoth, the leviathan of the fcrip-
tures is not now to be found on the face of the earth.

Section B. — The. animals of this feftion have the body
covered with carinate fcales.

Species.

Caudiverbera, or flat-tailed lizard, is found in Peru'and
Chili, and is about twelve or fifteen inches long. The tail
1$ depreffed, flat, wing-cleft j feet palmate. The body is
inclining to blue ; fcales very minute ; head convex, oblong ;
eyes very large, yellow ; noftrils wide, with a fiefny edge ;
mouth large, teeth minute, hooked in a double feries ;
tongue thick, broad, red ; chin with a dilatable pouch ;
creil running down the back from the front to the tip of the
tail, undulate at the edge ; feel five-toed, with a cartilage
ijiltead of nails.

Dr.ic.ena, or large long-tailed lizard, with a fmooth
body, and tail denticulated along the upper part. The
body is of a deep chefnut-colour ; the fcales are very minute ;
the legs teflellate, with fafFron and white. It inhabits
America, and has been named the large American cordylus,
and has fometimes been confounded with the caudiverbera
jull noticed.

It is a native of feveral parts of South America, and of
£ome of the I-ndian ifiands, and is regarded, in fome countries
in which it is found, as a great delicacy. The head is
fmall, and rather elegantly formed, the fnoni taperintf in
fuch a manner aj to bear a relemblance to that of an Italian
grey-hound ; the teeth are fmall and numerous, and the
tongue forked ; the proportions <rf the neck and limbs are
elegant, thovigh ftrong ; and the body is moderately thick;
the tail is of great length. The whole anini;d is fmooth,
or deftitute of prominences on the (kin, which is coVered
witli fmall, ovate, and, in fome parts, (lightly fubquadrate
fcales, largell on the outfide of the limbs, the back, and
tJie abdomen ; along the upper edge of the tail runs a con.
tinued feries of fnort triangular denticulations ; the feet
are moderately ftrong,. and. the toes are armed with {harp
crooked claws.

Dr. ShavA mentions a variety, of which there was a
fpecimen in the Leverian Mufjeum, which differs in being
of a pale bi-own colour, variegated on the body and tail by
feveral deep-brown tranfveri'e bands, among which, as alfo
on the abdomen and limbs, are interfperfed many fmaller
variegations, and fpots of a llmilar colour.

BlMACULATA, or Pennfylvanian hzard, has a tail carinate,
;*)Oihed, twice, as long as the body, all the toes, gf which..

there are five on each foot, are lobate. The colour of if*'
body is greenilh-blue, moflly fpotted with black ; thp
(liouiders \vith two large fpots. It is found in the woods of
St. Euftatius and Pennfylvania, and lives in holes, gutters,
and hollow trees; makes a hiffing noife, and dcpofits it,8-
eggs in the earth.

Monitor, or monitor lizard, is one of the largcft of the
hzard tribe; it meafures fometimes from four to five feet.
Its colour is black ; tail very long, coraprelTed, carinateA;
body marked with tranfvcrfe rows of v.hite, ocellated.

This is a very beautiful animal. The head is fmall ; the
fnout gradually tapers ; the limbs are (lender ; and the tail,
which is laterally comprelfed, gradua'ly decreafes towards
the extremity. As a whole, the form is (lender and elegant ;
though the colours are fimple, they are fo difpofed as to pro-
duce an agreeable effeft. It is a native of South America, ^
inhabiting woody and mar(hy places. If credit may be
given to reports of authors, who pretend to have (tudied its
habits and characters with much accuracy, its difpofition
is as gentle as its appearance is beautiful. It has even <rained
the title of monitor falvaguarda, &c. from its pretended at-
tachir.ent to the human race : it has been co:>tidently af--
firmed, that it warns mankind of the approach of the alli-
gator by a lotid and (hrill whiftle.

_ There is a variety of this animal mentioned by V^Tiite, in
his " Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales ;" but in
Gmelin's edition of the " Syltema Naturs,'' it is given as
^a diftinfi fpecies, under the name of

Varia, or variegated lizard. Though there is a o-reaf
refemblance between this and the monitor ; yet there are
certain points of difference in its colour, and variegations
that will juftify its introdudtion as a feparate fpecies. The
tail is long, carinate ; body blackHh, tranfverfely variegated ■
with yellow fpots and marks.

It is found in New Holland. The markings on the body,
inftead of the genera! ocellated pattern of the preceding,.,
confift of rounded, or (lightly fubangukr fpots and variega-
tions : the limbs, as in the monitor lieard, .are marked w'ith >
numerous hands and fpots, and the tail is banded ; thedaws
are very large and ftrong.

BicAKiNATA, orbicarinated lizard, has a tail of moderate
length ; four rows of ftrong carinated fcales on the back.
The head is fmall ; the mouth very wide in proportion, and
the fnout fome what (harp. It is of a reddifh-brown colour,
tinged in fome parts with various (hades of green.

In its general habit, this fpecies bears a refemblance to e.
fmall crocodile, on account of the hard tuberculated and ■
cannated fcales, on the upper parts of the body, two rov«s
of v/hich are more prominent than the reft, and extend from
the upper part of the back to the tail^ where they coalefce -
and form a ferrated creft to the extremity. It is a native
of South America, where it is fometimes uled a» food, and
its eggs are highly efteemt-d. It^ haunts are woody and
marftiy regions : it is fond of water ; and one kept fome -time
by M. de la Borde, often continued in it for feveral- hours
together, hiding; itfelf when difturbed or- affrighted, .but it
feemed delighted in coming out and baflung in the. direift
and ftrong rays of the fun»

A lizard, known under the name of igr.ariica, a native of
Brazil, is regarded as a variety of tfie fpecies julldefcribed,
differing only in colour, which is darker, and the claws,
which are Ihorter, but, like it, there is fame refemblance
between it and the crocodile : it readily climbs trees.

CoRDYi,us, or Cordyle lizard, has a fmooth body, diort
tail that is verticillated with denticulated fcales. This fpecies
is fometimes blue, and fometimes of a livid-brown, and the

total-

LIZARD.

\oii\ length is not above ten or eleven ir.cTii^s. The fcales
which cover the body are of an oblong fortn, and the tail
is verticillated with rowe of Urge fcales.

Seftion C. Back and tail, or the v.'hole body, covered
with denticulate or Iharp-pointed fcales.

Species.

PKi.LU>rA, or Pelluma li/ard, has a long tail, and verti-
-ciliated with rhomboidal fcales. It is about two feet in its
total length, and i,? diilingiiidied on the upper parts of its
Tjody by a beautiful variety of green, yellow, blue, and black
colours. The under parts of tiic body are of a gloffy ycl-
lowilh-grcen : it is a native of Chili, and lives under ground;
•t!ie inhabitants of that country make its ficin into pouches.
Its feet are five-toed, and its claws very ftrong.

Steli.io, or rough lizard, has a verticillated tail, with
•denticulated fcales ; the body and head are muricated.

This fpecies, as its Enghfli nanle implies, is remarkable
for the unufually rough appearance of its whole upper fur-
face ; both body, linibs, and tail being covered with pointed
fcales, projefting here and there to a confidcrablc diftance
beyond the furface. The general colour of the animal is a
pale blueini-brown, with a few deeper and lighter tranfverfe
variegations. It is not above eight or nine inches in length.
It is a native of many parts of Africa. Dr. Shaw, in
fpeaking of tliis fpecies, fays, " it may be obfer\Td that the
lizard, which was probably termed Slel/io by the ancients,
from its being marked with fpots refembling ilar?, feems at
prcfent unknown. It is, however, obfervable, that in
one of Seba's plates a fpecies occurs, which is attually
marked witli well-defined or regular ilar-fhaped fpots.''
5on-.e naturalifts confider the lizards called geckos as the
true_/?fffionfj.

Mauritanica, or Moorifh lizard, is charaAerized by a
fubverticiMate tail, muricate, fliort, fmooth at the tip, body
.above muriciite, toes unarmed, lamellate beneath.

This is cnc variety : the fecond is dillinguiflicd by a verti-
cillate tail ; and the third by having a prickly body. It is
found in Mauritania, and in fome parts of India. The
body is lurid, the upper part has protuberances, the lower
is fmooth ; fcales are very minute ; tail (ho.-ter than the
body, from the bafe to the middle rough, with fix rows of
fpines, thence to the tip fmooth.

AzuREA, Azure lizard. Tail vcrticillate, (hort with mu-
(Cronate fcales.

This is the ehganl'ijfima of Seba. The colour, in its
natural ftate, feems to be an elegant pale blue, fafciated on
the body and tail with fcveral tranfverfe, and alternate bands
cither of black or very deep blue ; but this is faid to be
moft confpicuous in the fmaller fpeciniens or varieties. It
is fometimes only a few inches long. The larger variety has
a deep chefnut band on the (boulders. The fmaller variety
is a native of fome parts of Africa; the larger of South
America.

Angulata, or Angulated lizard, has a long and
hexagonal tail, and is furnifhed with carinated and mucro-
nated fcales. This is a fmall fpecies, having a tail lono-er
than the body. The colour is of a duflcy brown Beneath
the throat there are two rounded f^a'es. The tail is longer
than the body, and ftrongly marked with longitudinal ridges.
It is a native of America.

Orbicularis, or Orbicular lizard, has a brown body ;
the tail is (hort, fcales muricated. Both body and tail are
round. The colour is of a duflcy brown, variegated with
idiiferent fhades ; the body is large, and in fome refpecls it

refemblos a toad. It is a rare fpecies, and is a nr.tlvc o-'
South America, particularly in New Spain.

Ba.sili8Cus; Bafi)ilk lizard. Tail round; dorf.d fin ra-
diate ; hind-head crefted. The bafilid; is about tightccii
inches long, of a pale a(h-brown colour, with fome darker
variegations about the u])per part of the body. In the
young animal, the dorfal or caudal proccfs, and the pointed
occi; ital creft, are lefs dillinct.

The badlidc is chiefly a native of South America. It
refides principally among trees, and its food is infcfts. It
is aflive, and by means of its dorfal cref. or fin, it is ensblcd
to fprjng from tree to tree. It can fi\im with great eafe.
It has a very formidable appearance, but is quite harmlcfs.
In the poetical dcfcriptions of the ancit nts, it was coniiJered
to be tiie moll malignant of all poifor.< ns ai.iinals, e\en its
look was regarded as fatal. The terrific glance rf the
bafiliik in the African deferts, according to I.ucan, obliged
the reil of the poifonous tribe to keep at a d'lancc.

PiiixciPALis ; Smooth-crefted lizard. T],: tail of the
fpecies is fubcarinale ; crell on the throat very entire, back
fmooth. It IS of H (lender form, and fmall, rar"]j exceed-
ing eight or nine incies in length, including botti body and
tall. The colour is bkie, the head fmall, and the fnout
taper. It is a native of ^;outh America.

Platura ; Broad-mailed lizard. Colour grey brown,
paler beneatii ; body rough ; tail deprelTed. lanceolatcd, and
fpiny on the margin. This fptcies is from four to fix inclics
long ; it is diftinguiflied by the lir.gular form of its tail.
The feet are pentadaclylous ; the toes (lender, and the
claws curved. It is found in New Holland.

Seilion D. Back ciliatc, toothed or creded ; head co-
vered with callolilies.

Species.

Iguana ; Common or great American Guana. This
fpecies has a long round tail; back ferrated ; the tLrii;it
crelt denticulated. This, of all the lizard tribe, is of the
moft peculiar form, and grows to a conliderable fize. It is
fometimes three, four, or five feet long. The general co-
lour is green, fhadcd with brown. The back is ftrongly
ferrated, which, as well as the denticulations of the pouch
at the throat, gives it a formidable appearance.

Ii is a native of the Wcfl Indies, and fome parts of the
continent of America. It frequents rocky and woody
places, and feeds chiefly on infcfts and vegetables. It is
eafily tamed, and follows the human race like a dog ; it is
caught by a noofe thrown over its head ; the flefli is
reckoned a great delicacy : the general colour is green, but
varioufiy tinged in various animals : it has tiie power of in-
flating the throat pouch to a very large fize.

According to Catefby the animals of this fpecies are
of various f.zes, from two to five feet in length ; their
mouths are furnifiied with exceedingly fmall teeth, but their
jaw is armed witli a long beak, witli which they bite with
great flrengtli. Tiiey inhabit warm countries onlv, and
are rarely met with any where north or fouih of the
tropics. Many of llie Bahama iflands abound with tlicm,
where tliev nelUe in hollow trees and rocks. Guanas make
a conliderable part of th(5 fuhfillence of the inhabitants of
the Bahama iflaiids, for wliich purpofe tliey vilit many re-
mote iflands in their floops to catcli them, wliich they io
by dogs trained for tlie purpofe. Guanas feed on vege.-
tables and fruit, particularly on a kind of fungus growing
at the roots of trees, and on the fruits of the anona^.
Their flcfii is eafy of digeftisn, but is thought not to agree
with conttitutions 'labouring under a particular difeafe.

Though

LIZARD.

Though gi:r,n:is are not amphibious, they are faid to keep to defend itfelf, but feems, in fome meafure, ftupificdj
under water above an hour. When they fwim they make Like other fpecies of this numerous tnbe, it depofits it.

no ufe of their feet, but clap them clofe to their body, and
guide themfelvcs with their tails. They are fo impatient of
cold, that they rarely appear out of their hole| except when
the fun fhines llroiigly.

The h->rn:d guana is a variety of the iguana, and is nearly
the fame in lize and general proportions ; the back is fer-
rated, and the form of the fcaics is the fame. It wants,
however, the throat pouch, and there are in front of the
bead, between the eyes and noftrils, large fcaly tubercles,
behind which there is a bony conical procefs, which is co-
vered with a fingle fcale. It is a native of St. Domingo,
■where it is common.

C.VLOTES ; Galeot lir.ard. Tail long and round ; back
de-stated on the fore part, and the head on the hind part.

The animals of this fpecies feldom exceed a foot and a
half in length, from the tip of the nofe to the e.^ctremity of

eggs in the fand, on the banks of the rivers which it fre-
quents. The eggs, while in the body of the animal, are
difpofcd in two long groups or clufiers, and are of a yel-'
lov/ colour; but wiien excluded, they are white and
oblong.

This lizard appears in fome degree to form a connedV-
ing link between the guana and the^bafilifc. The male and
female differ confiderably in lize and in the diftribution of
their colours ; the female being of a more obfcure tinge
than the male, and having but little appearance of the
creft or procefs on the tail. It has been differed, and a
fmall triangular heart found within it : an oblong liver,
with a round gall-bladder; fmall reddi(h lunga, fliglitly
tinged with lead-colour ; a narrow, whitifli ftomach, coated,
or enveloped in fat, and large inteftines, in which were
difcovered the berries and feeds of certain aquatic ihrubs,
the tail, but in other refpefts the calotes refembles the com- together with fome fmall femi-tranfparent pebbles, and a
mon guana. It wants the pouch, and in its place there is kind of worms not unhke millepedes. There was a fine
only a flight enlargement of the throat : the colour is com- fpecimen of this fpecies in the Mufeum of the late Mr,
monly of an elegant bright blue, variegated with broud, ir- John Hunter.

regular, white, tranfvc-rfe bands on each fide of the body and Agama ; American galeot. Tail long, round; the upper
tail. The limbs are flender, and tliis is particularly the caft; part of the neck, and the back of the head, are aculeated •
with the toes. It is a native of the warmer regions of fcales of the hind head reverfed. This fpecies refembles
Africa, Afia, and many of the Indian iflands. It is very in fome refpefts, the calotes : but it wants the ftrontJ- ferra-
common in Ceylon. It is faid to be found in Spain, where tures on the back, inftead of which it has onlv a fmall
it wander? about the tops of houfes in fearch of fpiders. denticulated carina. The head is proportionally larger.

There is a variety, of which the body above is livid, and and on the back part it is furnilhed with - fharp-pointed.
beneath green : and a fecond, the neck of which is covered fcales, fome of which are reverfed at the extremities. The
with broad obtufe prickles. colour is browniih, and varioufly clouded. In the male,,

SuPERCiLiosA ; Fringed lizard. Tail carinated ; back the creft. on the back is compofed of longer fpines, and
and eye-brows ciliated, with upright lanceolated fcales. It extends to the lower part. It is found in different parts of
inhabits South America and India. South America and in the Weft Indian iflands.

The general appearance of this fpecies bears fome refem- There is a variety of this fpecies named the muricated
blance to the guana, and ftill more to the variety defcribed lizard. The tail is long, round ; body greyifh ; fcales ca-
as the horned guana, in having; the appearance of a pair of rinatcd and (harp pointed. This lizard meafures a foot
fharp-pointed horn-hke procefl'es above and beyond each eye ; or more in length. The want of the reverfe fcales on the
between thefe are placed fome aculeated fcales. back part of the head conftitutes the principal diiTerence

ScuTATA ; Shielded lizard. Tail fub-compreffed, mo- between this and the calotes. It is found in New South

' Wales.

Umbra ; Clouded lizard. Tail round, long ; nape fub-
crelled ; hind-head callous ; back (Iriated. Tliis is found in.
the fouthern parts of America :. the body is clouded ; fcales
keeled, and daggered at the tip, head more obtufe ani
round than others of its tribe : the callus on the hind part
of the head is large and naked : under the throat is a deep
fold.

Marmohea ; Marbled lizard. Tail round, long ; throat

derately long ; dorfal future toothed ; hind-head with two
fharp fcales. It inhabits Atia. This fpecies is di.tinguilhed
from the fringed lizard by having a pr6portionably larger
head, and a row of fcales more elevated than the rell, paff-
ing over each eye ; and from thefe a ridge is continued to-
wards the back, in form of a denticulated creft to the
beginning of the tail. The body is covered with fmall
acuminated fcales; the limbs and tail with larger ones. This
is a native of Ceylon

Amboinexsis ; the Amboina lizard. Tail compreffed, fubcrefted, dentate on the fore-part ; back fmooth. It

long, with a radiate fin ; dorfal future toothed. This fpe-
cies, which fometimes grows to the length of three feet, is
diftinguiflied by the Angularity of its appearance, and the
beauty of its colours. Tiie head and neck are green, and
variegated with white tranfverfe unduLuions. The back
and tail are brown, with a (hade of purple. The fides
and belly are greyilh, or pale brown, the head is tubercu-
lated above, and covered with roundilh fcales ; the mouth
is wide, and the teeth are Iharp and numerous.

It is a native of the Eift Indies, but is found mufl fre-
quently in the ifland of Amboina, frequenting the neigh-
bourhood of rivers and other frelh waters. It is often feen

found in America, and alfo in Spain. Its body is com-
prefl'ed ; tail ftreaked, and the claws are black above.

Cristata ; Crefted lizard. Tail lanced, (hort, pinnate j.
backcrefttd; body porous, naked. It is of a reddifli-brown
with lead-colour fpots ; creft reaching from the head to the
tail ; the head is very thick, obtufe ;. fnqut broad ; feet
cleft ; four toes on the front feet and five on the hinder
ones ; tail bordered on each fide with a membrane.

Section E, Body naked ; feet unarmed; fore-feet four>-
toed.

on the bunks of rifing grounds, and on low fhrubs which

Species.

American.*. Tail lanceolate, middle-fized r back

grow, near the water. Whin.-ver it is difhirbedby the ap- fringed ; belly fpotted with yellow; it is only about four
proach of men or oiher animals, it plunges into the neareft or five inches long, and is found in Amenca. The fore-
water and conceals itfelf beneath the rocks, or ftones under part of the head is rounded ; fnout broad ; body dufky
the banks. It may be eafily uken, as il does not attempt blueifli, beneath yellow fjpotted with black, lides pale ochre y

LIZARD.

legs without blucifli, witliin ycUow ; a fringe extending
from the head to the tip of the tail.

Pai.ustris ; Waned ncwl. Body blackifli ; fides
fpeckled with white ; belly orange, with irregular black
foots. This iprcics is fmall, and bears a confiderable refem-
blance to the falamar.der. It is from (Ive to fix inches in
length. The tail is flat, with thin (harp edges, and tcrnii-
nating in a point ; on each fide of it in the male there is a iil-
verv white broad band, accompanied with a bluciih tinge.
This tlripe and the dorfalcrelt are fometimes w anting in the
female.

It is found in many parts of Europe, but is rarely fccn in
.Britain. It frequents llagnant waters in cool and ihndy
places, and lives entirely on infers. It is faid to be entirely
-harmlefs with regard to larger animals, but that a fluid is
exuded from its Ikin which ieems to aft as a poifon on fmall
animals.

Lacustkis ; 'Fenny newt. Of this fpecies there are
feveral varieties, i. Black-; tail lanceolate, middle-fized.
2. Much larger ; fpotted with black. 3. Variegated white
and yellow, and fpotted with black. 4. Tuberculate ; chin
fpeckled ; belly fpotted ; tip of the tail red. 5. Tuber-
culate ; belly faffron colour. 6 Head round ; black
'fpotted with pale yellow. 7. Black with whitifh bands.
6. Black ; beneath dotted with white. This fpecies, which
is found in many parts of the world, is very deftrudlive of

fifii. . .• .

Aquatic.a ; "Water-newt. Tail roundifh, middle-flzed ;
there are likewife varieties ; brown or yellowidi ; and one
'with a dorfal line dotted with white and black ; the fu-(l is
found in many parts of Europe ; the fecond inhabits France ;
.and the third in Germany.

It lives in pools, ditches, and ftagnant waters, and is killed
in three minutes if fait be fprinklcd upon it. The body is
fpougy, blackiih dotted with black ; chin rough ; back fub-
crefted ; tail fmooth, fpeckled with a longitudinal white
"ilripeon each fide.

The general length of this fpecies is from three to four
-inches. The male is readily diftinguifhed from the female by
a confpicuous dorfal creil, which js more elevated, and more
regularly finuated than that of the paluftris. The broad
creil is very tranfparent, and when examined by a magnify-
ing-glafs {h«ws the ramifications of the bloodveflels and the
'circulation of the blood. In the female the dorfal creft is
nearly wanting. The fi)re.foet are tetradaftylous ; but the
4iind-feet Irave five toes, and in all, the claws are wanting ;
but vnth regard to colour, the breadth of the tail, and that
of the toes, water-newts difli^er at different feafonsof the year,
in different Hates of the weather, and lomctimes a confiderable
\ariation is obfcrved even in the courfe of the fame day.

This fpecies is very common in ftagnant waters. It
breeds early in the fpring, and depofits fmall oblong firings
cr chillers of fpawn. The ova are of a kidney fliape, and
the larva; are ready formed, and may be fecn aftive and
fportiijg before they leave the gluten. They extricate them-
(elves in about ten days, and when they are firfl: excluded,
the branchial fins are diftinftly fcen, and foon after their
fore-legs appear. In a fortnight the hind-legs are viftblc,
^nd in about four or five montiis the branchial fins become
obliterated, and the animal afiumcs a perfect fo(;m. In the
larva (late, the animal has the appearance of a fmall fifii. It
calls its Ikin, v.-hich may be found floating on the waters
V.hich it frequents, and is fometimes fo perfeft as to repre-
fcnt the whole fcjrm of the complete animal. The repro-
^iiftive power of this fptcies of lizard has been noticed as a
Tery Uriking circumflance in natural hiilory. They have
iscen kaoivji to have their legs, tails, and even their eyes

reftored after they have been deftroyed. It has alfo bceii
afcert^ined that water-newts have been completely eucloted
ill a mals of folid ice, in which they have remained feveral
weeks, and yet upon a thaw the little animals have been
reftored to thi^r former health and vigour. We may mention
in conneftion with this a fpecies defcribcd by Dr. Shaw, de-
nominated the

Lf.vkrian Water newt ; of which there was a good fpc-
cimen in the Levcrian mufeum. The total length of this is
17, inches, and its tail is about fix or feven inches of it.
The head is flattened, the mouth moderately wide, and the
upper jaw is furniflied in front with two concentric rows of
numerous, (mall, briilly teeth. The under jaw has only a
fingle r w. The eyes are fmall, round, fituated on each
fide of the front of the head, fo that they are remote from
each other. The colour is pale brown, marked with darker
variegations. The legs are about an inch in length, and
they are all furniflied, along their whole length behind with
a dilated fliin or creil. The tail is like that of a common
water-newt, but ihorter and not fo deeply finned.

.SAL.\MASnR.\ ; Salam.andcr. The Ipecific character of
this aftimal is, colour black, fpotted with golden yellow ;
tail round, and of moderate length. Of this fpecies there
are, befides the one defcribed, fome entirely black ; fome
brown ; fome white ; and fome fmall, brown ; with a tail in
fome degree i omprcfled. The falamander, fo long the fub-
jeft of popular error, and of which fo many idle tales have
been recited by the more ancient naturalills, is an inhabitant
of many parts of Germany, Italy, Fr;ince, Sec. but lias not
been difcovcred in England. It deligiits in moill and ihady
places, and during winter conceals itfelf in reccfles under
ground, in the cavities of old walls, or about the roots of
old trees. It is eafily diftinguifliable by its fine colours ;
being of a deep fliining black, variegated with large, irre-
gular patches of bright orange-yellow ; which on each lide
the back are commonly fo dilpofed, as to form a pair of in-
terrupted longitudinal ilripes ; on each fide of the back of
the head is fituated a pair of large tubercles, which are in
reality the parotid glands, that are protuberant not only in
this and other fpecies of the Lacerta genus, but in a remark-
able manner in the Ranaor frog tribe. See Rana.

Thefe parts, as well as the back and fides of the body, are
befet in the falamander with feveral large open pores,
through v\hi(-li a peculiar fluid is exuded, ferving to lubricate
the fl<in, and which, on any fudden irritation, is fecreted in
a more fudden and copious manner under the form of a white
gluten of a flightly actimcnious nature ; and from the readi-
nefswith which the animal, when dilturbed, appears to eva-
cuate it, has arifen the long continued popular error of the
falamanders being enabled to live uninjured in tiie fire, which
it has been fuppofed capable of extinguiflung by its natural
coldncfs and moifture ; the real fadt is this, that like the
other cold and glutinous animals, as fiiails, frogs, &c. it is
not quite fo inilantaneoufly dellroycd by the force of fire as
an animal of a drier nature would be. The general length of
the falamander is about feven inches, though it fometimes
arrives at a much larger fize. It lives principally on infefts,
fmall fnails, 5:c. ; its tongue is not by any means formed to
catcii thefe in a fudden manner, being fltort, broad, and in
fome degree confined, fo as not to be darted out with cele.
rity. it is capable of living in water as well as on the land,
and is found occafionally in ilagnant pools. Its pace is flow,
and its habits torpid. 'J'he falamander is viviparous, and ihe
young are produced perfectly formed, in the lame way as the
viper. It is faid to retire into the water to depofit its young,
the number of which at one birth amounts to 30 or 40 ;
when they are firlt excluded, they are iurnilhed witli bran-
chial

LIZARD.

filial fins on each fide tlie neck ; tliefe are but temporary or-
gans, and are afterwards obliterated like thofe of the tad-
pole.

It has been thought that the falamander was a venomous
animal, and that its poilon is of fo malignant a nature, as
fcarcely to admit of any remedy. Later obfervati'ns and
-experiments have afcertained that it is perfetliy innocent, and
although the fluid fecreted from the (Icin may be noxious to
fmaller animalr., it is incapable of inflitUng either wound or
poifon on any laro;e animal.

Stkujiosa ; Strumous lizard. Tail round, long ; breaft
gibbous, projeftmg forward. This is of a fmall ii/.e, has no
lerratures, but is furni(hed with a large flat crell at the
throat, of a pale red colour ; the other parts of the animal
are of a pale blueifh-grev, with fome flight fliades of a more
dufliy hue. The limbs are flender. It is a native of South
America.

ViTTATA ; Forked lizard. The tail of this fpecies is
round, long ; body brown with a white dorfal fillet, forked
over tlie bead. It inhabits India ; it does not exceed fix or
fevea inches in length ; the head is large in proportion to
the body, the toes are lamellated beneath ; terminated by
curved claws. The upper furface is covered with extremely
fnnall tubercles, which are fo minute as fcarcely to be per-
ceptible.

Turcica ; the Turkiih lixard. Tail fubverticillate,
middle-fized ; body grey, and a litt'e warty. It inhabits
the Eall. Its body is dufted with brown fpots, unequal,
and as if fprinkled with fcarcely viiible warts ; the tail is
about the length of the body..

R.\PICAUDA ; Turnip-tailed lizard. Tail turbinate ; cars
xroncave. This fpecies is found in feveral of the American
iflands ; the body is white, fpotted with brown ; warts
fmall, thickly fprinkled ; claws hollowed in the middle un-
dern;ath.

Gecko ; Common Gecko lizard. Tail round, middle-
iized ; toes a little clawed ; ears concave. This animal is
faid to have received its name from the peculiar found of its
voice, which bears a refemblance to that word when uttered
in a (hrill tone. It is twelve or fourteen inches long, and is
accordingly ranked among the middle-fized animals of the
lizard tribe ; but it is thicker and ftronger than the greater
part of lizards. Its head is flattifli, fomewhat triangular, and
large, with a covering of minute fcales ; its mouth is wide,
eyes large, teeth fmall, and its tongue is broad and flat.
The ufual colour of the gecko "is brown, with forte irre-
gular dulky or blueilh variugations, but this colour becomes
more brilliant in warmer regions.

It inhabits India, Arabia, Egypt, and the warmer parts of
Europe ; it frequents houfes in iummer, but is feldom feen
in the winter ; makes a noife like a weafel ; is tame, and
when frighted will run into houfes for Ihelter ; it emits a
poilonous fluid from the lamella beneath its feet, which, if
fmeared over fruit, or other articles of food it has run over,
caufes a violent colic in thofe who happen to eat them ; it
frequently ftands in an erett pofture on its hind-feet ; from
the peculiar llrucf ure of its feet the animal is enabled to at-
tach itfelf to the fmoolhefh furfaces.

There is a variety of this fpecies denominated Tolai,
defcribed by the Jef.iit miffionaries lent by Lewis XIV. to
Siam ; of which the body is covered above by a granulated
ikin, varied with red and blue undulations ; the belly is of an
aih .colour, and interfperfed with red fpots ; the head is large
and triangular. It is a native of Siam, and is regarded as a
poifonous animal. Bontius, in his Hitlory of Java, appears
todefcribe one of a iimilar kind, under the name of the In-
4lian lalamander. It is called Gecko, on account of its

Vol. XXI.

flirill cry. It is about a foot long, and its colour is fea-
green, fpotted with red, the head is large and toad-like ;
the eyes are large and extremely protuberant. It is faid
that the Javanefe hold up the animal by the tail to make it
difcharge faliva from the mouth, whith they coUedt and
preferve for the purpofe of poifoning their arrows.

Geitje. Tail lanceolate, middle-fized ; fore-feet with
four toes ; this fpecies is found at the Cape of Good Hope.
It is called by f ime naturaliils Sparmanmana, on account of
its having been firfl; defcribed by Sparmann. Its col.ur on
the upper parts is a variegation of darker and lighter
fliadcs, and on the under parts it is whitifli. It is looked
on as a poifonous animal, and is fuppofed to fecrete from its
pores a fluid which produces tumours and even gangrenes,
that are fometimes cured by the application of citron juice,
but which, if long neglefted, are very produAive of dan-
gerous fymptoms.

Section G. The animals in this divifion have feet with
five toes ; fome of which are connected ; the tail is round,
Ihort, incurved.

Species.
Chameleon. Three varieties are mentioned in the Syf-
tema Naturs, of which the fpecific charafter of the firil it,
body cinereous ; head flat ; of the fecond the body is white ; •
and of the third the head is very large.

The chama:leon inhabits India and New Spain ; it lives
chiefly in trees : from the anatomical dcfcription, the lungs
are large, and capable of being inflated to an enormous fize
by the animal ; the eyes are fo moveable that the creature
can look in different direftions at the fame time ; the pupil
has a golden glare, and frequently changes its colour.

Few animals have been fo much celebrated as the chamas-
leon, which, it was long believed, has the povs-er of changing
its colour at pleafure, and of alfimilating it to that of any
particular objefl or fituation. This, however, is not the real
(tate of the cafe ; the change of colour which the animal ex-
hibits varies in degree according to the circumftances of
health, temperature of the weather, and other caufes, and
confiftis chiefly in an alteration of fliades from the natural
greenifli or blueilh-grey of the Ikin into pale yellowifli, with
irregular fpots of dull red. Another erroneous aflertion
vvith regard to the chamxleon was, that it could fubfift on
air. This arofe from the long abilinence wliich it is known
capable of enduring.

The length of the chamasleon is about ten inches, but in-
cluding the tail, it is nearly double th.nt length. The ilin
on every part of the animal is granulated. There are five
toes on each foot, two and three of which are united by a
common flvin as far as the claws. The ilrufture of the
tongue is peculiar ; it is very long, ^nd furniflied with a di-
lated fomewhat tubular tip, by which means it is enabled
eafily to feizc infefts, by darting it out and fecuring them
on the tip. It is found in many parts of the world, and
particularly in India and Africa ; and has been feen in the
warmer parts of Spain and Portugal. For a fartlier account'
of this animal, fee Cham/ELEon.

Africana ; or African lizard. Black ; head carinate ;
it inhabits the northern parts of Africa and Spain ; in its
habits it refembles the chamasieon ; the protuberant parts
are all white.

PuMiLLA ; Dwarf lizard. Sides blueidi, with two yel-
lowifli li^es ; it is found at the Cape of Good Hope. In
this fpecies the head is fomewhat flatter than that of the
Africana, but ftill elevated in the middle, and edged ou
each fide with a denticulated margin. The Atricar.a and
the Pumilla have been regarded, by fume naturalills, as
varieties of the fame fpecies.

E e Seftion H.

I. I Z A R D.

Seirti-)!! H. The animals of tliis divifioi liavc tUcir coIlSr
jlouble ; anj Iqnare abdominal Icalcs.

Species.
Amf.iva; the blue lizard. Tail verticillate, long; ab-
dominal Icales thirty ; collar beneath with a double wrnikle.
It inhabits America, but occurs in Africa and Afia. The
abdominal fcalc3 are in eight rows.

TlLiGUEUTA. Tail verticillate; twice as long as the
body, abdominal fcales eighty. It is about fevcn or eight
inches long, and is found during the whole year in the fields
and meadows of Sardinia.

AeiLis; Scaly or green lizard. Tail long, verticillate,
with (harp fcales ; collar is fcaly beneath. This elegant
fpecies, which is found in all the warmer parts of Europe,
~ \aries in length from fifteen inches to two feet. It is the
mod beautiful of all the European laccrts, exhibiting a
rich and varied mixture of darker and lighter green, inter-
fperfed with fpecks and marks of yellow, brown, blackifh,
and even fometimes red. The head is commonly of a more
\iniform green than the reft of the body ; the under part of
the animal, both on the body and limbs, is of a pale bUie-
grecn call ; the head is covered with large angular fcales ;
the reft of the upper parts with very fmall ovate ones ;
the tail, which is commonly longer than the body, is marked
with numerous rings of oblong-fquare fcales, {lightly bifid
at their extremities ; beneath the throat is a kind of col-
lar, f9rmed by a row of fcales of much larger fi/.e than
the reft : the abdomen is covered, down its whole length,
with fix rows of broad tranfverfe plates, and the under fur-
face of the limbs is alfo covered with fimilar fcales ; along
the infide of the thighs runs a row of papillae or tubercles,
vhich, in this and other fpecies,

about thirteen in number, w

probably affift the animal in climbing or clinging to the ftcms lines on each fide the body ; it is a i

and branches of vegetables ; the tongue is moderately long, finger's length ; it is brown above,

and formed to enable the animal to retain and fwallow its " '

prey, which confifts chiefly of iHfefts, fmall worms, &c.

This fpecies is a native of all the warmer parts of Eu-
rope. It is found in gardens, about and in crevices of warm
•walls, buildings, &c. It is, as its name imports, a very ac-
tive animal, and purfues its prey, which confills of infcAs,

with great celerity. When it is caught it may be tamed,

and it foon becomes famihar.

It appears to run into numerous varieties both as to -fize

and colour ; but in them all the particular chara6teriftics of

the fpecies are eafily afcertained. Befides the one already

defcribed, we have in the Syft. Nat. the follo-.ving varieties

with confluent white bands mixed with round fpots. It in-
habits fouthern countries. The body is covered above and
beneatli with truncate fcales in eight rows, forming lateral
and longitudinal ftreaks, belly fiat; tail with about 50 whorls,
half as long again as the body ; legs fliort, diftant, but well
formed for running. Sec Ei'T.

Vki.ox ; Swift li/ard. Tail verticillate, longifh ; collar
beneath Icaly, body above cinereous, varied with five longi-
tudinal paler ftreaks and brown dots ; fides fpatted with
black, dotted with blueilh.

This fpeci-'S is found in Siberia, particularly in the fultry
dcfert places about the Like of Inderikien ; it wanders among
the rocks, and is exceedingly fwift ; it refemblcs the fcaly
or green lizard, but is much llenderer and Icfs ; hind-legs
marked with round patches.

CnUENTA ; Red-tailed lizard. Tail verticillate, above ci-
nereous, beneath fcarlct with awhitifh tip ; fold of the neck
beneath tranfverfe. This fpecies is found about the fait
lakes in fouthern Siberia ; refemblcs the vclox in (hape, but
is three times as fmall, and has a fiiarper head. The body is
brown, with feven white ftreaks on the neck, of which four
reach the tail, beneath is white ; limbs varied with round
milky fpots ; thighs without the line of callous dots.

Ahguta ; the argute lizard. The fpccific charafter is
this ; tail flnort, verticillated ; thick at the bafe and filiform
at the lip ; collar marked with obfcnrc fcales. There is a
reinarkable double plate under the neck.

The ipecies is fimilar in fome refpefts to the green lizard,
but is fhorter and more ventricofe, and has a Iharper fnout.
It is a native of the fouth of Siberia, and is found in the
dry funny places of Irtifti, and on the fandy plains
beyond.

AnilKA. Tail long and verticillated, and two yellow

it is a fmall fpecies, of about a

and beneath yellowidi ;

Its back covered with carinated fcales, and bounded on each fide

by a yellow line, feparating the abdomen from the upper

parts. It is a native of Algiers.

T11.IGUGU ; Sardinian lizard. Tail round, conic, middle^-
fized ; toes five marginate claws.

It inhabits Sardinia, and is eight inches long. The body
is thick, brown above, variegated with numerous black dots,
beneath vvhitifli ; legs very ftiort, the hinder ones longer; tail
tliree inclies and a half long.

Uralessks ; Ural lizard. Tail round, longifli ; neck
beneath folding ; feet all-toed; back hvid-alh, wrinkled,
and fubvvarted.

One in which the loweft fcales of the collar arc

loofe.

I.

2. That in which the Ikin is very thin and of a brown
colour, j. Body with eye-like fpots. 4. Brown; on each
fide a feries of indift.tift fpots. 5, Sides brown ; back
tawny. 6. Blueilli ; each fide a triple row of ocellate fpots.
7. Green fpeckled w^ith brown ; collar tawny. 8. Blue ;
head white ; back longitudinally ftriate ; hind-legs fpolted.
9. Blue ; the fides fpeckled with white.

The 8th, found in .America, is defcribed as innocent, ac-
tive, elegant, living in dry meadows, walls, and rocks Some
of the animals of this fpecies have been ufed ;.s a medicine,
and ha'.e been fuppofed to poffefs peculiar virtues in leprous
and other fimilar cafes.

Seps ; the eft. Tail verticillate, long ; lateral future
reflected, fcales fquare.

This IS a fmall fpecies, and is eafily known from the thin
lengthened form of the body, at.d its long (lender tail.
There are three varieties, the firft anfwers to the fpeclfic
chara^er given ; the feci':d.s var egared with chefnut ; head
varied wuh black had white } the third is bUck-blue, marbled

It inhabits the
fwift.

country about Ural,
The head is roundilh

is four inches
; body whitifh

long ; very
beneath.

BuLLAKis ; Bladder lizard. Tail rcund, h ng ; chin
pouched.

This fpecies is about fix inches long, of a (hining grafs-
green colour. When it is approached, the throat fwills
into a globular form, and the protruded (l<in becomes of a
bright colour. This has been thought to be a threatening
afped, but probably without any foundation. It is a native
of Jamaica, where it is common about hedges and trees.
The green Carolina lizard is fuppofed to be a variety of this
fpecies, as it is an exadt rtfemblance in every refpctt, except
in the appearance of the pouch. In dry hot weather it ap»
pears of a bright green colour ; but in cold weather it
changes to a brown. It is very common in and about the
houfes of Carolina.

AtiuiTA ; Eared hzard. Tail rcun'l, mlddle-fizcd, with
callous dots on each fide ; the throat fold tranfverle, almoft
double j angles of the mouth each fide dilated into a femi-

^ orbicular.

LIZARD.

orbicular, foft,'rougli, dentate creft. This fpecies is found
among the fandy hillocks of foutiicrn Siberia,and gravel-pits
in the defert of Coniani, it is fomething larger than the gecko ;
the upper part waved with cinereous and yellowifh, and
thickly fpeckled with brown ; underneath it is whitifh ; tip
of the tail and blotch on the chell black.

Tegl'IXIN. Tail round, long ; lateral future folded ;
neck beneath wiih a triple fold Inhabits India and South
America. Back and tail verticillate with 'crowded ftreaks.

Helioscopa ; Star-gazing lizard. Tail imbricate, taper-
ing ; neck with a tranfvcrfe fold beneath ; head covered with
callofities. This fpecies inhabits in vaft numbers the burn-
ing fand-hillocks of fouthern Siberia ; moves very quick,
but in a lefs ferpentine direftion than the fcaly lizard ; holds
its head very eredl with its eyes turned upwards, and is
about two ir.ches long. The colour of the upper parts of
the body 15 grey, with brown and blueilh fpots, and linear
ftreaks. The neck is often marked above with a red fpot.
The tip of the tail is red beneath.

Plica ; Plica lizard. The hinder part of the head is
callous; eye-brows excoriated above ; neck plaited beneath,
and warted at the fides ; tail long and round. This is a
fmall fpecies, about two or three inches in length. It is
entirely covered with conical fcales ; there is a double plate
beneath the throat. It is a native of South America and
India.

Section I. Body lir.cate or banded, fcaly ; tongue bifid.

Species.

Sexliseata ; Six-lined lizard. Tail verticillate, long ;
back with lix white lines. It inhabits Carolina. The hack
is hoarv, with three narrow white hnes and three black ;
under the neck are two wrinkles ; thighs with a row of
callous dots behind.

QlJiJMjoELixEAiA ; Five-lined lizard. This alfo is an
inhabitant of Carohna. The head is marked with fix yellow
lines, and two between the eyes ; back is blackilh, with lines
reaching to the middle of the tail ; the tail half as long
S^ain as the body ; the belly is ftreaked imbricately.

NiLOTiCA ; or the lizard of the Nile. Tail long, the
outer fide triangular ; body fmooth ; back with four lines
of fcales. It 13 found in Egypt.

Interpunctata ; Afiatic lizard. Tail roand, long ;
back with yellow lines, interfperfed with black dots. In-
habits different parts of Afia. Body included between two
lines and dillinft from the fides. In the area are fix longi-
tudinal rows of brown dots, and as many on each iide ; legs
and tail dot'ed in the lame manner.

Lemkiscata ; Eight-lined lizard. Tail round, long ;
back with eight whitifii lines. It inhabits Guinea. The
thighs are dotted with white.

Fasciata ; Blue-tailed lizard. Tail round, long, blue ;
back with five yellowifh lines. Inhabits Carolina.

Vulgaris ; Brown lizard, or common Newt. Tail
round, middle-fized ; feet clawed ; fore -feet four-toed ; back
with a double brown line.

It inhabits Europe, and is about three inches long. It
is found in gardens, in the neighbourhood of dunghills, &c.
Like the Aug and toad it makes its way into cellars. It
is altogether a land fpecies, and it feems to be vivi-
parous.

Japoxica; Japonefe lizard. Tail round, long; feet
clawed; fore-feet four-toed; backhanded. Body beneath
yellow ; the upper part is livid, with a dentate broad yellow
band from the hind-head to the tip of the tail ; eyes fmall ;
eye-brows large, rough ; claws black ; tail a little compreffed
at the tip. It is found in the Japan iflands.

Deserti ; Ural lizard. Tail round, longiffi ; feet five-
toed ; body above black, with fix wiiite longitudinal linea.
It is found in the defert of Ural, and is fomewlsat more
than two inches long. The body beneath is white ; lir.es
of the back confiding of oblong fpots, and between each
outer line, and the next, are five white dots.

Qu-\DKILINEATA ; Four-lined lizard. Tail round, long ;
feet fomewhat claw-ed ; hind-feet four-toed ; body with four
yellow lines. It inhabits North America.

PuN'CTATA ; Dotted lizard. Tail round, middle-fized;
feet unarmed ; fore-feet four-toed ; back longitudinally
dotted with white. It is found in Carolina. The body ij
bro>'.-n, with a double row of white fpots on the back, and
a fingle one on the tail.

SpaxATOR ; Spitting lizard. Tail round, middle-fized,
with a longitudinal row of fcales beneath ; feet unarmed,
five -toed ; body cinereous, with white bands above, before
nnd behind it is edged with liver colour. It is found in
South America, in houfes and amonjf old buildings ; when
irritated, it difcharges a black acrid m.atter, the effefts of
which on the huoian body may be cured by camphor or
fpirits of wine. The whole animal, except the very tips
of the jaws, and the lower furface of the tail, is covered
with minute truncate fcales ; the tongue is round, a little
notched at the tip ; tail near the end, and lego fpotted with
browa.

Seftion K. The belly of the animals of this divifion is
covered with imbricate fcales ; the tongue is entire.

Species. ,

Sepiformi.s. Tail fiiort ; body grecnifh-black ; head
armed ; back flat ; hind-thighs on the hinder part covered
with callous dots.

SciNCU.s ; Scink. Tail round, middle-fized, comprefied
at the tip ; toes unarmed, marginate. This fpecies is thus
charafterized by Dr. Shaw. " Yellowifh-brown lizard, with
tranfverfe brown bands on the upper part, fhort tail with
comprefied tip, and upper jaw longer than the lower."

" The fcink," fays the writer jull quoted, " is one of
the middle-fized or fmaller lizards, and is a native of many
of the eafiern parts of the world. It abounds in Lybia,
Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, frequen'ing moderately dry and
fandy foils, and growing to the length of fix or feven inches,
or even fometimes more. The head of the fcink is large,
the body thick and round, and the tail confiderably fliorter
than the body."

It is of a pale yellowifh-brown colour, with a few broad,
dufl<y, tranfverfe undulations or zones, and is uniformly
covered with moderately large or fifn-like fcales, lying ex-
tremely clufe and fmooth, lo that the furface has a glofly
or oily appearance. It is an animal of liarmlcfs manners,
and like moll lizards derives its fubiillence from various in-
fefts, which wander about the regions that it inhabits.
It was once in high eftimation as an article in the Materia
Medica.

Mr. Bruce, in his Travels, has defcribed the fcink under the
name of El Adda, which, he fays, is very common in the pro-
vince of Atbara in AbyfTinia. vSee E! AnnA.) It burrowe
in the fand fo quickly, that it is out of fight inttantly, and
appears rather to have found a hole than made one, yet it
comes out in the heat of t!ie day to bafic in the fun ; and it
not very much frightened, will take refuge behind Hones,
or in the withered, ragged roots of the abfinthium, dried i,T
the lun to nearly its own colour. It has long legs, but
makes no ufe of them to (land upright ; it creeps with its
belly almoll clofe to the ground ; us motions are, however,
very rapid. Mr. Bruce informs us, that lizards in general
F. e 2 »re

LIZARD.

are pccviliarly n'-imerous in the eaftcrn regions. The defert gant fpecimen. The dialcides is an animal of a very l\arm-

parts of Syria bordering on Arabia Dcfcrta abound with lels nature, frequenting moill ftiady places, moving rather '

them to fiich a degree, as to render it imponible to count flowly, and feeding on infects, finall worms, &c. It is a

. them. «' I am pofitive," fays the traveller, " that I can viviparous fpccies, and is faid to produce a great many

fay, without exaggeration, that the number I faw one day young. The ferpents to which it bears the nearell alliance,

in the great court of the temple of the fun at Balbec, in point of form, are thofc of the genus angiiis, and parti-

amounted to many tlioufands ; the ground, the walls, and
ttoucs of the ruuied buildings were covered with them, and
the various colours of which they con filled made a very ex-
traordinary appearance, glittering under the fun, in which
they lay flecping and baflcing.

SciN'CdiDHS i Scincoid lizard. Tail round, middlc-
fized ; legs fhort ; toes very fliort.

This fpccies is a variety of the occtdua of Dr. Shaw, to
which he gives the name of the galliwafp. It is nearly two
feet long, according to him ; but Gmclin makes it about
eighteen inches only. It is a native of New Holland. The
body is a pale yellowifh-brown, witli a long patch of deep
brown or black'.fli each fide the neck ; fides tinged with the
fame colour j tail deeper than the fides ; teeth fomewhat ob

cularly the A. fragilis, or common ilow-worni

The " Chalcide," defcribed by the count dc Cepede, ap-
pears to be extremely allied to the one jull mentioned ; but,
inftead of having imbricated Icales, it ia marked into a con-
tinual fcries of annuli throughout its whole length.

Seui'ENs; Serpent hzard. Head, body, and tail, a con-
tinued cylinder ; legs very minute, remote, five-toed, and
clawed. It inhabits Java ; is about four or five inches long.
Its fliape is very much like that of a ferpent, but more co-
nical ; the upper part of the body is decorated with from
fourteen to twenty brown, longitudinal llripes ; beneath it
is filvery. It has an auditory canal.

AxGUINA ; Snake lizard. I'ail verticillate, ftifliOi at the
extremity ; body ilriate ; feet without toes, fubulate. The

tufe, fiiort. The tongue in this, as in other fcinks, is (hort, animals of this fpecies are about fourteen inches long, of

fiat, rounded and entire ; not forked, as in moll lizards.

The occidua or gaUiwafp itfelf is a native of the American
iflands, and is particularly common in Jamaica, where it
frequents woody and marlhy dillrifts. Its colour is ufually
a palifli brown, clouded with fomewhat irregular bands of a
deeper call ; but it is faid occafionally to change its colour
into a lively golden yellow. It was formerly thought to be
the molt venomous reptile in the ifland of Jamaica, and it was
faid that no creature could recover from its bite ; but this is
now regarded as a popular error.

Oci:i.L.\TA ; Ocellate lizard. Tail roundifh, (liort ; body
beneath white, above greenifli-grey, with roundifh ocellate
fpots, brown on the margin, redlangular and white on the
difl<. It is found in Egypt, is very beautiful, and about a
fpan long.

GuTTAXA ; Spotted fcink. Tail round, long, the tip
and four tranfverfc fpots black ; body above hoary, dotted
with white, beneath whitiih.

.It is a very fmall fpecies, not much exceeding three inches
in length. It inhabits the deferts of Ural. The body is
fmooth above ; the feet are five-toed, with claws.

Seftion L. The animals of this divifion crawl on the
belly; refembhng both the lizard and ferpent.

Species.

C^IALCIDES. Tail round, long; feet five-toed ; legs very
fliort. Inhabits fouther:i Europe and Africa. It is found
of different fizes, from the length of a few inches to that of fized goofe-quill. This lizard was defcribed by Linmus

which the body itfelf is only four. The head is rather
fmall ; the nofe taper ; the legs very fhort, placed near the
head and vent, and apparently terminating in one undivided
toe or proccfs ; the whole animal appears covered with ovate
fcales, and is brown above, alh-colourcd on the fides, and
yellowifh beneath ; the upper furface is marked throughout
its whole length by feveral dark lines or flripes. It is a na-
tive of the Cape of Guod Hope, where it is found in great
plenty in the water, and about the rocks in the Table
bay.

Lu.MBUlcoiDE.s ; Lumbriciform lizard Body fubequal,
round, ferruginous, telfellate with fquare ftreaks ; beneath
paler; there are no hind-feet, but the others are fhort and
four-toed. This is the la canncUe of the count de Cepede,
who firll defcribed it in his Hiftory of Oviparous Quadru-
peds. Its length is about eight inches, of whieh the tail is
only one inch. Along the whole body, from head to tail
on each fide, runs a continued fulcus or channel, feparatin^
the upper and lower furfaces ; legs only two, extremely fliort,
placed near the head, and divided into fire minute toes with
claws. Colour of the living animal fufpected to be green ;
paler beneath. It inhabits Mexico.

BlPivS; Biped lizard. Body fubequal, round, pale, im-
bricate ; each fcale with a brown dot. There are no fore-
feet ; hind-feet with two toes. This is a very Imall fpecies,
faid to be found in South America and in India. Its length
is fix inches ; the diameter no larger than that of a good.

a foot, or even more. The head is covered in front with
large fcales, and is terminated by a (lightly tapering, but
not pointed, fnout ; the eyes are fmall, and the openings of
the ears very diftindl. There is no neck, the diameter con-
tinuing nearly equal from the head to the beginning of the
tail, which is often longer than the body, and gradually
tapers to a fmall point. The colour of this animal is pale
ferruginous, or chefnut brown ; hence its name, with fome
naturahils, is the-" Ferruginous lizard."

In the living animal, the colour is generally faid to have

in the Mufasum Adolphi Frederici, as a fpccies of fnake,
under the title of " Anguis bipes."

Apt'.-, ; Cylindrical hzard. Head, body, and tail, a con-
tinued imbricate cylinder ; it has no fore-feet, and fcarcely
any that can be fo called behind. Tiiis fpecies is a lliU
nearer approach to the fnake tribe than even the chalcides.
It is a native of Greece, the foutliern parts of Siberia, and"
probably of many other parts of Europe and Alia. It is
fometimes full three feet long, and fo perfectly rcfembles.
the general form of a large fnake, that it requires very clofe

a kind of metallic or bralfy call, which probably gave rife infpudlion to find that it belongs to the race of lizards. It

to the fpecific appellation " Chalcides," and " Chali
dica."

" This fingidar lizard," fays Dr. Shaw, «' is defcribed
by Linnius as having feet furnifhed with five toes ; but
whatever may have been the cafe with the individual fpeci-
pien which he examined, it feems pretty certain that the
general number is tliree. In tlie Britilh Mufueum is an cle-

inhabits the trralfy meadows of the deferts of fouthcrn Si-
beria, and near the rivers Sarpa, Cuma, and Tert-k.
Though in general appearance it refembles a Inake, in its
internal itruCture it is formed like a lizard.

Two fpecimens of this ifeard were brought from Greece
by Dr. John Sibthorp, profelfor of botany in the univerfity
of Oxford.

Having,

L I Z

Having, in the foregoing account, follo\(-ed the Linnsan
fyftcm, with fuch occalional additions and illuftrations as
occurred from other writers of diftin^iiifhed reputation ; we
fliall conclude with noticing fome fpecies which later na-
turahils have added to this genus, and which have been de-
fcribed, and moft of them figured, in the intereiling works
of Dr. Shaw. Of thefe the tirll is the

AcANTHUiiA. Tne fpecific character of this is as fol-
lows : Throat plaited beneath ; the body covered with mi-

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water-newts : the head, fkin, and general form of the body;
refembling thofe of the chama:leon ; the tail, that of the
water newts ; while the feet refemble thofe of the gecko.

The colour of this animal is not conftant or permanent as
in mod of the lizard tribe ; but variable, as in the chami-
leon, prcfenting fucccfTiveiy fhadcs of n d, yellow, green
and blue. This variation of colour is confined to the upper
furface of the animal; the lowir always continuing of a
bright yellow. Thefe feveral changes have been obfcrved
nute fcales ; the tail long, and verticiilated with carinated in the living animal in its native country, Mddagafcar, where

triple-fpined fcales. A fpecimen of this animal is preferved
in the Bntilh Mufsum. Its length is a foot and a half; the
head refembles that of the ameiva and teguixin, is covered
with rather fmall fubhexagonal fcales, and is very diltinftly
marked off, as it were, from the body ; beneath the throat
is a confpicuous tranlverfe plait; the whole (Icin about the
neck, throat, and beginning of the fides, is very lax, fo

it is rather common, and where, though harmlefs, it is held
in great abhorrence by the natives, who believe that it darts
on their breaft, and adheres with fuch force by its fringed.
membrane, that it cannot be feparated from the ikin with-
out being cut off. Its refidence is on the branches of trees,
where it lives on infecfs, holding itfelf fecure by coiling its
tail half round the twig on which it fits. It chiefly appears

that it is thought in the living animal the flvin beneath the in rainy weather, when it moves with great agility, often-
throat may have a kind of pouch appearance, though en- fpringmg from bough to bough.

tirely without any middle carina on that part ; the feet are
all pentadaclylous, and the toes rather long. The colour of
this fpecies on the upper part is glaucous, variegated with
a few fmail and fomewhat indiftinft clouds and marblings
of a whitilh caft ; the tail and under parts are of a pale or
yellowifh-white colour. Dr. Shaw fays, this fpecies is
much allied to the quetzpaleo of Seba, which is generally
fuppofed to reprefent the azurea of Linnxus.

Loi'HUiiA. Body covered by diffimilar fcales ; the back
ferrated ; the tail is long and carinated. This is a verv
large fpecies, refembling the teguixin in fize, colour, and
fome other refpe(3s, but is coated with fcales of diflimilar
fize on different parts. Specimens are found in the Britifli
Mufseum, and in that of Dr. William Hunter

Ervtuhocepiiala. Blackifh-green, with tranfverfe
Hack undulations ; abdomen longitudinally banded with
black, white, and blue ; the breaft black, and the top of
the head red. This, which is reckoned a middle-fized
fpecies, is a native of the ifland of Sc. Chriftopher, and is
d^ribed by the count de Cepede. Colour deep or dark
green above, mixed with brown ; back marked by feveral
trafffverfe black undulations ; top of the head and part of
the fides of the neck red ; throat white ; breaft black ; belly
variegated with longitudinal black, blue, and whitilh bands,
and covered with fcales or plates. The head is covered with
larger fcales than the other parts ; beneath the thighs is a
row of tubercles.

Texiolata. Lizard with long round tail, and body
marked above with black and white ftripes ; beneath it is
white. This fpecies, allied to the fafciata, is covered en-
tirely with fcales ; colour chefnut brown above ; pale or
whitiih beneath ; on the back fix narrow white linear ftripes,
the intermediate fpaces of the central and lowermoft ftnpes
being black; the tail is long and narrow; limbs ftriped
longitudinally with black. It is llcnder, five-toed, and a
nat.ve of New Holland.

Sinensis. Tail flat, all the toes unguiculated, and the
face perforated by feveral pores. This fpecies, which is
ouitted ill the Syft. Nat., was firft defcribed by Olbeck,
who obferved it in China, where it is frequently feen
in houfes, running about the walls, and climbing with ex-
treme readinefs on the fmootheft furfaces, preying chiefly
on the fmaller kind of blattse.

Fi.MBRi.vT.^. Body with a membranaceous fimbriated
border on each fide of the body, tail flat, and lamella; of the
feet divided by a furrow. This fpecies was firft defcribed
by the count de Cepede, who informs us that it appears in
feme degree to conivett the chamsleon, the gecko, and the

Lizard, Devil. See Maboujas.
Liz.arh, Fly-catching. See GonEMOucu.
Liz.ARD Ifland, in Geography, one of the iflands called'
" Direftion iflands," in the South Pacific ocean, about 240:
miles in circumference, and in general rocky and barren.
Captain Cook gave it the name on account of the number of
lizards, fome of which were very large, which he found-
upon it ; 20 miles N.E. of Cape Flattery. — Alfo, one of
the fmaller Bahama iflands.

Llz.tKD Point, or The Lizard, a promontory on the fouth;
coaft of Cornwall, and the moft fouthern point of land in.
England, at the north entrance of the Engliih channel. N
lat. 49 ' ^q'. W. long, y' 12'.

Lizard, in Naval Rigging, an iron thimble fpliced int©'
the main bow-lines, and pointed over to hook a tackle to.
LiZARn'.s Tail, in Botany. See Saurukus.
LIZENED Corn, in ylgriculture, a term provinciallj-
ufcd for fhrunk or lank corn.

LIZIERE, the fame with berme, fortland, or rclais.
When this fpace is covered with a parapet, it is called a-
fauffe-braye, or low wall.

LIZOU-TCHECU, in Geography, a ci'r of China, of
the firft clais, in the province of Quang-fi, on the river
Long. N. lat. 24.- 12'. E. long. ic8 47'.

LIZY-suR-OuRCQ, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton,,
in the diftritt of Meaux. ' The place contains rioo, and.
the canton 11,885 inhabitants, on a territory of 24c kilio-
metres, in 28 commnnes.

LLALA, a town of Peru, in the audience of Lima;,
100 miles N. of Lima:

LLAMA, or Glama, in Zaolegy: See Camelus.
LLANBADARN Vawr, in Geography, a market town-
and parifli in the hundred of Genecin Glyn, Carditjanlhire,
Wales. This place is fuppofed to have been anciently called:
Mauritania, and to have changed its name in the ilxth cen-
tury, in memory of St. Patcrnus, who built a monaftery
here, which was afterwards conftituted an epifcopal fee.
This dignity it retained till the inhabitants, quan-elling with
the bifhop, murdered him, when it was united to the fee of
St, David's. The government of the town is \-efted in a "
portreve. It has a fmall harbour ; but the little trade it
formerly poffeflTed has of late years been transferred to
Aberyftwilh. The market for meat is now likewife held at
the fame place, fo that this town is much declined. The
ancient church, built in the form of a crofs, and furmounted
by a maflive fquare tower, is a large edifice, in an eaily
llyle of architefture. It is remarkable as the feat of one

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of the oVkfl biftioprics in Wales. The interior contains a and Elvvy. The original cliurcii being deftroyed at tlie time

few modern monuments, one of which was raifed to the of the conqueft, or at lead its, oldell part, the pn-fcnt wa«

memory of Lewis Morris, the celebrated author of the erefted in the year 1120, by bifliop Urban. Its lituation

" Celtic Rem:iins." In the church-yard is an ancient crofs, is truly monaftic, in a bottom furrounded by riling ground.'

fmely decorated with fret-worlc. The parifh is very exten- According to Grofe, it meafurcs in length, from eaft to

live, and contains a number of hamlets, of which Aberyft- wcl\, 263^ feet. The breadth of the body is Oj fett, and

with is the largeft and mod populous. The wafte lands, or the height from the floor to the centre of the roof 1 19 feet,

commons, may be about Scoo acres. Several old Britidi The weft front is a beautiful relic of the Norman and

forts and tumuli can eafily be traced in different parts of it.
In a vale, called Dyfryn caftell, is a circle of ftones, which
tradition informs us was a Druidical temple and co\irt ot
judicature. This town and parifli were entirely laid wafte
by the Danes in the year 9S8. The town was foon rebuilt ;

pointed ftyles of architefture united. At the corners of
this front formerly rofe two magnificent towers, one of
which is now nearly deftroyed. That on the north-wcil,
ftill remaining entire, is embellidit-d with a jirofulion of
fculpture. The entrance on this fide is under a iemi-circular

but in little more than thirty years after again fu3"ered a arch, over which are three windows, witii lancut-fliaped

liniilar fate, being burnt to the ground by Gruffydd al arches. The interior contains feveral monuments ot the

Llywelliu, during his contcft for the fovereignty of this bidiops ; alfo, one in honour of the lady Godiva, the cele-

diftridt with Howel ap Edwin. The houfes in this pariih, brated patroiic-fs of the men of Coventry. A full defcription

according to the parliamentary returns of 1800, amounted of this church, with views and details, will be found in N' I.

to 249 in number, and the inhabitants to 122S. For an of Cooper's Architeftural Reliques. Nothing can exceed

ample and interefting account of this parifh and the county, the abfurd and fantaftical appearance of this edifice, when

the reader is referred to a volume recently publilhcd by viewed as a whole. Beneath the towers has been ingrafted an

S. R. Meyrick, entitled '• The Hiftory and Antiquities of Italian fuir.mer-houfe, with a Venetian window, alfo pilallers

the County of Cardigan," 4to. 1808. and flower-pot jars upon the parapet. Theecclefiaftical efta-

'LL\^BED¥.R,LL.\yii'r.TEn, or LliitibtihpcMl-Stef'kri, 9. blifliment of this fee conlills of a bifliop, as dean, an arch-

rnarket-town and pariflt in the hundred ot Modwin,andcounty deacon, a fub-dcan, a chancellor, precentor, and nine pre-

of Cardigan, South Wales. Ills a corporation, governed by bendanes. The choral-fervice has long been difcoiitiiuied ;

a ponreve, baililf, and town-clerk, and joins with Cardigan, and the cathedral ufed as the parifli church. A cliapttr-

Aberyllwith, and Afpar, in returning one member to par-, houfe, in the kitchen, and an office for the proftor general.

liament. Tiie addition of Pont-Stephen to the name of
this place is fuppoled to have arifen from the circumftance
of king Stephen having thrown a bridge over one ot the
principal trenches of a camp in this vicinity. The market
is held here on Tuefday. The principal traffic ccnfills in
liorfes, cattle, and hogs, vaft numbers being bought for the
Englifli markets. The foundations of a noble caftle, which
anciently flood in this neighbourhood, can llill be ditcovercd
at a very fliort di'.'.ance from the town. The old familv

have been erefted in the church-yard, where the officers
meet once a-year at Peter's-tide, for the auditing of ac-
counts, &c. Two vicars are appointed by the chapter to
ferve LlandafT and Whitechuroli alternately. Tlie petty
fefiions for the hundred of Kibbor are holden at Llandafl".
The biflii>p has no palace here, nor are there any eflabliflied
houfes ^r other members of the church. The dioccie con-
tains about three-fourths of the county of Glamorgan,
and all Monmouthlhire, but feven pariflies. A gatc-wav

manfiou of the Lluvds forms a very curious and piclurefque and a ruined tower, which formerly contained the great bell
object. It is furmounted by four lofty turrets, which, called Peter, now at Exeter, are the only remains of the
peeping through a thick planted inclofure, have a ftriking bifliop's palace. The names of the prelates of this fee have
appearance The parvflt is fmall, and the foil remarkably been preferved by hillorians from the period of its ereeti*n,
tinproduftive, though much improved of late years, by the though with much uncertainty as to the dates of their con-
free ufe of lime. The houfes, according to the parliamentary fecrations and deatlis, till the clofc of the ninth century.

returns of 1800, amount to 161 in number. The inhabitants
were eftimated at 669. Meyrick's Hiftory, &c. of Cardi-
ganfliire, 410. 1808.

LLANDAFF, i. e. the church upon the Taff, a city in
the hundred of Kibbor, and county of Glamorgan, South
AVales. It is watered by the river Tafi^, which falls into the
Severn, about four miles below the town. The name of
this place is fuppofed to be a corruption of the word Llan-
ar-daff, fignifying the church on the Taff, the walls of the
C'.thedralburym ^'-ground being clofe upon its banks. Llan-
dafF, though a very ancient city in appearance, is only a ftrag-
gling village, placed on an ealy emi:.ence. The parilh in-
cludes the hamlets of Canton, Elay, Fair^ater, Gabalfa,
and Llandaif. The parlfii comprehends 2399 acres of
land. It has no market ; but has the advaiaage of a

Llandaff, according to the parliamentary returns of 180 1,
contains 191 houfes, and 860 inhabitants. Two fairs are
held here annually, one on the 9th of February, and another
on Whit-Suuday. Brown Willis has publiflied an hiftory
and defcription of Llandaff cathedral m i vol. 8vo. See
Mdlkin's Account of South Wales, 2 vols. 8vo. and
Donovan's Tour through South Wales, &c. 2 vols. 8vo.
Hoare's Edition of Giraldus Cambreiifis, 2 vols. 4to.
1809.

LLANDEILO Vawr, a market-town and parifli in the
hundred of Penfedd, and county of Caermarthen, South
Wales. The town is fltuated on the declivity of a lull, at
the bottom of which flows the river Towy, or Tywi, giving
name to one of the moft delightful vales in the county.
The town itfclf has very little to recommend it, the ftieets

tolerably good harbour, which oper.s into the Briftol being extremely narrow, fteep, and irregular. The church

■ channel. ■ This place is now chiefly fupportcd by Cardiff, is an ancient low building, and confifts of two aifles. The

which is two miles W N.W. It deferves notice principally pillars which fupport the roof do not exceed five tcet in

on account of Us catii dr.d-ehurch, which is faid to^have height. A market, held here every Saturday, is well fup-

been firft founded here fuon after the introduclian of Clirif- plied with provifions. Llandeilo is 15 miles E. by N. trom

tia^iity into Brita.ii. ;. t. A. D- 1S6. It was not, however, Caermarthen, and 202 W. by N. trom London. No let's

till the be^tonin^ of the fixth century, that Llandaff whs railed than right fairs are held annually in this town, and another

to the digni'-v of abilhop's fee, by Myric, kingof the Silures, at Fair- Fach, about one mile diftant. The parifli compre-

who endowed it with all the lands between the rivers Taff hends an area of about ,16 miles from north to fouth, by eight

nules

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miles from eaft to weft; About one-tenth part of this
land IS uncultivated. On an eminence about one mile diflant
from the town, to the S.W. ftands the pifturefque ruins of
Dinevor, or Dinas-fawr caftle, which commands fome of
the fined and moft romantic views of the fcenery of Newton-
park, and the extenfive vale of Tywi. This caftle was built by-
Rhys ap Theodor.", in the reign of William the Conqueror.
It feems to have been originally of a circular form, and
ftrongly fortified by a double moat and rampart. This
caftle was for iome time the royal refidence of the princes
of South Wales. South from it are the ruins of Cappel
yr Ywn, ilanduig between two round towers. It was for-
merly a chapel or eafe to the mother-church. At fome diftance
to the weltward is Grongar-hiil, which has been immor-
talized by the mufe of Dyer. At a ftiort diftance, on a
rugged hill, ftand the mouldering fragments of Drullvvyn-
catt'e. About four miles S.E. of the town are the pic-,
turefque ruin.-: of Craig-Cencn-caftell, i. e. the caftle on tlie
rock by the Cenen. ['he lituation is ilngularlv romantic,
being feated on an infulated rock, which was inacceffible on
all fides but one. It is fup:,ofed to have been erected by
Gcronw, lord of Is-Cenen, who was one of the knights of
king .Arthur's round table. The well in this caftle is con-
fidered a fingular curiofity. The farm-honfe, called Cwrt
Bryn y Beirdd, which lies about a mile to the fouth of fhis
caftle, was formerly a celebrated b.irdi(h refidence. Here
the river Llychwr takes its rife, iifaing with a copious
ftream immediately from the fohd rock. Clofe to this
fpring is a cavern, in fome places fo narrow, as hardly to
permit a perfon to pafs through, but in other parts extremely
fpacious, and exhibiting a variety of beautiful petrifadfions.
At L,lan-de-Faen, which lies to the fouth-weft, at the
diftance of four n.iles, is a well formerly confidered as very
efficacious in paralytic and fcorbutic affeftions. Befides
this, there are other chalybeate fprings in different parts of
the panlh ; but none puifefs any peculiar medicinal proper-
ties. Near Llandeilo-vaivr are Talieris-park, the feat of lord
Robert Seymour ; and Ed winsford, the feat of J. H. WiUiams,
efq. The nver Tywi, which, pafling the town, meanders
along the vale, abounds with excellent falmo.i-trout and eel.
According to the hutory of Wales, by Carradoc of Llan-
carvan, the laft decilive battle between the forces of
Edward I. and I.,leweliin. prince of Wales, was fought in
this neighbourhood. The victory remained witi. the Eng-
li(h, and put a final period to the independence of Wales.
The inhabitants of Llandeilo, according to the parliamentary
returns for 1801, are eftimated at 647, and the houfes at
141. Wyndham, Skrnie, Muikin, Barber, and fir Richard
Hoare, in Giraldus Cambrenfis, have given accounts of this
town and its neighbourhood in their refpecf ive Tours.

LLANDOVERY, or Ll.\n i.m Ddvfiu, a market-
town and parifti of Llan-Dingad, and hundred of Penfedd,
Caermarthenfhire, South Wales. The town is fituated on
the river Brane, near its junition with the Towey, and con-
fifts of live ftreets, containing, according to Mr. Carl.De,-
about 800 inhabitants. The buildings of this to^n have a
low and mean appearance. On a mount near tne centre of
the town, and furround.d by a deep trench, are the ruins of
a fmai! caftle, built by Richard de Powers, and it is remark-
able for the birth and refidence of the celebra-eu Rees Prlt-
chard, (Rhys Prytherch, well known throughout Wales as
author of the " Vicar's Book," a cqlleftion of >trry fimple
poetry. This caftle was befieged in 11 16 by Gruffydd ap
Rhys, who burnt the outer ward, and put a great part of :he
garnfon to the fvvord ; but his own troops, in efftdtmg tins
object, fuftained fo confidcrable a lofs, that he was compelled
to raife the fiege. The fciteof this caftle is very remarkable,
being aa iclulaicd lock of loioe ekvatioD, tut^ly unceo-

nefled with any adjacent riling ground. A handfome ftone
bridge is here thrown acrofs the river Brane. The church
ftands on an eminence at one end of the town. It docs not
poffefs any thing worthy of being particularly noticed.
The market is held on Friday every week, and, confidcring
the extent of the place, is one of the largeft and bell fupplied
in Wales.

Llandovery is undoubtedly a town of confiderable anti".
quity : it rofe upon the ruins of a Roman Ration, which was
at or near Llan-Fair-ar-y-Erynn, about half a mile diftant.
That thcfe celebrated conquerors had a fixed refidence there,
is fufHciently clear from the number of Ron'an bricks,
earthen pots, coins, and other remains of antiquity, which have
been difcovered on that fpot. This town was formerly a
contributary borough to Caermarthen, but the privilege has
been loft for a conliderable ptriod. It ftill, however, re-
tains its charter, by virtue of which a baihfF is annually
eleifed, as are likewife a recorder, a town-clerk, aldermen,,
and ferjeants at mace ; but their offices at prcfent feem to
be little more than nominal. The county magiftrates hold
here the petty fclFions for the upper divifion of the hundred
of Penfedd. It pofFefTes no lefs than five benefit focieties,
three for men and two for women, which are faid to be ex-
tremely advantageous to the fubfcribers.

The neighbourhood of Llandovery is diftinguifhed by a
moft enchanting difplay of the more placid defcription of
mountain fcenery. The pafs of Cwm-Dwr, which winds
round the Black mountain to the eaft, is peculiarly fine.
On a part of this mountain the decayed town of Trecaftle is
fituated ; but it contains nothing worthy of attention, ex-
cept the remains of a caftle erefted by Bernard de New-
march, in the reign of William Rufus. On the fummit of
the Gaer hill is a Roman encampment, part of the fortifica-
tions of which are ftill tolerably entire ; and on Pen y Craig
an oval one, with three foffes and two Valiums, fuppoied to
be of Bntifli conftruftion. A monumental ftone, about fix
feet high, called Maen y Morynnion, is placed on an old
Roman cauieway which joins the road to Brecknock. It
feems to have been richly fculptured. The words " Con-
jux ejus" are the only ones of the infcription that can now
be diftinguiftied. Carlifle's Typographical Dictionary of
Wales, 4to. 181 1. Skrine, Malkin, and Evans's Tours
in South Wales.

LLANDRINDOD, or TiuNiTY-CiiURCir, a village
of South Wales, in Radnorftiire, near which are medicinal
fprings, much frequented ; 8 miles W. of New Radnor.

LLAN-ELLY, a market-town and parifh in the hun-
dred of Carnwyllion, in Caermarthenftiire, South Wales^
coiitains, according to the parhamentary returns in iSci,
501 houfes, and 2972 inhabitants. The market-days are
Thurfday and Saturday. The buildings of the town are ir-
regularly fituated upon a creek near the fea-ftiore- At the
mouth of this creek is a fmall iiland, formed by the river
Bury, where a monaftery, founded by St. Firo, formerly
ftpod. The church, dedicated to St. Elliw, is an old ftruc-
ture, remarkable for its high, fquare, embattled tov.-er.
The inhabitants of this place are chietly miners and failors.
The coal wrought in the vicinity is reckoned remarkably
fine. The harbour is tolerably large, and is the coatrouling
port both for Caernarvon and Kidwelly. Two fairs are
held here annually ; one on Afcenfion day, and the other en
the 3Cth of September. The parith contains about ij-jOCO
acres of land, of which nearly 3000 lie uninclofed and with-
out cultivation. The hamlets are Beruich, Glynn, Hen
Coed, Wellftowe, and the Borough hamlet. At Berwich
and at Ddewi the ruins of two chapels c.vi ftill he diftin-
guifhed. The chapei of St. John has beeu lately repaired

by

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by lubicription, and is at prefcnt iifed as a meeting-lioufe by
the Methodifls. Perribree-hill, a feu- miles dillant from the
town, commands one of the tincll and molt extenfive marine
views to he found in anv part of Great Britain.

LLA'NES, a fmall [c;i-port town of Spain, in Afturias,
near the North coaft ; ,4 miles N.E. of Oviedo.

LLAN-GADOG-\ AWR, a market-town and parilh
in the hundred of Pcnfedd, and countj' of, Caermarthen,
South Wales. The town, which ftands between the rivers
Brane and Sawdde, is tolerably well built, but was formerly
ni'.jch more cxtenfive than at prefent. It lies about 6 miles
S.SW. of Llandovery, and 190 W. by N. from London.
A. fmuU mannfai':ture of coarie woollens and ftockings 15
carried on here, principally to fupply the confumption of
the town. The market-day is Thurfday ; and the fairs are
held on the 12th of March,' the laft Thurfday of May, gth
of July, the firft Thurfday after the nth of September,
and the fccond Thurfday after the i ith of December. The
■ancient caftle, mentioned by many tourifts, has been for
many years entirely demolifhed. A collegiate church is faid
to have been founded here, A.D. 1285. by Thomas Beck,
bifhop of St. David's, in honour of St. Maurice and his
companion, and St. Thomas the MarVyr. This diftinclion
I'eems to have been enjoyed but a very fiiort time, if it ever
actually took place. The prefcnt church is dedicated to
St. CadojT, and the living is a vicarage'in the 2;ift of the
biihop mentioned above. Bledri, the fon of Cedifor, the
great lord of Gwydigada and Elfed, who died in 1 1 19, was
buried here. The parilh contains three hamlets ; the hamlet
of Dyffryn Caead^ Rhych, the hamlet of Gwyiife, and the
hamlet above the Sawdde. The population, according to
the parliamentary report of 1801, amounted to 1S21
perfons.

LLANGOLLEN, a market-town and pariib, fituated
in the hundred of Chirk, and county of Denbigh, North
Wales. The houfes of the town have a mean appearance.
According to the parliamentary returns for j8oi they
amounted tq 281, and the inhabitants to 1287. The
church is nowife remarkable, excepting for the length of
the name of its patron faint, /'. e. St. Collen ap Gvvynnawg
ap Clydawg ap Cowdra ap Caradog Fruchfras ap Lleyn
Merim ap Eynion Yrth ap Cunedda Wledig. The market
is held here on Saturday every week, and there are four
fairs annually. The ruins of Caftell Dinas Bran nearly cover
the fummit of a vail conoid hill, which begins its afcent
near the foot of the bridge oppofiJe to the town. This is
one of the primitive Welfh calllea, but the name of its
founder is unknown. The form of it is oblong, extending
about 300 yards in breadth, and ijo in length. . On one
fide of the hill, which is lefs deep than the others, deep
trenches are cut thrcugh the folid rock. The materials
compofing this building are the common coarfe Hone of the
country, interfperfed with a few free-Hone mouldings. In
the reign of Henry III, this callle ferved as an afylum to
the traitor GryfFydd ap Madog, who, bafely taking part
vith the enemies of his country, was compelled to fecure
himfelf in this aerial fallnefs. It afterwards became the
refidence of Mufamvay Vechan, the beautiful and accom-
plifhed mittrefs of Hoel ap Eynion, one of the mod illuf-
trious o£^ the Weldi bards. It is remarkable that this
caflle (lands at lead' 600 yards above the level of the fea :
the two fprings within its walls are never deficient in water.
On the north-fide of the hill may be feen a vail rock, called
Craig Eglwyfeg, or the Eagle's Rock ; the llrata of which
are fo placed upon one another as to form a feries of fteps
parallel with the horizon, known to naturalills by the name
Xii Saxa fedilia. The bridge at the bottom of the hill is
^Bc of the moft beautiful and romantic in Wales, and is ge-

nerally reckoned among the wonders of the principality.
The foundation is on the ledge of a rock. It conlifts of four
arches, the centre one of which is 50 feet in di:imeter. Tra-
dition informs us it was the work of Trevin, bifhop of St.
Afaph, in the year 1400. About two miles from the bridge
ftandii the abbey of deValle Crucis,one of the fined fjiecimens
of architetlnral antiquity in Wales- The V-edern window
has been adorned with a variety of fculptnral oniaments,
but moft of them are entirely defaced Concerning the
etymology of the name of this abbey hiftorians are not
agreed ;• fome deriving it from the buildings being in the
form of a crofs, and others from the circumdancc of its
monks having made a prefent of a part of the true crofs to
Edward I. At the dillance of a quarter of a mile hence,
is the remainder of a round column, called the pillar of
Ehfeg, which is perhaps one of the mod ancient Britifh
pillars now exiding. It was entire till the time of the great
rebellion, when it was thrown down and broken by fome
ignorant fanatics, on account of its refemblance, in figure,
to a crofs. This pillar has, no doubt, been credted to per-
petuate the memory of fome celebrated chief. It dood on
a great tumulus, and, when complete, nieafnred 12 feet iii
height. The inlcription was copied by Mr. Edward Llwyd,
but it is now entirely illegible. From the fhape of the
letters in the copy taken by that great antiquary, it is con-
cluded to haviibccn written fome time in the fixth century..
The tumulus was opened fome years back, when fome bones
were diicovercd placed between flat dones.

The beauties of the vale of Llangollen are celebrated
both in profe and verfe. It is watered by the river Deva,
and lias a canal from the Pont y Cryfylltau aquednft run-
ning throughout its whole length to the Oernant flate-quar-
ries. The low price of labour, and the great j)leiity of pro-
vifions and fuel, have lately induced feveral adventurers in
the cotton manufacture to ellablifli fome extenfive works
in this neighbourhood. The great mail-road from London
to Holyhead pades through both the vale and town. The
parilh is very extenfive, and is divided into three portions,
called Traian y Glynn, Traian Llangollen, and Traian
Trevor ; each of which contains fevcral hamlets. We might
have mentioned the romantic refidence of two ladies, who
have for many years lived together in the vicinity of this
town. It is well known by all tourills. Pennant, Skrine,
Bingley, Wyndham, Evans, Warner, and Hutton have
given accounts of Llangollen, and of the principal places
in its vicinity, in their refpeclive tours in Wales.

LLANNERCH Y MEDD, a market-town, fituafed
chiefly in the parilh of Amlwch, in the h'lndred of Twr
Celyn, and county of Ano;lefea, North Wales. A market
is held here on Wednefdays, and the fairs on 'he 5th of
February, 25th of April, 6ih of May, and Thurfday after
Trinity. This town owes its fupport prineipally to the
circumdance of its being dationed in the neighbourhood of
the Parys mountain. The petty feflions are held here.
Aikin's Tour in North Wales.

LLANOS, Los, a town of Mexico, in tl;e province of
Mechoacaii ; 100 miles N.N.E. of Mechoacan.

Lla-NOS De yllmerin, a town of Spain, in the province of
Grenada, on the coall of the Mediterranean ; 20 miles
W.S.W. of Almeria.

LEAN RHAIADAR, in Mochnant, a parifli con-'
fitting of 17 townlhips, fituatcd partly in the hundred of
Chirk, and county of Denbigh, and partly in the hundred
of Llan-FyUin, in Montgomeryfliire, North Wales. It lies
in a deep hollow, furrounded by lofty mountains. The
petty leffions for the divifion of Cynllaeth and Mochnant
are held in the village which gives name to the paridi'.
William Morgan, D. D. an eminent divine, and the perfon

who

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■vho firft tranflated the bible into Welfh, was vicar htre,
till tranflated to the fee of Llandaff, by queen Elizabeth in
the year i ^qj;. The buildings of the village are ancient
and irregular. The redlory is a finccure in the patronage
of the bilhop of St. Afaph. According to the parliamen-
tary returns for 1801, the whole parith contained a popula-
tion of 1 869 perfons.

LLANRWST, a raarket-town and parifli, fituated in
the wellern extremity of the hiuidred of LTv/ch Dulas, and
county of Denbigh, North Wales. The town is watered
by the river Conwy, over which, at this place, is a noble
bridge of three arches, built by the celebrated Inigo Jones
in the year j6^6. Tlie market is on Tuefdays, and there
are four fairs during the vear. Here are held the petty
feffions for the Uiindred. Mr. Burke calls this " the moft
charmin!T fpot in Wales.'' In the town is a good market-
hall, and a richly endowed free-fchool. A fmall trade is
carried on in harp-making, and it is the centre of all the
bufinefs of the populous vale in which it (lands. The
church is fuppofed to have been built in 570, and is dedi-
cated to St. Grwft, who was a bifliop of London about the
year 360. In this church is fome curious carved work,
faid to have been brought from the neighbouring abbey of
Maenan. Adjoining to it ftands a chapel, ereited by fir
Richard Wynne, after a defign by the architeft already
meij.ioned. Here are a few monuments in honour of the
Wynne family, which deferve the attention of the curious.
They are braflea. each containing, befides the infcription,
a portraiture of the perfon to whofe memory they were en-
graved. An ancient monument of Howel Coytmor has
been lately removed from the church to this place. Near
it is a large ftone cofSn, liippofed to be that of prince Lle-
welyn ap Jerwerth, who was denominated Llewelyn the
Great. The high road from Shroplhire to Holyhead pafles
through the town. In the neighbourhood Hands Gwydw-
houfe, an ancient manfion, confifting of an extenfive pile
of buildings, of irregular appearance, but fufficient to de-
iiote the great opulence and fplendour of its former pof-
feflbrs. Immediately behind the honle the ground rifes
rapidly to the foot of the perpendicular clitts which form
the weftern boundary of the valley. All this fpace is now
covered with fine plantations of different kinds of trees.
Half way up the rock, on an irregular plain of nearly five
acres in extent, are the remains of a terrace, and a handfome
domeltic chapel, in the pointed ftyle of architedure. Abeut
a mile from the town, at the hamlet of Mayne, is a ipring
in high repute for its medicinal virtues. Five miles to the
fouth-eaft lies tire ancient nunnery of Gwythwin, where
St. Winefrid is faid to have been buried. The box which
contained the relics of this faint is Hill pointed out to
ftrangcrs, but her chapel on the fouth-fide is totally de-
nioliQied. The church-yard contains four upright ftones,
one of which is in the fiiape of a prifm, and bears an in-
fcription now illegible. North of Llanrwft, at the dif-
tance of three miles, the abbey of Maenan formerly (food.
Its fcite is now occupied by a large old houfe, built out
of the ruins. The refident population of this parilh, ac-
cording to the parliamentary returns of iBoi, amounted
to 2549 pe-fons. Seey the Tours, of Pennant, Wyndham,
Aikm, Bingley, Skrine, Warner, Evans, and Hutton : all
of whom vifited this part of Wales.

LLANSTEPHAN, a village in the hundred of Derllys,
and county of Caermarthen, South Wales," is feated beneath
a hill, in a woody vale ; whence the fituation is peculiarly
pifturefque and interefting. Here is a well, called St. An-
thony's, which formerly was in hiffli ellimatioa for its raedi>
Vol.. XXI.

cinal virtues ; but it has not been much refortcd to of life
years. Here was formerly a callle, which is now in ruins.
It is fituated on an eminence, on the weftern fide of the en-
trance of the navigable river Tywi, or Towey. Its broken
walls enclofe a large area ; and furnifhed with feveral encir-
cling earthen ramparts, appear to have poffeffed confider-
able ftrength. This caftle is faid to have been built by the
fnns of Uchtred, prince of Merionethfhire, A. D. iijS.
There is a handfome modern honfc on the hill on which the
caitle ftands. The parifli of Llanllephan, which include!
the hamlets of Alifton, Laques, and Llau y Bre, contained,
according to the return to parliament in 1801, a population
of 974 perfon5, inhabiting 205 houfes. Carhfle's Topo-
graphical Diftionary of Wales, 4to. 181 1.

LLANTRISSANT, a borough and market-town in
the hundred of Miflcin, and county of Glamorgan, South
Wales, is fituated near the fummit of a cleft in one of the
high hills which abound in the vale of Glamorgan. The
only accefs to it is by a fteep circuitous road. One narrow
irregular ftreet, compofcd of poor habitations, makes up
nearly the whole of this place. The church is a large Nor-
man flrufture. The cemetery affords a very extenfive
profpeft. Here vfas an ancient Norman caftle, of which
but little now remains, except the fragment of a circular
tower ; the veIHgcs of the outworks being nearly concealed
by (hrubs. Within the precinils of the caftle are the town-
hall and market-houfe, new buildings erefted by the late
earl of Bute. The borough is governed by a portreve, and
unites with Cardiff, Swanfea, &c. in fending one member
to parliament. LlantriiTant is dillant from Llandaff 10 miles,
and from London 170: a weekly market is held on Friday,
and three fairs annually. In the year 1801, the parifli wa»
returned as containing ^y6 houfes, inhabited by 1 7 15 perfons.
Barber's Tour in South Wales, 8vo.

LLANVYLLING, a market-town in the hundred to
which it gives name, in the county of Montgomery, North
Wales, is fituated in a pleafant valley, near the river Cane,
Tj miles from Montgomery, and 186 irom London. The
town is neat, and many of the houfes are well built. It
was firft incorporated by Llewellyn ap GryfFydd, lord of
Mecham and Mochnant, in the reign of Edward I. ; and i»
governed by two bailiffs, chofen annually, who arejul^.ices of
the peace during the time of office. Many Roman coina
have been found here. Four fairs are held annually, and a
weekly market on Tuefday. According tu the population
report of the year 1801, Llanvylling coTitained 444 houfes,
and 1394 inhabitants. Pennant's Tour in Wales, and
Skrine's Tour.

LLANWRTYD Wells, a medicinal fpring of South
Wales, in the countv of Brecon ; 12 miles W. of Builth.

LLANYDLOES, a market-town in the hundred of the
fame name, and county of Montgomery, North Wales, is
pleafantly fituated near the bank of the river Severn, 1^
miles from Newtovvn»and 180 from London. Several of the
ftreets are fpacious, but the buildings are irregular, and
chiefly of lath and plafter. The church is a neat edifice,
being fupported by fix arches, the pillars of which hav«
capitals of palm-leaves, and are faid to have been brought
from Cwmber Abbey. About the town arc feveral very ex-
tenfive flieep-walks ; and a number of perfons are conlhintly
employed in the neighbouring flate quarries. The parifh
confifts of the townfliips of Brithdir, .Cil-Machen, Glyun-
Hafren-Is-Coed, Manleodd, Morfodiou, TrefSn, and
Yflrad Dunod. The petty feffions for the hundred are holden
here. Llanydloes was formerly a contributory borough
t« Montgomery, but was dijfrauchifed with Pool and Llan-
F f Fyliin.

L L O

I. L O

ryllin. The town however has ftill the nominal appendage*
of a mayor, and his fubordiiiatc oiriccrr. A coiiliderablc
mariufaftory of flannels is carried on here. Pennant, Evans,
Bingley, and Skrine dcfcribe this place and its neighbourhood
in their refpective tours in North Wales.

LL ATA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Lima ; 90
Hiiles from Lima.

LLAUGHARNE, LlAUGHARM, I.lacknrn,or Laush-
arne, a market-town, fea-port, and parifh, in the hundred
of Derlis, Caermarthenfliirc, Wales. The town is fituatcd
at the mouth of the river Coran, and is one of the mod fe-
queftered towns in the principality. The church is a large
handfome building, in very excellent condition. Towards
the foutii end of the town, and clofe upon the bay of Caer-
marthen, ftand the ruins of an old caitlo, which is faid to
have been ercftcd, or at lead re-built, by Guido de Brian, in
the reign of Henry 111. The remains of the gateway, which
is covered with a profufion of ivy, and various other parts of
it, are dill in good prefervation The corporation of Llaugh-
arne conCfts of a portreve, a recorder, an indefmite number
of aldermen, two common attornie.s, four conllablef, and
76 burgedes. The market is held on Friday, and there are
two fairs annually, but thefe are very inconftderable. This
vas the birth-place of a celebrated political writer and di-
vine, Dr. Jofiah Tuckrr, who died in I 799.

At a diort didance from the town are the vediges of a
ruin, now called Roches cadle. This building, according
to tradition, was formerly a monallery, but when it was
built, or by what order of monks, is wholly unknown.
The parifti church is faid anciently to have doodon the farm
named Crafeland, i. c. Chrid's land, but no traces of fuch
a building can now be difcovercd. In the year 1801, this
town contained 1484 inhabitants.

LLECH, the Weldi name for a kind of monumental
ftone found in that country. See Pillar.

LLENDILAFAYA, a town of Spain, in the province
cf Adnria ; 8 miles S.W. of Orviedo.

LLERENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Edra-
madura, belonging to the knights of the order of St. .Tago,
by whom it was founded ; 53 miles E of Cordova. N. lat.
38^ 7'. W. long. 5" 59'. — Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Zacatecas ; 80 miles N.N.W. of Zacatecas.
N. lat. 23" 48'. W. long. 104° 46'.

LLIRIA. See Liria.

LLIVI A, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, in the Pyrenees,
near the fource of the Segre, anciently called " Julia Li-
byca ;" 6 miles N.E. of Puycerda.

LLOBREGAT, a river of Spain, in Catalonia, which
runs into the Mediterranean, about 9 miles W. from Bar-
celona.

LLOMSA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on the
Narew ; 70 miles N.N.E. of Warfaw.

LLORENTE don Berxaudo, in Biography, a Spanidi
painter, who was in favour at the court of Philip V., and
employed to paint the infant Don Felipe. From the pro-
fpcft of preferment this circumdanco held forth to him, he
was diverted by a decided turn for folitude ; which made
hira fly the court, and in the feqiiel obtained for him the
name of Pintor de las Paftoras, the painter of diepherdedes,
from the nuinber of madonnas which he painted, arrayed
in their garb, and furrounded by flocks. He died in 1 757,
at the age of 72.

LLORET, in Geogmphy, a town of Spain, on the S.E.
coaft of Catalonia ; co miles N,E. of Mataro. N. lat. 43°
42'. E- long. 4'' 42'.

LLOWITSCH, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 24
miles N.W, of Rava.

LLOYD, Wii.i.ia.m, in Biography, an Englifli prelate,
was born at Tilehurd, in Berklhire, in 1637. His father,
rcftor of his native place, took great pains in the education
of his Ion, who repaid hi-s attention by :; mod rapid progrefs
in the learned languages. He was not quite twelve years
of age when he was entered a dudent of Oriel-college,
Oxford, whence he removed, in 1640, to a fcholardiip in
•Tefus-coUcge. He was ordained in 1656, and, after the
redoration, he obtained, in a very Ihort time, confiderable
preferment in the church, till at length, in 1680, he was
promoted to the fee of St, Afaph. fii 16S4, he publidicd
his " Hidory of the Government of the Church, as it was
in Great Britain and Ireland, when they fird received the
Chridian Religion." In 1688, bid-.op Lloyd was one of
the fix bidiops who, together with avchbiiliop Sancroft,
were committed to the Tower for prefenting a petition ta
king James II., againd that prince's declaration for fuf-
pending the laws in favour of the Papids, which the clergy
were enjoined to read in the churches. Their triumphant
acquittal is well known to our readers. About the clofe of
the lame year, being known to concur very zialoufly in the
revolution, he was made almoner to king William HI., and,
in 1692, was tranflated to the fee of Lichfield and Coventry.
In 1699, he publidied " A Chronological Account of the
Life of Pythagoras, and of other famous Men, his Contem-
poraries : with an Epidle to the Rev. Dr. Bcntley, &c."
In 1699, he was trandated to the bidiopric of \Vorceder,
Having, fome time after this, been charged with an improper
interference in the county eleftion, he was difmiffed from
the office of almoner. He died at Hartlubury-cadlc in the
year 17 17, when he had attained to the nincty-drd year of
his age. According to bilhop Burnet, Dr. Lloyd " was a
great critic in the Greek and Latin authors, but chiefly in
the fcriptures. He was an exatt hidorian, and the mod
pundtual in matters of chronology. As much, however,
as he was fet on learning, he had never ncglefted his padoral
care. He was a holy, humble, and patient man, ever ready
to do good when he faw a proper opportunity ; even his
love of iludy did not divert him from that." He was
author of a great nninber of publications, the titles of which
are given in tlie Biographia Britannica : and he left feveral
pieces behind him in an inilininicd date ; among thefe was
" A Sydem of Chronology," out of which his chaplain,
Mr. Benjamin Mardial, was faid to have compofed his
Chronological Tables. He was fuppofed to have had a
principal fharc in the " Series Chronologica Olympiadum,
Idhmiadum, Nemeadum, &c." publiflied by his fon at
0.\ford in 1700. He engaged bldiop Burnet to undertake
his " Hidory of the Reformation," furniflied him with a
curious collection of fafts and obfervations : and he affided
Dr. Wilkins in compofing his " EfTay towards a real
Charafter, and a philofophical Language." Biog. Brit.

Lloyd, Robert, fon of Dr. Peirfon Lloyd, was one
of the uflicrs of Wedminder-fchool. We have already, under
the article Churchill, refered to this unfortunate young
man, who is known chiefly as an author, by a poem, entitled
" The Aftor," which not only exhibited proofs of great
judgment in the fubjeft he was treating of, but had alfo
the merit of fmooth verCiication and drength of poetry.
He was fome time at the univcrfity of Cambridge, where he
took the degreeof M. A. After he quitted his place as udier
at Wedminder-fchool, he relied entirely on his pen for fub-
fideiice : being of a thoughtlefs and very extravagant difpo-
fition, he got deeply into debt, and was in confequence thrown

intu

L L Y

L O A

into th? Fleet prifon, where he depended almoft wholly on
the bounty of his triend Churchill, whofe kindnefs to him con-
tinued undiminithcd during all his neceffities. On the death
of his benefaftor, Mr. Lloyd funk into a ftate of defpon-
dency, which put an end to his exiitence in 1764. Mr.
Wilkes fays, that " Lloyd was mild and affable in private
life, of gentle manners, and very engaging converfation.
He was an excellent fcholar, and an eafy natural poet. His
peculiar excellence was the dreffinjy up an old thought in a
hew, neat, and trim manner. He was contented to fcamper
round the foot of Parnafius on his little Welfh poney,
which feems never to have tired. He left the fury of the
winged fteed, and the darinrr heights of the facred. moun-
tain, to the fublime genius of his friend Churchill." His
works were publifhed in 2 vols. 8vo. in 1774.

Lloyd, Nicholas, an Englifh divine, who was reftor of
St. Mary Newington, Surrey, where he died in 1680, at the
age of 49. He compiled an hiflorical, geographical, and
poetical diftionary, which was printed at O.^ford in 1670,
in folio, and again in 1695, in 410.

Lloyd's Lake, in Geography, a bay on the S. coaft of
Eaft Florida. N. lat. 25' 1 8'. W. long. So' 50'.

LLUCH M.iYER, a town of the iiland of Majorca,
fituated in the middle of a large plain, at the end of which
is a mountain Handing by itlelf, called La Rcnda. This
town was built in the reign of James IL in the year 1300 :
the popalation amounts to about 3500 perfons. The
jlreets and houfes are very regularly built ; it has one pariJh
church, confecrated to the archangel St. Michael.

LLULLA and Chiloas, a jurifdiftion of the diocefe of
Truxillo, in South America, lying S. of Chachapayas, and
E. of the Cordillera of the Andes ; low, warm, and moift, and
covered with woods, fo that a great part of it is uninhabited.
It borders on the river of Moyabamba, which, commencing
its courfe from thefe fouthern provinces of Peru, forms the
rirer of the Amazons. The principal commodity of this
country is tobacco, which, with a particular kind of almonds
called " Andes," and a few other fruits natural to its climate,
form the commerce carried on by this province with the
others.

LLYN Sav.A.db.\N', or Savathan Pool, a lake of South
Wales, in Brecknocklhire ; 4 miles E. of Brecknock. This
lake is larger than any in Wales, except that of Bala,
being two miles in length, and, in fome places, one mile
broad. The river Lunwy paffes through this lake, and
finds its way to the Wye, in a direftion nearly due north.
It is obferved not to mix its waters with thofe of the lake
in its paflage ; and the feparation is underitood to be fo
complete, that unlefs immediately after heavy Itorms, the
fi(h of the river are not found in the lake, nor thsfe of the
lake in the river. The depth of Llynlavaddan is faid to
be about thirteen fathoms. The ancient tradition of a city
being drowned, fo univerfally apphed to fuch bodies of
water, is too trivial to deferve further notice.

LLYWARCH apLlyweiIyx, m Biography, zn ancient
WeKh bard, who fiouriflied from about 1 160 to 1220.
Many of his pieces are in the Welfh Archaiology, and con-
tain feveral hiilorical notices of value.

LLYWELYN ap Gkuffydd, the lad fovereign of
Wales, who reigned from A.D. T254, to 1282. He was a
brave prince, and relided the ambition of Edward I. king of
England a long time, but he at laft fell, and with him the
independence of the Wclfli as a diitinct nation.

Llywelyn' SlON, an eminent poet of Glamorgan, who
collected the fyftem of Bardifm, which is preferved. He
prefided at feveral meetings of the bards, and died in the
jfcar 1616.

Llywelyx, Thomas, a Wellh nonconformift divine of
the Baptift denomination, was a native of Monmouthfhire,
and died in 1796. He publiihed a hiilory of the different
editions of the Welfh bible.

LO, St. m Geography, dilown of France, and principal place
of a diftricl;, in the department of the Channel, of which it is
the capital, feated on the Vore, furrounded with walls, and
defended by a citadel, which has fome manufactures of
cloth, ferges, and leather. The place contains 6987, and
the canton 11,707 inhabitants, 'on a territory of 90 kilio-
metres, in ii communes. N. lat. 49'' 7'. W. long, i'^ iV

LOACH, in Ichthyology, the Eiiglifh name of a filh,
called alfo the groundling, and by the Germans ihe/morls or
fmorling. It is a fpecies of the Cobitis. See CoBiTis
Barbatula.

LOAD, or LoDg, in Mining. See LoDE.

Load is alfo ufed for nine dilhes of ore, each difh being
about half a hundred weight.

Load, Majler, among Miners. See Mi-STER-load.

L0.4.D, Training a. See Tr.^inisg.

Load Water-line, in a Ship, is the deepeil line of float-
ation, or when all her cargo is taken in.

LOADING. See Cakgo and L.vding.

LOADMANAGE, in Maritime Jfairs: the hire i«
fometimes fo called, which the pilot of a fhip receives
of 3. mailer, for conducting a fhip up the river, or into
port.

LOADSTONE. See Magnet.

Loadstone, /YoaZ/Bf, an inftrument invented and fo called
by Mr. Boyle, which he ufed to difcover whether guineas
or other coins were counterfeit, by putting the inilrument,
with the piece of coin to be tried and faftened to the bottom
of it, into a tall glafs or other vefTel of water : marks
being fo made on the flender metalline pipe, which forms the
upper part of the inftrument, that the hollow ball which
made the lower part of it, would link much lower, at leafl
two inches, if the coin be true gold than if it be not : and
according as the water reaches to one or other of the afore-
faid marks, an eftimate may be made, whether the piece of
coin, if counterfeit, be made of tin, brafs, copper, filver,
or lead. The inftrument might be applied to any coins,
either of gold or filver, provided that they were of any
confiderable bulk. Birch's Hiil. of the Royal Society,
vol. iii. p. 115.

LOAM, derived from the German word hime, and
anciently fignifying a vifcid earth, in Natural Hi/lory, a
clafs of compound or mixed earths, compofed of diffimilar
particles, hard, ftifT, denfe, harfh, and rough to the touch,
not eafily dutlile while moift, readily diffufible in water,
and ufually compofed of fand and a tough vifcid clay.

Hill comprehends under this clafs two genera, i. The
thrauJlomiShes ; and, 2. The glifchromiShes. The firft are
compofed of fand and a lefs viicid clay, and are of a friable
or crumbly nature ; the fecond are compofed of fand and
a more vifcid clay, and are of a more tough and vifcid
texture.

Da Cofta diftinguiflies them by their colour into black and
white, which are not afted upon by acids ; yellow loams,
fom.e of which are not ac\cd upon liy acids ; and other al-
kaline, brown loams, fome ?.fted upo.'^ by acids, to which
clafs belongs the Windfor loam, fo well known and fo much
ufed for making bricks, building furnaces, lutes, &c. and
others alkaline; and the green loams not afted upon by
acids.

According to Woodward, loam confifts of clay, mixed

with Hne fand, or of clay with a fuperabuudance of fand }

and Mr. Bergm.an, having analyfed i'ome lonm found in the

F f 2> neighbour-

L O A

L O A

neighbourhood of London, and confidcred -is very excellent,
found it to confill of 87 per cent, of a rcddifh-grey fand, as
fine as meal, and 13 of argil. Suppofing, therefore, clay
to confift, as it molt frequently does, of '^o per cent, of argil,
and 70 of fine fand, we fhall find, fays Kirwan, that loam
of the boll kind contains an cxccfs.of fand amounting to
ij per cent. ; if the excefs of fand he greater, it will form
what is called z. fandy loam; if fmaller, clayey ham. Mr.
Bergman found nothing calcareous in the loam ; when it
contains any, it fo far inclines to the nature of marie, and
this marhiceous loam may be either fanily or clayey, accord-
ing as the proportion above indicated is exceeded on eitlier
fide. But loams mod frequently contain alfo a portion of
calx of iron, and this calx is more or lefs oxygenated ; a
circumllance which produces a couliderable variety in the
colour, and probably alfo in the vegetative powers of this
earth : if its proportion be coijiiderable, viz. 4 or 5 per
cent, tl'.ey often contain alio fomc proportion of vitriolic
acid. The colour of loam frequently proceeds from that of
the calces of iron contained in it, but mor? frequently from
its fandy part. Gravel, which is a coarfer fort of fand, ei-
ther of a calcareous or iiliceous nature, is often mixed with
loams, and alfo pebbles, whence new diltinftions arife of
importance to agriculture. Kirwan's Elem. of Mineralogy,
Tol. i. See Mould and Soil.

Loam is alfo ufed for a fort of mortar made of this earth,
by tempering it with water, flraiv, S:c.

LOAMY Soil, in Agriculture, that fort of foil into
which loam enters in a couliderable proportion. Thefe foils
are diftinguiihed by many different names and colours. See
Soil.

LOAN-Banks, or Lending-houfts, eflabli/hments which
may be traced to an ancient origin, formed and fupported by
humane perfons, with a view of lending money to the poor
for a certain period, on pledges, without intercft. Thus, we
are told, the emperor Augullus converted into a fund the
furplus of the money which arofe to the ftatc from the con-
fifcated property of criminals, and lent funis from it, with-
out intercft, to thofe who could pledge value equal to double
the amount. (Suet. Vit. Augulli, cap. 41.) Tiberius alfo
advanced a large capital, from which thofe were fupplied
with money for three years, who cou'd give fecurity in lands
equivalent to twice the value. (Suet. Vit. Tiberii, c. 48.
Tacit. Annal. vi. 17. Dio Cafiitis c. viii. 21.) Alex-
ander Sevcrus reduced the intereft of money by lending
money at a low rate, and advancing fun.s to the poor with-
out intereft to purchafe lands, and agreeing to re;eive pay-
ment from the produce of them. {JE\. Lamprid. Vit. Alex.
Severi, cap. 21.) Thefe examples of the ancients were fol-
lowed in modera Italy. In order to GoUeft money, the
popes conferred upon thofe who would contribute towards
that objeft many fictitious advantages, which at any rate coft
them nothing. At firft, money was lent to the poor for a
certain time without intereft, provided they could depofit
pledges of proper value. At length the po. tiffs refolved to
allow the lending-houfes to receive intercft, not for the whole
capitals which they lent, but only for a part, merely that
tlicy might raife as much money as might be fufHcient to de-
fray their expences. In procefs of time, it was tlio'jght
proper, for the purpofe of their having fufficient ftock in
liand, to give to thofe who Ihould advance tlum money a
moderate intereft, which was prudently concealed by blending
it with the unavoidable expences of the ellabliilimen't. The
lendmg-houfes, therefore, gave and received iiitercft. But
in order to avoid the odious name, the intereft that was re-
ceived was faid to be " pro indemnitate ;" and this is the
cxprefiion made ut of in the papal bull. The pope declared

the holy mountains of piety, as they were called, to bo
legal; and threatened thofe with his vengeance ulio dand
to entertain any farther doj^ibts on the fuhjiift. All the
cities now haftened to cftablilh IcndiHg-houfes ; and their
example was at length fcllov/ed in other countries. The
origin of lending-houfes, in the ftrift fenfe of the term, ii
referred to the time of pope Pius II. or Paul II., who
filled the papal chair from 1464 to 147 1. The greater part
of the lending-houfes in Italy was ellablifhcd in the fifteenii*
and following centuries by certain Minorites. Notv\'i!!i-
ftanding the manifeft advantages with wliicli lending-houfe_s
were altendedfand though many of them had been fanc\ioned
by the infallible court of Rome, many, bi:t chiefly Domi-
nicans, exclaimed againft thefe inftitutions, which they did
not c'lU monies pirfatis, but Impielatis, As this difpu'e ws»
revived with much warmth in the beginning of the i6Lh
century, it was at length terminated by pope LeoX., who,
in the council of the Lateran, declared by a partic.ilar bull,
that lending-houfes were legal and uleful ; that all doubts to
the contrary were finful ; and that thofe who diould write
agsiull them would be in a ftate of cxcommuniiaLion. The
council of Trent alfo, by a decree, aeknowledgcd their le-
gality, and confirmed them. See Mounts of Piety. See
alfo LoMBAKDS and Ba.nk.

LOANDA, in Geography, an ifland in tiie Atlantic, near
the coaft of Angola, about 12 miles long, and one wide, fe-
paratcd from the continent by a narrow channel, which
forms a good harbour. The foil does not produce grain ;
but fruits, fuch as oranges, figs, &c. are plentiful. It con-
tains feven or eight villages, and on the coail are found fhcll-
fifh, called " ziinbi," ufed for money by the natives, hke
cowries in India. S. lat. 8 50'.

LoANDA, or St. Paul tie Loaiida, a fea port town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Angola, the fee of a bifliop, and
capital of a fertile province called Loanda, in poffefTion of
the Portuguefe ; containing feveral churches and convents,
and about 5000 inhabltantf, of whom 1000 are v.hitcs, and
the reft blacks or mulattoes. The ccur.try abounds in cat-
tle and flieep ; Indian corn, millet, manioc, and fruits.
S. lat. 8' 53'. E. long. 13° 22'.

LOANGHILLY, a town of Africa, in Loango ; the
ufual burying place of the emperor ; io miles S. of
Loaiijio.

LOA NGO, a country or kingdom of Africa, fituated
on the W. coaft towards the Atlantic, and bounded on the
N. by Benin, on the E. by Anziko, and on the S. by
Congo. Its climate is hotter, but not lefs health/ and plea-
fant than that of Congo and Angola, nor is its foil lefs fer-
tile. The inhabitants, inftead of cultivating the land, con-
tent themfelvcs with bread and fifh, and fuch frbiits, greens,
and pulfe, as the loil naturally produces. Cocoas, oranges,
and lemons are not much cultivated ; but fugar-cancs, caflia,
and tobacco, as well as the palm, banana, cotton and pi-
mento trees, grow here plentifully. They have alfo a great
variety of roots, herbs, fruits, grain, and other vegetables,
of which they make bread, and which they ufe for food.
They have few quadrupeds for domeftic ufe except goats
and hogs, but poultry and various forts of game are abun-
dant : among the wild bcalls they have the zebra, and a
great number of elephants, whofe teeth they exchange with
the Europeans for iron. The natives, who are called
Bramas, are tall, ftout, and well formed, and though for-
merly cannibals, are of late much improved in their manners.
They pra6tife circunicifion, are addiiScd to trade among
themfelvcs, and are friendly and hofpitable in tlieir mutual in-
tercourfe. They are fond of females and jealous of tbeir
wives. Their Jrcfs confifts tliiefly of cloth inanufa\itured

by

L O A

LOB

by themfelvei ; and they are fond of ornaments about tlieir
necks, legs, and wrifts, which they form of beads of coral,
ivory, (lielb of a beautiful hue, chains of copper, tin, or
iron, obtained from Europe. Polygamy is allowed among
them ; their rich men having 12 or more wives, and the poor
not fewer tlian three. Of a Supreme Beinjj, their notions are
very imperfetl and confufed. Their worlhip is addrefled to
demons, domellic and rural ; and to thefe they afcribe great
intl:jence. To their monarchs they attribute a kind of fuper-
natural and unlimited power. The foreign commerce- of the
country confifts cliiefly in flaves ; and they likewife fell con-
fiderable quantities of ivory, tin, lead, iron, and copper.
The kingdom of Loango, feparated from Congo, of which
it was formerly a part, is divided into four principal pro-
vinces, viz. Lovangiri, Louango-Mongo, Kilongo, and
Piri. The firll is fertile and well inhabited ; the fecond,
lying N.E. of the former, is fpacious and produftive, par-
ticularly ©f palm-trees, the oil of wliich they extract in
great quantities ; and the inhabitants employ themfelves in
working a variety of linen and cloth ; the third is.a maritime
province, and is the largeft and the moll populous of the
four ; its plains are extenlive and fertile, and they are Ihel-
tered at a di'.tance by ridges of higli mountains ; the trade
of the inhabitants, who are rude and unpoliflied, confifts in
elephants' teeth ; the lafl province, north of Kilongo and
Louango-Mongo, is low and flat, but abounds with variety of
fruits and other trees, and is well peopled and cultivated ;
the inhabitants are peaceable and ftrangers to war. They
have plenty of cattle, and of wild and tame fowl, and take
great pleafure in hunting. Their food is fupplied by the
game they take, and the milk of their cattle. In all thefe
provinces there are many towns and villages.

LoAXGO, a city of Africa, and capital of the above-men-
tioned country, Ctuatedona river, which forms a bay at its
mouth, about fix miles from the coaft of the Atlantic. The
natives call it " Borai," or " B jori." It is very fpacious
and airy, as the houfes are not contiguous to one another.
The ftreets are wide and clean, and lined with palm-trees,
bananas, and bacavas, which (belter the houfes both before
and behind. The palace adjoins to a fquare in the centre of
the city, and of itfelf forms another fquare, one and a half
mile in compafs, furrounded with a palifado of llately palm-
trees. Befides the public buildings of which it confills, it
is occupied by the houfes of the king's women^, ten in num-
ber, and each capab'e of accommodating feven or eight of
them. At a fmall diftance is a market place, whicU fup-
plics purchafers every day with meal, poultry, fifh, wine,
corn and oil, as well as palm-cloth ; and ia the market-
place is a famous temple and mokiffo, or idol, called " Me-
kifTo a Loango," which has been held in great veneration
both by the kings and their fubjecls. The houfes are of at>
cblong Ihape, flat in the middle part of the roof, and each
houfe is fenced round with a hedge of palm-twigs, canes,
or bulru(hes.

The bay of Loango, though upon the whole good, is in-
commoded by a bank on the N. fide of its entrance, running
half a league along the coaft, and having not more than two
and a half fathoms of water. The numerous and large
rivers that flow from the continent, occafion fuch rapid and
flrcng currents towards the north during almoft the whole
year, that it is very, difficult to veather them, and gain a
fouthern courfe. The only months in which they may be
ftemmed with fafety are January, February, March, and
April ; during the other months of the year the currents
flow fo Ilrong, that even coafters mull keep at Icaft 10 or
1.2 leagues off the land. S. lat. 4° 40'. E. long. lO" 25'.

LoAKGO, a river of Africa, which run* into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 10 30'.

LOANO, or LovANO, a town of Genoa, near the fea ;
fix miles S.S.W. of Finale.

LOANS, GovEKNME.vT. See Stocks.

LOAR, or LoARKE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Aragon ; i^ miles S. of Jaca.

LOARDEGA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bihar ; 43
miles S. of Palamow.

LOBARIA, in Natural Htfirjry, a genus of the Vermel
mollufca clafs and order : Body Jobatc, cunvcx above, fliit
below. There is only one fpecies, vlx,. quadriloba, cha-
racterized as having a tail with four lobes. It is found in
the northern feas.

LOBATUM Folium, in Botany, a leaf the outline of
whofe fegments is curved. See Le.-\f.

LOB AU, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the territory
of Culm ; 44 miles E. of Culm.

LoBAU, or Liele, one of the moft ancient towns in the
province of Upper Lufatia, containing two churches, three
chapels, an hofpital, and a Latin fchool, and trading chiefly
in linen and thread ; 10 miles S.W. of Gorlitz. N. lat. ji'
7'. E.long. 14-46'.

LOBB, TuEorHiLUS, in Biography, a phyfician of con-
fiderable reputation about the middle of the lail century,
pradlifed his profefTion in London, and left feveral works on
medical topics. He died on the 19th of May, 1763, in
the eighty-fifth year of his age. The following are the
titles of his publications. " Treatife of the Small-pox,"
London, 173 1, 1748, 8vo. ; which was tranflated int«
French in 1749. " Rational Method of curing Fevers, deS-
duced from the Strufture of the Human Body," ibid. 1734,
8vo. : in this work he adopted the doftrines of Boerhaave,
•'Medical Praftice in caring Fevers," ibid. 1 735, 8vo.
" A Practical Treatife on painful Dillempers, with lome
effeftual Methods of curing them," ibid. 1739. " A Trea-
tife on Solvents of the Stone, and on curing the Stone and
the Gout by Aliments," ibid. 1739. This work patTed
through feveral editions, and was tranflated into Latin and
French. The author confidered the matter of urinary cal-
culi and of gout as of an alkaline nature, and vegetable acids
as the remedy. " Letters concerning the plague and other
contagious Diftempers," ibid. 1 745. " A Compendium
of the Practice of Phyfic," ibid. 1747. Befides tliefe
works, he was the author of feveral papers printed in the
Gentleman's Magazine, and of one or more tracts oa reli-
gious fubjecls in the latter part of his life. Eloy Dift.
Hill. Gent. Mag.

LOBBY, m Jirchiiedure, is a fmall bailor waiting-room :
it is alfo an entrance into a principal apartment, where there
is a ctmfiderable fpace between that and a portico or veiU-
bule, and the length or dimenfions will not allow it to be
confidered as a veitibule or an anti-room. See AxTlcH.-lM-
BER.

Lobby, in a Ship, an apartment clofe before the captain's
cabin.

Lobby, in Agriculture, a fort of narrow confined place,
formed either by hedges and trees, or other kinds of fencing,
near to the farm-yard, for the purpofe of confining live-
flock. It is obferved by Mr. Marfiiall, in his Minutes of
Agriculture in the Midland Counties, tliat " every farmery
ought to have a lobby and a croft appending to it, ferving as
a double fence ; thereby preventing itotk from running over,
^poaching, and injuring the fartn ; the latter for calves, a
faddle horfe, and invalids. He found the conveniency of a
lobby in Surrey, and the want of od« in Norfglk, and ia

tbis

LOB

LOB

this didric^ ; he can forefee the ufe of that which he is
forming, with a fcrccn of planting ; cinbofoniing tlie entire
farmery, in fuch a manner as to llieltcr it tfl'cttually from
th,; north and eatl winds."

LOBE, or LoBUS, m Jnatomy, an epithet apphcd to
the more or lefs feparate parts, of which the glands of the
body are compofed. Tlius we have lobes of the brain, lungs,
Lver, &c.

Lobe is alfo ufed for the tip of the ear ; which is more
■fat and flediy than any other part thereof.

Du Laurent fays, that the word lolx, in this lad fcnfe,
comes from the Greek, Xi?<r., to Jbame, or be ii/]jamed;
this part of the ear being faid to blu(h when the perfon is
athamed.

LouE is dlfo ufed in fpeaking of fruits and grains.
Thus the bean canlilU of two equal parts, called lobes,
which compofe the body thereof, and are encompallcd with
-the other Ikin. And all other grains, even the fniallcll, are
divided, like the bean, into the two lobes, or equal parts ; as
Dr. Grew has fliewn in his Anatomy of Pbnts. See Louus.
LOBEDA, in Gcogrttphy, a town of Germany in the
.principality of Eifenach ; three miles S.S.E. of Jena.

LOBEDIUN, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Tambov t 100 miles W.N.W. of Tambov. N. lat. ^t,""
28'. E.long. 38' 50'.

LOBEGUN, a town of Wcftphalia, in the duchy of
Magdeburg ; 25 miles N. of Leipfic.

LOBEIRA, VAsro, m Biographv, z\\\.\\or oi " Amadis
of Gaul," was born at Porta about the middle of the
fourteenth century. He was knighted upon the field of
battle at Aljubar'rota by king Joam I. in the year 1386,
ani died at Elvas, where he pofTefred a good eftate. Ac-
cording to Mr. Southey nothing more has been coUeftcd by
the Portuguefe biographers of Lobeira. It has been
queftioned whether he was the author of the Amadis de
Gaul, and whether that poem was not written in France
rather than in Portugal; to which the translator replies,
«' Some weight muft be allowed to the authority of the
Portuguefe writers, who have all, w-ith the exception of
Cardoza, attributed it to Lobeira as an original produftion."
*' The romance," he farther adds, "is not older than Lo-
beira's age ; for it refers to the Englifli claim upon the
4Crown of France, and reprefents Windfor as the mod
fplendid court, and the king of England as the moll power-
ful king m Chriftendom. It was written in a country
remote from England ; for Windfor is called an ifiand, and
the adventurers who crofs from France make Brillol their
port. Many other fuch inftanccs of geographical ignorance
could be mentioned ; miltakes which might eafily be made
by a Portuguefe, but not by a Frenchman. It was written
in Portugal, for many of the names are Portuguefe. Bet-
ter proofs of time and place cannot be required." Of
the poem Mr. S. fays, it may be fafely affirmed that it con-
tains nothing which, in the age in which it was written,
would be regarded as impoiiible, fcarcely any thing that
would be thought exaggerated. The aSions of Amadis,
and the importance of a iingle chief, would not appear in-
credible to a people who had then living among them their
own hero, Nuno Alvares Pcreira, whofe military exploits
were as extraordinary, and as important to his owh ciiarafter.
To a nation wlio kntw this man, and knew alfo that it was
chiefly owing to his courage that they exifted as a feparate
people, the cii.u-after of Amadis would not appear exag-
gerated. Amadis has been confidered as the model of a per-
tet\ knight. " Truly," fays fir Phihp Sidney, " I have
fcnowa men, that even with reading Amadis de Gaul, which,

God knows, wanteth much of a perfeft poefic, have found
their hearts movcil to the exercife of courtefy, liberality, and
efpecially courage."

LOBEL, or l'Obel, Matthias de, a botanift nearly
contemporary with Clufins, whofe wooden cuts, for the
molt part, re-appeared in his works, was not, as fome
have thought, an Englifliman, but born, in 1538, at Lille
in Flanders, where his father prattifed in the law. He
acquired in his youth an ardent love of plants, and had
good opportunities of gratifying his tafte, and advancing
his knowledge, at Montpellier, where he ftudied phyfic
under the learned Rondelct, or Rondeletius. During his re-
fidence there, he found opportunities of making fome bota-
nical cxcurfions over the fouth of France. At Narbonne he
became acquainted with Pena, afterwards his fellow labourer
in the Jldvcrfaria, the firft edition of which was publiflied,
in fmall folio, at London, in 1570, and dedicated to queen
Elizabeth. The few cuts difperied through this volwme are
mollly original, but inferior in flyle and accuracy, as well as
in fize, to thofe of Clufuis, Before the publication of the
Advsrfaria, our author had extended his travels to Switzer-
land, the Tyrol, fome parts of Germany and Italy ; had fet-
tled as a phyfician at Antwerp, afterwards at Delft ; and
had been appointed phyliciaii to the illuftrious William
prince of Orange, and to the itates of Holland. Dr. Pulte-
ney has not been able to afcertain the time of Lobcl's re-
moval to England, but juttly concludes it to have been be«
fore 1750; indeed, moll probably, lome years earlier, as he
mentions in this edition of the Adverfaria, p. Q2, having
long ago received from Dr. Turner leeds of the Sea Kale,
Cramle marhima, of which he there exhibits an indifferent
cut, mentioning it as a plant whofe flowery tops might be
eaten, though much inferior to the cultivated kinds of the
fame tribe. It appears by this, that the young fprouts,
now known to be fo excellent for the table, had not then
been tried.

The aim of the authors of the Adverfana was to invefti-
gate the botany and maler'ia mul'ica of the ancients, and ef-
pecially of Diofcorides. They therefore frequently criticife
Matthiohis, the moft celebrated commentator of the Greek
writer, for it is fcarcely poflible for different people to pur-
fue this intricate and obfcure path long without difagree-
ment. Indeed half a fcore commentators on the plants of
Diofcorides might all exercife their ingenuity, in mod cafes,
with equal flcill, without any body being able to decide
which of them was ncared the truth. The Ad'vcrjar'ia was
reprinted at Antwerp in 1576, the dedication being, of
courfe, there fupprcfFcd. New title-pages had been printed
to help the fale of the original, in 1571 and 1572. Some
copies of the Antwerp impreflion appear to have been made
up into a new edition at London in 1603', an ample Pharma-
copeia, the foundation of which was from Rondeletius, being
prefixed, and an appendix to the Adverjaria fubjoined.
This volume is dedicated to Edward lord Zouch, whom
Lobel had attended, on his embaffy to Denmark, in 1592,
and he calls himfelf, in the title, botanill to king James I.
Dr. Pulteney obferves, after Haller, that this work exhibits
fome traces of a natural dillribution of plants, infomuch at
lead as they are thrown together into a number of tribes or
orders, according to their habits or flowers ; but this is done
without any remarks, and with fo little precifion, that it
can only be faid tl;e method of Lobel is better than that of
Dodonxus, in which there is no confident principle at alk
His work is much more valuable for the various remarks
which it contains, and for the accounts of new plants, dif-
covercd by himfelf in England or elfewhere. On the fubjetl
4 «f

LOB

LOB

af Britifh natives indeed, Ray accufes Iiim of having made
feveral miftakes, from having trufted too much to his me-
mory.

The Stirp'i'im B'ljlor'ia of this author, a vohime in fmall
foUo fimilar to his Adiierfatia, was pubhfhed at Antwerp in
1576. This is much lefs copious in matter, the pages being-
moftly occupied with wooden cuts, which are thofe of
Cluiius, borrowed for the prefent occafion by the printer,
Plantin. An impreffion of thefe cuts, of an oblong (hape,
was ftruck off, with names only, in ijSi, and another in
1591. JLinnxus poiTefled both. This publication is in very
general ufe, and well known by the title of Lobel's hones.
It is, when c'omplete, accompanied by an index in feven
languages.

Lobel feems to have had a very large work in contemola-
tion, which he intended to call Surphim lUujlraUoncs. This
he did not live to complete. A fragn^ent of it was pub-
Kfhed in" quarto, without plates, by Dr. W. How, in 1655',
making 170 pages, befides a cauftic preface of the author,
aimed chiefly at Gerarde, whom he doubtlefs comprehends
among the ^^fordldi pharmacar'si," charged with robbing the
moll experienced phyficians of their honours. The body of
the work is interfperfed with notes of Dr. How's againft
Parkinfon, who is faid to have made diihoneft ufe, in his
Thiatrum Botanicmn, of fome papers of Lobel, that fell into
his hands. It mull be allowed that fuch authors are juftly
cenfured for tranflating and interweaving defcriptions,' re-
marks, and places of growth, from foreign works, which
apply to the plants of other countries. This fault is not
diiiimilar from what we have cenfured in a more mpdern
writer ; fee Lightfoot, and the botanical article Flora.
But the (lyle of Lobel's preface is properly reprobated by
Dr. Pulteney, who blames him for this grofa abufe of Ge-
rarde after his death, though he had formerly on every oc-
cafion extolled him. The botanical contents of this frag-
ment are, however, very honourable to Lobel, for the num.
ber of new pUnts therein mentioned.

Our author laboured to an advanced age in the purfuit
of liis favourite iludy, and procured from '.'.is correl pendents
abroad, many new plants for the gardens of his friends.
Ke had the fuperintendance of a garden at Hackney, culti-
vated at the expence of lord Zouch ; and appears to have
reiided, in the decline of life, at Highgate, where he had a
daughter, married to a Mr. James Coel. His wife is re-
corded as having aflilled him in his botanical refearcLes.
Hedied ini6i6, aged 78. Lobel's works. Haller's Bibl.
Bot. Pulteney's Sketches.

Lobel, a ilroUing, blind, fiddling, Bohemian Jew, the
flrfl mailer, on the violin, of the celebrated Benda, firll violin
to Frederic II. king of Pruffia, during the whole reign of
that mulical prince. See Ben'da, and Buniey's German
Tour, vol. ii.

LOBELIA, in Botany, fo called in honour of Matthias
de Lobel ; fee that article. The plant to which Plumier
eriginally applied the nanje, is now the Sciziiola of Linnasus.
When the latter, at the fiiggeftion of Jacquiii, difcovered
that he and other botaniils had confounded, under this ori-
ginal Lobelia, a vail number of fpecies generic-ally diftinfl
from it, but which were then become much better known
than itfelf by the name in qucftion, he judged it much lefs
inconvenient to keep this name for them, and to give the
genus of Plumier a new one. It is hoped the fame meafure
would be adopted, fliould any botanill afcertain the original
■ Magnolia of Plumier, to be really diftinft in generic cha-
racters from all the other fpecies lo called, of which there is
faid to be fome fufpicion. — Linn. Gen. 456. Schreb. 596.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 937. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 3. Sm.

FI. Brit. 242. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. r. 356.
JufT. 165. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 724. (Rapuntium ; Tcum.
t. 51. Gxrtn. t. 30.) — ^Clafs and order, Penlnndria Mono-
gynia. (Syngenefia Monogamia ; Linn.) Nat. Ord. Cam-
paiiaceis, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, fiirrounding the
germen, in five deep, nearly equal, withering fegments ;
the two fnperior ones mod directed upwards. Cor. of one
petal, irregular, (lightly ringent ; tube cyhndrical, longer
than the calyx, divided lengthwife at the upper fide ; limb
in five deep lanceolate fegments, of which the two upper-
mod are fmalleil, mod refiexed, and moft deeply feparated,
condituting the uppej- lip ; the three lowermod more ipread-
ing, and generally larged. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
fliaped, the length of the tube of the corolla, united up-
wards ; anthers united into an oblong, fomewhat oblique
and curved, cylinder, feparating into five parts at the bafe.
Pyi. Germen more than half inferior, pointed ; ftyle cylin.^
drical, the length of the daniens ; lligma obtufe, hifpid.
Peric. Capfule ovate, or roundilh, of two or three, cells,
and two or three valves, burding at the top, encompaded by 1
the calyx ; the partitions contrary to the valves. Seeds nu-
merous, minute, fmooth. Receptacle comc-s\.

E!T. Ch. Calyx in five fegments, crowning the germen.-
CoroUa of one petal, irregular. Anthers cohering, in-
curved. Capfule half inferior, of two or three cells.

So much uncertainty attends the charaiters of fome
plants which have been referred to Lobelia, that we can
hardly guefs with any degree of correCtnels at the number"
of fpecies. The 14th edition of the Svflema Vegetabillum
exhibits the latell view that Linnasus or his Ion took of the
genus, and there 42 fpecies are enumerated, of which how-
ever the 21 ft, Itsvigata, and 2 ylh, /uririameiijis, are one and
the Came, and iffW/a, No. 40, which is partifoHa (not parvi-
Jlora) of Bergius, is Lightfootta oxycoccoides ; fee Light-
FOOTIA. Three others, Phyteuma, bulhofa, and 'uolubil'is, go
along with Cyphia, cardatnines, and incifa, of Thunberg's
Prod. 159, to form the genus Cyphi.v, Berg. Cap. 173.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 9,2. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 362,
of which we have fpoken in its place, and which perhaps,
when vie confider its having five dirtincl petals, with linear
and draight, as well as feparate, anthers, may be allowed
to conditute a tolerably good, though not a very natural,
genus. Willdenow, retaining this genus, has diU 48 I^obclite,-
difpofed in three, not very correCl, fettions, of each of
which we diall mention a few examples. Two fpecies only
are natives of Britain.

Seel. I. Leaves entire.

L. Dortmamia. Water Lobelia. Linn. Sp. PI. 1318.-
EnL'l. Bot. t. 140. Fl. Dan. t. 39. (Dortmanna lacullris,
floribus fparfis perdulis ; Rudb. Aft. Upf. for 1720. 97.
f. 2. Gladiolus lacudris ; Ger. em. 105.) — Leaves linear,
entire, of two parallel cells Stem nearly naked. — Found
in the clear fhallow parts of lakes, in the colder parts- of
Europe, growing in the pure gravelly bottom, and raifing
the flowering part of its ilem only above the furface. The
rorit \s perennial, compofed of numerous, long, white,
fimple fibres, i/^ri imooih, milky when wounded. Radical
leaves numerous, entirely immcrfed, linear, recurved, nearly
cylindrical, though flattilh on the upper fide, obtufe, two
or three inches long, very remarkable for confiding inter-
nally of two cavities, feparated by a longitudinal partition.
Stem folitary, ereft, round, hollow, almod leaflefs, bearing
a loofe cliider of pendulous hluefo'wers in July and -S uguft,
often overflowed by fudden floods. Clvfius received this
plant from a Mr. Dortmann, and has reprefented it in his
Cura Pof.eriorcs, 40 ; but the cut, reprinted in Jchnfon"s

tdiiioa

LOBELIA.

edition of Gerarcle, is juHly crlticir.-c! by Rndbeck ; for
the gernien is reprefentcd fuperior, the ftamciis totally crro-
reoufly, and the corolla by no means wvll.
Se£t. 2. Sl^m ereB. Leaves cut or f:rrakd.
L. Tupa. Willow-leaved Lobelia. Linn. Sp. PI. l.^lS.
(Rapuntium fpicatum, fo"liis acutis, vulgo Tupa; Fcuill. ■
It. V. 2. 7^9. t. 2Q.) — Leaves decurrent, lanceolate, finely
ferratcd. "Clufter ipiked. Stem hollow. Fcuillec gathered
this plant on the mountains of Chili, in 37 degrees fouth
latitude ; (not 65, as in Bot. Mag. 132;.) He fpeaks of
it as one of the molt aftive of poifons, the fmell of the
flowers caufing fevere vomitings, and theiv.ilk of the plant,
if by any accident it touches the eyes, occafioning blindnefs.
The root is a foot and a half long, apparently perennial.
^tem as tall as a man, hollow, five-fided, terminating in a
fpike of large, blood-red, ftalked flowers, with a hnceo-
late braclea at the bafe of each partial ftalk. Leaves de-
current for the fpace of z\ inches, the rell of their length,
about fevcn inches, elliptic-lanceolate, acute, finely ferrated,
minutely downy ; reticulated with veins beneath. Feuillce
defcribes the ferralures, but does not figure them.

L. gigantea. Gigantic Lobelia. Sims in Curt. Mag.
t. 1325. (L. Tupa ; Dryand. in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.
•*'• '• 357-) — Leaves feffile, lanceolate, finely ferratcd.
Flowers axillary, folitary, ilalked. Stem Ibrubby, folid.

Our fpecimen of this plant was gathered by Mr Menzies

near Valparayfo in Chili, in latitude 33A fouth, whence
Dr. Brandt is faid alio to have brought feeds to Mcffrs. Lee
and Kennedy, in whole confervatory the fhrubbv Jlcm is i j
or 16 feet high, folid, and round. Leaves feffile, lanceo-
late, more or lefs ferrated, fcarcely reticulated beneath.
Flowers dull orange, on fimple, folitary, axillary ftalks,
much (liorter than the leaves. Thefe characters have, in
our, opinion, jullified Dr. Smis in making it dillinft from
the laft, to which it i'eems moreover inferior in virulence.

L. njfvrgens. Purple Jamaica Lobelia. Linn. Sp. PI.
1321. ,,ndr. Repof. t. 553.- Leaves elliptic -lanceolate,
taperinjf at both ends, fiiarply toothed, fomewhat decurrent.
Clutter compound, terminal, downy — Native of .lamaica.
It flowers in the latter part of fummer in our (loves, making
a handfome appearance, though its purplifh colour is lols
ftriking than the fcarlet of the following.

L. cardinalis. Scarlet Lobelia. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 3 20.
Curt. Mag. t. 330. — Leaves broadly-lanceolate, ferrated.
Spike terminal ; the flowers turned one way. — Native of
North America. Hardy in our gardens, in a ttrong moid
foil, flowering in Augull and September. The root is pe-
rennial, temj three feet high, leafy. Flowers of a moill
rich and vivid fcarlet.

L. urens. Acrid Lobelia. Linn Sp. PI. 1321. Curt.
Ijond. fafc. 6. t. 63. Engl. Bot. t. 953 — Stem nearly crcft.
Lower leaves obovate, finely toothed ; upper lanceolate,
ferrated. Flowers racemofc, — Native of France, Spain,
and fome few parts of Devonfliire, on gravelly bufhy com-
mons. This is perennial, fl-iwering in Auguft and Septem-
ber. Its habit is (lender, delicate, and fmooth. Stem 18 to
24 inches high, milky. Leaves icattered. Flowers fmall,
blue, numerous, in long weak clutters. Segments of the
talyx bniile-fiiaped, rough, as long as the tube of the
flower.

Seft. 3. Stem mofi'y decumbent, heaves fomewhat cut.
L. Laurentia. Italian Annual Lobeha. Linn. Sp PI.
1321. (Laurentia annua minima, flore cacruleo ; Mich.
Gen. 18. t. 14.) — Stem prottrate. branched. Leaves lan-
ceolate-oval, crenate. Stalks folitary, axillary, fingle-flow-
ered, very long. —Native of Italy. A little delicate annual
fpeciej, fcnt to Kew in *778, by M. Tki^in. It t)lof-

fomed in the green-houfc ki July, The fowert are blue,
very minute.

Lfetacca. Briflle-ttalked Lobelia. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gric.
Sibth. V 7. 145. Fl. Grxc. ined. t. 221. (L. tenella ;
Bivon. Cent. I. 53. t. 2.) — Radical leaves fpatulate, wavy ;
thofe of the ftem brill le-flispcd. Stems perfedlly fimple,
fingle-flowered, ercft. — Native of boggy places in Crete,
Cyprus, and Sicily. Root annual. Leaves fpatulate, on
long (lender radical ftalks, obtufe, wavy, fmooth, fomewhat
like thofe of a daify. The little (lender Jlems bear two
fmall brittle-like leaves, and one elegant blue flower. The
ftems appear to be ereft, but on account of the ciofe afiinity
of the prefent fpecies to L. Latireiitia, they cannot be c'.if-
ioined. They are indeed confounded by Willdenow, a;:d
by Boccone ki his t. 27, where both are well drawn, a»
one fpecies. Our felacca is Rapuntium creticum minimum,
bellidis folio, flore maculato ; Tourn. Cor. 9.

L. Ititea. Yellow Lobelia. Linn. Sp. PI. 1322. Curt.
Mag. t. 1 3 19. — Stems afccnding. Leaves lanceolate, fer-
rated. Flowers reverfed, in fliort fpikes. — Native of the
Cape of Good Hope. It flowers here in the groen-houfe,
and is remarkable for its golden _,^5Wi-;-x, ' whofe pofition. as
Dr. Siins oblervcs, is reverfed, their tube very (hort, and the
polture of their two fmaller fegments, arched over the
(lamens, very peculiar.

Numerous new fpecies ef Lobelia are to be added to
Willdenow's lift, from the difcoveries in New Holland.
Thefe are ufually of a fmooth delicate habit. See Labillar-
diere, t. 71 — 74, and Brown's Prodromus, v. i. ^62. The
latter defines 20 fpecies from that cosntry, none of them in
Willdenow.

LoBEJLi.v, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the
herbaceous and under-flirnbby perennial kind, of which the
fpecies ufually cultivated are the fcarlet lobelia, or cardi-
nal's flower (L. cardinalis ;) the blue lobelia, or car-
dinal's flower (L. (iphilitica ;) the long-flowered lobelia
(L. longiflora;) the pine-leaved lobelia (L. pinifolia ;)
and the bladder-podded lobelia (L. inflata.)

Method of Culture. — The firft and fecond kinds may be
increafed by feed, cuttings of their ftalks, and parting the
roots. The feeds fliould be fown in autumn, or early in
fpring, in a warm border, or in pots or boxes, fo as to be
moved to different fituatioos in different feafons, to have
fhelter from froft, and (bade from the mid-day fun in fum-
mer. Thofe fown in autumn generally come up more freely
the following fpring than thofe which are fown in that fea-
fon. They fliould havp (belter in hard ("rolls, either under
a frame or awning of mats, but' be fi:lly expofed in railj
weather, giving occafional waterings in the fpring and funi-
mer. When the plants have attained two or three inches
growth, they (hould he pricked out in feparate fmall pots of
rich earth, giving water, and placing them in the (hadt till
frefh rooted, repeating the waterings occafionally in hot
dry weather, and (hifting them into larger pots as they may
require ; in winter moving them into a frame to have occa-
fional fiieltcr from inclement weather ; and in the fpring
following fome of them luay be turned out into the full ground
about March, when they vvill flower the enfuing fummer.
Some (Iiould alfo be retained in pots to be moved under (bel-
ter in winter, as a refcrve in cale thofe in tlie open air (hould
be killed by the frort.

And as the plants generally flower in the greateft per-
fcftion the firft and fccond year of their blowing, it is proper
to raife a new fupply of them every year or two in order
to have them flower in the utmoft perfection eveity year.

Where the fecond mode is in ufe, the cuttings of the young
ftalks (hould be divided into lengths of five or fix inches,

and

I. O B

from beconiing impervious. See Hcifler's Surgery, vol. ii-
p. 5.

I.OBINEAU, Ouy-Alf,xis, in Biography, was born
at Rennes in 1666, entered iimong the Bcne'didines of St.
Maur in liis feventeeiuh year, and devoted his. life and ta-

LOB

•and be planted in an eafterly border, two parts deep, being
covered down with hand-glafles, and watered occafionallv.
They moftly emit root«, and form young plants in a month
-or fix weeks, wlien the glalTes (liould be taken away, and
the plants managed as the others.

And theC.' hardy forts fometimes afford ofF-fets from their lents to ftudy. He died in the year 172T. His principal
fides at bottom, which may be feparated in autumn, and works are " L'Hilloire de Bretagne," two vols; folio to
potted for young plants, being managed as the feedlings. ■which he gave the finilhing hand, "it haviiig been compofcd

Each of the three laft forts may alfo be raifed by feeds by Father le Gallois : " L'Hiiloire de Deux Conqueles
procured from abroad, which (bould be fowu in pots of d'Efpagne par les Maurcs," which is a tranflation from the
liglit fandy earth in the autumn, and plunged in the bark-
bed ; and when the pLmts are three inches high, planted in
feparate pots, being replunged in the bark-bed, giving water
and occafional fhade till they are frefli rooted. They mull

remain coiiftantly in the hot-houfe, and have frequent mo-
derate waterings given them.

The firfl: two forts have a line appearance in the borders
and clumps of pleafure-grounds, where they will fuccecd
v>hen protected in winter from froils and other injuries.

And all the tender forts afford a fine variety in hot-houfc
colleftions.

Lobelia Slphilitica, Blue Loleiia, or Cardinal Floiuer, in
the Mtitt^ria Medica, is a native of Virginia, and flowers frum
Auguft till October. Every part of the plant abounds
with a milky juice, and has a rank fmell. The root, which
is the part prefcribed for medicinal ufe, in taite refembles
tobacco, and is apt to excite vomiting. It derived the
appellation oi fiphiUtica from its efficacy in the cure of fy-
philis, according to the experience of the North American

Spaiiifn, and is probably little more than a romance. «' Hif-'
toire de Paris," 5 vols, folio : this work was begun and
much advanced by father Felibien, and put into the hands
of Lobineau to finiib. " L'Kiflone ces Saints de Bre-
tagnc." He tranflatcd the '< Stratagems of Polyasnus"
from tlie Greek, and made verfions of fome of Arifto-
phaups' comedies. Moreri.

LOiJITH, in Geography, a tov/n of the duchy of
Cloves ; 5 miles N.W. of Emmerick.

LOBKOWITZ, PitlxcE, in Biography, deferves well
to be remembered among iiluflrious dilettanti in mufic. He
was in England at the f\ime time as the myftcnous count
St. Germaine, from 1746 to 1748; and from congenial
taftes in mufic, tliey were feldom afunder. This prince, who
was uncle to the charming and accomplidied madame Tliune
at Vienna, was no lefs remarkable for his mufical talents,
than the beauty and dignity of his perfon. We have feen
and heard at Vienna many of his mufical compofitions,
chiefly for the German flute, which, from their corrednefs.

Indians, who coniidered it as a fpecific in that difeafe, and would not have difgraced an eminent profeflbr. The ter-
who long kept it a fecret. But tlie fecret was purchafed mination of this gallant prince's- career was melancholy •
by fir William Johnfon, and has been fince publilhed by after difUnguifiiing himfelf in the army, as well as by his
different authors. The method of employing this medi- accomplifliments and good tafte in the fine arts, he loll his fa-
cine is flated as follows : a decodtion is made of a handful of culties ; and was feized with a dark and gloomy defpondencv
the roots in three meafures of water. Of this half a meafure in v/hich he lingered during the remainder of his miferable
is taken in the morning falling, and repeated in the evening ;
and the dofe is gradually increafed till its purgative effedts
become too violent, when the decoftion is to be intermitted

ill

exutence.

for a day or two, and then renewed till a perfeft cure is
effected. During the ufe of this medicine, a proper regimen
is to be enjoined, and the ulcers are alfo to be frequently
wafiied with the decoftion, or if deep and foul, to be fprin-
kled with the powder of the inner bark of the New Jerfey
tea-tree (Ceanothus Americanus.) Although the plant
thus ufed is faid to cure the difeafe in a very fhort time,
yet the antifyphilitic powers of the lobelia have not been
confirmed by any intlanees of European pradlice. Woodv.
Med. Bot.

LOBENSTEIN, m Geography, a town of Saxony, and
chief place of a lordfliip, on the Lemnitz, in the county of
Rcuflen ; 26 miles N. of Bayreuth. N. lat. 50^ 21'. E.
long. II ' 50'.

LOBER.^, a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 20 miles
W.S.W. of Jaca.

LOBES, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bqleflaw ;
9 miles W.N.W. of .lung-Buntzel. — Alfo, one of the
fmaller Canary ifiands, between Lancerotta and Fortaven-
tura. N. lat. 28 ■ 50'. W. long. 13 -40'.

LoBKOWiTz, BoLESLAs DE Hassenstein, .5aro« de, a Bo-
hemian nableman and man of letters. After travelling into
various countiies, and bearing arms with reputation, he
embraced the ecclefiailical ftate, and was employed in pub-
lic affairs. He died in 15 10. His poems were firfl printed
at Prague in 1563, and again in 1570. Moreri.

LOBLOLLO Bay, in Geography, a bay of the ifland
of Antigua, on the W. coaft.

LOBLOLLY-B.\Y, in Botany. See Gordos'ia.

Loblolly, a fea-faring diili, otherwife called burgoo.

LOBLOSOW, ill Geography, a town of Poland, in J
RufTia ; 36 miles S.E. of Halicz.

LOBO, Jerome, in Biography, a Jefuit mifTionary, born
at Lifbon in 1593, entered among the Jefuits in his Six-
teenth year, and in 1622 he went out as one of their mif-
fionarics to the Eall Indies. After pafTing fome tim.e at
Goa, he failed to the coail of Africa, and penetrated into
AbyfiTinia, where he refided fome years, fubjeft to much
danger and many hardfiiips and fufferings : on his return
he was fiiipwrecked and narrowly efcaped deilrudtion. He
promoted the interell of the Abyllinian mifuon at Madrid
and Rome, and, notwithftandiiig the calamities to which he

Red

L0BE.S of the Ear, Boring of. To bore or perforate the had been fubjedted, he took a fecond voyage to the Indies,

lobes of the ears, you mult firll of all mark the place Pie returned to Lifbon in l6j8, and was made reflor of

with a fpot of ink. About the middle is generally the the college of Coimbra, where he died in 167S, at the ai-e

bell fituation for the aperture. The lobe of the ear is of 84. "He was author of "An Hillorical Account of

to be extended with the left fore-finger and thumb, and Abylfinia,'' containing mush curious and valuable informa-

the perforation made exactly where the dot is, with a large tion. It was tranOated from the Portugucfe langua.-re into

■common fewing needle. The ring being now introduced, the French by the Abbe le Grand, with additionsf which

and gently moved about a few times every day until the tranilation was abridged by Dr. Samuel Johnfon. Moreri.

margin of the pmiAure is healed, will hinder the Uttk hole Louo, RoDKiyuEZ-FKANcis, a Portugnefepoet, wasborn

Vol. XXL G g _ at

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at EftramaJura. He was author of a comedy called " Eu-
phrofyne,'" vvliich is a great fiivoiirite among his countrymen.
He vv.is iikewife the author of a folio volume of poems
printed in 1721. Morcri.

LoBO, in Geography, a town on the S. coaR of the ifland
of Lui;on.'N. lat. 13 40'. E. long, lii 10'.

LOBON, a town of Spain, in the iiroviiioe of Edrama-
dura ; l 3 miles W. of Merida,

LOBOS, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft
of Africa. N. lat. 21' 20'. — Alfo, a fniall ifland at the
mouth of La Plata river; 15 miles S.W. of Cape St.
Mariji. N. lat. 35 .—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the gulf of
Me.^ico, on the coaft of Gnafteca. N. lat. 22' 28 .—Alfo,
iflandi in the Pacific ocean, near the coaft of Peru, fur-
rounded with rocks j about twelve miles from each other,
in S. lat. 6 25' and f> ■^^'- They are alfo called " Sea-
Wolves," or " Seals' iflands." — Alfo, a duller of fmall
iflands in the South Pacific ocean, near the coaft of Chili.
S. lat. 52 20'.

LoBOs Key. or Sail K.-y, a fmall ifland among the Btihamas.
N.lat. 22 45'. W. long. 7744'.

LOBRES, a town of Spain, in the province of Gre-
nada; 7 mflcs N. of Motril.

LOBS, in Mining, arc fteps that afcend or dcfcend
within the mines, as itairs up to and down from a chamber.

LOBSKOI, Pei.as.skoi, in Geography, a town of Ruf-
fia, in the government of Olonetz, near the lake Sig ; 52
miles W.N.W. of Povenetz.

LOBSTADT, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipzig ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Leipzig.

LOBSTER, in Zoology, a fpecies of the fquilla, accord-
ing to fome writers ; but in the Linnxan fyftem a fpecies of
the cancer. See. C.\NCKr Giimmanu.

LOBULUS, in Anatomy, a diminutive from lobus, is
a fmall lobe, and denotes more minute divifions of glandular
bodies, than thofe which form lobes : as, for example, the
lobuli of the lungs. Lobulus auris is tliat part of the exter-
nal ear which is pierced for ear-rings. (See Eau and
Lobes.) Lobulus Spigelii is a fmall portion of the liver.
See Liver.

Lobulus, in Botany, a httle lobe, a term fuggefted by
Dr. Smith, for what has ufually, but '^rroneoufly, been
called the auricle, in fome fpecies of Jungermannia ; fee that
article.

LOBURG, in Geography, a town in the duchy of Mag-
deburg ; 2 2 miles E. of Magdeburg.

LOBUS, in Botany, a lobe, a principal divifion of a
leaf, the margins of which are in fome deg'ee rounded.
The term is alfo ufcd for the divifions of the petals, or any
other fuitable part. A capfnle is fometimes faid to be lobed,
ttiere being fcarcely any other way of defcribing, in Engli.^,
a tricoccous or tetracoccous truit.

LOCAGN.ANO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Corfica ; 1 2 miles N. of Bailia.

LOC.^L, fomething fuppofed to be tied or annexed to
fome particular place.

Thus, in Law, a thing is faid to be local, i. e. annexed
or fixed to the freehold. An adtion of trefpafs for battery,
&c. is tranlitory, not local ; that is, it is not neceflary, that
the place where battery was committed fliould be fet down
as material in the declaration ; or if it be fet down, the
defendant cannot traverfe it, by faying, he did not commit
the battery in the place mentioned in the declaration, and fo
avoid the adion.

Local, Chofe. See Chose.

Local Colour, a technical term in the art of Painling,
■wherein, however, it has two meanings. The one is the

aAual colour of an objefl intended for imitation ; the
other alludes to that colour iii conjundtion with the fituatiou
the objedt which polfelfes it fills in a pifture ; wherein it
muft be more or lefs fubjcdl to fliadows, and the regulations
of aerial perfpedive : which latter diminiflies the force ot
colours according to thtir diftance from the eye, by the in-
tervention of that of the atmofphere.

It is a dilficult but a neceflary part of the art to maintain
local colours in objefts and yet throw them into fliade, and
Hill mtire to fupport it in the gradations from light to dark.
A degree of cool colour intervenes in nature, the admixture
of which in the fubftances ufed ni painting too often dellroys
the local or real colour, fo that painters have often had rc-
courfe to their fliadow-tolour alone, and by mixing that will)
the pofitive colour, trull to its cfl"tft for harmony, and omit
the greater delicacies of nature. But Titian, Vandyke,
Correggio, and fir.!. Reynolds, ventured to attempt the full
fupport of the colour of the body, and fuccecded, particu-
larly the two latter, whom the artift will do well to lludy on
this head.

LocAi. Ciijloms, are thofe pccuhar to fome lordfliip, or
other diltrict, and not agreeable to the general cuftoms of
tlie country. See Cus'i'OM.

Local, or Artificial Memory. See Mkmouy.

Local Motion. See Motion.

Local Problem, in Mathematics, is fuch an one as is ca-
pable of an i ifinite number of different folutions ; becaufe
the point that is to folve it, may be indifterently taken
within a certain extent ; e. gr. any where in fuch a line
within fuch a plane figure, &c. which is called a geometrical
locus.

A local problem may be either ftmple, as when the point
fought is in a right line ; plane, as wlien the point fought is
in the circimifcrcnee of a circle ; folid, as when the point
required is in the circumference of a conic feclion ; crjiir-
folld, as when the point is in the perimeter of a line of a
higher himl, as the geometers call it.

Lof.'iL 'irejpafs, in Laiu. See TresPAS.s.

LOCANA, in Geography, a town of France, in tlie de-
partment of the Dora, on the Oreo, in a valley, called lb-.'
" Valley of Locana ;" 21 miles S. of Aofta.

LOCARNO, one of the Italian bailiiages of Switzer-
land, ceded to the Swifs cantons by Maximilian Sforza,
duke of Milan, in the year i j 12, and governed by a baih.iF
whofe office continues two years; about i^ miles in length
and about 12 in breadth. It is fituated on the N.W. coall
of tlie lake Maggiorc, is fertile in grain and fruits, and
contains 49 oarifhcs, and _^o,ooo inhabitants. By the peace
of Luneville it was ceded to the Cifalpine republic, now the
kingdom of Italy.

Loc.VRSO, the ca])ital of the bailliage of the fame name,
a fmall, open, well-built, market town, agreeaMy (itualcd
in a fertile plain, near the N.W. border of Locarno, or
Maggiore lake, and containing about 1530 inhabitants.
Part of the town is built on piazzas in form of a creicent
with two wings ; in front is a low of trees and the public
walk ; the old part of the town is dirty, and the ftreets
narrow. It contains three convents, and a fmall Francifcan
monallery, perched on a rock overhanging the valley, and
commanding a fuperb view of the lake and its magnificent
boundaries. The canopy in the church of the Capuchins
dcferves mention on account of its beautiful execution ; it is
of ftraw-work, and ahnoll rivals velvet and gold fringe.
Locarno was once fituated on the lake, and had a port
capable of receiving large barks : at prefent it Hands at ih^-
diftance of a quarter of a mile ; a circuni(lance which is
owing to the accumulation of fand brought down by the

J to.Tcat

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torrent Maggia. Tlie environs of the town abound in wine,
fruit, and paftures. It is now annexed to and included in
the department of Verbano. N. lat. 45' 59'. E. long.

8' a'-

Locarno, Lah, or Lugo Magg'iore. See Lake.

LOCATE, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Olona ; 6 miles S. of Milan.

LOCATELLI, Pietko, in Biography, a native of
Berganio, and one of the greateft performers on the violin
in Europe, during the early part of the lad century ; but
no iefs remarkable for caprice in his compolitions, than for
execution and a full tone in his performance. He publirticd
twelve grand concertos for vioHns, and much muiic for
other inftruments, at Amfterdam, where he refided from
'1744 to 1764. .Few could play his concertos but himfelf ;
Tct there was " more method in his madnefs," than in that
of Vivaldi ; fometimes a folidity and good talle, particularly
in his flow movements, not inferior to the adagios of Tartini.
In 1772, we were very much furprifcd to find the blind or-
ganift and CariUoneur Potholt at Amfterdam pofTefled of a
tafte fo delicate and modem in a place where little other
mufic was encouraged or liftened to than " the jingling of
bells and of ducats,' till that excellent performer told us
that Locatelli, the famous player on the violin, who had
lived many years in that city, and died in 1764, ufed to give
him inftruAions, and to encourage his mufical ftudies by
allowing him the advantage of being always a hearer at his
public concerts as well as private performances. This, in
feme meafure, helped us to account for his taile asd fancy ;
for Locatelli was [.oflelTed of a great deal of both ; and
though he delighted in capricious diflicultics, which his
hand could as ealily execute as his head conceive ; yet he had
a fund of knowledge in the principles of harmony, that
rendered fuch wild flights agreeable, as, in Iefs flvilful hands,
would have been infupportable. Foreigners who travelled
through Holland, and were curious to hear Locatelli perform,
were previoully apprifed, that the remuneration expedted
was fixed at two golden ducats for himfelf, and a lilver
ducat to the perfon who accompanied him.

LOCATION, in the Cixil Law, an aft by which any
thing is let out, on rent.

The fecond title of the nineteenth book of the Digeft is
on the fubjeA of location and conduclion. Location and
conduclion are relative terms, and are ufed as well for the
action of him that lets, as for that of him who takes on
that letting.

Location, Tac'il, is, when the perfon who takes, conti-
nues on the premiies beyond the term of his leafe ; which
by the civil law he is allowed to do, at leaft for the fpace
of a year, on the fame terms.

LOCCO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra, on the Pefcara ; 10 miles N. of Sulmona.

LOCH, m the Materia Mtdka, a name given by Avi-
cenna and others to the gum lac. They call it alfo ieiicm
and ienicm, and are too apt to confound it with the can-
canum, fandarach, and other gums, with which they made
their feveral forts of varnnh.

Loch, or Loho<:h, in Pharmacy, a compofition of a mid-
dle confluence between a fyrup and a foft eieftuary ; chiefly
ufed for difeafes of the lungs.

The word is originally Arabic ; but continues ftiU in
ufe amor.g the apothecaries.

The Latins call klinaut, and the Greeks v^.Xu'jjLa, becaufe
the .T.anner of taking it is by licking.

Loch, in Geography, a name given in Scotland to a lake
and alfo to a bay. ,

I^ocii vllarich, a lake in the county of Perth; 10 miles

S. of George's town : — L. yllfarng, a lake in the county
of Invernefi ; 14 miles N.W. of Fort Auguilus : — L. jlna-
cat, a lake in the county of Perth ; 1 1 miles S.E. of
George's town : — L. Anjlronmun, a lake in the county cf
Perth; four miles N.W. of George's town : — L. Archiig, a
lake in the county of Invcrnefs, 10 miles long and one broad ;
1 2 miles N. of Fort William : — L. Aven, a lake in the
S.W. part of Bamffshire ; 21 miles S. of Inveraven : — L.
A'-j^e, a lake in the county of Argyle, 30 miles long, and
from a mile to two wide, fiiaded with many fmall woi)dy iflcs,
one of which bears the ruins of a monafttry, and another thofc
of an ancient fortrefs, the refidence of the Campbells of Loch-
awe, afterwards dukes of Argyle : — L. Baa, a lake on the
iflaiid of Mull, communicating with loch Naganl to the N. :

— \.. Barncra, a lake or inlet of the fea, on the N.,W. coaft
of the ifland of Lewis; 11 miles W. of Stornaway: — L.
Broom, a bay on the W. coail of Scotland, feven miles
lonj^ and two broad, commupicating with L. More, lu
mouth being in N. lat. 57' 56'. W. long. 5" 13': — Little
1^. Broom, a bay on theVV. coail of Scotland, eight miles
long and one broad ; eight miles S.E of Udrigil Head, N.
lat. 57 52'. W. long. 5 16 : — L. Broom, a town of Scot-
land, in the county of Rofs, at the S. end of L. Broom lake;
25 miles W.N.W. of Dingwall :_L. Cajlle Semple, a lake
in the county of Renfrew ; fix miles S.W. of Paifley : — L.
Catherine, a lake in the S.W. part of the county of Perth,
about fix miles in length; 2a miles W. S.W. of Crieff: —
L.. Dalreaeh, a lake in the county of Ayr ; 10 miles S.S.E.
of Ayr : — L. Dainb, a lake in the county of Perth ; feven
miles S. of George's town : — L. Dee, a lake in the county
of Kircudbright ; i 2 miles N.W. of New Galloway : — L.
Derculoch, a lake of Perth ; feven miles S. of Blair Athol :

— L. Dirantadlin, a lake in the counties of Argyle and
Perth ; feven miles N.W. of George's town : — L. Doine, a
lake of Perth ; 20 miles W. S.W. of Criefi": — L. Druinard,
a lake on the N.W. fide of the ifiand of Hay :— L. DrumeHy,
a lake of Perth; feven miles N.W. of Couptr: — L. Dun-
telchah, a lake in the county of Invernefs ; 20 miles N.E. of
Fort Auguftus : — L. Eil, a lake of Invernefs, eight miles
long and one broad, near Fort Wilham : — L. Enoch, a lake
in the county of Kircudbright ; 14 miles N.W. of New
Galloway : — L. Ericht, a lake in the county of Invernefs,
1 2 miles long and half a mile wide; four miles N. of George's
town: — L. ErriboU, a capacious and fafe bay on the N.
coafl of Scotland ; three miles W. of Whitenhead, its
mouth being in N. lat. 58' 32'. W. long. 4' 29': — L.
Erfey, a lake in Arran ifland ; five miles N.W. of Brodick :
— L. EJpin, a lake of Perth; 18 miles S. of George's
town : — L. Eti-ve, a bay on the W. coafl: of Scotland, 20
miles long and about one broad ; 15 miles N. of Inverary,
N. lat. 36 26'. W. long. 5'- 5' : — L. Fain't/h, a lake in the
N.W. part of the county of Rofs ; 16 miles W. of Ding-
wall: — L. Fine, a bay in the county of Argyle, 34 miles
long, and from one to four and fix broad, extending from
about fix miles N.E. of Inverary to the river Clyde ; its
mouth being in N. lat. ^^ 50'. W. long, j- 8': — L. Fin-
trakin, a lake in the county of Dumfries ; feven miles N.W.
of Lochmaben : — L. FiHy, a lake in the county of Fife;
three miles N.N.E. of Dumfernilir.e : — L. Frcnchy, a lake
of Perth; nine miles N. of Crieff: — L. Garry, a lake of
Perth ; nine miles N.E. of George's town : - L. Gar-vie, a
lake in the county of Rofs; 10 miles W. of Dingwall:
— L Goyle, a lake which bra!:ches off to the N.W. from
loch Long, N. lat. 56 8'. W. long. 5=:-L. Heck, a
lake in the county of Argyle, between loch Long and
loch Fine: — L. Inver, a lake in the county of Kircud-
bright ; five miles N. of New Galloway : — L. Kaimocr, a

G g 2 lake

LOG n.

^

lake at tlic union of the Ken and Dcci five miles long and
half a mile wide : — L. Kingsmoor, a lake in the county of
Selkirk ; 1 1 miles S.S.W. of Selkirk : — L. La^^^an, a lake
of Invernefs, ei^ht miles long and half a mile wide ; lo
miles S.E. of Fort Auguftus:— L, Laiverdon, a lake in
the county of Kincardine; nine miles N.N.E. of Stone-
haven : — L Leadmore, a lake in the county of Rofs ; 24
miles W.N. W. of Dornoch : -L. Lie, a lake in the county
of Angus; II milts N N.W. of Brechin : — L. Leven, a
bay on the E. coaft of Scotland, in Invernefs, 10 miles
long and half a mile wide; nine miles S of F-.Tt William,
its mouth being in N. lat. 56' 40'. W. long. 5° 20' : —
Alfo, a lake of the fame name, lituated in the county of
Kinrofs. Though inferior to loch Lomond, not only in
extent but in beauty of fcenery, fliU it mull be allowed to
prcfeiit to the eye a noble expanfe of water, intcrfperfed
with .a variety of fruitful and plfafaiit iflands. This lake
varies in fize confiierably at different feafons. It is bounded
on the call by the Lomond-hills, on the fouth by the hill of
Balneanie, and on the weft by the plain of Kinrofs. The
trou^ of loch Leven are of a large fize, and bear a ftrong
refemblance, both in tafte and appearance, to the falmon.
They are regularly brought to the Edinburgh markets,
where they find a ready fale, being confidered extremely de-
licate. The red colour of their flefh undoubtedly arlfes
from their feeding chiefly on a fmall fhell fifh of a very
deep tinge, which abounds in the bottom of the loch. A
variety of other fi(h are likewife caught here. Eels are par-
ticularly plentiful. Thcfe, in the month of September, gene-
rally migrate towards the fea in great numbers by the chan-
nel of the Leven river, which takes its rife from the lake.
It is remarkable that they never proceed in their migration
except during tiie night.

Loch Leven defervcs particular attention on account of
the many dillin^uifhed remains of antiquity which either
adorn its idands or its banks. The ri'ins of the caftle of
loch Leven are placed upon an ifland nearly in the centre of
the loeh. Its original toundatinn is unknown, for though
tradition fays it was built by Congal, fon of Dongart, king
of the Pifts, yet very little credit can be given to this ac-
count. The firll notice taken of it in hillory occurs in the year
1334, when it wasbefieged by lir Jol\n de Sterling, an Englifh
officer, commanding a party of Scots who had joined the
Englifh army. But what principally renders this caftle
famous in Scottifh hiftory, is the confinement here of the
unfortunate queen Mary, by the confederate lords to whom
fhe furrendered herfelf prifoncr, after having parted with
Bothwell at Carberry. Being placed in the cultody of the
wife of Douglas of loch Leven, a woman of rude manners,
and an inveterate enemy to the queen, fhe fuffcred all the
miferies of a rigorous captivity. In this callle fhe remained
for feveral months almoll forgotten, till the haughty con-
duft of the regent having ellranged the minds of many of
the confederates, they rcfolved to rcfcue her and themfelvcs
from his tyranny and opprefTion. With this view feveral
attempts were made to cfieft her releafe, but all of them
v/ere rendered abortive by the vigilance of her keeper.
Love, however, at la(t prevailed over every obftacle, Mary,
confcicus of poffeffing thofe bewitching charms which fcl-
ylom fail in fecuring a deep interefl in the breaft of ambitious
youth, refolved to employ them in captivating the heart of
George Douglas, her keeper's brother. She treated him
with the niotl marked diflindion, and even allowed him to
entertain the moll daring h. pes. The temptation was too
great to be refilled. Having engaged fome accomplices,
they contrived to fecure the keys one evening, when the
family were at their devotions; and openiog the gates, al-

lowed the queen and her lover io cfcape by a boat wliich
lay ready to receive them. As foon as they reached the fhore
the queen was met with the utmoft joy by lord Seaton and
fir James Hamilton, with whom file immediately fled to Nid-
dric, in Eaft Lothian.

On another, and the largeft ifland in the lake, the priory
founded by Brudo, the lall but one of the Pi£lifli kings,
formerly ftood. Its ruins are flill vilible. Portm.eak-mo-
naflcry was fituated on the eaftern bank of the loch ; only a
few fragments of it remain. To the eaft are the ruins of
the ancient tower cr cafllc of Arnot, which was pofTefTed
by a family of that name for upwards of 600 years. For-
fyth's Beauties of Scotland : — L. Leys, a lake in the county
of Kincardine; 11 miles N.W. of Stonehaven : — L. Leehy, a
lake of Invernef?, between Fort Wil'iam and Fort Augullus,
10 miles long, and more than one wide, communicating with
loch Eil, loch Linnhe, and loch Arclieig : — L. Lomond, a lake
in the county of Argyle, 17 miles long, and from one to four
wide, wi'..h feveral fmall illands on the broadeft part, which
are fuppofed to form part of the Grampian chain, that termi-
nates here on the W. communicating with the Clyde, by a
river which joins the Clyde at Dun.barton ; 24 miles W. of
Stirling ; its S. extremity being in N. lat. 56^ 3'. W. long.
4 ' 30'. . At the time of the earthquake in Lilhon in fhe
year 1755, ''"^ waters of this lake were agitated in a fin-
gnlar manner (fee Lomond): — I^. Loyal, a lake in the
county of Sutherland, five miles long ; two miles S. of
Tongue : — L. Luichart, a lake in the county of Rofs ; 1 1
miles W. of Dingwall : — L. Lydoch, 2l lake of Perth ; five
miles W. of Geor^ge's town : — L. Lyon, a lake of Perth; 10
miles S.W. of George's town : — L. Maddy, a lake of Inver-
n'Ts ; five miles long, and half a mile wide; 17 miles
N.N.W. of Fort AugLiftus:— L. Mahaale, a lake of Perth ;
five miles N.W. of Dumblane : — L. Montciih, a lake in the
vicinity of L. Lomond, about five miles in circumference,
with two woody ifles, one prefenting the ruins of a mo-
naftery, the other thofe of a callle of die old carls of Mon-
teith :— L. Merh, a lake of Perth ; feven miles N. of
Blair Athol : — L. Michly, a lake of Invernefs ;. 13 miles
N.N.E. of Fort Augultus:— L. Milford, or Melfoil, a fafe'
road or harbour, on the W. coaft of Sc<!tland, much fre-
quented by herrings. N. lat. 56^ 16'. W. long. ^' 32' : —
L. Moan, a lake in the N.W. part of the county of Kir-
cudbright ; 18 miles N.W. of New Galloway : — 1^. Mo-
chrum, a lake in the county of Wigton ; feven miles W. of"
Wigton : — L. Monar, a lake in the county of Rofs ; fix
miles long and half a mile wide : — L. Moorn, a lake in the
N.W. part of the county of Rofs ; nine miles N of Ding-
wall :—L. May, a lake of Invernefs, near a town of the
fame name; nine miles S.E. of Invernefs: — L. Naver, a
lake in the N. part of Scotland, 12 miles in circumference ;
28 miles N.N.AV. of Dornech : — L. Nel/, a lake of Ar-
gyle ; 17 miles N.W. of Inverary : — L. Nefs, a lake of
Invernefs ; 22 miles long and one broad, between Fort Au-
guftus and the Frith of Murray, into which its waters are
difcharged. This lake was aiTedted at the time of the
earthquake at Lift)on : on account of its great depth, from
60 to- 135 fathoms, it never freezes : — L. Oicb, a lake of
Invernefs ; four miles lopg, and a quarter of a mile wide,
communicating with loch Nefs ; four miles S.W. of Fort
Auguftus: — L. Oochan, a lake of Invernefs; nine miles
W.iSl.W. of George's town : — I^. Orr, a lake in the county
of Fife; fix miles N E. of Dumfermline : — L. Orent, a
lake in the county of Caithnefs ; fix miles S. of Thurfo: —
L. Paatoch, a lake of Invernefs; 12 miles N. of George's
town:— L. Qiikli, a lake of Invernefs; 16 miks N. of
Fort William :— L. Rannoch, a lake of Perth j about eight
8 lLile»

LOG

miles long, E. of George's town: — L. Ru'.lon, a lake in
Kircudbright ; four miles S.E. of Dumfries : — L. Win, a
lake in the N. part of the county of Sutherland ; 12 milts
long and l^ wide; 13 miles W.N. W. of Dornoch : — L.
Siene, a lake in the county of Aberdeen ; five m:Ies S. of
Kintore : — L Silnch, a lake of Perth ; fix miles N.W. of
Dunkeld : — L. Tay, a lake of Perth, which is a grand and
beautiful expanfe of water, of fuch length as rather to
refemble a noble river, abounding with filh, and terminat-
ing in an ifland, on which are feen the ruins of a priory ;
having in its eallern extremity the capital manfion and plan-
tations of the earl of Braidalben ; 24 miles N.W. of Perth:
— L. ToUk, a lake in Argyle ; 1 1 miles N.N.E. of Glenor-
chy: — L.Troi^, a lake of Invernefs ; 14 miles E. of Fort
Wilham : — 'L. Turns!, a lake of Perth; five miles S. of
Blair Athol : — L. Turret, a lake of Perth ; five miles
N.N.W. of Crieff : — L. Vaci, a lake of Perth ; three miles
S.S.W. of Blair Athol :—L. VaRc.in, a lake of Perth ; fix
miles E. of Blair Atho!:— L. Voil, a lake of Perth ; 17
miles W. of Crieff: — L. Vrlne, a lake in the county of
Rofs ; fix miles long, and half a mile wide ; 25 miles
W.N.W. of Dingwall :— L. Vrotachan, a lake in the S.W.
part of Aberdeenthire ; feven miles S. of Caftleton of Brae-
mar : — L UJp^, a lake of Rofs ; two miles W. of Dingwall :
— L. IVatSen, a lake in Caithnefs ; fe'.-cn miles W. of Wick :
— X.. Tehen, a lake on the W. coall of Scotland, on the
N. fide »f Loch Terridoii.

LOCHABER, a diftria of Scotland, in the county of
Invernefs; about 40 miles long and 2 J broad, of which the
ciiief plat;e is Fort Wiiliam. This is one cf the moft
dreary-, mountainous, a.d barren diliricTts in Scotland, thinly
inhabited, with the houfes wretched. The chief produce is
black cattle, with very large flocks of flieep. Here prince
Charies eredted his ilandard in 174,, upon his landing from
France, with feven officers, and arms for 2000 m.en.

LOG HE, or .Jca-LocnE, a name ufed in fome parts of
England for the muJlAa, called in other places, particu-
larly in Cornwall, the 'wh'tjlle-fijb. See Gadus Mujltla.

LOCHEM, in Geography, a town of Holland, in the
department of Guelderland, on the Borkel ; 10 m.iles E. of
Zutphen.

LOCHER Moss, a morafs of Scotland, in the county
of Dumfries ; 10 miles long and three broad, which muft
have been formerly a forell, on account of the oak trees
that are dug up in it ; and as canoes and anchors have been
alfo found here, it mult have been once covered with fea.

EOCHES, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift, in the department of the Indre and Loire; 21 miles
S.S.E. of Tours. The place contains 4342, and the can-
ton 14,701 inhabitants, on a territory of 385 kiliometres,
ia 1 3- communes. The callle, feated on a rock in this town,
was formerly an important fortification. It had four ranges
of fubterraneous pafiages, running over one another, in the
uppjrmoll of which, Louis Sforza, duke of Milan, \Vas
imprifoned for 10 years, and where he died. Its large
tower contains two cages or moveable rooms, with ifrong
oak gates, covered with iron ; and in one of thefe cardinal
Salve, bilhop of Angers, was confined by Lewis XII. At
a convent near the town, an edift was paffed in I576, in
favour of the Proteltants ; but it was toon after violated
by the queen regent, Catherine de Medicis. N. lat. 47^ 7'.
E. long, o'' 34'.

LOCHI-A, in Mid'zvifery, a difcharge of blood from the
Hterus of women, occurring after the expulfion of the pla-
centa, and continuing four, five, or m.ore days. See La-
sour, Natural.

LOCHIAL Fevers, a term ufed by medical writers

LOG

to exprefs fuch fevers as arife from fupprefllons or imminu-
tions of the lochial difcharges in lying-in women, or from

Annandale, Scotland. It is luppofed to have derived its
name from the number of fmall loclis in its vicinity. This
borough, according to tradition, received its original char-
ter from king Robert Bruce, whofe paternal eftate was the
lordlhip of Annandale. It is certain at leaft, that this mo-
narch bellowed upon it a confiderable portion of lands from
his own property. The oldell charter extant is a writ of
novoclamus, by James VI., dated i6;h July, 1612 ; which
alFigns as a reafon for the renewal, the deifruftion of the
town and its records by the Englifh, during fome of their
inroads. Lochmaben has undoubtedly been formerly of
more im.portance than at prefent. The borough-roods and '
town conimouty are very extenfive, and for the moft part •
fenced off at a very trifling annual rent. The government
of the town is veiled in a provolt, three bailies, a dean of
guild, a treafurer, and nine common-council-men. Coarfe
linen is the fl;aple production of this place ; 60,000 yards -
being annually niauufaftured here and in the neighbourhood
for the Englith market. The coal ufed for fuel is brought
chiefly from Cumberland. Annan, Dumfries, Kirkcud-
bright, Sanquhar, and- this-town, join in fendin^r one mem-
ber to parliament. .

The parifh of Lochmaben extends about ten miles along ,-
the banks of the Annan, which poiTeffes a very valuable
falmon fifhery, almoft contiguous to tiie town. Several
fmaller ilreams flow into this river, all of which are abun- -
dantly fupplied with trout. In the largeft of the lochs,
which prefent a truly beautiful Iheet of water, a great
variety of fifli are caught. The filTiermen affert, that there
are 15 or 1 6 different kinds fit for the table. Among thefe
is one Lalled the vendife, or vendace, fome fay from Vendois
in France, as being brought thence by one of the Jamefes.
This ftory, however, does not feem very probable, as it is ■
found by experience, that this fifli dies the inftant it is
touched. Befides, it has in vain been attempted to tranfport
it to other Icchs in the neighbourhood. The vendife is about
the fize of a herring, and refembles it both in external ap-
pearance and anatomical ftrufture. In taile and flavour it
is extremely delicate, fo that it is reckoned among the mott
delicious fifli that fwims. It lies generally in the deepelt
parts of the loch, and is caught with the net.

Upon a peninfula which Ihetches out into this loch ftands
a caftle, originally built by Robert de Bruce, the firil of
that name who iwayed the Scoitifh fceptre. It was a place
of great llrength previous to th^- introdudion of fire-arms, and .
could fliU be made fo, if its fortifications were raifed anew
according to the principles of modern warfare. The ori- -
ginal buildings of the calUe fcem to have occupied about an .
acre of ground. . The walls were twelve feet in diameter. ~
Three ditches funound the whole at different dillances.
The area contained within tlie outermofl: wall may be about
13 acres. The inner one patfes through a part of the
calUe, within which there was a place for the fecurity of T
the boats, either from the effeils of the weather or an
enemy. While Scotland was a dillintl kingdom from Eng-
land, this fort was the frontier garrifon againft Carlifle.
The narquis of Annandale, among his other titles, affumes
that of conllable, or hereditary keeper of the eaiUe of Loch-
maben. To this office was attached a falary of ^co/;
Scotch, along with the fifhings of the lochs. For the main-
tenance of the troops compofing the garrifon, the govern-
ment had likewife what was called a laird-a-mart, or lardincr

mart

LOG

LOG

mart cow, which was one of the bed fat cows from every
parifli in Annandale. Very little of the callle now remains,
it having been completely pillaged of its materials for the
conllruction and ornament of many of the houfes in the
neighbourhood.

Between tliig callle and the Kirk-lochs, clofe to the town,
are the veftiges of anotlicr fort of more ancient date. Tra-
dition reports tliat the (lones were removed to afTilt: in build-
ing another calUe, probably that in the loch. The fituation
of this cattle is fine, and commands a beautiful profpeft
over an extenlive plain. It was originally the refidence of
the Bruce family, before they afccnded the throne of Scot-
land. It ii faid'that king Robert I. was born here.

Contiguous to the caille ftrft mentioned, on the banks of
the Annan, lies a large tract of fertile land, called the Four-
towns, as comprehending four populous villages. Thefe
lands were originally granted by one of the Scottifii mo-
narchs to his houfliold fervants, and the pi-operty of each
beino- very fmall, bare pofTeffion was declared a fufficient
title. When any part of this property is transferred, it is
only necefiary to mark the tranfaClion in the books of the
lord of the barony. In meafuring the lands of this diftridl,
an ell, called the barony ell, is made ufe of, which contains
42 inches, whereas the common cU of the country is only
38 inches.

Lochmaben and its vicinity derive no fmall degree of
celebrity, as the fcene of fome of the heroic aftions of the
renowned fir William Wallace. According to the popula-
tion report of I So I, this parilh contained 499 houfes, and
2053 inhabitants.

LOCHNEV, a town of Sweden, in the province of
.Smaland ; 60 miles N. cf Calmar.

LOCHSTETT, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Smaland, near which are tlie ruins of a caflle, in which was
a dungeon,' that ferved for a prifon ; four miles N. of
Pillau.

LOCHVITZE, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tchernigov, on the Sufa ; 96 miles S.E. of Tchernigov.
T^. lat. 50- 20'. E.long. 28° 14'.

LOCIS COM.MUNIBUS. See COMMUNIBUS.

LOCK, M.4TTHEW, in Biography, organift and com-
pofer to his majelly Charles II.,' was a native of Exeter,
and a chorifter in the cathedral of that city, while William
Wake was organitt there. He had afterwards inllrudtions
in mufic from Edward Gibbons, and had fo much dillin-
guifhed himfelf as 'a profeiTor of abilities, that we are told
in the continuation of fir Richard Baker's chronicle, he
was appointed to compofe the mulic for the public entry
.of the king at the relioralion, and captain Kenry Cook
for his coronation.

But he feems firfl to have appeared as an author in i(''^7,
during the interregnum, by the publication of his " little
confort of three parts for viols or viohns, confiiling of
pavans, ayres, corants, farabands, in two feveral varieties,
the firit twenty of which are for two trebles and a bafe."

Sorr.e of his compofitions appear in the fecond part of
.John Playford's continuation of Hihon's " Catch that catch
can," ia 1667. Of which publication, the fecond part
.contains "Dialogues, Glees, Ayres, and Ballads, of two,
three, and four voices," among which we find the moil
pleating of Lock's compofitions ; " Never trouble thyfelf
about times or their turnings," a glee for three voices.

Lock was the firll who attempted dramatic mufic for the
Etiglilli ftage, if we except the mafques that were performed
at court, and at the houfes of the nobility, in the time of
Charles I., and during the reign of Charles II. Whefi mufi-
cal dramas were firil attempted, wWch Dryden calls heroic

plays and dramatic operas, Lock was employed to fet moft
of them ; " Circe," written by fir William Davcnant's for.
Dr. Davenant, was fet by Banniller ; but the femi-operai, as
they were called, the Teinpeft, Macbeth, and Pfyche, Iraiif-
latcd from the French of Molicrc by Shadwel', were fet lo
mufic by Lock. The Tcmpeft and Pfyche were performed
in 1673, with mufic, dancing, and fplendid fccnes, but not
printed till 167J, when it was publiflied with the following
title : " The Eiiglifli Opera ; or the vocal Mufic in Pfyche,
with the inilrum'.ntal therein intermixed. To which is ad-
joined the inftrumental Mufic in the Temped. By Mat-
thew Lock, compolcr in ordinary to his Majelly, and Or-
ganift to the Queen." This publication is dedicated to
James duke of Monmouth. There is a preface of fonie
length by the compolcr, Matthew Lock, which, like his
mufic, is rough and nervous, exadlly correfponding with
the idea which is generated of his private charafler, by the
perufal of his controverfy with Salmon, and the fight of his
pifture in the mufic-fchool at Oxford. It is written with
that natural petidance which probably gave birth to moft of
the quarrels in which he was involved. He begins with a
complaint of the tendency of his brother muficians " to
peck and carp at other men's conceptions, how mean foever
may be their own. And expecting to fall under the la(h of
fome foft-headed or hard-heaited compofer," he lets about
removing " the few blocks at which they may take occafion
to Ibmble," with a degree of indignation that implies an
irafcible fpirit under no great governance. The firft ob-
jetlion which he thinks hkely to be made, is to the word
opera, to which he aslwers, that it is a word borrowed from
the Italian, who by it dillinguifhed this kind of drama from
their comedies, which, after a plan is laid, is fpoken ex-
tempore ; whereas this is not only defigned, but written
with art and induttry ; and afterwards fet to fuitable mufic.
In which idea he has produced the following compofitions,
which, for the moll part, are " in their nafure foft, eafy,
and, as far as his abilities could reach, agreeable to the
defign of the poet. For in them there is ballad to fingle
air, counterpoint, recitative, fugue, canon, and chromatic
mufic, which variety, without vanity be it faid, was never
in court or theatre, till now prefented, in this nation." He
confelTes, however^ that fomething had been attempted be-
fore in this way of compofition, but more by himfelf than
any other. And adds, "that the author'of the drama pru-
dently confidering, that though Italy was and is the great
academy of the world for mufic and this fpccies of enter-
tainment, yet as this piece was to be performed in England,
which is entitled to no fuch praife, he mixed it with inter-
locutor, as more proper to our genius."

He concludes his peevidi preface by confefiing, that " the
inflrumental mufic before and between the acts, and the
entries in the a<fls of Pfyche, were omitted by the eonfent of
the author, Signor Gio. Baptiila Draghi ; and that the
tunes of the entries and dances in the Tenipcll (the dances
being changed) were omitted for the fame reafon."

Here we have a fhort hiftory of thefe early attempts at
dramatic mufic on our ftage, in which, as in the moft fuc-
cefsful reprefentations of this kind in later times, the chief
part of the dialogue was fpoken, and recitative, or mufical
declamation, which leems to be the true criterion and cha-
radlcrirtic of Italian operas, but leldoni ufcd, unlefs merely
to introduce fome particular airs a:id chorufes : as in the
modern Comus, the air, " On ev'ry hill, in ev'ry dale," is
preceded by the fhort recitative "Jiow gentle was my
Damon's air.''

Upon examining this mufic, it appears to have been very
much compofcd on Lulli's model. The melody is neither

recitative

LOCK.

itative nor air, but partaking of bolli, with a change of the Romifh communion afterwards, and became organift t«
*■ *" ' -- ' '^ '^ ' - ' ' ' queen Catherine of Portugal, the confort of Charles II.

and died a Papift in 1G77.

Lock, a well-known inftrument for fecuring doors and
preventing them from being opened, except by means of
thekey adapted to it. A common lock confills of a ftrong
bolt, which mufl: be fitted in a proper box or cafe affixed
to the door, and inclofing it on all fides, to defend it from
violence, that it cannot be withdrawn, except by the appli-
cation of the key, which fliould cuter the lock'by a fmall
key-hole, and be furrounded by numerous wardi, that occa-
age caft which is admirably fuited fion the paflage the key paifes through, in turning round to
that are fiippofed to perform it. move the bolt, to be very crooked and intricate, and thus

' " preventing the introduclion of any inftrument or falfe key

to withdraw the bolt. The third part of the lock is the
tumbler, which is a catch or click holding the bolt from
being withdrawn, except the tumbler is firll removed by the
key, which is done at the fame time it (hoots the bolt. This
common lock cannot be made perfectly fecure from being
degrees. No other inllruments are mentioned in the fcore of picked or opened without the right key, from the circum-
his opera of Pfyche, than wolins for the ritornels ; and yet, llance that the wards, though they may be varioufly difpofed,
fo flow was the progrefs of that inftrument during the laft fo as to require a very crooked key, muft be always left fixed
century, that in a general catalogue of mufic in 1701, fcarce in the lock, and their figure may be taken by introducino-
any compofitions appear to have been printed for its ufe. a fmall falfe key, covered with wax or other plaftic fub-

This mufician was of fo irafcible a difpofiticn, that he ftance, and receiving the imprellion of the wards, from which

meafure as frequent as in any old French opera which we
ever faw.

Lock had genius and abilities in harmony fufficient to
have furpafted his model, or to have caft his movements in a
mould of his OA-n making ; but fuch was the paffion of
Charles II. and confequently of his court at this time, for
every thing French, that in all probability I,ock was in-
ftructed to imitate Cambert and Lulli. His mufic for the
witches in Macbeth, which, when produced in 1674, was
as fmooth and airy as any of the time, has now obtained,
by age, that wild and fava
to the infernal cha rafters

In the third introduftorv mufic to the Tempeft, which is
called a curtain tum, probably from the curtain being firfl
drawn up during the performance of this fpecies of overture,
he has, for the firll time that is come to our knowledge,
introduced the ufe of crefcendo (louder by degrees,) with
diminuendo, and knliindo, under the words foft and Jlow by

feems never to have been without a quarrel or two on his
hands. For his furious attack on Salmon, for propofing to
reduce all the clefs in mufic to one, (fee Salmon and
Clef,) he had a quarrel with the gentlemen of the Chapel
Royal, early in Charles II. 's reign. Being compofer in
ordinary to the king, he produced for the Chapel Royal a

information a falfe or (Iveleton key may be made, that will
enter the lock and withdraw the boh ; or, if it will only raile
up the tumbler, the bolt may fometimes be forced back by
other means. Another reafon of the infufficiency of the
common lock is, that the variations capable of beino- made
in the arrangement of the wards are not fufficient to pro-

morning fervice, in which he fet the prayer after each of duce the required number of locks without having great

the ten commandments, to different mufic from that to numbers exaSly alike, and their keys capable of openino-

which the fingers had been long accuftomed, which was each other reciprocally ; from wMch circumftance thev be-

deemed an unpardonable innovation, and on the firft day of come but an imperfeft fecurity, as any ill-difpofed perfon

April 1666, at the performance of it before the king, there may, by furnifhing himfelf with a great variety of old keys,

was a dillurbance and an obilruction for fome time to the *■" - "^ ' ' ■ 1 ,1 . . ...

performance. To convince the public that it was not from
the meannefs or inaccuracy of the compofition, that this

impediment to its performance happened. Lock thouglit
it neceifary to print the whole fervice ; and it came abroad,
in fcore, on a fingle (heet, with a long and laboured vindi-

be enabled to open almoll any common lock; particularly
if thefe keys are filed away to flcelctons, that is, leavin"- as
little as poffible of the folid part of the key, which \\'\\\
then have a greater chance of palling in between the intri-
cate wards.

To produce a lock which would be free from tiiefe objec-

cation, by way of preface, under the following title ; tions has been the ttudy of many ingenious mechanics, whofe

Modern church- mufick pre-accufed, cenfured and ob
ftructed in its performance before his majefty."

Lock was long fufpefted of being a Roman Catholic,
and it is probable that this new fervice, by leaning a little
more towards the mafs, than the fervice of the Proteftant
cathedral, may have given offence to fome zealous members
of the church of England.

The public were indebted to Lock for the firft rules that
were ever publilhed in England, for a bajfo cor.tinuo, or tho-
rough-bafe ; thefe rules he gave to the world, in a book
entitled " Melothefia," London, oblong 4to. 1673. ^^ '^

various locks have difl^erent properties and advantages. We
have devoted Plate XXI. M'lJ'ceUany, to the explanation of
two capital locks, one by Mr. Thomas Rowntree, which is
an improvement upon the common tumbler-lock, and an-
other by Mr. Jofeph Bramah, which is on an entirely dif-
ferent principle.

Mr. Rowntree's lock is reprefcnted \njlgs. 5, 6, 7, and 8 ;
in thefe the following parts are tiiofe of the common lock :
A A is the plate which inclofes the whole mechanifm, and
faftens it to the door ; B B, fg. 6, is the bolt, which is
guided in its motion by fiiduig under two bridges C, D,

dedicated to Roger I'Ellrdnge, efq. afterwards fir Roger fcrewed to the main plate ; E, E, are four pillars which fup

PEilrar.'ge, an ingenious man, a good mufician, and an en- port a plate to cover the works ; this plate has the key^iole

"^ Tors. It contains, befides the tho- in it ; F, Sec. are the circular wards funounding the centre pin j

lefTons for the harpfichord and organ and a, Jig. 6, is the key which, in turning round, acts in a

I

courager of its profefR
roigh-bafe rules, fome

by Lock himfelf, and others. He was au'hor likewife of
feveral fongs printed in " The Trcafury of Mufic," " The
Theatre of Mufic," and other collciitlons of fongs. In the
latter of thefe is a dialogue. "When death fliall part us from
thefe kids," which, with Dr. Blow's " Go, perjured man,"
was ranked among the beft vocal compofitions of the time.

It is prcfumed, that when he was appointed compofer in
ordinary to tho king, he was profcflionally a inem!)er of the
church of England j but it is certain that he went over to

notch r in the bolt, and (hoots it forv.-ards or backwards ;
G is the tumbler : it is a plate fituatcd beneath the bolt and
moving on a centre pin at d. See ^\{ofg. 8, which is a fepa-
rate view of the tumbler ; it has a catch e projeding upwards
from it, which enters the notches_/"or ^r, jig. 6, in the bolt,
and thus firmly retains the bolt ; the foru^er when it is
locked, and the latter when it is drawn back. H is a fpriug
which preffes the tumbler forwards ; the key a, in turn-
ing round, ads lirft againil Uie part c c of the tumbler, and

raifes

LOCK.

raifes it fo as to remove the catch e from tlie notclies/or^,
and then the key enters the notch /■ in the bolt, and moves it.
In this, which is the common lock, it will be feen there is no
feenrity, except what arifes from the intricacy of the wards
F furrounding the key ; for a f.ilfe key, or any other inllru-
ment which is of the fame length as n, will, if it can pufs the
wards, raife the tumbler and draw back the bolt. Mr.
Rowntree has, by applying an ingenious contrivance to this
lock, rendered it fo fccnre^ that it will be nearly impofTible
to pick or open it with any other than the true key. To
the tumbler he has added a piece of metal h,Jigs. 7 and 8,
called its_^;;, fixed to its lower fide. When the tumbler
is locked in the notches /, j, of the bolt, the fin apj)lics
itfelf to a cluftcr of fmiill wheels \, Jigs- 5 and 8, all littcd
on one centre pin beneath the tumbler ; the edges of thefe
wheels ftop the fin h, and prevent the tumbler being raifed ;
but each wheel has a notch i,fg. 8, cut in its circumference,
and when they are all placed, fo that every notch is t'jrned
to the fide oppofite the fin of the tumbler, and forming one
notch through the whole clufi;er of wheels, then the fin is
at liberty to enter this notch, allowing the tumbler to rife :
'but when the tumbler is down, and the plain edges of all or
■any of the wheels are prefented to the En, the tumblor can-
rot be raifed ur.lefs the wheels are firft put into the right
pofition above-mentioned : this is done by a number of le-
vers Yi-ifys. y and 7, all centred on one pin at i. At the op-
pofite end each has a tooth m, entering a notch in the wheel

XXII. 'Mifccl'any, in which A reprefents the bolt, fitted ta
Aide on the metal plate BBC, by palling through a hole in the
fide C, which is turned up, as fiiewn \nfg. 3 : the other end
of the bolt is guided by paifing under proper grooves in the
lower fide of the circular box D D, which is fcrewed to the
plate B to confine the bolt down. It contains the whole mc-
chanilm of the lock, confilfing of an interior cylinder or bar-
rel E E, (hew n in the feftion^/fj . 3 , with its appendagt s in per-
fpeftive wjlg. 4. This barrel is fitted to turn round within the
box DD, the upper end au being received into a cavity exactly
fitting it, and them.iddlccncompancd by a circular ringof llccl
plate i i, fcrewed into the box as fiiewn mjig. 3, and one-half
ihewn at b,Jig. 4. The ring enters a circular groove formed
round the barrel, and thus confines it from having any other
motion than a rotation on its axis, and this only by the aid
' of the key R, as will be explained. The barrel has a hole
through its centre, which is clofed at bottom by a circular
plate F, fcrewed to it, and fupporting the central pin Cr,
which occupies the centre of the hole through the barrel :
this centre pin guides the key in entering tli; lock. When
the barrel E E is turned round by the key, it flioots the bolt
A, by an ingenious contrivance, explained 'in Jig 2, an aper-
ture being cut through the plute B B C to exinbit it. The
plate F, on the lower end of the barrel E, has a pin f pro-
jecting from it : this pin enters a curved opening, at a
fmall diftance from the centre, and therefore defcribcs a cir.
cle when llie barrel is turned round, cut through the bolt A,

belonging to it, fo that when any lever is preffed outwards as is fliewn by the dark curve F in Jig. 2. In the pofiti m
it turns its wheel round. The levers are preflcd towards the there fnewn the belt is withdrawn, and the pin_/', reding
key by a fpring n applied to each, and in this ftate they reft againll the folid part of the groove, prevents the barrel hvhg
againft a pin 0 fixed in the plate. The wheels are now dif- turned round any farther in the direction from F to / :

' ' ' ■ but by the application of the key, the barrel may be turned
in the other dircftion from y to F, in which ccurfe it pafics
round in a circular part of tlie groove, and therefore produces
no motion of the bolt A, until the piny" Ilrikes the llraight

arranged completely, every one prefenting its plain edge to
the fin, but every one requiring a different degree of motion

to bring the notch round to the proper pofition. When the
'key is introduced and turned round, it firil operates upon
the curved part p q,fg- 5. pf the levers K, and railing

them, turns all the circles I at once into the proper pofition.

The key, in turning farther round, operates on the part c c.

part o- of the groove, and afts againll it to throw the bolt
forwards: and when the barrel lu\s made a complete circuit,
and the piny is again come to the fame pofition it w«.3 at

Ji". 6, of the tumbler, now at liberty to move, and by raifing firil, the bolt is fliot out as at f.g. i, and the pin is relling

it releafes the bolt, and in turning ftill further round, it in the hollow h, which prevents it moving any farther in the

feizes the notch r of the bolt, as inyfr. 6, and (hoots it. fame direftion. When the barrel is turned back again, the pin

"The key is cut into fteps of different lengths, as fhewn at /afts againll the notch i and the curved part /■ of the groove,

•vv, vnjig. R.: each ftep operates on its refpedlive lever K and withdraws the bolt into the pofition of Jig. 2 : now the

in a different degree, and turns its circle I the proper quan- pin J, either when the bolt is fiiot out or in, is in a right

titv. The notch at j afts upon the tumbler, and the plain line with the centre of the barrel E, to which it is fixed,

part t moves the bolt. In this lock there is no poffibility of and the direftion of the bolt's motion. By this means, no

picking It, for if all the levers except one were raifed the force whatever applied to drive back the bolt can luve the

proper quantity, that one would detain the tumbler aseffec- leall tendency to turn the barrel round, and flrain the me-

tually as the whole number; and a falfe key, befides having chanilm which prevents its motion, unlefs the parts are firft put

the wards as R, mull have all the notches v, v, of tlie exatt into a particular arrangement, by the application of t!ie key.

depth, neither greater nor lefs, or it will not open the lock, The interior meclianifm mull be explained hj Jig. 4, in which

even if one alone is incorrcft. If the key is lofl, when a /, m, n, reprefent fmall fteel fiidere, which are fitted into

new one is made, the maker takes out the levers K and cir- proper grooves or flits, made in the fubilance of the barrel

cles I, and arranging them in anew order, one upon the other, E. Of thefe there are fix in number, arranged round the

making the new key to fit the new arrangement, and then barrel, and projecling a little from its exterior furface in the

the old kev wiU not open the lock ; though none of the fmall part. Thefe Aiders are received in notches _)•, z, in the

parts are altered, but only their arrangement. The fame fixed Ileal ring b I, before defcribed ; and thus effeilually

may be done if it be fufpecled that an imprefTion has been detain the barrel at fix points from being turned round, cx-

frandently taken from the key to make a falfe one by. cept it is firil unlocked by the key R being introduced at

The locks invented by Mr. .Tofeph Bramah difpiay great the key-hole H, and the Aiders preffed down by it, fo as to

ingenuity, and dem.and a particular defcription, having been in bring the notches (of which each A:der has one, as at r

very general ufe for many years pall, and greatly admired. He Jig. ^■) all oppofite the fteel plate ^ i, and then the barrel

obtained a patent for his invention in 17^*4, andettabhAied a may be turned round. When the key is abfent, the flidcrj

manufadlory of them, in which he employed a number of inge- are raifed up by a brafs ring v Aiding on the central pin G,

nious tools and enfines for the fabrication of the different and lifted up by a fpiral fpring co. The key has fix notches

parts. One of Mr. Bramah's fimplell forms of a lock for a cut in the end of it, as Aiewn at S, which is an end view :

drawer, or for a door, is reprefcntcd \nf^s, 1, 2, 3, 4, Fiale each notch in the key includes cue of the fix Aiders /, m, n,

and

LOG

LOG

and the key, beinfr forced down into the key-hole H, de- by prefling down any one Aider of the depth at which the
preffes all the Aiders at once, until the projefting leaf / of notch in it will be oppofite the fteel rinjr. Another great ad-
vantage of thefe locks is, that from the circumrtance before

the key ilops upon the bottom of the recefs .r, cut in tbe
upper edge of the barrel. In this polition the Aiders are de-
prefied, fo that the notch r made in each Aider comes
exaclly oppofite the fteel ring bb, and the barrel is a{ liberty
to turn round all the Aiders, being by this means removed,
or at leaft relieved, from the fteel ring, which, as before
mentioned, embraces a groove cut round the barrel, but
which cannot turn round therein unlefs the Aiders are alfo
moved by the key, that the notches cut in them coincide
with the groove cut round the barrel, and then it can turn
freeiv round.. The key, having thus reheved the barrel by be-
ing thruft in as far as it can go, obtains a hold of the barrel to
turn it round, by the leaf / entering the recefs x, which it
exaclly fills up, fo as to form a continuation of the cir-
cular top of the barrel : but as foon as the key is turned
round with the barrel a fmall quantity, its leaf is caue^ht be-
neath the circular cavity in the top of the box D, and
thus the key is prevented from being thrown out by the
fpiral fpring ■o', until it has been turned quite round, and
locked or unlocked the bolt : then the leaf of the key coming
oppofite the enlargement c, Jig. i, of the key-hole H, the
fpring throws the key out and raifes all the Aiders, that they
may interlock with the fteel plate b b, and prevent the barrel
from turning, unlefs the key is again put in, (its leaf being
oppoiite the aperture a of the key-hole, ) and being thruft
forwards as far as it will go, the barrel will turn round very
eafily ; and when it has made a complete circuit, the lock is
opened, and the key thrown out of the key-hole by the

The fecurity of this ingenious lock from being picked, or
opened by a falfe key, depends upon a circumPcance not
yet mentioned, which i?, that the notches in the fix Aiders are
io made, that every one requires to be depreffed a different
quantity to bring them all at once oppofite the fteel ring, in
which pofition alone the barrel can be moved. For this reafon
the fix notches in the key are all of different depths, corre-
fpondent to the pofitions of the notches in their refpeftive
fliders ; and unleis each notch in the key is of the proper
depth, the lock cannot be opened, for any one being too
deep, that Aider will not be preffed low enough to relieve
the barrel, and will hold it fall, though all the others may
be correct : on the other hand, any notch not being of fuffi-
cient depth, the Aider it acts upon will be preffed too far,
and in this cafe the notch in it, having paffed by the fteel ring,
■will lock the barrel as effectually as though it was not far
enough. Thus this lock admits of an immenfe number of com-
binations ; I ft, in the number of the Aiders ; 2dly , the depths
of the different notches in the key ; and 3dly, the arrange-
ment of thefe Aiders. The combination of thefe three changes
admits fuch an immenfe number of varieties of locks, that it
never need happen that two locks fhould be made to open by
the fame key Any of Mr. Bramah's locks may be arranged
fo as to require a new and different key in cafe the original
fiiould be loft or llolen : for this purpofe the lock mull be
opened, and the Aiders taken out and changed into different
grooves : a new kfey muft now be made, with the grooves of
the fame depth of the original key, but arranged in a dif-
ferent order, correfponding with the new arrangement of
t!ie Aiders. The old key will not now open the lock.

To pick a lock of this kind is perhaps impoffible ; becaufe,
though the Aiders are expofed to the examination of any per-
fon, yet no information can be obtained of the depth of each
of the Aiders required to be depreffed ; for, unlefs they
are all together preffed down, the barrel cannot be turned

explained, of the bolt having no adlion to turn the barrel,
though the barrel has a great power to fhoot the boll, a
ftrong lock may have but a very fmall key. Forinftance, the
bolt of the lo^-k, in the plate which is drawn its fiiij fizc,
is of great ftrength, while the key R is fo fmall, that it
may always be carried fufpended to the watch chain, and
then it will not be in danger of being loft or miflaid, as one
may happen to lofe a key, and give oppcrtiinity for ill
difpoied perfons to make a falfe key from it, unknown to
the owner.

ill the leaft, and without turning it, no guefs can be made
Vol. XXI.

A lock invented by Mr. Stanfoury, an American gentle-
man, has great merit. To explain it, we muft fuppofe that a
flat circular plate is fitted to turn round upon the centre pin
for the key, and that this plate, when turned round, fiioots
the bolt, which may be done by various means. The lock-
ing part confifts of four, fix, or more fmall fteel pins,
which are received in holes made very near each other,
through both the circular turning plate, and the fixed plate
beneath it. By thefe pins the circular plate is held fall
from turning. The key has the fame number of pins,
and arranged in the fame pofition and diftance as the
pins in the plate. The key being introduced, it is preffed
forwards againft the circular plate, and turned round till the
pins in it come over the pins in the circular plate, and the
preffure of the hand forces the pins out of the circular plate,
the pins in the key occupying the place of them. The
plate is now relieved, and the key has hold of the plate to
turn it round and open the lock. Each pin is provir.L-d with a
fpring behind the fixed plate to force it forwards. The
difficulty of making a falfe key to this lock is very great ;
as any error in the number, fize, pofition, or length of the
pins, will prevent it from opening the lock. To avoid
the danger of i.mpreffions being taken, many marks are
llamped upon the circular plate, which are exactly the fame
at the marks of the real pins : thus an impreffion taken from
it would only miAead.

Mr. Sts.nfbury has alfo made an ingenious improvement
upon the common fpring door-lock. The handle which opens
the fpring catch for fattening the door, inltead of requiring
to be turned round, is made fo that it withdraws the fpring
catch, by pulhing the handle on one fide of the door and
pulling it on the other. This method is extremely conve-
nient ; for prefTing the handle releafes the lock, and conti-
nuing the preffure opens the door, and pulling the handle on
the other fide has the fame effect. A perfon with his hands
full may open fuch a door by only leaning againft the
handle.

Lock, or IVeir, in Inland Namgalion, the general name
for all thofe works of wood and Itone, made to confine and
raife the water of a river : the banks alfo which are made to
divert the courfe of the river, are called by thefe names in
fome places. But the term loch, or pound-lack, is more parti-
cularly appropriated to exprefs a contrivance, confiftingof two
gates, or pairs of gates, called the lock-gates, and a cham-
ber between, in which the water may be made to coincide
with the upper or lower canal, according as the upper or
lower gates communicating with it are opened ; by which
means boats are raifed or depreffed from one level or reach of
a canal to another. See Plats V . Canals.

Lock of fCater, is the meafure equal to the content of
the chamber of the locks, by which the confumption of
water on a canal is cflimated.

LocK-iaJ>er, a perfon who attends the locks to take
H h - care

i: o c

LOG

cave of Uicm, and to afTift the boatmen in paffing through
them.

\jOV\i-paddks are the fmall fluiccs that ferve to fill and
empty the locks.

LorK-/7/tare the angu'ar pieces of timber, {h,h, Plate V.
Canals, Jh' c;6.) at the bottom of the lock, agaiiiil which
the gates (hut.
f LoCK-TOiirj, or Pnifdle-nve'irs, are the ovcr-falls behind the

upper gates, (s, s, Plate V. Jig. jj.) by which the waftc-
water of the upper pound is let down through the paddle-
holes into tlie chamber of the lock.

I'o Lock, in Fencing, is to fcize your adverfary's fword-
arm, by twining yoiu- left arm round it, after you clofe your
parade, fhell to flicll, in order to difarmhim.

LOCKARTSBURG, in GVo^ra/Ajs a town of America,
in Luzerne countv, Pcnnfylvania, lituated on an ifthmuf,
formed by the confluence of the Sufquehanna and Tioga
rivers, about a mile above their junftion.

I^OCKE, Joiix, in Biography, one of the greateft phiv
lofophers and nioll powerful writers that ever adorned this
country, was born at Wrington, in Somerfetfhire, on the
29th of Auguft T632. His father was a gentleman oi ftridt
probity and economy, and he poHcfled a handfome fortune.
He took great pains in the education of his fon ; and, when
he was of a proper age, fent him to Wdhninftcr fchool,
where lie continued till the year 1 6^1, when he was entered
a (Indent of Chrill-eliurch college, in the univerfity of Ox-
ford. Here he was dlllinguilhed above all his contem-
poraries, and was confidered to be the mofl ingenious young
man in the college. It appears, however, that he was dil-
guiled with the method of Ihuly prefcrib^d to him, which
was after the manner of the Peripatetics ; and it is faid, that
the books which firft gave him a relidi for the ftudy of plii-
Jofophy were thofe written by Des Cartes. Having taken
his degrees in arts in 1655 and 1658, Mr. Locke for fome
time clofcly applied him(elf to the ihidy of phyfic; and it is
certain that, for a (liort time, he followed it as a profelTion.
In the year 1664 he accepted an offer to go abroad, as fe-
cretary to (ir William Swan, envoy from Charles II. to the
eleftor of Brandenburgh ; but returning to England again
v.ithin lefs than a year, he refumed his ftudies at Oxford
with renewed vigour, applying lumfclf particularly to na-
tural philofopny. In 1660 he was accidentally introduced
to the acquaintance of lord Aililey, afterwards carl of
Shaftelbary, in the capacity of a medical practitioner, during
the abfer.ce of tlie phyfician who regularly attended his lord-
fhip. When the noble lord left Oxford to go to Sunning
Hill, he made Mr. Locke promife him a yiCt there, which
promife he performed in 1667. Having fecured him as an
inmate, lord Adiley fulTered himfelf to be governed entirely
by his advii.e, and became fo much attached to him, that he
■would not fuffer him to praclife medicine out of his own
family, except in the cafe of fome particular friends ; and
perceiving that the great abilities of Mr. Locke were cal-
culated to render him eminently ferviceable to the world in
other departments of knowledge, urged him to apply his
{Tud'.es to tlate affairs and political fubjefts. To theic Mr.
Locke was naturally inclined, and fiicceeded fo well, that
lord A(hley began to confuh him on all occafions. He was
nov,; introduced to the fociety of fome of the mod eminent
men of the age, who were all delighted with li's converfation.
In the year 166S, Mr. Locke accompanied the earl and
counte'^s of Northumberland in a tour to France, and re-
inamed in that country with the lady, vvliile his lordfliip fet
off to Italy, with an intention of vifiting Rome. This
nobhman, however, died on his iournc)', and Mr. Locke
accompanied the countefs to England, and again took up

his refidence at lord Afhley's. His lordihip, at that period
chancellor of the excheijuer, having, in coiijimttion with
or\\CT noble lords, obtained a grant of Carolina in North
America, employed Mr. Locke to draw up a conilitution
for that province. In executing this tall<, he had formed
articles relative to religion and public worHiip on thole en-
larged principles of toleration, which were agreeable to his
own enlightened views upon that fubjed. Thederjy, how-
ever, ]■ aluus of a diminution of their powers, caufed an ad-
ditional claufe to be inferted, iccuring the countenance and
fuj^pcrt of the flate only to the excrcife of religion according
to the diicipline of the eftabliOied church. Mr. Locke,
notwithllanding kia connection with lord Alhlcy, made fre-
quent vifits to Oxford, though he was at the fame time en-
gaged to infpeft the education of his lorddiip's elded iou,
an office which he executed with the greateft care, and to
the entire fatisfaftion of his employer. To Mr. Locke,
likewife, was conlided the important charge of felefting a
wife for the young man. This was a taflc of great difficulty,
as the father determined he fhould only marry a lady of
good family, of an agreeable temper, a fine perfun, and,
above all, of goad education and excellent underllanding.
Notwithdanding the difficulties attending fucli a commiffion,
Mr. Locke undertook it, and executed it to the perfect
fa-tisfaftion of all parties. The eldell fon by this marriage,
afierwards the author of the " Charactiriliics," was com-
mitted to the care of Mr. Locke in his education, and gave
evidence to the world of the mafter-hand which had directed
and guided his genius. In 1670 Mr. Locke began to form
the plan of his " Effiiy on Human Underllanding ;" but
he was too much engaged by his patron to make much pro-
grefs in the work. In 1672, lord Adiley was created earl
of Shaftefbury, and appointed to the high dignity of lord
high chancellor of England. His lorddiip immediately
made him his fecretary of the prefentations ; but he held
that place only till the end of the following year, when the
earl was obhged to reilgn the great feal. After this, lord
Shafteiljury was prefident of the board of trade, and Mr.
I>ocke was appointed fecretary to the fame. The comniil-
fion being diffolved in 1674, he was again at Icifure, was
admitted to the degree of bachelor of phyfic, and began 10
tura his attention to that faculty, as the means of future
fupport. He was at this time in the higheft eftimatioii
with feveral perfons of eminence in the medical [irofeflion :
Dr. Sydenham, among others, fpeaking of 'him, favs, " If
we conliderhis genius, and penetrating and exadl judement,
or the ftriftnefs of his morals, he has Icarcely any fuperior,
and few equals now living." In 1675, Mr. Locke fought
relief from a pulmonary complaint by travelling to the fouth
of France, where he became acquaii.ted with the earl of
Pembroke, to vi'hom'Iie communicated his plan of writing
the " Effay on Human Underllanding." He afterwards
fettled at Paris, wliere he obtained the friendQiip of feveral
men of letters. In 1679 the earl of Shafcelbury, being re-
ffored to favour at court, and made prefident of the council,
fent to requell that Mr. Locke would return home without
delay. He inllantly compiled ; but within fix months that
nobleman was again difplaced, for refufing his concurrence
with the deligns of the court, which aimed at the efiablifh-
ment of popery and arbitrary power; and in 1682, he
found it necefl'ary to retire to the continent, to avoid a pro-
feeution for high treafon, on account of offences charged
upon him, probably without the colour of reafon or truth.
Mr. Locke, ,whofe character was -above all fufpicion, re-
mained lleadily attached to his patron, following him into
Holland ; and upon his lordfnip's death, which happened
foon afierv^ards, he did iwt tliink it fafe to return to his

native

LOCKE.

native country, where his intimate connection with lord
Shafteftury had created him feme j^pwerful and m'ahgnant
enemies. Their inahce purfued him to the utmod extent of
their means ; and the dean of Chrift-chtirch had orders from
the king to ejeft Mr. Locke from his iludent'c place, which
was accordingly done. On the acceffion of James II.,
William Penn, the quaker, who was the friend of Locke in
his adveriity, ufed his intcrefl with the king to procure a
pardon for him ; and would have obtained it, had not Mr.
Locke declined the acceptance of inch an offer, declaring
that he had no occailon for a pardon, having never been
guilty cf any crime. In 1685, when the uiike of Mon-
mouth and his party v/ere making preparations in Holland
for his ra!h and unfortunate enterprize, the Engli(h envoy
at the Hague demanded that Mr. Locke, among others,
fhould be given up, on fufpicion of his being a6tively en-
gaged in the undertaking. This fufpii ion, though entirely
gronndlefs, obliged him to lie concealed nearly a year ; till
it was rendered perfeftly evident, even to his enemies and
their fpies, that he had ho concern vvhatever in the bufmefs.
To'.vai-ds the end of the year 1686 he appeared again in
public, and foon afterwards was the principal agent in
forming a literary fociety at Amfterdam, of which Lim-
borch, Le Clerc, and other learned men were members,
who met together weekly for converfation upon fubjefts of
univerfal learning. In the following year he finiftied his
great work, the " Effay concerning Human Underltanding,"
which had been the principal objeCl of his attention feveral
years, and which proves how well he fpent the period of his
exile from England. That the public might be apprized
of the outlines of his plan, he himfelf made an abridgment
cf it, which his friend Le Clerc tranflated into French, and
inferted in one of his " Bibliotheques." This abridgment
%vas fo highly approved by the literati of that period, and
by thofe who were fincerely attached to truth and jnll prin-
ciples, that they took every opportunity of exprefling the
ftrongeft defire to fee the complete work in its original Hate.
During his concealment, he wrote his " Letter concerning
Toleration," which was iirft publifhed in the Latin lan-
guage at Gouda, in l68g, and entitled " Epiftola de To-
lerantia ad clariffimum Virum T. A. R. P. T. O. L. A.
«cripta a P. A. P. O. J. L. A." The former of thefe fets
of letters were intended to fignify Theologize apud Rcmon-
itrantes profefforem, Tyrannidis Oforem Limburginm Am-
itelodamenfem ; and the latter, Pacis Amico, Perfecutionis
Olore, Jijhanne Locke, Anglo. This letter he afterwards
tranflated into Englifli, and publifhed in London in the year
1690. It was fpeedily tranflated into the Dutch and French
languages, and has been exceedingly popular with liberal
people of all countries from that period to the prefent. It
has been frequently reprinted in forms adapted for general
circulation, and has been dillributed by perlons of fortune and
rank, among whom may be mentioned, in our own country,
his grace the late duks of Grafton. This epiiUc, thougb
fo highly approved, was fcverely attacked by a clergyman
of Oxford, who wrote three pamphlets agaiiift it ; two of
wHich Mr. Locke anfwered, defending and julHfying his
principles with invincible ftrength of argument r and though
he v.'as in a declining ftate of health, when bis antagonilt,
after twelve years' filence, publilhed his third pamphlet
againil it, yet he began a reply to him in a " Fourth Letter
concerning Toleration." Though this was not finifhed, yet _
the fragment has been publifhed in Defmaizeaux's edition of
his works.

To return, however, to the narrative of Mr. Locke's
life, in the order of time. The revolution of 168H opened
a way for his return into his own country, whither he came

in the fame fleet whicli cenveyed the princefs of Orange ;
and upon the reftoration of public liberty, he did not hefita!^
to alTert his own private rights, and accordingly put in his
ckim to the ftudenl's place in the college of Chrifl's-chnrch,
of which he had been unjullly deprived. For the fake of
peace, he was advifed to defill from his claim. As he was
confidered to be a iuflercr for the principles of the revolu-
tion, he might have obtained fome very confiderabk- poll
under government : but he contented himfelf with tiiat of
" Conrimiffioner of Appeals," worth about 200/. per annum.
In the year i68g, Mr. I>ocke had an offer to go abroad in
a public charaifer ; but he declined the honour and advan-
tages attached to fuch a fituation, on account of the infirm
flate of his health : and in tlie following year he publifhed
his " Effay," which has given him an imm.ortal reputation;
and which, at the time, though it had many enemies, was
flyled " one of the noblell, moll ufeful, and molt original
books the world ever faw." Thofe who difliked every
thing like innovation, oppofcd the progrcfs of our philo-
fcpher's princi[^es as laid down in his " Effay." It was
even propofed, at a meeting of the heads of the houfcs of
the univerlity of Oxford, to cenfure and difcourage the
reading of it ; and after long and warm debates amor^
themfelves, it was agreed that each individual, at the head
of a college, fhould endeavour to prevent it from being read
by the If udents ; a fure method of rendering every fpirited
youug man anxious to perufe it, and even imbibe its prin-
ciples. The old and the prejudiced were afraid of the light
which was diffuiing itl'elf in the world, but they could not
reflrain its effefts : the attacks of Mr. Locke's various op.
ponents did but increale hib reputation, and render his prin-
ciples mere generally thidied and adopted. Mr. Locke's
next publication was his " Two Trcatifes on Government ;"
in wliich he vindicated the principles upon which " the Re-
volution" was founded, and completely demolifhed fir Robert
Filmer's falfe principles ; pointing out, at the fame time,
the true origin, extent, and end of civjl government.
About this period, the public coin of the kingdom was
known to be in a very bad and depreciated tiate, having, by
being clipped and fweated, lofl one-third of its weight.
The magnitude of this evil, and the mifchiefs which it
threatened, called for the attention of parliament ; and Mr.
Locke, with tlie view of affilling thofe who were at the
head of affairs to form a right underllanding of this matter,
and to excite them to reftify fuch abufcs, printed a tra6i,
entitled " Some Confiderations of the Confequences of
lowering the Intcrell, and railing the Value of Money."
He had warned the public cf their danger, and faid, " the
nation was in greater danger from a fccret unobferved abufe,
than from all thofe other evils of which perfons were gcte-
rally fo appreheniive ; and that if care was not taken to rec*
tify the coin, that irregularity alone would prove fatal to us,
though we ihould fucceed in every thing elfe." Mr. Locke
pubhihed other trafts on the fame fiibjeft, by which he
convinced the world that he was as able to rcafon on trade
and bufinefs as on the mofl abflraft quellions of fcicnce.
He was accordingly confultfd by the minillry relative to a
new coinage of filver. With the carl of Pembroke, then
lord keeper of the privy feal, he was accu Homed to hold
weekly conferences ; and he was in habits of intimacy and
friendihip with the earl of Peterborough, at whofe houlc, at
Fulham, he always met with a holpitable and kind recep-
tion, when the delicacy of his health obliged him to quit the
metropohs. He was afterwards obliged to leave London
entirely, and accepte.4 of the generous offer of iir Francii
Mafliam, at Oates in Effex, to become a rcfidcnt in his
huufe, where he fpent the remainder ot his lilt. Here he
11 h 2 was

LOCKE.

was received on liis own terms, that lie might hai^e his entire
liberty, and look upon himfelf a< at his own home ; and
here he chiefiy piirfncd his future iludies, being ftldom ab-
font, becanfe the air of I^ondon grew more and more trouble-
fome to him. In 1695 he publiflicd his " Thoutrhts on
Education," whichihe improved in fonie fubfequent editions ;
and in 1695 he was appointed, by the king, one of the
" Commilfio'ers of Trade and Plantations," which obliged
him to be more frequently in London than he had been for
fome time pall. In the fame year he publiflied his excellent
treatife, entitled " Tlie Reafonabieuefs of -Chriflianity as
delivered in the Scriptures;" of which he nfterwards pub-
lifhed a vindication, in anfwer to a fcurrilons attack by Dr.
Edwards, entitled " Socinianifm unma{)<ed." Scarcely
was Mr. Locke difeugaged from this controverfy, before
he wa^ drawn into another, occafioned by the publication of
Mr. 'Poland's " Chriilianity not mylierious," in which he
endeavoured to prove " that there is nothing in the Cliriftian
religion not only contrary to reafon, but even nothing
above it ;" and in explaining his notions, he made ufe of fe-
vcral arguments from Mr. Locke's " ElFay." Abnut the
fame time, feveral trcatifes were publiflied by fome Unitarian
tvritera, maintaining that there was nothing in the Chriftian re-
ligion but what was rational and intelligible, which fentiment
h.id been advanced by Mr Locke. The ufe which was made
of his writings in thefe inilanccs, determined Dr. Slilling-
fleet, bifhop of Worcefter, to make an attack upon the
author, in his " Defence of the Dodrinc of the Trinity,"
publilhed in 1697. Mr. Locke wrote an anfwer, and the
controverfy was carried on ,till the death of the biihop :
The candid of every party admitted that Mr. Locke was
too powerful for the learned prelate, and M. Le Clerc,
fpeaking of the difcuflion, fays, " Every body admired the
llrength of Mr. Locke's reafonings, and his great clearnefs
and i-xaanefs, not only in explaining his own notions, but in
confuting thofe of his adversary. Nor were men of under-
ftanding lefs ftirprifed, that fo learned a man as the billiop
fhoidd engage in a controverfy, in which he had all the dis-
advantages poffible : for he was by no means'ableto maintain
his opinions again ft Mr. Locke, whofe reafonings he neither
underftood, nor the fnbjeCt itfelf abo\it which hedifputed."
And an Irifh prelate writing to Mr. Molyneux, the intimate
friend of Mr. Locke, thus expreff-s himfelf on the fubjeft :
" I am wholly of your opinion, that he has laid the great
bifhop on his back ; but it is with fo much gentlencfs, as if
he were afraid not only of hurting him, but even of fpoiling
or tumbling his clothes. Indeed, I cannot tell which I moll
admire ; the great civility arfd good manners in his book, or
the forciblcnefs and clearnefs of his reafoning.'' Never, per-
haps, was a controverfy managed with fa much f]<ill and art
on one fide, nor on the othL-r, fo unjulHy, confufedly, or
fo httle to the credit of the author. The trafls on this con-
troverfy were the laft which Mr. Locke committed to prefs :
he grew infirm more from difeafe than great age, and lie de-
termined to refign his office of " Commifiloner of Trade,
&c. ;" but he acquainted no perfon of his intention till he had
given up his commiffion into the king's own hand. His ma-
jelly preffed him to continue in the p'oft, thoui^h he fhould be
unable to perform its duties ; but Mr. Locke could not be
induced to make fuch a compromife, and he infilled upon
furrendering the emoluments of a place that he felt him-
ftlf incapable of filling. From this time, which was the
year 1700, he lived altogether at Oates in EfTex, and applied
himfelf, without interruption, entirely to the ftudy of the
holy fcripturcs ; and in the employment he found fo much
pleafure, that he rearetted his not having devoted more of
Jbis time to it m the former jpart of liis life ; and he replied, in

anfwer to a young genlleman, who aflced what was the'
fliorteft and lurell way for a perfon to attain a true knowledge
of the Chrillian religion ? " Let iiim lludy the holy fcrip-
ture, cfpecially the New Tellament. It has God for its
author ; falvation for its end ; and trutli, without any mix-
ture of error, for its matter." In 1703 he fuflered much
from an allhmatic diforder, but the pangs of bodily complaint
were alleviated by the kind attentions of lady Mafliam, who
was the daughter of the learned Cudworth : flill he forefaw
that his diflolution was not far diilant, and he could anticipate
it without dread, and fpeak of it with perfect calmnefs and
compofure. Though few men had need of fo little prepara-
tion for the important change as Mr. Locke, yet he lelt it
right to receive the facrament at home, in company with fome
friends, being unable to go to church. When the ceremony
wasfinifhed,hetoldthemini{lcr, "that he was in perfecl charity
with all men, and in a fincere communion with the church of
Chrifl, by what name foever it might be dillinguifhed." He
lived fome months after this, which he fpent in atls of piety and
devotion : when he was meditating on the wildom and good-
nefs of the Creator, he could not forbear crying out, " Oh
the depth of the riches of the goodnefs and knowledge of
God :" what he felt himfelf on this fubjecl he was anxious
toinfufe into the hearts of others. On the day previoufly to his
departure he faid, •' hehad livedlong ejiough, and v. as thank-
ful that lie had enjoved a happy liie ; but that, after all, he looked
upon this life to be nothing but vanity," or, as he expreffes
a fimilar fentiment, in a letter which he left behind him for his
friend Mr. Anthony Collins, one that " alFords no folid fa-
tisfatlion but in the confcionfnefs of doing well, and in the
hopes of another life." He had no rell that night, and
begged in the morning to be carried into his fludy, where,
being placed in an eafy chair, he had a refrefhing fleep for
a confiderable time. He then requeflcd his valuable friend,
lady Mafham, to read aloud fome of the pfalnis, to which
he appeared exceedingly attentive, till feeling, probably, the
approach of the lall meffenger, he begged her to defill, and
in a few minutes expired, on the aSth of October 1704,
in the 73d year of his age. He was interred in tlie church
of Oates, where there is a monument erefted to his memory,
with a Latin infcription, which he had prepared for the
purpofe.

Such was the end of as illuftrious a philofopher as ever
adorned our country: celebrated not only by his wifdoni, but
by his piety and virtue, by his love of truth, and dihgence in
the purfuit of it, and by a noble ardour in defence of the civil
and religious riglits of mankind. That Mr, Locke poffeffed
a noble and lofty mind, fuperior to prejudice, and capable,
by its native energy, of exploring the truth, even in the re-
gions of the intelleftual world bofoi-e unknown ; that his
judgment was accurate and profound; that his imagination
was vigorous ; and that he was well furnilhed with the orna-
ments of elegant learning, were there no other proofsj
might be concluded from his great and immortal work,
" The EfTay concerning Human Underllanding." Though
we cannot agree with the learned author of the " Diverfions
of Pulley," " that Mr. Locke never did advance a fingle ftep
beyond the origin of Ideas and the compoiltion of Terms ;"
yet it mufl be admitted, that this was the main objeft of his^
effay, though not at firll perceived by Mr. Locke himfelf, as
he acknowledges : but he adds, " when I began to examine
the extent and certainty of our knowledge, I found it had
fo near a conncftion with words, tliat unlefs their force and
manner of iignification were full well oblcrved, there could
be very little faid clearly and pertinently concerning know-
ledge, which being converfant about truth, had conftantly
to do with propolltioiis. And though it terminated in things,

3 F'

LOG

yet it was for the moll part fo much by the intervention of
words, that they feemed fcarce fcparatle from our general
knowledge." And again, " I am apt to imagine, that
were the imperfections of language, as the inftrument of
knowledge, more thoroughly weighed, a great many of tlie
controverfies that make fuch a noife in the world, would of
themfelves ceafe, and the way to knowledge, and perhaps
peace too, lie a great deal opener than it does." Hence the
author, jnft referred to, afTumes, " that the more Mr.
Locke refledledand fearched into the human underltanding,
the more he was convinced of the neceflity of an attention
to language, and «f the infeparable connexion between
words and knowledge. He fays, moreover, that it was a
lucky miftake which Mr. Locke made when he called his
book " An Effay on the Human Underftanding.'' For fome
part of the ineftimabie benefit of that book has, merely on
account of its title, reached to thoufands more than, I fear,
it would have done, had he called it (what it is merely) A
Grammatical EiTay, or a treatife on words, or on language.
The human mind, or the human underftanding, appears to be
a grand and noble theme, and all men, even the moft infuf-
ficient, conceive that to be a proper objeft for their contem-
plation, while enquiries into the nature of language are
fuppofed to be beneath the concern of their exalted under-
ftanding.'' We fliall now quote Dr. Enfield's opinion of this
great work. "Difcarding," fays he, " all fy Hematic theories,
he has, from actual experience and obftrvation, dehneatedthe
features, and defcribed the operations of the human mind,
with a degree of precifion and minutenefs not to be found
in Plato, Ariftotle, or Des Cartes. After clearing the way
b)" fetting afide the whole doftrine of innate notions, and
principles both fpeculative and practical, the author traces
all ideas to two fources, fenfation and refleftion ; treats at
large of the nature of ideas, fimple and complex ; of the
operation of the human underftanding in forming, diltin-
gniihing, compounding, andaffbciating them ; of the manner
in which words are app'ied as reprefentations of ideas ; of
the difficulties and obftruflions m tlie learch after truth,
which arife from the imperfection of thefefigns; and of the
nature, reality, kinds, degrees, cafual hindrances, and ne-
cefiary limits of human knowledge." Mr. Locke's " Two
Treatifes of Government," will render his memory dear to
the enlightened friends of civil and religious freedom : his
letters on toleration, and his commentaries on St. Paul s
epiftles, are likewife held ia high eftimation.

Mr. Locke's private charafter cannot be wholly over-
looked : he poffefled a great knowledge of the world, and
was intimately converfant in the bufinefs of it. He was
prudent without cunning, and he engaged men's efteem by
his probity. Averfe from all mean compliances, his wifdom,
his experience, and his gentle manners, gained him the re-
fpect of his inferiors, the efteem of his equals, the friend-
ffiip and confidence of thofe of higher quality. He was re-
markable for the eafe and politencfs of his behaviour ; and
thofe who only knew him by his writings, and who had
tonceived him to be a referved man, were fiirprifed, if they
happened to be introduced to him, to find him extremely
affable, good-humoured, and complaifant. Dr. Ifaac Watts
defcribcs him as having a foul wide as the fea ; calm as night,
brif^ht as day. And the fame author has a fine ode in his
iyric poems, written on occafion of Mr. Locke's dangerous
illnefs, fome time after he had retired to ftud'y the fcviptures,
»f wiaich we (hall quote the firft ftanza.

" And muft the man of wondrous mind.
Now his rich thoughts are juft refin'd,
Forfake our longing eyes ?

LOG

Reafon at length fubmits to wear
The wings of faith ; and lo 1 they rear
Her chariot high, and nobly bear
Her prophet to the /Icies."

Among the honours paid to thememory of Mr. Locke, that
of queer. Caroline, coniort of George IL ought not to be
overlooked, for that princefs, having erefted a pavilion in Rich-
mond park, devoted to, or in honour of, philofophy, placed
in it Mr. Locke's buft, with thofe of Bacon, Newton, and
Clarke, as the four chief of the Euglifti phiiofophers. He left
behind him feveral MSS., from which his executors, fir Peter
King and Anthony Collins, cfq. publilhed, in 1705, his
paraphrafe and notes upon St. Paul's epiftle to the Galatians,
which were foon followed by thofe upon the Corinthians,
Romans, and Ephefians, with an efl'ay prefixed, " For the
underftanding of St. Paul's epiftles, by confulting St. Paul
himfelf" In the following year the pofthumous works
of Mr. Locke were publiftied, comprifing a treatife " On
the Cond'ift of the Underftanding," intended as a fupplement
to the " Efl'ay:" " An Examination of Malebranche's Opi-
nion of feeing all Things in God." In 1 70S, fome fami-
liar letters between Mr. Locke and feveral of his friends
were publiflied. All the works of this great man have been-
collected, and frequently reprinted in different fizes ; in
three vols, folio, in four volumes quarto, and lately in ten
volumes Svo. Biog. Brit, Life prefixed to Mr. Locke's
woVks. Enfield's Hift. of Phil.

Locke, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland ;
1 1 miles from Heilft^erg. ^

Locke, a military town of America, in Milton townftiip,.
New York, in Onondago county; 13 miles N.E. of the S.
end of Cayuga lake.

LOCKENITZ, a town and caftle of Brandenburg, in
the Ucker Mark ; 16 miles N.E, of Prentzlow.

LOCKER, in a S/jip, a kind of box or chell made aloncr
the fide of a fhip, to put or ftow any thing in.

LocKEK, Gowlans. See Hellebore, and Trollius.

Locker. Shot, in Sea Language. See Gakl.-ixd.

LOCKERBIE, in Geography, a market town fituated in
the pmiih ot Dryfdale, Dumfriesftiire, Scotland. It is
pleafantly leared on the river Annan, at the diftance of it.
miles from the county town. It confifts chie.ly of one re-
gular ftreet, halt a mile in length from north to fouth, and
this is interfe^led, at right angles, by another itreet of infe-
rior extent. According to the parliamentary returns of 1801,
the whole parifh contained 322 houfes and 1607 inhabit-
ants. The buildings in the town are chiefly of recent date-
The parifti church ftands on an eminence at the head of the
principal ftreet. Two lakes forriierly almoll encircled the-
town. It has two fairs and ten markets during the year, at
which upwards of 20,oco lambs are annually fold ; the
greater part of which are principally fent into England.
A confiderable quantity of linen and woollen cloths are
likewife purchafed for the fame part of the kingdom.

LOC Keren, a town of France, in the department of
the Scheldt , and chief place of a canton, in tVie diftrift of
Termoude. The place contains v\,ci,^\, and the canton
15,693 inhabitants, on a territory of 70 kiliometreSj in
three communes.

LOC KH ART, a town of North Carolina, in AlberaErlo
Sound; 3S miles E.S.E. of Hahfax. N. lat. 36^ 2'. W.
long. 76 56'.

LOCKIjorLAKi, as the Same orthography ma v he almoib
indifTerentl/ pronounced, is a name of Lakflimi, the confort.
of the Hindoo deity 'Vifhnu. See L.-\.KSH.Mr.

LOCKING-up, or LocKiNG-d'owri, denotes the opera»
tion of gaffing boats up or down through locks.

Locxixa

LOG

LOG

LocKlS'G of JVheeh, in Rural Economy, Wk means of
fiftening tliem fo as to prevent their running too fwiftly
upon the horfcs, when coming down fteep hills. This 13
effcfted in various ways ; as by chains, (ledges, friftion,
l)ars, &c. See Cart, Wheel, and Waggon.

LOCKMAN, in the I(lc of Man, the oiTicer who exe-
cutes the orders of the government, much like our under-
flieriff.

LOCKS, in the TI/^OTf^f, in French called ^n/rj'ZJenx, are
pieces of leather two fingers hroad, turned round, and
(luffed on the infide, to prevent their hurting the pattern of
a horfe, round whieli they are clapped. An entrance is com-
pofed of two enlravons joined by an iron chain, feven or
eight inches long.

I.,OCKSPri', ^mowr:^ Miners, is the firall cut or trench,
made with a fpace of about a foot wide, to mark out the
iirll lines of a work.

LOCKTEWACKT, in Gngm'-hy, a town of Swedifh
Lapland, on a lake ; 6j miles W.N.W. of I'itea.

LOC LE, a town, or rather village, of Switzerland, in the
principality of Neufchatel. La Chaux de Fond, another
large handfome village lying in a broad valley which reaches to
Tranche Comte, is connected with Locle by a range of pleaf-
ing cottages, llcirting bothfides of the road. Both thefe vil-
lages, together with the diftrifts belCTiging to them, contain
about 6000 inhabitants, dillinguiilied for their fltill and induf-
try in the mechanical arts. They carry on an extenfive traf-
fic in lace, (lockings, cutlery, and other articles of their
own manufafture ; but particularly excel in watch-making,
and every branch of clock-work. All forts of workmen
tiocefTary for the completion of that bulinefs, fuch as painters,
enameliers, engravers, and gilders, are found in thefe villages ;
where, upon an average, about 40,000 watches are annually
made. Several inhabitants of thefe villages have invented
■tifeful mathematical and a'.tronomical inllruments. The fon
of Droz, afterwards a rcfident at Paris, exhibited in Eng-
land feveral automatical figures of I'nrprifing conflrudion:
one played upon the harpfichord, another drew landfcapes,
and a third copied any word prefented to it, or wrote down
whatever was diftatcd by any of the company.

LOCM.'-iN, a mounJ:ain of Pcrfia, in the province of
Khorafan ; 1 j miles W. of Maruerrud.

LOCMINE', a town of France, in the department of
'Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of
Pontivy ; 10 miles S. of Pontivy. The place contains
9429, and the canton 11,233 inhabitanis, on a territory of
•180 kihnmetresj in feven communes.

LOCO RoTO.VDO, a toV/n of Naples, in the province of
Eari ; 1 1 miles S.S.E. of Monopoli.

LOCONTAI, a town of Upper Siam ; 60 miles N. of
Perfelon.

LOCRI, LoCRlANS, m Ancient Geography, ■<iyeo-\^\e who
are faid to have deiived their name from an ancient iiero called
" Locris," or '• Locros," whofe fon Opus founded a town
under his own name. Thefe people formed four dillinCt
diiiiions, with appropriate furname^, the three firit of which,
•vl-z. I^ocri ozoU, Locri epicaem'uUi, and Locri opunliani,
were fettled in Greece : the fourth divifion, denominated
cpizrphyrii, inhabited Magna Grrecia, near the promontory
of Zephyrium. The oxol'i occupied a confidcrable extent
of country W. of the Phocide, along the gulf of Corinth.
The epicnemidii derived theirnamc from mount Cnemis, about
v.-hich tiiey dwelt ; the Maliac gulf being on tiie E., mount
Oeta on the N., the Phocide on the W., and the Locri
opuntiani on the S., whofe territory was of fmall extc::t.
"TChe epizephyrn were lituatcd near the promontory of Zephy-
tiamj .find were dillributed into two clafl'es, diftingiiiflted by

their name and their frtuation. One divifion embarked on the
gulf of Corinth, and the other on the jligean fea. It is
therefore poffible that a colony of one of thefe branches might
eftablifli themfelves in this part of Italy. Their town,
" Locri Epizephyrii," was fituatod on a iiiU near tlie above-
mentioned promontory. Some fay, that it was founded at
the fame time with Cyiicus, under the reign of Tullua
Kortilius, but Strabo dates its origin a lif.'le after Crotona
and Syracufe, about the year 757 before our era. It was
very flouriihing, when Dionyfius the younger, having been
driven from Syracufe, praftifed there all lorts of violence.
But the I.iOcrian5, having recovered their liberty, expelled
the garrifon and took ample vengeaiee of the tyrant.
Epherus, fayi. Strabo, reports, that Zalcucus formed the
laws of the Locrians from tliofe of Crete, Sparta, anJ
Athens, one of which ellabhihed a confor.mity of punifh-
raent to crimes, whereas before they were arbitrary and de-
pended upon the will of tlie judge. The Locrians had
built upon the coaft a temple of Proferpinc, which was
piUaged by Pyrrhus when he carried his arms into Italy.
The town was not better treated by the Roman garrifon,
under the urdcrs of Fiaminius. In the year 539 of Rome
the Locrians, having devoted themft-lvcs to the Brutians
and Carthaginians, by this conduft iiicenfed the Roman re-
public ; 10 that they lent troops againil them and took their
city in the year 5'49. A lit tie after, however, vhey recovered
their hberty. The fequel of the hidory of the Locrians is
not known ; but an inllance of tlieir valour has been recorded
which deferves to be mentioned. In a war between them
and the CrotGiiiates, 10,000 Locriiuis, with a few additional
troop?, defeated 1 30,000 of the enemy near the river Sagra ;
an event fo marvellous, that it became proverbial in giving at-
teftation to a tact thought incredible. AKsCija tiv sti i^a-, »» ;
i. e. it is more true than the battle of Sagra.

LocKi, or Locres, Motta di Buzzano, a. town of Italy,
in Brutium. It was founded, as we have already mentioned
in the preceding article, by a colony of Greeks called Lo-
crians.

LOCRIAN, m Ancient Mufc, the feventh fpccies of the
diapafon. It was alfo called hyprnloriany and common.

LOCULAMENTUM, in Botany, denotes a cell or par-
tition, in a feed-pod, for the feed ot a plant.

In fome plants we only find one loculamentum in a pod ;
in fome otliers two, three, or more.

LOCUS, Place, in the general fenfe. See Place.

Loci;.s, among Ancient Muftcians, was ufed to (ignify
the interval b-'tween one degree of acutenels or gravity of
found and another. The Greeks uied the word tcto,- in the
f?.me fenfe, for the fpace through which the voice moved.
See Motion.

This motion the Greeks diflinguidied into two kinds ; one
continued, Tj-nx't:, the other disjunct, Siy.ryiiJ.u.tix.-n. Iiiftances
of the firlt kind are in fpeaking ; of the iecond, in linging ;
and this they called melodic ii.otion, or what was adapted
to finging. Ptolemy in hkc manner divides founds of un-
equal pitch, 4.o?!y,- Bvio-o'lovi.-, into continued and diferete, and
fays the firll kind are improper, and the fecond proper, for
harmony.

Ariftides Quintilianus intcrpofes a third kind of motion
between the two here mentioned, fuch as that of a perlbn re-
citing a poem.

Locus, in Rhetoric, atopic, or head, vvherce arguments
are brought to prove the quellion \a hand. Some of thefe
are cal.'ed/o^; communes, or tonimon topics, as being comuion
to all forts of argument ; tlius, whether a tiling be poffible
or impoilible, more or lefs th-in fomelhing eife, &c.

Befides thefe, three others are mentioned by rhetoricians,

jii/lum,

LOCUS.

juflitm, utile, and honejlum ; to which fome add jucundum ;
but VolTius will have this lall to be comprehended under utile.
See Topic.

Locus gtome'.r'icus denotes a line, by which a local or in-
determinate problem is folved. See LoCAI. Problem.

If a peint vary its pofitioii, according to fome determinate
law, it will defcribe a line, which is called its locus : or
a locus is a line, any point of which may equally folve
an indeterminate problem.

This, if a right line fuffice for the conftruftion of the
equation, is called locus ad return ; if a circle, Iccus ad
clrculum ; if a parabola, locus ad parabolam ; if an ellip-
fis, locus ad elitpjim ; and fo of the reft of the con-.c fec-
tions.

The loci of fuch equations as are right lines, or circles,
the ancients cAhdfilam loci ; and of thofe that are parabolas,
hyperbolas, &c. yo/;Wloci.

Apollonius of Perga wrote two books on plane loci, in
which the objedl was, to find the conditions under which a
point, varying in its pofition, is yet limited to have a right
line, or a circle given in pofition. Thefe books are loft,
but attempts have been made at reftorations by Schooten,
Fermat, and R. Simfon ; the treatife " De Locis Planis,"
of the latter geometer, publifhed at Glafgow, 1 749, is a
very excellent performance, in all refpefts worthy of its
celebrated author. Befides the above-mentioned writers, the
doftrine of loci has been treated of by various other ma-
thematicians, as Craig, Maclaurin, Des Cartes, De I'Ho-
pital, &c. the latter of whom has two chapters on this
fubjeft in his Conic Sedlions. Lefiie in his Geometry his
alfo a chapter on plane loci, which contains feveral of the
moft fin-.ple and interefting propofitions of this kind.

Before we proceed to inveftigate the loci of the higher
orders, it will be proper to ftate a few of the principal pro-
perties and ufes of plane or geometrical loci ; in doing
which, however, we muft necefTarily confine ourfelves to
thofe only of the moft general defcription, as the limits of
this article will not admit of a minute and particular invef-
tigation.

Prop. I.

If a ftraight line, drawn through a given point to a
ftraight line given in pofition, be divided in a given ratio,
the locus of the point of feftion is a right line given in
pofition. Plate 'X.ll. Anahjis, jig. I.

Let the point A, and the ftraight line B D, be given in
pofition, and let A B, limited by thefe, be cut in a given
ratio at C ; this point will be in a ftraight line given in po-
fition. _,

Anal-jfis. — From A, let fall the perpendicular A D upon
B U ; and tln'ough C draw C E parallel to B D ; then
AC:AB::AE:AD, and, confequently, the ratio of
A E to A D is given ; but A D is given both in pofition
and magnitude, and hence A E and the point E are alfo
given, and therefore C E, which is perpendicular to A D,
IS given in pofition.

Comp-:fUton. — Let fall the perpendicular AD, which di-
vides E in the given ratio, and eredt the perpendicular C E,
fo (hall this ftraight line be the locus required. For C E
being parallel to B D, A C : A B : : A E : A D ; that is,
in the given ratio.

Prop. II.

If a ftraight line, drawn through a given point to the
circumference of a given circle, be divided in a given ratio,
the locus of the point cf feftion will aifo be the circum-
ference of a given circle. Fig. 2.

Let A B, terminating in a ginpn circumference, be cut in
a given ratio, the fegment A C willlikewife terminate in a
given circumference.

Analyfs. — Join A with D, the centre of the given circle ;
and draw C E parallel to B D ; then it is evident that
AC:AB::AE:AD; whence the ratio of A E to
A D being sfiven, A E and the point E are given. Again,
fince A C : "A B : : C E : B D, the ratio of C E to B D
is given, and c.:nfequently C E is given in magnitude.
Wherefore the one extremity E being given, the other ex-
tremity of C E muft trace the circumference of a given
circle.

Compg/ilion. — Join A D, and divide it at E in the given
ratio, and in the fame ratio make D B to the radius E C,
with which and from the centre E defcribe a circle.

For draw A B cutting both circumferences, and join C E
and B D. Becaufe C E : B D : : A E : A D, alternately
C E : A E : : B D : A D ; wherefore the triangles C A E
and BAD, having likewife a common angle, are fim.ilar ; and
confequently, A C : C B : : A E : A D, that is, in the given
ratio.

Prop. III.

If through a given point two ftraight lines be drawn in
a given ratio, and containing a given angle ; ftioulJ the one
terminate in a given circumference, the other v.'ill alfo tcr- ■
miuate in a given circumference. Fig. 3.

Let the angle CAB, its vertex A, and the ratio of its
fides be given ; if A B be limited by a given circle, the
locus of C will alfo be a given circle.

Analyfis. — Join A with D, the centre of the given circle ;
draw A E at the given angle with A D, and in the given
ratio ; and join D B and E C. Becaufe the point A and ■
the centre D are given, the ftraight line A D is given ; and
fince the angle DAE, being equal to B A C, is given ;
A E is given in pofition. But A D being to A E in the
given ratio, A E muft be given alfo in magnitude, and con-
fequently the point E is given. Again, the whole angle
B A C being equal to D A E, the part B A D is equal to
C A E, and becaufe A B : A C : : A D : A E, alternately
AB:AD::AC:AE; wherefore the triangles A D B
and A E C are fimilar, and hence A B : B D : : A C :
C E, or alternately, AB:AC::BD:CE; confe-
quently the fourth term C E is given in magnitude ; and
its extremity E being given, the other muft lie in a given
circumference.

Cnmpofuion. — Having drawn A E at the given angle with
A D, make A D to A E in the given ratio ; and in the
fame ratio let D B be made to E C ; a circle defcribed from
the centre E with the diftance E C is the locus required.

For A D : A E : : D B : E C, and alternately, AD:
D B : : A E : E C. But the angle B A D is equal to
C A E ; becaufe the whole B A C is equal to DAE;
confequently the triangles A B D and ACE are fimilar ;
and A B : A D : : A C : A E, or alttniately, A B •,
A C : : A D : A E ; that is, in the given ratio.

Prop. IV.

The midd'e point of a given ftraight line, which is placed
between the fides of a right angle, lies in the circumference
of a given circle. Fig. 4.

Let A D be placed in the right angle E D F, touching
E D and D B, the locus of its bifedion C is a given circle.

Analyjis Join D C ; then becaufe the bafe of the tri-
angle A D B is bifeited in C, a circle defcribed from C as a
centre, and with the radius A C, or C B, will pafs through
the point D J for the angle A D B being a right angle, it
6 Heceflarily

LOCUS.

recefTarily falls in'the circumference of ihe femicircle AD E ;
confequeiitly A C, C B and C U, are all equal to each other.
But A C, being half of A B, is given, therefore D C is alfo
given, whence the locus of the point of bifeftion C is a
circle dcfcribed from D with the radius D C.

Comp'i/ilian — ^From D, witli a dillance equal to half the
given line, dcfcribe a circle ; this is the locus required.

For draw the radius D C, make AC = DC, and produce
A C to B. Becaufe A C = D C, the anple A D C =
D A C ; but the angles D A C and D B C are together
equal to a right angle, and therefere equal to A D C and
B D C ; whence the angle D B 6 is equal to the angle
B D C, and, confequently, the fide D C is equal to B C.
The fegments A C, B C are thus each of them equal- to
i) C, and hence A B is itfelf double D C, or is equal to
tlie given ftraight line.

Pkoi'. V.

If from two given points there he inflefted two ftraiglit
lines in a given unequal ratio, the lo;u8 of their point of
concourfe is a given circle.

Let A C and B C, drawn from the points A, and B,
have a given ratio, but not that of equality ; then will C,
the point of concourfe, lie in the circumference of a given
circle. Fi^. 5.

yliiiilyjis. — Draw C D, making the angle BCD equal to
B A C ; and meeting A B produced in D. The triangles
J) A C and D C B, having the angle at D common, and
the angles at A and C equal, are evidently fimilar ; and
hence A D : A C : : C D : C B, and alternately, A D :
C D : : A C : C B, that is, in the given ratio ; but A D :
C D : : C D : B D, and confequently, A D is to B D in
the duplicate of the given ratio A D to CD, and which is
therefore likewife given. Confequently B D, and the point
D, are given ; and B D being thence given, its extremity
C muft lie in the circumference of a circle defcribed with
that radius.

Compqft'ion. — Divide A B in the given ratio in E, and in
the fame ratio make ED to B D ; the circle defcribed
from the centre D, and with the radius D E, is the locus
required.

For fince A E : E B : : E D ; B D, it follows that
A D : E D : : C D : E D, or as C D : B D ; hence the
triangles D A C and D C B, thus having their fides, which
contain their common angle D, proportional, are fimilar ;
and tiierefore A C : A D : : B C : C D, or alternately,
A C : B C : : AD : CD or D E, that is, in the given
ratio.

Prop. VI.

If two (Iraight lines, containing a given rectangle, be
drawn from a given point at a given angle :• (hould the one
terminate in a itraight line given in pofition, the other will
terminate in the circumference of a given circle. Fig. 6.

Let the point A, the angle B A C, and the rcdlangle
under its fides B A, A C, be given ; if the direction B D
"be given, then will the locus of C be a given circle.

yinalyjis. — From A let fall the perpendicular A D upon
B D ; draw A E, to contain with A D an angle equal to
the given angle, and a reftangle equal to the given fpace,
and join C E.

Since A D is evidently given in pofition and magnittide,
A E is likeuife given in pofition and magnitude ; and the
rectangle A D x A E being equal to A B x A C, there-
fore A D : A B :: A C : A E ; but the angle D A E is
equal to BAC, and hence D A B is equal to E A C.
Wlierefore the triangles A B D, A E C, having each an

equal angle, and the fides containing it proportional, are
fimilar ; and confequently the angle A C E is equal to the
right angle A D B. Whence the locus C is a circle, having
A E for its diameter.

Compojition. — Having let fall the perpendicular. A D,
draw A E, making the angle DAE equal to the given
r.ngle, and the reftan^les D A, A E, equal to the given
fpace. On A E as a diameter defcribe a circle ; this is the
locus required. For join C E, and the triangles DAE,
E A C, being right-angled at D and C, and haviijg the
vertical angles at A equal, are evidently fimilar ; and confe-
quently AD : AB :: AC: AE; and hence the rec-
tangle xAB X AC=::ADxAE, that is, it is equal to
the given fp3ce.

The foregoing propofition we have drawn with little va-
riation from the chapter on loci given by proit-fiiir Lefiie
in his Gi-ometry, and feveral of the following propofitions
are hkewife derived from the fame fource.

7. If a ilraight line drawn from a given point to a (Iraight
line given in pofition, contain a given redtangle, the locus
of Its point of feiHion will be a given circle.

8. If two Itraight lines in a given ratio, and containing a
given angle, terminate in two diverging lines, wliich are
given in pofition, the locus of their vertex will likewife be
a right line given in pofition.

9. If from two points there be drawn two {Iraight lines,
of whofe fquares the difference is given, the locus of their
point of concourfe will be a right line given in pofition :
or, which is the fame, if the bafe of a triangle, and the
difference of the fquares of the two fides be given, the
vertex of the triangle will fall in a right line given in
pofition.

10. "If the bafe and vertical an^le of a triangle be given,
the locus of its vertex will be the circumference of a given
circle.

11. If the difference of the fides, and the radius of the
infcribed circle of a triangle be given, the locus of its ver-
tex is a right line given in pofition.

12. If two given unequal perpendiculars be drawn to a
right line given in pofition, and their oppofite extremities
be joined, the locus of the point of interfettion will be a
right hnc given in polition.

13. If in any triangle the bafe be given, and tiie fnm of
the fquares of the other two fides, the locus of the vertex is
a given circumference.

14. If from given points there be drawn (Iraight lines,
whole fquares are together equal to a given fpace, their
point of concourfe will terminate in the circumlcrence of a
given circle.

i^. If right lines be drawn from a given point to cut a
given circle, and from the points of intcrfeflion there be
taken, upon thefe lines, on either fide, lines in a conftant
given ratio to tlie diftance between the refpeftive points of
interfeftion and the given point ; the locus of the points, fo
determined, will be a circle.

16. If two circles cut each other, and through cither
point of interfeflion a right line be drawn, cutting both
the circles, then, if a right line be always taken thereon
from one of thofe points in a given ratio to the part inter-
cepted between the circles, the locus of the points fo deter-
mined will be a circle.

17. If the circles cut each other as above, and a right
line be drawn through either interfeclion, cutting both the
circles, then if a right line be always taken thereon from
one of thofe points in a given ratio to the part between the
other point and interfe£tion, the locus of the point fo deter-
mined will be a circle.

18. If

LOCUS.

18. If triangles be infcribed in a given fegment of a
circle, and from the vertex on either fide (produced if ne-
celTary) there be taken, either way, a right line always in
a conflant ratio to either of the fides, or to their fum, or
difference, the loci of the points fo defcribed will be
circles.

The above contain many of the moft fimple cafes of
geometrical loci ; and we will now (hew the application of
them to the conilru£lion of certain geometrical problems.

Of the Conflruaion of geometrltal Prablimt.

Pkob. I.

Having given the bafe, perpendicular, and vertical angle
of a plane triangle ; it is required to conftruft it. Fig. 7.

Analjfu — Suppofe the thinj; done, and let ABC repre-
fent the propofed triangle, of which the bafe A B, tlie per-
pendicular C D, and vertical angle A C B, are given ;
then it is obvious, in the iirft place, that the locus of the
vertex will be the right line C F, drawn parallel to A B,
at the given perpendicular diftance. Alfo, fince the angle
A C B is given, the locus of the vertex will be in the circum-
ference of the circle A C B, defcribed upon A B, capable
of containing the given angle A C B ; and confequentiy, at
either point where the line and circle interfedl each other,
■will be the vertex of the triangle required.

ConflruB'wn. — On the given bafe A B defcribe a circle
that (hall contain the given vertical angle. And parallel to
A B, and at a didance equal to the given perpendicular,
draw the nght line F C E ; join A C, C B, fo is A C B
the triangle required. For, the point C being in the feg-
ment A C B, the angle A C B is equal to the given ver-
tical angle ; and being alfo in the line F C E, the perpen-
dicular C D is equal to the given perpendicular, and the
bafe A B is equal to the given bafe.

If the right line cut the circle in one point, it will alfo
cut it in two points, and therefore in this cafe there are two
triangles which anfwer the conditions ef the problem ; but
if it touches the circle only, then there is but one fuch
triangle ; and if the line F C E falls above the circle, then
the problem is impoffible.

Prob. II.

Having given the perimeter of a right-angled triangle*
and the perpendicular let fall from the right angle to the
oppofile fide, to conftruA it. Fig. 8.

Anahfis. — Suppofe the thing done, and let A C B be the
propofed triangle ; produce the line .'^ B both ways to D
and E, making A D = A C, and C B = B E ; then will
D E reprefent the perimeter which is given by the quef-
tion ; join D E and C E. Then becaufe D A = A C,
the angle A D C = D C A ; but the angle C A B is equal
to the two angles ADC and D C A, or it is equal to
double the angle DC A: in the fame manner it may b<^ (hewn
that the angle A B C is equal to double the angle B C E ;
but the angles C A B and ABC are together equal to
a right angle, and confequentiy, fince thefe are double of
the angles D C A and B C E, it follows, that the fum of
the latter two angles is given, being equal to half a right
angle ; and therefore alfo the whole angle D C E is given,
being equal to a right angle and half a right angle ; there-
fore the locus of the point C is in the circumference of a
given circle. And fince the perpendicu'ar C G is alfo
given, the locus of the point C is the right line C F, pa-
rallel to the bafe A B, whence the point C is determined,
being found in the interfeAien of the right line C F and
the given fegment D C E.

Vol. XXI.

ConJlruSioH.-— On the right line D E, equal to the given
perimeter, defcribe a fegment capable of containing an angle
equal to a right angle and iialf a right angle ; and parallel
to D E, and at the given perpendicular dillance, draw the
right line F C cutting the fegment in C and C : join D C,
C E ; and from C draw alfo C A, A B, making the
angles DC A and BC E refpedtively eqial to the angles
C D A and C E B, fo (hall A C B be the triangle re-
quired.

For fince the angle D CA is equal to the angle D A C,
the fide D A is equal to A C, and for the (air.e re^foa
the fide C B is equal to B E, and therefore the three
fides of the triangle ABC are equal to the whole D E,
or to the given perimeter ; alfo, fince the angle D C E is
equal to a right angle and half a right angle, the angles
C D A and C E B are together equal to half a right angle ;
but the angle C A B is double the angle C D A, and the
angle C B A is double the angle C E B, and confequentiy
thefe two together are equal to a right angle ; therefore
the third angle of the triangle A C B is a right angle.
Hence, fince the pei-pendicular C G is equal to the given
perpendicular, by conilruftion, and the fum of the thre«
fides A B, AC, B C, equal to the given perimeter, and
the angle AC B equal to the given angle, it follow* that
the triangle A B C is that which was to be conilrufted.

This conftruftion ferves equally for any other triangle,
provided the vertical angle be given : and the limits of
poffibility are the fame as in the preceding problem.

We will add one other example from Dr. Pembertoii's
paper on this fubjeiS, printed in vol. liii. of the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, and will then proceed to the conlideration of
loci of the higher orders.

Prob. III.

Let it be propofed to draw a triangle given in fpecies, fo
that two of its angles may touch a right line given in po-
fition, and the third angle a given point.

This problem, which would be extremely difficult to folTC
algebraically, admits of more than one very concife geo-
metrical folution ; and as they will occupy but little fpace,
it is prefumed they will not be unacceptable to the reader
of this article.

In the firll place, fuppofe a circle (fg. g.) to paf»
through the three points A, E, D, which Ihall interfeft A C
in G. Then E G, D G, being joined, the angle D EG
will be equal to the given angle D A C, both infilling on
the fame arc D G : alfo the angle E D G is the cornple-
ment to the two right ones of the given angle B A C :
thefe angles therefore are given, and the whole figure '
E F G D given in fpecies. Confequentiy the angle E G F,
and its equal A D E will be given, together with the fide
D E of the triangle in pofition.

Again, fuppofe a circle (fg. lO. ) to pafs through the
three points A, E, F, cutting A D in H, and E H,
F H joined. Here the angle E F H will be equal to the
given angle E A H ; and the angle F E H equal to the
given angle F A H. Therefore the whole figure E H F" D
15 given in fpecies ; and confequentiy the angle A D E at
before.

Laftly, fuppofe a circle (fg. 11.) to circumfcribe the
triangle, and interfeft one of the lines, as A C in I. Then
D I being drawn, the angle D I F will be equal to the given
angle D E F in the triangle; confequentiy D I is inclined
to A C in a given angle, and is given in pofition, as alfo
the point I given ; whence I E being drawn, the angle
FIE will be the complement of the angle E D F in the
triangle to two right *bc9. Therefore I E is given in po-

I i Ution,

LOCUS.

fuion, and by its intorfcflion with the line A B, gives the
point E, with the pofition of D E, and thence the whole
triangle as before. Here it may be obferved, that the
anjjle D of the triangle E D F, given in fpecies touching
a given point D, and another of its angles touching A C,
the line A E here found is the locus of the third angle E.

Of the h'l^hir Order of Lcc't.

Loci are very co:nmodi<)u(ly divided into orders, accord-
ing to the dimeiifions to which the variable quantity rife<>
in the formula which exprelTcs the equation of the curve.

Thus it will be a locus of the f.rfl order, if the equation
he X ^ a y ; a locus of thefuond or quadrate order, it ^' =
ax, ot y =^ a — x'. Sec. ; a locus of the third or cubic
order, it jr' = a x, or y =^ a x' — x , &c.

The better to conceive the nature pf the locus, fuppofe
two unknown and variable right lines A P, P M {f^s. 1 2 and
1 ^ .) makin^j any given angle A P M witli cacii otiier ; the one
whereof, as A P, we call x, having a fixed origin in the point
A, and extending itfelf indefinitely along a right line given in
pofition; the other P M, which we call j, continually
changing its pofnion, but always parallel to jtfi-lf; and
moreover an equation only containing thele two unknown
quantities x and \, mixed with known ones, which exprefTes
the relation of every variable quantity A P (x) to its cor-
refpondent variable quantity P M (y) : the line pafiing
through the extremities of all the \-alues of y, i. e. through
all the points M, is called a geometrical locus, in general,
and the locus of that equation in particular.

All equations whofe loci are of the fijl order, may be
reduced to fume one of the four following formulas :

I . y =

.y :^ —-r e

3 -y = (

a

4 ■ y

■ ', where the unknown quantity j is fuppofod always to

a

be freed from fniftions, and tlie fracl-ion that multiplies the
other unknown quantity x to be reduced to this expreffion

— , and all the known terms to this c.

a

The locus of the firft formula being already determined- ;
fince it is evident, that it is a right line whichcuts the axis in
A, and wh'ch makes with it an angle, fuch that the two un-
known quantities x,y, may be always to one another in the
proportion of a to b ; to find that of tlie fecond, y =

— -\- c. In the line A P (jfj. f4.) take A B = <?, and
a

draw B E = i, A D = #, parallel to P M. On the fame
fide A P, draw the hue A E of an indefinite length towards
E, and the indefinite flraight line D M para'lel to A E. 1
fay the line D M is the locus of the aforefaid equation or
formula t for if the line M P be drawn from any point M
thereof parallel to Q A, the triangles A B E, A P F, will
be fimilar; and therefore A B (<:) : B E (^) : : A P (.v)

: PF = — ; and coinequently P M Cy) =.P F (— }

+ F M (<i).

b:

fide A P, and the other on the other fide ; and through the
points A, E, draw the right line A E of an indefinite lenglls
tovvards E, and throngh the point D the llnel') M parallel
to A E : I fay, the indefinite right line (r M ftiull be the
locus fought ; for we fliall have always PM (_v) = P F

(7)-^

FM

hx

Laflly, to find the locus of the fourth formula, ^ = c —
; ill A P ifg. 16.) take A B = a, and draw B E = ^,

AT> ~ e, parallel to P M, the one on one fide A P, and
the o'heron the other fide ; and through the points A, E,
draw the line A E indefinitely tovvards E, and through the
point 1) draw the line 1) M parallel to A E. I fay D G
fiiall be tlie locus fought ; for if the line M P be drawn from
any point M thereof, parallel to A Q, then we fliaU have

akays P M {y) = F M {e) - V Y (-~)-

Hence it appears, that all the loci of tha firfl degree ara
ftraigh: lines ; which may be cafily found, becaufe all their
equations may be reduced to foine one of the foregoinjj
formulae.

All loci of the fecond degree are conic feftions, 'Ciz.
either the parabola, the circle, ellipfis, or hyperbola ; if art
equation therefore be given, whofe locus is of the fecond
degree, and it be required to draw the conic fe£\ion, which
is its locus, firft draw a parabola, ellipfis, and hyper-
bola; fo that the equations exprcffing the n.ittires there-
of may be as compound as polTible ; in order to get gc»
ncral equations, or formulx, by examining the peculiar pro-
perties whereof we may know which of tliefe formula; the
given equation ought to have regard t-o ; that is, which of
the conic fedHons will' be the locus of the propofed equation.
This known, compare all the terms of the pr<>i)ofed equation
with the terms of the genoral formula of that conic leClion,
which YOU have found wiltlx' the locus of the given equation ;
by which means you will know how to draw the fedion-,
which is the locus of the aquation. given.

For example :. let A P (.v), P M (_)■)» be unknown,. and
variable (Iraight lines (f.g. 17. ), and let m, >i, p, r, s, lie
given right hnes : in the line A P take A B = ni, and draw
BE— N, AD. = r, parallel to PM; and through the
point A draw A E — f, and through the point 1) the inde-
finite right line D G parallel to A E. Ih D G take
D C = J, and with C G. as a diameter, having its ordinates
parallel to P M, and the line C H = f>, as the parameter,
defcribe a parabola C M, and it will be the locus of the fol-
lowing general formula :.

I

xy +

Zry + M + r z= o.

X. + pj.

For irfrom any point M there he drawn the right line M P,
making any angle A P M with A P'; the triangles A B E,
A P I, fiiall be fimilar ; therefore A B (m) : A E (f ; : :

^ , , , , r ,. u- J r '^ ■■'■ , A P (.0 : A F, or D G = — ; and A B (;,<) : B E (n)

To find the lociK of the third form, ;( = <-, proceed ■" ■ ' ' „, ^ ^'

thus. AffumQ A B = a (fg. 15.) and draw the right
Unes B E = £» A D = <) gariUlel to P M, tke one on orx

: : A P (.r) : P F = — . And confequently, G M or P M

-PF

LOCUS.

-PF-FG = y- •-:-r,andCGorDG-DC =
m

■ s. But from the nature of the parabola G M' =

m

C G X C H ; which equation will become that of the
general formuln, by putting the literal values of thofe
lines.

Again : if through the fixed point A you draw the inde-
finite ripht line A Q {Jg. 1 8.) paralL-1 to P M, and
take A B = m, and draw B E r^ n, parallel to A P, and
through the determinate points A E, the line AE =f;
and if in A P you take A D = r, and draw the indefinite
ftraight Jine D G parallel to A E, and take D C = ^ ; this
being done, if with the diameter C G, whofe ordinates are
parallel to A P, and parameter the line C H =/i, you de-
fcribe a parabola C M ; this parabola ihall be the locus of
this fecond equation, or formula :

- ~ J- K + — ,- y
m m

, 2 n r ,

— 2 r X -{ y + r = O.

m

^-fy +ps.
m

For if the line ?•! Q be drawn from any point M, there-
in, parallel to A P ; .then will A B (m) : A E (f) : : A Q

or P M fy) : A F or D G = -^ . And A B (m) : B E

00 : : A Q (^) : Q F ii:: -■^. And therefore G M or Q M

-QF-FG=.v-^-r; and C G or D G -
m

D C =

12

m

I. And fo by the common property of

the parabola, you will have the foregoing fecond equation,
or formula. So likewife may be found general equations,
Or formula," to the other conic fections.

Now if it be required to draw the parabola, which we
find to be the locus of this propofed equation y — lay

— b X -T c' ^^ o \ compare every term of the tirft formu-
la with the terms of the equation, becaufe y' in both is

"without fractions ; and then will — = o, becaufe the reft-

m

iangle x y not being in the propofed equation, the faid reft-
angle may be efteemed as multiplied by o ; whence o = o,
and m = ? ; becaufe the line A E falling in A B, that is, in
A P in the conftruction of the formula, the points Bj E, do
coincide. Therefore, deftroying all the terms adfefted with

— in the formula, and fubilitutiiig m for e, we Ihall get

y' — zr y — p X ^ r- -ir p 1 - c.

Again, by comparing the correfpondent terms — 2 r y,
and — 2 a y, as alfo — p x, and — b x, we have r ^= a,
aiid^ = .b ; and comparing the terms wherein are neither of
die unknown quantities x, y, we ^et r^ + p s := t' ;

and fubllituting a and i for j- and p, then will s = — ~r~~-»

which is a negative expreffion, when a is greater than c, as
\s here fuppofed. There is no need of comparing the firll
terms y- and y', becaufe they are the very fame. Now the .
»<Jues of CT, n, r, p, s, being ihus founds the fought locus

may be conftruftcd by means of the coudruclion of th& for.
mula, and after the following manner.

Becaufe B E («) = o (_fi^. 19.) the points B, E, do coin-
cide, and the hne A E falls in A P ; therefore through the
fixed point A draw the line AD r z= a parallel to P M, and
draw D G parallel to A P, in which take D C (/) =

1 ; then with DC, as a diameter, whofe ordinates

are right lines parallel to P M, and parameter the line C H
(/>) = b, defcribe a parabola : I fay, this will be the locus
of the given equation, as is eafily proved. If in a gi>-'cu
equation, whofe locus is a parabola, .v^ be without a frac-
tion ; then the terms of the fecond formula mull be com-
pared with thofe of the given equation.

Thus much for the metiiod of condrufting the loci of
equations which are conic fedlions. If, now, an equation,
whofe locus is a conic fec^ion, be given, and the particular
fedion whereof it is the Iccus, be required :

All the terms of the given equation being brought over to
one fide, fo that the other be equal to o, there will be two
cafes.

Caji I . When the retlangle x y is not in the given equa-
tion. I. If either y'' or x" be in the fame equation, the
locus will be a parabola. 2. If both x' and y' are in the
equation with the fame figns, the locus will bean ellipiis, or
a circle. 3. If .r" and y'^ have different figns, the locus
will be an hyperbola, or the oppofite feftiuns regarding their
diameters.

Ca/e 2. When the reftangle j; ji is in the given equation.
I. If neither of the fquares x' or y', or only one of them,
be in the fame, the locus of it will be an hyperbola between
the afymptotcs. 2. U y' and .v' be therein, having differ-
ent figns, the locus will be an hyperbola, regarding its dia-
meters. 3. If both the fquares x' and y' are in the equa-
tion, having the fame figns, then, according as the co-effi-
cient of x^ is greater, equal or lefs than the fquare of half
the co-efficient of x y, the locus fhall be an ellipfe, parabola,
or hyperbola. And in any cafe the locus of the equation h
fome conic feclion.

We will add a problem or two, by way of illuftratian,
with which we mull conclude this article.

Problem I.

If A B be the axis of a conic feftion, from B draw B D t«
meet the curve in D ; and ereft D C perpendicular to A B,
and produce it from C till C P is in a given ratio to B D ;
the locus of the point P will be a conic feftion.

I. For the ellipfe {Jig. 20.) ; put the axis A B = a, and
its conjugate Q O E ^ i, B C ^ .v, and tiie ratio B D
I C P ; : d : a. Then by the known property of the
ellipfe.

CD-

^=(---

confequently, B D* =

a'

a- - b'

^ — ■ jr', and, therefore,

a

b^ax + {a^ - b^) x' a^ -

+ x' =

+

C P^

E D' =

• ( '~_ i: " ~ *' )> wliich.

I

if a be great-r than b, is an equation to tlie hyperbola, the
and

axes of which are -„—

b' "■'" d ^ (a' - 6')'
And if b be greater than a, the equation beciames
I 1 2

-cr

LOG

LOG

a') X* __

which is an equation to the ellipfe whofe axes are
b'a , ^

and —. -yr-

6- - a" tJ V Ci'

"1

Again, if l> = a, the eU'pfe becoires a circle, and the

equation for the value of C P becomes C P' = —jr>

which is an equation to the parabola, whofe parameter is
Pa

I. For the hyperbola (^ff. 21.)' ^^'^ ^^^^ notation re-
maining, D C = - a X + - ;r'' by the property of tlie

curve J confequently C P' = -7^ X B D' =

7- " •* + —d

b

d^ la- + i + " J

irhich expreffes an equation to an hyperbola, whofe axes are

r 3na — 7—. — ; — jr •

•'- + i' d ^/ [a' + * )

3. For the parabola [Jig. 12.) ; put the parameter = p, then

C D' = px, and B D' =/«• + x"; therefore C P' = --

{p X + H^) the equation to an hyperbola whofe axes are p

and —J.
a

PROB. II.

If on any given right line, A B, there be taken any va-
riable diftance A L, and from L, in the fame direftion, any
given invariable diftance L M ; and if with the centres L and
B, and radii L A, BM, arcs be defcribed, it is required to
determine the nature of the curve, which is the locus of P, the
point of interfeftion.

Let A B = a (/^. 23) ; L M = i ; B M = B P = (p,
and having drawn P O perpendicular to A B, put B O ^= *.
Then BL = « + i;LO = ?i+«-*; LP=:AL
-a-i-0i and becaufe L P^- L O' r;: B P' - B O',
we have in fymbols (a — i — ip)" — (tp + b — x)' =
^' — X ; whence a' — 2 {a — x) b = 9' + 2 (a — x) $ ;
and adding — b' + b' + [a — x)' to one fide, and its
equal (a — *)' to the other fide, there refults a^ — A* 4-
(a -b- x)'- = (a ~x + q>y.

Now take A C := L. M =: 3, draw C D perpendicular
to A B, and make A D = A B = a ; then C D" =:; ar
- b'-; C 0'= (a- b - xy,znd (O A + B P)^ =: (a-
M 4- ?)' whence we have DO=AO+PB;orPB=:
DO-AO.

Hence it will be eafy to derive aR algebraical equation for
the rectangular co-ordinates of the curve ; for we have only
to put P O — _y, to fubititute ^/ (jr* + y ) for J>, and to
clear the equation of radicals. The equation thus found
■will {hew the curve to be of the fourth order ; but the

curve and its principal properties may be more readily de-
duced from the property above invcftigati d ; w'l. P B =
D O — A O. The curve will confift of two equal and fimi-
lar parts, lying on different fides of A B, it will be a fort
of oval, encloling the point B on every fide.

The following are fome of the fimpleft cafes of the higher
order of loci.

1. The bafe, and fum of the fides of a plane triangle
being given, the locus of its vertex is an cllipf!.

2. The bafe and difference of the fides of a plane trian-
gle being given, the locus is an hyperbola.

3. The locus of that point, from which, if perpendicu-
lars be drawn to tliree right lines given in pofition, and fuch
that the fum of their fquaies fliall be equal to a given fpace,
is an ellipfe.

And the fame is true, whatever be the number of lines
given in pofition.

4. If a triangle given in fpecies have two of its angles
upon a ilraight line given by pofition, and the fide adjacent
to thofe angles pafling through a given point, the locus of
the angle, oppofite that fide, is an hyperbola.

5. Let A, B, be two given points in the right line A B,
given in pofition; let C, D, be two given points with-
out that line ; and alfo let C V, D V, be drawn meeting
in F and G, fo that the redangle A F x B G is given,
the locus of the point will in all cafes be a conic feSion.

6. Let A B be a given ftraight line, and P a given point
without it ; let C P D be drawn, meetiugJA B in C ; and
let C P be to P D as A C to C B ; the locus of the point
D is a given hyperbola.

7. When the bafe of a triangle is given, and one of the
angles at the bafe doubles the other, the locus of the vertex
is an hyperbola.

8. The locus of the angles of parallelograms, formed by
drawing tangents at the vertices of any two conjugate dii-
meters of an ellipfe, is alfo an ellipfe cocentric ncilh the

former.

The above cafes, and feveral other curious properties of
this kind, the reader will find inveftigated in Leybomrn's
" Mathematical Repofitory."

The method of conflrufting geometrical loci, by reducing
them to equations a« compound as poffible, we owe to Mr.
Craig, who iirll pubhibed it in his Treatife of the Quadra-
ture of Curves, 1693. It is explained at large in the fe-
venth and eighth books, of the Conic Keftions of the marquis
de I'Hofpital. This fubjed is particularly illuftrated in
Maclaurin's Algebra, part lii. See alfo Des Cartcs's Geo-
metry ; Stirling's lUuflratio Linearum Tertii Ordinis ; De
Witt's Elementa Curvarum : Bartholomxus Juhari, in
his Aditus ad nova Arcana Geometrica delegenda, has
fhewn how to find the loci of equations of the higher order.
See alfo the other writers mentioned in the preceding part of
this article.

LOCUST, LocusTA, in Entomology, a genus of infedSy
referred to that oi gryllus ; which fee.

Under that article the reader will find a particular account
of the devaftations occafioned by fwarms of locufts in their
marches, and he will perceive the propriety of the frequent
allufions to them that occur in the facred writings. Dr,
Shaw, Niebuhr, Ruffell, and many other travellers into the
eaftern countries, reprefent their tafte as agreeable, and in-
form us that they are frequent ly uied for food. Dr. Shaw
obferves, that when they are fprinkied with fait and fried,
they are not unlike, in tafte, to our frefh-water cray-fifh.
Ruflell fays, that the Arabs fait them, and eat them as a
delicacy. We learn alfo from Niebuhr, that they are ga-
thered by the Arabs in great abuudaace, dried, acd kept

for

L O D

for winter provifion. Hence we may naturally fuppofe,
that thefe lociifts were the food of John the Baptift.

Locust, Water, Locujla Aquatica-, the name given by
authors to a fpecies of water-infeft, fomewhat refembling
the locuft kind in (hape. It is about three inches long, its
tail an inch and quarter, and its legs are of different lengths,
the anterior part being the fhorteft of all ; its body is llen-
der, and its fore-legs are always cairied ftraight forward, fo
as to reach beyond the head in the form of antennx ; thefe,
as well as the other legs, end each in two claws ; the eyes
are fmall, and not very prominent, and the upper wings are
crullaceous ; the under ones membranaceous, thin, and
trnnfparent ; the middle joint of the leg is fuch, that the
creature can only move them upwards, not downwards, and
there runs an acute tongue or probofcis under the belly, as
is the cafe in the water-fcorpion and notoneiSa. See Nepa
Linearis.

Locust, in Botany. See Cehatonia Siliqua. See alfo
GtEDiTsrA and Hymkn^a.

LOCUSTA. See Valeriana.

Loci;.sTA-/'u/f.v, a name given by Swammerdam to a
genus of infedts, defcribed fince by Mr. Ray under the name
cicadula.

LOCUSTS is ufed by botanifts for the tender ex-
tremities of the branches of trees ; fuch as, according to the
erroneous fuppoQtion of feme, John the Baptill fed on in
the wildernefs.

Some alfo ufed locuftae for the beards and pendulous feeds
of oats, and of the gramina paniculata ; to which the name
is given on account of their figure, which fomething re-
fembles that of a locuft.

L0CU.3TELLA, the Grafs-hopper Lari, in Ornitho-
IoxVj the name of a fmall bird of tbe lark kind, the Alauda
Trii'ialis of Linn£Eus ; which fee.

LOCUTIUS, in Mythology, the god of fpeech among
the Romans, called by Livy Aius Locutius ; which fee.

LOCUTORIUM. The monks and other rehgious in
monafteries, after they had dmed in their common hall, had
a withdrawing room, where they met and talked together
among themfclves, which room, for that fociable ufe and
converfation, they called locutorium, a loquendo ; as we call
fuch a place in our houfes parlour, from the Yrench pjrier ;
and they had another room, which was called locutorium forin-
fecum, where they might talk with laymen.

LODARL-\, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in
Bahar ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Hajypour.

LODDIGESL^, in Botany, is juftly devoted by Dr.
Sims in Curtis's Magazine, to commemorate the merits of
a moft excellent and fcientific cultivator of plants, whofe
liberality is equal to his knowledge, Mr. Conrad Loddiges
of Hackne)'. Curt. Mag. v. 24 965. Clafs and order,
Diade/phia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionaciit, Linn. Le-
guminofa, JufT.

Eff. Ch. Standard many times fmal'er than the wings or
keel. Filaments all in one fet, with a dorfal filTure. Le-
gume ftalked, turgid.

I. 1^. oxalidifolla. Oxalis-leaved Loddigefia Curt. Mag.
t. 965 • — The only known fpecies, a native cf the Cape of
Good Hope, from whence its feeds were fir'l received by
George Hibbert, efq. The plant is tolerably hardy in the
confervatory, readily propas'ated by cuttings, and flowers
freely in May and Ju;ie. Mr. Loddiges himfelf hi's alfo
railed it, many years ago, from Cape feeds. The ^em is
ftirabby, low, much branched. Leaves fcattered, ftibced,
ternate, inverfely heart-lhaped, ra'her glaucous, fmootli,
tipped with a minute point. Slipulas intrafohaceous, fmall,
frtaceous, deciduous. Clujlert terrainai, fomewhat . umbel-

L O D

late, cf few flowers. BraSeas fmall, {lender, almoft capil-
lary. Calyx nearly bell-fhaped, obtufe at the bafe, coloured,
fmooth, its three lower teeth rather the longelh Standard
white, not twice the length of the calyx. H'ingt and keel
about thrice as long as the Itandard, white, the fore part of
the keel violet. Style bent upward at a right angle. Stigma
fimple. Legume itnlked, ovate, oblique, pointed, turgid,
fmooth. Seeds about four, kidney-fhaped.

LODDON, in Geography, a fmall market-town in the
hundred to which it gives name, in the county of Norfolk,
England, is fituated iii miles from London, on the banks
of a fmall ftream, which, rifing- near Howe in Clavering,
falls into the Yare at Hardley Crofs. The church, which
is a handfome ftone ftrufture, with a fine tower, was eredled
near the end of the fifteenth century, at the fole expence of
fir James Hobart, the attorney-general to king Henry VH.,
and afterwards chief juftice of the common pleas, who was
a great benefattor to this town and its vicinity. In the
church are feveral memorials of the Hobart family. • In
the eaft window was a piece of ftained glals, now removed,
reprefcnting fir James and his lady, with a Hcetch of the
church, and an appropriate infcription. Loddon was re-
turned, in the year 1800, as containing 166 houfes and 799
inhabitants. A market is held on Fridays, and two fairs
annually. Blomfield's Hillory, &c. of Norfolk, 11 vols.
8vo.

LODE, a town of the idand of Sardinia ; So miles N.
of Cagli.iri.

Lode, in Inland Navigation, fignifies a cut or reach of
water.

Lode, in Mining. This word is derived from the Anglo-
Saxon, according to Dr. Pryce, and is ufed by the Cornilh
miners to defignate any regular vein, whether metallic or
not. More commonly, however, it means a metallic vein.

The lodes that are found to contain tin and copper ores,
in Cornwall and Devon, have their general direction in a line
running nearly eaft and weft ; their dip or underlay being
more commonly to the north ; though fome which ii:cHne to
the fouth have been very produAive. Veins which interfeft
the eaft and weft lodes are called crofs-lodes, or crofs-courfesy
when their direftion is nearly at right angles with the others ;
and counters, more generally, when their direction is cblique.

The metalhc eaft and weft lodes are traverfed or dillurbed
by the crofs-courfes, and thefe interruptions are known by
the name of heaves, which take place to very different de-
grees of extent, and vary much in the circumftances under
which they are found ; fo that miners do not agree upon any
certain rules for determining the diftance or direftion of the
heave by the accompanying appearances.

Though copper and tin are found but p.irtially in crofs-
lodes, yet lead has been raifcd in large quantities from fome
that have nearly a due north and fouth courle ; luch as the
Beeralrtone lead-mines and Wheal Betfr lead-raine in Devon.
Eaft and weft lodes have fometimes a mixture of lead ores
with copper ; but this appears to be deri%'ed from th° inter-
feCtion of a crofs-courfe, or the effeft of a later depoCt.
Lodes traverfe all kinds of rock found in the In e of their
direftion, whether vertically or horizontally. Thofe worked
in Cornwall and Devon are chiefly in killas or grauwacke
flate ; but they are fometimes in granite, and pais not un-
frequentlv from the former into the latter.

The width of veins varies from an inch or two to fifteen
or twenty feet ) the latter dime nfion being rare, as tbe
former is unprotitable to follow, unlets in the expeclation of
an enlar£;enient. The more common width, or, as the
miners call it. thejize cf lodes, is from two to four feet ; and
if fuch a vein as ihi» be fully impregnated with ir.etal, it »

■"rert-

LODE.

vfry profitable to work, and is called a fjood emrfe of ore.
Tlic variations of width take place not only in dillinft veins,
but in one and the fame ; wliich, together with the fluctua-
tions in the nat\ire of their contents, render their produce fo
uncertain. A large and produclive lode often dwindles to
a mere branch, requiring an experienced eye to dillinguifh it
from the rock tiirough which it pafies ; and this again ex-
pands to a confiderable ii/.e, filled with depofits of various
kinds. The width of lodes fecms often to have a relation
to the nature of the rock in which they are found ; and
changes in the latter appear generally to produce changes in
the former. Thus, a vein that is large and produftive in
foft blue kiihis, will, by pafling into harder, become lefs in
fize, and barren as to metallic contents. Aiiothcr lode may
be rich in hard ground, but poor and unprodudlive in that
which is of a fofter kind : but this is not fo frequent as the
ibrmer cafe. The depofits of metal are as iiregular in the
lodes as tlie widths of them ; and fo much fo, as to render
the proilts of mining proverbially uncertain. Ore is gene-
rally found to occupy certain parts of the veins only, dif-
fering conftantly in extent, whether the length or depth on
the cocrfe of the vein be coi^fidered, or the portion of its
width which is filled up by it. No lode has been found re-
gularly impregnated with metal to any great extent ; and
therefore, when ore is found, it is in what the miners aptly
call bunches or Jhoots. The uiiproduillive parts of veins,
€ven in the mull profitable mines, generally far exceed in
extent the produdive parts ; but that mine is confidered to
he rich, which has either frequent or extenfive Ihonts of ore :
the great art of the miner, therefore, confills in tracing
and working the valuable accumulations of the metals with
as little wafle of labour and expence on the poorer ground
as pcflible.

Although the bunches of ore have no regular form in their
vertical or horizontal extent, yet the tendency to a certain
direction or dip in the lode may be obferved in each bunch
or flioot of ore. Thefe llioots are frequently parallel in the
fame vein ; and where the dip or underlay of the lode is to
the north, the fhoots of ore may frequently be obferved to
dip well in the lode. In veins underlaying fouth, the
bunches of ore frequently have their dip to the eaft : but
this is not to be taken as a general rule, as many mines af-
ford exceptions to it ; tlie underlay of the lode and the dip
.of the bunches of ore being reverftd.

Tliefe tendencies or inclinations of the depofits of metal
in the veins, connected with the fitnations, dips, and bearings
.of the veins theinfelves, feein to offer grounds for argument
en the difputed quellion of the mode it) which the metals
were dcpohtcd ; but they have not much, we believe, at-
tracted the notice ot niineraiogifts.

Lodes continue to indefinite lengths, and to unknown
depths. It is very difficult to determine whether the end of
any regular vein has been found or not ; as there are many
inllances of their having become fo fmall as to be fcarcely
vifible, and yet afterwards, on purfuir.g them, to have rc-
funied their ufual fize. When a lode has continued fmall,
. either in length or .dtplh, to any confiderable extent, it is
moreover ufually abandoned as unpromifing ; and thus com-
,plete evidence as to this queltion is net obtained.

Lodes are perfect in the f'.irface of the mountains, as well
as in tlieir greater depths ; and may be traced uniformly by
removing the foil v.ith wliich the rock is covered. This is
done conllantly bv the miner when he is about to undertake
operations upon a newly difcovered vein. Th.s procefs is
called cojlemin^, or Jhod.T,g. The width of a lode at the
furface is noceitain indication of its fize in depth: as, when
large at the .furfacc, they are fomelimes ftiuad to become

fmall ae they arc purfued downwards ; and, on the other
hand, veins of moderate width a! graft have been found, at
40 or 50 fathoms deep, of gr*at fize.

The dip or inchnation of lodes is feldom uniform. The
common underlay is from one to four feet in a fatliom of
depth ; but inllances occur of a much greater inclination.
The lodes that incline much from the perpendicular are not
elleemed fo promifing as tiiofe which have a direction more
downright ; and it is a favourable fymptom wlicn a lode,
from an oblique direction, is found to turn downwards. On
the contrary, where bunches of ore fall, or become poor, in
finking on them, it may often be obferved that the vein goes
away flat, as miners exprefs it. Thus it will be underllood,
that not only are the dips different in. feparate lodes, but
that the fame vein frequently varies in this refpc£t. Lodes
have been obferved to change their underlay, tliat is, from
dipping to the north, to become perpendicular, and even
turn to the fouth. This is not, however, a matter of fre-
quent occurrence.

The underlay of lodes muft be afccitaincd, when it is in-
tended to fink perpendicular fliafts to meet them at certain
required depths ; and from this is determined the diltance to
be fet out north or fouth from the back of the vein, for com-
mencing fuch fliafts.

Shafts are of/^n funk upon the lodes, and of courfe thefe
are not perpendicular, but have ,the fame inclination as the
veins.

Levels driven from the fliafts, are carried on in the fub-
ftance of the lode, follow its dircflion, and are the prin-
cipal means by which difcoveries of ore are made and pur-
fued.

The principal methods by which lodes are difcovered are
the two following: i. By removing the foil covering the
furface of die rock, by which the back of the vein is laid
bare, and expofcd to view. This may happen accidentally,
in the formation of roads, ditches, and fo on ; or, as is more
ufual, it may be done for the exprefs purpofe of difcovery,
in confequcnce of indications of veins being near at hand,
fuch as detached fragments being found, or fprings of water
impregnated with metal being obferved. This procefs is
condudted by finking trenches, or pits, deep enough to
reach the furface of the rock, called by miners the fhelf;
which trenches are CdiWeA Jhodlng pits, or cnjieening pits. I'lie
detached fragments, warned from the backs of lodes, are
ufually c-sWtA Jhcdes, or fhodeflcnts.

The fecond mode 01 difcoverirg veins is by levels, or
horizontal cuts, driven under ground, which in their pro-
grefs through the rock, or, as the miners fay, acrofs the
country, interfeft and expofe lodes before unknown. Such
levels muft have a direction acrofs the ufual courfe of tlte
lodes, and are either condufted for the exprefs purpofe of
finding new vcini, or for fome other ubjedt ; and then may
occafionally be the means of valuable refults of this fort.

Many rich mines have been opened, in confequence of a
difcovery made by carryir.g on an adit, or by driving a crofs
level from a fliaft, or from one lode to another known to be
parallel to it. The practice of driving adits for the pur-
pofe of difcovery is more frequent than it ufed to be. The
Tavillock canal has a long tunnel driving through a hill,
deftined principally for this purpofe, and which has already
been attended with very great fucccfs.

Lodes feldom contain ore near tlie furface of the ground :
it is, therefore, an effential quality in a miner's judgment
to decide on the indications prefenled by them, and to de-
termine the amount of rifk which their appearances will war-
rant on a further trial.

There arc niceties in this bufinefs which cannot be dc-

IcrJbed,

LODE.

fcribcd, tut mud be fecn and Riidied to be underftood, and
vith which (kilful miners are converfant ; but the mofl ex-
perienced is liable to hive his prediiftions falfified by the
fluctuating nature of thefe hidden receptacles of various
matter.

The indications mol depended on, in formina^ a iudg-
ment of the value of a lode, are derived from conlidcring the
fullottiusr circuniilances :

1. The nature of the fubftances contained in the vein.

2. The kind of rock in which it is found.

3. The width zrA regularity of the vein, confidering, at
_lhe fame time, its direftion and dip.

4. The ftruclure of the vein, fuch as the being open and
pervious to water, or, on the contrary, hard a:id dole.

Thefe fymptoms may be, on the whole, confidered as per-
taining to veins containing all kinds of metals, though vary-
ing in fome in a certain degree : thus a hard ctofe lode may
be favourable for tin, though not fo for copper or lead.

When a vein is found exhibiting all or moll of the ap-
pearances which experience has determined to belong to
thofe which are productive, it is called a iiniilj lode, and is
generally purfued with vigour, and at an expence propor-
tioned to the prevalence and continuance of the favourable
fymptoms.

We (hall endeavour to confider the principal indications,
according to the order above ilated, and point out the lead-
ing facts to be obferved in this important branch of a miner's
bufinefs.

I. Of the nature of the fuhjlances nmained in the vein.

Thefe fubftances vary according to the depth to which
the lode is opened ; thofe near the furface being generally
different from the contents of the vein deeper under
ground.

The iirft thing for which a miner looks k what in Cornwall
is called goffan. This iubllaiice does not appear to have been
very accurately defcribed, but is apparently a decompofed
mineral of an iron-ochre colour, varying from yellow to
brown-red and chocolate-brown. It is of a fpongy, cel-
lular texture, of little fpecilic gravity, and is generally foft
and friable.^ It is probably the refult of the decompofition
of pyrites or mundic, together with quartz, and contains a
cxmCderable portion of iron, and not unfrequently a mi.^ture
of tin and copper ores. When thefe latter are prefent in
the combination, it is a mod favourable fymptom ; but even
without them, goflan on the back of a lode warrants a trial
to a certain extent- It can by no means be aflertcd, that
the moll proinifing goflans have always been- followed by
ore, on a further purfuit ; but perhaps tliere is hardly an
inftance of a lode rich in ore, which has not a bunch of
kindly gojjlm iomewhere on the back.

The next tubitance, proceeding in depth, upon which re-
lianos may be placed, is muiulic, including in this name
pyrites of all kinds, whether arfenical or fulphuretted, con-
taining iron or copper. Mundic is found at all depths and
in all lituations in veins: it frequently furrounds bunches of
copper ore, and is therefore a favourable fymptom, as they
are approached ;, and indicates their decline, when palled
through on the otlier fide. It fhould,. however, be recol-
ledled,, that mundic isvery generally found, and thcrcloie it
muft not be depended on by itfelf.

The earthy Jubilances, which are efteemed favourable to
the exillence of valuable metallic ores, are principally quartz,
going under the general name of fpar ; a kind of clay called
floohan ; and, what is not very abundant, Jiuor, diitinguillied
by the appellation of candied fpar.

The (iril and the chief ingredient in vems, quartz, is
kindly,, when it is ia a loofe friable form, often cryftallized.

and cementing detached fragnients of- killas atfd the other
fubftances before eniim.erated. It is unpromifing when io
a clofe amorphous form, and is then termed a Jbarp hungry
fpar.^

The J!ooian, or clay, generally forms a brar.ch or vein on
one of the walls of the lode, and feems to be the divifion
between that and the rock containing: it.

The decompofition of the adjoining ftrafa fjems to have
been the orig;n of this f ibftance, which is called by fome
foreign writers \\\e faalhande.

Belides fluor, on which miners are not well agreed as to
Its promifing afpeiil, and which is not often found in quan-
tity, are fome other minerals, hkewife of not very frequent
occurrence, but elleemed favourable ; fuch z& prion, a kind
of decompofed quartz, and peach or chlorite.

Hitherto we have faid nothing of the judgment formed
by ores found in a lode ; it depends upon the following cir-
cumftances :

1. The fituation, whether fiiallow or deep.

2. The mode of depofit, whether ilightly fprinkled
through the lode, or forming (hoots or bunches of large or
fmall extent.

3. The quality of the ore.

Under the firlt head, moft miners agree that, as to cop-
per lodes, rich bunches of ore found near the furface are not
to be depended on as (liewing that a mine will be very pro-
ductive ; it having often been found that fuch depofits have
been followed by poverty at a greater depth. Tin and lead
are found nearer the furface than copper. When a lode is
fpotted with fmall quantities of ore, and the other fubilances-
are kindly, fuch as the goflan and fpar, the appearance is
promifing ; but when the lode is hard, and in other refpeftj-
unkindly, then fmall things of ore are not to be reckoned on
as particularly favourable. After a certain depth, a regular
branch, or, as it is called, a leader of ore of any width, oc-
cupying part of a good-fized vein, and increaiing or even
ftuctuating in fize as it is purfued, is on jhe whole the belt'
fymptom, particularly if connected with favourable accom-
panying fubftances.

Under the head of quality of the ore as an indication of
future profpenty to a mine, it mull be remarked that no-
thing requires to be received with greater caution than pro--
raifes of fuccefs fuppofed to be derived from the richnefs of
individual fpecimens. We are fpeaking now more parti-
cularly of copper lodes. Few, we believe^ of the moll
profitable mines produce much ore of the richer varieties,-
which indeed is feldom found to occupy veins of conllder-
ab!e width ; on the contrary, moil of the beft mines are
thofe which yield ore in large quantities, but poorer in me-
tallic content. This obfervation has been likewife made on--
the filver mines of South America, according to the account
of Humboldt. Copper ores are found in a greater variety
of fpecies near the furface than they are in deptli ; and
therefore tl\e miner's experience only will ferve to difcri--
niinate perfcftly on this point : but we wilh to put all who
arc concerned in mining on their guard againll a fallacious-
hope, too frequently excited by the alTay of a Hone of ore,
which in reality often predicts the very reverfe of what it ji;
Ilated to do by the artful or ignorant.

II. The iecond indication to be attended to, in eflimating-
tlie profpecl of fuccefs on a particular vein, has been Ilated
to be The kind of rot i in •which it ist found.

It IS unneceflary here to go into a voluminous account of
rocks, becaufe the great mines of England, as well as of
the worid, being found in fuch mountains as are conjeftured-
to be of very early formation, do not admit the varieties iii.
tliis relpeifl, which fome, who are asquainted onlv with
J other

LODE.

•tker diftriAl, «rV>ere probably » later formation has ex-
hibited different plienomeiia, might conjcHiire.

Lead-mines, jndotd, exill in many parts of England, in
various rock, and under various ciicmnftances ; but no ge-
neral rules of minin;T c;in be formed from det'ofits of a metal,
which appears to have taken its place at a pi'riod compara-
tively late. Such rules cnn only be applicable to feparate
diftrifts, where the circumllances attending the depofits are
fimilar.

There are two general clalTea of rock which claim the
dillliiftion of metalliferous above all others. Thele arc the
iiUai of the Cornilh miner, or grauwacke or tranfitioii flate
of Werner ; and granitic rocks, including porphyry, gneifs,
and other varieties, known in Cornwall by the general name
of groiuan.

Of thefe the great m^ijority of mines are in kilias, or graii-
Avacke, not only in Cornwall and Devon, but in Scotland,
in the Hartz, in the Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 'Uiine, in
Bohemia, Siielia, Moravia, Salzburg, and other diftrifts im-
portant for their mineral produces.

Granitic rocks are not fo metalliferous as the ii.'/as, but
produc'five veins are found in them ; and, as Dr. Bcrger has
well obferved in his account of Devon and Cornwall, in the
(irft volume of the Tranlaclions of the Geological Society,
even the kilias is not a depot of metallic veins to any extent,
hut near its juniftion with the granite: and this oblervation
had been made, as he fays, by baron Born and Fcrber on
the mines of the continenr.

This fail of moll mines being in one prevai ing rock,
would leem to iimplify the exerciie of judgment in a miner
fpeculating on the effecfl of the rock upon the contents of a
lode. But though kilias is fo univerfal, it is tar from being
all alike: on the contrary, it confifts of many varieties.
Thefe varieties do not alternate according to certain rules,
like the bed* of fecondarv rocks ; but exhibit changes in
pofition and extent, more or lefs frequent, and moll uncer-
tain and capricious;

The varieties of kilias, \vhi( li are efteemed the mod kindly
for copper, are the blue and the white, more efpecially if of
a tender, flaty texture. Tin often is found in abundance in
harder kilias, more irregular in its llrufture, and of a darker
colour, indicating the prefence of iron. Pratlice alone can
enable men to iudge of the fliades of difference in thele re-
fpefls, which l«ng experience has pointed out as eflcnticil to
be attended to : and even then, allowance n^.uft be made for
exceptions which frequently occur ; rules wliicli feem to
hold good, when applied to one mine, being often inap-
plicable to another.

111. The third thing to be confidered is 7 he iv'tdth and
regularity of the vein, and its direiiion and dip.

Thefe are important circumllances. If the lode be fmall,
it cannot be expeded that abundant depofits of metal can be
found ; and if it has not the characters belonging to a re-
gular filTure, it is probable that the m.iner will foon be dif-
appoi.ited, by finding it dwindle to a trifling branch, or
fplit into feveral infignificant ramifications.

Every large and productive li-diis accompanied by other
▼eins running parallel to it, or nearly fo, which often fall ,
into the main lode, and geaeraily enrich it by their junc-
tion.

Thefe muft be carefully attended to, and fought after, as
the changes that they produce are often molt important,
and the quantity of ore which they yield is frequently very
great. It has indeed been aderted, that there is hardly a
mine working on a finglc vein only, which has been profitable
to any great degree.

The diredlion of the lode (hould be carefully afcertained ;

becaufe certain ores are only found in ^elns which ha^e their
courfe in common with others having fimilar depofits in the
dillria.

Thus the writer of the prefent article has obferved that
copper and tin, in Cornwall, mud only be expetted in lodes
running eall and wefl: ; while lead is raifed from Inch as
have a direftion at right angles to them, or from north to
fouth.

The more ufual dip or underlay, in copper mines parti-
cularly, is to the north ; but fome lodes that underlay to
the fouth have been very produdtive. In either cafe, it is
ro favourable fymptom to find the inclination from the per-
pcndicular to be great ; and it may be faid to be fo, tf it
exceed four feet in the fathom.

When a lode often fplits or divides into two or more
branches, it is fnbjeft to fludluation in its produce; and
thele occurrences are important to be noticed with atten-
tion, as they afford prognoftics as to the future fuccefs of
working.

IV. The fourth and lail head, under which we have ar-
ran-ijed the appearances of produiliyc lodes, is that relating
to 1 he JlruBure of the vein, li'hclhcr open or porout, nnd thui
pervious to ivater ; or, on the other hunJ, denje and clofe, and
conjt-quently dry.

All miners agree in this, that water being found to be
abnnd.int io a lode is an omen of a very favourable nature;
and it is often confidently alferted, that no larg.e returns of
ore have been made from dry veins. As far as tlie ex-
perience of the writer of this article goes, it ferves to confirm
the oblervation.

Water, indeed, may be found pafTing freely through crofs-
courfes, and other veins, from which metallic depofits are
ablent ; but then fuch veins will be found to have all the
charafters which are adduced as proofs of a later forma-
tion, and are therefore eafily dillinguilhed from metallic
veins.

Large lodes acl as natural underdrains, and are channel*
through which water percolates ; fo that the rock lying.on
either fide may often be fimk upon with but httle inter-
ruption from water- until the vein is cut into, and then
abundant llivnms flow out, and would put an end to fur-
ther labour, if it were not for the aid of proper engines to
get rid of it.

The quantity of water will of courfe be, in fome degree,
proportioned to the extent tif the wide and porous parts of
the lode ; and, as it is from thefe parts only that much ore
can be expefted, the water forms in the firll inftance a
pretty good prognollic.

If, in driving upon the courfe of a fmall, clofe, and un-
produftive lode, a llream of water be ftiddenly met with, it
indicates the approach to an enlargement in the vein, and is
a mofl favourable fymptom ; and it is, in point of fatt, aU
moil always obferved before a good courfe of ore is feen.

1'he mines of Devon and Cornwall abound with water in
a much greater degree than perhaps any others ; and a»
evidence of this, we may adduce the number of vaft lleam-
engiaes and overfhot waier-wheels employed for the fole
purpofe of draining them. We believe, likev.ife, that when
the quantities of ores raifed in this diftrift be compared
with thofe of any other which yield them from trve veins,
they will be found abundant iu the fame proportion.

Under the head of the internal ftruilure of lodes,may be
noticed the cavities, called by the Germans drufes, and by
the Cornifh miners voogs : thefe are obferved moll frequently
in large veins, and in iuch, of courfe, aflift in the jjaffage
of water, and may be claffed in the fame place as a favour-
able indication. In thefe voogs are found all the varieties

L O D

L O E

of cry dais ; and tViils tlie prefence of tKeff in a lode is like-
•vnfe confidered promifing, more particularly where obferva-
lions are made on a vein at no great depth : for as the mine
becomes deeper the lode often becomes more compaft, and
the miner calculates upon finding foli J courfes of ore.

In conneftion with this part of the fubjeft, the avails
which enclofe the vein are not to be difregarded, when the
lode itfelf is confidered, as they (hould be found to be well
determined, fmooth, and regular. The rock of which they
are formed fhould be of the hard fchift called by miners
tsj>.'l ; and if penetrated with traces of ore, it may be con-
fidered as a fymptom of large depofits. On each fide of
the walls, wliich ufually differ fomewhat from the ad-
joinino- rock, as if altered by the prefence of the vein, the
ftrata may generally be.obferved to be twilled or bent
downwards, in a flight degree towards the lode, which is
in general confidered to be more the cafe near large veins
than rear thofe which are fmaller.

Having now detailed the principal charafleriftics of lodes,
a? important to the praftical miner, defcribed the modes of
difcovering them, and the fymptoms by which a judgment
is formed of their contents, as far as relates to working
them for the metals ; we leave the confideration of them, in
a geological point of view, for the article Vein. The
operations of working upon them will be defcribed under the
head of Mining, and under that of Ore.

Lode, in Rural Economy, a provincial terra applied to
fignify ford, in fome dillrifts.

LODER, in Geography, a town of Bavaria j 25 miles S.
of Augfburg.

LODESAN, a country of Italy, in the JVIilanefe,
bounded north and weft by the duchy of Milan, call by the
Cremafco and the Cremones, fouth by the Piaccntia and
Pavefe ; and now forming the department of the Adda. It
ii populous and fertile, though fmall ; and particularly
celebrated for its checfe, of which, it is faid, the inhabitants
annually export to the amount of 70,000/. ; the number of
cows kept here being reckoned at 30,000. The capital is
Lodi.

LODESE', or Gamla Lodese, a town of Sweden, in
"Weil Gothlasd, which fuffered fo much from fire in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, that the inhabitants re-
moved to New Lodefe, or Nydolefe.

LODESMAN, or Locman, a pilot eftabliihed for con-
«!u£ling velTels in and out of harbours, or up and down navi-
gable rivers. See Pilot.

LODE'VE, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftriift, in the department of Herault, and,
■hpfore the revolution, the fee of a biihop ; 24 miles W. of
Montpelligr. The place contains 7843, and the canton
i:;,959 inhabitants, on a territory of 307^ kiliometres, in
10 communes. N. lat. 43° 44'. E. long. 3- 24'.

LODGMENT, in Military ^Jliiri, fometimes denotes
an encampment made by an army.

Lodgment is more frequently ufed for a work caft up by
the befiegerSi during their approaches, in fome dangerous
poft, which they have gained, and where it is abfolutely
neceflary to fecure themfelvesagainll the enemy's fire ; as in
a covert-way, in a brench, the bottom of a moat, or any
other part gained from the befieged.

Lodgments are made by calling up earth, or by gabions,
or palifade'5, woolpacks, fafcines, mantelets, or any thing
capable of covering foldiers in the place they have gained,
and are determined to keep.

LODI, L.\, in Biography, a young female finger, in tlie
fervice of the eleflor of Bavaria, at Munich in 1772, and
tiow, if fhe lives, an old one ; fo tliat a few remarks upon
Vot. XXI.

her flight imperfeSions can do her neither good nor harm»
but may probably ftimulate a wifli of purification of voice
in others. We thought that, in general, the tone of the
Lodi's voice was clear and brilliant, and her manner of
finging and afting elegant and graceful ; vet thought, if
there was any little deleft in her voice, it was occSfioncd
by a flight obllruftion in the throat, partitillarly in fullaining
low notes. Thefe were our thoughts the firft time we heard
her. The fecond time, we were more plcafed with her per-
formance tlian the firft ; yet ftill imagined that her voice
wanted a little more room in its pafl^age. The third time
we heard her in her beft charafter, in the performance of
which (he ftill gave us more pleafure ; but yet we could not
get rid of onr former remarks on the conduft of her voice
in fuftaining certain low and long notes.

Thefe remarks, m.ade on the Lodi J2 years ago, might,
with refpeft to voice, be fairly apphed to Mrs. Hindmarfc
in 1804.

LoDi, in Geography, a city of Italy, formerly the chief
town of Lodelan, now the capital of the department of
Adda, built by the emperor Frederick Barbaroffa, on an
eminence, in a plain watered by the river Adda. It is the
fee of a bid-.op, and contains, befides the cathedral, two
collegiate and feven pariih churches, and 26 convents.'
This is a place of little trade, its chief commodities being
cheefe (fee Lodes.^n) and a brautiful kind of earthen
ware refcmbling china. It is well built, and furrounded
with walls, about three miles from the ancient town of
the fame name, called alfo " Laus Pompeii." The number
of inhabitants is eftimaled at about I2,ooo. On the nth
of May 1796, the town was taken by the troops ot the
French republic, under the command of Bonaparte, Maflena,
and Angereau ; after the paflage of the bridge had been con-
tefled by 10,000 Auftrians, and 30 pieces of artillery. The
Aullrians loll in killed, wounded, and prifoners, between
two and three thoufand men ; 18 miles S.E. of Milan. N.
lat. 45 21'. E. long. 9 30'. *

LODOMIRIA, a territory of Poland, which, together
with Galicia (which fee), was ceded to the houfe of Auftria
in the late partition of Poland, A.D. 1 772, and is now in-
corporated under this appellation with the Auftrian do-
minions. The number of inhabitants in this ceded country
amounted, in 1776, to 3,580,796. Hoeck computes
Eartern Galicia and Lodomiria at 2,797,119, and Weftern
Galicia at 1,106,178, The mountainous parts of Galicia
and Lodomiria afford fine pailures ; the plains are moftly
fandy, but abound in forefts, and are fertile in corn. The
principal articles of traffic are cattle, hides, wax, and honey ;
and thefe countries contain mines of copper, lead, iron, and
fah.

LODRONE, a town of Italy, in the Trentin, on the
borders of the Breffan, near a fmall lake, called the " lake
of Idro;" 2, miles S.W. of Trent.

LODOSA, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the Ebro ;
17 miles E. of Eftella.

LODYPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; iS
miles S. of Patna.

LODZIEZE, a town of I^ithuania, in the palatinate of
Trokl ; 48 miles N.N.W. of Grodno.

IjOE, a town of Norway; 48 miles N.E. of Dron-
theini.

I..OE, in Rural Ecooomy, a term ufed to fignify a little
round hill, or a heap of Itones.

LOEBEGUN, or I.ouociiiN, a town of the duchy of
Magdeburg ; 44 miles S. of Magdeburg.

LOEBOE, or LoEHOK, a kingdom of Celebes, whicL

was the moll powerful and extanfive of all the dates of this

K k iilandj

L O E

L O E

idand, before thofe of Macafi'ar and Jjoh! attained their
fubleqiicnt c.'k-briiy. It Ilretclies at prcfcnt from Palopa,
the capital of the country, to Larompo, having an extent
of about 20 leaj^iies along the vvpftern Ihure uf the bay of
Boni, and from the otlior.' fide of the city, owr the whole
of the S.E. part of Celebes, between Bnggviefs-bay and
the li. coail of tlie ifland, as far as the Alforefc will fuffer
them inland ; to the \V. it is bounded by Wadjo, and to
the N. bv Taradja. The land is fertile in paddee ; it
elds likewil'e good iron, and much gold

yie

is found in tlie
rivers. The firft king mentioned in the records of the
Dutch company, and called " Grain Ilaroo," was fvib-
dued by the arms of the company, at the fame time with
the Macalfars at Bouton. For an account of its difTolute
queen, li-e Tanete.

LOEFUNGIA, in Botany, named by Linnxus in
honour of his friend and favourite pupil Peter Loefling, a
Swede, who was born in the year 1729. in the province of
Gailrikeland. He began to (ludy medicine at the age of
16. Hnd from his proficiency in the fcience of Natural
Hiftory he afterwards obtained, through the recommenda-
tion of Linnxus, the appointment of botaniH to the king of
Spain, in wliich capacity he explored tlie botanical treafures

of South America, where he died Feb. 22, ]

756. Hi

name frequently occurs in the writings of his preceptor,
■who publidted at Stockholm, in 175S, a collection of
Loefling's letters, and the Latin defcripticns of Spanifh and
American plants which he left beliind him, with a biogra-
phical preface of his own, in Swedifh. A German tranfla-
tion of this volume, by Kblpin, appeared at Berlin in 1766.
The inaugural differtation of Loefling on " the buds of
trees"' is printed in the Amoenitates jicailsmicrv, v. 2. 182. —
Linn. Gen. 24. Schreb. 33. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 191.
Mart. Mill. Did. V. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. I. 79.
juff. 299. Lamarck lllullr. t. 29. Gfcrln. t. 129. — Clafs
and order, Trimulria Monugyma. Nat. Ord. Caryophylla,
Linn. Caryophyllejs, JiifT.

Gen. Cb. Gal. Perianth inferior, of five, ereft, lanceo-
late leaves, marked on each lido at the bafe with a fmall
tooth, fhai-p-pointed, permanent. Cor. Petals five, very
fmall, oblong-ovate, clofed together in the form of a globe.
Stam. Filaments three, the length of the corolla ; anthers
.•oundilh, twin. Pijl. Germen fupericr, ovate, triangular;
flyle ihrcad-fhaped, a little dilated upwards ; ftigma rather
obtufe. Ptrlc. Capfule ovate, nearly triangular, of one
cell and three valves. Seeds numerous, ovate-oblong.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Corolla of five petals,
very fmall. Capfule of one cell, and three valves.

1. L. hifpankum. Spanirti Locfliugia. Linn. Sp. PI. 50.
Loefl. It. 113. t. I. f. 2. Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 64. t. 94^ —
Leaves awl-lhsped, fharp-pointed. Flowers axillary, feifile.
— Found on open hills in the neighbourhood of Madrid,
and -ther parts of Spain, flowering in June. — Root annual,
zig-zag, fmooth. Stems procumbent, fometimes a little af-
cending, jointed, round, {lightly piibefcent, vifcid, about
two inches long. Lctves in pairs at tlw.- joints of the ftcms,
fometimes three or four together. Fkiuers nearly white.
Linnxus remarks, that this fpecies approaches in habit to
Scleranthus or Hermr.pa.

2. 1-. hidica. Indian Loeflingia. Willd. n. 2. Retz. Obf.
fafc 4. 8. (Pharnacenm depreiTum ; Linn. Mant. 562.) —
Leaves oblong. Flowers axillary, cymofe. --^A native of
rice fields and dried pools in the Eaft Indies, where it
abounds, -according to Konig, in . ': pril and May. — Root
very long and branching. Stems numerous, prollrate, about
a fpan in length, pubefcent. Leaves two, four or more
together at the joints, almoit feffile. Stipuks foUtary, fciall,

membranaceous. Flowers nearly fi-flile, cinereous, with a
t^ifid flyle. I>innxus, who places tliis fptcies in Pharna-
ceum, fays that it refembles a Molhigo, and that it puts forth
its flowers only in fine weather. Rel/.ius and WilldcnoMr
properly make it a Loejl'.ngia, of which author,, the former
obferves, that /,. indica has dark-green and keeled calyx-
leaves with a broad fcaly margin. The corolla is purple,
fmaller than the calyx. The capfule of one cell, with many
feed.-.

LOEILLET, JoH.v, in Biography, a relation of John
Baptill Locillet of Ghent, the famous mafter on the com-
mon finte, and voluminous compofer for that inftrumcnt.
John the younger was a celebrated haiplichord mafter, and
performer in the opera band in London, while Corbet was
the leader.

Having a large room in the houfe whicli he occupied in
H.irt-ftreet, Covent Garden, he eitabliilied a weekly concert
there, which was frequented chiefly by gentlemen perform-
ers, who rewarded him liberally for conducing it. Co-
relli's concertos were firft performed in England at this
concert, where Mr. Needier, at the head of dilettanti
players on the violin, was the leader.

Loeilkt was not only an excellent teacher of the harpfi-
chord, but a good compofer for that iidlrument, and a mi-
nuet in his leflons, in the key of A minor, which was in
great favour with the ladici of that time, from the vidgar
pronunciation of Loeillet's name, was long fuppcfcd to have
been compofrd by John Baptift Lully, whofe name was
prefixed to it in many printed b'joks, nor was the miftakc
ever publicly cleared up.

Loeillet died about the year 1728, after accumulating, by
indullry and economy, a fortune of 16,000/. The works
which he publillied, though numerous, are now only to be
traced in WaKh's old catalogues.

I^OENEN, in Geography, a town of Holland ; 10 miles
S.W. of Naerden.

LOESDilECHT, a town of Holland ; eight miles S.
of Naerden.

LOESELIA, in Botany, received its name from Lin-
nasus, in honour of John Loefel, Profelfor of Medicine at
Kbnigfberg in PrufTia, who was born in the year 1607, and
died in 1(^55. By the direfiion of our author's will, his
fon edited a catalogue of the native plants of PrufTia, which
is by no means a defpicable work. It abounds with feveral
curious notes, and contains many rare plants which till then
were unknown as natives of Pruflia. He had alfo prepared
feveral excellent plates, and tliefe, together with his manu-
fcripls, partly by the wifli of his Ion to perpetuate his
father's fa.me, and partly by royal authority, were after-
wards committed to the clurge of his fucceffor, Profeflbr
John Gottfched, who compiled from them the Flora Pruf-
jica, feu Planta in Regno Prujfis fponte nafcentes, which was
publilhed in quarto in 1703. The book is fcarce, hut is
frequently cited for the plates. — I,inn. Gen. 317. Royen.
L. Bat. 299. Schreb. 41 j. Wiild. Sj). PI. v. 3. 323. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 3. Juir^i33:. Lamarck'Illullr. t. ,27. Gxrtn.
t. 62. (Royenia; Hoult MSS.) — Clafs and order, Bi^lyna-
mia ylng'tofperuiia. Nat. Ord. Con-volvuli, Jufi.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
four-cleft, acute, Ihort, pernianent. Cor. of one petal,
unequal ; tube the length of the calyx ; limb in five, ovate-
lanceolate, equal fegmcnts, all detlexed towards the lower
fide. Stam. Filaments four, the length of the corolla, two
of ihcm (horter, all oppofite to the fegmcnts of the petal
and reflexed, in a contrary direftiou to the corolla; antjiers
fimple. Pyi. Germen fupcrior, ovate ; llyle fimple, placed
like the ftainensi ftigma thickifli. Peric. Capfule ovate,
5 o£

LOG

LOG

•f three cells. SefJs folitary or two togetlier, flightly
angulated.

Obf. Girtner remarks, that he found five ftamens in all
the flowprs of this genus which he had examined, though
one of them was conltai)tIy (horter than the reft. Hence it
has been fuggolled that LoefeVia fhould be referred to Pcn-
tanlna.

Efl". Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Corolla with its fegmeiits all
leaning one way. Stamens oppofite to the petal. Capfule
of three cells.

I. L. ci/'uifa. Fringed Loefelia. Linn. Sp. PI. 875.
G^ertn. t. 62. f. 3. — Found by Dr. Houftoun at Vera
Cruz in South Arneric*. — Stem ercft, (lightly quadrangular.
Leaves oppofite, lanceolate-ovate, (harply ftrrated. Fli'w-
ers yellow, forming a head at the ends of the branches, ac-
companied by imbricated, ovate, fringed hradeas.

This genus is fully defcribed by Gxvtncr, who mod pro-
bably muft have made his description from the fpecimen fent
bv I>r. Houftoun to Mr. Miller's collection, now in the
pofleffion of the right honourable fir .loleph Banks. - Lin-
m«s had it not in his own herbarium, but appears to have
feen it in the hands of Adrian Van Royen during his ftay at
Leyden. Hence it found admidion into the appendix of
the tiril edition of his G<nera Planiarum, p. 34S.

LOEVESTEIN, or Louvestein, in Geography, a for-
tvels of Holland, where Grotius was confined, and whence
he was dehvered by a ftratagem of his wife. See the article
GnoTius.

LOEVI, in /Indent Geography, a people of Italy, whofe
cantonment lay between the rivers Seffilis and Ticinus, now
the Sefia and Tefino.

LOFANGER, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft
Bothnia ; 40 miles N.N.E. ot Umea.

LOFANGO, one of the fmaller Friendly iflands ; five
miles E.S.E. of Neeneeva.

LOFEEREN, a clufter of fmall iflands in the North
fea, ne«r the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 6S'.

LOFFALO, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N.
lat. 60' 2'. E. long. 46 3'.

LOFFINGEN, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip ©f
Furilenberg, having a medicinal bath ; fix miles W. of
Furftenberg.

LOFFODEN Islands, a clufter of iflands off the Nor-
wegian coaft, in N. lat. 67^ to 68'. Thefe iflands are nu-
merous and extenfive, and noted for the whirlpool of Malc-
trom. They have excellent fifheries, and the palturage
fuffices for a great number of fheep.

LOFSTA, a town of Sweden, in Smaland ; 70 miles

N. of Calmar Alfo, a town of Sweden, in the province

of Upland, in which are a hammer-mil!, eight forges, and
a fmelting furnace ; 40 miles N. of Upfal.

LOFTUS Heights, the barrier-port in the S.W. corner
of the United States, on the E. fide of the Miffifippi, in
Adams county, Miffifippi territory, about 40 miles below
Natchez. The plan of the works here conftrwrted prelents
the handfomeil military object in the United States.

LOFVESTA, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the pro-
vine- of Sch jneii ; 25 miles S. of Chriftianftadt.

LOG, ic the Jeivi/b y/ntlquities, a mcalure which held a
<juarter of a cab, and confequently five-fixths of a pint.
There is mention of a log, 2 Kings, vi. 25. under the name
of a fourth part of a cab. But in Leviticus the word log is
often met with, and fignifies that meafure of oil, which
lepers were to offer at the temple after they were cured of
any difeafe.

Dr. Arbuthnot fays, that the log was a meafure of li-
quids, the feventy-fecond part of the bath or ephali, and

twelfth part of the hin, according to all the accounts of the

Jewifh writers.

Log, a fea-tcrm, fignifying a fmall piece of timber of a
triangular, feCforal, or quadrantal figure, on board a [hip,
generally about a quarter of an inch thick, and five or fix
inches from the angular point to the circumference. It ib
balanced by a thin plate of lead, nai'cd upon the arch, or
circular iidc, fo as to fwim perpendicularly in the water,
with about two-thirds immerfed under the furface.

L,aG-/ine, a little cord, or line, about a hundred and fifty
fathoms long, fattened to the log, by means of two legs,
one of which paffes through a hole at the corner, and is
knotted on the oppofite fide, while tiie other leg is attached
to the arch by a pin fixed into another hole, fo as to draw
out occafionally. By thefe legs the log is hung in equilibrio;
and the fine thus annexed to it is wound round a reel fixed
for that purpofe in the gallery of the fhip.

This line, from the diftance of about ten, twelve, or
fifteen fathoms off the log, has certain knots or divifions,
which ought to be at lead fifty feet from each other ;
though it was the common praclice at fea, not to have theiu
above forty-two feet afunder.

The length of- each knot ought to be the fame part of a
fea-mile as half a minute is of an hour ; and admitting the
meal'urem'ent of Mr. Norwood, who makes a degree on a
great circle of the earth to contain 367,200 Englifh feet,
or about 693 Engliih (latute miles ; and, therefore, -J^ of it,
or a nautical mile, will be 61 23 feet; ^i^'-h of 6120, or 51
feet, fhould be the length of each knot. But becaufe it is
fafer to have the reckoning rather before the fhip than after
it, therefore fifty feet may be taken as the proper length of
each knot. The knots are fometimes made to confilt only
of forty-two feet each, even in the prefent practice ; and
this method of dividing the log-line was lounded on the
fuppofition that fixcy miles, each of j'cxso Englifh feet,
made a degree ; for xi^th of ^000 is 4I7, or,in round num-
bers, 42 feet. Mariners, rather than quit the old way,
though known to be erroneous, ufe glaffes for half minute
ones, that run but 24 or 25 feconds. They have alfo iifed a
line of 45 feet to 30 feconds, or a gla/s of 28 feconds to 42
feet. When this is the cafe, the diftance between the knots
fhould be correfted by the following proportion : as 30 is
to 50, fo is the number of feconds of tlie glafs to ths dif-
tance between the knots upon the line. The heat or moif-
ture of the weather has often a confiderable effeft upon the
glafs, fo as to make it run flower or fifter ; it fhould, there-
fore, be frequently tried by the pendulum in the following
manner. On a round nail hang a firing that has a mufliet-
ball fixed to one end, carefully meafuring between the cen-
tre of the ball and the firing's loop over the peg 39T inches,
being the length of a fecond pendulum ; then fwing it, and
count one for every time it pafies under the peg, bsginning
at the fecond time it paffes, and the number of fwings made
during the time the glals is running out, fhews the leconds
it contains. The line alfo is liable to relax and flirink, and
fhould, therefore, be occafionally meafured.

The ufe of the log and line is, to keep account, and make •
an eltimate of the fhip's way, or diftance run ; which is
done by obfervmg the length of line unwound in half a
minute's time, told by a half-minute glafs ; for fo many
knots as run out in that time, fo many miles the fhip fails in
an hour. Thus, if there be four knots veered out in half a
minute, the fhip is computed to run four miles an hour.

The author of this device for meafuring the fhip's way is

not known ; and no mewtion of it occurs till the year l6o~,

in an Eaft India voyage, publiftied by Purchas : but from

that lime its name occurs in other voyages among his coi-

K k 3 lectiuus ;

LOG

LOG

leAions: and henceforward it became famous, beiiij^ taken
notice of both by our own authors, and by foreigners; as
by Guntcr in 1623 ; SncUius, in 1624 ; Metius, in i')3i ;
Oughtrcd, in 16,^3; llerigonc, in 1634; SaltonftaU, in
1636; Norwood, in 1637; rournier, in 1643; and a!-
moll by all the fuccccding writers on i.avigation of every
conntr)'. See Marlm Survevou.

Log, to heave the, as they call it, they throw it into the
water, on the Ice-fule, letting it run, till it comes without
the eddy of tlic fhip's wako ; then one, holding a half-
minute glafs, turns it up jull as thi; firll knot, or the mark
from which the knots begin to be reckoned, turns off the
reel, or palFes over the ftern. As foon as the glafs is out,
the reel is Hopped, and the knots run off are told, and their
parts ellimated.

It is ufual to heave the log once every hour in (liips of
war and Eaft Indiaraen ; and in all other veffels, once in two
hours ; and if at any time of the watch the wind has in-
creafed or abated at the intervals, fo as to afcft the ihip's
velocity, the ofiicer generally makes a fuitable allowance for
it at the clofe of the watch.

The log is a very precarious way of computing, and mud
always be correfted by experience and good fenfe ; there
being a great deal of uncertainty in the yawing of the
(hip going with the wind aft, or upon the quarter, in the
heaving of it, by its coming home, or being drawn after the
(hip, on account of the friction of the reel, and lightnefs
of the log, in the courfe of the current, and in the ftrength
of the wind, which feldom keeps the fame tenor for two
hours together ; which is the interval between the times of
ufmg the log, in (hort voyages, though in longer ones they
heave it every hour. Yet is this a much more exaiit way of
computing than any other in ufe ; much preferable cer-
tainly to that of the Spaniards and Portuguefe, whogueffed
at the fliip's way, by the running of the froth or water by the
fhip's fide ; or to that of the Dutch, who ufed to heave a chip
overboard, and to number the paces they walk on the deck,
while the chip fwims between any two marks, or bulk-heads
on the fide.

The above-mentioned errors, and particularly the log's
being fubjett to drive with the motion which the water may
have at its furface, whereas the experiment requires it to be
fixed in the place where it is when the mark commencing the
knots goes off the reel, have been confidered by writers,
and many methods have been propofed to remove, or at
lead to leff n them. The late M. Bouguer propofed a
method, which has been thought deferving of particular at-
tention, in the Mem. Acad. Sc. 1747; afterwards in his
Treatife on Navigation, publifhed at Paris in 1753, and fince
reprinted in 1760, by the Abbe de la CaiUe. For this pnr-
pofe, take for the lo^ a conical piece of wood, which fix to
the log4ine paffed through or along its axis, at about forty,
fifty, or fixty, or more feet, from one end ; and to this end
fix the diver, which is a body formed of two equal fquare
pieces of tin, or of thin iron plate, fixed at right angles to
one another along their diagonals ; and its fize fo fitted to
that of the cone, that the whole may float. A cone of three
inches diameter in the bafe, and of fix inches in the flant
height, is propofed by M. Bouguer to fuit a diver made
of plates about 9 J inches fquare; the interfeftion of the
diagonals is joined to the log-line, and the loop and peg
fixed as in the common log. However, it has been found,
that no kind of wood ufed in Britifh dock-yards, when
formed into a cone of the above dimenfions, will float a
diver made of ftout tin plates, one fide of the fquare being
9J inches. Such a diver weighing 1 3 lb. av<«)irdupoife, re-
quired to float it, a cone of five inches diameter, and twelve

inches on the flant fide, fo as the point of the cone, whish
was made of hght lir, fhonld juft appear abave the water.
Now luppofing one fide of Inch a fquare tin diver to be
about ten inches, and made of plates only two-tiiirds of the
tiiicknefs of the former, fuch a dii»er would weigh, with
its folder, about twenty ounces, and can be floated by a
light fir cone of four inches diameter in the bafe, and ten
inches in the flant height or length ; and fnch a compound -
log might, perhaps, be found on trial to be- affeiled by about
as much again a"; that propofed by M. Bouguer, and con-
fequently the difference between the numbers given by the
common log and compound log, mutt be augmented by two-
thirds of itii If, for the ncceffary corrcAion, as below. When
the compound log of Bouguer, above delcribtd, is hove
overboard, the diver will fink too deep to be much affeCted
by the current or tnotion of the water at the furface ; and
the log will thereby 'teep more ileadily in the place whefe
it firii fell ; and confequently, the knots run off the rtel
will fhew more accurately the (hip's rate of failing. A»
the common log is affefted by the whole motion of the cur-
rent, fo this compound log will feel only a part thereof,
viz. fuch a part nearly as the refiftancc of the cone is of
the refiftance of the diver : then the refiftances of the above
cone and diver are abaut as 1 to 5 ; and confequently this
log will drive but one-tifth part of what the common log
would do ; and fo the fliip's true run will be affeftcd by
one-fifth part only of the motion cf the waters. To ob-
tain the true rate of failing, it will be proper to heave al-
ternately hour and hour, tlie common log, and this com-
pound log ; then the difference of their knots run off,
augmented by its one-fourth part, is the correction ; which
applied to the knots of the common log, will give the fhip's
true rate of failing, at the middle time between the, hours
when thefe logs were hove. The corrcftton is additive,
when the compound log's xun is the greateft, otherwifc
it is fubtradtive. To find the courle made good : increafe
the obferved angle between the log-lines by one-fourth
part ; and this gives the correction to be applied to the ap-
parent courfe, or the oppofite of that fliewn by the common

log ; the correiEtion is to be applied to the < j^r, {■ of the

apparent courfe, when the bearing of the common log is

to the < • 1 , f °f ^^^ compound log. Or thus ; the

lengths run oft both logs, together with their hearings,
being known ; in a card or compafs apply the knots run off,
taken from a fcale of equal parts along their refpedive
bearings, from the centre ; join the ends, and in this line
produced, on the fide next the compound log's length, take
one-fourth of the interval ; then a line drawn from the end,
thus produced, to the centre of the card, wifl (hew the true
courfe and diltance made good. When a current, fuch as
a tide, runs to any depth, the velocity of that current may
be much better afcertained by the compound log than by the
common one, provided the diver does not defeend lower
than the run of the current ; for as thofe fliips which are
deepell immcrged, drive fafteft with the tide ; fo the diver,
by being aited on below, as well as the log on the furface,
their joint motion will give the total effect to the current's
motion better than what could be derived from the motiou
at the furface only. Alfo by fuch a compound log, the
depth to which any current runs, may be eafily tried. Ro-
bertfon's Nav. book ix. (J I.

We have an account in the Voyage to the North Pole,
p 97, of two other logs, which were tried by captain
Phipps : one hivented by Mr. Ruffel, the otiier by Foxon ;
both conllruded upon this principle, that a fpiral, in pro-
ceeding

LOG

LOG

ccejlng its own length in the direiftion of its axis iKrongh
a reliliing medium, makes one revolution round the axis ;
if, therefore, the revolutions of the fpiral are regiftered, the
number of times it has gone its own Ienj;th through the
water will be known. Iii both thefe the motion of the fpiral
in the water is communicated to the c'ock-work within-
board, by means of a fn.all line, fattened at one end of the
fpiral, which tows it after the fhip, and at the other to
a fpindle, wiiicli fets the clock-work in motion. 1'hat in-
vented bv Mr. RufTel has a half fpiral of two threads,
made ot copper, and a fmall dial with clock-work, to regif-
ter the number of turns of the fpiral. The other log
has a whole fpiral of wood with one thread, and a larger
piece of clock-work, with three dials, two of them to mark
the diftance, and the other divided into knots and fathoms,
to iTiew the rate by the half-minute glafs for the conveni-
ence of comparing it with the log. This kind of lug will
have the advantage of every o'her in fmooth water and mo-
derate weather; and it will be ufeful in finding the trim of
the fhip when alo:ie, in furveying a coaft in a iingle (hip, or
in meafurinif diilances in a boat between headlands and
fhoals ; but it ij iubjecl to other inconveniences, which will
not render it a pr per fubliitute for the common log. See
Phil. Tranf. vol. xl- :ii. p ^^2.

l^oa-board is a table divided into four or five columns,
whereon are marked the reckonings of every day ; from
whence they are entered into the log-book or traverfe-book,
whence it may be tranfcribed into the journals, and how
much the (hip gains in hercourfe be eflimated daily. In the
firft column ot the log-board, is entered the hour of the
day, from the noon of one dav to the noon of the next ; in
the fecond and third, the number of knots and fathoms the
fhip IS found to run per hour, fet againfl the hours when
the log was hove : in the fourth, the courfes which the (hip
fleers : and in the fifth, or right-hand column, the winds, the
alterations of the fails, the bufinefs doing aboard, obferva-
tions made of the weather, variations of the compafs, &c.
See JoL'RN.\L.

LoG-iooi, at fea, a book ru'ed and columned like the log.
board. It is ufed by fome to enter the log-board's account
in every day at noon, with the obfervations then made ; and
from hence it is corrected and entered into the journals.
(See .TocRNAL.) The intermediate divifions or watches of
the log-book, containing four hours each, are ufually figned
by the commanding officer in fliips of war, or Eall In-
diamen.

LOGAN, in Geography, a county of America, in the
ftate of Keutucky, contaming 4S70 inhabitants, befides
730 Haves.

LOG.ANIA, in Botany, fo denominated by Mr. R.
Brovvn, after Mr. James Logan, Prefident of the Council,
and Chief Juftice of the Province of Pennfylvania, author of
a fmall Latin tratt in fupport of the Linnian doctrine of the
generation of plants, publilTied at Leydcn, in 1739, and
republifhed, we believe by Dr. Fothergill, at London, in
'747' ^i'^ 3" Enghrti tranflation. Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. V. I. 454. (Euofma ; Andr. Rcpof. v, 8. 520.) —
Clafs and order, Paitai.dna Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gen-
hat!<t, Jufi".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep equal feg-
ments, pernianent. Cor. of one petal, fomewhat bell-
(haped, rather hairy in the throat ; limb in five deep, equal,
roundifh fegments. Stam. Filaments five, equal, inlerted
into ibn-ie part of the tube, (horter than the hmb ; anthers
fmall, roundifh. Pjji. Germen fuperior, ov.v.e, with a
groove at each fide 1 ftyle {hort, thick, permanent ; (ligma
capitate, fomewhat ciub-lhaped. iVjV. Capfule ovate,

with a furrow at each fide, feparating into tro parts, *ach
of one cell and two valves, with a longitudinal triangular re-
ceptacle to each cell. Setdt numerous, roundilh, peltate,
rough.

Eif. Ch. Calyx in five deep ferments. Corolla fome-
what bell-fhaped, five-cleft, hairy in the throat. Stamen*
fhorter tlian the limb. Stigma capitate. Capfule fuperior,
with two furrows, four valves, two cells, and a receptacle
to each. Seeds peltate.

This New-Holland genus confifts of either (hrubs or
herbs, with oppofite entire leaves, generally attended by
ftipulas, which are either luiied into a fmall intrafoiiaceous
fliealh. Of diftinft ; in the latter cafe, withiii the infertion
of the leaves or at their fides ; fometimes there are no lli-
pulas. Flowers either terminal or axillary, oppofite in co-
rymbs or cinders, fometimes folitary Corolla white, fome-
times veined. Albumen fl -(hy. Mr. Brown indicates its-
near affinity to Geniojloma, fee that article, and thence ta
the order of Ap-x'ime, and to Ujleria, one of the RubiaceA.
He defines eleven fp'ecies, eight of which are flirubs, witli
an obtufe calyx, and the llamens within tiie tube ; the rcil are
herbaceous, or but (lightly Ihrubby, with an acute calyx,
and fomewhat prominent -ftamens. Of the eight firll -men-
tioned fpecies, five have the llipulas united into a fheath or
ring within the infertion of the leaves. Thefe are called true
Logimie. A fpecimen of them is

L. latifoUa, Brown n. 2. (Exacum vaginale ; Labill.
Nov. Holl. v. I. 37. t. 51.)— Leaves obovate, rather
pointed at each end. Flowers corym.bofe. Young branches
fmooth. Stem ereift — Native of the fouthern part of Ne\T
Holland. The Jlem is fhrubby, about a yard high, with,
upright, fquare, fmooth, leafy branches. Leaves oppofite,
fcarcely (talked, coriaceous, broadly obovate, above two
inches long, entire, acute, tapering at the bafe, and unhed
by means of the (hort, tubular, iutrafoliaceous fiipultu
Flo-ujers numerous, in terirunal and axillary, fmooth, re-
peatedly three-forked, corymbofe panicLs, with a pair of
acute braSeas at each fubdivifion. It is remarkable that
Labillardiere fays nothing of their colour, neither does he
here, or perhaps in any part of his work, feem to have made
any notes on the fpor, but merely to have defcribed the-
dried ipecimens after his return.

The three others have ei'her fetaceous, lateral, diftindt
ftipulas, or none at all. Theie anfwur to the genus Euofwt
of .Andrews.

1j. fiuribiinJa. Brown n. 6. (Euofma albiflora ;• Andr,
Repol. t. 520.) — Leaves lanceolate, tapcrii:"^ at each end,,
fmooth. Stipulas lateral, brilHe-lhaped. Ciuilers axillary,
compound, (horter than the leaves;- with downy flower-

ftalks Sent originally by Dr. White, from Port Jackfon,

Mr. Andrews had it in flower from the fine coUeSion of the
Marquis of Blandford, at White Knights, where it was.
trained againft a fouth wall in the open air, and in April
was coveied with a profufion of white blofibms, which had
the fceut of hawthorn. The J}em of this plant was about
four feet high, (iirubby. Branches wand-like, oppofite,
fquare, fmootb,, leafy, reddilh. Leave! wiiiow-Iike, ta-
pering iniicli at each end, near two inches long ; fmooth,
(hii.ing and dark green above ; whitiili, opaque and ob-
fcurely dotted beneath. Chjiers compound, axillary, (horter
than the leaves. Flowers iomewhat like hly of the valley^
but only half as large. Capjuks rugoie.

The three lail fpecies of this genus, which have, as before
mentioned, an acute calyx, and itamens inferted into the
throat of the corolla, have received from Mr. Erown a fort
of provifional generic nam.e, Stcmandra, expreffive of this
lad chdia^er ; fo that if aoy perfoa choofcs to ieparate then\

fieia

LOG

LOG

from Lagauia, lie may rot be at a lofs what to call them.
Thele are

L. ferpyllijolia. Br. n. 9 — " Somewhat (lirubby. Leaves
ovate. .Siipiilas w'thin the footilalks, fringed like the calyx.
Flowers terminal, fomewhat corymbofo." — Gathered by
Mr. Brown in the foiith part of New Holland.

L.piifiila. Br. n. 10.—" Herbaceous. Leaves clliptT-
cal. Stip'.ilas triangular, within the footftalks. Flowers
axillary, folitary." — Native of Port Jackfon.

L. campmiu/atn. Br. n. II "Herbaceous. Leaves

linear, v.-ithuut liipulas. Flowers terminal. Flower-ftalks
and calyx downy." — From the fouth part of New FIol-
land.

LOG.ARITHMIC, Atmo.si'iierical, is a curve
{Phue XL Anahfis, Jig. 2.) dcfcribed in the following
manner: let the point C reprefent the centre of the earth,
C A the earth's femidiamctcr, and A B any height above
the furfacc ; at A , place a right line A D, of any finite
length, at right angles with AC. In, the right line AC,
towards C, take A p fuch, tliat C A may be to A ^ in the
proportion of C B to B A. In a right line drawn through
,3, at right angles with A C, lake |3 E, of fuch length, as
ito be to A D in the proportion of the denfuy of the air at
B to the denlity at A, the earth's fnrface. The curve,
which the point E always touches, is a logarithmic, of
which A C is the afymptote ; and is called by Dr. Horflcy
the atmofpherico'I logarithmic.

Imagine this curve defcribed, and take another height

C A X A ^

A b, and take Ate = , and draw €e parallel to

/3E, meeting the curve in e. Then foS is tlie logarithm of
the ration of f3 E to to f, or of the denlity at B to the denfity
at b. But if the greater of the two heights, A B and
A b, bear but a very fmall proportion to the femidiameter
of the earth, their difference B b will be very nearly equal
topb.

For, becaufe C B ; B A = C A ; A/S by conltruftion.
Therefore, by converfion, CB : CA = CA : C;3.

In like manner, and by inverfion, CA; Cb = C? :CA,
by equi-dillance perturbatc, CB : Cb = C? : C^,

and converting, CB : Jib =: C^ : f(3,

by permutation, Bi : ,3^ =CB:Cb.

But when A B is infinitely diminifhed, C B = C A ulti-
iiialely. Alfo A i being infinitely diniinidicd, C ? = C A
ultimately. Therefore C B = C te ultimately, and B ^ =
^ ? ultimately. Q. E. D.

Now A B and A b will always be fo fmall, with refpeft
to C A, if B and i be fuppofed to reprefent any acccffible
places, that C B, C S, anu B b, fiS, may always, in this
iafe, be confidered as in their ultimate proportion of
equality.

It is ftill therefore to be admitted, as a principle, in prac-
tice, that the difference of elevation of any two places is as
the difference of the tabular logarithms of the heights of the
ijaickfilver in the barometer at the fame time at both places ;
that is, it is the logarithm of the ratio of thofe heights in
fome fyftem of logarithms. And the heights of the quick-
lilver being given by obfenation, the difference of elevation
will be known, if that particular fyllem. can be determined ;
that is, if the 7>wdulus of thi fyfti-m, or the length of the
lubtangent of the curve D Ef of that fyftem, can be afcer-
tained, in fome known meafure, as Enghfh fathoms, or
Paris toifes.

Theeaficft method of doing this, that theory fuggefls, is
to compare barometers at two ilations, fuppofe B and b,
.each of a kuown elevation A B and A^ above the level of

the fea. For the logarithms of any given ratio, in different
fyflems, are proportional to the fubtangents ; and the dif-
ference of elevation, B b, diminifhed in the proportion of
C B, (the diitance of the higher ilation from the earth's
centre,) to C ^, (a third proportional to C i, the dillance
of the lower ftation from the earth's centre, and C A, the
earth's femidiameter,) is tlie logarithm of the ratio of the
denfity at B, to the denfity at "h, (that is, of the columns of
quickfilver fuftained in the barometer at B and b,) in the at-
inofpherical fyllem. Therefore, as the difference of the
tabular logarithms of tliefe columns, to the fubtangent of
the tabular fyftem, fo (liould Bi, diminiflied as hath been
iaid, (that is, fo {liould /So,) be to tlie lubtangent of the
atmofpherical logarithmic. The utmoll height to which we
can afccnd, above the level of the fea, is fo fmall, that the
reduttion of B i may, even, in this inveftigation, always be
neglcfled. For, if A B were four Englifli miles, which
e.'^cecds the greateft accclTible heights, even of the Peruvian
mountains, and A 1? three, (3t would be fcarce one part in
500 lefs than Bi. So that, by comparing barometers at
different elevations, within a mile above the level of the fea,
the lubtangent of the atmofpherical curve might be deter-
mined, as it Ihould feem, witliout fenfible error, by taking-
fimply the difference of elevation, without reducfion, for the
logarithm of the ratio of the obferved height of the quick-
filver in the atmofpiierical fyilem.

The fubtangent is different in length at different times ;
though M. de Luc has (hewn, that it is conflant in a given
temperature ; fo that if the temperature of the air is + l6-J
of his fcale, the difference of the tabular logarithms of the
heights of the quickfilver in the barometer, gives the dif-
ference of elevation in looodthsof a Paris toife; whence the
number, which is the modulus of Briggs's fyftem, exprcffes
the length of the fubtangent of the atmofpherical curve,
fuch as it is in that temperature, in looodths of a Paris toife,
Phil. Tranf. vol. hiv. part i. p. 231, &c.

LoftAUiTiiMic, or Logistic Curve, is a curve which
obtained its name from its properties and ufes in explaining
and conftrutling logarithms ; becaufe its ordinates are in
geometrical progreffion, while the correfponding abfciffas
are in arithmetical progreffion ; fo that the abfciffas are
the logarithms of the correfponding ordinates. Hence the
curve may be conftrudled in the following manner. Fig. 3.
F late XI. Jnalyfis.

Upon any right line as an axis, take the equal parts A B,
B C, CD, &c. or the arithmetical progreffion A B, AC,
AD, &c. and at the points A, B, C, D, &c. ereft the
perpendicular ordinates A P, B Q, C R, D S, &c. in a
geometrical progreffion, and the curve line drawn through
the extremities of thefe ordinates P, Q, R, S, &c. is the
logarithmic or logiftic curve, its abfcift'as A B, A C, A D,
being as the logarithms of the refpetlive correfponding or-
dinates B g, C R, D S, S:c.

Hence, 1? any abfciffa A N = .-<;, its ordinate N O = _y,
A P = I, and rt = a certain conftant quantity, or the
modulus of the logarithms, then the equation of the curve
is .V — a X log. y = log. ji" ; the fluxion of which being

taken, it will be ;c = — ; whence the following proportion,

y

but in any curve v : .v ;: y : the fubtangent A T, and
therefore the fubtangent to this curve, is evtry where equal
to the fame conftast quantity a, the modulus of the lo-
garithms.

'L'o'fiod the «rea contained hettuccn any t-wo cidinates. —
■' Here

LOG

LOG

Here the fluxion of the area A, or y x, is y x — =ay;

which coiTeAed •rives A — a (AF — y) = a (AP— NO)
= a X P V = A T X P V. That is, tlie area A P O N,
between any two ordinatcs, is equal to the rectangle of the
conlla.': fubtangent, and the difference of the ordinatcs.
And hence, when the abfcifTa is infinite, or the Idfl ordinate
equal to zero ; then the iniinitcly long area APZ isequal
to A T X A P, ur double the triangle A P T.

Tojini the content of the foliil formed by the revolution of the
curve about its avis A Z. — The fluxion of the folid S =

fy''x—fy'x—=f>ayy, where /> = 3.14159, &c. ;

y

and the correft fluent is S = i p a x (AP^ — V ) =
:i/> X AT X (A P' — N O ), which is half the difference
between two cylinders of the common altitude tr, or A T,
and the radii of their bafes A P, NO. And hence, fup-
pofinj; the axis infiinte toivards Z, and confequently the
ordii.ate at its extremity zero, the content of the infinitely
long folid will be equal to Ip a y A P^ = i/i x A T x
A P , or Half tiie cylinder on the fame bafe and its altitude
A T.

This curve erroatly facilitates the conception of loga-
rithms, and affords a very obvious proof of the very impor-
tant propcrry of their fluxions, or very fmall increments ;
namely, that the fluxion of a number, is to the fluxion of its
logarithm as the number is to the fubtangent. As alfo
this property, that if their numbers be taken very nearly
equal, fo that their ratios may differ but a little from a ratio
of equality, then- difference will be very nearly proportional
to the logarithm of the ratio of thefe numbers to each other ;
which follows from the logarithmic arcs being very little dif-
ferent trom their chords when they are taken vei-y fmall.
The conilant fubtangent of this cui-\'e is, what Cotes calls,
the modulus of the fyflem of logarithms. This curve has
been treated of by a great number of very eminent mathema-
ticians, as Huy gens, Le Seur, Keil, Bevnouilli, Emerfon, &c.
See the latter author's Treatife on Curve Lines, page 19.

LoGAKiTiTMic, Hyperlolic. See Yi\PEHTiOLic Logarithms.

LtiGAUiTHMlc, or Loganihniical, relating to logarithms.
Thus we fay, logarithmic.7r;/ATOf//o-, curve, lit:e,fca/e.fpiral.

^LOGARITHMS, formed from the Greek Xoyo?, ratio,
and af,ifj.c:, number ; q. d. ratio of numbers ; the indices of
the ratios of numberfi one to another ; or a feries of arti-
ficial numbers proceeding in arithmetical proportion, cor-
reiponding to as many others proceeding in geometrical
proportion ; contrived for the ealing and expediting of cal-
culation.

Logarithms have been ufually defined niimcrorum propor-
tlonalium xquidifferentes comitts ; but this definition Dr. Hal-
ley and Stifelius think deficient, and more accurately de-
fine ti'.em, the indices or exponents of the radios of numbers ;
ratio being confidered as a quantity fui generis, beginning
from the ratio 01 equality, or i to I = o, and being af-
firmative when the ratio is increafmg, and negative when it
is decreafing. But a more limple idea of thefe numbers
may be formed from the following definition, iv's. The lo-
garithm of a number is that exponent of fome other num-
ber, which renders the power of the latter equal to the
former : thus if r' = a, r' = b, r' — c, &c. tlien is x the
logarithm ui a ; y the logarithm of i ; s the logarithm of
e, &c. Alfo r is tlien called the radix of the fyfteni, which
may be allumed at pkafure j but in the common tables the
radix is always 10.

We will conlider ihefe numbers under, each of the two

fatter definitions. According to the firft ; if nrity be made
the common conftquent of all ratios, or the common (land-
ard to which all other numbers are to be referred, 'hen
every logarithm will be the numeral exponent of the ratio
of its natural number to tmity. E.gr. the ratio of 8l to 1
contains the four following ratios, viz. that of 81 to 27,
17 to 9, 9 to 3, and 3 to 1 , or ° '

i I

2 7

X

T »

but all thefe ratios are equal to one another, and
fZ = ^ X ^ X J- X I = 0' ; confequently the logarithm'
of 81, is four times as great as that of 3. In the fame
manner, the ratio of 24 to I, or \'^ = .j-*- x '-- X i — ^
X I X f^ ; and, therefore, the logarilhm of 24 is equal to
the fum of the logarithms of 2, 3, and 4. And, univcr-
fally, the magnitude of the ratio of A to i, is to the mag-
nitude (if the r.itio of B to i, as the logarithm of A to
the logarithm of B. Hence we derive a method of mea-
furing all ratios whatever, let their ccnlequents be what
they will : e. g. the ratio of A to B, is the excefs of the
ratio of A to i, above the ratio of B to i ; therefore the nu-
meral exponent of the ratio of A to B, will be the excefs of
the numeral exponent of the ratio of A to I, above the nu-
meral exponent of the ratio of B to 1, that is, the excefs of
the logarithm of A above the logarilhm of B : therefore the
magnitude of the ratio of A to B is to the magnitude of
the ratio of C to D as the e.xcefs of the logarithm of A
above the logarithm of B, which is the meafure of the for-
mer ratio, is to the excefs of the logarithm of C above that
of D, which is the meafure of the latter ratio : and thus
we fee that logarithms are as true and proper meafurea o£
ratios, as circular arcs are of angles >

The nature and genius of logarithms w.ll be eafily con*
ceived from what follows : — -A feries of quantities increailng
or decreafing according to the fame ratio is called a geo-
metricid progrcjion ; e. gr. I. 2. 4. 8. 16 32, &c. A feric3
of quantities increafinj or decreafing, according to the fame
difference, is called an arithmetical progrejfian ; e. gr. 3. 6. 9.
12. 15. 18. 21. Now, if under the numbers proceeding in
a gedraetrical ratio, be placed as many of thuf- proceeding
in the arithmetical one, thefe laft are crdled the lo'ariLhnw
of the firfl.

Suppofe e.gr. two progrefuons :.
Geomet. i. 2. 4. 8. 16. 32. 64. 1,28. 256. 5.12*
Ariihinet. o. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Logarithms.
O will be the logarithm of the firll term ; vix. I ; c, of the
6th, 32 ; 7, the logarithm of the 8th, ic8, ^c.

Thefe indices or logarithms may be adapted to any geo-
metric feries ; and, therefore, there may be as many kinds of.
indices or logarithms, as there can be taken kinds jaf geo-
metric feries ; but the logarithms mod co.-ivcnicnt for com-
mon ufe, are thole adapted to a geometrical feries increafino-
in a ten-fold progreilioii, as in the fequel. The doctrine and
ufe of logarithms may be conceived from the following
propofitions.

1. If the logarithm of unity be O, the kgarithm of the futturrt:
or prrjduB '■mH! be eqiid to the fum of the logarithm^ uf ths
fiitors. — For as unity is to one of ti.e fattors, fa is the
other factor to the product. So that the K)^arithm of the
produtl is 3 fourth eqiiidiflerent term to the logariihjTi of
unity, and thofe of the faftors ; but the logarithm of unity
being o, the fum of the logarithms of the f iclors mull be
the logarithm of the fadtum, or produft. Q. E.D. Hence,.
fincethefaAors of a fqirare are equal to each other, i.e. a
fquare is the factum or product of its root multiplied into
itfelf, the logarithm of the f^uare will be littubk ihe loga-
rithm of the root.

Id

LOGARITHMS.

In the fame manner it appear?, that the logaritlim of the index of the power of which the root !• to he found. But

«ube is triple ; of the biquadratc. quadruple; of the fifih each of thcfe rules will require a more particular illuftration,

power, quintuple ; of the fixth, fextuple, &c. of tha loga- which will be found in the fuhftquent part of this article,
ritlim of the root. 'fhe properties of logarithms hitherto mentioned, and

Unity, therefore, is to the exponent of the power, as ths their various ufcs, are taken not.ce of by Stiftlius : but they

logarithm of the root to the logarithm of the power. come all far (hort of the uff of logarithms in trigonometry.

So that the logarithm of the power is had, if the loga- firll difcovered by John Napier, haron of Merehiilon, in

rithnt of the root be multiplied by its exponent; and the
logarithm of the root h had, if the logarithm of the power be
divided by its exponent.

And hence we derive one of the 2reat ufes of logarithms,
which is to expedite and faAlitate the bufmefs of multiplica-
tion, involution of powers, and txtradlion of roots ; the
former of which is here performed by mere addition, and the
two latter by multiplication and divifion. Thus ?, the fum
of the logarithms I and 2, is the logarithm of S, the pro-
duft of 2 and 4. In like manner 7, the fum of the loga-
rithms 2 and 5, is the logarithm of 128, the produdl of 4
snd ^2. Again, 6, the logarithm of 64, which is the tiiird
power of 4, or 4", is equal to j K 2. And 8, the loga-
rithm of 256, which is the fourth power of 4, or 4-', is equal
to 4 X 2. Moreover, ^, the log-irilhm of the fquare root
S, is half the logarithm 6, of the Square 64 ; and 2, the lo

Scotland, and iirll publiflii-d at Edinburgh in 1614, in his
Mirilici Logarithmorum Canonis Defcnptio. This work
was trandated bv Mr. Edward Wright, and publiilied by his
for., with the aflillance of Mr. Driggs, in the year 1616 or
1618. The method of conflnn^ting the table was rcferved
by the ingenious author, till the fenie of the learned upon
his invention (hould be known ; neverthelefs Kepler, in hii
Chilias Logarithmorum ad totidem Numeros rotnndos,
pubhihed at Marpurg in 1724 ; Speidell in his New Lo.-^a-
rithms, publifhed in i6ig, and republiflied with conlider-
able additions, in a iixth impredion in 1624 ; Benj. Urhnius,
in his Table of Logarithms, printed at Cologne in 1625,
and others, at home and abroad, laboured at the computation
of logarithms, and conllruAcd Imall tables, conformable to
the plan of lord Najuer But of all thofe who aflided in
the conftrudion of logarithmic tables, Briggs is moll

garithm of the cube root 4, is one-third the logarithm 6 of the confpicuous ; it was he who fu-ll fuggcllod our prefent fyf-

cube 64.

2. If the logarithm of unity be o, ihe logarithm of the quo-
tient 'will be equal to the dijference of the logarithms of the
di-uifor and dividend. —For as the divifor is to the dividend,
fo is unity to the quotient ; therefore the logarithm of the
quotient is a fourth equidiffeivnt number to tlic loganthinsof
the divifor, the dividend, and the logarithm of unity. The
logarithm of unity, therefore, being o, the difference of the
logarithm of the divifor, and that of the dividend, is the lo-
garithm of the quotient. Q. E. D.

Hence appears another great advantage of log-irithnis ;
via. their expediting the bufmefs of divifion, and p rforn-
jng it by a bare fubtraftion. E. gr. 2, the differt- iice be-
tween 7 and J, is the logarithm of the quotient 4, obtained
by dividing 128 by 32. In like manner, j, the difTcrcnce
between 8 and j, is the logarithm of the quotient 32, ob-
tained by dividing 256 by 8.

Thefe properties of logarithms, however, are more obvious
according to our latter definition. For in that cafe, if
r' = a, and r' ^ b, » and y being the logarithms of a and b,
we have immediately from the firlt principles of algebra,

j^ = f'

= ab

r" ~ r> =

r ' =

= C/'

Multiplication.

Divifion.

Involution.
Evolution.

From which formnlx it is evident, that the logarithm
«f the product of a multiplied by b is equal to the fum
•f the logarithms of a and b. The logarithm of the quo-
tient of a divided by b, is equal to the difference of the
logarithms of a and b. The logarithm of the «th power
of a is equal to n times the logarithm of a. And the
logarithm of the nth root of a, is equal to the logarithm
cf a divided by n. Therefore, univerlally, to multiply two
numbers together, we mutl take the fum of their loga-
rithms : to divide one number by another, we lubtract the
logarithm of the latter from the logarithm of the former.
To involve a number to any power, we muft multiply its
logarithm by the index of the power. And to extract the
joot of any number, we mull divide its logarithm by the

tern, and laboured more than any one in the computation ot
the numbers it contains. In the prefent Hate of analylis
many comparatively fliort and f afy methods may be employed
for this purpole, that were unknown to the early writers ;
and for want of which the labour attending the firlt com.
putation was exceedingly great ; fome idea of which may
be formed from the following illiillralion.

To find the logarithm of any number, according to Briggs' s
method. — I. Becaufe, I. 10. 1^0. 1000. joooo, &c. conlli-
tuie a geometrical progreffion, their logarithms maybe taken
at pleafure : to be able, then, to cxprcls the logarithms of the
intermed.ate numbers by decimal fractions, take 0.00000000,
i.oooooooo, 2.00000000, 3.00000000, 4.00000000. &c.
2. It is manifeft, that for thofe numbers which are not con-
tained in the fcale of geometrical progreffion, the juit lo-
gar;tlims cannot be had : yet they may be had fo near the
truth, that, as to matters of ufe, they fhall be altogether as
good as if ilriftly jull. To make this appear, fuppofe
the I'garithm of the number 9 were required ; between
1.0000000 and 10.0000000, find a mean proportional, and
belvecn their logarithms 0.00000000, and i.oooooooo an
equidiffereut mean, which will be the logarithm thereof ;
that IS, of a number exceeding three by liV-ViyVcJ ^nd
therefore far remote from nine. Between 3 and 10, there-
fore, lind another mean proportional, which may come fome-
what nearer 9 ; and between 10 and this mean another ilili ;
and fo on between the numbers next greater and next lef*
than 9, till at lall you arrive at 9 \ o o o ■:, o . o - ; which
not being one millionth part from 9, its logarithm may,
without any lenlibie error, be taken for that of 9 itfelf.
Seeking then in each cafe for the logarithms of the mean
proportionals, yoH will at laft have 0.954251, which is ex-
ceedingly near the true logarithm of 9. 3, If in like man-
ner you lind mean proportionals between 1.0000000 and
3 1622777, and alhgn the proper logarithms to each, you
will at length have the logarithm of the number 2, and
fo of the rell.

Such was the method employed by the «arly computors
of logarithms : and though they had certain means of
abridging the operations in particular cafes, yet it is evi-
dent that the computation of them was not effefted with-
out immenfe labour ; a particular and interefting account of
which, with an explanation of the feveral modifications of

tb«

LOGARITHMS.

tTie above method made ufe of by different authors, may
be feen in the introduftion to Dr. Hutton's Mathematical
Tables. It is luirieccflary to obferve, that thefe computa-
tions were only required for prime numbers ; for theie being
once obtained, the logarithms of all other numbers were
found by firaple addition. At prcfcnt, we have only fpokon
of logarithms as they are applicable to numerical compu-
tations. But they are aifo of very exteniive ufe in the
higher geometry, particularly in the doftrine of fluxions,
and it will not be amifs, before we quit this part of the fub-
jeft. to give an idea of the way in which they have been
confidered by writers on the latter fcience. Maclaurin, in
his Treatife of Fluxions, has explained the nature and gc-
iiefis of logarithms, agreeably to the notion of their firll
inventor, lord Napier, delivered in his Mirif. Logar. Canon.
Defcript. He thei-e fuppofes logarithn-s, and the quanti-
ties to which they correfpond, to be generated by the mo-
tion of a point. If this point moves over equal fpaces in
equal times, the hne defcinbed by it increafes equally.

Again, aline decreafcs proportionally when the point that
moves over it dofcribes iucli parts in equal times as are always
in th.e fame con llant ratio to the lines from which they are
fubducled, or to the diftances of that point at the beginning
of thofe times, from a given term in the line. In like man-
Jier, a line may increafe proportionally, if in equal time
the moving point defcribes fpaces proportional to its dif-
tances from a certain term, at the beginning of each time.
Thus, in the firll cafe, let aChe to ao, ceito co, tU'to Jo,
ef tu

a e d e f g a

O R

/

eo, fg to fo. alivays in the fame ratio of Q R to Q S ; and
fuppofe that the pointy fets out tromo, defcribingar, c J. de,
ef,Jg, in equal parts of the time ; and let the i'pace defcribed
by p, in any given time, be always in the fame ratio to the
d'.llance of p from o, at the beginning of that time, then will
the right hneiz? decreat; proportionally ; and the lines a »,
$ 0, do, e 0, fo, &c. or the diftances of the point p from o,
at equal fucceeding intervals of time, are in a contuiued geo-
metrical progreflion.

In like manner, the line oa increafes proportionally, if the
point p in equal times defcribes fpaces a c, c d, de, ef, fg,
&c. fo that 3 r is to (7 0, c d to c o, de to do, &c. in a con-
ilant ratio.

C D E F
A — _B

d

f

If we now fuppofe a point P defcribing the line A B with
an uniform motion, equal to that with which p fets out from
«, in defcribing the line a o, while the pointy defcribes a line
increafing or decreafmg proportionally, the line A P defcribed
by P with this uniform motion, in the fame time that a a. by
increafing or decreafmg proportionally, becomes equal to
op, is the logarithm of op. Thus AC, A D, A E, &c.
are the logarithms of o c, o d, oe, &c. refpeftively ; and
« a is the quantity whofe logarithm is fuppofed equal to
nothing.

We have here abftrafted from numbers, that the doftrine
Vol.. XXI.

may be the more general ; but it is plain, that if A C, A D,
A E, &c. be fuppofed i, 2, 3, Sec. in arithmetic progref-
lion ; DC, 0 d, 0 c, &c. will be in geometric progreflion ;
and that the logarithm of 9 a, which may be taken for unity,
is nothing.

Lord Napier, in his firft fcheme of logarithms, fuppofes,
that while op increafes or decreafcs proportionally, the uni-
form motion of the point P, by which ih-.- logarithm of op
is generated, is equal to the velocity of p dXa.; that is, at
the term of time when the logarithms begin to be generated.
Hence logarithms, formed after this model, are called Napier's
logarithms, and fometimcs mitural logarithms.

When the ratio is given, the point /> defcribes the differ,
ence of the terms of the ratio in the fame time. When a
ratio is. duplicate of another ratio, the pointy defcribes the
difference of the terms in a double time. When a ratio is
triplicate of another, it defcribes t!ie difference of the terms
in a triple time ; and fo on. Alfo, when a ratio is com-
pounded of two or more i-atios, the point p defcribes tlie
difference of the terms of that ratio, in a time equal to the
fum of the times in which it defcribes the differences of thfe
terms of the fimple ratios of which it is compounded. And
what is here faid of the times of tiie motion of p, when op
increafes proportionally, is to be applied to the fpaces de-
fcribed by P in tliofe times, with its uniform motion.

Hence the chief properties of logarithms are deduced.
They are the meafures of ratios. The excefs of the lo-
garithm of the antecedent above the logarithm of the con-
Icquent meafures the ratio of thofe terms. The meafure
of the ratio of a greater quantity to a leffer is pofitive, as
this ratio compounded with any other ratio increafes it.
The ratio of equality, compounded with any other ratio,
neither increafes nor diminifhes it ; and its meafure is nothing.
The meafure of the ratio of a leffer quantity to a greater is
negative, as this ratio compounded witii any other ratio di-
miniflies it. The ratio of any quantity A to unity, com-
pounded with the ratio of unity to A, produces the ratio
of A to A, or the ratio of equality ; and the meafures of
thofe two ratios deftroy each other, when added together:
fo that when the one is conlidercd as pofitive, the other is to
be confidered as negative.

When op incrcales proportionally, the motion of ^ is per-
petually accelerated ; and, on the contrary, when op de-
creaies proportionally, the motion of p is perpetually re-
tarded.

If the velocity of the point p be always as the diffanc?
op, then will this line mcreafe or decreafe in the manner
fuppofed by lord Napier : and the velocity of the point
p being the fluxion of the line op, will always vary in the
fame ratio as this quantity itfelf. See Maclaurin's Flux,
art. 151 — 160.

The fluxion of any quantity is to the fluxion of its lo-
garithm, as the quantity itfelf is to unity.

Hence the fluxion of the loafarithm of .v will be -

For .r : I : : A- : — =: the fluxion of the logarithm required.

When op increafes proportionally, the increments gene-
rated in any equal times, are accurately in the fame ratio as
the velocities cf p, or tlie fluxions of op, at the beginning,
end, x>-c at any fimilar terms of thofe times.

When op increafes, or decreafes propwtionally, the flux-
ions of this line, in all the higher orders, increafe or decreafe
in the fame proportion as the line itfelf increafes or decreafcs ;
fo that one rule ferves for comparing together thofe of any
kind at different terms of time ; and iu this cafe we never
J.. 1 arrive

LOGARITHMS.

arrive at any conftant or invariable fluxion. If the log;\ritlims
of Uvo quantities be always to each other in any invariable
ratio, the fluxions of thofc quantities fhall be in a ratio that is
compoundedof a ratio of the quantities themfelves, and of
the invariable ratio of tliuir logarithms.

Let o^be greater than oa; ail: up : : oa -.op; and let oa,

0 q a d e f g h k p x

»d, lie, ef, fg, &c. be in continued proportion : then by
adding together ad, ^ d e, ye/, \fg, &c. we approxi-
mate continually to the value «f A P, the logarithm of
Ob. And we approximate continually to the logarithm
or 0 d, by fumming up the differences betwixt a d and
i de, 3 ef, and ^fg, \ g h and ^ h k, &c. See Mackurin's
Fluxions, art. 171, 172. From what has been faid, it
follows, that \i ao : 0 d : : 0 p : 0 X, then the logarithm
of ox will be equal to the fum of the logarithms ol 0 p
and 0 d : that is, to the fum o{ a d + ^d e + j f / + \fg
+ \gb+ yji,Sic.mdad+ide + ief+ifg + \gl,

A = (r- i)-iir~iy + i{r-iy ~i,c.
A' = (r - 1)^ - (r- !)■ + &c.
A" = &c.

where A, A', A", A"', &c. are condant but unknown
quantities. And now, in order to determine the law by
which they are connetled with each other, let x be increafed
by any indeterminate quantity z ; then r'*''' — i + A

(.r + z) +A' {x + z)- + A" (x + z)' A' "-

(x + !!i)";or, expanding the powers of * + z, and Hopping
at the firll two terms, we have

r' + '= 1 + A{x + z)

+ A' (.r= 4- 2 .r z + &c.)

+ A" {x^ + 3 X- z + &c.)

+ A"— Ma-" + « *■'"' ~ + Sec.)

+ A<"' (.v'' + ' + (« + i) x" + &.C.)

Again

(i + A« + A':r' -I- A"«^ + &c.) X
( I + A s f A' a'' + A" z' + &c.)

•^ \h i, &c. and a d ■

■\dc^

h k, &c. which fum is 1 ad -{■ ^ ef -\- \ g h, &c

Let a q =: ad ; then the logarithm of 0 x will meafure
the ratio of odto 0 q. But od andoy have half their
fum equal to 0 a, and half their difference equal to a^, which
are the two firll terms of the geometric progrelfion 0 a, a il,
de, ef, fg, g h, hi, &c. Hence, if oiz = i, and a d =
X, de, ef, fg, die. will be rcipcdtively, x\ x^, x^, &c. and
the ratio of i -f- x to i — ,v will be equal to that of 0 d to
0 q. But the logarithm of this ratio is 2 a r/ + §■ f /" -|- ig ^

■+ , &c. therefore the logarithm of '- = 2 x * + J .v'

ef — ~fg -)- ^glj — i the aftual multiplication of which gives

+ T •■''^ + T -^ ? + '^c. agreeably to what has been fliewn
by Dr. Halley and others.

Having thus given an idea of the forms under which lo-
garithms were confidered, and the methods by which
they were computed by fome of the early writers on this
fubjeft, it will be proper now to bellow a few columns, to
explain the more modern way of invefligating the principles
and of computing thefe very ufeful numbers ; in doing
which, however, the limits of our article will neccflarily
confme our obfervation to only the inoft popular and ufeful
formulae.

We have already defined a logarithm to be the index of a
certain number called the radix, which beinir raifed to the
power denoted by that index or logarithm, will produce the
given number. If, therefore, r = N, then .v is the loga-
rithm of N, and r is the radix of the fy (lem. Now, lirft, in or-
der to find an analytical expreffion for N in terms of .v and r ;
r' mull be converted into a ieries, for which purpofe it may
be put under the form

r' = (I + (r -,))'= 1 + ^.(^-1) + 'LI^HA

{>■ - I)' +

■{■■<:- l) {x - a)

{r - i)' + &c.

= I + X

I + A « -t- A' .r* + A" *' + &c.
by writing

»■■ + »= I .f A (« + a) + A' x' + A"x' . . . Af '

A\vs + A', Ai-'-s .

&c.

whence, by comparing the correfponding terms in the two
expa.dions, we have

2 A' = A'-, or A' =^ ; A" = A A' = — ;

A'
and therefore A" =

in the fame way A

I . 3.3 ...(« + i)

And coufequentlv,

A^ \}

r ' = N = i + A .V H X- ^ .r' + &c,

1.3 1.2.^:;

which is the analytical expreflion for any number in terms
of the radix r and its logarithm x ; but the reverfe of this,
by which the logarithm is exprefled in terms of its number
and radix, is the formula which is more particularly appli-
cable in the prefenl enquiry. This may be found as
follows.

In the preceding article we found

r' =: N = I + A .f -I x^ + —^_ •_ .-«5 + &c.

J . 2 1.2.3

here A = (r — i ) — -i (r — 1 )' + i (r -

where A = (r — i ) - i (r — 1 )' + i (r — l)^ - &c. ;
and if now we maice

B = (N- I) - HN- i)'' + HN- I)'- &c.
we fhall have on the fame principles

N' ^ I + B a +
But

B^

A^ A""

M» = r"^ =: 1 + A .-c z + .v" z' H A-' 1:^ +

1.2 ' • - • 3

&x. ; whence, by comparing the co-eiScients of a in bot"

ferics, we have

3 A.,

LOGARITHMS.

A r = B ; =

A'*-' . B' which we have reprefented by M, It will, however, be

.2.3 ■' proper, before we proceed any farther, to offer a few re-

= B • whence "'^'''^^ "P°" ^^^^ abfolute value uf this feues, according ta

' any given radix. Firlt then, iince

1.2 1.2 1.2.3 ^
each of which gives the fame refult, viz. A x
we obtain immediately

^ ^ B _(N- i)-x(N- i)' + i(N- i)^ - kc. log. I 4-
A

i «" + :

: a' + &c.

(r- i)_i(r- i)^+ i(r~ i) - &c.
which is the analytical expreffion for the logarithm of any
number N, in fiinftions of itfelf, and the radix of the fyllem ;
that is, writing a inltead of N

1 ^ ^ {a~i)-l(a- lY +i(a-iy- &c.
S- (r - I) _ i (,- _ ,)' + i (r - I)' - &c.

±a -ia' +

&c.

ii'

&c.

Or,Iog.i±.= ^_^j_,^_^^_^

This, however, muft only be confidered as a fimple alge-
braical method of expreffing a logarithm ; but it does not
always anf.ver the purpofes of calculation, for if a be any
number greater than unity, it is obvious that the feries in
the numerator will either converge very flowly, or othervvife
v.'ill diverge, and the fame with regard to the denommator,
fuppofing r to be equal to 10, as it is in the common fyllem ;
in facl, the terms of the feries are larger the more remote
they are from the beginning ; and confequently no number
of them can exhibit, either exaftly or nearly, the true fum.
L.et us, therefore, invelligate the method of fubmitting thefe
to calculation ; in order to which we will repeat agam our
laft feries, viz.

, + a-ia^ ±^a^- ia-±Sic.

and here, fmce the denominator is always a conllant quan-
tity when the radix of the fyftem is given, we may make

M = (r - i) - W - ^y + i {>■ - ')'- &c-
which renders the above expreffion ftill more fimple, as in
that cafe it becomes barely

log. I + a ■

S^

+

f &c

•}

Or, taking a negative,

log.

k^i-"-

M

Whence again by fubtraftion,

!«'- &c. X

icr.

Now a =

if, therefore, we fubKitntc in the

foregoing exprefTicn

a + I

inflead of a, it become*

('• - I) - 5 (»• - 'J' + 5 (»■ - I}' - &c.
the denominator and numerator of this fraction are to-
tally independent of each other, and therefore r may be
aflumed at ple;ifure, and the value of tile whole denomina-
tor computed fur any particular magnitude afTigncd to thii
letter : or othcrwife, the whole denominator mav be taken
equal to any quantity, and the value of /■ itfelf determined
by computation. The latter method, at firft fight, appears
the moll eligil)li- ; for by affumiug the whole denominator
equal to unity, it dilappears entirely, and the expreffion be-
comes

log. ( I + a) = a _ i a' -I- 1 a' - J- a< -f. &c.

There are, however, inconveniences attending this fyftem,
that do not appear upon a flight view of the fubject, but
which are notvvithftandii'g very evident upon a farther in-
veftigation. In the cafe in which the whole denominator is
affumed equal to unity, the value of r, the radix of tliis par-
ticular fyllem, is found to be 2,7182818284, &c. and the

fraftion - becomes =: i. Thefe conllitute what are called
M

hyperbolic logarithms, and which are treated of under that
article in the prefent work. We (hall, therefore, enter no
farther upon the fubjeft in this place, than is neceffary to
Ihew tlie defeft of this fyllem for general purpofes, when
compared with that now in common ufc, a deleft which i*
by no means compenfated by the trifling advantage at-
tending their computation. In the common fyllem the radix
r is alTumed equal to 10, the fame as the radix of our fcale
of notation ; and hence arifes a moll important advantage,
which is, that the logarithm of all numbers expreffed by the
fame digits, vi'hether integers, decimals, or mixed of the
two, have the fame decimal part ; the only alteration being
in the index or charafteriftic of the logarithm. For the
radix being 10,0, 1, 3,3, &c. willbelogarithms of 1,10, lO",
&c. that is, 10" = I, lo' =: 10, 10 — 100, &c. ; and
therefore, to multiply or divide a number by any power of
10, we have only to add or lubtraft the number expreffing
that power from the integial part of the logarithm, and the
decimal part will ftill remain the fame, by which means the
tables of lo£rarithms are much more contrafted than they
could be with any other radix ; for in the hyperbolic fvffem,
or in any other, which has not its radix the fame as that of
the fcale of notation, every particular number would require
a particular logarithm ; and this circumilance would either
fwell the tables to an unmanageable iize, or if they were
kept within the prefent limits, frequent computations
would become necedary ; fo that in either way it is clear that
the advantages of the prefent logarithms much more than
counterbalance the extra trouble in computing them. This

loo

_ _r ^ S('L——\ -L ' ( ^. I J3 . ! (t H js in fact only confifts in multiplying the hyperbolic logarithm

M l^'' + 1^ Va +1/ \a + 1/ by a conllant failor ; -vi-z. the reciprocal of the foregoing

conftant denominator reprefented above by y*» 'he value of

-f- &c. \ which feries muft neceflarily convergt, becaufe

the d"nominator of each of the fra£lions is greater than its
numerator ; ftill, however, when a is a number of any con-
fiderable magnitude, the decreafe in the terms will be fo
flow as to render the formula ufelefs for the purppfes of cal-
lation.

At prefent we have affumed the feries which conftitutes
the denominator in our firll expreffion a known quantity,

which, when r = 10, is — v

= -43429448,

2.30258^09, &c.

&c. Hence it is obvious, that different fyftems of logarithm*
are connefted together by conftant niultiphers, and by
means of which a logarithm may always be converted ."tom
one fcale to atiolher. Thus the liyperbohc logarithm of a
1.. 1 2 number

LOGARITHMS.

Bumbcr is transFormed to the common logarithm, by multi- itig them from one fcale to another ; we will now add on''

plying the former by .4342944 ; and the latter is converted example by way of illullration. Let it tlu-refore be

into the former by multiplying it by 2.30258509. propofed to find the common logarithm of 3. In this caie

Having faid thus much with regard to advantages of dif- our
ferentfyltems of logarithms, and the method of transform-

M

2
becomes log. 3 = - x

the computation of which will ftand thus :
I

12 "^3.2'

I

I
7. 2'

9. 2'

11.2"
I

13 • 3'^
I

35.2'>
I

17.2"

1. Log. a =

2. Log. a =

3. Log. a =
4

Log. - =
5. Log. ^ =

I

M
I

M
2

M
1

M
I

M '
a

.0416666666
.00625
.0011160714
.000217013S
.0000443892
.0000093900
.0000020345
.0000004487
: {{a~ I) -

n.f

ij

I

I

1

5.2-

7.2'

I

19.2"

I

+ &

-}

ai.2"
I

whence

ii

.0000001002

.0000000227

.0000000050
•549306H22

(a - ly + i {a - jy -

{{:-^)+^(:-f^>

{(^')-'C-t-')

7. Log. a = log. (a - I) + j^ X {J + 7^

8. Log. a = log. (a - j) + ^ X 1^3-^-

^ZSSJ^' °' ^^'♦'^'^^^ ^ 549306142^ =
.4771212, which is the logarithm of 3 required.

This feries, we have already obfcrved, will only anfwerfor
the computation of the logarithms of fmall numbers, in
other cafes different feries mull be employed according to
tiie particular number under confideration. The limits of this
article will not admit of an inveftigation of the feparate cafes.
But for the fake of reference it will be uleful to fubjoin a
few of the mod ufeful formulas, for which purpofe we avail
ourfelves of the fcleftion made by Mr. Bonnycallle, in his
valuable treatife of Trigonometry.

^°2T = M

+
+

+
+

&c

C-f^)' - - }

J

2 (a - I)'

9. Log.

log. (a - 2) 4-

2
M

+

+ ■

3 (a- i;^
I

1 3(«-i)'^5(«-i)'
To the abore may be added the following, which will be found ufeful on many occafions.

10. Log. 1 = ^ X |(« - a~') - i {a - fl-') + i (a- a ') - &C.J

+ &c

&c.|

+ &c.

+ &c,

}

11. Log. (a + 2) = log. a .|- - X { J-

12. Log. (a-^) =log.a- ijx{^+ xy+ i^ + 1^; + &c.j
,3. Log. (.+ .)= log. a ± ^ X {(^-^) + .1 (^y + i (^y -r &c. }

J4. Log. it =

/«

I) -4(:;^'a- ir+iCv/^- 0'-

&c.

}

Thef*

LOGARITHMS.

Tiiefe formuljE might have been extended to a much
greater length, bat thofe that are given will be found to em-
brace the generality of cafes, and will be found ufeful on va-
rious occaiions.

The publications on the fubjeft of logarithms have been fo
numerous, that we can only find room to mention a fmall
portion of them, but as it is ufeful to know which are re-
puted the teft, and particulai'ly the beil editions of the
fame authors, we (liall fubjoin the following enumeration,
which may be confidered as contaming the moft refpeclable
and accurate works of tlus kind.

I. The firlt canon of logarithms for natural numbers from
I to 2o,coo, and from 90,000 to 100,000, was conftrucled
and publifhcd in 1624, by Briggs, with the approbation of
the inventor lord Napier.

I. Briggs's logarithms, with their difference to 10 places
of figures ; as alfo the logarithmic fines, tangents, &c. by
George Miller, London 1 63 1.

3. " Trigonometria," by Richard Norwood 163 1, con-
taining a table of logarithms from 1 to io,coo, befides fines,
tangents, &c.

4. " DireSorium Generale Uranometricum," by Francis
Bonaveniura Cavalerius, Bologna 1633. This work, befide
the ufual table of logarithms, contains feveral new and ufe-
ful tables of fines, verfed fines, &c. and fome other original
matter. *

5'. In 1643 appeared the " Trigonometria" of the fame
author, which may alfo be confidered an interefting work.

6. " Tabulae Logarithmic*" by Nathaniel Rowe, Lon-
don 1633. In this work the logarithms are given to eight
places of figures, for every nu.mber from I to ioc,ooo, and
logarithmic fines, tangents, &c. to every hundredth part of
degrees to ten places.

7. " Trigonometria Britannica" by John Newton, Lon-
don, 16^8. Here the logarithmic tables are put in the mott
convenient form, being nearly the fame as is now adopted
by authors of the prefent period.

5. Adrian Viacq alfo pubhfhed different editions of loga-
rithmic tables, which have been fince republiftied ; thefe are
generally confidered very accurate and ufeful tables, parti-
cularly the edition of 1631. ,

g. Sherwins's mathematical tables, publifhed in 8vo. Lon-
den 1706, form the moll complete colleftion of any we have
yet noticed ; containing, befides the logarithms of all numbers
from 1 to 100,000, the fines, tangents, fecants, and verfed
•fines, both natural and logarithmic, to every minute of the
quadrant. The firfl edition was printed in 1706, but the
third, publifhed in 1742, as reviled by Gardiner, is coi.fi-
dered as fuperior to any other. The fifth, and lall, edition
publifhed in 1 7 17, is fo incorreft, that no dependence can
be placed upon it.

The third edition abovc-menti&ned, which is called Gar-
diner's tables, was republifked at AvignoB, ia France, in

177c, but this is not confidered fo accurate as the original
one by Gardiner himfelf.

10. An " Antilogarithmic Canon," for readily finding
the number corrcfponding to any logarithm, was begun by
the algcbraift Harriot, and completed by Warner, the editor
of the former's works, but it was never publifned for want
of proper encowragcment. But a complete canon of this
kind was publifhed by James Dodfon 1742, in which the
numbers anfwering to each logarithm from i to 100,000, are
computed to 1 1 places of figures.

1 1 . In T 7S3 tvas publifjied, by M. Callet, at Pari?, a very
neat and ufeful colkaion of logarithmic tables ; and in 1795
an enlarged edition of the fame work, under the title of
" Tables Portative de Logarithms." This ii an elegant
work, beautifully printed and fiercotyped, at the celebrated
Didot's prefs ; it is more correft than the former edition,
though it contains a few eiTors not noticed in the fill of errata.

12. Dr. Hutton's " Mathematical Tables," containing
the common hyperbohc and logiftic logarithms, alfo fines,
tangents, fecants, and verfed fines, both natural and loga-
rithmic, together with feveral other tables ufeful in mathe-
matical calcularions. To which is prefixed a hiflory of the
d-.fcoveries and writings of the mofl celebrated author's on this
fubjea. This work was firfi; publifhed in 1785, fince
which time it has pafled through feveral editions, which £re
all very correct.

13. Taylor's tables of logarithmic fines and tangents to
every fecond of the quadrant, to wluch is prefixed a table of
logarithms from i to 100,000. This is a very valuable
work, and has a ufeful introduction compofed by the late
afironomer royal Dr. Mafkelyjie.

14. Vega's tables, publifhed in Latin and German, is alio
a very excellent performance, particularly the fecond edition
of 1797.

15. Another very accurate and extenfrve colledion of
tables, computed for the decimal divifisn of the circle by
Borda, and revived and augmented by Delambre, was pub-
lifhed in Paris. This work is held in great erteem by the
French ; but it is of little ufe to Englifh mathematicians on
account of the particular divifion ot the circle. It is, how-
ever, preceded by a very perfpicuous and fcientific invelliga-
tion of the moft ufeful logarithmic feries, and trigonometrical
formuli ; and may therefore be read with interell by the o-e-
neral mathematician. Befides the authors above-mentioned,
many others have treated on the fubjed of logarithms, among
the principal of whom are Halley, Leibnitz, Mercator,
Cotes, Brook Taylor, Euler, MacLaurin, Wolfius, Keill,
and Simpfon.

As we have frequent occafion to refer to tables of loga-
rithms in the courfe of this work ; we have fubjoined a table
of logarithms of all numbers from 1 to io,coo, which will,
be found ufeful ia various cafes wlfien other tables may not
be at biuid.

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms, from i to 10,000.

100

0

I

2

3

4

i

6

7

8

9

Dili

0000000

0004341 0008677

0013009 ! 0017337

0021661 0025980

0030295

00346 :5

0038912

4324I

101

0043214

CO47512 0051805

0056094

0060380

0064660 ] 0068937

0073210

0077478

0081742

428c

102

0086002

0090257 0094529

0098756

0103000

0107239 i 0111474

01 15704

01 1993 1

0124154 1423s

'0.^

0128372

0132537 0136797

0141003

0145205

0149403 0153598

0157788

0161974

0166155

419!-

104

10 J

O'70333!o'74)07'°i78677

0182843

0187. 05

0191163 0195317

0199467

C203613

0207755

4156
4"<,

02 1 1893

0216027 1 0220157

0224284

0228406

0232525 0236639

0240750

0244857

0248960

106

O2530f9

025715410261245

0265333

0269416

0273496 0277572

0281644

0285713

0289777

408t.

"

107

0293S38

0297895 10301948

0305997

0310043

0314085 0318123

0322157

0326 1 88

0330214

4042

108

0334238

O33S257 ,0342373

0346285

0350293

0354297 0358298

0362295

036'. 289

0370279

4004I

109

110

0374265

0378248 10382226

03S6202

0390173

0394141 0398106

0402066

0406023

0409977 J396fc

0413927

0417873 JO421816

0425755

0429691

0433623 0437551

0441476

0445398 044931 J 3932

1 1 1

04531^0

O45714I j 0461048

0464952

0468852

0472749

0476642

0480532

0484418 0488301 I3897

I 12

0492180

0496056 I 0499929

0503-98

0507663

0511525

05153^4 0519239

0523091 1052693913862

"3

0,-30784

0534636 '0538464

0542299

0546 1 3 1

0549959

0553783 °5S1^^^5

05614.3 0565237 1382S

11 +
"5

0569049

0572856 1 0576661

0580462

0584260

0588055

0591846 0595634

0599419 0603200

j3,795

0606978

0610753

0614525

0618293

062205S

0625820 1 0629578 0633334

0637086

0640834 3762

116

0644780

0648322

065206'

0655797

0659530

0663259

1 0666986

0670709

0674428

067S45 3729

117

06S1859

o6S^^6cj

0689276 j 0692980

0696681

0700379

0704073

0707765

0711453

071513813693

118

0718820

0722409

0726175 0729847

0733517

0737184

0740847

0744507

0748 1 64

075181913^67

119
120

0755470 0759118

0762763 0766404

0770043

0773679

0777312

0780942

0784568 j 0788192

3636

0791812

0795430

0799045 0802656

0806265

0809870

0813473

0817073

0820669 0824263 3605

121

0827854

08^1441

0835026

0838608

0842187

0845763

0849336

0852906

0856473

0860037 ,3576

12i

3863598

0867,57

0870712

0874269

0877814

0881361

0884905

0888446

089^984

0895519

3547

'23

0899051

0902581

0906107 1 C909631

0913152

0916670

0920185

0923697

0927206

0930713

351S

124

0934217

0937718

0941216

09447 1 1

0948204 1 095 1694

i

0955180

0958665

0962146 0965624

3490

125

0969100

0971573

0976043

0979511

0982975

0986437

0989896

0993353

0996806 1000257

3462

126

1003705

1C07151

1 01 0594

1014034

1017471

1020905

1024337

1027766

1031193 1034616

3-434

127

1038037

1041456

1044871

1048284

1051694

1055102

1058507

1 06 1 909

1065309 1068705

3408

128

1072100

1075491

1078880

1082267

10S5650

1089031

1092410

1095785

109Q159 1102529

3381

129

J 30

1 105897

1109262

1112625

1115985

" 19343

1122698

1 1 26050

1 1 29400

1132747 "36092

3355

"39434

"4-773

1146110

"49444

1152776 1T56105

"59432

1 162756

1 166077 1169396 3329

J3I

1172713

1176027

"79338

1 182647

1185954

118925S

1192559

1195858

1 199154 1202448 3304

132

1205739

1209028

1212315

1215598

1218S80

1222159

1225435

122S709

1231981 12352503279

13:3

12385 16

1241781

1245042

1248301

125.558

1254813

1258065

1261314

1264561 1267806 3255

'34

127104S

1274288

1277525

1280760

1283993

1287223

1 29045 1

1293676

1296899 ' 1300119 (3230

'35

'303338 1 31^65 -^3

1309767

1312978

1316187

1 3 19393

1322597 1325798

1328998

133 2195

3206

136

'3353«9 i33f'58i

1341771

1344959

1348144

'351327

13,-4507

1357685

1360861

1364034

3183

'37

1367266 1370375

1373541

1376705

1379867

1383027

1386184

1389339

1392492

1395643

3160

138

1398791 T401937

140-cCo

1408222

'411361

141449S

1417632

1420765

1423895

1427022

313:

'39

1430148 1 1433271

1436S92

'4395"

1442628

1445742

1448S54 1451964

1455072

1458177

3114

140

1461280 i 14643S1

1467480

1470577

1473671

1476763

'479''53 1482941

1486027 14S9110I

3092

141

1492191 1 1495270

49^347

1501422

1504494

1507564

1510633 15136.19

1516762 7519824I3070J

142

1522883 ; 15:5941

152R996

1532049

1535100

153S149

1541195 15-14240

15472S2 1550322 3049I

'43

1553360 1556306

'55943°

1562462

1565492

1568519

15715^4 1 1574568

1577589 ■ 1580608 _

3027

144

JJ83625 j 1586640

1589653

1592663

1595672 1598678

1 60 1 683 1 1604685

1607686! 1610684

3006

14^

16 I 3680

1616674 1619666

1622656

1625644

1628630 1631614

1634596

1637575

1640553

2986

146

1643529

1646502

1649474

1652443

165541 1

1658376 j 1661340

1664301

1667261

1670218

2965

'47

1673173

1676127

1679078

1682027

1684975

1687920 j 1690864

1693805

1696744

1609682

2945

14S

I702617

1 705 55 1 1708482

1711412

1714339

1717265 1 1720 1S81 1723 1 10

1726029

1728947 J2926

'49 i73'S63|

1734776 1737688

1740598

1743506

1746412 : 1749316' 1752218

1755118

1758016 2906

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N^

150

'S3

1 76091 3
1789769

1 8469 14

"15411875207

1763807
1792645
1821292
1849752
18-8026

1766699 1769590

1795518 17983^9

1824147 1826999

1853588 1855422

1880844 '883659

1772478
1801259
1829S50
1858254

' 775365
1804126
1832698
1861084

1778250
1806992

1835545
186391

1886473 I '889285 1892095

1781133
1809856
1838390

1784013
1812718
18,1.1234

1866739 1869563

1786892
1815578
1844075
1872386

1894903 1897710 1900514

Diff.

2887
2867
2848
2830
2812

'55

.56

•57
158

159

1903317
1 93 1 246
1958997
1986571

2013971

160
161
162
163
,64

2041200
2068259
2095150
2121S76
2 1 4843 S

19061 18
1934029
1961762
1989319
2016702

1908917
1936810
1964525
1992^65
20 1 943 1

1911715
1939590
1967287
1994809
2022158

1914510
1942367
1970047
1997552
2024883

1917304
1945143

1972806
20C0293
2027607

1920096
194791S
1975562
2003032
2030329

2043913

2070955
2097830
2 1 24540
2151086

165 2174839

166 2201081

167
168
i6g

170

!■''
1 172

'73

'74

2227165
2253093
2278867

2177471
2203696
2229764
2255677
2281436

2046625
2073650
210050S
2127202
2153732

2180100
2206310
2232363
2258260
2284004

2049335

2076344

2103185
2129862
2156376

2052044
2079035
2105860
2132521
2159018

2182729

2208922

2234959
2260841

2286570

2185355
2211533
2237555
2263421
2289134

2054750
2081725
2108534
2135178
2161659

2187980
2214142

2057455
2084414

211 1205

2'37S33
2164298

1922886
1950690
1978317
2005769
2033049

1925675
1953461
1981070
2008505
2035708

2060159 2062860

1928461 2794I
1956229 2786
1983821 2759
201 1239
2038485

2087100
2113876
2140487
2166936

2190603
2216750

2240148 2242740

2265999
2291697

2304489
2329961
2355284
2380461
2405492

2307043
2332500
2357809
2382971
2407988

2309596
2335038
236^331

2385479
2410482

2312146J 2314696 23 1 7244
2337574 234010S 2342641
2362853 2365373 2367891
2387986 2390491 2392995
2412974 2415465 2417954

2268576
294258

2319790

2345173
2370408

2395497
2420442

2193225
2219356

2245331
2271151

0S97S5
21 16544

2'43i39
2169572

2195845
2221960
2247920
2273724

2065560
2092468
2119211
2145790

2741

2724

2706
2690
2674
2657

2172207 2641

2296818 2299377

2322335

2347703
2372923
2397998
2422929

'75
176

'77
178

179

180
181
182

'83
184

2430380
2455127

2479733

2504200

2432861

2457594
2482186

2506630

2530956

2552725
2576786

2600714
2624511

264S178

2555 '37
2579185
260J099
262"6883
2650538

2435341
2460059

'48463 7
2509077
2533380

2557548
2581582
2605484
2629255
2652896

2437819
2462523
2487087

251 1513
2535803

2440296
2464986
2489536

2513949
2538224

2559957 2562365
2583978 25S6373

2607867
2631625

2655253

185
186
1S7
188
189

190
191

2671717
2695129
271S416

2741578
2764618

2674064.
2697464
2720738
2743888
2766915

261c 248

2633993
2657609

2442771 2445245
2467447 2469907
2491984 2494430
2516382 I 2518815
2540645 j 2543063

2447718
2472365
2496874

2324879
2350232

2375437
2400498
2425414

2198464
2224563
2250507
2276296
2301934

2327421
2352759
2377950
2402996
2427898

2625

2609

2593
2578

2563

2450189
2474823
2499318

252124612523075
2545481 12547897

2452658
2477278
2501759
2526103
2550312

2548

2533

25 1 S
2504
2489

2676410 2678754 2681097
2699797 2702129 I 2704A59
2723058 2725378 j2727(S96
2746196 2748503 ■ 2750809
2769211 2771506 2773800

2564772
2588766
2612629
2636361
2659964

2567177
2591 158
2615008
2638727
2662317

2569582

2593549
26173851

2641092 I
2664669 i

2571984
2595939
2619762

2643455
2667C20

2574386
2598327
2622137
2645817
2669369

2*75
2461

2448

243
2421

2407

2393
2381

2368
2355

-

2683439
2706788
2730013

2753114
2776092

2685780
27091 16
2732328
2755417
2778383

26881 19'
2711443

2734643
2757719

2780673

2690457
2713769
2736956
2760020
27S2962

2692794 2342
2716093 '2329
2739268 J2317

276232012305
2785250 2292

.7S7536

2810334
192 2833012
'93 I 2855573
194 2878017

195 I 2900346
196 ! 2922561

197 I 2944662

198 , 2l/>f^6)2
I99I298S53I

2789821
2812607
2835274
2857823
2880255

27921O1J
28 I 4879
28^753;-
2860071
2882492

2794388
2817,5.

2S39793
2S623IO

2884728

2796669
2819419
2842051
2864565
2886963

2902573
2924776
2946866
2968S45
2990713

290470''
2926000
2940069

2907022
29292OJ
295 I 27 I

2971037 2975227
2992893 299^073

29^9246

293'4'5

2953471

297:417
2997252

27989i;o
28216^8
2844307
2866S10
2889196

291 146S
2933626
2955671
2977605
2999429

2S01229 2803507
2823955 2826221
2846563 ' 284S817
2869054 2871296

2891428 2893660 2895S90 2898118

2913689

,2935835
2957860
2979792
3C01605

2915908
2938044
2960067
2981979
3003781

2801:784
2828486
2851070
2S73538

2918127

2040251
2962263
2984164

3005955

2808059
2S30750
2S53322
2S75778

2920344
2942457
2964458
2986348
3008128

2281
2269
2256
2245
2233

2222

2-,;II
22Q0
2188

LOGARITHMS.

TABtE of Logarithms.

y

0

I

2

3

4

6

8

9

Diff.

200

30 1 0300

3012471

3014641

3016S09

3018977

3021 144

3023309

3025474

3027637 1 3029799

2167

20I

303 1 96 1

30341 2 1

3036280

5038438

3040595

304275'

3044905

3047059

3049212:3051363

2156

202

3053514

3055663

3057812

3059959

3062105

3064250

3066394

3068537

3070680 ; 3072820

2145

"3

3074960

3077099

3079237

3081374

30S3509

3085644

3087778

3089910

3092042 13094172

2135

204

3090302 3098430

3.00557

3102684

3104809

3106933

3109056

311U7S 31133COJ3115420

2124

20^

3 1 17539 3 "9657

3121774

31238S9

3126004

3128T18

3130231

3132343 31344-54! 3 '36563

2114

206

3138672

3140780

3142887

3144992

3147097

3149201

3151303

3153405 315^50513157605

21,04

207

3159703

3161801

31638^)8

3165993

3168088

3170181

3172273

3174365 3176455:3178545

2093

208

3180633

3182721

3184807

3186893

3188977

3 1 9 1 06 1

3193143

3195224 3197305 13199384

2084

209

3201463

3203540

3205617

3207692

3209767

3211S40

3213913

3215984 321805513220124

2d73

210

3222193

3424261

3226327

322S393

3230457

3232521 3234584

323664513238706:3240766

2064

21 1

3 24 2 8 25

3244882

3246939

3248995

3251050

3253104

3255157

32572C9

3259260) 32613 10

2054

212

32'''335')

3265407

3267454

3269500

3271545

3273589

3275633

3277675

3279716! 3281757

2C44

213

32^379'''

3285834

3287872

3289909

3291944

3293979

3296012

3298045

3300077 3302108

2032

214

3304'38 33o6»67

33°8J95

3310222

33^2248

3314273

3316297

3318320

3320343 3322364

2025

2'5

33243S5

3326404

3328423

3330440

3332457

3334473

3336488

3338501

3340514

3342526

2016

216

334453*^

3346548

3348^57

3350565

3iS^5-3

3354579

3356585

3358589

3360593

3362596

2006

217

33''4597

3366598

3368598

3370597

3372595

3374593

3376589

3378584

3380579 3382572

1998

218

33S45f>5

3386557

3388547

3390537

3392526

3394514

3396502

3398488

34OC473 3402458

1988

219

3404441

3406424

3408405

3410386

3412366

3414345

3416323

3418301

3420277 1 3422252

1979

220

3424227

3426200

3428173

3430145

34321 16

3434=86 3436055

3438023

3439991 3441957

1970

221

3443923

3445887

3447851

3449814

3451776

3453737 3455698

3457657

3459615! 3461573

1961

222

34^1 530

3465486

3467441

3469395

3471348

3473300

3475252

3477202

3479152 {3481101

1952

223

34^3^49

3484996

3486942

34S8887

3490832

3492775

3494718

3496660

3498601 ! 3500541 |1943|

224

3502480

3504419

3506356

3508293

3510229

3512163

3514098

3516031

341796313519895

1934
1926

225

3521825

i 5 ^37)5

3525684

3527612

3529539

3531465

3533391

35353 '6

3537239

3539162

226

3541084

3543006

3544926

3546846

3548764

3550682

3552599

3554515

3556431

3558345

1918

227

3 560259

3562 17 1

3564083

3565994

3567905

3569814

3571723

3573630

3575537

357-443

1909

228

3579348 3581253

3583156

3585059

3586961

3588862

3590762

3592662

3594560

3596458

1901

229

3598355 3600251

3602146

3604041

3605934

3607827

3609719

361 1610

3613500 ! 3615390

1893

230

3617278

3619166 3621053

3622939

3624S25

3626709

3628593

3630476

■363235813634239 18S4

23<

3656120

3637999

3639878

3641756

3643634

3645510

3647386

3649260

3651 134; 3653007 11876

232

3654S80

3656751

3658622

3660492

3662361

3664230

5666097

3667964

3669S30

3671695 18,69]

233

3673559

3675423

3677285

3679147

3681009

3682869

3684728

3686587

3688445

5690502

i860

234

3692159

3694014

3695869

3697723

3699576

3701428

3703280

"3705131

3706981

3708830

1852

23 )

3710679

3712526

37 '4373

3716219

3718065

3719909

3721753

3723596

3725438

3727279

1844

236

3729120

3730960

3732799

3734637

3736475

373831 1

3740147

3741983

3743817

3745651

1836

237

3747483

3 7493 '6

375 "47

3752977

3754807

3756636

3758464

3760292

3762119

3763944

1829

233

37C'577o

3767594

3769418

3771240

3773063

3774884

3776704 1 3778524

3780343

3782161

1821

^39

3783979

3785796

3787612

3789427

- -

3791241

3793055

379486SI 3796680

3798492

3800302 11814]

240

3S02112

3803922

3805730

3807538

3809345

3811151

3812956

5814761! 581.6565 5818368

1806

241

5820170

3821972

38:3773

3825573

382737J

3829171

3830969

3832767

3834563 3836359

1798

242

3838154

3839948

384174'

3843534

3845326

3847117

3S4S908

5 8 50698

3852487 3854275

1791

-43

3S56063

3857850

3859636

386142 1

3863206

3864990

3866773

3868555

3870337 3872' 18

1784

244

3873898

3S75678

3877457

3879235

3881012

3 88 2 7 89

3884565 3886340

3888114 3889888

177:
1761-:

24?

3 89 1 66 1

3893433

3895205

3896975

3898746 3900515

3902284,3904052

3905819

3907585

240

3909351

391 1 1 16

3912880

.3914644

3916407 3918169

3919931

3921601

3923452

3925211

176V

24;

3926970

3928727

3030485

3932241

3933997 3935752

3937506

3930260

3941013

3942765

1755

248

3944517

394626S

3948018

3949767

3951516 3953264

3955011

3956758

3958504

3960249

1748

249

3961993

3'/-'3737

3^65480

3967223

3968964 3970705

3972446

3974185

3975924

3977663 [1739]

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms,

N"'

0

I

-»

3

4

5

6

7

3

9

Diff.

.ISO

3979400

3981137

3982873

3984608

3986343

3988077

3989811

3991543

3993275

3995007

1734

25' ,3990737

3998467

4000196

4001925

4003653

4005380

4007106

4008832

4010557

4012282

'72:

2J2 1 4014005

4015728

4017451

4'^i9i73

4020894

4022614

4024333

4026052

4027771

4029488

172c

253 4031205

4032921

4034637

4036352

4038066

4039780

4041492

4C43205

4044916

4046627

1714

25414048337

4050047

4051755

4 53464

4055171

4056878

40585S4

4060289

4061994

406369,^
4080703

1707
1700

255 '4065402

4067105

4068807

4070508

4072209

4073909

4075608

4077307

4079005

256 4082400

4084096

4085791

4087486

4089180

4090874

40Q2567

4094259

4095950

4097641

1694

257:409933'

4101021

4102710

4104398

41060H5

4107772

4109459

41 1 "44

41 12H29

4"45'3

1687

258 ; 4II6197

4117S80

41 19562

4121244

4122925

4124605

412^285

4127964

4129643

4'3'32'

i68o

259

4132998

4 '34674

4136350

4138025

41397C0

4141374

4142047

4144719

41 4639 1

4148063

1674

260

4149733

4151404

4153073

4154742

4156410

415S077

4159744

4161410

4163076

4164741

1667

261 4166405

4168069

4169732

41 7 '394

4173050

4174717

4'7t^377

4178037

4179696

4181355 1661

262 4183013

4184670

4186327

41^7983

4189638

4191293

4:92947

4194601

4196254

4197906 1655

263 4199557

4201208

4202859

4204509

4206158

4207806

4209454

4211101

4212748

4214394 1648

264

4216039

4217684

4219328

4220972

4222615

4224257

4225898

4227539

422918(4

4230820 1642

265

423 -MfO

4234097

4235735

4237372

4239009

42406*45

4242281 4243916

4245550

4247183 J1636

266

424S816

4250449

4252081

4253712

4255342

4256972

4258601

4200230

4261858

4263486 1630

267

4265113

4266739

4268^65

4269990

4271614

4273238

4274861

4276484

4278106

4279727 '624

268

4281348

4282968

4284588

4286207

4287825

4288443

429.060

4292677

4294293

4295908 i6i8

269

270

4297523

4299137

4300751

4302364

4303976

4305588

4307 '99

430S809

4310419

4312029

1612

4313638

■■
4315246

4316853

43 1 8460

4320067

432'673

4323278

4324883

4326487

4328090

1606

271

4329693

4331295

4332897

4334498

4336098

4337698

4339298

4340896

4342495

4344092

1600

272

4345689

4347285

4348881

4350476

4352071

4353665

4355259 4356851

4358444

4360035

'504

273

4361626

4363217

4364807

4366396

4367985

4369573

437 "61 4372748

4374334

4375920

158;;

274

4377506

4379090

4380675

4382258

4383841

4385423

4387005 438S587

4390167

43^1 ;47

1582

275

4393327 4394906

4396484

4398062

4399639

4401216

4402792

4404368

4405943

4407517

'577

276 440909114410664

4412237

4413809

4415380

44169,1

4418522

4420092

4421661

4423230

1571

277

4424-98 4426365

4427932

4429499

4431065

44.32630

4434195

4435759

4437322

4438885

1565

278

4440448 4442010

4443571

4445'32

4446692

4448252

44498 II

4451370

4452928

4454485

156c

279 4456042 j 4457598

4459 '54

4460709

4462264 4463818

4465372

4466925

4468477

4470029

'554

280 4471580

4473 13 1

4474681

4476231

4477780 4479329 44808-7 j 4482424

44S397 1

4485517

1549

281

4487063

448S608

4490153

4491697

4493241 4494784

4496327

4497868

4499410

4500951

'543

282

4502491

450403 1

4505570

4507109

4508647 4510185

4511722

4513258

4514794

4516329

1538

283

4517864

4519399

4520932

4522466

4523998 452553'

4527062

4528593

4530124

453 '654

1533

284
285

4533'83

4534712

4536241

4537769

4539296 4540823

4542349

4543875

4545400

4546924

1527

4548449

4549972

4551495

4553018

4554540

4556061

4557582

4559102

4560622

4562142

1521

286 4563660

4565179

4566696

4568213

4569730

4571246

4572762

4574277

457579'

4577305

1516

2H7 4578819

4580332

4581844

4583356

4584868

4586378

4587889

4589399

4590908

4692417

1510

288 4593925

4595433

4596940

4598446

4599953

460145S

4602963

4604468

4605972

4607475

1505

289 j 4608978

46 1 048 1

4611983

4613484

4614985

4616486

4617986 4619485

4620984

4622482

1501

290

4623980

4625477

4626974

4628470

4629966

4631461

4632956

4634450

4635944

4637437

1495

291

4638930

4640422

4641914

4643405

4644895

4646386

4647875

4649364

4650853

4652345

1491

292

4653829

4655316

4656802

4658288

4659774

4661259

4662743

4664227

4665711

4667194

1485

293

4668676

4670158

4671640

4673121

4674601

4676081

4677561

4679039

4680518

4681996

148c

294

4683473

4684950

4686427

4687903

4689378

4690853

4692327

4693801

4695275

4606748

1475

1470

295

4698220

4699692

4701164

4702634

4704105

4705575

4707044

.4708513

47011982

4711450

296

4712917

4714384

4715851

4717317

4718782

4720247

4721711

4723«75

4724639

4726102

1465

297

4727564

4729027

4730488

4731949

4733410

4734870

4736329

4737788

4739247

4740705

14VC

298

4742163

4743620

4745076

4746533

4747988

4749443

4750898

4752352

4753806

4755259

•455

299

4756712

4758164

4759616

4761067

4762518

4763068

4765418

4766867

4768316

4709765

1450

Vol. XXI.

Ml

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

300

0

t

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff.
1446

4771213

4772660

4774107

4775553

4776999

4778445

4779890

4781334

4782778

4784222

301

4785665

4787108

4788550

4789991

4791432

4792873

4794313

4795753

4797192

4798631

1441

302

4800069

4801507

4802945

4804381

4805818

4807254

4808689

4810124

4811559

4812993

i43«

303

4814426

48 1 J 859

4817292

4818724

4820156

4821587

4823018

48 24448

4825878

4827307

'431

304
305

'4828736

4830164

4831592

4833020

4834446

4835873

4837299

4S38725

4840150

4841574

1427

4842998

4844422

4845845

4847268

4848690

48501 12

4851533

4852954

485+375

4855795

1422

306

4857214

4858633

4860052

4861470

4862888

4864305

4865722

4867148

4868554

4H69969

1417

307

4871384

4872798

4S74212

4875626

4877039

487845.

4879863

488i2'75

48S2686

4884097

1412

308

4885507

4886917

4888326

4889735

489 II 44

4892552

4893959

4895366

4896773

4898179

1408

309

310

4899585

4900990

4902395

4903799

4905203

4906607

4908010

4909412

4910814

491 22 16

1404

4913617

4915018

4916418

4917818

4919217

4920616

4922015

49234' 3

4924810

4926207

'399

311

49-7604

4929000

4930396

493179'

4933186

4934581

4935974

4937368

4938761

4940154

1395

312

4941546

4942938

4944329

4945720

4947110

4948500

4949890

4951279

4952667

4954056

1390

313

4955443

495683 1

4958218

4959604

4960990

4962375

4963761

4965145

4966529

4967913

1385

314
3'5

4969296

4970679

4972062

4973444

4974825

4976206

4977587

4978967

4980347

4981727

1381

4983106

4984484

4985862

4987240

4988617

4989994

4991370

4992746

4994121

4995496

1377

316

4996871

4998245

4999619

5000992

5002365

5003737

5005109

5006481

5007852

5009222

1372

317

5010593

5011963

5013332

50 I 470 I

5016069

5017437

5018805

5020172

5021539

5022905

.368

3'8

5024271

5025637

5027002

5028366

5029731

5031094

5032458

5033821

5035183

5036545

1363

319
320

5037907

5039268

50406I29

5041989

5043349

5044709

5046068

5047426

5048785

5050143

1360

5051500

5052857

5054213

5055569

5056925

5058280

5059635

5060990

5062344

5063697

'355

321

5065050

5066403

5067755

5069107

5070459

5071810

5073160

50745 1 1

5075860

5077210

'351

322

5078559

5079907

5081255

5082603

5083950

5085297

5086644

5087990

5089335

5090680

1347

323

5092025

5093370

5094714

5096057

5097400

5098743

5100085

5101427

5102768

5104109

1343

324

5105450

5106790

5108130

5109469

5110808

5112147

5 "3485

511^823

51 16160

51.7497

1339

3-S

5118834

5120170

5121505

5122841

5i24'75

5125510

5126844

5128178

5129511

5130844

'3}S

326

5132176

5133508 1 5134840

5136171

5137502

5138832

5140162

5141491

5142820

5144149
5157414

1330

327

5145478

5146805

5'48i33

5149460

5150787

5152113

5153439

515476+

5156089

1326

328

5'58738

5160062

5161386

5162709

5164031

5165354

5166676

5167997

5169318

5170639

1323

329
330

5171959

5173279

517459815175917

1

5177236

5178554

5179872

5181189

5182507

5183823

1318

5 '85 139

5186455

51S7771

5189086

5^190400

5191715

5193028

5194342

5195655

5196968

13 '5

331

5198280

5199592

52C0903

5202214

5203525

5204835

5206145

5207455

520S764

5210073

131G

332

5211381

52126S9

5213996

5215303

5216610

5217916

5219222

5220528

5221S33

5223138

.306

333

5224442

5225746

5227050

5228353

5229656

5230958

5232260

5233562

5234863

5236164

.302

334
33J

5^37465

5238765

5240064

5241364

5242663

5243961

5245259

5246557

5247854

5249151

1298

5250448

525 '744

5253040

5254336

5255631

5256925

5258220

5259513

5260807

5263100

1294

336

5263393

5264685

5265977

5267269

5268560

5269851

5271 141

527243'

527372.

5275010

1 291

337

5276299

5277588

5278876

5280163

5 28 1 45 1

52S2738 1 5284024

5285311

52S6596

52S7883

.28;

338

5289167

•5290452

5291736

5293020

5294304

5295587

5296870

5298152

5299434

5300716

1283

339
340

53°i997J 5303278

5304558

5305839

5307118

5308398

5309677

5310955

5312234

53 135 1 2

128c

5314789

5316066

5317343

531S619

5319896

5321171 5322446

5323721

5324996

5326270

1275

341

■5327544

5328817

5330090

5331363

5332635

5333907

5335179

5336450

5337721

5338991

.272

342

5340361

534153'

5342800

5344069

5345338

5346606

5347874

5349141

5350408

5351675

1268

343

5352941

5354207

5355473

5356738

5358003

5359267

5360532

5361795

5363059

5364322

1264

344

5365584

5366847

5368109

5369370

5370631

5371892

5373153

5374413

5375673

5376932

1261

345

5378191

5379450

5380708,

,5381966

5383223

5384481

5385737

5386994

5388250

5389506

1258

346

5390761

5392016

5393271

5394525

5395779

5397032

5398286

539953S

5400791

5402043

■255

347

5403295

5404546

5405797

5407048

5408298

54:9548

5410798

5412047

5413296

5414544

1250

348

5415792

5417040

5418288

5419535

5420781

5422028

5423274

54245.9

5425765

5427010

124;

349

5428254

5429498

5530742

5431986

5433229

5434472

54357 '4

5436956

5438198

5439439

1243

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logaritlims.

1

N= o j It

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff

35015440680,5441921

54431 6 I

5444401

5445641

5446880

54481 19

5449358

5450596

5451834

'259

351

5453071 15454308

5455545

5450781

5458018

5459253

5460489

5461724

5462958

5464193

'235

352

5465427 1 5466660

5467894

5469126

5470359

547 1 59 1

5472823

5474055

5475286

5476517

1232

353

5477747 547^977

5480207

548.436

5482665

5483894

5485123

548635' ! 5487578

5488806

1229

354

5490033 5491259

5492486

5493712

5494937

5496162

5497387

549861215499836

5501060

1225

355 1 5502284 j 5503507

5504730

5505952

5507174

5508396

5509618

5510839

5512059

5513280

1222

35*5 155145001 55^5720

55 '6939

5518158

55'9377

5520595

5521813

5523031

5524248

5S-Sfi

1218

55-1 5526682 I5527S99

5529115

5530330

5531545

5532760

5533975

ir^S'^

5S3''H^i

5537^17

1215

35«1 5538830 554=043

5541256

5542468

5543680

5544892

5546103

5547314

5548524

5549735

1212

35915550944 5552154 55533^3

5554572

5555781

5556989

5558197

5559404

5560612

5561818

I2C8

360 j 5563025; 5564231

S5^54i7

5566643

5567848

5569053

5570257

5571461

5572665

5573869

1205

361 15575072 '5576275

SSllMl

557S680

5579881

5581083

5582284

55834S5

5584686

5585886

1202

362 1 5587086 1 ss»^2Ss

5589484

5590683

5591882

5593080

5594278

5595476

5596673

5597870

1198

363 5599066 1 5600262

5601458

5602654

5603849

5605044

5606239

5607433

5608627

5609821

1195

364^5611014! 5612207

5613399

5614592

5615784

5616975

5618167

5619358

5620548

5621739

I 193

365 5622929 56241 18

5635308

5626497

5627685

5628S74

5630062

5631250

5632437

5633624

1187

366 i 563481 1 5635997

5637183

5638369

5639555

5640740

5641925

5^43109

5644293

5645477

II 85

367 1 5546661 15647844

5649027

5650209

5651392

5652573

5653755

5654936

5656117

5657298

I181

368

5658478 5659658

5660838

5662017

5663196

5664375

5665553

5666731

5667909

5669087

1179

369

J670264 5671440

5672617

5673793

5674969

5676144

5677320 5678495

5679669

5680843

"75

37°

5682017

5683191

5684364 5685537

5686710

5687882

5689054

5690226

5691397

5692568

1172

371

5693739

5694910

5696080

5607249

5698419

5699588

5700757

5701926

5703094

5704262

1169

372

5705429

5706597

5707764

5708930

5710097

5711263

5712429

5713594

5714759

5715924

1166

373

5717088

5718252

5719416

5720580

5721743

5722906

5724069 5725231

5726393

5727555

1163

374

572871615739877

5731038

5732198

5733358

5734518

5735678 5736837

5737996

5739154

1 160

3751 5740313 l574'47i

5742628

5743786

5744943

5746099

5747256

5748412 5749568

5750723

1156

376

5751878,5753033

5754188

5755342

5756496

5757650

5758803

5759956 5761 109

5762261

1154

377

5763414

5764565

5765717

5766868

5768019

5769170

5770320

5771470 5772620

5773769

1151

378

5774918

5776067

5777215

sn^i^i

57795"

5780659

5781806 5782953 5784100

5785246

1 148

379

5786392

5787538

578S683

5789828

5790973

5792118

5793262 1 5794406

5795550

5796693

1 145

380

5797836 5798979

5800121

580126^

5802405

5803547

5804688 j 5805829

5806969

58081 10

1142

381

5809250 5810389

5811529

58 12668

5813807

5814945

5816084

5817222

5818359

5819497

1138

382

5820634 5821770

5822907

5824043

5825179

5S26314

5827450

5828585

5829719

5830854

1135

383

5831988 5833122

5834255

5835388

5836521

5837654

5838786

5839918

5841050

5842181

1 133

384

5843312 5844443

5845574

5846704

5847834

5848963

5850093

5851222

5852351

5853479

1129

385

5854607

5855735

5856863 5857990

5859117

5860244

5861370

5862496

5863622

5864748

1127

386

5865873

5866998

5868123

5869247

587037'

5871495

5872618

5873742

5874S65

5875987

1124

387

5877110

5878232

5879353

5880475

5881596

5882717

5883838

5884958

5886078

5887198

1121

3S8

5888317

5889436

5890555

5S91674

5892792

5893910

5895028

5896145

5897263
5908418

5898379

1118

3S9
390

5899496

5900612

5901728

5902844

5903959

5905075

5906189

5907304

5909532

1116

5910646

591 1760

5912873

5913986

5915098

5916210

5917322

5918434

5919546

5920657

1112

391

5921768

5922878

5923988

5925098

5926208

5927318

5928427

5929536

5930644

5931753

1 11c

392

5932861

5933968

5935076

5936183

5937290

5938397

5939503

5940609

5941715

59428:0

1107

393

5943926

5945030

5946135

5947 = 3'^

5948344

5949447

5950551

5951654

5952757

595386c

1103

394

5954962

5956064

5957166

59582O8

5959369

5960470

5961571

5902671

5963771

5964871

llCl

109S

395

5965971

5967070

5968169

5969268

5970367

5971465

5972563

5973661

5974758

5975855

39^

5976952

5978048

5979 J 45

5980241

5981336

5982432

59^35^

5984622

5985717

5986811

1096

397

5987905

5988999

5990092

5991186

5992279

5993371

5994464

5995556

599664S

5997739

1092

398

5998831

5999922

6001013

6002103

6003193

6004283

6005373

6006462

6007551

600864c

.090

399

6009729

6010817

6011905

6012993

60 I 408 I

6015168

6016255

6017341

6018428

6019514 10S7I

M m 2

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N'

0

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Dirt.

,c;S4
1081
1079
1076
1074

1072
1068
1066
1064
1061

400
401
402

404

6020600
6031444
6042261
6053050
6063814

6021686
6032527

6043341
6054128
6064889

6022771
6033609
604442 1
6055205
(,065963

6023856
6034692
6045500
6056282
6067037

6024941
6035774
6046580
6057359
60681 1 1

6026025
6036855
6047659
6058435 1
6069185 j

6027109

6037937
6048738
6059512
6070259

6028193
6039018
60498 1 6
6060587
6071332

6.-29277
6040099
6050895
606 1 663
6072405

603036

604118c
6051973
606273Q
6073478

405

406
407
408
409

6074550
6085260
6095944
6106602
6117233

6075622
6086330
609701 1
6107666
61 18295

6076694
6087399
609S078
6108730
61 19356

6077766
6088468
6099144
6109794
6 1 204 1 7

6078837
6089537
61002 10

6U0857
6IM478

6079909
6090605
6101276
61 1 1921
6122539

6080979
6091674
6102342
61 12984
6123599

6082050
6092742
6103407
61 14046
6124660

6083120
6093809
6 1 0447 2
6 1 1 5 1 09
612572c

6084191
6094877
6105537
61 1617 1
6126779

410
411
412

413
414

61278^9
6i384"i8
6148972
6159J01

6170003

6128898

6139475

6150026

6160552
61 7 1052

6129957
6 1 405 3 1
6151080
6161603
6172101

6131015
6141587
6152133
6162654
6173149

6132074
6142643
6153187

6163705

6174197

6'33«32
6143698
6154240
6164755
6175245

6134189

6144754
6155292
6165S05
6i7?,293

6135247
6145809
6156345
6166855
6177340

6136304
6146863

6157397
6167905
6178387

61 37361
6147918
6158449
6168954
6179434

1058
1055

1053
105c
1048

415
416

417
418
419

6180481

6i9°933
6201361
6211763
6222140

6181527
,6191977
6202402
6212S02
6223177

6182573
6193021
6203443
6213840
6224213

6183619
6194064
6204484
6214879
6225249

6184665
6I95I07
6205524

6215917
62262S4

6185710
6196150
6206565
6216955
6227320

61S6755
6197193
6207605
6217992
6228355

6187800
6198235
6208645
6219030
6229390

6188845
6199277
6209684
6220067
6230424

6189889
6200319
6210724
622 1 104
6231459

1045

'O43
1041

1038

1036

1033
1051

1028

1025

1023

1021

ioi8
1016
1013

lOII

420
421
422

423

424

6232493
6242821
6253125
6263404
6273659

6233527
6243852

6254154
6264430

6274683

6234560
6244884
6255182

6265457
6275707

6235594
6245915
6256211
6266483

6276730

6236627

6246945
6257239

6267509

6277754

6237660
6247976
6258267
6268534
627S777

6238693
6249006
6259295
6269560
6279S00

6239725
6250036
6260322
6270585
6280823

6240757
6251066
6261350
6271610
6281845

6241789
6252095
6262377
6272634
6282867

425
426
427
428
429

6283889
6294096
6304279
6314438
6324573

628491 1

62951 1 5
6305296
6315452
6325585

6285933
6296134
6306312
6316467
6326597

6286954
6297153
6307329
63174S1
6327609

6287975

6298172

6308345

6318405
6328620

6288996
6299190
6309361
6319508
6329632

6290016

6300209
6310377
6320522
633=643

6291037
6301226
6311393
6321535
6331654

6292057
6302244
63 1 2408
6322548
6332664

6293076
6303262

6313423
6323560

6333674

430
431
432
433
434

63346S5
6344773
6354837
6364879

6374897

6335694
6345780

6355843
6365882

6375898

6336704
6346788
6356848
6366884
6376898

6337713
6347795
6357852
6367887
6377898

6338723
6348801
6358857

63 68 8 89

637889S

6339732
6349808
6359861
6369891
6379898

6340740
6^50814
6360S65
6370893
6380897

6341749
6351820

6361869

6371894

6381896

6342757
6352S26
6362873
6372895
6382895

6343765
6353832
6363876

6373897
6383894

1009
1007
1004

1002
1000

435
436

437
438
439

6384893
6394865
6404814
6414741
6424645

6^85801
6395861
640580S

^415733
6425634

6386S89
6396857
6406802
6416724
6426623

6387887
6397852
6407795
6417715
6427612

638S8S4
6398S47
6408788
6418705
6428601

6389882
6399842
6409781
6419696
6429589

6390879
6400837
6410773
6420686
6430577

6391876
6401832
6411765
6421676
6431565

6392872
64028:6
6472758
6422666
6432552

6393869
6403820
6413749
6423656
643354°

998

995
993
991
98S

086

984
98=

970
977

440
441
442
443
444

6434527
6444386
6454223
6464037
6473830

6435514
6445371
6455205
6465018
6474808

6436500

6446355
6456187
6465998
6475786

6437487
6447339
6457169
6466977
6476763

6-138473
6448323
6458151
6467957
6477741

6439459
6440307

6459133
6468956

647871 8

6440445
6450291
64601 14
6469915
6479695

6441431
6451274
6461095
6470894
6480671

6442416
6452257
6462076
6471873
6481648

6443401

6453 240
646^057
647^851
6482624

445
446

447

448

449

6483600

6493349
6503075
6512780
6522463

6484576
6494322
6504047
6513749
6523431

6485552
6495296
6505018
6514719
6524397

6486527
6496269
6505989
6515687
6J25364

6487502
6497242
6506960
6516656
6526331

6488477
6498215
6507930
6517624
6527297

6489452
6499187
6508001
6518593
6528263

6490426
6500160
6509R71
6519561
6529229

6491401
6501 132
6510841
6520528
6530195

6492375
6502104
651 181 1
6521496
6531160

975
973
970
968
966

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N^

0

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

8

1

DifT.
964

+50

6532125

6533090

6534055 6535019

6535984

6536948

6537912

6538876 6539839

6540802

451

6541765

6542728

6543691 6544653

6545616

6546578

6547539

6548501

6549462

6550423

962

+52

6551384

6552345

6553306 6554266

6555226

6556186

6557145

6558105

6559064

6560023

96'j

+53

6560982

6561941

6562899

6563857

6564815

6565773

6566730

6567688

6568645

6569602

958

+;4

6570559

6571515

6572471

6573427

6574383

6575339

6576294

6577350

6578205

6579159

956

+5?

65S0114

6581068

658202? 6582977

6583930

6584884

6585837

6586790

6587743

65S8696

954

456

6589648

6590601

6591553 6592505

6593456

6594408

6595359

6596310

6597261

6598212

952

457

6599162

66001 12

6601062 \ 6602012

6602962

660391 1

6604860

6605809

6606758

6607706

949

4j8

6608655

6609603

6610551 1 661 1499

6612446

6613393

66 1 434 1

6615287

6616234

6617181

947

459

460

6618127

6619073

6620019 1 6620964

6621910

6622855

6623800

6624745

6625690

6626634

945

6627578

6628522

6629466

6630410

6631353

6632296

6633239

663418I

6635125 6636367

943

461

6637009

6637951

6638893

6639835

6640776

6641717

6642658

6643599

6644539

6645480

941

462

6646420

6647360

6648299

6649239

6650178

6651 1 17

6652056

6652995

6653934

6654872

939

463

6655810

6656748

6657686

6658623

6659560

6660497

6661434

6662371

6663307

6664244

937

464

6665 .'So

6666 u 6

6667051 6667987

6668922

6669857

6670792

6671727

6672661

6673595

935

465

6674530

6675463

6676397

6677331 6678264

6679197

6680130

6681062

6681995

6682927

933

466

6683859

6684791

6685723

6686654

6687585

6688516

6689447

6690378

6691308

6692239

931

467

6693169

6694099

6695028

6695958

6696887

6697816

6698745

6699674

6700602

6701530

929

468

6702459

6703386

6704314

6705242

6706169

6707096

6708023

6708950

6709876

6710802

927

469

671 1728

6712(554

6713580

6714506

6715431

6716356

6717281

6718206

6719130

6720054

925

470

6720979

6721903

6722826 6723750

6724673

6725596

6726519

6727442

6728365

6729287

923

471

6730209

6731131

6732053

6732974

6733896

6734817

6735738

6736659

6737579

6738500

921

472

6739420

6740340

6741260

6742179

6743099

6744018

6744937

6745856

6746775

6747693 I919I

473

6748611

6749529

6750447

6751365

6752283

6753200

6754117

6755°34

6755951

6756867

917

474

6757783

6758700

6759615

6760531 6761447

6762362

6763277

6764192

6765107

6766022

915

475

6766936

6767850

6768764

6769678

6770592

6771505

6772418

6773332

6774244

6775157

913

476 6776070

6776982

6777894

6778806

6779718

6780629

6781540

6782452

6783562

6784273

911

477 6785184

6786094

6787004' 6787914

6788824

6789734

6790643

6791552

6792461

6793370

910

478 6794279

6795187

6796096 1 6797004

6797912

6798819

6709727

6800634

6801541

6802448

908

479 6803355

6804262

6S05168 6806074

6806980

6807886 6808792

6809697

6810602

6811507

906

4JJ0 68 1 241 2

6813317

6814222 ' 6815126 1 6816030

6816934

6S17838

6818741

6819645

682054S

904

481 6821451

6822354

682325I) j 6824159

6825061

6825963

68268(55

6827766

6828668

6829569

902

482 6830470

6831371

6832272 6833173

6S34073

6834973

6835873

6836773

6837673

6838572 locoj

483 6839471

6840370

6841269 1 6842168

6843066

6843965

6S44863

6845761

6846659

6S47556

809

484 , 6848454

6849351

6850248 6S51145

6852041

6852938

6853834

685473

6S55626

6856522

897

485

6857417 6858313

6859208 6860103 1 6860998

6861892

6S62787

6863681

6864575

6865469 ! 894

486

6866363 6867256

6868150 6869043 [ 6869936

6870828

6871721

6872613

687;5o6

6874^98 892

487

6S75290

6876181

687707316877964:6878855

6879746

6880637

6881528

6882418

688330S 891

48S

6884198

6885088

6885978

688686716887757

6888646

68S9535

6890423

6891312

'6892200 ■ 8S9

4S9

6893089

6893977

6894864

6895752 I 6896640

6897527

6898414

6890301 ] 690018S

6901074' 887

490

6901061

6902847

6903733 j 6904619 1 6905505 6906390

6907275

6908161 6909046

6909930

885

491

6910815

(191 1699

6912584

6913468 ; 6914352 6915235

69161 19

6917002

691-885

6918768

883

492

6919651

6920534

6921416

692229S 692^180 6924062

6924944

6925826

6926707

6927588

882

493

6928469

6929350

693023F 1 6931 HI 16931991

6932872

6933752

6934S31 1 6935511

6936390

881

494

6937269

6938149

6939027

6930906 j 6940785

6941663

6942541

6943419

0944297

6945175

8-8

495

6946052

6946929

6947806

6948683 ' 6940560 i 6950437

6951313

6952189

6953065 695394118771

496

6954817

6955692

6950568

6957443 169583 1 s

■6959193

6960067

6960942

696 1 816 6962690

875

497

6963564

6964438

6965311

6966185 6967058

6967931

6968804

6969676

6970549)6971421

o'-^

49i

6972293

6^)7^165

6974037

69-4909 6975780

6976652

6977523

69" 83 94

6979264 16980135

872

499

6981005

698 1 87;-

6982746 j 6983616 6084485

6085355

6986224

6987093 6987963 1 6988831 18701

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

7

500

0

I

-

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff.

6989700

6990569

6991437

6992305

6993173

6994041

699490S

6995776

6996643

6997510

868

501

6998377

6999244

70001 1 1

7000977

7001843

7002709

7003575

7004441

7005307

7006172

866

)02

7007037

7007902

7008767

7009632

7010496

701 1361

7012225

7013089

7013953

7014816

»6s

503

7015680

7016543

7017406

7018269

7019132 7019995

7020S57

7021720

7022582

7023444

863

504

7024305

7025167

7026028

7026890

7027751 7028612

7029472

7050533 1 7031 193

7032054

861

7032914

7033774

7034633

7055493

7036352

7037213

7038071

7038930

7039788

7040647

860

J06

7041 50J

7042363

7043221

7044079

7044937

7045794

7046652

7047509

7048566

7049223

857

5^=7

7050080

7050936

7051792

7052649 7053505

7054360

7055216

7056072

7056927

7057782

855

508

7058637

7059492

7060347

7061201

7062055

7062910

7063764

7064617

7065471

7066325

854

509
510

7067178

7068031

7068884

7069737

7070589

7071442

7072294

7073146

7073998

7074850

853

7075702

7076553

7077405

7078256

7079107

7079957

7080808

7081659

7082509

7083359

850

5"

70S4209

7085059

7085908

7086758

7087607

7088456

7089305

7090154

7091003

7091851

849

512

7092700

7093548

7094396

7095244

7096091

7096939

7097786

7098633

70994S0

7100327

84S

5^3

7101174

7102020

7102866

7105713

7104559

7105404

7106250

7107096

7107941

7108786

S45

5H
5'5

7 10963 1

7110476

7111321

7112165

711301017113854

71 14698

7115542

7116385

71 17229

844

7118072

7118915

7119759

7120601

7121444 7122287

.7123129

7123971

7124813

7125655

845

516

7126497

7127339

7128180

7 1 2902 1

7139862 7130703

7151544

7152385

7153225

7134065

841

517

7134905

7135745

7136585

7137425

7138264

71^9104

7139943

7140782

7141620

7142459

840

518

7143298

714413^'

7144974

7145812

7146650

7147488

7148325

7149162

7150000

7150837

858

■J 19

520

7151674

7152510

7153347

7154185

7155019

7155856

7156691

7157527 7158563

7159198

837

7160C33

7 1 608 6*9

7161703

7162538

7165373

7164207

7165042

7165S76

7 1 667 10

7167544

834

J2I

7168377

7 1 692 1 1

7170044

7170877

7171710

7172543

7173576

7174208

7175041

7175873

855

522

717670^-

7177537

7178369

7179200

7180032

7180863

71B1694

7182525

71S3356

7184186

831

523

7 1 8501 7

7185847

7186677 1 7187507

7188337

7189167

7189996

7190826

7191655J 7192484

830

524

7193313

7194142 7194970 719579917196627

7197455

7198283

7199111

719993817200766

828

5'-^

7201593

7202420

7203247

7204074

7204901

7205727

7206554

7207380

7268206

7209032

826

526

7209857

7210683

72ri5o8

7212334

7213159

7213984

7214809

7215633

7216458

7217282

825

527

7218106

7218930

7219754

7220578

7221401

7222225

7223048

7223871

7224694

7225517

824

528

7226339

7227162

7227984

7228806

7329628

7230450

7251272

7232093

7232914

7233736

822

.529

7234557

7235378

7236198

,7257019

7237839

7238660

7339480

7240300

7241120

7241939

821

53^

7242759

7243578

7244597

7245216; 7246035 1 7246854

7247672

7248491

7249309

7250127

820

53'

7 25c 945

7251763

7252581

7253598

7254216)7255033

7255850

7256667

7257483

7258300

817

532

7259116

7259933

7260749

7261565

7262380

7263196

7264012

7264827 1 7:65642

7266457

816

533

7267272

7268087

7268901

7269716

7270530

7271344

-272158

7272972

7275786

7274599

814

53+

72754'3

7276226

7277039

7277852

7278664

7279477

7280290

7281102

72S1914

7282726

813

535

72S3538

7284350

7285161

7285972

7286784

7287595

7288406

7289216

7290027

7290838

811

536

7291648

7292458

7293268

7294078

7294888

7295697

7296507

7297316

7298125

7298954

809

537

7299743

7300552

7301360

7302168

7302977

7305785
7511857

7304593

7505400

7306208

7307015

808

538

73^7823

730S030

7309437

7510244

7311051

7312663

7313470

7314276

7315082

806

539

7315888

7316693

7317499! 7318304

7319109

7519914

7320719

7321524

7322329

7525135

805

540

7323938

7324742

7325546

7326350

7327153

7327957

7328760

7329564

7350367

7351170

804

541

7331973

7332775

7333578

7534380

7355183

7335985

7336787

7337588

7338390

7539192

802

542

7339993

7340794

7341595

7342596

7343197

7343997

7544798

7345598

7346398

7547198

800

543

7347993

7348798

7349598

7350397

7351196

7551995

7352794

7553595

7354392

7355191

799

544

735598)

7356787

735758517358383

7359181

7359979

7360776

7361574

7362371

7363168

798

545

7363965

7364762

7365558

7366355

7367151

7367948

7368744

7369540

7370335

7371131

797

546 73/'>920

7372722

7375517

,7374312

7375107

7375902

7376696

757749'

7578285

7379079

795

547 7379873

7380667

7381461

7382254

7383048

7583841

7384654

7385427

7386220

7387013

793

548 7387806

7388598

7389590

73901S2

7390974

7391766

7392558

7595550

7394141

7394952

792!

549 73957-3

7396514

7397305

7398096

7398887

7399677

7400467

7401257

7402047

7402837

790,

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N

0

1 2

3

4 5

6

7

8

9

Uiff

789

J5=

740362^

7404416 7405206 j 7405995

7406784

1
7407573

7408362

7409151

7409939 7410728

55'

74ii5i€

7412304

. 7413092 7413000

7414668

7415455

7416243

7417030

741781717418604

787

552

7419391 7420'77

7420964 7421750

7422537

7-123323

7424109

7424895

7425680 j 7426466

7 86

5Si

7427251 7428037

7428822 7429607

7430392

7431176

7431961

7432745

7433530! 7434314

784

554

743509S 7435882

7436665 7437449

7438232

7439016

7439799

7440582

7441365 1 7442 147

783

782

555

7442930

7443712

7444495

7445277

7446059

7446841

7447622

7448404

7449185 7449967

5S(i

745074.8

7451529

7452310

7453091

7453871

7454652

7455432

7456212

7456992 7457772

78 1

557

7458552

7459332

746011 1

7460890

7461670

7462449

746322S

7464006

7464785 1 7465564

779

55S

7466342 7467120

7467898

746S676

7469454

7470232

7471009

7471787

7472564 7473341

778

559

74741 1 8 7474895 7475672

7476448

7477225

7478001

7476777

7479553

7480329,74811051776

560

7481880

7482656

7483431 74S4206

7484981

7485756

7486531

7487306

7488080 1 7488854 1 775

561

7489629

7490403

7491 1 77 7491950

7492724

7493498

7494271

7495044

7495817 7496590 774

562

7497363

7498136

7498908

i 7499681

750C453

7501225

7501997

7502769

7503541 17504312 772

563

7505084

7505855

7506626

7507398

7508168

750S939

7509710

7510480

7511251 17512021 771

564

7512791

75 1 356 1

75 1433 1

7515101

7515870

7516639

7517409

7518178

7518947 [7519716 769

565

7520484

7521253

7522022

7522790

7523558

7524326

7525094

7525862

7526629 1 7527397 768

566

7,-28164

7528932

7529699 ' 7530466

7531232

7531999

7532766

7533532

7534298^7535065 767

567

7535831

7536596

7537362 7538128

7538893

7539659

7540424

7541189

7541954 1 7542719 766

j63

7543483

754424S

7545012 7545777

7546541

7547305

7548069

7548832

7549596:7550359 764

569 1 7551 1 23

755 1 886

7552649 i75534« 2

7554175

7554937

7555700

7556462

755722417557987

,762

761

570

755S749

75595 «o

7560272

756-034

7561795

7562556

7563318

7564079

7564840 7565600

57J

7566361

7567122

7567882

7568642

7569402

7570162

7570992

7571682

7572442,7573201 '760

572

7573960

7574719

7575479 7576237

7576996

7577755

7578513

7579272 ; 7580030 1 7580788 : 759

573

7581546

75823=4

7583062 7583819

7584577

75S5334

7586091

7586848 7587605 1 7588362 1 757

574

7589119

7589875

759-'6?2| 7591388

7592144

7592900

7593656

7594412 7595168,7595923:756

575

759667S

7597434

7598189

7598944

7599699

7600453

760120S

7601962

7602717 7603471 .754

576

7604225

7604979

7605733

7606486

7607240

7607993

7608746

76095C0

7610253 17611005; 753

577

761 1 758

7612511

7613263 7614016

761476S

7615520

7616272

7617024

7617775:7618527 752

578

7619278

7620030

76:0781

7621532

7622283 j 7623034

76237S4

7624535

7625285,7626035 751

579

7626786

7627536

7628286

7629035

7629785 7630534

7631284

7632033

7632782 17633531 !749

580

7634280

7635029

7635777

7636526

7637274

7638022

763S770

763951 8

7640266 ■ 7641014 1 74S

58 r

7641761

7642509

7643256

7644003

7644750

7645497

7646244

7646991

7647737 1 7648484 ' 747

582 7649230 j

7649976

7650722

7651468

7652214

7652959

7653705

7654450

7655195 '765594^1 745

583

7656686

7657430

7658175

7658920

7659664

7660409

7661 153 7661897

7662641

7663385^744

584

7664128

7664872

7665616

7666359

7667102

7667845

7668588 7669331

7670074

7670816 1 743

585

7671559

7673301

7673043

7673785

7674527

7675269

767601 1 7676752

7677494 7678235 1 742

586

7678976

7679717

7680458

7681 199

7681940

7682680

7683421

7684161

7684901 7685641 740

5S7

7686381

7687121

7687860

7688600

7689339

7690079

7690818

7691557

7692296 7693035 739

588

7693773

7694512

7695250

7695988

7696727

7697465

7698203

7698940

7699078 77004161738

589
590

7-CI153

7701890

7702627

7703364

7704101

7704838

7705575

770631 1

7707048

7707784 '737

7708520

7709256

7709992 7710728

7711463

7712199

7712934

7713670

7714405

77 15 140 735

591

7715875

7716610

7717344 7718079

7718813

7719547

77202S2

7721016

7721750 7722483 j734|

;92

7713217

772395'

7724684 7725417

7726150

7726S84

7727616

7728349

7729082

7729815

733

593

7730547

7731279

7732011 7732743

7733475

7734207

7734939

7735670

7736402

7737133

732

594

7737S64

7738596

7739326 7740057

7740788

7741519

7742249

7742979

7743710

7744440

731

595

7745170

7745900

7746629 7747359

7748088

7748818

7749547

7750276

7751005

7751734

729

596

7752463

7753191

7753920 7754648

7755376

7756104

7756832

7757560

775828S

7759016

728

597

7759743

7760471

7761198 7761925

7762652

7763379

7764106

7764833

7765559

7766286

727

598

7767013

7767738

7768464 7769190

7769916

7770642

7771367

7772093

7772818

7773543

726

599

7774268

7774993

7775718 7776443

7777167

7777892

7778616-.

7779340

7780065

77S07S9

724

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N'

0

1

2

3

+ 1 s

1

6

7

8

9 Diff

600

7781J13

7782236

7782960

7783683

7784407

7785130

7785853

7786576

7787299

7788022 723

601

7788745

7789467

7790190

7790912

7791634

7792356

7793078

7793800

7794522

7795243

722

602

7795965

7796686

7797408

7798129

7798850

779957'

7800291

7801012

780173217802453

721

603

7S03I73

7803893

7804613

7805333

7806053

7806773

7807492

7808212

780893 1

7809650

720

604

7810369

781 1088

7811807

7812526

7813245

7813963 1 7814681

7815400

7816118

7.816836

718

605

7817^54

7818272

7818989

7819707 7820424

7821141

7821859

7822576

7823293

7824010

717

6c6

7824726

7825443

7826159

7826876 7827592

7S28308

7829024

7829740

7830456 I7S31 171

716

607

7831887

7832602

7833318

7834033

7834748

7835463

7836178

7836S92

7837607 J783S32 1

7«5

608

7839036

7839750

7840464

7841178

7841892 1 7842606

7843319

7844033

7844746

7845460

7H

609

7846173

7846886

7847599

7S48312

7849024 7849737 j 7850450

7851162

7851874

7852586

7 "3

610

7853298

7854010

7854722

7855434

7856145 7856857 j 7857568

7858279

7858990

7859701 712

6n

7860412

7861 12^

7861833

7862544

7863254 7S63965 1 7864675

7865385

7866095

7S66805 711

612

7867514

7868224

7868933

7869643

7870352 7871061 7871770

7872479

7873188

7873896 709

613

7874605

7875313 7876021

7876730

7877438 7878146 7878854

7879561

7880269

7880976 708

6.4

78S1684

78S2391 7883098! 7883805 1 7884512 1 7885219 7S85926

7886632

7887339

7888045 707

615

7888751

7889457

7890163

7890869

7891575 7892281

7892986

7893692

7894397

7895102 706

616

7895807

7896512

7897217

7897922

7898626

7899331

7900035

7900739

7901444

7902148

705

617

7902852

7903555

7904259

7904963

7905666

7906370

7907073

7907776

7908479 i 7909182

704

618

7909885

7910587

791 1 290

7911992

7912695

7913397

7914099

7914801

7915503 79J6205

702

619

7916906

7917608

7918309

7919011J 7919712

7920413

7921114

7921S15

7922516 7923216 1 701

620

7923917

7924617

7925318

7926018 7926718

7927418

7928118

7928817

7929517

79302171700

621

7930916

793 161 5

7932314

7933014 7933712

793441 •

7935110

7935809

7936507

7937206 '699

622

7937904

7938602

7939300

7939998 7940696

794'394

7942091

7942789

7943486

7944183 698

623

7944880

7945578

7946274

7946971

7947668

7948365

7949061

7949757

7950454

7951150,697

62+

7951846

7952542

7953238

7953933

7954629

7955324

7956020

7956715

7957410

7958105

695

625

7958800

7959495

7960190

7960884

7961579

7962273

7962967

7963662

7964356

7965050

694

626

7965743

7966437

7967131

7967824

7968517

796921 1

7969904 7970597

7971290

7971983

693

627

7972675

7973368 7974060

7974753

7975445

7976137

7976829

7977521

7978213

7978905

692

628

7979596

7980288 I 7980979

7981671

7982362 1 7983053

7983744

7984435

7985125

798581616911

629

7986506

7987197 7987887^

^7988577 7989267

7989957

7990647

7991337 1 7992027 j 7992716 690]

630

7993405

7994095 1 7994784

7995473

7996162

7996S51

7997540 7998228

7998917

7999605 ! 689 1

63'

8000294

8000982 8001670

8002358

8003046

8003734

8004421 8005109

S005796

8006484

688

632

S007171

8007858 1 8008545

8009232

8009919

8010605

8011292 8011978

8012665

801335'

687

633

8014037

8014723 8015409

8016095

8016781

8017466

8018152 8018837

8019522

8020208

685

634

8020893

8021578 8022262

8022947

8023632

8024316

8025001 8025685

8026369

8027053

684

635

8027737

8028421 1 8029105

8029789

8030472

8031156

8031839 80^2522

8033205

8033888} 683 1

636

8034571

8035254

8035937

8036619

8037302

8037984

8038666

8039348

S04003 1

8040712

682

637

8041394

8042076

8042758

8043439

80441 21

8044802

80454S3

8046164

8046845

8047526

681

638

8048207

S048S87

8049568

8050248

8050929 8051609

8052289

8052969 8053649

8054329

680

639

8055009

8055688

8056368

8057047

8057726

8058405

8059085

8059764

8060442

8061121

679
678

640

8061800

8062478 8063157

8063835

8064513

8065 1 9 1

8065869 8066547

8067225

S067903

641

8068580

806925S

8069935

8070612

8071290

S071967

8072644 8073320

8073997

8074674

677

642

S075350

8076027

8076703

8077379

8078055

8078731

8079407

8080083

8080759

8081434

676

643

80821 10

8082785

8083460

80S4136 8084811

80S5486

8086160

8086835

S087510

8088184

675

644

8088859

8089533

8090207

S090881

8091555 8092229

S092903

8093577

8094250

8094924

674

645

8095597

8096270

8096944

8097617

8098290 8098962

8099635

8100308 8100980

8101653

673

646

8102325

8102997

8103670

8104342

8105013

8105685

8106357 8107029 1 8107700

8108372

672

647

8109043

81097 14

8110385

8/11056

S111727

8112398

8113068

81 13739 81 14409

81 15080

671

648

81 15750

8116420

811709c

8117760

81 18430 Si 19100

81 19769

8120439 1 8121 108

8121778

670

649

8122^47

8123116

8123785

8124454

81251231 81 25792

S126460 8127129,81277971

8128465

669

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N

0

I 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff.

650

8139134

8129802

8130470

8131138

8131805

8132473

8133 141

8133808

8134475

8135143

668

651

8135810

8136477

8137144

8137811

8138478

8139144

8139811

8140477

8141144

8141810

666

652

8142476

8143142

8143808

8144474

8145140

8145805

8146471

8147136

8147801

8148467

665

^53

8149132

8149797 8150462

8151127

S151791

8152456

8153120

8153785

8154449

8155113

665

654

8'5)777

8156441 8157105

8157769

8158433

8159097

8159760

8160423

8161087

8161750

664

6>>

816241:5

8163076 8163739

8164402

8165064

8K5727

8166389

8167052

8167714

8168376

663

656

8169038

8169700

8170362

8171024

8171686

8172347

8173009

8173670

8 1 7433 1

8174993

662

657

8175654

8176315

8176976

8177636

§178297

8178958

8179618

81S0278

8180939

8181599

661

658

8182259

8182910

8183579

8184239

8184898

8185558

8186217

8186877

8187536

8188195

660

6>g

8188854

8.89513

8190172

8 1 9083 1

8191489

8192148

8192806

8193465

8194123

8194781

659

660

8195-439

8196097

8196755

8197413

8198071

8198728

8199386

8200043

8200700

8201358

657

661

8202015

8202672

8203328

8203985

8204642

8205298

8205955 8206611

8207268

8207_f)24

656

66:

8208580

8209236

8209892

8210548

82 1 1 203

8211859

8212514 8213170

8213825

8214480

656

663

8215135

8215790

8216445

8217100

8217755

8218409

8219064

8219718

8220372

822102-

654

664

8221681

8222335

8222989

8223643

8224296

8224950

8225603

8226257

8226910

8227563

654

665

8228216

8228869

8229522

8230175

8230828

8231481

8232133

8232786

8233438

8234090

653

666

8234742

8^35394

8236046

8236698

823735°

8238002

8238653

8239305

8239956

8240607

652

667

8241258

8241909

8242560

8243211

8243862

8244513

8245163

8245814

8 24646 A

8247114

651

668

8247765

8248415

8249065

8249715

8250364

8251014

8251664

8252313

8252,63

8253612

650

669

8254261

8254910

8255559

8256208

8256857

8257506

8258154

8258803

8259451

8260100

649

670

826074S

8261396

8262044

8262692

8263340

8263988

8264635

8265283

8265931

8266578

648

67.

8267225

8267872

8268519

8269166

8269813

8270460

8271 107

8271753

8272400

8273046

647

672

8273693

8274339

82749^5

8275631

8276277

8276923

8277569

8278214

8278860

8279505

646

673

8280151

8280796

8281441

8282086

8282731

8283376

8284021

8284665

8285310

8285955

645

674

8286599

8287243

8287887

8288532

8289176

8289820

8290463

8291 107

829 1 75 1

8292394

644

67J

8293038

8293681

8294324

8294967

829561 1

8296254

8296896

8297539

82981S2

829S824

643

676

8299467

8300109

8300752

8301394

8302036

8302678

8303320

8303962

8304604

8305245

642

677

8305887

8306528

8307169

8307811

8308452

8309093

S309734

8310375

8:51 1016

8311656

641

678

8312297

8312937

8313578

8314218

8314858

8315499

8316130

8316778

83 1 741 8

8318058

641

679

831S698

8319337

8319977

8320616

8321255

8321895

8322534

8323173

8323812

8324450

640

680

8325089

8325728

8326366

8327005

8327643

8328281

8328919

8329558

8330195

S330833

638

681

833 147 1

8332109

8332746

8333384

8334021

8334659

8335296

8335933

3336570

8337207

638

682

8337844

8338480

8339117

8339754

8340390

8341027

8341663

8342299

8342935

8343571

637

683

83442©7

8344843

8345479

8346114

8346-50

8347385

8348021

8348656

8349291

8349926

635

684

8350561

8351196

835<83i

S3 5 2465

8353100

8353735

8354369

8355003

8355638

8356272

635

68y

8356906

835754^

8358174

8358807

8359441

8360075

8^60708

8361341

8361975

8362608

634

686

8363241

8363874

8364507

8365140

8365773

8366405

8367038

8367670

8368303

8368935

632

687

8369567

8370199

8370S32

8371163

8372095

8372727

8373359

8373990

8374622

8375253

632

688

837588^

8376516

S377147

8377778

8378409

8379039

8379670

838030J

8380931

83SI562

630

689
690

8382192

H382822

8383453

8384083

8384713

8385343

8385973

8386602

8387232

S387S61

630

838S491

8389120

8389750

8390379

8391008

8391637

8392266

8392895

8393523

8394152

629

691

8394780

8395409

8396037

8396666

839-294

8397022

8398550

83,9,78

8399806

8300433

62S

692

840 1 06 1

8401688

8402316

8402943

8403571

S404198

8404825

8405452

8406079

8406706

627

693

84=7333

8407959

8408586

8409212

8409838

8410465

8411091

8411-17

8412343

S41 2969

627

694
695

8413595

8414220

8414846

8415472

8416097

8416723

8417348

8417973

841859S

s'419223

626

8419848

8420473

8421098

8421722

8422:47

8422971

8423596

8424220

8424844

8425468

624

696

8426092

8426716

8427340

8427964

S428588

842921 1

8429835

8430458

8431081

8431705

C'^-S

697

843232-

8432951

8433574

8434 J 97

8434819

8435442

8436065

84366S7

8437310

8437932

623

698

84385J4

8439176

8439798

8440420

8441042

8441664

8442286

S442907

8443529

8444150

6:2

699

8444772

8445393

!^446oi4

8446635 8447256

8447877

8.48498

84491 19

8449739 845036c 621 1

Vcu. XXI.

Nn

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N^

0

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

DifT.

700
701
702
703
704

8450980
8457180
846337'
84695 > 3
8475727

845 1 60 1
8457800
8463990
8470171

8476343

8452221

8458419
8464608
8470789
S476960

845 2S4,
8459038
8465227
8471406
8477577

845346,

8459658
8465845
8472024
8478,93

845408 1
8460277
8466463
847264,
8478810

8454701
8460896
846708,
8473258
8479426

845532,
846 15,5
8467700
8473876
8480043

8455941

8462 I :j4

84683", 8

8474493
8480659

845656,

8462752

8468935
8475110

8481275

620
619
618
6.7
6,7

705:
706

708
709

848 1 89 1
8488047
8494194

S500333
8506462 <

8482507
8488662
8494808
8500946
S507075

8483123
8489277

8495423
8501559

8507687

8483739
8489892
8496037
8502172
8508300

8484355
8490507
849665 ,
8502786
8508912

8484970
849 ,,22
8497264

8503399
8509524

8485586
849,736
8497878
85040, I
8510136

8486201
8492351
8498492
8504624
8510748

84868,7
S492965
8499 1 06
8505237
85, 1360

8487432
8493580
8499719
8505850
85 1 1972

8518085
8524,90
8530286

8536374
8542453

6.5
615
613
6-3

6l2

611
610

610
609
608

710
711
712
713
714

851258J
8518696
2524800
8530S95
8536982

85 '3 195
S519307

8525410

S531504

8537590

8513807
85199,7
8526020

85321 13
8538,98

8514418
8520528
8526629
8532722
8538807

85,5030
852,139

8527239

8533331
8539414

85,564,

8521749
8527849

8533940
8540022

8516252
8522359
8528458

8534548
8540630

8516863
8522970
8529068

8535157
854,238

8517474
8523580
8529677

8535765
8541845

715
7.6

717
718

719

8543060
8549130
8555192
8561244
8567 2 89

8543668
8549737
8555797
8561849
8567893

8544275
8550343
8556403
8562454
8568497

8544882

8550950
8557008
8563059
856910,

8545489
855.556
85576,4
8563663
8569704

8546096
8552162
S558219
8564268
8570308

8546703
S552768
8558824
8564872
8570912

85473,0

8553374
8559420
8565476
85715,5

8547917
85539S0
85"oo35
8566081
8572118

8548524
8554586
8560^)40
85666S5
8572722

607
606
605
605
604

720
721
722

723
724

8573325
^579353
8585372
8591383
8597386

8573928
8579955
8585973
8591984

8597985

857453 1
8580557

8586575

8592584
859S5S5

8575134
8581159

85S7176

8593185

8599185

8575737
8581761
8587777

8593785
8599784

8576340
8582363
8588379

8594385
8600384

8576943
8582965
8588980
8594986
8600983

8577545
8583567
8589581
8595586
S601583

8578148
8584169
8590181
8596186
8602182

8578750

8584770
8590782
8596786
8602781

603
602
602
600
600

72;
726

727
728
729

8603380
8609366
8615344
8621314
8627275

8603979
8609964
8615941
862T910
8627871

8604578
8(^10562
8616539
8622507
8628467

8605,77
86, I ,60
86,7136
8623,03
8629062

8605776
86,1758
8617733
862:5699
8629658

8606374
8612356
8618330
8624296
8630253

8606973
86,2954
86,8927
8624892
8630848

8607571
86,3552
8619524
8625488

8631443

8608170
86,4149

86201 2,
8626084
8632039

8608768
8614747
8620717
8626680
8632634

6983
698

697
697
695

730
731
73-
733
734

735
73^'
737
738
739

8633229
8639174
8645 1 1 1
8651040
S656961

8633823
8639768
8645704
S651632
S657552

8634418
8640363
8646297
8652225
8658144

8635013
8640956
8646890
8652817
8658735

8635608
864,550
8647483
8653409
8659327

8636302
8642,43
8648076
S654C01
86599,8

8636797
8642737
8648669

8654593

8660509

8637391

8643331
8649262
8655185
866, ICO

8637985
8643924
8649855
8655777
866169I

8038580

8644517
8650447
8656369
8662282

594
593
593
591
591

591

500
589
588
588

866287:;
8668778
8674675
8680564
8686444

8663464
8669368
8675264
8681152
8687032

8664055
8669958

8675853
868,740

8687620

8664646
8670548
8676442
8682329
8688207

S665236
867 1 138
8677031
8682917
8688794

8665827
867,728
8677620
8683505
8689382

8666417
86723,7
8678209
8684093
8689969

8667008
8672907
8^^78798
868468,
8690556

866759S
8673496

8679387
8685269
869,143

8668188
8674086
8679975
8685857
8691730

740

74'
742

743
744

8693317
869S182
87040^(1
8709888
8715729

8692904
8698768
8704624
8710473
87,63,3

869349,

8099354
8705210
87,1057
87 16897

8694077
8699940
8705795
871 164,
8717480

8694664
8700526
8706380
8712226
87,8064

8695251
870,1,2
8706965
87128,0
8718647

8695837
8701697
8707549

8713394
8719230

8696423
870228^
8708,34
87,3978
87198,4

8697010
8702S68
87087,9
8714562
8720397

8697596

87o345^
8709304

8715146

8720980

587
586

585

584

583

582
582
581
580

745
746

747
74S

749

^721563
S727388
!-'7332o6
87^9016
■S744818

8722146

8727970
'^733787
8739597
^745398

8722728
S728552

8734369
8740177
8745978

8723311
8729,34

8734950
8740757

8746557

S723894
8729716

8735531
8741338
8747137

8724476
8730298
87361 12
8741018
87477,6

8725059
S730880
8736693
8742498
8748296

872564,
873,462

8737274
8743078

8748875

8726224
8732043

8737855
8743658
8749454

8726806
8732625

S738435
8744238
875C034

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms

N"

0

1

2 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff.

750

751
752

"53
754

755
756

757
758
759

875061J
8756399
8762178
S767950
8773713

8751192

8756978
8762756
8768526
8774289

875177' 1 8752349
875755618758134
87^333318763911
8769105 1 8769680
8774865 8775441

8752928
8758712
8764488
8770256
8776017

8753507
8759290
8765065
8770833
8776592

8754086
875986S
8765642
S771409
8777168

8754664
87604.46
8766219
8771985

8777743

8755243
8761025
8766796
8772561
8778319

8755821
8761601
8767373
8773137
877S894

579
578

577
577
)75

575
574
573

573
572

8779470
8785218
8790959
8796692

8802418

8780045
8785792
8791532
8797265
8802990

8780620
8786367
8792106
8797838
8803562

8781195

8786941
8792680
879841 1
8804134

8781770
87875,5
8793253

8798983
8804706

8782345
8788089
8793826
8799556
8S05278

8782919
8788663
8794400
8800128
8805850

8783494
8789237

879^973

1 8800701

8806421

8784069
878981 1

8795546
S801273
8806993

8784643
8790385
87961 19
8801846
8807564

760
761

762

763
764

8808136
8813847
S819550

88252+5
8S30934

8808707
8814417
8820120
8825815
8831502

8809279
8814988
8820680
8826384
8832070

8809850
8815558
8821259
8826953
8832639

88 1 042 1
8816129
8821829
8827522
8833207

8810992
8816699
8822398
8828090
8833775

881 1563
8S17269
8822968
8828659
8834343

8812134
8817840
8823537
8829228
8834911

8812705
8818410
8824107
8829797

8835479

8813276
88189.S0
8824676

8830365
8836047

571
570
569
568
568

567
567
566

565
564

765
766
767
768
769

8836614
8842288
8847954
8853612
8859263

8S37182
8842855
884S520
8854178
8859828

8837750
8843421
8849086

8854743
8860393

8838317
8843988
8849652

8855308
8860957

8838885
8844555
8850218

8855874
8861522

8839452
8845122
8850784
8856439
8862086

8840019
8845688
8851350
8857004
8862651

8840586
8846255
8851915
8857569
8863215

8841154
8846821
8852481
8858134
8863779

8841721
8847387
8853047
8858699
8864343

770
771
772
773
774

8864907
8870544
8876173
8881795
8887410

8865471
S871107
8876736
8882357
8887971

8S66035
8871670
8877298
8882918
8888532

8866599
8872233
8877860
8883480
8889093

8867163

8872796
8878423
8884042
8889653

8867726

8873359
8878985
8884603
8890214

8868290
8873922

8879547
8885165
8890775

8868854
8874485
8880109
8885726-
8891336

8869417
8875048
8880671
8886287
8891896

8869980
8875610
8881233
8886848
8892457

565
563
562
561
561

775
776

777
778
779

8893017
8S9S617
8904210
8909796
89 '53 75

8893577
8899177
8904769
8910354
8915932

8894138
8899736
8905328
8910912
8916489

8894698
8900296
8905887
891 1470
8917047

889525S
8900855
8906445
8912028
8917604

8895818
8901415
8907004
8912586
8918161

8896378
8901974
8907563
8913144
8918718

8896938
8902533
8908121
8913702
8919275

8897498
8903092
8908679
8914259
8919832

8898058
8903651
8909238
8914817
8920389

560
560

559
558
557

780
781
782

783
784

8920946
8926510
S932068
8937618
8943161

8921503
8927066
8932623
8938172
8943715

8922059
8927622

8933'78
8938727
8944268

8922616
8928178

8933733
8939281

8944822

8923173
8028734
8954288
8939836
8945376

8923729
8929290
8934S43
8940390
8945929

8924285
8929846

8935398
8940944
8946483

8924842
8930401

8935953
8941498

8947037

8925398
8930957
8936508
8942053
8947590

8925954
8931512
8937063
8942607
8948143

556

555
554
5S3

78,-
786

787
788
789

8948697
8954225

8959747
8965262

8970770

8949250
8954778
8960299
8965813
8971320

8949803

8955330
8960851
8966364
8971871

8950356

8955883
8961403
8966915
8972421

8950909
8956435
8961954
8967466
S972971

8951462
8956987
8962506
8968017
S973521

8952015

8957539
8963057
8968568
8974071

S95256S
8958092
8963608
8969118
8974621

S953120
895S644
8964100
8969669
897517 1

8953673
8955195

89647 II

8970220
8975721

)i3
552

551
i5°

790
791
792

793
794

795
796

797
798

799

%^f)27I

8987252
8992732
8998205

8976821
8982314

8987800
8993279
8998752

8977370
8982663
8988348
8993827
8999299

8977920
8983412
898SS97

8994375
8999846

8978469
8983960

8989445
8994922
90C0392

8979019
8984509
8989993
8995469
9000939

8979568
8985058
8990541
8996017
9001486

8980117
S985606
8991089
8996564
9002032

S980667
8986155
8991636
89971 1 1
9002579

8981216
8986703
So,-, 84
8997658
9003 1 25

549
548

547
547

9003671
9009131
9014583
90.20029
9025468

9004218
9009676
9015128
9020573
902601 1 1

9004764
9010222
9015673
9021117
9026555

9005310
9010767
9016218
9021661
9027098

9005856

90"3'3
9016762
9022205
9027641

9006407.
901 1S58
9017307
9022749
90281S5

9006948
9012403
9017851
9023293
9028728

9007404
9c 1 2948
9018396
9023837
9029271

9008039

9013493
9018940
9024381
9029814

900S585
9014038
9019485
9024924
90.50357

546
545
545
544
544

Nn2

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N"

0

I 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff.
542

800

9030900

9031443 9031985

9032528

9033071

9033613

9034156

9034698

9035241

9035783

801

9036325

9036867 ; 9037409

9037951

9038493

9039035

9039577

90401 19

9040661

9041202

542

802

9041744

90422S5 i 9042827

9043368

9043909

9044450

9044992

9045533

9046074

9046615

541

803

9047155

9047696 9048237

9048778

9049318

9049859

9050399

9050940

9051480

9052020

541

804
805

9052560

9053 loi 9053641

9054181

9054721

9055260

9055800

9056340

9056880

9057419

539
539

9057959

9058498

9059038

9059577

90601 16

9060655

9061 195

9061734

9062273

9062812

806

9063350

9063889

9064428

9064967

9065505

9066044

9066582

9067121

9067659

9068197

539

807

9068735

9069273

9069812

9070350

9070887

9071425

9071963

9072501

9073038

9073576

538

80S

90741 14

9074651

9075188

9075726

9076263

9076800

9077337

9077874

907841 1

9078948

537

809

9079485

9080022

9080559

9081095

9081632

9082169

9082705

9083241

9083778

9084314

537
536

810

9084850

9085386

9085922

9086458

9086994

908753c

9088066

9088602

9089137

9089673

811

9090209

9090744

9091279

909 1 8 1 5

9092350

9092885

9093420

9093955

9094490

9095025

535

812

9095560

9096095

9096630

9097165

9097699

9098234

9098768

9099303

9099837

9100371

535

«'3

9100905

9101440

9101974

9102508

9103042

9103576

9104109

9104643

9105177

9105710

534

8.4

9106244

9106778

9107311

9107844

9108378

9 1 089 1 1

9109444

9109977

91 10510

91 1 1043

533

815

91 1 1576

91T2109

911 2642

9113174

9113707

9114240

9114772

9115305

9115837

91 16369

533

816

91 16902

91 17434

9117966

91 18498

91 19030

91 19562

9120094

9120626

9121157

9121689

532

817

9 1 2 2 2 2 1

9122752

9123284

9123815

9124346

9124878

9125409

9125940

9126471

9127002

532

S18

9127533

9128064

9128595

9129126

9129656

9130187

9130717

9131248

9131778

9132309

531

819

9132839

9133369

9133899

9134430

9134960

9135490

9136019

9136549

9137079

9137609

530
529

8jo

9138139

9138668

9139198

9139727

9140257

9140786

9141315

9141844

9142373

9142903

821

9143432

9143961

9144489

9145018

9145547

9146076

9146604

9147133

9147661

9148190

529

822

9148718

9149246

9149775

9150303

9*150831

9151359

9151887

9152415

9152943

9153471

528

823

915399S

9154526

9155054

9155581

9 1 56 1 09

9156636

9157163

9157691

9158218

9158745

527

824

9159272

9159799

9160326

9160853

9161380

9161907

9162433

9162960

9163487

9164013

527
526

825

9164539

9165066

9165592

9166118

9166645

9167171

9167697

9168223

9168749

9169275

826

9169800

9170326

9170852

9171378

9171903

9172429

9172954

9173479

917^005

9174530

526

827

9175055

9175580

9176105

9176630

9177155

9177680

9178205

9178730

9179254

9179779

525

828

9180303

9180828

9181352

9181877

9182401

9182925

9183449

9183973

9184497

9185021

524

829
830

9185545

9186069

9186593

9187117

9187640

9188164

9188687

9189211

9189734

9190258

524

5^3

9190781

9191304

9191827

9192350

9192873

9193396

9193919

9194442

9194965

9195488

831

9196010

9196533

9197055

9197578

9198100

9198623

9199145

9109667

9200189

920071 1

523

832

9201233

9201755

9202277

9202799

9203321

9203842

9204364

9204886

9205407

9205929

521

833

9206450

9206971

920749J

9208014

9208535

9209056

9209577

9210098

9210619

921 1 140

521

834

921 1661

92 1 2 1 8 1

9212702

9213222

9213743

9214263

9214784

9215304

9215824

9216345

520
520

In

9216865

9217385

9217905

9218425

9218945

9219465

9219984

9220504

9221024

9221543

836

9222063

92225S2

9223102

9223621

9224140

9224659

9225179

922569S

9226217

9226736

519

837

9227255

9227773

9228292

9228811

9229330

9229848

9230367

9230885

9231404

9231902

518

838

9232440

9232958

9233477

9233995

9234513

9235031

9235549

9236066

9236584

9237102

518

839

9237620

9238137

9238655

9239172

9239690

9240207

9240724

9241242

9241759

9242276

517

517

840

9242793

924331°

9243827

9244344

9244860

9245377

9245894

9246410

9246927

9247/>.4

841

9247960

9248476

9248993

9249509

9250025

9250541

9251057

9251573

9252089

92525^5

5.6

842

9253121

9253637

9254152

9254668

9255184

9255699

9256215

9256730

9257245

9257761

515

S+3

9258276

9258791

9259306

9259821

9260336

9260851

9261366

9261880

9262395

9262910

515

844

9263424

9263939

9264453

9264968

9265482

9265997

926651 1

9267025

9267539

9268053

515
514

845

9268567

9269081

9269595

9270109

9270622

9271136

9271650

9272163

9272677

9273190

846

9273704

9274217

9274730

9275243

9275757

9276270

9276783

9277296

9277808

9278321

513

847

927S834

9^79347

9279859

9280372

9280885

92S1397

9281909

9282422

9282934

9283446

512

848

9283959

9284471

92849S3

9285495

9286007

9286518

9287030

9287542

9288054

9288,-65

5'i

849

9289077

9289588

9290100

9290611 92911:3

9291634

9292145

9292656

9293167

9293678 511 j

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N

850
851
852

8^3
854

1

2 3

456

7

8

9

jDiff.

1

9294189
9299296

930430

9309490

93 14579

929470c
9299806
9304906
9309999
93'50«7

9295211
9300316

9305415
9310508

9315596

9295722
9300826
9305925
9311017
9316104

929(5233
9301336
9306434
9311526
9316612

9296743
9301847
9306944
93 ' 2035
9317121

9297254 9297764

9302357 19302866
9307453 1 9307963

93 1 2544 1 9313053
9317629I 9318137

9298275
9303376
9308472
9313562
9318645

9298785
9303886
9308981
9314070
9319153

510
510

|5'o

;509

5*>9

856

857
8 J- 8
859

860
861
862
863
S64

S65
866
867
868
869

870
871
872
873
874

875
876

877
878

879

880
8S1
882
S83
884

9319651

9334738
9329808

9334873
9339932

9320169
9325245

9330315
9335379
9340437

9320677

9325752
9330822

9335885

9340943

9321185
9326259
9331328
9336^91
9341448

9321692 932220Q 9322708 1 9323215
9326767 9327274 9327781 9328288
9331835 9332341 9332843 9333354
9336897 9337403 9337909 9338415
9341953 9342459 934296419343469

9323723
9328795
9333860
9338920
9343974

9324230
9329301
9334367
9339426

9344479

508
507
506
506
506

9344985
9350032

9355073
9360108

9365137

9345489
9350536
9355576
9360611
9365640

9345994
9351040
9356080
9361 114
9^^66I43

9346499
9351544
9356584
9361617
9366645

9347004 9347509
9352049 9352553
9357087 9357591
9362120 9362623
9367148 9367650

1

9348013
9353057
9358095
9363126
9368152

9348518
9353561
9358598
9363629
9368655

9349023
9354065
9359101
9364132
9369157

9349527
9354569
9359605
9364635
9369659

505

504

504

503

502

037C161

93 75 '79
9380191

93 '5»97
9390198

9370663
9375680
9380692

9385698
9390697

9371165
9376182
9381193
9386198
9391197

9371667
9376683
9381693
9386698
9391697

9372169

9377184
9382194
9387198
9392196

9372671
9377686
9382695
9387698
9392696

9373172
9378187

9383195
9388198

9393 95

9373674
9378688
9383696
9388698

9393695

9374176
9379189
9384196
9389198
9394194

9374677
9379690
9384697
9389698
9394693

502
502
501
500
500

9395193
9400182
9405165
9410142
9415114

9395692
94006S0
9405663
9410645
9415611

1
9396^91 1 9396690

9401179 1 9401677

9406161 1 9406659

941 1 137 '941 1635

941 6 1 08 i 9416605

9397189
9402176
9407157
9412132
9417101

9397633

9402674
9407654
9412629
9417598

9398187 9398685
9403172 9403670
9408152 9408650
9413126 9413623
9418095 9418591

9399184
9404169
9409147
9414120
9419088

9399683
9404667

9409645
9414617

9419584

499

498

497
497
497

9420081
9425041
9429996

9434945
9439889

9420577

9425,37
9430491

9435440
9440383

942107319421569
9426033 ; 9426528
9430986 9431481

9435934 i 9436429

9440877 9441371

9422065
9427024
9431976
9436923
9441865

9422562
9427519
9432471

9437418
944 23 J 8

9423058 1 9423553
9428015 1 9428510
9432966 9432461
9437912 9438406
9442852 1 9443346

9424049
9429005

9433956
9438900

9443840

9424545
9429501

9434!5o

9439395

9444333

496

495
494

494
493

9444827

9449759
9454686
9459607
9464523

9445320
9450252
9455178
9460099
9465014

9445814

9450745
9455671

9460591

9465505

9446307 9446800
9451238 9451730
9456163 9456655
9461082 19461574
9465996 j 9466487

9447294
9452223

9457147
9462066
9466978

9447787
9452716

9457639
9462557

9467469

9448280
9453208
9458131
9463049
946796c

9448773
9453701
9458623
9463540
9468451

9449266

9454193
9459115

946403 1
9468942

493
493
492
492
491

491
49°
490
489
489

885
886
887
888
889

9469433
9474337
9479236
9484130
94S9AS

9469023
9474827
9479726
9484619
94S9506

94704 1 4»

9475317
9480215
9485108
9489995

9470905
9475807
9480705

9485597
9490483

9471395
9476297
9481194
9486085
9490971

947 1 886
9476787
9481684
9486574
9491460

9472376

9477277
9482173
9487063
9491948

9472866

9477767
9482662
9487552
9492436

9473357
9478257

9483151
9488040

9491924

9473847
9478747
9483641
9488529
9493412

890
891
S92

893
894

94939:0

9498777
9503649
9508515

9513375

9494388
9499264

9504135
9509001
9513861

9494876

9499752
9504622

9509487
9514347

9495364
9500239

9505109
9509973
95148'

9495852
9500726
9505596
9510459
9515318

9496339
9501213
9506082
9510946
9515803

9496827
9501701
9506569
9511432
9516289

9497315
9502188

9507055
951 1Q18

9516774

9497802
9502675
9507542
9512404
9517260

9498290
9503162
950S028
9,-12889
9517745

487
487
486
486

485

48)
484
4S4

483

89;
896
897
898
899

9518230

9523080
9527924
9532763
9537597

9518716

9523565
9528400

9533247
9538080

9519201
9524049
9528893

9533731
9538563

9519686
9524534
952^377
9534214
9539046

0520171
9525018
9529861

9534697
9539529

9520656
9525503
9530345
9535'8i
9540012

9521 141
9526987
9530828

9535664
9540494

9521626
0526472
9531312

9536147
9540977

95221 1 1
952695A

9531796
9536631
9542460

9522595
9527440
9532380
9537114
9542943

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithms.

N

900
901
902

9°3

904

90J
906
907
908
909

1
0

1

2 3

4

5

6

/

8

9

Diff.

9542425
9547248
9552065
9556S78
9561684

954290H

9547730
9552547

955735^
9562165

9543390
954.S212
9553028

9557839
9562645

9543873
9548694

9553510
9558320
9563125

9544355
9549176

9553991
9,-58801
9563606

9544837
9549657
9554472
9559282
9564086

9545319

9550139

9554953
9559762

9564566

9545 8c 2
9550621

9555434
9560243
9565046

9546284
9551102
9555916
9560723
9565526

9546766
9551584
9556397
9561204
9566C06

482
482
4S,
480
480

9,-66486

9571282
9576073
9580858

95S5^'39

9566966
9571761
9576552

9581337
95861 17

9567445
9572241

9577030
9581815
9586594

9567925

9572720

9577509
9582293

9587072

9568405

9573199
9577988
9582771
9587549

9568885
9573678
9578466

9583249

9588027

9569364
9574157
9578945
9583727
9588505

9569844
9574636

9579423
95842C5

9588982

9570323

9575115
9579902
9584683
9589459

9570803

9575594
9580380
9585161

9589937

479
479
479
478

478

910
911
912

913
914

95^0414
9595184
9599948
9604708
9609462

9590891
9595660
9600425
9605183
9609937

9591368

9596137
960090 I
9605659
9610412

9591845
9596614
9601377
9606135
9610887

9592322
9597090
9601853
9606610
9611362

9592800

9597567
9602329
9607086
9611837

9593276
9598043
9602805
9607561
9612312

9593753
9598520
9603281
9608036
9612787

9594230
9598996
9603756
9608512
9613262

9594707

9599472
9604232
9608987
9613736

476
475
475
475
475

915
916
917
918
919

961421 I
9618955
9623693
9628427
9633' 55

9614686
9619429
9624167
9628900
9633628

9615160
9619903
9624640

9629373
9634100

9615635
9620377
9625114
9629846
9634573

9616109
9620851
9625587
9630319

9635045

9616583
9621325
9626061
9630792
9635517

9617058
9621799
9626534
9631264
9635990

9617532
9622272

9627007

9631737
9636462

9618006
9622746
9627481
9632210
9636934

9618481
9623220
9627954
9632683
9637406

475
474 -
473
472
472

920
921
922

923
924

9637878
9642596
9647309
9652017
9656720

9638350
9643068

9647 7 Jo
9652488
9657190

9638822

9643539
9648251
9652958
9657660

9639294
96440 1 1
9648722
9653428
9658130

9639766
9644482
9649193
9653899
9658599

9640238

9644953
9649664
9654369
9659069

96407 1 0

9645425
9650135

9654839
9659539

9641 iSi
9645896
9650605
9655309
9660009

9641653
9646367
9651076
9655780
9660478

9642125
9646838
9651546
9656250
9660948

472
472
471

47°
470

925
926
927
928
929

9661417
96661 10
9670797
9675480
9680157

9661887
9666579

9671266
9675948
9680625

9662356
9667048

9671734
9676416
9681092

9662826
9667517
9672203
9676884
9681559

9663295
9667985
9672671

9677351
9682027

9663764
9668454

9673139
9677819
9682494

9664233
9668923
9673607
9678287
9682961

9664703
9669392
9674076
9678754
9683428

9665172
9669860

9674544
9679222
9683895

9665641
9670329
9675012
9679690
9684362

469
469
468
468
467

930
93'
932
933
934

9684829
9689497
9694159
9698816
9703469

9685296
9689963
9694625
9699282
97°3934

9685763
9690430

9695091
9699747
9704399

9686230
9690896

9695557
9700213
9704863

9686697
9691362
9696023

9700678
9705328

9687164
9691829
9696488
9701143
9705793

9687630
9692295
9696954

9701608
9706258

9688097
9692761
9697420
9702074
9706722

9688564

9693227
9697885
9702539
9707187

9689030

9693693
9698351

9703004

9707652

466
466
466

465
465

935
936
937
938
939

97081 16
9712758
9717396
9722028
9726656

9708581
9713222
9717859
9722491
9727118

9709045
9713686

9718323
9722954
9727581

9709509

9714150
9718786
9723417
9728043

9709974
9714614
9719249
9723880
9728506

9710438
9715078
9719713
9724343
9728968

9710902

9715542

9720176
9724805
9729430

9711366
9716005
9720639
9725268
9729892

9711830
9716469

9721102
9725731
9730354

9712294
9716932
9721565
9726193
9730816

464

464

463

462
462

940
941
942

9+3
944

9731279

973589^
9740509

9745117

9749720

9731741
9736358
9740970

9745577
9750180

9732202
9736819

9741431
9746038
9750640

0732664
9737281
9741892
9746498
97511C0

9733126
9737742

9742353
9746959
9751560

9733588
9738203
9742814
9747419
9752020

9734050
9738664

9743274
9747879
9752479

9734511
9739126

9743735
9748340

9752939

9734973
9739587
9744196
974880c

9753399

9735435

9740048
9744656
0749260
9753858

462
461
460
460
459

945
946

947
948

949

9754318
97 589 1 1

9763500
9768083
9772662

9754778

9759370

9763958
9768541

9773120

9755237
9759829
9764417
9769000
9773577

9755697
Q760288
9764875
9769458
9774035

9756156
9760747

9765334
9769915

9774492

9756615
9761206
9765792

9770373
9774950

9757075
9761665
9766251
9770831
9775407

9757534
9762124

9766709

9771289

9775864

9757993
9762582
9767167

9771747
9776322

9758452
9763041
9767625

9772204
9776779

459
459
459
458

457

LOGARITHMS.

Table of Logarithm!.

N^

0 ( I

2 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Diff.

457
457
456
456
455

950

951
952

9)3
954

9777236
97 Si 805
9786369
9790929
9795484

9777693
9782262
978682^
9791385
9795939

9778150
9782718
9787282
9791840
9796394

9778607

9783175
9787738
9792296
9796849

9779064
9783631
9788194
9792751

9797304

9779521
9784088
9788650
9793207
9797759

9779978

9784544
9789106
9793662
9798214

978C435
97S5001
9789562

9794 "8
9798669

9780892

9785457
9790017

9794573
9799124

9781348

9785913
9790473
97950?8

9799579

9J5
9)6

957
958

959

9 8 0003 4 9800488
9804579 9805C33
98091 19 9809573
9813655 9814108
9818186 9818639

9800943
9805487
9810027
9814562
9S19092

9801398
9805942
98 1 048 1
9815015
9819544

9801852
9806396
9810934
9815468
9819997

9802307
9S06850
9811388
9815921
9820450

9802761
9807304
98 1 1 84 1
9816374
9820902

9803216
9807758
9812295
9816827
9821355

98&3670
9808212
9812748
9817280
9821807

9804125
9808666
9813202
9817733
9822260

455
454
454
453
453

960
961
962

963
964

965
966
967
968
969

9822712
9827234
9831751
9836263
9840770

982^165
9S27686
9832202
9836714
9841221

9823617
9828138
9832654
9837165
9S41671

9824069
9828589

9833105
9837616
9842 1 2 2

9824522
9829041

9833556

983S066

9842572

9824974
9829493
9834007

9838517
9843022

9825426
9829945

9834459

9838968

9843473

9S25878 ' 9826330

9830396 : 9830848
9834910 9835361
9839419 9839869
9843923 1 9844373

9826^^)2
9831299
9835812

98403 2C
9844823

452

452

451
451
45©

450
450

449
448
448

9845273

9849771

9854265

9858754
986323S

9S45723
9S50221
9854714
9859202
9S63686

9846173
9850670
98 55 1 63
9859651
9864134

9846623
9851120
9855612
9860099
9864582

9847073
985 1 569

9856061

9860548

9865030

9847523
9852019

9856510

9860996

986547S

9847973
9852468
9856959
9801445
9865926

9848422
9852917

9857407
9861893
98^6374

9848872
9853366
9857856
9862341
9866822

9849322
9S53816
985S305
9S62790
9867270

970

971

972

973
974

9867717
9872192
9876663
9881128
9585593

9868165
9872640
9877109

9881575
9886035

986861:;
9873087
9877556
988202 r
9886481

9869060

9873534
9878003
9882467
9886927

986950S
9873981

9878450
9882913

9887373

9S69955
9874428
9878896
9883360
98S7818

9870403
9874875

9879343
9883806
9888264

9870850
9875322
9879789
9884252
9S8S710

9871598
9875769
9(5:80236
9884698
9889155

9871745

9'i762i6

98806S2
9885144
9^^89601

447
447
446
446
445

976
977
978

979

983
981

982

983
984

9890046
9894498
9898946

9903389
9907827

9890492
9894943
9899390
9903833
9908271

9890937

9895588-
9899835
9904277
9908714

9S91382

9895833
9900279
9904721
9909158

9891828
9896278
9900723
9905164
9909601

9892273
9896722
9901 168
9905608
9910044

9892718
9897167
9901612
9906052
9910488

9893163
9897612
9902056
9906496
9910931

9893608

9898057
9902500
9906940
9911374

9894053
9898501
9902944
99073S3
9911818

445
444
443
443
4-^3

443
442
442

442

441

440
440
440
440
439

9912261
9976690
9921115

90:!5535
9929951

9912704

99i7'33
9921557
9925977
9930392

9913147

9917575
9921999
9926419
993^834

9913590
9918018
9922441
9926860
9931275

9914033
9918461

9922884
9927302
9931716

9914476
9918903
9923326
9927744
9932157

9914919
9919345
9923768
9928185
9932598

9915362
9919788
9924210
9928627
9933039

9915S05
9920230
9924651
9929068
9933480

9916247
9920673
9925093
9929510
9933921

985
986
987
988
989

9934362
99387^.9
9943172
9947560

9951963

9934803
9939210
9943612
9948009
9952402

9935244
9939650
Q04405 1
9948448
9952841

9935685
9940090
9944491
9948888
9953280

9936126
994C531
9944931
9949327
99537 '9

9936566
9940971
9945371
9949767
9954158

9937007
994141 1

994581 T
9950206

9954597

9937448

9041851
9946251
9950645
9955036

9937888
9942291
9946690
9951085
9955474

9938329
9942731
9947130
9951524
9955913

990
991
992

993
994

9956352
9960737
99651 17
9969492
<J973864

9956791

9961 1 75
9965554
9969930

9974301

9957229
9961613
9965992
9970367
9974738

0957668
996205 1
9966430
997=804
9975 '74

9958106
9962439
9966868
9971242
',975611

9958545
9962927

9967305
9971679
9976048

9958983
9963365

9967743
9972116
9976485

9959422
9963803
9968180

9972553
9976921

9959S60
9964241
996S618
9972990
9977358

9060298

9964679
9969055

9973427-
9977704

439
438

437
437

437

095
996

097
998

999

9978231
9982593
9986952

9991305
9995655

9978667
9983029

9087387
9991741
9996090

9979104
9983465
9987823
9992176
9596524

9''7954o
99S3901
9988258
999261 1
9996959

9979976

9984337
9988694
9993046
9997393

9980413

9984773
9989129

9903481

99978 s8

99S0849
9985209
9989564
9993916
9998262

9981285
9985645
99900C0

9994350
9998(97

9981721

99860S0

909o.-;35

9994785
99991 3 1

9982157
9986516
9990870
0995220
9990566

436
435
435
435

LOGARITHMS.

Defcript'tan and Ufe of the preceding Table. — In thi- above
table are contained the logarithm of all numbers, from i to
10,000, which may be found by infpedlion, according to
the method defcribed below ; but it will bo proper, before
we enter upon that fubjetl, to make a few remarks with
regard to the index, or characleriilic, of logarithms, which
are omitted throughout, and mull therefore be fupplied by
the operator, according as the cafe may require. It has
been fhewn that the bife, or radix of the fyftera, is 10 ; and
fince

10'' = I, 10' = 10, 10' = 100, 10' = 1000, &c.
therefore the log. of i =0, the log. of 10 — i, the log. of
TOO = 3, the log. of 1000 -1= 3, &c ; and, confequently,
the logarithm of any number between f. and 10 has its
logarithm greater than o, and lefs than i ; a number be-
tween 10 and 100 has its logarithm greater than r, and lefs
than 1 ; between lOO and 1000 the logarithm is greater
than 2, and lefs than 3, and fo on ; therefore, the integral
part of the logarithm, or its index, is always one lefs than
the number of its integral places. Again, fince

I . I _, I _,

— == 10 ■, = 10 -, — — = 10 ',

10 100 1000

it follows, that the logarithm of . I = — i,of.oi = — 2, of
.001 = — 3, &c. ; confequently, the logarithm of a number
between i and .1 has its index properly o, and its decimal
part negative ; but for the greater convenience, and this is one
great advantage attending Briggs's logarithms, we may af-
fume the index negative, and the decimal part pofitive ; that
is, inftead of fubtracting the decimal part from unity, and
making the refult negative, we retain the decimal as it
arifes, and make the index negative : whence, the logarithm
of a decimal greater than . 1 , has its index ::= — i ; if it be
lefs than .1, but greater than 01, the index is — 2 ; if it
be lefs than .01, but greater than .001, the index is — ■ 3 ;
and fo on : whence it follows, that the index of the loga-
rithm of any decimal is negative, and always one more than
the number of ciphers which precede the firfl efFeftive figure.
Or both rules, t/'z. for integers and decimals, may be re-
duced to one, which is as follows. The index of the loga-
rithm of any number is always equal to the number of
places that the decimal point is diftant from the unit's place,
being pofitive if the decimal point be to the right of the
unit's place, and negative if it be to the left of it. What
has been faid will be illuftrated by the following examples :

Numbers. Logarithms.

34560

34560

34560

34560

3.4560

.34560

.034560

.0034560

.00034560

4-5385737

3-5385737

2-5385737

1-5385737

0-5385737

-'•5385737

-2-5385737

-3-5385737

-4-5385737

Thefe examples will illuftrate all that has been faid with
regard to the index, anJ at the fame time will fhew the
great advantage of the prefent fyftem of logarithms ; for
here the tabular part of the logarithm is tlie fame through-
out, whereas with any other radix, each of the numbers would
bave required a different logarithm ; and, conlc-quently, much
more extenfive tables tlian any of thofe now in common
ufe would be neceffary under thofe circumftances.

To find the logarithm of any number by the table. — If the
number confifts of lefs than three figures, annex a cipher to
it, or two if neceffary, confidering it as a dacimal, and look

for the number thus increafed in one of the firft columns of
the table, marked N, and the number in the adjacent column
is the decimal part of the logarithm, to which prefix the
proper index according to the above rule.

If the number confills of three figures, it may be found
immediately in one of the firll columns, and its logarithm
in the adjacent column, to which prefix the proper index a?
above.

If the number confills of four figures, look for the firll
three in the column marked N, and feek the fourth figure
in the line at the head of the page ; and trace it down t(>
the line in which the three firil figures are found, and the
meeting of the twa lines will give the logarithm required ;
to which prefix the proper index. Thus,

The log. 34 = log. 34.0 ::x 1.5314789

The log. 6 = log. 6.00 = 0.7781513

log. 456 — 2.6589648

log. 4569 - 3.6590506

log. 45.69 = 1.6590506.

If the number confills of more than four places, find the
logarithm anfwering to the firil four as above, and for the
rclt multiply the number Handing in the correfponding
column of difference, by the remaining figures of the pro-
pofed number, and cut off from the right hand of the pro-
duft as many figures as the multiplier confills of, and add
the other part of it to the right-hand figures of the loga-
rithm before found ; then prefix to that fum the proper
index, according to the rule above given. Thus, to find
the logarithm of 34.6782 ;

'og- 34-67 = 1.5391604 Diff. = J25

102 82

^^g- 34-6782 = 1. 5391 706

250

1000

102(50

and in the fame manner the logarithm of any number what-
ever may be found.

To find the number anftvering to any given logarithm by the
table. — Seek for the decimal part of the logarithm in one of
the columns of the table, and if it be found there exaSly,
the correfponding number is that required, the firll three
figures of which will be found in the column marked N, and
the fourth in the head line of the table. Then point off
the proper number of integers or decimals by the converfe
of the rule given in the preceding article, ws. the unit's
place mull Hand fo many places to the right or left of the
firil figure, as is denoted by the index ; to the right if that
index be pofitive, and to the left if negative.

Thus, the natural number anfwering to the logarithms

2-5434472 is 349-5
-2-5434472 IS 0.03495

when 9 in the firft, and o. in the fecond, are made the places
of units agreeably to the rule. Bui if the logarithm be not
found exactly in the table, then feek the next greater and the
next lefs, as alfo the difference between the lefs and the given
logarithm, and between the lefs and the greater ; which
will be found in the correfponding column of difference ;
divide the former difference by the latter, and annex the
quotient to the right-hand of the four figures before taken
out, which will be the number required, remembering to
point off the decimals according to the rule. — Note, The
above quotient cannot be depended upon for more than two
place?

9 Fino

LOG

LOG

Find the number correfponding to the logarithm
2.5450987.
Next greater log. 2.54319^^6 Given log. 2.5430987
Next lefa log. 2.^^^oj.i2 Next lefs z. 5430742

"I'abular differ.

1244

DlfTcr

245

i244)24J-oo{i9
1244

Therefore ^549. 219 is the number fought, the firft four
figures being the number anfvvering to the leafl logarithm.

To ptrform arithmetical operation by logarithms.

Multiplication by logarithms. — Takeout the logarithms of
the factors from the table, and their .fum 'will be the loga-
rithm of the produft fought ; then, by means of the table, find
the natural number anfivering to that logarithm, which will
be the product required. Obferving to add what is carried
from the decimal part of the logarithm to the affirmative
index, or indices, or fubtraft it from the negative. Alfo
adding the indices together if they are of the fame kind ;
fre. all pofitive, or all negative, but to fubtraft them if they
be of different kinds, prefixing the fign of the greater to
the remainder. Thus,

Multiply together .7684, 68.42, and .34S76
log. of .7684 = — 1.8855874
log. of 68.42 = 1.8351831
log. of .34876 = — 1.5425267

Produft 18.3357 = 1.2632972

Divi/ion by logarithms.— Yiere the logarithms are to be
taken out as above, and then the logai'ithm of the divifor
mull be Aibtrafted from that of the dividend, and the re-
mainder will be the logarithm of the quotient fouglit, ob-
ferving to change the fign of the index of the divifor from
affirmative to negative, or from negative to affirmative ; then
take the fum of the indices, if they be of the fame kind, or
fubtraft them if they be of different kinds, prefixing the
fign of t!ie greater for the index. Alio, if i is borrowed in
the left-hand place of the decimal part of the logarithm,
add it to the index of tlie divifor when that index is affir-
mative, but fubtraft it when negative ; then let the fign be
changed, and worked with as before. Thus, for eiample,

Du-ide 37.149 by 523.67

log- .S7-I49 = i-5^'9947i

log. 523.67 = 2.7190577
Quotient .0709397 = — 2.8508894

•' Involution, or raifmg of powers by logarithms. — Multiply
the logarithm of the given number ijy the index of the power
to which it is to be raifed ; and the produft will be the
logarithm of the power required. But in multiplying a
logarithm with a negative index, the producl will be nega-
tive, but what is carried from the decimal part will be pofi-
tive, and mull, therefore, in that cal'e, be fubtraCted from
that prodiift.
Vol. XXI.

Hence, to find the cube of .30714^
log. of .307146 = - 1.4873449

i

Power .0289758 — 2.4620347

Evolution, or the extra^ion of roots by logarithms. — Divide
the logarithm of the given number by the index of the
power, the root of which is to be extra£led, and the quotient
will be the logarithm of the root required ; obferving, that
if the index of the logarithm be negative, as many units muft
be borrowed as will make it cxaftly divifiblc, and fo mav.y
units mull then be carried to the decimal part of the loga-
rithm, and the divilion carried on as ufual.

Required the cube root of .12345

l"g- 12345 3)- 1-09149"

Root

497925

1. 697 1 637

Thefe are the moll fimple cafes in which logarithms are
introduced into arithmetical operations ; the application of
them to more complex cafes, as in Tri>;onometry, Menfura-
tion, &c. will be explained under the refpeftive heads.

LoGAniTii.M, Imaginary, h ufedfor the logarithm of nega-
tive and imaginary quantities, fuch as — a, ^' — a, &c.
Thus, alfo, the fluents of certain imaginary fluxionary ex-

preffions, fuch as , —7 , &c, arc imagi-

^ .1- y — I 2i.v y- I ^

nary logarithms. Euler Analyf. Infin. vol. i. p. 72. 74.

X

The expreffion — reprefents the fluxion of the logarithm

X

of X, and the fluent, therefore, of — is the logarithm of x ;

but no logarithm can reprefent the fluent of -

-, which

X ^' ~ I
is therefore called an imaginary logarithm.

However, when thefe imaginary logarithms occur in the
folutions of problems, they may be transformed into cir-
cular arcs or feCtors ; that is, the imaginary logarithm, or
•imaginary hyperbolic feftor becomes a real circular feclor.
See Bernouilii, Oper. torn. i. p. 400. and p. 512. Mac-
laurin's Fluxions, art. 762, feq. Walmefly, Anal. de«
Mef. p. 63.

LOGE, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Hoya ; 20 miles S.Vv'. of Nienburg.

LOGGERHEAD Key, or El Contoy, a fmall ifland
in the bay of Honduras, near the coaft of Yucatan. N.
lat. 21" 25'. W. long. 87' 45'.

LOGGERHEAT, in the Sea Language, denotes a
large round ball of iron, with a long handle for heating-
pitch.

LOG-HOUSES, houfesin America, which are generally
the firfl that are ereSed on any new fettlement, and which are
cheaper than any others in a country where wood abounds.
The fides conhll of trees jull fquared, and placed hori-
zontally one upon the other ; the ends of the logs of one
fide relling alternately on the ends of thofe of tlie adjoining
fides, in notches ; the interilices between the logs are Uopped
with clay ; and the roof is covered with boards or fhingles,
which arc fnuill pieces of wood in the fliape of fiates or
tiles, &:c. which are ufed for that purpofe, with few excep-
tions, throughout America., Thefe ii.ibitations are not very
fio-htlv, but wiien well built they are warm and comfortable,
and laii for a bug time, ijome of tiiea» are built with brick
O o " sr

LOG

or ftone, or elfe conftrufted with wooden frames, (Tieathed
on the oiitfide with boards.

LOGIC, the ?rt of thinkincf ji'^')' > "'' "^ making a
right nff of our rational faciihics, in defining, dividing, and
reafoning : or, as it is defined by an excellent writer on
this fubjeft, logic is the art of ufing rcafon well in our en-
quiries after truth, and the communication of it to others.
Watts.

The word is Greek, Aoyix)!, derived from Xiyoc, fermo,
difcourji ; in regard thinking is only an inward, mental dif-
courfe, wherein tlie mind converfes with itfelf.

Logic is alfo fometimes called dla'eSka ; and fometinies
the canonical art, as being a canon, or rule for direfting us
in our reafonings.

As, in order to think aright, it is neceflary that we
apprehend, judge, difcourfe, and difpofe, or methodize,
rightly : hence perception or apprehenlion, judgment, dif-
courle or reafoning, and difpofition, whence rcfults method,
become the four fundamental articles of this art ; and it is
Irom our refleftions on thofe operations of the mind that
logic is, or ought to be, wholly drawn.

Lord Bacon divides logic into four branches, according
to the ends propofed in each : for a man reafons, either to
find what he feeks, or to judge of what he finds, or to
retain what he judges, or to teach what he retains ; whence
arife fo many arts of reafoning ; ik's. the art of tnquifi-
llon, or invention ; the art oi examining, or judgment; the
art of prefer'v'mg, or of memory ; and the art of elocution,
or delivery.

Logic, having being extremely abufed, is now in fome
difrepute. The fchools have fo clogged it with barbarous
terms and phrafcs, and have run it out fo much into dry
ufelefs fubtleties, that it fcems rather intended to exercife
the mind in wrangling and dilputation than to aflift it in
thinking juftly. It is true, in its original, it was rather in-
tended as the art of cavilling than of reafoning; the Greeks,
among whom it had its rife, being a people who piqued
themfelves mightily upon their being able to X.3[^ extempore ;
and to argue, by turns, on either fide of the quellion. —
Hence their dialedlici, to be always furnifhed with arms for
fuch rencontres, invented a fet of words and terms, rather
than rules and reafons, fitted for the ufe of contention and
difpute.

Logic, then, was only an art of words, which frequently
had no meaning, but ferved well enough to hide ignorance
inftead of improving knowledtje ; to baffle reafon inftead of
affifting it ; and to confound the truth inilead of clearing it.
Much of that heaj) of words, and rules, which we ha\e
borrowed from the old logic, is of little ufe in life ; and is
fo far out of the common ufage, that the mind does not at-
tend to them without trouble : and finding nothing in them
to reward its attention, it foon difcharges itfelf, and lofes
all ideas it had conceived of them.

But logic, difengriged from the jargon of the fchools,
and reduced into a clear and intelligible method, is the art
of condufthig the underftanding in the knowledge of things,
and the difcovery of truth.

From its proper ufe we gain feveral very coniaJerable ad-
vantages : for, I. The confideration of rules incites the
mind to a clofer attention and application in thinking : fo
that we hereby become afured, ttiat we make the belt ufe
of our faculties. 2. Wc hereby more eafily and accurately
difcover and find out the errors and defetls in our reafoning j
for the common hght of reafon, unaffiftcd by logic, fre-
quently obferves an argumentation to be faillty, without
being able to determine wherein the precile failure confdls.
5. By tbefe refic£Uons on the order and manner of tlie ope-

LOG

rations of the mind, we are brought to a more jufl and
complete knowledge of the nature of our own underftand-
ing. See Soul and UNDEnsTANniNO^
LOGICAL CoNX'REi E. See Concrete.
Logical Part. See Pakt:

LOGINOV, in Geography,^ towrt of RufTia, in the
government of Tobolfli, on the Irtifch ; 16 miles S.E. of
'J'ara.

LOGISTA, the title of an officer at Athens, whcfe
bulinels was to receive and pafs the accounts of magillrates
when they came out of their office.

The logiiliE were in number ten ; they were defied by
lot, and had ten euthyni, or auditors of account?, under
them.

LOGISTIC, or Logarithmic Linr, a curve fo called,
from its properties and ufe.i, in conftrufting and explaining
the nature of logarithms.

If the right line A X {Plate XI. Anahfn, fg. 4.) be
divided into any number of equal parts, and to the points
of "thofe divifions, A, P, p. Sec. be drawn lines continually
proportional, the points N, M, m, Sec. form the logiftic
or logarithmic line or curve.

Here the abfcilTas A P, A p, Sec. are the logarithms of
the femiordinates P M, p m, &.c.

Hence, if A P = .v, A/ = ^^ V M = y, p m = a., and
the logarithms of y and z =:i I y and I z; .v will be = I y, and
V ^ Iz; confequently .v : -u = /_y : /z.; that is, the denomi-
nators of the ratios A N : P M, and A'N : pm, are to one
another as the abfciffas A P and A p.

Hence it follows, that there may be infinite other logiftic
lines invented: provided .v m : v m : •.ly:lz., that any oi"
the roots, or powers, may be the logarithms of the femior-
dinates. The logillic will never concur with the axis,
except at an infinite dillanee ; fo that A X is its afymptote.
See Logarithmic Curve.

LOGI.STIC, Quadrature of the. See QuADRATlTRE.
Logistic, or Logarithmic fp'iral, a line whofe conflru<5tion
is as follows : Divide the quadrant of a circle into any
number of equal part?, in the points N, n. n, &c. {Plate ji.1.
Anahfis^ Jig. 5.) and from the radii C N, C Sj C n, &c.
cut off C M, C m, C m, &c. continually proportional, the
points M, m, m, &c. form the logiilic fpiral.

The arcs, therefore, A N, A n, &c. are the logarithms
of the ordinates C M, C m, &c. whence alfo it follows,
that tliere may be infinite logiftic fpirais. See SriRAL.

LOGISTICA, or Logistical Arithmetic, a denomina-
tion fometimes given to the arithmetic of fexagelimal frac-
tions, ufed by aftronomers in tlieir calculations.

It was fo called from a Greek Treatife of one Barlaamus
Monachus, who wrote about fexagefimal multiphcation very
accurately ; and intitled his book Aofinii- This autiior
VofTuis places about the year 135c, but he miftakes the
work for a treatife of Algebra.

Shakerly, in his Tabulae Britannlcse, has a table of loga-
rithms adapted to the fexagefimal fradtions ; which, there-
fore, he calls logiftical logarithms ; and the expeditious
arithmetic of th?m, which is by this means obtained, and
by which all tlie trouble of multiplication and divifion is
faved, he calls logiftical arithmetic.

LOGOGRAPHI, Ao)crj>^fo., among the Ancients, were
the fecretaries of the logiftx, and kept an account of the
public revenues.

LOGOGRAPHY, derived from ?.oyof, luori, and y^aijaj^.
/ lurite, a now mode of printing, in which the types cor-
refpond to whole words, and not, according to the ufual
method, to fingle letters. For this mode of printing a
patent r/as obtained fome years ago, and in the year 17 S3

1. the

LOG

LOG

the erigin and utility of the art were ftateJ in a trcatife writ-
ten by Henry Johnfon. From the year 1778 he made frve-
ral fuccefsful attempts for the praftice of this art. The
author has undertaken to demonllrate feveral advantages
belonging to tliis method of printing ; viz. I. That the
compofitor (hall hare lefs charged upon his memory than in
the common way. 2. That it is much lefs liable to error.
3. That the type of each word is as eafily laid hold of as
that of a fingle letter. 4. That the decompofition is much
more readily performed, even by novices, than that of mere
letters. 5. That no extraordmary expence nor greater num-
ber of Jypes is required in the logographic than in the
common method of printing. For other particulars, we
mult refer to the author's own account of the invention.
See Stereography.

LOGOGRIPHUS, from the Greek }.o'or, difieurfe, and
ypijo;, or ■vf.ro;, net, a kind of fymbol, or riddle, propofed
to ftudents for their folution, in order to exercife and im-
prove the mind.

The logogriphus ufually confifts in fome equivocal allufion,
or mutilation of words ; which, literally taken, fignify
fomething different from the thing intended by it ; fo that
it is a kind of medium between a rebus and proper enigm.a.

According to Kircher, logogriphi are a kind of canting
arms : thus a perfon called Leonard, who bore in his arms
a lion and nard, or fpikenard, according to that father,
made a logogriphe. CEdip. ./Egypt.

In another place, the fame author defines logogriphus to
be an enigma ; which, under one name or word, will bear
various meanings, by adding or retrenching fome part of it.
This kind of enigmas is well known to the Arabs ; among
whom are autiiors who treat cKprefsly of it.

I.,OGONE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Vifiapour ; 10 miles N. of Poonah.

LOGONI, a town of Sardinia; nine miles E. of Cag-
liari.

LOGORAS, a town of Syria ; 15 miles N. of
Antioch.

LOGOS, 7.070,-, Gr. ^?~l':;^, Chald. [memra), or luord,
Zng. in Philofophy and Theology, a term very differently un-
derltood and applied by both ancient and modern writers.
Thofe who believe that the logos was the perfonification of
the divine intelledf, or of the divine attributes of wildom,
power, &c. trace this doctrine to the ancient Platonifts,
from whom, as they conceive, it was adopted by the Chrif-
tian fathers. It muft be acknowledged, however, that
Plato exprelfes himfelf with a conliderable degree of
obfcurity on this fubieft. Whilft he afcribcs the origin of
the univerfe to the Suoreme God, whom he denominates
a.y-Ji(,:, Or the good, without the inftrumentality of any fub-
ordinate being whatever, and who is reprefented as having
formed it according to a pattern previoufly formed in his
own mind ; he fometimes leads us to conceive that he re-
garded this pattern or idea of the divine mind as 3.fLCond
principle of things, and the world itfelf, which was produced
from thofe ideas, as a third principle. But it does not iatis-
faftorily appear that he made the divine mind, i. e. -mi (nous)
or Mya: {logos) i dlAinCl intelligent being. His Demiurgus,
or immediate maker of the world, feems to have been the
Supreme Beitig himfelf, and not any fubordinate agent or
principle whatever. The reafon, or logos, which, accord-
ing to him, comes from God, and by which he made the
univerfe, feems, in his view of it, to have been fynonimous
with iixmioc and !-irr,u.D, of his underilanding, and not any
other proper perfon or agent. In the' writings of Plato,
logos has only two acceptations, -viz. thofe of fpeech, and of
Ttafon, fuch as is found in man. But when this philofopher

fpcaks of -.ue, or >.!i>«,-, as fomething diftinft from the Divine
Being himfelf, as a power or property belonging to him,
and all divine power and properties \)^\n^fuhj{ance, it would
be very natural and eafy to transform this divine power into a
fubftantial perfon ; and this we rtiall find to have been the
cafe with refpeft to the later Platonifts, agreeably to one
of the Platonic maxims, rra. that being and energy are the
fame thing. Philo, a learned Jew of Alexandria, and con-
temporary with the apoftles, approached more nearly to a real
perfonification of the logos than Plato himfelf, or liis im.me-
diate followers. Although he did not proceed fo far a»
fome of the Platonizing ChrilHans, and make a permanent
intelligent perfon of the divine logos, he made of it an oc-
cafional one, reprelcnting it as the vifible medium of all the
communications of God to man, and of the inttrument by
which he both made the world and maintained an intercourfe
with the patriarchs of the Old Tellament. Philo dignifies
this logos with the appellation of God; but in order to dif-
tinguiih him from the Supreme God, he fays, that the lattev
is known by the term God with the article prefi.^ed to in»
the God ; whereas the logos, like other inferior gods, is only
called God, without the article. Whilft he afcribes proper
creation to God the father only, he attributes the forming of
created matter to the logos. The Jews did not, in genc-Til,
ufe the term logos, or {^"1^2 (memra) which correfpondt
to it in the Platonic fenfe, but as fynonimous to God, or
the mere token, or fymbol, of the divine prefence. In-
ftances occur in various paffages of the Old Teltament, and
a fimilar phrafeology may be found in the " Wifdom of
Solom.on," which fome have afcribed to Philo. The Chrif.
tian Platoniils, deriving their notions from the fchool of
Alexandria, and the relemblance diicernible in fome of the
doftrines of Plato to thofe of the facred fcripti:res, could
not help thinking, that he had aftually borrowed them from
the writings of Mofes, with which, as they thought, he
might have been acquainted during his refidence in Eg)'pt,
or on his travels in the Eaft. This opinion is frequently ex-
preffed and inculcated by Juftin Martyr, and others of the
fathers. A modern writer (fee Prieftley's Early Opinions)
affirms, that Juftin was the firft, or one of the firft, who
advanced the doctrine of the permanent perfonahty of the
logos ; of whom he fays, " Jefus Chrift; is the only proper
fon of God, being his logos, firft born and powerful."
Many of the Chnftian fathers, however, maintained that
the logos was an attribute of the Father, and that this at-
tribute became the perfon of the Son, and was afterwards
united to Jefus Chrift. But we (hould enlarge this article
far beyond its proper limits, if we cited more authorities
in relation to this fubjecl. We muft therefore content
ourfelves with prefenting to our readers a brief account of
the fentiments of modern divines with regard to the logos.
It has been very generally allowed that this name belongs,
in a peculiar and appropriate fenfe, to Jefus Chriil; of v.hofe
nature and rank of being different notions have been enter-
tained. (See AuiANs, Sabklli.\ss, Socixi.\xs, Tri.vita-
111AN.S, and Uniiwrians. See alfo Pre-existence of
Chrift and TRINITY ) We ftiall here fubjoin a brief abftraft
of thefe opinions from fome of the principal writers on this •
fubjeft. The Pfeudo-Athanafians, as they are denomi-
nated by the author of " The Apology of Ben Mordecai
&c." feem to maintain, that the logos, or word of God,
and that God, with whom he was in the beginning, and
whofe fon he is, and the Holy Spirit, who proceeds from
them both, are each of them, y??;j/>', the one Supreme God;
and yet the three all together are the fame Supreme God,
To this purpofe Dr. Clarke, in his " Scripture Doctrine of
the Trinity," mentions the interpretation which fome have
O o 2 !!'"■<■■■

LOGO S-;

given of the phrafe, " the word was God" (John i. l.) that Chrifl: was the pcrfon, by wliom God created and

The Icos, or nuorJ, is conceived by fiich pcrfons to be an- governs the world, and that in and by him the Deity ap-

cther lelf-exiftent, underived, independent pcrfon, co-ordi- peared to men under the Old Tellamcnt by the name of

nate in efll-ntial fupreme anthority and dominion with the Jehovah, the Angel of the covenant, and fimilur appellations.

Father Almighty: and this, fays Dr. Clarke, whatever The apoftle tells us (Heb. i. 2. xi. 3.) that it was by

tnetaphyfical union may be imagined of two fuch co-ordinate Chrid God made the world, aiZ:j.;, the ages or dilpenfa-

perfons, will always and necelfarily, in the religious and tions ; i. e. by whom, fays Ben Mordecai, God formerly

moral fenfe, be real polytheifm ; fubverting that firft and difpofed and ordered thofe eminent and remarkable periods

great foundation of all religion, both natural and revealed, of time: the Antediluvian, the Patriarclial, the Molaic, and

the monarchical unity of the great King and God of the the Prefcnt, being put under his government, according to

imiverfe ; and diredily contrary to that fird and great com- the will of the Father. Now the ages or dilpenfations be-

fore Chrift, we know from our own Icriplures, were ordered
by the angel Jehovah ; and if he were not the Chrill, the
Old and New Tellament contradift ojie another ; by af-
cribing the fame government to two diflerent beings. St;
Paul therefore could mean no other perfon by Chrift, than
the fame logos or word of God ; whom Philo, and all of that

mandment in both Teliaments (Dent. vi. 4. and Mark xii.
-29.) "Hear, O Ifrael, the Lord our. God is one Lord,

Another opinion with rcfpeft to the logos, is that which
fuppofes the appellation to dclignate a pre-oxiilent fpirit, of
inconceivably exalted rank, and poffeffrng fupereminont

power and perfeftion, which derives being from an immediate age, underllood to be the angel of the covenant, or tlie

att of the power and will of God, in contradillindion to ex- angel Jehovah. The f.ime truth is confirmed by many other

illence by mere necedity of nature, and called only begotten references in the gofpels and epillles ; in which the fenfe is

becaufe it is thus derived from the Father in a fingular and in- defeftive, upon any other principle.

conceivable manner, and fo as to be thus diftinguiflied from There is another opinion concerning the logos, which has

all other beings. This pre-exillent fpirit, or logos, apcord- had many advocates among modern divines, and efpecially

ing to the doftrine of ApoUinarius about the year 370, and among thole who are denominated Unitarians. Perfons of

the Arians, defcended from heaven, and fupphed the place this defcription imderiland by the logos, either not a real

of a foul in Chrilt. To this purpofe Mr. Whiiton fays, "the perfon, or God himlelf. Accordingly fome of them inter-

fcripturc, and earheft antiquity, never- affirm, that Chrid pret the palfage above cited in the following manner: "In

took a human rational foul ; they never fay, he took a whole the beginning was Reafon, and Rcafon was with God, and

kuman nature ; they never fay, tliat he was in that fenfe a Reafon was God." But the fenfe of thefe propoiitions

true and perfeft man ; but that he was made flclh ; had a
body prepared for him ; was the Word, or a God incarnate ;
was made in the likenefs of man ; was found in faflnon as a
man, while he was God the word. Nay, Ignatius direftly
affirm?, that it was the Word, and not a human foul, which
inhabited in that body ; and almoin all the ancients agree in
the fame doctrine ; even Athanalius himfelf, before the coun-

amounts to nothing more, as Dr. Clarke has Itated it, than
that God always was a rational being ; or if we underftand
by logos, the wifdom, or power, or any of the attributes of
God, the conelulion will be much the fame. This, we mull
allow, is in itfelf a certain truth ; and, as to the manner of
the expreffion, it might perhaps in fome fenfe, by a figu-
rative way of fpeaking, be affirmed, that the reafon of God,.

oil of Nice." It is laid by Ben Mordecai, that notwithftanding or any one of his attributes, is God ; yet this is nothing to
the pains that were taken to difcourage this opinion, it ap- the purpofe of (what St. John is here treating of) the mcar-
peared again, in different fhapes, in the Chriftian church in nation of Chrift. For the reafon of God is no otherwife
the doftrine of tlie Monothelites ; who held, that Chrift God, than the reafon of a m.an is the man himfelf. Ac-
had only one will, which, without doubt, is fuflicicnt for cording \o this interpretation, tliertfore, all thofe declarations
one perfon. Ai'reeably to this fame ufe of the appellation of fcripture, in which it is affi-n ed that " the word was
logos. Dr. Clarke interprets the feveral paffages that pertain made flefti and dwelt among us (John i. 14.), that Chrift
to it in the lit chapter of the gofpel of St. John. In this " came fort'u from the Father (John xvi. 28.), that " he
fenfe "the word was with God ;' not sv la Sju, in God, as came down from heaven (John iii. 13-), that "he came
reafon or underftanding is In the mind, but Tjor toi (am, with down from heaven, not to do his own will, but the will of
God, as one perfon is prefent with another ; and "the word him that fcnt him (John vi. 18.), tiiat he "took part of
was God ;" not i:c; ccrli, is God, but 5:c.: r.v, was God, or flefh and blood (Heb. ii. 14.), that, having been "in the

tliat vifible perfon, who under the Old Tellament appeared
from the beginning tv ixo^'tn Geh, the vifible image of tba
invilible God, in whom the naine of God was, the an-
gel of the Lord, &c. Phil. li. fu Col. i. 15. Exod. xxiii.
2T. Zech. xii. 8. &c. &c. It this be the right interpreta-
tion of the text, then the words, a a^x" i' "'■'■'y'''.^ hi the be-
ginning was the word, and 0 A070; cr^^f iyin\o, the word was

form of God," he did (xsno-ci skuIov) empty himftlf oi that
form, " and was made in the likenefs of man," and "found
in falhion as a man," (Phil. ii. 6, 7, 8.) : — All thefe ex-
preffions (according to this laft interpretation of the words,
^ioc w 0 Aoyoi), will in reality mean nothing more than that
"the wifdom of the Father dwelt in tl-.e "}»Ian Chrift Jefiis;"
that is, that Chrift was only in a more perfect and continued

made flefti, mean, that the fame perfon who in the fulnefs of manner than other prophets, " an infpired wan." Notiiing,

the time was made man and dwelt with us, did before dwell
with God, and acled in the capacity of a divine perfon, as
the. vifible image of the invihble God, by whom God made
all things, and by whom all things were from the beginning
tranfatied between God and the creature ; and as he is
ftyled (l Cor. i. 24.) the Power of God, and the Wifdom
of God, upon account of the wifdom and power of God
beiii:: manifefted in and by hira; fo here he is ftyled (oXovo,)
the Word, becaufe he does \iy,n ; he does, as Rcvealer, Law-
giver, and Judge, declare the will, the laws, the fentence of
his I'atiier. Thofe who adopt this opinion alio maintain,

fays Dr. Clarke, can be more forced ai^d unnatural than this
interpretation. It is reducing the whole dodtrine of the hu-
mihation and incarnation of the fon oi Gud to a mere figure
of fpeech ; and under the appearance of fpepking of Clinit
as the Supreme God, making lum really nctking but a mere
man. This, however, would ferve the purpofe of thofe wlio
are advocates for the (imple humanity of Chrift.

Dr. Lardner, in his " Letter on the Logos, written iiv
the year 1730," profeffes, that he was once favourable to the
fuppofition, that the logos was the ioulof our Saviour ; but
being at a lofs to conceive how that high being, the lirlt, and

only

LOG

LOG

Only immediately derived being by whom God made the
world, ihould gain any exaltation by receiving after liis rcfur-
rec^ion and afcL-nfion, a bright reiplendent human body, and
beinw made the king and lord of all good men in this world,
and the judge of mankind, and being made higher than the
angels, to whom he was vaftly fuperior before, nbaiidoned
this iiypothefis, as throughout inconceivable, and irrecon-
cileable to reafon. Having Hated fome difficulties, which
have been fince repeatedly urged by Unitarians, and which
thofe who are advocates fortlie pre-exiftent dignity of Ciiriil
are far from thinking to be incai>able of a latisfactory folu-
tion, and having given interpretationsof the pafTages that feem
to intimate and to exprefs the doctrine of our Saviour's pre-
exillence, he procetds to explain the introduction to St.
John's gofpel. " In the beginning was the Word." By
beginning he underltands not the beginning of the gofpel,
a£ others of limilar feutimcnts have underftood it, but of the
creation, or rallier always from eternity " was the Word."
" And the word was witli God ;" that is, was always with
God, though not fully manifel'.ed, till thefe laft days of the
world " And the word was God," fcmetimes rendered,
though not correftly, "And God was the word." Not-
wiihltandin,' the fceming tautology, he is of opinion, that
God here is the fame God that was mentioned before ; and
that St. John intends the one true God, not any inferior
deity.

Thefe paflages dill remain unfatisfactorily interpreted,
whatever be the hyoothefis concerning the logos that is ad-
-niitted ; but this is not the place to purfue more at large the
difcullion of this point. Our theological readers will be led
by this article to feek further information from thofe com-
mentators and critics, who haveexprefsly written on this fub-
jett. ^

LOGOTHiiTA, an officer under the emperors of the
Eall, who kept an account of the various branches of
public and private expence.

There were feveral kinds of' them dillinguiflied by the
particular branch they faperintended, as the lugotheta th S^-o/ah,
or (>oJ}-maller ^eiural ; logutheta rtv out^niajn, or majler of the
Ijuiijhohl, &c.

L.OGR0N0, in Giography, a tov.n of Spain, in Old
Catlile, on the Ebro ; contaming a court of inquifition,
five parities, eight convents, and about jooo inhabitants.
The environs produce iruit, legume, flax, hemp, excellent
wine, oil, and filk : 20 miles N.W. of Calahorra. N. lat.
^2 2^'. W. long. 3 24'. — Alfo, a town of South Ame-
rica, in the province of Quito ; 40 miles E.S.E of Cuenza.
LOGSTOR, or LixTOEU, a town of Denmark, ir,
North Jutland, on Lymford gulf; 21 miles W. of Aalborg.
N. lat. 57 . E. long, (f 15'.

LOGSTOWN, a town of America, on the W. fide of
the Ohio ; 18 rniles from Pittlburg.

LOGUR, a town of Hiudooltan ; 20 miles W.N.W.
of Poonah.

LOGW^OOD, in Bdmy, the wood of a tree ; for the bo-
tanical characters of which, fee H.»:,m.vtoxylum. The
■wood of this tree is brought in logs of about three feet in
length, to Europe, where it is ufed for dyeing purples, and
for the fined blacks j and iheretore it is a very valuable
commodity.

The ufe of logwood in dyeing %vas eflabliflied in this
country bv 13 k. 14 Car. II. cap. 11. before which time
it was prohibited as a pernicious material. A confiderable
part of the foluble portion of the wood is taken up both
by water and alcohol, but much more by the latter, and
thefe menftrua become tinged by it of a deep purple -red or
brown. It ac;ds be added to the watery decoction, it is

3

turned yellow, but alkalies give a very deep purple colour,
without yielding any precipitate. Alum, added to the de-
coftion of logwood, caufes a violet precipitate or lake, and the
fupernatant liquor a!lo remains violet, and gives a freih por-
tion of lake on the effufion of an alkah. The falts of
iron give an inky black with all the folutions of logwood,
under the fame circumdancts as with galls, whence the
prefence of gallic acid in logwood is evinced. The folu-
tions of tin form a very fine violet-coloured lake with the
decoction of logwood, and wholly precipitate the colouring
matter, fo that the fupernatant liquor is quite clear and co-
lourlefs. In dyeing, logwood gives its own natural purple,
with diades or variations according to the mordant ufed, or
it heightens and improves the common black with iron and
galls. In this latter way it gives a peculiar glofa and luftre,.
on which account it is a very valuable dyeing material.

I.,ogwood is ufed in miniature painting to make a purple
wafli ; which may be varied to a more red or blue colour 1^
the addition or omiffiou of Brazil wood. The walTi may be
prepared by boiling an ounce of ground logwood in a pint
of water, till one-half of the fluid be walled ; drain it then
through flannel, while of a boiling heat ; and add to it,
when drained, about ten grains of pearl-adies. To make
it more red, add half an ounce of Brazil wood, or in pro-
portion as the colour wanted may require ; uhng. in this-
cafe the pearl-afhes very fpariugly. This wood has a fw'eetidi.
fuballriugent tade, but a remarkable fmcll. It gives a piir-
phdi-red tincture to watery and fpirituous infiilions, and
tinges the dools, and fometimes the urine, of the fame colour;,
but it does not appear to colour theJjones of animals.

Befides its ufe among dyers, it is employed medicinally as
an adringent and corroborant. In diarrhoeas it has been
found peculiarly eflicacious ; alfo in the latter ftages of dy-
fentery, when the obdrufting caufes are removed, it ferves
to obviate that extreme laxity of the inteftines ufually fuper-
induced by repeated dejections. Extrattum ligni campe-
chenfis is ordered in the pharmacopeias, and may be given
in the dofe of one fcruple or two, repeated according to
the urgency of the fymptoms. The extract is obtained by
infpiflating the decoctions. To promote the extraction,,
the wood (hould be reduced into a fine powder, which is to
be boiled in the water, in the proportion of a pound to a
gallon, till half the liquor is waded. Some digell the
powdered wood iu as much fpirit as will cover it to the
height of about four inches, and afterwards boil it in water ;
the maiters taken up by the watery and fpirituous mendrua,
may be united into one extract, by infpiflating the watery
decoftion to the coufiftcnce of honey, and then gradually
illrring in the fpirituous tincture.

Logwood Country, in Gtography, a didrift of America,,
that lies N.W^. of the Mofquilo Ihore, at the head of the
bay of Honduras, and extends from Vera Paz to Yucatan,
from 15; to iS N. lat. The wiiole c;;ad is, overi'preiid
with illets, keys, and fticala, and the navigation is intricate.
Logwood Lagoon, a bay or gulf on the N.E. coad of
Yucatan. K. lat. 20' 57'. W. long 88 20'.

Logwood /I////, in the ManufaSuns, is a machine for re-
ducing logwood, orother dyeing woods, ".o fmall cliips-or rafp-
jngs, that the colouring matter may be more readily extracted
from them by the dyer. Thefe machines are of two kinds:,
one, by means of luuvs fixed to a large whee', chips the wood.
acrofs the grain into fmall fragmen's, which are afterwards
reduced to a fine powder, by grniding them beneath a pair
of rolling done': tHis is called a chipping. engine. The otlier-
kind operates by !teeil)ars, with a great number of notches
in the edge, which rafps and cuts tiie end of the wood into
powder : this is call^-d tlie rafping engiae. Both machines

require

L O H

L O H

reqviire an immenfe power to aftuate them, and are generally
worked by water-wheels or by fteam-engines. A plan and ele-
vation of a rafping engine is given in Plate XXXI. J\lcchaiucs,
_^gs. I and 2, where A is an iron cog-wliecl, turned round
by the large cog-wheel of a water-mill or lleam-engine ; its
axis has an iron cyhnder B fixed upon it, and this has a
number of fteel bars or knives a fixed in its circumference.
The pieces of wood to be rafped arc placed in a ilrong
wooden trough, D D, in which an iron bar, E, Aides, and
forces tlie wood down to the cylinder, being moved by two
racks, F, F, turned by pinions on an axis, G. At one end of
this is a handle, g, and at the other a wheel, h, which is
turned by a pinion, i, at the extremity of a long fpindle,
H I, which is turned by a wheel, K, whofe teeth arc en-
gaged by threads of a worm or endlefs fcrew, /, cut on the
end of the main axis. By this means the pinions are eonllantly
turning round with a very flow motion, and advance the
wood towards the cylinder, which is at the fame time in
motion, and its rafps cut the wood into powder. A
feiSion of the rafp cylinder is fliewn m^g. 3, where the fame
letters are ufed. In this m is the groove in which tenants at
the ends of the bar, E, Hide. This bar has many large fpikcs
in it, which faften into the wood. At 11 is a Itrong iron plate
at the end of the trough, to defend it from wearing away
by the great prelTure of the wood down upon it. The wood
is kept dawn in the trough by the crofs-b<jr, L, ^g. 2, fixed
down over them. The iron cylinder, B, is call with 24
grooves in it lengthways, and in thefe are laid as many fteel
bars, Y, 7^, fg. 3, the feftion of which is X. The angle,
r, being ground to a (harp edge, and the fide, r s, cut with
teeth, as feen at Z, fo that the edge is ferrated, as fiievvn by
Y, the knives are held in their grooves by a ftrong hoop, n,
fig. 2, driven on the ends of tlie cylinder over the knives,
and they are wedged in fall by fmall iron wedges. When
the wood in the engine is all rafped, and it needs a frefh
iupply, the pinion, k, is difengaged from the wheel h, and
then the winch, g, being turned by a mar, the racks are
withdrawn. To difengage the pinion, k-, its bearing is fixed
\\\ a beam, O, which fwings on a hinge at the upper end,
and the lower end has a rod, p, jointed to it, which is en-
gaged by a catch, r, when the handle, /, at the extremity
of the rod, is moved away from the cylinder, fo as to en-
gage the pinion, /■, with its wheel, h. But on moving the
end of the rod towards the cylinder, it is relieved from the
catch, and the pinion is difengaged from the wheel ; and
to prevent the bar, E, going fo far as to endanger its teeth
meeting the rafps, a pin is fixed into a particular part of
one of the racks, f, which takes hold of the rod, p, when
It has got as far us intended, and removes the rod from the
catch, r, and then the rscks do not advance any farther
to the rafps. The wheel at R S, joining in the axes H and I,
is called a friftion box : it confifts of an iron box, R, fixed
on the end of the axis, I ; its cavity receives a conieal plug,
S, fitted upon the end of the other axis, H, and prelfed
into the box by a lever, T, loaded with a weight. By this
jneans, if the wood does not rafp away fo faft as the motion
of the racks wonld advance it, the cone, S, flips round in
the box, R, and allows for the difference of the movements,
which would otherwile break the machine. The cylinders
of ralping engines generally turn round from i^ to 20
times per minute, and will rednce a great quantity of wood
to a powder in a fhort time. Figs. 4 and 5 are two eleva-
tions of a ch'ipping engine : here A is part of a ftrong iron
axis, turned with a confiderable velocity by water or fteam:
upon the end is a fmall circular flanch, B, to which is bolted
a circular iron-plate, D, in which four knives are fixed, fo
that their edges project a very fmall quantity before the

furface of the wheel in the manner of a plane iron. E is an
iron frame containing the bearing for tlie pivot of the wheel ;
it has a fmall trough, F, cait all in one piece with it. All
this iron work is fcrewed down to the wood framing, G G.
I'lic wood, H, is in this machine prefented to the knives in
the wheel by a man who holds it in the trough, and advances
it as the knives cut away the end. Thefe chips are cut
acrofs tlie grain but obliquely, as is evident from fg. 4 : they
are afterwards ground to a fine powder by a rolling ftone,
or runner upon edge. A large and heavy fly-wheel i.i ufually
fixed on the axis. A, of the chipping wheel to regulate its
movement. A method of reducing logwood has been lately
introduced by fawing it with a circular faw (fee Saw), which
cuts oft' a flake from the end of a piece of wood .\-, fo
that the jar of the faw fliatters the flake all into powder.
By this means, at every cut the faw cuts away as much wood
a.^ its tliicknefs in faw dull and the flake, which is as
much more, is reduced at the fame time, fo that all the
wood is reduced, tliough only one-half is cut, whereas, in
the ralping *ngine, every particle muft be cut by the ma-
chine. This improvement merits the attention of the woollen
manufafturcrs, whofe numerous logwood mills would be
much improved by the adoption of this method.

LOHA, a town of Algiers ; 28 miles E. of El Callah.

LOHARCANA, a town of Nepaul ; 10 miles S. of
Batgao.

LOHARINAPAUL, a town of Nepaid ; 15 miles S,
of Catmandu.

LOHAROO, a town of Hindooftan, in Dooab ; 10
miles N.W. of Pattiary.

LOHE, a town of Auftria; 12 miles W.S.W. of
Crems.

LOHEIA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-
men, on the coaft of the Red fea, founded, aSout three cen-
turies ago, by a Mahometan faint, who built a hut on the
ftiore where the town now ftands, and fpent the reft of his
days there as a hermit. After his death, a " Kabbat," or
houfe of prayer, was erefted over his tomb, and it was after-
wards gradually embellilhed and endowed. Some devout
perfons reforted hither, and built huts for themfelves about
his tomb. The harbour of Macabra, a neighbourinjf town,
being about this time filled up, the inhabitan's who deferted
it fettled at Lolieia, and transferred the feat of government
to this place. The territory of Loheia is arid and barren ;
and the harbour is imJifTerent, fo that at ebb-tide, laden
boats cannot approach near it ; but, notwithftanding this
difadvantage, a confiderable trade in coffee, brought from
the neighbouring hills, is carried on in this town. The
coffee is not fo good as that which is procured by way of
Mocha and Hodeida from Beit el Fakih, but it is purchafed
on more reafonable terms, and the carriage to .lidda is lefa
expenfive. On this account feveral merchants from Cairo
rcfide at Loheia, and others annually refort hither for the
purchale of coffee. In this town are alfo 40 poor Banians,
who are employed in different trades. ■ Loheia has no walls,
but is defended by 12 towers garrifoned by foldiers, and
placed at equal diftances round it. The height of their
gates render it neceflary to afcend them by means of lad-
ders. It is but one of thefe towers that adaiits of being
defended by cannons. Thus expofed to the depredations
of the Arabs, the inhabitants have been fometimes reduced
to the receflity of lea-ving the town, and of taking refuge in
a fmall ifland, whither they carry wiih them their molt va-
luable effects. Several of the houfes in Loheia are built of
ftone; but they are generally hnts, conftrufted after the
Arabian fafliion ; the wa.Is confiiling of mud mixed with
dung, and the roof thatched with a lort of grafs which is-

comn>o«

L O I

L O I

common here. ArounJ tliefe walls is a range of beds made
of ftraw, affurding convenience for fittinq; or lying. Thefe
houfes are not large enough to admit of l)eing divided into
feparate apartments j they have feldom any windows, and
the door is only a ftraw-niiit. When an Arab has a family
and cattle, lie builds for their accommodation feveral fuch
huts, and inclofes the whole with a ftroiig wooden fence.
Lime is prepared in the neighbourhood of the town, by the
calcination of coral from the fea in the open air, and with-
out a furnace. The water at Loheia is very bad, and
therefore they are fupplied from the dillance of 2^ leagues,
which is brought to them in earthen jars upon camels or
afles. Within two leagues of the town is a fmall hill which
affords confiderable quantities of mineral fait. The inha-
bitants are curious, intelligent, and polilhed in their man-
ners. The women wear large veils in the Itreets , and yet
they have no objection to throw them afide before llrangers.
One of thefe females, who prefented herfelf to view, had
her brow, cheeks, and chin, ornamented with black fpots,
imprefled into the (kin, and her eyes were alfo artificially
blackened. In this town they have all the inftruments ne-
ceifary for diftilling brandy ; they have alfo a fort of wine,
prepai'ed from an infufion of dry grapes in water, in a pot
which is buried in the ground in order to make the liquor
ferment. They have alfo a thick, white liquor, called
•' Bufa," prepared from meal mixed with water, and
brought into a tlate of fermentation. Niebuhr.

LOHMEN, a town of Saxony, in the margravate of
Meiflen ; lo miles E.S.E. of Drefden.

LOHNIN, a town of Brandenburg ; lo miles S.E. of
Brandenburg.
LOHOCK. See Loch.

LOHORPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
m Oude ; 20 miles S. of Mahomdy.

LOHR, a town of Germany, in the connty of Rieneck,
on the Maine; 21 miles N.W. of Wurzburg.

LoHR Hampton, a town of Germany, in the county of
Hanau-jMunzenburg J 22 miles E. of Hanau.

LOHRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Behker, on the
•Sinde ; I J miles S. of Behker.

LOHTO, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wafa; 18 miles N.E. of Gamla Karleby.

LOHURDEGA, a town of Bengal, in the circar of
Nagpour ; 22 miles N.N. W. of Doeia. N. lat. 2T 20'.
E. long. 84'^ 51'.

LOHURSEY, a town of Bengal, at which is a pafs
acrofs the monntain; ; 18 miles N.N.E. of Pelamow.

LOIBERSTORFF, a town of Auftria ; 14 miles S. of
Vienna. —Alfo, a town of Auftria ; 10 miles S.W. of St.
Polten.

LOIHL, a range of mountains between Carinthia and
Carniola.

LOIMAJOKI, a town of Sweden, in tlie government
of Abo ; 32 miles N.N.E. of Abo.

LOINS, in Anatomy., the lower and pofteriorpart of tlie
trunk of the body, or the fpace fituated between the upper
edge of the pelvis, and the la(t ribs. The inferior end of
the vertebral column occupies the middle of this region ; it
is called the lumbar portion of the fpine, and the vertebrae
compofing it are the lumbar vertebrs. (See Spine ) The
loweft of thefe rells on the upper furface of the facrum,
and thus joins the chell to the pelvis. This part of the
fpine is the centre of the reciprocal motions of the chelt and
pelvis ; it is covered on each fide, towards the back, by a
thick mafs of mufcle, forming two convex prominences,
■with a hollow between them, correfponding to the fpinous
groceffes, Thefe mufcles are the great powers concerned

in extending the fpine, and maintaining it creft. (See Donsj
longijjimus, and SACKOi,UMiiAi.i.s ) They are afftdftd in
ilraiiis of the trunk, and in lumbajL;o, in which cafes all
motions of the loins arc performed with great difficulty and
pain. The fides of the lumbar region of the (pine arp
covered by the pfoa mufcK s, which belong to the hip-joint.
The collections of matter forming fcrous abfceflcs are
found in the cellular fubHance about thefe mufcles. Clofe
to the (ide of the fpine, the interval between the criita of the
OS .innominatum and the lall rib is occupied by the quadra-
tus lumbornm mufcle. (See Lu.mborlm.) In front of this
mufcle, and of the pfoas, th'- kidney lies, furrounded by
loofe cellular fubftance, which feparates it from the perito-
neum, (oee Kidney.) 'i"he loins in front form a part of
the poflerior furface of the abdomen ; and this is called the
lumbar region.

LOJO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Nyland ; 30 miles W. of HelCngfors.

LOJOBI, a town of Servia ; 16 miles S. S.E. of Faffa-
rovitz.

LOIR and CiiER, one of the nine departments of the
central region of France, fo called from the names of the
rivers which traverfe it, the former in the fouthem part,
the other in the north, and compofed of Blefois and So-
logne, diftrifts of Orleanais, is fituated in 47- 40' N. lat.,
S.E. of Sarthe, and bounded on the N. by the department
of tlie Eure and Loire, on the N.E by the Loiret, on the
E. and S.E. by the Cher, on the S. by the Indre, and on
the W. by the Indre and Loire, and Sarthe. It is 34
French leagues in length, and 23 broad, and contains
6717^ kiliomctres, or about 339 fquare leagues, and
211,152 inhabitants. It is divided into three diftrifts or
circles, 24 cantons, and 309 communes ; the circles are
Vendome, containing 68,330, Blois, including 103,268, and
Romorantin, comprehending 39,5,4 inhabitants. Its con-
tributions amount to 2,433,733 francs, and its expences to
210,286 fr. and 19 cents. Its capital is Blois. The foil of
this department is partly fandy and partly fertile ; yielding
grain, wine, fruits, and paftures. It abounds in lakes,
marlhes, and heaths, with confiderable forefts, iron-mines,
&c.

Loire, one of the 1 1 departments of the eaftern region
of France, formerly Forez, fituated in 45 30' N. lat., well
of tiie Rhone, 24 French leagues long and 12 broad, con-
tains 5135 kiliometres, or 259 fquare leagues, and 292,588
inhabitants. It is divided into three circles, 48 canton.s,
and 327 communes. The circles are Roanne, containing
9J,663, Montbrifon, 97,659, and St. Etienne, 99,261 inha-
bitants. The contributions amount to 2,745,417 fr. and its
expences to 244,800 fr. and 66 cents. Its capital is Mont-
brifon. This department is diverfiiicd with plains, hills,
and mountains. Both banks of the river Loire, from, which
it derives its appellation, are level, yielding grain, hemp,
and paftures. The gentle eminences near Roanne are
covered with vines. Mont-Pilat, a ridge of high mountains,
is fituated at the S.E. extremity of the department, near
the confines of Ardeche. . Here. are forefts and mines of
iron, lead, and coal,

Loire, Upper, one of the 12 departments of the fouth-
eaft region of France, compofed of Vevay and Cevennes,
fituated in 45' N. lat., fouth of Loire and Puy de D6me,
26 Fr. leagues long and 17 broad, contains 52824 kihome-
tres, or 264 fquare leagues, and 237,901 inhabitants. It
is divided into three circles, 28 cantons, and 272 com-
munes. The circles are Brioude, containing 70.596, Le
Puy 103,068, and Yflengeaux, 64,237 inhabitants. The
capital is Le Puy. The contributions amount to 1,509,642

fr.

L O K

L O L

fr. and the expences to 219,83s fi-. 25 cent?. This teni-
torv, though mountainous and covered with fnow fix
months in the year, yields grain, fruits, &c. fufficient for
the inhabitants, with good pallures, mines of antimony,
&c.

LoiRK, Lower, one of the nine departments of die
■wcftern region of France, formerly Upper Bretagne, a
maritime territory on either hand of the Loire, is fituatcd
in 47' 15' K. lat., is 30 Fr. leagues long and 27 broad, and
contains 7660 kiliometres, or 3S2 fquarc leagues, ?,nd
368,506 inhabitants. It is divided into five circles, 4.5
cantons, and 209 communes. The circles are Savenay,
comprehending 91,132, Chatean-Briant, 50,244, Ancenis,
36,949, Nantes, 157,940, and Paimboeuf, 32,241 inhabit-
ants. Its capital is Nantes. Its contributions amount to
2,900,662 fr. and its expences to 345,171 fr. This de-
partment produces wheat, rye, flax, wine, and excellent
j)aitures, with mnies of iron, coal, quarries of marble, &c.
Savenay yields cyder and wine of 'an inferior quality. The
fecond circle is ^Imoft one continued fn-cIL Nantes is
agreeably diverfificd and fertile. From tlie marfiies of
Paimboeuf much fait is extracted.

LOIRET, one of the nine departments of the central re-
gion of France, a portion of Orleanais, E. of Loir and
Cher, is lituated in 47- 50' N. lat., is 30 Fr. leagues long,
and 24 broad ; and contauis 70475 kiliometres, or 356 fquare
leagues, and 289,728 inhabitants. It is divided into four
circles, 31 cantons, and 363 communes. The circles are
Pilhivier.', containing 55,061, Montargis, 61,912, G'en,
37,395, and Orleans, 135,360 inhabitants. Its capital is
Orleans. Its contributions amount to 3,778,705 fr. and its
expence,"; to 337,821 fr. 52 cents. The foil of the fecond
circle is fandy, yielding little grain. The produdts ot the
other diftritts are grain, wine, hemp, falTron, fruits, and
pallures.

LOIRON, a town of France, in the department of the
Mavenne, and chief place of a canton, in the dillricl of
Laval; fix miles W. of Laval. The place contains 1559,
and the canton 13,810 inhabitants, 011 a territory of 280
kiliometres, in 15 communes.

LOiTSCH, orLoG.VTEZ, a town of L^pper Carniola ;
1 5 miles W. of Lay bach.

LOiTZ, a town of Anterior Pon:ierania ; 24 miles S. of
Siralfiind. N. lat. 53 ' 56'. E. long. 13 5'.

LOKACZ, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 30 miles
W S.W. of Lucko.

LOKAL.-^X, a tovrn of Sweden, in the government of
Abo ; 27 miles N.W. of .Abo.

LORE, in Myihoh^v, the name of one of the deities of
the northern nations, aniwcring to the Arinianes among the
Perfians, whom they reprefent as at enmity both with gods
and meni and the author of all the evils whicii delolate the
iiniverfe. L. ke is deicribed in tlie Edda as producing the
orreat ferpent which incirclcs the world ; which feems to
have been intended as an emblem of corruption or fm : he
alfo gives birtii to Hela or death, the queen of the infernal
regions ; and alfo to the wolf Fenris, that monfter who is
to encounter the gods and deilroy the world. North. Ant.
vol. ii. p. 85, &c.

LoKK, in Rural Economy, a provincial word ufed in Nor-
folk for a dole narrow lane.

LOKMAN, in Biography, fin'named Jll-Hcikim, .ov the
Wife, a philofopher in c'lnliderabie elUmation among the
eatlern nations, to whom is attributed a collection of maxims
and fables, which are calculated to difplay the moral doctrines
of the ancient Arabians. There have been many hypothefes
(Concerning the country in vvhicli he lived, and the period at

which he fiouriflied, but the greater part of the Muffalman
doftor.! make him contemporary with David and Solomon,
It has been fuppofed that he was a native cf Ethiopia or
Nubia, and in rather a fervile condition ; that he iiad been
a flavc in different countries, and that he was at length f j!d
among the Ifraelites. His wiidom has been afcribed to
divine infpiration, whicl) iie received in the following manner ;
while afieep at noon-day, angels came to the pliice where he
was repofing, fainted him, without rendering themfeUes
vilible, and declaring that God would make him a monarch
and his lieutenant on earth. He fignilied his fubmifTion to
the will of his maker, but would rather have preferred to
remain in a low condition. On account of this anfwcr, God
bellowed upon him wifdori* in fo eminent a degree that he
was enabled toinilruct mankind by a great variety of maxims,
fentences, and parablts, amounting to ten thoufand in num-
ber. The anecdotes which are recorded concerning the life
of Lokman are found fcattered in the writings of feveral of
the orientals ; of thefe we fnall notice only a few. As he
was once feated in the midll of a circle of auditors, a man
of high rank allied if he was not that black Have whom he
had before feeii attending upon the flocks in the field ; he
replied, he was ; how then, faid the other, have you at-
tained to fuch wifdom and fo high a reputation ; " By fol-
lowing exaftly," faid Lokman, " thefe three precepts ;
always to fpeak the trutii ; to keep inviolably the promifes
made ; and never to meddle with what does not concern me."
It was Lokman who faid that " the tongue and the heart,
were both the bed and the worft parts of men." Mahomet
frequently refers t J the authority of Lokman in fupport of
his own opinions a id doftrincs, and he is ilill regarded by
the followers of the Mahometan religion as a faint and a pro-
phet. They reprefent him to have been as virtuous and pious
as he was wife, and on that account was peculiarly bleffed
of God. Some writers aOert that he embraced the Jewifh
religion, and entered into the fervice of king David, who
entertained a highelleem for him, and that he died at a very
advanced age. The fcanty relics of the fables of Lokman
were publllhed by Erpenius, in Arabic and Latin, and
Tannaquil Faber gave an edition of them in elegant Latin
verfe. Gen. Biog.

LoKM.\K, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak, on
the Tigris ; 16 miles N. ot Bagdad.

LOK.O, a fmall illand on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 60'" 51'. E. long. 20'^ 59'.

LOKOHAR, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar ; 36
miles N.E. of Durbunga.

LOKTEVA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Kolivan ; 36 miles 6.W. of Ku'/.netzk.

LOLBAZAR, a town of Bengal ; 37 miles S.'W. of
Beyliar.

LOLBINIERE, a town of Canada, on the river St,
Lawrence; 25 miles S.W. of Quebec.

LOLDONG, atovMi and fortrcls of Almora ; 85 miles
N.N.E. of Delhi. N. lat. 29' 47'. E. long. 78" ^d'.

LOLGUNGE, a town of Hindoollan, in Oude ; 16
miles N. of Maiiickpour.— Alio, a town of Hnidooilan, in
Benares; 22 miles S.W. of Mit/apour. — Alio, a town of
Hindoollan, in Oude ; 20 miles S. of Azemgnr.

LOLICHMIUM, in Greek Miijic, according to Pau-
fanias, was the name given to the gymnafiura at Oivmpia,
which was always open for thofe who whhed to contend in
literature, poeiry.or mufic ; and ^lian tells us, that in the
9ilt olympiad, Euripides and Xenocles diiputed the prize in
dramatic poefy at the Olympic games ; at which time they
were accompanied by inllruments.

LOLIUM, \\\ Agriculture, the name of a kind of gralTcs,

of

L O L I U M.

ef which there are feveral fpccies, fome of which are highly
■nfefiil to the farmer, as the lolium perenne.

LoLlUM, in Botany, a Latin word of unknown origin. —
Darnel, or Dariiel-grafs. Virgil calls it ^' infelix lolium,"
not only as being a weed amongft corn, but probably alluding
to an idea, long prevalent, that corn was transformed into it.
Tiiis opinion of the change of one kind of gramineous
plant into another, as wheat into rye, rye into barley, barley
into darnel, darnel into brome-grafs ; and of the latter by
becomin;^ oats or rye, in a fertile foil, returning again to a
more improved ftate ; all this, however abfurd, was fo ge-
nerally believed, that Linnseus thought proper to write a
differtatlon againftit. See Trnnfmuii'.Uo Fritmentorum, Amoen.
Acad. V. 5. 106 — Linn. Gen. 38. Schrt-b. jj. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 461 Mart. Mill. Did. V, 3. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 148. Ait. Ho|-t. Kevv. ed. 2. v. i. 174. Jiifl". 3^1.
Lamarck llluftr. t. 48. -Clafs and order, Trlandrla Di-
gyu'ui. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Common receptacle elongated into a fpike,
the flowers, which are difpofed in two ranks, being prelfed
clofe to an angle of the llalk. Glume of one valve, awl-
fhaped, permanent, fixed, oppofite to the ftalk. Cor. of
two valves ; the lowermoll lanceolate, narrow, convolutecjj
pointed, the length of the calyx ; the uppermoft ihorter,
linear, blunter, concave above. Nectary of two fmall,
Ovate, obtufe leaflets, gibbous at their hafe. Stam. Fila-
ments three, capillary, (horter than the corolla ; anthers ob-
long. Pyi. Ger;r.en turbinate ; flyles two, capillary, re-
fiexed ; ftigmas feathery. Perk, none ; the corolla em-
bracing the feed, and finally opening to let it fall. Seed one,
oblong, convex beneath, with a broad (hallow furrow above,
ComprefTed.

Obf. The fefiile fpikelets ftand in the fame plane with the
ftalk, fo that the latter fupplies the place of an inner valve
to the calys, which neverthelefs is fometimes prefent, though
diminutive.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of one valve, fixed, many-flowered.
Florets two-ranked.

1. 'L.. perenne. Perennial Darnel ; Red Darnel ; or Ray-
grafs. Linn. Sp. PL 122. Engl. Bot. t. 3 1 J. Mart.
Ruft. t. 4. Knapp. t. 100. — Spike awnlel's. Spikelets
longer than the calyx. Florets lanceolate. — A common
^European grafs, in rather fertile ground, about the borders

of fields, road fides, pallures, &c. flowering in June The

rsot is fibrous, downy, perennial. Stem a foot high, eredl
or afcending, bent at the bottom, jointed, leafy, round in
the upper part, ftriated, fmooth. Leaves linear, keeled,
fmooth, dark green, with fmooth, ftriated Iheaths, and a
Ihort obtufe flipula. Spike nearly ereft, very flat, often a
little twifted.

A variety with a compound fpike is figured by Leers,
t. 12. f. r ; and another with a remarkably lliort broad and
denfe fpike, in Scbeuchz. Prodr. t. 2. Vaillant's t. 17.
f. 3, with long awns, cited by Willdenow after Reichard,
furely canr.ot belong to this fpecies.

S. L. terue ; Linn. Sp. PI. 122. Willd. n. 2, appears
to be only a ftarved variety of perenne, with very few florets
in each calyx.

2. L,. Umulentum. Bearded Darnel. Linn. Sp. PI. 122.
Fl. Dan. t. 160. Leers. 48. t. 12. f. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. I 124. Knapp. t. 104. Hoft. Gram. Auftr v. it. 26.
Schreb. Gram. t. 36 — Spike awned. Spikelets fhorter
than the calyx. Florets elliptical. Stem rough in the
upper part. — Native of European corn-fields, among barley,

wheat, or flax, flowering in .Inly Root annual, of a few

downy fibres. St.-m nearly folitary, twice as tall and ftout
a? the forrrer, eieft, firm, of about three knots ; very

Vol. XXL

fmooth and fhining in the lower part ; rough abov?. Leaves
lanceolate, fpreading, ribbed, rough, of a lighter green
than in />fren«ir. 5/;^//^/ roughifli. Stipula very ftiort, cre-
natc. Spiie ereft, larger and more turgid than in the former.
Calyx without awns ; in the lower fpikelets often f urnifhed
with a minute, elliptical, inner valve. Florets numerous,
ovate, fwelling, fiightly ribbed, rough, each tipped with an
awl-fliaped, whitilh, rough, ereci awn, twice its own length,
from a httle below the top— The feeds are faid to be intoxi-
cating to men, bealls and birds, and even to bring on con-
vulfions and death. We know of no mifchicfs from it in
this country, where it is far from common.

3. L. arven/e. Annual Beardlcfs Darnel. Wither-
ing 168. Engl. Bot. t. 1125. Knapp. t. 102. (L. te-
mulentum ; Hudf. 5J.) — Spike almoil beardlefs. Sfjijke-
Icts about the length of the calyx. Florets elliptical. Stem
very fmooth. — Native of fields in England and Scotland, as
well as other parts of Europe. Willdenow indicates it as
a variety of the laft. It differs however, not only in being
not at all, or very fiiortly, awned, but in the total fmooth-
iiefs of Wsjlcm znd/pih. The /eaves are occafionally rough,
but on their upper fide only. Dr. Withenng, who firft de-
fined this fpecie.s, fays the calyx has two valves ; but we
ufually find only one. The atvns are too large in the plate
of Eiiglifi! Botany.

4. L. mnxinv.im. Great Weft-Indian Darnel. Willd.
n. 4 — "Calyx as long as the many-flowered comprefled
fpikelet ; of which the upper florets are awned." — Native
of Jamaica. Root annual. Whole grafs twice as large as
L.temulmtum, from, which alfo it differs in having the ea/yx
equal in length lo the fpiielet ; and while the upper forets
have long awns, the reft are beardlefs. Yet Willdenow,
from whofe work we adopt this fpecies, fufpeds it may b?
but a variety of the fecond.

5. L. di/lcicl.yon. Double-fpiked Indian Darnel. — Lin».
Mant. 187.— Spikes in pairs. Calyx fingle-flowered. Co-
rolla fringed — Sent by Koenig from the coaft. o£Malabar. —
Stems partly decumbent, (lender, branched, fmooth. Leaves
flsort, narrow, with long, fmooth, rather tumid (heaths.
Spikes in pairs, terminal, equal, flender, two or three inches
long. Flowers in two ranks, but direfted to one fide.
Ca/y.r of one valve, fingle-f.owered. Corolla ovate, denfely
fringed with fine, long, white hairs. A fingular grafs,
whole genus is at leaR doubtful. In fome points it refemble*
a Panicum.

Lolium Perenne, the botanical name of the grafs ufually
known to the farmers by the name of ray-grafs : it has a
perennial fibrous creeping root. The ilems, feveral from
ths fame root, proftrate or oblique iX. the bafe, but the
flowering flem upright, fmooth, from fix inches to eighteen,
twenty and twenty-four inches in height, according to the
foil : they have feveral joints near the bafe, at a fmall dif-
tance from each other, but on the upper part only one or
two. On a great number of plants of a middling fize three
joints, and never more than four, were counted by Miller,
the flowering-liem running up from eleven to fourteen
inches above the laft joint. They are frequently ruffet-
colourcd at the joints ; the leaves are four or five inches
long, and from two to four lines wide, lengthened out into
a poi t ; the leaf on the flem above twice as broad as thofe
next the root and on the runners. The (heath covers the
ftem for feveral inches abovi the upper joint; both that
and the leaves are fmooth. The flowers are in a fpike,
which is from four to fix or feven, and even nine inches in
length, compofcd of many (ten toeighteeif) fpikelets, ranged
at a little diftance from each other, in two rows alternately
along the rachis or common receptacle. TThe fpike is gene-
1" p rally

I. O L

rally flat, but fometimcs nearly cylinclrical ; and it foine-
iinies (hews a difpolition to become branched, particularly
towards the bottom. The rachis is flexuons, or changes its
diredion in a curve line from one fpikelet to 'another ; and
each fpikelet being lodged at the bafe in a hoUow of it, has
ro cccafion for an inner valve to the calyx for protection,
and therefore is not provided with one. The number of
tlovvers in each fpikelet varies from three or tour to fix,
feven or eight, and even fonietimes nine, ten, or eleven ; but
fix or feven is the moll common number. The valvo of the
caly.K tapers to a point ; and the terminating calyx is two-
leaved. The two inner huiks, which arc the valves of^ the
corolla, arc both of the fame length, or nearly fo. The
germ is placed between the upper of thefe, and two fmall
wlute femitraniparent inbllances, which Linnius terms the
nlfearies : the feed ealily quits the chaff or covering.

This is a grafs which is called in Englidi a ray-grafs, from
the French ivar'tc, which is their name for another fpecies,
tliis being termed Fmijfc i-vnrie. It is corruptly termed by
farmers lie, or rye-grafs, but it bears no refemblance to rie,
or rye, that bei.ig a name appropriated to a very different
grafs (Hordeum pratenfe). It has, likcvvife, by Ray been
diilinguifiied by the title of Red Dainel-^rafs ; and in fome
places it )s called Crap; in Devonfhire, i'fiwr ; in Norfolk,
White NoneJ'uch. _

There are feveral varieties of this grafs which differ
cUiefly in the fize or colour of the flem and fpike, as well as
the number of flowers in each fpikelet. Alfo the flowers
are now and then found with awns or beards ; and the fpikelets
are alfo fometimes clullered, and fometimes branched, or
divided.

It is a fort of grafs that has been long in cultivation as an
early pafture and hay grafs. See Aktificial Grafs, and
Ray-guass.

LOLLARDS, in Ecchfiaftcal Htftory, a religious fcft,
differino-in many rehgious points from the church of Rome,
which arofe in Germany about the beginning of the four-
teenth century ; fo called, as rtany writers have erroneoufly
imagined, from Walter Lollard, who began to dogmatize in
13 15, and was burnt at Cologn : but it is evident that Lol-
lard was nofiirname, but merely a term of repreach applied
to all heretics who concealed the poifon of error under the
appearance of piety.

The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the word
Lollard, among us, from loUum, a tare ; as if the Lollards
were the tares fown in Chriit's vineyard. Abclly fays, that
the word Lollard fignifies praifwg God, from the German
Men, topraife, and herr, Lord ; becaufe the Lollards em-
ployed th'emfelves in travelling about from place to place,
(Inging pfalms and hymns.

Others, much to the fame purpofe, derive lallhard, lull-
hard, or loUert, luUert, as it was written by the ancient Gcr-
nians, from the old German word lullen, IsUcn, or lallen, and
the termination hard, with which many of the High Dutch
words end. Lolhn fignifies to fing with a low voice,^ and,
therefore, Mhard is a finger, or one wlio frequently fings ;
and in the vi -'gar tongue of the Germans, it denotes a pei-
fon who is continually praifing God with a fong, or finging
hymns to his honour. The Alexians or Cellitcs were called
Lollards, becaufe they were public fingers who made it their
bufinefs to inter the bodies of thofe who died of the plague,
and fang a dirge over them in a mournful and indittinft tone
as they carried them to the grave. The name was after-
wards afTumed by pcrfons that dilhonoured it ; for we find,
among thofe Lollards who made extraordinary pretences to
piety and religion,'and fpent the greateft part of their time
jji meditation, prayer, and fuch afts of piety, there v.ei*

L O L

many abominable hypocrites, who entertained the mod ridi-
culous opinions and concealed the niofl enormous vices under
the fpecioiis mark of this extraordinary profeffion. And
many injurious afpcrfions were propagated againfl thofe
who afTumed tiiis name, by the priefts and monks ; fo that
by degrees, any perfon who covered hercfies or crimes under
the appearance of piety, was called a Lollard. Thus the
name was not ufed to denote any one particular feft, but
was formerly common to all perfons and all feiSs, who were
fnppofed to be gKilty of impiety towards God or the church,
under an external profcfiion of extraordinary piety. How-
ever, many focieties, confifting both of men and women,
under the name of Lollards, were formed in moft parts of
Germany and Flanders, and were fupported partly by their
manual labours, and partly by the charitable donations of
pious perfons. The magiftrates and inhabitants of the
towns,- where thefe brethren and filters refided, gave the;n
particular marks of favour and proteftion, on account of
their great ufefulnefs to the fick and needy. They were
thus fupported againil their malignant rivals, and obtained
many papal conllittitions, by which their inltitute was con-
firmed, their perfons exempted from the cognizance of the
inquifitors, and fubjefted entirely to the jurifdiilion of thebi-
fhops ; but as thefe meafures were infiifficient to fccure them
from molellation, Charles, duke of Burgundy,>in the year
1472, obtained a folemn bull from pope Sixtus lY. order-
ing that tlie Cellites, or Lollards, fliould be ranked among
the religious orders', and delivered from the jurifdiction of
the bilhops ; and pope .Julius II. granted them yet greater
privileges in the year 1506. Moflicini informs us that many
focieties of this kind are ftill fubfiiling at Cologn, and in
ttie cities of Flanders, though they iiave evidently de-
parted from their ancient rules. Eccl. Hift. vol. iii. 8vo.

Lollard and his followers rejedted the facrifice of the
mafs, extreme unftion, and penances for fin ; arguing, that
Chrill's fufferings were fufficient. He is likewife laid to
have fet afide baptifm as a thing of no effeft ; and repent-
ance, as not abfolntely neceffary, &c. In England, tl>e
followers of Wickliffe were called, by way of reproach,
Lollards, from fome affinity there was between fome of their
tenets ; though otiiers are of opinion, that the Englilli
Lollards came from Germany.

They were folemnly condemned by the archbifhop of Can-
terbury and the council of Oxford.

LOLLGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; zo
miles E N.E. of Purneah.

I.,OLI..I, in Biography, a performer on the violin ot
great celebrity, w-ho came into England at the beginning of
1785 ; but by a caprice in his conduft equal to his per-
formance, he was feldom heard. And tlien fo eccentric
w'as his ffyle of compofition and execution, that he was re-
garded as a madman by moil of his hearers. And yet we
are convinced, that in his lucid intervals he was, in a ferious
flyle, a very great, expreffive, and admirable performer. In
his freaks nothing can be imagined fo wild, difficult, gro-
tefque, and cen ridiculous as his compofitions and perform-
ance. After playing at the oratorio, and making the grave
and ignorant laugh at very ferious difficulties upon which,
he had, perhaps, but ill bellowed his time, he fuddenly left
the kingdom, a la fuurdme ; perhaps, at lalt, to Ihun diffi-
culties of another kind.

LOLLIEI, in Geography, a town of Thibet; no miles
N. of Goreah. N. lat. 30 15'. E. long. 84.' aS'.

LOLLONADO, a town of the ifiand of Cubas 146
miles S.W. of Havanna.

LO-LOS, the name of a particular people difperfed
through tlie province of Yuii-nan, in China, diftiBdt from

the

L O M

L O M

tTie Cliinere. They were formerly governed by tlieir own
fovereigns, but upon fubmitting to tlie emperor of Chiwa
they obtained peculiar privileges. Thefe people are well
made, and inured to labour. They have a peculiar lan-
guage of their o«-n, and a mode of writing which fcems to
be the fame with that of the bonzes of Pegu and Ava.
Thefe cunning prielts have acquired an influence over the
L.0-I0S in tlie wellcrn part of Yun-nan, and have intro-
duced among them the worfliip and religious ceremonies of
their country ; and they have even induced them to build
large temples of a different architeclure from that of the
Chmefe. The princes of the Lo-los are ablolute matters of
their fubjedls, and have a right of punidiing them, even
by death, without waiting for the anfwer of the viceroy.
Thefe princes have many ofBcers and men under their com-
mand ; and their militia is compofed of cavalry and infantry,
who are armed with bows and lances, and fometimes muf-
kets. The iron and copper mines which are lodged in their
mountains, enable them to make their own armour. Thefe_
mountains alfo abound with mines of gold and filver. The
drefs of tlie Lo-los confifts of plain drawers ; a velt of cot-
ton hanging to their knees, and a flraw hat ; tlieir legs are
bare, and they wear only fandals. The women have a long
robe, covering the whole body down to the feet, above which
they tie a fmall cloak that reaches no further than the girdle.
In this drefs they appear on horfeback, at marriage cere-
monies, or when they pay vifits, accompanied by the females
in their train, who are alfo on horfeback, and by feveral
domed ics. Grofier.

LOLPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Jyenagur ; 15 miles S.S.E. of Jyepour.

LOM, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of Gilolo. ,
S.lat".'o'i6'. E. long. i28«.

LOMABLEM, or Lomblem, an ifland in theEail In-
dian fea, about 120 miles in circumference. S. lat. 8" 18'.
E. long. 123° 56'.

LOMATIA, in Botany, from Mixv., a harder, becaufe
the feeds are terminated by a bordered ring. Brown Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 10. 199. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 3S9. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 212. — Clafs and order, fe/rariilria
Monogyn'ia. Nat. Ord. Proteacex, .lufT. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cur. Petals four, irregular, dif-
tinfti oblong, obliquely twilled toward one fide ; their fum-
mits dilated, concave, bearing the ftamens. Nectary three
glands at one fide of the bafe of the ftalk fupporting the
germen. Slam. Filaments four, extremely fhort, in the hol-
lows of the petals ; anthers roundifh, funk in the faid hol-
lows. P'lji. Germen fuperior, ilalked, half-ovate, ere£l ;
flyle permanent, incurved ; lligma oblique, dilated, roundifh,
nearly flat. Perk. Follicle ftalked, half-ovate, coriaceous,
crowned with the ftyle of one cell. Seeds many, imbricated
in two rows, elliptical, comprefTed, with a terminal bordered
win^r, whofe difk is without veins.

EfT. Ch. Petals four, irregular. Stamens funk in the
cavities of the Hmb. Three glands, on one fide, at the bafe
of the flalk of the germen. Stigma obhque, flattifh. Fol-
licle coriaceous, of one cell. Seeds many, with a terminal
bordered wini'.

Eight fpecies of this genus, fome found in New Hol-
land, others in South America, are defined by Mr. Brown.
They are " ihrubs, with alternate leaves, which are in many
cafes divided or toothed, rarely entire, fometimes various on
the fame individual plant. Clutters terminal, fometimes
axillary, elongated, loofe, occafionally fhort and corymbofe ;
their partial flalks in pairs, with one common bradtea to each
pair, riowers yellowifti-white. Involucrum none. Nucleus

of the feed bcfprinklcd with rulphiir-colonrej powder."

Brown.

I. \.. ftlaifol'ia. Cut-leaved Lomatia. Sims in Curt.
Mag. t. 1272. (Embothrium filaifolium ; Sm. Bot. oF New
Holl. 23. t. 8. E. herbaceum ; Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 58.1. 3S4.)
— Leaves doubly pinnatifid, very fmooth ; fegments linear,
v/edge-fhaped, or lanceolate, acute, pointed, reticulated with
veins. Clutters very fmooth, elongated, fimple or divided.
— Native of light fandy fields and heaths, on the eatt coad
of New Holland, near Port Jackfon. It is faid to have
been fent to Kew garden, by fir .Tofcph Banks, in 1792.
We firft faw it in flower at MefTrs. Grimwood's, Kenfing-
ton, in the fum.mer of 1793, where it was kept in the flove ;
but the fhelter of a greenhoufe is fuflicient- It is propa-
gated either by feeeds or layers. The whole plant is ver^
rigid and fmooth, three or four feet high, but little branched.
Lenves dark green, with various, more or left compound,
decurrent fegments, much refembling fome of the umbelli-
ferous tribe. Flo-wers white, inodorous, in long, terminal
clutters, whofe ttalks have occafionally a redditti tinge.
Fruit about an inch long. Everj part turns quite black in
drying. See Embotiiuium.

2. L. tin^oria. Colouring Lomatia. Labill. Nov. Holl.
V. I. 31. t. 42, 43 — Leaves once or twice pinnatifid, or un-
divided, fmooth ; fegments peftinate, fingle-ribb"d, almod
veinlcfs, bluntifli, pointed. Clutters elongated, fmooth,-
unbranched. — Gathered by Labillanliere and Brown in hilly
places and fields at Van Diemen's land. The Jlem is fi.-c
feet high. Leaves very various, ufually very neatly pinna-
tifid, with numerous, parallel, linear-lanceolate, fometimes
fubdivided, fegments ; more rarely undivided, (lightly notched
at the tip. Clujlers loofe, with fewer flowers, on longer
ftalks than the former. The fulphur-coloured powder which
covers the feeds, is faid by Labillardiere to give out a rofe«
coloured dye to water.

3. h.ferruginea. Rutty Lomatia. (Embothrium ferru-
gineum ; Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 59. t. 385.) — Leaves doubly pin-
natifid, downy ; fegments ovate or lanceolate. Clutters
ihorter than the leaves. — Gathered by Louis Nee at St.
Carlos de Chiloe, South America, in places occafionally
overflowed by the fea, flowering in February. Therein
is ten or twelve feet high, rarely ftraight ; its branches
downy. Leaves doubly pinnatifid, acute ; the down of the
young ones rutty, of the old ones grey. Petei/i red within ;
yellowifh-green without.

4. L. polymcrpha. Various-leaved Lomatia. — Leaves
linear-laneeolate ; entire, toothed, or pinnatifid ; downy,
like the branches and flower-ftalks, beneath. Clutters co-
rymbofe, terminal. Corolla fomewhat hairy. Piftil very
fmooth. — Gathered on the fouthern hills of Van Diemen's
land, by Mr. Brown, who conceives this fpecies to liave
been confounded by Labillardiere under our fecond, when
he fays " the leaves of that are fometimes befprinkled at
their back with Ihort rufous down."'- Two varieties of L.
polyni'jrpha are indicated ; one whofe leaves are undivided,
their downinefs grey, and their feed-veflels but half an inch
long; the other with generally cut or pinnatifid leaves,
rutty underneath, and their feed-veflTels near an inch ia
length.

5. L. UicifcUa. Ilex-leaved Lomatia. — " Leaves oblong-
ovate, acute, with fine fpinous teeth, reticulated, quite
fmooth, as well as their footllalks. Clutters elongated,
terminal.'' — Native of barren fields at the fides of bills on
the fouthern coaft of New Holland, near port Phillip, where
Mr. Brown gathered it, after the flowers were fallen.

6. L. longifdia. Long-leaved Lomatia. (Embothrium
myrigoidcs J Gasrtn. v. 3. 21 j. t. aiS-.' Br}) — Leaves' li-

P p 2 ne«r.

L O M

L O M

near-lanceolate, elongated, fmooth, diftantly ferratcd. Cluf- the number of commentators on it amount te two hundred
tcrs axillary. Flower-ilalks and rorolUi rather hairy. Pillil and forty-four. It was firft printed at Venice in 1477, and

very fmooth Gathered by Mr. David Burton, as well as h?.s undergone a multitude of impreffions at different times

Mr. Brown, on the ftony banks of rivers and rivulets near and in different places. Moreri.

Port Jackfon. This is a branched hn(hy Jhrub, with an- LOMBARDS, or rather L.lNGOUARns, which was their
pulir yauw^ traiuhes, clothed with rully hairs, as are alfo original name, deduced from the peculiar length and fafhion
the fioivcr-Jalh, braHeas, and in fomc degree ihe fioiucrs. of their beards, /ann' fignifying /on^, and iocrt, ^rar;/, whereas
The Uav<:s are numerous, alternate, on fliort broadilTi ilalks, the corrupt appellation of Lombards was diffufed in the
lanceolate, acute, veiny, thr -e or four inches long, about ijth century by the merchants and bankers, who were the
half an inch broad, fmooth except the lower portion of their Italian poltcrity of the favag^ warriors to whom the name
rib at the upper fule ; (liarply and diilantly lerrated up- originally belonged, denote a tribe of people whoarofe from
wards tapering and moftly entire in their lower half. Chif- an obfcure and fniall beginning to occupy the moftconfider-
ters axillary, folitary, fiinple or branched, about as long as able rank in Europe. The Scandinavian origin of thefe
the leaves. Stigma very broad, with a fmall point. Follicle people is maintained by Paul ,the Deacon, contefted by

Cluverins, and defended by Grotius. It would be tedious,
and alfo unialisfadory to the reader, if we were to make an
attempt at purfuing the migrations of the Lombards through
unknown regions and marvellous adventures. About tha
time of Atigudus and Trajan thefe fierce people were dif-
covered between the Elbe and the Oder. They were fierce
beyond the example of the Germans, and they took plea-
fure in propagating the tremendous belief, that their heads,
were formed like the heads of dogs, and that they drank,
the blood of their enemies whom they vanquilhed in b..ttle.
From the north they gradually defcendod towards the fcuth
and the Danube ; and after an interval of 4C0 years, they

fmooth, above an inch long, femiovate
7. L. dentata. Toothed Lomatia

(Embothriurii den-
.94, a. Br.) — Leaves

tatum ; Fl. Peruv. et Chil. v. i. (>2. t. _,^, -. _. ,
oval, with tooth-like ferratures, fmooth, as well as their foot-
ftalki. Chifters lateral, fiiort. Corolla hairy. Germen
downy. — Native of woods and groves in Chili.

8. L. cbliqua. Oblique Lomatia. (Enibothrium obli-
quum ; Fl. Peruv. et Chil. v. Gt,. t. 97. E. hirfutum ;
Lamarck Did. v. 2. 3 5 J.) -Leaves ovate, fenated, fmooth.
Cluflers axillary. Flower-Ilalks and corolla hairy. Stigma
deciduous. — Found on hills h> the provuices of the Concep-
tion of Chili and Puchacay. ....

Mr. Brown mentions that the wings of the feed in thefe again appear with their ancient valour and renown. Their
two lad fpecies, which have not been ften by him, require manners were not lefs ferociou?. TheaffafTmation of a royal
examination. g"^'^ '^''S executed in the prefence, and by the command, of

LOMAZy, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the the king's daughter, who had been provoked by fome words
palatinate of Brzefc ; 36 miles S.S.W. of Brzefc. of infult, and difappointed by his diminutive ftature. Thevic-

LOMAZZO, GlOVANKI Paolo, in Biography, an hif- tories of the Lombards recommended them to the-friendfhi[j-

torical painter, born at Milan in IJ38, and pupil of Gio,
BattilU Cerva. Before he became blind, which h.ippened
about the 33d year of his age, he painted much, with more

of the emperors ; and at the folicitatiou of JuiVinian, they
paflfed the Danube, to reduce, according to their treaty, tha
cities of Noricum and the fortreffes of Pannonia. But urged

whim than orio-inality. He afterwards wrote feveral trea- onward by a fpirit of rapine, they wandered along the coaltl

tifes on painting, in which, with the mod tedious prolixity,
he interweaves anecdote and ufeful precept, with chemic and
aftrologic nonfenfe. Fufeli's Pilkiiigton.

LOMBARD, Petes, a bifhop of Paris, who flourilhed
in the twelfth century, and known under the title of
•' Mafter of the Sentences," was a native of JSiovara in
Lombardy, from which he derived his furname. He re-

of the Adriatic as far as the Dyrrachium, and prefumed, as
the hillorian fays, with familiar rudenefs, to enter the towns
and houfes of their Roman allies, and to fei-ze the captives
who had efcapcd from thuir audacious hands. Tiiefe acts of
hoftility, charged upon fome loofe adventurers, were dif»
owned by the nati n, and excufed by the emperor : but the
arms of the Lombards were more ferioully engaged by a

ceived his education at Bologna, celebrated at that time for contejt of ^o years, which was terminated only by the e»T

its univerfity, and its very eminent profeffors of the civil tirpatlon of the Gepida. Of the caufe and event of the

law. His mind was bent on theological purfuits, and he quarrel between the Lombards and the Gepida; we have al-

was encouraged to devote kimfelf to them by the bidiop of ready givi n an account under the biographical article Atboirti

Lucca, who recommended him to St. Bernard, by whofe In confcqucnce of the viftory gained by the Lombards, af-

affiltance he was enabled to profecute his iludics at Rheims. fifted by the Avari, a Scythian lK)rde,over the Gepidx, A.D.

He afterwards removed to Paris, and from his reputation 566, no further obilacle could impede the progrefs of the

for learning, obtained a profefforthip in the univerfity, and confederates, and they faithfully executed the terms of theit

was prefented with the canonry of CHartres, which was agreement. Heaving captured Milan, the capital of Liguria,

followed by his elevation to the epifc^pal dignity, for which the Lombards, witli joyful acclamations, proclaimed and fa»

he was indebted to the regard entertamed fof him by his luted Alboin king of Italy ; railing him upon a Ihield in the

pupil, Philip, fon of Lewis le Gros. This prince was
educated for the church, and in 1 159 was ele<?\ed bifliop, an
Eonour which he declined in favour of his old mafter, as a
mark of perfonal regard for him. Lombard did not long
erjoy the dignity ; he died in the year 1164. His celebrity
in the fchools was derived from his work entitled " Senten-

midft of the army according to the cuftom of their nation, and
prefenting him with a lance, which among them was the en.
fign of royalty. From this time, A.D. 57o,hi(lorians date
the beginning of the kingdom of Lombards in Ita'y, which
lafted above 200 years. After this event he extended hii
conquefts,, and his progrefs was rapid in the redu6lion of

tiarum, hb. iv." in which he endeavoured to illuftrate the the greatefl part of Italy. I'avia held out for more thart

doflrines of the church by a colleftion of feiitences and paf- three years ; but it was at length conllraincd to farrender

fages drawn from the fathers whofe contradictions he at- to the arms of Alboin ; and as it was a city of great

tempted to reconcile. This work was received with uni- ftrength, and conveniently fituated, this fovereign and his

verfal applaufe, and acquired fo high an authority auiong fucceffors chofe it for the place of their refidence ; and thus

the fchoolinen, that the ii.&il learned doftors were employed it became the melropo;!.'^ of the kingdom of the Lombards.

kk lUullraiting arid espouuding it. The abbe Fleury .-nake* After his death |,fee Alboin,) Clepho, one of the noblelt

3 Lombard

LOMBARDS.

Lombard chiefs, was unanimoufly defied as liis fuccefTor :
his reign was terminated before the expiration of eighteen
months by the hand of an affaflln, and during the minority
of his fon Autharis, Italy was divided and opprefTed by a
ducal ariftocracy of 30 tyrants. After an interval of
dillraftion, which lailed 10 years, Autharis attained the
ftrength and reputation of a warrior. Under the ftandard ef
their new king, the conquerors of Italy withftood their fuc-
ceffive invaiions ; and the viftorious Autharis aflerted his
claim to the dominion of Italy. However, he allowed the
dukes, who for 10 years had exercifed abfjlute authority
itj their refpeftive dukedoms, to continue in their govern-
ments; but he obliged them to contribute one moie'.y of
their revenue to the maintenance and fupport of his royaj
dignity- He aifo bound them, by an oath, to alTill him in
time of war to the utmoft of their power. Ashe did not
deprive them of their dukedoms, except in cafes of treafon,
he did not transfer them to others, but when their male
i!Tue failed i and this was the origin of fiefs in Italy. Some,
indeed, have imagined that liefs were firft introduced by the
Lombards, and from them adopted by other nations. But
it appears, that fiefs had been introduced into Gaul by the
Fra'.^ks fome years before the reign of Autharis, who firft
eftabl'.fhed'them in Italy. All the cuftoms and laws which
were afterwards introduced and publiflicd conceriiing fiefs,
are owing to the Lombards, who gave them a certain and
regular form ; fo^ that, among all other nations, fiiccefiions,
acquifitions, inveilitures, and every thing elfe relating to
lleis, were regulated by the cuftoms and laws of the Lom-
bards. Hereupon a new body of laws fprung up, which
Were called feudal laws, and which continued in fome pro-
vinces of Italy, and particularly in the kingdom of Naples,
to be the chief part of the jurifprudence.

Autharis, having fettled matters with the dukes in the
manner now mentioned, enafted feveral reafonable and fa-
ititary laws againft theft, 'apiie, murder, adultery, and other
crimes which at that time prevailed among his fubjefts. He
was alfo the firft of the Lombard kings, who, renouncing
Paganifm, embraced the Chriftia-. religion, and his example
was followed by moft of his lubjefts.

."^t the foot of the Rhaetian Alps, Autharis fubdued tl^e re-
ffftance, and rifled the hidden treafures of a fequelVred idand
in the lake of Comum ; and at the extreme point cf Calabria,
he touched with his fpear a column on the fea-fi^.ore of Rhe-
gium, proclaiming tha' ancient landmark to ftand the im-
moveable boundary of his kingdom. Autharis clofed his life
and reign at I^via, A.D. 590. Agilulf, his fucccflbr, re-
nounced the opinions of Arius, which had been countenanced
By Autharis, and embraced the Catholic faith. Agilulf was
fncceeded A.D. 615, by his fon Adaluald, who being de-
pofed, had for his fucceflor Ariovald, under whofe govern-
ment the Lombards enjoyed tranquillity both at home and
abroad. Upon his death, A.D. 636, Rotharis afcended
*he throne, who is the firft who gave written laws to the
Lombards. From the year 638 to the reign of Luitprand,
•o afls of hoftility occurred between the exarchs and the
fcmgs of the Lombards 1 the latter being fatisfied with their
new conqutfts, and the former being glad to enjoy unmo-
lefted the territories that remained ur.der the dominion of
the enriperor. Luitprand, who afcended the throne A D.
71 1, may be accounted, next to Rotharis, the chief law-
giver of the Lombards : but infljenctd by ambition he
iwdertook to drive the Romans out of Italy, and this en-
terprife occaiioned the ruin of the kingdom of the Lom-
bards in that country. Luitprard invaded the exarchate,
and reduced Ravenna, and fcvwal other cities of the exar-
chate, whicKiie formed into a dukedom. Ravenna was. af-

terwards recovered by the exarchate : but taken again by
Aftulphus, who changed it into a dukedom. The popes had
been alarmed, and made application to Pepin, king of
France, for alTiftance and protection. Accordingly Pepin
was pcrfuadcd to make war upon t!ie Lombards : and, in
the year 754, entered Italy, and befieged Aftulphus in his
metropolis. Rome was twice refcued from the attacks of
the Lombards, A.D. 754. At length the paftes of the
Alps, and the walls of Pavia, were their only defence : the
former were furprifed, and the latter were inverted by
Charlemagne, the fon of Pepin ; and af;er a ^ilockade of
two years, Defiderius, the laft of their native ()rinces, furren-
dered his fceptre and his capital, A.D. 774. Thus ended
the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, after they had
poftefTpd that country for 206 years. Under the dominion
of a foreign king, but in the pofleflion of their national laws^
the Lombards becarne the brethren, rather than the fubjefts,
of the Franks ; who derived their blood, and manners and
language, from the fame Germanic origin. Anc. Univ. Hift.
vol 7. Gibbon.

During a period of 200 years Italy was unequally divided'
between the kingdom of the I^nmbards and the exarchate of
Ravei.na. (See £.x.\RCll.) From Pavia, the royal feat, the
kingdom of the Lombardswas extended to the eaft,'the north,
and the weft, as far as the confines of the .A vari,the Bavarians,,
and the Franks of Auftrafia and Burgundy. In the language
of modern geography it is now reprefented by the Terra
firma of the Venetian republic, Tyrol, the Mihnefe, Pied--
mont, the coaft of Genoa, Mantua,. Parma, and Modena,
the grand duchy of Tufcany, and a large portion of tlie ec-
cleiialHcal ftate from Perugia to the Adriatic. The dukes,
and at length the princes of Beneventum, furvived the mo-
narchy and propagated the name of the Lombards. From
Gapua to Tarentum, they reigned near 500 years over the
greateft part of the prefent kingdom of Naples. In pro-
cefs of titr.e, the difpoiition and manners of the Lombards ■
underwent a very important change. So i;apid, indeed, was
the influence of climate and example, that the Lombards
of the fourth generation furveyed with curiofity and affright
the portraits of their favage forefathers. The government ;
of the Lombards was an elefiive monarchy : and the public
revenues arofs from the produce of land and the pronts of
juftice. The Lombards vrcre at firil a cruel and barbarous
people ; but divefting themfelvcs, by degrees, of their na-
tive ferocity and barbarity, efpecially after they had em-
braced the Chriftian religion, they governed with fuch
equity and mildnefs, that moft other nations envied the
happinefs of thofe who lived under their adminiftration.

As they had no other kmi.^dom, nor dominions, Italy be-
came their own country ; whence the natives efteemed theii^
kings as their natural princes, net thinking them.ielves go.
verned, much lefs kept in flavery, by a foreign nation, as it
happened to them afterwards, when, by trVquent changes, .
they groaned under the heavy yoke, fometiiiies of one na-
tion, and fometimes of another. Under the government of
the I.,ombards, fays Paulus Diaconus, no violence was com-
mitted, no one unjuftly difpofTefTed of his property, none ■
opprefl'cd with taxes ; theft, robberies, murder, and adul-
tery, were feldom heard of ; every one went, without the
leaft apprehenf.on of danger, whither he pleafed : and in-
deed their many wholefomc laws, reilraining and feverely
punifhing all lorts of crimes ; the magriticent churches,
and rich monafteries, with which they filled that part of
Italy which was fiibjeft to them ; the many bifhoprica
which they erefted ; the towns and cities which they either
built, or repaired, in moft provinces of Italy ; thvir gencro-
fity even 10 the biihop of B.ome, their avowed eaemy : and,

Scallj/

L O M

L O M

finally, the great number of perfons among them, whofe
faiiClity and eminent virtues have been acknowledged by tl e
popes themfelves, mud convince every impartial reader, that
the Lombards were not fuch a favage, barbarous, and inhu-
man nation, as they are defcribed by fome of the popes, ef-
jx'cially by Adrian, the chief author of the ruin ot their
kingdom. They were the only power in Italy capable of
defeating the ambitious views of the bifliops of Rome, whom
they would not fuftcr to enrich themfelves with the fpoils of
the enyierors, but confidcred them as theii- own by right of
conqueft ; and hence arofe the inveterate liatred which the
popes bore them, and could not help betrayiag in all their
writings. But their laws arc convincing proofs of their juf-
tice, hnmanitv, and wifdom, and, at the fame time, a full
confutation of the many calumnies, with which "ht popes,
and their partifans, have endeavoured to afperfe them. Their
laws were found fo jnll and equitable, that they were re-
tained in Italy, and obferved fome ages after their kingdom
vas at an end.

Lombards, a name given in the Netherlands, France,
and England, to lending-houfes. (See I.o.w-iaiils.) It is
»'ell known that in the thirteenth and following centuries
many opulent merchants of Italy, which at thofe periods
was'almoll the only part of Europe that carried on an ex-
tenlivc trade, were invited to thele countries, where there
were few mercantile people able to engage deeply in com-
merce. For this reafon they were favoured by governments
in moft of the large cities ; but in the courfe of time they
became objeds of univerfal hatred, becaufe they exercifed
the moil oppreffive ufury, by lending at intereft and on
pledges. They were called LutignlariH or Lombarili, as
whole nations are often named after a part of their country,
in the fame manner as all the Helvetians are called Swifs,
and the Ruffians fometimes Mofcovitcs. They were, how-
ever, calletf frequently alfo Caorcini, Caturcini, Caurhni,
Cawarfmi, Cawartini, Bardi, and Amanati ; names which,
in all probability, arofe from fome of their greatelt houfes or
"banks. We know, at any rate, that about thofe periods
the family of the Corfuii were in great confideration at Flo-
rence. They had banks in the principal towns for lending
money ; they demanded exorbitant intereft ; and they re-
<:eived pledges at a low value, and retained them as their
«wn property if not redeemed at the ftated time. They
eluded the prohibition of the church againft intereft when
thev found it noceffary, by caufmg the intereft to be pre-
■rioufly paid as a prefent or premium ; and it appears that
fome fovereigns borrowed money from them on thele con-
<ditinns. In this manner did Edward III., king of Eng-
land, when travelling through France, in the year i py, re-
ceive jcoo marks from the bank of the Bardi, and give them
in return, by way of acknowledgment, a bond for 7000.
When complaints agaiuft the usurious praftices of tliefe
ChriiHan .lews became too loud to be difregarded, tliey were
threatened with expulfion from the country, and thofe who
had rendered themfelves moft obnoxious on that account,
were often banifiied, fo tlu-.t thofe who remained were obhged
to conduct their employment with more prudence and mo-
<leration. It is probable that the commerce of thefe coun-
tries was then in too infant a ilate to difpenfe altogether with
the affiftance of thefe foreigners. In tliis manner were they
treated by Louis IX. in 1268, and hkewife by Philip the
Bold ; and fometimes the popes, who would not authorife
interell, lent their affillance by prohibitions, as was the cafe
an regard to Henry III. of England in 1240.

In the fourteenth century, the Lombards, in the Nether-
lands, paid to government rent for the houfes in which they
«arrkd oa their u^oney tranfaitions, and fomething beiides

for a permiflion. Of this we have inftances at Delft in 1 3is,
and at Dordrecht in 1342. As in the courfe of time the
original Lombards became extinft, thefe houfes were let,
with the fame permiflion, for the like employment ; but go-
vernments at length fixed the rale of intereft wliich they
ought to receive, and eftablilhed regulations for them, by
which ufurious pradlices were reilrained. Of leafes granted
on fuch conditions, an inftance occurs at Delft in the year
1655. In 1578, WiUiam prince of Orange recommended to
the magiilrates of Amfterdam Francis Mafafia, one of the
Lombards, as they were then called, in order that he might
obtain for him permiffion to eltablifti a lending-houfe ; as
many obtained permiifion to keep billiard-tables, and .lews
letters of proteflion. In the year 161 1, the proprietor of
fnch a hmife at Amfterdam, who in the latter years of his
leafe had gained by his capital at leaft thirty-three and a
half per cent, offered a very large fum for a renewal of
his permiflion ; but, in 1614, the city rcfolved to take the
lombard or lending-houfe into their own hands, or to efta-
blifli one of the fame kind. However deteftcd this plan
might be, a difpute arofe refpedling the legality of it, which
Marets and Claude Saumaifeendeavoitred to fupport. The
pubhc lending-houfe or lombard at Brulfels was ellablifiied
in 1619; that at Antwerp in 1620, and that at Ghent in
1622. All thefe were eftabliflied by the archduke Albert,
when he entered on the governorrtiip, with the advice of the
archbifhop of Mechhn ; and on this occaflon the architect
Wenceflaus Coberger was employed, and appointed infpec-
tor-general of all the lending-houfes in the Spanifti Nether-
lands. Some Italians aflert, that the Flemings were the
firft people who borrowed money on intereft for their lending-
houfes ; and they tell us that this praftice began in the
year 1619. Weareaffured alfo, that, after long delibera-
tion at Bruflels, it was at length refolved to receive money
on intereft at the lending-houfes. It however appears cer-
tain, that in Italy this was never done, or at leall not done
till a late period, and that the capitals of the lending-houfes
there were amaiTed without giving intereft.

This beneficial inftitution was always oppofed in France;
chiefly, becaufe the doftors of the Sorbonne could not divell
themfelves of the prejudice againft intereft ; and fome in mo-
dern times who undertook there to accommodate people
with money on the like terms, were puniftied by government.
A lending-houfe, however, was eftabliftied at Paris, under
Louis XIIL, in 1626 ; but the managers next year were
obliged to abandon it. In 1695, l^me perfons formed a
capital at Marfeilles for the purpofe of eftabli/liing one
there according to the plan of thofe in Italy. The mont de
p'icti at Paris, which has had fometimes in its pofleflion forty
calks filled with gold watches that have been pledged, was,
by royal command, ^\r[\ ettabhlhed in 1777. Becknjann's-
Hift. of Inventions,' vol. iii.

LOMBARDY, \n Geography/, a country in the northern,
part of Italy, very much correiponding with the Cifalpine
Gaul of the Romans. It derived its name from the Lombards,
(fee the article Lombards,.) who founded the kingdom in
the middle of the fixth century. This country was divided,
into feveral ilates, fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria, the re-,
public of Venice, and the king of Sardinia ; fuch as the. •
duchies of Milan and Mantua, called Aullrian Lombardy ;.
the Paduan, Ver.jnefe, Vicentin, Breflan, Comafco, Berga-
mafco, belonging to Venice : — Montferra: and Nice, an-,
nexed to Piedmont, fubjctl to the king of Sardinia ; to-
gether with many others, as the duchies of Modena, Reo-gio,
Parma, Piacenza, Mirandola, and feveral fmaller princi-
palities and ilates. The viciflltudcs which Lombardy ha^,
undergone, and more efpecially thofe which have occurred

to

L O M

to It fince the French revolution, are briefly detailed under
CisALi'ixE Republic, and Italy. See likewife each of ilie
above enumerated articles.

LOMBE'S, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrid in the department of the Gers, the fee of a bifhop
before the revolution ; 16 miles S.E. of Audi. The place
contains 1443, and the canton 1 2, 14 J inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 290 kiliometres, in 39 communes.

LOMBOK, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 40
riiles from N. to S. and from iS to 30 broad, chiefly inha-
bited by Gentoos ; between wliich and Cumbava is a paf-
fage, called the " Straits of Lombok." — Alio, a town on
the E. coall of the fame iiland. S. lat. 8' 42'. E. long.
116 z'-

LOMBUZSKOI, a fmall ifland in the Frozen ocean ;
near the coafl of Ruffia ; i So miles E. of Kola. N. lat.
67° 55'. E. long. 40 14'.

LOMBY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 20
miles N.W. of Tiagar.

LOMEIR, John-, in Biography, a learned Dutch Pro-
teilant divine, pallor of the church of Dotekum in Zutphen,
was author of a curious little work abounding in erudition
and deep i-efearch, in which he has undertaken to give Inl-
torical and critical notices of tiie moll celebrated libr;uies in
ancient and modern times. It is entitled " De Bibliothecis
Liber Singularis ;" larao. The author's plan gave rife to
a larger work on 'the fame fubjecl, by Maderus, a learned
German, who publiflied at Helmlladt a treatife " De Bib-
liothecis," in two vols. 4to., in which he has inferted Lo-
meir"3 piece.

LOMENT.^CE^E, in Botany, a natural order of plants,
the 3.;d among the Fragmenia of Linnxus, named, as it
(liould feem, fron» lomctituin, the meal of beans, in alluilon
to the pulfe-like nature of the plants in queflion, fo as to
keep in view their analogy with the Papilionacex. They are
included in the three firft fedlions of Julfieu's Leguminoja, or
nearly fo ; fee that article. Polygala indeed, placed here
by Linnaeus, is referred by Juffieu to the Pediculares.

LOMENTUM, a word ufed by the old writers on me-
dicine toexprefs a meal made of beans, or bread made of this
meal, and ufed as a wafli. See Dkteusouium.

Others have applied it to the French chalk, or moroch-
thus, ufed by the fcowerers of clothes, which is brought
over in large cakes, refembling loaves or cakes of bread.

LOMGRAD, in G<:ography, a town of Bulgaria, at the
conflux of tlie river Loin with the Danube ; 20 miles S.S.E.
of Viddin.

I^OMI, a town of Rufiia, in the government of Irkutfh,
en the Amul ; 16 miles N. of Stretenlk.

LOMMETSCH, or Lu.mtszch, a town cf Saxony,
in the margravate of MeifTen ; feven miles N.W. of Meiflen.
N. lat. 51 11'. E. long, 13' 13'.

LOMMIUS, J0DOCU.S, (Vax I>om, in his native lan-
guage,) in Biography, a medical writer of reputation, was
boiTi at Buren, in Guelderland, about the commencement of
the fixteenth century. His father, who was town-cleik of
that place, took great care of his education. He was already
well verfed in the Latin and Greek languages, wher, he
turned his attention to medicine, wiiich lie lludicd princi-
pally at Paris, where his talents and afhduity obtained hiin
the friendfhip of Fernel. It is not known wl«re he took
his degree ; but he praflifed for a confiderable time at
Tournay, to which city he was penlionary-phyficiaii in
1557 ; and he removed to BrufTels.at an advanced period of
file, about the year 1560. He was living in this cily in 1562,

L O M

beyond which period there is no record of him. He left
three fmall works, which arc flill held in ellimation in con-
fequence of the purity and elegance of the Latinity ia
which they are written : thefe are " Commentarii de Sani-
tate tuenda in primiim librum C. Celfi," Louvain, IJjS,
i2mo. This is^ an ample commen'ary upon Celfus, taken
entirely from the ancients. " Obfervationum Medicinalium
Libri tres," Antwerp, 1560. This work has pafTed through
many editions : it confills of hillories of difeafe, related with
the (imple perfpicuity of Celius, and containing many ufeful
and valuable obtervations on the diagnoflics, prognollics,
and cure. " De curandis Febribus contimiis Liber,"
Antwerp, 1 5 63. This little treatife, like the foregoing, has
been fcveral limes printed and tranflated. Thefe works
were publilhed together at Amllerdam, in 1745. in three .
vols. i2nio., under the title of " Opera omnia." Eloy
Dia. Hift.

LOMNITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Konigi"gratz ; fix miles N. of Gitfchin. — Alfo, a
town of Moravia, 111 the circle of Brunn ; 1 5 miles N.N. W.
of Brunn. N. lat. 49 24'. E, long. 16° 18'.

Lo.MXiTZ Pf///. See CARPATH1.4N' Mountains.

LOMOND, Loc I!) a lake fituated in the county of Dun-
barton, Scotland. It is the finell and m.oft beautiful expanfe
of water in that country, and not furpaffed, in variety and
magnificence of fcenery, by any in Great Britain. This lake
extends about twenty-fix miles in length from north to fouth,
and varies from one to eight miles in breadth. The broadefl
portion is towards the foutJi. As it approaches the north,
it gradually contracts. Here it is much deeper than in the
broader parts. At the foot of Benlomond the depth is
about 120 fathoms, but in the fouth divifion it is not gene-
rally much above 14 fathoms. The northern and deeper
part of this lake is nev-er covered with ice even in the fevereft
frofls, but fouth from Lufs, it is often frozen over fo com-
pletely, that not only men but loaded horfes can pafs oyer-
it to the different iflands in perfeft fafety.

Loch Lomond is fupplied with water from feveral rivers,.
befides fmaller llreams trom the mountains. It has, however,.
but one way of difcharging itfelf, and this is the reafon why
it fwells in wet feafons even fo high as fix feet above its ufual-
level. Fifh are caught here in great abundance, particularly
falmon trout, eels, and pearches, as likewife a fpecies called-
pollocks, which refemble in appearance and flavour the large
herrii.gs.

The beauties of this lake have often been the fubjecl of
defcription, both in poetrv and profe. Thefe feem chiefly
to arife from the woods in its vicinity, the number and va-
riety of its iflands, and the near approach of the terrific
Grampians, which aftbrd a flriking contrail to the morii
placid fcenery immediately adjacent. At the houfe of Ca-
meron, placed at the foutliern extremity of the lake, the
whole charms of this delightful expaife are in full view.
After paffing this manfion, the road Ihirts along the wcfters
bank, lometimes lolirg itfelf among the natural foliage that
clothes the brow of the mountains, and at other times emerg-
ing into a more free fpace ; "thereby prefentiiig in fucceffion"
a variety of views of the lake, illaiids, and neighbourhood^
highly captivating and deliglitful.

The iflands in Loch Lomond, fmall and great, are ufualy
reckoned to be thirty in number. Molt of them are finely
wooded, hut not above ten are of any confiderable iizs.
The principal ones are the property of the duke of Mon-
trofe and fir James Colquhoun of Lufs. Ir.chcailloch, or tha
ifland of old women, fo called from a nunnery formerly
there, was at one time the feite of the church of Buebanan
4. ia

L O M

L O N

in Stirlineniire. Inchmunn is the mo[l valuable itland in the much higher tlian it, and perhaps commancis a more cstei«»

lake and has a deer park belonging to the duke of Mon- five view. On the top is one of thofe heaps or tumuli of

trole. The ifland of Inch-tavanach, i. e. the illand of the ftones which are denominated cairns.

monk's-houfe, derives its name from the circumltar.ee of a LOMONOZOF, in Biography, accounted the father of

monk having fiKcd his refidcnce here at a very remote pe- Ruffian poetry, was born at Kolmogori in 171 1, where^

riod. The other iflands are not dcferving of particular no- his father was a dealer in M\. He polfefTed the rare advan-

tice,' except as all contributing, by the beauty of their ver- tage of perfons in his ftaiion, of learning to read his native

•dure, to render the whole fceiierv more iiiterelUng and varied language, and caught a flame of poetical infpiration by pe-

than'it otherwife would be. ' ruling a trannation of Solomon's fong into rude verf^-. lUs

Loch Lomond has long been celebrated for three won- love of learning induced him to leave hii< latlier, and take re-

ders " liih wi'liout fiiis, waves without wind, and a fleeting fuge in a monallery at Mofcow, where he laid a good fuunda.
iQand." The tiih without tins arc mamfeiUy vipers, which

abound here in great pk-nty, and fometirnes Iwi^n from one
ifland to another. AVaves without wind are common to this

tion in the learned languages, and difplaycd fuch talents, that
he was fent by tlie Imperial Academy for improvement to tlie
German univerfity of Marpurg. He iludieJ under Wolf
and tlie other celebrated profelibrs. On his return to his
native country he was elected adjunft, and then member of
the Imperial Academy, and profeffor of ehemillrj , in which
fcience he was a conliderable adept, having Itudied it under

em extremity, there are a number o{ Hones fixed regularly,
and evidently intended for enabling pallengcrs to crofs from
one fide to the other, which are now however covered with

lake, with all extenfive deep waters, when a calm immediately
fucceeds a ftorm. The. floating ifland is now fixed near the
wefl; fliore of the ifle of Inchconagan, and if it ever did float,

muft be coniidered as a p-.ofly fragment bound together _ _

by the matted roots of eoarfe grafles, willows, Dutch myr- Kunckel at Freyburg in Saxony. In 1764 he was honoured

.1' c ■ with the tide of counfellor of Itate. He died in the fame

The waters of this lake are fuppofed to be rifing in height, year. His reputation as a literary man is founded on his

Acrofs the channel of a ftream called Falloch, at the north- poetical compofltions, which arc numerous and various in

their kinds. His odes are admired for their fpirit and fub-
limity, in wiiich he is faid to rival Pindar. In thefe, and in
his other poems, he was the creator of various meafures new

at lead five feet of water. Near the middle of the bay of to Ruffian verfe, fo that he ranks as its greatefl. bcnefaAor.

Camftraddan, when the water is low, there is a heap of He was author likewife of tragedies, idylls, and epiftL's, and

ftones vifible,' which is faid to have formerly compofed the he left a fragment of an epic poem on Peter the Great.

rofidence of the Colquhouns of Camftraddan. Camden, in He publiflied fome chemical and philofophical trafts, and

his Atlas Britannica, mentions an ifland exilUng here in his two fliort pieces on the hiltory of Ruffia, and he enriched

day with a lioufe and garden upon it. About five miles to the language of his country with fome tranflations from the

the 'fouth of this he^ip of ftones there is another, faid to be Greek and Latin.

the ruins of an ancient church : the field oppofite to it is LOMPi^ R, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Baltic,

ftiU called Church-field. "car the S.E. coaft of Aland. N. lat. 60° to'. E. long.

The villan-e of Lufs is delightfully feated on the weftern 20- c)'.
bank of thelake, and on the poft road from Glafgow to In- LOMWIA, in Onnihohgy, the name of a web-footed

verary. In the immediate vicinity of this village, Rofedoe, water-fowl common on the Engliflt fliores, and called in dif-

the manfion liQufc of fir Jame.'! Colquhoun of Lufs, is placed ferent places the giiillm, guillemot, fca-hcri, kiddaiu, and

ifula, projecting fo far into the lake as to ap- Jkout : the laft name, however, is fomewhat equivocal, as

on a ncu peninl . , ^ ..

pear infulatcd. The ground is finely wooded, and a tower
of the ancient caftle, or habitation of the family, forms an ex-
cellent contiaft to the modern houfe. Some very bold and
rugged mountains compofe the back ground of this charming
fcenery. Between Lufs and Tarbet the road dimimflies m
breadth very rapidly. Paffing the water of Uglas, which
difcharges itlelf into the lake, it afcends a lofty promontory,
projeamg confiderably in the lake, which is called the point
of Firkin. Tlie afcent to the fummit of this eminence is
abrupt, difficult, and tedious, but the view which difplays
itfelf from it amply repays the admirer of nature for the
labour attending it. Nearly oppofite to this point Benlo-
mond rears his lofty head on the eaftern fide. For a defcrip-

the Scotch call the common razor-lill by this name. Sec
CoLVMBU.s Troile.

LOMZA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of War-
faw, fituated on the Narew ; 80 miles N.E. of Warfaw.
N. lat. 53 . E. long. 22 40'.

LONAS, in Botany, Adanf Fam. v. 2 118. Gsertn.
V. 2. 396. t. 165, a genus eftabiifhcd by thofe authors upon
the ylchilka inodora, Linn. Sp PI. 1265, Athanajta annua,
Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 741.

LONA 1 O, or Lo.NADO, in Geography, a town of Italy,
in the department of the Benaco ; 12 miles E.SE. of
Brefcia.

LONCHITIS, in Botany, a name derived from >"yxy<, a-

tion of this mountain and its fcenery, fee the article Benlo- fpear, borrowed from the Greeks, and applied by Tourne-

tort to what he efteemed a diftinft genns of ferns, charac-
terized by having auricled leaflets. Linnteus has retained

MOND. .,,,„- , . ,

Lo.MOKD Hills, two beautiful conical hills fituated in the
county of Fife, Scotland. The eaftern one is by far the
»oft beautiful, and rifes 1650 feet above the level of
the town of Falkland, which is placed at a fliort diftance
from its bafe. It appears to have been the feat of a fort in
ancient times. On the very fummit is a fmall lake, which
has probably been the crater of an extinit volcano. On
this hill a mine of lead has been lately opened with good
profpefts of fuccefs to the proprietors. It likewife contains
coal and limeftone in confiderable abundance, but neither til
hem are wrought. The other hill, which is called Weftern

it for one of the fame family, better defined by the frudifi-
cation, of which we are now to fpcaii. Tlv Xoyji^ili,- of
Diofcorides has always been a fubjeft of difpute, though
his defcription is more full and precife than' uiual. Some
have thought it Iris tuberofa, others Herapias Lingua. His
^.^yj/ili; ils^x however does appear to be a tern. — Linn. Gen.
560. Schreb. 75:7. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. jj. Sm. Mem.
de I'Acad, de Turin, v. 5. 413. Trafts 244. Swartz;
Syn. Fil. 93. Sprengel. Crypt. 127. t. 4. f. 27. Juff". 15.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 868. — Clafs and order, Cryptogamia

tomond, from its fituation with refpeft to the former, is Filices. Nat. Ord. Filices, Linn. JufT.

Gen.

L O N

L O N

Gen. Ch. Gnpfufa annulated, numeroiifly afTemblcJ in
crcfcent-fhaped, ftort, when young often divided, lines, in
the margin of each finus of the leaves. Involucrum mem-
branous, proceeding from the margin of the leaf, indexed,
often divided in the middle.

Eff. Ch. Fruftification in crefcent-fliaped fpots, in the
fmufes of the leaves. Involncnmi from the inflexed margin
cf the leaf, feparating inwards.

1. L. aurit.i. Linn. Sp. PI. ij,^6- (Filix latifolia,
fpinulis moUibus et nigris aculeata ; Plum. Fil. 14. t. 17.

Petiv. Fil. t. 4. f. 4 Frond pinnate ; pinnatifid ; the lower

pair of leaflets divided ; lobes obtufe, fmooth, wavy, toothed
at the fummit. Stalk prickly. — This fpecies, which Phi-
mier only appears to have feen, was gathered by him
in the courle of a valley, in a diftricl of Martinico,
commonly called !e Prefcheur. The root confifls of nume-
rous, black, entangled fibres. Fronds five or fix, erecl,
about a foot and a half high ; their ftalks brownifh, po-
lilhed, clothed with numerous, horizontal, black, pliant
prickles. The upper half of the plant confifts of a few
nearly oppofite pairs of long and broadilTi, pinnatifid, pointed
leaves, or pintiit, very thin, membranous, Imooth, delicate,
and finely veined, of a bright green. Their fegments are
feparated rather more than half way to the rib, broadifh,
wavy at the edges, toothed at their blunt apex, and bearing
at their finufes, between each other, a crefcent-fiiaped thick
mafs of frualfcatlon, which feems not to be cloven or di-
vided.

2. L. hlrfuta. Linn. Sp. PI. 1536. (Filix viUofa, pin-
nulis quercinis ; Plum. Fil. 16. t. 20. Petiv. Fil. t. 4. f. 5.)
— Frond hairy, doubly pinnate ; deeply pinnatifid ; lobes
finiiated, obtufe, wavy^ many-flowered — Gathered by Plu-
mier by rivers in Martinico ; by R. Shakefpear in Jamaica.
We havealfo fpecimens from J. V. Thompfon, efq. collected
by him in fome part of the Weft Indies ; yet this fpecies is
very rare. It differs widely from the former in its hairinefs
and much greater fize, being five or fix feet high, and the

Jid'iLs near an inch thick. The fronii moreover is doubly
pinnate, either in an alternate or oppofite manner ; its leaves
very deeply pinnatifid, pointed, their obtufe fegments alfo
pinnatifid, or at leaft deeply linuated, each finus bearing a
crefcent-fliaped mafs of feeds, or rather two feparate malTes,
each with its own roundifli involucrum, not unlike that of an
Adianlum, though they iinally, for the moll part, coalefcc.

3. L.. javanica. Lamarck Dift. v. 3. J54. Swartz Syn.
Fil. 94 Frond hairy, once or twice pinnate; deeply pin-
natifid ; lobes finuated, pointed, crenate, many-flowered.
Involucrum fimple. — Gathered by Commerfon in Java, ac-
cording to Lamarck, though the fpecimen given to the
younger LinnEUS by Thouin is marked as coming from
the Mauritius. It feems at any rate to be of Fall, not
Well, Indian origin, and differs efTentially from the fore-
going. How often the frond is decompounded, we have
not materials to determine. Our fpecimen has two op-
pofite plnn£ only, each above a foot long, pointed, very
deeply pinnatifid, clothed with fine foft pubefcence, beau-
tifully reticulated with veins ; dark-green above, brighter
beneath. The fegments are likewile fharp-pointed, about
fifteen pair, deeply finuated, crenate. One thick, brown,
femilunar mafs of fruclifcaiion, ftarids in each finus, and is,
as far as we can dilcern, fimple and undivided, as well as its
involucrum

4. L. glabra. Swartz. n. 3. Bory de St. Vincent Voy.
V. I. 321. — " Frond doubly compound, fmooth; leaves
fomewhat pinnate; their divifions deeply crenate." — Native
.fif the ifle de Bourbon. We know nothing of this fpecies

, Vol,. XXL

but the abere chara(!\cr, which, except as to fmoothricfi,
gives no very preclfe information.

5. L. repens. Linn. Sp. PI. 1536. (Fihx aculeata re.
pens ; Plum. Fil. 1 1, t. 12. Petiv". Fil. t. 4. f. 6.) — Frond
thrice pinnate ; leaves deeply pinnatifid ; lobes finuated,
obtufe, crenate. Stalks prickly. Root creeping. — Ga-
thered by Plumier in Martinico. He defcribcd the root as
extremely long, cn.'eping like couchgrafs, half the thickncfs
of the finger, black both witiiiii and without. Fronds
fpreading liorizontally and very widely. Their general and
partial llalks prickly, twice pinnate, in an alternate order.
Leaves about fix inches long, pointed, very deeply pinna-
tifid, it not pinnate ; their fegments oblong, obtufe, deeply
finuated. Frucllfication fmall, apparently folitary in each
finus. We know not on what grounds Linnius fixed the
genus of this fpecies, which no other botanill than Plumier
appears to have feen. As far as his figure goes, it may
belong to Dkkfonia, or Cyathea, as probably as to Lon-
chhis.

The L. ptdata of Luinsus, Sp. PI. i^T,Ch like a few
others named or publiflied by different bolaniils, belong
rather to Pter'is, betwixt which genus and the prefsnt, it is
not always eafy to draw a line.

LONCHIURUS, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of fiOies
of the order thoracici : peftoral fins feparate ; tail lanceo-
late. There is only one fpecies, viz. the barbatus, brown,
with two cirri under the chin, which is about ten inches long,
and inhabits the rivers of Surinam.

LONDINIARES, in Geography, a \.o\vn of France, in
the department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftricl ef Neufchatel ; 7 miles N. of Neuf-
chatel. The place contains 764, and the canton 5691 in-
habitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres in 32 com-
munes.

LONDON, the metropolis of the Britiflt empire, the
moll wealthy, moll extenfive, and probably the moft pa-
pulous and powerful city in the world, is feated in a fertile
and falubrious plain or valley, on the banks of the river
Thames, which divides the town into two irregular parts,
and pafies through it, from the wcfl; to the eaft, in its
progrefs to the lea. Many cities and towns of antiquity
h.ive been famous in the annals of nations : Nineveh was
noted for its towers and walls of vafl circumference, height,
and breadth ; Babylon, for the hanging gardens, and other
objefls of human labour ; Perfepolis, for its natural fortilica-
tions ; Palmyra and Balbeck, for fumptuous buildings ; and
Athens and Rome, for the civilization, refinement, and high
acconiplilhment of their inhabitants. But London may be
denominated the modern wonder of the world. The pro-
digious increafe of houfcs, inhabitants, trade, commerce, and
wealth, with the refinement and luxury which now prevail,
render it fuperior to all the cities of modern Europe ; and
muft excite the ailonifhment of fuch foreigners and Eng-
lifhmen as have ftudied the local and comparative hiftories
of places of note. It may be regarded as the focus of the
Britifh empire ; for within its jurifdiftion are concentrated the
royal, legillative, juridical, civil, commercial, fcientific, and
literary concerns of Great Britain. Many writers have been
employed, at different periods, to narrate the annals of this
great town ; and fcveral volumes in folio, quarto, oClavo, S:c.
have been exclufively devoted to the topographical hiflory
of London : but all are imperfcA and unfatisfaftory : thie
largefl works being mollly tedious, trivial, and prolix ; and
the fmaller publications are very fuperficial and inaccurate.
At the end of this account will be given a lill of fitvera!
of thefe works ; to point out the fources of the prefen'

I- O N D O N.

eflay, and to furnifh the reader, who may require more cir-
ciimftantial information, with a guide to facilitate his re-
fearches. The following article will comprehend a general
view of the hiftory and local cliara£terilHcs of this metro-
polis, with fome particular defcriplions ; but for detailed
account? of many buildinj;s, places, and objects, the reader
is rcferfd lo tlic following heads, in different parls of tiiis
work: Bavk of England, BniDKViaL, Bruigks, Com-
rANY, lill of 91 in London, and accounts of the principal ;
College of Ci-vtlians. or D'/Snrs-Comnicns, Coi.l.DC.F. 0/
JlerrUs, Qohi.voY, of Pf'ficinitr, Collix.k, Sion, Collkgk
of Surgeons, CoLLKGi:, Veterinary, RoYAI, KxciJAXGE,
Custom of Lonelvn, Docks of London, Excisr, Im.fkt-
Prifon, Grcfiam Collkge, Gi'ii.diiall, Hospitals of
Bethlehem, Bridetvell, Chr'ifl, and Foundling, Inxs of Court,
Insuhance Companies, Islington, Lambeth, Hackney,

MaUV-LE-BoNE, PADDINfnON, MIDDLESEX, SlRRV,

Newisgton - Butts, Thames, Police, Pahliament,
Mew-River, Limeiiou.se, Stratfoud-le-Bow, Soutii-

>VARK, VVeSTMINSTEK.

The centre of London, or St. Paul's church, is afcer-
tained to be in latitude ji" ^1' N., and in longitude 5' 37 '
W. of Greenwich, where the royal national cbfervatory is
eftabhfhed. The dilfance of London from the principal
cities of Europe is as follows : from Edinburgh 39J
miles S. ; from Dublin 33S S.E. ; from Amfterdam 190
miles W. ; from Paris 225 miles N.N.W. ; from Copen-
hagen 610 miles S.W. ; from Vienna 820 miles N.W. ;
from Madrid 860 miles N.E. by E. ; from Rome 950
miles N.N.W. ; from Conftantinople 1660 miles; from
Mofcow 1660 miles E.S.E ; from Stockholm 750 miles ;
from Peterfbnrgh 1140 miles; from Berlm 540 miles; and
from Lifbon 850 miles.

London, as confidered in the aggregate, comprifes the
city and its liberties, with the city and liberties of Weft-
Hiinftcr, the borough of Southwark, and nearly thirty of
the contiguous villages of Middlefex and Surry. The
greateft portion is built on the northern bank of tlie Thames,
or in Middlefex ; whilll Southwark, with Lambeth, and
feveral connefting villages, extend along the fouthern fhore
of the fame river, in the county of Surry. The extent of
London, from well to eaft, or from Knightfbridge to
Poplar, is full feven miles and a half; whilft its breadth,
from north to fouth, or from Newington Butts to Iflington,
is nearly five miles. The circumference of the whole, al-
lowing for various inequalities in the extenfion of ftreets, &c.
at the extremities, cannot be lefs than thirty miles Hence
it may be fairly ellimated, that the buildings of this metro-
polis cover at lead eighteen fquare miles, or i Ijjao fquare
acres. Out of this mutt be dcdufled the fpace occupied by
the river Thames, which extends about feven miles, or
12,320 yards in length, bv one quarter of a mile, or 400
yards in width ; making i i 20 fquare acres.

Independently of various local and civil divifions, London
may be faid to conlift of five diftinguithing parts, or popular
portions ; •vi%. the weft end of the town, the city, the eaft
end of the town, Weftmnifter, and the Borough. The
" weft end of the town," extending from Charing-Crofs to
Hyde-park, and from St. James's park to Paddington, is
confidered the bell and moll fafhionable part of the town,
and is laid out in the two great thoroughfares, called Oxford
road and Piccadilly, with various handfome fquares and
ftreets, which are chiefly occupied by the townhoufes of
the nobility and gentry, and the mod fafnionable fliops.
The "city" includes the central part, and mott ancient di-
Tifion of the metropolis. This is the emporium of com-

merce, trade, and bufinefs ; and is occupied by fliops, ware-
houfes, public offices, and houfes of tradefmen and others
connertcd with bufinefs. The " eaft end of the town," and
its mhabitants, are devoted to commerce, to {hip-hnil(^inff,
and to every collateral branch connefted with merchandize.
This divifion of London has affumed a novel chara£ler fines
the commencement of the prelcnt ceiitiiry, by the vaft com-
mercial docks and warehoufes that have been formed and
conllrucfled here. The fouthern bank of the Thames, from
Deptford to Lambeth, bears fome rcfemblance to the eaft
end of the town ; being occupied by perfons engaged in
commercial and maritime concerns ; docks, wharfs, and
warehoufes bring abundant. But this part of London has
one didinguifhing feature from any other, as it abounds with
numerous and various manufactories ; iron-founderies, glafs-
houfes, foap-boilers, dye-houfes, boat-builders, fnot and
hat manufaftories, &c. and many other fimilar ellablifh-
ments. From the great number of fires employed in theie
houfes, and offenfivc effluvia arifing from fome of the work.'',
this dillrift is rendered extremely unpleafant, if not un-
healthful, for human refidence. ■ It is therefore moftly in-
habited by workmen, labourers, and tlie lower clafTes of
focicty. Many improvements have lately been made, and
feveral refpefkable houfes erected on St. George's fields.
In Wettminller arc the houfes of lords and commons, the
courts of jullice, and many offices belonging to government.
Another part of the metropolis, not hitherto noticed, but
which may be confidered as the laft enlargement, and the
moft regftlar and iyftematic in its arrangement of fquares,
ftreets, &e. is the northern fide of the town ; compre-
hending a large mafs of new buildings between Holborn and
Somers-town, and in the parifhes of Mary-le-bone and
Paddington. Nothing fliews the i^jcrcafed and increafing
growth of the Englifh metropolis more decifivcly than the
vaft number of new fquares, ftreets, rows, and places, that
have been recently ere6led, and are now in the progrefs of
building, all round the metropolis. London is computed
to contain nearly 70 fquares, and 8000 ftreets, lanes, rows,
courts, &c. According to a cenfus obtained in the year
181 1, the population of London, Weftminfter, and their
fuburbs, was 1,099,104 perfons; being an increafe of
133,139 within the courfe of ten years. Well might
Cowper exclaim,

" Opulent, enlarged, and ftill increafing London."

It would be both amufing and interefiing to trace the
progreflive growth or expanfion of London ; to defcribe it
ardifferent and remote periods; and delineate, with a care-
ful and accurate pencil, the natural and artificial, the po-
litical and civil, the moral and commercial charafteriftics of
the Britifh metropolis, at different epochs. Some of tliefe
features will be notiofd in the progrefs of our furvey ; but
m.any muft neceffarily be omitted, from the peculiar nature
of the prcfent publication.

ylncient Hiflory and /int'tqu'tt'us of London. — It is generally
admitted by topographers, that the prefent fcite of London
was occupied as a Britifti town before the arrival of the
Romans. Of this, however, there is no evidence : for
Geoffrey of Monmouth is not to be trufted, nor is his after-
tion entitled to refpeft. We are informed by Tacitus, that
about the year 61, Londinium, or ColoniaAuguila, " was
the chief refidence of merchants, and the great mart of trade
and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a
colony." (Ann. lib. xiv. c. 33 ) Boadicea, the ainazonian
queen of the Britons, headed a large body of natives, and,
after conquering Camalodunum and Verulam, took poffef-
8 £os

LONDON.

lion of^Londinium. At tliis time, it appears that Lon-
dinium was not fortified in the Roman manner, and was in-
ferior to either of the other places juft named. In a few
years afteru-ards, the Romans made it a permanent ftation ;
furrounded it with a forrified wall of ftone and brick, and

by Gundulph, biihop of Rocheiler, whoereftedthe White
tower, within the I'ower of London. In the fame reign
St. Paul's chnrch was commenced ; and the ftrong caftles of
Baynard and Montfichet, both of them ftandiiij on the
banks of the Thames within tlie city walls, were erefted

governed the inhabitants by Roman laws. The courfe and by two of the Norman king's officers, named Baynard and
e.-ctent of the walls were as follows : commencing at a fort, ^Iolltllchet. During this and fevcral fucceeding reigns, the
near the prelent tower of London, the wall was carried in a public buildings of London were greatly augmented in num-
line direcUy north to Aid-gate ; thence it made a curve to ber, by the erection of feveral religions edifices, abbatial
the fouth-wcft, to Bi(hops-gate, from which it continued in and epifcopal relidenceis. The roval palace at Wellminfler,
a rtraight line to Cripple-gate and Alders-gate ; here it which had been founded by Edward the CoiifefTor, was con-
turned to the fouth, and proceeded to New-gate, where it fiderably enlarged ; and a large hall was built there by
made almoft a right angle, turning to the fouth, to Lud-gate, Wi.Iiam Rufus The reign of Hcnrv I. was diftingiiifhed
and on to the banks of the Thames, The circuit of tliis by the foundation and conilruftion of juany monadic houfcs ;
part of the boundary, according to Stow, was nearly two and feveral others were cllablifhed during the Anglo-Norman
nules and one furlong. Another wall, of about one mile in and Plantagenet dynafties.

length; extended along the northern bank of the Thames, A lilt of the religious houfes, with the time of their dif-

from the fort near the Tower to another fort near the prefent ferent foundations, will aflbrd a tolerable idea of the gradual

Black-friars bridge. Thefe walls were defended, at dif- increafe of the city, with refpeft to fuch eJlablifhmeets,

ferent di'.laiices, by ftrong towers and baftions. The height
of the wall is faid to have been 22 feet, and the towers
40 feet. The fuperficial contents of the area thus enclofed
have been computed at about 4C0 acres. Nearly through
the middle of this llation palTed a llream, fince called Wall-
brooke. Dr. Stukeley, in his " Itinerarium Curiofum," has

and of the difference between ancient and modern London.
The town appears to have contained no lefs than fifty-four
monaftic houfes, fuch as abbies, priories, nunneries', hof-
pitals, colleges, &c.

St. Paul's cathedral w3s firft founded by Ethelbert, king
of Kent; church rebuilt in 961 ; again in the time of

given a plan of Londinium, (hewing the extent and form of William Rufus. The prefent church commenced in 167J

the (lation, with the number of gates in the walls, and the
military roads that branched otT from it. The burial-places
■were without the walls, on the north and eaftern fides of the
town. Londinium was advanced from a prafedure, i. e. a
town governed by a Roman procfecl, to the rank of a colony.
Lt alfo became the feat of the vicarius Britanniarum, and of
the comraiflioners of the treafury under the Roman em-
perors. To enter into accounts of all the various remains
of the Romans, which have been difcovered at different times
within the limits of London, would lead us into a long dif-
lertation : it mull fufEce to ilate, that teffellated pavements,
urns, coins, pottery, foundations of buildings, and other
evident relics of the Romans, have been frequently found
beneath the prefent furface. At the Bank, near the India
houfe, and in Lombard Itreet, fome pavements have been
taken up ; and in various other parts of the city have been
found evident traces of Roman habitations, and Roman
culloras. The London flone in Cannon ftreet is confidered,
by mod antiquaries, as part ef a Roman milliary. Thefe
are all particularly defcribed in Brayley's Survey of Lon-
don and Middlelex, vol. i. 1810.

Very little is known of London during the Anglo-Saxon
dynafty ; nor do we know of any buildings, or other local
antiquities, which may be referred to that period. Under
the Saxons, London, then called Lunden, Lundone, Lun-
denburg, Lundenes, Lundenceafter, gradually increafcd in

The priory of St. Martin-le-Grand, founded by Withred,
king of Kent, in the year 7C0 ; was givew, in IJC2, by
Henry VII. to Wedminfter Abbey; the dreet of St.
Martin-le-Grand is iliil annexed to Wedminller.

The nunnery in Cle.-.kenwell, founded in 1 100, by fir
Jordan Brifirt.

The hofpital of St. John of Jerufalem, in Clerkenwell,
was founded in iioo, by the fame.

The Holy Trinity, or Chrid-church, within Aid-gate,
was founded by the emprefs Maud, in uo8, for Audin
canons.

The priory of St. Bartholomew in Wed Smithfield was
begun by Rahere, in 1123 ; the hofpital foon afterwards.

A Benediftine nunnery of Haliwell, by Robert Fitz-
Gelran, before 11 27.

St. Katherine near the Tower, by the emprefs, before
1 148.

The Old Temple of Holborn, in 1 1 18 ; and the new one
near Flett-ilreet, by the order, in 11S5.

St. Mary Spittle, by Walter Brune, in 1 197.

St. Thomas of Acre, in the end of Henry II. 's reign, by
Thomas Fitz-Theobald.

The college of AUhallows Barking, by Richard I.

The nunnery of St. Hi-len's, in Bidiopfgate-dreet, was
founded by William Fitz-William, in I 210.

Tlie Black Friars had a houfe near Chancerv-lane, but

extent and affluence ; and, according to Bede, it then be- afterwards begged or bought the ground near Caltle Bay.
came the " emporium of many nations." Religious edifices nard, foon after 1 22 I

were erefted in the feventh century, on the fcites of St.
Paul's and Wedminfter Abbey. It is prefumed there was a
bridge acrofs the Thames, near Wedminfter, previous to
the year 994 : as William of Malmd)ury, when fpeaking
of the repuUe of the Danes under Sweyn and Olaf, favs
that " part of them were drowned in the river, becaufe, in
tfwir hady rage, they took no heed of the bridge." In the
time of king Athelitan, a law was paiTed refpeCting coinage,
by which It is ipecified that London was allowed eight
minters, whilft only feven were appointed for the cities of
Canterbury and W^lncheder.

Soon after the Roman conqueft, a fortrefs or caftle was
built on the banks of the Thames ; aod t^s was enlarged

The Grey Friars, about 1224; afterwards in Newgate
ftreet.

The White Friar?, by fir Rich Grey, in I 241.

A priory for Audin Friars was edablillied in Broad-ftreet,
by Humphry Bohun, earl of Hereford, in 1253.

The Friars of the Sack, Old Jewry, 12^7. Order dif-
folved, 1307.

The Croded or Crutched Friars, by Ralph Hofier and
William rfaberns, in i 298.

The Rolls, or Domus Converforum, by Henry III. in
1331, for the converlion of Jews.

St. Mary Rouncivall in the Strand, abo'it the fatn^
period.

g q 2 Tte,

LONDON.

The hofpital or priory ef St. Mary of Bcthelem or Bed-
lam, wa<; granted by Simon P'itz-Mary, in i 247.

The convent of St. Clare, in the Minories, by Edn:iund
«arl of Lancafter, in 1 29 J.

A college and hofpital, called Elfing Spittle, were founded
by William Elfing, a citizen, in 1329-

Sir John PouDlncy founded a college in Cannon-ftreet,
in i^i^2.

St. Mary of Graces, or Eaft-Minfler, a Ciftertian abbey,
was. founded by king Edward III. in 1350.

The Chartcr-Houfc, before 1.^70, by fir Walter de
Manny, and Mitfhael de Northburgh, billiop of London.
See CuAnTHEL'sE.

The hofpital of the Savoy, in 15O), by Henry VII.

Befidts thefe, the guilds or fraternities of London were
very numerous. There was a brotherhood and chapel of
the Holy Trinity in Leadenhall, and feveral others were
founded in moll churches. The grand fupproffion of the
whole commenced in 1 53 7. Exclufive of the religious
houfes, the bilhops and parliamentary abbots had each a
town refidence of Hale.

The abbot of St. Anftin's, Canterbury, honfe was in the
parifh of St. Olave's, Soiithwark.

The abbot of Evefliam's, in the parllli of St. Catherine
Crce.

The abbot of Reading's, at Baynard caflle, in the parifii
of St. Andrew Wardrobe.

The abbot of St. Mary's, York, at St. Peter's Place,
Paul's Wharf

The abbot of Glaftonbury, in Weft Smithfield.

The abbot of PIvde, in the parilh of St. Mary at
Hill.

The abbot of Ramfey, in Whitecrofs-ftreet.

Tlie abbot of Bury St. Edmund's, in St. Mary-ftreet,
Aldga^e.

The abbot of St. Alban's, in Lothbury.

The abbot of Peterborough, in the paridi of St. Gre-
gory.

The abbot of Salop, near St. Bartholomew's, Well Smith-
field.

The abbot of Leiceftor, in the parifli of St. Sepulchre.

One inflance of the fen'ice which was rendered to the
public, even in London, by the monaftic inilitutions, is
worthy of note : the priory of St. Mary Spittle contained,
at its di[rc;lulion about the year 15,6, no lefs than 180 beds
for the reception of fick perfons and travellers. The hof-
pitals which were fuffered to remain, owed their continuance
to fir Richard Grefham, mayor of London, in 1537, who
petitioned the king to beftow the lands belonging' to this,
St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, and the new ajibcy on
Tower-hill, on the corporation, for the relief and ufe of the
poor, the lick, and the vagrant.

yinnah of London, from the Depart lire of the Romans to the
Accejfion of Edivard I.— Wlien the Ron!ans, from the dif-
tradtod Hate of the empire, found it neceffiiry, in the early
part of the fifth century, to withdraw their troops irom the
dillant provinces, London again became a Bntifii town, and
is mentioned in the Saxon chronicle in the year 457, when
the Britons fled hither on their defeat by the Saxons under
Hengift, who, about twenty years afterwards, made himfcif
raafter of London ; but on his death, in 498, it was retaken
by Ambrofius, and retained by the Britons during a con-
fjderable part of the next century. It afterwards became
fiibjedled to the newly-ellablifhed Saxon kingdom of Ellex.
Qn the converlion of the Eall Saxons to Chriitianity, Lon-
don was nominated as the bilhop's.fee, MelitHS being ap-
ptjinted the firil bifhop in the year 604 ; a cathedral church

2

was erecfled in 610, on the fcite of the prelent St. Paul's.
During the period of the Saxon heptarchy, but few notices
of London appear to have been recorded. In 664 it was
ravaged by the plague ; and in 764, 798, and 801, it fuf-
fcrcd feverely by fires ; in that of 798 it was almoll wholly
confumed, and great numbers of tlie inhabitants perifned.
On the union of the Saxon kingdom under Ei'^bert, Lon-
don, though not the royal refidence, or feat ot government,
as has been erroneoufly Hated, was advancing in confequence,
as appears from a Wittenagemot having been held here in
833, to confult on proper means to repel the Danes. By
thefe invaders London was repeatedly pillaged and laid
walle. In 925 king Athelllan had a palace here; the city
increafed in importance under the Danilb fovereigns, and
under Edi<'ard the Coiifeffor j and on the fuccefsful invafion
of William the Conqueror, the magiftrates of London,
ccnijointly with the prelates and nobility, invited him to
accept the title of king of England. From this period
London may be coulidered as the metropolis of the king-
dom.

William, at the commencement of his reign, granted a
charter to the citizens, which is beautifully written in the
Saxon characters, and i? ilill preferved among the city ar-
chives: it conlills of only five lines on a flip of parchment,
fix inches long and cne broad. In the year 1077 the
greatell part of the city was dellroyed by fire. In the
loUowing year the king founded the fortrefs, now called the
White Tower, for the purpofe of keeping the citizens in
awe, as he had reafon to fufpeft their fidelity. In 1086
another fire confumed the principal part of the city, toge-
ther with the church of St. Paul. Maurice, then bifhop
of London, laid the foundation of the new church : " a
workc," Stow obferves, " that men of that time judged
would never have been finifhed, it was then fo wonderful."
It is remarkable that Domefday bock, though io minute
in regard to other cities and towns, does not contain any
notice of London. A vineyard is mentioned in Holborn
belonging to the crown, and ten acres of land near Bilhopf-
gate (now the manor of Norton-Falgate) belonging to the
dean and chapter of St. Paul's. h\ November, 1090,'
above 600 houlej and feveral churches were blown down by
a tremendous hurricane, and Staw fays, " the Tower of
London was alfo broken." About two years afterwards
another dellruftn'e fire happened. In the fucccedi.'g years
William Rufus repaired the Tower, and llrengthened it by
additional works ; and in 1097 he built a great liall at Vv'elt-
miiifter. Henry I., as a reward for the ready fubmiirioii of
the Londoners to his ufurped authority, granted to the city
an extenfive charter of privilege?, among which was the
perpetual flierilTwick of Middlelex. On the death of Henry,
the Londoners took a decided part in favour of Stephen in
his contell with the emprefs, and greatly contributed to his
eftab ilhment on the throne. In the firfl year of his reign
a fire, beginning near London Stone, eonlumed all the
houfes ealtward to Aldi^ate, .::id wcilward to St. Paul's,
together with London bridge, which was then of wood.
Henry II. does not appear to have held the citizens in any
great degree of favour, probably refenting their attachment
to Stephen : and we find that large fums of money were
extorted from them under the fpecious name of Free -gifts.
In 1176 the building of a new bridge of iione was com-
menced at London, but was not completed tiil the year
1209. On the coronation of Richard I. a dreadful maf-
facre of the Jews, who were fettled in London, was made
by the brutal and ignorant popui.<ce. At the coronation,
dinner, the chief magillrate of London, who at that time
had the title of bailiff, acted as chief butler. Early v\ this

leign

London:

rclgn t1*e appellation was changed to tliat of mayor, in the
, perfon of Henr)' Fitz AKvyn. Richard granted the city a
new charter, confirming all its liberties, with additional pri-
vileges ; and four years afterwards, on payment of ijoo/.
be granted anotlier, providing for the removal of all weirs
that had been erefted on the river Thames ; on this charter
the corporation of London found their claim to the confer-
vatorihip of that noble i^ream. In iiq6, a fedition arofe
in London, headed by William Fitz Olbert, who excited
the common people to oppofe the government, and gained
ailbciates to the amount of 50 ooo ; but the leader beiag
taken and executed, the commotion fubfided. This is one
of the firfl inftances upon record of a tumultuous affemblage
in defence of popular rights. In the reign of king John
the civio'importance of London was greatly increaled ; and
its corporation finally afl'umed that form and predominancy,
which, with a few alterations, it has maintained till the pre-
fcnt time. John granted the city feveral charters ; by one
he empowered the ." barons of the city of London" to
chojfe a mayor annuallv, or to continue the fame perlon
from year to year, at their own pleafure. In 1212 a dread-
ful calamity took place, through a fire which commenced at
the bridge end in Southwark, and occafioned a doilrudtion
almod unparalleled from fuch a caufe : Stow relates that
about 3000 perfons perifhed. During the contefl between
the king and pope Innocent III. London fevcrely felt the
confequenccs of the inlerdift which was laid upon the king-
dom. In the civil feuds, which marked the latter years of
John, the Londoners fided with the barons ; and when the
humbled monarch was compelled to fign Magna Charta, it
was therein exprefsly ftipulated that the " city of London
(hould have all its ancient privileges and free cuftoms as well
by land as by water." The long reign of Henry III.
affords but few events worthy of notice refpefting London :
its growing profperity was checked by a feries of extortions
and oppreffions. In 125?^, the price of corn was fo excef-
Cve, that a fa-nine enfued, and according to the chronicles
of Evefham, 20,000 perfons died of hunger in London only.
In 1264 ar,other maflacre of the Jews took place ; on a
plea thjt one of that perfecuted race had taken more than
lep;al intereft, and upwards of 500 Jews were put to death
by the populace, and their houfes and iynagogiies de-
llroyed.

yfnnals of London from the Accejfion of Edward I. to that
ef Henry IV. — In the year 1279 all the Jeivs in England
were apprehended in one day, on a charge of their being the
author? of the great mutilations which had taken place in
the coin during the preceding reign : 280 perfons of both
fexes were executed in London, befides many others in va-
rious parts of the kingdom; Between the years 1 3 14 and
1^17 the city, in common with the retl of the kingdom,
fiilFered greatly from a fcarcity of provifions, which even-
tually produced a complete famine. King Edward III ,
on the commencement of his reign, granted to the city two
charters : by the firll all the a.icient privileges were con-
firmed and additional ones beftowed ; by the other, the
village of Southwark was granted to the citizens in per-
petuity. In 1348, the terrible pellilence, V-hich, breaking
out in India, fpread itfelf wellward through every country
en the globe, reached England. Its ravages in London
were fo great, that the common cemeteries were not fuffi-
ciently capacious for the interment of the dead ; and various
pieces of ground without the walls were affigncd for burial
places : amongft thefe was the wafte land now forming the
precinft of the Charter-houfe, where upwards of 50,000
badies were then depofited. This dcitruftive diforder did not
entirely fubfide till 1357. The public entry of Edward the

Black Prince into London, May 24, 13^6, after the TJAor^
he obtained at Poiftiers, wa5 celebrated with an unparalleled
degree of fplendour ; and every ftreet through which the
cavalcade patfed, exhibited an extraordinary difplay of riches
and magnificence. The captive king of France, dreffed in
regal robes, was mounted on a white courfer, v.hi'e the vic-
torious prince rode by his fide on a fmali black horfe, and
appeared more hke an attendant than a conqueror. In 1361,
the plague having again broke out in France, every precau-
tion was taken to prevent its fpreading into England, but
without eifeft ; the peftilence reached London, and its ra-
vages were fo deductive, that upwards of 2000 perfons fell
viftims in two days. In 1363, a fu'iipluous entertainment
was given in the city by Hei.ry Picard, alderman, to the
kings of England, France, Scotland, and Cyprus, to Edward
the Black Prince, and to a great number of nobility and
gentry. The year 1378 is memorable in the city annds for
the expedition fitted out by an individi:al, John Phdpot,
againil Mercer, the Scottilh pirate, v ho taking advantage
of the inattention of governine;it to naval affairs, carried off
all the iliipping from the port of Scarborough ; ard c ou-
tin.iing to infcll the northern coaft, frequently made confi-
derable prizes. Tiie complaints cf the- merchants were but
little regarded by the council ; when Phdpot prepared a
fleet at his own expence, with a thoufand men well armed,
went himfelf on board as commander-in chief, and failed in
purfuit of the pirate. A long and defperate engagement
enfued ; but Philpot obtained the viftory, and obliged the
pirate to furrender, with moft of his fhips, amo' g which
were fifteen Spaniih veffels richly laden. In November

1380, the fourth year of Richard II. an aft of parliament
was paffed for levying a poll-tax on every perfon in the
kingdom, male or female, above the age of fifteen years.
This aft was the occafion of producing, in the following
year, one of the mod dangerous infurreftions that ever
threatened the monarchy of this kingdom ; and in which
the metropolis particularly luffered. The tax was exatted
with great rigour ; and the inlolence of the colleftors was
an additional caufe ot irritation, and kindled the fparks of
fedition which foon after burll into an open flame. The ■
infurreftion began in Effex, but quickly fpread through the -
neighbouring counties, and particularly in Kent, where the
daughter of Wat Tyler, fo called from his trade, ha-ving
been indecently treated by a colleftor, the father killed him,
and being fupported by the infurgents, placed liimfelf at
their head. To his ftandard incredible numbers flocked
from all parts of the kingdom ; and on the loth 'of June, ■

1381, having niuftered on Blackheath a hundred thoufand
flrong, they entered Southwark, where they fet at liberty
the priioners from the King's Bench and Marlhalfea prifons,
and levelled the houfes of all lawyers. . They biuiit the
archbilhops palace at Lambeth, with the rich furniture,
books, and regitters, and dellroyed the public ilews which
were then tolerated on Bankfide. . For one day the bridge
gate was Ihut againil them ; but they were afterwards,
from prudential motives, admitted into the city. ■ They
then proceeded to the palace of the Savoy, which was one
of the molt magnificent llruftures in the kingioni. Having
fet fire to it in feveral places, they caufed proclamation to
be made, that no perfon ihould convert any part of the rich
effefts to his own ufe, and actually threw into the fire one
of their com])anions who liad reler-.-ed a piece of pl.ite.
They alfo burnt the Temple and the other inns of court.
Dividing iiito three parties, one advanced to the rich priory
of St. John of Jerufalem, near Smithfield, which they
burned ; a fecond divifion marched to the Tower, where
ihey feijed fix Rabert Hstles, lurd ueafurer, and Simon

Sitdbmyj .

LONDON.

:Sud1iuryi archbifhop of Canterbury, and lord chancellor
(though guarded by 1200 foldiers), and hurrying them to
the adj;icent hill, beheaded them ; the third divilioii pro-
ceeded to Mile End, where the king met them, and promifed
to redrefs their fiippofed grievances, on which tiiey difpcried.
But Wat Tyler, with his party, vmdcr the pretence of re-
forming abufes, continued their ravages in London, liberated
the prifoners from the Fleet and Newgate, piimdered the
houfes of the Lombards who relided in the Itreet, which
yet retains their tjame, and dragging the merchants trom the
churches, whither they had fled for refuge, beheaded them
in the ftreets. Not content with murdering many of the
mod eminent citizens, tliey made proclamation for beheading
all lawyers and pcrfons connected with the Exchequer, and
even all who, in thofe days of ignorance, were capable of
•writing. The king made another effort for negociation :
attended only by forty horfe, he met Tyler with 20,000 of
his adherents in Smithfield. The behaviour of Tyler was
fo infolent, that the kmg ordered the mayor, fir William
Walworth, to arrell him ; on his rcfillance, fir William
felled him to the ground with his fword, and the attend-
ants difpatched him. The rebels prepared to revenge their
leader's death ; but Richard, though only fifteen years of
age, with a prudence and bravery which did him more credit
than any other action of his life, rode forward, exclaiming,
" My friends, will you kill your king ? Be not troubled
for the lofs of your leader ; I will be your captain, and

frant what you defire." They then marched under his
ireftion to St. George's Fields, where, finding a thoufand
citizens completely armed to oppofe them, they threw down
their weapons, obtained their pardon, and immediately dif-
perf'.'i Thus ended an infnrreftion unparalleled in the
annals of this kingdom, and which for three weeks feemed
to threaten a total fubverfion of the government. In 1390,
the king appointed a tournament to be held in London, and
fent heralds to proclaim his intention to all the principal
courts of Europe, whence many princes and nobles came
to attend the fpeftacle, which was continued with the greatcft
fplendour for four days ; open houfe being kept at the king's
cxpence for all perfons of dilfinclion. The vail expendi-
ture which this and fimilar fellivities occafioned, frequently
reduced Richard to great pecuniary difficulties ; his enor-
mous profufion led him to a fyfiem of opprellion and ex-
tortion, which eventually caufed his depofition and death.

jir.nah of Lorulon from the Accejfion of Henry IV. to that of
Elizabeth. — At the coronation of the new king, the mayor,
as ufual, officiated as chief butler. The citizens were grati-
fied by the repeal of fome obnoxious (latutes, and an exten-
fion of their privileges. In 1 401, an act was paifed for
" burning obftinate heretics," entirely aimed at the Lollards,
or followers of Wickliffe. The firft viAim was William San-
tree, parilh prieft of St. Ofyth, in Syth-lane, London. In
1407, the Plague again ravaged the kingdom, and fvvept
away more than 30,000 of the inhabitants of the metropo-
lis. In 1409, " a great play, of Matter from the Creation
of the World," was aded at Skinner's-Well, near Clerken-
well. The exhibition lafted eight days ; at which were
prefent the king and moll of the nobility and gentry of the
realm. In the following year, John Bradley was condemned
as a Wickliffite, and burnt in Smithfield, with circumllances
of peculiar cruelty. In this year Guildhall was erefted ;
the city hall before being a mean cottage in Aldermanbury.
The return of king Henry V. after the glorious vidtory ob-
tained at Agincourt in 14 15, was celebrated in London with
great magnificence. Neither this reign nor the following
produced any events of peculiar import to the city, till the
year 1450, when a new infurredion arofc, of fo formidiiblc a

nature, that for fome weeks all the power of the crown was
infufficient to quell it.. This tumult is fuppofed to have
been railed by the inftigation of the duke of York, in or-
der to found the inclination of the people, and prepare the
nation for his defign of feizing that fceptre which Henry
fwayed fo feebly. By the fecret inftruftions of the duke.
Jack Cade, who had forvcd under him in the Frcncli wars,
alTumcd the name of Mortimer, and coUedted a rtrong body
ot nuilconteuts, under the popular pretext of redrefs of
grievances. They entered the city in triumph, and for fome
time bore down all oppofition ; and beheaded the lord trca-
furer, lord Say, and feveral other perfons of no^e. The in-
furgcnts at length lofing ground, a general pardon was pro-
claimed, and Cade, finding himfelt deferted by his followers,
fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehenfiun, he
was dilcovorcd, and refufing to furrendcr, was killed.
The remainder of this reign was filled up with the dreadful
contell between the Lancallrians and Yorkiils, which ended
in the depolition of Henry and the eilabliniment of Edward
IV. on the throne. The year 1472 will ever be memorable
in the annals of the metropolis, for the introduction of
printing into this country by William Caxton, citizen and
mereer. The hillory of the kingdom during this reign
and that of Richard III. does not in any particular manner
affect the concerns of the city. Soon after the accefiion of
Henry VII. in 148), an epidemical diforder of a very Angu-
lar nature, called tUcf-wealiri^ Jiclnrfs, raged with great vio-
lence in London. Thole attacked by it were thrown into a
violent peripiration, which generally occafioned their death
within twenty-four hours. It appears from Hall's Chronicle,
that two mayors and fix aldermen died of this complaint in
one week. This reign was particularly marked by opjjreffion
and extortion on the part of the king ; and the tumults and
infurreftions occafioned thereby, particularly that in fupport
of Perkin Warbeck, who was afierted to be Richard, duke
of York, and the heir to the throne. In this event, though
highly interefling to the kingdom, the city was not imme-
diately concerned. In 1500 the kingdom was again vifitcd
by the Plague, of which 30,000 perions died in the metro-
polis and its vicinity. In tlie reign of Henry VIII. when
he attempted to raife money without the aid of parliament,
the citizens made fuch determined oppofition to the m.eafnre,
and their example had fuch an influence through the king-
dom, that the king, in full council, abandoned his defign,
and granted a pardon to all who had oj)pofed liiin. On the
king's marriage with Anne Bolcyii, in 1533. (he was con-
veyed from Greenwich to the Tower, and thence through
the city to Weflminfter, with all the magnificence and
pageantry which unbounded prodigality could devife. The
remainder of this reign was notorious for the tyranny and
cruelty of the king, who, having thrown oft" the pope's fu-
premacy, facrificedall who adhered to it : yet profeffing a
zealous attachment to the dodtrines of the church of Rome,
he put to death thofe perfons who prefumed to difler from him,
Hence the promoters of reformation, and its oppofers, pe-
riflied in the fame flames ; the blood of the Catholic and
Protellant was (hed upon the fame block ; and Henry,
whilft vehemently contending againll the pope's infallibility,
fupported his own with tlie moll vindidtive cruelty. In
theie fanguinary fcenes, London had its full fhare ; great
numbers, of all ranks, were continually executed, either tor
herefy or treafon. The iupprefiion of the monalleries now
took place : oppofition to the king's will was fatal ; and the
partial iniurrectioiis which broke out in confequence, only
ferved to forward his mcafures, by giving the colour of
necefiity to the vengeance that was inflidted. Many im-
provements were made during this reign in the city and its

fuburbs.

LONDON.

fuburbs. The police was better regulated ; nuifanccs were
removed ; the llreets and avenues were amended and paved ;
and various regulations were carried into effeft for fcipply-
ii)g the metropolis with provifions, to anlwer the demands of
an tncrealing population. In the fhort reign of Edward VI.
the reformation proceeded with flcadinefs and regularity :
but on the accefiion of Mary the church of Rome again
gained the afrendency. On the projected union between
the queenjand the king of Spain, a formidable infurrection
enfued, in which the city was particularly nlFcCted: the
fuppreffion of this revolt was followed by a dreadful fcene
of fanguinary triumph. The flatutes acjainil heretics were
now alfo entorced with great feverity. A number of perfons
were burnt in Sniithlicld : in the whole kingdom upwards of
200, were brought to the ftake.

Annals of London from the Aceejfwn of Elizabeth to the Re-
solution In 1688 — Elizabeth fucceeJed her filler amidll the
acclamations of all ranks of people. Reformation again
reared its head, and wis in a fhort time firmly eflablifhed.
In 1561 the fpire of St. Paul's cathedral was ilruck by
Lghtninij, and great part of the building confumed. In
1563 the Plague again made dreadful ravages, to which
20,oco perfons fell victims in the city. In July 1566, the
foundations of the Royal Exchange were laid by fir Thomas
Grelliam, and the itrufture was completed in the following
year. The year 1569 exhibited a novelty in London of
moll pernicious example. The firfl public lottery was then
drawn at the weft door of St. Paul's cathedral, and the
drawing continued, wiihout interruption, from January 1 1
to May 6. The prizes were of plate, and the profits were
appropriated to the repair of the fea-ports. In i j86 a con-
fpiracy was fet on foot to affaffinate Elizabeth, and free the
queen of Scots from the captivity in which (he had pafTed al-
niQft eighteen years. The plot was foon difcovered, and the
tonfpirarors, fourteen in number, were executed in Lincoln's-
inn-Fields. Mary was faid to be implicated in the confpiracy ;
and this, whether true or falle, furnifhed a plaulible pretext
for thofe proceedings, which foon after condemned her to
the block. The fentence againll her was proclaimed with
great folemnity' at different places in London and Weil-
Tniniler. In the preparations made to repel the threatened
attack of the boalted Spanifh Armada, London took a
moll diftingiiilhed (hare, in furnilhing large fupplies of
money, men, and (hips. The preparations for the corona-
tion of king James were interrupted by a dreadful Plague,
•which ravaged the city with greater violence than any
fimilar vifitation fince the time of Edward III. In 1604,
the horrible confpiracy, known in hiilory by the name of
the " Gunpowder Plot," the grand objedl of which was to
prepare the way for the reftoration of the Catholic religion,
■wa= commenced by its daring contrivers, with every polfible
precaution that feemed neceflary to enfure its fucctfs. The
dellruftion of the king and parliament was the preliminary
meafive through which the confpirators thought to accom-
plilTi their defign ; and the blowing up of the parliament-
houfe with gunpowder at the moment when the fovereign
(hould be commencing the bufinefs of the fefiion by the
accuftomed fpeech from the throne, was the dreadful means
by which the deltruftion was intended to be accomplilhed.
AH the principal confpirators were bigotted Catholics, who
had for many years been plotting the downfall of Pro-
teftan'ifn:! in this country, and had even applied for aid to
Spain and Flanders. Being difappointed of the affillance they
required, they refolved to depend on their own efforts, and
about Eafler 1604, formed the idea of the gunpowder plot, to
be carried into effect on the meeting of parliament in February

following. Accordingly Percy, one of the confpirators,
hired a houfe immediately adjoining to the houfe of
lords, and the operations commenced by digging through
the foundation-wall, which was nine feet in thicknefs. Jufl
at this juncture, a vault under the parliament-houfe, ufed as a
depofitory for coals, was to be let, and the coals to be fold.
As nothing could have happened more favourable for
their purpofe, Percy hired the cellar, and bought the coi.l3,
as if for domeftic ufe, and without any appearance of con-
cealment. The prorogation of parliament from February
to October gave the confpirators futTicient leifure to further
their defign ; and, at convenient opgortunities, thirty barrels
and four hogfheads of gunpowder, which had been pro-
cured from Holland, were conveyed into the cellar by
night, and covered with billets, faggots, iron-bars, and
flones. This was done without exciting any fufpisioji :
parliament had again been prorogued ;o November jth ; and
the confpiracy wore every afpect of fuccefs. It had now
been on foet eighteen months, and confided to more than
twenty perfons ; yet nothing had led a fingle ftep towards
difcovery ; when the plan was happily frullrated by a cir-
curaftance apparently trivial. One of the confpirators,
wifning to lave lord Monteagle, fent him a letter, advifing
him, in ambiguous terms, to abfent himfelf from parliament,
on account of a fudden danger to which he would be ex-
pofed. This notice Monteagle carried to the fecretary of
ftate, who laid it before the privy. council. A fecret fearch
was determined on, but, to prevent fufpicion, was delayed
till the eve of the meeting of parliament, and then made
only by the lord chamberlain, as if in a formal diicharge of
his office. When he entered the cellar, and faw the great
llore of coals and wood, he enquired to whom it belonged,
and was informed the cellar was let to Mr. Percy, and
the fuel was for his confumption. The chamberlain heard
this with feeming carelefsnefs, and left the cellar with ap-
parent negligence. But at midnight a further fearch was
made ; Guy Fawkes, a principal confpirator, to whom the
final execution of the plot was affigii^d, was apprehended in
the cellar : the fuel was removed, and the gunpowder dif-
covered. Fawkes gloried in the plot, but refufed to dif-
cover his accomplices ; the fight of the rack, however,
fubdued him, and he made a full difclofure of the whole
confpiracy. His affociates fled into WarwicklhLre, where
they endeavoured to excite a rifing of the Catholics, but
without effect. A proper force was fent againt them, four
were killed in refiilance, and the rell were taken and brought
to London, where, with Fawkes, they fuffered the juft
punifhment of their guilt. In the year 1609, the city ac-
quired a conCderable accefiion of power and property :
almoil the whole province of Uliter, in Ireland, having
fallen to the crown, the king made an offer of the efcheated
lands to the city, on condition they would eftablilh an
Englilh colony there. The propofal was accepted ; a,nd fo
rapid was the colonization forwarded, that within fcvcn
years arofe the two capital tov.ns of Londonderry and
Coleraine. The commencement of Charles l.'s reign was
marked by the return of the plague, which carried off in
the metropolis ^5,000 perions. To advert to all thf im-
portant tranfattions that took place in London during the
eventful druggie between Charles and his people would far
exceed our limits. The excefUve oppreiHons tO' which the
nation was fubje£ted, were more particularly felt in the me-
tropolis than in other parts of the kingdom, frcrm its being
more direitly within the vortex of the flar-charaber and
high-commiftion courts, and from the efFefts of the mono-
polies, which had a moft pernicious i.i&uence on trade and

commerce.

LONDON.

«ommerce. For tVie particulars of this important period,
we refer our' readers to Clarendon's Hidory of the Great
' Rebelhon.

The year i56j became memorable in London by the
dreadful ravages of the fjreat Plxgtie, which firft, made
its appearance in December 1664, and had not entirely
ceafed till January 1666. Its progrefs, the firft two or
three montlis, was comparatively fmall, but continued to
advance, notwithftandintf every precaution was ufed to
abate its fury : from May to October 1665, it raged with
the greateft violence ; the deaths progreifively increafed
from five hundred to eight thoufand weekly. The pefti-
lence was now at its height : its ravages, which commenced
in Wellminfter and the weflern fuburbs, extended through
the city to Soiithwark, and to all the parifhcs eaftward of
the Tower. The digging of fingle graves had long been
difcontinued, and large pits had been excavated, in which
the dead were depofited with fome little regularity and
decent attention : but now all regard to ceremony became
impofTible. Deeper and more extenfive pits were dug, and
the rich and the poor, the young and" the aged, the adult
and the infant, were all proniifcuoufly thrown together into
one common receptacle. Whole families, and even whole
ftreets of families, were fwept away together. By day, the
ftreets prefented a moft frightful afpeft of defolation and
inifcry ; and at night the dead carls, moving with flow pace
by torch-light, and with the appalling cry, " Bring out
yonr Dead," thrilled horror through every heart that was
not by fufferiug hardened to calamity. The ftcppage ot
pubHc bufinefs was fo complete, that grafs grew within the
area of the Royal Exchange, and even in the principal ftreets
of the city : all the inns of court were ftiut up, and all law
proceedings fufpended. The entire number returned in the
bills of mortality, as having died of the plague within the
year, was 68,950 ; yet there can be no doubc that this total
fell fliort, by many thoufands, of thofe who actually fell by
the infeiftion, but whofe deaths were not officially recorded.
The aggregate is eftimated at about 100,000. The whole
rumber of deaths within that year, as given in the bills, was
«7,?o6. Since this dreadful period, the plague has entirely
ceafed in London : a circumftance that muft be regarded
SE the more remarkable, when it is confidered how frequent
had been its ravages for ages part, and when reference is had
to the bills of ir.ortality for the preceding part of this very
centurj', when fcarcely a year paffed without fome perfons
falling vifiims to the infeftion. For further particulars,
fee Plagu^.

.The moft important event that ever happened in this me-
iropolis, .whether it be confidered in reference to its imme-
diate efFefts, or to its remote confequences, was the great
Fire, which broke out in the morning of Sunday, September
2, [666, and, being impelled by ftrong winds, raged with
irrefiftible fury nearly four days and nights, nor was it
entirely maftered till the fifth morning. The dellruftive
extent of this conflagration was, perhaps, never exceeded in
any part of the worM, by any lire originating in accident.
Within the walls it confiimed almoft five-fixths of the whole
city ; and without the walls, it cleared a fpace nearly as
extenfive as the one-fixth part left unburnt within. Scarcely
a fingle building, that came within the range of the flames,
was left ftanding. Public buildings, churches, and dwelling-
"lioufes were alike involved in one common fate ; and, making
a proper allowance for irregularities, it may fairly be ftated,
•that the fire extended its ravages over a fpace of ground
.equal to an oblong fqtiare, meafiiring upwards of a mile in
•Jength, and half a mile in breadth. In the fummary ac-

count of this vaft deraRation givtn In one of the infqrip.
tions on the monument, and which was drawn up from the
reports of the furveyors appointed after the fire, it is ftated,
that " the ruins of the city were 4^6 acres, viz. ^yj acres
within the walls, and 6_? in the lihL-rties of the city ; that of
the fix-and-twcnty wards it utterly deftroyed fifteen, and
left eight others fliattered and half burnt ; and that it con-
fumed 400 ftreets, 13,200 dwelling-honfes, 89 churches, be-
fides chapels ; four of the city gates, Guildhall, many pub-
lic ftruftures, hofpitalsi, fchools, libraries, and a vaft number
of ftately edifices." The immenfe property deftroyed in
this dreadful conflagration could never be calculated with
any tolerable degree of exaiSnefs ; but according to the
bell eflimations that have been made, the total value muft
have amounted to the immenfe fum of ten millions of pounds
fterhng. As foon as the general confternation had fubfided,
the rebuilding of the city became l-he firft objcft of conli-
deration ; an a6t of parhament was paflcd for that purpofe ;
and theugh all was not done that might have been, the city
was principally rebuilt within little more than four years, and
that in a ftyle of far greater expence and regularity, and
infinitely more commodious and healthful, than the ancient
capital. In the fyftem of tyranny and opprefilon whiih
marked the reign of Charles II. the city largely partici-
pated ; having its ancient liberties and privileges invaded,
and magiftrates arbitrarily forced on the citizen at the plca-
fure of the king. Every principle of law and juftice was
violated ; and in this humiliating ftate London continued
till the revolution.

Annals of London from the Revolution In t688, to the prflnt
Time. — In the firft year of WiOiam. and Mary, an act was
pafled, by which all proceedings of former reigns againft
the city charters were reverfed, and all the rights and pri-
vileges «f the citizens were fully re-eftabliftied. In 1692,
during the kiiig'.^ abfence in Holland, the queen borrowed
200,000/. of the city for the exigencies of government.
In 1694, an infamous fyftem of bribery was inveftigated bv
the houfe of commons, when it wa." proved, that a thouHmd
guineas had been demanded and taken from the chamberlain
of London by fir John Trevor the I'peaker, for forwarding
the Orphan bill ; in confequcnce of which he was expelled
the houfe. In 1697, an acl: of parliament was pafTed for
the fupprefllon of the much abufed privilege of fanftuary,
heretofore attached to the following places, ii/'s. the fanc-
tuary in the Mlnories, Sali(bury-court, White-friars, Ram-
alley, and Mitre-court in Fleet-ftreet ; FuKvoods-rents in
Ho!born ; Baldwin'.s-gardens in Gray's-inn-lane ; the .Savoy
in the Strand ; and Montague-cloi'e, Deadman's-place, the
Clink, and the Mint, in Southwark. The year 1703 was
remarkable for a dreadful Itorm of wind, which raged
through the night of the 26th of November. The damage
fiiftained by the city alone was eftimated at two millions
fterling ; and in the fuburbs the damage was proportionably
great : the lead on the tops of feveral churches was rolled
up like (kins of parchment ; and at Weftminfter-abbey,
Chrift's-hofpital, St. Andrew's Holborn, and many other
places, it was carried off from the buildings. The ftiips in
the river were driven from their moorings ; four hundred
wherries were loft ; more than fixty barges were driven foul
of London-bridge, and aS many more were funk or ftaved
above the bridge. At fea the deftruftion was immenfe ;
twelve men of war, with more than eighteen hundred meft
on board, were loft within fight of their own fliore. The
year 1709 was marked by a circumftance highly creditable
to the humanity of the nation. The cruel depredatiorrs o'f
the French in the palatinate eompelled lite inhabitants to

iLfcrt

LONDON.

difert tlieir coontry ; twelve tlioufand, in the mod forlorn
condition, fought refuge in London : the queen, for fome
time, fupported them out of her privy purfc ; flie v.tas after-
wards ainiled by the benevolence of her fubjetts, and 22,038/,
v'Qj paid into the chamber of the city for the relief of thefe
diilrefied fugitives, who were finally difpofcd of as colonills
to Ireland and North America.

The increafe in the population of the metropolis having
occafioned a great infufficiency in places for divine worfliip,
an aft of parliament was palled in 1 7 1 1 for creeling fifty
new churches in and about London : the expence of which
was defrayed by a fnali duty on coals brought into the port
of London for about eight years. The year 1720 will
ever be famous in the annals of London, from the dellruc-
tive fyllem of fpeculation and fraud which hiftory has de-
r.ominated the South Sea bubble ; and which fo completely
infatuated the people, that they became the dupes of the
mofl barefaced impofitions. (See Bubble, in Commerce.) The
direftors of the South Sea Company, encouraged by the pre-
valent fpirit of av.-iricious enterprife, propofed to the govern,
inent to take into their fund all the debts of the nation, under
the plaufible pretext of a fpeedier redemption. The amount
of the debts was ^ 1,664,^51/. ; for the liberty of adding the
whole ot which to their capital ftock, they offered to pay to
the public the immenfe fum. of 7,723,809/. This bait was
too tempting to be refufed ; the plan received the fanction of
parliament, and the directors were empowered to raife the rea-
dy money necelTary for fo great an undertaking, " by open-
ing books of fubfcription, and granting annuities to fuch
public creditors RS were willing to exchange the iecurity of
the crown for that of the South Sea Company, with the ad-
vantage of (baring in the emoluments that might arife from
their commerce." So much was the public mind imprefTed
with the idea of rapid gain, that before the aft received the
royal anent,the company's llock rofeto T,n.)l. per cent. : it ad-
vanced fo amazingly for three months, that books were then
opened for a freth fubfcription of four millions at 10:0 per
tint. ; and fuch was the popular frenzy, that within a fort-
night the new fubfcription was at 200 per cent, premium.
Some alarm now prevailed : it had been v.hifpered, that the
direftors and their friends had dilpofed of their own (lock
while the price was at the hightft ; and all confidence in the
ftabiliiy of their credit was dellroyed. The confufion be-
came general ; every one was willing to fell, but no pur-
chafers could be found, except at a vaft reduftion. Dif-
traftion and difmay fpread through the city ; the ilnck fell
rapidly, and, before the end of the year, was reduced to 86
per cent, which was about its real value. The dellruftion
to public and private credit, thus produced, was excefiive :
alf trade was at a Hand ; and many of the moll refpeftable
merchants, goldfmiths, and bankers of London, wlio h:id
t-nwifcly lent large fums to the company, were obliged
to abfcond. A parliamentary inveftigation enfued ; and
the knavery of the direftors was io apparent, that the
greater part of their eftates was confifcated for the benefit
of thofe who;n their villainy had ruined. The fum thus
obtained amounted to 2,014,000/.

During llie coiitmuance of the infatuation which the South
Sea delufion infpircd into all claffes of people, many other
viuon.iry projefts were fet on foot by fpoculators and gam-
blers ; even chartered companies of eftablilhed credit lent
their couatenance to ichemcs of impofiible accompliihment :
nearly two hundred fubfcription projefts were afloat at one
time. When the public confidence in the South Sea fcheme
was on the decline, the ftiperior ftability of the bank of
England, Eaft India, and African companies, was at once
feen : Bank llock rofe from jco to 2C0 ; Eall India tlock

Vol. XXI.

from 100 to 405 ; and African ftock from too to ios.
The fliarcs in the London and Royal Exchange AfFurance
Companies alfo experienced a prodigious rife. See Ix-

SUKANCE.

The clofe of the year 1729 was attended by a great
mortality in London ; the deaths within the bills of mor-
tality in the courfe of the year amounting to almoll 30,000.
The pernicious habit of dram-drinking had become fo gene-
ral, and fo many diforders had been occafioned, and crimes
commited in confequencc of it, that in the year 1736 the
legiflature found it necelTary to prohibit the {tiling of Ge-
neva, except under certain rcllriclions. Previous to this,
the magillratcs had afcertained that the number of gin-fhops
in London and Weftminilcr was 7044, befides garrets and ccl-
j. rs where the baneful liquor was fold privately. So deter-
mined were the retailers to carry on their trade, that the
utmoll exertions of the police were required to enforce the
aft; and within two years, i 2,000 perfo.is were con vic;ted
and fined under its provifions.

The winter of 1739 — 40 was memorable from the oc-
currence of one of the moll intenfe froils ever known iu
this country, and which is recorded in our annals by the
appellation of the Great Froft ; it commenced on Chriltmas-
day, and lafted till the 17th of February : above bridge the
Thames was completely frozen over, and numerous booths
were erettcd on it for felling liquors, &c. to the multitudes
who daily flocked thither. Great improvements were now
made in different parts of the metropolis ; and convenience,
health, and fafety, were more generally attended to than
they had previoufly been. Wellminfter bridge was finilhed
and opened for public ufe in the year 1750; the houfes
upon London bridge were pulled down in 1756 ; and In the
two fucceeding yeai\< the bridge was put into a courfe of
repair. In 1760 Black-friars' bridge was commenced;-
moll of the city gates were taken down ; and an aft of par-
liament was obtained for making alterations in the aveiiuei
of the city and its liberties ; fome of vuhich have been car-
ried into efFeft at difl'ercnt periods, yet many others remain
to be executed. In the year 1763, the recent peace with
France, the refignation of Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of
Chatham, as premier, and other political occurrences, fet
the metropolis into a complete ferment. The conduft, of
adminiftration was fuch, as to augment rather than obviate
the prevailing difcontents. Hence the miniftry were aflailed
with political pubhcations; in particular by a periodical pa-
per called " The North Briton ;" the writers of which, the
principal of whom was John Wilkes, were determined to
expofe the meafurcs of the then adminillration to the con-
tempt they deferved. The forty-fifth number of this paper
contained fuch fevere rcfleftioiis on the king's fpsech to
parliament, that the minillry thought they had an oppor-
tunity to cruih their avowed enemy. Mr. Vvilkes w:.s
apprehended and committed to the Tower under an illegal
warrant, figiied by the principal fecretary of llate ; but the
c;s''e being argued in the court of Common Plea?, before
lord chief judice Pratt, the court dircfted him to be dif-
charged. Mr. Wilkes brought aftions againll the carl of
Halifax, fecretary of (late, for iffuing the warrant, ard
agaiiid Mr. Wood, under-fecretary, and obtained verdids
with damages ; 4000/. fiomtlie former, and icoo/. from the
latter. Shortly after his relealf, Mr. Wilkes cUabhflicd a
printing. prcfs in his own houfe, and republifiied all the nun:-
bers of the obnoxious paper. This provoked the mimilrv lo
highly, that an information was filed againll him. Th<r
" North Briton, No. 45," was voted by the houfe of com-
mons to be a fcditious libel, and ordered to be burnt bv thi
common hangman. Mr. ^Vllkcs was expelled the houfe ;
R r and

LONDON.

and though he retired to France, his trial was brought on in
His abfence, when he was found guilty of republidMng the
libel, and was confequently outlawed. Four years afterwards
he returned to England, his outlawry was revcrftd, and he
was fentcnced to two years imprifonment ; during vvhiehhe
was eleftcd an alderman of London, and knight of the fliire
for Middlefex.

In the year 17S0, from a caufe apparently harmlefs, a
petition to parliament from the Proteftant AfTociation, arofe
an infurreftion, coinpofed chiefly of the lowed of the peo-
ple, which for a week bore the moil alarming appearance ;
the prifons of Newgate, the Kin;4^'s Bench, and the Fleet
were burnt and the prifoners fet at liberty, and molt of them
joined the infurgents. The Popifh cha;iels, and a great
number of private houfes of Catholics, were fet on lire :
and thirty fix fires were feen blazing at one time in various
parts of the metropohs. Military mterfercnce became ab-
foiutely nccedary, when many of the rioters were killed ;
135 were brought to trial, of whom 59 were convided, and
upwards of 20 of the moll aftive were executed in various
parts of the town, but immediately contiguous to the fcenes
of their refpeftive depredations.

During the year 1792, and the two following years, the
metropolis was greatly agitated by political contention ; many
aflbciations were formed for the purpofe of obtaining a more
pure and equal reprefentation of the people. The two princi-
pal of thefe afibciations, viz. the Friends of the People, and
the Correfponding Society, held their meetings in London.
Their avowed objeft was parliamentary reform ; but they were
fligmatized by their enemies with the appellations of Repub-
licans and Levellers. Some of the moll ailivc and powerful
leaderftof thefe afTociations were at length arrelled, and tried
for high treafon, but after a long invelligation all were ac-
quitted. Other perfons, among whom was Thomas Paine,
were profecuted f(;r fedition, and fome were imprifoned.
Paine was pronounced guilty of writing and pubhihing the
fecond part of the Rights of Man, which was declared fedi-
tious, and the author having left the kingdom, was outlawed.
The numerous clubs, debatisg focieties, and political affo-
ciatio;,s formed in the metropolis foon after the revolution m
France, and durin^^ the early (tages of the war againll that
country, conllitute a prominent ep-ch in the hillory of the
metropolis. The country was hurried on to the very brink
of revolution; but this great crifis vi'as prevented by the
vigilant, powerful, and detern.ined conduftof the Pitt admi-
niftration. An .'\lien a&. was palled in 1793, the Habeas
Corpus aft was fufpcnded in the next year ; and various
arbitrary and oppreflive nieafures were adopted by the mi-
niftry to preferve pubhc tranquillity, but at the fame time
abrfdge the rights of the Britifli fubjefts.

The year 1797 w^as dil^iiiguifhedby the f.loppage of bank
payments in fpecie, as tlie government had employed nearly
all the current coin in remittances to the emperor ot Ger-
many and to other foreign powers. An aft of parliament
was now pafled to allow the bank to iffue notes under five
pounds. At the commencement of 1798 a numerous meet-
ing of the bankers, merchants, and traders of London, was
held in tb.e Royal Exchange for the purpofe of raifing a
voluntary fubfcription for the public fervice. In the courfe
of four days the common council alone fabfcribed 10,000/.,
2CO,ooo/. was fubfcribed by the bank, confiJerable fums
were given by other oublic companies, and 20,000/. was
advanced by his niajell)-. The miniller cllimatcd this fub-
fcription at one million and a lialf, but the total amount was
more than two millions of money. Continued threats of
invafion from Frar.ce fnduc^d the miniller to adopt fome
Jtew mode of defence ; aud fcveral armed affyciaUoflS were

formed by different parifhes and companies in the metropolis.
On the 4th of .Tunc, 1799, all thefe volunteers were
atfemblcd in Hyde Park, and reviewed by his majelly, the.
prii^ces, &c. The total number under arms was 8989,
of which lOoS were cavalry. On the 2 1 II of tlie fame
month, a llill greater number of .volunteers was difperfed
through the ftreets, fquares, and fuburbs of the metropojis,
to be infpefted again by tlie king, and a numerous retinue
of princes, dckes, occ. It is (tated, that 12,208 volun-
teers were then drawn out under arms. A fnuilar review of
the volunteers to the former, took place on the 4th of .fnne
1800. On the ratification of prchminaries of peace in Octo-
ber, 1801, the metropolis wasbrilhantly illuminated, and all
claffes of people tcflitied great joy at the event. The deli-
nitive treaty was ligned on the 27th of the following montli,
and the illuminations throughout London were now fingu-
larly fplendid and general. A war again broke out, and an
aft of parliament was paffed to enable his majelly to arm
the people en maffe. Other afts for increafiug the military
force of the country were alfo pafltd. The cities of Lon-
donand Weflminlter, and parifhes immediately adjacent, raifed
a volunteer force amounting to 27,077 men. A patriotic
fund was eflabhflied in London in July 1803, and before
the end of Augull more than 152,000/. were fubfcribed j
towards which the city, in its corporate capacity, gave
2jOo/. The fuccefTive deaths of lord Nelfon, Mr. Pitt,
and Mr. Fox, produced great fenfation in the metropolis,
and many changes in the legiflative officers. Covcnt Garden
theatre and fevcral contiguous houfes were confumed by
tire in Septembei' 1S08 ; another fire in January 1809, de-
flroyed part of the king's palace at St. James's, and a tliird
fire, in February of the fame year, coniumed the whole of
Drurv-lane theatre. The Oftober of 1809 is memorable
in the annals of London, for the circumllance of his ma-
jelly's entrance into the fiftieth year of his reign, and tlie
loyal rejoicings, or pubhc manifeflations of loyalty that were
difplayed on theoccalion. The memorable and unpropitious
expedition to Walcheren, the theatrical riots at Covent Gar-
den theatre, the invelligation, before the houfe of commons,
relating to the duke of York and a noted pr< flitute of the
name of Clarke, the arrefl and imprifonment of fir Francis
Burdett, a member of the houfe of commons, are all me-
morable events in the local hiftory of London, and are
entitled to particular narration and expolition in a publi-
cation devoted to the topography of the metropohs. In
Brayley's Survey, already referred to, thefe fubjefts are par-
ticularized and elucidated. It is conjeftured that within
the iail forty years, 40,000 new houfes at leafl have been
ercfted in London and its conneftcd environs, and that thefe
afford habitation for nearly 200, oco new inhabitants. In
July, 1794. a fire broke out in Radcliffe highway, and con-
fumed 630 houfes, with much other property. Many of the
inhabitants fixed tents in the open fields, v.heie they hved
for feveral weeks till new houfes were erefted.
Hi/lory of the Commerce of Londuii. —

«' Then Co.MMERCE brought into the public walk
The bufy Merchant ; the big Warehoufe built ;
Rais'd the llrong Crane ; choak'O up the loaded Street
With foreign Plenty ; and thy Stream, O Thames,
Large, gentle, deep, (najeilic king of floods !
Cliofe for his grand refort." Thomfon.

London is univerf.dly acknowledged to be the firll com-
mercial, as well as the firfl manufacturing city in the world.
Confidering, therefore, the intimate connection that fubfiifs
between its trading profperity and the general interetls of
the empire j the fubjeft of this fection cannot fail to be

highly

LONDON.

highly intereftina; and important. To trace the fteps by
which London has rifen to its prefent opulence and gran-
deur, is in h&. to develope the fources of that diftingui/hed
rank which England now holds among the nations of the
earth.

London was, doubtlefs, a place of confidersble trade at a
Tery early period. Tacitu? Ipeaks of it as the noiili empo-
rium of his time ; the great refort of merchants, and though
not a colony, famous for its commercial intercourfe. After
this, little is known of it, in refpeft to trade, until the clofe
of the lecond century of the Chrillian era, when ic is again
mentioned as having become " a great and wealthy city."
In the year 3 59, it is faid of England, that its " commerce
was fo extended, that 800 vefTels were employed in the port
of Ijondon for exportation of corn only." Three cen-
turic* afterwards Bede ftyles it " an emporium for many
nations repairing to it by land and fea." Fitz-Stephen,
who lived in the rei^n of Henry II. fays, that " no city
in the world exports its merchandi2e to fuch a dilVance
as London ;" but does not inform us what goods were ex-
ported, or to what countries they were carried. Among
the imports, however, he enumerates gold, fpices, and frank-
inccnfe from Arabia ; precious Hones from India ; and palm-
oil from Bagdad. But it feems more reafonable to fuppofe
thefe were obtained throus'h the meduim of the trading
cities of Italy, than by direct commerce to the refpeftivc
places. William of Malmfbury, who likevvife lived about
this period, calls " London a noble city, renowned for the
opulence of its citizens," and "filled with merchandize
broughl by the merchants of all countries." The fame author
adds, " that in cafe of fcarci^y of corn in other parts of
England, it is a granary, where it may be bought cheaper
than any where elfe." Thus it will be perceived, that even
in the infancy of European commerce, and at a time when
ignorance and barbarifm clouded almoil every portion of the
world, this city had made no inconliderable progrefs towards
its prifent celebrity and impcrtance.

In the year 1220, the merchants of Cologne, in Germany,
probably in confequence of an invitation from king John
in 1203, eftabliihed a hall or factory in London, which
fhortly after became the general factory of all the German
merchants refident in the city. Not long fubfeqaent to this
period, -viz. in I 24^, fea coal " carbone maris," is mentioned
among the articles of inquifition into trelpaffes committed
in the king's forefts. Hence it may reafonably be inferred,
that coal was not only known and wrought before this time,
but aftually formed a part of the imports of London.
Sea-coal lane, in this city, was certainly fo named as early
as the year 1253, and according to Stow, received this
appellation from hme being burnt there with fea-coal.

The dole of the thirteenth centuiy appears to have been
a remarkable era in the commercial hiilory of London. In
1296, the company of merchant-adventurers was iir.1 incoi'-
porated by Edward I. The Hanfards, or Hanfe mer-
chants, alfo received confiderable privileges about the fame
tim.e. In the year 1498, when all diredt commerce with the
Netherlands was fufpended, this body obtained very great
advantages over the merchant adventurers by importation of
va It quantities of thofe articles, through the medium of the
Hanfe towns, which before had come dirertly from the Ne-
therlands, where the trade of the latter company had been
chiefly eftabhfhed. In confequence of thefe circumftances,
the warchoufes of the merchants were attacked and rifled by
the mob ; but the offenders were foon fupprefled, and many
of them punifhed.

In the year 1504, all the ancient privileges of the Hanfe,
or as they were likewife called, Steel-yard merchants, were

conilrmed to them by ftatutc,andall the previous aAs whick

had been made in derogation of them were annulled. A

fimilar charter was alfo obtained by the Englifh merchants

" trading in woollen cloths of all kinds to tht Netherlands,"

in which they are for the firft tim.e ftyled the " Fellowfliip

of merchant-adventurers of England." This act ftriftly

prol'.ibitcd the Steel-yard aflociation from interfering with

their trade, by carrying cloths to any of their fettlements in

the Low Countries. Notwithllandmg thefe unfavourable

ciaufcs, however, the Hanfe-mcrchants feem to ha-e engrofled

the chief trade of the city. Grievous accufations were con-

fequently made againft them, for their proceedings were con-

fidercd as tending to ruin the commerce of ihe native

Englifh. The city of London at length inftituted an aAion,

in the Star-chamber, againft them, the objedt of which was

to deprive them of their privileges as a body. Accordingly,

in the year 1597, a decree was obtained, annulling their

aflociation, and ordering them, under fevere penalties, to quit

the kingdom. See Han.se Tbron/.

But to return : it maj-^be pjroper to remark, that during
the contentions between the houfes of York and Lancafter,
the commerce of London was very conliderably retarded.
In the reign of Henry VII. it again began to make rapid
progrefs. Still, however, if credit is to be given to Wheel*
er's " Treatife on Commerce," publiflied in 1601, the trade
of this city mufl: have been very low indeed, even as late a»
the year 1539; for that author exprefsly avers, that fixty
years before he wrote, there were not above four merchant
yeflels exceeding 1 20 tons burthen in the river Thames.
Nor would it appear that they had increafed much in the next
reign, if we are to believe the report of a London merchant,
who, in a letter to fir William Cecil fays, that there is not a
city in Europe " having the occupying that London bath,
fo flenderly provided with (hips."

Notwithllanding thefe complaints, however, it is undoubt-
edly a faft, that a fpuit of enterprife was very general among
the merchants about this period. For, in 1553, we find a
great geographical and mercantile difcovery made by a com-
pany, conlllling of p^o fliareholders, inftituted for the pur-
pofe of profecuting difcoveries under the direction of Se-
baftian Cabot, a merchant of Briftol. (See C.^Bor, Sebas-
tian'.) This aflociation having fitted out three ftiips, one of
them accidentally fell into the bay of St. Nicholas, in the
White feas, and landing at Archangel, obtained from the
czar of Ruflia peculiar privileges of trade with the fubjeft*
of his dominions. Within a few years after, the London
merchants had alfo faftors fettled at the Canaries. The
Rulfia or Mufcovy merchants were incorporated in the rtign
of Philip and Mary, and had their charter fubfequently con-
firmed by Elizabeth, in her eighth year. This princefs,
likevvife, obtained an exclufive grant to the Englifh of the
whole foreign commerce of that extenfive empire, which
they coHtinujd to enjoy for a confiderable period. About
this time the civil diflfentions in Flanders began, upon which
a valt number of families from the Netherlands flocked to
London, and brought over with them their trade and riches.
This great addition to the population of the city, and the
confequent increafe of its commerce toon after, led to the
erection of the Royal Exchange, by the celebrated fir Tho-
mas Grefham, in the years 1566 and 1567. (See Royai,
Exrhange.) Previous to this the merchants wereaccuftomed
to meet twice every day in Lombard-ftreet, without any
other ref ige from the feverities of the weather but.what the
neighbouring fhops might ociafionally afford. In J 5 79,
the Levant, or Turkey Company, was eilablifhed, as wai
alfo the Eaftland Company ; both of which ftill exifl, but
the former only retains any degree of importance. On the
Rr 1 jsft

LONDON.

^ ift of December, 1600, the qncen granted the firll patent though never abolifhed by any direft ftatute, men, rf jrardld*
to the Eaft India Company. Their llock then amounted to of the prerogative whence they were derived, gradually in-
vaded tlie privileges they conferred, and commerce was
increafed by the mcreafe of liberty.

The augmented commerce of the port of London, in this'
reign, may in fome meafure be eltimated by the quota of
fhip-moncy, which Charles I. impofcd on the city m 1C34.
By one writ, the citizens were ordered to fit out and equip.

72,000/. and with this lum the company was enabled to fit
o'.!t four fhips under the command of James Lancafter.
The adventure proving fuccefsful, the company continued
its exertions, and hence has ariftn the mod fplendid and
powerful mercantile affociation that probably ever exilled
in the world. (See Co^rPANY, Enjl India.) Affurance
and infurance companies were now eftabliflied in London.

at their own charge, for 26 weeks, one fliip of c)co tons

An ait was pafled in 1601 for regulating the bufincfs of and 93c men, one of 800 tons and 260 men, fovir of 500

affurance, and a Handing commifTion of merchants appointed
\a meet weekly " at the ofiice of infurance on the weft
fide cf the Royal Exchange." (See In.sIjR.-yncr Companies)
The company of Spanifli merchants were likewil'e among
the number of thofe incorporated by Elizabeth, fo that the
reign of that princefs may be jullly faid to form a grand
era in the commercial hitlory of this metropolis.

tons each and 200 men, and one of 300 tons and ijo men.
Next year they were commanded to provide tuo (hips of
800 tons and 3 20 men each. About this time, or at leait very
fhortly before, prices-current were lirft printed. In 1635',
an order was iflued by the king in council to the " pott-
mafter of England for foreign parts," requiring him to
open a regular communication, by running poll between the

In the reign of James I. the progrefs of the foreign trade metropolis and Edinburgh, Ireland, and a variety of other
was rapidly increafed. Tobacco, whioli had tirll been in- places.

troduced in 1 565, now became a confiderable article wf
import. (Sec Tobacco.) The tonnage and number of
the (liipping in the port of London were greatly-augmented
about this time. Many of the patents granted by Elizabeth
were annulled, and the trade thrown open. Howe, fpeak-
ing of the foreign commerce of this city in the year 1 614,
fays, " London, at this day, is one of the beft governed,
moft richell, and flouriftiing cities in Europe ; plenteoufly
abounding in free trade and commerce with all nations ;

Previous to the year 1640, it was ufunl for the merchants
to depofit their cafh in the Tower mint ; but this depofit
now loft all its credit by tlie ill-advifed meafure of a forced
loan, whicli the king thought proper to make. The mer-
chants, in confequence, found themfclves obliged to trull
their money to their apprentices and clerks. The circum-
ftances of the times and opportunity holding forth great in-
ducements to frauds, many matters loft at once both their
fervanls and their money. Some remedy became neceflary ;

richly ftored with gold, filver, pearl, fpice, pepper, and and the merchants now began to lodge cafti in the hands of

many nx\iet: Jlraiv^e commodities from both Indies; oyles the goldfmiths, whom they alfo commiffioned to receive and

from Candy, Cyprus, and other places under the Turk's to pay for them. Thus originated the pradtice of banking :

dominion ; ftrong wines, fweet fruits, fugar, and fpice, from for tlie goldfmiths, foon perceiving the advantages that

Grecia, Venice, Spaync, Barbaria, the iflands and other might be derived from difpofable capital, began to allow a

places lately difcovered and known; drugs from Egypt, regular intereft for all fums committed to their care ; and, at

the fame time, they commenced the difcounting of mer-
chants' bills at a yet fnpcrior interoft than what they paid.
(See B.iNK and Bakking.) In 1651 the celebrated navi-
gation a£l was pafted, the wife provifions of which have no
doubt contributed much to promote our naval and com-
mercial greatnefs. This fame year, coffee was introduced
into London by a Turkey merchant named Edwards. (See
Coffee.) The fugar trade was now likewife eftabhflied ;
and upuards cf 20,oco cloths were lent annually to Turkey,
in return for the commodities ef that country.

The plague, which made fuch dreadful havoc among the
citizens in t66), almoft wholly fufpended the commerce of
London ; infomuch that fcarcely a lir.gle foreign veffel en-
Howe's edition of Stow's Annals of tered the port for the fpace of three years. The great fire,,,

which happened in 1666, likewife occafioned incalculable
lofs to numbers of the moll opulent merchants in the city.
Notwithllanding thefe difaftrous events, however, the fpirit
of the furvivors, fo far from linking, was roufed to un-
common exertions. In the courfe of a few years,, the city
rofe from its allies with greater magnifkence and fplendcur..
India muflins were firll worn in 1670, and foon became pre-
valent. In this year alfo was the Hudfon's Bay Company

Arabia, India, and divers other places ; filks from Pcrfia,
Spayne, China, Italy, &c. ; fine linen from Germany, Flan-
ders, Holland, Artois, and Hanault ; wax, flax, pitch,
tarre, maftes, cables, and honey, from Denmark, Poland,
Swethland, RuHia, and other northern countries ; and the
fuperfluity in abundance of French and Rhenifli wines, the
immeafurable and incomparable increafe of all which coming
into this city, and the encreafe of houfes and inhabitants
within the terme amd compafie of fifty years, is fuch and fo
great, as were there not now two-thirds of the people yet
living, having been eye-witneftes of the premifes and bookes
jof the cuftom-hisufe, which remain extant, the truth and
difference of all things afore-mentioned were not to be jufti-
fied and believed,
England, p. 86S

Among ihe circum.ftances which occafioned the vail in-
creafe of trade during this reign, may be reckoned the
colonization of America and the Weft India iflands. The
new difcoveries, likewife, which were every day made in
different quarters of the world, no doubt had a powerful
effect in ftimulating /lumbers of fpeculating perfons to com-
mercial exertion and adventure,

During the peaceful years of Charles I. the commerce of eltabliftied, with very extenfive powers.. The Greenland

this metropolis ftill contirued to make rapid progrels ; and Filhing Company was incorporated in the year 1693; and

though the civil wars, for a time, had a very contrary opera- the inllitution of the Bank of England rendered tlie fuc-

tion, yet in the end they certainly proved beneficial. The ceedhig one ju.ftly memorable in the commercial annals of

energies, of the mind wei'e more awakened ; the habits of London. See Company.

thinking and modes of aftion, which then became jjencral. The commerce to the Eaft Indies having become vailly

taught man to feel his dignity as an individual ; the different enlarged, and many djfputes arifing relative to exclufive

ranks of fociety were more clofely drawn together; the ex- trade, a new joint llock company was incorporated in Lon-

frtions of induftry were better direftcd ; and the m.cans of don, in the year 169S, by the n-ime of "The Enghlh

acquiring wealth greatly augmented. The injurious ten- Company trading to the Eall Indies." The exiftence of

4eBcy of mgnopolics \ias tminently cotmteraftid j for, t.wo rival comjjaiues having the fame privileges, however,

fvoa

LONDON.

foon g'ave birtfi to numerous aTifurditics and eontradiftory
tji'.eliio-is of rii;h\ Thefe circuiv.ftances, and fome others
which !t is unnecofTary to detail in this place, eventually pro-
duced the confolidation of both into one, in tlie firll and
fevL-nth years nf qneen Anne, hy the title of " The United
Company of Merchants trading to the Eaft Indies." vSee
Companies, £n^li/h, the Enjl India, vol. ix. for a full
account cf this efta!)lifhmcnt.

The number of vcflels bi'longing to the port of London,
as appears from returns made to circular letters from the
commiffioner^ of the cuftoms, amounted, in 1701, to 560;
carrying 84,882 tons and 10,065' men. In 1710 the cuf-
toms of this city are dated at 1,268,095;/., ^"'^ thofe of all
the out-ports only at 346,081/., which is more than three
and a half to one. The following year beheld the incor-
poration of the South Sea Company, afterwards io baneful
in its efil'fts to numerous individuals, and fo generally hurt-
ful to the commercial enterprife of the country at large.
The Royal Exchange AfTurance and the London AfTurance
Companies were chartered about the fame time.

JDaring the reign of George I. the trade of London made
■very little, if any, progrefs. The failure of the Sjuth Sea
fcheme, the rebellion in Scotland, and the Spanifh war,
were the combined caufes which operated to produce its re-
tardation. In the year 1732, however, commerce began
again to revive ; but its advances continued comparatively
flow, till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, after
which it extended with uncomm.on rapidity. The next
conllderable check it fuftained was the refult of the .Aime-
rican war. No fooner, however, was oeace iigned than it
proceeded with renewed vigour. The grievous conlcquences
which many perfons apprehended to our trade, from the
declaration of the independance of the United States, were
only imaginary. For, even fo foon after that event as the
year 1784, the value of exports to America only had iu-
creaied to 3,397,500/., fomewhat m.ore than 332,000/.
above the grealeil amount in any one year before the war.
The net ium of duties levied in the port of London, and
paid into the exchequer this year, arofe to the vaft fum of
4,472,091/. 1 3 J. 3(/. From this period to 1703, when the
French revolution began, the commerce of London con-
tinued unifonnly increaiing. In tliat year, however, the
value of exports was upwards of two millions lefs than
in the preceding year ; though the imports fcarcely fuf-
fered any diminution. Numerous bankruptcies confequentlv
took place ; but the timely interference ct the legiflature, and
the voting of exchequer bills to the amount of 5,000,000/.
for the life of fuch perfoas us could give fufficient fecurity,
foon checked th.e growing diftrefs.

In tlie courie of the three iucceeding years, the appear-
ance of thrigs was entirely altered. In 1796 the exports
of London amounted in value to 18,410,499/. 17^. 9^.,
and the imports to 14,719,466/. 15J. qd. The number of
Britifli (liips that entered the port amounted to 2007, car-
rying 436,843 tons;, and 2169 foreign vefTels, carrying
287,142 tons. The total entering coaftwife was 11,176,
including repeated voyages, which made a tonnage of
1,059,915. The following year, fome alarm was Ipread
among the merchants by the ftoppnge of the bank payments
in fpecie ; but, through the intervention of parliament, con-
fidence was foon rellored. The net amount of tlie cuftoms
was 3.950,608/. In 1798 the importations of fngars and
rum far exceeded thofe of any preceding vear, as did like-
wife the revenue of the cuftoms, which amounted to the
fum of 5,321,187/. 7^. id. In 1759 it had increafed to
7,226,353/. 0.r. id., Well India j^i; per cent . duty included ;
but ne.\t year fell to 6,468,655/". i^s. 7,;.'. The ejji:id

value of the imports, in iSoo, was 18,843,172/. if. roif-j.
and of the exports, 25,428 922/. 16/. 'jd. Their r^'a/ value
amounted in all to 68,000,000/., nearly two-thirds of the
value of the whole trade of the kingdom. The number of
velfel.'! belonging to the port in that year appeared, from
official documents laid before parliament, to be 2666, car-
rying 568,262 tons, and 41,402 men. Comjiaring this
number with the number returned in the beginning of the
lail century, the increafe will be feen to be aftonifhing. Oa
the q\rantity of tonnage, it is nearly in the proportion of fix
to one; and on the amount of men and (hips, as upwards
of four to one. The Eatl India Company's (hips alone
carry more burthen, by 21,166 tons, than all the veffcls of
London did a hundred years ago. The average number of
(hips in the Thames and docks is lioo, together with 30CO
barges employed in lading and unlading them, 2288 (mail
craft engaged in the inland trade, and 3000 wherries for
the acco[nmodation of palfengcrs ; i 2,000 revenue officers
are conllantly on duty in different parts of the river ; 40CO
labourers-arc employed in lading and unlading, and 8000 wa.-

termen navio-ate the wherries and craft. See Docks and'
o

C0MP.\S-IES.

The Port of London, as adually occupied by (hipping,
extends from London bridge to Dsptford, being a dillance
of nearly four miles, and from four to five hundred yards in
average breadth. It may be defcribed as confilli.ng of four
divifions, called the, Upper, Middle, and Lower Poob, and
the fpace between Limehoufe and Deptford : the Upper
Pool extends from London bridge to Union Hole, about
1600 yards; the Middle Pool, from thence to Wapping
New Stairs, 700 yards ; the Lov.-er Pool from the latter
place to Horfc-ferry Tier, near Limehoufe, 1800 yards j
and the fpace below to Deptford about 2700 yards. When
the houfe of commons commenced an invelligation refpeft-
ing the port of London, the land accommodations were found
to confiil of only the legal quays and the fufferance wharfs.
The former were appointed in the year 1558, under a com-
miffion from the court of exchequer, autho"rized by an aft
of the firll year of Elizabeth, for the exclufive land-
ing of goods, fubjedt to duty : they occupy the north bank
of the river Thames, with fome interruptions, from London^
bridge to the wellem extremity of Tower ditch ; the whole
frontage mcafuring about 1464 feet. Till of lare years
thefe quays conllitutcd the whole legal accommodation for
the prodigious fiiipping trade of London ; tliough i'rom the
increaied ilze and tonnage of merchant velTels, &c.the depth
of the river in this part was found too (hallow to admit cf
that fpcedy clearance which the trading and mercantile inte-
reils require. The comminioners of the culloms, therefore,
occafionally permitted the ufe of other landing places, which
were thence called Sufferance wharfs, and of which five were
(ituatcd on the north fide of the river, between the Tower
and Hermitage Dock, and eighteen oit the oppoiite fide : :
the whole having a frontage of 3676 feet.. Notwithiland-
ing thefe additional conveniences, the whole number of quays
v^fas ilill very far from pofleillng futBcient accommodation:
for the increafed trade; and more cfpccially in times^f war,,
when large .leeti of merchantmen arrive at once. The nu-
merous evds arising from this want of a fufficient fpace for
(hipping and landing goods, and among which, the mono-
poly throv.n into the "hands of the few legal quays was not.
the lead, ware for many years fubjecls of vexation and com-
plaint. So long ago as 1674, the merchants of London,
petitioned the houfe of- comn-.ons for rcdrels agaiufta com--
bination, which the whole body of wharfingers had entered'
into; and in the year 171:, when tlte tonnage of the
•r«fftU bcloBj^iig to I..ondon did, not amount, to one-third";

LONDON.

part of what it does now, the commiflioners of the cuftoms MunufaSuirs of London. — London has long been cele-

recommendcd to government to make a legal quay at Bridge brated fur its mancifaihires as well as for its commerce. In

yard, on the fouth fide of the river; but it was never exe- the year 1327 the Skinners were a very numerous and rich

cutcd. About the year 1763, the court of exchequer di- ciafs of citizens, manufacturing " fables, lueerns, and other

refted a part of the Tower wharf to be converted into a rich furs." Cloth-workers of different kinds were alfo

legal quay; but this plan was rehnquiHied. The conftruc- nottfl for the excellence of their goods.' in ISJ*) a manu-

tion of Wet docks had been recommended as the bell faftory for the finer fort of glaffes was eftablidicd in CrutcheJ

expedient for obviating the vaft lofs and embarraffment Friars, and flint glafs, not exceeded by that of Venice,

arifing from the encujnbered ftate of the quays and wharfs, was at the fame time made at the Savoy. About five'

and from the imuienfe crowding of the vefTels on the river ; years fubfeqnent the manufaiSure of knit llockings was in-

and through the various fchemes which were about this time trodnced by one William Rider, an apprentice in London,

cffeVed for the purpofe, kc. the lioufe of commons was in- wlio happening to fee a pair from Mantua at the houfe of

duced to appoint a committee ; the bufmefs of which has an Italian, made another exaflly fimilar to them, which lie

been to mquire into the beft mode of improving the port, prefcnted to William car! of Pembroke. (See Hose and

and render it completely adequate to the prefent and proba- Stockincjs.) A manufafturc of knives was lliortly after

ble commirce of London. The n-oft (kilful engineers and begun by Tliomas Matthews of Fleet-ftrtet, and this has

furveyors have been employed ; whofe reports, plans, &c.
with the opinions and ftatoments of various merchants and
other perfons, have been printed by orde^ of the houfe of
commons. Thefe reports conftitute feveral volumes in
folio; and are peculia.ly interelling and curious. Sir Fre-

ever iince been a flourifliing trade. Silk llockings were
firll made in England in the reign of queen EUzabeth. In
the fourth year of that princels, " John Rofe, dwelling iu
Bridewell, duviled and made an inllrument witii wyer llringes,
called the Bandora, and he left a foii far excelling him in

deric Eden piibllflied a pamphlet on the fame fubjed, en- making bandoras, viol de gamboles, and other inltruments."

titled " Porto-Bello, or a plan for the improvement of the Coaches were introduced in 1564, and in kfs than 20 years

port and city of London ; illullrated by plates,'' Svo. became an article of great manufatture. The following

179S. For a particular account of the various branches of year the manutaCl'ire of pins was ellabli (lied, and fliortly after

commerce, commercial companies, and other objedls con- that of needles. The making of " earthen furnaces, earthen

ne<Eled with the fame, the reader is referred to the words

Docks, Companies, East India Zraat, Wiest IndiaZ'^^^.

Cujlom Houfe. — On the north bank of the Thames, well

of the Tower, is a large building, appropriated to fuch

fire-pots, and earthen ovens, tranfportable," began about
the tenth year of Elizabeth, one Richard Dyer, an Enghlli-
man, having brought the art from Spain. Women's matks,
buHcs, mufis, fans, bodkins, and periwigs were introduced

officers, clerks, tide-waiters, &c. as are immediately con- and made in London ihorlly after the maflacre at Paris in

cerned in received the king's duties on the exports and iin- the year 1572, and in 1577 pocket watches were brought

ports of commerce. The prefent building was ereAed in from Nuremberg in Germany, and the manufadliire of them

1718, on the fcite of another which had been dellroyed by aln.oll immediately commenced. In the reigil of Charles I.

fire. It is 260 feet in front; and when ereCled was deemed fallpetre was made in iuch quantity, as not only to fupply

amply fufficient for its dcllination. It has proved, however, all England, but the greater part of the contincrrt. The

very inadequate to the increafed cuftoms and bufmefs of the manufactures of filk had hkewife become extremely pre-

port ; and to the vail commerce of London. After various valont, as well as the manufadure of various filver articles.

furvevs and reports made on the fubjeft, it has been recently
determined by the commifiioners of the culloms, that a new
-cuftom-houfe (hall be creAed, upon fuch a fcale, and
provided with fuch numerous and various accommodations,
as to meet the exigencies and demands of government. Mr.
David Laing, architect to the cufloms, having furnifhed de-

Theprintiiigof calicoes commenced here in 1676, and about
the fame time the weavers' loom was introduced from Hol-
land. The revocation of the edidt of Nantes in 1 68 j, having
driven many indullrious Frenchmen from their native land,
a confiderable number came over to England and fettled in
Spitalfields. Bv them fevei-al of our mauufaftures, but

figns for a new edifice, and the fame being approved, it is particularly that of lilk, were greatly improved, and many-
intended to proceed with the building immediately. The others introduced. Since then the productions of London
fcite is from the wellern fide of the prefent edifice to Bil- have greatly increafed both in extent and value. They
lingfgate quay ; and its whole extent will conflitute a range now confiil chiefly of fine goods, and articles of elegant ufe,
of 480 by 96 feet. In the centre is to be the long room, brought to the grealeft perfetlion, fuch as cutlery, jewellery,
of 190 feet by 67. The whole building will accommodate articles of gold and filver, japan ware, cut glals, books, ca-
6jo officers and clerks, the number employed here; alfo lojo binet work, and gentlemen's carnages; together with fuch
tide-waiters, and other inferior fervants. The lower floor is to particular articles as require a metropolis, or a port, or great
confi ft of bondage vaults, over vvliich are to be numerous mart for their confumplion, export, or fale ; viz. porter,
apartments for officers and offices ; and above thefe are to be EngHlli wines, vinegar, refined lugar, foap, &c. The filk
feveral others, with the long room already noticed. The manufaftories of Spitalfields, Shoreditch, and Bethnal-green
water front is. to be of llone,'with Ionic columns at each wing, parilhes, alone employ upwards of 7000 perlons. In Cierken-
and the centre will be crowned with a large dome over the weil a like number are engaged in the different branches of
long room, with (Icy-hghts and ventilators. It is but jultice watch-making. Coach builders and liarnels makers arc very
to fay that the deiigns are creditable to the tafte and fcience numerous, and have brought their relpeclive works to a
of the architect. The quay in front of the building is to higher degree of perfection and elegance than any in
be enlarged by filling up a part of the river. A r.ew wall the world. Intimately connefted with this lubject is the
and quay are to be formed from the Tower to Billinglgate Trade of London, which is vail, various, and of extenfive
wharf, and numerous improvements will be made in the con- effect. It may be divided intothe wholefale and retail bufinefs;
tiguous llreets and lanes. The river, at this place, is about for thefe are dilrerent, and under different fyllems of managc-
20 feet deep at high water mark. The builnefs of the ment. The great number and vanety of fhops that are
cufloms is managed by nine commiffioners, whole Jurifdic- difperfed over the metrupohs, the diverfity, nchnefs, and
tion extends over all the ports of England. multitude of articles difplayed for falcj and the^reat coii-

courfe

LONDON.

eburfc of perfons immediately and collaterally dependent on, this profit, the retailers add water to the milk, to the ex-
and intimately connefted with the fame, are calculated to tent, on an average, of a fixth part. Though the cow-
excite the allonifhment of foreigners, and of pcrfons who keepers do not themfelves adulterate the milk, (it beinjr the
have not made inquiries into the fubjeft. The wholcfale cui^om for the retailer to contraft for the milk of a certain
trade is moilly carried on in the city, and in the vicinity of number of cows, to be milked by his own people,) yet they
the river, where large warehoufe* and counting-houfcs are are not wholly to be acquitted of the guilt ; for in many of
ellablifhed. The retail trade is difperfed through all the the miik-rooms where the milk is meafured to the retailer,
public ftreets ; where fpacious and handfome Hiops are pumps are eredted for the cxprefs purpofe of furnifliine
opened for the difplay of all the necciraries, as well as all vvater for he adulteration, which is openly perfurmed in the
the luxuries of life. The (hop-keepers of London are prelence of any pcrfon who happens to be on the fpot.
mollly ail aftive, ind'iftrious. and refpeflable clafsof fociety : See Milk. ' ,
many of them are wealthy, and frequently retire from bufi-
nefsin advanced age, with competence, or fortunes. Among
the moll modern (hop ellnbli(hments up n a large fcale,
are thole appropriated to bocks and prints. Withiii the
laft 50 years, thefe have been prodigioufly increafed : and it

Vegetables and Fruit. — There are at lead 10,000 acres of
ground near the metropolis, cultivated wholly for vege-
tables, and about 3000 acres for fruit. The fum paid at
market annually is about 645,000/. for vegetables, and about
400;00o/. for fruit ; independently of the advance of the
would greatly allonilli Addifon, Johnfon, or fir J,*(hua Rey- retailers, which, on an average, is more than 200/. per cent..

nolds, could they revilit London in iSiz, and cake a re
of the change that has been produced ilnce the lime they lived,
in the quantity and quahty of lit'^rary produftions, and in
works of art. The regular, continued and perpetual inter-
courfe that fubfifts between London and all parts of the
kingdom, by coaches, waggons, barges, &c. conftitutes
another and ftrongly marked feature.

Proi'if.oTis, l^c. ujed in London. — An immenfe population

making the entire coft for the London fupply upwards of
3,000,00c/.

Wheat, coah, l^c. — The annual confumption of wheat
in London is, at leall, 900,000 quarters, each containing
eight Wincheller bulhels ; of coals 8co,ooo chaldron, 36
burtiels, or a ton and half to each chaldron ; of ale and
porter 2,000,000 barrels, of 36 gallons each j fpirituous
liquors and compounds 11,146,782 gallons; wine 6j,oco

will require a large and fy Hematic fupplv of pro villous ; and pipes; butter about 2i,2 65,GOo!bs. ; and clieefe, 25,50 -,000

in this refpeft, no city in the world can be better accoramo- The quantity of purter brewed from July 5, 1809, to July C,

dated; laws, cullom, and open competition are all conducive 18 o, by two of the principal brewers, was, Ijy Barclay,

to public advantage. Perknis, and Co. 235,053 bairels, and by Meux, Reid, and

Animal Food. -The number of oxen annually confumed Co. 211,009. (See Porter.) The quantity of tidi confumed

in London is eftimated at 110,000; of (heep, 770,000 ; of in the metropolisis comparativelyfmall,onaccount of the high

lambs, 250,000 ; of calves, 250,oro ; of hogs and pigs, price wliich it generally bears ; and this appears to be the

Oxen.

Sheep.

1750

to i75,S

75.3 J I

623,301

I7"9

— 1767

8^4.32

615,323

176!

— 1776 -

8<y,363

627,80^

1777

— 1785

99,285

687,588

1786

— '794

108,075

707,456

200,000 ; befidcs animals of other kinds. In fpeakiiig of
the confumption of animal food in London, it is not fuffi-
ciertt to noiice merely the number of aiiimals brought to
market ; for their fize and fine condition (hould alfo be con-
fidered in forming a proper criterion. The mcreafed con-
fumption of the metropolis, from lis accumulating population,
may be eftimated from the following average of the number
fold annually in Sniithfield.

From

It is not only in number but in weight that there has been
an aftonilhing increafe ; this has arifen from the improvements
in breeding that have taken place in the courfe of the lall
century. About the year 1 700, the average weight of an
,ox, killed for the London market, was 37olbs. ; of a ca!f,
jolbs. ; of a (heep, 281bs. ; of a lamb, i81bs ; whereas the
average weight at prelent is, of oxen, Soolbs. each ; of
calves, T4olbs. each; of (heep, 8olbs. each; and of lambs,
5olbs. each. The total value of butchers' meat fold in
Sniithfield is calculaced to amouut to 7,000,000/. per an-
num.

Milh. — The quantity of this article confumed in Lon-
don furprizes foreigners ; and yet few perfons have even a
fufpicion of the ar.iount, which is not lefs than 6,980.000
gallons annually. The number of cows kept for this fup-
ply is faid to be 8500 ; the fum paid by the retailers of
itiiik to the cow-keepers is !laied at 317,400/. annually, on
which LJie retailers lay an advance of cent, per cent., making
the coll to the inhabitants 634,000/. Not content with

moll ftriking defeft in the fupply of the capital, when it is
confidered that the rivers of the kingdom, and the feas
which lurround it, mull afford luch an amazing quantity.
There are,' on an average, annually brought to Billingfgate
market 2500 cargoes of fifh, of 40 tons each, and about
20,000 tons by land-carriage, in the whole 1 20,000 tons.
The fupply of poultry being inadequate to a general con-
fumptioi., and the price confequently exorbitant, this article
is confi.ied to the tables of the wealthy, and the annual
value does not exceed 60,000/. Game is not publicly fold,
yet a confiderable quantity, by prefents, and even by clan-
deftine fale, is contumed by the middling clalfes. Venifon
is fold, chiefly by pailry-ceoks, at a moderate rate ; but
the chief confumption, which is confiderable, is amongll the
proprietors of deer parks.

Markets, isfe. — London contains 15 flelh markets, one for
live cattle, (heep, horfes, &c. am' 25 for corn, coals, hay,
vegetables. Sic. Of thefe the principal are, at Sniithfield,
for bullocks, (lieep, horfes, fwine, hay, Itraw, occ ; Leaden-
hall, for butchers' meat, wool, hides, &c. ; Billuigl'irate,
for fidi ; Covent garden and Fleet, for fruit and vege-
tables ; Newgate, Newport, Carnaby, and Clare markets,
for butchers' meat, &c. ; the corn market in Mark-iaiie : in
Thames llreet is a coal exchange. London has only one
annual fair, which is held in Smithfield, and continues for
three days. It is mollly devoted to object.-; of amufement,
fuch as (hows, exhibitions of beads, birds, (lights of hand,
and the very lowed fpecies of diverlion. Hence it is modly
frequented by the lowed and mod depraved clalTes of fociety.
It is become more a place of riot and debauchery, than of
public utility.

From what has been dated refpecling the provifions an-
nually confumed in London, we are naturnlly led to inquire
into its population ; an accurate knowledge of which forms
I a founda-

LONDON.

a fonmlation for nmcli curious fpeciilution. In the follow-
ing table \vu are enabled to give tho total nmnber of pcrfons
at four different periods ; but it luay be uecedary to pre-
iriife, that the kll is prefuiued to be the moll correct cenfus
ever taken in London.

Populiilton. — London is Icfs populous, for its extent, than
many other great cities. The llrccts are wider, and the in-
habitants of every clat's, below the highcft rank, enjoy more
room for themfclves and families than is ulual for the fame
chlfes in foreign ceuiitrtcs. Hence a given number of peo-
ple is fpread over a larger fpace in Loudon thuH in foreign

cities. From the report on the populatum of Great
Britain, publilUed on the authority of an adt paired43 G. III.
London, inohidinif t!:e fuburbs, appears to contain 837,906
fettled inhabitants ; but the great nuniber of foldiers, ma-
riners, provincial vifitors, colonills, and foreigners, who are
coullantly in London, for purpofes of pleafure and bnfinefs,
and the new inhabitants of 10,000 houfes built within the
lall fevcn ycai-s, cxteixls the total population to more than a
million. As the increafe or diminution of the population
claims a dillindl notice, the following table will {hew its five
divifions, at four different periods.

1. City of Loudon, wi'hin the walls - , -

2. City of London, without the walls, inclnding the Inns of Court -

3. City and Liberties of Weftminller . . . -

4. Out-parilhes within the Bills of Mortality - - . -

5. Pai-i(lies not within the Bills - - . . -

Total pop-jlation of the Metropolis

In 1700.

1750.

1801.

1811.

U9'3oo

169,000

130,000

226,900

9,150

87,000
156,000
152,000
258,900

22,350

78,000
155,000
165,000
379,000

I.->3,OOG

8o,oco
168,000
1 80,000
460,000
135,000

674,350

675,250

90Oj000

1,023,000

Covenmentof Lohdon. — In tracing the outline of the pre-
fent government of this metropolis, it will be proper to divide
it into three principal parts 4 v/3. the city of London, with
its dependencies ; the ci'y and liberties of \Vellmii.fter ;
and the fnbuvbs connefted with the two, but out of the
jurifdiftion of both the cities.

The civil government of the city of London is Teftcd, by
charters and grants from the kings of England, in its own
corporation cr body of citizens. The city is divided into
26 principal dillritls, called wards ; and the corporation con-
fills of, I, the lord mayor; 2, the aldermen; and 3, the
common council. The lord mayor is chofcn annually in the
foll'jwing manner,' on the 29th of September, the livery, in
Guildhall or common afiembly, choofe two aldermen, who
are prefented to the court of lord mayor and aldermen, by
whom one of the aklermrn fo chofen, (gentrally the fenior,)
is declared lord mayor eleft ; and on the 9th of November
he enters on his office. Tlie aldermen are chofen for life by
the free houf.iolders of the feveral wards, one for each ward ;
except Brida;e-ward without, where the elcftion is by the
court of aldermen from among thofe who have pafTed the
chair, commonly tl>c fenior : he is llyled father of the city.
The common council are chofen annu;illy by the fi-ee
honfliolders in their feveral wards, the number for each ward
being regulated by ancient cuftom ; the body corporate
having a power to extend tlie number. The common
council are the r<;prefentatives of the commons, and com-
pofeoneof the parts of the city legiflature, which nearly re-
lembles thai -©I the kingdom; for as the latter con h lis of king,
lords, and ccwniijon.s fo this is compofed of lord mayor,
aldermen, and common councilmen ; the principa' diflerence
is, that in the three e'lates of the kingdom each enjoys a
feoarate negative, while in the city this right is denied
to the lord mayor, and confined to the aldermen and
common council. Before the year 1347, there were
only two common-councilmen ret'.:rued for each ward,
which, being thought inlulBcient to reprefent fuch a nume-
rous body, it was at that time fettled that each ward fliould
choole a number, not more than twelve, or lefs than fix,
according to its dimtnfions ; which has lince been increafed
to the profent number. The 26 wards are fubdivided into
236 precindts, for each of which a reprefentative is eledted
in the fame manner us the aldermen ; with this difference,

that as the lord mayor prefides in the wardmote, and is
judge of the poll at the eleclion of an alderman, fo each
alderman, in his refped^ive ward, prefides at the eledfion of
common council men. The civil powers exercifed by the
corporation are very complete : the laws for the internal
government of the city are wholly framed by its own legif-
lature, called the court of common council, which confdls
of tl'.e lord mayor, aldermen, and reprefentatives of the
feveral wards, who affemble in Guildhall as often as the
lord mayor thinks proper to convene them. They annually
feledl fix aldermen and twelve commoners for letting the
city lands, and this coi.imittee generally meet at Guildhall
on Wednefdays. They alfo appoint another committee of
four aldermen and eight commoners for tranfadling the
affairs of Grelham-college, who ufnally meet at Mercer's-
hall, at the appointment of the lord mayor, who is always
one of the number. The court of common council alfo, by
virtue of a royal grant, annually choofe a governor, deputy,
and afhftants, for the management of the city lands in Ire-
land. This court alfo difpofe of the offices of town-clerk,
common ferjeant, judges of the fheriffs' -court, common
crier, coroner, bailiff of the borough of Southwark, and
city garblcr. The eledlion of the recorder is veiled in the
court of aldermen only. The lord mayor is the chief magif-
trate of the ci'y : and the aldermen arc the principal magif-
trates in their feveral wards. The lord mayor, the recorder,
the common ferjeant, and the aldermen, are judges of oyer
and terminer (that is, the king's judges to try capital of-
fences and mifdemeanors) for the city of London and county
of Middlefex ; and the aldermen are perpetual Jullices of
the peace for the city. The two fheriffs, (who are ftridlly
officers of the king, fcr many important purpofes of his
executive government,) are chofen annually by the livery
of London, not only lor the city, but fur the county of
Middlefex, the fame perfons being flicnffs fur London, and
jointly forn.ing One (hen ff for the county. (See Philips's
Letter on the Office of SheriflT, Svo. and Sheriff.) The
adminillration, in all its branches, within the jurifdiftion of
the corporation, in all cafes embracing the city and the
borough of Southwark, and in fome cafes extending beyond,
is exercifed by members of the corporation or its officers.
The borough of Southwark was formerly independent of
the city of Louden, and appears to have been governed by

4 a bailiff

LONDON.

abailiff till the reign of Edward III., who granted the govern-
ment of it for ever to the city. A part has been fince ii.cor-
porated witii the city, undc-r the appellation of Bridge Ward
Without, and has its ofS'-ers appointed by the court of
common-council , The livery is a numerous, rcfpeftable, and
important eleClive body ; in which is veiled the election of
the lord mayor, fiieriffs, chamberlain, members of parliament,
bridgt'-mafters., ale-conners, and auditors of the chamberlain's
accounts. The lord mayor, aldermen, common-coui.cd, and
liverv of London, form togetiier the nioft important popular
aflembly, the commons houfe of parliament excepted, in the
kingdom. On occafions of the greateft moment, their deci-
fions have infpired general fortitude ; and the whole legifla-
ture, when under evil influence, has been llruclc v>i h awe
by the remonftrance of the city, and prudently lillened to a
warning fo folemnly pronounced.

The military ijovernment of the city of London was con-
fiderably changed by an att of parliament pafTed in the year
1794; under which two regiments of militia are raifed in
the city, by ballot, amounting together to 2200 men. The
officers are appointed by the commiflioners of the king's
lieutenancy for the city of London ; and one regiment may,
in certain cafes, be placed by the king under any of his ge-
neral officers, and marched to any place not exceeding
twelve miles from the capital, or to the neareft encampment ;
the other, at all fuch times, to remain in the city. Regiments
of aflbciated volunteers are formed in the refpeftive wards
and parifhes, for the internal defence and peace of the metro-
polis. , A confiderable force is alfo maintained by the Bank,
India-houfe, Cuftom-lioufe, and other pubhc bodies, for
their more immediate fecurity. The Artillery company,
which is principally compofed of a voluntary enrolment of
the younger citizens, affords an additional force of about fix
hundred men. (See Artillery.) See alfo Highmore's
Hiilory of the Artillery Company, 8vo.

The civil government of the fuburbs is veiled in the
juftices of the peace for the county. The county-hall for
Middlefex is on Clerkenwell-green, where the quarter-fef-
fions are held ; and a great part of the civil government
is exercifed. In Bow-ftreet, Covent-garden, is an office of
police, under the direction of certain juftices of Middlefex,
who dedicate their time chiefly to that office, where are firll
examined the moil feriouscaies of mifdemeaiior. The other
public offices of police, where magiilrates fit daily, are —
the Manfion-houfe and Guildhall, within the city. In the
fuburbs — Bow-ftreet ; Queen-fquarc, Weftminfter ; Marl-
borough-it reet; Hatton-garden ; Wor(hip-ftreet ; Lambeth-
ftrect, Whitechapel ; High-ftreet, Shadwell ; and Union-
ilreet, Southwark : at Wapping New-ilairs is an office for
enquiry into offences connefted with the {hipping and port
of London.

The police of London is under the controul of the magif-
trates belonging to thefe offices ; who are appointed and
paid by the government. They are required to attend on
duty every day, and their province is to hear and determine
petty offences, and fubjects of difpute between individuals.
On many occafions they invelligate felonies, and the higher
clafles of crimes, and commit the offenders to the proper
prifons. Diffi?rent acts of parliament have been paffed on
this fubjeft, by which the duty and powers of the magiilrates
and lubordmate officers are particularly detined. The po-
lice of the city of London is regulated by acls paffed in 10
Geo. n. II, 14, 33, and 34 Geo. III.: of Wei^minfter
and its liberties, by adls of 27 Eliz., 16 Cha. I., 29
and 31 Geo. II. 2, 3, 5, 11, and 19 Geo. HI. : municipal
regulations are alfo cllabhfhed in the borough of Southwark,
by acts 28 Geo. II. and 6 and 14 Geo. III.

Vol. XXL

Under the foregoing afts, a nightly watch is appointed
for the prevention of robbcrie;, and the appreh"nfion of
offenders. To the city of London arc attached 765 watch,
men, and 38 patroles. The whole number of beadles,
patroles, and watchmen, who are every night on duty in and
around the metropolis, is eflimated at 2044. Watch-houfes
are placed at convenient diftances in all parts, where paro.
chial conilables attend in rotation to keep order, receive
offenders, and deliver them the next morning to tlie fitting
magiftrate. In the winter ieafon, the roads adjacent to
London are additionally guarded by horfc-patroles ; and
on extraordinary occafions, the officers of the police are
ordered OLt, or ki-pi in readinefs, to affill in the prefervation
of the public peace. The nightly watih is of peculiar uti-
lity in cafe of fire, as in every vvatch-houfe the names of
the turncocks, and the places where engines are kept, are to
be found. Befides parochial engines, many pubhc bodies
are provided with them, and the principal fire-offices have
engines ftationed in various diftricis, with aftive men and
horfes By means of the fire-plugs, water is immediately
fupplied, and the general fecunty is guai-anteed by every
effort of vigilance and aftiviiy.

yidi of Parliament rJaiive to London and Its Inhabitants.

The internal economv, government, police, and civil regu-
lations of London, are entitled to particular and commend-
able notice ; becaufe thefe have tended to attraft foreigners
to fettle here, and induced numerous families, both tradef-
men and perfons of fortune, to fix on this city as a defirable
place of permanent refidence. It will be found that many
legillative afts have been paded, and are in force, to fecure
the fafety and comfort, and adminifter to the luxuries of the
inhabitants of this metropolis. Befides numerous local
afts of parliament that apply to particular parifhes and
diftrifts, the following have been paiTed exprefsly for the
above purpofes. It is thoight advifable to fpecify thefe
afts, and point out fome of rhcir items ; becaufe many local
advantages and conveniences of London are to be referred
to thefe legiflative provifion?.

By 3 Hen. VIL c. 9, citizens and freemen of London
are authorifed to carry their wares to any fair or market
in the kingdom, in fpite of any bye-iaw to the contrary.
By 6 Geo. II. c. 22, the lord mayor and citizens were em-
powered to fill up part of Fleet Ditch, and the inheritance
of the ground was vefled in them. By 29 Geo. II. c. 40,
the lord mayor and common-council were empowered to
purchafe and remove buildings, to improve, widen, and
enlarge the paflage over and through London-bridge.

Buddings. — In the year 1764, a very important acl of
parliament was pafied, refpefting all buildings which are
hereafter to be erefted within London, Weftminfter, the
bills of mortaUty, and the parifhes of Mary-le-bone, Pad-
dington, Pancras, and Chelfea, whereby it is provided, that
they fhal' be divided into feven rates, of which the external
walls (hall be of a thicknefs proportionate to their rates or
fizes ; thefe of firll-rate buildings to be at the foundation
2 A bricks, or i foot 94 inches thick, and dccreafing up-
wards in a degree therein fpecified. Another adt, of a more
ample nature, was paffi;d in 1774, refpetling the buildings
of London and its vicinage. By this it is required, that
houfes contiguous to other buildings (hall have party-walls
between them, which walls and all chimnies and chimney-
(hafts (hall be of brick or ftone, or both together. (See
Chimney.) Party-walls fliall be 18 inches above the build-
ings adjoining, and thofe of firft-rale buildings fliall be at.
the foundation 3^ bricks, or 2 feet 6-^ inches in thickncff ,
decreafing upwards in a given proportion. No receiTes ( o
be made in party-wall* (except for chimnies, fires, girders,

S f ^.c.)

LONDON.

&:c.) fo as to reduce fuch wall under the tliicknefs required.
No timber to be in the party-walls (except bonds, templets,
and clinins, and the ends of girders, beams, &c.) and 87;
inches of folid brick-work to be between the ends and fides
of every piece of timber, except oppofite to other timbers,
and then no part of fuch timber to approach nearer than
four inches to the centre of the wa^l. Surveyors are to
give information of irregular bmldings, and the lord mayor
and jullices are to order tlie fame to be demolifhed or
amended, and JOj. penalty is chargeable on the workman.
Fire-engines and ladders to be kept in known places in every
parifli ; and parifli officers fliall place on the mains of water-
works, flop blocks, and fire cocks, and Ihall mark the
houfe near. In cafe of fire, tlic turncock whi)fe water
comes fird (liall be paid loj. Firll engine i/. 10., the
fecond i/. , the third ics. Where offieers pay rewards for
•iires in tli'mnies only, or beginning there, tlit-y are to be
reimburfed by the occupier. Servants vvlio through negli-
gence fet fire to any houfe, (hall forfeit 100/. or be com-
mitted to hard labour for iS months.

Butchers. — It is provided by an act of Hon. VII. c. ^,
that butchers {liall not kill bcalls within the walls of Lon-
don ; but this aft is either fuperfedtd or not put in force.

Cattle. — By 14 Geo. III. c. 87, and 21 Geo. III. c. 6".
any peace olTicer may arrell perfons who drive cattle
through the llreets of London in an improper or cruel man-
ner. The party, if conviftcd, fhall forfeit from ^s. to 20s.
or be committed for one month. Perfons not being drivers
of cattle, who (liall throw ttone.s or fet dogs at them, (hall
be fubject to the fame penalties.

Carts. — By l Geo. 1. flat. 2. c. 57, no carman, draym.an,
waggoner, or other perfon (hall, within the bills of morta-
lity, ride on a cart, dray, or waggon, not having feme per-
fon on foot to guide the fame, on forfeiture of ioj'. This
penalty is extended to within ten m.iles of London, by 24
Geo. II. c. 43, ■ .

Coals. — By 47 Geo. III. fed. 2. c, 68, the coal exchange
fhall J)e a free open market on Monday, Wednefday, and
Friday, from twelve o'clock till two, and coals are only to
be fold in market hours, under a penalty of 100/.

Hackney Coaches .-r^^\ie. commilTioners may licence 800
by ad 9 Anne, 200 more by 11 Geo. III., and 100 more
by 42 Geo. III. ; total i ico. The rates of fares are fixed,
and an office is appointed to determine on complaints,
which are alio cognizable by magiflrates.

Paving, njiiing, and clean/nig. — Several a<fts were palTed
in the reign of Hen. VIII. for paving parts of the metro-
polis. The eallern fuburbs were paved by aft 13 Eliz.
Various other afts were pafled in fubfequent reigns for
paving the feveral parts which were added to the metro-
polis. The ne-iv paving, according to the prelent mode,
commenced in 176:5, under an aft paiTed in the preceding
year. Before this period iheJlreets were extremely incon~
venient to paifengers, the (tones (moftly Guernfey pebbles)
being round, the kennels i;-i the midll, and no level foot-
way, as at prefent, for the pedfllrians. The alterations
firii took place in Weilminfter, and the improvements pro-
grefiiveK'^ extended through mod parts of the metropolis.
At this period alio took place the removal of the enormous
fjgns wiiich. luing acrofs the ftreets or over the footviays,
ar.d, together with their pofts and iron fcroU works, im-
peded as well the circulation of the air as the progrefs of
the pafiTcnger.

Lighting. — As early as the year 1416, the inhabitants of
Loudon were obliged to hang out lanthoms on winter
evenings. Among other improvements in the reign of
queen Anne, was the introduction of globular glafs lamps

with oil burners, inftead of the lanthoms with candles, and
common lamps that had previoufly been in ufe. In 1736,
an aft of parliament was procured to regulate " the better
enlightening the (Ireets, &c." within the city. A com-
mittee appointed to carry this aft into execution, reported
that " the number of houfes then inhabited and chargeable
(;'. e. fuch as were fubjoft to poor-rates) was in all 14,. 14,
of which 12S7 were under the rent of icl. per annum; 4741
of icA and under 20/. ; 3045 between 20 and 30/. ; 1839 be-
tween 30 and 4c/. ; and 3092 of 40/. and upwards. The
number of lamps required was 4200, exchifive of fnch as
were atta'jhcd to public buildings. They were to be
placed at tlie diftance of 25 yards from eacli other in the
principal ilreets, and 35 yards in the fmaller llrects and
lanes. This was the eommencement of the lyilcm of de-
fraying the charges of lighting the metropclls by parochial
aflolfnients. Since this time various other afts of parlia-
ment have been obtained for different diilrifts in the
fuburbs, and it is conjefturcd that more than 30,000 lamps
arc lit every night within the bills of mortality. From
Lady-day to Michaelmas, a lefs number is ufed than during
the other half of the year. In 1737, an aft of parliament
was palled for regulating and increaling the city watch, &c.
Various acts have been paft for deaiifing the Ilreets, and
preferving them from obftruftions and nuifances of every
defcription.

Seivers. — One of the moft efTential objefts in a large
city is good drainage ; and in this retpeft London is well
provided. Into the deep channel of the Thames, numerous
large fewers communicate, and convey all the fuperfluous
water, and vaft quantities of filth from the houfes. By
afts of the legiflature, a number of perfons, 'flyied com-
miffioners of Icwers, are empowered to make and repair
fewers, and levy a tax on every hou-^ekeeper towards defray-
ing the expences incurred by the fame. An aft of parlia-
ment was obtained as early as the reign of Henry VI. on
this fubjcft ; and this has been amended and enlarged by fub-
fequent afts, 6th Henry VIII. cap. 10; 23d Henry VIII.
cap. 5 ; and 25th of fame reign ; afterwards in the 3d and
41)1 of Edward VI. ; I ft of Alary ; 1 31I1 of Elizabeth ; 3d
of .lames, and 7th of Anne. See Sewers.

By an aft of parliament pafled in 1737, the number of
playboufes was limited to three, and all Cramatic pieces in-
tended for the ftage, were firll to be fubjefted to the peru-
fal and approbation of the loi-d chamberlain. See FhAy-
iiou.se. ,

The Chaiitahle Injlitutions of London arc numerous, of
various defcriptions, and of incalculable advantage. Whi.ll
they admmifter comfort, health, education, and proteftion
to the neceffitous, they refleft much honour on the affluent,
and on all the patrons. Thefe coifift of hofpitals, difpen-
farles, alms-houfes, charity Ichoois, benefit focieties, and
other eftabUlhnients. In a former part of this work, under
the word Hospital, will be found accounts of feveral, to
which we fhall add a few particulars. In the metropolis
are 22 hofpitals for fick, lame, and for pregnant women ;
107 alms-houfes fur the maintenance of aged perfons of both
fexes ; 18 iiutitutions for the fupport cf the indigent of va-
rious other defcriptions ; above 20 difpenfaries for the gratui-
tous fupply of medicine and medical aid to th* poor ; 45 free-
fchools with perpeti.al endowments, for educating and main-
taining 3500 children ; 1 7 other public fcliools for cictertedand
poor children ; 237 parifh fchoois, fupported by voluntary
contribution, in which about 9000 boys and girls are con-
flantly clothed and educated : each parifh has alfo a work-
houfe for the maintenance of its own helplefs poor. Ex-
cliilive of this ample lift, the feveral livery companies of
6 t!t

LONDON.

tlie city of London diflribute above 75,000/. annually in cha-
nties ; and there is a mukitude of iiilhtiitions, of a Icf:* pro-
miiKMit nature than the foregoing, whicli make the total of
charitable donations immenfe. The funis annually expended
in the metropolis for charitable purpofes, independently of the
private relief given to individuals, have been ellimated at
850,000/. The holpitals were chiefly founded by private
niunilicence : fome are endowed nilh perpetual revenues,
and others fupported by annual or occafional voluntary fub-
fcripti;>nf. The alras-houfes were buill and endowed eiihcr
bv private perfons or corporate bodies of tradefmen. Many
of the free-fchools owe their origin to the fame fources.
Tiie magnitude of the buildings dedicated to public charities,
ai;d the large revenues attached to them, are highly de-
fevving of commendation ; and the general adminiihation of
tl'.efe ellabiillitnents confers a pecuhar honour on the capital.
The interior regulations of the hofpitals well accord with
tlie exterior magnitude : the medical afTiftance is the beil
the profeliion can fupply ; the attendance is ample ; the
rooms are generally very clean and wholefome ; and the food
is proper for the condition of the patients. The alms-
houfes, and other inftitulions for the fupport of the aged
and indigent, exhibit not merely an appearance-, but a real
pofTeflion of competence and eafe. From lonje of the free-
fchools, pupils have been fent to the univerlities as learned
as from any of the moft expenfive feminaries : and all the
fcholars r<?ceive an education completely adapted to the fla-
tioTis for which they aredeiigned. Among the free-fchools
may be particularly noted thofe of Weibninller, Blue-coat
or Chrill's-hofpital, St. Paul's, Mercliant-taylors', Charter-
houfe, and St. Martin's. Fur a very ample hiftory and
defcription of all the charitable inllitutions of London, the
reader is referred to a volume publifhed in 18 10, entitled,
"Pietas Londinienfis; the Hillory, Origin, and prefent State
of the various public Charities in and near London," by
A. Highmore, lamo.

ItijUtutioTU. — For the accommodation and convenience of
the immenfe population of the metropolis, the following infti-
tutieiis hare been formed for education, ior promoting good
morals, for advancing the ufeful and fine arts, and for cha-
ritiable and humane purpofes. For education (befides the
various fchools already mentioned) there are 16 inns of
court and chancery for itudents in the law, Sec. (fee Colkt,
Inns of, , and five colleges, uia. Sion-college, at London-wall,
for the improvement of the clergy ; Grelham-college, for
divinity, allronomy, and other fciences ; the college of phy-
ficiar.s, Warwick-lane, for profefTors in medicine ; one for
the lludy of civil law. Doctor's Commons; and the Herald's-
coUege. (See College. ) The number of private fchools,
for ail the various branches of male and female education,
i.^ eilimatcd at 3730 ; including fome for children who
are deaf and dumb.

For promoting religion and good morals London contains
tlie following focieties : i. Forgiving effeft to the king's
proclamation againlt vice and immorality, eftablifhed«in the
year 178", and for the fupprcffion of vice in 1S03 : 2. For
promoting Chriilian knowledge, founded in 1699 : 3. For
the propagation of the gofpel in foreign parts, incorporated
in 1701: 4. For promoting religious knowledge, by dif-
iributiag books to the poor, inltituted in 1750 : 5. For pro-
11 oting charity fchools in Ireland : 6. For religious inllriic-
ti.in to the negroes in the Well ladies, incorporated in J 795 ;
ar'd African education fociety, inltituted in jSoo : 7. lor
preventing crimes, by profecuting fwindlers and cheats,

-67 : 8. For the encouragement of fervants, 1792 : 9. For
; ,; relief of poor pious clergymen, 1788 : 10. For giving
L-.bies to foldiers and failors, 1780 : ii. For giving bibles,
and oiherwifc furthering the purpofes of Sunday fchools,

1785: Britifli and foreign bible fociety, 1804. To thefc
may be added. Dr. Bray's charity for providing paro-
chial libraries ; and queen Anne's bounty for the augmen-
lation of fmall livings of clergymen.

For the promotion of learning, and advancement of
the ufefnl and fine arts, are the following inllitutions:

1. The Royal fociety, incorporated for promoting ufeful
knowledge, was inflitutcd 1663 : 2. Antiquarian fociety,
Somerfet-place, 1751 : 3. Society, or trullees of the Bri-
tilh Mtu'eum, 1753 : 4. Royal Academy of Arts, Somerfet-
place, 176S : ',. Society for encouragement of learning.
Crane-court, Fleet-llrcet : 6. Society f(;r encouragement of
arts, manufaflurcs, ai.'d commerce, in t'le Adelplii-buildings :

7. Medical focietyof London, Bolt-court, Fleet-ftreet, 1773:

8. Society for the improvement of naval architcfture :

9. Veterinary colL-ge, St. Pancras : 10. Royal inftilution
ior applying the arts to the common purpofes of life, 1799:
II. The London inllltution, in the city, 1805 : 12. The
Surrey inllitution near Blackfriar'f-bridge, 1808: 13. The
Ru(relin(Utution,Coram-(tieet,Ru!fel-iquare,i8o8: I4.Thj
Literary fund, eilablifhed in 1 79-, &c.

Among the inllitutions for charitable and humane pur-
pofes, the followi! g may be enumerated: i. The humane
fociety for the recovery of drowned and fuffocated perfons :

2. Society for the relief of merchants' feamen : 3. Several
focieties for fupport of ^widows in general : and others re-
fpedlively for the widows and orphans of clergymen, medical
men, officers, artills, and muficians ; and for decayed muii-
cians, artills, authors, adlors, and fchoolmafters ; 4. So-
ciety for relief of perfons confined for fmall debts : 5. So-
ciety for ameliorating the condition of the poor. With
thefe benevolent eftablifhments may be claffed the friendly
or benefit fccieties, of which there are in the metropolii
and its vicinity about 1600, confilting, in general, of from
fiftji to one hundred members each. The members confill of
m.echanic and labouring people, who, by fmall monthly con-
tributions, raile a fund for their fupport in ficknefs, and for
their funerals, &c. An aft of parliament was paffed
33 Geo. III. for the fpecial " Encouragement and Relief"
of thefe focieties.

Plaies of Public Amufmeni. — Confidering the vaft extent,
population, and wealth of London, it certainly contains
fewer plsces of public amufemcnt than any metropolis in Eu-
rope. Whether this be the refnlt of accidental caufes, or is
to be referred to the genius and habits of the people, may,
perhaps, be a matter of fome doubt. But whatever defici-
ency exills with refpeft to number, it yields to no city in the
world in the fplendour and excellence of thofe it polfefTes.
Our dramatic authors are not lefs confpicuous for the bril-
liancy of their cumpofitions, than our adlors are for the judg-
ment and effett which they difplay in their reprefentation.
Mrs. Siddons is, perhaps, the moll effective and powerful
adrefsof the prefent, or of any former age; wliile her brother,
Mr. John Kemble, mull be allowed to poffefs talents of the
fir(l-rate defcription. In the walk of tragedy many other
players have evinced very confidcrable abilities : among the
dcccafed may be named Garrick, Barry, Bctterton, Hen-
derfon. Booth, Quin, Ryan, and J. Palmer : and thofe of
the prefent age, moft entitled to hiiloric record, are Cooke,
Young, and C. Kemble. It may be fafely afTerted that the
comedians of the London theatres have advanced the mimetic
art nearly to the height of perfeftion. The names of the
late MelTrs. Lewis, King, Parfons, Woodward, Shuter, and
Edwin are juiily honoured in the annals of the drama ; and
thofe of the following aftors are entitled to the unqualified
commendation of the theatrical critic : Dowton, Munden,
Bannilter, Fawcett, Emery, Knight, Matthews, Johnfon,
Lovcgrovc, Lilton, Simmons, and Blanchard. Many
•3 f 2 aftccUcs

LONDON.

aclrcflesof the prefent age poITcfs very cotifiderable drama-
tic powers; particularly melMamts Jordan, Edwjn, Duncan,
C. Kemble, Gibbs, S. Booth, Davenport, Lillon, and
Storace. The Englidi (lage has many other performers of
merit ; but their talents are of a more limited nature than
the preceding. In the operatic department, or finging, it
has long been the faftiion to introduce Italian, or foreign
fingers to the London boards; although many of our native
performers unite to fine and powerful voices much fcience.
Mrs. Billington, Mr. Braham, Madame Storace, Mrs. Moun-
tain, Mifs Bolton, Mrs. Martyr, Mrs. Bland, Mrs. Dickons,
Mifs Kelly, Mr. Inclcdon, Mr. Phillips, and Mr. Bellamy,
are julUv admired, and have acquired much profeffional fame.
In aftiori or pantomimic represent ations, many eminent per-
formers are to be foimd on the London boards. Bcfides
thefe there are many others very little inferior. Indeed it
may be juilly obferved, that the companies at the principal
theatres confill in general of highly refpcftable performers.
The misfical votary never had the means of gratiiying his
tafte with a higlicr relifh than at the prefent period. New
compofitions of confidcrable merit daily ifTue from the prefs.
The hll of our vocal performers comprifes the names of
fome of the firft fingers in Europe. Our mllrumental per-
formers are no lefs celebrated ; and our bands in general ex-
hibit fpecimens of the higlieil talle and manual ikill.

Appropriated chiefly to dramatic performances are the
theatres of Drury-'ane, Covent-garden, the Lyceum, and the
Haymarket. Of thefe, the two firll are upon a ftyle of mag-
nificence and grandeur, fcarccly to be furpaffed by any theatre
in Europe. The lall is on a fmall fcale, and opens in fummer,
■when the others clofe. The King's theatre, or Opera-houfe,
fituated in the Haymarket, was originally intended folely for
the reprefeiitjtion of Italian operas. Of late years, however,
dancing has conRituted a promment part of its amufements, to
the great injury of the operas, which are generally curtailed
of an aft to allow time for the ballets. The decorations of
this theatre are fplendid, and its band isconlidercd as inferior
only to that of the Opera-houfe at Paris. The concert of
ancient mufic, generally called the King's concert, is held in
the great room Kanover-fquare, ei'ery week from the begin-
ning of February to the end of May. It owes its origin to a
fecefiion from the Academy of Alufic, another celebrated
inufical inftitution. The following is a lift of the theatres,
and other places of public amufement, now occupied in Lon-
don, and open to (he public ; a more particular dei'cription
of fome of thefe will be given in fubfequent parts of this
work, under the heads Theatke and Westminster.

Covtnt-garden Theatre is the mod eminent for fize and
dramatic exhibitions. The prefent building was erefted in
thevear 1809, from defigns by Mr. S.mirke, jun. arcliiteft.
It occupies the fcite of a former theatre, with connecting
houfes, which were confumed by fire in September 1808 ;
and it is worthy of remark, that the whole ot the prefent
edifice was railed and finilhed within one year. It is on a
large fcale, and the whole ftage management is veiled in Mr.
John Kemb e, who has certainly made many improvements,
and interefting reformations in the internal economy, fcience,
and coftumic reprefenration of dramas.

Drurylane Theatre is now in the progrefs of building
from deiigns by Mr. B. Wyatt, architect ; whofe model
evinces much fl<iU and judgment. Though not on fo large
a fcale as th? theatre of Covent-garden, it combines many
conveniences and advantages not to be found in that b. aiding ;
and for feeing and hearing it promifes to be very fatistatt.iry
to the audience. Mr. Whithread has taken a very aCtive
part ii caufing this theatre to be rebuilt. A former theatre,
built by Mr. Holland, was burnt in 1809.

Theatre Rnyal Hayinarltt is a fmall, inconvenient houfe,
and is allowed to be opened to the public from the ijth of
May to the i Jth of Sejjtember.

The Lyceum 'Theatre, called the Englifh Opera-houfe, is at
prelent occupied by the Drury-lane company of performers,
under the management of Mr. Arnold and Mr. Raymond.
Operas and c<miedies are chiefly reprefented liere ; and fome
of thefe are afted in the bell ftyle. Many new dramas have
been produced at this houfe.

The Opera-houfe, in the Haymarket, is appropriated to Ita-
lian operas, fpettacles, and dances. The management of this
houfe has occafioned feveral legal litigations, and is dill in-
volved in difpute. Its principle is uncongenial to the Englilh
cliaradler, and it would be a memorable and laudable adt to
abolilh it. Another fimilar cllablifliment, arifing out of the
cabals of the former, and originating with fome fpeculating
adventurers, has lately been opened at

The Pantheon in Oxford-road ; but aft»r a few night? re-
prefentation, and after debts of fome thoufands of pounds
had been contrafted in fitting up, and Adapting the houfe to
the purpofc, the theatre is again clofed.

Sadlcrs Udells is a theatre appropriated to pantomimes,
burlcttas, fpetlacles, dancing, &c. andcommences its feafon
on Eafter Monday. The ftage performances are inverjted and
written by Mr. C. D'.bdin.jun., who has difplaycd a peculiar
and original talent in this fpecierof compofition. The mulical
department is condufted by Mr. Reeve, and the fcenei%
painted by Mr. Andrews. A novelty has been introduced
at this theatre, /. e. of filling the whole ipace beneath the
llage with water, by which means fome Iplendid and curious
aquatic exhibitions have been diiplayed. It partly refemblcs
the naumachije of the Romans.

Afilef s ylmphttheatre, near Weftminfter-bridge, is alfo a
fummer theatre, where pantomimes, buricttas, and various
fetes of horfemanlhip are difplayed. This houfe alfo com-
mences its feafon on Eafter Monday, and generally doles in
October, when the company remove to another theatre,
called

Afiltfs Olympic Pavilion, in Newcaftle-ftreet, where the
fame fpecies of entertainments are exhibited.

The Surrey Theatre, in St. George's-fields, is devoted to a
fimilar clafs of dramatic reprefentations; but fim-c Mr EMif-
ton has been proprietor and manager of this houle, he has
adopted anovelty,in abridgingand verfifying many celebrated
dramas, and playing the fame with the accompaniment of
mufic.

Another theatre in Wellclofe-fquare, called the Royalty
Theatre, is occafionally opened ; and others are fituated ia
Tottenham-ftrect, in the Strand, and in Bridges-llreet, Co-
vent-garden.

Fauxhall Gardens are opened twice a week in the fum-
mer months, when they are ornamented with an imnienfe
number of lamps, and a large concourfe of vifitors are en-
tertained by vocal and inftrumental mufic. Befides the fore-
going, London abounds with many other places of amufe-
ment ; Inch as tea-gardens, exhibitions for ingenious inven-
tions, and dilplay of works of fancy, &c.

Among the places of public amufement or exhibitions,
may be i'pecified —

The London Mifeum, in Piccadilly, the property of Mr.
W. Bullock, who has devoted many years, much exertion,
and a grent expence, in col'efting and arranging the moft
comprchenfive and interelling afit-mblage of natural and arti-
ficial curiofities that was ever before amaffed in England, or
perhaps in Europe. Hi? mufeum was originally com-
menced at Liverpool ; but it has been progreilively enlarged
and improved Its preferved fpecimens in natural hiftury
are feled, in the higheil piefervation, and arranged accord-
ing

I

LONDON.

ir.g to the Linnasan fyflem. They confift of about 15', ooo Reynolds appointed its firft prefident. To this great artift's

quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, fidies, inft-fts, corals, &c. One talents as a painter, conduct as a man, and writings on art,

department of the mufeiim is peculiarly curious and intereft- the Royal Academy is efTeniially indebted for its profperity

ing. It is called the Pantherion, in whicii molt of the and reputation. His fafcinating productions, engagine

known animals, in a preferved ftate, and in natural attitudes, manners, and luminous difcourfts on painting, attracted the

arc exhibited as ranging in their native, or appropriate attention and patronage of many perfons of diftinftion, and

haunts ; and exai£t models of exotic plants, rocks, and trees, at the fame time roufe3 the emulation and aftive zeal of the

are difperfed over, the apartment : the whole interior of the junior artilts. Since fir Jofhua's time, Mr. Well has oc-

fame is painted .in a panoramic manner, reprefentative of cupied the prcfidential chair, with little interruption, and has

oriental fcenery. For a particular account of this truly honoured the academic exhibitions \yith a continued fuccef-

interelling colleSion; tlie reader is referred to a printed Con of new pidlures in the higheft branch of art. A feries

•'-Companion to the Mufeumand Pantherior," i2mo. 2s. (id. of ledtures has been annually given at the academy by dif-

or to a larger woik, with etchings, by Howitt, price 14J. ferent profefTors ; all calculated to advance art, and incul-

A new building, in the Egyptian ftyle, has been erected for
this mufeum from defigns by Mr. Robinfon, architect.

PoUlo's Muftum-, at Exeter Change in the Strand, con-
tains a choice collection of living beafts and birds ; and to
the ftudents and lovers of natural hiltory is very intereiling.
Here are lions, Jeopards, tygers, ollriches, baboons, and
monkies of different kinds, kangaroos, beavers, and various
other foreign animals and birds. Other mufeums and exhi-
bitions of natural and artificial curiofities are —

Dubovrgh's, in Grofvenor-ftreet, for cork models of feveral
temples, and ancient buildings in Rome : — MaiHartkl's au-
tomatical exhibitions in Spring-gardens, for fome fingular
vjorks of mechanifm : — IVeei's Mufeum, Haymarket, is alfo
•Tor mechanical works. At Barter's Panorama, in L.eicefter-
fquarc, are exiubited circular vievvs, on a large fcale, of feveral
foreign and Englifh cities, towns, and other particular fcenes.
Mr. Barker has evinced very confiderable tafte and talents in
this branch of art, and to him the public are indebted for
the.fir[t invention of panoramic views. Since he commenced,
feveral other artiils have exhibited fimilar pictures : Mi

Gr T J AT n 1- 1 • .■ ituQymg old paintings. Another plat;

irtin, a view of London ; Mr. Porter, feveral pamtino-s j ' P 1 • u • i 1 j 1

^fkoffl . .4 A' o \ u v> ■ \ adopted, which is calculated to enhani

ot battle?, ana a JScw 1 anorama is now openea by Kcinaffle . .• r,,, ■ . , , . ^

,nH R,,-!.-.,- in tl,. .c;,„„^ .<„P, .-„„;„, ^ ^ putation. 1 his is the purcbafe of p

and Bai-ker, in the Strand. See Panoram.a.

The Fine Aris, and Exhibitions of IV ores of Art, in Lon-
don, are entitled to diilinct and particular notice ; for their
prefent itate is calculated to fhew the extraordinary progrefs
they have made during the lait century, and to difplay the
highly cultivated condition <>f the prefent age. London is
the focus of the fine arts of England, and fountain-head of
excellence. Here all the eminent artills of the country either
originate, are educated, or terminate their career ; beeaufe
all the great mailers rcfide here ; the bell inilruftion is to
be obtained ; the moft celebrated produdtions to be feen and
ftudied ; and annual exhibitions displayed to the public.
In the rooms of the Roya! Academy at Somerfet-houle, in
thofe of the Britidi Inilitution, Pall-Mall, at Spring-gardens,
and in Bond-ltreet, are annual exhibitions of paintings, draw-
ings, fculptural and architectural deilgns ; and a careful
examination of the works here exhibited will furnifh a
foreigner with ample means to appreciate the individual and
aggregate m.crits of Engiifh arlilts. Betides thefe public
exhibitions, it will be exoedient to viiit the galleries of
Mr. Weft, Mr. Turner, Mr. Wilkie, Mr. Lawivnce, and
fome other painters ; for in thefe will be found feveral of the
moft meritorious works of the age. The beil productions of
our modern fcuiptors will be found in the church of St.
Paul's and in Weltmmfter Abbey ; whilft the true talents of
the architects can only be appreciated by a perfonal exami-
nation of the buildings they have erefted. The public in-
ftituticns devoted to the fine arts are the following :

At the Royal Academy, in So:!:erfet-houfe, is an annual
exaibitiin, \>r the ptriod of about fix weeks, of paintings,
drawings, fketches, model?, ard proof-prints. This acaden.y
was eftabiilhed by charter in the year 176S, and lir JoJhua

cate proper principles of tafte and criticifm. Some of the
prefent lefturers are delervedly famed for proftllional
fcience, as well as for generarknowk-dge. In the years
jSit and 181 2, the following profefTors^ delivered Icftures
on their refpeftive provinces of art : Hcrry Fufcli, on
painting; John Soane, on architefture ; Anthony Carlifle,
on anatomy (it is neccffary to ftate that this gentleman is
not a member of the academy) ; J. M. W . Turner, on per-
fpective ; and John Flaxman, on fculpturc. The Royal
Academy confifts of forty members, called : oyal .cademi-
cians, twenty affociates, and fix affociate engravers Fur-
ther particulars of this inftitution will be given under RoYAt
Academy,

The Brit'fb Jiiflitution, in Pall-Mall, was eftablifhed by
the liberal contnoutions of feveral noblem.en and gentlemen
in the year 1 8oj, for the exprefs encouragement of Bri-iih
artifts : and it muft afford much gratification to the founders
to contemplate its great utility and fuccefsful eftefts. This
inflitution is devoted to the exhibition and fate ef piftiires ;:
and to the ufe of young ftudents for copying from and
iludying old paintings. Another plan has been recently

ce its utility and re-
purcbate ot pre-eminent piftures,
which are to be preferved as the property of the inftitution,.
and from which engravings are to be made on a large fcalc
The firft of this feries is a large painting by Mr. Weft, o£
« Chrift healing- the Sick in the Temple!" and Charles
Heath is engraving a plate from it.

The Society of Painters in Ji'attr- Colours was eCabiifhed ia
November 1804, fince which time tlitv have annually ex-
hibited a large and inteiefting colleClion of drawings. This
branch of art may be faid to have attained nearly the higheft
excellence ; and many cf its profefTors have manifeftcd dif-
tinguifhed talents. In colourinj, effeft, and appropriate
character, feveral young artifts of the prefent age have fur-
pafTedany of the old mafters in this branch of art. Another
lociety of artiils hav^e made an annual exiilbition of drawings in
Bond-ftreet. The coileftions of pifturcs in private houfes in
London are numerous, and many of them very valuable. The
moft celebrated of thefe are the marquis of Stafford's, at Cleve-
land Houfe ; (for an account of tliefe piftures. fee Britten's
" Catslogue Raifonne," and Treftiams " Gallery of Pic-
tures;") the coileftion at Buckingham-houfe ;. the earl C)f
Grofvenor's, in Grofvenor-ltreet ; Mr. Thomas Hope's, in
Duchefs-ftreet ; Mr H. W. Hope's, in Cavci difh-fquare ;
Mr. Anderdon's, Spring Garde.'ts ; Mr. Weft's, in New-
man-ftreet ; earl of Suffolk's, in Harley-ftreet ; the duke of
Devonftiire's, in Devon(hii-e-hoi'.fe : Mr. Angerftein's, Pall-
Mall ; lir Abraham Hun-ve ; fir George Yonge, in Strat-
ford-place ; lo'd Nortlu. ick's, in Hanover-'quare ? Mr.
Weddels, in Upper Brooice-ftreet ; lord Afhburnham'Sy in
Dover-ftreer ; baronefs Lucas, in St. James's-fquare ;; fir
George Beaumont, in Grofvenor fquare ; Mr. William
Smith, in Park-ftr'eet ; Mr. K-iight, of Portland-place ;:
Mr. Jeremiah Harmaii, of Finfbury-fcjiiare ; Mr. R. P..

Knight,.

LONDON.

"Knight, of Solio.fquarc ; lord Radftock, in Portland-
place. Befulcs thefi.-, there are many other collections of
tine piftures in various parts of the metropolis. For much
ufeful information refpecling the fine arts in London, &c.
fee Hoare's " Inquiry into tlic prefent State of the Arts «f
Defign in England," 8vo. iSo6; alfo two other volumes
in 4to. edited by the fame intelligent and liberal writer, en-
tilled " The Artiil, in a Series of Eilays ;" alfo, " The
fnie Arts of the Englilh School," 4to. 1S12 ; Britten's
Preface to an Account of the Cordiam-Houfe Colledion ;
and Edwards's Anecdotes of Painters m England, 410.
1808.

Courts. — For an account of the various courts of I^ondon,
the reader is referred to a former volume, under the head
Couirr of Comincn Pleas, of Chancery, of Exchequer, of
Huflings, (f King's Bench, of Marfhalfca, Mayor's, uf Par-
liament, (fee Paklia.mknt,} of the Houfe of Peers, of Star
Chamber; •A[o,\-&s^ of Court.

Literature and literary PubUcations. — To give a view of
the literature of this metropolis, and to point out its prefent
(late, compared with that of any former period, would be
to develope one of the mod intereiling traits, not only of
London, but of the prefent age. The number and variety
of works which annually iffue from the metropolitan prels
are truly allonifliing ; while in point of ability and ufefuhiefs
they were probably never exceeded. There is not indeed a
department, either in fciencc or general literature, which
has not made confiderable progrefs within thefe few years.
The publilhing and bookfelling bufinefles are at prefent
conduded upon very large i'cales ; and, in fpite of a long
and devaltating war, a fucceffion of new and interelling vo-
lumes is continually ilTuing from the prcfs. It is con-
jeftured that nearly 800 new books and pamphlets have.been
annually publi(hed in London, during the laft ten years :
the grofs annual returns anting from the printing and felling
of \\^iicli cannot be much fliort of one million llcrhng. It
is alfo eilimated that 2000 perfons at Icalt are dn-cftly and
collaterally employed in the various branches ot the book
bufinefs. The charafter and extent of periodical literature
form a prominent feature of the prefent age : for tiie number
of reviews, magazines, uewfpapers, and other periodical
journals, far exceed thole of any former period. Hence
much political and general knowledge lias been dlfleminated
through the country ; a fpirit of inquiry and invelligation
has been excited ; and a literary turn has been given to tlie
higher and middle claffes of fociety. Even the lower chides
of mechanics and fervants are now much accullomed to
reading ; one of the confequences ariling h-om which is that
%ve frequently hear of men of genius and talents itarting up
from humble Uations, and difplaying to the a lonifhed w<n-ld
much originality of thinking. Many inllances cf tiiis might
be adduced ; but it will be fufficient to name two or three,
to prove the affertion : Burns, Dermody, and Bloomfield,
the poets; and Drewe, tlie metaphyfician of Cornwallr
Nothing can more plainly ihew the reading character of the
prefent times, than a knowledge of the number of newf-
papers printed and circulated ; and which number is thus
Itated in " The Picture of London for 181 2:" " Of the
morning papers, there are fold about 17,000 of thefe pub-
lications ; of the daily evening papers, about 1 2,000 ; and
of ihofe publifhcd every otlier day, about 10,000. There
are alfo about 26,000 fold of the various Sunday papers ;
and about 20,000 of the other weekly papers : in all, the
enormous number of 232,000 copies per week ; yielding to
their proprietors from tiie fale 5800/., and from advertife-
nunts 2000L more ; of which the revenue to government is
full 4OC0/. and the net proceeds to the proprietors about
1000/. ; the remaininjj 2800/. allords employment and fub-

fiflencc to about jo writers and reporters, ^oo printers,
100 vendors, and 100 clerks and affiltants ; befides paper-
makers, ftationers, type-founders, &c. full 200 more. If
to thele be added the weekly calcuhjtion of 2jc,ooo copies
of provincial papers, yielding 10,000/. per week, and fup-
jiorting the indullry of ijooperlons; — what a wonderful
idea is aflorded of the agency and influence of the prtfs in
this empire ; and how cafily is it accounted for, that vie are
the niwll free and n.oll ii.telligent people on the face of the
earth." Under the words Macjazine, Newsi'Avkr, and
Rkview, we fliall have oi)portunilies of dctailmg many
fafts and peculiarities refpeCting thefe different publications.
See alfo Jouunal, Literary. London ahiuinds with book-
fellers' fliops avd circulating libraries. It is adertcd that
tlie iirll circulating library iliabliihed in this town was by a
Mr. Baths, about tlie year 1740; but Alan Ranifay had
founded one at Edinburgh as early as the year 1725. In
London there are j-jubiiflicd feventcen newfpapers daily, and
eighteen or nineteen every Sunday, befides eighteen once or
twice a week. The nu.aiber of monthly magazines and re-
views amounts to fifty ; m addition to which, there are
feveral works pnbhflicd ojuarterly, or at irregular periods.
• Societies for the Encouragement of the Arts, Sciences, fs'f. —
London pofleifes a variety of inllitutions fcn-med with a view
to the advancement cf the different branches of art and
fcience ; among thefe the Royal Society undoubtedly takes
the lead, being compofed of the ir.oil diilinguifhed hterarjt
and fcientific charafters of the prefent age. It was firlt iii-
ftitu'ed at the clofe of Cromwell's rebellion, at which time
its meetings were held at Oxford. In 1659 they were ad-
journed to Gre (ham college, London ; but ot late years have
been held at an apartment in Somerfet honfe. This fociety
was incorporated in 1 C6j, when the celebrated fir Ifaap New-
ton was prefident, and has, through the medium of its
Tranfattions, and by its patronage, probably contributed,
more than any fimilar body in the world, to promote ufelul
and praftical knowledge. (See Royal Society.) The fo-
ciety of Antiqu;:ries, «liich holds its n.eetings in the fame
place with the Royal Society, was incorporated by Geo. II.
in the year 1751. The ubjetl of this fociety is to eiiconragc
refearch in the elucidation, not only of our national anti-
quities, but ot the antiquities of other countries. It has
publifhed fixteen volumes, called the Ai"cha:ologia, contain-
ing many cu.'iou.s and interelling etfays and prints, alio a
large work illnllrative of our eeclelialHcal architedure. (See
Society of ylutiquaries, and Anthjuaky.) The fociety
for the eiicouragcinent of arts, manufadtures, ard commerce,
inltituted in 1733, and holding its meetings in the Adelplii,
propotes theattainnicnt of its ubjedt by giving premiums for
all inventions and difcoveries which may prove, and are cal-
culated to be, beneficial to the arts, commerce, or manu-
factures of the kingdom, the Britith colonies, or the Eatl
India fettlements. A volume of the Society's tranfaitions is
publilhcd occafionally. The walls of the great room, in
which its meetings take p ace, are adorned with a variety of
paintings from the pencil ot Mr. Barry, 'the llyle and exe-
cution of which have ininred him deferved immortality, and
are really an honour to tb.e country. The Llnna;an fo-
ciety was founded in 178^, and incorporated in 1S02.
(See Limiican Society.) The Royal lulUtution, fituated
in Albemarle ilreet, owes its foundation chiefly to the
fchemes and exertions of count Rumford. Its charter
of incorporation is dated in 1 8co. The original objcft
of this intlitution was to facilitate the introdudlion of uteful
difcoveries and improvements in praftical mechanics, and
to point out, by philofophical lectures and experiments, the
application of fcitnce to the common purpofcs of life. Tlie
iuveltigations and important difcoveries of Dr. Davy, the

« lecturer

LONDON.

lefturcron chcmiftry, have conferred no fmall degree of cc- and Imperial academies of BrufFels, Li/bon, Sec. and a long-

lebrity on this eftabiilhment, while they will not improbably lifl of private individuals, too numerous to be particularized-

be the means of effecting a complete chaniJC in our views of The va(l variety of articles uliich this mufeum contains its

chemical analyfis. (See Koxal Injlilution.) The Lon- extent and value, entitle it to be confidered equal to any in the

don Inftitution, as well as the Surrey IniHtution, embrace world. Under the word Musrim will be given further

(imilar objefts to the one preceding. The former was particulars of this national repofitory ; in the mean time the

founded in l8oj, and the latter in 1808. Both have e>:- reader is referred to a "Synopfis'of the Contents of the

tenfive libraries and reading rooms, furnifhed with many of Britilh Mufeum," 8vo. i8cS; and to a quarto work of

the foreign and domeliic journals and other periodical works,
together with the bed pamphlets and new publications.
The views of the Rulfel Inllitutiou are the formation of an

" Engravings from the Gallery of Antiquities in the Britirti
Mufeum," by Mr. Taylor, Combe, and Mr. Alexander.
J'li'.s very handfome and intcrcfting work is now in the pro-

extenfive library, confiding of the mod valuable books in grefs of publication, and is very creditable to the trultecs

ancient and modern .literature, to be circulated ainong the
proprietors, the delivery of leClures on literary and fcicntilic
fubjedls, and the cftablilhnient of a reading room. In Grediam
college, founded by fir Thomas Grediam, le(fti:res are de-
livered gratis twice a day during the terms, on divinity, law,
phyfic, adronomy, geometry, mufic, and rhetoric. As it hap-
pens in all inftitutions on a fimilar plan, the lefturers, having
no dimulus to exertion, conlider their duty as a mere matter
of routine, and are confequently ill attended. Some idea is

who have commenced it, and to the draftfman and author
by whom it is chiefly executed.

Public Juices and Pnfnns. — The general tendency of the
preceding ftatements only fliew the bed and mod intereftin"-
features of the metropolis. It is our duty alfo to dep.'S
its vices ; and to fliew the numerous places that are fet apart
for the ])unidiment of crin:!es. In Colquhoun's work on
" the ;)olice of the metropolis," is fuch a deplorable dif-
play ot profligacy and criminality, that an inexperienced

entertained of transferring them and the funds to the London reader, who knew London only tii'rough the medium of this
Inditution, where it is hoped they may be more efficient, publication, would conclude that its inhabitants were modly
and anfwer belterthe defign of the benevolent founder. The compofed of vagabonds, (harpers, pickpockets, and profti-
Britifli Mineralogical Society was edablidicd in 1799, for the tutes. It diould be remembered, however, that the work
exprefs purpofe of examining'gratuitoufly the cwmpofition is chiefly devoted to this fubjeft ; and that, amidd fo vad a
of all fpecimens of minerals and foils, lent for that purpofe population, and where there are fo many opportunities for
by the owners of mines, agricalturalidf, or others intereded in rogues to practife their depredations, and fcreen themfelves
the enquiry. The feience of entomology will probably be from detedtion, it is not furprifing that fo many are collected
much forwarded by the inditution of the Entomological together, and that out of a great number fo few are brought to
Society, which took place in 1 806, and which chiefly directs condign punifliment. To this great hive of human focietv
its attention to the iiivedigation of the properties of fuch in- tlie mod vicious, and alfo the mod learned refort, as the
feiis as are natives of the united kingdoms. The London bed place for action and exertion. The worthy magidrate
Architectural Society has publillied a volume of ElTays, already named, has enumerated and dcfcribed eighteen dif-
8vo. 1S08 : alfo-an ElTay on the Doric order. The Horti- ferent clafies of cheats and fwindlers who infelt the me-
cukural fociety was founded in 1S04. A Geological tropoli.';, and prey upon the honed and unwary: befides
Society is edablidied by fome fcientiiic gentlemen in Lin- perfons who live by gambling, coining, houfebreakino-, rob-
coln's-inn-Fields ; they have recently publillied an intered- bery, and thofe who plunder on the river. He deduces tTje
ing volume of their tranfactions. Before we quit thele in- origin of mod of the crimes from alehoufes, bad education of
ftitutions it may be proper to remark, that the number and apprentices, fcrvants out of place, .lews, receivers of llolen
variety of lectures that have been read in them mud have goods, pawnbrokers, low gaming-houfes, fmugc'hnff, aflb-
proved ber-.ciicial to feience ; by exciting inquiry, and in- ciations in prifons, and prevalence of proditution. No lefs
vedigating tacts by experiniLUt. Till thele indituiions were than 50,000 prollitutes are fuppofed to live in the metro-
edabliflted, there were but few public lectures given in Lon- polls. An amazing number, and a didreffi.no- circum-
don; fuch, however, liave been the indigence and effect of them, llance to contemplate: for it is prefumed that eii^ht-
that during the winter of i8il-l2, it may be aflerted that tenths of thele die prematurely of difeafe and in wretched-
no iefs than fourteen courles have been given at the Royal, nefs, having previoufly corrupted and contaminated twice
RuiTel, and Surrey Inditutions. We fubjoin the names of the their own number of young girls and young men. The
principal profeffors : Dr. Davy, Dr. Roget, Dr. Crotch, following is a lilt of the public prifons.

J. M. Good, efq , Geo. John Singer, cfq., Dr. Shaw, F.Ac- i. Newgate, being the city and county goal for debtors,
cum, efq., Sim. Wediey, efq., Mr. Hardie, Robert Bake- felon.s, libellers, and other offenders againlt government. Sec
well, elq.. Dr. Brandc, James Quin, efq., John Pond, efq., Newga IE

and Wm. Hailitt, efq. 2. Giltfpur-ftreet Compter was ereftcd in 1791, for

The Britilh Mufeum, fituatcd m Great RufTel-ftreet, is a debtors, felons, and perfons committed for mifdemeanor.';.
grandnationaldepofitoryof antiquities, MSS. and books, with It is fituated near Newgate, and is a large, commodious
various natural and artiScialcurioiities. It was eftabliflied by building.

aftof parliaT.ent in 17J3, in conl'equence of fir Hans Sloane 3. Ludgate, adjoining to the lad mentioned, is appro,
having left, by will, his mufeum to the nation, on condition priated only to debtors who are freemen of the city of Lon-
that parliament paid 20, coo/, to his executors, and purchafed don, clergymen, proCtors, or attornies.
a houfe fufficiently commodious for its reception. Since 4. The Poultry Compter is chiefly for debtors. It is
that period many valuable collcdtions of manufcripts, books, fituated near the ^Ianl^on-lloufe,and has one ward fet apart for
&c. have, at different times, been added to the Sloanean, be- Jews : the only prifon in England tliat has fuch a provifion.
fides ii'.numerable prefents from our own monarchs, foreign 5. The Fleet Prifon is for debtors, and for fuch perfons
princes, the bijjards of Admiralty and Longitude, the Eaft as are committed for contempt of the courts of chancerv.
India Company, the various literary focieties of London, 6. The Savoy Prifon, in the Strand, is c.xclulively de-
Edinburgh, Oxford, Cambridge, and Leydcn, the Royal voted to dd'erters and military deliiic^uents.

7. The

LONDON.

7. The New Prifon, Clerkenwcll, is the goal for the
county of Middlefex, for felons, and p- ifons fiiltd.

8. The Pnfon for the T^ibertj- of fhe Tower of London,
is at Bethnal-green, and ;s ufed only for foldiers belonging
to the Tower.

9. Whitechapel Pril -.1 for debtors in the ^J. court.
The houfcs of corr ■ ' 't.n are

10. Tilt City Bri>' 1, Bridge-dreet, Blackfriars.

11. TothiU-ii.ld* ;'i . .ve'l.

12. Cold V>Mh Tu-ii^^ Penitentiary Houfe.

13. New Bridev.ell, in the borough of Soiithwark.

14. County goal fir Snrrey, in the borough of South-
wark, for felons and debtors.

15. New goal, Southwark, or Borough Compter, for
felons and debtors,

16. Clink goal, for the dillrift of that name, in South-
wark.

17. The Marlhalfea goal, Southwark, for pirates, and
for perfons arrclled for fmall debts in the Marfhalfea court.

18. King's-bcnch prifon, St. George's Fields, for debtors,
and for perfons committed for contempt of the court of
King's-bench, of which this is the peculiar prifon.

Public Buildings. — U will furprife a foreign architofl to
look through the wealthy city of London, and perceive fo
few public edifices that difplay architeftural beauty, or
grandeur. Various circumilances have confpired to occafion
this; and not want of abilities in our artills : for many names
can be mentioned, both of deceafed and living archii-e^its,
whofe delicrns would honour and ornament any city. Thofe
whofe works arc moll confpicuous in London, are Inigo
Jones, lir Chriftopher Wren, Gibbs, Hawkfmoor, Dance,
Soane, Samuel Wyatt, Jupp, fir Rnb^-rt Ta; lor, Smirkt;,
Milne, Holland, and Adams. The public edifices of Lou-
don, are bridges, (for an accQunt of which fee Bhidges,)
churches, public offices, hofpitals, and private luanfions.
Squares and regular llreets conilitute a dillirguifhing fea-
ture of town architefture. Some of the public buildings
are fpacious, commodious, judicioudy adapted to their re-
fpeftive purpofes, and difplay beautiful, fine, and even grand
.parts. The Englifli architcdl is juilly noted for the fivill
and judgment he often evinces in defigning and adapting tiie
interior of his buildings: and this is certainly the molt ef-
fential part of the profcffion. The principal public edifices
within the pre«.incls of the city, and in the eaftern part of
the town, are tiie Tower ; the New Mint ; the Trinity
Houfe; the Bank; the Maufion Houfe; the Roj'al Ex-
change; the Ead India Houfe; the Auction Mart ; the
Com nereiai M iri ; the Cuftom Houfe ; the Excife Office;
Guildhall ; the bridges of London and Blackfriars ; the
Polt-oifice ; Newgate; Giltfpur-llrcet Compter; St. Luke's
H olpit-d ; the churches of St. Paul, Bow, St. Stephen's
V.'^albrook, St. Bride's Fleet-ftreet.

Toiuer of London. — This celebrated building Hands on the
north bank of the river Thames, at the eaftern extremity,
and juft without the limits of the city. If credit is to be
given to the ilatement of Fitz-Stephen, it owes its original
foundation to Julius Casfar, but this atfertion is fupported by
110 evidence. The firft authentic notice of it is, that Wil-
liam the Conqueror erefted a fortiefs here immediately upon
his obtaining poflbnion of Lo.ndon in the year 1066, with the
view of intimidating the citizens from any oppofition to his
ufurpatiou This monarch feems, about twelve years after-
wards, either to have much enlarged the previous edifice, or
to have built another on its fcite or near it. This building
forms, what is now called, the White Tower, from its hav-
ing been repaired and white-waflied by Henry IH, in the

year 1240. It is a large fquare flrufiure, fituated near the
centre of the prefcnt fortrefs, and furmounted by four
watch towers,, one of which is ufed as an obfervatory. It con-
filLs of three lofty ftories, in the hi 11 of which are two grand
rooms, one of which is a fmall armory for the naval lervice.
The other buildings and fortifications have been erected
at different periods. The principal of the former are, the
chui-ch dedicated to St. Peter advincula ; the ordnance of-
fice ; the mint ; the record office ; the jewel office ; the
liorfe armory ; the grand llore-houfe ; the new or fmall
armorvhoufes belonging to the officers of the Tower, and
barracks for the garrifou. Th'- whole comprifes, within the
walls, an extent of twelve acres and five rood;;. The ex-
terior circumference of the ditch, which entirely furrounds
it, nieafures 3156 feet. This ditch, on llie lide of Tower-
hill, is broad and deep, but becomes much narrower on that
nearell the river, from which it is divided br a handiome
wharf, having a platform upon it, mounted with fixty-one
fiieces of cannon. Befides thefe, there arc a number of great
guns, arranged a,s fmall batteries, on different parts of the
walls. The chief entrance is by a Hone bridg> thrown over
the ditch on the weft-fide of the Tower. At the outer ex-
tremity of this bridge are two gates, and within the ditch
another, all whii.h are fliut every night, and opened in the
morning with particular formality. The wharf is connedted
with the Tower by a drawbridge, near which is a cut
leading from the ditch to the river, fecured by a gate called
Traitor's Gate, from the circumftance of Hate prifoner,"!
having been formerly conveyed by this paffage to Wellmin-
ller for trial.

This fortrefs was a palace, inhabited by various fovereignsof
England till the reign of queen Elizabeth. Since that period
it has been chiefly ufed as a Hate prifon, aad as a place of
fecurity for arms and property belonging to the crown. In
one of the rooms of the White tower, called Casfar's chapel,
a variety of ancient records of the court of chancery are
depofited. All the models of new invented engines of de-
ftruftion, which have been prefented to government, are pre-
ferred in another room adjoining. The old mint, and the
houfes belonging to the officers employed in the coin-
age, occupied nearly a third of the whole fortrefs, A yard,
to the right of the wellern entrance, contains the royal
menagerie. In the Spanifii Armory ars kept the trophies
of the celebrated victory over the Spanifli armada; the axe
with which the unfortunate Anne Bullen was beheaded; and
a reprefentation of queen Elizabeth, dreffed in the armour
file wore wlien flie addrelfed her army at Tilbury, in the year
15S8. The Small Armory, one of the finelt rooms of its
kind in Europe, contains complete Hands of arms for
upwards of 100,000 men, arranged in a moil elegant manner,
befides other curiofities. Under this armory is another very
noble room belonging to the royal train of artillery, where
many beautiful and uncommon pieces of cannon may be leeu.
The ?Iorfe Armory is filled withcuriofities of different kinds.
Anionic thefe are the figures of the kings of England oiihorfe-
back, chiefly drefled in the ancient armour. In the Jewel Of-
fice are preferved the imperial regalia, and all the crown jewels
worn by princes and princefics at coronations. Independently
of feveral, which are ineftimable, the value of the precious
ftones and plate in this office confiderably exceeds two mil-
lions flcrling. Thefe, as well as the government of the
whole Tower, are entrufted to thu care of an officer, called the
conftable of the Tower, who has under him a lieutenant, de-
puty-lieutenant, tower-major, gentleman porter, and a num-
ber of inferior officers. The garriion is compofed of a detach-
ment from the guards. The rifing ground adjacent to the

Tower

LONDON.

Tower is called Tower-liill. The right of the city to this fpot
was long difputed by the ci'Own, but in the roign of Edward
III., feme of the king's officers having eredted a gallows
here, the citizens remonftrated, whereupon that monarch
iffued a proclamation, which he difavowed in the aft, and
virtually acknowledged the city's jurifdiftion, by delivering
over the perfons about to be executed to the flieriffs ; and
defiring that they (hould prefi Je at their execution. On the
fcite of the old viftualling office, to the eaft of the Tower,
an extenfive building has been lately erefted from defigns by
Mr. Smirke, jun. for the Mint. It is cempofed of a long
front of ftone, confiding of a ground-floor, with two (lories
above ; the whole furmounted by a handfome baluftrade.
The wings are ornamented with pilafters, and in the centre
are feveral demi-coliimns, over which is a pediment, decorated
with the arms of England. The porch is covered with a
gallery, baluftrades, &c. all of the Doric order. Adjoin-
ing are houfes for the principal officers.

Mnnfion-hoiife. — This building, the refidence of the lord
mayor of London, is iituated to the weft of Lombard-
ftreet and Coi-nhill. It is of an oblong form, and con-
ilrufted of Portland ftone. From its maffive ftyle and vail
extent, it is calculated to make a magnificent appearance,
but the efFeft is deilroyed by its confined fituation. A wide
and lofty portico, compofcd of fix fluted pillars of the
Corinthian order, with two pilafters at each fide of their
pediment, of the fame order, form the chief ornament of
the front. Under this portico is a low bafement ftorv, in
the centre of which is the gate-way leading to the kitciien
and o£Eces. A flight of fteps afcends to the principal en-
trance door-way beneath the portico. Thefe flairs are in-
clofed by a ftone baluftrade, continued along the whole
length of the front. The pediment of the portico is
adorned with a piece of fculpture emblematical of the
wealth and grandeur of the city. In the centre is a fe-
male figure reprefenting the city, having a wand in her
right hand, and her left refting on the city arms. On her
head is a mural crown, and under her left foot a figure of
Envy. Near her on the right is a cupid, with the cap
of liberty affixed to a fhort ftafT, leaning on his fhoulder,
and beyond him reclines a fea god, to reprefent the
Thames, having at his fide an anchor fattened to a cable.
To the left of London is Plenty, with a cornucopia, and
behind her two naked boys, with bales of goods to denote
Commerce. The weft fide of this edifice prefents a range
of very noble windows, placed between coupled Corinthian
pilafters. Its interior exhibits a fufficient degree of fplen-
dour, but is far from being comfortable, as many of the
rooms are dark. Some of the apartments are very large,
and fitted up in a; fumptuous ftyle ; particularly the Egyp-
tian hall, the ball-room, &c.

Commercial Hall. — It has long been a complaint in tlie
city that fome refpeftable place of general accommodation
v/as wanted for the difpofal of imported merchandize, but
principally for that of colonial producer Several attempts
have been made to remedy this defeft, but without fuccefs.
About a year ago, Meffrs Smith, Marten, and St. Barbe
called a meeting of merchants and brokers, in order to efta-
bh(h an inftitution for this purpofe. A large fubfcription
wasraifed almoft inftantly, and as foon as a plot of ground,
fufficiently large, and in a fuitable fituation, could be pro-
cured, a number of plans were fnbmitled by different archi-
tects, from an examination and comparifon of which, a new
defign was formed and carried into execution under the direc-
tion of J. Woods, jun. whom the committee chofe for their
architeft. The original intention of the eftabliftiment was

Vol. XXI.

principally for the accommodation of public fales, but it
has been extended to provide equal conveniences for fale by
private contraft ; and thus to form a complet" market for
lugar, cotton, coftee, tobacco, indigo, and other imported
goods.

The building is compofed of two principal parts. The
front confifts of an entirely new edifice, 64' feet long, and ?o
feet broad, with a ftone front, ornamented with fix columns
of the Ionic order, adopted, with little variation, from the
temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene. Thefe columns are
fupported on pedeftals, which reft on the cornice of an in-
ferior order, compofed not of columns but of piers, whofe
fquarenefs and fclidity form a contrail with the Lghter and
more varied proportions of the columns above. This order of
piers forms the ground ftory of the building. The fpaces be-
tween the pedeftals are filled up with balufters, and above the
windows, which are large and fuited to the fcale of the
building, are five bas-rehefs, executed in artificial ftone by
Bubb : the middle compartment reprefenting the city of
London, the four others, Navigation, Commerce, Agricul-
ture, and the Arts. The whole of the ground floor of this
edifice is occupied by a magnificent coffee-room, at one end
of which, between two columns, appear the ilairs leading
to two public fale-rooms, one cf whicii is about 35 feet by
30, and again on the upper floor to three more falc-rooms,
each about 25 by 20 feet.

The fecond building formerly confiftcd of three houfes,
which are now thrown into one : the lower floors are divided
into a number of counting-houfes, the upper into five (how-
rooms, the largeft of which, fixty feet long, is appropriated
for the exhibition of goods intended for fale.

Particular attention has been paid to the lights in thefe
rooms, and by a fucceffion of fky-lights Hoping to the north
the perfect light of day is admitted, and the fu;i;;fFeclually
excluded. The fpace between thefe buildings, and that be-
hind the latter on the ground-floor, is occupied by a number
of rooms hghted in the fame way, all of wliich are intended
for the fale of fugars.

The objeft of this building is the attainment of public
convenience ; by bringing into one point what before had
been fcattered among feveral coffee-houfes, and the rooms of
individuals.

Eafl India Houfe, — This edifice is fituated on the fouth
fide of Leadenhall-ftreet, and comprifes the principal offices
of the Eaft India Company. It was originally founded in
the year 1726, but has recently been fo much altered and
enlarged, under the fuperintendance of Mr. .Tupp, architeft
to the company, as to appear like an entire new building.
The front, compofed of ftone, is very extenfi\'e, and dif.
plays a general air of grandeur and fimplicity. In the cen-
tre rifes a noble portico, fupported by fix Ionic fluted co-
lumns. The frieze is fculptured with a variety of antique
ornamenf;, and the pediment exhibits feveral figures emble-
matical of the commerce of the compariy, protected by his
majefty, who is reprefented in the aft of extending a fhield
over them. On the apex of the pediment is placed a
ftatue of Britannia, to the eaft of which is a figure of Afia,
and on the weil another of Europe. The interior can
boaft of feveral very noble apartments, particularly the fale-
room, which may be juftly reckoned among the curiofi-
ties of the metropolis. In this houfe tlie courts of the Eaft
India Company are held, and all its oflicial and geoeral
bufinefs tranfafted. Several large and commodious ware-
houfes are diflributed in different parts of the towns, where
teas and other imported goods are depofited. See Com-
pany, Eaft India.

T r Tii

LONDON.

ne London Afoiiument. — This noble pillar, perhaps the
finelt in the world, Hands on the call lide of Filh-llreet-hill,
about two hundred yards from the north end of Londo«
bridge. It was ereClcd by the celebrated lir Chrillopiicr
Wren, to commemorate the dreadful lire of 1666, which
dellroyed a great part of the city, and commented near this
fpot. This monument is a fluted column of the Doric order,
withabafeand capital, furmounted by a ball. Its diame-
ter at the bafe is fifteen feet. The malfy pedeHal meafnres
4ofeet,.the column 120, the cone above it, witli its urn, 42,
fo that the entire height of the pillar is ?02 feet. The in-
terior contains a flight of 345 Heps, afceudinji to a bal-
cony, from which the vifuor has a very exteiifive prof-
peft of tiie metropolis and the adjacent, country. The
obfcure fituation of this beautiful and m.ijeftic pillar is
much to be lamented, for were it placed in a confpicuous
pofition, it would form a great and linking ornament to the
metropolis.

T/ji Po/l-OJice' is fituated in an area on the fouth fide of
Lombard-ilrcet. As a building, it is not only unworthy of
notice, but when the importance and magnitude of its con-
cerns are confidered, is really a difgrace to th'> country
and the metropolis. Such an important ellablidiment Ibould
be well and properly accommodated. As a national inftitu-
tion, however, it deferves particular attention, being per-
haps the moll perfed fyllem of internal economy, of its
kind, in the world : it keeps up a conllant communica-
tion, direftly or indireftly, with every town in the united
kingdom, as well as with every foreign port in the moil re-
mote degree conneded with the Britilh empire. It polTeffes
likewife the double advantage of being incalculably ufeful
to individuals, and affording a large revenue to the govern-
ment. Indeed, of all the means of finance any miniller ever
employed, it is beyond companion the bell ; while at the
fame time it may juilly be regarded as the foul ol commerce.
The prefeiit poll-office was built in 1 760, but fince that time
great additions have been made to the building. At the
commencement of the poll-ofilce fyllem, the whole was
veiled in private ptrfons, and was irregular, defeat ive, and
infecure. A few years back a very import:.nt plan was fug-
gefted by Mr. Palmer, of conveying letters to all parts of
the kingdom by means of mail couclies ; whereby a fpeedy
communication,, and fccurity from robbery were effected.
See M-ML CoACHKs, and Post-ofiIce.

Thel'rinity HouJ'c. — On the north fide of Tower-hill is a
large, handlbme, regular buildini)-, which was erefted irom
dehgns by Samuel Wyatt, architcft. The chief bufinefs
of the Trinity-houfe corporation, which was founded in
151 2, is conduced here, though the old eftabliflied lioufe is
at Deptford. The corporation confills of one mailer, four
wardens, eight affillants, and tweuly-cieht elder brethren,
who are ftvled " the guild, or fraternity of the moH glorious
and undivided Trinity, and of St. Clement, in the parifli of
Deptford-Strond, in the county of Kent." The objecl of
tliis corporation is to fuperintei.d and guard the interells of
the Britilli fliipping, both military and commercial. Tlieir
powers are exlei.five ; and their objeds important. They
have to examine the children who are inftrufted in mathema-
tics in Chrift's liofpital ; examine the mailers of the king's
fliips ; appoint pilots for the Thames ; eredl light-houfcs and
fca-marks in the Britilb feas ; grant hcentes to poor fea-
men who are not free of the city, to ply for fares on the
Timmes ; fuperintend the deepening and cleanfing of the
river, &c. The Trinity-houfe contains fome handforne
apartments, particularly the hall, the Hair-cafe, and tlie
•ourt-room ; in one of wlach is a fine uiodel of the "lio

called the Royal William ; alfo portraits of twenty-four of
the elder brethren, and of other eminent perfons.

The Lumilic HnfpUal, called St. Luke's, in Old-flreet, a
large pile of building, was credled from defigns by George
Dance, who alio built the prifons of Newgate and the
city Compter. In all tliefe he manifeiled much ilvill and
judg.ment ; but there is a great want of both in the new
front.

The Guildhall of t!ie city is a piece of architcftural
ablurdity. — it is appropriated to the chief public offices
of the corporation of London . the principal of thefe is
the great hall, • 153 feet long, by 48 broad and ^t, high,)
in which the large city fealls are held, where public meet-
ings areaffembied, and the lord-mayor and members of par-
liament elerted. Here are feveral portraits of fovereigns,
judges, lord-mayors, &c. ; alfo large marble monuments to
the julUy elleemed lord-mayor, Becklord, the great lord
Chatham, &c. Behdes the hall, the follovring offices are
included in the prefent buildinij; ; chamberlain's-office, the
court of kmg's bench, in v\'hich the lord-mayor's court and
feffions of the peace for the city are lield ; a court of common
pleas, and court of exchequer ; a court, called common coun-
cil chamber, for the lord-mayor, aldermen, and common
council. Attached to the Guiidhall is an ol^l chapel, which
formerly belonged to a religious eltablilhment, but is now
ufed as ajuftice-room for the aldermen.

The Bank of England, an immenfc pile of building, is more
extenfive in its range of offices, and more eminent for its ar-
chiteflural adornment and interior arrangement, than any
fingle pubhc edifice in the metropoUs : for Somerfet-houfe,
or place, confills of various offices, dwelling. honfes, &c.
It prefenta an irregular and incongruous medley of llyles
and forms ; having been built at various periods by three dif-
ferent architects. The oldeft part^ i.e. thecentreof the prin-
cipal, or fouth front, with fome apartments on the fame fide,
was deligned and ereSed by George Sampfoii, in the year
1733 : and the lateral wings of this facade, and the returns
OH the ealt and well fides, with feveral offices immediately
attached, were built by fir Robert Taylor, between 1770
and 1786 : but the great alterations and additions that have
been made fince the year 1788 by Mr. Soane, eonftitute the
prominent features of this noble edifice. It would occupy
a volume to dcftribe the whole arrangement and extent of
tlie bank : it mull luffice on the prefent occafion to mention
a few of its leading charafterillics. The whole buildings--
are included in an area of an irregular form, the exterior
wall of which mealures 365 feet in front, or on the fouth
fide ; 440 feet ou the well fide ; 410 feet on the north fide,
and 24) feet on the eall fide. This area comprifes eight
open courts, one rotunda, or circular room, feveral large
public offices, committee rooms, and private apartinei;ts
for the refidence of officers and fervants. The principal fuite
of rooms is on iho ground-floor, and there is no floor over
the chief offices ; but it is neceffary to Hate, that beneath
this floor, and even below the furface of the groui.d, there
is more building, and more rooms than above-ground. Part
of the edifice is raifed on a niarfhy, foft foil, for the ftreain
called Wallbrooke ran here, and it has been necellary to pile
the foundation, and conllrucl counter arches beneath the
walls. The following is a iill of the principal public rooms,
vvidi their dimenfions : on the fouthern fide, dividendrpay
office, 44 by 40 feet ; the three per cent, reduced office,
50 by 40 feet ; pay-hall, 40 by 70 feet ; llock-office, 60 by
4^ feet : three others of nearly the fame dimeiifions ; the
rotunda, ^$ feet in diameter ; the confol office, 80 feet
by 48, is a noble room ; court-room, 60 by 30 feet, ad-

I joining

n

LONDON.

joining vvhicti is tlie CJfeat committpe ronm ; ofTicc for notes
under 9/., 60 by 40 feet ; and the chief c:i(hipr's ofiico,
4^ by 30 feet. Belides thefe, the Bunk contains many other
offices and apartments : amon,fr which may be named llie fe-
cretary's office, bullion office, deputy governor's rooms,
peneral cafti-book office, out-teller's office, land-tax re-
demption office, loan, or property office, drawinp; office,
accomptant's office for the new fpecic, cheque office, re-
duced annuity office, dividend pay-office, armoury, bank-
note printing-office, engraver's rooms, the library, Src.
Such is the extenfive bufinefs of the bank, that above 1000
perfons are emoloyed in its various offices. Of the architec-
tural charaifterillics of -this edifice, its extent, arrangement,
and adaptation to the arcunr.ilated and iiie.eafing bufinefs of
the BritilTi bank, it will be impoffible to convey fatisfadory
information, in a limited fpace, and without illullrative
prints. We can only briefly defcribe a few of the principal
features. The oldeft part by Sampfon, combines a degree of
fimplicity united with grandeur ; and was admirably adapted
to its oricrinal purpofe. It be/poke the charaftcr of a pub-
lic edifice, with a rich and appropriate ilyle of delign.
The whole afTumed an air of dignity and importance, with
a fufficiency of ornament and drefs. On a rullicated bafe-
mentaretwo (lories vs-ith Ionic columns, and a bold entabla-
ture. An uniformity of character pervades the whole. With
f'jch a model before him, it is alloniffiing that fir Robert
Taylor did not defign his additions in the fame ftyle, or in
one that harmonized with it : but it feems evident that
he did not feel or appreciate the charms of fimplicity.
He preferred prettincfs to propriety, and gaiety to gran-
deur, and therefore defigned the wings, with the offices
immediately attached, in the moft gorgeous llyle of Ro-
man architeSure. Corinthian fluted columns, arranged in
pairs, are placed along the whole front, fupporting pe-
diments at both extremities, and a baluftraded entablature
between.

In this facade, the arcliiteft'has copied a building of Bra-
mantes in the Belvidere gardens at Rome ; but this very
circumltance impeaches his tafte and judgment. For though
the ftvle and defign might have been appropriate and judi-
cious in a fmall ornamental building, it is very abfurd in a
great national itrufture, where folidity, fecurity, and fimple
grandeur were required. The four and five p.T cent. _ftock
offices are truly difgufting, as works of art ; and aifo very
defective as rooms for bufinefs. They are both exatl imi-
tations of the interior of the church of St. Martin's-in-the-
Fields. Tlie forms and proportions of the exterior columns
much excite our admiration. In the additions and improve-
ments made to the bank by Mr. Soane, fince liis appoint-
ment in 17S8, we find many novelties in defign, and flcilful
appropriations. The rotunda is a fpacious circular room,
with a lofty dome ; where a large and heterogeneous mafs
<if perfons of all nations and ciafies aifemble on public days
to buy and fell itock. The defign and conilruftion of the
dome, by the lail named architect, are entitled to the par-
ticular notice and admiration of fl:rangers. In the three
per cents, warrant office, the lame profound arti.l has dil-
plaved much talte and (1-cill. It is an oblong room, with a
vaulted ceiling fpri-nging from ornamented piers ; and in the
centre is a handfome dome, or lanthorn light, fupported by
caryatides. The foffites of the arches are decorated with pan-
nels, rofes, and other objefts in ftricl conformity to the
practice of the ancient arciiitedls. It is worthy of remark,
that the whole is conftrufted without timber. Branching
from this apartment is anotlier, called the inferior office,
adiipted to clerks whofe bufinefs is to guard againll forgery.

It opens to I.othbury court, which is a grand difplay of
architeftural defign, two fides of it being formed by open
fcreens, with liandfome fluted co'umrts of the Corinthian
order. Thefe are copied from the little temple at Tivoli.
On the fouthern fide of this court is a noble arch of
entrance to the bullion court, and to other offices. This
arch and fa5ade are defigned after the model of tlie cele-
brated triumphant arch of Conftantine at Rome. On the
fides of the great archway, are four handfome fluted co-
lumns, fupporting an entablature, and four itatues emble-
matic of the four quarters of the globe. In pannels are
baffo-relievi, executed by that great mafter of fculpture.
Bank?, allcgorically reprcfcnting the Thames and Ganges.
The chief cafhier's office is a noble apartment, in the defign
of which the architeft has again (liewn his enthufiaftic at-
tachment to claffical antiquity. It is in imitation of the
temple of the fun and moon at Rome, and is fpacious,
fimple in decoration, and cheerfully lighted by large and
lofty windows. In the accomptant's office, governor's-
court,veftibule,and pafTage from Prince's-ftreet, and recefied
portico at the north-wellcrn angle, are fome fpecimens of
architeflural defign, which mull excite the admiration of
every accomplifhed connoilleur. In all thefe parts we
recognize the forms, ilyle, and detail of the beft antique
fpecimens, carefully adapted to their refpetlive fituations,
and calculated to gratify the eye and fatisfy the judgment.
Stability is certainly the moll effential objeft in fuch a
building ; but beauty and grandeur are equally deferving
of attention ; for the Britifli bank is rich, its proprietors
are prefumed to be men of learning and fcience, and under
their aufpiccs we are entitled to look for fuch a-tions and
fuch works as (hall be ornamental and honourable to the
charafter and tade of the kingdom. In the great enlarge-
ments that have been recently made in the prelent building,
it is evident, that the architcft has been particularly atten-
tive to the immediate bufinefs of the company, the fecurity
of their property from fire and depredation, and'a chaile,
claffical (lyle of embellifiiment. Thefe remarks and de-
fcriptions are the relult of a recent examination of the build-
ing.

Places of Worfbtp. — London is didinguifhed by the num.
ber and variety of its places of worfhip. It contains 116
churches of the edablidied religion ; above 80 chapels of
eafe on the eftablifhment, in parilhes where the population
is too great for their refpedtive churches ; 1 1 Roman Catho-
lic chapels ; 1 7 churches and chapels belonging to foreign
Protedants ; fix fynagogues of the Jews ; and 132 meeting-
houfes of the diflcrciit denominatious of Englilh Protedant
diflenters.

Of the 116 churches above-mentioned, 74 are within
the walls of the city, 10 in London, without the walls,
nine in the city and liberties of Wedminder, five in the
borough of Southwark, and 18 in the fubiirbs, not in-
cluded in thefe ciafies. Of thefe we can only particularife
a few ; for dcfcriptions of the whole would require a large
volume. Pre-eminent above all the buildings ot tUe metro-
pohs, is the

Cathedral Church of St. Paul, which holds the mod
didinguilhed rank among the modern works of architefture
in the Britilh empire. The original cathedral was com-
menced in the year 610, by Ethelbert, king of Kent, and
the l5uilding, with 11 s revenues and privileges, were greatly
increafcd by fucceeding fovereigns. This llruflure was
dcdroyed by a conflngratirn in -1086; after which, Maurice,
then bidiop, commenced the magnificent edifice which im-
mediatcLy preceded the prefent cathedral. So great wrs
T t 3 the

LONDON.

the magnitude of the building, tliat neither Maurice, nor his
fuccefTor Dc Belmcis, were able to complete the under-
taking, though each of them prefided twenty years, and
expended great funis in the profecution of it ; the latter pre-
late appropriated the w^olc revenue of his birtiopric to car-
rying on the work, and fupported himfelf and family by
other means. After his death the building was for fome
time fufpended, Hnd the ealtern part, or choir, was burnt in
the year 1 1 3 j. At what period it was i-eftored is uncer-
tain ; the grand ceremony of confccratiou was performed in
1240; large additions were afterwards made to the flruc-
tUre, and it was not till the year 1315 that the church was
entirely completed ; being 22J years from the time of its
foundation by Maurice. This ancient cathedral mud al-
ways be regarded as one of the great works of architefture
of the middle ages ; in dimcnlions it far exceeded every
other rehgious edifice in this country ; and it is reprefented
by hillorians as equally pre-eminent in magnilicence and
fplcndour of ornament. (For an account of this edifice, fee
Dugdale's Hiftory of St. Paul's.) In the reign of .lames I.,
the cathedral liaving fallen to decay, a royal commiflion was
ifl'ued for its repair; but nothing of confcquence was^done
till the advancement of Laud to the fee of London, in the
fucceeding reign. This prelate exerted himfelf zealoufly in
favour of the neglefted building ; a fubfcription was col-
lected to the amount of 101,330/. 4J. 8^/. ; and Inigo Jones
was appointed to fuperintcnd the undertaking. He com-
menced his operations in 1633 ; and the work went rapidly
OH till the breaking out of the civil war threw all things
into confuiion, and the parhament confifcated the unex-
pended money and materials. After tlie reftoration, the
repairs were again commenced ; but after muv;h labour and
expence, the great conflagration in 1666, deftroyed the
chief part of the building, and irreparably damaged the
remainder. Still, however, the magnitude of the work,
and the contemplation of the vaft expence of building a
new cathedral, occafioned a lapfe of feveral years before it
was finally determined that all attempts at rep?.ration were
hopelefs. The impradlicability of reftoring the ancient
church being now apparent. Dr. (afterwards lir) Chrifto-
pher Wren, was ordered to prepare plans for a new cathe-
dral. The pulling down the rem'aining walls of the old
ftrudure, and the removal of the rubbifh to the amount of
47,000 loads, proved exceffively laborious as well as danger-
ous, and feveral men were ki:led in the progrefs of the
work. This being completed, the firft ftone of the Hew
edifice was laid June 21, 1675 > """^ ''^^ defign was profe-
cuted with fuch diligence and fuccefs, that within ten years
the walls of the choir and fide aifles were finiflied, together
with the circular porticoes on the north and fouth fides.
The laft or highell ftone of the building was laid at the top
of the lantern in the year 1710 ; and (hortly afterwards the
queen and both houfes of parliament attended divine fervice
in the new cathedral. The whole -Irufture was thus com-
pleted in ihiity-five years, by one architeft, fir Chriftopher
Wren, and one mailer mafon, Mr. Thomas Strong, and
Vhile one prelate, Dr. Henry Compton, filled the fee of
London.

The general form or ground plan of St. Paul's cathedral
is that of a Latin crofs, with an additional arm or tranfept
at the weft end, to give breadth to the principal front, and
a femicircular projeftion at the eatt end f"r the altar. At
the extremities of the principal tranfept are alfo femicircular
projeclions for porticoes ; and at the angles of the crofs are
fquare projeftions, which, befides containing ftaircafes,
Tfeftries, &c. fcrve as irameufe buttreffes to the dome, which

rifps from the interfeftion of the nave and tranfept, and is
terminated by a lantern, furmounted by a ball and crofs of
copper gilt. The weft front of this fabric confifts of a noble
portico of two orders, the Corinthian and the Compofite,
reftinc; on a bafement formed by a double flight of Heps,
of black marble, and furmounted by a fpacious pediment.
On each fide is a tower, with columns, &c. ; one ferving
as a belfrey, the other as the clock-tower. In the tym-
pan of the pediment is a very large piece of fculpture,
in baflo-rclievo, of the converfion ot St. Paul ; and on
the apex a gigantic ftatue of the fame apoftle ; whilft
on either hand, along the fummit of the front, are other
colofTal ftatucs of St. P^cter, St. .Tames, and the four
evangelifts. Lar^ llatues of the other apollles are placed
upon pediments on the fide walls of the fabric. The
dome is the moft remarkable and magnificent feature of
the building. It rifes from a circular bafement, which,
at the hciglit of about twenty feet above the roof of the
church, gives place to a Corinthian colonnade, formed by
a circular range of thirty columns. Above the colonnade,
but not refting upon it, rifes an auic ttory with pilafters
and windows, from the entablature of which fprings the
exterior dome, which is covered with lead, and ribbed at re-
gular intervals. Round the aperture, at its fummit, is
another gallery ; and from the centre rifes the ftone lantern,
which is furrounded with Corinthian columns, and crowned
by the ball and crofs.

In its interior form, this edifice is entirely conftrufted on
the plan of the ancient catliedrals, viz. that of a long crofs,
having a nave, choir, tranfepts, and fide aifles ; but, in place
of the lofty tower, the dome in this building rifes in elevated
grandeur from the central interfettion. The architectural
detail is in tlie Roman ftyle, fimple and regular. The piers
and arches, which divide the nave from the fide aifles, arc
ornamented with columns and pilafters of the Corinthian and
Compofite orders, and are further adorned with fliield?, fef-
toons, chaplets, cherubim, &c. l"he vaulting of this part
of the church merits great praife for its light and elegant
conftruftion : in this, each fevery forms a low dome, fup-
ported by four fpandrils ; the bafe of the dome being en-
circled by a rich wreath of artificial foliage. The central
area below the dome dcferves particular attention : this is
an oftagon, formed by eight maflive piers, with their cor-
rellative apertures, four of which, being thofe that termi-
nate the middle aifles, are forty feet wide, while the others
are only twenty-eight ; but ihis difparity only exifts as high
as the firft order of pilafters, at which level the fm.all.r
openings are expanded in a peculiar manner, fo that the main
arches are all equal. The fpandrils between the arches
above form the area into a circle, which is crowned by a
large cantilever cornice, partly fnpporting by its prrjeftion
the *' whifpering gallery." At this level commences the
interior tambour of the dome, which confills of a high pc-
dettal and cornice, forming the l-.afement to a range of
apparently fluted pilafters of the Compofite order, the in-
tervals between which are occupied by twenty-four windows
and eight niches ; all this part is incline^ forward, fo as to
form the fruftum of a cone. Above, from a double plinth,
over the cornice of the pilafters, fprings the internal dome ;
the contour .being compofed of two fcgments of a circle,
which, if not interrupted by the opening beneath the lan-
tern, would have interfered at the apex. The dome, the
idea of which was confeflTedly taken from the pantheon at
Rome, is of brick, two bricks thick ; but, as it rifes, at
every five feet has a courfe of brick, of eighteen inches
long, bending through the whole thicknefs : for greater fe-

curity

Hif.

LONDON.

curity alfo, in the girdle of Portland ftonc which encircles
the low part, an enormous double chain of iron, llrongly
linked together, and weighing nearly 96 ciut.y was inferted
in a channel, which was afterwards filled up with lead. Over
this cupola is a cone of brick, fo built as to fupport a Hone
lantern of an elegant tigure. The choir is of the fame form
and architcftural ftyle as the body of the church.

The dimenfions of this vail fabric are, height from the
ground without to the top of the crofs 540 feet, extreme
length within 500 feet, greatefl: breadth 223 feet. The
entire afcent to the ball includes 616 fteps. The weight
of the ball, which is capacious enough to contain eight per-
fons, is j6oo lbs. ; and that of the crofs, 3360 lbs. For
a more particular defcription of this edifice, with plan of
the fubftrufture, elevation of the weft front, feftion of the
dome, and north-eaft view of the exterior, fee " Fine Arts
of the Enghfh School." 4to. 1812.

The particular objecls of curiofity which are comprifed
in this church, and generally fliewn to ftrangers, are the
whifpering gallery, which encircles the interior of the lower
part of the dome, and is fo con!lru(liled, that a low whifper
breathed againft the wall, in any part of the circle, may be
heard on theoppofite fide; the library, chiefly remark-
able for the floor, which is conftri'.dled with fmall pieces
of oak, difpofed in geometrical figures ; the beautiful
model, conftruCted by fir Chriflopher Wren ; the geo-
i.' metrical ftaircafe, the fineft fpecimen of the kind in Great
Britain ; the clock, and great bell on which it ftrikes.
The clock is of great magnitude : the length of the mi-
nute-hand is eight feet, and its weight 75 lbs. ; the hour-
hand five feet four inches, and its weight 44 lbs. ; the dia-
meter of the dial is eighteen feet ten inches ; the length
of the hour-figures two feet two inches and a half; the
bell is about ten feet in diameter, and its weight nearly four
tons and a quarter.

About the year 1 790 a fcheme was fuggefted, and has
been happily carried into effect, for breaking the mono-
tonous uniformity of the architeftural mafles in the interior
of the cathedral. This was done by admitting large and
noble monuments for eminent public perfons deceafed.
Thefe may with ftrift propriety be termed national, as com-
memorative of Britifh virtues, talents, or heroifm. Statues
are already erefted for Mr. Howard the philanthropift. Dr.
Johnfon, and fir William Jones. Here are alfo monuments
for generals Abercromby and Dur.das,and for captains MofFe,
Riou, Weftcott, Burgefs, and Faulknor. Others are now
erefting for marquis Cornwallis, lord Howe, and lord Nel-
fon. The latter is interred in the vault under the centre of
the building ; and near him, his friend lord Collingwood.
Among other eminent charatlers who have been depofited
in thefe vaults, are fir Chriftopher Wren ; Dr. Newton,
late bifhop of Briftol ; Alexander Wedderburn, earl of
Rofiljn; fir John Braithwaite ; fir Jofhua Reynolds, pre-
fident of the Royal Academy ; and two other eminent
artifts, James Barry and John Opie, efqrs.

Although the churches in London are moftly plain, ordi-
nary in architefture, and in obfcure fituations, yet a few
of them are entitled to the notice and admiration of a
ftranger. That of St. Stephen Walbrooke, built by fir
Chriftopher Wren, is very fmall, but is juftly efteemed for
its novelty of defign and architectural adornment. " The
plan is original, yet fimple ; the elevation furprifing, yet
chafte and beautiful ; the dome, fupported by eight arches,
fpringing from eight fingle columns, is wonderfully light and
fcenic in its effeft." (Malton's Pidurefque Tour, p. 76.)
Over the altar is a fine pifture reprefenting the interment

of St. Stephen, by Weft. The following churches and
towers have claims to architectural beauty, or fcientific
merit. The tower and fpire of Bov.--church, in Cheapfide,
by fir Chriftopher Wren ; the tower of St. Michael's, in
Cornhill ; the tower and fpire of St. Bride's, in Fleet-
ftrect ; the church of St. Mary, called the New church, in
the Stra-nd, by James Gibbs ; the church of St. George,
in Bloomftjury, by N. Hawkfmoor, built in 1731 ; the tower
and fpire cf St. Dunftan in the Eaft, by lir Chriftopher
AVren ; and the churcU of St. Paul, Covent Garden, by
Inigo Jone?.

Members of Parliament. — The city of London has no more
weight in the legiflative rcprefentation of the kingdom,
than two fmall boroughs which are the property of an in-
dividual. It fends four reprefentatives to parhament, who
are chofen, not by the inhabitant houfehoiders at large, but
by the livery of the feveral companies. The right of elec-
tion was anciently veftcd in the freemen of the city, which
gave rife to many contefts between the freemen and livery ;
till an aft of parliament, pafted in the eleventh year of
George I., decided the queftion, and gave a peremptorv
right to the livery only. To be pofleffed of this elective
franchise, a man muft have previoufly obtained his free-
dom of the city, and alfo of one of the trading compa-
nies, either by patrimony, fervitude, or purchafe ; and
muft afterwards be admitted to the hvery of his com-
pany. The prefent number of clcftors is about ei-^ht
thoufand, which is not above a third part of the number
of inhabitant houfekeepers. The eleftions are held in
Guildhall, and the flieriffs are the returning officers. The
city fent two members to parliament as early as 49 Henry
III. The number was increafed to four, 6 Edward II. :
in that and the fucceeding reign, four were frequently fent ;
but fince 43 Edward III., this number has been uniformly
returned.

Inns of Court and Chancery. — The defign of thefe efta-
bhfhments having been curforily noticed under IxNS, it
may be proper here to f.ibjoin feme further particulars rela-
tive to each. The inns of court in London are the Iiiner
Temple, the Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's
Inn ; but there are feveral other places called inns, which
are appendages to the former. The Temple, belonging to
the two focieties of the Inner and Middle Temple, is an im-
meufe affemblage of buildings, extending from Fleet-ftreet
to the Thames ; and from Lombard-ftreet, White-friars, to
Effex-ftreet in the Strand. It derives its name from a re-
ligious houfe, which was founded by the Knights Templars,
who were ciufaders ; and, in the beginning of the- twelfth
century, formed themfelves into a military body at Jeru-
falera, for the proteftion of the pilgrims who vifited the
holy fepukhre. On the difTolution of the order, the Temple
was granted to the Knights Hofpitallers of St. John of Jc-
rufalem ; ar.d by them it was let for 10/. per annum to the
ftudents of the law, whofe fucccffors ftili pofl'efs it. (See
Hospitallers and Te.mplars.) The Temple is an ir-
regular buildicg : in Fleet-ftreet are two entrances, one to
the Inner and one to the Middle Temple ; the latter has a
front, in the ftyle of Inigo Jones, of brick, ornamented with
four large ftone pilafters, of the Ionic order, wirh a pedi-
ment. There are four other entrances ; but the gates of all
are fhut at night. The garden of the Inner Temple is of
great extent, and is laid out on the banks cf the Thames,
with fpacious walks, &c. The Middle Temple has alfo a
garden, but fmall: both are open to the public in fummer.
The hall of the' Middle Temple is a fpacious and curious
room : the Inner Temple hall, which is fmaller, is oma-
1 1 racnted

LONDON.

nnenled with the portraits of fevcral of the Judges. Each
fock-ty hns a good hbrary for the ufe of its ftudents. In the
trcafury cliambcr of tlie Middle Temple is preferved a great
quantity of ancient armour, which belonged to the Knights
Teinplars. The Temple cluirch belongs in common to
both fociirties, and is open for divine fervice twice every day.
The Knights Templars built a church qn this fcite, which
being deilroyed, the prefcnt edifice was ercfted by the
Knights Hofpita'lers. It is in the early pointed and late
circular ftyles of architefture, and,conlills of two diftinft
parts : at the we'.K-rn end is a fpacious round tower or velli-
b'.ile, forming a grand and fingular entrance to the church.
In this are the (Isttues of eleven Knights Templars. The
organ io elteemed one of the tineft in the world. Since the
time of Henry VIII. the fuperior clergyman of this church
is called the mailer of the Temple, ai»d is fo conftitutcd by
the king's letters patent. For an account of this church,
with ground plan and printf, fee Britton's Architetlural
Antiquities of Great Britain, vol. i. — Lincoln's Inn is fitu-
atcd on the weft fide of Chancery-lane. On its fcite an-
ciencly ftood a lioufe of the Black friars, and the palace
of the bifliops of Chichefter. The ground was afterwards
.granted to Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom it de-
rives its name. It appears to have reverted to the bifliops ;
ior the prefent pofleiTors hold it as a grant fnSm a prelate of
that fee. Lincoln's Inn occupies a very extcnfive fpace :
the buildings are mollly old and irregular. An attempt has
-been made, but never completed, to rebuild the Inn on a
regular plan. A confiderable range, called the Stone
Building-, .faces the weft. This plan, the work of fir Ro-
•bert Taylor, is fimple and elegant in its exterior arcliitec-
■ture ; and the chambers are on a grand and commodious
fcale. In the old part of the building are the hall and
chapel ; the firft of which is a fpacious room, in which the
lord chancellor holds feals and fittings out of term. At the
.upper end is a painting by Hogarth, of St. Paul before
Feli.x. The chapel, defigned by luigo Jones, is fpacious, and
raifed on large piers and arches, which form an open area
beneath, ufed as a burial-place for benchers only. The
.chapel is open for public worfiiip.every morning and evening.
The garden, which in lummer is open to the public, u
.fpacious, and forms one of the fineft promenades within the
capital. Lincoln's Inn has a good library, which contains
a great nuniber of manufcripts ; the greater part of which
was bequeathed by lord Hale, with a fingular injuntlion,
that no part ftiuuld ever be printed. Gray's Ii'.n is fituated
on the north fide of Holborn, and derives its name frum a
lord Gray, who refided here. In this Inn is a fmall neat
chapel, a commodious hall, and an extcnfive garden, with a
grove of large elm trees. The inns pf chancery, which are
dependent on the inns of court, are Furnival's Inn, an ap-
pendai;e to Lincoln's Inn : it is fituated on the north lide
of Ho born-hill, and wjs the manfion of fir William le Fur-
neval, in the time of Ricliard II. — Thavics Inn, alfo de-
pendent on Lincoln's Im: : the old fabric having been re-
*;entfy burnt down, a neat range of buildings is ef^fted on
its fcite, which is near .St. Andrew's church. Holborn. —
Staple Inn, fituated on the fouth fide of Holborn, and an
aj);)endage to G'^ay's Inn : in the hall are cafts of the twelve
C^fars, and portraits of Charles II., queen An^e, lord
Ivlaccbsfield, and the lords chancellors Cov»per and Cam-
.<len. — Barnard's Inn, fitua^led near Fetter-lane, Holborn,
.and a dt^endfnt on Grav's Inn.— Serjeant's Inn, in Chan-
cery-lane; it has a f;nall neat chapel, with feats for t!-.e
judges — Clifford's Inn, fituated near St. Dunftan's church,
f lect-ftreet, and an appendage to the Inner Temple : in the

hall is an oak cafe, of very great antiquity.— Clement's Inn,
near St. Clement's church in the Strand, a dependent on
the Inner Temple : it contains an elegant hall, and a garden
kept with particular care, in which is a fun-dial, fupportcd
by a knechng figure of confiderable merit, brought from
Italy by lord Clare. — New Inn, adjoining to the laft men-
tioned, and an appendage to the Middle Temple. — Lyon's
Inn, fituated in Wycli Street, and belonging to the In-
ner Temple. For hiftorical and defcnptive particulars
of thefe eftablilhments and buildingf, the reader is referred
to Dugdale's "Origines Juridiciales," folio, i6So; Her-
bert's "Antiquities of the Inns of Court and Chancery,"
8vo. 1804; and Lane's " Student's Guidp to Lincoln's
Inn," 8vo.

General rerrinrh. — Before clofing this inlcrefting and im-
portant article, it feems proper to offer a very few re-
marks on the charailcriftic features of the metropolis, the
manners and condition' of its inhabitants, and the local
peculiarities by which it is diftinguiftied. Si'cli obferva-
tions, however, the reader will readily perceive muft be ex-
tremely general indeed. The fubjeft is too various and
comprchenfive to admit of full developement in a feftion,
fuch as the nature and limits of a work of this kind necef-
farily prefcribe.

The vart extent of London, and its immenfe population,
cannot fail to ftrike every vifitor with wonder and aftonifh-
ment. Eventothofe who have previoudy refided in Paris,
or in any other large city, thefe circumftances alone muft;
be matter of furprife ; for not only is this city far more ex-
tcnfive than the imperial metropolis, but it contains at leaft
400,000 more perfons. Thefe, like the inhabitants of all
great trading cities, are a heterogeneous mafs, compofed of
foreigners from every town and province of the united king-
doms, with a large portion of Jews, both native a' d foreign,
Indians, Germans, French, Italians, Spaniards, Swifs, and
people of almoft eveiy nation in the world. From its im.-
menfe trade, foreign and internal, a conftant communication
is kept up with every part of the globe, as well as with every
part of our own dominions, both at home and abroad. The
quantity of property of every defcription flowing *into the
metropolis, and diftributed from it, is immenfe. The num-
ber of ftrangers conflantly here, either on bufinefs or for
pleafure, is fuppofcd to be not lefs than 100,000. Hence
the prodigio'-S concourfe of people in the ftreets, and the
nmnber of carriages, carts, and other vehicles, continually
crowding through them, are unparalleled in any city in the
world.

London, in its iifual and more extcnfive application, con-
tains two cities, London and Weftminlter, befides the
borough of Southwark. The city of Weftminfter was for-
merly entirely detached from London, for the ftrect now
denominated the Strand was, at no very dillant period, a
fort of bog, or morafs, by which they v>ere feparated. The
mouarchs of England have, for feveral centuries, fixed upon
this city as their court relidence, and the feat of the legifia-
tive and judicial authorities. This portion of modern Lon-
don and its fuburbs have extended with more rapidity th^.n
any other diftrift of the town. Its buildings are in a
much fuperior ftyle of architeflure, and mere open and
regular in their dillributio^ and arrangement, than thofe in
the city of London. They are chiefly inhabited by the
nobility, gentry, and higher clafs of merchants, and though
perhaps even inferior in external appearance to the rell-
dences of the nobles in fome other countries, are no where
furpaffed. in internal fplendour and magnificence. Lond: n,
within the walls, is the great repolitory of the mercantile

wealth.

i

LONDON.

w«.kb, not merely of the metropolis, but of the whole
country. Hence the builciiiigs themfelves bear ample tcf-
tiraony to th? objedl tor which they were raifed. Al-
moft. every houfe is a (hop, or a couiitiiig-houfe, and fo
clofely are thev huddled together, that in many places
room is fcarcely left for the paflage of a fingle cart.
Ground is valuable, and is fally occupied. This renders
it certainly a matter of regret, and the remark is appli-
cable to every part of the town, that there exift no re-
gulations, or general plan authorized by aft of parliament,
to which all builders fliould be obliged to conform. Such
a plan, it is believed, was fugo;eiled by fir Chrillopher
Wren after the great fire in 1666, and fince by Gwynn,
in a quarto volume, entitled " London and Weftminfter
improved. Sec."

in a political point of view, London bears a mod im-
portant Iway in deciding the opinions of the country at large.
It is the centre from which all information, civil or military,
emanates. The number of newfpapers andx)tlier political
vehicles diftributed here, and hence over the united king-
dom, is prodigioudy great. The foreigner who perufes
a few of theie, cannot but be aftonilhed at the oppofite fen-
timenti they contain, and the freedom with which they
praife or cer.fure the meafures of government. This is the
confequence of liberty, and is doubtlefs one of its chief fup-
ports. The ruling magiftrate of the kingdom is not exempt
from public cenfure and critical animadverfion. At the com-
mencement of the year 1812, this is more notorious than at
any former period ; and future hiftorians will have occafion
to explain the caufe and lament the efFecl. Not only has
London a powerful influence over the political fentiments
of the country, but it has likewife no inconfiderable (hare
in direfting the conduft of the higher powers. This it
effetls in fome degree by the members it returns to par-
liament, which are Cm in number, but much more by the
influence and riches of fome of its chartered companii s,
as well as ind'viduals. The bank of England, moftly
a body of merchants, is clofely identified w'ith govern-
ment. The miniller is compelled to have rccourfe to the
citizens for fupplying the deficiences in the revenue, by
loan, all which circumftances render it neceflary for the
government to pay peculiar attention to the interefts of the
tity in general.

London may further be charaderized as the grand thea-
tre for the difplay of talents either in the arts or fciences.
It is here alone, perhaps, of all the cities in the united
kingdom, that literary ability will receive any adequate
reward. The artift of genius will likewife in general meet
here with fupport and encouragement. He will here find
the fincft produftions of the mod celebrated mailers in
every department of art, by the ftudy of which alone it
is poffible for him to attain the praife of excellence. In
London are to be feen the beil aflors, and the mod:
fplendid theatres. Great Britain can boa ft of. The talents
of the vocal and inftrumental performers at the opera and
concerts are unrivallcdl, and probably no city in Europe
pofTelTes a place of public amnfement more brilliant and
magnificent than Vauxliall. London likewife abounds with
mufeurr.s, alfo various fci-ntific, literary, and rational efta-
blifnments.

The rrerchants, bankers, and higher clalTes of tradefmen,
bear a ftrong rcfemblance in manners to the gentry vvith
whom, from their immenfe wealth, they are generally ac-
cuftomod to aflbciate. The fame wealth, and the greater fccu-
rity they pofTcfs for its enjoyment than the merchants of
other countries, ccafer upon them a fpirit of real indepen-

dence, to which the latter are totally ftrangers. From th'i
fpirit of independence many advantages have undoubtedly
arifen both to the political condition and commercial pro-
fperity of England. Reacling as it were upon the fprings of
our free conilituticn, from which it proceeds, it tends to
render them vigorous and cfiettive. Britons juftly boaft of
their trial by jury as the bulwark of their freedom, but
of what ufe would juries be, if the individuals uho
compofc them were dependent and fubmiflive. It is to
the fpirit of the people rather than to any particular
forms of adminiftratioa that a country is indebted for its
freedom.

The nobility and gentry of London are of a very dif-
ferent complexfon from the fame clafTes in other coun'ries.
They poffefs the highed polifh of manr.cr.s, but unite with
their accomphlliments a degree of man'inefs and moderation,
the refult of the freedom of the Englidi, conditiition and the
general difi^ufion of riches. A for-;igTi nobleman confiders
himfelf as a didincl fpecies of being from thofe who are his
inferior in rank and itation, and confequcntly treats them
with arrogance and contempt. An Englidi nobleman, on
the other hand, while fufiiciently confcious of his own fupe-
riority, behaves towards thofe whom fortune has placed be-
neath him with real attention and civility ; even in the ar-
ticle of drefs he is fcarcely to be diftinguiftied from the or-
dinary tradefman or mechanic, while the higher clafs of
merchants fully equals him in the fplendourof his equipages
and eilabliibments. He is almoft wholly a dranger to that
indolence which ufually refults from excelTive wealth and
hereditary title?. Even the ladies of high rank are much
lefs enervated and feeble than mod of the fame clafs abroad.
They are accullomed to much exercife, and to mix in the
psiblic world.

The beneficial operation of this fpirit on our commerce
is the confequence of that honour and integrity, which are
uniformly found to accompany elevation of mind. That
honefty is the bed policy, has long been an undifputed
dogma in commercial tranfaclions in London. Hence it is
that an Englidi merchant can often obtain credit even in
foreign countries, where it is little pradtifed, and bills of
immenfe value are fometimes cntrufted to him without re-
ceipt or acknowledgment. But thefe remarks ought not
to be confidered as applicable to the higher orders of
traders only. The fame freedom of conduA and fterling
integrity are prominent features in the character of the ge-
nerality of edablilhed fliop-keepers, particularly thofe of.
the city.

With refpedl: to phyficians, furgeons, and barriiters, they
may be ranked with the gentry, though influenced by fome
little peculiarity of habits and manners. Apotliecari s
and attornies may be clafTed with the better fort of ihop-,
keepers.

The labouring clafTes in London are uliially of indi^;-'
trious and frugal habits. Their drefs and appearance
are far more decent and refpcftable than in any other-
city in the world, and this alone is a fufficient evidence of
its great trade and wealth. The fame thing- may be faid-
of the poorer fort of fliop-keepers, wIk), from the rate
of their earnings, may be placed in the raiik of labour-
ing people. Male and female fervants, in plain and hone%
families, may likewife be thrown into this rank with a fimi-
lar charafler.

Among many cflential improvements recently made in
London, the following are worthy of notice and commenda-
tion. In the city, and at the ead end of the town, we find
that new docks have been made on a vail fcale, whereby

the

LONDON.

the property of merchants, companies, and the government
is, and will be, materially benclitcd. Many commodious
ftreets and new houfes have alfo been made in the vicinity
of thofe docks, fo that from the Tower to Limelioufe a
new town has been formed. All the great roads leadmg
to London have been much improved, and every ap-
proach to the metropolis, excepting that through the Bo-
rough, is broad, good, and flanked by handfome rows
of houfes, or detached villas. In the city, and immedi-
ately adjacent, a wide and handfome iln-et, called Skinner-
ftreet, has been entirely new built ; a handfome fquare
formed in Moorliclds, ' pther 0 reels made near Temple
Bar, feveral new buildings erected around the Bank, and
others on Tower-hill. In Mary-le-bone a new plan is ex-
ecuting of laA-ing out a large park into various allotments
of dctachtd villas, with gardens , and pleafure grounds,
by John Nalh, efq. af^chiteft. The deftruftion of the
two great theatres by fire has afforded opportunities for
much'improvement, and much h?.s been eft'cdled. North
of Holborn many new fquares and ftreets have been built,
the greater part of which has been defigned by James
Burton, efq. In fnbfequent accounts of IVIary-lebone,
Paddington', and Westminsteu, many other fubjefts will
be dofcribed.

Publications relating to London' and Wefiminfier. — Though
many volumes have been cxprefsly devoted t6the hiflory and
topography of the metropolis, it is generally admitted, and
much to be regretted, that not one work is fatibfaftory
either as a comprchenfive hiflory, or popular and general
defcription. Tlie moft elaborate, and the moll complete at
the time of publication, is Strype's edition of Stow's " Sur-
vey of London," 2 vols, folio, fixth edition, 1754: but this
is merely a reprint of a former edition of 1720. As a fort
of guide, or popular ..rcount of the prefent metropolis, " The
Pifture of London for 1812," called "the thirteenth edition,"
is beft adapted to furnifli a ftranger with a view of London 'as
it is' : but this, though admirably planned, and well exe-
cuted in parts, is replete with errors of names, dates, and
events. Many of its ftriftures are objeaionable on points of
art, tafte, and antiquities ; and one feftion on reviews and
literary criticifm is unjuft, and of injurious tendency. The
moft; eflential points of thefe two works, with much additional
information, will be comprifcd in Brayley's " London and
Middlefex ; or, An hifl;orical, commercial, and defcriptive
Survey of the Metropolis of Great Britain," now in the
progrefs of publication, and promifed to be completed in
two large oftavo volumes. The following are. the titles of
the other principal works relating to the topography of the
metropolis.

" The Hiftory of London, from its Foundation by the
Romans, to the prefent Time," by William Maitland, F.R.S.
and others, 2 vols, folio, 1765.

" A new and complete Hifl:ory and Survey of the Cities
of London and Weftminfter, the Borough of Southwark,
and Parts adjacent," to the year 1770, by Henry Chamber-
Iain, efq. and a focicty of gentlemen.

« A new Hiftory of London, including Wefl:minfl;er and
South wark," by John Noorthouck, citizen and ft^ationer,
4to. 1773.

" Repertorium Ecclefiafticum," by Newcourt,

2 vols, folio. 1708.

«' Londinopolis, or An hiftorical Difcourfe of the City
ef London," by Howell, folio, 1657.

" A pifturefque Tour through the Cities of London
and Weftminfter," by Thomas Maltou, folio, 1792.

" Londinium Redivivum, or An ancient HiHory and
modern Defcription of London," by James PtUcr Malcolm,
F.S.A. 4 vols. 410. 1807.

" Some Account of London," by Thomas Pennant, efq.
4th edition, 410. 1805.

" The Culloms of London, otherwife called Arnold's
Chronicle," new edit. 4to. 1811.

" London ; being an accurate Hiftory and Defcription
of the Britifli Metropolis, and its Neighbourhood," 6 vols.
8vo. faid to be by David Hughfon ; but really com-
piled and written by David Pugh. This mode of giving
fiftitious names is very reprehenfible.

" London and Well Tiinfter improved, with a Difcourfe
on public Magnificence," by .John Gwynn, 410. 1766.

" A critical Review of the public Buildings, Statues,
and Ornaments, in and about London and Weftminfter,"

by Ralph, architeft, a new edition, i2mo. 1783.

" A Treatise ort the Police of the Metropolis ; contain-
ing a Detail of the various Crimes and Mif iemeanors by
which public and private Property and Security are in-
jured ; and fuggcfting Remedies for their Prevention," by
P. Colqukoun, L.L.D. 8vo. Several editions have been
publidied.

" A Treatife on the Commerce and Police of the River
Thames ; containing an hiftorical View of the Trade of the
Port of London, and fuggefting Means for preve:!ting
Dcpredatibr.s thereon, &c. Witli a Map of the River
from London Bridge to Sheernefs," by P. Colquhoun,
L.L.D. 8vo.

" A Treatife on the Funftions and Duties of a Confta-
b'e ; containing interefting Details and Obfervations, rela-
tive to the Corruptions of Morals, and the Protection of the
peaceful Subjefts againft penal Offences," by P. Colquhoun,
L.L.D. 8vo.

" The Thames ; or. Graphic Illuftrations of the Seats,
Villas, &c. on the Banks of that River," 2 vols. 8vo. iSii.
chiefly a book of prints.

" The Hiftory of London and its Environs," 2 vols. 410.
publiftied by John Stockdale.

It appears from Mr. Kirwan's " Eftimate of the Tempe.
rature of different Latitudes," that from a mean of the ob-
fervations made at the houfe of the Royal Society, from the
year 1772 to 1780, the annual temperature of London is
51 .9, or in round numbers 52" ; the monthly temperature
is ftated in the following table :

January . -

35-9

February -

42.3

March

46.4

April

49-9

May

56.61

June

63.22

July

66.3

Auguft
September -
Oaober

65.85

59-63
52.81

November -
December -

44.44
41.04

The greatefl; ufual cold is 20^ and happens in January;
the greateft ufual heat is 81% and happens generally in July.
The limits of the annual variation are 2 .5, that is, i" above
and I ".5 below the mean.

The greateft variations of the mean temperature of the
fame month, in different years, are as follows :

I

January

0
6

July

0

2

February -

5

Auguft

2

March

4

September -

3-5 !

April

3

oaober -

4

May

2.5

November -

4 1

June

2

December -

3

Her.c

L O N

Hence it appears tliat the fummers differ much lefs than
"the winters.

The mod ufual variations of temperature within the
fpace of 24 hours in every month, are

January
February -
March

6
8
20

July
Auguft
September -

10
iS

April

May

June

18

H

12

Oaober -
November -
December -

9
6

Hence is feen the origi'i of vernal and autumnal colds.
Mr. Kirwan has (hewn that, propnrtionably to its lati-
tude, it is much colder in London than at Edinburgh ; for
the mean temperature of Edinburgh in .Taimary is 34° j,
and that of London is 35". 9 ; and this difference he afcribes
to the fcUowing caufcs : i!h That Edinburgh is not ex-
pofed to the Siberian winds as London is.- idly. That
. Edinburgh is nearer to the fea. jdly. The rigour of the
noi'therly winds is very little moderated, if not increafcd, in
paffing from Scotland to us, particularly if- the furfacc of
the earth is covered with fnow ; and hence, if we believe
Dr. Sir.olkt (Travels to Italy), the whiters are fometimes
milder at Edinburi;h than at London.

LovDOX, a town of America, in Ann-Arundtl county,
Maryland ; 5 miles S.W. of Annapolis.

LoSDOK, The townjhily of, is fituated in Upper Canada,
on the main fork of the river Thames, is a central pofition
from the lakes Erie, Huron, and Ontario, and oilers many
advantages for being the capital of the province. It com-
municates with lake St. Clair and the D.--troit by the river
Thames ; with lake Huron by the northern branch of the
Thames and a fmall portage, and with the Oufe and lake
Ontario by the military way called Dundas-ftreet. It
abounds with black and white walnut, cherry, bafs, elm,
hickory, beech, a^, and many other kinds of timber. It
is fupplied with excellent water, and the fituation is
bsalthy.

London Ccvt, a narrow water of Long ifland found,
which fets N. into the tn^vnfhip of New London ; 4 miles
W. of the moutli of Thames fiver.

London Harlo-.ir, a bay and harbour on the N. coaft of
the ifland of St. John, in the gulf of St. Lawrence. N. lat.
46'' 26'. W. long. 670 8'.

London, iVi-ct'. See New Lon.hn.
London Pr'id;, in Gardening, the name of a well-known
plant of the fiowcr-kind. See Sa\'IFRAG-\.

LONDONDERRY, in Gerj^raphj, a county of Ire-
land, in the province of Ul'ler. It lies to the weft of
Antrim, from which it is in a great meafure feparated by tlie
river B:inn. Lough Neagh waflies it on the fouth-eaft ; on
the fouth it has Tvror.e, from which it is feparated, in part,
by the little river Ballinderry ; on the weft it has Donegal
and Lough Foyle; and on the north, that part of the
Atlantic ocean which is fometimes called the Deucaledonian
fea. A great part of it was given by James I. to tlie twelve
London companies, on condition of their fortifying the
towns of Derry and Coleraine. From this circumllance,
both the county and town were called by the name of
Londonderry. It extends 32 Irifh miles from north to
fouth, and about llie fame from ea!l to weft, where it is
"broadeft. This length and breadth are equal to 40^
"Englifti m.iles. It meafures in area 318,500 Irifli acres,
and 479 fquare miles, which, in Englifh meafure, are
511,688 acres, and 798 fquare miles, it contains 31 pa-
VfjL. XXL

L O N

riiTics, whicli have 29 churches, modly in the diocefe of
Dcrry ; which fee.

Londonderry is in general very mountainsus, e.tcepting
the eafteni part, adjoining Lough Neagh and the river
Bann. The principal hills are Benyevenagh in the north -
Sliebh-Gallen in the foutli ; Cairntogher, which fometimc*
gives name to the chain extending into the county of Tyrone,
and Sawell on the borders of the fame county. The l]i"-heft
of thefe, however, 'is not more than iCco feet above the
level of the fea. The face of the country, near the fea and
the river Bann, bears a great refembiance to that of the
adjoining county of Antrim. Bafaltes, intermixed with
zeolite, is found on a bed of white limeftr;ne, which is fr nv.--
times concealed by the bafaltes, at-d r(;mttimes (hows itfcif
in fteep and elevated rocks, efuecially in Bcnyevcnanh, and
the adjacent forelands. The ground about Lough Fovie is,
in general, a ftrong loam, which is v.ell adapted for wheat,
barley, flax, and potatoes, and which is principally manured
by the fliclls procured from the longii. The land in the
vallies docs not cor.fiderably differ, except in manure, (hells
being at too great a dillance ; a circnmftance which is, in
feme meafure, re'-ompenfed by the dcpofils from the m.oun-
tain torrents. The river Roe, which priffcs through the
middle of the county to Lough Foyle, is thought to feuarate
the bafaltic region from the fehiftofe, or fl.ity. TiieVe are
in the latcer various kinds of fchid ; and with them arc
found pudding ftone, gncifs, and blue limeftone. Sandftone
is found univerfally under the bafaltes, and occafionaily
intermingled with fchilt. Iron is in great aburdame
throughout the county, either in an ochreous (late, or mixed
with manganefe. It was formerly fmehed by an ao-ert of
tht^Drapers' company, but the fpeculation was unfuccefsful.
Boate mentions gold found in Londonderry ; and fom.e
fpecimens of quartz containing thin leaves of geld are faid
to have been larely met with (A.D. 1802) ; they were
found on the furficc, and fuppofed to be adventitious. The
(iliceous, or flinty matter, like the calcareous, has f.vo dif-
tinft appearances, which denote the regions of which they
are the natives. The filica in tlic fchift country is in the
character of quartz, and the- lime of the fame country is
blueifh and laminated. In the bafaltic country the iilica is
in the character of flint, including clialcedony, &c. ; and the
lime white, and abounding in marine fubftanccs. Beth the
quartz and flint are of various tinges. The former fome-
times clear, yellow, brownifli, reddilli, &c. ; the latter horn-
coloured, purple, brownidiblack, &c. The flint has fome-
times marine i.mpreffious ; the quartz never. Rock crytlals
of great hardneis, and wcigliing from one ounce to twelve,
are found in the fchiftofe region. The grafs which is mo(l
prevalent in this county is the Agroftis llolonifera, called ia
Irifli /or/;;, and fo ftrongly recommended for cultivation by
Dr. Richardton. It is peculiarly luxuriant in low meadows.
The foft meadow grafs (Holcus mollis), is thought to be
next in value and predooiinauce, and is that geiiera'.Iv fown.
The variety, however, found in other counties, is not want-
ing in this. Of other vegetables, the moil rrniarkab'c is the
Lichen lomphaloides, which, wlien mainifaftuied, is called
litmus, tumfoie, and archi'. Thi^s is found on the rocks
in great abundance, and is ufed both for dyeing purple,
and in a iimple watery decodion, for giving" woollen
goods, fuch as flanneh, an orange-red colour. The flats
near the river Bann have a greater extent of bog than is
at prefent neceffary for fuel, which bog is in general very
reclaimablc. Both this part of tl\e county and the mou.T.
tainous dillrict require much imnrovemejit. Some yountr
cattle are reared on the mountains, and fome iheep fed.
U a TJie

L O N

L O N

•The linen manufacture is carried on extenfively threv.crh
every part ot" the county. I^ondouderry is well watered
by feveral llreams. Of thcfe the Bann flows from Lough
Neagh, and forms the eallcrn boundary, till it approaches
the town of Coleraine, when it ccal'es to be a boundary,
flowing through tiie liberties of that town into the fea
about three miles below it. About a mile above Colcraine
is a ridge of rocks called the Salmon Leap, at which weirs
are built for the falmon-filhery. Great quantities of this
fi(h are caught in the Bann, and being falted at Coleraiiie
form a valuable article ot commerce. There is alio an eel-
fifhcry at Toomc, between Lou^h Beg and Lough Neagh,
which, as well as tlie other, is very valuable to the pro-
prietor. The Foyle, a wide and deep river, having divided
the counties of Tyrone and Donegal, and received feveral
fmaller, enters this county a little above the city of I^oudon-
dcrry, and palling by it expands into that large faltwater
lake, known by the name of Lough Foyle. The rivers
Fahan and Roe riling in tht Cairntoglier mountains alfo flow
into this lough. Sever.il other dreams join the Bann in its
courfe, or increafe the waters of Lough Neagh ; amongll
the latter is the Moyowla. In tracing the coall trom the
little harbour of Portrufh, in Antrim, we tirll meet with
Bannhaven at the mouth of the Bann, about three miles
from which is the town of Coleraine. (See Coi.euain'E. )
Proceeding along the coall, Magilligan Point, at the extre-
mity of a large fandy tract, prelcnts itfelf, approaching the
coall of Donegal, and thus forming the entrance of Lough
Foyle. Between Benyevanagh mountain and tli;s point is
a warren, which yields, on an average, three thouland dozen
of rabbits each year. The fale of the Ikins, which are fent
to Dublin, produces a large revenue to the proprietor. Near
this point is the Tons, a fand-bank not far from the entrance
of the lough, on which the fea fometimes beats with a pro-
digious noife. The entrance of Lough Foyle is not above
half a mile wide, fo that it is land-locked on all fides. It is
a large oval batin, twelve miles long, and near feven broad
in the wideil part, but it has only one deep channel in the
middle between long (hoals or banks of fand. It is, never-
thelefs, on the whole, a fafe, large, and commodious har-
bour. Near the mouth of the river Roe, which runs into
the lough, is a ridge of (tones mixed with fhells and fand,
extending a mile and a half in length, which is called the
Giant's Grave. There are other banks of the fame kind
at a greater diftaace from tlie lough, which renders it pro-
bable, that this part of the county was once overflowed by
the fea. The county town, called alfo Londonderry, is on
the Foyle. (See next article. ) Other towns are, New-
town Limavaddy, Magherafelt, and Moneymore. Londen-
derry returns three members, two for the county and one
for the city. Sampfon's Statillical Survey, and Beaufort's
Memoir.

Londonderry, the capital of the county defcribed in
the preceding article : it is on the river Foyle, over which
it has a wooden bridge, 1068 feet in length, and of lingular
and excellent conllruiAion. It is a well built and neat city,
and has a general appearance of order, induitry, and fobriety.
It contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Its trade is confi-
derable, efpecially with America ; the exports are linen,
linen-yarn, &c. In the time of queen Elizabeth, Derry
was a confiderable military (lation, being well fitted for
keeping the adjoining'country in fubjettion. In the reign
«f James I. it whs rebuilt and llrengtheried by the citizens
of London, to whom it was given by that monarch. In
the rebellion of 1641, and the fucceeding years, it was
twice belieged, but without fuccels ; but it is moll cele-

brated in hiftory for the fiegc nobly fuHaincd by the inlia-
bitants in 16S8 and 1689, for 105 days againll the army of
king James, although prelTed by a very fevere famine. It
deferves to be recorded, that when the military governor
was inclined to give up further refiftance, the inhabitants,
inlligated by the Rev. George Walker, whom they chofe
governor, took it upon themfelves, and have thus gained
immortal renown. Londonderry is (till lurroundcd by walls
and has a military governor, who is alfo commander of Cul-
more fort. (See Ci'I-Moke. ) Londondery is a poll-town,
and returns a member to parliament. It is 11 j miles N.
by W. from Dublin. N.lat, 55-. W. long. 7" 13'. Samp-
ion, &c.

LoxDONUERiiv, a pod-town of America, in Rockingham
county. New Hamplliire, near the head of Beaver river,
which difehargc^ itfelf into Merrimack river, at Pawtncket
Falls, fettled in 171S, incorporated irl 1722, and con'aining
2650 inhabitants. The inhabitants are moftly the defceud-
aiits of emigrants from U'lller county, Ireland, and are
employed in the manufaClure ef hnen cloth and thread ;
36 miles S.W. by S. from Portfmouth. — AHo, a townfhip
in Halifax county. Nova Scotia, on the N. fide of Cobe-
quid or Colcheder river, about 30 miles from its mouth,
at the bafin of Miiias ; fettled by North Irifli and Scotch.
— Alfo, a townfhip in the N.W. part of Windham city,
Vermont, on the head waters of Well river, about 3^ miles
N.E. of Bennington. In 1795 it was divided into two
parts, the E. half being called IVlndham, and the W. part
retaining its original name. — Alfo, two towndiips in Penn-
fylvania ; one in Dauphin county, containing 1)77 inha-
bitants, the other in Somerfet county, having 709 inhabit-
ants.

LONDONGROVE, a townfhip in Che.ler county,
Pennfylvania, containing 921 inhabitants.

L(3NDRES, or London, a town of South America, in
the province of Tucuman, built by Tanta, the governor,
in 15J), in compliment to Mary, queen of England, then
married to Philip, king of Spain. S. lat. 19' 12'.

LONEE, a town of Hindooftan ; 12 miles E.S.E. of
Poonah.

LONEL, a town of the ifland of Sardinia ; 22 miles
S.E. of Bofa.

LONER, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; i6 miles
N.W. of Chnnder.

LONERSTATT, a town of Bavaria ; 14 miles S.S.W.
of Bamberg.

LONG, J.\MES LE, in B'iography,\ a learned French pried,
was born at Paris in 1665. In 1686 he entered into the
congregation of the Oratory, and occupied the pod of pro-
feffor in feveral houfes of that fociety, and finally was ap-
pointed their librarian at St. Honore. He paded his life
in learned labours, and died in 1 72 1, with the eharafter of a
virtuous and ellimable man. He was thoroughly converfant
in the ancient and many of the m.odern languages, and had
an extenfive acquaintance with the hiltory of literature, of
bibliography, and printing. His chief work is entitled
" Bihliotheca Sacra," containing a catalogue of all the
editions and tranflations of the fcriptures, in two volumes
oftavo, to which he fubjoined, in a fecond part, a lift of
all the autlwrs who had written upon the fcriptures. He
publifhed, likewife, " Bibiiotheqne Hiftorique de la France,"
being an account of all the hillorical works relative to that
country, which is liighly elleemed, and ranks among the
great produdlions of the reign of Lewis XV. ; alfo a
" Hiitorical Difcourfe on Polyglott Bibles," and their fe-
veral »ditions.

LOKG;

L O N

L O N

Long, Roger, an Englifli divine, and aftronomical pro-
fefTor, was born in 1679, received his college education at
Cambridije, and became mailer of Pembroke-hall, and
Lowndes's profefTor of aftronomy. He is chiefly known
as an author, by a Treatife on Allronomy, in two volumes;
the tlrll of which was publifhed in 1742, and the fecond in
1764. He was the inventor of a curious aftronomical ma-
chine, erected in a room at Pembroke-hall. This is a hollow
fphere about eighteen feet in diameter, in which thirty per-
fons may fit. The concave furface reprefents the heavens
with the ilars and conllellations in their order ; the axis is
placed parallel to the axis of the world, upon which it is
eafily turned by a winch. (See Constellation.) He
publilhed a Commencement Sermon, and an Anfxver to Dr.
Galley's pamphlet " On Greek Accents." He died in the
year 1770, at the age of eighty-one.

Long, Thomas, a learned divine, was born at Exeter
in 162 1, and educated a: tlie college of that name in Oxford.
His highell preferment in the church was a prebend in
Exeter cathedral, of which he was deprived at the Revo-
lution for refuliiig the oaths. He died in 1700. He was
author of many theological pieces ; of a Life of Julian ;
Hiltory of all the Popiih and Fanatical Plots and Confpi-
racies ; and a Vindication of the Clain^- of King Charles L
to the Authorlhip of the Eikon Bafilike.
Long Accent. See Accent.

Long Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E. coaft of Jamaica.
N. lat. 18" 8'. W. long. 76.— Alfo, a bay on the W.
coall of the illand. N. lat. 18' 20'. W. long. 78' 21'.
— Alfo, a bay on the S. coall of the fame ifland ; fix miles
E. of Callihafh bay. — Alfo, a bay of America, extending
along the (hore of N. and S. Carolina, from Cape Fear to
the mouth of Pedee river. — Alfo, a bay on the W. fide of
the ifland of Barbadoes.— Alfo, another on the S. fide of
the ifland.

Long Boat, the largeft and ftrongelt boat belonging to a
fliip. See Boat.

Long Hand. .See Long Hand.

LoNG-^ornr-J Cattle, in Agriculture, a breed of neat cattle,
which is chiefly diftinguilhed by the length of the horn, the
thicknefs and firm texture of the hide, the length and clofe-
ncfs of the liair, the large fize of the hoof, and the coarfe
leathery thicknefs of the neck. It is fometimes termed
Lancalhire breed from its being predominant there. See

C.VTTLE.

L,0}iG-Jo!nlfJ, in the Manegt. A horfe is faid to be long-
jointed, whofe pallern is flender and pliant. I.,ong-iointed
horfes are wont to have wind-galls.

Long Ifland, in Geography, an ifland in Pcnobfcot bay.
(See Isleborough.) — Alio, an ifland of America, on the
coaft of Main, 4 miles long and i^ wide. N. lat. 44^ 20'.
W. long. 68' 20'. — Alfo, an ifland near the S. coaft of Ja-
maica. N.lat. I7~ 51'. W. long. 76 58'. — Alfo, an illand
near the N. coaft of the ifland of Antigua. N. lat. 17 " 17.
W. long. 61^ 28'. — Alfo, an illand in Hudfsri's Straits.
N. lat. 61 . W. long. 75^. — Alfo, another in Hudfon's bay.
N. lat ^j" 16'. W. long. 78" 30'. — Alfo, a narrow ifland
about two miles in length, on the S. coaft of the county of
Cork, Ireland, in Roaring- water bay. It contains 3 16 acres
of Lnd. N. lat. yi" 26'. W. long. 9^ 27'. — Alfo, one of
the fmallcr Bermuda iflands. — Alio, a fmall ifland in the gulf
of Mexico, near the coaft of Eaft Florida. N. lat. 2^-50'.
Vv'. long. 82 55'. — Alfo, a fmall ifland near the coaft of
S. Carolina. N. lat. 32° jo'. W. long. 79 45. — Alfo, a
fmall ifland near the coall of Virginia, at the mouth of York
nvcr. N. lat. 37^ i5'. W. long. 76' 35'.— Alfoj a fmall

ifland in the Atlantic, near the coafl of Brafil. S. lat. 16''
30'. —Alfo, an ifland of America, formerly called " Man-
hattan," afterwards " NafTau ifland,' difcovcred by Henry
Hudfon, an Englifhman, in 16:9, and belonging to the ftate
of New York. It extends from Hudfon river, oppolite
to Staten ifland, almoft to the wcliern boundaries of the coall
of Rhode ifland, terminating with Montauk point; Its
length is about 140 miles, and its medial breadth from 10 to
14 miles ; and it is fcparated from Conncdicut by " Long
ifland Sound." It contains 1400 fquare miles, and is divided
into three counties, iiiz. King's, Queen's, and Suffolk ;
and thefe are again fubdivided into ly townfliips. The N.
fide of the ifland is rough and hilly, but the foil is well
adapted for raifing grain, hay, and fruit. The S. fide of
the ifland lies low, and its foil is light and fandy. On the
fea-coail are extenfive trails of falt-meadow, which extend
from Southampton to the W. end of the ifland. Never-
thelefs, the foil is well adapted to the cnlture of grain,
efpccially Indian corn. Near the middle of the ifland is
Hampftead plain, in Queen's county, which is ]6 miles
long, and about eight broad. This plain, the foil of which is
black, and apparently rich, yields naturally a particular kind
of wild grafs and a few flinibs ; but it produces fome rye,
and furnifhes, together with the fait marlhes, food for large
herds of cattle. On the E. part of the ifland, E. of
Hampftead plain, is a large barren heath, called Bnifliy
plain, overgrown with flirub oak, intermixed with a few
pine-trees, which afford harbour to wild deer and groufc.
In a bay on the S. fide of the ifland, vail quantities of oyllers
are taken, and alfo of bafs. The largelt river in the ifland
is Peakonok, which is but an inconfidcrable flream ; it run*
E. and difcharges itfelf into a large bay that feparates
Southhold from Southampton. In this bay are Robin and
Shelter iflands. Rockonkama pond lies about the centre of
the ifland, between Smith-town and Iflip ; it is about a
mile in circumference, and has been found to rife gradually
for feveral years, until it had arrived to a certain height, and
then to fall more rapidly to its lowctt bed ; and thuj it is
continually ebbing and flowing. Two miles to the fouth-
ward of the pond is a llream called Connefticut river, which
runs into the bay. There are two whale-fifheries ; one from
Soggharbour, which produces about loco barrels of oil an-
nually. The other is much fmaller, and is carried on by the
inhabitants in the winter feafon, from the S. fide ot the
ifland. They commonly catch from three to feven whales
in a feafon, which produce from 25 to 40 barrels of oil each.
This filhery was formerly a fource of^ coniiderable wealth
to the inhabitants, but on account of a fcarcity of whales,
it has of late years much declined. From Soggharbour to
the Well Indies and other places, there is a confiderable
trade in whale oil, pitch, piiiC-boards, horles, cattle, flax-
feed, beef, &c. The produce of the middle and we.lern
parts of I he ifland is carried to New York. The ifland
c ntains 42,097 iahabitants, of whom 3S93 are flaves.
(Morfe.) — Alfo, an ifland in Kolfton river, Teneflee, five
miles long, and containing z^oo acres of rich land, lubjccl
to inundations. Many boats are built here annu;iliy, and
loaded with the produce of the ftate for N-'w Orleans ; loa
miles above Knoxville, and 1000 from the mouth of the
Tenedee. — Alfo, a fmail ifland in the Ealt Indian lea, near
the W. coalt of Billiton. S. lat. 2 51'. E. long. 107'
30' — Alfo, a fmall ifland near the S.E. coaft of tlie ifland
of Madeira. S. lat. 7 16'. E. long. 113 5-'. — Alfo, 3
fmall ifland near the N. coaft of the ifland of Flores, S. lat,
8 6'. E. lonn-. 122 27'. — Alio, a fmall ifland in a bay on
the N. coaft ol New Guinea. S. ht. 104 . E. kng. 135""
U u 2 18 .

L O N

L O N

lV — Alfo, an iflaiid in Qiiccn Cliailottc's found, on tlie
coall of New Zi'alami, called Uy l\u: natives " Ilamotc,"
aliout four miles long ; nine miles S. of Port Jackfon. —
Alfo, an idand in the South Pacific ocean, at the entrance
of Broad found, on the N. N. E. coaft of New Holland,
about 30 miles in length. S. lat. 22 ' 24'. W. long. 210''
33'. — Alfo, an ifland difcovercd by captain Wallis in 1767,
and fo called bv liiai. N. lat. 10" 20'. W. long. 247 24'.
— Alfo, a fniall iHand near the W. coaft of Scotland. N.
lat. 56^ 15'. W. long. 5" ^y' — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, near the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 10^. 25'.'
— Alfo, one of the iflands in the Mergui Archipelago.
N. lat. 1 2= .:?6'. E. long. 98" 12'.

Long IJlan/l Sound, a kind of inland fea, from three to
25 miles broad, and about 140 miles long, extending the
whole length of Long ifland, in the ftate of New York,
and dividing it from Connedlicut. This found communi-
cates with the ocean at both ends of the ifland, and affords
a very fafe and convenient inland navigation.

Long IJley or JJle River, Infiaiis, are Indians who inhabit
the territory, on Ifle, or White river, which runs W. into
the Wabafti river. The mouth of White river is in N. lat.
38^58'. W. long. 90' 7'.

, Long Key, Middle, a fmall ifland in the bay of Hon-
duras, near the coalt of Mexico. N. lat. 17' 10'. W.
long. 88' 48'.

Long Key, North, a fmall ifland in the fame bay. N.
lat. 17- 58'. Vv'. long. 88 40'.

LoN'G Key, South, a fmall ifland in the fame bay. N. lat.
iG'jy'. W'. long. 88' 50'.

Long Kunang, a town of Corea ; 125 miles S.S.E. of
King-ki-tao. N. lat. 35' 55'. W. long. 79' 20'.

Long Lakes, The, a chain of fmall lakes in Upper Ca-
rada, extending wellerly from the grand portage of lake
Superior toward Rain lake.

Long Legs, in Natural Hi/Jory. See TiPULA.

Long Meadow, in Geography, a town of America, in
Haaipfliire county, ftiaflachufetts, on the E. bank of Con-
necticut river, about four miles S. of Springfield, and 2 ?
N. of Hartford; incorporated in 1783, and containing a
congregational church, and about 7ohoufes, forming a ftrect
parallel with the river. The townfliip contains 973 inha-
bitants.

Long Mcafurc. See Measure.

Long Mountain, in Geography, a mountain of Virginia ;

N. lat.

37 15'

W.

80 miles W. S. W. of Richmond,
long. 79' 20'.

Long Nofe, a cape on the E. coaft of New Holland.
S. lat. 35 6'. E. long jjr 15'.

Long Pohit, is a long beach or fand bank, on lake Erie,
in Upper Canada, now called the " North Foreland,"
ftrctchi-ig into lake Erie from the lownfhip of Walfrngham,
and forming the deep bay of Long Point, upwards of 20
miles in length.

Long Pond. See Bridge-town.

Long Reach, a narrow part of the ftraits of Magellan,
between Cape Quod and Buckley Point.

Long Reef, a flioal in the Spanifli Main, near the Mof-
quito fliore. N. lat. 12'' 22'. W. long. 82 Jo'.

Long Saut, a fmall ifland of Upper Canada, in the river
St. Lawrence, in front of the townlbip of Ofna'uruck, con-
taining from 1000 to I joo acres, with good foil. N. lat.
55"^ 2'. \V. long. 7455.

Long Shoal, a river of America, in North Carolina,
which runs into Pamlico found, at the mouth of which is a
capecallcd i,on^Wcfl/Pti«;. N. lat. 35-' 22'. W. long. 76 2'.

The long is formed thus

John de Muris

Long TimSers, or Double Futlochs, in a Ship, thofe tim_
bers afore and abaft the floors which extend from the dead-
wood to the run of the fecond futtock head.

LONGA, in Geography, one of the fmaller Shetland
ifles. N. lat. 60 12'. W.long.i°37'._Alfo, a fmall ifland
near the W. coall of Scotland. N. lat. 56 12'. W. long.
50 40'. I

LoNG.\, Ital. Longue, Fr. j^ ^ong, Engl, in Mufic, is a
charader for time in the lirft time-table, half the duration
of the maxima, or large, and twice the length of the breve.

and his contemporaries had longs of three fevcral kinds ; the

perfea, with a tail on the right fide, thus — ~|, or ^^ ^

equal to three pointed breves ; it is called pcrfeft, 'fays
de Muris, on account of its numerical ratio with the Tri-
nity. The imperfect long is of the fame figure as the perfect,
and is only diltinguiflicd by the mood or character for time
at the beginning of a movement. It was accounted inipcr-
feft, from its being incomplete without a breve to precede
or follow it. The double long contains two imperfeil breves \.

it is like the long only of a much larger fize

John dc Muris quotes Ariftotle to prove that this note is not
uffd in canto fcrmo. At prefcnt, the term long is only
correlative wiihjhort, in fcanning verfes.

LONG.'\BOO, in Geography, om oi tht fmaller Friendly
iflands ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Naenava.

LONGA R A, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ;.
20 miles W.N.W. of Severina.

LONGARES, a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 20 miles
S.S.W. of Aragofl'a.

LONGAY, a fmall ifland near the E. coaft of Skye, N.
lat. 57 19'. W. long, 5 53'.

LONGEAU, a town ot France, in the department of
the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tiicl of Langres ; fix miles S. of L-angres. The place
contains 438, and the canton 9485 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 295 kiliom.etres, in 29 comjuiines.

LONGEPIERRE, Hilaire-Bernard de Roque-
I.EYNE, Lord of, in Biography, born of a noble family at
Dijon, in 1659, was fccretary of commands to the duke of
Berry. He diftinguilhed himfelf by an accurate knowledge
of the Greek language, and publiflled notes upon Anacreon,,
Sappho, Bion, Moichus, and the Idylls of Theocritus.
In 1690 he gave the public a cclledlion of " Idylls" of his
own invention : he was author oT the tragedies of " Medea,"
and " Eleftra," written after the manner of the Greek tra-
gedians, which were brought on the ftage, and gave him a
reputation among dramatic poets. He wrote other tra-
gedies cf conllderable merit, and died at Paris in 1721.
Moveri.

LoNGEPIERRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Saoiic and Loire, fituated near the river
Doubf ; 16 miles N.E. of Chalons fur Sao:ie.

LONGERI, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Lo-
angOj where the kings are generally interred.

LONGEVITY, a term exprcfiing length of life.

From the different longevities of men i^i the beginning of
the world, after the flood, and in tliefe ages, Dr. Derhann
deducts a good argument for tlie interpoiition of a Divine

Providence*

LONGEVITr.

Providencci. Tmmediatcly after the creation, when the world
was to be peoo'ed by one man and woman, the ordinary age
was nine hundred years and upwards. Immediately after
the flood, when there were three perfons to Hock the world,
their age was ctit (horter ; and none of thofe patriarchs,
but Shorn, arrived at five hundred. In the fecond century
we find none that reached two hundred and forty, in the
third, none, but Terah, that came to two hundred years ;
the world, Rt leaft a part of it, by that time being fo well
peopled, that they had built cities, and were cantoned out
into dillant nations. (See Antediluvian.) By degrees,
as the numberof people increafcd, their longevity decreafed,
till it came down at length to feventy or eighty years ; and

there it flood, and has continued to fland, ever (ince the time-
of Mofes. This is found a good medium, and, by means
here-of, the world is neither overftocked, nur kept too thin •
but life and death keep a tolerably equal pace. So that
from this period the common duration of man's life haS' '
been mlich the fame in all ages, as we learn both from facrcd
and profane hiftory. In confequence of the refeavches of
the ingenious Mr. Whitchurft (fee his Inquiry into the
Origin of the Earth), and of Dr. Fothergill (fee his Ob-
fervations on Longevity in the Mancheller Memoir?, vol: i.)
we are enabled to prefent our readers with tables of longe-
vity, and appropriate refledion^,. wliich wi.l be no lefs ia-.
llruftive than amufmic.

Table I.

Names cf the Perfons.

Ages.

Places of Abode.

Thomas Pane

Henry Jenkins

Robert Montgomery

James Sands

His Wife

Countefs of Di-fmond

Countels of Ecleilun

J. Sagar - - ' -

Laurence

Simon Sajk

Colonel Thomas Window

Francis Confiil

Chrift. J. Drakenberg

Margaret Forfter

Her Daughter

Francis Rons

J:^!m Brookey

James Bowels

John Tice - - -

John Mo'jnt

A. Goldimith

Marv Yates

Ji;hn' EaV's

William E'lis

Louiffa Truxo, a Ncgrefs'

in South America
I'largaret Patten
Janet Taylor
Richard Lloyd
%ifannah Hil!iar
James Hayley
Ann Cockbolt

169
126

140

12.!.
140

143
112
140
141
146
i;o
146

104
121

134
152
12;

140
128
126
130

i7J

'38

108

■133
100
112

10c

Livini' or De_d.

Shropfhire _ _ _

York(hire _ - .

Yorkfhire

Staffon-.lliire _ _ -

Staffordihire - - -.

Ireland - - -

Ireland _ - _

Lancadiire _ _ _

Scotland _ _ .

Trionia - - .

Ireland . _ .

Yorkfhire . _ _

Norway - - -

Cunnberland _ _ .

Cumberland . _ .

France - . .

Devonfhire _ _ _

Killingworth - _ _

WoLcellcrlbire - - _

Scotland ...

France _ . .

Shropfliire ' - , -
Nortliampton ...

Liverpool - _ .

Tucuman, South America

Lockneugh, near Paiiley /
Fintray, Scotland

Montgomery - _ .

Piddington, Northamptonfliire -
Middlewich, Che.Tiire -
Stoke-Bruernc, Nortliamptonfhire

Died Nov. 16, 163,-, Phil. Tran. N 44.
Dec.8.i76o,Phil.Tran.N 221.

in 1670.

|- Ditto Fuller's Worthies, p. 47.

Riv.leigh's Hiftory, p. 16Q.

1691 (a)

Died

Living

Died May 30,

Auguil 26,

January

June 24,

y Both Living

Died February 6,

Living

Died Auguft 15',

March

February 27,

June .

April 5,
Auguil 16,

1668 (l>)

1764
1766
1768
1770 (J)

1771
1769
1777 (0

1656 (/)

1774 (g)
1776 (b)

1776 (/•)
1776 (i)

1706 (/)
I7S0

17S0 (n)

Living OAober 5,

Lynche's Guide to Health.
Died October 10, '
Lynche's Guide to Health.
Died February 19, 178 1 (0)

March 17, 1781 (/>)

1780

April 5,

(?)

William Walker, aged 112, not m.entioned above, who was a foldier at the battle of Edge-Hill.

(a) Fuller's Worthies, p. 140.

(i) Philofophical Tranfadions, abridged by Lowthorp,
vol. iii. p. 306.

(r) Derham's Phyfico Theology, p. 1,73.

(d) Annual Regifter.

(/^) Daily Advcrtifer, Nov. i3, 1777.

{/) War'.vick{liire.

(^) Daily Advertifcr, March 1774.

{//) Moraing Poll, Feb. 29, 1776.

(;') Daily Advertifcr, June 24, 1776.

(/') Ibidem, Auguil 22, 1 776.

(/) See Infcriptiou in the portico of All-Saints church,

(m) London Evening Pod, Aug'.ift 22, 1780.

(n) London Chronicle, Oclober 5, 1780.

(oj Nortl.em Mercury, Feb. 19, 17S1.

(/>) General Evening Poll, March 24, 17S1.

(y) Well known to perfons of credit at Northamptoiw

If

LONGEVITY.

If we look to an early period of the Cliriftian era, wc
ftiall find that Italy has been, at leail about lliat time, pecu-
liarly propitious to longevity. Lord JJacon obleryes, that
the year of our Lord 76, in the reign of Vefpafian, \va3
memorable ; for in that year was a taxing, which afforded
the mod authentic method of knowing the ages of men.
From it, there were found in that p:)rt of Italy, lying be-
tween the Apennine mountains and tlie river Po, one hundred
and twenty-four perfous wlio either equalled or exceeded one
hundred years of age, namely :

la Parma

54
57

2

4
4
3
3
2

Table II.

Perfous of 100 Years each.
1 10
- 1 25
130
136
140
120
iJO

In Bruffels
In Placentia
In Favcntia

In Rii

12 J Years each.
131

13^
tio
120
150

viz. Marcus Aponius
Mr. Carcw, in his Survey of Cornwall, affures us, that it
is no umifual thing, with the inhabitants of that county, to
rrach ninety years of age, and upwards, and even to retain
their llrength of body and perfect ule of their fenfes. Be-
fides Brown, the CiU'Jiilh beggar, who lived to one hundred
and twenty, and one Polezevv to one hundred and thirty
years of age ; he remembered the deceafe of four perfons
in his own parilh.the funi of whole years, taken collectively,
amounted to three hundred and forty. Now, although
longevity evidently prevails more in certain dillrifts than in
others, yet it is, by no means, conlined to any particular
nation or climate ; nor arc there wanting inftanccs of it,
in almoll every quarter of the globe, as appears from the
pieceding, as well as the fubfequent table.

Table III.

Names of the Perfons.

Ages.

Places of Abode.

Where recorded.

Hippocrates, phyllcian

104

Ifland of Cos -

Lynche on Health, chap. 3.

Democritus, philofopher -

109

Abdera . _ -

Bacon's Hiflory, 1095.

Galen, phyfician

140

Pergamus . _ -

Voff. Inll. or lib. i.

Albuna Marc

150

Ethiopia . . -

Hakeweli's Appendix, lib. i.

Dumitur Raduly -

140

Haromfzeek Trafilvania >

Died January 18, 1782, General Ga-
zetteer, April i8"-h.

Titus Fullonius

150

Bononia . - -

Fulgofiis, lib. viii.

Abraham Paiba

142

Charles-Town, South Carolina

General Gnzetteer

L. TertuUa

■37

Arminium . . -

Fulgofus, lib. viii.

Lewis Cornaro

100

Venice . . - .

Bacon's Hiilory of Life, Sic. p. 134.

Robert Blakeney, Efq. -

■'4

Armagh, Ireland

General Gazetteer.

Margaret Scott

125

Dalkeith, Scotland

See Irfcription on her Tomb in Dal-
keith Church-yard.

W. Gulftone

140

Ireland - - - -

Fuller's Worthies.

J. Bright

105

Ludlow - - - -

Lynche on Health.

William Pollell -

120

France - - . -

Bacon's HiHory, p. 154.

Jane Reeves - - -

103

Effex ... -

St, James's Ciironicle, June 14, 1781.

W. Paulet, marquis of 1
Winchefter - ]

106

Hampdiire ...

Baker's Chronicle, p. 502.

John VVilfon

116

Suffolk - - - -

General Gazetteer, OA. 29, 1722.

Patrick Wian

"5

Leibury, Northumberland

Picmpius Fundammed, feCt.4, chap. 8.

M. Laurence

140

Orcades . . - -

Buchanan's Hillory of Scotland.

Evan Williams

US

Caermarthen Workhoufe

General Gazetteer, Odober 12, 17S2.

If we afcend to the firff ages of the world, and endeavour
to Invelligate the caufes of the longevity of the antediluvians,
we (hall find that different writers have dated them very
varioufly. Some have imputed it to the fobriety of the an-
tediluvians, and the fimplicity of their manners ; alleging
that they abdained from flefh, and had none of thofe ejccite-
tnents to gluttony, which have been devifed in fubfcquent
times. Others have afcribed their longevity to the excellency
of their fruits, and fome. peculiar virtues in the herbs and
plants of thofe days. Others again have thought that the
long hves of the inhabitants of the old world proceeded from
the drength of their damina, or firft principles of their
bodily conditutions ; and this might be a concurrent, though
aot the fole and adequate caufe of their longevity : for

Shem, who was born before the deluge, and had all the
virtue of the antediluvian conditution, fell 300 years (hort of
the age of his forefathers, becaufe the greatell part of his
life was paffed after the flood. It has therefore been more
rationally fuppofed, that the chief caufe of their Irngevity
was the falubrity of the antediluvian air ; which, after the
deluge, became corrupted and unwholefome. But how the
flood (hould occafion this change in the air, it is not cafy to
comprehend ; and the difficulty mull remain tuifolved, and
we mud content ourfelves with aicribing it to the conditu-
tion of Providence, operating by unknown caiifes. The
examples which are exhibited in ihe above tables are abun-
d.intly fufficient to prove, that longevity, in more modern
times, docs not depend fo much as fome have fuppofed, 00

8 any

L O N

L O N

any particular climate, fitiiation, or occupation in life. For
we fee that it often prevails in places, where all thcfc are
extremely diffimilar ; anil it would, moreover, be very dif-
ficult, in the -hillories of the feveral perfons above men-
tioned, to find any circiimllance common to them all, ex-
cept perhaps that of being born of healthy parents, and of
being inured to daily labour, temperance, and hmplicity of
diet. Among the inferior ranks of mankind, therefore, ra-
ther than amongft the fons of eafe and luxury, (hall we find
the moll numerous inllances of lo;igevity ; even frequently,
when other external circumftances fcem extremely unfavour-
able : as in the cafe of the poor fexton at Peterborough,
who, not-Aithllanding his uiipromifing occupation among
dead bodies, lived long enough to bury two crowned heads,
and to furvive two complete geiierations. The livelihood of
Henry .Tenkir.s and old Parr i'* faid to have confined chiefly
of the coarfeil fare, as they depended on precarious alms.
To which may be added, the remarkable in (lance of Agnes
Milhiirne, who, after bringing forth a numerous oflspnng,
and being obliged, through extreme indigence, to pafs the
latter part of her life in St. Luke's work-houfe, yet reached
her hundredth and lixth year, in that fordid, unfriendly fitu-
ation. Tile plain diet, and invigorating employments ot a
country life, are acknowledged, on all hands, to be highly
conducive to health and longevity ; while the luxury and
refinements of large cities are allowed to be equally detlruc-
tivc to the human fpiries : and this confideratioii alone, per-
haps, more than counterbalances all the boalled privileges
of fuperior elegance and civilization relulting from a city
life.

From country villages, and not from crowded cities, have
the preceding indances of longevity been chiefly fupplied.
For an illuftration of this faft we refer to the article Bills of
MoRTALiiy.

Attached as we are to life by the contlitution of our na-
ture, and defirous of protrafiing the fnort fpan, it feems to
be no lefs our duty than our intereft to examine minutely
into the various means that have been confidered as conducive
to health and long life ; and to difcriminate between thofe
that are collateral and accidental and fuch as are elfential to
this great end. In order to obtain fufficient data for rea-
foning juilly and fatisfaftorily on this fubjedl, it would be
defirable to improve the mode of framing our bills of mor.
tality ; and with this view, it would be proper to add a
particular account of the diet and regimen of every perfon,
who dies at So years of age, or upwards ; and to mention,
whether his parents were healthy, long-lived people, &c. &c.
All the circumftances, that are mofl eflentially necelfary to
life, may be comprifed under the fix following headi : i, air
and climate ; 2, meat and drink ; 3, motion and reft ; 4, the
fecrctions and excreti'.ins ; 5, deep and watching ; 6, affec-
tions of the mind. With regard to the firll head, it mav be
obferved that the common atmofphere may be more or lefs
healthy, in proportion as it abounds with pure dephlogifti-
cated gas, or oxygen ; and as this is copioufiy fupplied by
the green leaves of all kinds of vegetables, we may hence in
fome meafure account why inftances of longevity are fo
much more frequent in the country than in great cities,
where the atmofphere is contaminated with noxious animal
efHuvia, and with mephitic air or carbonic acid. As to cli-
mate, various obfervatioiis confpire ,to prove that thofe
regions which lie within the temperate zones are beft adapted
to promote long life. Hence perhaps we may be enabled to
explain, why Italy has produced fo many perfons whofe
hves have been prolonged, and why iflands in general are
more falutary than continents. However, the Author of
nature lus wifely enabled the inhabitants of hot and cold

countries to endure great and furprifing changes of tempera-
ture with impunity. See an account of experiments in a
heated room, under the article Heat. For the effcfts of
food and drink, fee thefe articles. It needs no proof, that
alternate motion and reft, fleep and watching, are necelfary
conditions of health and longevity, and that they ought to
be adapted to age, temperament, conilitution, temperature
of the climate, &c. Moreover, when the animal funAions
are duly performed, the fecrctions go on regularly ; and the
different evacuations fo exaftly correfpond to the quantity
of aliment taken in, in a given time, that the body is found
to return daily to nearly the fame weight. Bcfidcs, the due
regulation of the pafiions, perhaps, contributes more to
health and longevity than that of any other • " the non-
naturals. We may further add, that longevity is, in a great
meafure, heredi'ary ; ard that healthy, long-lived parents
would commonly tranfmit the fame to their children, if it
were not for the frequent errors in the non-naturals, which
fo evidently tend to the abbreviation of human life. Ncver-
thelels the duties and occupations of life will not indeed
permit the generality of mankind to live by rule, and fub-
jeCl themfelves to a precife regimen. Fortunately, this is
not necelTary : for the divine Architeft has, with infinite
wifdom, rendered the human frame fo dudlile, as to admit
of a very, confiderable laticude of health ; yet this has its
bounds, which none can long tranfgrefs with impunity.
For if old Parr, notwithftanding fome exceftes and irregu-
larities, arrived at fo allonifliing an age, yet we have reafon
to fuppofe that thefe were far from being habitual ; and
may alio conclude, that had it not been for thefe abufes, hift
life might have been ftill confiderably protratled.

On the whole, though fome few exceptions may occur to
what has been already advanced, yet it will be found, in
general, that all extremes are unfriendly to health and longe-
vity. Exceflive heat enervates the body ; extreme cold
renders it torpid : floth and inatlivity clog the necelfary
movements of the machine ; inceffant labour foon wears it
out. On the other hand, a temperate climate, moderate
exercife, pure country air, and flricl temperance, together
with a prudent regulation of the paflions, will prove the
moft efficacious means of protracting life to its utmoll limits.
Now, if any of thefe require more peculiar attention thaa
the reft, it is undoubtedly the laft : for the focial pafiions,
like gentle gales, fan the brittle velfel calmly along the
ocean of life ; while, on the other hand, rough, turbulent
ones dafti it upon rocks and quickfands. Hence, perhaps,
it may be explained why the cultivation of philofophv,
mufic, and the fine arts, all which manifeftly tend to hu-
manize the foul, and to calm the rougher pafiions, are fo
highly conducive to longevity. And, finally, why there i»
no lure method of fecurmg that habitual calranefs and fe-
renity of mind, which conftitute true happineis, and which,
are, at the fame time, £0 effential to health and long life,
without virtue.

" jEquanimitas fola, atque unica fe'icitas."

LONGFORD, in Geography, a county of Ireland, in
the north-welteru extremity of the province of Leintler. It
has Rofcommon on the weft, Lcitrim and Cavan on the
north, and Weftmeath on the eaft and fouth. Its length,
from north to fouth is 20 Irilh miles (zj Englifh), a»id its
breadth from eaft to weft 19 Irilh, or 24 Enghlh miles. It
contains 134,152 Irifh acres (215,522 Englilh), which are
divided into 23 parifr.es, all of which, except one, are in
the bifliopric of Ard,tgh, united to Taam. Though the
northern angle confills of rugged mountains, and the ioutlv.
wcllcrn part is chiefly bog to a great extent, yet JLougford

may

L O N

L O N

-may he reckoned populous ; and it fupplics large qnantitiea flie province of Re-tcluien, whicli contain"! a city oftlie lliird
■of oats for dillant markets. About Graaard is a line traft clafs under its jurifdidion, and is a place of great trade. N.
of dry gravelly land, which is much ufed for fattening cattle, lat. 33 ' 22'. E. long. 104" 18'.

Lime-tlone is lu re abundant 4 and it is furprifing that, with I.ONG-HOU-KOEN a town of China, in the province
this advantage, fo little has been done towards reclaiming of Hou-quang ; 52 miles S.S.W. of Tao.
the bogs. In other parts of the county, the foil is in gene- LONGIANO, a town of Italy, in the department of

the Rubicon ; 12 miles N.W, of Rimini.

LONGIMETRY, the art of meaiuring lengths, both
accefiiblc, as roads, &c. and inacceflible, as arms of the

Drineinallv railed. The linen manufafture has fpread much '^' ^'^■. . . r.- » j ,

^ou h Lon.>ford. Spinning is univerfal, and there are Long.metry .s a part of trigonome ry, and a dependant

iniou,,ii x>uii,, — t^ , h „„,,', . on gconnetry, m the fame manner as altimetry, planimetry,

itercometry, &c.

The art of longimetry fee under tlie names of the inftru-

ments ufed in it, particularly Theodolitk, Chain, Dis-

ral a vegetable mould on the furface for three or more
inches deep ; under that, two inches thick of blue clay,
which retains water ; below this is yellow clay for two or
three feet ; and then lime-llonc gravel. Oats is the grain

now many weavers. The iiicreafe of the latter has been at-
tributed to the liberal condud of a gentleman, in giving
coo/, to be lent to poor weavers, in fums of 5/. each, which
were to be repaid by quarterly payments of 2p. The
benefits attending fuch loans to the poor have been expe-
rienced in many places,; and if care be taken in the manage-
ment, it is a mode of aiTifting them which encourages their
in'lullry, and can never be called a premium for iiildnejs and
■ extravagance. There are alfo fome bleach greens ; and great
quantities of yarn are fent to diftant mai'kels.

In the northern part of the county, near Lough Gaw-
ijafh, is a very rich iron ore in great abundance, not in thin

TANCE, &C. See alfo MjiNiUKATION.

LONGING in pregnant women, an inordinate defire for
fome particular kind of food, which, if denied, or not pro-
cured for them, was fuppofcd to occafion walling, and
fometimes hyftcric alfettions, in the women, and on tlie
child, befides impairing its health, to imprefs tlie figure of
the ohjedt longed for. This affetlion, which heretofore oc-
cdfioned in families much anxiety and unealinef?, feems

beds,' as that in the mountains near Lough Allen, and at wearing away, juft iu proportion as the belief in witches^.

Arigna in the adjoining county of Leitrim, but in folid
.rocks. It is of a dark red colour, and breaks into fmall
(helving pieces. There are alfo indications of coal in the
fame neighbourhood. Longford is well watered. The
Shannon forms its weftcrn boundary, and the Inny croffes

gliofts, and liobgob'ins vanifhes, or as reafon and common
fcnfe procure an afcendency over fuperllition and impollure.
See that part of the article Concli'Tion, which treats of
pica.

LONGINUS, DiONY.'tlus, in Biography, celebrated for

it in the fouth. Lough Gawnagh, which covers feveral his treatife on the fublime, flouridied in the third century,
acres is in the north; and fome fmall rivers flow into the and is fuppofcd by fome to have been a native of Alliens,
Shannon, on one of which, called the Camlin, the town of by others of Syria. In his youtli he travelled for improve.

Longford is fituated. It is intended that the Royal Canal
fhouid crofs this cou;!ty, and join the Shannon at Tarmon-
bury.; a meafure which cannot fail of leading to much im

mcnt : he was known at Rome, Alexandria, and other
cities diftinguifiied for Hterature; and attended upon the
leftures of all the eminent mailers in eloquence and philo-
Such was the extent of his erudition, that he was

provement, if it (hould be ever completed. The towns are fophy. Such
fmall. For Longford, the county town, fee the next ar- ftyled by his contemporaries " tlie living library." He
tide- and for Granard and Lanelborough, thofe names in appears to have taught pliilofophy at Athens, where Por-
this work. Edfreworthllown, which was by fome accident phyry was one of his .lifciples. He was invited to the court
■omitted in the proper place, may be noticed hei-e. It is not, of Palmyra, by its illullrioiis queen Zenobia, wlio took his
indeed, remarkable for its fize, but it is remarkable for the inllruftions in the Greek language, and made ufe of his
refidence of a family, which is dillinguifhed for literary and counfels on poli'ical occafions. This dillinftion was fatal
fcientific attainments. The name of Maria Edgeworth is to him ; he was executed by order of the emperor Aurelian,
too well known, and her talents as a pleaiing and ufeful who proved vifiorious over the troops of Zenobia, and.
author too •rcnerally acknowledged, to need the praife of took her prifoner. The queen, to fave herfelf, imputed
the writer of this article. The fame may be faid of her the refillance which llie made to her counfeilors, of whom
lively, ingenious, and patriotic father, Richard Lovell I>o:iginus was fufpefted to be the principal. The philo-
Ed.Teworlh ; and there is reafon to expeft tliat fome of the fophy of Longinus fupported him in the hour of his trial,
-Youn=>-er branches of this family will add to a celebrity al- and he fubmitted to his fate with refignation and cheerfnl-
ready°very great. The writer has before him the reports of nefs. This event took place in the year 273. Gibbon ob-
the bof comniifTioncrs, the eighth of which contains many fervcs on this circumltance, that the fame of Longinus will
proofs^of the ingenuity ot Mr. William Edgeworth. Mr. furvive that of the queen who bi'trayed, or the tyrant who
Edirewcrth's houfe and the adjoining church contain many condemned him. Genius and learning were incapable of
proofs of his mechanical ikiU. moving a fierce unlettered foldier, but they had lerved to

The wtiole of the comity of Longford was formerly called elevate and liarmonife the foul of Lon,.'inus. Without ut-
Annaly, and was a principality fo late as the fifteenth cen- tering a complaint, he calmly followed the executioner,
tnrv. It is now only reprefented in parliament by two pitying his unhappy miilrefs, and beftowiug comfort on his
•knig-hts of the fhire ; though it had, before the union, no afFlided friends. He was author of numerous writings,

- ■ ' ' ' 1 ■ 1 r _. . _ L -. — u jjj. p^.ji-(-e 1,35 coUeftcd the titles of twenty-five; but his

treatife on th.e fublime, already referred to, is the only one
remaining ; and this, as is well known to fcholars, is in a
mnii'ited and imperfect Itate. I'he bcft editions of it are
thofe of Hudfon, Ptaice, and Toup. It has been tranf-
lated into the Enghfh ; but it is one of thofe works which
fcarcely admits of a tranllation. Speaking of this treatife,
Mr. .Smith, the tranflator, fays, " It is one of thofe valu-

4 able

lefs"than four boroughs, which fent two members each.
Beaufort, &c.

LoxGFOUT), a -poft-town of the county of Longford,
Ireland, of which it is the (hire town. It is fituated on the
river Camlin, and is of tolerable fize, and pretty well built.
It has a cha'ter fchooi for 60 boys. Longford is 59 miles
W.N.W. from, Dublin. Beaufort and Carhfle.

iONG-GNAN, a city of China, of the Ikil rank, in

L O N

L O N

able remnants of antiquity, of which enoiifrh remains to en-
gage our admiration, and excite an earncll regret for every
partible of it that has periihed. It refembles thofe muti-
lated ftatues, which are fometimcs dug out of ruins : hmbs
are broken off, which it is not in the power of any hving
artift to replace, becaufe the fine proportion and delicate
finilhing of the trunk excludes all hope of equalling fuch
mafterly performances." Smith's tranilation of the trcatife
on the Sublime. Moreri. Gibbon. Harwood.

LONGISSIMUS DoRSi, in Anatomy, a mtifcle of the
back. See Doksi.

LONGITUDE of the Earth, is fometimcs ufcd to de-
note its extent from ealt to well, according to the diredlion
of the equator.

By which it ftands contradiftinguifhcd from the latitude
of the earth, which denotes its extent from one pole to the
other.

Longitude, in Aflronomy and Geography. The longi-
tude of any point of the heavens is the diltaiice of its place,
reduced to the ecliptic, from the vernal equinoftial point ;
that is, if a great circle pafs through a liar perpendicular to
the ecliptic, the arc of the ecliptic intercepted between the
interfeftion of this circle and the equinoctial point will be
the longitude of the flar.

The longitude of a place on the furface of the earth, is a
portion of the equator intercepted between a meridian paff-
ing through the place, and another meridian which paffes
through iome principal city or obfervatory aiTumcd as a
point of departure, from which the longitudes of other places
are taken. The reafon why longitude is fo differently de-
fined on the celellial and terreftrial globe, has been already
explained under Latitude, to which article the reader is
referred.

The fubjefts of aftronomical invedigation, arifing from
different definitions, are fo intimately connetted, that much
of the prefent has been already anticipated. Under Right
Ascension we have (hewn how, having given the longitude
and latitude of a heavenly body, we deduce its right afcen-
fion and declination : and under Latitude, a rule has been
given far computing the longitude and latitude from the
obferved right afcenfion and declination. But though we
have fhewn how the quantities are derived reciprocally one
from the other, we have referved for this place to explaia
tiow they are originally derived from elementary obferva-
tions. We are therefore to fuppofe the cafe of a pratlical
aftronomer who (hould be defirous of making a catalogue of
ftars, and of determining their longitudes and latitudes inde-
pendent of previous obfervation, except only fuch as are ab-
lolutely neceffary for determining the quantity of preceflion,
aberration, nutation, &c.

The obferver is to be even fiippofed unacquainted with
the latitude of his obfervatory, v.'ith the iituation of the
equinoSial points, and with the obliquity of the ecliptic.
The principles of the method which we mean to explain
were familiar to Flamfteed and the aftronomers of that pe-
lyod, and are demonllrated in De Lalande's and Vince's Af-
tronomy. But the late Dr. MaflvL-lyne was the allronomer
who improved and praftifed it with the greateft luccefs in
forming his catalogue of the thirty-fix principal ilars, and
which would have been much more accurate than any ever
known, had the inftrument with which his obfervations were
made been as perfeft as thofe o'"Jater conllrutlion.

As no inftrument now in ufe can give directly the longi-
tude or latitude of a ftar, it is neceffary, firft of all, to de-
termine the right afcenfions and declinations of thofe liars of

Vol. XXL

which we mean to form a catalogue. The method of de-
termining the declination has been already explained at great
length. (See- Declination.) It is quite independent of
the folar theory, and is derived by direel meafurementof the
meridian diftance between the objeft and the pole. A mural
circle, fuch as that now ere£ling at Greenwich, determin' 8
this diftance, without any reference to the zenith; but with
a quadrant, and with aftronomical circles of the ufual con-
ftruClion, it is either abfolutcly neceffary, or at Icaft conve-
nient, to employ the zenith. And in this cafe we determine
by one feries of obfervations the diftance of the zenith from
the pole, and by another feries the meridional diifance of
the zenith from each particular ftar. The firft quantity,
called the co-latitude of the place, being apphed to tl.e
fecond, or zenith diftance of t!ie ftar, the fum is the polar
diilance. It is evident, that all this may be performed
without any knowledge of the folar theory, or even without
a fingle folar obfervation.

To determine the right afcenfions of the ftars, we might
have affumed (had right afcenfion been otherwife defined)
any great circle perpendicular to the equator, and paffing
through any given ilar, as a Aquilae, exaclly in the fame
manner as we affume an arbitrary meridian for the determi-
nation of terreftrial longitudes. But as aftronomers have
agreed to affume, as their firll celellial meridian, that which
paffes through tlie vernal cquinoitial point, the folar theory
neceffarily becomes involved with the fubjeft of our invefti-
gation : we are, therefore, under the neceffuy of combining
two dillinft objefts of enquiry. In the firft place, it is ne-
ceffary to determine exa6tly the relative fituation of the ftar*
with refpedl to each other and to the equator ; and next, to
place the ecliptic in its true pofition both with refpedt to
the equator and to the fixed ftars, and thus determine the
fituation of the equinoftial point. To have a clear idea
of the whole of this procefs, we ftiould obferve that the two
preliminary invelligations are perteftly independent of each
other; for the conftellations {as we remarked above) might
be truly placed on the celeftial globe without any knowledge
of the ecliptic, and the ecliptic, in like manner, might be
placed making its proper angle with the equator ; and the
declination of the fun and its diftance from the equinoftial
point determined at any moment, by a feries of folar obfer-
vations condufted without any reference to the fixed ftars, and
even without any knowledge of their exiftence. It is by the
combination of the refults of thefe feparate invelligations
that the intended objedl is accomplifhed. The pradical
method of condufting the whole of this operation is as fol-
lows :

In the firft place, we affume the right afcenfion of any
given ftar, as for example <c Aquilas, as near the truth as
poffible from prior determination, or we may confider it as
entirely unknown, and call it zero. This is quite immate-
rial, but the former method is the moll ufual. The ftars of
the intended catalogue are then obfervcd at the tranCt in-
ftrument for a feries of years, with a view to detcrmme their
difference of right afcenfion from a Aquilx and from each
other. This inveftigation would be much more limple than
it is, if the fixed ftars always preferved the fame relative
pofition to each other, as the differences of right afcenfion
would then remain the fame. But this is not the cafe ; the
apparent pofition of each particular ftar is altered by the
effefts of aberration, preceffion, folar and lunar nutation.
The phenomenon of Aberration has been already explained.
That oiPreeijfi-n and Nutation will likewife be minutely de-
fcribed under their rcfpedlive titles. At prefent, it is only
neceffary to obferve, that the adion of the fuu and moon
X % (confidered

' LONGITUDE.

(confidered as conftant forces) produce by their aftion on
the protuberant regions of the equator a flow periodical
revolution of the earth's axis about the pole of the ecliptic.
Bv this motion the cquinoftial points are carried backward,
and the pofitioi. of the equator among the fixed Itars changes
at every inftant. If the etfcft of this phenomenon was
firaply to caufe a change in the pofitionof the equinodtial
points, the difference of right afcenlion of ftars would not
be affefted by it ; but it mull be remembered, that tlic
right afcenfion of a ftar is determined by a perpendicular
drawn from the ftar to the equator ; now, the equator
changing its place, this perpendicular will change its place
alfo; that is, the ftar will be conftantly referred to a new
point on the equator, and hence the right afcenfion will
vary from two caufes ; one, the motion of the equinoftial
point, or point of departure, which will equally affedl every
ftar ; and the other from the change in the point of reference,
by which, according tD the definition, right afcenfion is de-
termined. It is the latter only of thele two caufes that
affefts the difference of right afcenfions.

The folar and lunar nutations of the axis of the earth
arife from the unequal aftion of the fun and moon, by
which the precefTion of the equinoxes is not defcribed in the
uniform and iimple manner above mentioned. The reader
will fee under Nutation, that the axis of the es.rth never
points to its mean place ; hence the apparent equator never
coincides with the mean equator, or that circle which would
be the equator, if thefe periodical nutations did not exift.
Thefe derangements of the equator, and the correfponding
ofcillations of the equinoftial points, affeft' both the longi-
tudes and right afcenfions of the ftars, and hkewife their
declinations: their latitudes alone remain unchanged, for an
ofcillation in the axis of the earth produces no change in
the ecliptic, which depends only on the path which the cen-
tre of the earth defcribes in fpace, and which is not affefted
by the caufes we have above mentioned ; but the ecliptic it-
felf is deranged by the aftion of the neighbouring planets,
for thefe caufe the centre of the earth to take aftually a new
path in the heavens, though they are too diftant to derange
the parallelifm of the earth's axis by any unequal aiSlion on
the equatorial regions. The ecliptic, in confequence of this
difturbance, changes its point of interfeClion with the equa-
tor, which circle remains, from this caufe at leaft, unmoved,
and confequcntly the declinations of the ftars remain un-
changed ; but their longitudes are affefted, not only becaufe
the equinoftial point is difturbed, from which longitudes are
reckoned, but likewife becaufe each ftar is referred to a new
point on the ecliptic ; hence arifes a fecular variation in lon-
gitude, peculiar to each ftar. The right afcenfions are al-
tered by the change of pofition in the equinoftial point,
but this affefts every ftar ahke, and therefore produces no
change in the difference of right afcenfion ; in faft, the
effeft of this latter derangement enters as an element in the
conftant part of the preceffion common to all ftars. The
nature of all thefe changes, or equations, as they are tech-
nically called, has been, or will be, defcribed under their
appropriate terms, as Aberration, Nutation, Ecliptic, Secular
Variation, &c. &c. which fee refpeflively.

Now the nicety and delicacy of the modern method of
reducing obfervations, confift in the exaft determination of
all thefe equations, and the due application of them to

each feparate obfervation ; fo that inftead of the apparent
place, we make ufe of that in which we prcfume the
objeft would have appeared, had none of thefe periodicol
ofcillations exifted. Agreeable to this conception of the
fubjeft, we may define fome of the terms we have ufed
above with greater precifion than we have yet done. For
inftance, mean right afcenfion of a ftar, is the diltance of
the ftar's_ place correftcd for aberration, reduced to the
mean equator, from the mean vernal equinoftial point. Ap-
parent right afcenfwn, is the diftance of the liar's place re-
duced upon the apparent equator from the apparent equi-
noftial point.

Mean declination, is the diftance of a ftar corrcfted for aber-
ration' from the mean equator. Apparent declination, is the ap-
parent diftance of the ftar from the apparent equator. The
mean equator, is an imaginary great circle of the heavens,
about which the apparent equator revolves without ever co-
inciding with it, in the manner already defcribed. Thea^-
parent equator, is that great circle of the heavens which
aftually correfponds with the equinoftial line on the earth,
whatever the pofition of the earth may be at the moment of
obfervation.

If, with the mean right afcenfion, the mean dechnation,
and the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, we compute the
longitude of a ftar, that longitude will be its mean longi-
tude, that is, its place referred to the ecliptic will be reck-
oned from the mean equinox.

If, with the apparent right afcenfion, the apparent de-
clination, and the apparent obliquity, we compute the longi-
tude, this will be reckoned from the apparent equinox. Side-
real time, (as ufed in thefe computations,) is that which has
elapfed fince the paffage of the apparent equinoftial point
over the meridian ; for aftronomers have not yet adopted a
mean fidereal time, which might be defined the interval which
elapfes from the paffage of the mean equinoStial point. This
latter method would be more fcientific than that now
in ufe, and would be a fimilar improvement to the fub-
ftitution of mean folar time for apparent folar time. Were
this latter mode adopted, an alteration muft be made in our
prefeiit tables of nutation, and the equation of the equinoxes
in right afcenfion, which now enters as common to all ftars,
would be omitted, as the fame quantity would previoufly be
applied to the error of the clock which is now applied to
the ftar.

We have been led into this digreflion, and induced to
dwell rather at length upon thefe prehminary confidera-
tions, becaufe we do not, at this moment, recoUeft any
author that has entered much on the fubjeft, to whom we can
refer.

The right afcenfion of a Aquilse then, being affumed as
near the truth as poflible, the right afcenfions of the other
ftars are to be inferred from it, by applying all the above
equations, and likewife a correftion for the error of the
clock.

We fubjoin an example of one day's computation, taken
from the Greenwich Obfervations, 1809. The requifite
tables for thefe reduftions, for aberration, preceflion, nu-
tation, have been given under Declination (Tables 11.
and III.), and for applying the error of the clock to each
ftar, the following table will be found very ufeful.

Table

LONGITUDE.

Table IV.

Names of Stars.

Decimal
Multiplier.

Names of Stars.

Decimal

Multiplier.

y1 r . -

0.003

Caftor

0.486

a > Aquils -^ -

0.000

Procyon - - -

0.490

0S . -

0.002

Pollux -

0.494

a Capricorni

0.017

a Hydrx - - -

0-433

a Cygni -

0.037

Rcgulus . - -

0.405

a Aquarii

0.093

$ Leonis - - -

9-335

Fomalhaut

0.028

(3 Virginis ...

0-334

a, Pegali - - -

0.134

Polaris, S. P.

0.283

a Andromedae

0.179

Spica Virginis

0.369

y Pegafi -

0.182

Arfturus , - -

0.232

Polaris
a Arietis

0.217
0.260

'"iLibrs -

3 aj

0.209
0.209

a Ceti

0.298

a. Cor. Bor.

0.177

Aldebaran

0-363

a Serpcntis - - -

0.172

Capella

0.389

Antares - - -

0.142

Rigel -

0.391

a Herculis - • -

0.108

(5 Tauri -

0-397

a. Ophiuchi - . -

0.094

a. Ononis - - -

0.419

a Lyras . _ .

0.049

Sirius . - .

0.4J5

Example of one Day's Obfervations.

ClocktooQow,

Correction b\

Names of Stirs,
&c.

Tranfits of Stars.

or Reduiftion

toSid.Time.

+

Apparent

Right AfccDiion

of Stars.

Conreiftion by
Table 11.

Table III.

D 9,
8' 5°

Mean A.R.
Jan. 0, ]607.

1807.

S. D. M. S.

.S. D.

S. D. M. S.

S.

s.

S. D. M. S.

Sept. 6.

0 Centr.

10 56 33 28

0 29.8

10 57 2 96

AnElurus -

14 6 23 84

0 29.78

14 6 53 62

— 1.06

— 0.82

14 6 51 74

u Serpentis -

i; 34 19 °3

0 29.79

15 34 48 82

- 1.67

— 0.92

15 34 46 23

a. Ophiuchi -

17 25 32 16

0 29.81

17 26 I 97

- 2.15

- 0.88

17 25 58 94

a Lyrae

18 29 57 18

0 29.83

18 30 27 01

- 0.28

- 0.68

18 30 24 25

n , S

19 36 38 90

0 29.84

19 37 8 54

— 2.82

- 0.94

19 37 4 78

a /-Aquuse <

19 40 55 74

0 29.84

19 41 25 58

+ 2.89

+ 0.94

Stand. Star f

/sJ L

ID 45 23 80

0 29.84

19 45 53 <'4

- 2.92

— 0.96

19 45 49 76

R-0.28

::}Capric.{

20 6 30 88

0 29.84

20 7 0 72

— 3.28

— 1.04

20 6 56 40

20 6 54 58

0 29.84

20 7 24 42

- 3-28

— 1.04

20 7 19 96

Capella -

J 2 I 47

0 29.95

5 2 31 42

- 2.97

- 1.48

5 2 26 9y

Rigel

5 4 48 95

0 29.95

5 5 i8 90

- 1-93

— 0.92

5 5 16 05

jS Tauri

5 »3 39 64

0 29.95

5 14 9 59

— 2.48

- 1.24

5 14 5 87

Sirius

6 36 10 70

0 29.97

6 36 46 67

- 1.28

- 0.88

6 36 38 51

Pollux

7 33 2 16

0 29.98

7 33 32 14

- 1.64

- 1. 14

7 33 29 36

^ -j- The figns are reverfed in the reduftion, becaufe apparent A.R. is deduced from the afTumed mean A.R.

other ftars the mean A. R. is deduced from the apparent.

In the

In the above example the mean right afcenfion of « Aquilae
is aflumed 19' 41' 21. "75 for January i, 1807, and its
apparent right afcenfion is deduced ig"" 41' 25. "58 by
applying the correftions of Tables II. and III. The firft of
thefe include the effeft of preceffion, aberration, fdar nuta-
tipn, and proper motion peculiar to the ftar ; the fecond
gives the nutation, including the equation of the equinoftial
point, fo that the whole correftion, when applied, gives the
interval of fidereal time that fhould elapfe between the paf-
fage of the ftar and that of the apparent equinoftial point ;

this interval is 19'' 41' 25. "58 ; and if the A.R. of the ftar
be rightly aflumed, it is the time which the clock fhould
mark at the interval of the tranfit ; but the clock marked
only 19'' 40' 55. "74. The difference is 29. "84, which we
call the error of the clock, and lince its rate is — 0.2S, we
can, by means of the above table, calculate the error of
the clock for every other ftar. For inftance Capella, the
decimal multiplier of which is 0.39, which is to be multi-
plied by the daily rate, — 0.28 x 0.39 = .109, which
added to 29. "84 = 29.95, '•''^ reduction correfponding to
X X 2 Capella,

LONGITUDE.

Capella, or the quantity to be added to tlic obfcrved tranfit
to obtain the apparent right afcenfion. The apparent right
afcenlions are next reduced to mean right afceiifions for the
beginning of the year by Tables II. and III. obferving to
apply the contrary figns to thofe for a, Aquils, becaufe
now the mean place is to be deduced from the apparent,
whereas we deduced the apparent place of » Aquilae from the
mean.

A feries of obfervations and calculations, fimilar to the
above, being continued for a great length of time, a catalogue
is to be formed, which, fuppofmg the inftrument to be per-
fcft, will be fubjeft to no other error than that of the
affumed right afcenfion of a Aquils, and with this error
every right afcenfion will be affefted.

The fun is likewife to be obfcrved during the whole of
this procefs, and its right afcenfion deduced as in the above
example, and which will be fubjeft to the fame common
error as fubfifts in the right afcenfions of the flars.

While this feries of obfervations is going on at the tranfit
inftrument, both the fun and flars are to be obferved afii-
duoufly with the mural quadrant, or any other inllrument
deftined to the determination of polar dillances. We need
not enter into the details of this procefs, as it has already
been minutely defcribed under Declination, but fliall
proceed to confider the ufe we are to make ot the refult.

With refped to the ftars, it is evident that by this double
invelligation we have determined their places accurately,
both with refpeft to each other and to the equator, fo that
we might place them in their true pofitions on the celeilial
globe, provided no attention was required to be given to_ the
fituation of the ecliptic ; and this would be the cafe, if the
interfedion of a meridian pafTing through a Aquila: with
the equator, had been affumed as an arbitrary point of de-
parture in the fame manner, as we afTume a meridian pafTing
through Greenwich or Paris on the terrellrial globe, as a
ftandard to which terreftrial longitudes are referred. But
the great circle to which celellial longitudes are referred, is
required to pafs through the equinotlial point : it is the exat\
polition, therefore, of this point which we are in fearch of,
and which is to be determined by the data we are now fup-
pofed to have coUefted.

The continued feries of folar obfervations gives us the
obhquity of the ecliptic, and the declination of the fun at
the moment of obfervation, from which its right. afcenfion
may be ealily deduced by the folution of a right-angled
fpherical triangle ; but in making thefe computations, atten-
tion muHbe paid to the periodical ofclllations of the equator,

and to the fecular variation of the ecliptic itfelf ; that is, the
right afcenlions mufl be calculated with the apparent oh-
liquity, that they may be reckoned from the apparent or
variable equinoftial point, in the fame manner as thofe deter-
mined by the tranfit inllrument, and with which they are now
to be coinpared.

We have thus obtained a folar theory independent of the
fixed flars, and the pofition of the fixed liars independent of
the pofition of the ecliptic. It now only remains to combine
thefe operations, and to place the ecliptic in its due pofition
with refpedl to the fixed flars ; and this is done in the fol-
lowing maimer.

We begin by comparing the right afcenfions of the fun
determined by the tranfit inllrument, with the right afcen-
fions determined on the fame day with the quadrant ; and if
they agree, it is a proof that the right afcenfion of a Aquilas
was rightly affumed ; if they differ, as will mofl probably be
the cafe, we mull proceed and endeavour to afcertain both
the quantity and the caufe of the difcordance.

If we confider one fingle infulated obfervation, the dif-
cordance may arife either from an erroneous afl^umption itj
the right afcenfion of a. Aquilje, or from fome defeft in our
folar theory, or from fome error in the obfervation from
which the declination of the fun has been inferred. Novf,
though it would be impoffible to affign the true caufe of
the dilcordance from one fingle comparifon, yet the whole
feries will lead us to the truth, from this fortunate circum-
flance, that whatever error any defedl in the folar obfer-
vations produces in any one obfervation, the fame defeft will
produce an equal error, but with the contrary fign, in an
obfervation in which the fun is i8o degrees from its firfl
pofition.

In felecling obfervations thus circumllanced, it mufl how-
ever be remembered, that although in theory we may deter-
mine the right afcenfion of the fun by trigono.iietrical calcu-
lation from any given declination, yet praclically, no exatt-
nefs can be expetted, except when the change of declination
is confiderable, which only happens near the equinoxes. The
exatt limits in which the comparifon may without impro-
priety be made, mull depend on the accuracy of the inllru-
ments, and on the confidence of the obferver in the correft-
nefs of his obfervations. In general, the period fhould not
be extended to more than fix or eight weeks on each fide
the equinox.

When the feries of obfervations is complete, the refults
are to be arranged and compared as in the following
table :

A.R. of the San A.R. of the Sun

A.R. of the Sun, A.R. of the Sun,

AS dj<lucpd troni.as deduced fiom

as deduced iVoiiias deduced from

Half fum,or

Triidit Obferva-

obferved Dcclina-

Differ.

Tranfit Obfena- obfeived Declina-

Differ.

Sum.

Error.

uoi:3.

lious olthe Su!i.

tions.

lions of the Sun.

0 / n

0 / //

//

' 0 , „

0 ( n

(/

//

/(

Feb.

I"

330 23 24.0 330 23 27.9

+

3-9

Ocl. 26210 12 I5.0'2IO 12 22.5

+ 7-5

-f II.4

+ 5-7

22335 11 26.21335 11 2».5

+

2-3

20 204 29 52.5 '204 29 47.8

- 4.7

- 2.4

— 1.2

March

5'345 31 40-9 345 3" 49-5

4-

8.6

11196 6 31.9 196 6 26.5

- 5'-4

+ 3-2

+ 165

7:347 22 48.6

347 -- 46-7

—

0.9

6 191 31 20.2 J191 31 23.8

+ 3-6

4- 2.7

+ 1-35

15

354 43 44-4

354 43 SyS

+

1 I.I

Sept. 27183 21 54.6 183 21 54.2

— 0.2

+ 10.9

+ 5-45

21

0 II 56.7

0 II 58.3

+

1.6

25>8i 33 48-4li8i 33 40.3

- 8.1

- 6.5

-3'2

April

5

13 49 36-3

13 49 42.6

+

6.3

7:165 22 56.4 I165 22 48.1

- 8.3

— 2.0

— I.O

'I.

6

14 44 21. 1

14 44 27.0

+

5-9

6164 28 46.6 1164 28 42.2

-*■ 4-3

+ 1.6

4- 0.8

7

15 39 0.9

15 39 7-9

7-9

5 163 34 26.5

163 34 28.0

+ 1-5

+ 9-4

4-4-7

Mean of 9,0

r Correftion 1

■ +1-572

of fatalog;

ue - j

Let

LONGITUDE.

■ Let us examine one comparifon, for the fake of example,
in the above table ; fur inftance, Marcli 5th. It appears,
that on that day the right afcenfion deduced from the
quadrant obfervation differed + 8 '.6 from that obferved at
the tranfit. Now it is prcfumed, that a part of this error
mav be in the diviiions of the quadrant, or in the affumed
latitude, or in the obhquity of the ecliptic : \vc, therefore,
compare this refult with its correfponding one, Ocl. nth,
when we find the error to be — 5'. 4; hence we infer, that
:j."2 only is to be attributed to the error of the tranfit ob-
fervations, and that i."6, or the half, is the real error of the
catalogue common to every ftar ; fince, had that quantity
been added, the pofitive and negative error would have been
equal, and would have been therefore afligned altogether to
the folar obfervations.

The beauty of Dr. Mafkelyne's method, which we have
thus endeavoured minutely to defcribe, confil^s in this, that it
is not only extremely independent of thofe errors that are
moil likely to occur in a feries of folar obfei vations, but that
it is capable of furniihing a clue to afcertain both the amount
and caufe of thofe errors. As this would lead us to an invelli-
gation rather foreign to the prefent fubjecl, we fhall not at
prefent enter into thefe coniiderations.

Secular •variatior. in the longitude ofthejjxedjlars.

When the longitudes ar.d latitudes of a number of ftars
are determined for a given period, thefe are computed for
any diftant period, by applying the preceffion of the equi-
nodial points, and hkewife the fecular variation for each
particular liar, and for which purpofe a very accurate table
has already been given under Latitude. This fecular varia-
tion arifes from the real change of pofition in the ecliptic
itfelf ; inafmuch as this affefits the fituation ef the equi-
nodlial point. The effett is common to all liars ; and, there-
fore, this part of it only influences the quantity of the ge-
neral preceffion ; but becaufe the pofition of the ecliptic is
really changed among the conftellations, each flar becomes
Teferred to a new point.

Though the trigonometrical inveftigation of the exacl
quantity of thefe changes is extremely complicated ; yet the
principle may be rendered fufficienily intelligible, by recol-
lecting that a change in the pofition of the equator diilurb-
ing the equinoctial points, produces a change in the longi-
tudes, right afccniions, and declinations, the latitudes only
remaining the fame. But a fimilar change in the ecliptic
produces a change in the longitudes, latitudes, and right
afcenfions, whiill the dechnations remain unaltered. In
other words, the difplacement of the equator affetls every
thing but the latitudes, and a difplacement of the ecliptic
every thing but the declinations.

On the methods of deter mlnir:g the pojitions of places on the fur-
face of the earth, or their longitudes and latitudes.

The general nature of the problem having been already
explained under Latitude; and feveral practical methods of
determining the longitude having been defcribed at great
length under Chkokometer and Degree ; we have now
to explain a variety of allronomical procefies which have
been devifed and brought to a great ftate of perfection
within thefe lall fifty years. Longitude, being only a relative
term, to find the longitude of a place, is, in faCt, to determine
the difference of the longitude of two given places. And
here we may obferve rather a curious circumllance, which is,
that though the problem is in its ftatement purely geogra-
phical, yet it can only be fo'ved by the aid of allronomy,
except upon the hypothetical fuppolition of a trigonometrical
meafurement extended over the whole furface of tlie earth,
or at lead over a great circle of its circumference. Tliis
being impoflible, we mull have recourfe to the general
principle we have fo often had occafion to refer to in former
aftronomical articles. We fuppofe, at any given moment.

every point of the convex furface of the earth eor-
refponds with fome point in the concave furface of the
heavens, called its zenith ; and as the angular diilance is the
fame on each, by meafuring the angular diilance of the celef-
tial arc, which is always acceffible, we obtain the correfpond-
ing and equal angular diilance of the terreftria! arc, which
otherwife would be practically im.poffible. Thus, for in-
ftance, one perfon at London, and ar.other at Jama ca, have
no means of knowing the exa£t proportion of the earth's
circumference intercepted between them, except, indeed,
by the inaccurate eflimate of the length of a fhip's track in
failing from one place to another ; but if, by fome
artifice, each could afcertain, at any given moment, his
zenith point in the heavens ; then, as the angular diilance
of thefe zenith points could eafily be meafured, the cor-
refponding terreitrial arc would immediately be determined.
Now to this, or fome very fimilar principle, may every pro-
cefs fur finding the longitude be referrer'.

The inveftigation of the fubjedt will be much fimplified, if
we fuppofe the equator, inltead of being divided into 360 de-
grees, to be divided into 24 parts, and each part into Co, and
iubdivided again into 60. As each of thefe larger divifions
palles under a celeftial meridian in one hour of fidereal time,
they are called hours to avoid circumlocution, though it is
evident that a portion of a line cannot be an hour, or any
part of time. But as the difference of meafure will be
expreffed in the fame terms as the difference of time, this
mode of divifion is extremely ufeful, and fhews us at once,
that to determine the difference of longitude between two
places, is equivalent to determining the difference of ap-
parent time that exills between two places at any one given
inftant. The moil obvious way of accomplifhing this,
is for two obfervers to watch fome inflantaneous pheno.menon,
and to mark tlie inftant of apparent time at which each
obferved it. The inltantaneous explofion of a mafs of gun-
powder is extremely well adapted for this purpofe when the
diftance is not great, and has been fuccefsiully employed in
the iouth of France, and in the north of Europe. It is
evident that this method can only be employed for very
limited diilances : for places more remote, we are obhged
to recur to the celeftial phenomena, and we felect thofe
which have the greateft refembkince to the above, that is,
which are the moil inftantaiieous, and which appear the
moll nearly alike to two obfervers at the fame aftual inftant
of time. Unfortunately, there are none which unite thefe de-
firable combinations of circumftances. Eclipfes of .Jupiter's
fotellites, and of the raoon, unite them in a very confiderable
degree, and accordingly have been employed to great advan-
tage, particularly in the early ftate of geography, and in
cafes where the fituation of the place was previoufly un-
known.

An occultation of a fixed ftar is a very inftantaneous phe- ,
nomenon, but it is not feen at the identical inftant of aftual
time by each obferver ; for, from the vicinity of the moon and
its conlequent parallax, it may to one obferver appear to pafs
over a fixed ftar, when to another it may appear to pafs
entirely over or under it : hence, even in tlie caf\; where
an occultation is obferved by two pcrfons, the difference o£
longitude cannot be inferred by finiply noting the difference
of time at which the phenomenon happened to each obferver.
This defeft, however, may be completely fupplied by calcu-
lation, and therefore it is juftly con!idcr<d as one of the
moil accurate methods that can poftibly be devifed. We
fliall refer our readers to aftronomical v/riters for examples
of the various methods : our object at prefent is only to give
a flcetch of the dift'erent principles on which they are
founded.

The longitude of a place on land may likewife be found

wi:b confiderable exaclneis, by obferving the paffage of the

~ -j-j mooa

LONGITUDE.

moon over the meridian, and comparing it with the paffage
obferved in fome fixed obfervatory. A much greater accuracy
will be obtained by this method, if feveral fucceflive tranfita
of the moon be taken at either place of obfervation, as then
the motion of the moon in riglit afcenilon will be obtained
without the aid of calculation : but it will be requifitc to
attend to the equation of fecond differences, and even then
the irregularity of the moons motion in 24 hours is fo great,
that a very fenfible error may ftill remain uncorrefted.

Several writers, in explaining this method, appear to have
fallen into a mifconceptioii of the fubjeft, by confounding
together the retardation of the moon in 24 hours, with the
real retardation obferved between two fucceilive tranfits,
and which latter fliould evidently be ufed in calculating the
proportional retardation correfponding to a given difference
in longitude. Suppofe, for inftance, for the fake of render,
ing the fubjeft as intelligible as poffiblc, that the motions of
the fun and moon were pcrfeftly uniform and in the equator,
and that they both paffed the meridian of Greenwich at mean
noon (which would, according to our fuppofition, be the
fame as apparent noon) ; fuppofe that the next day the
moon paffed the meridian of Greenwich at 1 ' after noon.
It is evident that the retardation would be one hour in
tiuenty-five hours. On the oppofitc meridian the moon will
pafs ato" 30', at which inftant it will be 12'' 30' mean lime at
Greenwich, or the half of 25 hours, this being the proportion
of time anfwering to a retardation of 30'. In genera', the at-
tention of the calculator ihould be direfted to finding the
mean time at Greenwich, and to compare with this the mean
time at the place of obfervation. The reader, who wifhes
to fee more on this particular method, may confult a paper
by Mr. Gavin Lowe in the 15th vol. of Tilloch's Philo-
■ fophical Magazine.

Hitherto we have fuppofed two obfervations made by two
obfervers, one at each place, whofe difference of longitude
with the other is to be determined ; but it is evident that
this is imprafticable in many cafes, and particularly in the
one of the greatell importance, namely, when the objeft is
to determine the longitude at fea. Here the mariner muft
be fupplied with one calculated or fuppofed obfervation,
inftead of one really obferved. The difficulty to be fur-
mounted in this cafe is extremely great : of the immenfe
number of methods more or lefs piaufible that have been
fuggefted, two only are in ufe at prefent, the one by the
means of a chronomter, already explained at great length
under that article ; the other the lunar method, which
has been gradually improved by the labour of fucceeding
aftronomers, from the time it was firll fuggeftd, many years
ago, to the prefent moment, when it is brought fo near per-
feftion, that no leafonable hope can be entertained of any
very confiderable improvement.

The early navigators had no means of eftimating their
longitude but by the computed run of the (hip ; and the
dangers they incurred by tliis inaccurate method, were fuf-
ficient to convince every enHghtened government, particularly
of maritime ftates, of the importance of encouraging, to the
utmolt effort of human ingenuity, what could be direfted to
the improvement of this defeClive ilate of navigation.

The early fpeciilations, of aftronomeis were of but little"
praftical utihty to the navigation of thofe times. In the
1 6th century, cclipfcs of the moon were ftrongly recom-
mended ; but they happened very feldom, and were too in-
accurately computed to be of any great ufe. Perhaps,
now and then, the approximate longitude of an almoil un-
known country, wht-re a mariner might accidentally be on
fliore, was computed by this method, but to determine the
place of a (hip it was perfe<JtIy inadequate.

Phihp III. of Spain, in 1J98, offered an hundred thou-
fand crowns ; and the ftates of Holland, at the beginning of

I of

the feventeenth century, propofed a reward of thirty thou-
fand florins to the perfon who Ihould be fortunate enough
to folve this difficult and important problem. In 1635,
John Morin, profeffor of mathematics at Paris, propofed
a method of refolving it to cardinal Richelieu, extremely
fimilar to the lunar method now in ufe ; but it was rejefted
as of no praftical utihty : and indeed, at that period, neither
the lunar tables were of fufficient accuracy, nor the nautical
inftruments delicate enough to render the lunar method very
promifing. However, though the commiffioners, who were
appointed to examine this method, judged it infufficicnt,
on account of the imperfeftion of the lunar tables, cardinal
Mazarin, in 1645, procured for him a penfion of 2000
livres.

Many attempts were founded on the theory of the mag-
netic variation ; but none of thefe fucceeded. It was the
general opinion of allronomers, that the moon's motion was
the moft promifing phenomenon to feleft ; but long after
the idea was firft fnggciled, neither lunar tables nor inftru-
ments were fufficiently exaft to render any method, founded
on thij theory, praftically ufeful. Still, however, there was
a rational hope that thefe difficiJties might be overcome.

The firft perfon who recommended the inveftigation of
the longitude, from obferving the diftance between the moon
and fome ftar, is faid to have been John Werner, of Nu-
remberg, who printed his annotations on the firft book of
Ptolemy's Geography, in 1514: Peter Apian, profeffor of
mathematics at Ingolftadt, in 1524 ; Oronce Fine, of Bri-
an9on, about 1530; Gemma Fnfius, at Antwerp, in IJ30;
Nonius or Pedro Nunez, in 1560 ; and Kepler, in 1630;
all fuggeft and recommend the fame method. In 1675,
king Charles II. erefted the obfervatory at Greenwich, and
appointed Mr. Flamfteed his aftronomical obferver, with
this exprefs command, that he fhould apply himfelf with the
utmoft care and diligence to the rectifying the table of the
motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed ftars, in
order to find out the fo much delired longitude at fea, for
perfefting the art _ of navigation. To the fidelity and in-
duftry with which Mr. Flamfteed executed his commiffion,
we are in a great meafure indebted for that curious theory
of the moon, which was afterwards formed by the immortal
Newton. This incomparable philofopher made the beft ufe
which human fagacity could make of the obfervations with
which he was furniftied ; but, as thefe were interrupted and
imperfeft, the difference of fir Ifaae's theory from the hea-
vens would fometimes amount at leaft to five minutes. Dr.
HaUey employed much time on this fubjert ; and a ftarry
zodiac was pubhftied under his direftion, containing all the
ftars to which the moon's appulfe can be obferved : but for
want of proper inlliruments and correft tables, he could not
proceed in making the neceffary obfervations. In a paper
on this fubjeft he expreffes his hope, that the inftrument juft
invented by Mr. Hadley might be applied to taking angles
at fea with the defired accuracy. (See Phil. Tranf. N" 42 1.)
This great aftronomer, and after him the abbe de la Caille,
and others, have reckoned the beft aftronomical method of
finding the longitude at fea, to be that wherein the diftance
of the moon from tlie fun, or from a ftar, is ufed ; for the
moon's daily mean motion being about thirteen degrees,
her hourly mean motion is about half a degree, or one mi-
nute of a degree in two minutes of time ; and fo an error of
one minute of a degree in pofition will produce an error of
two minutes in time, or half a degree in longitude : and if
by obfervation it is determined what part of her daily motion
the moon has run through during the interval between a
certain point of time under a known meridian, and the
inftant of time when the obfervations are made on her,
under an unknown meridian, then her daily motion at that
time will have, to the part thereof determined by obferva-
tion.

LONGITUDE.

tion, the fame ratio which twenty-four hours has to the in-
terval of time taken to defcribe that arc.

It was ill the year 1714 that the parhament of Great
Britain firll begau to confider this queftioii as an objeft of
national concern. And the lofs of fir Cloudefly Shovel's
fleet feems to have had fome effeft in drawing their attention
to this fubject ; at leaft, if we may judge from the following
document, copied from a manufcript in the Royal Ob-
fervatory, figned by thofe well-known perfonages, William
Whifton and Humphrey Ditton. It appears to have been
one of the many petitions prefented to the houfe of com-
mons on tliis occafion.

Reafons for a Bill, propofing a Reward for the Difcovery
of the Longitude.

I. This bill is unexceptionable, becaufe it is general, and
not confined to any one projeft, perfon, or method;' but
gives equal hopes to all judicious propofers whatfoever.

II. Becaufe in this bill no money is infilled on, before
any method for the difcovery of the longitude is, upon trial,
aftuaUy found practicable and ufeful.

III. Becaufe fir Ifaac Newton's own paper, delivered
into the Committee, gives hopes that the known method by
the theory of the moon, which is hitherto not esaft enough,
may, upon due encouragement, in time be brought to per-
fection.

IV. Becaufe the method now propofcd is owned by all,
to whom it has been communicated, to be certainly true in
theory : it cannot, therefore, be fit to have it concealed, even
though it were not yet known to be practicable ; becaufe,
in that cafe, future improvements might Hill make it fo.

V. Becaufe its great ufe at land and in geography is in-
difputable, and was diftinclly obferved by fir Ifrac Newton
and Dr. Halley, upon the firft propofal of this method to
them : and we beg leave to fay, that this ufe alone \% fo great
and extenffue, that if there were no other, it would highly
deferve the encouragement of the public.

VI. Becaufe another great ufe is alfo undoubted, vi%,
for all places in the narrow feas, and within about 1 00 miles
of all ftiores and iflands ; that is, for all places where fhips
are in the greateft danger, as fir Ifaac Newton owned to
the committee ; fo that if this method extended no farther,
yet it would highly deferve the public encouragement.

VII. Becaufe there is little or no reafon to doubt of its
ufe at any place at fea, even where fliips are allowed to be
in the leaft danger ; fince, in the moft doubtful cafe ot all,
fir Ifaac Newton lias, in his paper delivered to the com-
mittee, propofed an cfFeAual remedy, as will be clearly un-
derftood, when the method itfelf is known to the world.

VIII. Becaufe this method will fave the nation great
fums of money, which the want of it does now occafion, as
will appear upon trial.

IX. Becaufe the charges of it will be inconfiderable, in com-
parifon of the advantage, as will alfo fully appear upon trial.

X. Becaufe it will prevent the lofs of abundance of fhips
and lives of men ; as it would certainly have faved all fir
CloudeUy Shovel's fleet, had it then been put in practice.

XL Becaufe it is eaiy to be underftood and pradtifed by
ordinary feamen, without the neceflity of any puzzling cal-
culations in aftronomy.

And we take leave to recommend the learned Savihan
profeffor of geometry at Oxford, Dr. Halley, as the fittell
perfon in the world for the trial, and praftice, and improve-
ment of this method ; and do hereby declare, that we are
wilhng that he go equal (hares with us in the reward, if he
pleafe to imdertake lo ufeful a work, and the public pleafe
to make that reward equivalent to the great dignity and im-
portance of the difcovery.

June ic, 1714. Will. Whiston.

Hu.MPHKEY DlTTON.

Accordingly an aft was pafled in this year, 17 14, in the
Britifii parliament, appointing and empowering certain com.
miffioners to make out a bill for a fum not exceeding 2000/.
towards making neceflary experiments ; and alfo granting a
reward to the perfon who fhould difcover the longitude at
fea, proportioned to the degree of accuracy that might be
attained by fuch method; ■viz. a reward of 10,000/., if it
determines the fame longitude to one degree of a great
circle, or fixty geographical miles; ij,ooo/., if it deter-
mines the fame to two-thirds of that diftance ; and 20,000/.,
if it determines it to half that diftance. It is added, that
one moiety or half part of fuch rewards or fum ftiall be due
and paid when the faid commiflioners, or the major part of
them, do agree that any fuch method extends to the fecurity
of ftiips, within eighty geographical miles from the ftiores,
which are places of the greateft danger; and the other
moiety or half part, when a ftiip, by the appointment of the
faid coramiffioners, or the major part of them, fhall thereby
actually fail over the ocean, from Great Britain to any fuch
port in the Weft Indies as ihofe commiflioners, or the major
part of them, ftiall chufe or nominate for the experiment,
vvithout lofing her longitude beyond the limits above men-
tioned. 12 Ann. cap. 15. See alfa flat. 14 Geo. II.
cap. 39. 26 Geo. II. cap 25. By flat. 14 Geo. III. all
former atts concerning the longitude at fea are repealed,
except fo much of them as relates to the appointment and
authority of the commiflioners thereby conftituted, and alfo
fuch claufes as relate to the conftrudting, printing, pubhfti-
ing, &c. of nautical almanacs, and other ufeful tables ;
and it is enatted, that any perfon, who ftiall difcover any
method for finding the longitude by means of a time -keeper,
ftiall be entitled to the propofed reward, as we have already
ftated under the article Chronometer ; which lee.

From the very confiderable improvements made by fir
Ifaac Newton in the theory of the moon, and more lately
by M. Euler, and others on his principles, Mr. Tobias
Mayer, profeffor of Gottingcn, was enabled to calculate
lunar tables more correft than any that were before pub-
liftied, and he has fucceeded fo far as to give the moon's
place within one minute of the truth. This has been proved
by a comparifon of the tables with the obfervations made
at the Greenwich obfervatory by the late Dr. Bradley,
and by Dr. Maftvelyne. Thefe ubles, for which the
widow of Mr. Mayer was rewarded by the Britilh parlia-
ment, were publiftied in 1770, by Dr. Mafkelyne, by order
of the cpmmiflioners of longitude. Dr. Malkelyne, in his
voyage to St. Helena, in 1761, made ufe of tliefe tables,
and found them to anfwer for the difcovery of the longitude,
within a degree ; and in order to facifitate the general ufe of
them, he propofed a nautical ephemeris, the fcheme of
which was adopted by the commiflioners of longitude, and
firft executed in the year J 767 ; and the pubUcation has been
regularly continued ever fince. But as the rules that were
given in the appendix to one of thofe publications, for cor-
recting the effects of refraction and parallax, were deemed
too difficult for general ufe, they were reduced to tables :
fo that by the help of the ephemeris, thefe tables, and others
that are provided, the calculations relating to the longitude,
which could not be performed by the moft expert mathe-
matician in lefs than four hours, may now be completed
with greater eafe and accuracy in half an hour. Dr. Maf-
kelyne obferved, that the error of Mr. Mayer's laft lunar
tables fcarce ever exceeds i' at the moft, and leldom amounts
to 20" ; and, therefore, the uncertainty hence arifing in the
determination of the longitude, can fcarcely exceed half a
degree, and generally will not exceed ten miles.

We obferve, in general, with regard to the hiftorical part
of this article, that when Hadley had invented the quadrant,
or ottant, which ilill bears his name, and when Mayer liad

brought

LONGITUDE.

brought the lunar tables to an unexpected degree of pre-
cifion, aftronomers of every nation began to conceive the
molt rational hopes, that, by gradual improvement, this
method would at laft be found to eqya! the moll fanguine
expeftation.

Thofe who firll attempted to praflife it had to ftruggle
with great difficulties ; and the requifite calcuhitions were
fo formidable, that none but aftronomers, or at leaft very
able calculators, could poflibly attempt them.
' The late aftror.omer royal, Dr. Mufl^elyne, praftifed this

method with the gieatell fucccfs ; and it is to him this
country is indebted for fome of the grcateft improvements
that hav^ been made. It was he who firft propofed and
fuperintended the conftruftion of the Nautical Almanac,
which relieves the calculator from all the very laborious part
of the procefs ; and the remaining part of the computation
has been fo fimplified by fucceffive improvements, both in the
formula; and conftruftion of tables, that, at prefent, the necef-
fary obfervations may be both made and coniputed by any ma-
nner, who has received a tolerably good nautical education.

As the praftical methods of making and computing a
lunar obfervation are given at great length in every nautical
book, we fliaU confine ourfelves to explaining the general
nature and objedl of the problem, and refer the reader to
profeffcd treatifes on navigation for farther information. In
Mackay's trcatife on the Longitude, the reader will find
fome excellent methods of folving both this and a variety of
other nautical problems, accompanied by very ufcful tables.
Mendoza's tables contain his own valuable method of coin-
pnting a lunar obfervation, belide general tables for every
nautical purpofe. The requifite tables are well known, and
are in the hands of every navigator.

Explanation of the princ'iplcs of the method by tuhich the longi-
' tuele is found at fea, by ohferving the dijlance of the moon from
the fun, or a given fixed Jlar.

The requifite data for determining the jlongltude at fea,
by the lunar inethod, are the apparent dittance of the centre
of the moon from the centre of the fun or Itar, and the ap-
parent altitude of the centres of each at the moment of
obfervation. Hence three obfervers are ufnally employed :
one obicrves the diftance between the fun and moon, one
the altitude of the fun, and the other the altitude of the
moon. When this cannot be done, the place of the other
two may be fupplied by computation.

By means of lunar tables, the exaft diftance of the moon
from the fun or ftar is computed for every three hours, for
the meridian of Greenwich. We are not, however, to fup-
pofe that thefe dilhuices are fuch as the moon and fun would
appear to have at Greenwich ; but fuch as they would ap-
pear to an obferver at the centre of the earth. It is for
Creentvich time only that they arc computed ; a circumftance
not fufficiently infiflled upon by elementary writers on this
fubjeft. From thefe tables (of the Nautical Almanac) it
is eafy to infer the diftance for any intermediate interval : a
fimple proportion will be fufScient for this purpofe. We
may therefore confider ourfelves as in poffeirion of an in-
llantaneous phenomenon, anfwering to every inftant of time
at Greenwich ; fince the diftance of the fun and the moon
are never the fame for two fucceffive inftants of time. Now
if we confider the converfe of this propofition, it is equally
evident, that if we have given the diftance of the moon from
the fun, as feen from the centre of the earth ; we can, by
the fame tables, infer the exaft time at Greenwich cor-
refponduig to this diftance. Now the objeft of a lunar ob-
fervation is to determine this diftance at a given moment of
actual time, lo afcert.iin the apparent time at this moment
for the meiidJan of the obferver, and to compare it with the
moment of Greenwich time, which is to be inferred from
the given diftance. Now the difficulty of the procefs arifes

from this circumftance, that fince, to an obferver on the
furface of the earth, the moon appears always deprefted bv
the efteft of parallax, and the fun elevated by the effiidt of
refrailion, the angular diftance obferved with a fextant, or
any other inftrument, is not the Hune as the diftance feen
from the centre of the earth, and for which alone the
nautical tables are calculated. Hence a fphcrical computa-
tion becomes necefl^ary. Two cafes of oblique fpherical
triangles mull be computed, before the obferved diftance
can be corrected, and the true diftance afcertained.

The general nature of the problem may be m'lre eafily un-
derftood by a reference to the figure ( Plate XVII. jiflronomy,
fig. 1.), which is a projeftion of the fphere on the plane of
the meridian : i) i -j is the obferved or apparent dijiance of the
fun and moon ; Z ]) is the zenith diftance ot the moon ;
Z 0 that of the lun ; m is the true place of the moon, when
corrected for refi-aftion and parallax, which together tend to
apparently deprefs it ; j is the true place of the fun, when
corredted by refradtion and parallax, which together tend
apparently to elevate it : for the moon's parallax is always
greater than the refradtion, the fun's always Icfs. For a ilar,
the fimple corrtttion for retradtion is all that is required.

We have now, therefore, given three fides in the triangle
"L Gj )) , and two fides (viz. Z m, Z .r) in the triangle Z m s.

In the triangle Z Q J » the angle Z may be found from
the three given fides ; and then with Z m, "ZiS, and the in-
cluded angle Z found above, ms, or the true diftance, may
be obtained.

To fiiorten the folution of this problem, and to reduce it
within the compals of a mariner's ordinary powers of com-
putation, has been an objctt with the firft geometricians in
Europe. It would lead us much beyond our limits to give
a hiftory of the numerous folutions that have been propofed.
The French mathematicians, probably not having a great
facility of conftrudting tables, have diredted their attention
chiefly to fuch methods as require only the common tables
of logarithms. In our own country, where the board of
longitude is always ready to publifti any ufeful tables that
may be approved, thofe methods and formulx have been in
general preferred, which admitted of the ffiorteft folution
by means of tables. In this refpedt, a progreffive feries of
improvement has taken place fince the firft introdudtion of
the method ; and a flcilful mariner will now compute the
true diftance from the apparent in five minutes, when
formerly as many hours were required.

Befides the methods founded on a diredt trigonometrical
folution, there are many (fuch as Lyon's and Dr. Maf-
kelyne's) which are founded on rather a different principle.
The fmall triangle J) m m' is computed as if a plane one,
]) m' being the effedt of the total depreffion of the moon in
changing the diftance : a fimilar triangle is formed for com-
puting the eftedt of refradtion for the fun or ftar. Various
formulae have been deduced from each of thefe principles,
for the inveftigation of which the reader may confult Cag-
nole's Trigonometry, and various volumes in the Connoif-
fance dcs Temps. A very clear and fcientific inveftigation
of all thefe methods was given by Mr. Mendoza, in the
Philofophical Tranfadtions for 1797.

To enable the reader to judge of fome of the moft ap-
proved of thefe, we ftiall give a folution of the fame problem
by a variety of different ways.

Given Apparent altitude 0 - 32^34' 47"

Apparent altitude B - 39 3 4

Apparent diftance © ]) - 86 10 19
Horizontal parallax - O j8 28

Required the true diltance.

The firft example we fliall give is the method of Borda,
which is in general ufe among the more ikilful of the French
navigators.

The

LONGITUDE.

The formula is as follows :

Let

I a/ cof. i{d + a + h) cof. ^{J ^ {" + />) cof- A cof. H

cof. i ( A + H ) cof. VcoL'6

Then fin. i D = cof. J (A + H) cof. N.
In which A = true altitude of J)

a = apparent altitude of ])

H = true altitude of 0

h = apparent altitude of 0

d = obferved or apparent diftance © ]>

D = true diftance required.

fin. N.

Apparent diftance © (f
Apparent a'titude ©
Apparent altitude d

Sum

Half fum
Diftance half fum
Correfted altitude ©
Correfted altitude ([

Sum

Half fum

86' lo' 19"
32 34 47
39 3 4

157 43 10

73 54 5

7 16 14

(■32 a 2?

1.39 47 18

72 20 43
36 10 21.5

Example I. — Borda's Method.

Com. ar. log. cof.
Com, ar. log. cof.

log. cof.
log. cof.
log. cof.
log. cof.

0.0743564
0.1098114

9.2844366
99964940

99257)39
9.8855952

Sum
Half fum

Log cof. N

39.2764375

log.Tof. ('9:9070039} ^'^- 9-73I2H8, which is the log. fm. N.'
\ 9.9256221

Sum log. fin. of the 9.8326260

Half diftance
True diftance

42'' 51 '29"
85 42 58

When Callet's Logarithms are ufed, much labour may be avoided, by taking the neareft multiple to 10" in the
apparent diftance and making an equal alteration in the refult. In the above example, the diftance for calculation might
be 86 10' 20"; and then one fecond ftiould be dedudled from the refult, which would have been 8c" 42' 59".

Example II. — According to the method given by Dr. Mafl<elyne in the Preface to Taylor's Logarithms. Let the
apparent altitude of the moon's centre be 39 3' 4'', that of the fun 32" 34' 47" ; their apparent diftance 86^ 10' 19", and
the moon's horizontal parallax 58' 28". Required the true diftance of the fun and moon.

J 's horizontal parallax ... o' 58' 28" Log. fine . - - 8.23061

Ji 's apparent altitude - - . 39 3 4 Log. cofine - - 9.89019

J 's parallax in altitude

D 's refraftion from Table I. • -

Correftion of moon's altitude
B 's apparent altitude ...

D 's true altitude - • -

©'s apparent altitude ...
Difference of refraftion and parallax

©'s true altitude • . .

i) 's true altitude - - -

Difference of true altitudes of © and D

©'s apparent altitude ...
]) 's apparent altitude ...

Difference of apparent altitudes of © and J)
Apparent diftance ....

o 45 24
— I 10

Log. fine

8.12080

0
39

44
3

14
4

39 47

18

32
0

34 47
I 22

32 33
39 47

\l

7

»3

53

32
39

34 47
3 4

6
86

28
10

17
19

Sum
Vol. XXI.

92 38 36

Yy

Difference

LONGITUDE.

Difference

Half fum

Half difference
P 's apparent altitude
J 's true altitude

O's apparent altitude

O's true altitude

79 42 a
46 19 18

39 51 '
39 3 4
39 47 •»
32 34 47
32 33 25

Half difference of true altitudes of O and ]) 3 36 56

42 51 29

3

Log. fine

Log. fine

Co. ar. loff. cofine

Log. cofine

Co. ar. log. cofine

Log. cofine

Log. fine

Log. tangent of an arc

9.8592754

9.80671 14
0.10981 14
9.8855952
0.0743564
9-9257539

2)39.6675037

19.8307518

8.7997641

- 11.9309877 Tang. N.

Correfponding log. cofine N 9.9981254
Log. fine - - 9.8326264

85 42 58 True diftance required.
The formula for the above method is nearly fimilar to that of Borda. It is,

iin. i (A-n H^

^/fiiTl {J {a ^ h) fin, i {d ^- {a ^ h) cof. A col. H ^ ^^^ ^^^ , ^ ^ iin.l(A^H)

cof. a cof b

cof. N.

Example HI. Dunthorn's Method. — Let the apparent diftance of the fun and moon be 86= 10' 19", the apparent

altitude of the fun 32 34' 47", that of the moon 39 3' 4", and her horizontal parallax 58' 28". What is their true
diftance ?

Log. from Table IX.
Log. from Table X.

9.995526
10

Moon's apparent altitude
Sun's apparent altitude

Difference of apparent altitudes
Apparent diftance

39" 3'

4"

32 32

37

6 28

17

86 10

19

Sum . . . -

Difference

92 38 36
79 42 3

Half difference true altitude

3 36 56

Arc ....

42 37 46

Sum . . . -

Difference

46 14 42
39 0 50

Half true diftance

42 51 24

2

True diftance r - -

85 42 58

Referved logarithm

9.995516

Cor. J 's altitude. Table VIII.

- 0 44' 14'

Cor. O's altitude. Tables I. and II

0 I 22

Cor. apparent altitude

0 45 36
6 28 17

Half difference true altitude

7 14 53

Half difference true altitude

3 37 26

its half is 46" iq' 18' S.
its hait'i< 39 51 I S.
Referved logarithm

9.S59275
9 806711
9.995516

•

2)19.661502

9.830751

Cofine . , . . -
Cofine ....

9.839840
9.890417

3)19.730257

Cofine

9.865128

Example

LONGITUDE.

Example IV. — By Mendoza's Method,
©'s altitude 32" 3j'. d 's altitude 39 3'. Apparent diftance 86^ 10' 19'".

Horizoutal parallax j8' 28".

bun's altitude

Moon's altitude ...

32' 35' 0"
39 3 0

Table X.

No. I.

fNo.
JNo.

No. 2.

No. 3.
No. 4.

88083 '

59
2. 32

3- "

03202

33820

25207
021

■ Aux

Table IX
arg.

Sum of app. altitudes of O and ])
Compl. corr. Table VII.
Corr. moon's alt. Table VIII.
Prop, part ...

CorreAed fum of altitudes

71 38 0
58 39

11 20 53

20 9

10

3

Apparent diftance

Seconds referved

86 10 0

85 42 38-5
19.

85 42 57-5

True diftance

186.

This method is not only extremely fliort and eafy, but is exempt from any poffible confufion of figns, all the cor-
reftions being additive. It is really fo perfeA, that it fhould fuperfede every other now in ufe.

Mr. Mendoza's formula is

Sin vpr n -1. ., - y ^'"- '*'^''- (-^ + H) + fi"- 'er. (J+ M) -(- fin. ver. (</ ^ M) = P
oin. ver. -IJ + 4 - | ^ fin, ver. (a + A + M) + fin. ver. ( (a + A) wT M) = Q

of. A cof. H

2 cof. M being taken =

The operation performed by his tables is as follows ;

Obferved altitude O - -

Ditto ) . .

Sum ....
With h in Table VI. take
d - take M and

The fum

With (a + h) and M in Table XI.

(A + H) - - XI.

J and M - - XI.

cof. a cof. h

h
a

a + i
60' — r + p

A + H

= refraiS. p = parallas.

take Number

II = fin. ver. (180' - (A + H) - 59*)
III = fin. ver. {d + M) + Cm. ver. {d <t M)

The fum or number IV = fin. ver. D + 4 = I + II + III = IV

By the method propofed in the Appendix of
his death. A very good table of verfeJ fines
The apparent diftance of the moon's centre
centre 32° 34' 47'; the apparent altitude of
required the diftance of their centres.

D *s horizontal parallax o^ 58'

0's apparent altitude 32 34

J 's apparent altitude 39 3

Example V.

the requifite Tables publifhed by Dr. Malkelyne a very (hort time before
accompanies it.

from the fun's centre being 86" 10' 19'' ; the apparent altitude of the fun'«
the moon's centre 39 3' 4"; and the moon's horizontal parallax 58' 28";

Difference of app. altitude
Apparent diftance

6 28
86 lo

28"

47 — I 22 / , , j'( ^ijoie correftion.

4 + 44 '4 J
— Table IX.

17 N. verf. 006373 Table X.

19 N. verf. 933237

Difference of true altitudes 7 14

True diftance - 85 43

926864

Nat. No. to log. 919344
53 N. verf. 007989

Logarithm

N. verf. 925333

9.995526
10

Referved logarithm 9-9955 1 6
Logarithm - 5.967016

5.962532

Yy»

Exai^ple

LONGITUDE.

Example I. Mackay's Method, which is the fame as the preceding.

the apparent diftance between the centres of the fun and moon be 86" lo' 19" ; the apparent altitude of the fua
' 47" ; the apparent altitude of the moon 39" 3' 4" ; and the moon's horizontal parallax 58' 28".

Let

32' 34' 47

Apparent diftance

Difference of apparent altitude

86° 10' 19" N.V.S. 933237
6 28 17 N.V.S. 006373

Log. diff. Tab. XLII. 9.995517

Correfted D 's altitude
Correfted G 's altitude

Difference of true altitude
True dillance

+ 44 14 Diff. 926864

+ I 22 N. No. 917333

Log.

5.967010
.962527

7 14 53 N.V.S. 007989
85 43 2 N.V.S. 925322

This is a (hort and very excellent method, in cafe the mariner (hould not poflefs Mendoza's tables.

Example by Mr. Turner's Method.

Table XV. of Nautical Almanac.

Horizontal parallax

Moon's altitude

Sun'6 altitude

Apparent diftance

Firft correftion from the Tables

Firft correfted diftance
Second correftion

Second correfted diftance

This method was publilhed in a very fmall volume by the author at Portfmouth.

Apparent diftance 86^ xo' .," Hor. par. 58' 28'' } ^.X^P-^nt^aSde

By Garrard's Tablets.

tt' c 1 ''Ti\ -^°'- P^^- °'58' 28" D 's app. altitude 39^ 3' 4"+ 44' 14"! ' '' _ p ,

H. Suppl. 9.9546J *^ ©'s app. altitude 32 34 47 - 1 21 | ^^ ^5 iTo. log. 0.59&4

No. I.

0^58' 28"

39 3 4
32 34 47
86 10 19

I 47

Prop. log.

Cofecant

Cofecant

Sine

Prop. log.
2d Part

/

31

0

34

27

2dC<

4884

10.2687

9.9990

0 7561
jrreftion.

Prop. log. 58 28

Tang. 86 12 6
Prop. log. 2 27

4884
10.2006

86 12 6

11.1777

— 29 7

1.8667

85 42 59

29

7

32" 34' 47"-
39 3 4

No. II.

No,

1 39 22

9.2076

0.2883 pr. log. I 32 41

0.7405 = prop. log. - 32' 43"!
+ 5 27I J

- 37 '5?

85 43 3l

22 47

Argument B. No. III.
Complement No. III.
+ 5' 27'

'3

4 —

6 28 17

+ 22 47

6 51 4

i-7»39

86 10 19

9.2076
1.5179

This method, by a fmall fet of tablets, has lately been publiftied by Mr. W. Garrard, of the Naval Afylum, Greenwich.

There is a formula in Keith's Trigonometry, which might be fimplified and reduced to the following method.
Apparent diftance 86- 10' 19'' - Nat. cof. 066762

Difference of apparent altitudes - Nat. cof. 993629

Difference 926867

Log. 5.9670174

Log. diff., or referved logarithm. Table IX. reg. tab. orl
Table XLII. of Mackay - . - - J

Nat. num. 917349
Difference of true altitudes - - Nat. cof. 992043

Log.
Sum

9.9955169
5.9625343

True diftance 815° 43' 59"
10

Nat. cof. 074694

In

I

LONGITUDE.

In this example the log. difF., taken from Mackay's Table XLIL is fubflituted for the following logarithms, which are
ufed by the author, and arc indeed common to all the formulae of this nature.

Log. fecant of apparent altitude 0 ... 0.0743564

Log. fecant of apparent altitude ]) ... 0.1098114

Log. cofine of true altitude 0 - - - - 9-925'7539

Log. cofine of true altitude p - - - - 9.8S55952 \

Sum . . - 9.9955169

This fum is the referved logarithm of Requifite Tables, and that of Table XLII. ef Mackay.

Apparent altitude O
Correction R — P
O's true altitude
Apparent altitude P
Horizontal parallax
Parallax of J) in altitude
Refraction

Correftion of J) 's altitude
J 's true altitude

Apparent diftance G B
Apparent altitude ©
Apparent altitude J

Sum

Half fum

Diftance — \ fum

True altitude 0

True altitude B - -

Sum of true altitudes

Another Example by Borda's method.
42 3' 20"
- 56
42 2 24

26 lo 15

56 3'-5
+ 50 43-5
- I 55

+ 48 48-5
26 52 3.5

Log. cofine 0.9530262
Log. fine 8.2159471

8.1689733

100 8

42 3
26 10

168 21

20
20
15

Co .ar. log.
Co. ar. log

Log. cof.
Log. cof.
Log. cof.
Log. cof.

cof. 0.1 293061
cof. 0.0469738

84 10' 57.5"

15 57 ■^i-5
42 2 24
26 59 3.5

9.0058673
9.9829357
9.8708003
9.9499415

Half fum

Half true diftance

True diftance

69 I 27.5

34 3° 43-7

49 43 52
2

99 27 44

Sum 2)38.9888247

Half fum
Log. cof. A f
Log. cof. N \

Log. fin.

19.4929123 j

9-9I59307 i
9.9666044

DifF. = 9.57698 1 6 fin. < N

9.8825351

Type of Mendoza's Method. Same Example

0's Apparent altitude 42 3' 0" Apparent diftance 0 D 100^ 8' 20.0"
D 's Apparent altitude 26 10 0 Horizontal parallax 5631.5

Sura - - 68 13 0

Correaion 0 Table Vn. 59 4
Corredion B Table VIH. 48 20
Proportional part - 28.5

I

n

HI
IV

f 31335 "
(_ 102

f 58096
1 34

f 74697
I 41 J

><

Auxiliary Argument .
Table IX.

Sum of correfted altitudes 70 052.5

13 21.0
8.5
3S

Apparent diftance © 5 lOO 8 20.0

13 33-0

99 27 zj")

Refetyed feconds -f 20 (

16.4305
4187

True diftance - 99 27 45 J

118

Same

LONGITUDE.

Same Example by verfed Sines.

Type for this Method.

Apparent Altitudes.

Correflion for

Refradion and

Parallax.

True Altitudes.

O 42 3 20
J) 26 10 15

1 It
— 0 56
+ 48 48

N.V.S. -
N.V.S.

Difference

Nat. N.
N.V.S.
N.V.S.

u ( II

42 2 24

26 59 3

0 1 II
Apparent diftance Q D 100 8 ao

Horizontal parallax 5^ 3 1

Referved logarithm 9.9970217
Logarithm - 6.0560851

6.0531068

Difference ...

Difference - - 15 53 5

100 8 20

Difference of true altitudes 15 J 21
True diilance - 99 27 45

15 3 21

038185
1 176035

1137850

1130075
034327
164402

•

The referved logarithm 9.9970217 i» the logarithm of 0993164, which is twice 0.496582, the natural cofine »i
60^ 13' j^'', the auxiliary angle M in Mendoza's formula.

1

Another Example by Mendoza's Tables.

©'s Apparent altitude 6^ 27' 30''
J 's Apparent altitude 54 u 57

Apparent diftance 0 I> 108 42' 3"
Horizontal parallax 0 55 19

Sum - - 60 39

Correaion 0 Table VII. 5214
Correaion D Table VIII. 31 29
Proportional part - 11

I

II
III

IV

r 15795 ■
I 224

/ 84046

I 26

f 16566

I i6 J

Table X.

Auxiliary argument.
Table IX.

Sum of correfted altitudes 62 2 54

24 42

9
3

Apparent diftance 0 D 108 42

24 54

108 27 42
Referved feconds - 3

f 16673

1 477

True diftance - 108 27 45

196

The above example by direft calculation from M. Mendoza's formulse, would ftand thus ;
Apparent diftance - 108° 42' j" Horizontal parallax

Apparent altitude 0
Correftion^ — r ^

6 27 30 = h
7 46

Apparent altitude >
Correftion/ — r

6 19 44

H

55' «9"

54 1 J 57 a
+ 31 41

54 53 38 A

a + i>

LONGITUDE.

a + h

M

(« + A) + M

(a + i) - M

A + H

J + M

J - M

True Diftance

60" 39' 27"

60 24 54

,21 421 N.V.S. «-p6i" 1 ,.5,6, NM.

o 14 33 N.V.S. o.ooooio J

61 3 22 N.SV.S. 1.483953 = 1.483953 = N- II.
,69 6 57 N.V.S. 1.9820.1 I ^ g j^„iii

48 17 9 N.V.S. 0.334585 S i >^

108 27 45

5.316681

4

1.316681

If the proportional part for feconds of apparent altitudes be taken from the tables, the analogy with' the above will

be apparent.

G's Apparent altitude
)i 's Apparent altitude

6
54

27-
1 1

3°"
27

Apparent diftance O D
Horizontal parallax , -

108' 42' 3"
0 55 19

Sum of apparent altitudes
Correction for (• Table VII.
Ditto for ]) Table VII.
Proportional part -

Sum of correfted altitudes -

Apparent diftance

60

39
52
31

27
14
29
12

I. - 15725 I
Proportional part 224
Proportional part 113 J

"■{ : : '",11}

16668
16477

191

= 16132

= 83954
= 16582

62

3

22

108

42

3

Referved feconds

True diftance _ . .

108

27

42
3

16668

108

27

45

The following approximate method, by means of the fmall triangles, [Plate XV 11, AJlronomy, Jig. I.) is computed

without any auxiliary tables, by this formula. '

CorreCliun Y — q tof. S — ^ cof. L.

... , T /cof. i (D -4- a + ^) fin. i (D + a — *) D = apparent diftance.

And fin. i L = / ( 2-^ ' \ " '-

>y \ cof. a lin. D

cof. ^ (D + a + ^) fin. X (D + 3 - a)

col. b fin. D.

fin. i S

=ye

a =: apparent altitude J .
b = apparent altitude ©.

Let the apparent diftance © » be lo8°42'3"; apparent altitude © 6^27-30"; apparent altitude 2) 54" 12';
refradion - paraUax 7' 43 ' for the © ; and parallax - refraftion 31' 42" for the J) . Requu-ed the true diftance.

Computation of the angle S at the centre of the Sun.
App. dift. e B I0S°42' O" com. ar. log. fin. 0.02355
App. alt. 5 6 27 30 com. ar. log. cof. 0.00277

App. alt. 5 54 120-

Computation of the angle L at the centre of the Moon.

... . - 002355

com. ar. log. cof. 0.23287

Sum

Half fum

Half fum — ap. alt.

169 21 30
84 40 50
30 28 50

log cof. 8.96712
log. fin. 9.70522

8.96712
Half fum - app. alt. © 78-13' 10" log fin. 999075

Sum 18.69866

Half fum 9.34933

which is log. fin. | 8 = 12 55' o"

which is log. fin. | L = 13" 52' 25"

Sum 19.21429

Half fum 9.60715

Ref.

therefore S ^ 25 50 o log. cof. 9.95430 therefore L = 47 44 5° log. cof. 9.82763
par. of© =463" log. 2.66558 Par. - refr. I) = 1902" log. 3.27921

Carried forward Sum 2.61988

Carried forward Sum 3.10684

LONGITUDE.

Brought forward 3.10684 Log. of^cof. L = 1279"
Brought forward 2.6198S log. of 9 cof. S - = 417

= 21'
= 6

19"

57

+

Apparent diftance O 5

Excefs of this diftance above the reduced

Diftance reduced © D

Difference 1422 — = Y

Or total correftion required.
18=42' 3"
14 22

108 27 41

The only advantage of this method is that it requires only a table of logarithms to five places.

The true diftance being thus determined, it only remains
to find the corretponding time at Greenwich, and to com-
pare it with that found on board the fhip. This latter may
be found from the altitude of the fun at the moment of ob-
fervation : but it may happen that the fun is not favourably
fituated at this moment, in which cafe, and indeed generally,
the time had better be deduced from folar obfervations made
exprefsly for the purpofe ; and which, with a good chrono-
meter, may even be made two or three days before or after
the obfervations for the longitude, if cloudy weather (liould
prevent others being made at a ftiorter interval ; only it muft
be remembered, that the deduced longitude will correfpond
with that of the place where the error of the chronometer
is determined, and not for the place of obfervation.

The inftruments ufed for thcfe lunar obfervations are
fextants and reflefting circles. Under Circle we have
already defcribed the reflefting circle of Mr. Troughton's
conftruftion, which we conceive to be vaftly fuperior to any
fextant for obtaining with accuracy the angle fubtended by
the moon and ftar. As each obfervation has three readings,
two obfervations (one on each fide) of zero, give fix refults.
This inftrument, in the hands of a careful obferver, will not
give a greater error than 20", or about ten geographical
miles at the equator. The error of the lunar tables may
amount to about as much more, and an error in the altitudes and
other data, about the fame quantity. Should all thefe con-
fpire to produce a total error in the fame direftion, this to-
tal error would amount to 60", or 30 miles. We truft, there-

fore, that the advantage and importance of this method will
every day be more and more appreciated ; and that the
time will come when no naval officer or mariner of tolerable
education will be found ignorant of it. Witli Mendoza's
tables, a circls of the above defcription, and a good clu-o-
nometer, the longitude may always be determined within
thirty miles, and generally within lefs.

Ssme perfons ftill prefer fextants, from an opinion that
they derive tome advantage from length of radius ; but they
are fubjeft to errors which have no tendency tocorreft each
other, and (ho :ld onl"be ufed for the altitudes, and the cir-
cle to be taken in preference for the obfervations of the
diftance. When circumftances do not admit of three ob-
fervcrs, the altitudes of the fun and moon may be computed,
and we are difpofed to think that this would always be the
more preferable method, where the obferver is lufEciently
ikilful to make the additional computation without fear of
miftakes. The altitudes found in this cafe by computing
the horary angles are the true akitudes, and muft be cor-._
redfed by applying the refraftion and parallax inverje/y, but
for doing this accurately, tables ftiould be computed for
reducing Irue dijiances to apparent. However, a little attention
to this circumftance will render the whole operation fuffi-
ciently eafy, and if the computations are well made, the ac-
curacy of this method will probably exceed that of direft
obfervation. For the method of making thefe computa-
tions, fee Mendoza's Tables, Requifite Tables, &c. Mac-
kay's Longitude, &c. &c.

A Tabz,i;

LONGITUDE.

A Table containing the Latitudes of Places, with their Longitudes from the Meridian of the Royal Obfervatory
at Greenwicli ; alfo the Time of High Water at the Full and Change of the Moon, at thofe Places where it is
known.

Names of Places.

Continents.

1
Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Lon^
In Degrees.

litude

Ib Time.

1

H. W.

0 1 II

0 1 II

H. M. .s. 1 H. M. 1

Aalborg

Europe

Denmark

51 2 57 N-

9 56 30E.

0 39 46 E.

Aarhuus

Europe

Denmark

56 9 35:N.

10 14 oE.

0 40 y6E.

Abbeville -

Europe

France

50 7 4N.

I 49 45 E.

0 7 19E.

0 45

Aberdeen

Europe

Scotland

J7 S oN.

2 21 30 W.

0 9 26 W.

Abo

Europe

Finland

60 27 7 N.

22 15 ooE.

I 29 00 E.

10 30

Acheen Head

Afia

Sumatra

5 22 oN.

95 26 oE.

6 21 44 E.

Adyenture (Bay)

Afia

New Holland

43 21 20 S.

147 31 40 E.

9 50 7E.

Adventure (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

17 s i;s.

144 17 45 w.

9 37 iiW.

Aerfchot

Europe

Netherlands

50 59 15 N.

4 49 3'E.

0 19 18 E.

Agde

Europe

France

43 18 43 N.

3 27 55 E-

0 13 52 E.

Agen

Europe

France

44 12 22 N.

0 36 20E.

0 2 25E.

Agimere

Afia

Agimere

26 ^^ oN.

75 20 oE.

5 I 20E.

St. Agnes (Lights)

Europe

SciUies -

49 93 47 N.

6 20 30W.

0 25 22 W.

Agra

Afia

India

27 12 30 N.

78 17 oE.

5 13 08 E.

Agria

Europe

Hungary

47 5i 54 N.

20 22 oE.

I 21 28E.

Aguada (Point)

Afia

India

15 28 5iN.

73 48 39 E.

4 SS 15E-

Aire

Europe

France

43 41 52 N.

0 i; 45W.

0 I 3W.

Aix - -

Europe

France

43 31 48 N-

5 26 30E.

0 21 46E.

Aix (ine) -

Europe

France

46 I 38 N.

I n oW.

0 4 44W.

Akerman

Europe

Turkey -

46 II 58 N.

3° 43 45 E.

2 2 J5E.

Alais

Europe

France

44 7 22 N.

0 35 50E.

0 2 23E.

Albano

Europe

Italy

41 43 50 N.

12 38 oE.

0 50 32E.

Albany

America

New Wales

52 14 41 N.

81 52 50W.

5 27 31 w.

Alby

Europe

France

43 SS 36 N.

2 8 18E.

0 8 33E.

Aleppo

Afia

Turkey

36 II 25 N.

37 10 oE.

2 28 40E.

Alexandretta

Afia

Syria

36 34 47 N.

36 14 45 E.

2 24 59E.

Alexandria .

Africa

Egypt -

31 II 20 N.

30 10 15E.

2 0 41 E.

Alez -

Europe

France

42 59 50 N.

2 15 oE.

0 9 oE.

Algiers

Africa

Algiers

36 49 30 N.

2 12 45E.

0 8 51E.

Alkmaer

Europe

Holland -

52 38 34N.

4 38 oE.

0 iB 32E.

Aloft

Europe

Netherlands

50 56 18 N.

4 I 58E.

0 ]6 8E.

Altengaard -

Europe

Lapland

69 55 oN.

23 4 oE.

I 32 16E.

Ambrym (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

16 9 30S.

168 13 30E.

II 12 50E.

Ame(bury

Europe

England -

51 10 19N.

1 46 37W.

0 7 6W.

Amiens

Europe

France

49 53 38 N.

2 17 56E.

0 9 12E.

Amfterdam -

Europe

Holland -

52 21 56 N.

4 51 30E.

0 19 26E.

3 °

Amfterdam (Har.)

America

Curazao -

12 § oN.

68 20 30W.

4 ii 22W. '

Amfterdam (Ifle) -

Afia

Indian Ocean

37 51 oS.

77 44 oE.

5 10 j6E.

Anadirikoi Nofs

Afia

Beering's Straits

64 14 30 N.

173 31 oW.

II 34 4W.

Ancona

Europe

Italy

43 37 54 N.

13 30 30E.

0 54 2E.

Andaman (Little) -

Afia

Bengal Bay

10 40 oN.

92 24 oE.

6 9 36E.

Anderfon's Ifland

America

Beering's Straits

63 4 oN.

167 38 oW.

II 10 32W.

Angenga

Afia

India

8 39 25 N.

76 jo 4E.

5 7 20E.

Anger Point

Afia

Java

6 3 17S.

106 I 57E.

7 4 8E.

Angers

Europe

France

47 28 8N.

0 33 52 W.

0 2 15W.

Angouleme -

Europe

France

45 39 3 N.

0 8 47E.

0 0 35E.

Aiigra

Europe

Tercera

38 39 7N.

27 12 42 W.

1 48 ciW.

C. Angra Pequena

Africa

Caffraria -

26 ^6 50 S.

15 16 30E.

1 I 6E.

Anholt (Light)

Europe

Categat -

56 44 20 N.

II 40 oE.

0 46 40 E.

St. Ann (Cape)

Africa

Sierra Leone

7 7 3«>N-

13 2 2 oW.

0 49 28 W.

Vol. XXI.

Zz

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitnde.

Long
Ifi Degrees.

itude

In Time.

H. W.

0 1 II

0 / n

n. M. s.

H. M.

Annamaboe -

Africa

Gold Coaft

5 9 J2N.

I 39 4W.

0 6 36 W.

Annamocka -

Alia

Pacilic Ocean

20 15 20 S.

174 45 oW.

II 39 oW.

6 0

Annobona

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

125 0 S .

5 45 o^-

023 0 E.

St. Anthony's (Cape)

America

Stattn Land

54 46 4> '•■

Antibes

Europe

France -

43 34 43 N.

7 7 20E.

0 2H 29 E.

Antigua (St. John's)

America ' -

Caribbean Sea -

17 4 30N.

62 9 oW.

4 8 36 W.

Anton. Gill's Bay

Africa

Madagafcar

15 27 2^ S.

50 23 15 E.

3 ?i 33 E.

Antwerp

Europe

Flanders

51 IS 18 N.

4 24 15E.

0 17.37 E.

6 0

Aor (Pulo) -

Afla

Chincfe Seas

2 4j oN.

104 40 20E.

6 58 41 E.

Apx (inc) .

Afia

Pacific Ocean

16 46 ijS.

168 27 30E.

II 13 50 E.

Appenrade -

Europe

Denmark

55 2 57 N.

9 26 4E.

0 37 44 E.

C. AppoUonia

Africa

Gold Coaft

4 59 12 N.

3 10 II W.

0 12 41 W.

F. AppoUonia

Africa

Gold Coall

4 59 14 N.

3 4 37 W.

0 12 18W.

Apt -

Europe

France -

43 52 29 N-

5 23 37E-

0 21 34 E.

Arada

Afia

Turkey -

36 I oN.

38 50 oE.

2 35 20 E.

Arakootai Ifle

America

Pacific Ocean

20 I 30 S.

158 14 30W.

I ' 32 58W.

Archangel -

Europe

Ruffia -

64 34 oN.

38 54 30E.

2 3J 38 E.

6 0

Arcot

Afia

Arcot - - -

12 51 24 N.

79 28 4E.

5 >7 52 E.

Arenftjurg -

Europe

Baltic -

58 15 9N.

22 13 I5E.

1 28 53 E.

Arica

America

Peru

18 26 40 S.

71 13 oW.

4 44 52 W.

Aries

Europe

r ranee -

43 40 28 N.

4 37 24E.

0 18 30 E.

Arras

Europe

France -

50 17 37N.

2 45 41 E.

oil 3 E.

Aruba (W. End) -

America

Leeward Ifles -

12 35 30N.

69 29 4jW.

4 37 59 W.

Afceniion (Ifle)

Africa

S.Atlantic Ocean

7 56 30 S.

14 21 15W.

0 57 25 W.

Affiffi

Europe

Italy -

43 4 22 N.

12 3j 13E.

0 50 21 E.

Aftracan

Afia

Siberia -

46 21 12 N.

48 2 45 E.

3 12 1 1 E.

Ath - -

Europe

Netherlands

50 42 17 N.

3 46 i?!^-

0 15 5E.

Athens

Europe

Turkey -

38 5 oN.

23 52 30E.

1 ^5 ^oE.

Atooi

America

Sandwich Ifles -

21 57 oN.

159 39 3°^^-

10 38 38 W.

Auch

Europe

France -

43 38 39 N.

0 34 36E.

0 2 iSE.

Aveiro

Europe

Portugal

40 38 17 N.

8 29 i;W.

0 33 57 W.

St. Auguftin (Bay) -

Africa

Madagafcar

23 27 52 S.

44 9 oE.

2 56 36 E.

Avignon

Europe

France -

43 56 58 N.

4 48 loE.

0 19 13 E.

Avranches

Europe

France -

48 41 21 N.

1 21 51W.

0 5 27 W.

6 00

Aurillac

Europe

France -

44 5S loN.

2 27 oW.

0 9 48 \V.

Aurora (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

15 8 oS.

168 17 oE.

11 13 8E.

Autun

Europe

France -

46 56 48 N.

4 17 44E.

0 17 11 E.

Auxerre

Europe

France -

47 47 57 N.

3 34 06 E.

0 14 16 E.

Awatfcha

Afia

Kamtchatka

53 0 39 N.

158 44 30E.

10 34 58 E.

4 36

Babee (Pulo)

Afia

Straits of Suiida

5 45 oN.

106 20 30E.

7 5 22E.

Babylon (Ancient)

Afia

Mefopotamia

33 0 oN.

42 46 30E.

251 6 E.

Bagdad

Afia

Mefopotamia

33 19 40 N.

44 22 15 E.

2 57 29 E.

Ballabea (Ifle)

Afia

New Caledonia -

20 7 oS.

164 22 oE.

10 57 28 E.

Ballalore

Afia

India

21 20 oN.

87 I 26E.

5 48 6 E.

Banana (Big)

Africa

Sierra Leone

8 5 30 N.,

13 5 oW.

0 52 20 W.

Bancoot

Afia

India

17 56 40 N.

73 7 54E.

4 52 32 E.

Bangalore

Afia

Myfore -

r3 0 0 N.

77 37 loE-.

5 10 2^9 E.

Banguey (Peak)

Afia

Malacca

7 18 oN.

117 17 30E.

7 49 10 E.

Bank's Ifle -

Afia

New Zeeland

43 43 °S-

'73 3 55E.

11 32 16E.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes a«d Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. 1 In Time.

H. W.

r, 1 11

0 '

/,

H. M. S.

II. M.

Ban [lead

Europe

England

JI 19 2) N.

0 11

20W.

0 0 4jW.

BaTitam Point

Afia

Java -

y 50 20 S.

106 9

3E.

7 4 36E.

Barbas (Cape)

Africa

Sanliaga

22 15 30 N.

16 40

oW.

I 6 40 W.

Barbuda (Ifle)

America

Atlantic Ocean -

17 49 45 N-

6i 50

oW.

4 7 20 W.

Barcelona

Europe

Spain -

41 26 0 N.

2 13

oE.

0 8 J2 E.

Barfleur (Cape)

Europe

France -

49 40 21 N.

I '5

^6W.

0 5 2W.

7 30

Barlingues

Europe

Portugal

39 26 oN.

9 35

20W.

0 38 21W.

Barnevelt's (Ide)

America

Terra del Fuego

55 49 0^-

66 j8

oW.

4 27 52 W.

Barren Ifle -

Afia

Bay of Bengal -

12 14 oN.

93 42

oE.

6 14 48 E.

St. Bartholomew (Ifle)

Afia

New Hebrides -

I J 42 0 S.

167 17

30E.

II 9 10 E.

Bade

Europe

Switzerland

47 33 34 N.

7 35

12E.

0 30 21 E.

Baffa Terre -

America

Guadaloupe

15 5(> 4jN.

62 0

4,-W.

4 8 3 W.

BafTeen (Fort)

Ana

India -

ly 19 oN.

72 55

24E.

4 51 42 E.

BafTes (Great)

Afia

Ceylon -

6 7 50N.

81 42

)oE.

5 26 51 E.

Batavia

Afia

Java

6 II o3.

106 50

oE.

7 7 20 E.

Bath

Europe

England

51 22 30N.

2 21

30W.

0 9 26W.

Battcrfea

Europe

England

5 1 28 36 N.

0 10

24W.

0 0 42 W.

Bauld (.Cape)

America

Newfoundland -

51 39 45 N.

55 27

5jW.

3 41 51 W.

Bayeux

Europe

France -

49 16 34 N.

0 42

II W.

0 2 49 ^v.

Bayonne

Europe

France -

43 29 15 N.

I 28

41 vv.'

0 5 5;W.

3 30

Bazus

Europe

France -

44 26 oN.

0 13

I7W.

0 c^-53W.

Beach y Head

Europe

England

50 44 24 N.

0 15

I2E.

01 1 E.

10 30

Bear (Ifle) -

America

Hudfon's Bay -

54 34 oN.

79 56

oW.

5 19 44 W.

12 0

Beauvais

Europe

France -

49 26 oN.

2 4 41E.

0 8 19E.

Beering's Ifland

Afia

Beering's Straits

5S 3<5 oN.

167 46

oE.

II II 4 E.

Belle Ifle -

Europe

France -

47 17 17 N.

3 5

oW.

0 12 20 W.

I 30

Belley

Europe

France -

45 45 29 N.

5 4'

4E.

0 22 44 E.

Bembridge Point

Europe

Ifle of Wight -

50 40 59 N.

I 3

26W.

0 4 14 w.

Ikncoolen

Afia

Sumatra

3 49 9S.

102 2

25E.

6 48 10 E.

Bender

Europe

Turkey

46 50 29 N.

29 36

oE.

I 38 24 E.

Berg River -

Africa

St. Helen's Bay

32 50 47 S.

iS 12

oE.

1 12 48 E.

Bergen

Europe

Norway

60 23 40 N.

5 "

30E.

0 20 46 E.

I 3<3

Bergen-op-zoom

Europe

Hollaad

51 29 46 N.

4 16

57 E.

0 17 8E.

Berlin

Europe

Germany

52 31 30 N.

>3 23

oE.

0 S3 32 E.

Bermudac (Ifle)

America

Atlantic Ocean -

32 3j oN.

63 a8

oW.

4 '3 52 W.

7 0

Eernaul

A fia

Siberia -

53 '9 59 N-

82 12

.5E.

5 28 49 E.

St. Bertrand •

Eu'-epe

France -

43 I 27 N.

0 34

4E.

0 2 16E.

Bifan^on

Europe

France -

47 14 12N.

6 2

46 E.

0 24 II E.

BelTefted

Europe

Iceland -

64 6 9N.

21 53

45 W.

I 27 35 w.

BexhiU

Europe

England

5° 50 47 N.

0 28

43 E.

0 I 55 E.

Beziers

Europe

France -

43 20 23 N.

3 12

24E.

0 12 50 E.

Bird Ifland -

America

Pacific Ocean -

17 49 oS .

142 43

24 W.

9 30 54 W.

Bitche

Europe

Lorrain -

49 2 21 N.

7 26

20E.

0 29 45 E.

Blanco (Cape)

Africa

Negroland

20 55 30 N.

17 10

oW.

I 8 40 W.

9 45

Blanco /Cape)
Blanco (Cape)

America

Patagonia

47 20 oS.

64 42

oW.

4 18 48 W.

America

Pacific Ocean -

43 12 oN.

124 7

30 w.

S 16 30 W.

Bligh's Cape

Afia

Kerguelen'sLand

48 29 30 S.

68 38

45 E.

4 34 35 E.

Blois

Europe

France -

47 35 20 N.

I 20

lE.

0 5 20 E.

B()ddam.'s Ifle

Afia

Indian Ocean

5 22 oS.

72 ly

oE.

4 49 0 E.

Bojador (Cape)

Africa

Negroland

26 12 30 N.

■4 27

o\V.

057 48 w-

0 G

Z z 2

LONGITUDE.

A Table of tlic Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coad, Sea, or

Country.

Latitude.

Long
In Degrees.

itude

, Time.
In

H. W.

p / //

0 / n

H. M. S.

H M.

Bokbola (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

i6 32 30 S.

151 52 oW.

10 7 28W.

Bolchcretfk -

Afia

Kamtchatka

52 54 30 N.

156 56 40E.

10 27 47 E.

Bologna

Europe

Italy -

44 29 36 N.

II 20 25 E.

0 45 22 E.

Bolt Head -

Europe /-

England

50 17 oN.

3 53 30W.

0 15 34W.

Bombay

Afia

India

18 55 42 N.

72 54 24E.

4 51 38 E.

Bombay (Light-houfe)

Afia

India

18 53 oN.

72 52 54E.

4 51 32 E.

Bonaviila (Ifle)

Africa

Cape Verd

16 3 40 N.

22 45 32W.

I 31 2W.

Bonaheleon -

Europe

Netherlands

50 48 17 N.

5 20 18 E.

0 21 21 E.

Bofcawen's Ifle

Afia

Pacific Ocean

15 50 0 S.

174 7 40 W.

11 36 31 W.

Bofton

America

New England -

42 25 oN.

70 37 15W.

4 42 29 W.

II 25

Botany (Ifland)

Afia

New Caledonia -

22 26 40 S.

167 16 45E.

II 9 7E.

Botany Bay -

Afia

New Holland -

34 6 oS.

151 15 oE.

10 5 oE.

8 0

Boulogne

Europe

France -

5° 43 33^-

I 36 33 E.

0 6 26 E.

11 0

Bourbon (Ifle)

Africa

Indian Ocean

20 50 54 S.

53 30 oE.

3 42 oE.

Bourdeaux -

Europe

France -

44 50 14N.

0 34 15W.

0 2 17W.

3 0

Bourgas

Afia

Turkey -

40 14 30 N.

26 26 j'2E.

I 45 47 E.

Bourges

Europe

France -

47 4 59 N.

2 23 45E.

0 9 35 E

Bow Ifland -

America

Pacific Ocean -

18 17 oS.

140 43 oW.

9 22 52 W.

Brandenburg

Eiirope

Germany

52 27 oN.

12 53 oE.

0 51 32 E.

Brafie (Pulo)

Afia

Straitsof Malacca

-

95 II , oE.

6 20 44 E.

Brava (Ifle)

Africa

Cape Verd

14 50 58 N.

24 43 4W.

I 38 52 W.

Breaker's Point

America

Pacific Ocean

49 »5 3°^-

126 41 30W.

8 26 46 W.

Breda

Europe

Holland

51 3S 29 N.

4 46 9E.

0 19 5 E.

Bremen

Europe

Germany

53 S II N.

8 49 34E.

0 35 18 E.

6 00

Breflaw

Europe

Silefia -

51 6 30N.

17 35 30E.

1 10 22 E.

Breft - •-

Europe

France -

48 22 42 N.

4 30 oW.

0 18 oW.

3 15

Bridge Town

America

Barbadoes

13 5 oN.

59 4' 15W.

3 58 45 W.

St. Brieux

Europe

France -

48 31 2N.

2 44 loW.

0 10 57 W.

Brighthelmfl;one

Europe

England

50 49 32 N.

0 II 55 w.

0 c 48W.

10 00

Briltol

Europe

England

51 28 oN.

2 34 4jW.

0 10 19W.

7 00

Briftol (Cape)

America

Sandwich Land -

59 2 30 S.

26 51 oW.

I 47 24W.

Briftol River

America

Beering's Straits

58 27 oN.

158 7 30W.

10 32 30W.

Broach Point

Afia

India

21 38 30N.

72 43 24E.

4 50 54 E.

Brothers (The)

Afia

Sea of Borneo -

5 10 20S.

ic6 14 4E.

I 4 s6E.

Bruges

Europe

Netherlands

51 12 20 N.

3 13 I3E-

0 12 53 E.

Brunn

Europe

Moravia

49 II 28 N.

16 35 6E.

I 6 20 E.

Brun"els

Europe

Brabant

50 51 oN.

4 21 15E.

0 17 25 E.

Buda -

Europe

Hungary

47 29 44 N.

19 0 oE.

I 16 oE.

Buenos Ayres

America

Brafil -

34 35 26S.

58 2? 38W.

3 53 35 W.

Bukarolt

Europe

Wallachia

44 26 45 N.

26 8 oE.

I 44 32 E.

Buller (Cape)

America

South Georgia -

53 58 30 S.

37 40 oW.

2 30 40 W.

Burgeo (Ifles)

America

Newfoundland -

47 36 20 N.

57 36 oW.

3 50 24W.

Burhanpour -

Afia

India

21 19 oN.

76 22 oE.

5 5 28E.

Byron's Ifle -

Afia

Pacific Ocean

I 13 0 S.

177 8 oE.

II 48 32 E.

Cabello (Port)

America

Terra Firma

10 30 5:0 N.

67 32 oW.

4 30 8W.

Cape Cabron

America

Hilpaniola

19 21 52 N.

69 18 40 W.

4 37 15W.

Cadiz

Europe

Spain

36 31 7N.

6 17 i)W.

0 25 9W.

2 30

Caen

Europe

France -

49 II 12 N.

0 21 53 w.

0 I 28W.

9 0

Cahors

Europe

France -

44 26 49 N.

I 26 22E.

0 5 45 E.

LONGITUDE.

A Taisle of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places,

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude

H. W.

In Degrees.

in lime.

n / /;

0 / //

H. M. S.

H. M.

Cajaneburg -

Europe

Finland -

64 13 30 N.

27 45 oE.

I 51 oE.

Cairo

Africa

Egypt -

30 3 30 N.

31 25 30 E.

2 5 42 E.

Calais

Europe

France -

50 57 32 N.

I 51 oE.

0 7 24E.

II 30

Calcutta (F. Will.)

Afia

Bengal -

22 34 45 N.

88 27 56 E.

5 53 52 E.

3 5

Callao

America

Peru

12 1 Si s.

76 58 oW.

5 7 52 W.

Caltnar

Europe

Sweden -

56 40 30 N.

16 25 I J E.

I 5 41 E.

Calpy

Afia

India

26 7 ijN.

80 0 oE.

5 20 oE.

Calymere Point

Afia

India

10 20 0 N.

79 46 oE.

s 19 4E.

Cambray

Europe

France -

50 10 37 N.

3 '3 32 E.

0 12 54 E.

Cambridge -

Europe

England

52 12 36 N.

0 4 ijE-

0 0 17 E.

Cambridge -

America -

New England -

42 25 0 N.

71 6 0 W.

4 44 24 W.

Camifchin

Europe

Ruffia -

50 5 6N.

45 24 oE.

3 I 36E.

Campbell (Cape) -

Afia

New Zealand

41 40 48 S.

174 33 oE.

II 38 12E.

Cananore (Point)

Afia

India

1 1 5 1 0 N.

75 25' 00 E.

5 I 40E.

Canary (Ifle) N.E.Pf.

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

28 15 oN.

15 38 45 W.

I 2 35W.

3 0

Candia(ine)

Europe

Mediterranean Sea

35 18 35 N.

25 18 oE.

I 41 I2E.

Candlemas Ifles

America

Sandwich Land -

57 JO 0 S.

27 13 oW.

1 48 52 W.

I

Canfo (Port)

America

Nova Scotia

45 20 7 N.

60 55 oW.

4 3 40 W.

Canterbury -

Europe

England

51 18 26 N.

I 4 53 E-

0 4 20E.

Canton

Afia

China -

23 6 57 N.

113 16 7E.

7 33 4E.

Capricorn (Cape)

Afia

New Holland -

23 26 40 S.

151 5 40 E.

10 4 23 E.

CarcalTone

Europe

France -

43 1 2 45 N.

2 20 49 E.

0 9 23E.

Carlefcroon -

Europe

Sweden -

56 20 0 N.

ij 30 oE.

I 2 oE.

Cariftrook Caftle

Europe

Ifie of Wight -

50 41 18 N.

I ]8 26W.

0 5 14 W.

Carpentras

Europe

France -

44 3 8N.

5 ^35^-

0 20 10 E.

Carrickfergus

Europe

Ireland -

54 43 0 N.

5 45 30 W.

0 23 2W.

Carthagena -

Europe

Spain

37 36 7N-

I I 30 W.

0 4 6W.

Carthagena -

America

Terra Firma

10 26 19 N.

75 20 35 W.

5 I 22 W.

Carwar Head

Afia

India

14 47 0 N.

74 12 30 E.

4 56 50 E.

Cafan

Afia

Siberia -

55 43 58 N.

49 29 30 E.

3 17 58 E.

Caftirie

Afia

Perfia -

36 11 0 N.

49 33 oE.

3 18 12 E.

Cafrel(Hefre)

Europe

Germany

51 19 20 N.

9 31 45 E-

038 7E.

Cadres

Europe

France -

43 36 II N.

2 14 16 E.

0 857E.

St. Catherine's Ide -

America

Brafil -

27 32 30 S.

49 '5 37 W.

3 17 2W.

St. Catharine's Lights

Europe

Ide of Wight -

50 35 33 >■'•

I 17 51 W.

0 511 W.

Cavaillon

Europe

France -

43 50 6 N.

5 I 55E.

0 20 8E.

Cavan

Europe

Ireland -

54 5' 41 N.

7 25 20 W.

0 29 41 AV.

Cayenne

America

Jfle Cayenne

4 56 15 N.

52 15 oW.

3 2v oW.

Cervia

Europe

Italy -

44 15 31 N.

12 19 28E.

0 49 i8E.

Cette (Lights)

Europe

France -

43 23 42 N.

3 4? 46 E.

0 14 47 E.

Chain Ifland

America

Pacific Ocean

17 25 30 S.

145 30 oW.

9 42 oW.

Chalon fur Saone

Europe

France -

46 46 54 N.

4 51 2E.

0 19 24E.

Chalons fur Marne -

Europe

France - ~

48 57 28 N.

4 20 i^ E.

0 17 21 E.

Chranderiiagor

Afia

Bengal -

22 51 26N.

88 29 15 E.

5 53 57 E.

Charkow

Europe

Ruffia -

49 59 20 N.

36 15 oE.

2 25 oE.

Charles fCape)

America

Hudfon's Straits

62 46 30 N.

74 15 oW.

4 57 0 ^^''

10 0

Q. Chsriotte's Cape -

America

South Georgia -

54 32 oS.

36 11 30 W.

2 24 46 "W.

Q. Charl. Forebnd -

Afia

New Cahdonia -

2219 0 S.

1(57 >2 45 E.

11 3 51 E.

Q. Charlotte's Ifle -

America

Pacific Ocean

1918 0 R.

138 20 0 w.

9 13 20 W.

Q. Charlotte's Sound

Afia

New Zealand

., ,-57S.

174 20 50 E.

11 37 23 E.

9 0

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

In

Long
Degrees.

itude

In Time.

H. W.

^) / */

1 II

H. M. s.

II. M.

Coronation (Cape) -

Afia

New Caledonia

2 2 5 O S.

167

8 oW.

II 8 32 E.

Corvo

Europe

Azores

39 43 38 N.

3'

4 56 W.

2 4 20 W.

Co-ul'aba Idand

Afia

Indian Ocean

18 37 20 N.

72

j6 30 E.

4 51 46 E.

Coiitanccs

Europe

France

49 2 54^■'•

I

263JW.

0 5 46 W.

Courtray

Europe

Netherlands

50 49 43 N.

3

'5 51 E.

0 13 3 E.

Covves (Weft)

Europe

Ifle of Wight -

50 46 18N.

1

.7 .7W.

0 5 9W.

10 30

Cracatoa (Ilk)

Afia

Straits of 6uuda-

6606.

loy

31 40 E.

7 2 7E.

Cracow

Europe

Poland

50 10 oN.

19

J 1 0 E.

1 19 20E.

Cremona

Europe

Italy

45 7 49 N.

10

6 22 E.

0 40 25 E.

Crefmunller -

Europe

Germany -

4S 3 36 N.

14

7 21 E.

0 56 29 E.

Croilic

Europe

France

47 17 40 N.

2

31 42 w.

0 10 7W.

Crooked Ifle

America

Lucayes -

22 48 50 N.

74

26 yW,

4 57 44 W.

Croqiie Harbour

America

Newfoundland -

51 3 17N.

ss

50 oW.

3 43 20 W.

Crois Cape -

America

Pacific Ocean

57 5S 30 N.

•36

44 30 W.

9 6 58 W.

Cuddalore

Afia

India

1 1 41 oN.

79

37 45 E.

5 '8 31 E.

Cumberland (Cape) -

Alia

New Hebrides -

14 39 30 S-

166

47 oE.

II 7 8E.

Cumberland Houfe -

America

New Wales

53 56 40 N.

102

9 oW.

6 48 36 W.

Cumberland Ifle

America

Pacific Ocean

19 18 oS.

140

52 oW.

9 23 28 W.

Cummin (Ifle)

Afia

Chinefe Sea

31 40 oN.

121

4 0 E.

8 4 16E.

Curreufe Ifle

Afia

Almirantes

4 19 cS.

5S 47 0 E- ■

3 43 8E.

5 10

Dagger-Ort -

Europe

Baltic

58 ^G I N.

22

9 0 E.

I 28 36 E.

Damoan Fort

Afia

India

20 22 oN.

73

2 4jE.

4 52 II E.

Danger (Point)

Afia

New Holland

28 8 22 S.

^Si

33 10 E.

10 14 13 E.

Danger (Ifles of)

Afia

Pacific Ocean

10 56 0 S.

165

j9 oW.

II 3 56 W.

Daijtzic

Europe

Poland

54 22 oN.

18

40 0 E.

I 14 4c E.

Darby iCape)

America

Beering's Straits

64 21 0 N.

i'^3

0 oW.

10 52 oW.

DafTen Ifland

Africa

Caffers

33 25 oS.

18

I 52 E.

I 12 7E.

Dax

Europe

France

43 42 '9N.

I

3 16 W.

0 4 13 W.

Deal CalUe -

Europe

England -

51 13 jN.

I

23 59 E.

0 5 36E.

II 15

Delhi

Afia

India

28 37 oN.

77

40 0 E.

5 10 40 E.

Dengenefs or D ungenefs

Europe

England

50 54 52 N.

0

57 40 E.

0 3 jiE.

II 15

Dennis (Sr.)

Africa

Ifle of Bourbon -

20 51 43 S.

SS

30 0 E.

3 42 oE.

Dereham (Eaft)

Europe

England -

52 40 20 N.

0

'54 30 E.

0 3 38E.

Dtvi-cotta

Afia

India

II 21 oN.

79

47 oE.

5 19 8E.

Diamond Ifland

Afia

Bay of Bengal -

15 50 oN.

94

17 54E.

6 17 12 E.

Diarbekir

Afia

Diarbek -

37 54 oN.

39

20 0 E.

2 37 20E.

Die

Europe

France

44 45 3 I N.

5

22 18E.

0 21 29 E.

Diego (Cape)

America

Terra del Fuego -

54 33 0 S.

65

14 oW.

4 20 56 W.

Diego Garcia

Afia

Indian Ocean

7 20 oS.

72

24 52 E.

4 49 39 E.

Diego Ramirez

America

Southern Ocean -

56 32 30 S.

67

SS oW.

4 31 40 W.

Dieppe

Europe

France

49 55 34 N.

I

4 29 E.

0 4 18E.

II 15

Digby (Cape)

Afia

Kerguelen's Land

49 23 30 S.

70

32 oE.

4 42 8E.

Digges (Ifle)

America

Hudfon's Bay -

62 41 oN.

78

50 oW.

5 15 20 W^.

Digue

Europe

France

44 5 18N.

6

14 4E.

0 24 56 E.

Dijon

Europe

France

47 19 25 N.

5

1 48 E.

0 20 7 E.

Dilla (Mount)

Afia

Malabar Coaa -

1 1 59 40 N.

75

14 30 E.

5 0 jSE.

Dilliiigen

Europe

Germany -

48 34 loN.

10

29 12 E.

0 41 57 E.

Difappointment (Cape)

America

South Georgia -

54 i;8 oS.

36

ic oW.

2 25 oW.

Difappointment (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean -

14 7 "S.

141

22 oW.

9 25 28 W.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coail, Sea, or

Latitude,

Longitude

H. W.

Country.

In Degrees.

I

n Time.

0 / //

1 II

H.

M. s.

H. M.

Dif.-?.da (Cape)

America

Terra del Fuego -

53 4 '5S.

74 18 oW.

4 57 12 W.

Diferada

America

Caribbee Ifies -

16 35 oN.

61 II 15 W.

4

4 45 W.

Diu Head -

Afia

Guzerat -

20 42 oN.

7' 3 3°E.

4

44 14E.

Dix Cove Fort

Africa

Gold Coaft

4 44 oN.

2 37 44 W.

0

10 31 W.

Dixmude

Europe

Netherlands

51 2 jN.

2 51 39E.

0

II 27 E.

Dol

Europe

France

4833 8N.

I 45 28 W.

0

7 2W.

Domar (Pulo)

Afia

Chinefe Sea

2 47 oN.

loj 21 0 E.

7

I 24E.

Dominique (Ifle)

America

Windward Ifles -

15 18 23 N.

61 S5 3°W.

4

6 22 W.

Donna Maria (Cape)

America

Hifpaniola

18 37 20 N.

74 3; 52 W.

4

58 23 w.

Dorcheller -

Europe

England -

50 42 58 N.

2 25 40 W.

0

943W.

Douay

Europe

Flanders -

50 22 12N.

3 4 47 E.

0

12 19E.

Dover

Europe

England -

51 7 48 N.

119 2 E.

0

S 16E.

II 15

Douglas (Cape)

America

Cook's River

58 56 oN.

153 50 oW.

10

JJ 20W.

Drake's Ifland

Europe

Plymouth Sound

50 21 30 N.

4 13 30 W.

0

16 54 W.

5 45

Drefden

Europe

Saxony

51 2 54 N.

13 41 ijE.

0

54 45 E.

Dreux

Europe

France

48 44 17N.

I 21 24 E.

0

5 26 E.

Drontheim -

Europe

Norway

63 26 6N.

10 22 oE.

0

41 28 E.

2 15

Druja

Europe

Ruffia

55 47 29 N.

27 13 30 E.

I

48 54 E.

Dublin

Europe

Ireland

^^ 22 oN.

6 17 oW.

0

25 8 W.

9 45

Dublin Obfervatory -

Europe

Ireland

53 23 7N-

6 20 30 W.

0

25 22 W.

Dundee

Europe

Scotland -

56 25' oN.

3 2 30W.

0

12 loW.

Dundra-Head

Afia

Ceylon

J 51 oN.

80 41 20 E.

5

22 45 E.

Dunkirk

Europe

France

51 2 9N.

2 22 4E.

0

9 28 E.

11 45

Dullvy Bay -

Afia

New Zeeland

4J 47 27 S.

166 18 9E.

1 1

5 •3E.

10 57

Dun-Nofe

Europe

England -

JO 37 7N.

I II 36W.

0

4 46 W.

9 45

Eagle Ifland -

Afia

Almirantes

51® 0 S.

55 37 oE.

3

42 28 E.

3 30

Eaoowe (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean

21 24 oS.

174 30 oW.

II

38 oW.

7 0

Eaft Cape -

Afia

Beering's Straits

66 5 30 N.

169 44 oW.
178 5^ oE.

1 1

18 56W.

Eaft Cape -

Afia

New Zetland

37 44 25 S.

II

55 52 E.

Eaft Main (Fort) -

America

Labrador -

52 15 oN.

78 57 49 W.

5

15 51 W.

Eafter Ifland

America

Pacific Ocean

27 6 30 S.

109 46 45 W.

7

19 7 W.

2 0

Ecaterinburg

Afia

Siberia

56 50 15 N.

60 50 0 E.

4

3 20 E.

Edam (inc)

Afia

Batavia Bay

5 57 30 S.

106 51 oE.

7

7 24 E.

Edgecumbe (Cape) -

America

Pacific Ocean

57 4 30 N.

135 ^s 30 w.

9

3 42 W.

Edinburg

Europe

Scotland -

S5 ;6 42 N.

3 12 15 W.

0

12 49 w.

4 30

Edward's (Pr.) Ifles -

Africa

Ind. Ocean -j o '

46 39 30 S.
46 52 30 S.

38 2 30E.
37 47 oE.

2
2

32 loE.
31 8E.

Edyftone

Europe

Englifh Channel -

50 8 0 N.

4 24 oW.

0

17 36W.

5 30

Egmont (Cape)

Afia

New Zeeland

39 23 2°S-

174 12 30 E.

II

36 50 E.

Egmont (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

19 20 0 S.

13S 46 oW.

9

15 4W.

Eimeo (Ifle) -

America

Pacific Ocean

17 30 oS.

149 54 oW.

9 59 36 W.

Elephant Point

Afia

Ceylon

6 20 0 N.

81 39 15 E.

5

26 37 E.

Elias's (St.) Mount -

America

Pacific Ocean

60 24 30 N.

141 0 oW.

9

24 0 W.

Elizabeth (Cape) -

America

Pacific Ocean

59 II oN.

152 12 oW.

10

8 48 W.

Elmma Caftle

Africa

Gold Coaft

5 I 3SN.

2 0 12W.

0

8 I W.

Eltham ' -

Europe

England -

51 27 4N.

0 3 loE.

0

0 13 E.

Embrun

Europe

France

44 34 7 N.

6 25 54 E.

0

25 44 E.

Enatum (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean

20 10 0 S.

170 4 0 E.

1 1

30 16 E.

Enckhuyfen -

Europe

Holland -

52 42 22 N.

J 10 oE.

0

20 40 E.

I

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

1,1 De

Long!
jrecs.

tude
I

n Time.

H.W.

n 1 II

'I ;

//

H.

M. s.

II. M.

Englifh Road

Afia

Eaoowee -

21 20 50 S.

174 49

oW.

II

39 16 W.

Endeavour River

Afia

New Holland -

ij 27 II s.

145 10

oE.

9 40 40 E.

Enos

Europe

Turkey

40 41 58 N.

25 58

30 E.

I

43 54 E.

Erranfianga (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean

18 46 30 S.

169 18

30 E.

II

17 14E.

Erzerum

Afia _

Turkey

39 56 35 N.

4S 35

45 E.

3

14 23 E.

Efpiritu Santo

America

Cuba

21 57 41 N.

79 49

30 W.

5

19 18 W.

Eutlachia (Town)

America

Caribbean Sea -

17 29 oN.

63 2

oW.

4

12 8W.

Event's Ifles

America

Terra del Fucgo -

55 34 30 S.

66 59

oW.

4

27 56 W.

Evreux

Europe

France

49 I 30 N.

I 8

5+E.

0

4 36 E.

Exeter

Europe

England -

50 44 oN.

3 34

30 W.

0

14 18W.

Fairlight

Europe

England -

5° 52 39 N.

0 38

35^;

0

2 34E.

Falmouth

Europe

England -

50 8 0 N.

5 3

oW.

0

20 12 W.

5 30

Falfe (Cape)

Africa

Caffres

34 16 oS.

18 44

oE.

I

.456E.

Falfe Bay -

Africa

Cafi'res -

_54 10 0 S.

iS 33

oE.

I

14 I 2 E.

Fano

Europe

Italy

43 51 oN.

12 S9

38 E.

0

51 59E.

Fareham

Europe

England -

50 51 20N.

I 10

1 1 W.

0

44IW.

Farewell (Cape)

America

Greenland -

59 3S oN.

42 42

oW.

2

so 48 W.

Farewell (Cape)

Afia

New Zeeland

40 37 oS.

172 49

38 E.

II

31 19E.

Farnham

Europe

England -

51 13 7N.

0 47

52W.

0

3 iiW.

Fayal (Town)

Europe

Azores

38 32 20 N.

28 41

5W.

I

5444W.

Fecamp

Europe

France

49 45 24 N.

, 0 22

48 E.

0

I 31 E.

Fehx and Amb. Ifles

America

Pacific Ocean -

26 16 oS.

79 16

oW.

5

17 4W.

Ferdinand Noronha -

America -

Brazil

3 56 20 S.

32 38

oW.

2

10 32 W.

Fermo

Europe

Italy

43 10 1 8 N.

13 41

26 E.

0

5446E.

Fernando Po

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

3 28 oN.

8 40

oE.

0

34 40 E.

Ferrara

Europe

Italy

44 49 46 N.

II 36

15 E.

0

46 2;E.

Ferraria (Point)

Europe

St. Michael (Az.)

37 49 41 N.

25 59 49 W.

I

43 59 W.

Fcrro (Town)

Africa

Canaries -

27 47 3jN.

17 45

8W.

I

II I W.

Finifterre (Cape)

Europe

Spain

42 S3 3°N.

9 18

24 W.

0

37 14 W.

Fizeron (Cape)

Europe

Portugal -

39 19 oN.

II 43

53 W.

0

46 56 W.

Fladftrand

Europe

Denmark -

57 27 3N.

10 33

ijE.

0

42 13 E.

Flattery (Cape)

America

New Albion

48 15 30 N.

124 58

30 W.

8

f9 54 W.

Flenfburg

Europe

Denmark -

54 47 8N.

9 27

6E.

0

37 48 E.

Florence

Europe

Italy

43 46 3^N.

II 3

30 E.

0

44 14 E.

Flores

Europe

Azores

39 26 20 N.

31 1 1

22 W.

2

445W.

Flour (Saint)

Europe

France

45 I 53 N-

3 5

24 E.

0

12 22 E.

Flufhing

Europe

Holland -

51 26 37 N.

3 34

9E.

0

14 17E.

Foggy Ifland

America

Pacific Ocean

56 12 oN.

157 19

30 W.

10

29 18 \V.

Foktzani

Europe

Turkey

45 33 51 N.

27 2

30 E.

I

48 10 E.

Folkftone

Europe

England -

51 5 45 N.

I II

29 W.

0

4 46 w.

Fontarabia -

Europe

Spain

43 21 36N.

1 47

29 w.

0

7 10 W.

S. Foreland (Light) -

Europe

England -

51 8 21 N.

I 22

6E.

0

5 28 E.

N. Foreland -

Europe

England -

51 22 40N.

I 26

22E.

0

5 4> E.

Fortaventure (W. P.)

Africa

Canaries

28 4 oN.

H 31

30 W.

0

58 6\V.

Foul Point -

Africa

Madagafcar

17 40 148.

49 52

30 E.

3

19 30 E.

Foulweatlier (Cape) -

America

Pacific Ocean

44 S3 oN.

124 10

oW.

8

16 40 \v.

Frampton Houfe

Europe

Wales

51 2; iN.

3 29

30 W.

0

13 58 W.

France (Ifle of)

Africa

Indian Ocean

20 9 43 S.

57 31

30 E.

3

50 6E.

Francfort (on the M.)

Europe

Germany -

50 7 40 N.

835

45 E.

0

34 23E.

Vol. XXI.

3

A

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or

Country.

Latitude.

In

Longitude
Degrees. In Time.

H. \V.

Ct J II

0

i II

II. M. .s.

H. M.

Francfort (on the Od.)

Europe

Germany -

52 22 8N.

14

45 ° E.

0 59 3 E.

Francifco (St.)

America

New Albion

37 4B 30 N.

122

7 20 W.

8 8 30 W.

n 15

Francois (Cape)

America

Hifpaniola

19 46 40 N.

" 1

17 45 w.

4 49 1 1 W.

Francois (Old Cape)

America

Hifpaniola

19 40 30 N.

70

2 oW.

44. 8W.

Frant

Europe

England -

51 5 54N.

0

16 13 E.

0 I 5 E.

Fravvenburg -

Europe

Prufiia

54 22 ij N.

20

7 30 E.

I 20 30 E.

Free Town -

Africa

Sierra Leone

8 29 40 N.

13

5 -7 W.

0 52 21 W.

Frehel (Light)

Europe

France

48 41 loN.

2

18 57 W.

0 915 w.

Frejus

Europe

France

43 25 52 N.

6

43 54 E-

0 26 56 E.

Friefland's Peak

America

Sandwich Land -

59 2 0 S.

26

55 30 W.

, 47 42 w-

Frio (Cape) -

America

Brafil

22 54 0 S.

42

8 15 \V.

2 48 33 W.

Frio (Cape) -

Africa

Caffraria -

18 40 0 s.

12

26 0 E.

0 49 44 E.

Fronfac (Strait)

America

Nova Scotia

4S 36 57 N.

61

19 30 W.

4 5 18 W.

Fuego (Me) -

Africa

Cape Verd

It 57 2N.

24

22 3 W.

1 37 32 W.

Fulham

Europe

England -

51 28 7N.

0

12 3 J w.

0 0 50 W.

Funchal

Africa

Madeira -

J2 37 20N.

16

55 36 W.

I 7 42 w.

12 4

Furneaux (Ifland)

America

Pacific Ocean - ^

17 1 1 0 S.

143

6 40 W.

9 32 27 W.

Furuefs

Europe

Netherlands

51 473N.

0

39 36 E.

0 10 38 E.

Gabey

Afia

New Guinea

0 6 oS.

126

23 45 E.

8 25 35 E.

Galle (Cape de)

Afia

Ceylon

6 I oN.

80

19 20 E.

5 2r 17 E.

Gallipoli

Europe

Turkey

40 25 33 N.

26

37 15 E.

1 46 29 E.

Gand

Europe

Netherlands

51 3 15 N.

3

43 20 E.

0 14 53 E.

Ganjam

Afia

India

19 22 30 N.

85

18 30 E.

5 41 J4E.

Gap

Europe

France

44 33 37 N.

6

4 47 E.

0 24 19 E.

Gafpar (Ifland)

Afia

Str. of Gafper -

2 25 0 S.

107

7 45 E.

7 831E.

Gafpee

America

G. St. Lawrence

48 47 30 N.

64

27 30 W.

4 17 50 W.

Gavarea (Cape)

Afia

Kamtchatka

51 20 30 N.

158 36 0 E.

10 34 24 E.

Geinhaufen -

Europe

Germany -

50 13 25 N.

9

13 38 E.

0 36 55 E.

Geneva

Europe

Savoy

46 12 17N.

6

8 24 E.

0 24 34 E.

Genoa

Europe

Italy

44 25 oN.

8

51 15 E.

0 35 25 E.

St. George (Ifle) -

Europe

Azores

38 SS 30 N.

28

10 0 W.

1 52 40 W.

St. George (Town) -

America

Bermudas -

32 22 20 N.

64

14 15 W.

4 .657W.

St. George (Fort) -

America

Hifpaniola

18 18 40N.

73

11 49 w.

4 52 47 W.

St. George (Fort) -

Afia

India

13 454N.

80

24 49 E.

5 21 39 E.

St. George (Cape) -

America

Newfoundland -

48 30 5 N.

59

20 33 W.

3 57 22 W.

St. George (Cape) -

Afia

New Holland

35 JO 30S.

150

29 0 E.

10 I 56 E.

St. George (Cape) -

Afia _

New Britain

4 53 30 S.

153

8 45 E.

10 12 35 E.

George (Cape)

America

South Georgia -

54 n 0 S.

36

32 30 W.

2 26 10 W.

George (Cape)

Afia

Kerguelen's Land

49 54 3'= S.

70

13 0 E.

4 40 48 E.

Geriah

Afia

Malabar -

16 37 oN.

73

22 24 E.

4 53 3- E.

Ghent

Europe

Flanders -

51 '3 15 N.

3

43 20 E.

0 14 53 E.

Gibraltar

Europe

Spain

36 4 44 N.

5

4 oW.

0 20 16W.

0 0

Gilbert's Ifle

America

Terra del Fuego -

55 13 oS.

?■

6 45 W.

4 44 27 W.

Glandeve

Europe

France - ■ -

43 56 43 N.

6

48 10 E.

0 27 13 E.

Glafgow

Europe

Scotland -

S5 51 32 N.

4

16 0 W.

0 17 4 W.

Glocefter Houfe

America

New Wales

51 24 26 N.

S7

26 2 Vv .

5 49 44 W.

Glocefter Ifle

;\merica

Pacific Ocean -

19 II oS.

140

20 0 W.

92120 w.

Gluchow

Europe

Ruffia

51 40 30 N.

34

20 0 E.

2 17 20 E.

Gluckftad -

Europe

Holllein -

53 47 44 N-

9

27 0 E.

0 37 48 E.

'i

LONGITUDE.

A Table of tha Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Countr)-.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. In Time.

H. W.

o / 11

0 / //

II. M. S.

H. M.

Goa

Afia

India

15 28 20N.

73 58 39 E.

4 55 55 E.

Goat Ifle

Alia

Chinefe Sea

13 55 oN.

120 2 0 E.

8 0 8 E.

Goave (La Petit)

America

Hifpaniola

18 27 oN.

72 45 34 W.

451 2W.

Goes

Europe

Zeeland

51 30 i8 N.

3 53 5 E.

0 15 32 E.

Gogo

Afia

India

21 40 30 N.

72 21 15 E.

4 49 25 E.

Gomera (Ifle)

Africa

Canaries -

28 5 40 N.

17 8 cW.

I 8 32 W.

Gonnve (KleN.E.Pt.)

America

Hifpaniola

18 48 35 N.

72 56 27 W.

4 5' 46 W.

Good Hope (Cape) -

Africa

Caffraria -

34 Z9 oS.

18 23 15 E.

I 13 53 E.

3 0

Good Hope (Town) -

A frica

Caffraria -

33 S) 42 ^•

i8 23 7 E.

I 13 32 E.

2 30

Goodwood -

Europe

England -

50 52 21 N.

0 44 9 W.

0 2 57 W.

Goree (Ifle)

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

1440 5N.

17 24 30 W.

I 9 38 W.

I 3a

Gotha

Europe

Germany -

50 56 17 N.

10 41 46 E

0 43 46 E.

Gothaah

America

Greenland -

64 9 55 N.

51 46 45W-

3 27 7 W.

Gottenburg -

Europe

Sweden

57 42 oN.

II 57 30 E.

0 47 50 E.

Gottingen (Obfer.) -

Europe

Germany -

51 31 54^-

9 54 15 E.

0 39 37 E.

Goudliurft

Europe

England -

51 650N.

0 27 39 E.

0 I 51 E.

Grafton (Ifle)

Afia

Bafhees -

21 4 0 N.

120 55 1 1 E.

8 3 41 E.

Grafton (Cape)

Afia

New Holland

1653 30 s.

145 42 45 E.

9 42 51 E.

Granada (Fort Royal)

America

Caribbean Sea -

12 254 N.

61 51 15 W.

4 7 25 w.

Granville

Europe

France

4S 50 16 N.

I 36 15 W.

0 6 25 \V.

6 45

GrafTe

Europe

France

43 39 19 N.

6 55 9E.

0 27 41 E.

Gratiofa

Europe

:\ zores

39 II oN.

27 54 30 W.

I 51 38 W.

Gratz

Europe

Germany -

47 4 9N.

15 25 45 E.

I I 43 E.

0 0

Gravelines

Europe

Flanders -

50 59 10 N.

2 7 35 E.

0 8 30 E.

Gravois (Point)

America

Hifpaniola

18 055N.

74 2 15 W.

4 56 -9 W.

Greenwich (Obfer.) -

Europe

England -

51 28 40 N.

000

000

Grenaae

Europe

Denmark -

56 24 57 N.

10 53 21 E.

0 43 33 E.

Gregory (Cape)

America

Pacific Ocean

43 29 0 N.

124 9 0 W.

8 16 36 W.

Grenoble

Europe

France

45 II 42 N.

5 43 34 E.

0 22 54 E.

GrenviUe (Caps)

America

Pacific Ocean

57 31 oN.

152 37 30 W.

10 10 30 W.

Grouais (Ifle)

Europe

France

47 38 4N.

3 26 23 W.

0 13 46 W.

Grinfted (Eall)

Europe

England -

51 7 2SN.

0 0 16 E.

0 0 1 E.

Grinfted (Weft)

Europe

England -

50 58 24 N.

0 19 53 W.

0 I 20 W.

Gryphifwald

Europe

Germany -

54 5 15 N

'3 35 '5 E.

0 54 5 E.

Guadaloupe -

America

Caribbean Sea -

I J 59 30 N.

61 48 15 \V.

4 7 ij W.

Guiaquil

Aftierica -

Peru

2 II 18 S.

79 20 52 W.

5 17 23 W.

Gurief

Afia

Siberia

47 7 yN-

51 59 15 E.

3 27 57 E.

Haderfleben -

Europe

Denmark -

5S 15 6N.

9 30 15 E.

0 38 I E.

Plague

Europe

Holland -

52 4 12 N.

416 2 E.

017 4 E.

S ij

Halifax

America

Nova Scotia

44 44 oN.

63 3«5 0 W.

4 14 24 W.

7 33

Hamburg

Europe

Germany -

53 33 3N-

9 )S 15 E.

0 39 41 E.

6 0

Hammerfoll (Ifle) -

Europe

North Sea -

70 38 43 N.

23 43.35 E.

I 34 54 E.

Hampllead -

Europe

England -

51 3i 19 N.

0 10 42 W.

0 0 43 W.

Hang-lip (Cape)

Africa

Caffraria -

34 16 oS.

18 44 0 E.

I 14 56 E.

Hanover

Europe

Germany -

52 22 iSN.

9 4+ 15 E.

0 38 57 E.

Harbro' (Market) -

Europe

England -

52 28 30 N.

0 57 25 W.

0 3 50 ^V-

Hareficld -

Europe

England -

51 36 10 N.

0 29 15 W.

0 I 57 W.

Harlem

Europe

H-lland -

52 22 14 N.

4 37 0 E.

0 18 28 E.

Harrow on the Hill -

Europe

England -

51 34 27 N.

0 20 3 W.

0 I 20 W.

3 A2

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degret-s. In Time.

H.W.

f> 1 li

0 1 II

H. M. S.

H. M.

Hnftings

Europe

England -

50 52 loN.

0 41 10 E.

0 2 45 E.

II 0

Havaniiah

America

Cuba

23 Jl J2 N.

82 836W.

5 28 34 W.

Havant

■ Europe

England -

5° 5* 5N.

0 58 38 W.

0 3 55 W.

Havre-de-Grace

Europe

France

49 29 14 N.

0 6 23 E.

0 0 26 E.

9 0

HawkhiU -

Europe

Scotland -

55 57 57 N.

3 10 15 W.

0 12 41 W.

Heefe (La) -

Europe

Netherlands

51 23 2N.

4 44 45 E.

0 18 59 E.

St. Helena (Ja.To.) -

Africa

S. Atlantic Ocean

i> 55 oS.

5 43 30 W.

0 22 54 W.

2 15

Hengiftbury Head -

Europe

England -

50 42 57 N.

I 45 I I W .

0 7 I w.

Henley Houfe

America

New \\''ale8

51 14 28 N.

84 46 15 w.

5 39 5 W.

Henlopen (Cape)

America

Virginia -

38 47 8 N.

75 12 31 W.

J 0 50 W.

9 0

Henry (Cape)

America

Virginia -

36 57 oN-

76 31 30 W.

5 6 6W.

Heraclia

Europe

Turkey

41 I 3 N.

27 54 19 E.

I 51 37 E.

St. Hermogenes (Ifle)

America

Cook's River

58 15 oN.

152 13 oW.

10 8 52 W.

Hernoiar.d -

Europe

Sweden

62 38 oN.

17 50 15: E.

I II 21 E.

Hervey's (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean -

19 17 0 S.

158 56 20 W.

•o 35 45 W.

He{reloe(Ifle) " -

Europe

Ciitegat

56 II 46 N.

II 43 45 E.

0 46 55 E.

Heve(Capela)

Europe

France

49 30 42 N.

0 4 oE.

0 0 16 E.

Highbury Houfe

Europe

England -

51 33 •3N.

0 5 51 W.

0 0 23 W.

Highclere

Europe

England -

51 18 46 N.

I 20 16 W.

0 5 21 W.

Highgate

Europe

England -

51 34 16N.

0 8 50 W.

0 0 35 W.

Hinchinbroke (Ifle) -

Afia

Pacific Oce.-in

17 25 0 S.

168 38 oE.

II 14 32 E.

Hinchinbroke (Cape)

America

Pr. Wm's Sound

60 16 0 N.

146 5 J- oW.

9 47 40 W.

Hionn

Europe

Denmark -

51 27 44 N.

9 59 58 E-

0 40 0 E.

Hoai-Nghan -

Afia

China

33 34 40 N.

118 49 30 E.

7 55 18 E.

Hogue (Cape la)

Europe

France

49 44 40 N.

I 56 50 W.

0 7 47 W.

0 0

Hoa -

Europe

Iceland

65 44 0 N.

19 44 0 W.

I 18 56 w.

HolmePoint

Europe

England -

52 59 40 N.

0 30 45 E.

0 2 3E.

Honflelir

Europe

France

49 25 13 N.

0 13 59 E.

0 0 56 E.

9 0

Hood's Ifle -

America

Pacific Ocean -

926 0 S.

138 52 oW.

9 15 28 W.

Hoogiiraeten

Europe

Netherlands

51 24 44 N.

4 46 15 E.

019 5 E.

Horn (Cape)

America

Terra del Fuego

55 58 3° S-

67 26 oW.

4 29 44 W.

Horndean

Europe

England -

5° 55 33 N.

I 0 21 W.

0 4 I W.

Horfham

Europe

England -

51 3 36 N.

0 194^ AV.

0 I 19 w.

Hout Bay -

Africa

Caffraria -

34 3 oS.

18 19 oE.

I 13 16E.

Howe's Ifle -

America

Pacific Ocean

16 46 JO S.

154 6 40 W.

10 16 27 w.

Howe (Cape)

Afia

New Holland

37 31 15 s-

145 31 0 E.

9 58 4 E.

Huahine(lfle)

America

Pacific Ocean -

16 44 0 S.

151 6 oW.

10 4 24 W.

Hueen (Ifle)

Europe

Sound

55 54 38 N.

12 41 30 E.

0 50 46 E.

Hudfon's Houfe

America

New Wales

53 0 32 N.

106 27 48 W.

7 551W.

Hunafton Lights

Europe

England ' -

52 58 40 N.

0 28 oE.

0 I 52 E.

Hurft Lighthoufe

Europe

England -

50 42 23 N.

I 32 50 W.

0 611 W.

Hurllmonceux

Europe

England -

50 51 35N.

0 19 42 E.

0 I 19E.

Hufum

Europe

Denmark -

54 28 48 N.

9 4 7 E.

0 36 16 E.

Hydrabad

Alia

Golconda -

17 12 4N.

78 ji 0 E.

5 15 24E.

Jackfon (Port)

Afia

New Holland -

33 51 7S.

141 13 30 E.

10 4 54 E.

JafTrabad (Fort)

'Afia

Indi«i

20 52 50 N.

71 36 30 E.

4 46 26 E.

Jakutll{

Afia

Siberia

62 I 52 N.

129 43 30 E.

8 38 s5 E.

Jakutfl<oi-Nofs

Afia

Kamtchatka

66 5 30 N.

169 44 0 W.

11 18 56 W.

Janeiro (Rio)

America

Bralll

■21 54 10 b.

43 10 45 W.

2 52 43 W.

2 5

LONGITUDE.

Tasle of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Place*.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. In Time.

H. \V.

Jaroflawl

Europe

Ruflia

57 37

30 N.

40 10 oE.

H. M. S.

2 40 40 E.

H. M.

Jarra (Pulo)

Afia

Str. of Malacca -

3 57

oN.

100 17 oE.

6 41 8E.

Jatfey

Europe

Moldavia -

47 8

32 N.

27 29 45 E.

I 49 59 E.

Java Head

Afia

Java

6 48

30 S.

los 7 25 E.

7 0 30 E.

Icy Cape

America

Beering's Straits

70 29

oN.

161 42 30 W.

10 46 JO W.

Idolhos (Ifles)

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

9 27

oN.

13 32 30 W.

0 J4 10 W.

Jenikola

Europe

Crimea

45 21

oN.

36 26 30 E.

2 2J 46 E.

Jenifeik

Afia

Siberia

58 27

,7N.

91 58 30 E.

6 7 54E.

Jeremie (Point)

America

Hifpaniola

18 40

20 N.

74 13 28 W.

4 56 55 W.

JerufiJem

Afia

Paletline -

31 55

oN.

35 20 0 E.

2 21 20 E.

St. Ildefonfo's Ifles -

America

Terra del Fuego

55 51

oS.

69 28 oW.

4 37 52 W.

Ilginfkoi

Afia

Siberia

-

104 59 0 E.

6 j9 j6 E.

Immer (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

19 16

oS.

169 46 0 E.

II 19 4 E.

Ingolftadt

Europe

Germany -

48 4j

foN.

n 25 30 E.

0 45 42 E.

Ingornahoix -

America

Newfoundland -

5° 37

17 N.

57 15 30 W.

3 49 2 W.

Johanna iPeak)

Africa

Comora Ifles

12 i6

oS.

44 46 18 E.

' ^i ^h

St. John's -

America

Antigua -

17 4

30 N.

62 9 0 W.

4 8 30 W.

St. John's -

America

Newfoundland -

47 32

44 N.

52 25 30 w.

3 29 42 W.

6 0

St. Jofeph -

America

California -

23 3

37 N.

109 40 45 W.

7 1843W.

Joy (Port) -

America

Ifle of St. John's

46 11

oN.

62 57 15 W.

4 II 49 W.

Irkutdc

Aha

Siberia

52 18

BN.

104 33 30 E.

6 j8 14 E.

[rranamc (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

19 31

oS.

170 21 oE.

II 21 24 E.

Iflaraabad

Afia

India

22 20

oN.

91 49 43 E.

6 7 19 E.

Ifle of Pines -

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

22 38

oS.

167 38 oE.

11 10 32 E.

Iflington

Europe

England^ -

51 32

18N.

c 6 0 W.

0 0 24 W.

Ifmael - -

Eui-ope

Turkey

45 "°

58 N.

28 50 oE.

1 jj 20 E.

Ifpahan

Afia

Perfia

32 24

34 N.

51 50 oE.

3 27 20 E

St. Juan (Cape)

America

Staten Land

54 47

10 S.

63 47 oW.

4 ij 8W.

Juan Fernandes (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean -

33 40

oS.

78 33 oW.

5 14 12 W.

Judda - -

Afia

Arabia

21 29

oN.

39 22 oE.

2 37 28 E.

Judorafl<oi

Afia

Siberia

_

_

139 52 30 E.

9 19 30 E.

St. Julian (Port)

America

Pataoonia

49 10

oS.

68 44 oW.

4 34J6W.

4 45

Jupiter's Inlet

America

Anticofta (Ifle) -

49 26

oN.

63 38 15 W.

4 14 33 W.

Juthia - -

Afia

India

14 18

oN.

ICO 50 oE.

6 43 20 E.

Kalouga

Europe

Ruflia

54 30

oN.

36 5 0 E.

2 24 20 E.

Kamenec

Europe

Poland

48 40 53 N.

27 I ijE.

1 48 J E.

Keeling's Iflands

Afia

Indian Ocean

'2 3

15 S.

97 38 30 E.

6 30 34 E.

Kamtchatkoi-Nofs -

Afia

Kamtchatka

56 I

oN.

163 22 30 E.

10 53 30 E.

Karakakoo (Bay)

America

Sandwich Ifles -

19 28

10 N.

155 56 23 W.

10 23 46 w.

3 45

Kateriiigburg

Afia

Siberia

56 50

15 N.

60 50 0 E.

4 3 20 E

Kayes Ifland

America

Pacific Ocean -

59 52

oN.

145 0 oW.

9 40 0 w.

Kedgeree

Afia

India

21 48

oN

88 JO 15 E.

5 SS 21 E

Keppel's Ifland

Afia

Pacific Ocean

15 j6

30 S.

174 10 24 W.

9 30 42 W.

Kiam-Cheu -

Afia

China

35 37

oN.

Ill 29 15 E.

7 2J 57 E.

Kidnapper's Cape

Afia

New Zeeland

39 42

45 S.

177 16 oE.

II 49 4E.

Kiel - -

Europe

Holftein -

54 22

25-N.

9 -4 45 E;

0 i7 39 E.

Kinfale

Europe

Ireland

51 41

30 N.

8 28 15 W.

0 33 53 W.

5 0

Kiow - -

Europe

Ukraine -

50 27

oN.

30 27 30 E.

2 I joE.

Kiringinfkoi

Afia

Siberia

57 47

oN.

108 2 oE.

7 12 8E. ) j

LONGITUDE.

Table of the Latitudes and LonjcituJes oi Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaif, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude

In DesTrecs. In Time.
0

H. W.

o 1 11

0 / /'

11. M. S.

II. M.

Kirk-Newton

Europe

Scotland -

55 54 30 N.

3 30 33 W.

0 14 2W.

Kittery Point

America

New England -

43 4 27 N.

70 44 30 W.

4 42 58 W.

Koamaroo (Cape)

Afia

New Zeelaud

4t 4 4S S.

174 34 3°E.

II 38 18 E.

Kola - -

Europe

Lapland -

68 52 26.N.

33 I 30 E.

2 12 6 E.

Konfwinger -

Europe

Norway -

60 12 n N.

11 57 45 E.

0 47 51 E.

Karmantinc Fort

Africa

Gold Coaft

5 ,10 58 N.

I 34 24 W.

0 6 18 W.

Korfar ( Lights)

Europe

Denmark -

^^ 20 22 N.

II 8 30 E.

0 44 34 E.

Kofloff

Europe

Crimea

45 14 oN.

33 25 oE.

2 13 40E.

Kowima (Upper)

Afia

Kamtcliatka

65 28 oN.

153 35 oE.

10 14 20 E.

Kowiraa (Lower)

Afia

Kamtciiatka

68 18 oN.

163 18 oE.

10 53 12 E.

Krementzoug

Europe

Rufila

49 3 28 N.

33 28 45 E.

2 13 55 E.

Kronotfkoi-Nofs

Afia

Kamtchatka

54 43 0 N.

162 13 30 E.

10 48 54 E.

Kullen (Lights)

Europe

Sweden

56 18 3N.

12 26 14E.

0 49 45 E.

Kurlk - -

Europe

Ruflia

51 43 30 N.

36 27 30 E.

2 25 50 E.

La Ciotat

Europe

France

43 10 29 N.

5 36 48 E..

0 22 27 E.

Ladrone (Grand)

Afia

Chinefe Sea

22 2 0 N.

II ^ 56 0 E.

7 35 44 E.

Lagoon Ifle (Cooke's)

America

Pacific Ocean

18 46 33 S.

.38 54 15 W.

9 15 37 W.

Lagoon's Ide (Bligh's)

America

Pacific Ocean -

2138 0 S.

140 37 oW.

Q 22 28 W.

Lagos - -

Europe

Turkey

40 58 42 N.

25 3 21 E.

I 40 13 E.

Lagnna

Africa

Tencriffe -

28 28 31 N.

16 27 13 W.

I 549W.

Lambhuus ' -

Europe

Iceland

64 6 17 N.

21 54 30 W.

I 27 38 W.

Lampfaco

Afia

Turkey -

40 20 52 N.

26 36 20 E.

I 46 2) E.

Lancarota (E. Pt.) -

Africa

Canaries

29 14 0 N.

13 26 oW.

0 53 44 W.

Landau

Europe

France

49 II 38 N.

8 7 30E.

0 32 30 E.

Landfcroon -

Europe

Sweden

Ss 53 23 N.

12 48 0 E.

0 51 12 E.

Langres

Europe

France

47 52 oN.

5 19 50 E.

0 21 ig E.

Laon

Europe

France

49 33 54 N.

3 37 12 E.

0 14 29 E,

Lavaur

Europe

France

43 40 52 N.

1 49 3 E.

0 7 16E.

Laufanne

Europe

Switzerland

46 31 5N.

6 45 15 E.

027 I E.

St. Lawrence's (Ifle)

Afia

Beering's Straits

63 47 oN.

171 45 0 E.

II 27 0 E.

Le Croilic -

Europe

France

47 '7 43 N-

2 30 30 W.

0102 W.

Lecknure

Europe

France

43 55 54 N.

0 37 II E.

0 2 29E.

Leeds

Europe

England -

53 47 33 N.

I 38 30 W.

0 6 34 W.

Leicefter

Europe

England -

52 33 oN.

I 8 30W.

0 4 34 ■^v.

Lcipfic

Europe

Saxony

51 22 22 N.

12 20 ^0 E.

0 49 22 E.

Le MaTis

Europe

France

48 0 35 N.

0 II 49 E.

0 0 47 E.

Leopard's Ifle

Africa

Sierra Leone

8 40 10 N.

13 8 oW.

0 52 32 W.

Leolloffe

Europe

England -

52 29 0 N.

I 44 9E.

0 6 57 E.

10 30

Leper's Ifland

Afia

Pacific Ocean

15 23 30 s.

167 58 15 E.

11 11 53 E.

Le Puy

Europe

France

45 2 41 N.

3 52 46 E.

0 15 31 E.

Lefcar - - -

Europe

France

43 19 ^2 N.

0 26 7 W.

0 I 44 w.

Lefkeard

Europe

England -

50 26 50 N.

4 41 45 W.

0 18 47 W.

Lefparre

Europe

France

45 18 33 N.

0 57 3 w-

0348 w.

Lewis Town

America

Pcnnfylvania

38 47 27 N.

75 1548^^.

5 ' 3W.

Leyden

Europe

Holland

52 8 40 N.

4 28 oE.

0 17 ^z E.

Liege

Europe

Netherlands

50 39 22 N.

5 31 30 E.

022 6 E.

Lilitnthal

Europe

Saxony

53 8 25 N.

8 58 oE.

0 35 53 E.

Lima
Limoges

America

Peru

12 I 56S.

76 54 0 W.

5 7 36 W.

Europe

France

45 49 44 N-

I 15 55 E.

0 5 4E.

LONGITUDE,

Table of Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. In Time.

H.W.

0 / ;/

0 / //

11. M. s.

11. M.

Lintz

Europe

Germany -

48 16 oN.

13 57 30 E.

0 ss 5°E.

Lificux

Europe

France

49 ' 8 50 N.

0 13 32 E.

0 0 54 E.

Lifle

Europe

Flanders -

50 37 50 N.

3 4 16 E.

0 12 17 E.

Lilbon

Europe

Portucral -

38 42 20 N.

9 9 10 W.

0 36 37 E.

Lion's Bank -

Europe

Atlantic Ocean -

56 40 0 N.

17 45 oW.

Ill 0 W.

Lilburne (Cape)

Afia

New Hebrides -

'5 4° 45 S.

166 57 oE.

11 7 48E.

2 15

Lifturne (Cape)

America

Beering's Straits

6y 5 0 N.

165 22 30 W.

II I 30 w.

Liverpool

Europe

England -

53 22 oN.

2 56 45 W.

0 11 47 W.

11 18

Livourno

Europe

Italy

43 33 2N.

10 16 30 E.

0 41 6E.

Lizard

Europe

England -

49 57 3°N.

5 13 oW.

0 20 52 W.

7 50

Lizier (St.)

Europe

France

43 0 3 N.

I 8 5E.

~ — ■ —

0 4 32 E.

Loam-pit Hill

Europe

England -

51 28 7 N.

0 I 25 W.

0 0 6W.

Lodeve

Europe

France

43 43 47 N.

3 18 48 E.

0 13 15 E.

Loheia

Afia

Arabia

15 42 8N.

42 8 30 E.

2 48 34 E.

Lombez

Europe

France

43 28 21 N.

0 54 24 E.

0 3 38E.

London (St. Paul's)

Europe

England -

51 30 49 N.

0 5 47 W.

0 0 23 W.

2 45

Spiral Square

Europe

England -

51 31 9 N.

0420 W.

0 0 17 W.

Chrift's Hof.

Europe

England -

51 30 52 N.

0 5 5, W.

0 0 23 w.

Mr. Graham's

Europe

England -

51 so 52 N.

0 6 10 W.

0 0 25 w.

Siirry-ftr. Ob.

Europe

England -

51 30 40 N.

0 6 45 W.

0 0 27 W.

London Somcrfct Place

Europe

England -

51 30 43 N.

0 6 54 W.

0 0 28 W.

Europe

England -

5' 3o"38N.

0 7 42 W.

0 0 31 w.

Londonderry

Europe

Ireland

54 59 28 N.

7 14 49 W.

0 28 59 w.

6 0

Lopatka (Cape)

Afia

Kamtchatka

51 0 15 N.

156 42 30 E.

10 26 50 E.

Lorenzo (Cape)

America

Peru

I 2 0 S.

80 59 45 W.

5 23 59 W.

Loretto

Europe

Italy

43 27 0 N.

13 34 5°E.

0 54 19 E.

Louis (Port)

America

Hlfpaniola

18 18 40 N.

73 16 49 W.

4 53 7 VV.

Louis (Port)

Africa

Mauritius -

20 9 44 S.

57 28 15 E.

3 49 53 E.

Louifburg

America

Cape Breton

45 Si 50 N-

59 59 15 W.

3 59 57 W.

Louveau

Afia

India

12 42 30 N.

loi I 30 E.

6 44 6E.

Louvain

Europe

Netherlands

yo ^s -6 N-

4 41 32 E.

0 18 46 E.

Lubni

Europe

Ruffia

^•o 0 37 N.

33 3 30 E-

2 12 14E.

St. Lucar (Cape)

America

Mexico

23 45 oN.

no 0 oW.

7 20 oM'.

St. Lucia (Ide)

America

Antilles

13 24 30 N.

60 51 30 W.

4 3 26 W.

Lucipara

Afia

Straits of Banka

3 11 20 S.

106 18 46 E.

7 5 15 E.

St. Lunaire Bay

America

Newfoundland -

51 29 0 N.

55 30 oW.

3 42 oW.

Lunden

Europe

SwedeH

55 42 13 N.

13 II 5E.

0 52 44 E.

Luneville

Europe

France

48 35 33 N.

6 30 6E.

0 26 0 E.

Lufon

Europe

France

46 27 15 N.

I 1 0 0 W.

0 4 40 W.

Luxembourg

Europe

Netherlands

49 37 20 N.

6 13 45 E.

0 24 55 E.

Lydd

Europe

England -

5057 7N.

0 54 15 E.

0 3 37E-

Lynn Regis -

Europe

England -

52 45 34 N.

0 24 29 E.

0 1 38 E.

6 45

Lyons

Europe

France

45 45 52 N.

4 49 9E.

0 19 1/ E.

Macao ( Pia Grand) -

Afia

China

22 ji 20 N.

113 35 15 E.

7 34 15 E.

5 5°

MacafTar

Afia

Celbes -

5 9 oS.

119 48 45 E.

7 59 15 E.

Macclesfield Shoal -

Afia

Chinefe Sea

15 51 18 N.

114 18 oE.

7 37 12 E.

Macon

Europe

France

46 18 27 N.

4 49 S3 E-

0 19 20 E.

Madeira (Funchal) -

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

32 37 20 N.

lO 55 36 W.

1 7 42 W.

12 4

Madras

Afia

India

13 4 54 N.

So 14 49 E.

5 -I 39E.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coafl, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

In

Lonj.
Degrees.

itude

I:i Time.

H.W.

H. M.

O '

/(

/ /'

H. M s.

Madre de Dies (Port)

America

Marquefas -

9 59

30 S.

139

8 40 W.

9 16 3j W.

2 30

Madrid

Europe

Spain

40 2J

18N

3

38 30 W.

0 14 34 W.

Maeftricht -

Europe

Netherlands

50 51

7N.

5

40 45 E.

0 22 43 E.

Mafamale

Africa

Zanquebar

16 21

oS.

40

20 30 E.

2 41 22 E.

Magdalen (Ifles)

America

G. St. Lawrence

47 17

oN.

61

2(5 oW.

4 5 44 W.

Magdalena (Ide)

America

Pacific Oceait

10 25

30 S.

'38

49 0 W.

9 15 16 W.

Mahon (Port)

Europe

Minorca -

39 ;i

48 N.

3

48 30 E.

0 15 14 E.

Majorca (Ifle)

Europe

Mediterranean Sea

39 35

oN.

2

29 45 E.

0 9 59 E.

Maize (Cape)

America

Cuba

20 18

oN.

74

23 oW.

4 57 32 W.

Malacca

Afia

India

2 12

6N.

102

8 45 E.

6 48 3J E.

Malicoy (Ifland)

Alia

Indian Ocean

S IS

30 N.

73

9 30 E.

4 52 38 E.

Mallicola (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

16 15

30 S.

167

39 15 E.

II 10 37 E.

Maloes (St.)

Europe

France

48 39

3N.

2

I 26 W.

0 8 6W.

6 0

Malmoe

Europe

Sweden

55 36

37 N.

'3

I 4E.

0 52 4 E.

Malta (Town)

Africa

Mediterranean Sea

35 53

50 N.

14

28 30 E.

0 57 54 E.

Manchefter -

Europe

England -

53 26

30 N.

2

15 oW.

0 9 0 W,

Mangalore

Afia

Malabar -

12 50

o>N.

74 S7 24 E.

4 59 5° E.

Mangcea (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

21 56

45 S.

.58

3 oW.

10 32 12 W.

Manheim

Europe

Germany -

49 28

50 N.

8

27 22 E.

° 33 49 E.

Manilla

Afia

Philippmes

14 36

8N.

120

51 ijE.

8 3 25 E.

Mansfelt (Ifle)

America

Hudfon's Bay -

62 38

30 N.

80

33 oW.

5 22 12 W.

Maria V. Diem. (C.)

Afia

New Zetland

34 29

ijS.

172

46 30 N.

II 31 16 E/

St. Marcou (Ifle)

Europe

France

49 29

52 N.

I

8 56 W.

0 4 36 W.

Marigalante (Ifle)

America

Atlantic Ocean -

15 55

15 N.

61

II oW.

4 4 44 W.

Marmara (Ifle)

Afia

Sea of Marmara

4=' 37

4N.

27

3° 35 E.

I 50 2 E.

Marpurg

Europe

Germany -

46 34 42 N.

'5

41 20E.

I 2 45 E.

Marfeilles

Europe

France

43 17

43 N.

5

22 12 E.

0 21 29 E.

St. Martha -

America

Terra Firma

11 19

2N.

74

430W.

4 56 18 W.

St. Martin's Cape

Africa

St. Helen's Bay

32 41

43 S.

17

55 oE.

I II 40 E.

St. Martin's Ifle

America

Caribbean Sea -

18 4

20 N.

63

2 oW.

4 12 8 W.
4 5 25 W.

Martinico (Ifle)

America

Weft Indies

14 44

oN.

61

21 16W.

Martin-Vaz -

America

Atlantic OceaT -

20 28

16 S.

29

I oW.

I 56 4W.

3 45

St. Mary's Ifle

Europe

Scilly Ifles -

49 5S

30 N.

6

16 45 W.

0 25 7 W.

St. Mary's Town

Europe

Azores

36 56

40 N

25

9 10 w.

I 40 37 w.

Mas-a-fuero (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

33 45

oS.

80

22 oW.

5 21 28 W.

Mafkelyne's Ifles

Afia

New Hebrides -

16 32

oS.

167

59 15 E.

II II 57 E.

Mafulipatam -

Afia

India

16 8

30 N.

81

II 45 E.

5 24 47 E.

St. Matthew's Lipht -

Europe

France

48 19

34 N.

4 4? 54 W.

019 4 W.

Mauritius (Pt. Louis)

Africa

Indian Ocean

20 9

45 S.

57

29 15 E.

3 49 57 E.

Maurua (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

16 25

40 S,

152

32 40 W.

10 10 II W.

Mayence

Europe

Germany -

49 54

oN.

8

20 0 E.

0 33 20 E.

Mayne's f John) Ifle -

Europe

Northern Ocean

71 JO

0 N.

9 49 30 W.

0 39 18 W.

Mayo (Ifle) -

Africa

Cape Verd

15 12

40 N.

23

1+ 7W.

I 32 56 W.

Mayotta (Peak)

Africa

Comora Ifles

12 59

15 S.

45

25 oE.

3 I 40 E.

Meaux

Europe

France

48 57

40 N.

2

52 3°E.

0 II 30 E.

Mechlin

Europe

Netherlands

5' I

50 N,

4

28 45 E.

0 17 55 E.

Mende

Europe

France

44 3'

2N.

3

29 35 E.

0 13 ;8 E.

Mercury Bay

Afia

New Zeeland

36 48

oS.

176

6 20 E.

1 1 44 25 E.

Mcrgui

Afia

Siam

12 10

30 N.

98

19 15 E.

6 S3 I" E.

Mefurado Bay

Africa

Grain Coaft

6 18

20 N.

10

49 oW.

0 43 16 \v.

Metz

Europe

France

49 7

10 N.

6

10 13 E.

0 24 41 E.

7t

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Mew-Stone -

Mexico

Mezieres

Miatea ( Ifle)

St, Michael's Ifle

Middleburg -

Middleburg (Ifle)

Milan

Milo (Ifle) -

Minder

Continents.

Afia

America

Europe

America

Europe

Europe

Afia

Europe

Europe

Europe

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Mirepoix

Mirroe(Ifle)

Mittau

Mocca

Mocha (Ifle)

Modena

Mohilew

Monopin Hill

Mons

Moniieurs

Montague (Cape)
Montagu (Ifle)
Montalto
Montauban -
Monte-Chrifti
Montego Bay
Monterrey
Montlambert
Montmirail -
Montpelier -

Europe

Afia

Europe

Afia

America

Europe

Europe

Afia

Europe

Afia

New Holland -
Mexico
France

Pacific Ocean
Azores
Zealand
Friendly Ifles
Italy

Mediterranean Sea
England -

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. In Time.

43 47 15 ^•
19 54 oN.

49 45 47 N-
17 52 20 S.
37 47 oN.
51 30 6N.
21 20 30 S.
45 28 oN.{
36 41 oN. (

51 19 5oisr.(

146 26 30 E.

99 41 45 W.

4 43 16E.
148 6 o W.

2J 42 O W.

3 36 s; E.

1/4 34 oW.

9 10 52 E.

20 o o E.

I 18 46 E.

I

H. W.

Montferrat (Ifle)
Monument (The)
Maofe Fort -
Morant (Point)
Morokinnee -
Morotoi
Mofcow
Mofdok
Mofketto Cove
Moulins

America

Afia

Europe

Europe

America

America

America

Europe

Europe

Europe

France

Bengal Bay

Courland -

Arabia

Pacific Ocea^

Italy

Ruflia

Banka

Netherlands

Borneo

Mount (Cape)

Mo wee (Eatl Point) -

Mowee (Weft Point)

Mulgrave (Point)

Munich

Mufwell Hill

Nagpour

Namur

Nancovery Harbour -

Nancy

Vol. XXI.

America

Afia

America

America

America

America

Europe

Europe

America

Europe

Sandwich Land

New Hebrides

Italy

France

Peru

Jamaica

New Albion

France

France

France

48
7
56
13
38
44 34

53 54
2 I

50 27
4 23

7N.

oN.
10 N.

oN.
30 N.

oN.

oN.
20 S.
10 N.
40 S.

Africa

America

America

America

Europe

Europe

Afia
Europe
Afia
Europe

Caribbean Sea
New Hebrides
New Wales
Jamaica
Sandwich Ifles
Sandwich Ifles
Mofcovy -
Ruflia
Greenland -
France

58 33 oS.
17 26 o S.

42 59 44 N.
44 o 55 N.

I 2

18 31

36 36

50 43
48 52

oS
oN.
20 N.
2N.
8N.

I 52 II E.

93 37 30 E-
23 42 45 E.
44 o oE.
74 37 oW.
II 12 30 E.
30 24 30 E.
105 21 7 E.

3 57 15 E-
115 34 45 E.

II. M. S.

9 45 46 E.
6 38 47 W.

0 18 ^s E.
9 52 24 W.

1 42 48 W.
o 14 26 E.

II 38 16 W.

0 36 43 E.

1 40 o E.
o 5 15 E.

44 36 29 N.

126 46 o W.
168 31 30E.

13 3> 14 E.

I 20 51 E.

80 49 15 W.

78 20 oW.

121 34 15 W.

I 38 4; E.

3 32 16E.

0 7 29 E.

6 14 30 E.

1 34 3-1 E.

2 56 o E.
4 58 28 W.
o 44 50 E.
2 I 38 E.

7 I 24 E.
o ij 49 E.
7 42 19 E.

J :>

45 E.

Grain Coall
Sandwich Ifles -
Sandwich Ifles •
Beering's Straits
Bavaria
England -

India

Netherlands
Nicobar Ifles
France

16 49

17 14

5' 15

17 58

20 39

21 10
55 45
43 43
64 55
46 34

oN.
15 S.
54 N.

oN,

oN.

oN.
20 N.
23 N.
13 N.

4N.

oW.
.,-E.

62
168

So }4 41 W
76 15 45 W.

156 29 30 W.

157 17 oW.
37 46 15 E.
43 50 o E.
52 5645W.

3 20 oE.

6 46
20 50
20 53

67 45
48 7
51 35

oN.
30 N.

30 N.
30 N.
37 N.
32 N.

21 8 30N.

50 28 3 N.

7 58 oN.

48 41 55 N.

oW.
oW.

II 48

^55 55

156 38 30 W.

i6j 12 oW.

II 32 30 E.

o 7 20 W.

79 46 o E.

4 47 45 E.

93 26 o E.

6 10 ic E.

3B

4 9 48 W.

1 14 33 E.

5 23 39 W.
5 5 3W.

10 zj 5S W.
- - 29 8 W.

2 31 5 E.

2 55 20 E.

3 31 47 ^^'■
o 15 20 E.

10

o 47 12 W.
10 23 40 W.

10 26 34 W.

11 o 48 W.
o 46 10 E.
o o 29 W.

10

19 4E.
19 II E.

13 44 E.
24 41 E.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes q( Places.

1

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. In Time.

H. W.

1 ; II

0 / //

n. M. s.

II. M.

Nangafachi -

Afia

Japan

32 32 oN.

128 46 15 E.

835 5E.

Nankin

Alia

China

32 4 40N.

118 47 oE.

7 55 8E.

Nantes

Europe

France

47 13 7N.

I 5^ oW.

0 6 12W.

3 0

Naples

Europe

Italy

40 50 15 N.

14 "18 oE.

0 57 22 E.

Narbonne

Europe

France

43 10 58 N.

3 0 oE.

0 12 oE.

Narcondam -

A fia

Bengal Bay

13 25 15 N.

94 7 oE.

6 16 2SE.

Narva

Europe

Livonia

59 23 27 N.

28 21 45E.

I S3 27 E.

NavalFa (Ifle)

America

Atlantic Ocean

18 23 30N.

75 I 18W.

5 0 jW.

Needles (Lighthoufe)

Europe

Ifle of Wight -

50 39 53 N.

I n 55 w.

0 6 16W.

ID 30

Negapatam -

Afia

India

10 46 oN.

79 48 26 E.

5 19 14E.

Negrais (Cape)

Afia

India

15 56 30 N.

94 18 oE.

6 17 12E.

Nef hin

Europe

RuITia

51 2 45 N.

31 49 30E.

2 7 18 E.

Neuftadt

Europe

Auftria

47 4^ 27 N-

16 13 17E.

1 453E.

Nevcrs

Europe

France

46 59 17 N.

3 9 16E.

0 12 37 E.

Newbury

America

New England

43 2- oN.

70 37 30 W.

4 42 30 W.

Newenham (Cape) -

America

Bcering's Straits

58 41 30 N.

162 19 30 w.

10 49 18 W.

Newirigton (Stoke) -

Europe

England -

51 33 40N.

0 4 59 W.

0 0 20 w.

Newtee (Point)

Afia

India

15 56 oN.

73 36 oE.

4 54 24 E.

New-werk (Ifle)

Europe

Lower Saxony -

f3 55 19 N.

8 31 9E.

0 34 6E.

New-year's Harbour

America

Staten Land

54 48 55 S-

64 II oW.

4 16 44 w.

Nice

Europe

Italy

43 41 47 N.

7 i5 22E.

0 29 5E.

Nicholas Mole (St.) -

America

Hifpaniola

IQ 49 20 N.

73 ^9 45 W.

4 53 59 W.

Nicobar (Great)

Afia

Bengal Bay

7 4 oN.

93 44 oE.

6 14 56 E.

Nicobar (Car)

Afia

Bengal Bay

9 10 0 N.

92 50 oE.

6 II 20E.

Nieuport

Europe

Flanders -

51 7 41 N.

2 45 5E-

oil 0 E.

II 45

Ningpo

Afia

China

29 57 45 N.

120 18 oE.

8 1 12E.

Niines

Europe

France

43 50 12N.

4 i*^ 39^-

' 0 17 15 E.

Noir (Cape)

America

Terra del Fuego

54 3- 30 S.

73 3 15W.

4 52 13 W.

Noirmoutier (Ifle)

Europe

France"

47 0 5 N-

2 14 22 W.

0 8 57 W.

Nootka Sound

America

Pacific Ocean

49 36 7 N-

126 42 loW.

8 26 41 W.

0 20

Norbur^

Europe

Denmark

55 3 43 N.

9 45 18E.

0 39 lE.

Norfolk Illand

Afia

Pacific Ocean

29 1 45 S.

168 10 oE.

II 12 40E.

Noriton

America

Pennfylvania

40 9 56 N.

75 28 30 W.

5 I 54 ^\'-

North Cape -

Europe

Lapland

71 10 30 N.

2 1' 49 0 E.

I 43 16 E.

3 44

North (Cape)

America

South Georgia -

54 4 45 S.

38 15 oW.

2 33 oW.

North (Cape)

Afia

Beering's Straits

68 56 oN.

179 II 30 W.

II 56 46 W.

North I Hand

Afia

Straits of Suiida

5 37 5S.

105 55 oE.

7 3 40E.

North 1,1 and

Afia

Chinefe Sea

25 T4 0 N.

14T 14 oE.

9 24 56 E.

Norton's Sound

America

Beering's Straits

64 30 30 N.

162 47 30 W.

10 51 loW.

Noypn

Europe

France

49 34 59 N.

2 59 48 E.

0 II 59E.

Nuremberg -

Europe

Germany

49 27 3 N.

II 0 45 E.

0 44 3E.

Oaitipeha Bay

America

Otaheite -

17 45 45 S.

149 8 57 W.

9 56 36 W.

Ochotflc

Afia

Tartary

59 20 10 N.

143 12 30 E.

9 32 50E.

Ohanianeno Harbour

America

Ulitcah

1 6 45 30 S.

151 37 31 W.

10 6 30W.

II 30

OheterosE (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

22 26 36 S.

150 48 45 w.

10 3 15W.

Ohevahoa (Ifle)

America

Marqucfas

9 40 ,|oS.

139 1 40 vv.

9 iC 7W.

Ohitahoo (Ifle)

America

Marquefas

9 55 3°S-

139 6 oW.

9 16 24 W.

2 30

Oldenburg

Europe

Wettphalia

C3 8 40 N.

8 14 20 E.

0 32 57E.

Olcron

Europe

Fr::nce

43 II I N.

0 ^6 30 \V.

0 2 26 w.

«

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Place;.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Long!
In Degrees.

tude

In Time.

H. W.

Oleron (lile)

Europe

' France

0 / /'

46 2 51 N.

0 ( II
1 24 27 W.

H. M. s.

0 5 38 W.

H. M.

Olinde

America

1 Brafil

8 13 oS.

35 5 3'='^^.

2 20 22 W.

Olonfe (Sablcfo)

Europe

France

46 2,9 52 N.

1 47 5W.

0 7 8W.

Omcrgon (Tower)

Afia

India

20 10 30 N.

72 s6 30E.

4 51 46E.

Omer's (St.)

Europe

France

50 44 52 N.

2 14 67 E.

0 9 oE.

Onateayo (IHe)

America

Marquefas

9 58 oN.

138 51 oW.

9 15 24W.

Oneche'ow (Ifle)

America

Sandwich Ifles -

21 49 30 N.

160 13 30W.

1 0 40 J4 W.

Oonalaflca

America

Beering's Straits

53 54 29 N.

166 22 15 W.

II 5 2yW.

Oonemak (Cape)

America

Beering's Straits

54 30 30 N.

165 31 oW.

H 10 4W.

Opara (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

27 36 oS.

144 8 32 W.

9 36 34 W.

Oporta

Europe

Portugal

41 10 oN.

8 22 oW.

0 3s 28 W.

Orange

Europe

France

44 8 10 N.

4 48 8 E.

0 19 13 E.

Oreehoua

America

Sandwich Ifles -

22 3 0 N.

160 6 30 W.

10 40 26 W.

Orel

Europe

Ruffia

52 56 40 N.

35 57 oE.

2 23 48 E.

Orenburg

Afia

Tartary

51 46 3N.

55 7 35 E.

3 40 30 E.

Orford (Cape)

America

Pacific Ocean

42 52 qN.

124 2; oW.

8 17 40 W.

Orford-Nefs

E urope

England

52 4 30 N.

I 28 lE.

0 5 52E.

Orleans

Europe

France

47 54 10 N.

I 54 27 E.

0 738E.

Orleans (New)

America

Louifiana -

29 57 45 N.

89 58 45 W.

5 59 55"^-

Oratava

A frica

Tenenffe -

28 23 35 N.

16 35 35W.

I 6 22 W.

Orik

Afia

Tnrtary

51 12 32 N.

58 32 oE.

3 54 8E.

'

Ortegal (Cape)

Europe

Spain

ifaly - -

43 46 37 N.

7 38 oW.

0 30 32 W.

Ofimo

Europe

43 29 36 N.

13 27 8E.

0 ^3 49 E.

Ofnaburg

Europe

Germany -

53 16 14 N.

7 47 30E.

0 31 loE.

Ofnaburg (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

17 52 20S.

148 6 oW.

9 52 24E.

Oftend

Europe

Netherlands

51 15 loN.

2 s(> 30 E.

0 II 46 E.

II 45

Oftia

Europe

Italy

41 45 35 N.

12 16 20E.

0 49 5E.

Otakootaia(Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

19 51 30S.

158 23 oW.

10 S5 32W.

Overbierg

Europe

Norway

59 6 52 N.

11 22 15 E.

0 45 29 E.

Ovver Rocks

Europe

E ngland

50 39 57 N.

0 40 oW.

0 2 40 W.

Owharre Bay

Am.erica

Huahine -

16 42 46 S.

151 9 6W.

10 4 36 W.

II 50

( N. Point T

America

Sandwich Ifles -

20 17 0 N.

^55 59 oW.

10 23 56 W.

Owhvhee J S. Point [

America

Sandwich Ifles -

18 54 30 N.

155 48 0 W.

10 23 12W.

IE. Point 3

America

Sandwich Ifles -

19 33 oN.

154 52 oW.

10 19 28 W.

Oxford Obfervatory

Europe

England -

51 45 38 N.

I 15 oW.

0 5 oW.

Paddlefworth

Europe

England -

51 6 50N.

I 8 9E.

0 4 33^-

Padua

Europe

Italy

45 23 40 N.

II 52 56 E.

0 47 32 E.

PaimboEuf

Europe

France

47 17 15N.

2 I 46 W.

087 W.

Paita

America

Peru

,

5 12 oS.

Paix (Port)

A merica

Hifpaniola

19 56 oN.

72 52 13 W.

4 51 29 W.

Palermo

Europe

Sicily

38 645N.

13 20 15 E.

0 J3 21 E.

Palhfer (Cape)

Afia

New Zeeland

41 38 oS.

175 23 12E.

II 41 33 E.

Pallifer's Ifles

America

Pacific Ocean

15 38 15 S.

146 30 15 W.

9 46 1 W.

Pallifcr (Port)

Africa

Kerguelen's Land

49 3 158-

69 ^i; oE.

4 38 20 E.

Palma (Ifle)

Africa

Canaries

23 36 45 N.

17 49 6W.

I II 16 W.

Palmas (Cape)

Africa

Grain Coall

4 30 oN.

7 41 oW

0 30 44 w.

Paltnerfton's Ifle

America

Pacific Ocean

18 0 30S.

163 12 oW.

10 52 48 w.

Paimiras (Point)

Afia

India

2044 oN.

87 I 26E.

5 48 6E.

9 30

PalmiLVS

Europe

France

43 6 44 N.

I 36 21 E.

0 6 25E.

3B2

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Long
In Degrees.

tude

In Time.

H. W.

O ' /'

0 1 it

11. .M. .s.

H. M.

Panama

America

Mexico

8 58 12 N.

80 15 15 W.

5 21 iW.

Paoom (Ifle)

Afia

New Hebrides -

16 30 0 S.

168 28 45 E.

II 13 55 E.

Para

America

River Amazons

I 28 oS.

48 40 oW.

3 '4 40 W.

Paris (Obfervatory) -

Europe

France

48 50 14 N.

2 20 oE.

0 9 20E.

P.rma

Europe

Italy

44 44 JoN.

10 26 30E.

0 41 56E.

Padado

America

Peru

0 10 0 S.

82 0 oW.

5 28 oW.

Patrixfiord -

Europe

Iceland

^5 35 45 N-

24 lo oW.

I 36 40 w.

Pau

Europe

France

43 15 oN-

090 W.

0 0 36 w.

Pavia

Europe

Italy

45 10 59 N-

9 II 30E.

0 36 46 E.

St. Paul's Ifle

Africa

Indian Ocean

38 44 oS.

77 18 oE.

5 9 12E.

St. Paul de Leon

Europe

France

48 41 24 N.

3 58 37 W.

0 15 54 w.

4 0

Pednathias Head

Europe

Sciily Ifles

49 52 2 N.

Pedra Blanca

Afia

Chinefe Sea

22 16 oN.

115 22 57 E.

7 4' 32E.

Pedra Branca

Afia

Straits of Malacca

I 18 oN.

104 31 49 E.

6 5S 7E.

Pedra (Point)

Afia

Ceylon

39 52 oN-

80 27 oE.

5 21 48 E.

Pekin

Afia

China

39 54 47 N.

116 24 51 E.

7 45 39E.

Pellew Ides

Afia

Chinefe Sea

7 IQ oN.

134 40 oE.

8 58 40 E.

Pello

Europe

Finland

66 48 16 N.

23 58 «5E.

I 35 53 E.

Pera (Pulo)

Afia

Straits of Malacca

. . .

99 8 30 E.

6 36 34 E.

Perigueux

Europe

France

45 II 8N.

0 43 19 E.

0 2 53E.

Perinaldo

Europe

Italy

43 53 20 N.

7 42 45 E-

0 30 51 E.

Permera (Rocks)

Afia

Indian Ocean

13 13 oN.

74 44 oE.

4 58 56E.

Peros Banhos

Afia

Indian Ocean

5 22 oN.

71 53 oE.

4 47 32 E.

Perpetua (Cape)

America

Pacific Ocean

44 4 30 N.

124 14 oW.

8 16 56 W.

Perpignan

Europe

France

42 41 53 N.

2 53 35 E.

0 II 34 E.

Pefaro

Europe

Italy

43 55 I N.

12 S3 21 E.

0 51 33E.

St. Peterfburgh

Europe

Rufiia

59 56 23 N.

30 19 15E.

2 I 17 E.

St, Peter's Fort

America

Martinico -

14 44 0 N.

61 21 16E.

4 5 25 W.

St. Peter's Ifle

America

Atlantic Ocean -

46 46 30 N.

56 17 aW.

3 45 8W.

St. Peter and Paul

Afia

Kamtchatka

53 037N.

158 44 30 E.

10 34 58E.

4 36

Petit Goave

America

Hifpaniola

18 27 oN.

72 45 34 W.

4 51 2W.

Petrofawodfk

Europe

Ruffia

61 47 4N.

34 23 3°E.

2 17 34E.

Pettaw

Europe

Styria

46 26 21 N.

15 59 15E.

I 3 57 E.

Petworth

Europe

England -

50 59 17 N.

0 36 26W.

0 2 26 W.

Pevenfey

Europe

England -

JO 49 12 N.

0 20 J4F.

0 I 21 E.

Philadelphia -

America

Pennfylvania

39 56 54 N-

75 13 45 W.

5 ° 55W.

3 00

Philip (Straits)

Europe

Flanders -

51 16 55 N.

3 45 12 E.

015 I E.

St. Philip's Fort

Europe

Minorca

39 50 46 N.

3 4S 30E.

0 15 14E.

Philipfburg -

Europe

Germany -

49 14 I N.

8 26 34 E.

0 i:^ 46 E.

Philipviile

Europe

Netherlands

50 II 19 N.

4 32 I9E.

0 18 9E.

Pickerfgill's Harbour

Afia

New Zeeland

45 47 27 S.

166 18 9E.

II 5 13E.

10 57

Pickerfgill's Ifle

America

Atlantic Ocean -

54 42 30 S.

36 58 oW.

2 27 52 w.

Pico -

Europe

-\ zores

38 26 52 N.

28 27 40 W.

I S3-5^'^'''-

Pines (Ifle of)

Afia

New Caledonia -

22 38 oS.

167 38 oE.

II 1032 E.

Pifa

Europe

Italy

43 43 7N.

10 22 52 E.

0 41 3 1 E .

Pifcadores

Afia

Pacific Ocean

II 15 oN.

167 20 20 E.

II 9 21 E.

fN.E.Pt.

America

Well Indies

20 31 oN.

69 ^^ oW

4 38 12W.

Plate- Rack 4 S. Point

America

Well Indies

20 13 35 N.

69 37 45 W

438 31W.

tN.W. Pt.

America

Weft Indies

20 30 oN.

70 4 30 W

4 40 18W.

Plymouth

Europe

England -

50 22 30 N.

4 12 45W

0 16 51 W.

6 0

i

\

11

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

f

Latitude.

Lonj.
In Degrees.

ritude
j In Time.

H.W.

0 ( //

0 / //

H. M. S.

II. .M.

Poitiers

Europe

France

46 34 50 N

a 20 48 E.

0 1 25E.

Pollingen

Europe

Germany -

47 48 17 N

II 7 30E.

0 44 30 E.

Pondicherry -

Afia

India

II 55 41 N

79 51 30E.

5 19 26E.

Ponoi

Europe

Lapland -

67 4 30N

41 7 45 E.

2 44 31 E.

Pontoife

Europe

France

49 3 2 N.

2 5 37E.

0 8 22E.

Pool

Europe

England -

50 42 50 N.

I 58 55 W.

0 7 56 W.

Poolytopu

Afia

India

8 8 oN.

77 15 45 E.

5 9 3E.

Popayan

America

Neiv Granada -

2 27 30N.

76 16 15 W.

5 5 5W.

Port au Prince

America

Hifpaniola

18 33 42 N.

72 27 33 W.

4 49 50'^^-

Portland (Point)

Europe

England -

50 31 0 N.

2 29 oW.

0 9 56W.

Portland (Ide)

Europe

North Sea

63 22 oN.

18 54 oW.

1 15 36W.

Portland (Ille)

Afia

Pacific Ocean

39 24 40S.

177 51 45 E.

II 51 27E.

Porto

Europe

Italy

41 46 44 N.

12 14 loW.

0 48 57 W.

Porto Bcllo -

America

Me.\ico

9 33 30N.

79 44 15 W.

5 1857W.

Porto Novo -

Afia

India

II 30 oN.

79 45 30 E.

5 19 2E.

Porto Praya

Africa

St. Jago -

14 5s 30N.

23 30 17W.

I 34 iW.

I! 0

Porto Rica {N:5;;;-.

America
America

Weft Indies
Weft Indies

18 29 oN.
18 31 30N.

6^ 51 25 W.

67 18 oW.

4 23 26 W.
4 29 12W.

Porto Sanao(Ifle) -

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

33 5 35 N.

1 16 14 51 W.

I 459W.

Port Paix

America

Hifpaniola

19 ^6 30 N.

j ■ 72 58 oW.

4 51 52 W.

Port Praflin -

Afia

New Britain

4 49 27 S.

153 6 30E.

10 12 26E.

Port Royal -

America

.Jamaica

18 0 oN.

76 44 45 W.

5 6 59 W.

Port Royal -

America

Martihico -

14 35 55'^-

61 9 oW.

4 4 36 W.

Portfmouth Town

Europe

England -

50 47 27 N.

X 5 57 W.

0 4 24 M^

M 15

Portfmouth Academy

Europe

Englan^ -

50 48 zN.

I 6 18W.

0 4 25 W.

Portfmouth -

America

New England -

43 4 15 N-

70 ^ 15 W.

4 42 53 W.

Pofen

Europe

Poland

52 26 oN.

i5 0 15E.

I 0 I E.

Prague

Europe

Bohemia -

50 S3 4N.

14 25 15E.

0 57 41 E.

p , fN.E. Point]
Praters | y_^ p^._^^|

Afia

Chinefe Sea <

20 57 30N.
20 42 oN.

116 57 30 E.
116 40 oE.

7 47 50E,
7 46 40 E.

Praule

Europe

England -

^o 14 oN.

3 49 15 W.

0 15 17 W

Preparis (Ifle)

Afia

Bay of Bengal -

14 48 oN.

93 34 oE.

6 14 16E.

Prelturgh

Europe

Hungary -

48 8 7 N.

17 10 30E.

I 8 42E.

Prince's Ifland

Afia

Straits of Sunda

6 35 loS.

105 14 20E.

7 0 57 E.

Prince's Idand

Africa

Atlantic Ocean

I 37 oN.

7 40' oE.

I 30 40E.

Prince of Wales's Fort

America

New Wales

58 47 32 N.

94 13 55^^-

6 16 56 W.

7 20

Prince of Wales's Cape

America

Beering's Straits

65 4 J 30 N. :

168 17 30 W.

u 13 10 W.

P. W. Henry's Ifle -

America

Pacific Ocean

19 0 oN.

141 22 oW.

9 25 28W.

Providence

America

New England -

41 50 41 N.

71 22 oW.

4 43 28 W.

Pudyona

Afia

New Caledonia -

20 18 oS.

164 41 14E.

10 58 45 E.

6 30

Pyleftaart's liland -

Afia

Pacific Ocean

22 23 30 N.;

175 49 30 W.

II 43 18 W.

Quebec

America

Canada

46 48 38 N.

71 5 2qW.

4 44 22 W.

7 30

Quibo (Ide)

America

Pacific Ocean

7 27 oN.

82 10 oW.

5 28 40 W.

3 30

Quilloan

Afia

India

8 52 30 N. i

-76 37 30 E.

5 6 30E.

Quimper

Europe

France

47 58 29N.I

4 6 oW.

0 16 24 W.

St. Quinton -

Europe

France

49 50 51 N. 1

a 17 23 E.

0 15 loE.

Quiros (Cape)

Afia

New Hebrides -

14 56 8S. 1

167 20 oE.

ri 9 20E.

Quito

America

Peru

0 13 27 S.

78 10 15 w.

5 12 41 W.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Place*.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coall, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longi
In Degrees.

tude

In Time.

H. W.

c / (/

0 / II

H.

M. S.

H. M.

Race (Cape)

t^ merica

Newfoundland -

46 40 oN.

53 3 30 W.

3

32 I4W.

Rakah (Ancient)

Afia

Mefopotamia

36 I oN.

38 50 oE.

2

35 20 E.

Ran:ihead

Europe

England -

50 18 24N.

4 17 30W.

0

J7 loE.

Rainfii;ate

Europe

England -

51 19 31N.

I 24 41 E.

0

5 39 E.

Ranai' (ine)

America

Sandwich Iflcs -

20 46 30N.

156 55 30 W.

10

27 42 W.

Randcrs

Europe

Denmark. -

;6 27 48 N.

10 3 27 E.

0

40 14E.

Ratifbon

Europe

Germany -

49 0 0 N.

12 6 25 E.

0

48 26 E.

Ravenna

Europe

Italy

44 25 5N.

12 10 36E.

0

48 42 E.

Recanati

Europe

Italy

43 25 44 N.

13 3. 8E.

0

54 5E-

Recif

America

Brafil

8 10 oN.

S5 35 oW.

2

22 20 W.

Reculver

Europe

England -

ji 22 47 N.

I II )OE.

0

4 47 E.

Red- Buoy

Europe

Mouth of the Elbe

53 39 oN.

Refuge (Port)

Afia

Bligh'slllands -

18 38 30 S.

173 56 oW.

II

31 44 W.

Rciklanefs (Cape)

Europe

Iceland -

63 55 oN.

2 2 47 30 W.

I

31 loW.

Reiines

Europe

France

48 6 50 N.

1 41 30 w.

0

6 46 W.

Refolution Bay

America

Marquefas

9 55 30^-

139 8 40 W.

9

16 35 W.

2 30

Refolution (I do)

America

Hudl'on's Straits

61 29 oN.

6,- 16 oW.

4

21 4W.

Refolution (lOe)

America

Pacific Ocean

17 23 30 S.

141 45 oW.

9

27 oW.

Refolution (Port)

Afia

Taima

19 32 25 S.

169 41 5 E.

II

18 44E.

Revel

E urope

Livonia

59 26 22 N.

24 39 15 E.

I

38 37 E.

Rhe (Lights)

Europe

France

^6 14 49N.

I S3 4°W.

0

6 ijW.

3 0

Rlieinis

Europe

France

49 15 16N.

4 I 4SE.

0

16 7E.

Rhodes

Europe

France

44 21 oN.

2 34 17E.

0

10 17E.

Riche (Point)

America -

Newfoundland -

50 40 loN.

57 23 oW.

3

49 32W.

Richmond (Obfer.)

Europe

England -

51 28 , 8N.

0 18 42 W.

0

I 15 W.

Rieux

Europe

France

43 15 23 N-

I 12 oE.

0

4 48 E.

Riez

Europe

France

43 4!^ 57 N.

6 5 6E.

0

24 20 E.

Riga - -

Europe

Livonia

56 56 24N.

24 0 15 E.

I

36 lE.

Rimini

Europe

Italy

44 3 43N.

12 32 36E.

0

50 10 E.

Ringfted

Europe

Denmark -

59 26 51 N.

11 47 55 E.

0

47 12E.

Ringrwooil

Europe

England -

50 50 58 N.

I 47 16 W.

0

7 9W.

Rio Janeiro -

America

Brafil

22 54 joN.

43 10 45' W.

2

52 43 W.

2 5

Ripa Traiifone

Europe

Italy

43 0 24 N.

13 44 30E.

0

54 58E.

Rochelle - - -

Ei:iope

France

4<J 9 33 N.

I 9 2 W.

0

4 36 W.

3 45

Rochfort

Europe

France

45 56 loN.

0 57 49 W.

0

3 51 W.

4 '5

Rodofto

Europe

Turkey

40 58 24 N.

27 25 16E.

I

49 41 E.

Rodrigues (Ifle)

A frica

Indian Ocean

19 40 40 S.

63 9 15 E.

4

12 37E.

Roeflulde

Europe

Denmark -

55 38 25 N.

12 5 27E.

0

48 22E.

Romaine Key

America

Bahama Channel

23 I 30 N.

77 39 45 ^^^-

5

10 39 W.

Rome (St. Peter's) -

Europe

Italy

41 53 54 N.

12 27 41 E.

0

49 51E.

Romney (New)

Europe

England -

5° 59 7N-

0 56 22 E.

0

3 45 E.

Romney (Old)

Europe

England

50 59 25 N.

0 ^s 50 E.

0

3 35 E-

.

Ronde(Pulo)

Afia

Straits of Malacca

95 13 oE.

6

20 52E.

Rot (Abhey)

Europe

Bavaria

47 59 "N.

12 3 30E.

0

48 14 E.

Rotterdam -

Europe

Holland -

51 56 oN.

4 29 oE.

0

17 56E.

3 °

Rotterdam (Ifle)

Afia

Friendly Iflee

20 15' 22 S.

174 44 48E.

11

38 59E.

6 0

Rouen

Europe

France

49 26 27 N.

1 5 30E.

0

4 22 E.

1 '5

Round Ifland

America

Beering's Straits

58 56 30 N.

159 53 30 W.

10

39 34 W.

Roxant (Cape)

Europe

Portugal -

38 45 26 N.

9 35 50 W.

0

58 23 w.

Royan

Europe

France

45 37 28 N.

I 1 32W.

0

4 6W.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Lon^
In Degrees.

itude

In Time.

H.W.

0 ; /;

/ //

1

H. M. S.

H. M.

Ruttunpour -

Afia

B.-r.-.r

22 16 oN.

82 36 oE.

5 30 24E.

Rypen

Europe

Denmark -

SS 19 57 N.

8 47 5E.

OJ5 8E.

Saba (ine) -

America

Caribbean Sea -

17 39 30N.

63 17 15 W.

4 ^3 9W.

Sable (Cape)

America

Nova Scotia

43 23 43 N.

65 39 15 W.

4 22 37 W.

Sacrifice ( Rocks) . -

Afia

Malabar Coafl: -

II 28 oN.

75 31 5E.

5 2 4E.

Saddle-back (Ifles) -

America

Hudfon's Straits

62 7 oN.

68 13 oW.

4 32 5»W.

Saeby

Europe

Denmark -

57 20 2N.

10 32 54 E.

0 42 12E.

Sagan

Europe

Silefia

51 42 12N.

15 22 15E.

I I 29E.

Saiiites

Europe

France

45 44 46 N.

0 37 45 W.

0 2 31 \V.

Saintes( Rocks) W. end

Europe

Bay of Bifcay -

4S 5 sN.

5 5 oW.

0 20 20 w.

Saiiite-Croix -

Europe

France

48 0 35 N.

7 23 55^-

0 29 36E.

Salatan (Point)

Afia

Borneo

4 13 45^-

114 29 oE.

7 37 56E.

Salee (New) -

Africa

Morocco -

34 5 oN.

6 43 30 W.

0 26 54 w.

Salifbury

Europe

England -

51 3 49N-

I 47 oW.

0 7 8W.

Salifbui-v flfle)

America

Hudfon's Bay -

63 29 oN.

76 47 oW.

5 7 8W.

Sall(ine)' -

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

16 38 15N.

22 56 15 W.

I 31 45 W.

Salonica

Europe

Turkey

40 41 loN.

23 8 oE.

I 32 32E.

Salvages (Ifles)

A frica

Atlantic Ocean -

30 3 27 N.

16 6 30 W.

I 4 26 \v.

Samana

America

Hiipaniola

19 15 40 N.

69 16 30 W.

4 37 6W.

Samara

Europe

Ruflia

4S 39 35 N-

35 20 oE.

2 2T 20E.

Sambelong (Great) -

Afia

Bengal Bay

7 10 oN.

93 40 oE.

■6 14 40E.

Samganooda -

America

Oonalafl';a -

53 54 29N.

166 22 15 W.

11 5 29 w.

Sancta Cruz -

Africa

Teneriffe -

28 29 4N.

16 22 30 W.

I 5 30 W.

Sanfta Cruz -

Africa

Grand Canary -

28 10 37N.

15 47 qW.

I 3 8W.

Sandovvn Caftle

Europe

England -

51 14 iSN.

I 23 59 E.

0 5 36E.

Handfoe

Europe

Lapland -

68 56 15 N.

16 57 oE.

I 7 48E.

Sandwich

Europe

England -

51 16 30N.

I 20 15E.

0 5 21E,

Sandwich Bay

America

South Georgia -

54 42 oS.

36 12 oW.

2 24 48 W.

Sandwich (Cape)

Afia

New Holland -

18 17 II S.

146 I 13 E.

9 44 5E-

Sandwich (Cape)

Afia

Mallicola -

16 28 oS.

167 59 oE.

II II 56E.

Sandwich Harbour -

Afia

Mallicoia -

16 25 20S.

167 53 oE.

II II 32E.

Sandwich Ille

Afia

New Hebrides -

17 41 oS.

168 33 oE.

II 14 12 E.

Sandy Bay -

America

Nova Scotia

43 31 9S.

6s 39 isW.

4 22 37 w.

Sandy Cape -

Afia

New Holland -

24 45 48 S.

153 12 22 E.

10 12 49E.

Sandy-Hook Lights -

America

New Jerfey

44 26 30 N.

74 6 42 W.

4 56 27 W.

Sapata (Pulo)

Afia

Chinefe Sea

10 2 40N.

109 12 51 E.

7 16 51 E.

Saratow

Enrope

Ruffia

51 31 28N.

46 0 0 E.

3 4 0 E.

Sarlat

Europe

France

44 53 20 N.

I 12 49E.

0 4 51E.

Sarum (Old)

Europe

England -

5' 5 45N-

I 47 28 W.

0 7 loW.

Saunder's (Cape)

Afia

New Zeeland

45 57 45 S-

170 16 oE.

II 21 4E.

Saunder's (Cape)

America

South Georgia -

54 6 30 S.

36 57 30 W.

2 27 50 W.

Saunder's Ifle

America

Sandwich Land -

5S 0 oS.

26 53 oW.

I 47 52 W.

Savage Ifle -

Afia

Pacific Ocean

19 2 15S.

169 30 30 W.

11 18 2W.

Savanna (Lights)

America

Georgia -

32 0 45N.

80 56 oW.

5 23 44 W.

Schwezingen

Europe

Germany -

49 23 4N.

8 26 15E.

° 33 45 E-

Scilly Li^jhts

Europe

St. Geo. Chan. -

49 53 47 N.

6 29 30 W.

0 25 58 W.

ScoltHead -

Europe

England -

52 59 40 N.

0 44 1 1 E.

0 2 57 w.

6 20

Seballian (Cape St.) -

Africa

Madagafcar

12 30 oS.

46 25 oE.

3 5 4oE-

Sedan
Scez

Europe

France

49 42 29 N.

4 57 3<5E.

0 19 50E.

Europe

France

48 36 23N.

0 10 44E.

- 0 0 43E.

1

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Long
In Degrees.

tude

In Time.

H. W.

n / //

0 1 II

II. M. .s.

II. M.

Selinginflc

Afia

Siberia

ji 6 6N.

106 40 45 E.

7 6 43E.

Sclfea

Europe

England -

5° 43 5oN-

0 47 54W.

0 ^ 12W.

Senegal

Africa

Negroland

15 53 oN-

16 31 30 W .

I 6 6W.

10 30

Senez

Europe

France

43 54 40N.

6 24 5E.

0 25 36E.

Senlis

Europe

France

49 12 28 N.

. 2 35 °E-

0 10 20E.

Senones

Europe

France

48 23 7N.

6 57 30 E.

0 27 50E.

Sens

Europe

France

48 II 56 N.

3 17 21 E.

0 13 9E.

Serdze Kamen

Afia

Beering's Straits

67 3 oN.

171 54 30W.

II 27 38W.

Seringapatam

Afla

My fore

12 31 45N.

76 46 45 E.

5 7 7E.

Seven Iflands

Afia

Chinefe Sea

I 5 16S.

105 24 4E.

7 I 36E.

Severndroog -

Afia

India

17 47 3o"N.

73 9 °E.

4 52 3<5E.

Sevaflopolis -

Europe

Crimea

44 41 30 N-

33 35 °E.

2 14 20E.

Seychelles (Ifle)

Afia

Almirantes

4 35 o^-

55 35 °E-

3 42 20E.

5 30

Shepherd's Ifles

Afia

New Hebrides -

i6 58 oS.

168 42 oE.

II 14 28E.

Shirburn Caftle

Europe

England -

51 39 22N.

0 58 ijW.

0 3 53W.

Shoalnefs

America

Beering's Straits

59 37 oN.

162 18 30W.

10 49 14W.

Shoreham

Europe

England -

50 50 7N.

0 16 19 W.

0 I 5W.

9 30

Siam

Afia

India

14 18 oN.

100 50 oE.

6 43 20E.

Siao Ifle

Afia

Chinefe Sea

2 49 0 N.

125 3 45 E.

8 20 15E.

Sidney Cove -

Afia

Port Jackfon

33 51 7S.

151 13 30E.

10 4 y4E.

Sienna

Europe

Italy

43 22- oN.

II 10 oE.

0 44 40E.

Sierra Leone (Cape) -

Africa

Sierra Leone

8 29 30N.

13 9 17W.

0 52 37W.

Sifran

Europe

Ruffia

53 9 53 N.

48 24 45 E.

3 13 39E.

Si-nghan-fu -

Afia

China

34 16 30N.

108 43 45 E.

7 14 55E-

Sinigaglia

Europe

Italy

43 43 16N.

13 11 30E.

0 52 46E.

Sifteron

Europe

France

44 II 51 N.

5 s<^ 18 E.

0 23 45E.

Skagen (Lights)

Europe

Denmark -

57 43 44N.

10 37 45E.

0 42 31E.

Skirmifh Bay

Afia

Chatham Ifland -

43 49 3S-

176 S5 oE.

II 46 20E.

Sledge Ifland

America

Beering's Straits

64 30 oN.

166 8 oE.

11 4 32E.

Sluys

Europe

Holland -

51 18 35N.

3 22 54E.

0 13 32E.

Smeinogorfli -

Afia

Siberia

51 9 27N.

82 8 oE.

5 28 32E.

Smokey Cape

Afia

New Holland -

30 54 18S.

153 I 4°E.

10 12 7E.

Smyrna

Afia

Natolia

38 28 7N.

27 6 3^^ E.

I 48 26E.

Snoefell (Mount)

Europe

Iceland

64 52 20 N.

.23 54 oW.

I 35 36W.

Socono (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean -

18 48 oN.

no 10 oW.

7 20 40 W.

Soiffons

Europe

France

49 22 52 N.

3 19 16E.

0 13 17E.

Sombavera (Ifles)

America

Caribbean Sea

18 38 oN.

63 37 30 W.

4 '4 30 W.

Sonderburg -

Europe

Denmark -

54 54 59 N.

9 48 loE.

0 39 13 E.

Soolo

Afia

Philippines

5 57 oN.

121 15 30E.

8 5 2E.

Southampton

Europe

England -

50 54 oN.

I 23 56 W.

0 5 36W.

South Cape -

Afia

New Zeeland

47 16 50S.

167 20 9E.

II 9 21 E.

South Cape -

Afia

New Holland

43 42 3oS-

146 58 oE.

9 47 52 E.

South Ifland -

Afia

Chinefe Sea

24 22 30N.

141 24 oE.

9 25 36E.

Southern Thule

America

Sandwich Land -

59 34 °S.

27 45 °w.

I 51 oW.

Spartel (Cape)

Africa

Morocco -

35 46 oN.

5 57 12W.

0 23 49 W.

Speaker Bank

Afia

Indian Ocean

4 45 oS.

72 57 oE.

4 51 48E.

Spichel (Cape)

Europe

Portugal -

38 22 15N.

9 20 12 W.

0 ^y 21 W.

Spring-Grove

Europe

England -

51 28 34N.

10 20 2 1 W.

0 I 21 W.

Sproe (Ifle) -

Europe

Great Belt

55 19 56^'-

10 56 45 E.

0 43 47 E.

Stade

Europe

Germany -

53 36 5N-

9 23 15 E-

0 37 33E.

Stalbridge

Europe

England -

50 57 oK.

2 23 30 W.

0 9 34 W.

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of PIacc«.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

1
Latitude.

Longitude

T T^ '■ "^*

H. W.

In Degrees.

in lime.

, , „

0 1 II

H. .M. .s.

a. M.

Start point -

Europe

England -

50 14 20N.

3 44 So^^^-

0 14 58 M''.

Stephen's (Cape)

Afia

New Zeeland

40 56 50 S.

173 5S 30 E.

II 35 54E.

Stephen's (Cape)

Afia

Beering's Straits

63 33 30 N-

162 17 oVV.

10 49 8W.

Stephen's (Hie)

Afia

Co'ok's Straits -

40 3; 26 S.

174 0 22 E.

II 36 I E.

Stephen's (Port)

Afia

New Holland -

32 45 oS.

152 12 oE.

10 8 48 E.

Stickhufen -

Europe

Germany -

53 13 33 N-

7 40 6E.

0 30 40 E.

Stockho ni -

Europe

Sweden

59 20 31 N.

18 3 jiE.

1 12 15 E.

Strabniie

Europe

Ireland

54 49 -9^-

7 25 5W.

0 29 32 W.

Stiafturg

Europe

FraHce

48 34 56N.

7 44 3''>E-

0 30 58 E.

Straumnefs -

Europe

Iceland

65 39 40 N.

24 29 i5W.

I 37 57 W.

Streatham

Europe ' -

England -

51 25 46 N.

0 7 47 W.

0 031 w.

Stromnes

Europe

Orkneys -

58 56 22 N.

3 31 15 W.

0 14 5W.

9 °

Succefs Bay -

America

Terra del Fuego

54 49 45 S-

65 25 oW.

4 21 40 W.

Succefs (Cape)

America

Terra del Fuego

J5 1 oS.

6 J 27 oW.

4 21 48W.

Suez

Africa

Egypt

30 2 oN.

32 28 30 E.

2 9 54E.

Sulphur IHand

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

24 48 oN.

141 20 oE.

9 25 20 E.

Sural

Afia

India

21 II oN.

73 3 34 E.

4 52 10 E.

Swilly Ifland

Afia

New Holland -

43 5S 3°«-

147 7 30E.

9 48 30 E.

Svvinlield

Europe

England -

51 8 48 N.

I II 15E.

0 4 45E.

Tabic Cape -

Afia

New Zcclat d

39 6 40S.

178 2 20E.

II 52 9E.

Table I Hand -

Afia

New Hebrides -

15 3S oS.

167 7 oE.

II 8 2SE.

Tackararee Point

Africa

Gold Coaft

4 46 53 N.

2 27 44 W.

0 951 W.

Taganrok

Afia

Tartary

47 12 40 N.

38 38 45 E.

2 34 35E.

Tahoora

America

Sandwich Ifles -

21 42 30N.

16® 24 30 W.

10 41 38 w.

'

Tahowrooa -

America

Sandwich Ifles -

20 38 oN.

156 36 30 w.

10 26 26 w.

Tambou

Europe

Ruflia

52 43 44 N.

41 45 oE.

2 47 oE.

Tanjore

Afia

India

10 46 30 N.

79 48 26 E.

5 19 14E.

Taniia

Afia _

New Hebrides -

19 32 25S.

169 41 5 E.

II 18 44E.

3 °

Taoukaa Ifle

America

Pacific Ocean -

14 30 30S.

145 9 30 W.

9 40 38 W.

Tarapia

Europe

Turkey

41 8 24N.

29 0 28 E.

I 56 2E.

Taraicon

Europe

France

43 48 20N.

4 39 36E.

0 18 38E.

Tarbes

Europe

France

43 13 52N.

0 3 59E.

0 0 16E.

Tafman's Head

Afia

New Holland

43 33 30S.

147 30 30 E.

9 50 2E.

TafTa (IHeJ -

Europe

Sea of Marmara -

40 46 40 N.

24 38 54 E.

1 38 36E.

TafTacoria

Africa

Pal ma Ifle

28 38 oN.

17 58 oAV.

I II 52 w.

Taya (Pulo) -

A fia

Chinefe Sea

0 44 30S.

106 3 I5E-

7 4 13 E.

TLllicherry -

A fia

Malabar Coaft -

II 45- 20N.

75 29 3E-

5 I 56E.

Temoutengis-

Afia

Soloo

5 57 oN-

1 20 53 30E.

8 3 54E.

TenerifFe (Peake)

Africa

Canaries -

28 15 38N.

16 45 33 W.

I 7 2W.

Tentcrden

Europe

England -

?i 4 8N.

0 41 8E.

0 2 45E.

Tercera

Europe

A /.ores

38 39 7N.

27 12 42 W.

I 48 51 W.

Terracina

E u rope

Italy

41 18 14N.

13 13 7E.

0 52 52E.

St. Thadasus-Nofs

Afia

Kamtchatka

62 50 oN.

179 5 gE.

II 56 20E.

Thalpeny Ifle

Afia 1

Lacca-\N.P. -
dives J S.P. -

10 10 30N.
ro 4 oN.

73 49 30 E.
73 4« oE.

4 55 18E.
4 55 12 E.

Tiiiinville

Europe

France

49 21 30 N.

6 10 30 E.

0 24 42 E.

St. Thomas's Ifle

America

Virgin Ifles

iS 21 55 N.

64 51 30W.

4 19 26 W.

St, Thomas'* Ifle

Africa

Atlantic Ocean -

0 19 oN.

6 42 30E.

0 26 50 E.

Thorlev Hall

Europe

England -

51 50 4jN.

0 9 oE.

0 0 36E.

Three Hill Ifland -

Afia

New Hebrides -

.7 4 oS.

i68 35 oE.

II 14 20 E.

1

Vol. XXI.

L O N G 11' U D E.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coaft, Sea, or
Country.

1

Latitude.

Longitude

H. W.

In Degrees.

In 1 mie.

^

O 1 II

II'

II M. .s.

H. M.

Three Kings Ifle

Afia

New Zeeland

34 lo 15 S.

172 25 8E.

11 29 41E.

Three Points (Cape) -

Africa

Gold Goalt

4 40 30 N.

2 43 32 W.

0 10 54 W.

Thrumb Cap

America

Pacific Ocean

18 36 41 S.

'39 '3 45 ^V-

9 16 55 VV.

Thule (Southern)

America

Sandwich Land -

59 34 °S-

27 45 oW.

151 0 W.

Thury

Europe

France - - i

49 21 28 N.

2 18 30E.

0 9 14E.

Tiburon (Cape)

America -

Hifpaniolii

18 19 25N.

74 34 12W.

4 58 17VV.

Tinioam (Pulo)

Alia '-

Gulf of Siam

2 s$ 30 N.

104 24 37 E.

6 57 38 E.

Timor (S.W. Point) -

Alia

India

10 6 52S.

124 4 36E.

8 16 18E.

Timor-Land -

Afia

India

8 3 oS.

132 17 oE.

8 49 8E.

Tinian (Ifle)

Afia

Pacific Ocean

15 0 oN.

145 55 30E.

9 43 42 E.

Tobolflci

Afia

Siberia

58 12 iBN.

68 18 30 E.

4 33 14 E.

Tolaga Bay -

Afia

New Zeeland

38 22 oS.

178 35 54 E.

11 54 24E.

Toledo

Europe

Spain

39 50 oN.

3 20 oW.

0 13 20 W.

Tomfli

Afia

Siberia

56 29 58 N.

84 58 30 E.

5 39 54 E-

Tondern

Europe

Denmark -

54 56 iqN-

. 8 53 17E.

0 35 33E-

Tonga-Tabu (Ifle) -

Afia

Pacific Ocean

21 8 36 S.

175 I 50E.

1 1 40 7E.

6 50

Tongres

Europe

Netherlands

5° 47 -N-

5 27 23 E-

0 21 50 E.

Tonnerre

Europe

France

47 51 8N.

3 58 44E.

0 15 55 E.

1

Toobonai (Ifle)

America

Pacific Ocean

23 25 oS.

149 20 30 W.

9 57 22 W.

Tornea

Europe

Sweden

65 Jo 50 N.

24 14 oE.

1 36 56E.

Tortudas

America [

WeftlE.P. -
IndiesJ VV.P. -

20 0 jjN.
20 5 20 N.

72 42 35 W.

73 1 26W.

4 50 50 w.
' 4 52 6W.

Toul

Europe

France

48 40 32 N.

5 53 18 E.

0 23 33E.

Toulon

Europe

France

43 7 16 N.

5 S5 26E.

0 23 42 E.

Touloufe

Europe

France

43 35 46 N.

I 26 45 E.

0 5 47E.

Tournai

Europe

Netherlands

50 36 57N.

3 33 17 E.

0 13 33 E.

Tours

Europe

France

47 23 46 N.

0 41 32E.

0 2 46E.

Trafalgar

Europe

Spain

36 7 56 N.

6 3 oW.

0 24 45 W.

Traitor's Head

Afia

Erramanga

18 43 30S.

169 20 30 E.

11 1722 E.

Traiiquebar -

Afia

India

10 56 oS.

79 40 3° !'•

5 .8 42E.

Treguier

Europe

France

48 46 54 N.

3 13 49 W.

0 12 55 w.

Treves

Europe

Germany -

49 46 37 N.

6 38 5E.

0 26 32 E.

Trinidada

America

Cuba

21 47 45 N.

80 19 36 W.

5 21 18 W.

Trinidada (Ifle)

America

Atlantic Ocean -

20 30 30 S.

29 33 oW.

I 58 12W.

Trinity Ifland

America

Pacific Ocean

56 3, 'oN.

154 53 oW.

10 19 32W.

Trinkamaly -

Afia

Ceylon

8 32 oN.

81 12 eE.

5 24 48 E.

Tripoli

Africa . -

Barbary -

32 ^T, 40 N.

13 21 7E.

0 53 24 E.

Tritchinopoly

Afia

India

10 49 oN.

78 38 26E.

5 14 34E-

Tropez(St)

Europe

France

4^ 16 8N.

6 38 29 E.

0 26 34E.

Troyes

Europe

France

48 18 5N.

4 4 34E.

0 16 18E.

Tfcherkafici -

Europe

Ruffia

47 13 40N.

39 45 oL\

2 39 oE.

Tfchukotflcoi

Afia

Beering's Straits

64 14 30N.

173 31 oW.

11 34 4W.

Tubingen

Europe

Germany -

48 31 4N.

9 2 29E.

0 36 10 E.

TuUfS

Europe

France

45 16 3N.

I 46 2 E.

0 7 4E.

Turin

Europe

Italy

45 4 hN-

7 40 oE.

0 30 40 E.

Turnagain (Cape)

Afia

New Z.^eland

40 32 30S.

176 49 oE.

II 47 16E.

Turk's Iflef -

America

Wir,dvv. Pafi'ago

21 II oN.

71 15 22 E.

4 45 i'^^'-

Turtle liland

Afia

Pacific Ocean -

19 48 45 s.

177 57 oW.

II 51 48 W.

Two Groups

America

Pacific Ocean

i8 12 36S.

142 II 45 w.

9 28 47 w.

Typa

Afia

China

22 9 20N.

113 43 45 E.

7 34 5S '■-

Tyrnaw

Europe

Hungary -

48 23 30N.

17 34 36E.

I 10 18E.

12

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.

Names of Places.

Continents.

Coafl, Sea, or
Country.

Latitude.

Longitude
In Degrees. In Time.

H. \\\

t II

0 / , ((

H. M. S.

U M.

Ubes (St.) -

Europe

Portugal -

38 22 15N.

8 54 22 W.

0 35 37 w.

Ufa

Europe

Ruffia

54 42 45 N.

55 53 30 E-

3 43 34 E.

Uliateah

America

Pacific Ocean

16 45 oS.

151 31 oW.

10 6 4W.

Ulm

Europe

Germany -

4H 23 45' N.

9 58 51 E.

0 39 55 E.

Umba

Europe

Lapland -

66 39 48 N.

34 14 45 E.

2 16 59E.

Unll

Europe

Shetland -

60 44 0 N.

0 46 oW.

0 3 4W.

Upfal

Europe

Sweden

59 51 50 N.

17 38 9E.

I 10 33 E.

Uralfk

Afia

Tartary

51 II oN.

5' 35 15 E.

3 36 24 E.

Uraniberg

Europe

Denmark -

55 54 17 N.

1 2 53 0 E.

0 50 51 h.

Urbine

Europe

Italy

43 43 36 N.

12 36 50E.

0 50 27 E.

UlTiant Li^'hts

Europe

France

48 28 8 N.

5 3 2lW.

0 20 1 3 W.

Ufolic (Novo)

Europe

Ruffia

59 23 54 N.

56 32 15 E.

3 46 9 E.

Uil-kamenogorfk

Afia

Siberia

49 56 49 N-

82 38 30 E.

5 30 34 E.

Utrecht

Europe

Netherlands

52 5 oN.

5 "9 45E-

0 20 39 E.

Uzes

Europe

France

44 0 45 N.

4 25 2E.

0 17 40 E.

Vabres

Europe

France

43 5^ 27 N.

2 50 16E.

0 II 21 E.

Vaifon

Europe

France

44 14 28 N.

5 3 54E.

0 20 16 E.

Valence

Europe

France

44 55 59 N-

4 53 i°E.

0 19 33 E.

Valenciennes

Europe

France

50 21 27 N.

3 31 40 E.

0 14 7 E.

Valery (St.) fur Som -

Europe

France

50 II 21 N.

I 37 36E.

0 6 30E.

10 0

Valery (St.) en Caup -

Europe

France

49 52 12 N.

0 41 10 E.

0 2 45 E.

9 45

Valparaifo

America

Chili

33 I 29 s.

72 19 15W.

4 49 17 W.

Van Dieman's Road -

Afia

Tonga-Tabu

21 4 15S.

175 6 oW.

II 40 24 W.

7 15

Vannes

Europe

France

47 39 26 N.

2 45 19 W.

0 1 1 I W.

3 45

Vauxe's Tomb

Afia

India

21 4 30 N.

72 48 44 E.

4 51 15 E.

Vence

Europe

France

43 43 "13 N.

7 6 29 E.

0 28 26 E.

Venice

Europe

Italy

45 27 4N.

12 3 15 E.

0 48 13 E.

Venus (Point)

America

Otaheite -

17 29 15 S.

149 30 22 W.

9 58 I W.

10 38

Vera Cruz

America

Mexico

19 9 36 N.

95 3 0 W.

6 20 12W.

Verd (Cape) -

Africa

Negroland

14 47 13 N.

17 33 16W.

I 10 13 W.

Verdun

Europe

France

49 9 24 N.

5 22 41 E.

0 21 31E.

Verona

Europe

Italy

45 26 26 N.

II I oE.

0 44 4E.

VerfaiUes -

Europe

France

48 48 21 N.

2 7 7 I-..

0 8 28E.

Victoria (Fort)

Afia

Malabar Coaft -

17 56 40N.

73 7 54 E.

4 52 32 E.

Vienna (Obfervatory)

Europe

Germany -

48 12 36 N.

16 21 54E.

I 5 28E.

Vitro

Europe

Spain

42 13 20 N.

8 27 45 W.

0 33 51 W.

Villa Franca -

Europe

Italy

43 40 20 N.

7 19 15 E.

0 29 17 E.

St. Vincent's (Cape) -

Europe

Portugal -

37 I oN.

9 2 22 W.

0 36 9W.

St. Vincent's (Ifle) -

America

Caribbean Sea -

13 10 15 N.

61 30 51 W.

4 6 3W.

Vingorla Rocks

Afia

Malabar Coaft -

»5 55 30N.

73 30 oE.

4 54 oE.

Vintimiglia -

Europe

Italy

43 53 20 N.

7 3; 3^E.

0 30 30 E.

Virgin-Gorda(Fort) -

America

Weft Indies

18 18 oN.

64 18 40 W.

4 17 15 W.

Virgin (Cape)

America

Patagonia -

52 23 oS.

67 54 oW.

431 36 W.

10 0

Vifagapatam -

Afia , -

India

1 7 42 0 N.

83 23 52 E.

5 33 35 E.

Viviers

Europe

France

44 28 57 N.

4 40 45 E.

0 18 43 E.

Wakefield -

Europe

England -

53 4' oN.

1 55 oW.

0 6 20 W.

Wales (P. of) Cape -

America

Beeringr's Straits

65 45 30 N.

168 "17 30 w.

II 13 10 W.

Wales (P. of) Fort -

America

New Wales

58 47 32 N.

94 13 48 W.

6 16 55 W.

7 20

Wales (P. of) [fles -

America

Pacific Ocean

14 58 oS.

147 48 oW.

951 1 2 W.

3C 3

LONGITUDE.

A Table of the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places.'

Names of Places.

1

Continents.

Coad, Sea, or
Country.

Latiti

de.

Longitude tt •tjf
In Degree*. In Time.

.-1 i

I,

. '^ i 1'

H. M. S. H. M. 1

Wallis's Ille -

Alia

Pacific Ocean

13 '7

oS.

176 45 cW.

II 47 oW.

Walvifch B3y_

.Africa

CaftVaria -

22 j-4

yiS.

14 40 0 E.

0 58 40 E.

Wan(tead -

F.urope - I'.ngland - - |

51 .U

20 N.

0 2 33 E.

0 0 loE.

%Varjfdcn

F-urope

Hungary -

46 18

18 N.

16 25 51 E.

I 5 43 E.

Wardhus

Europe

Lapl/.iid

70 22

36 N.

.^i 6 oE.

2 4 24E.

Warfaw

Europe

Poland

52 14

28 N.

2 1 I 5 E.

I 24 4E.

Warwick (Cape)

America

Hudfon's Straits

61 29

oN.

6,- 16 oW.

4 21 4W.

Wateoo

America

Pacific Ocean

20 I

joS.

158 14 30 W.

10 32 58 w.

Watlingsine(W.P.)

America

Bahamas -

23 5'>

oN.

74 42 32 W.

4 58 50 w.

Weft Cape -

Alia

New Zeeland

45 56

15 S.

166 6 15 E.

II 4 25E.

Wellman (Ifies)

Europe

Northern Ocean

6; 20

30 N.

20 27 45 E.

I 21 51 E.

Whitfunday Cape

America

Cook's River

5« 15

oN.

152 36 oW.

10 10 24 W.

Whitfiin I Hand

America

Pacific Ocean

19 26

oS.

138 12 oW;

9 12 48 W.

Whitfuntide Ide

Alia

Pacific Ocean

15 44

20 S.

168 20 15 E.

II 13 21 E.

Whytootachee

America

Pacific Ocean

18 51

40 S.

159 39 45 W.

10 38 39 W.

Wiborg

Europe

North Jutland -

57 27

iiN.

<) 26 15 E.

0 37 45 W.

Wicklow -

Europe

Ireland

52 59

oN.

6 I oW.

0 24 4W.

7 30

Wi!dL(haiifcn

Europe

Germany -

52 54

26 N.

8 27 39 E.

0 33 51 E.

William (Fort)

Afia

Bengal

22 34

oN.

88 27 56 E.

5 53 52 E.

Willis's ine -

A-merica

St. Georgia

54 0

oS.

38 29 40 W.

2 33 59 W.

Wilna

Europe

Poland

54 4'

oN.

25 14 5 E-

I 40 59 w.

Winchelfea -

Europe

England -

5° >3

28 N.

0 42 3 1 E.

0 2 50 E.

Windfor

Europe

England -

51 29

oN.

0 35 28 W.

0 2 2 3 W.

WittembiirfT -

Europe

Germany -

51 53

oN.

12 42 45 E.

0 50 51 E.

Woahoo (file)

America

Sandwich Ifles -

21 40 joN.

158 I 30 W.

1032 6 W.-

Wolugda

Europe

Ruffia

59 13

33 N.

40 10 0 E.

2 40 40 E.

Woldepholme Cape -

America

Hudfon's Straits

62 39

oN.

77 48 oW.

5 II :2W.

Woody Point

America

Pacific Ocean

50 0

30 N.

127 57 oW.

8 31 A4W.

Worcefter -

Europe

England -

52 9

30 N.

2 0 15 W.

0 8 ■ I W.

Woronefch -

Europe

Ruflia

51 40

30 N.

39 20 45 E.

2 37 23 E.

WoOak

Europe

Ruffia

61 I J

oN.

Wrotham

Europe

England -

51 18

5.tN.

0 19 12 E.

0 I 17 E.

Wurtzbiirg -

Europe

Germany -

49 45

6N.

9 54 45 E.

0 39 39 E.

Xamhay

Afia

China

31 16

oN.

121 31 45 E.

8 6 7E.

Yeu(ined')-

Europe

France

46 42

26 N.

2 19 50 W.

0 9 19 W.

Ylo - -

America

Peru

17 36

15 S.

71 1^ oVv'.

4 44 52 W.

York

Europe

England -

53 57

45 N.

I 6 4W.

c 4 24 W.

York Cape -

Afia

New Holland

10 38

20 S.

142 12 20 E.

9 28 49 E.

York Fort -

America

New Wales

57 I

48 N.

92 17 It W.

6 9 9W.

9 10

York (Dukeof)Iile -

Afia

Pacific Ocean

8 29

oS.

172 22 oW.

II 29 28 W.

York Minder

America

Terra del Fucgo -

55 26

20 S.

70 8 oW.

4 40 32 W.

York (New)

America

Jerl'ey

4a 43

oN.

74 9 0 W.

4 56 36 w.

9 0 1

Young (Cape)

Afia

Chatham Ifland -

43 48

oN.

176 58 oW.

II 47 j2 W.

■ Ypres

• Europe

Netherlands

50 51

10 N.

2 52 49 E.

0 II 31 E.

Zachu (Rocks)

America -

Porto Rico

18 24

oN.

67 45 30 W.

431 2W.

Zaricin

Europe

Ruffia

48 42

20 N.

44 27 30 e;

2 57 50 E.

Ziiaym

Europe

Germany -

48 51

.5N.

16 I 42 E.

I 4 7E.

LONGITUDE.

A Catalogue of the LongiluJes and Latitudes of Six Hundred fixed Stars, with the Angle of Pofition

of each Star, adapted to the Beginning of 1800.

N. B. This Catalogue is taken from the ConnoifTance des Temps I'An. XII. and was calculated from the

French Annual Catalogue, by M. Chabrol.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Pofition.

Annual
Variations.

.S. D. M. .S.

D. .M. s.

D. M. s.

.s.

y Pej^afi

0 6 22 9

12 35 47 N.

24 4 44

- 0.26

. Ceti

II 28 7 10

10 1 13 S.

23 40 Si

— C.b2

X CaiTiopes

I 9 49 58

52 I J 38 N.

40 2 1 56

- 4.01

1^ CadlopeaE;

I 2 17 32

44 A'- M N-

n 49 ii

- 3 73

■ Andromeda -

0 18 9 41

23 I 20 N.

25 25 55

— 2.77

I Andromedx -

0 19 ^ ii

24 20 54 N.

25 42 2

- 2.87

a CaiTiopex

I ; 0 36

46 36 27 N.

35 5 40

- 4-49

/? Ceti

II 29 46 3

20 46 54 S.

24 55 15

- 3-C9

(j" Andromeda -

0 17 48 12

17 36 45 N.

24 21 26

- 3-48

■n CafTiopcx

I 7 2j 14

47 3 8N.

35 13 39

- 5.88

I Pifcium

0 I I 21 9

2 10 30 N.

23 8 15

- lis

35 V Andromed* -

0 26 22 15

32 32 ~^% N.

27 45 7

- 440

y CaiTiopes

I II 9 26

48 47 4i N.

36 22 15

- 7.68

37 f. Andromeda -

0 26 23 8

29 38 52 N.

26 41 13

- 4-99

Pehris

2 25 46 14

66 4 39 N.

73 2 22

- 147-57

s Pifcium

0 14 44 II

I 4 57 N.

22 49 14

- 4-58

>, Ceti

° 8 57 35

16 6 40 S.

23 38 36

- S'^S

/S Andromedte -

0 27 37 5

25 56 52 N.

25 22 5

— 6.14

& Calliopes

I 9 0 2J

43 6 38 N.

3' 50 9

- 8.68

f Pifcium

0 17 4 44

0 12 52 S.

22 31 38

- 5-49

46 Andromedx -

' 5 4 52

33 48 ^0 N.

27 10 27

- 8.51

I CafSopex

I 15 8 12

46 23 34 N.

33 J J 33

— 12.21

6 Ceti

0 13 26 12

15 45 58 S.

23 6 8

- 6.43

48 Aiidromedas -

1602

33 18 9 N.

26 47 9

- 9.08

49 1 Af.dromedx -

I 7 20 2

34 32 17 N.

27 6 3

- 9-^3

n Piicium

0 24 I 28

5 22 5 N.

22 2 48

- 7-13

1: Pifcium

0 24 7 39

I 53 2 N.

21 44 18

- 7-52

V Pifcium

0 22 43 49

4 42 19 S.

21 37 II

- 7-76

tp Andromedx -

I II 48 48

36 49 58N.

27 17 38

- 11.9S

1 10 0 Pifcium

0 24 56 44

1 37 59 S.

21 23 iO

- S.13

52 T Ccti

0 i; y 27

24 54 15 S.

23 42 17

- 8.41

! Caffiopex

1 21 59 9

47 31 37 N.

32 17 45

- 18.+,-

if Ccti

0 19 9 13

20 20 33 S.

22 33 32

- 8.75

a Tri. Bor.

I 4 4 47

16 47 52 N.

22 3 54

- 9-79

7 Arietis

I 0 23 3j-

7 9 26 N.

21 12 40

- 9.12

/S Arietis

I I 10 39

8 28 50 N.

21 13 59

- 9-29

50 / CafTiopex

2 0 46 51

54 21 54 N.

37 38 54

- 28. 21

■)- Andromedx -

I II 26 28

27 47 22 N.

23 26 10

- 12.48

a. Pifcium

0 26 34 47

9 4 28 S.

20 52 22

- 9'.?8

u Arietis

I 4 51 58

9 57 42 N.

20 42 44

- 1-49

/S Tri. Bor.

I 9 33 36

20 34 3 N.

21 44 39

— 11.86

V Tri. Bor.

I 10 43 51

18 56 I N.

21 4 I

- 12.41

0 Ceti

0 23 43 45

15 56 13 S.

20 29 13

— 10.72

3, n Caffiopea? H.

I 29 27 I

48 57 21 N.

30 29 39

- 2747

J Ceti

0 26 55: I

25 "5 5 S-

21 23 20

- 11.51

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Pofition.

Annual
Variations.

S. D. M. s.

D. M. S.

D. M. -s.

s.

1' Ceti

I 4 4° 25

5 52 9 S.

19 17 26

— 1 1 .40

<7 Ceti

0 27 18 27

28 32 13 s.

21 3<^ 43

— 12.14

i Ceti

1 4 46 27

14 28 30 S.

19 5 35

- 12.13

E Ceti

I 0 32 6

26 0 2 S.

20 35 1 1

- 12.48

6 Peri'ei

I 21 51 Si

31 36 25 N.

21 43 37

— 18.40

35 .Vnetis

I 14 8 47

n 17 44 N.

18 40 44

- 13-79

y Cet,

1 6 38 51

12 0 25 S.

18 ,8 56

- 12-39

f. Ceti

I 9 7 56

5 34 40 S.

18 14 17

- 12-63

IT ' Ceti

I 0 57 17

28 15 37 S.

20 40 29

— 12.92

I T Eridani

0 29 14 19

32 44 7,s S.

21 37 10

- 13-32

^9 Arietis

I 15 34 22

12 28 22 N.

18 28 ss

- 14-32

-fl Perfei H. -

I 25 55 6

37 27 34 N.

22 ss 40

— 22.01

1 6 P' Perfei

I 19 2 25

20 55 58 N.

19 12 23

— 16.04

41 Arietis

I 15 24 47

10 26 19 N.

i8 II 23

- 14-23

T Perfei

I 25 7 41

34 21 6 N.

21 40 15

- 20.88

2 t' Eiidani

0 29 49 53

35 31 55 -•

21 50 49

— 14.00

21 Perfei

I 18 23 12

14 25 30 N.

17 S9 36

- '5-43

22 ^ Perfei

I 21 7 0

21 42 45 N.

18 43 22

- 17-03

>i Eridani

I 5 56 6

24 ^A 58 S.

19 5 21

- 13-50

X Ceti

I 12 17 57

7 48 10 S.

17 18 27

- 13-59

y Perfei

I 27 14 17

34 30 30 N.

20 yo 13

- 22.36

a Ceti

I 11 31 32

12 iS 4S 3.

17 22 28

— 13.66

25 J Perfei

I 22 7 7

20 33 40 N.

18 5 28

- i7-3<5

II Eridani

I I 42 52

38 57 40 S.

21 5c 51

— 15.10

10 f Eridani

I 8 24 35

23 55 35 S-

18 23 7

- 13-95

/3 Perfei

1 23 22 St

2? 2.f 22 N.

18 6 41

- 18-39

♦ X Perfei

I 25 0 40

26 2 17 N.

18 32 12

- 19.41

^ Arietis

I 18 3 9

I 48 26 N.

16 20 49

- 14-97

a Fornacis

1 I 45 25

44 43 5' S.

22 57 41

- i6-55

'( Eridani

III 1 36

25 56 29 S.

"7 44 13

- 14-73

« Perfei

I 29 17 39

30 6 19 N.

18 6 28

— 22.56

16 Eridani

I 7 '7 55:

38 3' 23 S.

20 3 1

— 16.01

97 >c Ceti

. 1 16 3 1

14 17 12 S.

16 3 55

- 14.81

2 Giraf. H. -

2 3 47 44

39 3° 25 N.

20 6 8

— 29. iS

0 T'duri

I i8 22 26

9 21 I S.

15 3° '9

- 15-15

4 Giraf. H. -

2 2 13 12

35 II 41 N.

18 45 22

— 26.05

2 1 Tauri

I 19 6 57

8 48 54 S.

15 18 8

- 15-31

35 or Perfei

I 29 49 17

28 1 20 N.

17 9 57

- 22.31

J f Tauri

I 20 47 51

5 26 5 S.

14 55 29

- 15.68

f7 Eridani

I 16 -2 46

23 21 23 s.

16 7 43

- 15-45

37 4. Perfei

2 0 57 29

27 56 56 N.

16 37 53

- 22.89

( Eridani ,

I 15 25 54

27 45 2 S.

16 29 31

- 15-77

19 Eridani

I II 23 48

39 27 17 S.

18 50 14

- 16.86

10 Tauri"

I 19 10 37

18 25 48 S.

15 5 21

. - 15-70

% Perfei

2 2 0 51

27 16 S3 N.

15 56 37

- 23-24

41 V Perfei

2 I 2 lO

23 7 45 N.

15 I 25

1

— 21.46

d Eridani

I 18 3 15

28 44 15 S.

15 42 1.3

- i6-34

r, Pleiadum

I 27 12 1

4 I 54 N.

13 36 8

- 17-63

26 TT Eridani

I 18 9 29

31 8 22 S.

15 48 11

— 16.63

27 Eridani

I H 34 44

41 52 52 s.

18 3 57

- 17.82

s

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Pofition.

Annual
Variations.

S. D. M. s.

D. M. S.

D. M. s.

s.

>- Perfei

2 0 19 59

u 18 37 N.

13 19 59

- 19.27

46 -

2 4 25 21

26 50 I N.

H 40 37

- 24.28

g Eridani

I 8 56 rfi

54 19 28 S.

22 4,- 21

— 20.60

i Perfei

2 2 53 18

'9 5 33 N.

13 35 I'

— 21.50

33 Eridani

I 16 3 28

43 39 56 S.

17 47 0

— 18.40

y Eridani

I 21 3 ,-0

33 12 55 S.

14 57 7

- 17-34

X Tauri

I 37 50 28

7 58 55 S.

12 30 38

- 17-23

36 i Eridani

I 18 9 52

43 29 27 S.

16 58 58

- 18.63

47 X Perlei

2 6 57 45

28 51 31 N.

13 58 4

— 26.27

38 V Tauri

I 27 7 23

14 28 16 S.

12 32 27

- 17-07

A ' Tauri

2 0 39 31

I 14 30 N.

12 6 29

- 18.28

51 f.1 Perfei

2 8 0 20

26 41 0 N.

12 50 59

- 25.86

0 Eridani

I 26 37 58

27 28 43 S.

12 45 30

- 17.56

49 p Tauri

2 0 47 9

12 12 17 S.

II 19 47

- 17-72

7 Taun

2 3 0 21

5 45 12 s.

10 47 30

— 18.32

41 Eridani

I 19 41 25

53 59 0 S.

18 10 5

— 21-50

S' Taun

2 4 4 20

3 59 25 S.

10 29 37

- 18.63

i'= Tauri

2 4 19 48

4 7 57 S.

10 23 25

- 18.66

42 1 Eridani

2 0 30 55

25 0 3 S.

II 20 2

- 17-94

43 // Eridani

I 21 40 25

54 33 40 S.

17 26 0

- 21.84

£ Tauri

2 5 39 58

2 35 17 S.

9 5S 37

- 1903

Aldebaran

2 6 59 37

5 28 46 S.

9 19 19

- 19.C4

47 Eridani

2 2 32 55

29 52 40 S.

10 42 12

— 18.51

50 u' Eridani

I 25 52 7

52 52 52 s.

15 18 21

— 21.67

48 I Eridani

2 4 0 59

25 8 49 S.

10 4 9

— 18.40

51 C. Eridani -

2 4 30 ?7

24 19 29 S.

9 52 42

- 1S.43 ,

- 21.47 '

52 t;' Eridani

I 27 4 56

51 50 3 S.

14 37 8

53 Eridani

2 2 27 4^

36 I 7 S.

10 58 20

— 19.08

54 Eridani

2 I 55 28

41 23 54 s.

II 30 31

- 19-74

9 Camelopardalis

2 18 II 18

43 23 28 N.

n 33 4

- 4576

,u. Eridpni

2 6 32 22

25 23 27 8.

9 8 2j

- 18.70

I Oiionis

2 9 '< 13

15 24 14 S.

8 13 13

— 18.90

2 -r' Orionis

2 9 34 18

13 30 21 S.

8 4 47

— 19.01

3 Orionis

2 9 18 20

16 47 45 S.

8 7 26

— 18.90

0' Orionis

2 10 41 56

8 14 56 S.

7 47 3S

- 19-41 .

8 2 Oricnis

2 9 41 4'

20 I 42 S.

7 56 . 4

- 18-93

3 I Aurigx

2 13 50 5'

10 z^ 49 N.

7 34 34

- 22.52

9 3' Orionis

2 II 33 15

9 5 10 S.

7 26 8

— 19.4.6

10 Camclopardalis

2 18 28 38

37 24 18 N.

9 ii 25

- 38. cS

t Aurigs

2 16 3 0

20 ^s 3 N.

7 36 23

— 26.23

10 Orionis

2 10 44 34

20 J2 31 S.

7 32 56

- 19-04

8 ^ Aurigx

2 15 50 ,i3

18 10 40 N.

7 23 20

- 25.15

102 I Tauri

2 13 59 23

I 13 ig S.

6 46 8

- 20.51

1 39 Camclopardalis

2 19 43 43

39 20 36 N.

8 45 23

- 4C.9S

10 1-, AurigK

2 '6 39 13

18 15 43 N.

6 59 25

~" ^5S>

t Leporis

2 9 15 j6

44 59 6 S.

8 47 29

- 20. 87

0 Eridani

2 12 29 20

27 52 55 S.

6 54 43

- 19-37

69 X Eridani

2 12 25 8

31 34 3 S;

6 59 44

- 19-56

Capella

2 19 3 49

22 51 44 N.

6 13 7

- 27.77

5 ,u Leporis

2 12 35 38

39 4 18 S.

7 8 ,-

- 20.24

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

l^ongitudc.

Latitude.

Ani;Ie of
Poiltion.

Annual
Variations.

S. D. M. S.

D. M. S.

D. M. .S.

.s

Rigcl

2 14 2 I

31 84,- S.

0 21 28

—

19.6J

20

T Orionis

2 15 38

29 ji 41 s.

5 56 26

—

19.64

/? Tauri

2 19 46 54

5 22 14 N.

4 3<5 26

—

22.29

y. Orionis

2 18 911

16 50 27 S.

4 42 59

—

i9'73

« Ononis

2 17 21 51

2y 33 26 S.

509

—

19,63

/3 Leporis

2 16 52 37

43 56 6 S.

5 33 17

—

21.09

I Orionis

2 19 34 6

23 34 43 S-

485

—

1973

,^6

v Orionis

2 ig 7 3

30 34 4 S.

4 20 54

—

19.91

a Leporis

2 18 35 i;,

41 4-58 S.

4 45 6

—

20.78

39

\ Ononis

2 20 54 47

13 23 37 S-

3 39 33

—

20. oO

£ Coluaiba;

2 15 54 19

58 39 0 S.

6 JI 6

—

24-31

1 Orionis

2 20 12 9

29 13 2J S.

3 54 2''>

—

19.90

^ Tnuri

, 2 21 59 30

2 13 10 S.

3 24 2J

—

21.19

£ Orionis

2 20 40 10

24 31 56 S.

3 42 10

—

19.80

12^

Tauri

2 22 38 47

2 30 48 N.

3 '4 4°

—

22.CO

48

c- Orionis

2 21 18 J

29 J7 20 S.

3 27 24

—

,9.85

^ Orionis

2 21 53 21

25 '9 9 «•

3 '3 22

—

i9.t-;6

a Coliinibx

2 19 22 41

57 23 s-^ S.

5 5 27

-

24.01

■y Leporis

2 22 5 2J

4j 49 28 S.

3 24 3

—

21.54

I.?

2 Tauri

2 24 42 37

I 7 42 N.

2 18 43

—

21.87

1 +

^ Leporis

2 23 10 51

38 14 22 S.

2 4R 16

—

20.61

r. Orionis

2 23 36 19

33 5 47 S-

2 34 45

—

20.1 I

i I.,eporis

2 24 21 28

44 17 S S.

2 24 7

—

21.30

^ Auriga;

2 27 7 iO

30 49 3,- N.

1 57 46

—

34-'5

/S Columbx

2 23 37 26

59 13 47 S.

3 7 39

—

24.63

a Orionis

3 25 57 38

16 3 7 S.

I 37 14

—

20.13

/S Aurigae

2 27 7 8

21 29 0 N.

1 37 10

—

28.19

S Aurigo:

2 27 8 51

13 4j 9 N.

I 2J 31

—

25.07

16

n Leporis

2 26 6 42

37 38 12 S.

I 35 46

—

20.61

y Columbx

2 26 15 3

58 44 45 S.

I 49 43

—

24.50

61

Hi Orionis

2 27 48 40

13 48 50 S.

0 -^:^ 2

—

20.28

I

H.Geminorum

2 28 9 14

0 11 28 S.

0 48 0

—

21.77

1 Orionis

2 29 3 34

8 40 ^6 S.

0 23 14

—

20.69

0 Leporis

2 29 6 23

38 23 19 S.

0 22 6

—

20.71

2

LyiK:is

3 0 18 36

hS 35 45 N.

0 14 24

+

38.92

n Geminorum -

3 0 38 48

0 54 44 S.

0 16 44

■+

21.67

fj Geminorum -

3 2 30 2 1

0 50 20 S.

I 4 50

4-

21.65 •

^ Canis Major -

'3 4 35 28

53 23 57 S.

2 f) 32

4-

23.07

u Monocerotis -

3 3 27 49

18 44 21 S.

1 22 59

+

20.04

/3 Canis Major -

3 4 23 58

41 16 46 S.

I 50 21

+

20.98

^ Columbs

3 5 38 34

5:6 44 12 S.

1 41 11

4-

23.90

V Geminorum -

3 4 0 34

3 4 52 ■''•

I 42 5

4-

21.28

13

Monocerotis

3 ? 41 31

'5 53 18 S.

2 16 58

4-

20.09

7 Geminorum -

3 6 18 3;

6 4j 46 S.

2 37 I

4-

20.74

42

Camelopardalis

3 3 5^ 2

44 24 9 N.

4 10 30

4-

52.42

15

Monocerotis

3 7 34 24

13 12 0 S.

3 3 20

+

20.15

E Geminorum

3 7 8 46

2 2 4? N.

3 8,29

4-

21.92

43

Camelopardalis

3 4 5 19

45 44 31 N.

4 33 49

4-

55-53

2

f Geminoium -

3 8 25 26

10 7 6 S.

3 26 1

4-

20.32

Sirius

3 II 19 32

39 li 38 S.

4 -lo 37

4-

20.60

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Anglo of
Pofition.

Annual
Variations.

.s. D. M. s.

D. M. S.

]). M. s.

.s.

1 8 ^^onoce^otis - "

3 9 59 7

20 31 9 S.

3 57 48

4-

19.76

34 6 Gemiiiorum -

3 8 19 40

11 0 29 N.

3 59 ^3

4-

23-.83

«- Canis Major -

3 15 47 2j

5^ 10 18 S.

7 21 51

+

23.26

l8 ^ Canis Major -

3 14 15 27

36 40 47 S.

5 47 45

4-

20.17

•20 1 Cams Major -

3 '4 44 '7

39 40 I S.

6 4 28

4-

20.46

! Canis Major -

.^ 17 59 8

51 22 59 S.

^ 3 32

+

22.26

^ G.= niponim -

3 12 II ji

2 3 49 S.

5 9 S^

4-

20.86

b CarijS Major -

3 18 46 4j

SO 15 5 S.

8 19 iS

4-

21.07

24 y Canis Major - . -

3 »8 13 17

46 9 14 .s.

7 4« 25

4-

21.21

y Canis Major -

3 16 49 23

38 1 0 S.

651 JO

4-

20.16

I Canis Major -

3 20 37 2

48 28 33 s.

8 58 54

4-

2 1.,- I

0 Geminonim -

3 '5 43 40

0 12 6 S.

6 42 6

4-

20.6.S

I Getuinorum -

3 I') 10 10

5 44 26 N.

7 13 39

4-

21-55

»i Canis Major -

3 26 45 44

50 37 50 S.

II 49 15

+

2 1. 6 1

/S Canis Minor -

3 19 24 18

13 30 25 S.

7 41 28

4-

19- 1 3

Caftor

.^ 17 27 17

10 4 S3 N.

8 7 30

+

22. iS

69 V Gcminorum -

3 iS 33 2

5 II 59 N-

8 II 54

4-

21 .04

Procyon

3 23 I 33

ij 58 46 S.

9 0 22

4-

1S.62

26 Monocerotis -

S 26 30 5

30 28 13 s.

10 22 0

4-

18.66

K Geminorum -

■ 3 20 J2 2;

3 3 31 N.

8 59 49

4-

20.29

Pollux

3 20 27 18

6 40 I N.

9 6 39

4-

20.92

fj f -

4 3 16 5

44 57 3° S.

13 52 20

4-

19.87

4 0 33 5°

34 9 30 S.

12 0 46

4-

18.54

II e{ i -
13 ■> ( -

4 4 51 54

42 35 45 S.

14 14 s^

4-

19.27

3 29 37 27

17 46 29 S.

II iS 27

4-

17.70

^ Navis

4 15 47 47

58 21 44 s.

21 41 40

4-

22.63

■i," Car.cri

3 26 27 0

5 19 7 N.

II 23 30

4-

19-37

» vel 0 N'ivis

4 S 315 54

43 17 23 S.

15 45 8

4-

i8.q8

^ 7 Camelopardalis

3 17 49 '5

41 30 46 N.

15 37 44

4-

.58.14

S Cancri

4 I 28 12

10 18 16 S.

12 10 43

^ 4-

i:-33

1 0 Urfe Major -

3 20 II sS

40 13 38 N.

16 40 35

4-

34--:

30 Monocerotis -

4 7 4 14

22 27 52 S.

13 54 42

4-

16.03

4 J Hydri

4 7 31 4

12 24 36 S.

14 7 28

+

16.13

-,' Cancri

4 4 44 58

3 10 37 N-

14 II 18

4-

17.05

7 .1 Hydrje

4 9 30 52

14 16 0 S.

14 42 56

4-

15-77

0 Cancri - ' -

4 5 55 35

0 4 21 N.

14 17 46

4-

16.59

31 Monocerotis -

4 '2 45 27

24 27 5 S.

15 47 21

4-

15-77

1 1 HvdrK 1 '

4 9 33 53

II 6 54 S.

14 48 38

4-

15.66

s 3 ' c "

4 II 47 3r

10 59 3 S.

15 20 52

4-

.5... 6

k' Cancri

4 10 18 44

5 29 35 S.

15 I" 35

4-

15.40

I Urfx Major -

4 0 I 15

29 34 32 N.

17 36 42

4-

22.81

»■ Cancri

4 10 50 54

5 5 44 S-

ij 28 48

4-

15.27

.-. l/rfas Major -

4188

28 57 48 N.

17 S3 56

4-

22.03

1 7 Urfoe Major H

4 4 44 ,2

20 52 38 N.

17 2 24

-j-

18.76

X Cancri

4 '3 22 4,-

5 35 4 S.

16 12 16

4-

14.63

22 ^ Hvdrx

4 17 29 10

13 3 8 S.

17 5 44

4-

13.92

J-

38 Lyncis

4 7 46 7

20 5 23 N.

17 56 19

4-

17-37

40 Lyncis

4 9 3 23

17 57 0 N.

17 53 18

+

10. ()4

I X Leonis

+ 12 2q 58

10 24 5'i N.

'7 34 46

-r

14.9&

23 h Url'a; Major -

3 z8 0 21

45 8 38 N.

IJ 10 42

4-

29.93

Vot. XXL

D

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
I'ofition.

Annual

Variation.

S. D. M. s.

D. M. K.

1). M. .S.

s.

14 d Urfae Major -

3 23 31 42

51 13 II N.

28 44 10

4-

39.60

a Hydrse

4 24 29 44

22 21, 41 S.

19 5 55

4-

13-13

e Urf^ Major -

4 4 30 'S

34 55 34 N.

21 47 30

+

21.23

X Lyncis

4 '5 4 39

7 52 3^ N.

17 57 16

4-

14.04

J I Leonis

4 18 51 29

3 9 49 -'^•

'7 5' 57

+

13.08

■^ Navis

5 11 59 5J

51 9 47 S.

29 26 13

4-

16.44

I Hydrx

4 24 50 47

14 17 17 s.

'9 0 3

4-

12.21

0 Leonis

4 21 27 41

3 45 55 ^'^•

iS 29 13

4-

12.37

f Leonis

4 > 7 54 39

9 42 1 1 N.

18 58 49

4-

13.C6

29 1/ Urfx Major -

4 3 28 26

42 38 49 N.

26 I 55

4-

23-4'

f» Leonis

4 >8 38.34

12 20 32 N.

19 35 24

4-

12.76

» Leonis

4 25 32 44

2 47 16 S.

19 3° 5

4-

1J.12

■K Leonis

4 26 31 21

3 55 '9 S.

19 39 2

4-

10.91

>i Leonis

4 25 ^> 34

4 51 22 N.

20 3 9

4-

10.79

15 Sextantis

5 I >8 59

II 7 40 S.

20 26 53

4-

I'd. 18

Regulus

4 27 2 53

0 27 30 N.

20 3 3

4-

10.44

\ Hydrae

5 6 35 31

22 0 35 S.

21 53 6

4-

10.14

X Urfx Msjor -

4 16 45 9

29 52 39 N.

23 44 38

4-

13.36

f Leonis

4 24 45 55

II 51 13 N.

20 55 38

4-

10.52

y' Navis

5 24 14 23

48 15 41 S.

3' 44 24

4-

1 2.64

y Leonis

4 26 47 55

8 48 19 N.

20 53 17

4-

9.98

IX Urls Major -

4 18 26 10

28 59 6 N.

23 50 10

4-

12.49

42 fj. Hydra

5 '2 '5 34

24 40 7 S.

23 12 58

4-

9.08

2 ? Leonis

5 3 35 48

0 8 37 N-

21 15 24

+

8.41

37 Leo Minor -

4 26 2 35

21 37 27 N.

23 II 47

-1-

9-38

4 V Hydra: et C-

5 '7 35 3

21 48 42 S.

23 45 34

4-

7. II

54 Leonis

5 2 42 28

16 29 23 N.

23 8 52

4-

7.17

^ Urfa; Major -

4 16 36 51

45 6 45 N.

32 32 25

4

11.24

« Hvdrx et C. -

5 20 56 9 .

22 42 42 S.

24 18 47

4-

6.30

a Urfie Major -

4 12 23 4

49 40 II N.

36 0 5

, 4-

12.95

X Leonis

5 "43 54

I ?.c 52 N.

22 28 24

4-

5.69

52 J' Urfa: Major -

4 26 0 18

35, <' 47 N-

28 8 45

4-

7.60

P HydrEelC-

5 25 46 10

25 37 46 S.

25 18 35

4-

5.41

l Leonis

5 8 30 18

14 19 54 N.

23 29 15

4-

5.26

6 Leonis

5 '° 37 33

9 40 31 N.

23 4 8

4-

5.07

74 ^ Leonis

5 I** 41 54

7 38 33 S.

23 0 32

4-

4-63

53 1 Urfa; Major -

5 4 32 37

24 45 27 N.

25 16 48

4-

5.40

54 V Urfx Major -

5 3 50 42

26 9 7 N.

25 35 59

4-

5.48

i Hydrs et C. -

5 23 54 41

17 34 42 S.

24 3 3

4-

4.51

or Leonis

5 15 54 57

I 41 47 N.

22 54 20

4-

4-30

. Leonis

5 14 4J 34

6 6 8 N.

23 5 42

4-

, 4-12

14 £ Hydrx et C. -■

5 23 27 50

13 28 2 S.

43 40 3

4-

4.00

15 y Hydrs et C. -

5 26 27 13

19 39 40 s.

24 30 I

4-

4.C8

T Leonis

5 18 43 2

0 33 17 S.

23 2 39

4-

3-69

X Draconis

4 7 30 58

57 13 26 N.

46 23 20

T

10.54

£ Leonis

5 21 35 7

5 4a 12 S.

23 12 44

4-

3-47

1 Hydrset C. -

6 5 '3 '7

3i 34 54 S-

27 28 44

4-

3-72

21 & HydrxctC. -

5 25 48 23

II 17 59 S.

2; 41 17

4-

2.94

. 91 1/ Leonis

5 22 14 43

3 2 48 S.

23 14 21

4-

2.90

27 <■ HydrxetC. -

6 I 17 49

18 17 3 S.

24 38 4

4-

2.31

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Polition.

Annual
Variations.

S. D. M. s.

D. M. K.

D. M. s.

s.

X Urfi Major -

5 0 51 13

41 32 19 N.

31 56 3

4- 3-2'5

3 II Virgiiiis

5 21 21 JO

4 35 57 N.

23 24 18

4- 2.1J

93 Leonis

5 16 10 51

17 18 34 N.

24 3« 35

4- 2.09

' ;S Leoiiis

5 18 50 26

12 16 57 N.

23 56 28

+ 1.92

^ Virginis

5 24 »9 33

0 41 41 N.

23 22 3i

4- 1.72

p HyJ. et C -

6 10 40 9

31 27 36 S.

27 44 37

4- 1.78

7 Urfs Major .

4 27 39 3

47 7 34 N.

3S 42 40

+ 2.54

30 » Hyd. etc -

6 3 iS 51

16 4 J9 S.

24 26 0

4- 1.29

a Corvi

6 9 27 19

21 44 24 S.

25 23 3

4- o.i3

e Corvi

6 S 53 7

19 39 47 S.

2; 0 56

+ oor

0 Urfs Major -

4 2S 14 2

51 38 26 N.

39 54 6

— 0.90

-/ Corvi

6 7 56 J2

14 29 23 S.

24 16 42

— 0.50

n Virginis - '

6 2 2 27

I 22 22 N.

23 27 4

- C.84

^ Cor\i

6 10 40 20

12 10 27 S.

23 56 49

- 1.77 .

^ Corvi

^ '4 34 51

18 I 50 S.

24 36 49

- 2.2,-

K Draconis

4 13 26 I

61 44 47 N.

50 44 5"

- 6.62

K Coma; Bereiiicis

5 25 38 36

24 7 20 N.

25 42 19

- 2.37

y Virginis

6 7 22 34

2 48 34 N.

23 15 39

— 2.74

( Urfx Major -

5 6 5 46

54 18 2; N.

42 0 44

- 7.21

S Virginis

6 8 41 10

8 38 8 N.

23 15 24

- 3-0

1 2 Cor. Caroli -

5 21 45 55

40 7 28 N.

30 39 56

- 5-^3

ll f'

6 6 48 56

16 56 57 N.

23 55 28

- 4.64

^2 ■ Virginis y I

6 15 26 33
6 19 j'S 27

1 45 26 N.
7 53 36 S.

22 3S 37
22 48 32

- 5-'5

- 5-49

61 J (- -

6 22 14 S7

9 12 II S.

22 41 34

- 6.12

y Hydra

6 24 13 S5

13 43 30 S-

23 4 3?

- 6.33

1 Centauri

7 0 21 33

25 59 '5 S.

25 0 53

- 7-34

Spica Virginis

6 21 3 0

2 2 20 S.

22 10 43

— 6. JO

^ UrfiE Major -

5 12 ji 20

^6 22 13 N.

42 50 39

— 11.62

( Virginis

6 19 21 8

8 39 18 N.

22 4 3

- 7.21

» Centauri

7 8 22 29

28 14 47 S.

24 J8 37

— 10.90

T Bootis

61; 9 13

26 32 0 N.

23 54 16

- 8.73

G Centauri

7 5 14 33

21 34 ,-7 S.

22 56 19

- 9-93

Urfx Major •

5 24 6 37

54 23 40 N-

38 20 25

— 15.20

^ 0 Bootis

6 16 24 12

25 12 42 N.

23 31 2

- 8.82

« Bootis

6 16 31 26

28 6 ;8 N.

23 52 3j

- 940

5 9 Centauri

7 9 32 23

22 I '13 S.

22 7 29

— 11.80

« Draconis

5 4 3^ 37

66 21 20 N.

59 33 0

- 23.79

K Virginia

7 I 42 I

2 ^^ 2J N.

20 4 51

— 10.31

99 ' Virgi'nis

7 0 59 26

7 14 41 N.

20 2 26

— 10.46

X Bootis

5 27 6 32

53 53 59 N.

41 3 16

- 17-30

Ardiirua

6 21 26 24

30 52 35 N.

23 16 3

— II. 18

X Virginis

7 4 9 30

0 30 36 N.

19 43 14

- 10.S8

X Bootis

6 4 9 24

54 39 8 N.

35 37 30

- i;.63 -

I Bootis

5 28 16 45

58 50 40 N.

40 36 10

- 17-47

P Virginis

7 2 39 38

11 46 56 N.

19 35 34

- ^^-33

fi Bootis

5 29 45 37

60 8 19 N.

41 10 26

- 18.73 ,

{ Bootis

6 19 58 49

41 27 40 N.

25 S7 45

- 13.69 ;

y Bootis

6 14 51 20

49 33 3° N-

29 46 33

— 15.18

5 a Urfx Minor -

4 5 32 54

71 25 2S N.

93 40 53

- P-f)5

3D 3

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of

Annual

I'ofition.

Variaiioiis.

.S. D. M. S.

D. M. s.

D. M. .^.

s.

29 ir Bootis

6 29 2 58

30 22 52 N.

21 22 53

- 1 2. 8 J

^ Dootis

7 0 I.? 45

27 53 47 N.

20 49 34

— 12.70

107 fj. Virg-iiiis

7 7 19 16

9 42 27 N.

j8 31 43

— J 2.40

IG9 Virginis

7 5 43 19

17 7 2<, N.

18 53 4

— 12.62'

! Bootis

6 2,- 17 51

40 s^ 2,- N.

24 2 45

- 14-27

2 a Lihrre

7 12 17 35

0 21 39 N.

17 46 20

- i3'32

37 ij^ Bootis

7 0 43 43

S.^ 47 17 N-

21 21 1 ?

- ^3-^3

i Libra:

7 12 29 18

8 16 16 N.

17 14 13

— 'iSM->

/3 Urfs Minor -

4 10 27 49

72 c8 19 N.

94 39 40

— ^2.50

V Scor. vel Lib.

7 17 53 53

7 37 2 S.

17 3 .^3

— 15.02

l3 Bootis

6 21 25 30

54 10 4 N.

29 30 36

- 18-34

24 J Libra;

7 18 12 40

I 49 18 N.

If) 18 4

- 15.02

/S Librx

7 '6 34 5°

8 31 20 N.

i6 4 18

— 14-7^

0 Bootis

7 0 19 40

48 59 14 N.

24 30 5S

- 1 7 -^'3

d Lupis

7 2j- 49 50

21 2+ 33 s-

16 57 6

- 19.09

i Libne

7 18 Si 2

8 4 38 N.

15 30 20

— 15.16

51 /J. Bootis

7 0 22 8

53 26 16 N.

25 52 54

- 19.25

1 1 7' Urfx Minor -

4 18 46 30

74 5^ 32 N.

92 S3 2

— 50.62

/3 Coronx

7 6 19 8

46 4 20 N.

21 4-2 2

- 17.64

I Draconis

6254

71 5 50 iNf.

52 0 II

- 30-41

1 3 y'^ Urlx Minor -

4 18 43 29

75 13 40 N.

93 50 43

- 51-32

35 ^'•^ LibrsE

7 22 13 22

2 15 35 N.

14 42 46

— 16.05

"/ Ijupis
y LibrE

7 28 42 33

21 12 59 S.

15 46 40

— 20.29

7 22 20 23

4 34 37 N.

14 31 43

— 16.05

39 Libras

7 2J 49 2

8 28 49 S.

14 36 12

— J 7-58

0 Serpentis

7 15 32 38

28 54 18 N.

16 31 6

- 15-92

a Cor. Borealis

7 9 28 21

44 20 51 N.

10 I J 23

- 17-65

40 Librx

7 26 33 30

9 59 28 S.

14 32 46

- 1795

X. LibrsE

7 24 57 JO

0 0 38 N.

13 59 3^>

- 16.82

f Corons

7 5 27 18

53 58 0 N.

24 3 46

— 2o.c8

V Libra:

7 24 33 32 '

4 I 41 N.

13 49 5i

- 16.59

y Coronx

7 12 4 II

44 31 35 N-

19 21 52

- 18.06

a Serpentis

7 19 15 59

35 ^ I ^8 N.

15 10 44

— 16.2:?

g ■ Serpentis <

7 19 S'^ 57
7 17 8 19

26 34 10 N.

34 21 TO N.

15 6 6

16 22 19

- 16.38

— 16.90

^' ■ Serpentis i

S Coronx
A Librx

7 23 8 42

16 16 0 M.

13 50 6

- 16.37

7 21 31 29

24 I 32 N.

14 24 10

— 16.50

7 '4 13 24

44 47 32 N.

18 37 36

- 18.41

7 27 40 53

064:! N.

13 3 2"

- 17. 49

9 Librx

7 27 4 23

3 29 28 N.

13 118

- 17-19

38 f Serpentis

7 16 42 44

40 I 26 N.

17 4 32

- 17-76

^ Y Scorpii \ '

"^ } . I- :

8 0 21 8

8 34 6 S.

12 57 59

— 18.9;

8 0 8 48

5 26 45 S.

12 41 19

- 18.53

r, LupiS

8 2 5S 45

17 25 7 S.

13 41 16

— 21.17

48 i. Librx

7 27 36 16

6 6 4? N.

12 41 4

- 17.22

y Serpentis

7 19 56 3

35 17 6 N.

15 29 6

- 17-45

i Scorpii - - •

7 29 4^> 37

I 57 26 S.

12 29 18

- 18.13

^ Urfx Minor -

3 24 28 17

75 7 ^6 N.

124 52 4

- 84.^8

1' Librx

7 28 30 48

9 15 44 N.

12 13 27

- 17-34

ir Serpentis

7 19 19 37

42 28 32 N.

16 25 22

- 18.W

i<

LONGITUDE.

N;imes of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Polition.

Annual
Variation.

S. D. M. s.

D. M. s.

D. M. s.

-S.

^ Scorpii

3 0 23 42

I 2 8 N.

12 1 35

— l^.rXi

9 i' Scorpii

8 0 52 32

0 14 28 N.

II 54 40

— 1S.22

6 Draconis

^5 '3 53 «

74 26 47 N.

48 50 2

- 33-59

> Scorpii

8 I 50 55

I 39 47 N.

II 27 21

- ''<-32

h Ophmciii

7 29 30 23

17 16 35 N.

II 40 33

- 17-52

1 8 Scorpii

8 0 41 31

12 45 17 N.

II 20 50

— 17.70

1 Oplmichi

8 0 42 35

J 6 27 49 N.

II 15 53

- 17-71

0- Scorpii

8 5 0 25

4 0 27 S.

10 42 25

- 19-56

y Herculis

7 26 24 51

40 I 51 N.

13 3' 32

- 1S.97

T Herculis

7 II 32 54

65 50 58 N.

25 48 24

— 26.14

Antares

8 6 58 9

4 32 29 S.

9 58 45

— 20.05

(J Ophiuclu

8 5 52 26

5 13 39 N.

9 45 24

— 18.87

lO A Ophiuclu

8 2 47 46

23 35 14 N-

10 29 54

- 1S.18

n Draconis

6 11 35 4

78 26 57 N.

56 6 42

- 38-^9

;S Herculis

7 28 17 41

42 43 48 N.

13 2 20

— 19.61

29 /; Herculis

8 I 26 12

33 I 34 N.

II 13 16

- 18.66

T Scoi-pii

8 8 39 48

6 5 25 S.

9 25 32

— 20.64

^ Ophiuchi

8 6 26 0

II 25 4 N.

9 i8 28

- 18.65

0- Herculis

7 20 25 20

63 II 2 N.

20 14 57

- 25.11

15 A Draconis

8 2 24 58

81 2 I N.

96 21 7

- 5'-9i

i^ Herculis

7 28 42 19

53 7 12 N.

14 6 47

- 21.94

r, Herculis

7 ^5 57 54

60 19 10 N.

16 44 31

- 24.14

I Scorpii

8 12 34 28

11 41 24 S.

8 15 41

- 22.55

^:} Scorpii I : :

8 13 21 43
8 13 27 15

15 23 40 S.
15 20 58 S.

8 17 3
8 14 9

— 23-69

- 23.70

' > Ophiuchi <
27 K ^ _ (_

8 7 51 8
8 9 2 45

32 31 58 N.
31 53 0 N.

8 46 57
8 18 24

— 19.26

- 19-31

£ Herculis

8 5 31 45

Si 16 28 N.

II 7 20

— 22.40

« Ophiuchi

8 15 10 24

7 13 13 N.

648

— 20.03

21 /J. Draconis

7 21 56 8

76 15 20 N.

25 20 7

- 33-53

K Herculis

8 13 21 21

37 18 44 N.

6 46 11

— 20.10

^ Herculis

8 II 57 53

47 43 21 N.

7 49 26

- 21.50

I Urfe Minor -

3 6 19 53

73 53 52 N.

160 45 46

— 146.12

TT Herculis

8 9 16 I

59 34 45 N.

10 10 22

- 24.43

22 f Draconis

5 19 17 28

84 52 54 N.

88 47 30

- 49-83

• Ophiuchi

8 18 5 47

2 3 37 N.

5 ^-S(>

— 20. 89

53 V Serpentis

8 17 29 SS

10 17 34 N.

5 4 4

— 20. Ol

6 Ophiuchi

8 .8 36 5

I 48 47 S.

4 58 22

- 21.51

70 Herculis

8 13 59 II

47 31 11 N.

6 56 44

— 21.56

75 f Herculis

8 12 34 27

60 9 15 N.

8 37 35

- 24.72

3**^ I[ {• Scorpii ■} "

8 21 13 8
S 21 47 30

13 58 45 S.
13 45 36 s.

4 22 20
4 4 44

- 24.66

— 24.63

K Ophiuchi

8 19 3S 39

35 52 37 N.

4 12 30

— 20.28

^ Draconis

8998

75 18 14 N.

13 26 52

- 32-48

i Serpentis

8 21 45 27

7 58 5 N.

3 23 33

— 20.51

57 fx Ophiuchi

8 21 31 34

15 14 34 N.

3 23 49

— 20.00

v' Draconis

8 7 ^7 38

78 10 5 N.

15 33 46

- 34-83

»■' Draconis

8 7 31 57

78 9 38 N.

15 30 37

- 34-83

x. Scorpii
(S Ophiuchi

8 23 40 39

15 37 2 S.

3 13 51

- 25.47

8 22 32 48

27 57 35 N.

2 58 14

- 19-94

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Polition.

Annual
Variation.

S. D. M. s.

D. M. £.

D. M. S.

s.

1462 I Scorpii

8 2+ 43 53

16 41 II s.

2 44 14

—

25.96

1 Herculis

8 .7 J .8

69 17 38 N.

7 22 32

—

28.68

•y Tck-fcopi

8 25 7 24

13 35 42 S.

2 25 41

—

24.91

y Opliiuthi

8 23 50 27

26 8 40 N.

2 27 6

—

19.94

■jt Draconis

4 9 -4 37

86 53 42 N.

135 31 45

—

55.20

ft Herculis

8 22 2"^ 2 ^

51 10 33 N.

3 23 21

_

22.53

64 1 Ophiuchi

8 26 57 39

13 42 0 N.

" 'i 39

—

20.27

6 Herculis

8 25 41 7

60 42 43 N.

2 9 29

—

25.12

^ Scrpentis

8 27 19 35

19 46 49 N.

I 3 59

—

21.03

% Herculis

8 26 24 1 1

52 42 55 N.

I 33 28

—

22.92

32 1 Draconis

8 21 55 38

80 18 14 N.

5 52 43

36.61

67 0- Opliiuchi

8 27 23 13

26 24 0 N.

I 2 30

—

2C.02

68 K Ophiuchi

8 27 41 13

24 46 49 N.

0 55 16

—

20.C0

7 Draconis

8 25 10 46

74 57 4 N-

3 4 57

—

32.12

7' Sagittarii

8 28 18 13

6 7 2 S.

0 46 36

—

22.99

y' Sagittarii

8 28 28 15

6 57 3 S.

0 42 21

23-'9

95 Herculis

8 27 42 7

45 3 38 N.

0 59 3

—

21.51

70 P Ophiuchi

8 28 42 25

26 I 18 N.

0 30 55

—

20.03

34 4-' Draconis

3 I 5 33

84 30 38 N.

178 35 25

—

64.83

103 0 Herculis

8 29 54 :7

52 12 44 N.

0 2 31

—

22.82

f<' Sagittarii

9 0 25 12

2 22 13 N.

0 10 45

+

21.45

^ Telelcopi

9 0 50 27

13 20 25 S.

0 25 6

•f

24-90

^^f 1 Sagittarii -^ \

9 1 47 3
9 2 17 12

6 26 29 S.
II 0 59 S.

0 49 10

1 6 15

+
4-

23-06
24.24

■n Serpentis

9 2 s'^ 21

20 30 10 N.

I 9 53

4-

20.01

IC9 Herculis

9 4 59 47

45 5 32 N.

2 8 21

4-

21.49

X Sagittarii

9 3 3' 32

2 5 48 S.

I 33 17

+

22.32

I m Aquilx

9 6 13 37

14 57 59 N.

2 30 8

+

20.1 I

44 X Draconis

2 13 30 14

83 32 0 N.

157 43 42

+

66.68

a. LyrsE

9 12 30 42

61 44 44 N.

6 20 17

4-

25-38

9 Sagittarii

9 7 23 6

3 ^S 41 S.

3 '7 55

4-

22.26

/ Aquilae

9 9 35 21

18 12 ^^ N.

3 49 4

4-

19.83

23 5 Urfae Minor -

2 28 24 13

69 ^^ 17 N.

169 20 29

4-

32935

III Herculis

9 12 4 25

41 2 20 N.

5 I 25

4-

20.74

iS Lyra

9 16 6 20

Sd 0 38 N.

7 34 51

4-

23-48

(7 Sagittarii

9 9 35 25

? '5 ^ ^T-

4 15' 8 •

4-

21.98

6- Serpentis

9 12 57 48

26 54 TO N.

5 3 14

4-

19.65

I'- Lyres

9 18 53 45

59 20 33 N.

9 15 0

4-

24.41

0 Draconis

10 12 11 43

80 49 15 N.

31 ,26 6

4-

38.16

1^ Sagittarii

9 »o 5° 49

7 9 4 S.

4 58 17

4-

22.59

f Aquils

9 15 28 56

37 35 51 N.

6 :8 45

4-

20.20

12 i AquiljE

9 13 15 29

16 52 27 N.

5 16 8

4-

19.62

y Lyrae

9 19 8 47

SS 2 17 N

8 54 4

4-

23.11

n Sagittarii

9 12 II 49

0 53 30 N.

5 12 24

4-

21.02

50 Draconis

2 9 35 22

80 22 34 N.

147 5 31

-f-

76.21

T Sagittarii

9 12 2 41

5 2 46 s.

5 23 51

4-

22.01

,\ Antinoi

9 14 32 43

'•7 35 48 N.

5 45 48

4-

19.50

^ Aquill

9 17 0 46

36 13 2 N.

6 53 2

4-

19.97

52 V Draconis

I 17 38 29

83 12 12 N.

'24 23 13

4-

59-67

- Sas'i'^arii

9 '3 27 31

I 28 3 N.

5 42 35

4-

20.80

LONGITUDE.

'

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Pofition.

Annual
Variations.

S. D. M. S.

n. ^^. s.

D. M. S.

s.

J Dracoiiis - - ,

0 14 31 38

82 52 55 N.

87 46 1 1

+ 49-39

X Cygni

10 12 10 30

73 49 J N.

26 22 45

+ 31.60

J Aquila:

9 20 50 2

24 50 26 N.

8 9 5

4- 1S.96

60 T Dracoiiis

I 52 14 32

80 40 9 N.

1*3 35 12

-1- 64.30

V Draconis

0 c 45 19

81 49 50 N.

72 33 8

+ 45-o8

6 Viilpis

9 26 44 30

45 53 14 N.

II 20 8

-j- 20.61

^ Cygni

9 2S 28 41

4S 59 26 N.

12 21 58

-f 21.12

/^jAquiisI ; :

9 24 0 50
9 22 3 56

28 41 31 N.
14 22 17 N.

9 23 46

8 40 :!8

-^ j8.8i

-r 18-7:

1 Antinoi

9 23 2 58

20 2 1 2 N.

8 58 25

+ 1 8.6 1

6 Cygni

10 15 5s 32

69 37 =5 N.

26 16 24

4- 28.56

a Sagittce

9 ^^ 17 34

38 49 4 N.

11 25 6

+ 1935

B - _ -

9 28 25 ^ I

38 14 42 N.

II 26 2

+ 1926

61 5- Draconis

Q 28 18 29

80 55 12 N.

96 46 59

+ 52.10

y Aqiulx

9 iS 9 12

31 16 7 N.

11 012

+ '854

1 Cygni

10 13 29 a6

64 25 50 N.

22 39 29

+ 25.56

« Aquilac

9 28 57 12

29 18 50 N.

II 14 7

4- 18.29

n Antinoi

9 27 38 51

21 32 53 N.

10 38 S5

+ 18.05

(S Aqiiila:

9 29 3S 33

26 42 39 N.

II 25 13

-J- 18.02

■)' SagittjE

JO 4 15 34

39 12 49 N-

13 42 40

+ 18,77

S Antinoi

10 2 7 30

iS 45 3 N.

12 13 44

+ 17-29

> Capricorni -{
2 a ) '^ I

10 0 58 39
10 I 3 51

7 0 44 N.
6 57 18 N.

12 8 54
12 10 53

+ 17-49
+ 17.48

3° "' Cygni -

10 25 17 36

63 42 33 N.

28 14 13

+ 24.59

/5 Capricorni

10 I 15 II

4 36 46 N.

12 22 26

+ 17-52

7 Cygni

10 22 5 5

57 8 23 N.

24 4 15

4- 21.60

41 . Cygni

10 17 56 45

47 28 I N.

19 54 11

4- 18.80

L ■ Delphinis <~

10 1 1 16 45
10 12 58 34

29 5 40 N.

32 10 23 N.

15 30 I J

16 14 15

4- 1 6-49
+ 16.58

71 Aquilx

10 8 55 45

16 48 33 N.

14 29 51

+ 15-99

^7

10 13 33 18

31 56 26 N.

16 25 12

4- 16.45

a \ Delphinis -

ic 14 S5 52

33 s S\ N.

16 50 35

4- 16.43

c

10 15 20 21

31 57 48 N.

17 0 2

4. 16.16

B. Cygni

11 2 34 45

59 55 ° N.

29 44 54

4- 21.94

1 Aquarii

10 8 S5 54

8 6 12 N.

14 43 47

+ 15-75

-/ Delphinis

10 16 35 47

32 43 49 N.

17 27 50

4- 16.05

£ Cygni

10 24 56 24

49 25 35 N.

22 50 I

+ 18.45

54 X Cygni

10 26 58 56

51 37 32 N.

24 '7 53

+ 18.92

»i Ccphei

0 I 46 5O

71 44 42 N.

55 j8 7

+ 3'-53

fi Aquarii

10 10 15 58

8 15 39 N.

15 8 13

+ '5-45

58 » Cygni

II 3 22 57

54 55 -7 N-

27 52 *3

+ 19-.59

62 1 Cygm

10 8 2 41

56 35 23 N.

30 24 19

+ 19-59

y Equulei

10 20 38 40

25 12 31 N.

18 10 55

+ 14-30

( Cygni

11 0 16 20

43 42 3^- N-

23 23 21

+ iJ-93

!} E^l^^^*^' { '. I

10 21 40 0
10 20 19 46

24 46 2 N.
20 8 42 N.

18 26 51
17 54 16

4- I4-C3
+ 13-83

T Cygni

n 5 49 2

50 32 36 N.

27 7 56

4- 17-23

67 c- Cygni

11 7 35 18

51 30 5 N.

28 5 12

+- 17-32

. Pegafi

10 27 31 26

33 >7 5° ^>

20 48 20

+ 14.10

^ Equulei

10 22 38 51

21 2 48 N.

18 33 29

4- 13-40

0 Cephei

0 10 2 3

CS 54 41 N.

55 55 0

4- 28.13

^ Capricorni

10 14 8 28

6 58 15 S.

'7 3+ J«

-r 14-3-^

LONGITUDE.

Names of Stars.

Longitude.

Latitude.

Angle of
Pofition.

Annual
Variation.

S. D. M. S.

D. M. s. •

D. M. s.

s.

0 Aquarii

10 20 36 16

» 37 SI N.

18 2 24

+

12.87

F Capricorni -

lO 17 24 10

4 51 29 S.

18 13 8

4-

13-30

|9 Cephei

I 2 48 38

71 8 7 N.

74 33 52

+

3587

« Cygni -

II 17 23 36

55 II 38 N.

33 9 5

+

17.4S

y Capricorni

10 18 59 14

2 32 6 S.

1822 12

+

12. 8y

givrlp. Pifcis Auris -

10 14 27 0

18 18 J3 S.

19 38 15

4

14-43

c Pegafi

10 29 5 58

22 6 47 N.

20 14 15

+

12.02

t' Cygni

II 25 31 47

58 52 40 N.

38 24 39

+

18.52

F Cygni

11 7 40 24

39 31 32 N.

24 37 II

+

'3-37

X Pogafi

II 6 8 53

36 39 9 N.

23 3t! 23

+

12.98

lo 5 Pifcis Auris -

10 15 48 5+

1632 II S.

19 38 7

4-

13-84

.? Capricorni -

10 20 44 2J

2 33 50 S.

18 48 41

+

12.30

y Gruis

10 14 36 38

23 I 46 s.

20 52 31

+

14.46

a Aquarii

II 0 33 4>

10 43 34 N.

20 17 48

4-

10-35

1 Aquarii

10 25 jy 32

2 3 45 S-

19 57 2

4-

10.69

14 //veil Pifcis Auris -

TO 19 18 38

20 3 43 S.

21 20 48

4-

12.36

24 > Pegafi

II II 36 51

34 16 7 N-

24 30 33

+

11.17

26 6 Pegafi

II 4 I 57

16 21 25 N.

21 4 lO

4-

10.04

31 ^ Cephei

0 II 13 12

61 8 32 N.

46 ro 39

4-

17-93

9 Aquarii

II 0 27 58

2 43 21 N.

20 31 19

+

9.64

f Cephei

0 10 16 2

59 57 19 N-

44 ii 54

4-

10.87

y Aquarii

II 3 55- 5

8 14 54 N

20 58 31

+

9.14

IT Aquarii

11 5 48 30

10 29 3 N.

21 17 ,58

4-

8.85

f Aquarii

II 6 6 37

8 51 30 N.

21 21 19

4-

8.58

$ Pifcis Auris -

10 24 22 ^2

SI 20 44 S.

22 48 7

4-

10. !2

5 Lacerla:

0 2 27 54

51 24 15 N.

iS -(> 48

4-

12.19

27 1 Cephei

0 14 51 9

59 31 58 N.

45 3S 3

4-

15-45

7 LacertsB

0 5 22 24

53 17 29 N.

37 24 25

4-

12.58

»! Aquarii

11 736 39

8 9 38 N.

21 36 31

4-

8.05

y vcl E Pifcis Auris -

10 28 31 40

17 15 25 s.

22 38 21

+

8.72

^ Pegafi

11 13 21 47

17 41 19 N.

22 46 46

+

7.65

» Pegafi

II 22 56 27

55 6 39 N.

26 54 45

4-

8-43

A Pegafi

II 20 15 34

28 46 24 N.

25 8 9

4-

7.68

M- Pegafi

11 31 36 1

29 23 43 N.

25 27 I

4

7-43

X Aquarii

11 8 46 55

0 22 48 S.

22 3 12

+

6.72

1 Cephei

1 0 30 26

62 36 10 N.

54 43 5^

+

15.78

S Aquarii

11 6 4 49

8 10 49 S.

22 21 29

4-

6.81

Fomalhaut -

II 0 58 40

21 14 44 S.

23 SS 20

4-

7-34 ■■

0 Andromedas

.0 5 0 43

43 44 49 N.

31 50 51

4-

7.70 . •

/S Pifcium

II ly 47 49

"■9 3 38 N.

22 44 8

i-

5-7'

/S Pegafi

II 26 34 57

31 8 19 N.

26 29 45

4-

6-37

^ a Pegafi

II 20 41 59

19 24 47 N.

23 54 22

+

5-79

88 f" Aquarii

II 7 12 52

14 28 51 S.

23 22 14

4-

5-71

?> Aquarii

II 14 20 52

I 2 5 S.

22 43 ;.5

+

4.88 .

7 Pifciutn

II 18 37 28

7 16 39 N.

22 59 46

4-

4.61

'^M . , V -

0 15 31 27

43 47 25 N.

33 6 23

4-

3-99

17 1 VAndromedse <

0 13 "18 4j

41 I 20 N.

31 31 9 -

4-

3-71

19 " J I -

0 14 31 23

41 \z 44 N.

31 56 28

4-

3-51

y Cephei

I 27 18 29

64 38 21 N.

67 16 42

4-

10.74 •

29 Pifcium

II 26 25 y

2 57 30 S.

23 5S 57

4-

0.74

33 Pifcium

II 26 8 5 J

5 46 12 S.

23 zs 13

4-

C43

OS AndromedEE

0 II 31 36

25 41 47 N.

26 13 12

4-

0.19

/3 Caffiopex

1 2 "ig 23

51 13 3° ^•

39 28 54

4-

0.23

Sitahan and Prefion.

L O N

L O N

Longitude, Angle of. See Angle.
Longitude, Argument of. See Argument.
Longitude, Circles of. See Circle.
Longitude, Degrees of. See Degree.
Longitude, Parallax of. See Parallax.
Longitude, Refradlon of See Refraction.
Longitude of Motion, \% ufed by Dr. Wallis for the mea-
fure of motion, eftimated according to the line of direc-
tion ; on which principle, longitude of motion is the diftance,
or length, which the centre of any moving body runs
through, as it moves on in a right line.

The fame author calls the meafure of any motion, efti-
mated according to the line of direftion of the vis motrix,
the altitude of it.

BeUini alfo ufes the terms longitude and altitude in the
fame fenfe, in many places of his writings, which an ordinary
reader finds hard to underftand, for want of this interpreta-
tion. By altitude alfo in his 19th propofition De Febribus,
he makes the thicknefs of the vifcid matter in the blood-vef-
fels ; or the greateft length a vifcid particle is extended into,
from the fide of a canal to its axis.

LONGITUDINALIS Sinus, a name given to two of
the venous cavities of the dura mater ; they are diilinguifhed
by the epithets fuperior and inferior. See Vein.

LONGJUMEAU, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a
canton, in the diilrift of Corbeil ; 10 miles S. of Paris.
The place contains 1434, and the canton 13,650 inhabit-
ants, on a territory of 4-i kiliometres, in 2 J communes.

LONGNESS Point, a cape on the S. coaft of the Ifle
of Man ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Douglas.

LONGOBARDO, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra ; 10 miles S.W. of Cofenza.

LONGOBUCO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
14 miles S. of Rofano.

LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, in Biography, an
eminent Danifh aftronomer, fon of a labouring peafant, was
born at Longomontium, a village in Jutland, whence he took
his furname, in the year 1562. His father was anxious to
afford him a good education, but dying before he was eight
years of age, he was, committed to the care of an uncle, who
finding the expence devolved on him by the lad more than
he could bear, advifed him to return to his mother, and to
earn his living by the fweat of his brow. The youth, who
fhewed a great inclination for learning, was mortified at the
propofal, but not wholly difheartened ; he returned to the
labours of an agricultural life, and at the fame time improved
_ every leifure moment in acquiring ufeful knowledge. At
length he was driven, by the jealoufies of his brothers, to
quit his home, and he fought an afylum at Wiburg, where
there was a college. Here he fpent eleven years, and made
great progrefs in the mathematical fciences, though he was
at the fame time obliged to fupport himfelf by his induftry.
From Wiburg he went to Copenhagen, and became an af-
Cftant to Tycho Brahe, with whom he continued eight
years. During this perod, he afforded Tycho much affift-
ance in obferving the heavens and in his calculations, and
was fo accurate and laborious, and at the fame time fo Ikil-
ful, that he became the confidential friend of that great man.
At length he returned to his native country, with the higheft
recommendations from Tycho, who fumilhed him with mo-
ney to defray the expenc&s of fo long -a journey. He tra-
velled through Poland, in order that he might have a fight
of the place which witneffed Copernicus's aftronomical la-
bours. At Copenhagen he met with a noble-hearted patron
in the chancellor Chriftian Friis, who afforded him an ho-
nourable employment in his family. In 160C he wasnomi-
VoL. XXI.

nated to a profefTorfhip of mathematics in the univerfity of
Copenhagen, a fituation which had ever been the objeft of
his higheft ambition, and for which his genius and talents pe-
cuharly qualified him ; and he difcharged the duties of it
with the greateft ability, and higheft reputation, till his
death, which took place in 1647, when he was about the
age of eighty-five. He was author of many valuable
works, of which the moft diilinguifhed is entitled " Aftro-
nomia Danica,"' which contains all the great difcoveries of
Regiomontanus, Purbach, and Tycho Brahe. The titles of
his other works are given in Hutton's Diftionary. Obfcure
as his native place and father were, he contrived to immor-
talize both, by taking his name from the village, and in the
title-page to fome of his works, calling himfelf Severini
filius, his father's name being Severin, or Severinus

LONGOTOMA, in Geography, a town of Chili, on the
N. fide of a river of the fame name, that runs into the Pa-
cific ocean, S. lat. 31- 30'. The town is diftant 84 miles
S. from Coquimbo.

LONGSPIEL, a very ancient mufical inftrument, found
by fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander in Iceland, when
they vifited that country in 1773. This inftrument, of a
long and narrow form, and ftrung with four itrings of
copper, is extremely rude and clumfy. One of the four
ftrings is ufed as a drone, the reft are played with a bow.
Pieces of wood are placed at different diftances on the
finger-board, to ferve as frets. It feems, indeed, to have
been the primitive idea of a fiddle, and is a proof that
the ufe of the bow, that wonderful engine, which the an-
cients, with all their ingenuity and mufical refinements, had
never been able to difcover, and which has been rendered fo
miraculous, was known by the Scalds in Iceland, at leaft as
early as in any other part of Europe. See Scalds.

LONG-TAN, in Geography, a town of Corea ; 42
miles S. of Hetfin.

LONG-TCHANG CHING, a town of China, in
Chang-tong ; IJ miles E. of Tci-nan.

LONG-TCHIAN, a raounuin of Thibet. N. lat. 27°
48'. E. long. 86 39'.

LONG-TCHUEN, a town of Corea; 55 miles W.N.W.
of Han-tcheou.

LONGTOWN, a market town in the parifh of Arthu-
ret and ward of Efkdale, in the county of Cumberland,
England, is fituated on the borders of Scotland, near the
conflux of the rivers Ellc and Liddel, g miles diftant from
Carlifle, and 313 N. from London. Thehoufesare moftly
built in the modern ftyle, and fome of the ftreets are regular
and fpacious. At the north-end of the town is a (tone
bridge over the Eflf. Longtov.n was returned to parlia-
ment, in the year 180 1, as containing 176 houfes, inhabited
by 1335 perfons, of whom 648 were Itated to be employed
in trades and manufaftures. A market is held on Thurf-
days ; gnd two fairs annually. Longtown Hands in" the
midft of the eftate of fir James Graham, of Nethcrby,
whofe predecefTor, Dr. Robert Graham, may be confidered
as having been the principal caufe of the profperous ttate of
this part of Cumberland. Under his patronage Longtown
became populous ; and by conflruding the little harbour at
Sai-kfoot, he furniflied the people with an eafy mode of
exporting their produce and fupplying ihemfclves with ne-
ceifaries.

Netherby, the feat of fir James Graham, is much cele-
brated in the topographical annals of this county, from
the vaft improvements that were made here during the latter
part of the lafl century ; nor is it lefs interefling to the an-
tiquary from the aflemblage of Roman remains that have
been here preferved ; and trom its having been a Roman
3 E ftation.

L O N

tiathn. 'the manfion, which (lands on an eminenee near
the river E(k, was erefted by the late Dr. Graham, about
the year 1760, but has been .much improved by the prefent
proprietxir. It is elegantly fitted up; and contains a va-
luable colh-fliou of ancient and modern medals, and a li-
brary fiirnifiicd with a feledtion of clafTic and other valuable
authors. The gardens and plcafure grounds are difpofed
with much talle and judgment. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. iii.

LONGUE', a town of France, in the 'department of tlie
Maine and Loire, and chief place of a caiiton, in the dif-
tria of Bau^e ; 10 miles S. of Bauge. The place contains
5003, and the canton 13,935 inhabitants, on a territory of
280 kiliometres, in 17 cominunas.

LoNfll'E, a fmall ifland in the Indian fca ; 10 miles
N. of Mauritius.

LONGUEiL, ClllU.STOiHF.11 DU, in r.lograhhy, born at
Mechlin'in 1488, was natural fon of Antony Jc Loirgned,
billiopof Leon, and chancellor of Anne, queen of Brctagnc.
He was taken to Paris while he was very young, and care-
fully educated in clalFical learning and the fcienccs. After
this he tludied the law, pratftifed in the profeffion, and ob-
tained the place of a counfellor in parliament. He travelled
into Italy, Spain, England, (iermany, and Switzerland, for
the purpofe of improvement. At Rome he made an ha-
rangue before pope Leo X., who highly admired his elo-
quence. He died at Padua, at the age of thirty-four.
His works confift of epiftles and harangues : they were pnb-
lithed at Paris in 1553, with his Hfe, by cardinal Pole. He
"acquired a great reputation among thofe i'cholars in that age
who were ambitious of being the clofe imitators of the ftyle
of Cicero, and were, on that account, termed Ciceronians.
Erafmus bellows great praifes on his genius and acquilitions,
but laments that all the force of his powers fliould have been
devoted to this one objeA.

LoNGUEIL, in Gi-o^ra/^-.atowndiipof Glengary county,
in Upper Canada, being the fccond in aicending the Ottawa
river.

LONGUEVAL, James, in Biography, a learned French
Jefuit, defcended from a family in humble hfe, was born
near Peronnc, in Picardy, in the year 1680. He was edu-
cated in grammar-learning at Amiens, and purfued his ma-
turer ftudies at Paris, where he was foon diftinguidied among
his fellow (Indents by his proficiency in learning. In the
year 1699, he entered into the foeiety of Jefuits, and after
he«had completed his tludies, he taught the belles-lettres
at the college of La Fleche with great applanfe, during
about five years, when he commenced his leftures i'n divinity
and the faered fcriptures. He died in the year 1735, at the
age of fifty-five. His reputation as a writer, is chiefty
founded on his elaborate hiilory of the Gallican church, of
which he lived to publiih eight volumes : thefe bring the
hiilory down to the year 1137. This work difplays pro-
found erudition and deep refearch, and is written in a beau-
tifully fimple ilyle. While he was engaged on this work he
was allowed an annual penfion of 800 hvres by the French
clergy, whole elleem he had fecured by his learned labours,
his piety, and the amiablenefs of his manners. The work,
afterwards completed by fathers'Brumoy and Berthier,made
18 v,>ls 4to. Morcri.

LONGUEVILLE, in Geography, a town of France,
in t.he department of 'the Lower Seine, and chief place of a
canton, in tiie didricl of Dieppe; 9 miics S. of Dieppe.
The place contains 430, and the canton 7875 inhabitants, on
a territory of i3okihometrcs, in 29 communes.

LONGUS, in Bio!;rafhy, author of a romance in Greek
prole, entitled "Pall orals," and relating to the loves of Daph-

L O N

nis and Chloc, is fuppofed tb have lived in the reign of TheO-
dolius the Great. His work is a curious fpecimen of that
kind of compofition in its fimpled form, and is faid to con-
tain many defcriptive beauties ; but fome of its fccncs are
fuch as the lowed modern vvriter would fcarccly venture to
paint. The bed editim is that of Villoifon, Gr. ct Lat. 8vo.
in two vols. Paris 1778.

LoNGUS, Lnng, an epithet given by Anatomjls to a great
number of mufcles, hereby coiitradidinguidied from, brevis.

LoNGUs Colli, prK-dorfo-alloidien of Dumas, is a mufcle
fituated on th* antirior and lateral parts of the bodies of the
three fir'l vertebtcC of the back, and the fix lad ef the
neck. It extends from the body of the third dorfal verte-
bra to th-e anterior arch of the atlas. It is elongated,
broad in the middle, and pointed at the ends. On the
front it is covered by the redlus capitis anti:us, the pharynx,
the carotid artery, the nerve of the eighth pair, and the ocfo-
phagUR. Its poderior fnrface co*ers the lateral portion of
the anterior furfacc of the bodies of the three iird dorfal,
and fix lad cervical vAtebra;, to which it is attached, as well
as to the intervertebral ligaments. It is alfo attached to
the front edge of the tr^nfverie proce(fes of the five lad
cervical vertebras ; and it covers the vertebral artery in
the intervals of tliefe procclfes. The outer edge of the
mnfcle is attached below to the bodies of the two fird dor-
fal vertebrse : here it is feparated from the anterior fcalenus
by an interval in which the vertebral artery and vein are
found. This margin is then fixed to the front of the tranf-
verl'e procelTes of the five lall cervical vertcbrx ; and it ia
unattache-d in the red of its extent. Tlie internal edge is
fixed to the longitudinal line, which may be oblervcd on
the front of the bodies of the two fiid dorfal, and the fix
lall cervical vertebra-. Between thefe bones it is attached
to the intervertebral ligaments. The inferior extremity is
attached to the front and lateral portion of the body of
the third dorfal vertebra : from this point it rifis nearly
parallel to that of the oppofite fide, bccwming larger as far
as the middle : then it gradually decrcafes to the fnperior
extremity. The latter, joined to theoppr.fite mufcle, is at-
tached to the tubercle of the anterior arch of the atlas. It
is rather difficult to develop the dnidure of this mufcle :
its flefliy fibres are placed obliquely between aponeurofes,
fome of which cover the anterior furface, both above and
below, v.ihile others are fituated in tlie fubttance of the mnl-
c!e. Thefe fibres are (hort, although the mufcle itftlf is
long. Its atlion inclines the neck forwards, and rcfids the
cfTarts which might tend to carry it backwards.

LONGUY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Orne, and thief place of a canton, in the
didrict of.Mortagne; 9 miles E. of Morfagne. The place
contains 1917, and the canton 7368 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 210 kiliometres, in 11 communes.

LONGUYON, a town of France, .in the department of
the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the didrlft of
Briey ; 7 miles S.W. of Longwy. The place, in which is
a confiderable iron forge and foundery of cannon, coytains
1532, and the canton 9^09 inhabitants, on a territory of
2377; kiliometres, in 26 commtmes. N. lat. /^9 37'. E.long.

5 40'-

LONGWY, a town of France, in the department of the
Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, inthcdidrift of Briey,
fituated on the Chiers. The place contains 20ll, and the
canton 10,743 inhabitants, on a territory of 2427. kiliometres,
in 35: comnuine.<;. Tliis place was merely a village, (nrrounded
with three ftiarp mountains, on which was built, by Louis
XIV. a new town, fortified by Vaubaii. N. lat. 49' 321'.

E. long-

L O N

L O N

E. lont^. j" ;o'. — Alfo, 3 town of France, iathe department
of the Jura, on the Doubs ; 9 miles S. of Dale.

LONHANKO, a town of the Birman empire ; 65 miles
N. of Munchaboo.

LONICERA, in Botany, well known to every lover of
Britilh poetry by the name of Honeyliickle, or Woodbine,
received its name from Linnxus ; the Lon'icira of Plumier
beiiio- a Loranthus. This name is intended to commemorate
the merits of an old phyfician and naturalilt, who lived
durini; the middle of the fixteeiith century. Adam Lonicer,
a p'avlician at Frankfort, was born at Marbiirp, Oft. loth,
15:8, and died at the age of j8. He publilhed two vo-
lumes folio, in Latin, upon the Materia Medka ; and a
German Herbal, with wooden cuts, which are occafionally
to be met with rudely coloured. — Few plants are more ge-
nerally known, or admired, than feveral fpecies of Honey-
fuckle, whofe beauty is only exceeded by the exquifite deli-
cacy of their fragrancy. Like the riehell exotics they find
a place in every one's fancy, and though as common as al-
moll any other field or hedge plant, they have always been
held in the greatell eftimation. — Linn. Gen. 93. Schreb.
128. Willd.'^Sp. PI. V. 1.9S2. Mart.Mill. Di«. V. j.'Sm.
Fl. Brit. 260. Ait. Horc. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 377. La-
marck Illullr. t. 150. (Caprifohum; Tournef. t. 378. Juff.
219. Gsertn. t. 27 — Periclymenum ; Tournef. t. 37S. —
Chamascerafus ; Tournef. t. 379 — Xylofteon ; Tournef.
t. 379. Juff. 212. — Diervilla ; Tournef. Aft. 1706. t. 7.
f. J. Dill. Gen. App. 154. JulT. 211. — SympUoricarpos;
Dill. Hort. Ekh. 273. Juff. 211. — Clafs and order, Pen-
tiinilna Munngynia. Nat. Ord. jignregatie, Linn. Capri-
fulia, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, five-cleft, fmall. Cor.
of one petal, tubular ; tube oblong, gibbous ; hinb in five
revolutc fegments, one of which is more deeply feparated.
Stam. Filaments five, awl-fliaped, about as long as the co-
rolla J anthers oblong. Pijl. Germen inferior, roundifh :
ilyle threadlhaped, the length of the corolla ; iligma ob-
tufely capitate. Peric. Berry umbilicate, of two cells. Seeds
roundirti, compreffcd.

Obf. The fynonyms above quoted are all referred by
Linnieus and fucceeding writers to Lon'icera, by whom the
generic names of Tournefort and DiUenius are retained for
the fake of dillinguifi-iing the feveral fpecies originally fo
called. We find the following remarks upon their differ-
ences in the Genera Plantarum. — CapiifoUum has the lower
fegm.ciit of the limb feparated twice as deeply as the reft,
and the berries diftinft. — Periclymenum has all the divifions
of the corolla equal ; the berries alio diltinft. — Chamxcerajus
has the lower divifion of the corolla twice as deeply cut,
with two berries feated upon the fame bafe. — Xylojlcen has
the djvifioas of the corolla almolt equally feparated, and twb
berries on the fame bafe. In Symphoricarpos, the corolla is
nearly bell-lliaped ; the fruit fimple, two-celled, feeds fo-
litary.

L. alplgena and csrulea are remarkable for having one
germen tor two florets, as in Mhchclla.

FIT Ch. Corolla of one petal, irregular. Berry infe-
rior, of two cells, w'ith feveral feeds.

Thirteen fpecies of Lon'icera are defcribed in the Species
Pl/intan/m o( L.mnxus, fixteen in the Sy/l. /^-_j. ed. 14, and
twenty by Wiljuenow. The genus is divided into three
feftioiis, from which we have fel^fted tlie following exam-
ples. Some of thefe feftions, as it will appear, compre-
fiend, each of them, more than oneof Tournefort's fuppofed
genera.

•Jeft. I. PericlynKna, ftem twining.

J^. Caprifoltwn, Pale peffoliate lioncyfuckle. Linn.

Sp. PI. 246. Engl. Bot. t. 799. Jacq. Auflr. t. sj;..
— Flowers ringent, whorled, terminal. Leaves deciduous ;
the uppermofl united and perfoliate. — Firft known as a na-
tive of this country from being found by the Rev. Mr.
Relhan at Hinton near Cambridge. It flowers in May or
June. — Stem fhrubby, woody, twining. Branches ncdAy op-
pofite, round, fmootb. Almoll all tlie leaves are combined,
elliptical, obtufe, entire, fniooth, rather glaucous beneath ;
the upper ones in united perfoliate pairs, fomewhat orbicu-
late, accompanying the flowers. Flowers in whorls, fpreaJ-
ing, yellowifli, with a ilefh-coloured tube, very fragrant.
Berries of an orange red, crowned by the almoft entire
calyx.

L. Periclymenum. Common Honcyfuckle, or Wood-
bine. Linn. Sp. Pl. 247. Engl. Bot. t. 800. Curt. Lond.

falc. I. t. 15. Fl. Dan. t. 90b Heads of flowers ovate,

imbricated, terminal. Leaves all feparate, deciduous. Co-
rolla ringent. — Found almoil univerfally in groves and
hedges, flowering in June and July, occafionally in the a.\i-
tmxin.— Ste/n fhrubby, woody, twining. Branches oppofite,
round. Lea-jcs oppofite, on very fhort footilalkj, elliptical,
entire, fometimes pubcfcent, glaucous beneath. Flonuert
in a terminal head, fpreading in a radiate manner, yellowifh-
white, and blufii-colourcd, very fragrant, and more particu-
larly fo early in the evening. Berries red, crowned with,
the five-toothed calyx, bitter, with a fweetifh flavour. —
Dr. Smith obferves that this fpecies is liable to many va-
riations in the different degrees of fmoothnefs or hairineft
of its leaves, fruit, and younger branches ; and that, by the
coaft, its flowers are often quite green. — A remarkable va-
riety fometimes occurj with finuatcd, variegated leaves, called
the Oak-leaved Honeyfuckle.

Setl. 2. Chamacerafa, Stalks bearing two flowers.

L. Xylo/leum. Upright Honeyfuckle. Linn. Sp. PI. 248.
Engl. Bot. t. 916. — Stalks two-flowered. Berries diflinc\.
Leaves entire, downy. — Admitted as an Englifh plant by
Dr. Smith fince the publication of his Flora, on the autho-
rity of Mr. W. Borrer, who found it " growing plentifully,
and certainly wild, in a coppice calked the Hacketts, to the
eaft of Houghton-bridge, four miles from Arundel, SufTex."
It flowers in July. — Stem upright, bulhy, much branched.
Leaves oppofite, on footllalkf, ovate, clothed with foft
hairs, deciduous. Flozvers inodorous, in pairs, on folitary,
axillary (lalks, fhorter than the leaves, yellowifli-white,
tinged with red, downy. Berries oval, red, containing fix or
more feeds.

L. can/lea. Blue-berried upright Honeyfuckle. Willd.
n. 14. Pall. Rofi". v. I. p. I. 58. t. 37. Jacq. Aullr. App.
t. 17. — Two flowers on a ilalk. Berries united, globular.
Styles undivided. — A native of Switzerland, Auflria, Sibe-
ria, and the iflands adjacent to America. It flowers in the
fpring. — Stems three or four feet high. Branches flender,
covered with a fniooth, purplilh bark, /"/oitifrj- white, two
on a flalk. Berries of a beauiiful blue colour, Gngle and
diilipft. — The wood of L. ccirulca is very hard, and hand-
fonuly veined with grey and pale yellow. The juice of the
berry flains paper of a llrong purple colour, and might per-
haps be ufeful in dyeing. — The buds of tiiis flirub fland three
together, one above another, bei;ig provided Icr three years
beforehand. v

Sec\. 3. Stcmereft. Stalks many-flowered.

L. Symphoricarpos. Shrubby St. Peter's-worc. Li:in.
Sp. PI. 249. (Symphoricarpos foliis alatis ; Dill. Elth.
371. t. 278. f. 360.) — Heads of flowers lateral, on fout-
Italks. Leaves nearly feffile. — A native of Virginia and
Carolina, where it flowers in the autumn. — Stem aboyt
four feet hi^h, feuding forth many fleuJer Lrar.chci. Leavfi
3 E 2 oppolitx%

L O N I C E R A.

oppofite, ovate. Ftotvirt in whorls, round the ftalk, fmall,
of a greenifh colour. Berry hollow and flefhy, containing
cartilaginous, roundith feeds.

L. DlervUla. Yellow-flowered upright Honeyfuckle.
Linn. Sp. PI. 249. (DiCrvilla; Dill. Gen. App. 154.
t. 10. Linn. Hort. Cliff. 63. t. 7.) — Heads of flowers ter-
minal. Leaves ferratcd. A native of North America, and
firft introduced into Europe by M. Dicrville, a French fur-
geon, whofe name it IHU commemorates. It flowers from'
May to September. — Stem about three feet high. Bark of
a reddifh colour. Leaves oppofite, (lightly ferrated, pointed.
Floivers fmall, pale yellow, two or three together at each
divifion of the bunch. Berries oval, black, with one hard
feed in each cell. They feldom, however, come to maturity
in this country.

LoNicERA, in Gi7r</fnjn^, contains plants of the deciduous,
flotvering, flirubby, and evergreen kinds ; of which the
fpecies moftly cultivated are, the black-berried upright
honeyfuckle (L. nigra) ; the Tartarian upright honey-
fuckle (L. Tatarica) ; the fly honeyfuckle (L. xylofteum) ;
the Pyrenean upright honeyfuckle (L. Pyrenaica) ; the
red-herricd upright honeyfuckle (L. alpigena) ; the blue-
berried upright honeyfuckle (L. carulea) ; the (hrubby St.
Peter's-wort (L. fymphorirarpos) ; the yellow-flowered
upright honeyiuck e (L. dicrvilla) ; the conmon honey-
fuckle (L. periclymenum) ; the Italian honeyfuckle (L.
caprifolium) ; the trumpet honeyfuckle (L. fempervircns) ;
and the evergreen honeyfuckle (L. grata).

The fecond fort varies in Ihady groves, and other fimilar
fituations, with white flowers.

And the ninth kind has feveral varieties, as the late red,
which produces a greater variety of flowers together, than
either the Italian or Dutch forts, making a finer appear-
ance than either of them during the time of flowering ; but
it has not been fo long cultivated as the latter. This vvas
formerly termed the Flemifli honeyfuckle.

There are alfo fometimes varieties with ftriped leaves.

The Dutch variety may be trained with ftems, and formed
into heads, which the wild fort cannot, the branches being
too weak a;id trailing for the purpofe.

And there are two fub-varieties of it, the long iloiuing,znd
the /ate red, in which the Hems are ftronger, the leaves,
flowers, and heads of berries larger, and the corollas redder
than in the woodbine fort ; the oak-leaved variety has finuate
leaves, cut like the oak, but fniooth.

And there is likewife a variety which has variegated
leaves.

The tenth fpecies has a yellow variety, in which the
ftioots are much fimilar to it, but the bark darker in colour,
the leaves of a deeper green, the flowers of a yellowi(h-red,
appearing a little after it, being not of much longer dura-
tion, but are fucceeded by red berries, containing one hard
feed inclofed in the foft pulp in each, which ripens in the
autumn.

And befides this, fome mention other varieties, fuch as
the early red-flowering, the late red-flowering, and the ever-
green red-flowering.

Method of Culture — An increafe in all thefe plants may
be effeded either by layers or cuttings, but the latter is the
better praftice. The layers fhould be made from the young
ihoots, and be laid down in the autumn or early fpring, the
draggling tops being removed, when, by the following au-
tumn, they will have taken root, and fliould be cut off' from
the plants, being either planted where they are to remain, or
into a nurfery to be trained for ftandards, by fi.\ing down
(lakes to the ftem of each plant, to which the principal
ftalk fliould be fattened, all the others being cut off ; train-

ing each of them to the intended height, when they fhould
be fhortcned to force out lateral branches, and thefe be again
flopped to prevent their growing too long. By conilantly
repeating this as the flioots are produced, they may be
formed into a fort of llandard ; but if regard is had to their
flowering, they cannot be formed into regular heads, as the
conilant fiiortening will deflroy the flower-buds, and prevent
the defired effeft.

In refpeft to the cuttings, they fliould be taken from the
flrong flioots of the former fummer, with three or four
joints, and be placed in rows in a fliady border, to the depth
of two or three of them, a foot apart, and fix inches from
plant to plant. When they have taken good root in the au-
tumn or fpring following, they may be removed into the
nurfery, and be planted out in rows two feet dillant, and
a foot afuiider in them, where they may be kept a year or
two, till wanted for planting out where they are to re-
main.

The eighth fort may be raifed from fuckers, which it af-
fords in plenty, by taking them off, and planting ihem as
above in the autumn in a rather moift foil.

Several of the forts may likewife be increafed by fowing
the feed or berry in a bed of light mould in the autumn, to
the depth of an inch. The plants rile in the tirft ur fecond
fpring ; and afterwards require the fame management as the
others.

In regard to their management afterwards, the only culture
which any of them require, is, in the upright forts, to have
their llraggling flioots fhortened, and the dead wood cut
out ; and thofe trained as climbers, to have their branches
conduAed in a proper manner upon tiieir refpcftive fup-
ports ; and every year all rambling flioots reduced and
trained as may be proper, fo as to preferve them within due
limits and order, except where they are defigned to run
wild in their own rural way, efpecially thofe intended to
climb among the branches of trees, fnrubs, and buflies ; thofe
alfo intended to cover arbours and feats, fliould be pruned
and trained annually, laying the fhoots along to their length,
till they have covered the allotted fpace ; fhorte.-iing or
clearing out all fuch llragglers as cannot be properly trained ;
alfo fuch of thofe forts as are trained againft walls, &c. mull
have an annual pruning and training, by going over them
two or three times in fummer, laying in fome of the moil
convenient proper flioots, fome at their length, fliortening
or retrenching others, as neceflary, to preferve regularity,
and the proper fucceflion of flowers ; being careful to train
enough, at this time, of fuch as appear neceffary to continue
the bloom as long as pofiible ; and in winter pruninu, all
thofe left in fummer, which may appear luperfluous or un-
neceffary, fhould be turned out, fliortening all fuch as are
too long for the fpace allotted for them, efpecially all thofe
with weak ftraggling tops, nailiiig in the remaining proper
branches and ihoots dole to the wall, or other lupport
which they may have.

They may all be introduced with propriety in plantations,
both from the variety of their different growths, and the
ornament and fragrance of their flowers ; lliough the flowers
of the upright kind are not fo fliowy as thofe of tlie trailers ;
but they exhibit an exceedingly agreeable variety. But the
trailing fpecies have the greatelt merit, not only 111 their
numbers, but fize, elegance, and odour, as well as in their
duration. The flirubs of all the forts are, notwithftanding,
proper to be introduced in rtirubberies, the upright kinds to
intermix as ilandards. The trailing kinds, whofe branches
are great ramblers, and, wiihout fupport, trail along the
ground, fhould generally be introduced as climbers, having
(tout (lakes placed to each of them to climb upon, which

they

L O N

LOO

they effefl: by afcending fpirally round the fupport, to a con-
fiderable height ; and -alfo be placed to afcend round the
ftems of trees, and to climb among the boughs of the ad-
jacent bulhes, fhrubs, and hedges, which they effect in a
very agreeable manner, by interweaving their branches with
them. The climbers are likewife proper for training againfl
walls and arbours, &c. for the ornament and fragrance of
their flowers, laying their branches in, four or five inches
afunder ; thinning out the fuperabundant (hoots annually,
and training in fome of the moft robull for fucccffion wood,
either at full length, or Ihortened, as moft proper to fill the
fpace or vacancy that may be wanted to be covered.

The evergreen kinds are principally of the climbing tribe,
and have much effect in their evergreen foliage, and the ele-
gance of their flowers, as well as their long continuance in
blow.

The uncommon beauty, and exquifite fragrance of the
flowers in the ninth fpecies, entitle it to a place in moft forts
of plantations of the ornamental kind. In climbing, it turns
from eaft to \ve\k, in the manner of moft of our climbing
plants ; and in common with them bears clipping and pruning
well ; as in a ftale of nature, thofe plants which cannot af-
cend without the aid of others, are often liable to lofc great
branches ; they have confequently a proportionate vigour
of giowth given them, in order to reftore fuch accidental
damages. It is however fubjecT, when planted near building,
to be injured and disfigured by aphides, which are vulgarly
termed blights ; thele infefts are not very numerous in the
fpring fe:ifon ; but as the fummer advances, they mcreafe in
a very rapid manner ; their firft attacks (liouid, of c^urfe, be
carefully attended to, and the branches on which they firft
fix be cut off and deftroyed, as when they have once gained
ground they are defended by their numbers. Small plants
may however be cleared of them by the ufe of tobacco duft,
or Spanifh fniiff, but this method is not prafticable for large
trees. The leaves of the plants are likewife liable to be
punftured and curled up by a fmal! caterpillar, which pro-
duces a beautiful little moth, the phalasna tortrix. About
the evening alfo, fome fpecies of f phinges or hawk-moths are
often feen to hover over the bloffoms, and with their long
tongues extraft the honey from the very bottoms of the
flowers.

LONICERUS, or Lonicer, John, in Biography, a
learned German, was born in 1499 : after having received a
good education, he became himfelf a profeffor at Marpurg,
where he died about the year 1 ,60. He was author of a
Greek and Latin Lexicon, and pubhlhed an edition of Diof-
corides. Moreri.

LONIGO, or Leonico, in Geography, a town of Italy,
in the Vicentm, feated on a river called Fiume Novo, and
containing feveral churches and monafteries; 14 miles S.S.W.
of Vicenza.

LONKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Po-
dolia ; 44 miles N. of Kaminiec.

LONSCHAKOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Stretenflt.

LONSCHIN, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; 10 miles S. of C".lm.

LONS-LE-SAULNIER, a town of France, and prin-
cipal placeof adiftrict,i:i the department of the Jura, formerly
eelebrctted for its falt-works, but now diicontinued. The
place contains 6041 , and the canton 14,999 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1 12^ kiliometres, in 23 communes. N. lat. 46'
40'. E. long. 5 38'.

LONTARUS, in Botany, Rumph. Amboin. v. i. 45.
t. 10. Juff. 39. Gsertn. t. 8, a barbarous name of Rum-

phius for the Borajus Jlabelliformis of Linnaeus. See Bo-

RASSUS.

LONT-CHOUDSONG, in Geography, a town of
Thibet ; 35 miles N.N.E. of Laffa. N. lat. 29' 58'. E.
long. 92 14'.

LONTHOIR, a town of the ifland of Banda, in the
Eaft Indian fea.

LONTOU, a town of Africa, in Galam, on the Sene-
gal ; 60 miles S.E. of Galam.

LOO, a town of France, in the department of the Lys ;
fix miles S S.E of Dixmude.

LOOBOE, or LoEBOE. See Loeboe.
LOOCALLA, a town of Congo, on the Zaire; 90
miles W. of St Salvador.

LOOCHRISTI, a town of France, in the department
of the Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift
of Ghent. The place contains 3056, and the canton 14,432
inhabitants, on a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 7 com-
munes.

LOODUERA, a town of Bengal ; i 1 miles S. of Ro-
gonatpour.

LOOE, a fmal! ifland near the coaft of Cornwall ; two
miles S.E. of Looe.

Lode, Eajl, a borough and market town in the parifli
of St. Martin, hundred of Weft, and county of Cornwall,
England, is fituated at the mouth of the river Looe, 12 miles
from Plymouth, and 233 weft from London. It is moftly
built on a flat piece of ground, having 'the river on the wef^
and the fea on the fouth. The ftreets are narrov.-, and the
houfes built with flate. The port is protefted by a fmall
battery and breaft-work. The town was incorporated by
queen Elizabeth in 1587; the government is vefted in a
mayor ard nine burgeffes, who jointly eleft a recorder. Two
members have been returned to parliament ever fince 13 Eli-
zabeth ; the right of eleftion is in the mayor, burgeffes, and
freemen ; in number about fifty. In the furvey taken in
1801, Eaft Looe was found to contain 126 houfes, and 467
inhabitants, who were chiefly fupported by the pilchard
filhery, and the trade connefted with the port. Four annual
fairs are held, and a weekly market on Saturdays. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ii.

Looe, IVeJl, originally named Portpigham, a borough and
market town in tiie parifti of Talland, hundred of Weft, and
county of Cornwall, England, is alfo fituated at the mouth
of the river Looe, and is connefted with Eaft Looe by a
ftone bridge of fifteen arches. Weft Looe formerly .was
much more confideiable in point of trade, &c. than Eaft
Looe ; it now prefents a long ftreet of mean irregular houfes,
with a fmall town-hall, anciently a chapel, and a few other
buildings on the brink of the river. This borough, as well
as the adjoining one, received its firft charter of incorpora-
tion from queen Ehzabeth, vefting the government in a
mayor, and twelve burgeffes, who with the freemen, in the
whole about ^o, eleft two members of parliament. In the
population return for 1801, Weft Looe was ftated to confill
of 82 houfes, and 376 inhabitants. A fair is held annually,
and a market every Saturday. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. ii.

LOOF, or as it is ufually pronounced, Luff, a term ufed
in condnig of a' ihip. Thus,

Look up- is to bid the fteerfman keep nearer to the wind.
Loot-' into a harbour, is to fail into it clofe by the wind.
Loof, to fpring the, or luff, is when a ftlip that was going
large before the wind is brought clofe by the wind.

When a fliip fails on a wind, that is, on a quarter-wind,
they fay to the fteerfman, keep your iuffl veer no more J keep

hir

LOO

LOO

Zvr to! touch the wint! ! havt n cars tf the he-latch I All
which words fignify much t!ie fame thing, and bid the man
at the helm to keep the fliip near the wind.

LooF ofajhlp, denotes the after-unrt of a (hip's bow ; or
tliat part of hpr fide forwurd wlnre the planks begin to
be incurvated into an arch, as they approach the ftem.
Hence, the guns which lie here are called loof-pieces.

L.oot'-hooi, in a Ship, a tackle with two hooks to it, one
of which is to hitch into the crenglc of tlie main and fore-
fail, and the other is to hitch into a certain (trap, which is
fpliced into the cliefs-trce, :ind fo down the fail. Its ufe is
to fuccour the tackles in a large fail, that all the ftrefs may
not bear upon the tack. Sometimes alfo it is ufcd when the
tack is to be feized the furer.

Loop-/<7i,-i/c, or 'Lvi'V-taci/e, a large tackle, larger than
the jigger-tackle, but fmaller than thofe which hoill the
heavier materials into and out of the vefl'el, fuch as the main
and fore tackles, the (lay and quar-ter tackles, &c. ferving
to lift all the fmall weights in or out of the (hip, and other-
wife varioufly employed as occalioii requires.

Loop, or Loop, a corn-meafure at Riga, equal to 397S
cubic inches ; of which 4324 arc equal to ten Englilli quar-
ters.

LOOHOGGO.in Geography, one of the fmaller Friendly
ijftands, furrounded by a reef of rock.^. S. lat. 19^ 41'.
E. long. 185° 36'.

LOOJAMA, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Timor. S. lat. 8' 27'. E. long. 126 ' 18'.

LOOKING Glass, a plain polilhed glafs fpeculum, or
mirror, to one fide of which a plate of tin-foil is made to
adhere by means of quickfilver ; which being impervious to
the light, reflefts its rays, and fo exhibits the images of
objcdls placed before it.

In confequence of this conllruftion, the looking-glafs
makes a double refleftion of every objeft, viz. one from
the upper furface, which is the weakeit, and another from
the under furface, which is contiguous to the tin-foil.
When a perfon ftands juft before the glafs, the two reflec-
tions coincide, and he perceives one image ; but if he ftands
oblique, as at A, (Plate IX. Optics, fg. 10.) and views the
reflection D, of an objeft B C, lituated on the other fide,
he will then perceive two images, -ji-z^ one caufed by the
upper, and the other caufed by the lower furface of the
glafs E F. If the objeft B C be very luminous, fuch as a
lighted candle, then the eye at A will perceive a great fuc-
ceffion of candles at D, gradually decreafinj; in fplendour ;
the caufe ot which phenomenon is, that the ftrong relleftion
from the under furface of the glafs is again refiefted from
the upper furface, and this again by the lower, &c.

The theory of looking-glaflcs, and the laws whereby they
give the appearance of bodies, fee under Mirkok.

L.00KiSG-glnJps, the manner of grinding and preparing, is as
follows: —a plate of glafs is fixed to a horizontal table of
free-itone or wood, of about tlie fanvj fize, and cemented
to it by Paris plalter ; and to another Ien"er table is fixed in
•the fame manner another plate. Over the firft plate is
fprinkled fine fand and water, in a fufficient quantity for the
grinding, and the fecond or lefs plate is laid on it ; and thr.s
worked this way and that way, till each has planed the
other's furface. Thefe plates are made to rub againii: each
other evenly and fteadily by a kind of hand-mill, the wheel
of which is wrought by a man, or if the plates be large by
.two men, who regulate the preffure as they think proper.
As they begin to become fmoother, finer fand is fucccflively
lifed. When one fide of the plate is finidied, the plafter
that ccmeated :t is picked off, and the plate turned, fo

that the other fide may be ground in the fame manner. To-
wards the clofe of the operation of grinding, the preffure is
incivafed by loading the upper plates with flat ftones of
different tliickneffcs. This procels falls about three days,
and it is of great importance that the fin faces fhould be ptr-
feftly flat and parallel, which is aetcrmiiied by the ruler and
plumb-line. In order to complete this procefs, emery of
different fineneflcs is ufed, and great care is taken iu fcpa-
rating and forting them, 'i'his is done by putting into a
vefiel of water a quantity of rough emery, and well ilirririg
it ; the coarfeft particles will fink to the bottom, and the
finer will be held fufpendcd for fome time by the fuper-
iiatant liquor. This liquor is poured off, and after fome
time, about 20 minutes, the finer particles will fiibfide.
More water is then added to the vellel, and- the emery flirrcd
again; and after remaining at reil about 15 minutes, the
fiipernatant liquor is poured ofi ; and this by red furniflies
an emerv of the fecond degree ot fiiienefs. The fame opera-
tion is repeated twice more at the different intervals of about
five minutes and half a minute ; by which two other forts
are obtained. The wet emery obtained from all thefe
liquors is feparably heated over a ftove to evaporate the
water, and when nearly dry, is made up into balls tor the
further operation. The plates are then ground on both
fides with two or three emcrys, beginning with the coarfeft,
and finilhed with great care. They are how perfeftly
even, and the fcratches, which after the firll operation
remained and rendered them almofl opaque, difappear. (See
Grindjn'G.) For the method of poliihing looking-glaffes
and mirrors, we refer to the article Polisjilng.

The plates being polilhed, a thin blotting paper is fpread
on a table or marble flab ; and fprinkled with fine powdered
chalk ; and this done, over the paper is laid a thin lamina
or leaf of tin, on which is poured mercury, which Is to be
equally diftributcd over the leaf, with a hare's foot or cot-
ton. Over the leaf is laid a very thin fmooth paper, of
which the kind called fan-paper'fis bell, and over that the
glafs plate. With the left hand the glafs-plate is preffed
down, and with the right the paper is gently drawn out ;
which done, the plate is covered with a thicker pap.r, and
loaden with a greater weight, that the fuperfluous mercury
may be driven out, and the tin adhere more clolely to the
glafs. When it is dried, the weight is removed, and the
looking-glafs is complete.

Some ufe an ounce of mercury with half an ounce of
marcafite or bifmuth, melted by the fire ; and left the mer-
cury evaporate in fmoke, pour it into cold water; and
when cold, fqueezc it through a cloth or leather. Some
alfo add a quarter of an ounce of lead and tin to the mar-
cafite, that the glafs may dry the fooner. For more par-
ticular direftions in the conduft of this operation, fee

SlI-VEKING.

In the Phil. Tranf. N" 24 J, we have a method oi foliating
(fee Foliating) globe lookiiig-giaffes, communicated by
fir R. Southwell. The mixture is of quickfilver and bif-
muth, of each three ounces, and tin and lead, of each half
an ounce ; to the lall throw in the marcafite, and afterwards
the quickfilver ; ftir them well together over the fire ; but
they mull be taken off, and be towards cooling before the
quickfilver be pnt to them. When the mixture is ufed,
the glafs (liould be well heated, and very dry ; but it will
do alfo when it is cold, though bell when the glafs is
heated.

Mr. Boyle's method, which he prefers to any which he
ever met with in prist, is tliis : take tin and lead, of each
on€ part, niclt ihem together, aud immediately add of

good

LOO

LOO

j^ood tin-glafs, or bifmiith, two parts ; earc-fully (kirn off the accidental variations of the temperature of the air at
the drofs ; then take the crucible from the fire, and before different parts, producing great irregularilies in its refrac-
the mixture grows cold, add to it lo parts of clear quick- tion, efpecially near the horizon. Accordingly the rare-
filver, and having ftirrcd them well together, keep tlie fluid faiflion of the air in the neighbourhood of the furface of
in a new clean glafs. When you arc going to ufe it, firft water, .of a building, or of the earth itfdf, occafions a
purge it by itraining it through linen, and gently pour diltant obj-'ft to appear depreffed indcad of being elevated,
ibme ounces into the glaf-i to be foliated through a narrow and to be fometimes feen at once both depreffed and ele-
paper funnel, reaching almoft to the glafs, to prevent the vated, fo as to appear double, one of the images being
liquor from flying to the fides. After this, by cextroully generally in an inverted poGtion, as if the furface poffeffed-
inchning the glafs every way, endeavour to faften it to the a reflective power ; and there feems to be a confiderable ana-
internal furface ; which done, let it reil for fonie hours ; logy between this kind of refraction and the total reflection
then repeat the fame operation, and fo continue at times, which happens within a denfer medium. See F.vta Mor-
till the liquor is flowly pafftjd over, and equally fixed to tiie ^ana.

L,0OM-Qak, a gentle, eafy gale of wind, in which a (hip
can carry her top-fails a-trip.

LOOMAKA, in Geography, a town of Bootan ; 28
miles S. of TaH'afudon.

LOON, in Ornithology. See CoLYMBUS gladalls, and
CoLVMBVS yfuritiis.

LOONENBURG, in Geography, a town of Green
county, New York, near the city of Hudfon.

LOONGHEE, a town of the Birman empire, on the
■ " " " ■" ■ ■ of

■whole fuperficies ; which mav be difcerned by expofiiig the
glafs to the eve between that and the ligli'. Boyle's works
abr. vol. i. p. I 29.

For the method of blowing and cafiing glafs, and the
choice of the materials for looking-glafles, fee Glass.
Lo')KiN-G-G/i*/f, Venus' s, in Botany. See Cami-anl'LA.
LOOKNAPOUR., in Geography, a town of Hinduollan,
in Onde ; 15 miles S.W. of Kaiiabad.

LOOK-OUT, Cape, a cape on the coaft of North
Carolina, being the fouthern part of a long, infulated, and Irawaddy, which has a celebrated temple; ^J miles N
narrow drip of land. E. of Core Sound. Its N. point Prome. N. lat. 19 42'.

forms the S. fide of Ocrecoch inlet, which leads into Pam- LOONPOUll, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 40
lico Sound; N.E. of Cape Fear, and S. of Cape Hatteras, miles E. of Juna^^ur.

in about N. lat. ^4 50'. Its excellent harboiu- has been filled LOOP, in the Iron IVoris, is a part of a fow or blocl
up with fand fince thr year 1777 — .-inother cape, of the of call iron broken or melted off from the reft, and prepared
fame name, lies on the fouthern coaft"of Hudlon's bay, in for the forge or hammer. The ufual method is, to break
New South Wales, E.S.E. of the mouth of Severn river, off the loopof about three quarters of a hundred weight.
N. lat. 56^ W. long. 84 . This loop they take up with their ilinging-tongs, and beat

Look-out, in Sra Language, denotes a watchful .atten- it with iron fledges upon an iron-plate near the fire, that fo
tion to fome important object, or event, which is expected it may not fall to pieces, but be in a condition to be carried
to arife from the prefent fituation of a fliip, &c. It is under the hammer. It is then placed under the hammer,
principally ufed when there is a probabiHty of danger from and a little water being drawn to make the hammer move
the real or fuppofed proximity of land, rocks, enemies, but foftly, it is beat very gently, and by this means the
&c. There is always a look-out kept on a fhip's forecalUe drofs pnd foulnefs are f>-.rced off, and after this they draw
at fea, to watch for any dingerous objects lying near her more and more water by degrees, and beat it more and
track ; the mate of the watch accordingly calls often from more till they bring it to a fourfquare mafs, of about two
the quarter deck, looi out afore there J to the perfonS ap- feet long, which they call a bloom,
pointed to this fervice. Falconer. Loop, in Rural Economy, the hinge of a door or gate.

LOOKSEENGAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; See Gate.
3^ miles N.V/. of Ramgur. Loor-Z/ofo, in Sea Language, are holes made in the

LOOL, m Metallurgy, a veffel made to receive the coamings of the hatches of a ihip, to fire mufkets through
wafhings of ores of metals. The heavier or more metalline in a clofe fight.
parts of the ores remain in the trough to which they are
Vv-afhed ; the lighter, and more earthy, run off with the
water, but fettle in the lool.

LOOM, in Geography, a town of Norway ; 60 miles
S.E. of Rrmfdal.

LOOPHEAD, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, in the •
county of Clare, being tiie north point of the mOuth of the
Shannon. On this headland is a lighthoufe. N. lat. ^2*
30'. W. long. 9 ^o'.

LOOPING, in Metallurgy, a word ufed by the miners
Loo:.!, the weaver's frame ; a machine whereby feveral of loine counties of England, to exprefs the running toge-

diftintt threads are woven into one piece,

Looms are of various llructures, accommodated to the
rarious kinds of materials to be woven, and the various
itiariners of weaving tht.m ; via,, for woollens, filks, linens,
cottons, cloths of gold ; and other works, as taptftry, rib-
bands, (lockings, &c, divers of which will be found under
their proper heads. See Weaving. >

The weaver's l<jom-engine, otherwife called the Dutch
loom-engine, was brought into uie from Floiland lo London,
in or about the year 1676.

Loom, Neir, in Lqiu. See HEIR-Zoom.

Loo.M, at Sea. If a fhip appears big, when at a diftance,
they fay (he looms, or appears a great fail ; the term is alfo have retained, though we much fufpect it to have been ori
ufed to denote tlie indiffintl appearance of any other diltant ginally an error of the prefs ; but liaving nothing Letter to
cbjedts. guide us, we leave matters as we fintj them. It is pity fo

The mod remarkable phenomena of this kind, depend on fine a genus ihould not have a certain or intelligible appella-

6 > tion.

ther of the matter of an ore into a mafs, in the roafting, or
firit burning, iniended only to calcine it fo far as to make
it fit for powdering. This accident, which gives the mi-
ners fome trouble, is generally owing to the continuing of the
fire too l-jug in this proccis.

LOOSA, in Botany, a name which originated with
Adanion, but of whofe meaning or derivation we find no
account, except that it has been fuppofed intended to com-
memorate fome Spanifli botanill, of whofe merits or nar!-.e
nothing elfe is known. Adanfon writes it Lcuja, in J he is
followed by Jacquin and the French botaiiills. LiniiKUS,
Murray and Schreber ufe tlie above orthograjiiiy, which we

LOO

LOO

tion. Linn. Syfl. Nat. ed. 12. v. 1. 7,64. Syft. Veg.
ed. 14. 494- Schreb. 360. (Loafa; Ada"f. v. 2. 501.
Jacq. Obi. fafc. 2. 15^ t- 3^- Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1176.
Mart. Mill. Did. V. 3. JulT. 322. Lamarck Dift. v. 3.
758. Loaza ; Lam;'.rck lUuHr. t. 426.) — Clafs and order,
Polyandria -Monogyma. Nat. Ord. Onagris affine, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth almoft entirely fuperior, of five
lanceolate, fpreading, permanent, equal leaves. Cor.
Petals five, large, obovate, hooded, fpreading, equal, atte-
nuated at their bafe into flender claws. Nedary of five
leaves, alternate with the petals, approximated in the form
of an acute cone, each rather (horter than the petals, lan-
ceolate, corrugated, awned with a double britUc. Stam.
Filaments numerous, capillary, in parcels of from i j to 17
oppofite to each petal, longer than the nedary ; anthers
incumbent, roundilh. Pijl. Germen fomewhat ovate, more
than half inferior ; ilylc thread-fliaped, ered, the length of
the flamens ; lligma fimple, obtufe. Perk. Capfule turbi-
nate, of one cell, opening \yith three valves at the top,
which are hjlf-ovate, acute, finally fpreading. Seeds nu-
merous, ovate, fmall. Receptacles three, Unear, longitu-
dinal.

Etr. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Nedary of
five leaves alternate with the petals. Capfule half-inferior,
of one cell, three valves at the top, and many feeds.
• Obf. This genus is, as Jacquin obferves, nearly akin to
Mentxelia.

I. L. /}i/piJa. Lamarck t. 426. fig. I. (L. urens ;
Jacq. Obf. fafc. 2. 15. t. 38.)— Very briftly. Leaves al-
ternate, doubly pmnatifid. Edges of the calyx-leaves revo-
lute.- Gathered by Dombey, in fandy ground in Lima.
The root is annual, fibrous. * Stem ered, from one to three
feet, or more, in height, (lightly fubdivided, leafy, round,
befet with innumerable, horizontal, tawny, briftles, which
are obfervable, more or lefs, in all the fpecies. Lamarck
has found each of thefe briilles to be furnifhed with a flight
bag at its bafe, and thence he reafonably concludes that the
plant ftings like a nettle, whofe venom is lodged in fimilar
bags. Thefe ftings are, in the plant we are defcribing, in-
termixed with fine down. Leaves alternate ; the lower ones
ftalked ; the reft feffile ; all doubly pinnatifid, more or lefs
deeply, two or three inches long, fomewhat briftly, downy
beneath ; their divifions and teeth irregular and obtufe.
Floiuer-Jlalks fcattered, generally oppofite to the leaves, fo-
litary, fimple, fingle-flowered, briftly, above an inch long,
deftitute of bradeas. Flowers large, handfome and very
remarkable, above an inch wide. Petals yellow, briftly on
the outfide, concave. Neaarles white, dotted with red and
green. Stamens at firft ered, then lying in five tufts upon
the petals, confpicuous for their dark anthers. This plant
dries remarkably well, and has the appearance of being very
(howy when growing. AVe never heard of this or any other
fpecies being cultivated in Europe, but they would doubt-
lefs fucceed with the fame treatment as the Calceolaria
plnnata.

2. L. contorta. Lamarck n. 2. t. 426. fig. 2 — Stem
twining. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, fomewhat runcinate,
toothed. Capfule twifted. — Gathered by Jofeph de Juffieu
in Peru. One of his fpecimens is figured and defcribed by
Lamarck, with a weak twining/cm, two fei^t or (probably)
much more in height, moderately briftly. Leaves oppofite,
ftalked, about three or four inches m length, pinnatifid,
briftly, iharply toothed or cut, their loweft pair of lobes
longeft and moft reflexed. Flowers on long axillary fimple
ftalks, yellow.

3. L. acaiiihifoUa. Lamarck n. 3. (Ortiga chihenfis
urens, acanthi folio; FeuiU. Peruv. v. 2. 757. t. 43.) —

10

Leaves oppofite, pinnatifid, lliarply toothed ; the upper ones
fcflile. Calyx reflexed. Petals with two terminal teeth.
Gathered by Fenillee in a valley in Chili. Stem fix feet
high, briftly, branched, hollow. Leaves oppofite, re-
fembling thofe of Argemone mexicana, nine or ten inches
long, and fix broad, deeply pinnatifid, with numerous,
fharp, briftly teeth ; the lowermoft ftalked, the reft feffile.
Floiuers large, ftalked as in the foregoing ; their petals dark-
green and briftly at the outfide, bright red within ; neilary
yellow, ftriped with red. No one but Feuillee feems to
have known this remarkable fpecies.

4. L.. grandijlora. Lamarck n. 4. — " Leaves oppofite or
alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart-ftiaped, lobed ; hoary be-
neath. Petals flattiih." — Gathered by Jofeph de Juffieu in
Peru. We have never feen a fpecimen of this. Lamarck
defcribes it as remarkable at firft fight for the glaucous
hoarinefs of the under-fide of its leaves, ajid the great fize
of it3 Jlowers, which, when expanded, are at leaft three
inches broad. The herb is very briftly. Leaves about three
and a half inches long, two and a half wide.

5. L chenopodifoUa. Lamarck n. 5. — Leaves fcattered,
ftalked, ovate, cut and toothed. Flowers drooping, in ter-
minal, fimple, fomewhat leafy, clufters. Fruit oblong, very
briftly. Gathered in Peru, by Jofeph de Juffieu, whofe
fpecimens were defcribed by Lamarck. We have one ga-
thered in moift fitnations in Lima, by Dombey. The root
is fibrous and annual, as^ probably, in the whole genus.
Stem 12 to 15 inches high, ered, flightly branched, roughifli
with deflexed hairs. Leaves an inch or two long, one broad,
few, ovate, bluntly pointed, varioufly toothed, rough with
fmall denfe briftles. Floiuers drooping, in a long, loofe,
terminal clufter, with a few fmall leaves about its lower part,
rather fmall, yellow ; the nedary apparently reddifti. Fruii
oblong, pendulous, befet with long, prominent, denfe, rigid
briftles.

6. L. nitida. Lamarck n. 6. — Stem procumbent. Leaves
oppofite, palmate, cut and toothed ; ftiining above ; downy
beneath. Fruit turbinate, briftly. Gathered by Dombey
in ftony ground in Lima. The _y?f;n appears to be weak
and procumbent, forked, leafy, downy, lefs briftly than in
fome of the former. Leaves palmate, heart-diaped and
three-ribbed at the bafe, varioufly jagged and toothed ;
nearly fmooth and ftiining above, finely downy beneath ;
with a few fcattered briftles on both fides. The lower
leaves ftand on downj Jlalis ; the upper are nearly or quite
feffile. Floiuer-Jlalks from the forks of the ftem, rather long,
downy. Germen .turbinate, downy, clothed with reflexed
briftles, but far lefs denfely than the laft-defcribed. Calyx-
leaves broad and large. Dombey fays, " the nedaries are
very fmall, three-cleft and white, with three purple briftly-
pointed appendages, on the outfide, at their bafe."

Spc'cimens of thefe two laft, gathered by him, are pre-
ferved in the Linnaean herbarium.

LOOSE, To, in Sea Language, is to unfurl or caft loofe
any fail, in order to be fet, or dried, after rainy wea-
ther.

l^OOU'E.- Strife, in Botany. See Lysimachia.

L,OOSE-Jri/e. Podded. See W ILLOVl -herb.

hoosE-Jrife, Purple and Spiked. Sec Lythrum.

'L.OOSE-Jlrife , Virginian. See Gaura.

Loose Style. See Style.

LOOSED RECHT, in Geography, a town of Holland ;
8 miles S. of Naarden.

LOOSEMORE, Henry, in Biography, a bachelor of
mufic in the univerfity of Cambridge, 1 640, and organift,
firft of King's college, -nd afterwards of the cathedral of
Exeter. He compofed feveral fervices and anthems, ex

ojicio.

LOP

LOP

ff^de, for thefe . choirs ; but we believe tliey were never
printed, or adopted elfewhere. A perfon of the fame name,
a lay finger or organift of Exeter cathedral, is faid ta have
built ,the ornfan, which was erefted in that church at the re-
iloration ;of which inflrument, the largeft pipe of the open
diapafon was 32 feet ; which exceeded in magnitude that of
any other organ in the kingdom.

LoosEMORs, George, bachelor in mulic, of Trinity
college, Cambridge. Great muficians are but few in every
part of Europe, except Italy and Germany, where the
courts and capitals are fo numerous ; but njf^/Zijirri// produces
many muHcians everywhere.

LOOSENED. See Uooi'-loofcned.

LOOT, a weight in Holland, 32 of which are equal to
lib. of commercial weight, and 24 = lib. of apothecaries'
weight = -Jib. troy.

LOP, in Rural Economy, a term fignifjing to prune or
cut away.

Lop Kent-chlan, in Geogra!>h\', a motintain of Thibet.
N. lat. 30' 14'. E. long. 8/" 5-4'.

LOPARY, a town of Hindooilan, in Benares; 10 miles
S. of Jionpour.

LOPES, Fernam, in Biography, the mod ancient of
the Portuguefe chroniclers, and laid to be one of the bed
writers of chronicles that any country can boafl. He was
private fecre'ary to the infante D. Fernando, who died in
captivity at Fez, afterwards became chief chronicler, and
keeper of the archives. He died in 1449. He was author
of the chronicles of Pedro I., of Fernando, and of Joam I.
to the conclufion of peace with Caftile. The chronicles of
the earlier kings are varioufly attributed to him, or to Ruy
de Pina, in whofe name they are publifhed. The chronicle
of Pedro was edited in i 734 by P. J. P. Bayam, and was
reprinted in 1760. That of Fernando, which is longer and
more valuable, Was never been publifhed. A manufcript
copy of the work is in the hands of Mr. Southcy. The
molt important of all his writings is his chronicle of Joam,
which is the hiilory of the grand flruggle be:;ween Portusjal
and Callile, towards the dole of the fourteenth century.
" No pains," fays the biographer, " were fpared to render
it as complete as poflible, neither on the part of the hiftorian
himfelf, nor of the king Duarte, by whofe command this
hiftory of his father was written. The monarch fent into
Callile to cojfeft documents, and the chronicler, indepen-
dently of the inform.ation which he had received at court
from perfons who had borne a part in the councils and ac-
tions of thofe times, v/ent over the whole kingdom to collect
tellimony from all the aftors in the wars, which he recorded.
This was firll publifhed in 1644, foon after the Braganzan
revolution ; never was a publication better timed ; never was
any book better calculated to roufe a nation by the example
of their fathers, and encourage them to rcfift thofe enemies
whom their fathers, under like circumftances, had con-
quered. It is a truly excellent and admirable work. With
the great advantage of finglenefs and wholenefs of fubjeil,
it has all tiie manners, painting, and dramatic reality of
Froiflart, conveyed in a nobler language, and vivified by a
more patriotic and more poetical mind." Gen. Biog.

LOPESCO, in Gjography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Ultra; ig .miles S.W. of Aquila.

LOPEZ, Gregorio, in Biograph)', a celebrated Spanilh
lawyer, was born at Guadalonpe, towards the clofe of the
fifteenth, or 'commencement of the fixteenth century. He
edited the laws of Aionfo the Wife, known by the title of
*' Las Siete Partidas," and added a commentary, which has
been retained in moll of the fubfequent editions, and is in-
cluded in the laft. Lopez ftudied Et SalaroanCa, and was

Vox.. XXI.

one of the royal council of the Indies. The time of his
death is not known : Jiis epitaph in St. Anne's chapel, in
tiie monaftery of Guadalonpe, fays, in the Portuguefe lan-
guage :

" Here lies the licentiate Gregorio Lopez, a native of
this place. Pray to God for him.'' Gen. Biog.

LOPEZIA, in Botany, dedicated by Cavanilles to the
memory of " the' Licentiate Thomas Lopez,"' a native of
Burgos, who had an honourable appointment in America in
the reign of tl;e emperor Charles V., and is faid to have
written a compendium of natural hiftory, after his return ;
which flill remains in manufcript, under the title cf a
Treatife on the three elements of air, water and earth.
Cavan. Ic. v. i. 12. 'Vahl. Enum. v. 1.3. WiUd. Sp.
PI V. I. 18. Ait. Hort. Kew. cd. 2. v. i. 10. Lamarck
Did. V. 3. 594. — Clafs and order, Monandr'm Manogyn'ia.
Nat. Ord. Onagrit, .luff. See Sims and Konig's /uinals
of Botany, v. i. J32.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of four oblong, con-
cave, coloured deciduous leaves ; three of them afcending ;
the fourth, rather the largeft, pointing downwards. Gor.
irregular. Petals four, fpreading, longer than the calyx ;
the two uppermoft oblong, ere6t, parallel, with a gland at
the bafe, and fiipported by cyhndrical claws ; two lateral
ones fpatulate, widely fpreading. Neftary obovate, folded,
on a bent elaftic ftalk, parallel to the lower leaf of the
calyx. Slam. Filament one, awl-fliaped, afcending, oppofita
to the nedlary half as long as the upper petals ; anther ter-
minal, ovate, fimple, of two cells, embraced in an early ftate,
by the folded limb of the neftary. Pi/l. Germen inferior,
nearly globofe, fmooth ; ftyle thread-lhaped, fomewhat de-
clining, as long as the ftamen ; ftigma capitate, downy.
Perk. Capfule globular, of four cells, opening at the top
by four valves. Seeds minut», ovate, numerous. Receptack
fquare.

Efl". Ch. Calyx fuperior, of four unequal leaves. Co-
rolla irregular, of four petals. NeClary ftalked, folded,
oppofite to the ftamen. Capfule of four cells and four
valves. Seeds numerous.

1. L. hirfuta. Hairy Lopezia. Dryandr. in Ait. Hort.
Kew. n. I. Jacq. Coll. Suppl. v. 5. t. 15. f. 4. (L.
mexicana/3; Wilid. Sp. PI. n. i.) — Leaves o%'ate, downy.
Stem round, hairy. — Native of Mexico. Mr. John Hunne-
Tnann obtained feeds from Germany, for Kew gai'den, in
1 796. The plant is annual, kept in the ftove, and flowers
from September to November. We procured fpecimens m.
1797 from the Cambridge garden. The ^tv« is two or
three feet high, branched, pale green, clothed with longifti
foft hairs. Leaves alternate, ftaiked, ovate, pointed, mi-
nutely toothed, an inch or an inch and half long, of a
bright light green, clothed on both fides with fhort fofc
hairs ; thofe near the flowers fmall and feflile. Cluftert foii-
tary at the end of every little branch, fomewhat corvmbofe,
ieafy ; their partial ftalks capillary, fimple, fpreading, co-
loured, fmooth. Flowers fpreading, prettily variegated
with pink, deep red,' and white, in ihape~iiot unlike fome
fort of little flies. When touched, they exhibit a ftriking
elafticity, if not irritability, in the manner in which the
neftary on one hand, and the ftamen on Uie other, fly front
the piftil.

2. L. racemofa. Smooth Lopezia. Cavan. Ic. v. i. 12.
t. 18. Curt. Mag. t. 254. (L. mexicana a ; Willd. Sp.
PI. n. I.) — Stem fquare, fmooth, as well as the leaves. Floral
leaves minute. — Native of Mexico. The firll feeds that
arrived in this country, were fent in a letter from Madrid in
1791, by the Abbe Cavanilles to the writer of the prefent
article, and produced plants at Kew and Chelfea the follow.

3 F ing

LOP

ing year, which bloomed abundantly in the autumn, and
were much admired. This fpccies differs from tlie former
chiefly in its fmoothnefs, and the fquarensfs of its Jhm.
In other refpcfls they are very much alike, efpccially in the
Jloiucrs and inllorefcence, fo as to have been generally
thou<rht varieties. We are indeed by no means certain, that
the ifem of the lurfata is not frequently angular, in fome

degree. . a , r>

^. L. corotiata. Coronet-flowered Lopezia. Andr. Ke-
pof." t. CJI. Dryandr. in Ait. liort. Kew. n. j.— Leaves
fmooth and flnning. Stem angular, from the decurrent
footftalks. Floraf leaves molUy longer than the flovver-
ftalks.— Nafive of Mexico. Meffrs. Lee and Kennedy are
faid to have introduced this fpecies in 1S05, wliich is marked
as a hardy annual in Hort. Ke%v. It differs from the laft
ill being of more luxuriant growth, with larger floral kayss,
the wliole foliage being of a deeper more fhining green.
•We are much inclined to fufpeft thefe differences to have
arifen from differences of treatment, and that tlie fading of
the lateral petals, as they advance in age, may be attributed
to the adlion of flrong funfliine. S.

I.OPHANTHUS, from Xofo;, a crej, andavSt.-, afozver,
is the fnecilic name of a fpecies of Hj-fopus ; fee that article.
Forfter' has ufed it to defignate a genus of his own, in his
G»i:ra Plantarnm, of the native country of which, or of us
form, habit, or duration, he has faid nothing, except that it
is next akin to IValther'm ; neither does any mention of it
occur, as far as we can lind, in his fubfequent works. We
prefume therefore he found he had made a miftake, but we
fubioin his characlers of the genus. Forft. Gen. t.^14.
JufT. 427. Lamarck Did. v. 3. 594. lUuflr. t. 143.-
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogyn'ta. Nat. Ord. Celum-
Tilfira, Linn.? IncerU fedis, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
in five fraall, equal, acute fegments, permanent. Cor.
Petals five, fpatulate, fpreading, roundifli, with flender up-
right claws the length of the calyx. Siam. Filaments five,
awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla ; anthers fomewhat in-
cumbent. P'ljl. Germen fuperior, oblong, conical, hairy ;
ftyle fhort, cylindrical, nipple-like, flightly club-fliaped ;
iligma {lightly cloven. Perk, of one cell, clothed with
long hairs. Seed folitary, ovate, covered, fmooth, m the
bottom of the calyx.

I . L. tomentofus. The only fpecies mentioned.
LOPHIA, in Anatomy, a term for the upper part of the
cervix, or back part of the liuman neck.

LOPHIUS, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of tifhes «f the
order Branchioitegi : the generic charader is as follows :
head deprelfed ; many fharp-pointed tpeth ; tongue broad
and armed with teeth ; eyes on the upper part of the head ;
noilrils fmall ; gills three; one lateral aperture; peSoral
fins placed on the long branch'as ; dorfal and anal fins oppo-
fite, and near the tail ; body fcalelefs. covered with a thin
lax fliin; vent in the middle ; no lateral line. The fifhes of
this genus are of a iingularly uncouth appearance ; the body
being thick and fhapelefs ; the head exceffively large, and
the fins fliort and broad.

Species.

P1SCAIORIUS. This has various Englifh names, as the
European or common angler, frog-fifh, toad-fifh, fifhing-
frog,'fea-devil, Ac. Body depreffed ; head rounded. The
ufual length of this fpecies is from two to four feet, though
it is fometimes found fix or even feven feet long. In its
form it has a referablance to that of a tadpole. The fkin
of the trunk is fmooth, but that of the upper parts marked
by various inequalities. The eyes are large and whitifh ;

LOP

the lower jaT» is confiderably longer than the upper. There
are lome thread-like procefTcs that proceed from the upper
part of the head, and fome fhorter ones from the back, bat
the edges of the body are fringed at intervals with fhorter
appendages of a fomewhat fimilar nature. The upper fur-
face is brown, with deeper or paler variegations, and the
under furface is whitifh. The frog-fifh inhabits the Eu-
ropean feas ; fwims flowly ; lies in ambufli, in fliallows,
half-concealed by fea-plaiits or mud, and decoying its prey
by moving its worm-like procefTcs. According to the de-
fcription given by Baffon the two long beards or filaments
placed immediately above the nofe are fmall in the begin- -
ning, hilt thicker at the end, and anfwer the very fingular
purpofe of a fifliing-line, to which ufe the animal converts
them. This property of thofe filaments is referred to by
Pliny and other Maturalifts, who far, " with tliefe extended,
the fifliing-frog hides in muddy waters, and leaves nothing
but the beards to be feen : the curiofity of the fmaller filh
brings them to view thefe filaments, and their hunger induces
tliom to feizf the bait ; upon which the animal in ambiifh
inflantly draws in its filaments with the httle fifh that had
taken the bait, and devours them without mercy." It is
faid if th? bowels of the fifhing-frog are taken out the body
will appear tranfparent ; and if a lighted candle be fubfti-
tuted for the intellines, as in a lanthorn, the whole lias a
very formidable appearance. This fpecies feeds on dog-rifh
and other fmaller fifhcs. The "cornubienfis,' or cormfli, or
long-angler, or fifhing-frog of Mount's bay, which has
been taken as a feparate fpecies, may be regarded only as a
variety.

Barbatl's. Body depreffed ; lower jaw bearded. It in-
habits the feas cf Northern Europe ; is between three and
four feet long, and is a very voracious fifh.

Vespertilio. Body depreffed ; head roftrate : an inha-
bitant of the American ocean ; the body is reddifh, broad
before, narrowed behind, and covered with radiate, fharp,
patelliform tubercles ; beneath with fmall prickles; in its
mode of catchioij its prey it refemblcs the L. pifcatorius.

HisTRiO ; Harlequin angler, or American toad-fifh ; is
of a comprelTed form ; of a yellowifh-brown colour, with
irregular fcliekifh fpots, and beards on the head and body.
This, which is one of the moil grotefque and fingular of
fifhes, is found in the American and Indian feas, and is a moft
curious and remarkable filh. It js about a foot long, and
its ventral fins refcmble fhort arms. It has been aflerted,
though on very doubtful authority we fufpect, that in-
flances have been known of thefe fifhes living three days
without water.

Striatos. Body comprefTed, brown ; marked all over
with num.erous black ftreaks : is fou:id on the coaft of New
Holland.

PiCTUS. Body comprefTed, brown, with yellowifh
blotches edged with red ; inhabits the fouthern ocean ; ten-
dril on the nofe forked at the end.

Marmoratus. Body fubcompreffed, livid, varied with
whitifh and ferruginous fpots, dorfal fin fingle ; tendril at
the nofe three-cleft at the end. Native of the Pacific ocean ;
obfervcd about the coatt of Otaheite, &c.

MoNOPTEKIGIUS. Body depreffed, blackifh, beneath
whitifh ; fin above the tail almofl erecl, ramofe. It inha-
bits the feas of Aullralalia. It is not quite agreed where
to place this very fingular fifh ; it has no fin except the
lobate one jufl above the tail ; the eyes are vertical, ap-
proximate, and far behind the fnout-: the body is ronndifh,
a little tapering to both ends, and the tail at the end cf the
body rounded.

MuRicATVs ; Depreffed angUr : defcribed firfl by La
8 Ccpede,

LOR

Cipede, under the name « Lopliie faiijaj :" body flat, orbi-
cular, and covered with numerous fmall tubercles tipped
with divided or radiated fpines ; hind part contratting fud-
denly, covered with funilar fpines, and terminated by the tail
fin, which is of a moderate fize, and (lightly rounded ;
pedoral fins larsre, and fituated lower than tliofe in the com-
mon an^jler. It is about four inclies in length.

LOPO, in Gsography, a lake of Thibet, about iS miles
long and nine broad. N. lat 42" 20'. E. long. 89' 52'.

LOPPED Milk, in Rural Economy, fuch as has flood
till it becomes four and curdled.

LOPPEN, in Geography, a fmall idand in the North fca,
near the coall of Lapland. N. lat. 69" 43'.

LOPPING, in Rural Economy, the operation of cutting
off the lateral or other branches of trees. Mod eld trees
are found hollow within, which frequently proceeds from the
fault of thofe who have the management of them, by fuffer-
ing tlie tops to gro.v too large before they are lopped ; and
this is common in the afh, elm, hornbeam, &c. It is done
in order to have more great wood ; but the cutting off great
tops often endangers the life of the trees, or wounds them,
fo that they yearly decay more in their bodies than the an-
nual value of the tops ; hence it is to the lofs of the owner
to have them fo managed ; and though the hornbeam and
elm will bear great tops, when the body is little more than
a ihcll, the aili, when it comes to take wet at the head, and
decays, rarely bears any more top. When timber trees of
thi-i kind begin to decay, they ftiould be cut down as foon
as poflible.

But the lopping of trees at ten or twelve years old, in
general, preferves them much longer, and occafions the
ihoots to grow more into wood in one year than they do m\
old tops in two or three. As great boughs, ill taken off,
fpoil trees, they.iliould always he taken off clofe and fmooth,
and not in a flanting manner, as is a common prailice. The
wood fhould be covered with loam and horfe-dung mixed, or
fome of Mr. Foriyth's compofition, to prevent the wet from
entering the bodies of the trees, and deitroying them by
bringing on the rot.

When trees are at full growth, the fitjns of their decay
are the withering or dying of many of their top branches,
and the wet entering at fome knots, or their being otherwife
hollow or difcoloured; alfo by their making but poor ihoots,
and the woodpeckers making holes i;i them.

The above method of lopping of trees is only, however>
proper for pollard-trees ; nothing being more injurious to
the growth of timber trees than lopping or cutting off great
branches from them. Miller obferves, that whoever wiil be
at the trouble of trying the experiment upon two trees of
equal age and fize, growing near each other, by lopping or
cutting off the ilde branches from one of them, and futfer-
ing all the branches to grow upon the other, will in a few
years find the latter to exceed the former in growth in every
■way, and not decay nearly fo focn.

It is generally recommended not to prune timber trees at
all ; and, where they naturally grow ilraight and regular,
they are much better let alone. But all common fat;!ts in
(i-.ape may be regulated by lopping them while young, with-
out any ill confequences to the timber.

The very large foreft trees fnould not be lopped at all, ex-
cept in cafes of great necelTity, a:>d then orjy the fide
branches iliould be removed, which muft be done as clofe to
the trunk as poffible. The mofl proper feafons for the per-
formance of this fort of bufinefs are thole of the very early
autumn and fpring months, in moft inftances.

It may be obferved that moit forts of refi.ious trees, or (uch

LOR

as abound with a milky juice, (hould be lopped very fparirg'.
ly, as they are fubjeil to decay when often lopped, or cut
•ver in their branches. The bed feafon for lopping thofc
kinds of trees is the latter end of fummer, or beginning of
autumn ; they thep feldom bleed much, and the wounds are
commonly healed over before the weather fcts in to be bad
and fevere.

But very few forts of ornamental trees fliould be much
lopped, as it greatly injures their beauty and appearance.
The only thing neceffary is to take off fuch ftraggling
branches as may grow out in an awkward or improper di-
rection, and render them Icfs ornamental. See Pkuxixg o/"
trcis.

LOPPIS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Nyland ; 36 miles N.N.W. of Helfingfors.

LOPSCHENSKOI, a town of Ruflla, in the govern-
ment of Archangel, on the coaft of the Wliite fea; 60 miles
W. of Archangel.

LORA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville^
eight miles N.'of Carmona.^ — Alfo, a town of Chili, on a
river of the fame nam.e, which runs into the Pacific ocean,
S. lat. 34° 46'; 105 miles S. of Valparaifo.

LORAH, a town of Hindooilan, in Baliar ; 25 miles
W.S.W. of Rotangur.

LORANCA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; eight
miles S. of Hucta.

LORANGA, a rirer of Africa, which runs into the
ftraits of Mozambique, 8. lat. 17^30'.

LORANTHUS, in Botany, from Xi-j-oi, ajlrap or /hcnj,
and 04/70,-, ajlower, alluding to the long linear (hape, and
leathery fubftance, of the petals. Linn. Gen. ijj'. Schreb.
233. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 232. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3.
.Tulf. 212. Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 594. lUuilr. t. 258.
Jacq. Amer. 97. (Lonicera; Gosrtn. t. 27.) — Clafs and
order, Hexandria Monogyiiia. Nat. Ord. ^ggregaU, Linn.
C af'nfolia, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cah Perianth fuperior, a fmall, concave, en-
tire rim. Cor. Petals fix, oblong, revoiute, equal. Slam.
Filaments fix, awl-(haped, growing at the bafe of the
petals, the length of the corolla ; anthers oblong. Pifl.
Germen inferior, oblong, crowned with the permanent
calyx ; ftyle fimple, as long as the ftan ens ; fligma obtufe.
Pcric. Berry oblong, of one cell. Seeti oblong.

EIT. Ch. Germen inferior. Corolla lix-cleft, reyolute.
Stamens at the tips of the peta's. Berry fingle-feeded.

Obf. L. curopiiis differs from the other Ipecies in hav-
ing dioecious flowers, and L. p'nlar.drus in having its flowers
five-cleft half way dowr, with five ttamens.

Loranlhus con(\A.i oi parafitical ilirubs, which are chiefly
tropica], and many of them extremely beautiful. Linnsus
enumerates eleven, in his fourteenth edition of the Sy7. V:g.
and Willdeaow has twenty-fix, feme of which are ado;;ttd
from Swartz. Lamarck a'fo, as he himfelf juftly afferts,
has made us acquainted with feveral new fpecies not before
known, and many have bren found fince in New Holland,
which will doubtlefs be defcribed by Mr. Brown. — The
leaves in the whole genus are oppofitc, coriaceous or flelhy,
and entire, rarely veiny. Infloitfcence lateral, compound,
motlly racemofe or fomewhat corymbofc. Petals long, co-
hering in an early (late, fo as to form an apparent tube, their
colour generally red, orange or yellow. The following may
ferve to illu'lrate the genus.

L. europsus. Limi, Sp. Pl. 1672. Jacq. Auftr. t. _;c.
— Chillers fimple, ter.minal. Fli»wtrs dioecious.— Found ai
a parafite upon oaks, in Aullria, Hungary, and Moravia,
alfo, according to Palhs, in Siberia. It bears flowers in
Apjil and May, and perfeds its fruit in Oftober. Stnm
3 F 2 very

LOR

1, O R

very much brancheJ and forked, often four feet long,
mooth. Barh brown, tliick, tubercled, flightly allringent,
and turning \Yater red in which it has been macerated.
Wood whitifti and brittle. Leaves oblong, obtufc, entire
or emarginate, deciduous when the fruit is ripe. Floiueri
delicately fragrant, yellowidi-green, in fome plants alto-
gether barren, in others all of them fertile. Berry of a
jellovv colour. This plant has much the habit and appear-
ance of our Mifletoe, Vi/cum album, and is very remarkable
in its genus for being found in cold climates.

L.. hniceroieks. Linn. Sp. PI. 473. (IttiCanni; Rheed.
Mai. V. 7. ^^. t. 29.) — Flower.s in an aggregated head, often
pentandrous. —This is a native of groves in Afia. — A very
handfome fpecies, whofe branches are long and flexuofe.
Lea-ves, ovate-lanceolate, ihickilh, entire, fmooth, veined,
bluntifli. Flowers about five in a duller, fcflile, tubular,
yellow, downy withinilde. Stamens generally five. Fruit
round, greenilh-yellow, containing a fmall, white nut, which
bas a bitter flavour.

'L.corymbofus. Lamarck Dift. v. jj. 599. ( Lonicera
corymbofa ; Linn. Sp. PI. 249. Periclymeiiuni foliis acutis,
.floribus profunde difTeftis ; Feuillee Peruv. v. 2. 760. t. 45.)
— Corymbs axillary, oppofite. Leaves . ovale, icute.
Flowers quadrangular, with four petilsv and four ftamens.
— Native of Chili, from whence we have a fpecimen, by
favour of Mr. Menzies, which enables us better than Feu-
illee's figure to underftand ti.e fpecies. — ThcJIowcrs are of
a blood red, with yellow ftamens. By the hill mentioned
author's account this feems not to be parafitical. It is ufed
for dyeing a fine black colour.

L0RANTHU.S, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the
exotic kind for the (love, of which the Ipecies cultivated is,
the American !oranth:is (L. Amcricanus.) Its branches
are fubdivided, leafy, fmooth, pale green, brittle, and the
leaves pale with red flowers.

This plant ramps over the higheft trees in Jamaica, &c.
efpecially the coccoloba grandifolia, with the root adhering
firmly to the bark like mifletoe,

Ilethoei of Culture. — This plant may be incrcafed by fow-
ing the feeds, as foon a: they are fully ripened, in pots of
light rich earth, being kept in a mild hot-bed until the be-
ginning of the autumn, when they mull be plunged in the
bark hot-bed of the Hove, being afterwards treated as other
tender plants of the fame kind.

It affords variety in flove colleftions.

LORARII, among the i?om<-iHj, officers whofe bufinefs
it was, with whips and fcourges, to compel the gladiators
to engage. The lorarii alfo puniflied flaves who difi;beyed
their mailers.

LORBUS, or Lekb.a, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the country of Tunis, anciently called " Laribus Ca-
lonia;'' 10 miles W.S.W. of Tuberlak.

LORCA, anciently called CHocrota, a town of Spain, of
confiderable fize, in Murcia, fituated very near the confines
of the kingdom of Granada, at the foot of a ileep moun-
tain, confining almoft wholly of fchift, and denominated the
Sierra del Cano, on the right bank of the Guadalentin. It
lies at the entrance of a fine rich country, abounding with
trees, particularly olive and mulberry, fertilized by the
above-mentioned river. The town had formerly a callle
advantageoufly fituated on the top of the mountain, which
■was ftrong under the Moors and under the kings of Caliile;
but it is now in ruins. Lorca is now much larger than
it was under the Moors, by whom it was taken in 714; it
is divided into the upper and lower town, the former being
the old pa-t on the declivity of the hill formerly occupied
by the Moors, and the latter, which is more modern and

3

better built, (lands altogether on level ground ; it has four
gates and fevcral fqu;u-es, and two iuburbs, and its extent
is fufiicient to accommodate l2,coo perfons. The popula-
tion of Lorca is computed at about 30,000 inhabitants,
partly noble of ancient families, and devoted to agriculture,
and partly very poor : intermixed with the other inhabitants
are feveral wandering vagabonds, called Gitanos or gypfies.
Lorca has at prefent a collegiate chapter, eight paridi
churches, feven monalleries, two nunneries, two hofpitals,
one for men and the other for vifomen, and a college for the
inllruiSioii of youlli. It is governed by a corregidor, and
twenty-four regidors, who form the principality ; it has a
manufafture of ialt-pctre, but has no kind of commerce.
Some of the produce of the country is taken from it, par-
ticularly filk and kali ; but this trade is carried on by
foreigners^ efpecially the French, who are fettled here.
The town fufl'ered much in i 8c2 by an inundation from a
large bafon or lefervoir, which had been condrudled of an
Immenfe fize in order to water the whole of its adjacent ter-
ritory. This bafon being undermined, the water ni(hed
from it with ftich impetuolity, that it wholly dellroyed one
of its fuburbs, confilling of about 600 boules, and feveral
public buildings, and extended its dellrnctive ravages to an
extent of 16 leagues, fo that the number of people who
perifhed was ellimated at 6000 and the animals at 24,000.
The whole lofs was eflimated at 200 millions of reals, or
about 2,083,333/. fterling. Lorca is diftant 42 miles W,
from Carthagtna. N. lat. 37' 38'. W. long. i''.

LORCH, a town of Germany, the inhabitants of which
chiefly fubfill by cultivating vineyards and making wine;
24 miles W.N.W. of Mentz.

LORCHAUSEN, a town of Germany, feated on the
Rhine ; 27 miles W. of Mentz.

LORD, a title of honour attributed to thofe who are
noble, either by birth, or creation ; and veiled with the
dignity of a baron.

The word is of Saxon origin, and primarily denotes a
bread-giver, alluding to the hcfpitality of our ancient no-
bles: it is formed, according to Camden, from hlaford,
afterwards written loford; a compound of hiaf, bread, and
ford, to fupply, afford.

In this fenfe, lord amounts to the fame with peer of the
realm, lord of parliament.

Lord is alfo applied to thofe fo called by the courtefy of
England ; as all fons of a duke or m.irquis, and the eldtft
fon of an earl.

LoKD is alfo an appellation given to divers perfons honour-
able by office ; as loftl chief juftice, lord chancellor, lord of
the treafury, admiralty, &c.

Loud is alfo a title fometimes given to an inferior perfon
who has a fee, and confequenlly the homage of tenants
within his manor.

For bv his tenants he is called lord, and in fome places,
for diftiiiction fake, land-lord.

It is in this laft fignification that the word lord is prin-
cipally ufed in our law-books, where it is divided into lord
paramount, and lordmefne.

Loud Meftte, is he that is owner of a manor, and by
virtue thereof hath tenants holding of him in fee, and by
ct>py of court-j-oll ; and yet holds himielr of a fuperior lord
called lord paraviount.

We aifo read of very lord, and very tenant.

Loud in Grofs, he who is lord, not by reafon of any manor,
as the king in rLfpect of his cro^n, &c.'

Very Lord, is lie who is immediate lord to his tenant ;
and very tenant, he who holds immediately of that lord.

So

LOR

So that wliere there is lord paramount, lord mefne, and
tenant ; the lord paramount is not very lord to the tenant.

Lord Hi^h-Atlmh-al of England, is one of the great
officers of the crown, whofe trull and honour arc fo great,
that it was formerly feldom given, except to fome of the
king's youngeft fons or near kinfiaen.

To him i'^, by the king, entnifted the management of all
maritime alTairs, as well in reipeft to jurifdiftion as protec-
tion ; with the government of the Britiih navy ; and a
power to decide all controverfies and caufes maritime, as
well civil as criminal ; fiich as happen either on our coafls,
or heyond fea, anKjng his majedy's fubjefts.

T" him alfo belong fuch wrecks aiad prizes, as are called
lagon, jelfoii, i^nA Jlotfan ; that is, goods lying in the fea,
floating, or call afliore, excepting in fuch royalties as are
granted to other lords of nianors, &c. with all great fillies,
called royal Jill, except whales and fturgeon ; a (liare of
prizes in the "time of war, and the goods of pirates and
felons condemned.

The lord high-admiral has under him many officers of
high and low condition ; fome at fea, others at land ; fome
of a military, others of a civil capacity ; fome judicial,
others miniftcrial.

This great office is now ufiiallv executed by feven com-
miffioiiers, who are ftyled lords of the admiralty : one is called
the firft lord, with a falary of 3000/. a-year, the others have
looo/. a-year each. Under thefe there are a fecretary and
deputy-fecretary, and ftveral inferior clerks. See Lord
High Admiral of England.

in the court, called the court of admiralty, all proce.Tcs
ilTue in his name, not the king's, as they do in a'l other
courts ; fo that the dominion and jurifdlclion of the fea may
jurtly be ftyled another commoni^ealth or kingdom apart,
and the lord high admiral the viceroy of the maritime
kingdom.

He hath under him a lieutenant, or deputy, who is judge
of the admiralty, commonly a doctor of the civil law. See
Court of Admiralty.

Lord Privy-fsal has his office by patent : before the
30th o-f Henry VIH. he was generally an ecclefiaftic ; fince
which, the office has been ufually conferred on temporal
peers, above the degree of barons.

The lord privy-feal, receiving a warrant -from the iignet-
oflice, ilTues the privy-feal, which is an autliority to the lord
chancellor to pafs the great feal where the nature of the
grant requires the Seal ; which fee. But the privy-feals
for money begin in the treafury, from whence the firlt war-
rant iffues, counterligned by the lord treafurer. On the lord
privy. feal are attendant four clerks, who iiave two deputies
to adl for them.

Loud Stituard of the King's Houfhold. is the principal of-
ficer for the civil government of the kmg's iervants below-
ftairs ; over the officers of which he has jurifdidion.. See

HOUSHOLI).

He is confVituted by the delivery of the white ftaff, which
is etteemed his commiffion. By virtue of his'officc, without
any other comn.iffion, he judges of all offences committed
within the court, or the verge therecf ; and gives judgment
according to their feveral deferts. See Court.

At the death of the fovereign he breaks his ftaff over
therrave in which the royal corpfe is depofited, and thereby
difcha'-ges all the officers under his power.

Lord Advocate. See Advocate.

Lord High-Tnafurer. See Tre-VSureh and Hous-

KOID.

LOR

LoLD Chamber,
Loud Great Ch

■lain of the HovJJjold.' \
hamberlain of En"latid. )

See CiiAMEtR*
.N and HoL'S-

HOLD.

See CjiancelloR,

Lord High-Chancellor of England.
and Court of Chancery.

Lords of the Bed-Chamber, are fourteen in number, under
the lord chamberlain. iSee Bkd-CIIAMBer, and Housuolb^

Lords, Houfs of. See Peers.

Lords ofSi/Jlon. See Session'.

Lords of the Treafury. See Treasury.

Lords Lieutenants of Counties, arc officers of great diflinc-
tion, appointed by the king for the managing of the Handing
militia of the county, and all military matters therein. They
are fuppofed to have been introduced about the reign of
king Henry VIIL, for they arc mentioned as known oiacers
in theftatute 4 and 5 Ph. & M. c. 3. though they. had not
been then long in ufe ; for Camden fpeaks of them, in the
time of queen Elizabeth, as extraordinary magiftrates con-
ftituted only in times of difficulty and danger.

They are generally of the principal nobility, and of tlie
beft intereft in the county : they are to form tlie mihtia ia
cafe of a rebellion, S;c. and march at the head of them, as
the king fhall direft.

They have the power of commiffioning colonels, majors,
captains, and fubaltern officers ; alfo to prelent the king
with the names of deputy-lieutenants, who are to be felecled
from the beft gentry in the county, and act in the abCence o£
the lords-lieutenants.

Subfervient to the lord-lieutenants and deputyjieutenants,
are the juilices of peace; who, according to the order they-
receive from them, are to iffuc out warrants to the high and
petty-conftables, &c. for mihtary fervice, &c.

Lord's Day. See Sunday.

Lord Howe's Group, in Geography, a clufter of ifTands
in the Pacific ocean, difcovered by captain Hunter in the
year 1791. Thirty-two of thefe iflands were diilinftly
counted from the maft-head, and ihey lay at fuch a diftance^
as to afford reafon for fuppofiiig that thoy were mere nunie-'
rous. Some of the natives, who appeared in a boat, were
clean, ftout, well-formed perfons, of a dark copper-colour;
their hair was tied in a knot at the back of their head, and
they feemed to have fome method of taking off their beards,
of which they were dellitute ; but they had an ornament, con-
fifting of a number of fringes, like an artificial beard, which
was faftened on between the nole and mouth, to which hung
a row of teeth, fo that they appeared as if they had a fecond
mouth lower tlian their natural one ; they had alfo pieces of
reed, or bone, thruft into holes in the fides of the nofe,. and
paffing through the feptuni ; their arms and thighs were
tatto.ved, and fome were painted with red and white ftreaks j
and their middle wns covered with a wrapper. Their canoe,
whicii was badly conftruaed, had an out-rigger, and was
about forty -feet in length. Thefe iflands appeared- to be
very thickly covered with wood, among which tlie cocoa-nut
was very diflinguifliable. S. lat. 5' 35^. E. long. 159*
24'.

LORDOSIS, from XofSor, lent inwards, in Surgery, an
incurvation of the back bone ; or, a curvature of tUefpiner
forwards.

LORE, in Geography, a town of the principality of
Georgia, in the province of Karduel ; 65 miles N.E. of
Erivan. *

LOREDO, or LoKEO, a fee of Italj-, in the'Venetiaa
Dogada, near a canal of the Adis;e, anciently called •' Laii—
return Venctum." It is the principal place of a diiLncl,.

and.

LOR

LOR

and coHtains about 2300 inhabitants; so miles S. of
Venice.

LOREMBERG, a town of tlie county of Goritz ; 7
miles E. of Goritz. .

LORENTE, Andres, in Biography, a Spanifli writer
in raufic, and author of a book, now become very fcarce,
infitled " El porqiie del la Miifica," in which are contained
the four arts of plain-fong, figurative mufic, or proportion
of time or miafure, plain coimterpoint, and cotnpofitions.
Printed at Alcala in 410. 1672.

This is truly a very ancient treatifc, which defines and
explains the whole art of miific, as far as it was known at
the time it was written. See Wo;tG.\M, Dr.

LORENTZ, in Geograph\<, a town of PruGia, in Sam-
land, near the B;dtic ; 24 miles N.W. of Koniglberg.

LORENTZEN, St., a town of the duchy of Stiria; 8
miles N.E of VViiidifch Grat/,.

LORENZAGO, a town of Italy, in the Cadorin ; 7
miles N.E. of Cadora.

EORENZINI, Fran'cis Maiua, in Biography, an emi-
nent Italian poet, was born at Rome in 16S0. He was
educated among the Jefuits, and in his twenty-focond year
was received into their fociety. but quitted it again within a
few montiis, on account of ill-health. He was much at-
tached to literature ; but he was obliged, by the fcantinefs of
his means, to apply to fome profeffion for his neceffary
maintenance. He engaged in that of the law, which he
praftifed with fucccf:, for a fhort period, after which he de-
voted himfelf entirely to letters. He entered into the aca-
demy of the .Arcadi, the chief objeiSl of which was the reform-
ation of the bad tafte which had infefted Italian poetry.
The founders of this fociety propoled the llyle of Petrarch
as a model, in oppofition to the affefted and conilrained
diction of Marino and others. Lorenzini did not quite ap-
prove the method of Petrarch, but borrowed fome of the
force of freedom of Dante, and thus excelled his contem-
poraries. He is faid alfo to have excelled in melodramas,
or pieces on religious fubjedls, adapted to being fung,
written in the Latin language. In the contell between
Crefcembini and Gravina, which divided the members into
two parties, Lorenzini adhered to that of Gravina, which
was the niinority ; he would not, however, agree to the
propofal to found a new academy, and after a lucceffion of
three years, he was admitted among the old Arcadi. He
was now, from an inattention to his domeftic concerns, faUen
into a (late of indigence, and, as evils rarely come fingly, he
had fuffered much from fome calumnious reports. Being
obliged, on litis latter account, to appear before the prefect
of the city, he fo completely jultihed himielf, that this
magiftrate, Falconeri, to fhew the ellimation in which thf
poet was held by himfelf, gave him a place in his houfholJ.
He now felt himfelf elevated above the misfortunes of life,
and with a line flow of fpirits fpent a part of every day in
writing verfes. In thefe he difplayed an enthuiiafm of con-
ception, and a loftinefs of language, which diftinguifiied him
among his contemporaries. He has been denominated the
Michael Angelo of Italian poets, on account of the boldnefs
and energy of his expreflions. To excite wonder and admi-
ration, he confidered as the peculiar office of poetry, whence
he became an enthuliaftic admirer, and almoll perpetual
reader of the Hebrew poets, which never failed to infpire
him with rapture. He had a great paffion fr.r the fcience
of anatomy, and had made, in conjundlion with an eminent
furgeon at Rome, fome new obfervations, which they meant
to have pubiilhed as the refult of their united labours, but
which were furreptitioully ftolen from them- In 1728,

Lorenzini was chofeii prcfident of the academy, and fliewej
his fitnefs for the office by feveral remarkable ads. H*
founded five academical colonies in the neighbouring towns,
and inftitutcd a private weekly meeting of the Arcadi, at
which the plays of Plantus or Terence, in the original lan-
guage, were performed by youths trained for the purpofe.
Thefe exhibitions were frequented by feveral pcrfons of rank,
and were favoured by pope Clement XII., who often fent
confiderable funis to Lorenzini to defray liis expeiices.
B-'ing deprived by d'ath of his friend Falconeri, his circum-
itances were again deranged, and he was relieved, in this in-
llancc, by cardinal Borghefe, who enrolled him among bis
noble domeftic^, and paid him liberally without requiring
any fervice. In 174 1, he difcontinued his theatrical exhi-
bition?., retired to apartments in the Borghefe palace, where
he applied to letters with more affiduity than ever. He
wrote much Latin and Italian poetry ; but his chief lludies
were diretted to the facred writings. In the midft of his
employments, he died in June 174J. He was faithful and
liberal, and his houle was open to young men who were
defirous of improvement. His Italian poems are few, but
of great excellence. He publiflled the lives of t\Vo of the
Falconeri family. Gen. Biog.

LORENZO, in Geography, a fmail ifland in the Pacific
ocean, near the coaft of Peru. S. lat. 1 1'' 4'.

LonEN'zo, St., a town of Illria, and capital of a diftrift ;
9 miles N.N.E. of Rovigno. N. lat. 4^;' 16'. E. long.

13' 52'-

LouF.N'ZO t!e Borucas, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Colta Rica ; 6j miles S. of Carthago. N. lat. n^* 15'
W. long. 84^ 6'.

Loitij.N'zo, St., a town of South America, in Brafil, and
government of Fernambuco. — Alfo, a town of Naphs, in
Bafilicata ; g miles N E. of Venofa.— Alfo, a town of
N.iples, in Capitanata ; 3 miles S.E. of Lefina. — Alfo, a

town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ; 8 miles W. of Bova.

Alfo, a town of Campagna di Roma, near the fea-coaft ; 8
miles E S.E. of Oftia. — .^Ifo, a town of P;iraguay ; 270
miles ,S E. of AfTumption. — Alfo, a river of Sicily, which
runs into the fea, on the W, coa'l, N. lat. 38''. E. long'.
12° 40'. — Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Nevr
Bifcay; 8j miles N.W. of Parral. — Alfo, a town of Italy,
in the Polefme di Rovigo ; 2 miles S.W. of Rovigo.

Lorenzo ds Pecurlcs, St., a town of Now Mexico, on
the Bravo ; 4^ miles N. of Santa Fe.

Lorenzo cl Real, St., a town of Spain,, in Old Callile ;
26 miles S, of SejMvia.

Lorenzo, Cape St., a cape on the coaft of Peru, in the
province of Quito, W. of the city of that name. S. lat.
o" 20'. W. long. 80° 2o'.

LORETI, II Cav.\lier Vittorii, in Biography, ae-
cording to Adami, was a foprano finger in the papal chapel,
1622 ; one of the firil evirati employed in mufioal dramas
on the ftage, at the beginning of operas ; and a celebrated
compofer of Arib a Can/ate ila Camera ; which fee.

LORETTO, in Geography, a fmall, indifferently built,
walled town and bifhop's fee, in the marquifate of Ancona,
in Italv, confining chiefly of one (Irect within the walls,
and another without as a fuburb, containing 7000 inha-
bitants, pleafantly fituated on an eminence, 3 miles from the
fea-fhore, 17 S. of Ancena, and 160 j N.E. of Ro.me. It
is principally famous for tlie holy houfe, or Casa Sanla ;
which fee.

LoRBTTO, a fmall village of Chriftian Indians, j leagues
N.E. of Quebec, in Lower Canada ; deriving its name from

a chapel,

LOR

LOR

a chapeT, built according to the model of the Santa Cafa at
Loretto in Italy ; from whence an image of the holy Virgin
has been fent to the converts here, fimilar to that in the
famous Italian fanctuary. Thefe converts are of the Huron
tribe.

Loretto, Lady of, a place in the diftrift of St. Dennis,
on the ifthmus of California, called by the Indians " Ca-
neho ;" in which is a fmall fort, ereftcd by the mifiionaries,
conlilling of four baftions, and furrounded by a deep ditch.
In this jurifdldlion are fifteen parifhes, including 4000 pro-
fefling Indians, under the inilruftion of Dominican friars.

LoKETTO, or Loreto, a town of the ifland of Corfica ;

7 miles N E of Porta Alfo, a town of New Mexico, in

the province of Mayo ; 105 miles E.N.E. of Santa Cruz. — -
■ Alfo, a town of South America, in the province of Buenos
Ayres ; ^aoo miles E. of Corrientes. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the government of Majos, on the Mar-
mora ; 50 miles S. of Trinidad.

Loretto, Order of,^ in Heraldry, an order of knight-
hood, inllituted by pope Sixtus V. in 1587, confirmed by
pope Paul III., and abolished by pope Gregory XIII.
The knightsr wore, pendent to a ribbon at their button-hole,
a linall gold medallion, enamelled with the image of the
virgin of Loretto.

LORGUES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Var, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Dragiiignan ; 6 miles S.W. of Draguignan. The
place coniains 4923, and the canton 10 S20 inhabitants, on
a territory of 302; kiliometres, in 6 communes.

, LORI, in Ornithology. See Psittacus Andioinenfts.

LORICARIA, in Natural H'ljlory, a gems of fifhes o^
the order abdominales. The generic charaiHer is, head
fmooth, depreffed ; mouth without teeth, retraftile ; gill-
men-ibrane U.\.-rayed ; body mailed, hence its name. Ac-
cording to Gmelin, there are but two fpecies ; but Dr.
Shaw defcribes feven, which we fliall enumerate in their
order.

Species.

GosTAT.\ ; Ribbed loricaria. Yellowifh-brown, mailed
by a finglc row of fhields on each fide, with ^forled tail.
This filli, in its general habit, refembles a fpecies of the
filurus, the mouth being furniflied with long cirri, and the
firft rays of tlie dorfal and peiSoral fins ierrated ; the head
is large, depreffed, covered with a rough bony fhield, pro-
jefting on each fide the thorax into an exceedingly (Irong
and obtufely pointed fpine of confiderable length ; the whole
body, from the thorax, is ftrongly mailed along each fide
by a continued feries of very broad bony plates or fcales,
each of which projefts in the middle into a fiiort hooked
fpine or curved procefs ; the upper and under parts of the
body> from the fmall dorfal fia to the tail, are mailed in the
fame maimer, but with fmaller plates than on the fides ; the
tail is large and Iharply forked. It is a narive of the Indian
and .\merican feas ; is a fifh of great boldnefs, and is dreaded
by filhermen ; the ftrenglh and Iharpnefs of its fpines en-
abling it to iEilift very painful, and even dangerous wounds.

CATApHRACTA ; Armed loricaria. Brown, mailed by
a fingle row oF fhields on each fide, with a rounded tail.
This fpecies is nearly allied to the preceding, but differs in
having a rounded tail, and in fome other particulars. It is
about ten inches long, and is found in the .-American feas.

Callichthvs ; Soldier loricaria. Brown, with de-
preffed, rounded head, double row of fcales on each fide,
and rounded tail. This remarkable fpecies grows to the
length of ten or twelve inchfiS; and is of a duiky brown

colour throughout, with a tinge of reddi/h or yellowifh-
brown on the fins and under parts. It is highly efteemed zi
an article of food by the inhabitants of Surinam. It has
been afferted, and Dr. Shaw has given currency to the re-
port, probably wiihout attaching any credit to it, that this
fifh, when diftreffed for want of water, by the ilreams
which it inhabits being too (hallow for it, contrives to make
its way over land, in order to difcover fome deeper (Iream ;
and occafionally perforates the ground for the faiAe pur-
pofe.

Punct'ata ; Speckled loricaria. Yellow, with brownifh
back ; do.ible row of fcales on each fide ; fins fpeckled with,
black, and forked tail. A fmall, but elegant fpecies.
Length five or fix inches ; fhape like the generality of
filhes. Native of the rivers of Surinam.

AcciPENSEn ; Sturgeon loricaria. Yellowifh-brown, with
toothlefs mouth, rounded front, and fpotted fins. This, as
its name imports, is fomething like a llurgeon, and long and
flender. It is a native of the Indian feas, and grows to the
length of twelve or fifteen inches. This fpecies is defcribed
by Bloch as L. dentibus carens.

Dentata ; Toothed loricaria. Yellowifh-brown, with
toothed, cirrated mouth, and (lightly pointed fnout. This
differs from the lalt, in having the mouth furnilhed with
teeth, and in having a fiightly pointed fnout. It is a native-
of the Indian feas.

Flava ; Yellow loricaria. Yellow, fpotted with brown,
wkh two dorfal fins and tail marked by tranfverfe bands.
This is an elegant fpecies, in length about ten inches ; habit
much more flender than in the two preceding. Inhabits the
Indian feas.

LORICATION, or Coating, in Chemi/lry, is the^co-
veringofa glafs or earthen veffel with a coat or cruft of a
matter able to refift the fire, to prevent its breaking in
the performing of an operation that requires great violenceof.
fire.

When veffels are expofed to a fire too ftr«ng for theiV
firufture, or to the corrofive quauty contained in them, or
on the throwing on of frelh cold fuel into the fire where
they (land, it frequently happens that they crack and bunl ;.
for the preventing of which, the operator has recourfe to
this method of coating or loricating his veffels. It is per-
formed in the following manner : ta.ke a quantity of walhed
clay, with an admixture of pure fand, powder oT calcined
flints, or broken crucibles ; and inftead of pure water,
moiilen it with frelTi blood that has not yet been coagulated^
diluted with twice or three times its quantity of water ;
make the clay vvith this into a thin paile, and work into it
fome cow's hair, or other hair not too long nor too ItifF, and
a little powdered and fifted glafs, if you have it at hand ;i
fmear over the veffel intended to be ufed with this palle, by-
means of a pencil, and fet it to dry ; when dry, befmear it
again, and repeat the operation till the veffel have a crull of
a third, or a quarter of an inch, at lead, thick of this matter,,
and let it be thoroughly dry before it is ufed.

To keep blood in a proper ffate for this ufe, it mu(l,,
when juil let out from the animal, be well ftirred about witlL
a (tick for fome time, at lealt tilPit is quite cold ; and being
thus prepared, it will keep for fome days without coagu-
lating, and fit for ufe. , "'

This compofition, with an admixture of bole, workei
into a pafle with the whites of eggs, diluted with water,
makes alfo the proper lute for clofing the junctures o£"
other chemical veffels, in the diftilling flrong fpirits. See-

LUTE.

LORIMERS, one of the companies of London, that
make bits fcr bridles, fpurs, and fuch like fmall iron ware.

Thej-

LOR

LOR

They are mentioned ftat. i Rich. II. cap. 12. See Coj.r-

TANY.

Tiie word fecms derived from the Latin, lonim, a thong.
, LORIOL, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of tlie Drome, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilria of Valence; 12 miles S. of Valence. The place
contains 2392, and the canton 6634 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1774 kiliomctres, in 5 communes.

LORIOT, in Ornithology. See Okiolus Galbula.

LORIPES, the name ufcd by foma authors for the
liimantopus, a bird of the water-kind, remarkable for the
length and weaknefs of its legs. See Chauadiuus Hhnan-
topus.

LORIS, in Zoology, a fpccies of lemur in the Linnzan
fyfleni, being the lemur tardigradus of Buffwn, defcribed by
linffon. See Lemuu Tardigradus.

LORME, Philibert de, in Biography, an eminent
French architeft, was born at Lyons in the early part of
the fixteenth century. He went to Italy, when he was but
fourteen years of age, to iludy the art f<ir which he (cemcd
to have a fort of natural tafte. His :.fiiduity attrafted the
notice of cardinal Cervino, afterwards pope MarccUus IT.,
Avho took him into his palace, and aflilled him in his pur-
fuits. He returned to France in i 536, and was the means
of banidiing the Gothic tade in buildings, and i'ubtlitr.ting
in its place the Grecian. He was employed by Henry II.,
for whom he planned the horre-flioe at Fo;itainbleau, and
tl'.c chateaus of Anet and Meudon. After the di-mifejpf
the king, he was made infpeftor of the royal buildmgsHy
Catharine de Medicis ; and under her direttion he repaired
and augmented fevcral of the royal refidenccs, and began
the building of the Thudleries. In 15JJ he was created
counfellor and almoner in ordinary to the king ; and as a
recompence for his fervices, he was prefented with two ab-
bacies. Thefe honours, it is faid, made him arrogant,
which occafioncd the poet Ronfard to fatirize him in a
piece, entitled " La Truelle CrofTee," or " The croziercd
Trowel." De Lorme took his revenge, and fliut the gar-
den of the Thuilleries againll him ; but the queen took part
-with tlie poet, and feverely reprimanded the reverend archi-
teft. De Lorme died in 1577. He publifhed " Dix Livres
d'Architefture," and " Nouvelles Inventions pour bien
batir et a petits Frais." Moreri.

Lorme, in Geography, a town of France, and feat of a
tribunal, in the department of the Nievre; 33 miles N.E.
of Ncvers.

LORN, a ditlria of Scotland, in the north part of the
county of Argyle; whence the eldeff fon of the duke of
Argvle takes tlie title of marquis of Lorn.

LOROMIE's Stoke, a place of America, in the ftate
of Ohio, wefterly from fort Lawrence, ai'd near a fort of a
branch of the great Miami river, which falls into the Ohio.
At this fpot, bounded weft by the Indian line, the Indians
ceded a traft of land to the United States, fix miles fquare,
by the treaty figned Augnll 3, 1795. Here tlie portage
commences between the Miami of the Ohio and St. Mary's
river, which runs into lake Erie.

LOROUS, a town of 'runis,, anciently called " Lari-
bus ;" 60 miles S.W. of Tunis.

LOROUX Beconxois, Le, a town of France, in the
department of the Maine and Loire ; 13 miles W.N.W. of
Angers.

LoHOUX Botttrcau, a town of France, in the department
of t4ie Lower Loire, and chief place <of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Nantes; 10 miles N. of Chlfon. The place con-
tains 1 178, and the canton 8^36 inhabitants, on a territory
of I J7^ kilioraetres, in 5 communes.

LOR QUI, a town of Spain, in Murcia ; 12 miles N.W.
of Murcia.

LORRACH, or Lauach, a town of the duchy of
Baden ; 6 miles N E, of Bale.

IX')RR.AIN, RoBEKT LE, in Biography, an eminent
fcnlptor, was born at Paris in 1666. He was pupil of
Gerardon, who confided to him, at the age of eiDhteen, the
inttruftion of his own children, and the corredtion of the
defigns of his other pupils. Having diilinguiflied liimfelf
by feveral works, and carried away the firil prize at the
academy, he went to Rome for improvement. In 1693 he
returned ; but owing to the misfortunes of the times, he
found fcarcely any employment. In 1 701 he was admitted
into the academy of painting and fculpture, on account of
his great merit as an artiil. He was perfeftly unafluming in
his manners, and took no heed of putting himfelf forward ;
fo that his works, which always attradied notice, were much
more known than his peribn. In 17 10 he was nominated
adjunft profefTor in the academy ; and in 1717 he tilled the
office of profefTor. The duties of thefe offices he fulfilled
with great attention ; and be could boaft of having inftrufted
in his art feveral pupils of extraordinary merit. He exe-
cuted much of the exterior fculpture of the palace of Sa-
verne, near Strafourg, for the cardinal de Rohan ; but in
the midfl of his labours, and of an increafing reputation, he
was attacked by a ftroke of apoplexy in 1738, which obliged
him to return to Paris, where he lingered feveral years, till
ueath terminated his afflictions in 1743. Lorrain was diftin-
gui.fhed by his charaftcr-heads ; of which, thofe of young
pcrfons, particularly of the female fex, are often exquifitely
beautiful, with airs of fingular grace and elegance. Gen.'
Biog.

LoRRAlN, Duchy of, in Geography, united to France,
and, together with the duchy of Bar, now divided into the
departments of the Meufe, the Meurthe, the Mofelle, and
tlie V^ofgeS ; which fee refpeflively. This country forms
only a fmall part of-a kingdom, which bore that name, and
which extended from Vienne on the Rhone to Cologne.
Separated from Bar, it is about 90 miles in length, and
69 in breadth. The principal rivers are the Meufe, the
Mofelle, the Meurthe, and the Saar.

According to Chaucer, we know not on what founda-
tion, Lorrain abounded in fingers fuperior to thofe of
France :

" There mighteft thou fe thefe flutours,
Minftallcs, and eke jugilours.
That v.ell to finging did their pain,
Some fongen fonges of Loiaine ;
For in Loraine their notis be
Fut fweeter than in this conirc."

LORRAINE, Charles de, in Biography, cardinal and
archbilhop of Rheims, younger fon of Claude dc Lorraine,
firll duke of Guile, was born in 15'2). He was. created
archbidiop of Rheims, at the age of fifteen, by Francis I.,
and cardinal by pope Paul III. in 1547. At the death of
his uncle, the cardinal John of Lorrain, in 1550, he fuc-
ceeded to a rich courfe of benefices, which, it appears,:
amounted in the whole to two archbiflioprics, fix bilhoprics,
and feveral rich abbacies. In addition to high birth, he
poflcfTcd a fine perfon, quick parts, a natural ITow ot elo-
quence, .and no incqnfiderable (liare of learning. Through
the intereft of Diana de Poitiers, millrefs of Henry II., he
was fent out as his ambaflador to the pope. He foon en-
tered into the views of the holy pontiif, and perfuiided the
king his mailer to undertake a war for the conqueil of
Naples, iu wlUch his brother, the duke of Guife, had the

pisn-

LOR

LOS

principal command. He was a bitter enemy to the re-
formers of the age, and promoted feveral fevere and cruel ediils
at^ainft them. He made the utraofl efforts in his power to in-
troduce into his own country tlie infernal inquifition ; a point
which he would probably have carried, bi3t for the oppofi-
tion of the excellent chancellor de I'Hopital, fecondcd by
the good fenfe and temper of the people. During the fhort
reign of Francis II. the cardinal ufurped and maintained a
moft defpotic authority : but he was equally zealous for his
own fame as he was for the honour of the Catholic religion.
At the conference of Poiffy between the two , religious
parties, he gained fome reputation, at leaft with thofe who
felt it their intereft to flatter him, by his eloquence in re-
futing the learned Beza ; but it was not very difficult to
confound the antagoniit, wJio had truth aad net power on
his fide, and whofe reafoning was treated as blafphemy.
The cardinal was likewife ambitious of the praifc of pulpit
eloquence, and preached feveral times at Paris before large
audiences ; and the violence of his difcourfes againfl the
Proteftants led the people to regard him as one of the prin-
cipal authors of the furious civil wars under Charles IX.,
crowned by the horrid mafTacre of St. Bartholomew's. He
was remarkably fond of fhow, and appeared with fplendour
at the council of Trent ; at which, it is reported, Pius V.,
who denominated him " the little pope beyond the moun-
tains," did not wifh for his prefence. The death of his
brother, the duke, diminillied his confequenee ; and he
found it necelTary to relax in the vigour with which he be-
gan in maintaining the interefts of the Gallican church.
During the reign of Charles IX. he was the minifter of
ftate, and alfo ambafTador to the court of Spain. On the
accelSon of Henry III. he went to meet that prince at
Avignon, on his way from Poland ; and, in a religious pro-
ceflion, placed himfelf at the head of the " blue penitents."
This was the laft fhow in which he figured, being at the
time feized with a fever, which terminated his life in De-
cember 1754, in the fiftieth year of his age. It is difficult
to draw the character of this cardinal. His enmity to the
Proteftants caufed him to be the object of much party fatire
and reproach. 'They probably exaggerated his failings and
immoralities : but making due aUowance for the effeft
of private enmities, itill it mull be admitted he was a man
of exceedingly licentious habits, and who expecled, per-
haps, to bury his faults by his zeal for the church, or by an
excels of oftentatious alms-giving. " He was accuflomed,"
fays one of his biographers, " to carry a great leathern
purfe, which his valet-de-chambre took care to fill every
morning with three or four hundred crowns ; and as many
poor as he met, he put his hand into his purfe, and gave
them a handful of money without counting. But if he were
prodigal m his alms, he was not lefs fo in gifts to other
perfons, and efpecially to the ladies, whofe favours he
readily procured by this bait ; and it was afferted that there
were very few, married or fingle, frequenting the court at
that time, who were not debauched by the largefTes of the
cardinal." By Maimbourg it is afferted, that the cardinal
was the boldeft of men in forming mighty fchemes in his
clofet, but the weakcll and moll timid when they were put
into execution. He was venei-aled by the clergy as the
guardian of their immunities ; by the Catholics in general,
as the champion of their faith. Verfed in the wiles of
courts, fruitful in expedients, and eloquent in debate, he
was too readily elated by fuccefs, and too eafily depreffed
by defeat. His perfonal courage was ever a fubjeft of
doubt ; his vindictive temper was at all times dreaded ; and
the diffolute pleafures of his private vied with the prefump-
VoL. XXI.

tiou of his pubhc conduct.. Some of his literary compofu
tions have been printed : they confift chiefly of harangues on
public occafions. Hiftory of Franc?, ' London, 1700.
Bayle. Moreri.

LORRES, in Geography, a town of France,*in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a can-
ton, in thedillrift of Fontainebleau. Theplace contains 610,
and the canton 9193 inhabitants, on a territory of 2577', kili-
ometres, in 18 communes.

LORRIS, William de, in Biography, a French poet,
who flourifhed about the middle of the thirteenth centurv, is
known as the author of the " Roman de la Rofe," a poem
much in requefl in the middle ages. Under the allegory of a
rofe-tree, planted in a delicious gardtn, and protected by bul-
warks, it defcribes a lover's purfuit, and final acquifition
of the objeft of his paffion. He did not live to finifh his
work : it was completed in the' next century by John de
Meun. The part by Lorris, though the fhorteft, is by much
the moft poetical, abounding in rich and elegant defcription,
and in lively portraiture of allegorical perfonages. The beft
edition of this poem is that of the Abbe de Len^^let, three
vols. i2mo. 1735. Chaucer tranflated that part which be-
longed to Lorris. Gen. Biog.

Lorris, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriclof Montargis ; 12 miles S.W. of Montargis. The
place contains 1526, and the canton 6528 inhabitants, on a
teri-itory of 2:5 kihometres, in 13 communes.

LORRY, Anse-Charles, in Biography, a learned phy-
fician, was born at Crofny, near Paris, in 1723. He ftudied
and praftifed his profeffion with unremitting zeal and pecu-
liar modefty, and obtained a high reputation. In 1748 he
was admitted doftorof the faculty of medicine at Paris, and
fubfequently became doftor-regent of the faculty. He was
author of feveral works, fome of which ftiH maintain their
value. His firft publication was entitled " Eflai furl'Ufage
des Ahmens, pour fervir de Commentaire aux livres diete-
tiques d'Hippocrate," Paris, 1753, i2mo. ; the fecord
part of which appeared in 1757. His next publication was
an edition of the Aphorifms of Hippocrates, Greek and
Latin, in 17J9. Afterwards he produced a treatife " De
Melancholia et Morbis Melanchohcis," ibid. 1765, in two
volumes 8vo. and edited Dr. Aftruc's " Memoirespour fer-
vir a I'Hiftoire dela Faculte de Medecine de Montpellier,"
ibid. 1767, 4to. ; and " Sanftorii de Medicina Statica,"
with a commentary, 1770, in i2mo. His laft work, which
combined the merits of mncli erudition and accurate obfer-
vation, with great clearnefs of arrangement and perfpicuity-
of language, was "Traftatus de Morbis Cutaneis," Paris,
1777, in 4to. Dr. Lorry alfo edited a Latin edition of the
works of Mead, and a French one of Barker's differtation
on the conformity of the doftrines of ancient and modem
medicine. He died at the baths of Bourbonne, in 178?
Eloy Did. Hift. de la Med. Gen. Biog.

LORSQUEN, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Meurthe, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftricl of Sarrebourg ; four miles S.S.E. of
Sarrebourg. The place contains 11 64, and' the canton
13,680 inhabitants, on a territory of 390 kiliometres, in
29 communes.

LORUNGAH, a pafs in the mountains of Bengal; iS
miles W. of Ramgur.

LORY, in Ornithology. See PsiTTACUS Garrulus, Sac.

LOS Reye-s. See Lima — Alfo, the chief town of the
province of Uragua, in the eaft divifion of Paraguay, in
South America.

5 G Los

LOS

LOT

Los Charcot, a province in ihe foiithrrn divifion of Pcni,
the chief citit-s of which are Pot, fi and I'orco.

hOSARI, a town of ihu- liland of Coilica ; ij miles N.
of Calvi.

L0S1»0R1', a town <if Bohemia, in the circle of Lcit-
moritz ; fix miles W.S.W. of Kamniti;.

LOSENI rZ A, a town of European Turkey, in Servia ;
20 mi'es S S.W. of Sabac/,.

LOSER, a town of the electorate of Salzburg, on the
Stampach ; 21 milei S.W. of Salzburg.

LOSrrZ, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari ;
fis miles E. of Bittctto.

LOSORG.A, St., a town «>f the idand of Sardinia ; 1 1
miles S. of Bofa.

LOSQUET, a fmall iflar.d in the Enoliih channel, near
the coa!t of France. N. lat. 43° 49'. \V. long. 531'.

LOSS, IJlands of, a duller of fmall iflands in the At-
lantic, near the coail of Africa. N. lat. 9= 16. W.

long- »3':^-

LOSSA, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Brieg ;
five niiks S.E of Brieg.

LOSSAIT, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Bayreuth ; nine miles S.E. of Bayreuth.

LOSSIEMOUTH, a feaport town of Scotland, in the
county of Murray, at the mouth of the river I..offie, fa-
mous for its trout. A few fifhing veflels belong to the place ;
but its harbour is convenient for vcffels of 50 tons ; fix,
nulcs N. of Elgin.

LOSSIN, or La.ssin, Great, a town in the S. part of
the ifland of Cherfo, containing about i8co inhabitants.

Lossin, Lilllc, a town of the fameifland, containing about
J 600 inhabitants ; one mile S. of Great Loffm.

LOSSIUS, Lucas, in Biography, of Lunenburg, a
Lutheran divine and fchool-mafter, well fl<illed in mufic, who
publifhed at Nwcmburg, in 1553, "Erotomata JVIufics prac-
tica;,'' and Lutheran pfalmodia. At the time of the Re-
formation the,Lutheraiis preferved more mullc in their li-
turgy than the Calvinilts, or the church of England.

LOSSNiTZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
lordlhip ot Scho.iburg ; 50 miles E. of Drefden. N. lat.
50 32'. E. long. 12 57'.

LOSTORFF, a town of Auftria ; nine miles W. of St.
Poltcn.

LOSTWITHIEL, a borough, market-town, and parifh
in the hundred of Powder, and county of Cornwall, England,
is Qtuated in a narrow valley on the wcllern fide of the river
Fawy, 25 miles diilant irom Launcelton, and 234 from
London. The houfes are principally difpofed in two llrects,
running parallel from the river to the bottom of a ileep lull,
■which rifcs to a great height on the weft. The buildings
are chiefly of ftone, and covered with flate, which is ob-
lained in gnat abundance in the vicinity (jf the town. The
church coiilills of one large and two fmall aiiles, with a tower
at theweflend, terminating in a fingular open fpire. The
font is conltrudled of a large octangular block of free- (lone,
fupported by five cluftered columns, charged with rude and
ill-executed fculptures. In the fouth aiile is an ancient mo-
nument of the tmie of Elizabeth, with eight fmall figures,
in baffo-relievo, kneeling, ereftedin memory of Temperance,
wife of Wiliiain Kendall, efq. who died in I5'79. At a
firiall diftaiice to the fouth of the church are the exterr.;;I
walls of an old building called the palace, which was
anciently a refidence of the dukes of Cornwall, but is
now converted into the ftannary prifon. This fabric was
once very extenfive ; but great part of its fcite is occupied
by timber yards. Tlie walls sic extremely thick, and, like

many ancient cadles, fecin to have bicn coiiftruifted with
iii'.all Itones, fixed by a liquid cement, now become harder
than the ftone itfelf. Loitwitlucl was incorporated at a very
early period ; numerous privileges were conferred on it by
Richard, kin.j ot the Romans, who, by charter, m..de it a
free burgl;, and granted to its burgell'es the liberty of a
■ guild mercat'ory. They alfo poffeU the anchorage dues of
Fawy harbour, and various duties on coal, fait, corn, malt,
and other commodities brought into that port. The cor-
poration confills of a mayor, fix burgeilcs, and feventccn
alTiilants, or common councilmen, who are cliofen annually
by the mayor and burgel'es. The borough has returned
two members to parliament ever fmcethe ajdof Edward I. :
the right <if eleclion is confined to the corpora'ion. This
was anciently the fiiire town ; and the county members are
fti;l ekiled here, and the county weights and ineafures kept
here. According to the enumeration made in the year iBoi,
this town contained 125 houfis, and 743 inhabitants. A
market is held on Friday, and three fairs annually.

About one mile north of LolUvithiel, on the fummit of
a very high hill, are the mouldering remains of Rellormcl
calUe, a fortrefs magnificent in ruin, and proudly exaliing
its ivy-clad walls above the contiguous narrow winding
valHes. This was one of the principal refideuces of the
earls of Cornwall : Richad, king of the Romans, kept
his court here ; his fon Edmund alio made this caIHe his
abode ; and though now in decay, yec the grandeur of its
ruins, and the importance they communicate to the furrouiid-
ing fcentry, render it peculiarly iiiterefting. Thecallleand
its honour were part of the inheritance of the dukes and earls of
Cornwall ; and were aiinexcd by Edward III. to the duciiy :
but the manfion formerly connecled with the ellate, and
named the Trinity-houfe, is now the property of the earl
of Mount Edgecumbe, and called Rellorme!. Beauties of
Ena;land and Wales, vol. ii.

LOSZLAU, or Wodislav, a tov.m of Silefia, and
chief place of a lordHiip, in the principality of Ratibor ;
1 1 miles S.Fl of Ratibor. N. lat. 49' 57'. E. long.
18^ iS'.

LOT, fo called from the river, which rifes in the depart-
ment of the Lozere, and joins the Garonne, near Aiguil-
lon, formerly Ouercy, one of the nine departments ot the
fouthern region of France, lying in 44- 30' N. lat , N.N. W.
of Tarn, and equidiltant from both feas ; bounded on the
N. bv the depar'.ment of the Correze, on the E. by the
Cantal, on the SE. by the Aveiron, on the S. by the Tarn
aid the Upper Garonne, on the W. by the Lot and Ga-
ronne, and on the N.W. b ■ the Dordogne ; 34 I'rencli
Ieagu^:s in length and 30 in breadth, containing 7432; kilio-
metres, or 362 fquare leagues, and 383,683 inhabilants. It
is divided into four circles or diftriCls, 41 can.ons, and 440
communes. The circles arc Montauban, inckuling 1 15; 95.1.,
Figeac, 80,372, Gourdon, 75',86l, and Cahors, 111,496
inhabitants. The capital of the department is Cahors.
Its contributions amount to 3,235,544 fr. and its expences
to 272,533 fr. 33 cents. 1'liis d'.-partment is, in general,
hilly, but contains fome fruitful plains and vailies. Its
products are grain, wine of an excellent quality, fruits, filk,
hemp, fiax, tobacco, and pallures. It has iron mines, coal,
and mineral fprings.

Lot and Garonne, formerly jigcnois, one of the nine
departments of the fouth-we!t, or Garonne region of France,
lying in 44 30' N. lat. and bounded on the N. by the de-
pariuient of the Dordogne, on the E. by the Lot, ou the
S. by the Gers, and on the W. by the Landes and Gironde,
23 French leagues in lengtli. and 18 in breadth, coct.'vining

6100

LOT

LOT

6ioo kiliometres, or 36,^08 fquare leaguffs, and 35'2 90R
iuliahitants. It is divided into four circles, _?8 cantons, and
4^9 comrnunes. The circles are Agen, inchiding 107,840,
Marmande, 112.091, Nerac, 4;,! 19, and Vil'ncuvc d' Agen,
89.8,8 inhabitant?. Its contributions amo':nt to 3,807,413
fr. and its expences to 292,739 fr. 33 cents. Its capital is
Aecn. The furface of this department is diverfified by
fr litful einin.-nces ; but two-thirds of the foil are of a very
infi'rior <|uality. It has feveral marfhy trafts ; the Landes
confifls of moveable fands ; fome parts near the I.ot have a
nidged and barren afpeft ; but the circle of Villeneuve
d'Agen is diftinguiflied by its fertility. The produfts are
gr.iin, fruits, few trees, and indifferent paflures. It has iroxi
mines.

Lot's U'lfe, a ilupendous rock in the fea, encomparing
the Ladrones, which rifes in the form of a pyramid, and is
thus defcribed by Mr. Meares in his voyage, cited by Mr.
rinkerton. " The latitude was 29" 50' N., the longitude
142'' 23' E. of Greenwich. The waves broke againft its
rugged front, with a fury proportioned to the immenfe dif-
tance they had to roll before they were interrupted by it. It
rufe almoft perpendicular to the height of near350 feet. A
faiall black rock appeared juft above the water, at about 40
or JO yards from tlie weilern edge. There was a cavern on its
fouth-eaflern fide, into which the waters rolled with an awful
and tremendous noife. In re.;arding tliis ihipendous rock,
which flood alone in an immenfe ocean, we could not but
coutider it as an object which had been able to refill one of
thsfe great convultion; of nature tint change the very form
of thofe parts of the globe which lliey are permitted to de-
folate."

Lot, in a legal fenfe. See Scot.

Lot, or Loth, in Mining, is the thirteenth difh, meafure,
or part of the miner's ore, which the bar-mailer takes up for
the king, or the farmer.

Lot, or Pot, a liquid meafure in French Flanders, each
equal at Lifle to 126 cubic inches, and i S3. 33 = 100 Eng-
lilh gallons.

LOT. A, in Ichthyology, the name of a fpccies of the Muf-
tela fluviafilis. See GhTtvaLota.

LO-TCHEOU, in Geography, a town of Corea ; 22
miles W.S.W. of Koang-tcheou.

LOTE Trei:, in Botany. See Celtis.

LOTH, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Sutherland, an the E. coaft ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Dor-
noch.

Loth, o' Lod, a weight in Germany ; 1 loths being =
T oz. and 16 oz. ^ 2 marks = i pfund or pound. In
eftimating the fincnefs of filver, the mark fiae is divided into
16 loths, and the loth into 18 grains.

LOTHAIRE I., in Biography, emperor of the Weft,
and king of Italy, eldeft fon of Lewis I., furnamed le De-
bonnaire, was born in 795. He was aflbciated with his fa-
ther in the imperial dignity in 817, and was crowned king
of Lombardy in 821. (See Lewi.'; I.) On the death of his
father he fueceeded to the imperial dignity. Being con-
firmed in the title of emperor, he aimed at the poffefllon of
the whole of his father's territories, and endeavoured to de-
prive, of their inheritance, his brothers I^ewis and Cliarles,
who alTenibled all their forces to vindicate their rights. Tliis
great fatiily q'arrel was decided on the plains of Foiitenoy.
The confliil was terrible, and the ground difputed with an
ohllinacy, of which few examples are left on reconl in the
fanguinary horrors of war. Hirtorians agree in Hating that a
hurxlred thoufand men fell on this occafion, and have in tliis in-

ftancc applied t'l? remark, " that whole generations may be
fwcpt away by tiie inadncfs of kings in the fpace of a fingle
hour." Lothaire was completely defeated, and obliged to
betake himfelf to flight. He went to Aix-hi-Chapclle,
where he diligently exerted himfelf to repair his lofles. The
viciflTitudcs of three fuccelTive years of difcord f xhaufted at
leneth the powers, without impairing the animofity, of the
kindred princes, and they confcnted to divide thofe domi-
niors for which they were no longer able to contend. By
this divifion the French monarchy was divided into three
fliares, of which Lothaire, with the imperial dignity, re-
tained Italy, with all the provinces fi'uated between the
Rhone, Rhine, Soan(?, Meufe, and Scheldt. After this
partition, Lothaire palled fome years, difquieted by the in-
roads of the Saracens upon Italy, and by differences with his
Iwlf-brother Charles, till d'fgufl with the cares of the world,
and declining health induced him to abdicate his crown. The
part of Gaul vvh:ch Lothaire retained, he had diilinguifhed by
his own name, I.otharingia, which, by the iHfcnfible corrup-
tion of time, has funk into that of Lorrain, which is ilill an-
nexed to tiie dillrift. But the empire which he had purfued at
the cxpence of every filial duty, and which he had eftablidied
by torrents of the beft bh^sd of his fuhjcifls, afforded him but
a tranfient latisfaCtion. From the fummit of grandeur which
he had attained, the recollection of the pail was melancholy
and frightful, the profpcfl of the future was dreary and
comfortlefs, and fifteen years after the death of his father
he affumed the habit of a monk ; the (l.ort fpace of a few
days o::ly, however, was all nvcd to the prayers of the
royal penitent, when he died in the fixtieth year of his age.
He left three fons, i'J3. Lewis, Lothaire, and Charles : of
whom the firll inherited Italy, with the title of emperor ;
the fecond, the kingdom of Lorrain j and the third that of
Provence. Univer. Hid.

LoTiiAlRE II., or LoTiiAi!iu.s, dukeof Saxe-Supplem-
burg, was railed to the imperial tlirone, after the death of
Henry, v., in 1 1 26, notwitlillanding the oppofition of two
powerful competitors, who made very vigorous exertions
for the fupport of their pretenfions. But after a fancrui-
nary and unavaihngconteil, they took the oath of allegiance,
and were honoured with particular marks of their fovereign's
friendfhip. Lothaire was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, in
prcfenceof the pope's nuncio. After he was quietly feated
on his throne, he efpoufcd the caufe of pope Innocent II.
againft the anti-pope Atnacletus, and undertook an expedi-
tion into Italy, to re-eftabhfh him in the papal chair. Lo-
thaire was fucceLful, and the event fully anfwered his ex-
pedations. Innocent remunerated his fervices by performing
the ceremony of his coronation with great magnificence,
but he had the art, at the fame time, to make the emperor
do homage to the holy fee, of which the court of Rome
availed itielf to maintain that the empire was a fief of that
fee. Some time after thefe franfadtions, his holinefs was ex-
pofed to imminent danger by an hollile incurfion of Roger,
king of Sicily, but Lothaire advanced to his affiftanee, and
Roger's infult was punilhed by the lofs of ail his Italian
pofleffions, and he himfelf was forced to retire into Sicily.
Thefe provinces Lothiire formed into a principality, which
he conferred upon Renaud, a German, one of his relations.
On his return into Germany, Lothaire was feized with a
dangerous diftempcr, which ter:iiiiiated his life in the twolftli
year of his reign. By command of this emperor, the .luf-
tinian code of laws, which had been in dilufe for more than
five centuries, was revived in the empire. This reign wa.i
rendered remarkable by exccilive heat and a great drought
in Germanr, Vhich adually withered the corn and blafted
the fruits of the earth, dried up the moll confidcrable

G :

nvers.

L () 1

rivers, and occafioned a dreadful mortality among the
cattle.

LoiMlAlKE, king of France, fucceedcd his fathel", Lewis
d'Oatremer, in 954, being only in the 14th year of his age.
He was at firll under the proteftion of Hugh, duke of
France, but on the death of that prince, in the following
year, he affiimed the reins of government. In 959, he
was perfuaded to enter into a treacherous plot for feizing
the perfon of Richard, duke' of N-ormandy, which failing
of fuccefs an open war broke out, and the duke, preffed
by the fuperior forces of his antagonill, invited the Danes
to his fupport. France was accordingly afflidled by their
indefatigable rapacity: independent and uncontrouled in
their depredations, they refiifed to fubfcribe the peaco which
Richard concluded, and their retreat was with difficulty
purchafed by the treafures of France and Normandy. Lo-
thaire had no fooner difengagcd himfelf from this diftrcfs,
than he attempted to opprefs his vaffal, the young count of
Flanders, who was preferved by the interpolition of the
Normans ; and the king, baffled in his endeavours to aggran-
dize himfelf by arms, flattered himfelf, with the hope of
relloring the grandeur of the lioufe of Charlemagne, by
advantageous alliances. He accordingly efpoufed Emma,
the daughter of Lothairc, king of Italy, and bellowed his
filler on Conrad, king of Burgundy, but the (hort refpite
allowed by a peace was followed by years of defolating war,
and the pofTefllon of Lorrain was difputed, during four fuccef-
five campaigns, by the kings of Germany and France. At
length Lothaire thought it advifable to make peace, and
leave the emperor in poneifion of Lorrain. This treaty
gave great difguft to the French nobles ; but the king found
means to pacify or controul them ; and on the death of
Otho, the emperor, he re-entered Lorrain, took the town of
Verdun, and afliiultcd Cambray. When his afj'irs abroad
were returning to a ilate of great profperity, and when his
authority at home was acquiring ftrength, he was fuddeiily
furprifed by the approach of death, whofe power he was
unable to refill. He died at Rheims in the forty-fixth year
of his age, leaving his crown to his fon Lewis V. Lo-
thaire was unqueftionably poffeired of vigour and ahihties,
but he was infincere, and alnioR always engaged in con-
tefts with his neighbours and vaflals. Univer. Hid. Hiil.
of France, London, 1790.

LOTHAU, in Geosraphy, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Culmbach ; gmiles ^l^ of Culmbach.

LOTHIAN, an extenfive diftrict of Scotland, divided
into three parts ; •viz. Ealt-Lothian, or Haddingtonfhire.
Mid-Lothian, or Ediuburghfhire, and Weft-Lothian, or
Linlithgowfhire.

LOTH1NGLA.ND, once an ifland, and part of the
county of Suffolk, towards the German ocean, on the N.E.
part of the county, and the mod caftern part ol Great
Britain ; now a peninfula, joined to the mainland by a nar-
row neck near Loweftoft, formed, as it has been fuppofed,
about the year 1722. It is bounded on the N. by the river
Yare, on the E. by the fea, by a lake, called Lothing, on
the S., and by the river Waveny on the W. Fron N. to
S. it is in length more than ten miles, and fix in breadth ;
and contains Tixteen parilhes, of which Lowclloft is the
principal and only market-town.

LOTICH, Peter, in Biography, furnamed Secundus,
a diftinguidied modern Latin poet, was born, in 1528, in
the county of Hanau, in Germany. He received the early
part of his education at a convent in his native place, and
purfued his maturer ftudies at Frankfort, Marpurg, and
Wittemburg, at which lad place he contracted an intimacy
with Melanfthon and Camerarius. During the war in

LOT

Saxony he ferved a campaign in the army. In 1 ':5o he
vifited France with fome young perfons to whom he was go-
vernor, and he continued tiiere nearly four years. He af-
terwards went to It?ly, where he had nearly been dedroyed
by poifon prepared for another purpofe : he recovered from
the effefts of it, but was fubjedl to frequent relapfes, one
of which carried him off in the year 1560. He had taken"
his degree of doftor of phyfic at Padua, and three years
previoufly to his death was chofen profeffor in that fcience at
Heidelberg. In that lituation he was honoured with the
frienddiip of the eleiflor-palatine, and by the excellence of
his difpolition, and the fingular franknefs and fincerity of
his charafter, rendered himfelf univerfally beloved. A
coUeflion of his Latin poems was publidied the year
after his deceafe, with a dedicatory epidle by Joachim Ca-
merarius, who praifes him as the bed poet of his age : it has
been very frequently reprinted. He had a younger brother
Chrillian, likewife a poet. A coUeftion of his poems, with
thofe of his relation .John Peter Lotich, was publiflied in 1630.
John Peter Lotich was a phyfician of eminence, who main-
tained the literary character of his family by a variety of
writings. He was grandfon of the above-mentioned Chrif-
tian. He exercifed his profeflion at Minden and at Heffe,
and became profeffor of medicine at Rintlen in Wedphalia.
He died very much regretted in 1652. His principal works
are, " Conciliorum et Obfervationum Mcdicinalium ;"
" Latin Poems:" " A Commentary on Petronius ;" and
"A Hidory ef the Emperors Ferdinand II. and III." in
four volumes, is attributed to him.

LOTIERO, St., in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Principato Ultra ; 15 miles E.N E. of Benevento.

LOTINE, in the ^nciail Mvfic. Athenacus relates, in
his Deipnos. that the flute entitled lotina was the fame in-
drument as that which the Alexandrians termed Phot'mgn,
adding, that it was made of the wood of the lotos tree, which
grew in Africa.

LOTION, LoTio, popularly called ixiajb, denotes a
form of medicine, made up of liquid matters, chiefly ufed
for beautifying the lltin, and cleaniing it from thofe defor-
mities which a didempered blood fon'.etimes throws on it ;
or rather, which are occafioned by a preternatural fccretion.

Lotion alfo denotes a remedy, poffefling a medium be-
tween a fomentation and a bath.

There are refrefhing andfomniferous lotions for feverifh
perfons, made of leaves, flowers, and roots boiled, with
which the feet and hands of the patient are wafhed ; and after
walhing, wrapped up in linen, Iteeped in the fame decoftion
till dry.

There are lotions alfo for the head and hair.

Lotion, in Pharmacy, denotes a preparation of medi-
cines, by walhing them in fome liquid, either made very hght,
fo as to take away only the dregs ; or fharp, fo as to pene-
trate them, m order to clear them of fome fait, or corrolive
fpirit, as is done to antimony, precipitates, magideries, &c.
&c.; or intended to take away fome foulnefs, or ill quality ; or
to communicate fome good one.

Lotion, Saponaceous, Lotio faponacea, the name of a
form of medicine prefcribed in the late London pharmaco-
peia, being properly foap in a liquid form. It is ordered
to be made thus : Take damafli rofe-water, thrce.quarters of
a pint ; oil of olives, a quarter of a pint ; ley of tartar,
half an ounce in meafurc : rub the ley and oil together till
they are mixed, and then gradually add the water.

LOTOMETRA, in Botany, a name given by many of ■
the ancients to the nymphaea Indica, or ^gyptiaca, called
alfo the faba iEg)'ptiaca, and originally the nilufar, an ab-
breviation of nilnufar ; nufar fignifying a water-hly, and the

prefix

L O T

LOT

prefix nil exprefling its growing particularly in the river

Nile.

Neophyt'.is tells lis, that this lotomctra has leaves of a
middle form between thofe of the common nymphxa, whicli
are roiindifh, and ithofe of the arum, which arc oblong and
pointed, and are cardated at the bafe ; and this is the very
figure of the leaves of the faba ^gyptiaca, as we fee it in all
paintings, &c.

LOTOS (fee Lotus) is held in the liigheft veneration in
India, inclii live of Thibet and Nepaul. Amongthe Brahmans
and enthuliadic Hindoos, no objeft in nature is- looked on
with more fuperftition ; and their books abound with myftical
alluCons to this lovely aquatic. Being efteemcd the mott
beautiful of vegetables, it not unappropriately furnifties a
name for the Hindoo queen of beauty, and Kamal ov Kamala
ie, as noticed under that article, a name of Lakflimi ; as is
Padma or Pedma, another Sanfcrit appellation for botli.
(See Lakshmi.) Under the form of Kamala, Lakftimi is
ufually reprefented with a lotos in her hand, and in mod
pictures and ftatues of her confort Vifimu, he is furnidied
with the Pedma, or lotos bud, in one of his four hands, as
a diftinguifhing attribute. Accordingly, as it is reprefented
in different ilages of efflorefcence, it varies, in the eye of
myilics, its emblematical allufions. As an aquatic, the lotos
is a lymbol alfo of Vi(hnu, he being a perfonification of
water or humidity, and he is often reprefented feated on it.
Brahma, the creative power, is alfo fometimes feated on the
lotos, and is borne on its caly.Kin the whimfical reprefentation
of the renovation of the world, when this myftical plant
iffued out of the navel of Vifhnu from the bottom of the fea,
■where he was repofing on the ferpent Seftia. (See Sesha.)
The followin^^ extraft from the curious and learned diiTerta-
tion of Major Wilford, " On the facred Ifles of the Weft,"
will ferve to fhew the wild extravagance of Hindoo mytho-
logifts. " The nymphasa, or lotoS, floating on the water, is
an emblem of the world ; the whole plant Cgnifics both the
earth and its two principles of fecundation. The ftalk ori-
ginates from the navel of Vifhnu, deeping at the bottom of
the ocean ;• and the flower is the cradle of Brahma, or man-
kind. The germ is both Meru and the Linga ; the petals
and filaments are the mountains which encircle Meru, and
are alfo the type of the Yoni." (Afiatic Refearches,
vol. viii. ) This may fufBce as to the extravaganzas of Hin-
doo myilics. The reader may fee farther hereon under our
articles Lixc.l, Meru, and Yoni Hindoo poetry alfo fu-
perabounds in allufions to the lotos. One allufion, conneAed
with an intereliing fa£l in natural hiftory, we will notice. In
the northern parts of India the petals of the lotos, are blue,
3G well as red and white ; while in the fouthern provinces the
blue flower is not feen ; the poets have hence feigned that the
crimfon hue was imparted to it by the blood of Siva
jfluing from the wound made by the arrow of Kama, when
the god of love daringly endeavoured to infpire the " king
of dread'" with an amorous paffion, for which prefump-
tion he was reduced to afhes, or, as fome fay, to a mental
effence, by the fire which iffued from the forehead of the
" three-eyed god." (See Kam.\ and Siva.) In the
Hindoo Pantheon, neceffarily comprifing a great mafs of
myfticifm in its mythological details, the reader will find
many particulars and plates connefted with the fubjetts of
this article.

LOTTERY, a kind of game of hazard, wherein feveral
lots of merchandize, or fums of money, are depofited as
prizes, for the benefit of the fortunate.

Thedefignof lotteries, and the manner of drawing them,
are too well known among us to need a defcription : they are
very freque:it in England and Holland, where they cannot

be fet on foot without the permifBon of the magiftrate. In

France too, there have been feveral lotteries in favour of
their hofpitals.

M. Le Cierc has compofed a treatife of lotteries, wherein
is fhewn v.'hat is laudable, and what blameable in them.-
Gregorio Leti has alfo a book on the fubjeCl of lotteries.
Father Meneftrier has a treatife on the fame, publifhed in
1700, where he fhews their origin and ufe among the Ro-
mans. He diftinguiflies feveral kinds of lotteries, and takes
occafion to fpeak of chances, and refolves feveral cafes of
confcicnce relating thereto. See feveral ftatutes relating to
lotteries under the article Gaming.

An aft pafTed in 1778, for regulating the conduft of the
lottery, reftrains any perfon from keeping an office for the
fale of tickets, fhares, or chances, or for buying, felling, m-
furing, or regiftering, without a licence ; for which licence
each office-keeper muft pay 50/., if it be in, or within
twenty miles of London, Edinburgh, or Dublin, and 10/.
for every licence for every other office, to continue in force
for one year, and the produce to be applied towards defray-
ing the expences of the lottery. And no perfon is allowed
to fell any fhare or chance lefs than a fixteenth, on the pe-
nalty of jo/. All tickets divided into fhares or chances are
to be depofited in an office, to be eltablifhed in, London by
the commifGoners of the treafury, who are to appoint a
perfon to conduft the bufinefs thereof ; and all (hares arc to
be flamped by the faid officer, who is to give a receipt for
every ticket depofited with him. The numbers of all tickets
fo depofited are to be entered in a book, with the names of
the owners, and the number of (hares into which they are
divided ; and two-pence for each fhare is to be paid to the
officer on depofiting fuch tickets, who is therewith to pay
all expences incident to the office. All tickets depofil ed in
the office are to remain there three days after the drawinor.
And any perfon keeping an office, or felling lliares, or who
(hall publifh any fcheme for receiving monies in confidera-
tion of any intereft to hi granted in any ticket in the faid
lottery, S:c. witho.it being in pofTefTion of fuch ticket, (hall
forfeit joo/. and fuffer three months imprifonment. And
no bufinefs is to be tranfaC^ed at any of the offices after eight
in the evening, except on the evening of the Saturday pre-
cedi Y ttie drawing. No perfon is to keep any office for
the fale of tickets, &c. in Oxford or Cambridge, on pe-
nalty of 20.'. Before this regulating ftatute took place,
there were upwards of 400 lottery offices in and about Lon-
don only ; but the whole number afterwards, for all Eng-
land, as appeared by the lift publifhed by authority, amount-
ed to no more th.an 5 1 . They are, howeyer, at this time much
more numerous. , _.. »

By 42 Geo. III. c. 1 19, all games or lotteries called lit-
tle-goes are declared public nuifances, and. all perfons keep-
ing an office or place for any game or lottery not authorized
by law, (hall forfeit jco/. and be deemed rogues and vaga-
bonds. The proprietor of a whole ticket may neverthelcfs
infure it for its value only, with any licenfed office for the
whole time of drawing, from the time of infuraocc, under
a bond fide agreement, without a ftamp. The laft ftate lot-
tery aft enafting various new regulations was 49 Geo. III.
c. 94.

The propofals for the firft public lottery of which we have
any account were publiflied in 1567 and 156S, and it was
drawn in 1569, at the weft door of St. Paul's cathedral.
The tickets were fold at ten fliillings each, and there were
no blanks. The prizes confiflcd chiefly of plate, and the
profits of it were intended for repairing the havens of the
kingdom, and other public works. In 161 2, James I. granted
permiffion for a lottery to be held alfo at the weft end of St.
12 Paul's,

L O T T E R Y.

Paul's, of which the higheft prize was of the va'uc of 4000
crowns, in fair j-late ; this was for the afTillaiice of llie Vir-
ginia companv, who were liceii fed to open lottery offices in
any part of England, by which means they raifed 29,000/.
At length thefe lotteries became to be conlidered as public
evils, and ativ.idted the attentio:i of parliament : tliey were re-
prefented by the commons as a grievance, and were fiip-
prefled by an order of council. In 1650, however, Cliarles I.
granted a fpecial licence for a lottery or lotteries, accord-
ing to the courfe of other lotteries hitherto ufed or prac-
tifed, for defraying the ex pence of a projeft for conveying
water to Lon.^on. Soon after the revoluiion, lotteries were
refortcd to, among other expedients, for raifing part of the
extraordinary funis neecirary f jr the public fervice, by which
means the difpofition for tins fpecies of gambhng was greatly
encouraged and extended ; and private lotteries, formed ( n
the molt delufiveand fraudulent principles, became fo gene-
ral, not only in London, but in all the other prir.cipal
towns in England, that parliament found it neceifary, in
1O98, to pafs an aft for iupprefring them, by \yhich a pe-
nalty of 500/. was laid on the proprietors of any lueh lot-
teries, and 20/. upon everv adventurer in them; notwith-
llanding which, the difpofilion to fraud on the one hand, and
for adventure on the other, continued to prevail, and fmall
lotteries were carried on under the denomination of fales of
gloves, fans, cards, plate, &c. Tliis was attempted to be
checked by a claufe in an ad pafTed 1712, which only gave
rife to a new mode of carrying on this kind of gambhng.
Government lotteries were Hill practiled, and the adventure
was now made to depend upon the drawing of the former ;
and the buying and felling of chances and parts of chances
of tickets in the Hate lotteries became a general practice,
till it was prohibited by an act pafTed in 1718, by which all
the undertakings refembhng lotteries, or being dependent on
the llate lottery, were ftriCtly prohibited, under the penalty
■of 100/., over ai>d above all penalties enjoined by former
afts of parliament againft private lotteries.

During the reign of queen Anne, the lotteries were gene-
rally for terminable annuities, to which both blanlis and
prizes were entitled at different rates; thus in 1710, the
lottery confilled of 150000 tickets, valued at 10/. each,
every ticket being entitled to an annuity for 32 years, the
blanks at 14J. per annum, and the prizes to greater annui-
ties, from 5/. to 1000/. per annum. This was the tirll lot-
tery for which the bank of England received the fublcrip-
tions tor government. In the following year the whole of
the money advanced for the tickets was to be repaid, both
in blanks and prizes, in 32 years, with interelt at 6 per cetit.
and an additional fum of nearly half a million to be divided,
in order to form prizes, which additional capital was to be
paid with the likeintereft within the fame period as the ori-
ginal fum. In this manner they were condutled for feveral
years, and a very confiderable premium was given for the
money advanced, in addition to a high rate of intereft.

According to the lottery plans which prevailed from fir
Robert Walpole's adminillration to that of the duke of
Grafton, the tickets were ilTued at 10/. each; and occa-
fionally the fubfcription was open to the public at large.
The highell prize was generally 10,00 /. and the lowell
20/. There were from four to fix blanks to a prize, and
the blanks entitled the bearers to y/. or 6/. (lock in the
three or four per cent, bank annuities, the value of the
blanks and prizes being generally funded. The lottery-
office keepers divided the tickets into (hares and chances,
the former entitling the holders to the proportion they had
purchafed of blanks and prizes, the chances to prizes only;
that is, they had no return if the ticket was drawn a blank.

The tickets, according to the advantage or difadvantage of
the (cheme, in refptCt of the number of blanks to a prize,
and the nun.ber of high prizes, generally fold at from 11.'.
to 12/. before the drawinj^. When the tickets fold for 1 1/.
and the bl.inks were entitled to 6/. in the xXitqi: per cent,
bH:ik annuities, as tlie blank might be fold for 5/. 8/. ready
money when the three per cciils. were at 90, the adven-
turer only gambled at a rifk of 5/. \2s. ; and at the higheft
calculation, when tickets were worth 13/., he never flaked
more than 7/. 12s. for a ticket before the drawing.

In 1759, the fchcmc of the lottery included two prizes of
20, coo/, each, which had not been the cafe in any preceding
lottery lincc the time of queen Anne. The fcheme for the
year 1767 contained one prize of 2C,ooo/., and this was.
many years after the ufual amount of the higheft prize.
About this time a material alteration was made in the plan
of the lotteries ; the allowance to blanks was difcontiniied,
tile whole (urn being divided into prizes, the number of which
was of courfe conhdcrably increatcd, particularly as the pro-
portion of fmall prizes was much greater than it has iince
been, and in feveral of the following years was lefs than two
blanks to a prize. All the lotteries during the time lord
North was chancellor of the exchequer were formed on this
principle, with fome variation in the fchentes, wliich favoured
the holders of tickets and the lottery-office keepers, and
greatly increaled the fpirit of gaming, fich as paying the
prizes in money inftead of ftock, and making the firft drawn
ticket for feveral fucceffive days a prize of icoc/. or more,
which enhanced the price of the tickets, and encouraged
pertons who had blanks drawn to buv again. Some ju-
dicious regulations were, however, adopted f-r the fecurity
of perfons purchafing (hares ot ticket.--, by limiting the
(hares into which tickets may be divided into halves, quar-
ters, eighths, and fixteenths ; and obliging all lottery.officc
keepers to depolit the tickets they divided into (hares in the
bank, and to have the faid (hares examined and flamped.
The practice of infuring tickets ar.d (hares was likewife
reftrained, by enacting, that " no pcrfon (liall fell the chance
or. chances of any ticket or any (hare, for any time lefs than
the whole time of drawing from the day of fale ; nor (hall
receive any fum of money whatfoever in conhderation for
the repayment of any fum, in cafe any ticket (liall prove
fortunate, or in any cafe of any chance or evest relating to
the drawing, either as to time, or its being fortunate, nor
fliall publifli propolals for the fame, under the penalty of
500/., one-half to be paid to the perfon fuing for the fame,
and the other moiety to his majefly."

During Mr. Pitt's adminillration the lotteries were con-
tracted for entirely dillinC^ from the loans of the refpeftive
years ; and as it became neceifary to endeavour to augment
every fource of the revenue as much as pofhble, various al-
terations were made in the lottery fchemes, chiefly with a
view of railing the price of tickets, and of keeping up the
price during the time of drawing. The number and amount
of the highell prizes were increafed, fome Ichemes contain-
ing four prizes of 2:,occ/. each, others of two 30,000/.
prizes, while, for the purpofe of difpoling of a greater num-
ber of tickets ill the courfe of the year, the lottery was
divided into two or three fmaller onee, drawn at dilferent
times : the amount ot the principal prize was dill farther
augmented; the lottery drawn in October 1807 containing
a prize of 40,000/., and tlial drawn in June 1808 fix prizes
of 20,000/. each.

But notwithilanding the temptations which thefe fchemes
held out to the inccnhderatc, the contradlors found,
either from the greater' frequency of lotteries, or the in-
creafed number of ticket?, that it became impoffible to get

the

LOTTERY,

the tickets off tl:eir hands, without rfforting to a variety of
expedients for attrailing the public attention, which were
carri-jd to fuch a length as to become a public nuifance.

This and many ftrious evils which were known to exid
relating to lotteries, particularly that of illegal inlurances,
gave rife, in 1 80S, to a committee of the houfe of common?,
which was appointed in order to enquire " how far the evilj
attending lotteri-.-s had been remedied by the laws pa.Ted
refpedling the fame." In the report of this committee,
various inftai.'ces were adduced of the moft ferious evils, at-
teiled by the m >ll refpeclable witneffes, fome of which are
fu linking, that we cannot refill the mention of them in the
prefent article. One cafe, which was attefted by the Rev.
Mr. Gurney, is particularly interefting, as it (hews to what
an amazing ext nit this kind of gambling will carry perfcmj,
who, had it not been for the temptations held out by lot-
teries, might have lived with comfort and refpeiiabillty, but
who, from thefe kinds of fpeculations, have been reduced to
the mod abjeift (late of poverty and diltrels. " I knew,"
fays Mr. Gurney, " a widow in a good line of bufincfs, as
a filk dyer, which, I fuppofe, brought her in about 400/.
a-year clear. She kept a very good houle, and I was in
habits of intimacy with the fami y. The foreman fhe had
was in the habit of infuring in the lottery ; he was led allray
by an acquaintance, and he and his miilrefs infured to the
amount of from 300/ to 4C0/. in a night, although the fore-
man had only 30/. a-year wages. It appeared, on his^e- .
ceale, he had inlured immen'e fums of money within the
lail year of his life. I found that he had expended upwards
of roo guineas in the lottery, purchaGng one ticket at 16/.
and infuring away the reft. It came up a blank at laft, and
I verily believe the difappointment was the caufe of his
death. He died infolvent, and I adled as his executor, and
paid three or four fhiUtngs in the pound to his creditor?. He
had received a great many bills for his miltrefs, which he
had never accounted for, and was the ruin of her alfu ; (he
was not able to pay three (hillings in the jjound. She was
obliged to go ir.to an alms-huufe, and died there in four or
five months. They would fend all the plate (he polTefTed to
raife money to carry on an inlurance, which had begun per-
haps at a low rate. The gentleman who drew the foreman
into this practice was hi.x.felf alio ruined by it. His wife
Iiad an annuity of 400/. per annum fettled upon her, he fold
her life intereit, and (he was obliged to live afteryards upon
charity, rvhile her hufband, who had formerly kept his car-
riage, and lived in a good houfe in Q jeen-fquare, fpeiit the
lail hours of his miferable exiilcnce within the rules of the
Fleet prifon." V^arious other inftances of a fimilar kind
were mentioned in the appendix to the report of the com-
mittee, where the parties formerly in refpcftable circum-
llances were reduced to mifery and dillrefs. But what
ferves to mark the evils of 1 )tteri<?s the Itronger is, that it
is not only the unfuccefsf^il adventurer that is ruined by
the failure of his fpeculation, but there are as many cafes
where a fuccefsfnl fpecula'or has had equal reafon to oeplore
liis firil connexion with this fpecies of gambling. Robert
Baker, efq. d-pofed, that "he remembered one very llrong
inilajice of dillrefs arifing out of the tranfaftions in the lot-
tery four or five years ago. It was the cafe of a journey-
man who belonged to a clnb, which club purchafed a
ticket that came up the great prize. The (hare of this man
was ICC.', or thereabouts ; he had been an induftrious work-
ing man bef .re, and he was perfuaded by his friends to in-
ve!l the money in the Hocks, in the joint name of himfelf
and wife, :n order to prevent his making away with it. He
did fo, but fooii got into habits of idlenefs after he was
poifefltid of the money ; acd he wanted his wile to join in
3

the transfer of it. This occafionrJ quaiTeh, wliich pro-
ceeded to adauits; he chan /cd his habits of indullry to
thofe of drunkennefs and idlenefs, he dedroycd ad his do-
mellic cotrforts, and was the ruin of his family." Many
other cafes of a fimilar defcriplion are given in the appendix
to this report ; in fome of them mothers have ne.^le<9:td their
children, and left them dclhtute of the common necelfjiries
of life, while the money by which thof ■ nccelfaries (hould
have been purchafed has been gambled away in the infur-
aiice of certain numbers in the lottery. In other cafes the
wife has robbed an indiillrions and careful hulband and father
of the fmall and hard-earned favings of many months,
and even of many years ; and who, inllead of finding his
little trcafure in the drawer, in which it was depof.ted, and
which he was about to increafe by another fmall addition,
found that the whole had been gambled away in lottery
fptculations, and every article of his i lothes, which were
not likely to be immediately wanted, had been pawned in
order to recover the former lofs.

In other cales, children have robbed their parents ; fcr-
van*s their mailers ; fnicides have been committed, and
almod every crime that can be imagined has been occa-
fioned, either directly or indireclly, through the baneful in-
fluence of lotteries. Thefe evils are the more to be re-
gretted, as they receive a fort of fanttion from the govern-
ment itftlf, and whatever lav.s may be enadted to check
them they will always cxill, in a greater or lefs degree, while
lotteries arc emp oyed as a means of increafing the revenue
oi the country, and certainly in no other cafe would they
be permitted to exift. The objeft of government is the
happinefs of the people, and every means that c?n be em-
ployed to attain this object it is the duty of government
to employ ; but this can never be accomplKhed without
ftricl and conltant attention to morals as well private as
public ; but how little are lotteries calculated fa produce
this citect, wh'oh, inllead of improving the morals, liold
out the moll dehifive fchemes to attraiSt the attention of the
ignorant and unwary, and draw them afrde from the paths
of indullry and contentment, to embark in a gambling con-
c'.'rn, which generally terminates in poverty and wretched-
uefs.

The committee before which the ab«ve mentioned facls
W£re dilclofed, were fully aware of all the evils we have re-
counted, and in the courfe of their report, declared, that
" the foundation of the lottery, fyftem is fo radically vicious,
that your committee fetl convinced, that under no fyftem
of regulations which can be devifed, will it be polfibie for
parliament to adopt it as an efficacious fource of revenue,
and at the fame time diveft it of all the evils of which it has
hitherto proved fo baneful a fource.

" But, ^in cafe it (liould be thought expedient to continue
(late lotteries,) the number, therefore, in each year, (hould.
be limited to two lotteries, of not more than ;c,coo tickets
each; that the number of days allowed for drawing, inilead .
of ten, (hould be brought down to eight for each lottery, ,
the number fixed in 1S02 ; that the number of tickets to be
drawn rath day (hould be uncertain, and left to the direitioa
ol the commilTioners of (lamp-duties, and kept fecrettiU the
clofe of the drawing each day ; care being taken, as the lot-
tery proceeds, not to leave too great a number undrawn on
the latter days of drawing ; but that one moiety, or upwards, .
be drawn on the four firit days thereof; that every lottery-
office keeper (hould, in addition to his own licence, take otit:
a limited number of licences for his agents ; that the limi-.
tation of hours during which lottery-oiSccs may be open
for the traifaclion of bufuiefs, f/=. from eight, o'clock in
the morning till eight o'clock la the evemiig, enaded by

2i Geo.

L O T T E R Y.

42 Geo. III. c. 47, and renewed in the lottery afts in 1802,
and the three following years, but omitted in thofe of 1806
and 1807, ought in future to be re-cnafted, without the ex-
ceptiou therein made, to Saturday evenings."

Thefe fuggeftions have been attended to in the lotteries
of the lail two or three years, which have been fevcral of
thenx drawn in on ■ day, and confequently a confidcrable
check has been given to illegal infurances. Still, however,
many evils remain, which are fo blended with the natme of
lotteries, that it is impoflible to fcparate them, and it may
fairly be queftioned, whether, for the fake of a fort of
voluntary tax, which is thus impofed upon ignorance and
folly, the morals of many indullrious and honefl members
of iooicty ought to be expofed to the danger of being en-
fnared by the delufive hopes of gain, which the lottery
fchemes are calculated to infpirc. With regard to the ad-
vantage that the revenue derive from the lottery fyitem, it
may hkewife be collected from the reported account above
alluded to. Mr. Shewell informed the committee, that the
general advance put upon tickets by the contractor, was
about ^l. per ticket, not varying much under or over. This
is in confideration of the certain lofs on fuch tickets as the
contractor is not able to fell, the expcnce he mult neceffarily
be put to in th:,'&le of his lottery, and the profit that he natu-
rally expetts on luch a concern. The lottery is confidered as
fold pretty well, of which jour-fiiths of the tickets are dif-
pofed of : the contrattors of the lottery in hand, at the time
of this enquiry, expeded not to fell more than 17,000 tickets
out of the 25,000, of which it confifted. The tickets in
this lottery wei-e fold by the chancellor of the exchequer at
17/. and a fraftion, the tickets of which were not worth quite
ic/. each ; the contraftor feld it again to the hcenfed 'ottery-
office keepers at 20/. IC)S. per ticket, between three and four
pounds more than they gave for it. The lottery-ofRce
keeper puts on another profit, which, in thofe numbers di-
vided in eighths, fixteenlhs, &c. amounts to about i/. per
ticket ; whence it is obvious, that the adventurer in this
lottery (and this may be confidered as an average of lotteries
in general), gamble at a difadvantage of 100 per cent.
Government is a gainer of about ^jo per cent , befides about
20 per cent, farther, wliich i's fuppofed to be added to the
revenue by the poftage of letters, ftamps, duties on adver-
tifements, excife duty, on candles, paper, &c. On the face
of the concern there appears, therefore, a confidcrable pro-
tit to government, which, at a mean, may be eftimated at
about 750,000/. per annum ; but it was the opinion of thofe
who ara bell qualified to judge of thefe fubjetts, that this
increafe of revenue was rather apparent than real ; that the
extra parochial taxes, brought on by the diftrefs they oc-
cafion ; the decreafed confumption of excifeable articles,
juft before, and during the time the lottery is drawing, and
for a few weeks afterwards, which decreafe was attually
afcertair.ed from competent witnelfes, fully counterbalance
the apparent gain. Should this be the true ftate of tlie cafe,
what can induce the minifters to continue to give their
faniStion to fuch delufive and dangerous fpecies of gambling ?
At all events, if the above profit were real, no revenue is
obtained by the ftate at half the expence, in point of pecu-
niary facrifice to the public, independent of the excellive in-
jury to the morals of the people. We have already feen, that
the purchafers of legal Ihares gamble at the difadvantage of
loo per cent. ; and the infurances are carried on, to the dif-
advantage of the public, at about 40 per cent. ; but Itill it is
not eafy to eftimate the annual expence which lotteries cod
the pubhc ; the following ftatement, however, is hazarded
by P. Colquhoun, efq. and fubmitted to the above-mentioned
committee.

Suppofe three annual lotteries, each of 25,000 ?
tickets, the public receives - - J

Contraftors profit at i/. per ticket
Lottery-office keeper's profit ...
Infurcr's profit SS^P"" <^^"'- °n 1,000,000/. -

600,000

75,000
100,000
333-000

Total £.1,108,000

The public are fuppofed to pay for 75,000
tickets, including the additional advance
on halves, quarters. Sec. . . -

The lower clafs who infure are fuppofed to 7

1

pay

1,275,000

1,000,000

£.

Deduft prizes - . 750,000

Deduct prizes obtained by infurers 250,000

je.2, 275,000

1 ,000,000

Lofs to the public to gain 600,000/. to thel

1 ° f 1,275,000

revenue yearly - - - -J ' '}'

This eftimate feems to have been made upon the moft fa-
vourable fuppofitiuns, and probably falls confiderably fhort
of the real lofs fultained by the public.

The following is an account of the prices of tickets, and
immediate profit derived from them by the Hate, during the
fix years from 1802 to 1807.

Year.
1802
1803
1804

1805

1806

1807

No. of ' itliels

Price.

Profit.

100,000

£.14.

1 1 0

36.555,000

80,000

•3

13 I

352'333

I

2

25,000
25,000

•4
I1

i6 0

119,375
145,000

3

30,000

\

25,000
25,000
25,000

15

17
18

*

17

13 6

29

3 0
]8 9

170,250

^•434.625

1
2
3

178,473
203,750
198,437

£.580,660

1
2
3

20,000
25,000
25,000

j6
16
16

12 0

14 3
10 0

132,000
167,812
162,500

4

20,000

16

19 0

139,000

£.601,312

1
2
3

20,000
25,000
25,000

17
17
16

13 6

4 0
10 6

153,000
I S 0,000

163,125
£.496,125

To thefe fums are to be added the advantages derived
from poftages, ftamps, &c. which are generally ellimated
at 2/. per ticket, making the mean annual profit about
750,000/. But after deduftions are made for the lofies ful-
tained

LOTTERY.

tained from caufes conneAed with the lottery fyftem, it is
doubtful whether any real advantage is derived from this
fouroe ; and if even the whole of the above was a real fav-
ing, the evils attending it are fuch as to lead us to hope,
that minifters will find fome other means of raifing an equi-
valent) founded upon more liberal prmciples, and lefs dan-
gi^rous to the morals and happinefs of the people.

Having faid thus much with regard to the general policy
of lotteries, we (hall conclude the prefent article by an invef-
tigation of the theory of lotteries, as it is connefted with the
doArine ofchances.

Prob. I.

Any number of things being given, as a, i, c, d, e, f;
to find the probability that in taking three of them, as they
happen, they (hall be any three propofed, as a, b, c.

Firft, the probability of taking either a or i, or c, will be
.jths, and fuppofing one of them, as a, to be taken, then the
probability of taking either b or c will be ^ths. Again, let
either of them be taken, fuppoi'e i ; the probability of taking
s in the third place will be |th ; wherefore the probability
of taking the three thmgs propofed, viz a, b, c, will be

3 2 I I

65 4 30*

Olherwife, we might confider what number af combinations
of fix things can be formed by taking three at a time ; and
out of this number there is obvioudy only one combination
that anfwers the conditions of the problem propofed ; and
there are, therefore, fo many chances to one againit the fuc-
cefs of tW' trial.

Now, the number of fuch combinations is exprefled by

6 x- 5 X 4

3x2 X I

And, confequenlly, the chance of drawing the fpecified things

a, 6, c, is ,3th, as before.

Corollary. — Univerfally, the number of combinations that

can be formed, of n things taking^, at a time, is exprefled

by

n__{ n- l) (>» - 2) («- 3) .. . (n - />)
p (p ~l) (p-2) {p- i) 1

and confequently, the reciprocal of this fraftion will be the
probability of fuccefs in any cafe that may arife.

fpecified ones q, we rauft divide the firft of the foDowing
feries by the fecond, viz.

10.

pip- 1) (/>- 2) (p- 3)

(P-I)

? If- i) (?- 2) (?- 3) «

2 " (" - I) (" -^) (" -3) •••("- 7^

9 (?- 0 (?-*)(?- 3) I

that is, the propofed chance will be exprefled by the fracUoii

pip- -i) {p--%) {p-i) . . . {p -q)
n (n - I) (o - 2) (n - 3) . . . (n - y)"

Prob. III.

To find what probability there is, that in taking at random
feven counters out of twelve, whereof four are white, and
eight black, there fliall be at lead three white ones.

I. Find the chance for taking three wliite out of four,
which will be

4x3 X 2

3x2x1

= 4-

2. The number of chances for taking four black out of
eight is, on the fame principle, found to be

8x7x6x7

: i = 70.

4^3x2x1

And, therefore, the chances of both fucceeding is 4 x 70

= 280.

But by the queftion, he may hold four white and three

black, becaufe it is only limited that three white be taken,

and not that there (hould be three white and no more.

3. How the number of chances for taking four white out
of four is one.

4. The number of chances f»r taking three black out of
eight is

8x7x6 _
3x2x1" ~ ^
And the produft of thefe two is 56 x T = 56, there-
fore the whole number by which the event may fucceed, is
280 + 56 xr 336.

•5. But the whole number of combinations that can be
formed out of twelve things, taking feven at a time, is

12. II . 10 . 9 . 8 . 7 . 6

— = 792 :

therefore

336
792

Prob. II.

Let the fame fix things be propofed as above, to deter
mine the probability, that in drawing four of them, the the event will ha
three fpecified ones, as a, b, c, fhall be taken.

Firft, the number of combinations that can be formed of

6. J

I

. 4. 3 . z

will cxprefs the probability that
14 _ 19

fix things, taking three at a time, is ^- ^ = 20 •

3-2.1

and the number of combinations that can be formed out of

four things, taking three at a time, is =; 4.

3x2x1^

Whence it follows that out of the twenty combinations of
threes which may happen, four of them will be in hand ;
and, therefore, the probability of taking the three fpecified

things under the condition of the problem, is — = _ .

20 ^

And hence, generally, to determine the probability, that in
drawing out of a given number of tickets n, any propofed
aumber «, there (haH be found amoncrll them any number of
Voi„ XXI.

ppen, and confequently i — — = — ^

33 33»
IS the probability of its failing ; that is, the odds againft three
white counters being drawn, are as 19 to 14.

Corollary Let a be the number of white counters, b the

number of black, n the whole number = a + A ; c the num-
ber of counters to be taken out of the number n : alfo, let
* reprefent the number of white counters that are to be
found precifely in c. Then the number of chances for tak-
ing none of the white, or one of the white, or two of the
white, and no more ; or three of the white and no more ; or
four of the white and no more, &c. will be exprefl"ed as fol-
lows :

{"
{'

a — 3

5
*- 2

}
}

> 3

The number of terms in which a enters being equal to the
3 H number

LOTTERY.

number^ ; and the number of terms in which b enters being
equal to the number c — p.

But the number of all the chances for taking a certain
number c, of counters out of the number n, is expreffed

by

— I

2

— X

» — 2

— X

&C.

1 2 3

to be continued to as many terms as there are units in c.

If the numbers n and c were large, fuch as n — 40000,
and c = 8000, the foregoing method would feem imprac-
ticable, on account of the great number of terms to be taken
in both fcrics, whereof the firit is to be divided by the fe-
cond ; though if thofe terms were aftually fet down, a
great many of them being common divifors might be ex-
punged out of both ferics ; for which reafon it will be con-
venient to ufe the following theorem, which is a contraction
of that method, and which will be chiefly of ufe when the
white counters are but few. Let, therefore, n be the num-
ber of all the counters, rt the number of white, b the number
of black, c the number of counters to be taken out of the
number ?(, p the number of white that are to be taken pre-
cifely, then making n — c — d. The probability of tak-
ing precifely the number /> of white counters will be as fol-
lows : ^•/'z. making

c.{c-^) {c - 2) (.-3) &c. =C
d.{d- I) {d~ 2) {d-3) &c. = D

the three particular benefits, which will be found to be
32000 X .:ii099X 31998 ^ 6£ ^^ ^^.^^ ^^.^^ ^^^^

40000 X 39999 X 39998 125

trafted from unity, gives a remainder, i — — -=--—,

(hewing the probability required ; and therefore the odds
againft taking any of three particular benefits will be 64
to 61 nearly.

PnoB. V.

To find how many tickets ought to be taken in a lottery
confiliing of 40000, among which are throe particular be-
nefits, to make it as probable that one or more of thefe
three may be taken as not. Let the number of tickets
requifite to be taken be =. x, and the probabihty of not

taking any of the particular benefits will be X

a
- X
I

a — I
X

2

n (n - l) (n -
the probability =

- 3

&c. = A

3 4

2) («-3) &c. = N
D X A

N

where it is to be obferved, that the firft and third fcries
contain as many terms as there are units in p ; the fecond as
many as there are in a — p ; the fourth as many as there are
in a.

Let us now apply thefe refults in tlie folution of the fol-
lowing problems.

Prob. IV.

In a lottery confiding of 40000 tickets, among which are
three particular benefits, what is the probability that taking
8000 of them, one or more of the particular benefits fliall be
among them. Subiluute 8000, 40000, 32000, 3, and i
refpeftively for c, n, d, a, and/), in that problem ; and the
probability of taking precifely one of the three particular
Sooo X 32000 y 31999 X 3 _
40000 X 39999 < 39998

benefits will appear to be

n — X — I

X

— ; but this probability is equal to

n ^- I n — 2

■i, fince by hypothefis, the probability of taking one or more

of them is equal to ^ ; whence we (hall have the equation

n — X n — X — I n — x — 2 , r .irt

X X = h from- the folu-

n n — I n — 2

tion of which x will be found nearly equal to 8252. The
terms of this equation, M. De Moivre obferves, may be
confidered as being in geometric progredion ; fince the fac-
tors both of the numerator and denominator are few and in
arithmetic progreffion, and their difference very ^mall in
refpcdl of n : and, therefore, tlie cube uf the middle term
may be fuppofed equal to the product of the multiplication

n — X " I

of thefe terms ; whence will arife the equation, , =:

n— ]|

\ ; or, neglefting the unit botli in the numerator and denomi-

\'

nator.

or n (1 — •§ <*/ 4) : but n —
0.2063 ; therefore x = 8252

T^, and s, confequently, :
40000, and 1

2 ^/4 =

Prob. VI.

To determine accurately, in a lottery of looooo tickets,
whereof 9COCO are blanks, and loooo are benefit?, what the
odds are of taking or not talking a benefit, in any number of
tickets affigned. Let the number be 6 ; and it will appear,
by the above cited problem, that the number of chances for
taking no prize in 6 tickets, making a =: lOOOO, b :=; 90000,

^nearly. If ^ = 2, the probability of taking precifely two
125

. , . /-^ -11 u 8000 X 7999 X 32000 X 3
of the particular benefits will be — — — LL22. 2 ^

^ 40000 K 39999 X 3999**

= — ?^ nearly. If * = 3, the probability of taking all the
125

. , , r. •„ 1 8000 X 7999 X 7998

three particular benefits will be •- : — - =

*■ '^ 4000Q X 39999 X 39998

-i-. And the probability of taking one or more of the
125

. , , . .,, . 48 -t- 12 -I- I 61
three particular benefits wiU be — — ^= very

nearly. Thefe three operations might have been contrafted
tato one by inquiring the probability of not taking any of

4

f = 6, / =

•11 I 900C0
n =: loocoo, will be -^ X

89999

89998

19997
4

5

89995

whole number of chances will be

and that the
X '5999° ^

99908 ^ 99997. ^
4

£9996 ^ 9929J , tj,,„ d,,id; th^

3450
firft number of chances by the fecond, by means of loga-
rithms, the quotient will be 0.53143, the probability re-
quired : this decimal traflion being fubtrafted'from unity,
the remainder 0.46857 fiiews the probability of taking one
prize or more in fix tickets ; wherefore the odds againfl:
taking any prize in fix tickets will be 53143 to 46857. If
the number of tickets be feven, then carrying each number

of

LOT

LOT

«f cliances above written one ftep farther, we fhall find that
the probability of taking no prize in feven tickets is 0.47S28,
which fubtraifled from unit leaves a remainder 0.52172,
which (hews the odds of taking one prize or more in fcven
tickets to be 52172 1047828.

Prob. VII.

With the fame data, to find the value of the chance of a
prize, liippollng each ticket to be 10/., and that after the
lottery is drawn, 7/. ics. be returned to the blanks. There
being 90000 blanks, to each of which is returned 7/, 10s.
the total value of the blanks is 675,000/. and confequently
the total value of the benefits is 325,000/. which being di-
vided by loooo, the number of benefits, gives a quotient
32.'. lor. and, therefore, one might for the.fum of 32/. ics.
be en'itled to have a benefit certain, taken at random out of
the whole number of benefits: the purchafer of a chance
has, therefore, one chance in ten for the fum of 32/. lox.
and nine chances in ten for lofing his money ; from whence
it follows, that the value of his chance is the tenth part of
32/. lor. viz. 3/. 5j. And confequently the purchafer of a
chance, by giving the feller 3/. 5^., is intitled to the chance
of a benefit, and ought not to return any thing to the
feller, although he fliould ha"e a prize f for the feller hav-
ing 3/, 5j. iure, and nine chances in ten for 7/. loj. the
value of whidi chance is 61. 15J. it follows that he has his
10/. p.

Pkob. VIII.

In the fame kind of lottery, let A engage to furnifh B
■with a chance, on condition that whenever the ticket on
which the chance depends (hsil happen to be drawn, whe-
ther it proves a blank or prize, A fhall furnifli B with
a new chance, and fo on, as often as there is occafion,
till the whole is drawn ; it is propofcd to find what con-
fideration B ought to give A before the lottery begins
to be drawn, for the chance or chances of one or more
prizes, admitting that the lottery will be forty days in
drawing.

Let the abfolute value of a chance, or 3/. 5^-., be called
s. Firft A, who is the feller, ought to confidtr, that on
the firll day he furnifhes necclfdrily a chance whofe value
is s.

2dly. That on the fecond day, he does rot neceffarily
furnidi a chance, but conditionally, viz. if it fo happen that
the ticket on which the chance depends fhonld be drawn on
the firll day ; but the probability of its being drawn on the
firft day is jU ; and therefore he ought to take ^'„ s for the
confideration of ihe fecond day.

.3dly. That in the fame manner he does not necefTarilv
furnilTi a chance on the third day, but conditionally, in cafe
the only ticket depending (for there, can be but one) fhould
happen to be drawn on the fecond ; of which the probabi-
lity being -rV,- by reafon of the remaining 39 days from the
lecond indufive to the laft, it follows, that the value of that
chance is ,-j-.

4thly. And for the fame reafon the value of the next
is ■j'j.f, &c. the purchafer ought, therefore, to give the

feller 1 + ^'^ + ^'^ + ^'^ + J^ + i x s,

or I + 4: -1- i -i- i + ,i -I- I + s's X J.

The fum of ihefe forty terms, being 4.2785 nearly, multi-
phed by s or 3-25, will give a produft 13-9. Hiewing that
the purchafer ought to give the feller about 13/ iSs.

From what has been faid it appears, that the value of the
chance s for one llngle day that fhall be fixed upon is the

value of that chance divided by the number of days inter-
cepted between that day inclufivc and the number of days
remaining to the end of the lottery ; which, however, mufl
be underllood with this rcflriSion, that the day fixed upon
muft be chofen before the lottery begins j cr if it be done oi»
any other day, the ftate of the lottery muft be known, and
a new calculation made accordingly for the value of /. De
Moivre's Doctrine of Chances, 1 756. See alfo the article
Chances.

Lottery is alfo the name of a well-known game at
cards.

LOTTI, Antonio, of Venice, in Biography, principal
organift of St. Mark, and afterwards macltro di cappella of
the fame Cdthedral, was one of the greatell men of his pro-
felTion. The celebrated Haffe, his difciple and intimate
friend, and the beft able to judge of his abilities, thought
that none of the great mafters ever united in their works fo
great a fhare of exprefTion and fcieuce. In his co.-npofi-
tions, he combined with the learning of the old fchool all
the grace, rich harmony, and brilliancy of the new. He
was the hero of Haffe, who never fpoke of him but with
rapture. " What expreflion" (he ufed to fay), " what va-
riety, were in that exprefTion, and what truth in the ideas !"'
How pleafing it was to hear a man at his time of life, of a
merit and reputation above all envy, fpeak with fuch enthu-
fiafm of a great mafter. Lotti was long at the head of the
Venetian fchool. His ecclefiaftical compofitions were only
ufed at St. Mark's on great and folemn occafions. They are
truly fublime. The kind of pathos in his ftyle elevates the
foul, and e\pre(fes all the grandeur and reverence of devo-
tion. (Ellais fur la Muf. torn, iii.) This animated and
feeling character of Lotti does not feem to come from an
author v.'ho in general fpeaks of the Italians with contempt,
and of Ramcau as the only mufician who ever knew h.ir-
mony and how to ufe it. We can, however, anfwer for the
truth of the above charafter. For though we have never
heard or feen any of his dramatic mufic, yet, in 1770, we
heard at Venice, in the church of San Giovanni e Paulo, on
a day that the doge went in proceffion to that church, a mafs
by Lotti, in four parts, without any other inftrument than
the organ, which was fo well fung and accompanied, that
we do not remember ever to have received more pleafure
from choral mufic ; all was corretl, clear, and diftinft ; no
confufion or unneceffary notes ; it was' even capable of ex-
prefTion, particularly one of the movements into which the
performers entered fo well as to render it affecting even to
tears. The organift, very judicioufly, fuffered the voices
to ^e heard in ail their purity, with which our attention was
fo occupied, that we frequently forgot that they were ac-
companied. This kind of mufic, a cappella, though exploded
as unfit for theatrical purpofes, muft be allowed to have its
merit. Lotti was the difciple of Legrenzi, the model of
Haife, one of the mafters of Marcello, Galuppi, and Pef-
cetti. His name is chiefly known in England by the dif-
pute in the Academy of Ancient Mufic, at the Crown and
Anchor, in 1732, concerning a madrigal which Bononcini
was accufed of having fto'en from him. See BoNOSxixi.

Lotti compofed for the Venetian theatres, between the
years 1698 and 1717, fifteen operas. His cantatas furnifh
fpecimens of recitative that do honour to his fenfibility.
He was opera compofer at the court of Drefden when the
Santa Stelli, his wife, performed the part of firft woman
then, in 1 7 1 8 ; and in 1720 he returned to Venice, where he
was living in 1733.

LOTUL, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 1 6 miles W.
of Torea.

LOTUS, in Botany, a name which has been more va-
3Hz riouUy

LOTUS.

I icwlly applied, and of which perhaps more has been written,
than of any other plant. Thofe who have fought for its
origin in the Greek language, have found nothing nearer
than ^a>, to ivUl or defire, alluding, as they fuppofe, to the
plant being greatly efteemed. Others have thought, with
more probability, that Xarro; of the Greeks, and Lotas of
the Latins, had one common Egyptian origin, its etymo-
logy being therefore, of courfe, infcrutable to us. All that
can be faid of the application of this name, at various times,
and in various languages and nations, is, that it has always
been ufed for fome plant eminently ufeful as food, for man
or bead. Thus it has been appropriated to the Kvamo;, or
Sacred Bean of India (fee Cyamus) ; and to its Egyptian
fubftitutc, the Nymphita ; to fome African fruit, on which
certain people have chiefly depended for their iupport ; and
to feveral herbaceous plants, eflential to the maintenance of
domeftic cattle, in countries fparin^ly furnifhed with grafs.
In this lall fenfe it is finally retained, as a generic appellation,
by modern botanills. — Linn. Gen. 388. Schreb. J09.
WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1385. Mart. Mill Dift. v. 3. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 793. Ait. Hort. Kcw. ed. I. V. 3. 90. JufT. 356.
Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 611. Gtertn. t. 153. — Clafs and
order, Diadelphia Dccandrla. Nat. Ord. Paplllonacea, Linn.
Leguminofs, JuiT.

Gen. Ch Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, tubular,
nearly cyhndrical, cut half way down into five, acute, ereft
teeth, equal in length, but not quite uniform in pofition,
permanent. Cor. Papilionaceous. Standard roundiih, bent
backwards ; its claw long, concave. Wings roundifh,
ftiorter than the ftandard, broad, (lightly cohering by their
upper margin. Keel gibbous beneath, clofed above, pointed,
afcending, iliort. Stam. Filaments in two fets, one fimple,
the other in nine fegments, afcending, rather dilated at the
tips ; anthers fmall, fimple. P'Jl Germ.cn oblong, llniight,
nearly cylindrical, rarely angular ; ftyle fimple, afcending ;
Aigma a fmall inflexed point. Perie. Legume cylindrical,
Ilraight, tumid, longer than the calyx, of one cell and tv.o
valves. Seeds feveral, fomewhat cylindrical.

Eif Ch. Legume cylindrical, ftraight. Wings cohering
longitudinally above. Calyx tubular. Filaments dilated
upward?.

The habit of this genus, moftly herbaceous, in fome in-
ftances (lightly (hrubby, approaches that of MedicO'^io, but
their fruftification differs effentially. The fpecies chiefly
abound in the more temperate climates of Europe, or part of
Africa. Seventeen occur in the Sp. Pi of Linnius, 18 in
Syjl. Vcg ed. 14; 30 in Willdenow. Three are reckoned
natives of Britain, all confuunded till latel)- under L. conii-
cuhtus.

The whole are didributed into t*o feftions.
Se<ft. I. Flowers, or l.gumes, one or two on ajlalk, rarely
three. Of thefe fome of the principal are

h.Jiliquofus. Square-podded Bird's-foot Trefoil. Linn.
Sp. PI. K89. Jacq. Aullr. t. 361. (L. tetragono-
lobus ; Rivin Tetrap. Irr. t. 79. L. trifolia corniculata ;
Ger, em. 1 198.) — Legumes foiitary, with four m.embranaus
wings. Stems procumbent. BraCleas lanceolate, foiitary
or ternate. — Native of rather moift pallures, in various
parts of the continent of Europe from Sweden to Italy, but
not found in Britain. The roots are perennial, throwing up
many weak decumbent_y?i'mj, about a fpan long, branching,
zigzag and leafy. Leaves alternate, (talked, ternate ;
leaflets obovate, equal in length, but the two lateral oi>es
very unequally divided by their rib ; all fomewhat flefhy,
more or lefs hairy, (lightly glaucous beneath. Stipulas in
pairs at the bafe of each footilalk, large, ovate^or elliptical.
Flfwer-Jlalks few, axillary, foiitary, about the tops of the

(lems, which they greatly overtop, being often three or four
inches long, firm, hairy, fingle-fiowered. Flowers large,
lemon-coloured. Legume an inch and half long, with four
narrow wing*. — Liiinseus's L. maritimus is not even a variety
of this. He fiems at one time not to have been clear in his
ideas refpeAingJiliqiio/us and teiragonolobus.

L. tetragonolobus . Crinifon Winged-Pea. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1089. Curt. Mag. t. 151. (L. filiqua quadrat a ; Ger,
em. 1 198. ) — Legumes foiitary, with four membranous wavy
wings. Stems fpreading. BraiSeae ovate, ternate.— Native
of Sicily and Spain. Very commonly cultivated as a hardy
annual, for the fake of its deep-crimfon, velvety flowers,
and fometimes for its pods, which when young are occa-
fionally eaten boiled, as greens. It is alfo celebrated in bo-
tanic hillory, as having firll called the attention of Linnaeus
to the fleep of plants. He oblerved that its flowers became
invifible in the evening, by being enfolded in their brafteas,
and re-appeared in the morning, which led him to conCder
this fubjeft, and to write upon it.

We have fome fpecimens, belonging to this (e<Sion, which
appear to be new fpecies, or very remarkable varieties, ga-
thered at Algiers by M. Durand.

L. d'lffufus perhaps fliould be removed hither ; fee the end
of the genus.

Seft. 2. Flowers many together in a head.

L. htrfutus. Hairy Bird's-toot 'IVefoil. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1091. Curt. Mag. t. 336.— Heads roundi(h Stem
hairy. Legumes fomewhat ovate. — Native of the fouth of
Europe and the Levant ; long known in our gardens, where
it requires the (helter of a greenhoufe. Thejlem is (hrubby,
often four or five feet high, hairy like the leaves aaAJlipulas.
Flowers white, or blu(h-coloured, prettily contralled with
their red calyx. The legumes, though truly cyhndrical, are
fo (hort as to become almoil ovate. On the fea beach of the
Genoefe coall, this fpecies grows proftrate, enlivening the
llony ground with a profufion of blolToms ; fo that the Lin-
nasan definition, " ftem ereft," is not in all cafes exaft.

1j. corniculatus. Common Bird's-foot Trefoil. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1092. Curt Lond. fafc. 2. 7.56. Mart. Ru(t. t. 53.
Engl. Bot. t. 2090. — Heads deprelTed, of few flowers.
Stems decumbent, (olid. Legumes fpreading, nearly cylin-
drical. Claw of the keel obovate. Filaments all dilated. —
Native of moft parts ot Europs ; very common with us in
open grafTy pallures, where it is confpicuous in autumn.
The_/?f/nj fpread, from the perennial root, in every direftion,
various in length, fimple or branched, angular, leafy, clothed
with clofe-prelTed hairs. Flowers of a golden yellow, more
or lefs itained or ftriped with dark red, each h<^ad on a long
llalk, with a fmall ternate iraSea at the top. Legumes of a
(hining brown, or copper-colour. — This has been rccom-
mend-jd for fodder and hay, by the name of Milk-vetch.

L. major. Greater Bird's-foot Trefoil. — Scop. Cam.
v. 2. 86. Engl. Bot. t. 2091. (L. cornicuiatus y et ^;
Fi. Brit. 794.) — Heads deprcffed, many-fl.jwered Stems
ereft, hollow. Lci^umes fpreading, cylindrical. Claw of
the keel linear. Shorter filaments not dilated.— Found in
wet boggy places, among bufhes and reeds, flowering in
fumrr.er and autumn, probably throughout Europe. Its
more ereft, hairy habit, and larger fize, mark this plant fuf-
ficienlly to a common ob(ervi-r, and the above charafters
are abundantly fuf&cient to diftinguifli it from the laft, with
which it has generallv been contounded.

L. d'lffujus. Slender Bird's-foot Trefoil FI. Brit. 794.
Engl. Bot. t. 925. ( L. pentaphyllos minor hirfutus, filiqua
aiiguftifiTima ; Bauh. Pin. 332. Trifolium corniculatum mi-
nus, pilofuin ; Bauh. Prodr. 1 44.) — Flower-ftalks molUy
fiwglc-flowered. Stem much branched, proftrate. Leaves

and

LOT

smd calyx hairy. Legumes round, linear, very flender. —
Native of Madeira, and of the fouth coaft of England. It
has an affinity to the two laft, but is more delicate and
flender, with imaller and piler Jioivers, one or two only to-
gether ; for which reafon it ought to be placed in the firft
feftion, though it proves fuch a divilion of the genus (by
the number of its flowers) to be rather artificial than na-
tural.

The lotus of Africa is rather a thorny ftirub than a tree ;
and it abounds in all thofe parts of Africa through which
Mr. ''ark travelled ; but it flourillies mod in a fandy foil.
Its fruit IS a fmall farinaceous berry, about the fize of an
olive ; which being pounded in a wooden velTel, and after-
ward dried in the fun, is made into excellent cakes, refem-
bling, in colour and flavour, the fweetetl gingerbread. The
natives of all deicriptions efteem it hijhly, and fome of
them prepare from it a liquor delicioufly fvveet ; the fame
perhaps which is fabled to have produced fuch extraordinary
effefts on the companions of Ulyfles.

Lotus, in Garikning, comprizes plants of the herbaceous
and under Ihrubby kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are,
the winged bird's-foot trefoil (L. tetragonolobus) ; the
dark-flowered bird's-foot trefoil (L. jacobeus) ; the filvery
bird's-foot trefoil (L. hirfutus) ; and the (hrubby bird's-foot
trefoil (L. Dorycnium).

Method of Culture. — The firft fort is raifed by fowing the
feed annually in the fpring, in the open gioiind, in the places
where the plants are to remain, in patches in differi;nt parts,
of five or fix feeds in each, half an inch deep. The plants
foon come up, which remaining m I he fame place for flower-
ing, require only occafiunal weeding, being either luffered
to trail, according to their natural growth, or tied up to
fticks.

The other forts may be increafed by feeds and cuttings.
The fettds (hould be fown in pota of light earth or m a mo-
derate hor-bed ; and when the p'ants are about three inches
high be planted out in feparate fmall pots of light rich earth,
giving water, and placing, them in the ftiade till trelh
rooted.

The cuttings of the young fta'ks and branches may be
planted any time in thefpri ig crfummer, in beds or pots of
rich mould, giving Ihade and water. They emit roots, and
form plants in a few weeks, but may be greatly facilitated by
covering them ciofe with hand-irlalT s till they begin to (hoot
at top ; then they (hould be gradually inured to the air, and
foon after be tranfp a.ted into feparate pots.

The firft of thefe plants is now chiefly cultivated in flower-
gardens for ornament, but was formerly grown for the green-
pods which were boiled and eaten.

The other kinds effeft an agreeable variety in collections
of green-houfe plants, both in their foliage and flowers.
They all require (helter from froft, the t«o firft in parti-
cular ; the two la(l are fomewhat hardier, and fometimes fuc-
eeed in the full ground all the year, in warm dry fituations.
A few plants (hould however conilantly be kept in the pots,
to be proteded in the winter feafon.

Lotus, Bladder, a name foraetimes given to a fpecies of
xulneraria, or anlhvWts.

Lotus Cornitulatus : this is a plant that has a perennial
tapenng root which ftrikes deep ; there are feveral trailing
herbaceous ftems, flender, bluntly four-cornered, procum-
bent except where fupported, as in meadows.or among bulhes,
from fix or feven inches to afoot and a half in length ; vary-
mg even more in different foils and fituations. The leaves
are ternate, petioled, one at each joint, the leaflets differing
extremely in f)rm, in the fever*l varieties, from bluntly
ovate to linear-lanceolate. TIk: lbipulas»refemble the leaves,

L O V

but they are more pointed, and are rather lanceolate than
ovate. The flowers grow in flatted heads refembKng um-
bels, on peduncles from two to three inches and a half in
length, but on pedicles hardly a line long. There is a fingle
feffile ternate leaf at the bafe of each head without any fti-
pulas ; and fometimes there is only one leaflet or two ; the
number of flowers varies from three or four te twelve or
thirteen.

This fort of lotus is found in meadows, paflures, and heaths,
flowering in June. It is faid to be cultivated in Hertford-
(hire as pafturage for fheep ; and it makes extremely good
hay ; growing in moift meadows to a greater height than the
trefoils, and leems to be of a quality equal, if nofcfuperior to
moft of them. In common with feveral other leguminous
plants, it gives fubftaiicc to the hay, and perhaps contributes
to render it more palatable and wholefome for cattle. Dr.
Andcrfon affirms, that every fort of domeftic ammal eats it
in preference to every other plant : it feldom comes to flower
in pailure gronnds, unlefs where they have been faved from
cattle for fome time. What firft recommended it to his no-
tice was, the having obferved it to grow and flourifh in poor
ground ; as in the midft of a barren moor, where the foil
was fo poor that even heath could hardly grow ; upon bare
obdurate clays ; in dry and barren fands. Jt certainly flou-
ri(hcs not only in thefe, but alfo c'nalky foils ; and on moors,
heaths, and downs hard ftocked with flieep, the furface may
be feen to be yellow with- the flowers of it ; which is con-
trary to what has been aflerted above, namely, that it feldom
comes to flower in paftures. But a greater number of trials
are ftill wanting to fully afcertain the utility of this plant for
field purpofes, thoui;h it certainly promifes well.

Lotus hlycy calamus, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to an Egyptian plant according to fome, and ac-
cording to others, 'o a rare plant, found only in few places,
and only met with by accident, by the people who made
long and uneonimnn voyages. The whole account given of
it, by the earlieil writers, is no imore than that it was of a
very fweet and pleafant tafte. Myrepfus ufes the term fre-
quently, and his interpreters underftand him to mean the
Cdffia fiftula by it. But we have accounts from Homer,
that the followers of Ulyfliss were detained by eating the
lotus glycycalamus ; and it is not at all probable that the
calTia fillula could be the thing meant by the word in this
place ; neither will tlie words of the author allow it to be
any thing of tins ki-id. The caflia fiftula is the fruit of a
tree: but this t'lycycalamus, we find in Homer himfelf,
was an herbaceous plant. Quintilian calls it exprcfsly a
kind of grafs, gramen ; and from the other accounts of its
growing m form of reeds, and in wet places, it feems very
probable that it was the fugar-cane that they called by this
name.

Lotus, in Agriculture, a fort of plants of the birds-foot tre-
foil kind, of which there are feveral fpecies, fome of which may
be cultivated for the purpofe of cattle food with advantao-e.

LOTZEN, in Geography, a town, wuh a caftle, of
PrulTij, in the province oi Natangen, feaicd on a canal
which joins the Angerburg and Leventin lakes ; 56 miles
S.E. of K5nigfberg. N. lat. 53 53 . E. long. 21 57'.

LOVA, a town of Hungary ; 20 miles W. of St. Crot.

LOVAGE, m Botany and Gardening. See LlGUS-

TICUM.

L0V.1GE, Biijlard. See Lasicrpitium /tier.

LOUAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Dow-
latabad ; to miles W.N VV. of Kondur.

LOVAT, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria;
64 miles E. of Sofia.

LOVATINl, Giovanni di Ravenna, in BiograpJiy,

a burletta

LOU

L O V

a burletta finger, with the fwceteft tenor voice snA (^yle of
finging we ever heard on any ftace. He arrived in Eng-
land in the autumn of 1766, with Morigi, Savoi, Micheh,
La Guadngni, Piatti, and Gibetti.

This excellent troop appeared December 9th, for the firft
time, in our lyric theatre, in tlie admirable comic opera
♦' La Buona Figliuola," written by Goldoni, and fet by
Piccini. The performance and fuccefs of this burletta
were complete, and rendered the name of Piccini, which
had hardly penetrated into this country before, dear to
every lovur of mufic in the nation. All the performers in
this drama cllablifhed a charafter which was of ufe to them
during the'ell of their lives.

Lovatini's rtiellifluous voice, manner of fmging, and hu-
mour ; La Guadagni's graceful figure, afting, and fmging ;
Morigi's mimickry of the pronunciation, accent, and man-
ner of a German foldier ; Savoi's fine voice, the charaifter-
iltic manners of tlie two prating female domeftics, Piatti
and Gibetti; and even the raven-like croak of Micheli, had
its fhare of notice ; but whoever remembers the elegant
cantabile ftyle in which Lovatini began the charming duet,
«' La Baronefs' Amabile," mult retain an exalted opinion
of his captivating powers in Jcrhus finging.

Lovatnii, wken he quitted this country for his own in
J 774, merely retired to die, as news of his death arrived
here the next year, and we cannot difcover that he per-
formed in any other theatre after he left England.

LOVATOVA, in Geography, a town on the E. coafl
of the idand of Flores. S. lat. 8 ' 30'. E. long. 122' 50'.

LOUDENS, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne ; 1 2 miles N.W. of Revel.

LOUBEllE, Simon de r,A, in Biography, was born at
Touloufe in 1642. He ftudied at the Jefuits' college,
and difplayed a good poetical talle by a multitude of light
compofitioMS, though he was far from neglefting more
ferious purfuits, and particularly attended to politics and
public law. He commenced his political career as fecre-
t ry to M.'de St. Romain, embaffador to Switzerland. In
1687, he was appointed by Lewis XV. his envoy extra-
ordinary to the court of Siam, v:here he remained only
about three months, during which he collected a large ilore
of information concerning its natural and civil hiftory, the
rehgion, manners, &v. of the people. On his return, he
publifhi-'d an account of what he had obferved, in two vols.
I2mo. which became a very popular work. He was after-
wards fent without a public character into Spain, on a fecret
cemmiflion, but was arrelted, and obtained his rcleafe only
in confequence of reprifals on fome Spaniards in France.
In 1693 he was elefted mto the French academy, and foon
afterwards retired to his native city, where he re-eltablifhed
-the " Floral Games," which had funk into decay. He
died at the very advanced age of cighty-feven, in the year
1729. He was 3 man of very general knowledge, well
acquainted with feveral languages ancient and modern, and
-excelled as a writer in various branches of literature.
Moreri.

LOUBES, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gironde ; 12 miL's N.E. of Bourdcaux.

LOUBIERE, a town of the illand of Dominica, on the
W. coalt ; 17 miles S. of Portfmouth.

LOUBO, a town of Benin, at the mouth of the river
Formofa ; 60 miles S.W. of Benin.

LOUBOUEX, St, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Landes ; nine miles S.E. of St. Sever.

LOUBRESSAC, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Loire j fix mdes N.W. of Le Puy en
Velay.

LOUCHOU, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ma-
zarderan ; 4J miles N.E. of Cafbio.

LOUDEAC, a town of France, and principal place of
a diltrift, in the department of the North Coafts ; in which
are an iron forge and a manufa"!ture of thread. ; 20 miles S.
of St. Brieuc. The place contains 6096, and the canton
14,611 inhabitants, on a territory of 2oj kiliometres, in lix
communes. N. lat. 48 8 . W. long. 2'^ 40'.

LOUDES, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Le Puy ; fix miles N.W. of Le Puy. The place contains
8co, and the canton 5377 inhabitants, on a territory of 173'
kiliometres, in nine communes.

LOUDON, a coiuity of Virginia, in America, on the
river Potowipac, adjoining Fairfax, Berkley, and Fiiquier
counties ; about 50 miles long and 20 broad, containing
15,933 free inhabitants, and 4990 (laves. Its chief tov.'n is
Leefburg. Quarries wf grey hone, white flint, and lime are
found in this county. The climate is favourable to apples,
pears, peaches, plums, cherries, and grapes. The county
was firit fettled from Pennfylvania and New Jcrfey. — Alio,
a tovvnfhip in Rockingham county, New Hampfhire, taken
from Canterbury, and incorporated in 1773 ; fituated E.
of the Merrimack river, and containing 1279 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfliip in Berkfhire county, Maffiichufetts ; 21
miles S.E. of Lenox ; incorporated in 1773, and containing
614 inhabitants, and 13,000 acres, of which 2944 are
ponds.

LOUDUN, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftridt, in the department of the Vienne, fituated on an
eminence between the Creufe and the Dive ; 12 miles E.
of Thouars. The place contains 5I3'8. and the canton
11,299 inhabitants, on a territory of 245 kiliometres, in 18
communes. N. lat. 47-'. E. long. 0° lo'.

LOVE, in Ethics, is. one of tlie primitive pallions ; and
may be generally defined to be the gravitation or tendency
of the foul towaui good. According to Dr. Hartley, who
traces all our paflions to the fources of pleafure and pain,
they may be firIt and generally diftributed into the two
clalfes of love and hatred ; i. e. we may have all thofe
affedtions of the pleafurable kind, which objedts and inci-
dents raife in us, love, and all thofe of the painful kind,
hatred. Thus we are faid to love not only intelligent
agents of morally good difpofitions, but alfo perfonal plea-
fures, riches, and honours, and to hate poverty, dilgrace,
pain, bodily and mental. When our love and hatred are
excited to a certain degree, they put us upon a variety of
adtions ; and may be termed defire and avcrfion, by the lat-
ter of which Dr. Hartley nnderllands adtive hatred.

If the affcdtion of love be conceived feparate from any
alteration in the body, it is called intellectual or rational
love ; if it be attended with an agitation of blood and
fpirits, it is called fenfitive or paflionate love. It is ob-
ferved by moral writers, that thofe paflions in which love
predominates, are more agreeable to the original intention
of nature than thofe which are ranged under hatred ; be-
caufe they are found to have a more friendly influence upon
the body, and tend, within proper bounds, to the preferva-
tion and happinefs of We, which the others do not. See
Cumberland de Le,;. Nat. c. 2. ^ 19.

Love, regardino- its objedt as abfent, begets defire ; as
prefent, either immediately or in profpedt, joy and hope.
Love of defire, abltradtedly confidered, is a fimple tendency
towards good ; when confidered as vifhing the good defired
to fome being or other, it is called bene'volence and Ji/f-Zov*.
See Plea.scke and Pain, and Passion.

Love infpires mufic and poetry. This was a memorable

maxisa

LOU

I. O U

tiiaxim among the Greeks, and the fubjeft of one of Plu-- county town, ai\d 108 miles from LondoB, on the banks

tarcli's fympoliacsi See Scolta and Song. of the river Soar, over which it has a good ftor.e bridge.

Love, in its ufual and more appropriate fignification, According to it£ Cze and population, it may be efte^mei

denotes that afFedlion, which, being compounded of intel- the fecond town in the county. Leland favs, '• The towa

leflual and fenfitive love, or of animal delire, elleem, and of Lughborow is yn largencfs and good building next to

benevolence, becomes the bond of attachment and union be- Leyrceder, of all the markette tounes yn the (hire, and hath

tween iadividuals of the different fexes ; and makes them
feel in the lociety of each other a kind of happinefs which
they experience no where elfe.

Love, Fam'ily of. See FamIlv.

I^ovE, Platonic. See Platonic.

Love -Apple, is the Englifh name for the fruit of the
lycoperficon, a plant cultivated in gardens with us, for the
fmg'ilarity of its appearance. The Portuguefe call it to-
mat&, and eat the fruit, either raw or Hewed : as do the
Jew families in England. See Solanum Lycopirjicum.

l^QVE-Grafs. See Grass.

Love in a Mifl. See PAs.sIO^^ Flower.

Love lies Bleeding. See .AmaRaxthus.

Love, Tree of. See Cercis.

LOUE', in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarthe, and cliief place of a canton, in the
didrift of Le Mans; ij miles W. of Le Mans. The place
contains 1204, and the canton 12,563 • inhabitants, on a
territory of 245 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

in it a four faire Urates or mo, well pavid. The paroch
chirche is faire. Chapelles or chirches bcfides, yn the
towne, be none. The hole toune is budded of tymbre.
At the foutheft end of the chirch is a faire houfc of tymbre, .
wher ons king Henry VLI. did lye." Loughborough cpij-
filts of one parifh, to which belong the t.vo hamlets of
Wood-thprpe and Knight-thorne, both about a n]ile ciilant;
each having its proper officers, and maintaining its own
poor. Great part of the town is^the proptrty of the earl
of Moira, to vvliom it came from his uncle the late earl of
Huntingdon, in who'.e famdy it has been fince the time of
queen Mary. The church is a large pile of building, con-
filling of a nave, fide afles, chancel, tranfept, and tower;
the latter was built by fubfcription, towards the end of the
fixteenth century. In the thurch-yard is a free grammar
fchool, which was endowed with the rents of certain lands,
&c. left by Tiiomas Burton for the maintenance of a chan-
try within the church. Here is alfo a charity fchool for
eighty boys and twenty girls. Four meeting-houfes are

LOVELL, a town of .-\merica, in York county, Maine, appropriated to the Prefbyterians, Baptills, Quakers, and
N. of Great OlTipee, 89 miles N. of York.

LOVENTIMUM, or Luextixu.m, in .Ancient Geogra
phy, a town of the Demetas, in Britain, fuppofed by fome, hen crofs

without fufEcient reafon, to have been iwallovved up by an
earthquake in the fcite of the prefent Llyn Savanarhan,
near Brecknock, but by others, with great probability, to
have been fituated at or near Llan-Dewi-Brevi, in Cardi-
ganfhire ; where, in a field called Caer Ceftlib, or Callle-
' tield, Roman coins and bricks are fometimes found.

LOVER.\NO, in Geography, a to-.vn of Naples, in the
province of Otranto ; five miles N.N.E. of Nardo.

LOVESKAIA, a town of Ruflia, on'T;he Cafpian fea ;
27 miles S E of Aflrachan. ,

LOUGH, or Lake, Arrow. See Arrow : — L.
Barra. See Barra :— L. 5fj. See Be(j : — L. Carra. See
Garu.^ : — L. dean. See Clean: — L. Conn. See Conn :^
L. Corrib. See CoRRiB : — L. Contra. See Coutha : — L.
Curran. See Cuuran : — L. Derg. See Derg : — L, Der-
veragh. See Deiiveragh : — L. Ennel. See ExNEL : — L.
Erne. See Erne: — 'L. Foyle. SeeFoyLE: — L. Gara. See
Gara:— L. Gawnah. See GaWNAH :.— L. Giy/y. See
GiLLY : — 1>. Glin. See Glin : — L. Gur. See Guu : — L.
Hoyle. See WoYl.^ -.—L.. Hync. See Hyne : — A^. Iron.
See Iron:— L. Killarney. See KlLL.\RXEy: — L. Lame.
See ^ARNE :— L. Lena. See Lena:— L. Malar. See
Malar : — ^L. Majk. See Majsk.:-
viN : — L. Naftay. See Naftay

Nallenrof : — L. Neagh. See Neagh : — L. Ogram. See
Ogbam : — L. Oughter. See Ovghter :—L,. Pal/is. See
Pallis:— L. Ramar. See Ramar : — L,. Rafihan. See
Raphan : — L. Rea. "See Rea : — L. Rec. See Rec : —
h. Sal en. See Saleen:"L. Shelan. See Sheban :-r-
L. StrangftjrJ. See Strangford : — L. Swilly. See
SwiLLY: — h.Ta. SeeTA: — L,.Triorty. SeeTRlOHTY: —
L. Tra. See Tra.

LOUGHABER, or Loohaber, a fmall fcttlement in
Georgia, on a hranth of Savannah river, abgve its con-
fluence with the Tuga'o.

LOUGHBOROUGH, a market town and parifh
in the hundred of \Ve!l Gofcote, and county of Lei-
ceiler, England, is Ikuated 12 miles diilant from the

Wefleyan Methodiils. On the fcite of an old crofs,
a modern market-houfe, or what is called the butter and
was ereded in 1742 ; it is fupported by eight
round brick pillars. At the upper end of the market place
Hands a ruinous brick edifice, caUed the court chamber,
where the lord of the manor's court leet is annually held.
The building appears to have been erefted in 168S ; it is
fometimes uled as a theatre and ball-room. The town fuf-
fered leverely by the plague at various periods in the fix-
teenth and feventcentU centuries. Under the acl of iSoo,
tlie population was returned as 4546, inhabiting 9S1 houfes.
The chief manufactures carried on here are holiery, wool- r
combing, and frame work knitting.

Six annual fairs are held, and a weekly market on Thurf-
days. In the year 1770, the town contained 43 licenfed
inns and alehoufes ; in 17S3, the number exceeded 50.

The Loughborough canal, wluch communicates with that
called the Union canal, and with the river Soar, has proved
very ferviceable to this town, and an advantageous concert^
to the original proprietors ; as 95/. a-ycar dividend has been '
paid on a (hare of 1 25/. ; and one of thefe (hares has .beep..!
fold for iSco/. Nicho's's Hiilory i)f Leicefltifhite.

Loughborough, <^ townfhip of Upper Canada, in Frou- -
tenac county, N. of Kingllon. .

LoUGtiBOKOUGii Canal, an inlet on the W. coafl of
h. 3Ielvin. See Mel- North America, in the gulf of Georgia, about 30 miles
: — L. Nallenroe. See long, and one broad, between mountains nearly perpeudj- -
cular. The entrance is in N, lat. 30", 27'. E. long. 234,"

35'- ' ■

LOUGHBRICKL;^ ND,' a .poil-town of Ireland, in .
the county ot Down, on the road to Belfaft. It is 58 •■
miles north from Dublin, and 22 from BclfafL .

LOUGHGALL, a fniall poil-town of Ireland, in the
county of Armagh ; it is (16 miles N.. from Dublin, Sn^,.;
three^niles N.N.W. from RichliilL .

LOUGH REA, a poil-town of Ireland, in the county
of Galway. It is iituated on a fine lake of the lame name,
and IS 87 miles AV. by S. from Dubhn.

LOUHANS, a town of France, and principal place
of a dillriCl, in the department of the Saone and Loire, ,
fituated at the confiux of .the Seille. aad^Sfllcan. 'I he ,•

• Fisnch'j

LOU

L O TT

French and Swifs merchants have been accuftomed to meet
here for the purpofes of commerce. The place contains
2849, and the canton 12,211 inhabitants, on a territory of
140 kiUometres, in 10 communes; 15 miles S.E. of Cha-
lons fur Saone. N. lat 46 38'. E long. 5 18'.

LOUICHEA CervinAj in Botany, fo named by
I'Heriticr, in honour of his countryman M. Rene Lo\iiche
Desfontaines, M.D. ProfefTor of Botany at Paris, in a mo-
nograph of which 1 2 copies only were printed ; fee Hbri-
TIER. The plant was afterwards difcovered to be Pleran-
thus of Forflcall ; fo that it appeared in I'Heritier's S'/zV/ifx
Nova, t. 65, under the appellation of Louichea Pteranthus.
It is indeed the Camphorofma Pteranthiu of Linnaeus, Mant
41 ; fee Camphokosma. If any future botanill (hould
determine this plant to be a diftinft genus, it m)ift retain
the name of Pteranlhus ; not only for the fake of its apti-
tude and priority, but becaufe another genus is now confe-
crated to thehonour of M. Desfontaines. See Fontanesia.

LOVIGNANO, in , Geography, a town of Naples, in
the province of Otranto ; 12 miles S.S.W. of Brindifi.

LOUIS XII. of France, in Biography. See .TosQuls
DU Pri^s. '

Louis XIII This prince(fee Lewis), who began his
reign in 1610, at only fix years old, is faid to have been not
only a lover and encouragcr of the art of mufic in riper years,
but to have compofed feveral airs with the affillance of Beau-
champ, his firll violin, who made the bafe. Recueil d'aire de
cour.

Pere Merfenne, Kircher, and later mufical writers, have
given, as a fpecimen of his invention, an air for a grand
dance, in 1618, before he was fifteen years old. Les vingt
quatre violons dii rot fubfillcd in the time of Henry IV.;
but thefe feem only to have been employed for dancing.
The lute was more an inftrument of parade in thefe times
than any other ; and in 1609, Mary de Medicis, Henry
IVth's fecond queen, was followed in a grand dance by
twelve lutes, led by Ballard, the principal luteniil of the
court : and all the numerous colleftions of the court airs at
this time were printed in the lute tablature, or notation,
to which they were fet by the authors of the tunes them-
felves. The moft minute and fatisfadory account of the
ftate of mufic in France, during the reign of Loais XIII.
is to be found in the writings of Pere Merfenne, particu-
larly in his " Harmonie Univerfelle," publilhed at Paris in
1636, in folio, a work which he afterwards compreffed, and
trandated into Latin, and publifhed in 1648, the year of
his death, under the title " De Sonorum Natura, Caufis
et Effe ibus." A work in which, through all the parti-
ality to his country, want of tafte and method, there are
fuch innumerable curious refearches, and ingenious and phi-
lofophical experiments, of which fubfequent writers on mufic
have availed tbemfelves, particularly Kircher, as render the
book extremely valuable. In his twenty-third propofition,
liv. i. this author explains and defcribes twelve different
kinds of mufic and movement ufed in France daring his
time : thefe were motets, fongs or airs, paffacailles, pavans,
allemandes, gaillards, voltes, courantes, farabandes, canaries,
branles, and balets, of all which he gives examples in notes.
But though moft of thefe movements were the fpecific
names of the d-ances then in vogue, the minuet, which,
during the laft century, vvas in fuch general ufe and favour
all over Europe, is never mentioned.

Louis XIV. This ma^'uificent prince (fee Lewis), whofe
ambition was not confined to extenfion of empire, feems to
hafre patronifed mufic, and to kave efiabliflied an opera in his
capital, more as a fplendd fpeftacle, which no other fovereign
SOuld afford to fupport, than from the pleafure which he

9

received from modulated found. He was, however, during
his minority, taught thu guitar by an Italian, whom cardinal
Mazarin fent for exprefsly from Italy ; but as the aftion*
and faculties of this young monarch were to be regarded as
wonderful, he is faid by his flatterers, in eighteen months to
have excelled his mailer (Hift. de la Muf), and to have
undertlood mufic in perfeftion. Indeed, the firll dramatic
mufic which he heard was Italian ; a« cardinal Mazarin,
during the minority of ihis prince, had two operas in Ita-
lian vcrfe, and frt to Italian mufic, performed by a company^
of Italian fingers fent from Italy, to imprefs the court of
France with a favourable idea of the faftiionable mufic of
his country. The firll of thefe operas, performed at the
Bourbon palace in 1645, feems to have been a burletta. ItB
title was " La Fefta Teatrale della Finta Pazza," written
by Giulio Strozzi, but by whom fet does not appear. The
fecond was " Orfco et Eundice,'' 1647. Befides thefe,
at the nuptials of Louis XIV. 1660, " Ercole Amante,'"
a ferious Italian opera, was performed in the fame manner,
and well received at court by the flatterers of the cardinal,
fays the continuator of Bonnet's Hiflory of Mufic. M. de
Blainville, however, in his fhi rt Hiftory of Mulic, fays, that
he had feen the fcore of this opera, " and found, in exa-
mining it, all the recitatives, airs, chorufes, fymphonies,
and dances, both in melody and harmony, of the fame kind
as thofe of LuUi.'' And at the time that Lulli came into
into France, 1646, the opera in Italy had made but a fmall
progrefs towards that perfeftion at which it afterwards ar-
rived. It then confifted chiefly of recitative with frequent
clofes, ad libitum, and chorufes, but no airs or nieafured
melody for a fingle voice. And in this Hate the opera con-
tinued in France till the death of Rameau, and arrival of
Gluck and Piccini at Paris ; while in all the capitals of
Italy and Germany, melody was polifhed, taile refined, mo-
dulation extended, and harmony enriched by new combina-
tions. Whatever horror and hatred the ambition of Louis
might have excited in his neighbours, and envy by his mag-
nificence, his moll bitter and irreconcileable enemies mull
have allowed that mufic was the only one of all the arts and
fcieiices whicli was not fuccefsfuUy cultivated in France,
during the profperous part of his long and fplendid reign.
Indeed the failure of mufic was not fo much owing to want
of genius and love of the art in the natives, as to the nafal
tones and natural cantilena of their language ; nor would
the reft of Europe have fo difliked, cenfured, and con-
temned their mufic, if they had not at all times infifted
on its being the bell in the univerfe, and the model which all
other nations ought implicitly to follow.

Louis, Anthony, an eminent French furgeon, was born
at Metz on the 1 3th of February 1723. He attained to great
reputation in his profeflion, and was honoured with numerous
appointments and offices, the juft rewards <if his merit. He
was fccretary of the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris,
confulting furgeon to the king's forces, furjeon-major to the
hofpital La Charite, dodlor in furgery of the faculty of
Halle, in Saxony, hon.3rary member of the Royal College
of Phyficians of Nancy, and member of many of the learned
focieties, not only in France, but in foreign countries. The
time of his death is not known, but the lateft of his publica-
tions is dated in 1777. In addition to the furgical part of
the " Ericyclopedie,'' which M. Louis wrote, and to fe-
veral interefting papers prefented to the Academy of Sur-
gery, he was author of a great number of works on medi-
cal, chirurgical, and anatomical fubjefts, the principal of
which we fliall mention. " Obfervations fur I'Eledlricite,''
&c. Paris, 1741, izmo: " EfTai fur la Nature del' Ame, oil
I'on tache d'expliquer ton union avec le corps," ibid. 1746,

l2mo. :

LOU

LOU

1 2mo. : "CoursdeChirurg !e pratique furies plaiesd'armes a remedy) is very little more than a pour:d flerllne. I«

feu," ibid. 1746,410.: " Obfervatioiis et Remarques fur lySjand 1786, all tlic gold coins in France \vere called iti

les efFets du virus cancereux," &c. ibid. 174.8: " Pofitiones and ordered to be melted down ; and a new coinage took

Anatomico-chirurgicE de capite ejufque vulneribue," ibid, place, at the rate of 52 Louis d'ors to the mark of the fame

J 749 : " Lettre fur la certitude des fignes de la mort, avec degree of finenefs, with the fame allowances for remedy a9

des obfervations et des experiences fur les noyes," ibid, above. Accordingly, the double Louis coined fince 1786

1749, l2mo. He attributed the death of perfons drowned
to the entrance of water into the lungs, which farther ex-
perience has difproTed. " Experiences fur la Lithotomie,"
1757, in which he exprefled his difapprobation of the bif-
touri cache of Frere C6me. " Meinoire fur une queftion
anatomique, rclatif a la jurifprudence,'' &c. 1763. This
memoir, written after the (hocking affair of Caias, was in-
tended to eltablifti the diitinftion of the appearances after
voluntary death by hanging, and after murder by that mode.
" Memoire fur Ja legitimite des naiffances pretendues tar-
dives," 1764, in 8vo ; in which the author maintains that
the retardation of parturition beyond the natural period of
geftation, i. e. more than ten davs beyond the ninth month,
is phyfically impolTible. He publifhed a fupplement to this
treatife in the fame year. " Rccueil d'Obfervationes d'A-
natomie et de Chirurgie, pour fervir de bafe a la Theorie
des lelions de la tete par contrecoup," 1766 : " Hiftoire de
I'Acauemie Royale de Chirurgie depuis fon etabliflement
jufqu'en 174:;," printed in the fourth volume of the me-
moirs. His lalt pubUcation was a tranflation of M; Aftruc's
work " De Morbis Venereis," into French. In addition
to thefe \vsorks, M. Louis alfo tranflated Boerhaave's Apho-
rifms of Surgery, with Van Swieten's Commentary ; and
wrote feveral eulogies on deceafed members of the Academy
of Surgery, and various controvcrfial tracts, efpecially con-
cerning the difputes between the phyficians and furgeons of
Paris m i 748 &c. Eloy Dift. Hift. Gen. Biog.

Loui.s, Lewis, Louis d'or, or Lewidore, a French coin,
firft (truck in 1641, under the reign of Louis XHI. and
which has fince had a confiderable currency.

Louis d'ors, at iirft, were valued at ten livres, afterwards
at eleven, and at length ?t twelve and fourteen. In the
latter end of the reign of Louis XIV. they were riien to
twenty, and in the beginning of that of Louis XV. to
tmrty and thirty-(ix, nay forty and upwards ; with this
difference, how-ever, that in the la(l coinings the weight
was augmented in fome proportion to the price, which in
the former reign was never regarded. The Louis d'ors

weighed 9 dwt. 20 gr. contained 212.6 gr. of pure gold,'
and was valued at i/. 17^. 8^. Ilerling : the Louis wei<'hed
4 dwt. 22 gr. contained of pure gold 106.3 g""- and^wai
valued at i8j. lod. (lerling. The intrinfic value of this
new Louis d'or (allowance being made for remedy) is
i8.f. 9j</. fterling; and 1/. (lerling =: 25 livres, 10 fous
ToLfrnois, in gold. Louis d'ors may be confidered as a
current coin in moll parts of the continent ; but in Eng-
land they are fold merly as merchandize, and their price
has fluftuatcd from lis. 6d. to 21^. fterling.

On one fide of the coin is the king's head, with his
name and title, thus : lud. xvi. d.g. fu. et n.4V.
BE.K. ;. e. Louis XVI. king of France and Navarre ; on
the reverfe, the arms of France and Navarre, with a crown
over them. On the pieces coined before 1786, there are
two diftinft fhields ; and on thofe coined fince 1786, a
double fiiield: the legend is, CHR. regn. vi.nc. i.mper.
i. e. Chrill reigns, conquers, governs : under the arms is a
letter, by which the mint where the piece was coined is dif-
tinguiihed. The double and half Louis bear the fame irtl-
prefTion.

There are alfo white Louifes, or Louis d'argent, fome
of 1 20, others of 60 fols a piece, called alfo ecus ; and
among us French crowns, half-crowns, So:. The old ecus,
coined before 1726, were coined at the rate of 9 pieces
to the mark of 10 deniers 22 grains fine : thefe, like the
Louis d'ors of the fame period, after they had ceafed to be
current in France, ftill prcferved a fixed value in fome parts
of Germany ; but they are now fcarcely in circulation. In
1726, the coinage of ecus was regulated, and continued
without alteration, as follows: 8,i. ecus of 6 livres, or
i6i ecus of 3 livres, were to be coined from a mark of
iilver 1 1 deniers fine, with a remedy of 36 grains per mark
in the weight, and i of a denier in the alloy : and their
intrinfic value is (allowance being made for remedy) 4^. ()\d.
(lerling; or, i/. ilerUng z= 25 livres, 3 fous Tournois,*in
filver.

Qn the one fide of thefe is the king's head, and on the

coined before 1726, which then pafTed for 20 livres, were other the French arms, with tliis legend, " Sit nomen Do

^ ' ' '' '' mini benedittum."

The Louis d'or is a gold coin of Malta. The
double, fingle, and half Louis d'ors are coined by the
grand mailer Rohan, z%. 20, 10, and 5 fcudi, copper or
current money. The double Louis weighs 10 dwt.
16 gr., contains of pure gold 215.3 g""-' ^"'i 's valued at
1/. iSj. \\d. (lerling. The Louis weighs 5 divt. 8 gr.,
contains of pure gold 108 gr., and is valued at 19^. i^/.
fterling. The demi-!ouis weighs 2 dwt. 16 gr., contains
of pure gold 54.5 gr., and is valued at gj. -%d fterling.
The finenefs of the gold coins of Malta undergoes great
variation. Kelly's Univerfal Cambill.

Louis, Knights of St., is the name of a royal and military-
order, inllituted by Louis XIV., in addition to that of

coined at the rate of 7,Gj per French mark of gold
carats fine : the remedy in the weight was 14 grains per
mark, and the remedy in the alloy one-fourth of a carat.
Thefe cealed to be a legal coin in France as far back as
1726 ; but they Hill continued to circulate through many
parts of Germany and Switzerland, where they had a fixed
value, and were known by the name of " Old Louis d'ors : "
of theie few are now in circulation. From the year 1726 to
1785, Louis d'ors were coined at the rate of 30 to the mark
of gold, 22 carats fine, with a remedy of 15 grains in the
weight, and ij of a carat in the alloy. Accordingly be-
fore 1786, the double Louis weighed 10 dwt. 1 1 gr. con-
tained in pure gold 224.9 gr. and was valued at i/. igs. gld.
fterling : the Louis weighed j dwt. ^i gr. contained in pure
gold Ii2.4gr. and was valued at i()s.

... 19^. I oi J. (lerling : and " Chriftian charity," which had been founded by Henry III.

the demi-louis weighed 2 dwt. 14^ gr. contained in pure gold king of France, in 1693, in favour of the maimed oificers

56.2 gr. and was valued at gs. ilid. fterling. Thefecoins and foldiers of his army, who had fignalized thcmfelves in

ceafed to be current m France in 1786. In Holland, Ger- the fervice. This order confided of eight great crofles, and

many, &c. they were called " New Louis d'ors," by way of twenty-four commanders, befides the king, who was grand

diftinction from thofe which we have before mentioned ; mailer, the dauphin always invefted with it, and the trea-

though thefe are now become the old ones. The intrinfic furer, recorder, and uflicr. The badge of the order was

value of fuch a Louis d'or (making the full allowance for " a crofs of eight points enamelled white, edo-ed with crold •
Vot. XXU J I ° " ^ n'

LOU

LOU

in the angles four fleurs-de-lis; and in the middle a circle,
within which on one fide the image of St. Louis in armour,
with the royal mantle over it, holding in his right hand a
crown of laurel, and in his left hand a crown of thorns, and
the three pafTion-nails, all proper ;" with this inlcription,
LUDOVicus MAGNUS iNSTiTtiT 1 693 : On the reverie, "a
fword ereCl, the point through a clmplet of laurel,' bound
witli a white ribbon enamelled, with tliis motto, bellic.e
viRTUTis PK.iJMiLM. The grcL't crofles had the crofs
pendent to a broad bright red ribbon, which ihey wore
paffing fcarfwife over the !eft flioukler ai.d under the right
arm : they alfo wore the like crofs embroidered wiih gold
on the outfide of their upper garment. The commanders
wore the crofs pendent to a broad ribbon, in the famr man-
ner as worn bv the great erodes- ; but they have it not em-
broidered on their clothes. The knights wore a fmail gold
crofs pendent at a red ribbon, fallened at a button-hole of
their coats.

At the time of their inftitntion, the king charged his
revenue with a fund of three lumdred thoufand livres, for
the penfions of the commanders and knights.

Louis, Sf., in Geography, an ifland on the weft coaft of
Africa, at the mouth of the river Senegal ; flat, fandy, and
barren. Its name is derived from a fort built by the
French. Both were ceded to the Eng'iih by the treaty of
Verfailles, in 176J. During the American war it was
taken by the French, and kept by them after the peace of
1783. N. lat. 16. W. long. 16 8. — Alfo, a fea-port
town on the fouth coail of the ifland of Hifpaniola. It is
fltuated at the head of a bay of its name. N. lat. 18 16'.
W. lor.g. 74- 19'. — Alio, a fea-port town of Hifpaniola,
on the north coalt ; ruined in 1797 by a hurricane ; 5 miles
S.E. of Cape Fran^ais' — Alfo, a tbwn of So'ith America,
in the province of Guiana. N. lat. 3° 55'. W. long. 52'
30'. — Alfo, the capital town of Guadaloupe, Grand Terre,
with a fortrefs ; 3 leagues S.E. of the Salt river. — Alfo, a
town on the weft; fide of the river Miflilippi, 2C miles below
the mouth of the Miflouri. It is lituated on a pleafant and
healthy eminence, and contained, in 1799, 130 large com-
modious houfes, built of ftone, and 925 iniiabitants, of
whom 268 are flaves.. In this year the productions of the
fettlement were 4300 budiels of wheat, 10,300 bufhels of
corn, and 1650 pounds of tobacco. The inhabitants pof-
fefll'd 1 140 horned cattle, and 215 horfes. — Alio, a fijiall,
compaft, beautiful ~bay in Weft Florida, with about feven
feet water: the land near it is of a light foil, and good for
pafture. Formerly here were feveral fettlers ; but in the
year 1767 the Choiftaw Indians killed their cattle, and
obliged the.Ti to remove. — Alfo, U lake of Canada, com-
jTiencing, or rather terminating at La Chine, a village which
ftands at the lower end of it. The lake is about 12 miles in
•length, and four in breadth. At its uppermoft extremity
it receives a large branch of the Utawas river, and alfo the
fouth-weil branch of the river St. Lawi-ence, whicj.i by fome
geographers is called ihe river Cadaraqui, and by others the
river Iroquois ; but in the country, generally fpeaking, the
whole of that river, running from lake Ontario to the gulf
of St. Lawrence, goes limply under the name of St.
Lawrence. At the upper end of lake St. Louis, the water
is very fliallow, owing to the banks of mud and fand wafiied
up by the two rivers ; and thefe banks are entirely covered
wit-h reeds, fo that when a veflel fails over them, fne appears
at a little diftance to be abfolulely failing over dry laud.
This part of the lake is infefted with clouds of infeds, fimi-
lar to thofe which have been co.Timonly obfcrved on various
parts of the river St. Lawrence. Their fize is about that
«f a goat ; their colour is white ; and their form fo delicate,

that the flighteft touch dcftroyed them, and reduced thetn
to powder. Their wings are broad in proportion to their
fi/e, and fly heavily ; fo that it is only when the air is re-
markably calm, that they can venture to make their appear-
ance. N. lat. 45 25'. W. long. 73" 20'. Welds Travels
through Canada, vol. ii. — Alfo, a group of fmall iflands in
the river St. Lawrence. N. lat. 4J 23'. W. long. 73 30'.
— Alio, a river of America, which runs into lake Superior.
N. lat. 46 44'. W. long 91 52'.

LoL'is tk Maratiham, St., a town ofi the north coaft of
Bralil, and on the Atlantic ocean, iituatcd on the caft fide
of Mearim river ; about half way between point Mocoripe
and the mouth of the river Para.

LOUIS.A., or Dkoekdy, a fea-port town of Sweden, in
the province of Nyland, on the north coaft of the gulf of
Finland, built in 1745 as a frontier town towards Ruflia,
and at lirft called Degerby, but afterwards Louifa, in 1752,
by king Adolphus Frederic. It is an open town, defended
towards the fea by a fmall fortrefs. The houfes are all of
wood, and of two ftories, painted with a red colour, and
appearing much neater than the common towns in Ruflia.
N. lat. 60 27'. E. long 26 16'.

Louisa, a county of Virginia, adjoining Orange, Albe-
marle, Fluvanna, Sputtlylvama, and Goochland counties.
It is about 35 miles long, and 20 broad, and contains 5900
free inhabitants, and 5992 flaves. Many parts of this
county are covered with pine. — Alfo, a river of Virginia,
the head-water of Cole river, a fouth-wett bra'ah of the
Great Kanhaway.— Alfo, a river of Africa, which runs
into the Atlantic, S. lat. j 10'.

Louisa Ch'ilto, or Loo/a Ch'itto, a river of America,
which rifes on the borders of South Carolina, and runs a
fouth-wefterly courfe, through the Georgia Weftern lands,
and joins the Miffifippi juft below the- Walnut hills, and
10 miles from Stony river. It is 30 yards wide at its
mouth, and faid to be navigable for canoes 30 or 40
league?.

LOUISBOURG, the capital of Sydney^ or Cape
Breton, ifland, m North America ;- fltuated on a point of
land, on the fouth-eaft flde of the ifland. Its ftreets are
regular and broad, co:)lifting chiefly of ftone houfes, with a
large parade, at a little diftance from the citadel, the infide
of which is a fine fquare, nearly 200 feet on each fide. On
its north fide, while the French had pofleffion of it, ftood
the governor's houfe and the churcli ; the other fides were
occupied by barracks, bomb-prcof, in which the French
fecured their women and children during ihe fiege. The
town is nearly half a mile long, and two in circuit. Its
harbour is one of the fijieft in that country, being almoft
four leagues in circuit, uitli fi.x or feven fathoms of water
in every part of it. The anchorage is good, and fliips may
run aground without danger. Its entrance is rot above
300 toifes in breadth, formed by two fmall iflands, and is
known, 1 2 leagues out at fea, by cape Lorem.bec, fltuated
near the north-eaft fide of it. The interior oi the harbour
is more than half a mile broad from N.W. to S.E. in the
narroweft part, and fix miles long from N.E. to S.W. In
the north-eaft part is a fine careening wharf, fecure from all
winds. On the oppofite fide are the filhing ftages, and room for
2000 boats to cure their filh. The cod-fiiliery may be con-
tinued from April to the clofe of November. In winter the
harbonr is entirely frozen, fo that it may be walked over ;
and it continues in this ftate from the end of November till
May or June. The principal trade of Louiftiourg is the
cod-filhery, from which the inhabitants derive great profits ;
fifli being plentiful, and deemed better than any about New-
foundland. This place was taken from the French in I74>.

a.d

LOU

LOU

and reftored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in
1748. It was again captured by the Englifh in 1758, and
its fortifications have been fince demolifhed. N. lat. 45 55'.
W. lo:g. 59 jo'.

LOUISEOURGH, in Pennfylvania. See Harris-

BURGH.

LOUISBURG, a poft-town of America, in Franklin
county, North Carohna ; 265 miles from Wafhington.

LOUISIADE, the fouthern coaft of a confiderablc
ifland belonging to New Guinea, fo called by M. Bougain-
ville in 1768.

LOUISIANA, a country of North .'\merica, firll dif-
covered by Ferdinand de Soto in 1541, and afterwards-
vilited by colonel Wood in 1654, and by captain Bolt in
1670. But the firft perfon who attempted to fettle in this
country was M. de la Salle, who, in 1683, traverftd the
Mifiifippi ; and in the following year he repaired to France,
and, in confequence of tlie reprefentations which he made of
his difcoveries, obtained a grant of four finall veflcls and
170 men, with which armament he fet fail for the mouth
cf the Miffilippi. In 16S5 this fmall colony, under the di-
rection of their leader, lauded in the bay of St. Bernard's,
about :5oo miles weft of the place of their deltination.
After ftruggling with many hardiliips, both in their landing
and in their endeavours to fettle, fome of this colony mur-
dered La S.die, and all the reft periftied, except feven pcr-
fons, who penetrated through the country to Canada. In
1699, M. Ibberville of Canada, a brave naval officer, having
obtained the patronage of the French court, failed from
Rochfart with two fhips and a number of men, and laid the
foundation of the firll French colony on the Miflilippi.
This colony was diminifhed, by fome unfavourable circum-
ftances in 1712, to 28 families. At this time Crozat, a
merchant of great opulence and an adventuring fpirit, ob-
tained the exclufive trade ©f Louifiana ; but his plans, which
were extcnfive and patriotic, proving ineff^eftual, he relii;ned
his charter, in 171 7, to a company formed by the famous
projedtor John Law. From this period the country became
an objeft of intereft to fpeculative adventurers, lo that in
I7i8and 1719 a numerous colony of labourers, collefted
from France, Germany, and Switzerland, was conveyed to
Louiiiana, and fettled in a diftrift called " Biloxi," on the
ifland of Orleans, a barren and unhealthy fituation, where
many hundreds died through want and vexation. This event
ruined the reputation of the country ; and the colony having
languiftied tili the year 1731, the company at length, for
the fum of 1,450,000 livres, purchafed the favour of fur-
rendering their concerns into the hands of the government.
The French continued in quiet pofleflion of Louifiana, fre-
quent conterts with the Indians excepted, tilbthe year 1762.
Among theie tribes of hoftile Indians we may reckon the
Natchez, who appear in the year 17?! to have been almoft
wholly extirpated. In 1736 and 1740 the colonifts were
engaged in bloody wars with the Cliickafaw Indians; but
thefe, in prccefs of time, terminated in permanent peace.
From this time the profpeAs of the colonilts were brighten-
ing, as their peltry trade with the Indians and their com-
merce with the Weft Indies were increafing. Several
hundred Canadians and recruits of inhabitants from other
countries fettled on' the banks of the Miffifippi, and imparted
additional ilrength and profperity to the original colony.

Such wa? the ftate of the country, when iji the year 1764
the inhabitants received information that in November 1762,
I..ouifiana, comprehending New Orleans and the whole ter-
ritory W. of the Miffifippi, had been ceded to Spain by a
fecret treaty. This meafure incenfed the colonifts, and was
vigoroudy oppofed, fo that complete pofiefiion of the coun-

ti7 was ROt obtained by Spain till the T7th of Auguft 1769;
after which event feveral victims were facrificed, to atone
for the delay of fubmiflion, and others were conveyed away
to languifh out their lives in the dungeons of tlie Havannah.
By the treaty of peace in 1763, which ceded Canada to
Great Britain, the boundaries of the Bri'ifti provinces were ^
extended fouthward to the gulf of Mexico, and wcilward
to the Mifiifippi, and Louifiana was limited N. by Canada,
and E. by the Milfifi])pi, excepting that it incluJed the
ifland of i\ew Orleans on its E. bank. This ftate of things
remained till the American revolutionary war, during which
Spain took from Great Britain the two Floridas: the United
States, according to their prefent limits, became an inde-
pendent government, and left to Great Britain, of all her
American provinces, thofe only which lie N. and E of the
United States. Ail thefe changes were fanftioned and con-
firmed by the treaty of 1783. Thus things continued till
the treaty of St. Idelfonfo, Otkober i, iSco, by which Spain
engaged to cede to the French republic, on certain condi-
tions, the colony or province of Louifiana, with the fame
extent which it adually had when France poffeiTed it. This
treaty was confirmed and enforced by the treaty of Madrid,
March 21, 1 801. From France it paffed to the United
States by thtltreaty of the 30th of April iScjfc In confi-
deration of this ceflion, the gcvernment of the United
States engaged to pay to the French government, under
certain ilipulations, the fum of 60,000,000 francs, inde-
pendent of the fum which fliould be fixed by another con-
vention for the payment of the debts due by France to the
citizens of the United States. The boundaries of Louifiana,
as formerly poffefled by France and Spain, and now held by
the United States, are ftated as follows ; -zi-z. S. on the
gulf of Mexico, from the bay of St. Bernard, S.W. of
the Mifiifippi to the mouth of the Rio Perdido, or Loft river,
fo called by the Spaniards, becaufe it lofes itfelf under
ground, and afterwards appears again, and difcharges itfelf
into the fea a httle to the E. of Mobile, on which the firft
French planters fettled ; up the Perdido to its fource, and
thence (if it rife hot N. of the 31ft degree of lat.) in a
ftraight line N. to that parallel ; thence along the fouthern
boundary of the United States, W. to the Mifiifippi ; then
up this river to its fource, as eftabliflied by the treaty of
1783. Beyond this point, the limits, (which have never
been- accurately afcertained,) may be confidered as including
the whole country between the White Bear lake, or other
head of the Miffifippi, and the fource of the MiiTouri ; and
between this laft and the head fprings of the Arkanfas,
Red river, and other copious ilreams, which fall into the
Miffifippi ; or, in other words, Louifiana may be confidered
as bounded N. and N.W. by the high lands, wh;ch divide
the waters that fail into the St. Lawrence and Hudfon's Bay
from thofe which fall into the Mifiifippi ; W. by that high
chain of mountains, known by the name of the " Shining
Mountains,'' v hich may be called the " Spine" or " Andes''
of that part of North America, and which turn the waters
on the W. of them to the Pacific, and thofe on the E. to
the Atlantic ocean. In a word, it embraces the w'hole flope,
6r inclined plain, fronting the S.E. and E. down which, the
various ftreams flow into the bed of the Mifiifippi. On the
S.W. it is bounded by New Mexico, between which and
Louifiana the divifional line has never been fettled. Some
pretend that this boundary is a right line from the head of
Red river to that of Rio Bravo, and thence down its chan-
nel to the gulf of Mexico. Others make the Rio Colerado,
and others, with greater probability, make the Rio Mexi.
cano, the S.W. boundary of Louifiana.

Louifiana may naturally be divided into the three following
3 I 3 diftricts ;

LOUISIANA.

«'i(lrifls; lu^. Eaftcrn, Lower, and Upper Louifinna. The
Eajlern divifion comprehends all that part of this territory
which lies E. of the MifTifippi, boundcrl S. by the gulf of
Mexico, E . hv Perdido river, N. by the Miffifiopi territory, and
W. by the MilTifippi river. This divifion inchulcs the idand of
New Orleans, and is watered by the Mobile, Pafcagoula,
Pearl, Boguechito, Tanfipaho, and Amit rivers, with
Thompfon's creek, and Bayou Sara. The whole coaft, em-
bracing the old Biloxi dillrift, confifts of a fine white faiid,
injurious to the eyes, and fo dry as not to be lit to produce
any thii)g but pine, cedar, and fome ever-green oaks. Tlie
Mobile river has few li(h, and its banks and vicinity are not
very fertile. Between Pafcagoula and MilTilippi rivers, the
country is intermixed with extcnfive hills, fine meadows, nu-
merous thickets, and in fome places woods thicktet with cane,
particularly on the banks of rivers and brooks, and proper
for agriculture. Its coaft, though flat, dry, and fandy,
abounds with delicious ftiell and other li(h, and affords fecu-
rity again ft the irivalion of an enemy.

Loivcr Louiliana comprehends that part of this territory
hounded E. by the MifTifippi rivi-r, S. by the gulf of Mexico,
S.W. and W. by New Mexico, N. by a line drawn from the
Miflllippi W., dividing the country in which ftonc is found
from that in.Vhich there is none. This part of Louifiana is
watered by Red river, and many others which fall into the gulf
of Mexico. On both fides of the mouths of the MilTifippi are
quagmires, afFording a fafe retreat for water-fowl, gnats,
and mofquitocs, and extending for more than twenty miles.
The wliole coaft from the Miflifippi, W. as far as St. Ber-
nard's bay and beyond it, refcmbles that already defcribed
of the eaftern divifion : and the foil is barren. In afcend-
ing the Miffifippi, beyond the mardies, are fome narrow
flrips of firm land, partly bare of trees and partly thickly
covered with them ; which are fit for cultivation. This part
fcems to have been cither recovered from the fea, or formed
by various materials that have defcended to it ; and it is not
unreafonable to imagine, that in procefs of time the river
and fea may form another traft of country like Lower Loui-
fiana. The principal river is the Miffilippi ; which fee.
The Red river has its foiirce not far from that of Rio Bravo,
or Rio del Norte, on which the city of Santa Fe is built,
and in the mountain which has the Springs of the Miffouri.
On each fide of this river are fome fcattered fettlements, for
about fifty miles to Bayan Rapide, in which ce about loo
families. The land here is not inferior to any in the world
with regard to fertility ; and for a i'pace of about 40 miles
from hence to the commencement of the Appalufa pra-
iries, the country is equally rich and well-timbered. It is
perfeclly level, and the foil 20 feet deep, and like a bed of
manure. Higher up, the banks and low lands are of fimi-
Jar quality witli the lands on Bayan Rapide, the texture
of the foil being fomewhat loofer ; but there are few fettle-
ments, till you come to the river Cane fettlements, 60 or
70 miles higher up Red river. Hence to the village or
port of Natchitoches, about 50 miles, and 25 miles above it,
the banks of one branch of Red river are fettled like thofe
of the MifTifippi, and the country abounds with beautiful
fields and plantations, and luxuriarrt; crops of corn, cotton,
and tobacco. (See Natchitociie.s. ) The low grounds
of Red river, generally five or fix miles wide, have an un-
commonly rich foil, which is overflowed annually in the
month of April. The crops of corn and tobacco are plen-
tiful, and never fail. The foil is particularly favourable for
tobacco ; an acre yields from 80 to 100 bufttels of corn ; and
it is no lefs produftive of cotton. Two men, with ten or
twelve old pots and kettles, fupply the fett'ement on Red
river with fait, the fprings of which are almoft inexhauftiblc.

Here is likewife plenty of iron and copper ore, pit-coal,
ftiell and ftone lime. The diflcrent branches of the river
the lakes, creeks, and bayans furnifti abundance of .very fina
fi(h, cockles, foft-flielled turtle and ftirimps, and in winter
great varieties of wild fowl. The country is fsr from being
fickly. The mofchetto is rarely feen. The high lands are
covered with oak, hickory, afti, gum, faffafras, dogwood,
grape-vines, &c. intermixed with (hort-leaved pine, and
interfperfed with prairies, creeks, lakes, and fountains. Its
hills and vallies are gently varied, and the foil i.s generally a
ftony clay. The country on Red river ismoft valuable, be-
ginning about 50 or 60 miles above the upper fettlements,
and extending 4 or j'oo miles. The low lands, about 40
miles on each fide, are remarkably rich, interfperlcd witii
prairies, and beautiful ftreanis and fountains ; alfo quarries
of free-ftone, lime, flint, flate, grit, and almoft every kind
of ftone. About jo miles from the mouth ot Red river,
Black river falls into it on the N. fide, which is a clear and
navigable ftreum for 5 or 600 miles : about loo miles up-
wards, it branches in three different directions : the eallern
branch, called the Tenfaw, is navigable for many miles,
awd affords rich land : the middle or main branch, called
Wallieta, is navigable 500 miles, and affords excellent lands,
falt-fprings, lead-ore, and plenty of very good mill and grind-
ftones : the wefterii branch, called Catahola, runs through
a beautiful, rich, prairie country, in which is a large lake,
called Catahola lake. On this lake are falt-fprincrs, and it
abounds with fidi and fowl. On the river called O/.ark are
many valuable trafls of land, which is likewife the cafe
with refpecl to White river and St. Francois.

Upper Louifiana comprehends all the remainder of this
territory, and is the largeft and moft valuable part. It is
bound ,S. by Lower Louifiana, on the E.by MilTifippi, N.
and W by the highlands and mountains whu'* divide the
waters of St. Laurence, Hudfon's bay, and the Pacific
ocean, from thofe of the Miflifippi. It is watered by the
Red river, the Arkanfas, St. Francis, and the MifFoiiri,
with a vaft number of fmaller llreams which fall into thefe
or the Miffifippi. From the lower fcttleinent at Sans la
Grace, to the upper fettlement on the Miffouri, abovt the
diftanceof 250 miles, is a country equal to any part of the
weftern territory, containing a population of joor6o,ooo,
and furniftiing lead and iron mines. The foil is at the bottom
a folid red clay, and this is covered by a light earth almoft
black and very fertile. The grafs grows here ,to a great
height, and towards the end of September is fet on fire ; and
in eight or ten days after, the young grafs fhoots up half a
foot high. In advancing northwards towards the Arkanfas
a:;d St. Francis, the country becomes more beautiful and fer-
tile, abounding in various kinds of game, as beavers, &c. and
herds of deer, elks, and biiflaloes, from 6 to 100 in a drove.
Here have been alfo found Ipecimens of rock cryftal, plaller
of Paris, lead, and iron ore, lime-ftone, and pit-coal. It
has all the trees known in Europe, befides others that are
there unknown. The cedars are remarkably fine ; the cotton
trees grow to fuch a fize, that the Indians make canoes out
of their trunks : hemp grows naturally ; tar is made from
the pines on the fea coalt ; and the country affords every
material for fhip-building. Beans grow to a large fize
without culture ; peach trees are heavily laden with fruit ;
and the forefts are full of mulberry and plum trees. Pom-
granate and chefnut trees are covred with vines, whofe
grapes are very large and fweet. They have three or four
crops of Indian corn in the year : as they have no other
winter befides fome rains. Here are alfo mines of pit-
coal, lead and copper, quarries of free-ftone, and of black,
white, and jafper-like marble, of which they make their
6 calumets.

LOUISIANA.

CRiumefs. One fpecies of timber, which is common from
th? mouth of the Ohio down the Miflifippi fwamp, is cotton
wood, refembling the Lombard7 poplar in the quicknefs of
its growth, and the foftnefs of the timber. Here are nlfo'
the papav.' andblack afh, button vood or fycamore, hickory,
and cyprefs; wild cherry, faffafras, beech, chefniit, and Ber-
mudian mulberry trees. From the Walnut hills to Point
Coupee, and eafterly 15 or 20 miles, the whole country
ill its natural ftate is one continued cane-brake. Tlie cane
in general is 36 feet high, often 42 ; intenuingled vvitli a
fmaller fpecies, which continue thence on all the creeks to
the gulf of Mexico.

Above the Nachitoches are the habitations of the Cadoda-
quiebos Indians ; near one of their villages is a rich filver
mine ; another lies further north. Lead ore is alfo found
in different places, and alfo iron ore, pit-coal, marble, (late,
and plafter of Paris.

As to the climate of this coimtry, during the winter the
weather is very changeable, generally throughout Lower,
and the fonthern part of Upper Louifiana. In fummer it is
re<riilarly hat. In the latitude of the Natchez, Fahrenheit's
thermometer ranges from ij" to 96". The average degree
of heat is dated to be 14° greater than in Pennfylvania.
The chmate of Louiiiana varies in proportion as it ex-
tends northward. Its fouthern parts are not fubjcit to the
fame degree of heat as the fame latitudes in Africa, nor its
northern parts to the fame degree of cold as the corre-
fpondiuiT latitudes in Europe ; owing to the thick woods
which cover the country, and to the great number of rivers
which interfeft it. The prevailing difeafes on the lower part
of the Ohio, on the Miffifippi, and throu^Ji the Floridas, are
bihous fevers. In fome feafons tliey are mild, and are little
more than common intcrmittents ; in others they are very
malignant, and approach the genuine yellow fever of the Well
Indies.

The total population of all the parts or diflrifts of Loui-
fiana, including whites, free people of colour, and flaves, is
42,375, of whom 12,920 are flaves But it is apprehended
that this number is too fmall. The Spanilh government is
fully perfuaded that the population at prefent confiderably
exeeeds 50,000 perfons The inhabitants of this country
are chiefly the defcendants of the French and Canadians.
In New Orleans there is a confiderable number of Englifh
and Americans. The two German coalls are peopled by tlie
defcendants of fettlers from Germany, and by French mixed
with them. The three fucceeding fettlements np to Baton
Rouge contain moftly Acadians, bani(hed from Nova Scotia
by the Englifh, and their defcendants. The government
of Baton Rouge, efpecially on the E. lide, which includes
the whole country between the Ibbcrville and the American
line, is compofed partly of Acadians, a few French, and a
great majority of Americans. On the W. fide they are
mollly Acadians ; at Point Coupee and Fauffee river they
are French and Acadians ; of the population of the Ataca-
pas and Opeloufas, a confiderable part is Americans ; Nat-
chitoches, on the Red river, contains but a few Americans,
and the reft of the inhabitants are French ; but the former
are more numerous in the other fettlements on that river,
vis. Avoyelles, Rapide, and Ouacheta. At Arkanfas they
are moflly French ; and at New Madrid, Americans. At
leaft two-fifths, if noc a greater proportion of all the fettlers
on the opanifh fide of the Mifiifippi, in the Illinois country,
are likewife fuppofed to be Americans. Below New
Orleans the population is altogether French, and the de-
fcendants of Frenchmen. The natives of the fouthern
part of the MiiTifippi are fprightly ; they have a turn for

mechanics, and the fine arts ; but their fyflem of education
is fo wretched, that little real fcience is obtained. Many of
the planters are opulent, indullrious, and hoipitable. There
is a militia in Louifiana, amounting, as it is faid, to about
10,340. The Indian nations within the limits of Louifiana,
are as follow, according to the flatement of the late
prefident of the United States, Mr. JefTerfon : on the
E. bank of the Mifiifippi, about 25 leagues above Orleans,
are the remains of the Houmasor Red men, amounting to
about 60 perfons ; on the W. fide of the fame river are the
nniainsof theTounicas, fettled near and above Point Coupee,
confiding of 50 or 60 perfons. In the Atacapas, on the
lower part of the Bayou Teche, about 11 or 12 leagues
from the fea, are two villages of Chitimachas, conGfling of
about 100 perfons ; the Atacapas, properly fo called, dif-
perfed throughout the di(lric!t, are about 100 ; and there
are about 50 wanderers of the tribes of Biloxis and
ChoiEfavv's on Bayou Crocodile, which empties into the
Teche. In the Opeloufas, N.W. of Atacapas, are two
villages of Alibamas in the centre of the di(lri<ft, con-
fifting of 100 perfons ; and the Conchates difperfed through
the country as jfer as the Sabinas and its neighbourhood, are
about 350. On the river Rouge, at Avoyelles, 19 Icaguesfrom
the Mifhfippi, is a village of the Biloni nation, aniianpther on
the lake of the Avoyelles, the whole including ahFiut 60 per-
fons. At the Rapide, 26 leagues frnm the Mifiifippi, is 3
village of ChoSaws, confiilingof 100 perfons, and another
of Biloxes, about two leagues from it, of about 100
more ; and at about eight or nine leagues higher np the ■
Red river is a village including about 50 perfons. All il.efe'
are' occafionally employed by the fettlers as boatmen. About
cio-hly leagues above Natchitoches on the Red river is the
nation of the Cadoquies, or Cados, who can raife from
three to fo'jr hundred warriors, the friends of the whites,
and efteemcd the bravefl and moft generous of all the na-
tions in this vail country ; they arc rapidly declining by their
intemperance, and by the attacks of the Ofages and Choc-
taws. There are 500 families of the Choftaws, difperfed
on the W. fide of the M'fTifippi, on the Ouacheta and Red
rivers, as far W. as Natchitoches, On the river Arkanfas
is a nation of the fame name, confift.ng of about 260 war-
riors, brave, yet peaceable and wel,-difpofed, attached to
the French, and difpofed to engage in their wars with the
Chickafaws. They live in three villages at iS league- from
the MifTifippi on the Arkanfas river, and the others are at
three and fix leagues from the firft. A fcarcity of game
on the E. fide cf the Mifhfippi has induced a number of
Cherokeei, ChoCtavs, Chickafaws, &c. to frequent the
neigiibourhood of Arkanfas, where game is flill abundant,
where they have contraded marriages with the Arkanfas,
and incorporated themfelves with that nation. On the river
St. Francis, in the vicinity of New Madrid, S:c. are fettled
a number of vagabonds from the Delawares, Shawnefe, Mi-
amis, Chickafaws, Cherokees, Plorias, fuppolcd to confill
in all of 500 families. ' Tliey are piratical in their difpofitioi',
attaclit-d to liquor, unfettled and vagrant in their habits, fome
of them fpeak Enghfl?, all underliand it, and fome of them
can even read ancl write it. At St. Genevieve, about 30
Piorias, Kafl<al1iias and Illinois, are fettled among the whites/
Thefe are the remains ef a nation, which 50 years ago
could bring into the field 1200 warriors.

On the Miffouri and its waters, are many and numerous na-
tions, the bell known of which are ; the Ofages, fituated
on the river of the fame name on the right bank of the Mif-
fouri, at about 80 leagues from its confluence with it ; they
confill of 1000 warriors, who live in two fettlements at no
great diftance from each other. Thoy are of a gigantic Ita-

tur'»

LOU

LOU

tuic and well proportioned, are enemies of tlic wliitcs and of they have always been peaceable and friendly. The other
all olKcr Indian nations, and commit depredations from the nations on the Miffifippi, higher up, are but little known to

Illinois to the Arkanfas. The trade of this nation is faid
to be under an cxclnfive grant. They are a cruel and fero-
cious race, and are hated and feared by all the other Indians.
The confluence of the Ofage river with the Midbini is about
eight leagues from the MilTifippi. Sixty le.igucs higher up

us. The Sac and Fox nations of India iiave ceded to the
United States a valuable country, with a front of 600 miles
on the Mifiiilppi. It contains 80,000 fqnare miles, and is
equal to 5 1,200,000 acres. The treaty ceding tiiis territory,
was ligncd at St. Louis, the 3d of Nov. The nation of
the MifTouri, and on the fame bank, is the river Kanzas, and the Miflburi, though cruel, treacherous, and infolent, may
on it the nation of th"e fame name, but at about 70 or 80 doubtkfs be kept in order by the United States, if proper
leagues from its mouth. It confills of about 250 warriors, regulations are adopted with refpeft to them. It is faid,
who are as fierce and cruel as the Ofages, and often moled and that no treaties have been entered into by Spain witli the
ill treat thofe who go to trade among them. Sixty leagues Indian nai ions weft ward of the Miffifippi, and that its treaties
above the river Kan/.as, and at about 200 from the mouth of with the Creeks, Chodlaws, &c. are in efTcdl fuperfeded by
the MilFouri, ftill oirthe right bank, is the Rivierrc Platte, or our treaty with that power of the 27th OiElober 1795.
Shallow river, remarkable for its qr.ickfands and bad navi- The produftions of Louifiana are iugar, cotton, indigo,
gation ; and near its confluence with the Midburi dwells the rice, furs, and peltry, lumber, tar, pitch, lead, flour,
r.ation of Oftolados, commonly called Otos, confifting of horfes, and cattle. The foil is fertile, the climate falu-
abo'.it 200- warriors, among whom are 25 or 30 of the nation brious, and the means of communication between mod parts
of MilFouri, who took refuge among them about 2^ years of the province certain, and by water. The exports of
iincc. Forty leagues up the river^Platte you come to the Louiliana amount in value to 2,158,000 dollars ; and the iin-
nation of Pani-!, comp-ifcd of about 700 warriors in four ports, in merchandize, plantation utenfils. Haves, &c. amount
neighbouring villages ; they hunt but little^n.d are ill pro- to 2\ millions, the difl'erence being made up by the money
vided v.'ith lire arms ; they often make war mi the Spaniards introduced by thegovernment, to pay the expences of govern-
In the neighbourhood of Sante Fc, from wliicli they are not ing and proteding the colony. The imports to the- United
far diilant. At 300 leagues from the MiRifippi, and 100 States from Louifiana and the Floridas amounted in 1802 to
From the river Platte on the fame banks, are fituated the 1,006,214 dollars, and the exports to Louifiana and the Flo-
villages of the Mahas. They conli lied, in 1799, ef 500 war- ridas in the fame year to 1, 2 24,7 10 dollars. In Louifiana there
riors, but are faid to have been almoft cut off lall year by the are few domeflic manufaftures. The Acadians nianufac-
fmall-pox. x\t 50 leagues above the Mahas, and on the ture a little cotton into quilts and cottonadcs, and in the
left bank of the MilTouri, dwell the Poncas, to tin- number of remoter parts of the province, the poorer planters fpin and
250 warriors, poffefriiig in common with the Mahas, their weave fome negro cloths of cotton and wool mixed. In the
l^vngnage, ferocity, and vices. Their trade has never been of city, belides the trades which are abfohitely neccflary, there
much value, and thofe engiged in it are expofed to pillage is a confiderab e manufafture of cordage, and four fmall
and ill treatment. At the diiiance of 450 leagues from the ones of fliot snd hair powtler ; and within a few leagues of
ZvIifTifippi, and on the right bank of the Mifl'ouri, dwell the the town are twelve dillilleries for making taflia, which are
Aricaras, to the number of 700 warriors, and 60 leagues laid to dillil annually a confiderable quantity, §nd one fugar
above them, the Mandane nation, confifting of about 700 • refinery, which is, faid to make about 2CO,oonibs. of loaf fngar.
warriors likewife. Thcfe two laft nations ate well difpofed There are no colleges, and but one public fchool, which is

to the whites, but have been the victims of the Sioux, or
Mandowelues, who being themfelves well provided with fire-
arms, have taken advantage of the dcfeiicelefs fituation of
the others, and have on all occafions murdered them without
mercy. No difcoveries on the MifliDuri, beyond the Man-
dane nation, have been accurately detaik'd, though the
traders have been informed, that many navigable rivers dif-
charge their waters into it, above it, and that there are

at New Orleans. There are a few private fchools for chil-
dren. Not more than half of the inhabitants are able to
read and write. In general the learning of the inhabit-
ants does not extend beyond thofe two arts ; though thcv
feem to be endowed with a good natural genius, and a gocd
and an uncommon facility of learning whatever they under-
take. The clergy confills of a bifnop, who does not refide
in the province, whofe falary of 4000 dollars is charged on

many numerous nations fettled on them. The Sioux, or the revenue of certain biflioprics in Mexico and Cuba ; two

Mandoweffies, who frequent the country between the N. canon-', and 25 curates, receive each from 360 to 480 dollars

bank of the Milfouri and Miffilippi^ are a jreat impedi- a-year. At Orleans there is a convent of Urfulines, to

ment to trade and navigation. They endeavour to prevent .which is attached about 1000 gcres of land. Raynal, Jef-

all communication with the nations higher up the M.fT.iuri, ferfon, Morfe.

to deprive them of ammunition and arms, and thus keep LOUiSTOWN, a town of America, in Talbot county,

them fubfervient to themfelves. In the winter they are chiefly Maryland, on the W. fide of Tuckahoe creek ; four miles

on the banks of the Miflburi, and maffacre all who fall into
their hands. Tiiere are a number of nations at a diiiance
from the banks of the Mifl"ouri, to the N. and S. c-mcermng
wliom but little information has been received. Returning

N. of King's-towi

LOUISVILLE, a port of entry, poft-town of Ken-
tucky, and capital of Jefl"erfon county, pleafantly fituated
on thj Lft fide of the Ohio, on an elevated plain abovethe Ra-

to the MifTilippi, and afcending it from the Miflouri, about pid', nearly oppofite to Fort Fenny. It commands a delightful

7) leagues above the mouth of the latter, the river Moin-
guna, or Riviere de Moine, enters the Miflifippi on the v.-eft
Tide, and on it are fituated the Ayoas, a n.ition oriijinally
•from the Mitlburi, fper.king the language of the Otacha-
t.is ; it conllfted of 200 warrior:: before the f.mall-pox lately
raged among them. The Saes and . Renards dv.'ell oa the
Mirfilippi, about 300 leagues above St. Louis, and frequently
trade with it.; they live together, and confided of 500
warriors : their chief trade is with Michlhmakinack, and

profpeft, b'jt the ftagnatcd waters behind it render it un-
healthy. It coniifts of three principal ftreets, and contains
about 100 houfes, 3 jo inhabitants, a court-houfc,and gaol ;
40 miles W. of Frankfort. —Alio, the prefent feat of go-
vernment in Georgia, fituated in .leffcrfon county, in the
lovv-er didrift of the Hate, on the N.E. bank of the Great
Ogeechee river, 70 miles from its mouth. It contains a
llate-houfe, a tobacco warehoufe, and upwards of forty
dwelling houfes. In the vicinity is fituated a libera'ly en-
dowed

LOU

LOU

dowed college; 52 nsiles S.E. of Augufta. N. lat. 32' ^^'.
W. long. 82 42 '.

LOULAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Charcnte, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict ol St. d'Angely, and fix miles N. of it. The place
contains 3 66, and the canton 7 1 6 1 inhabitants, on a territory
of 167;^ kiliometres, in 19 communes.

LOULE', a town of Portugal, in the province of Al-
garva, ou a river of the fame name, near the fca ; furrounded
with antique walls, and containing a caiUe, hofpitai, three
convents, and about 4460 inhabitants ; nine miies N. of
Faro. N. lat. 37-^8'. W. lorg. 7 54'.

LOULIE\ FRAN90IS, in Biography, a French mufician,
who published in 1696 an ingenious and ufefiil book, intitbd
" Elements of Mufic," with a defcriplion of a chronometer
to meafiire time by a pendulum. See CuRONOMiiTER, and
its defcription, from this book, in Malcolm, p. ^07, and in
1698, another book was printed by Etienne Roger, at Am-
rterdam, called " A New Syilem of Mulic," by the fame
author. In this work, beCdes the ufual inftruftions in ele-
mentary books, he explains the nature of tranfpoCtion, and
propofes a method of reducing a piece of mulic into any
key different from that in which it was originally compofed,
by means of imaginary clefs. See Trassposition, and
Dr. Pi;pufch's " Treatife on Harmony."

LOUNG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Schaurumpour ; 28 miles S. of Merat.

LOU-NGHAN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
the province of Chen-li. N. lat. 36 42'. E. long. 116'

LOUP, a river of France, which runs into the Mediter-
ranean. N. lat. 43- 38'. E. long. ;° 12'. — Alfo, a river
of Canada, which runs into the lake St. Pierre. N. lat. 46"'
13'. E. long. 73"' 47'.

Loup, St., a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridl
of Lure ; lix miles N.W. of Luxeuil. The place contains
1891, and the canton 13,366 inhabitants, on a territory of
19J kiliometres, in 14 communes. — Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a
canton, in the di drift of Parthenay, near the river Thoue ;
nine miles N.N.E. of Parthenay. The place contains 1649,
and the canton 5968 inhabitants, on a territory of 197s ki-
liometres, in nine communes.

Loup de Salle, St., a town of France, in the department
of the Saone and Loire, near the river Heune ; 1 1 miles
N. of Chalons fur Saone.

LOUPPE, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Eure and Loire, aad chief place of a canton, in the
dillnft of Nogent-le-Rotrou ; 18 miles W. of Chartres.-
The place contains 1178, and the canton 10,315 inhabitants,
on a territory of 245 kiliometres, in 21 communes.

LOUPTIERE, John Charles de Relongue, in
Biography, was born in the diocefe of Sens in 1727 ; he
became a member of the academy of the Arcadi at Rome,
and died in tlie year 1784. He is known by a collection
of poems in two volumes i2mo., written with much fpirit
and elegance ; and by fix parts of a Journal for ladies printed
in 1761.

LOURDE,' in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Higher Pyrenees, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the dillrict of Argeles ; fix miles N. of Argeles.
The place contains 2741, and the canton 10,418 inhabitants,
e« a territory of 180 kiliometres, in 27 communes. N. lat,
43 6'. E. long, o' i'.

LOURE, in French Mufic, a kind of dance, of which
the tune is rather flow, and generally in the meafure of \,
or fix crotchets in a bar. Loure is likewife the name of an
inllri^ment refembling a bagpipe, to the mulic of which the
tune is danced.

LOU RE R is a verb, which implies fuftaining and che-
rifhing the times of a movement, in oppofitioii to dctachi,
fcparated.

LOUREZA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Galicia ;
eight miles W. of Tuy.

LOURIC'AL, a town of Portugal,' in the province of
Eili-amadura ; fix miles N. of Leyria.

LOURINHA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Eiitre Di:ero e Minho ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Peniche.

LOURIST.AN. See Laihstan.

LOUROUX-BECONNOLS, Le. See Lorou.x. The
place contains 2018, and the '■anton 6855 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2274 kiliometres, in feven communes.

LOUS, Aa,, in Chronology, the Macedonian name for
the 4Ji.thenian month Hecatombajon, which was the firll of
their year, and anfwered to the latter part of our June and
the beginning <rf July.

LOUSE, in Zoology. See Pediculus. This crea-
ture has lo tranfparent a {hell, or fl<in, that we are able to
difcover more of what palfes within its body, than in moll
other living creatures. It has naturally three divilions, the
head, the breall, and the tail part. In the head appear
two fine black eyes, with a horn that has five joints, and is
furrounded with hair ftarjding before each eye ; and from .
the end of the nofe, or fnout, there is a pointed projec^ng
part, which ferves as a Iheath or cafe to a piercer, or fucker,
which the creature thruRs into the Ikin, to draw out the
blood and humours which are its dellined food ; for it has
no mouth that opens in the common way. This piercer or
fucker is judged to be feven hundred times fmaller than a
hair, and is contained in another cafe within the firft, and
can be thruft out or drawn in at plealure. (Baker's Micro-
fcope, p. 177.) The breaft is very beautifully marked in
the middle, the flvin is tranfparer.t, and full of little pits ;
and from the under part of it proceed fix legs, each having five
joints, and their fkin all the way refembling fh;igreen, ex-
cept at the ends, where it is fmoolher. Each leg is ter-
minated by two claws, which are hooked, and are of an un-
equal length and fize ; thefe it ufes as we would a thumb
aiid a middle finger, and there are hairs between thefe claws
as well as all over the legs. Lewcnhoeck's Arcan. Nat.,
torn. ii. p. 74.

On the back of the tail part there may be difcovered
fome ring-like divifions, abundance of hairs, and a fort of
marks which look like the ilrokes of a rod on a child that
has been whipped ; the ikin of the belly feems like fhagreen,
and towards the lower end is very clear, aad- full of pits :
at the extremity of the tail there ate two femicifcular
parts, covered ail over with hairs, which ferve to conceal
the anus.

When the loufe moves its legs, the motion of the mufcles,
which ail unite in an obglon dark fpot in the middle of the
breaft, may be diltinguifhed perfeftly, and to may the mo-
tion of the mufcles of the head when it moves its horn,^.
We may likewife fee the various ramificati«ns of the veins
and arteries, which are white, with the pulfe regularly beat-
ing in the arteries. But the moll lurprifing of all the ficrhts
is the periftaltic motion of the guts, wliich i> continued
from the llomach down to tlie anus. Philof. Tranf.
N' 102.

If one pf thefe creatures, when hungry, be placed on
1 ' tbe

LOUSE.

the back of the hand, it will thruft its fucker into the fliin,

and the blood it fucks may be feen pafling in a fine ftrcam

to the fore-part of the head ; where falling into a roundifh

cavity, it paffes again in a fine ftream to another circular
receptacle in the middle of the head ; from thence it runs
through a fmaller veiTel to the bread, and then to a gut
which reaches to the hinder part of the body, where in
a curve it turns again a little upward. In the breaft and
the gut the blood is moved without intcrmiflion with a great
force, efpecially in the gut ; and that with fo ftrong a pro-
pulfion downward, and fuch a contraAion of the gut, as is

■very fiirprifing. Power's Mic. Obf. g.

In the upper part of the crooked afcending gut before
mentioned, the propelled blood (lands ftill, and feems to

• undergo afeparation ; fome of it becoming clear and water-
ifh, while other little black particles pafs downward to the
anus.

If a'loufe be placed on its back, two bloody darkifh fpots

-appear ; the larger in the middle of the body, the leffer to-
ward the tail. In the larger fpot, a white film or bl^+dder

.contrails and dilates upwards and downwards from the head
toward the tail, the motions of which are followed by a

■pulfation of the dark bloody fpot, in or over which the
white bladder feems to lie. This motion of the fyftole and
diaftole is beft feen when the creature begins to grow
weak ; and on pricking the white bladder, which feems to

'be the heart, the creature always inftantly dies. The
lower dark fpot is fuppofed to be the excrements in the
guts.

Lice have been fuppofed to be hermaphrodites, but this
is erroneous ; for Mr. Lewenhoeck difcovered that the males
have ftings in their tails, which the females have not. And
he fuppfrfeslhe fmarting pain the'e creatures fometimes give
to be owing to their Hinging witli thefe ftings, when
made uneafy by preffnre or otherwife. This accurate ob.
ferver fays, that he felt hltle or no pain from their
fuckers, though fix of them were feeding on his hand at
once.

The fame accurate obferver determining to know their
true hiftory and manner of breeding, put two females into
a black Hocking, which he wore night and day. He found,
on examination, that in fix days one of them had laid above
fifty eggs ; and upon dilTetling it, he found as many yet re-
maining in the ovary ; whence he concludes, that in twelve
days it would ha%'e laid a hundred eggs. Thefe eggs na-
turally hatch in fix days, and would then probably have
produced fifty males and as many females ; and thefe females
coming to their full growth in eighteen days, might each of
them be fuppofed after twelve days more to lay a hundred
eggs ; which eggs in fix days more, might produce a young
brood of five thoufand ; fo that in eight weeks one louie
may fee five thoufand of its own defcendant j. A loufe may
be eafily difiecled in a fmall drop of water upon a flip of
glafs ; and thus placed before the microfcope, it is common
to find five or fix eggs of a fize ready to be laid, and fixty
.or feventy others of different bignels. In the male the
penis is very remarkably diftinft, as are alfo the teltes, of
which he feems to have a double pair, as is alfo the fting,
the ftrucf ure of which merits a peculiar attention. Lewen-
hoeck's Arcan. Natur. torn. ii. p. 78.

Many animals, both of the quadruped and flying kinds,
jire fubjefl to lice : but thefe are of peculiar fpecies on each
animal, and are not at all like thofe which infelt (he human
body. Nay, even infefts are infefted with vermin, which
feed on them and torment them. Several kinds of beetles
arc very fubjeft to iice j buj particularly that kind called

thence the loufy Icelk. The lice on this are very numerous,
but will not be fiiook off. The ear-wig is often infefted
with lice juft at the fetting on of its head ; thefe are white
and fhining like mites, but they are much fmaller ; they are
round-backed, flat-bellied, and have long legs, particularly
the foremoll pair. Snails of all kinds, but efpecially the
large naked kinds, are very fubjecl to lice, which are con-
tinually feen running about them, and devouring tliem.
Numbers of little red lice, with a very fmall head, and in
(hape refembling a tortoife, are often feen about the legs of
fpiders, and they never leave the fpider while he lives, but
if he be killed, they almoft inftantly forfake him. A fort
of whitifh hce are very common on humble-bees ; they are
alfo found on ants ; and many forts of fifties are not lefs
fubjcft to them than the land animals. Kircher fays, that
he has found lice alfp on flies. Baker's Microfcope,
p. 182.

Signior Redi, who has more accurately examined thefe
creatures than any other author, has engraved feveral fpe-
cies found on different animals. He calls thofe found on
beafts lice, and thofe found on birds fleas. He is of opi-
nion, that every fpecies of birds has its peculiar fort of flea,
different from thofe of other birds ; and has obferved that
they are hatched white, but that they gradually acquire a
colour, like that of the feathers they live among,' yet they
ufually remain tranfparent enough for a good microfcope to
difcover the motion of their inteftines. The kinds lie has
obferved are thefe : on the hawk three different forts ; on
the large pigeon, the turtle-dove, the hen, the ftarling, the
crane, the magpie, the heron, the lefTer heron, the fwan,
the turkey, the duck, the fea-mew, the fmall fwan, the
teal, the caftrel, the peacock, the capon, and the crow, on
each one fort ; on the moor-hen three forts ; on the wild
goofe two forts ; and on the crane, befide the common one,
a white fort, marked, as it were, with Arabic charaiSers.
Men, he obferves, are fubjeCl to two kinds, the common
loufe, and that called the cra^ loufe. He alio found pecu-
liar forts on the goat, the camel, the afs, the African ram,
the ftag, which has, like many of the birds, two kinds, and
on the hon and the tyger. The fame author has obferved,
that the fize of thefe creatures is not at all proportioned
to that of the animal they are to inhabit, for the ftar-
ling has them- as large as the fwan. Redi, Gen. Iiil.
p. 312.

It is obfervable, that fome fort of conftitutions are more
apt to breed lice tlian others ; and that in certain places of
different degrees of heat, they are very certain to be do-
ilroyed upon people, who in other clifnates are overrun witli
them. It is an obfervation of Oviedo, that the Spanifh
failors, who are generally much afflifted with lice, always
lofe them in a certain degree in their voyage to the Indies,
and luive them again on their coming to the fame degree at
their return : this is not only true of the Spaniards, but of
all other people who make the fame voyage; for though
they fet out ever fo loufy, they have not one of thefe crea-
tures to be found after they come to the tropic. And in
the Indies there is no fuch thing as a loufe about the body,
though the people be ever fo uafly. The failors continue
free from thefe creatures till their return; but in going back
they ufually begin to be loufy, after they come to about the
latitude of Madeira. The extreme fweats which the work-
ing people naturally fall into between tliis^Jatitude and the
Indies, drown and deftroy the lice, and are of the fame ef-
feft as the rubbing over the loufy heads of children with
butter and oil. The fweat in and about the Indies is not
rank as in Europe, and therefore it is not apt to breed lice;
but when the people return into latitudes where they fweat

rank

LOU

LOU

rank again, their naftinefs fubjefts them to the fame vifita- prior of Barling's abbey, with the vicar and thirteen other

tions of thefe vermin which It ufed to have. ring-leaders, fuffered death. In this town were anciently

The people in general, in the Indies, are very fubjeft to eftablifhed three religions fraternities, called " The Guild of

lice in their heads, though free from them in their bodies, our BlelTed "Lady, the Guild of the Holy Trinity, and the

The reafon of this is, that their heads fvi'eat lefs than their
body, and they take no care to comb and clean them. The
Spanifh negroes wafh their headi thoroughly once every

Chantry of John of Louth." King Edward VI. alienated
the funds of thefe guilds, and granted them for the purpofe
of eroding and endowing a free grammar fchool. The

week with foap, to prevent their being loufy. This makes lands then produced 40/. per annum, but are now let at 400/.

., r u u„.».-_ .!,„_ ^i,„ ,.»t ...u- -__ One-half of the produce was granted for a head matter'*

falary, one-fourth for the ufhcr's, and the remainder for the
perpetual maintenance of twelve poor women. The truftees
of this foundation were incorporated by the name of " The
warden and fix affiftan's of the town of Louth, and frce-
fchool of king Edward VI. in Louth." Another free-fchool,
on a very refpeftable fcalc, was founded in purfuance of the
will ef Dr. Mcipletoft, dean of Ely, bearing date Auguft
17th, 1677. The church of St. James is a fpacious edifice,
confiding of a nave, two aifles, with an elegant tower and
fpire at the weft end. The eaft end, which prefents a fine
elevation, exhibits a large central window, having

them efcape much better than the other negroes who are
flaves there, for the lice grow fo numerous in their heads,
that they often eat large holes in this part.

M. de la Hire has given a curious account of the crea-
ture which he found on the common fly. Having occafion
to view a living fly by the microfcope,he obferved on its head,
back, and (houlders, a great number of fmall animals,
crawling very nimbly about, and often climbing up the
hairs, which grow at the origin of the fly's legs. He, with
a fii^.e needle, took up one of thefe, and placed it before
the microfcope, ufed to view the animalcules in fluids. It
had eight legs, four on each fide ; they were not placed

„ _ . . ^ - , jj fix up.

very diftant from one another, but the four toward the head right muUions and varied tracery, with two lateral windows

were feparated by a fmall fpace from the four toward the opening into the aifles. Internally the nave is feparated from

tail. The feet were of a particular ftrufturo, being com- the aifles by oftagonal columns, the alternate fides of which

pofed of feveral fingers, as it were, and fitted for taking are relieved by fingle flutes. The chancel, which has an

raft hold of any thing ; the two nearell the head were alfo altar piece containing a pifture of the Dt-fcent from the Crofs

more remarkable in this particular than thofe near the tail ; by Williams, is of more modern date than the body of the

the extremities of the legs, for a little way above the feet, church, and is probably coeval with the juftly admired fteeple.

were dry and void of flefh, like the legs of birds, but above The latter was begun in the year 1501, and completed in

this part they appeared plump and flefhy. It had two fmall
horHS upon its head, formed of feveral hairs arranged clofely
together ; and there were fume other clufters of hairs by the
fide of thefe horns, but they had not the fame figure ; and

fifteen years. The height was originally 360 feet ;' but the
flat ftone on the fummit was blown off" in 15S7, and carried
with it part of the building into the body of the church.
The whole fpire being blown down Oftobcr nth, 1634, the

toward the origin of the hinder legs there were two other prefent one was ereded. The tower part of the lleecle

fuch clufters of hairs, which took their origin at the middle
of the back. The whole creature was of a bright yellowifli
red; and the legs, and all the body, except a large fpot in
the centre, were perfectly tranfparent. In fize, the author

confifts of three ftories : each ftage terminates with elegant
pediments, fupported by ornamental corbels ; in this manr.er
diminifliing to the top, where are four odlagonal embattled
turrets. At eighty feet from the bafe, round the exterior

believes it was about 5^"5,dth part of the bignefs of the head of the tower, runs a gallery, guarded by a parapet wall ;
of the fly; he obferves, that it is rarely that flies are found and at the height of 170 feet the battlements commence,
infefted with them. Mem. Acad. Par. 1693. The top ftone projeds with a cornice; the height of the

Louse, Tree. See Aphis. fpire to the crofs is 141 feet ; the total height of the whole

Louse, Wood. See Millepedes. 288 feet. The living of St. James is a vicarage, in the gift

'Loxjsv.-'wort, in Botany. See Pedicularis. of a prebendary of Lincoln cathedral, to which it was an-

LousE-'ifort, Tello'w. See Rhi.nanthus. nexed by the Conqueror. The vicarage houfe, which ftands

The Dutch carry on a trade with the feeds and feed- contiguous to the church yard, is an old thatched building;
veffels of a fpecies of this plant, refembling the common and the prefent vicar has, in unifon w'th its appe.irance,
yellow meadow loufe-wort, to Germany, and call ii femen laid out his garden in a curious ftyle of ingenious rullicity :
faradittos i they ufe it for deftroying bugs: for this purpofe, it is denominated the hermitage. In Louth was formerly
they boil a quantity of the feeds and capfules in common another church, named St. Mary's ; it is now total 1) demo-
water, with which they walh their wainfcots, bedftcads, &c. liflied; but the church-yard is the place of fepulture for
where thefe infeds are lodged ; and thus they are eft'edually the town, as that of St. James has not been ufed for that
deftroyed. Miller. purpofe for forty years paft. The DiflTenters from the efta-

LOU-TCHOU, in Geography, a river of Thibet, which blifhment have three places of worlhip ; one for Catholics,
runs into the Sampoo ; 22 miles S.W. of Tankia. - .- ^ . - . ......

LOUTESTINA, a town of Croatia; 12 miles S. of
Creutz.

LOUTH, a large market town in the wapentake of
Louth Eike, in the Lindfay divlfion of Lincolnfliire,
England, is fituated in a fertile valley at the eaftern foot
of the Wolds, 26 miles diftant from Lincoln, and 153
from London. It was anciently called Luda, from us
proximity to the Ludd, a fmall rivulet formed by the
confluence of two ftreams. Among the few hiftorical events

one for Baptifts, and one for Methodiits. The other prin-
cipal buildings are a town-hall, an aflembly room, and a
theatre. The civil government of the town is vefted in the
warden and fix afliltants, incorporated, as already mentioned,
by Edward VI., who in the fame charter granted two mar-
kets to be held on Wednefdays and Saturdays, and three
fairs to commence on the third Sunda'y after Eafter, St.
James's day, and the feaft of St. Martin ; with a particular
injundion, that they fliould continue two whole days after,
that the firll day of each tair might be appropriated " to
relative to Louth, we find that in the rebellion of the year hearing the word of God." Q'jeen Ehzabeth gave to the
1536, occafioned by the fuppreflion of the religious houfes, corporation ihe manor of Louth, of which the annual value
the inhabitants took an adive part, under Dr. Mackerel, was then 78/. i+r. \id. for the better fupport of the cor-
who was known by the name of captain Cobler, when the porate dignity ; and fome additional privileges were granted

Vol-. XXI.

K

by

LOU

by James I. In the year 1801, the inhabitants of Louth,
as appears by the return under the population afl, were
4236, and the number of houfes qj-jO ; but a confiderable
increafe has been made fince that time. A carpet and
blanket manufaftory has been recently eilablidicd here, and
is now in a very profperous (late ; here is alfo a large manu-
factory of foap, and a mill for making coarfe paper. In
the year 1761 an aft was obtained for cutting a canal between
Louth and the North fea. It commences about half a mile
from the town, and keeps parallel with the Ludd, which
fupplies it with water ; leaving the river about four miles
from the town, it fweeps to the north and joins the fea at a
place called Tetney lock. The undertaking cod iz.ooo/.,
which brings in very good intcreft. By this channel velTels
of confiderable burthen regularly trade to London, Hull,
and feveral parts of Yorklhire, carrying out corn and wool,
and bringing home timber, coals, grocery, &c. In Louth
and its vicinity are various fprings of a very peculiar nature,
worthy of inveftigation by the philofopher and chemift.

About a mile from tlie town is the fcite of Louth Park
abbey, which was built by Alexander, bilhop of Lincoln, in
the year 1139, and appropriated to Cillercian monks. In
the time of Henry III. this houfe contained 66 monks and
150 converts or labourers. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. ix. See alfo an account of Louth Church and Plan of
the Town, publifhed by Mr. T. Efpin, a refpcftable fchool-
mafter of Louth.

Louth, a county of Ireland, which, though ufually
reckoned in Leinfter, bears a great refemblance in many
partieulars to the adjoining ones in Ulfter. It is bounded
on the N. by the county of Armagh ; on the N.E. by the
bay of Carlingford, which feparates it from Down ; on the
E. by the Irifh fea ; on the S. by Meath, and on the
W. by this lad county and Monaghan. It is the fmalleft;
county in Ireland; its greateil length being only 2 1 Irilh
(near 27 Englifh) miles, and itsbreadih 14 Iridi (18 Enghfh)
miles. The number of acres in Irifli meafure is 110,750,
equal to 173 fquare miles, which in Englifh meafure is about
I77,926acres, or 278 fquare miles. Small as it is, it contains
61 parilhes in the diocefe of Armagh, and its population
many years ago was eftimated at 57,750. Louth is in
general a rich and we'l cultivated traft, in which there is
very hltle wafte ground, and the population of which is
very great. Though not deficient in thofe undulations of
the ground which render a country interefting, it cannot be
called hilly, except in the peninfula between the bays of
Carhngford and Duadalk, and on the confines of Armagh.
It is very much under tillage, and more attention is paid to
agricultural improvement than in mod other parts of the
ifland, which may in great meafure be attributed to the ex-
ertions of the late lord chief baron Forder, who is called by
Arthur Young ■' the prince of reformers,'' and of his fon
the Rt. Hon. John Forder, who has not only followed up
his father's meafures, but in the high public offices he has
held, has been an aftive promoter of agriculture through-
out Ireland, by the laws he propofed for its encourage-
ment. The crops confift of wheat, barley, oat^s, flax and
potatoes, and there is alfo a great deal of peas and red clover.
Limcdone is found in a fmall traft adjoininar the county of
Meath in the fouth, in the neighbourhood of Carlingford,
and at Cadletown, on the confines of Armagh, but not in
the country between Drogheda and Dundalk. This valu-
able manure is, however, procured at a moderate expence,
and contributes to the improvement of the foil. At fome
depth in the Dogs under the turf theie is fine white dielly
marie in great abundance, which is alfo found a very ufeful
manure. Thofe who live near the fea-coad alfo avail them-
II

LOU

felves of their fituation to ufe weeds which are found there.
The mineral treafures of Louth do not feem to be great.
Some ochres and foap rock are mentioned, and formerly a
lead mine was wrought at Salterdown, on the fea-coad, in
the neighbourhood of Cadlebelhngham ; but the riches of
Louth confiCt in the produce of its cultivated lands. The
done chiefly found is the fame as that found in Armagh and
Monaghan, and called wh'injlone, but which differs from other
dones fo called. It is hard, but not fo much fo as to
ftrike fire with deel. Sir C. Coote fays, that it contains
46 parts of filica, 22 of alumine, 28 oxyd of iron, and four
of lime in the JOO parts. The principal river of this
county is the Boyne, which flowing from Mearh, becomes
the fouthern boundary, about two miles W. of Drogheda,
and falls into the fea about two miles below that town. It
is a river capable of afl'ording great advantages to the coun-
try through which it pades. (See BoYXE. ) Several other
fmall rivers crofs the county and fall into the bay of Dun-
dalk. The towns of Carlingford, Dundalk, Drogheda, and
CoUon, have been already noticed under their refpeftive
names. Of thcfe Dundalk is the affize town, and Drog-
heda returns one member, fo that the county has three re-
prefentatives. There are in Louth a greater number than
in any other part of Ireland of thofe high artificial mounts,
the fortreffes of early ages which the Irifh call raths, and
attribute to the Danes. In Wriixht's Louthiana will be
found a full account of thefe antiquities, many of whicli are
noticed in different articles of this work. Louth was early
colonized by the Englifh and was within the Pale. It had
a large fhare of the diflurbances which have afBifled Ireland.
Beaufort, Young, &c.

Louth, a townfhip of Upper Canada, W. of Grantham,
and fronting hke Ontario.

LOUTRA, Great and Little, two fmall Greek
iflands in the gulf of Engia ; feven miles N.W. of Engia.

LOVTZOVA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutfl't ; 10 miles N.E. of Verchnei Udmflc.

LOU VAIN, a city of France, and principal place of a
didrift, in the department of the Dyle. The number of
inhabitants is edimated at 18,000, in two cantons, one con-
fiding of -17,796 inhabitants, on a territory of 875 kiliome-
tres in 12 communes, and the other containing 18,230, on
a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 15 communes. This city
was formerly the capital of Brabant, and as fome fay, pro-
bably without fufficient authority, totinded by Julius Cosfar,.
or by one Lupus, who lived long before him; it i.s certain,
however, that this place was known in the year 885, when-
Godfrey, duke of Normandy, having ravaged the coun-,
try, encamped near the Dyle, on the plain of Louvain.
The emperor Arni'.lph built a cadle about this time to
defend the country againd the Normans, which was called
" Loven," or •' le Chateau de Ca:far," Csefar's cadle, and
was a long time the ordinary refidence of the dukes of Bra-
bant. Here Henry I. was affaflinated in 1038 ; and here
alfo the e.mperor Charles V. and his fiders, were brought
up till the year 1520; and formerly the affembly of dates
was held here. It was fird furrounded with walls in 1165,
and much enlarged in the fourteenth century by Wenceflaus
and John, two dukes of Brabant. It was formerly much
larger and richer than it is now, and its trade was much more
extenfive. At the commencement of the fourteenth cen-
tury, 4000 houfes were inhabited by clothiers, who em-
ployed above 150,000 workmen. It is a traditionary report,
that when the weavers left off work, notice was given of it
by a large bell, that the children might be kept within doors,
to prevent their being thrown down and trampled to death.
Hence it became neceflary to have more magidrates than ii^

other

LOU

other cities, who alTenibled in the town-houfe, which is a
beautiful Gothic ftiudlure. In the year 1382 the weavers
and other tradcfinen revolted againll Wencedaus, duke of
Brabant, and not only threw 17 of the magiftrates out of
the windows of the town-houfe, but proceeded to commit
other afts of enormity, and to lay walle the province : but
teing befieged, they fupplicated for mercy and obtained
pardon, the mod culpable only being puniflied ; ai:d the
weavers, who inftigated the infurreftion, were banilhed ;
and mod of them retired to England, where they were well
received. As Louvain, on this occafion, was nearly deprived
of commerce and inhabitants, John IV. duke of Brabant,
in the year 1426, founded an univeriity, which was after-
wards deemed the ornament and glory of the place, and is
faid to have refembled our Engiifh univerfities more than any
other abroad. In this univerfity there are 60 colleges, which
have been much admired for their fituation and building,
though lefs fumptuous than thofe of Oxford and Cambridge.
Louvain had alfo a Dutch college for Roman Cathohcs, an
Enghfh one of Dominican friars, an In(h one of fecular
priefts, another of Dominican friars, and av.other of Fran-
cifcans. Here was alfo a convent of Enghfh nuns, reckoned
thebeft of any of this nation in the Low Countries. The trade
of this place at prelent, which is much declined from what
it was in the ancient days of its profperity and glory, is not
very confiderable, and confifts principally in beer, of which
a great quantity is fent to Bruftels, Antwerp, Liege, Tirle-
mont, and other cities and towns. Louvain is ill adapted
for defence again ft; an enemy, its walls being nine miles in
circumference, though not a third part of the iiiclofed
ground has buildings, the vacant fpace being occupied for
gardens and vineyards. It was taken by the foldiers of the
French repubhc by Dumouricr, in their hafty progrefs
through Brabant, but evacuated March the 3d, 179.:?. Lou-
vain was anciently fituated partly in the diocefe of Liege
and partly in that of Cambray ; but when the archbifhopric
of Malines was erected, it was placed under that diocefe,
and fo it remained till its union with France ; 21 miles S. of
Antwerp. N. lat. 50' 54'. E. long. 4 40'.

LOUVEGNE , a town of France, in the department of
the Ourtlie, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift of
Liege. The place contains 1541, and the canton 5925
inhabitants, on a territory of 170 kiliometres, in 7 com-
munes.

LOUVET, Petek, in Biography, a native of Reinville,
near Beauvais, flouriflned in the feventeenth century, was
educated to the profeffion of the law, and became mailer of
requefts to queen Margaret. He was author of feveral
works, which contain much ufeful and curious matter, and
valuable to the hiftorian. Of this defcription are " The
Hillory of the Antiquities of the Diocefe of Beauvais';"
" Nomenclatura et Chronologia Rerum EcclefialHcarum
Disecelis Bellovacenlis ;" and " Remarks on the ancient
State of the Nobility in the Beauvafm, and of feveral French
Families." He died in 1646.

LoUVET DE COUVRAY, JOHN BaPTIST, OWe of the

members of the French convention of France, noticed in
the article Lewi.s XVI. He was of the Briffotine party,
and had the courage to oppofe the favage Robefpierre,
when at the very hei^^ht of his power ; yet he efcaped the
flaughter which that tyrant inflicted on a multitude of good
men, and died in the year 1797., He vvas author of a ro-
mance, entitled " The Amours of the Chevalier Faublas;"
a political journal, called " The Sentinel ;" " A Juililica-
tion of Paris in 1789 ;" " Emily de Varmont ;" and " An
Account of himfelf^ and of the Dangers which he had paffed
through."

LOU

LOUVIERS, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diflrift, in the department of the Eure,
12 miles N. of Evreux. The place contains 6500, and
the canton 14,444 inhabitants, on a territory of i )7^
kiliometres, in 22 communes. N. lat. 49' 3'. E. long.

LOUVIGNE'-du-Desert, a town of France, in the
department of the Ille and Vilaine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftricl of Fougeres ; 8 miles N.N E. of Fou-
geres. The place contains 3060, and the canton 13,435
inhabitants, on a territory of 172! kiliomet»-es, in 8 com-
munes.

LOUVILLE, Eugene d'Aloxville, in Biography, a
French mathematician and artronomer, who flourifhed in the
former part of the eighteenth century, defcended from an
ancient family, was born in the diocefe of Chartres in the
year 1671. He was educated for the naval or mihtary pro-
feflion : he ferved in both capacities, and obtained a con-
fiderable rank in the army of Philip V. king of Spain.
Being difbanded upon the peace of Utrecht, he devoted
himfelf entirely to the fludy of the mathematics, and par-
ticularly to the fcienceof aftronomy. About the year 171J
he went to Marfeilles, for the purpofe of afcertaining the
latitude of that place, in order that he might the better
compare his obfervations with thofe of Pytheas, made almoft
two thoufand years before. In 1714 he was admitted a
member of the academy of fciences at Paris, and appointed
aftronomer at the obfervatory of that city. During the
year 1715 he came into England, in order to obferve the
total eclipfe of the fun in that year, which was to be more
perfe6tly vifible in the neighbourhood of London, than in
any other part of the northern heraifphere. He was novf
elefted a member of the Royal Society ef London ; and on
his return to his native country, he apphed himfelf moft
afTiduoufly to his aflronomical purfuits. So intent was he
in profecuting his ftudies, that he became a reclufe, who
was never to be fpoken with but during the time when he
was at his meals, and who immediately afterwards withdrew
into privacy. Notwithftanding this temper of mind, he was
noted for a delicacy and nicenefs with refpeft to drefs, and
articles for the table. In the year 1732 he was attacked
with a lethargic diforder, which in a fhort time terminatf?d
his life and labours. He was author of a great number of
curious " Differtations," on phyfical and aftronomical fub-
jefts ; feveral of which are inferted in the " Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences," and others in the " French Mer-
cury." Louville was a good mechanic : he pofTeffed a fine
colleftion of inflruments, the beil of which were made with
his own hands. Moreri.

LOUVO, in Geography, a town of Siam, feated on a
river which runs into the Macon. The fituation is fo de-
lightful, and the air fo falubrious, that the king refides
here during the greatell part of the year ; 40 miles S. of
Siam. N. lat. 14' Si;'. E. long. 100" 30'.

LOUVRE, in Aliific, a well-known dance-tune.

Louvre was alfo formerly the name of the royal palace at
Paris.

Louvre, Honours of the. See Honours.

LOUVRES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine and Oife ; 1 2 miles N. of Paris.
N. lat. 49' 3'. E. long. 2° 3,-'.

LOW, Edwaud, in Biography, organift of Chrift-church
college, Oxford, in the feventeenth century. Anthony
Wood fpeaks of him as " a proud man, who could not en-
dure that any one of the waits or common muficians Hiould
be allowed to play at the weekly inufic-mectings, among re-
gular profelTors and gentlemen performers." Low had
3 K 2 been

LOW

LOW

been brought up in Salifbury cathedral, and was appointed
organift of Chrill-church, Oxford, in 1630, where he was
deputy mufic profefTor under Dr. Wilfon ; and upon his
quitting the univerfity, Low was appointed his fucceflor in
tiie profcfTorfhip.

Low pubhfhtd, in i66i,an ufeful httle book of " Short
Direftions for the Performance of the Cathedral Service;"
which was reprinted in 1664, under the title of •' A Re-
view of fume (liort Directions, formerly printed, for the
Performance of Cathedral Service, with many ufeful Addi-
tions according to the Common Prayer-book, as itis now
eitablifhed : publiflied for the information of fuch as are
ignorant in the Performance of that Service, and fhall be
called to officiate in Cathedral or Collegiate Churches ; or
any other that religioufly defire to bearc a Part in that Ser-
vice, by E. L., Oxon. 1664." Nothing of this kind had
appeared fince Marbeck's book, in the time of Edward VI. ;
and as it is now (1804) 140 years fince the fecond edition
of Low's little tradt was publidied, it fcems high time for
another to be drawn up by fomc regular bred and able or-
ganift, or choral performer, in one of the choirs of the me-
tropolis.

Low, at the Reftoration, was appointed one of the or-
ganifts of the chapel royal. He died in 1682, and was fuc-
cecded in the king's chapel by Henry Purcell.

Low, Thomas, a ftage finger, with an exquifite tenor
voice. His firft profeflion vras that of a gold and filver-lace
manufafturer ; and he began mufic too late to read it as a
language, fo that h; learned the fongs, which he performed
in public, by his ear to the end of his life. He ftood, how-
ever, very high in the favour of lovers of Englifli ballads,
particularly thofe of Dr. Arne at Drury-lane and Vauxhall,
compofed exprefsly for his voice and bounded abilities. He
was the rival of Beard, and gained as much applaufc by the
fweetnefs of his voice, through all his ignorance, as Beard,
a regular bred mufician, brought up in the king's chapel,
could do by knowledge of mufic, humour, and good
afting.

We wi{h not " to draw his frailties from their dread
abode ;" but we cannot help recording, as a beacon to
other popular fingers, that Low was profligate, extravagant,
and unprincipled ; which rendered the latter part of his life
difgraceful and wretched. From acquiring unbounded ap-
plaufe, and an income of more than 1000/. a-year, he was
reduced to the loweft ftate of indigence, and degraded into
a chorus finger at Sadler's Wells, Cuper's Gardens, and
even a ballad-finger in the ftreets.

Low Airs, in Horfemanjb'ip. See Airs.
Low-5.//, in Birding, a name given to a bell, by means
of which they take buds in the night in open champaign
countries', and among ftubble in Oftober. The method is
to go out about nine o'clock in a ftill evening, when the air
IS mild, and the moon does not (hine.

The low-bell is to be of a deep and hollow found, and of
fuch a fize, that a man may conveniently carry it in one
hand. The perfon who carries it is to make it toll all the
way he goes, as nearly as may be, in that manner in which
the bell on the neck of a flieep tolls, as it goes on while it
feeds. There muft alfo be a box made like a large lanthorn,
about a foot fquare, and hned with tin, but with one fide
open. Two or three great lights are to be fet in this, and
the box is to be fixed to the perfon's breaft, with the open
fide forwards, fo that the hght may be call forward to a
great dillance ; it will fpread as it goes out of the box, and
will diflinftly (hew the perfon who carries it whatever there
is in a large fpace of ground which it extends over, and con-
fequently all the birds that rooft upon the ground. Two

perfons muft follow him who carries the box and bell, one
on each fide, fo as not to be within the reach of the light to
(hew themfclves. Each of thefe is to have a hand-net of
about three or four feet fquare, faftcned to a long ftick or
pole ; and on which ever fide any bird is feen at rooft, ihe
perfon who is neareft is to lay his net over it, and take it
with as little noife as pofiible. When the net is over the
bird, the perfon who laid it is not to be in a hurry to take
the bird, but muft ftay till he wiio carries the light is got
beyond it, that the motions may not be difcovercd. The
blaze of the light, and the noile of the bell, terrify and
ama'/e the birds in fuch a manner, that they remain ftill to
be taken ; but the people who are about the work mufl
keep the llrifteft quiet and iUlInefs that may be.

Some people are fond of going on this fcheme alone.
The perfon then fixes the light-box to his breaft, and carries
the bell in one hand, and the net in the other ; the net, in
this cafe, may be fomewhat fmaller, and the handle Ihorter.
When more than one are out at a time, it is always proper
to carry a gim. It is no uncommon thing to efpy a hare
when on this expedition ; and, in that cafe, it is better to
flioot her, than to truft to the taking her in the net, for ftie
will very cafily efcape from that.

Some tie their bell to their girdle, and carry the light in
their left hand, and the net in their right ; the light is not to
be fo large in this cafe, and the other way is therefore rather
the better.

l^ovi-Belkrs, in our Statute-Books, are perfons who go in
the night-time with a light and bell, by the fight and noife
whereof, birds fitting on the ground become Ihipefied, and
fo are covered with a net, and taken.

Low Countries, in Geography. See Brabant, Flan-
ders, and Netherlands.

Low Countries, School of Engraving of the. It has been
deemed eligible to adopt the ulual clafllrtcation, and follow
the examples of the continental writers upon art, in ar-
ranging our fchools of engraving. Thofc writers have
thought proper to unite the fchools of Holland and of
Flanders under the general head of " I'Ecole des Pays bas ;"
and as our Cyclopaedia had advanced beyond the letter D,
before it was determined to clufter our biographical notices
of the profeflors of this art, m fchools and in chronologic
fucceffion, it is prefumed the expediency of this arrange-
ment will need no further argument in its recommendation,
or reafon for its adoption.

The literati and connoiffeurs of the Low Countries have
not been iafenfible to the anxieties which ufually attend on
the patriotifm of art and fcholarftiip, and have taken fome
fmall part in the controverfy refpedfing the invention of
letter-prefs engraving and printing : but the feeble preten-
fions of Laurence Cofter of Haerlem to this fancied honour,
though once ftrenuoufly afterted by Meerman, by Bokhorn,
and by Junius, have been patiently refigned, and gradually
withdrawn ; and the ftory of his wandering in a wood near
Haerlem, and printing from the bark of trees, refuted by
the baron Heinneken, is no longer lifteued to with the
fmalleft degree of credit, beyond the fuburbs of the good
city of Haerlem.

But the Low Countries may claim the more worthy
rivalry, and the more folid diftindlion, of having given birth
to fome of the moft juftly celebrated engravers on copper :
and the prefcience and difplay of fuperior and original ikill,
are furely a more noble ground of conteft, than the fortuitous
concurrence of cafual difcovery, however important in its
confequences.

We have already mentioned the Gothic engraving of the
Holy Virgin, which is in the royal coUedion, and other

prints.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

prints, that with the molt (how of reafon have been pre-
iumed to be the work of Coster (fee that article) ; but
if that artift, or that perfon rather, died in the year 1441,
as is reported, how happens it that we hear fo Httle more of
letter-prefs engraving in tlie Low Countries till the time of
Van Aflen and Peter Coeck, who were neither of them
born till toward the clofe of the fifteenth century ?

A rude print, defigned in a ftiff and Gothic ftyle, and
executed in a barbarous talle, was fome years ago preferved
in the library of the king of France. It had formerly be-
longed to the celebrated abbe Marolles ; was believed by
the connoiffeurs of Paris (perhaps with reafon) to be the
moll ancient of the Flemifh produftions in this art ; and is
infcribed, in the old black letter, " Gheprint t'Antwerpen
by my Phillery, de Figur Snyder," i. e. in Enghfh, "Printed
at Antwerp by me, Phillery, engraver of figures."

The fubjeft of this ancient engraving, which appears to
be executed on wood, is a female figure fitting with a dog
on her lap, near whom are two foldicrs Handing : but if it
has been inferred to be the firft, merely becaufe it is among
the very rudeft and worll of Flemifh produftions, we can by
no means acquielce in the juftnefs of fuch a criterion ; and
of Mynheer Phillery, the figur fnyder and printer, nothing
further is known.

If we except the doubtful claims of Phillery, Lucas Ja-
cobs of Leyden, Peter Cocck of Alolt, and John Walther
of Aflen, who were contemporaneous, were the earliell en-
gravers of the Low Countries with whole names and works
we are acquainted. The former is believed to have intro-
duced into his country the art of engraving on copper, and
the method of printing v>'ith the rolUng-prefs ; and the two
latter, that of engraving on wood, or fo as to deliver im-
preflions from the furface of the work, and with the letter-
prefs ; and all, though not the proclaimed and perfonal
difciples, were evidently the ftudents and imitators, of
Wolgemuth, Schoen, and Durer. The internal evidence
ariCng from comparing their ilyles of art, with thofe of the
early German mafters, is at lead as fatisfaftory a proof of
fuch a fail, as could have been derived from the teilimony of
contemporary writers : for mere writers upon art, partly
from want of practical knowledge, and partly from the mif-
takes of inadvertency, have not unfrequently recorded
errors ; which errors fometimes continue for ages to be re-
peated, and to flow on through the uiual literary channels,
until they are detedled and dragged afliore by the local
knowledge and power of profeflional artifts, or the cul-
tivated eye and matured judgment of unafFeft«d connoilTcur-
fliip.

On comparing dates, it appears that the birth of Jacobs
was four years pofterior to thofe of Coeck and Walther,
though he preceded them in the praftice of engraving.

Peter Coeck, or Koeck, was born in the year 1490, at
Aloft, in Flanders, and died in the fame city A. D. 1550.
From Barent Van Orley, of Brufl^els, he obtained fonie in-
ftruftions in drawing, after which he travelled to Italy for
improvement, where he made very confiderable progrefs in
his ftudies, and from whence he made a voyage to Turkey.

On his return he married, and fettled in his native town,
where he enjoyed a fmall penfion from the government ; but
his wife dying foon after, he removed to Brufl^els, and engaged
to paint for a company of merchants, who had conceived the
projeft of eftablifliing a manufaclare of tapellry at Con-
Itantiiiople under his direftion.

During his refidence abroad, he had m'ade drawings of
that magnificent city and its fuburbs ; which, on the failure of

the tapellry fcheme, he cut on feven wooden blocks, divided
into as many compartments, which being joined together,

make a very large, long print, refembling a frieze. On a
tablet belonging to the firft block is written in bad French,
" The Manners and Cuftoms of the Turks, with the Coun-
tries belonging to them, drawn from Nature by Peter Coeck
of Aloft, when he was in Turkey, in the year of Jefus
Chrift MDXXXIII. He alfo with his own hand executed
thefe prints according to the drawings he had made." And
upon a tablet in the lall block, in the fame language is in-
fcribed, " Mary Verhulft, widow of the faid Peter d' Aloft,
who died in the veer I J JO, caufcd thefe figures to be printed
under the grace and privilege of his imperial majefty, in the
year MCCCCCL 1 1 1 . " The principal fubjeds of thefe block s
are, i. The March of the Grand Seignior with his Janifaries.
2. The Suite of the Grand Seignior walking. 3. A Turk-
ifli Marriage, with the Ornaments and Dances of the
Country. 4. Their Funeral Ceremonies, e. Their Re-
joicings on the New Moon. 6. Their Repafts. 7. Their
feafaring and warlike Cuftoms.

After Coeck returned to his native country, he married a
fecond time, Mary Verhulll, and had a daughter, who af-
terwards married his pupil, Peter Breughel the elder. Be-
fides many altar and cabinet piftures, executed by Cocck,
he tranflated from the Italian the works of Sebaitian Serlio,
and Vitruvius ; contributed greatly to the improvement of
the architefture of his country ; and was lionoured with the
title of firft painter to the emperor Charles V.

Strutt fays of his engravings, that they contain a vaft
number of figures, executed with great care, but not much
tafte : but that they are very curious, and were doubtlefs
very eftimable at the time they were performed. He ufually
marked them with his initials in the form of a monogram,
which will be found in our P/ate I. of thole ufed by the en-
gravers of the Netherlands.

John Walther Van Aflen was alfo born in the year 1490,
and in his youth flourilhed at Amfterdam, but the events
of his life are very obfcure. He engraved on wood with a
degree of boldnefs iuperior to that of the age in which he
lived : his invention was copious ; and the heads of his
figures often exprefiive. His print of " Chrift praying in
the Garden" has been particularly admired, and very jullly
fo, when regarded with reference to the time and place in
which he lived : but the forms of his naked, as might be ex-
pefted, are Gothic, meagre, and ill drawn.

Walther commonly marked his engravings with his ini-
tials, combined in a cypher, and as if infcribed on a tablet,
as may be feen in our firft plate of the monograms, &c.
ufed by the engravers of the Low Countries ; and the bell
lift which we are able to form of his works is as follows.

A fet of fix, of the circular form, about nine inches in
diameter, from the Life and Paflion of Chrift. They are
dated in the years 15 13 and I5'I4 ; marked with the cypher
of the artirt ; and each print is furrounded with a fort of
Dutch grotefque ornament. Their fubjefts are, " The
Scourging of Chrift ;" " Our Saviour at Prayer in the Gar-
den of Olives," wherein his three difciples are reprefented
afleep, and the Jews are advancing, conduced by Judas ;
(this is the print diftinguifhed above for its fuperior merits ;)
" Chrift taken into Cuftody, with St. Peter cutting off
tlie Ear of the Servant of Malchus ;" " Chrill bearing
his Crofs,'' with the proceflion to mount Calvary ; " The
Crucifixion,'' in which St. John and the holy women are
introduced at the foot of the crofs ; and " Jefus laid in the
Sepulchre,'' attended by Jofeph of Arimathea bearing a
vafe of ointment.

Another fet of feven plates i:i fulio, each confifting of fix

different fubjetls contained in architedlural compartments,
with defcriptions in the Dutch language. The fubjeds are

partly

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

partly hiflorical and partly allegoric ; forne arc from the
Chrillian, and others from the heathen mythology ; and it
would be difficult, if it be practicable, to conncft the whole
on principle. The feveiith print is infcribed " Gheprint tot
Aemllelredam, by Doen Pieter toon in Enghelenburch,''
and all are marked with the monogram of the artill.

Befide thefe, arc fome proceffions , of which we know
not the titles or number, fram the grarer of Walther of
Airen,anda fmall upright print of an armed figure on horfe-
back, with the enfign of the caftle of St. Angclo, infcribed
" St. Hadrianum. Amftelodamus in ^dibus Donardi Petri
ad figne Caltri Angelica.'' The whole are after his own
compofitions.

Lucas Jacobs of Lcyden, the earlieft engraver on copper
that the Low Countries produced, was an honour to his
age and country. His country appears to have thought fo,
and hence in fome parts of Europe liis family name is nearly
loft, and he is univcrfally known by the appellation of Lucas
van Ley den.

Lucas was born in the year 1494, and was the fon of
Hugues Jacobs, a painter, but not of much talent or repu-
tation, and whofe chief glory has been reflefled from the
brightnefs of his fon's abilities. Obtaining a rudimental ac-
quaintance with art under his paternal roof, Lucas began,
even during the age of adolefcence, to diftinguilTi himfelf by
his drawings and his extraordinary attempts in the arts of
painting and engraving. He finilhed his elementary lludies
in the fchool of Cornelius Engelbrecht, who was then in the
height of reputation. But perhaps his greatell happinefs
as an artift, confifted in his living at the fame period with
Albert Durer, between whom and himfelf the moft inti-
mate and fincere fricndfliip, and the utmofl: freedom and li-
berality of profeffional communication, fubfifted : for Durer,
who was the fenior of our artifl by more than twenty years,
on feeing fome of his youthful produftions, is faid to have
conceived for him the moft lively efteem, which gave birtli
to a correfpondence, generous and difinteretted at firft on
the part of the German, and which by degrees grew familiar
and friendly on botli tides. The biographers of Lucas
have reported, that becweeri the age of nine years and twelve,
he executed a print of St. Hubert, for which he was re-
warded by a certain burgomafter with as many guilders as he
was years of age. The prefent writer has not feen this ju-
venile produftion, nor has he found it mentioned in thofe fo-
reign catalogues which he has confulted of the works of
our artift. He therefore prefumes it ma)- have been a copy,
done for praftice and improvement in the new art, of the
juftly celebrated work of Albert Durer, which is thus en-
titled, and that it was probably among thofe early and fur-
prizing produilions which called forth the favourable notice
of the artift of Nuremberg, and became the bafis of the
fubfequent intimacy between Albert and Lucas, which
ended but with the life of the former.

Each of thefe diftinguiftied artifts regularly fent as pre-
fents to his friend, felefted imprefjions (for the mercantile
trickeries of proof-taking and proof-making had not then
been invented) of every engraving which he pablifhed ;
and when Durer was driven from Nuremberg "by the ill-
lemper of his wife, he fought refuge at Leyden, was
received by Jacobs in the moft cordial and affeflionate man-
ner, and to commemorate their mutual friendfliip, befides
painting each other's portraits, they executed a pidlure in con-
junftion on the fame pannel.

It ftiould have been mentioned before, that Lucas acquired
his knowledge of the ufe of the graver in the workfhop of a
goldfmith of Leyden, and that of the procefs of etching,
lie obtained from an armourer of that city, who employed

the corrofivc power of aquafortis in ornamenting cuiralles,
and other confpicuous parts of plate armour. The prefent
writer has, in another work, ftated his conjetlure, that the an-
cient corroded fword-blades of Syria and Damafcus are the
probable origin of the art of etching on copper, and now
fufpefts that he may have been miftaken in attributing (as he
has done under the article Etchinc;) its invention to Albert
Durer. He now thinks it not improbable that Lucas im-
parted this art of corrofion to his friend, either by letter, or,
he fliould fancy, during the refidence of the latter at Ley-
den, if there were not grounds for fnppofing that this jour-
ney was not imdertaken until after the year 1516, when Du-
rer's firft etching (of which the fubjeft is the rape of Pro-
fcrpine) was produced. And he thinks fo the rather from
reflecting on the generally received report, that the two ear-
lieft of Albert's etchings were performed on plates of iron
or ftcel : yet Lucas's etching of St. Catherine, which is
believed to be his firft produdliou in this art, did not appear
until the year 1520.

Lucas of Ltyden was frank, generous, and urbane, as
well by nature as by habit ; yet his generofity in fome in-
ftances was requited with ingratitude ; and his urbanity, if
we miglit credit the tale which is related below, did not (hield
him from the (hafts of envy and malevolence. Confpicuous
by his rare and fingular endowments, and unremitting ia his
habits of profeffional induftry, the novelty, beauty, and
number of his publications could fcarcely fail to enrich him.
Strutt fays "he gained much money by his profeffion, and
being of a generous turn of mind, had not the leaft notion
of (hutting up his money in his cheft ; on the contrary, he
fpent it freely, dreffed well, and lived in a fuperior ftyle."

To enjoy his popularity, or improve liis tafte, he made a
journey intoZealand and Brabant, at the age of thirty-three,
giving entertainments to the artills in moft of the great
towns and cities through which he pa (Ted ; and it is report-
ed, that during this journey, a flow poifon, which was fatal
to our artift, was adminiftered to him at one of thefe enter-
tainments by a painter of Flu(hing, who was envious of the
fame which followed the exercife of his various talents. But
the honour of human nature (hould perhaps incline us not
to liften too readily to ftories of this kind. No delicacy
(hould have led, and no pardon was likely to lead, to the re-
prcffion of the name of the author of a deed fo atrocious.
Yet he was never pointed out : and it muft be a flow poifon
indeed ! that is fix years in effefting its purpofe.

It feems more worthy of belief that the real poifon of Lu-
cas van Leyden, confifted of a mixture of the occafional ex-
celTes of convivial indulgence, with habits of intenfe pro-
feffional apjMication. Contrarieties which can never affimi-
late, few conftitutions can endure ; and fo anxious and un-
remitting was the application of Lucas, that he found the
day too (hort for his purpofe, and frequently confumed great
part of the night alfo in his ftudies.

Even ^luring tlie laft fix years of his fife, wliile he lay
p;ning under the pretfure of difeafe, or at leaft oppre(redby
a ficknefs under which ordinary minds would have languifhed,
his induftry and love of art were eminently confpicuous.
When it was reprefented to )iim that fuch clofe attention did
but increafe the malignity of his diforder, he calmly replied,
" I am content it fhould be fo, fince, by my ftudies, I endea-
vour to make my bed of ficknefs a bed of honour. An
artift can never die in a more fuitable manner than with his
pencil in his hand."

He died accordingly at the age ot thirty-nine in his native
city, and in the year of our Lord 1553.

Befide engraving both on copper and on wood, Lucas
painted in oil, in diftemper, and upon glafs, cxcrcifing the

latter

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

latter art by a procefs that is known to few if any of its
modern praftitioners. He connrionly marked his works
with the fort of Gothic L, which will be found in our fird
plate of the monograms, S:c. of the engravers of the Low
Countries, fomctimes adding the date of the year, and in-
fcribing both on a tablet.

Vafari fays, that " perhaps Lucas equals any of the heft;
artills in the management of the graver; that his hillorical
fubjects are executed with great truth, and that he knew
well how to group his figures without creating confufion in
his prints ;" but is certainly too loud in his praife, where he
adds, that " he furpaffed Durer in compofitioi!, and fucceeded
in reprefenting aerial perfpeftive with the graver, as well as
could have been done with the aflillance of colour."

A jutter eftimate of his merits may be found in the bio-
graphical diftionary of our countryman Strutt, who affirms
that his ity e of engraving differed coiiiiderably from that
of Albert Durer, and feems evidently to have been founded
upon the works-of If|;ael van Mecheln. His prints are very
neat and clear, but without any powerful effeft. The
ftrokcs are as fine and as delicate upon the objeils in the
front, as upon thofe in the diftances ; and this want of va-
riety, joined with the feeblenefs of the maffes of (hadow,
give his engravings, with all their neatnefs, an unliniihed ap-
pearance, much unlike the firm, fubftantial efTeft, which we
find in the works of Albert Durer. He was attentive to
the minutiae of his art. Every thing is carefully made out
in his prints, and no part of them is neglefted. His figures
are generally tali and thin ; the attitudes well chofen, and
frequently graceful and elegant. In thefe he followed na-
ture fimply, without afFettation. He gave great character
and expreffion to the heads of his figures ; but on examina-
tion of his works, we find the fame heads too often repeated.
The hands and feet rather mannered than correct ; and when
he attempted to draw the naked figure, he fucceeded but
indifferently. He alfetled to make the folds of his draperies
long and flowing ; but his fe.male figures are frequently fo
excefiively loaded with girdles, bandages, and other orna-
mental trappings, that much of fhe elegance of the defign
is loft ; and that native limplicity, which is, as it were, the
very foul of painting, is deilroyed.

To Adam Bartfch of the Imperial hbrary at Vienna, tiie
public is indebted for a catalogue raifonne of nearly two hun-
dred of the engravings of this matter, all of which are the
produce of his own fertile invention. About twenty wood-
cuts have alfo been afcribed to him, but of which he was pro-
bably only the defigner. Mariette, however, poflelTed two
hundred and thirty of his prints.

As nothing like an Englifh catalogue has yet appeared, we
fhall name as many as we are able, beginning with thofe fub-
jefts which he has taken

From the Old Tejlament .—''■ The Hiftory of the Creation,
and the Fall of our firil Parents," in a fet of fix fine prints
of fmall folio fize, engraven AD. 1529; of which the fub-
are, i. God, (represented by the figure of an old man,)
creating Eve during the Sleep of Adam. 2. God laying the
Injunction on Adam and Eve not to touch the forbidden
Fruit. 3. Eve, feduced by the Serpent, perfuading Adam
to eat of the Fruit of the Tree of Life. 4. Adam and Eve
expelled from Paradife. 5. Cain flaying Abel. 6. Adam
and Eve deploring the Death of Abel, who is extended before
them. " Adam and Eve, Fugitives, after being turned out
of the terrellrial Paradife," In 4to. fize. Lucas has treated
" The Trefpafs of Eve," and « The Death of Abel," in a
different manner, on fix fmall plates ; " Lamech ftanding,
bending his Bow, and Abel fitting at the Foot of a Tree, with
'lie Jaw-bone of an Afs before him," in 8vo. ; " Abraham

and the three Angels," of quarto fize ; " Lot and h»
Daughters efcaping from the burning City," a very fine en-
graving, dated I<f3o, companion to " The Sin of Adam
and Eve," in fmall folio ; " Abraham fending awaj- Hagar
and Ifhmael/' a middhng-fized plate, lengthways, dated
icio ; and known among dealers by the name of the large
Hagar. The fame fubjett otherwile treated, called the
little Hagar, of 4to. fize, dated 1516. The Hiftory of
Jofeph, in .five 410. prints, dated 1512 ; and of which the
fubjects are, i . Jofeph recounting his Dreams to his Brethren.
2. .Jofeph folicited by the Wife of Potiphar. 3. The Wife
of Potiphar accufing Jofeph. 4 Jofeph in Priion, explain-
ing the Dreams of the Officers. 5. Jofeph interpreting the
Dreams before Pharoah. " The Daughter of Jephtha meet-
ing her Father," one of the earlieft productions of Lucas,
engraved fome time about the year 1508 ; " Dalila cutting
off Sampfon's Hair," " David and Goliah," and " David
playing the Harp before Saul," all in folio ; " David fup-
phcating in behalf of his People," a large print. The fame
fubjeft differently treated, an etching, dated in 1520. " So-
lomon worfliipping the Idols," in quarto ; " iifther before
king Ahafuerus," a large folio plate ; the proof of which,
in the royal coUeftion at Paris, coft two hundred and fifteen
livres, according to the note of P. Mariette written at the
back of the print. «' Sufannah and the Elders," of 410,
fize, dated ijoS.

Subjeds from the Netv Tejlament. — " St. Joachin3 em-
bracing St. Anne," dated 1520; "The Annunciation,"
" The Vifitation," both of ottavo fize ; " The Adoration
of the Magi :" this is efteemed one of the moft confiderable
works of the mafter, it is dated 15 13; and of large folio
fize. " The Repole during the FUght into Egypt ;" " Jefus
baptized in the River Jordan," a very grand compofition,
containing a very numerous affemblaee of figures, and en-
graved about the year 1510 ; "Jefus tempted by Satan in
the Defart," dated iJiS, all of quarto fize ; " The Refur-
reCtion of Lazarus," a grand compofition, engraved in the
year 1508. foho (ize ; " The PafGon of our Saviour," re-
prefented in fourteen plates, engraved A.D. 15 2 1, and en-
titled as follows, ti/z;. i . The Laft Supper. 2. Jefus on the
Mount of Olives. 3. Our Saviour feized in the Garden of
Olives. 4. Our Saviour taken before the High Prieft-
J. Jefus reviled. 6. The Flagellation. 7. Jefus crowned
with Thorns. 8. Jefus expofed to the People. 9. Chrift
bearing the Crofs. 10. The Crucifixion. I i . The Defcent
from the Crofs. }2. Our Saviour laid in the Sepulchre.
13. The Defcent into Hell. 14. The Refufcitation. An-
other fet of "The Paffion of our Saviour,' in nine circular
plates, eight inches in diameter. A ^and " Ecce Homo,"'
very rich in compofition, containing more than a hundred
figures, one of the beft engravings of Lucas, dated r^io, in
large folio. " Jefus-Chrift on the Crofs, between the two-
Thieves," a very fine print, nearly as rich in compofition as-
the preceding, having twenty-four figures admirably group-
ed : the gi;od impreffions of this plate are very feldom to be
met with, it is dated 15 17, and in large folio. "Our Saviour ap-
pearing to Mary Magdalen as a Gardener," ' both half .Sgures,
placed before the fepulchre, in 410. and dated 1 5 19 r '*^The
Return t f the Prodigal Son," a folio print, admirable for the
fpirited execution of the back-ground and fmall figures, en-
graved A.D. 1510.

Various Devotional Suljeas.— " The Virgin and Child, ac-
companied by St. Anne," dated 1516; " The Virgin and;
Child, ftanding on a Bifhop's Crozier ;" " The Virgin and
Infant Jefus," 1514 ; "A Holy F'amily," in quarto;
" The Virgin and Holy Infant, contemplated by two-
Angels," in quarto. Jefus Chrift and his twelve apoftles, in a

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

fet of fourteen plates, of oftavo fize. The four Evangelifts,
occupied in writing the gofpel, lialf-lenf;;th figures, in 8vo.
St. Peter and St Paul, half-lfngth figures, oftavo fize.
Another plate of the faints " Peter and Paul," in a land-
fcape ; a very fine engraving, dated 1527. " The Conver-
fion of St. Paul," a very grand compofition, in large folio,
dated 1509. " Saint Clirittopher," in which he appears fit-
ting at the foot of a rock, on the banks of a river : on one
fide of the faint, in the back-ground, is a hermit, coming out
of his cell with a lantern. This print is one of the earlieft
produftions of Lucas, done apparently about the year 1508,
of oftavo fize. " Saint Chriftopher in the Water, with
the Infant Chrift on his Shoulders," a fniall print.

Albert Durer engraved and publiihed the fame fubjeft in
ihe courfe of the fame year, and it is fuppofedthe two artitls
worked in concurrence. " St. John the Baptift,'' dated
1513, " The Decollation of St. John the Baptift," both
in oftavo ; " St. Jerome," the head furrounded with rays
of glory, fitting in an akove, with a fliuU before him. Lucas
engraved this fubjeft three times ; but the print which is
treated in the belt manner is dated I5'2I, in quarto. " St.
Sebaftian," in which the holy martyr appears fattened to a
tree, with his body pierced by arrows, in oftavo, engraved
probably in the year 1508; " St. Antony," habited in a
long robe, with ii monk's cowl on his head, and a great
number of acceffories, in oftavo ; " The Temptation of
St. Antony," where he is reprcfented feated on a hillock be-
tween two trees, looking at a figure, whom he perceives to be
a female devil, from the horns flicking 'hrough her head
drefs. The back-ground is a mountainous landfcape, with
an old caftle ; a very fine print, dated Ijog, in quarto.
" St. Dominic," furrounded by rays of glory, holding a
ftafF, terminated by a crucifix : behind him is a dog, holding
in his mouth a flaming torch, in oftavo, engraved fome time
about the year I J 1 4. " St. Gerard Sagredius," a bilhop
and martyr, his head covered with an epifcopal mitre, fur-
rounded with rays of glory : he holds in his hand a heart
pierced with an arrow, oftavo. " St. Francis receiving the
Stigmatics," from a crucifix fufpended in the air: at the
bottom of the print is a Capuchin monk, fitting at the foot
of a tree, in oftavo. " St. George liberating the Princefs
of Antioch," whom he has refcued. In this, as in many
other old prints, the aftion is double : in other words, two
points of time are reprefented, for in the back-ground is
St. George combating the dragon, and the princefs chained
againft a rock ; engraved in 1J08. " Mary Magdalen en-
tering into worldly Pleafures," a celebrated print, of large
folio fize, known among the amateurs under the name of
" The Magdalen's Dance :" in one part of the print file is
reprefented dancing with a man to a flute and tambourin,
with various other groups : lower down file is reprefented
on horfeback, at the head of a troop of huntfmen ; and again
flying towards a wood with three men, one of whom founds
a horn : and towards the fummit of a rock is the foul of
the Magdalen ravilhed in the air by four angels. This fine
print was engraved about the year IC19, when the artill was
in his meridian. " The Magdalen in a Defert at the Foot
of a Rock ;" in the clouds is reprefented the eternal father
with a long beard, and a tiara on his head. This is without
date, but is doubtlefs one of the earlieft produftions of
Lucas, while his powers of drawing and compofition were
yet feeble, and is better engraved than it is defigned. " The
Magdalen ftanding on a Cloud, holding a Vafe :" to this
print has been iniftakenly given the appellation of " Pandora
lettingout the Evils of the World ;" it is datfd 1518, and of
oftavo fize. There is in cxiftence a print of this fubjeft,
marked with the initials I. V. M. which has been attributed

10

to Ifrael Von Mecheln ; hut, on comparifon, it appears to
be a bad copy of the engraving by Lucas, by an unknown
hand. " St. Catherine," a half-length figure, crowned with
rays of glory, leaning on a wheel, with a book and fword.
It is an etching, touched in fome parts with the graver, and
dated 1520.

Profane Subjeds. — " Mahomet fleeping, with a Prieft mur-
dered by his Side, and another Figure fteahng his Sword,"
a folio print, faid to be one of his earlieft produftions ;
the feven cardinal virtueo, fitting figures, each crowned
by an angel, dated 1550, ii/s. i. Faith. 2. Hope 5. Charity.
4. Prudence. 9. .Tuftice. 6, Fortitude. 7. Temperance.
" The Death of Lucretia," dated 151 2, which print is by
fome called " The Death of Dido," in oftavo ; " The
Death of Pyramus and Thifbe ;" " Tiie Poet "Virgil,
iufpended from a Window in a Baflcet, to the Derifion of
the Populace ;" a fmall folio print, executed with great
tafte and fpirit, and very correftly drawn, and well com-
pofed. Vafari, who fpeaks very iiighly of this print,
fays, that " Albert Durer was fo feniibly ftruck with
the merit of it, that he afterwards wifiied to concur with
Lucas in producing a pair ot prints that fhould correfpond
in form, moral, and dimenfions, to which defire we owe the
celebrated print of "Death's Horfe." The two prints do
correfpond in thefe refpefts : yet the inadvertency of Va-
fari in this place, which has been repeated by Huber and
Roft, has not hitherto been pointed out. To make any
thing credible of this ilory, the order of the fafts and per-
fons muft be reverfed ; for the '< Death's Horie" of Albert
Durer was produced to the public in the year 1513,
whereas Lucas of Leyden did not publifii his fufpended poet
till 1525 And what renders the non-deteftion of this error
the more furprifing and remarkable is, that both thefe en-
gravings bear their refpeftive dates ; the latter on a frag-
ment of broken ftone at the left-hand corner of the print,
the former immediately above the monogram of Albert on
his ufual tablet.

The emulation muft, therefore, have been felt by Lucas,
and his engraving of " The Courtezan fufpending Virgil in a
Bafliet," which, of all his works, approaches neareft, in point
of ftyle, to this exquifitely finiflied print from the graver of
Durer, muft have been produced accordingly.

The recondite moral and meaning of thefe compofitions,
and intentions of their authers, will then ftand thus. Albert
Durer had produced a juftly admired engraving, by fome
vulgarly termed " Death's Horfe." by others " The
Worldly Man," but wherein a cavalier, completely armed,
fallies forth on the bufinefs of Death. His fteed is richly
harnefled ; his helmet ftudded and wrought with ornaments ;
and his armour, in the fine irapreffions, appears as if of filver,
and of coftly workmanlhip. He is a hero, and perhaps in-
tended by Albert for fome Alexander, or individual general
of renown. Whilft he is gravely bent on the purfuit of
that glory which arifes from the deftruftion of his fellow
men, a crowned fpeftre, which feems intended for Death,
croffes the warrior's way : he is mounted on a male, holds up
an hour-glafs with an index before the hero, and feems to
feoff at his puipofe ; while a frightful monfter, with various
horns, like one of thofe mentioned in the Apocalypfe, and
which is probably intended for the Devil, follows hard after
him, intent and ready to fcize on his prey. The moral has
various acceffories, fuch as a lofty caftle in the back-ground,
and a lizard crawling in the road, whofe allegorical office is
to warn man of danger. A warning bell, too, hangs from
the neck of the mule, on which rides the fpeftre, while to
the capanion of the warrior's fteed, the jinghng bell of Folly
is appendant.

It

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

It is altogether a profound piftured allegory, worthy of
ferious contemplation, and diftatcd by the fame mufe who
afterwards prompted Dr. Young to write

•» Deaths (land, like Mercuries, in ev'ry way,
And kindly point us to our journey's end."

It appears to the prefent writer, that, ftruck with this ex-
traordinary difplay of the various powers, as poet, painter,
and engraver, of his friend Durer, the Dutch artill became
laudably ambitious of defigning and executing a fit com-
panion to a production which mull doubtlcls have been very
popular ; and, accordingly, inftitutes and llimulates a com-
parifon between the love or lull of conqueft and falfe glory,
and that of woman, and with much ingenuity calls on the
fpedator to behold and balance their abfurd and pernicious
confequences.

A piiftorial comparifon is thus provoked between the moral
confequences of the abufe of two potent pafllons ; and if it
might begranted that we perceive the little diftant figure, whom,
in the print of Lucas, the courtezan fufpends in a baflvet,
and expofes to the derifion of the populace, to be the poet
Virgil, the moral effefts wcmld be heightened by the reflec-
tion, that it is the organ of Fame, and difpenfer of terreftrial
immortality, who is thus himfelf made to appear infamous
and ridiculous, as in the print of Albert it is the deftroyer
who is the viftim.

But of this it requires that the fpedlator be informed by
Lucas, or by Vafari ; for as the coilume and charafters (as
in all the works of this mailer) are perfedlly Dutch, no
other men would dream that a Imall diftant head, covered
with the mitre of epifcopacy, or the cap of folly, was that
of the Mantuan bard.

This engraving is, however, with regard to compofition,
manual execution, high finifh, and aClions and expreffion
of the figures on the fore-ground, particularly that of the
principal male figure, one of the very bell of the works of
Lucas van Leyden.

To quit this digreflion, and refume our lift of the fubjefts
which he has defigned and engraved from profane hiftory,
and his own fancy. " Venus, the beautiful Goddefs of
Love," a 4to. plate, dated 1528. A folio plate of " Mars
and Venus," with armour and an -attendant cupid, was
executed during the long illnefs of the artift ; as was alfo
«' The Goddefs Pallas," armed with her aegis and fpear.
The latter was the laft plate which he engraved, and it is
faid, that a ftiort time before he died, he requefted to fee
it ; upon which occafion it feems probable, that he ufed
thofe remarkable words, fo much to his honour as an artifl,
which we have cited in his biography. " A military
Officer difplaying a Flag." The attitude of the figure is
very fpirited and foldier-hke, and the print altogether is
very beautifully finiftied ; both are of oftavo fize. " Four
Soldiers in a Foreft," without a date, but probably en-
graven about the year 1508. A very fine print of a young
man at the head of a party of foldiers, liftening attentively
to a man, with his hat in his hand : on each fide is repre-
fented a group of three men converfing. " The Beggars,"
one of whom receives a platter from the other : the group is
completed by a female figure, with her hfand on her brcaft.
This print appears to have been engraven about the year
1508. " The Promenade:" the back-gcound reprefents a
manfion fituated at the foot of a mountain, which terminates
the view, dated 1J20. " The Earl and Lady, with a
Falcon :" this is drily executed, and appears to have been
engraven" about the year 1508. " The Wood Nymph,"
ihe is walking with a peafaot, and another figure condui^ting

Vol. XXL

them ; all of o£lavo fize. [Note. — There is a copy of the
Wood Nymph, engraved by Wicrix at the age of twelve.]
A man witli a lighted torch, condudting a female, followed
by a man with a fabre, and a club acrofs his flioulder : this
print is very delicately executed, apparently about the year
IJ08. A female figure prefenting a vafe to a man ; the
landfcape is terminated by a mountain, the fummit of which
is crowned with an ancient caftle, dated 1520, of oftavo
fize. " The Pilgrims," confifting of three figures, quarto
fize; "The wedding Ring," reprefenting a man giving a
ring into the hand of a young woman, feated by his fide.
This rare print is etched in a firm ftyle, dated in 152^, and
diftinguifhed by the neatnefs of the execution, in quarto.
" The Fool," reprefcnting a female figure, defending her-
felf from the embraces of a fool, charadlerifed by his drefs
and baubles, both half-length figures. This is an etching,
nightly touched with the graver, and dated 1520. " The
old Man with a Bunch of Grapes," a half-length profile.
This print is admirably touched, and appears to have been
done about the year 1523, when the artift was in his meri-
dian. " The young Trumpeter," reprefcnting a boy blow-
ing a trumpet, to the found of which two others are danc-
ing ; one of the earlieft produftions of Lucas. " The
Woman and the Bitch," rcprefenting a female with her
head enveloped with drapery, the ends of which hang in
folds over her body ; towards the left are perceived the head
and foot of a bitch, whom the lady is feeding with fruit.
This print is executed on a white ground, and dated 1509;
Another "Woman and Dog," dated 1510; " The Mufi-
cians," a very fine print, dated 1524, confifting of a man
playing a guitar, and a woman playing a violin ; " The
Surgeon," performing an operation behind the ear of a pea-
fant, whofe countenance tells us plainly how much he fuffers,
dated the fame as the preceding; " The quack Doftor,"
operating with an inftrument in the mouth of a peafant, who
with great vexation perceives that, during the operation, a
girl behind him is emptying his purfe of its contents. This
print pofTefles equal merit with the two former, and is dated
I5'23 ; all of odlavo dimenfions. " The Milkmaid,"
holding in one hand her bonnet, and in the other a pail,
into which fhe is about to milk a cow held by a peafant.
This is a very rare print, dated 15 10, of quarto fize.
" Uylenfpiegel," or " L'Efpiegle," the fcarceft of all
the works of this matter. It was in the collcdion of the
king of France, and miftakenly faid by Marolies, and other
French connoiffeurs, to be unique. Baffan informs us, that
M. Mariette had alfo an imprelHon of this plate, and feveral
are known to exiil in England. It reprefents a man playing
upon the bag-pipes, carrying two children in a balket, and
a woman with an infant in her arms. It is nearly feven -
inches and a half high, by four inches and three quarters
wide; and has been copied of the fame fize feveral times..
One of the copies is by Hondius ; but the bell has no name'
to it. This rare print is dated 1520.

Various Ornaments. — The profile of a jvarrior's head in a
medallion, furrounded with ornaments. It is dated 1527,
and marked with the letter L, on a cartouche at the bottom.
A compofition of ornaments in the talle of that age, com-
pofed of a ram's fltuU and two filh, dated 1527. Another
compofition of ornaments, with a Mercur)' fitting between
two fphinxes, folio fize, dated IJ2S. A pannel of orna-
ments, compofed of a marine deity with a trident, fur-
rounded by firens and chimerx, executed on a black
ground, in oftavo, and dated 1J28. " The Infant Wsrc
riors, ' one of whom difplays a flag, and the other carries
a helmet ; and «' The Arms of the Citv of Levden," in a
3 L ' Tnall

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

fmall circle, furrounded by four others, each containing a
genius, engraved feme time about the year 15 lo, both of
oclavo Cze.

Portraits The emperor Maximilian I. with his hair

plaited and wearing a large hat. Lucas painted the por-
trait when the emperor vifited Leyden, but did not engrave
it till the year 1520, after the death of that prince. The,
head is entirely engraved, and the remainder etched, and
flightly touched with the graver to give it effeft ; in the
back-ground is a little figure holding a fcroll, marked with
the letter L. This is the finelt portrait Lucas ever en-
graved ; very rare, and of folio fize. A portrait of the
artift himfelf, repreft.nted with a hat on, and a mohair
doublet trimmed with fur. This portrait was drawn and
etched by himfelf when he was but twenty years of age ;
it is touched in a light fpirited manner, and iiifcrihed,
" Effigies Luck Lcidenfis propria nianu incifa," of
quarto lize. Portrait of a young man, half length, dreffed
in a cap and feathers, and pointing to a llcnll which he hold^
Hnder his robe. This portrait commonly paiTes for that
of Lucas himfelf, but it is very unlike the former. Lucas
is always reprefented with (hort plaited hair, aiid this por-
trait has very long and curly liair ; it is of quarto fize, and
engraved apparently about the year 1525. There is a
print attributed to Lucas, of which the fubjeft is " A
Family furprifed by Death," but it is too poorly executed
to be really his performance ; for in the year 1529, the
period when this print was engraven, our artiil was in his
meridian. The drawing of it is the beft part, but there is
great want of fpirit and correflnefs in the contours.

Martin Van Veen was born at -the village of Hemflvirk,
in Holland, in the year 1498, and till he was eclipfed in the
public notice, by the celebrated painter of that name, was
called after his native village. He learned the rudiments of
drawing from John Lucas, and of painting from John
Schoreel, but of the fubfequent progrefs of his ftudies,
there are two accounts of an oppofite nature. Strutt fays,
that " his early application was attended with little fuccefs,
and his genius was clouded by an appearance of natural
dulnefs, which feemcd to preclude all hope of his ever at-
taining to any reafonable degree of perfection. " Huber,
on the contrary, after feeing Strutt's biography of this
artift, fays, that he imitated tlie fty'e of his mafter Schoreel
fo well, that he became jealous of the i-ifing talents of Van
Veen, and expelled him from his fchool ; from which it is
clear, that if the fcholar was not a blockhead, the mafter
was illiberal.

Van Veen, however, has obtained praife from Mariette,
and from Girard Laireffe, and the eafe and accuracy of his
drawing, and firmnefs of his contours, have been repeatedly
commended. After quitting the fchool of Schoreel, the
fame of Michael Angclo, and the antique fculpture, at-
Iratted him to Italy, but after ftudying there for fome
time, he returned to FlcUand and fettled at Haerlem, where
ie died in the year 1574.

Neither the engravings nor paintings of Van Veen would
now be much admired, being deficient in grace, expreffion,
and harmony of chiarofcuro, but among his contemporaries
his works cor;.ma..ded rcfpcftful attention. They may be
known by th'^ m>mogram which the reader v. ill find in Plate I.
cf thofe uicd by the engravers of the Low Countries.

Amorg his bell prints are " Judah and Taraar," and
"The Annunciation," bo'li in 410.; " Commercial In-
duftry," in folio, and. " The Wife and Foolilh Virgins,"
nearly of the fame dia-eniions. The twelve plates of the
battles of Charles V ., which have been attributed to him,

are from the graver of Theodore Coornhaert, but were exe-
cuted after his defigns.

Dietrich, or Theodore Vander Staren, or Von Stern, was
born in Holland, fome time about tlie year 1500 ; the
time of his death has not been recorded, but it is known
that he continued to engrave till 15JO. He is ranked by
the French in the clals of little matters, and known by
the appellation of the Mailer of the Star, becaufe in his
monogram he ufed to place a ftar between his initials,
as feen in our lirll plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of the
Low Countries. His compofitions prove him to have been
a man of talent : he has engraven many landfcapes and fub-
jefts from facred hiftory, after his own defigns. He under-
ilood tlie human figure tolerably well, but his proportions,
like thofe of the Dutch people, are ftiort and heavy ; and
he often crowded his back-grounds with architectural orna-
ments. To his monogram he ulually added the day of the
month on which his plates were publilhed.

The following are engraved by Vander Staren from his
own defigns. " The Miraculous Draught of Fifties,'' datt-d tl
1523, in odlavo ; " Chrift. walking on the Sea," a fmall up-
right ; " The Temptation of thrift," where the Devil is
reprefented with pointed ftiocs ; a fmall upright p'ate. A
very fmall plate of a faint kneeling before the Virgin, who
holds the infant Chrift, dated 1524; " St. Luke painting
the Virgin and Cliihl," dated 1526, of octavo fize. A fo-
lio plate of " The Deluge ;'' marked D. Van Stern, fee.
1523 : and " The Good Samaritan," engraved AD. 152 J,
in oclavo.

Of Francis Babylone, better knovs^ by the appellation of
the Mafter of the Caduceus, we have various accounts, and
all ot them involved in more or lefs of uncertainty. He was
probably born fome time about the commencement of the
fixtecnth century, and, according to Roft and Huber, at Ley-
den : he is iuppofed to have iludied in Italy under Marc
Antonio, or Gregory Peins. The time of his deceafe is
entirely unknown.

As he neither affixed name, date, nor initials to his very
fingular prints, but fimply the fmall caduceus which will be
found in our firll plate of the monograms, &c. ufed by the
engravers of the Low Countries, his very name is fcarcely
fettled, and he has been by fome writers called Ifrael Mar-
tin, and affirmed to have been the tutor of Albert Durer,
Lucas of Leydcn, and Aldcghever.

The mafter of the caduceus vi*as quite original in his
ftyle of engraving, but it has not been thought worthy of
imitation, and his prints are now fought after by the cu-
rious merely on account of their great rarity. He worked
entirely with the graver: his courlesof lines, which are rarely
crolTed, are rather feeble than delicate ; his extremities
are poorly marked, and always too large ; his draperies are
perplexed with fmall and inelegant folds, and his heads
neither charafteriilic nor expreffivc.

The principal works v.hich have been mentioned as bear-
ing this myllerious mark, are as follows. A fmall upright '
plate reprefenting " Apollo and Diana." Another of the
fame fize, of three men bound. " A Holy Family," in a
fmall fquare plate, half figures : the Virgin is leaning on the
ftump of a tree, and the head of Jofeph is feen towards
the right hand of the print. Another " Holy Family," a
fmall plate lengthways, where tiie Virgin is reprefented
feated at the foot of a tree ; the. child is ftanding by her
fide; Elizabeth is feated near him; an angel 'is playinjj
upon a mufical inftrument ; and Jofeph appears at the rigiit
hand of the print. " The Adoration of the Three Kings,"
a fmall upright plate ; " St. Jerom writing, with a Crucifix

before

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

before him," a fmall plate lengthways. Two fmall upright
plates : one rcprefenting a man carrying a boat, and the
other, a woman with a child in her arms. Jerome Hopfer
has copied both thefe figures on one plate, much larger,
and decorated the head of tlie woman with ftars and a glory.
" A Sacrifice to Priapus," (which is generally attributed
to M. Antonio, becaufe it has his tablet,) is copied fmaller
by this artift, and the indecency which appears in the
former plate is here omitted. It reprefents a woman Hand-
ing by the altar, and another oppofite to her, holding an
infant ; and an old woman's head appears in the back-
ground. Tliis is the only print by this mailer, with which
we are acquainted, that does not appear to have been en-
graven from his own compofition ; and it, more than any
other circumftance, affills us in fettling his chronology.

Cornelius Matfy?, or Metenfis, was born fome time about
the year 1500, and we believe in the Low Countries:
though he appears to have refided much in Italy ; and it
is not improbable that he was the difciple of George
Peins. We have a great number of engravings by him,
both from his own compofuions and thofe of the Italian
painters. His ftyle of engraving bears fuperior refem-
blance to that of Babylone in neatnefs and delicacy of exe-
cution, but his figures are much more in the Italian talte,
and are not deftitute of elegance and proportion. Strutt
has fuppofed there were two artills of thefe names, but the
foreign writers mention only one. His monogram will
be found in our firft plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of
the Low Countries.

We fliall mention the following' prints by this artift.
" Erneft, count of Mansfeld," a print of quarto fize ; " Cleo-
patra with the Afp," a fmall print, dated 1550. An old
man and tvvo old women, one of whom holds a baiket of
eggs, a fmall print, dated 1549. "Judith with the Head
of Holofenies,'' dated 1539. A battle, a fmall upright
plate, from G. Peins. " A HcJy Family," where the Vir-
gin is reprcfented holding the infant on a cradle, carefling
the little St. John, from Kaphael, of folio fize. (This is from
the fame pidlure that was afterward engraven by F. de Poil'y
in France.) " The Miraculous Draught of Fifhes," from
Raphael. The Plague, a fubjeft known in Italy under
tlie name of " II Morbetto,'' engraved by M. Antonio,
and regraved by Cornelius Met, with Ws monogram, and the
name of Raphael, folio fize. " Chrift laid in the Sepul-
chre," from an etching by Parmegiano, of quarto fize.

Of Jerome Bofehe, or Bos, an ancient painter and en-
graver of grotefque fubjcfts, we have already treated, (fee
the article Bos,) but, by miftake, have placed his death
in the year 1500, copying the error of Strutt. Accord-
ing to the bett foreign authorities he vi-as not born till
1498 ; the final period of his life they have not recorded.
His Gothic manner of fubfcribing his works will be found
in our Plate I. o^ the monograms, &c. ufed by the en-
gravers of the Low Countries.

Befides thofe of his works which we have already men-
tioned, he engraved "The Temptation ot St. Anthony,"
on wood, which being dated in the year 1522, corrobo-
rates the chronology which we now offer. " The Miracu-
lous Vifion of the Emperor Conllantine," in quarto; " Jefus
baptized by John," a folio print, with the name of Bos. A
folio print rcprefenting a number of grotefque figures, in-
fcribed, " Al dat op," &c. ,Ier. Bol'che. Another folio
print of the fame kind, infcribed, " Defe Jeroninius Bofch;
drollen." An allegorical print, of an elephant, infcribed,
" H. Bos inv." Paul de la Ilouwe, cxc. in folio.

Cornelius Bus, or Bofc, or Vandcn Bofch, was born at
Bois le-Duc, in Flanders, fome time about the year 1510.

In his youth he went into Italy, and eftabhrtied himfelf st
Rome, where, exclufive of his profeffion as an engraver, he
carried on a confiderable commerce in prints. A fubjeft
engraved by him, of females at different domeflic employ-
ments, with a German infcription, beginning tlius, "Alim
die ein from bidert Weib iiberknmpt, &c." has made M. de
Heinneken think that Cornelius was a German, and that in
Italy he changed his name to Bus ; hut the general opinion
is, that he was born where we have Hated above, and that liij
true name was Bofch.

His ilyle of engraving fometimes refembles that of Marc
de Ravenna ; at other times that of Eneas Vico. He never
arrived at any fuperior detrree of excellence. He worked
entirely with the graver, in a lliff", dry, ftyle, without tafte.
His drawing is by no means correft ; neither are the heads
and other extremities of his figures fufRciently attended to ;
and from the lights being diffufed, and the feeblenefs of the
maffes of fhadow, his engravings are ufually deftitute of
effeft. He has engraved after his own compofitions and
thofe of other mailers ; and he commonly marked Ins prints
with one or other of the monograms which will be found at-
tached to his name in our firft plate of thofe ufed by the en-
gravers of the Low Countries.

The following prints may be reckoned among his beft.
" The Laft Judgment,'' marked with his cypher, and dated
1530, of q-iarto fize; " Lot and his Daughters," with his
monogram, dated i^-jo, of folio fize ; " King David jiving
the fatal Letter to Uriah," dated 1546 ; " Our Saviour
preaching to the Jews," in folio ; " Venus oa her Car,''
in quarto, dated 1546 ; " Vulcan in his Forge," in folio,
1546, all marked with his cypher ; " Combat of the Cen-
taurs and Lapitha?," on two large plates, dated 15,0; "A
Monk feized by Death," in quarto, marked with the mo-
nogram. An equeftrian ftatue of Marcus Aureliu?, in
folio, with the monogram. A fet of fixteen plates of gro-
tefque arms and trophies, engraved at Rome in the years
ijjo and 15;^. Another fet of caryatides and therV.ies.
" Mofes receiving the Tablets of the Law," from Raphael,
in folio, l^Jt ; "Triumph of Bacchus," a large print,
lengthways, engraved on three plates from Julio Romano,
dated 1543; "The Entombing of Chrift," a folio plate,
dated 1554, from Francifco Floris, marked " Corneiiu? Bus
fecit ;"• " Mofes breaking the Tablets of the Law," foho,
from Raphael, datedljjo.

Having already treated of the family of Breughel, which
flouriftied as painters and engravers at the period now under
our notice (fee the article Breughel), it remains onlv to
add in this place, that Peter B.'-eughel the younger, fur-
named, or rather «;VZ'-named " the Heililh," was the princi-
pal engraver of that family, and the chief of his engravings
(which are fomewhat numerous, and rendered very entertain-
ing by his peculiarities) are as follow. They are generally-
marked with a monogram, which will be found in our firit
plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of the Low Coun-
tries.

A large foho plate of a village fete : a banner is dif-.
played over the door of a cabaret, and of the numerous
figures introduced, fome are (kirmilhing, otliers rejoicing,
and others quarreUing, Another folio print of " Peafaiits
rejoicing ;" " The Feaft of the Archers,'' in which the
banner of their company is difplayed before an arbour, in-
fcribed " Dit isde Guide." A very rare wood engraving of
a mafquerade, known by the name of " Valentine and Or-
fpn ;" " Mercury and Pfyche," the landfcape part of which
is a view on the Rhine ; " Dedalus and Icarus," companion
to the above, being another view on the Rhine ; both are in-
3 L 2 fcribed

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

fcribed " Petrus Breughel fecit Romae 1553 ;" and all the
above are of folio fjze. ,

Early proofs of tlie works of Hieronymus, or Jerome
Cock, are much fotight after by the curious, but it is on
account of their fcarcity and not their merit, for his ftyle is
laborious, poor, and fcratchy. The praifc which Vaiari
has laviiiied on him, is therefore not merited. His biogra-
phy we have already fufficiently detailed, (fee the article
Cock), except that we have there omitted to mention that he
was born at Antwerp in the year 1510. His monogram,
fimilar to that of Hans Collaert, will be faund in our firit
plate of thofc ufed by the engravers of the Low Countries.
From his numerous engravings, we feleft the following as
thofe l^■hich are held in moll elleem, beginning with his

Portraits. — A pair of the oval form, in 4to. of Francis II.
king of France and Scotland, and Mary queen of Scotland
and France. Anollier pair of Guilavus and Maria, king
and queen of Sweden. Another of Soliman, emperor of
the Turks, and Camilia his daughter, all in ovals, and of
folio dimenfions. A large folio plate, containing tue heads of
Guide, Cavaleantes, Dante, Boccacio, Petrarch, Politian,
and Ficinus. And, conjointly with Wicrix, a fct of twenty-
four of celebrated arlifts of Germany, in folio, dated
i572.

ProceJfimSt Views, &c. — A fet of fifty-nine, entitled
" PrsEcipua aliquot Romanas antiquitatis m-jnumenta An-
twerpiae M. D. L. I. " Another fet of twenty, entitled
" Operum antiquorum Romanorum hinc inde per diverfas
Europe re^'iones." "The Furieral Proceffion of the Emperor
Charles V." engraved on feveral plates, and forming, when
palled together, a long frieze. A fet of twelve plates, en-
titled «' Divi Caroli V. ex multis prsecipus vicloriarum
imagines 1556." A fet of fifteen, entitled " Compartimen-
torum quod vocant multiplex genus lepidiflimis hiftoriolis
poetarumque tabellis ornatum, 1^66. Gedruckt by Hiero-
nymus Cock in de vicr Winden."

Hyioiical, &c. — " Mofes with the Tablets of the Law ;"
«' St.Chrillophercroffing the Water with the Infant Chrift,''
a fubietl from the life of Sylla, infcribed " Quidquid eft
hujufmodi etc. ;" "A Sacrifice to Priapus," where the lacri-
Scers are reprefented flaughtering an afs, 1557 ; " Fcemina
fub Jove funt ;" Tarquin and Lucretia, " Tarquinius,
&c." An emblem of Vanity, infcribed " Hodie mihi,
eras tibi :" it reprefents the dead bodyof a young man lying
on a table near aflcull : at the bottom of the pi-intis written
" Vigilate quia etc." Cock excud. ; all in folio.

Various SuhjeBs from the Painters of the Lonu Countries. —
A fet of fifteen hillorical landfcapes, painted by Math?w
Cock, and engraved by Jerom, of which the fubjefts are ;
I. Abraham facrificing Ifaac. 2. Judah and Tamar.
3. The Prophet Jonas weeping over Nineveh. 4. The De-
parture of Tobias with the Angel. 5. The Flight into
Egypt. 6. The Baptifm of our Saviour. 7. Jefus
tempted in the Defart. 8. The good Samaritan. 9. Mer-
cury and Argus. 10. Mercury killing Argus. 11. Venus
mourning for the Lofs of Adonis. 12. Cephalus and Pro-
cris, 1558. 13. The wondrous Labyrinth. 14. The Loves
of Hero and Leander. 15. Daphne metamorpho{ed into a
Laurel. A large landfcape, reprefenting the feftival of St.
George, with the banner of the faint, from Mathew Cock ;
" Sampfon and Dalilah," with the temple of the Philif-
tines in the back-ground, in large folio, from Hemflcerck ;
•* Daniel in the Lion's Den," in the back-ground are the
Babylonians lamenting the overthrow of the dragon and
Bel, and the prophet Habakkuk is conduced through the
air by an angel, from the fame matter, in large folio. A
fet of eight, reprefenting theiUuftrious women of the Old and

New Teftaments, ii/a. Jael, Ruth, Abigail, Judith, Efther»
and Sufannah, from the old, and the Virgin Mary and the
Magdalen from the new, in folio. An allegorical fubjeft, re-
prefenting " Fraud and Avance ;'' a bacchanalian fubjeft
of " Children dancing," both of folio fi/.e, all from Hem-
llverck ; " Tlie Refurre£lion of our Saviour," from Breughel
the elder, in large folio ; " The Temptation of St. James
and St. Anthony," 1565, both in folio; and from the fame
matter, " The Laft Judgment," with the cypher of Cock,
dated ijyS, in large folio; " The Laboratory of an Al-
chymitt," in folio ; " The Carnival, or Difpute between the
Fat and the I..can," in two folio plates, dated 1563. A fet
of twelve hillorical landfcapes, moft of them facred fub-
jefts, with Latin infcriptions, of large folio fize, etched by
Jerom Cock, all of them from the elder Breughel. A
grotefque compofition of " The large Fi(h devouring the
fmaller," from Jerom Bos ; it is infcribed " Vrinden dit
hceftmcn reel Jaren geweten Dat de groote Viflen de cley-
ncnedlen," in large folio. A large folio print of "The
Temptation of St. Anthony," inlcribed' " Multx tribu-
latioiies." " St. Martin in a Boat with Devils," in large folio ;
" A Dream," 1561 ; " Shrove Tuefday," an allcgoriciil
fubjcft, of large folio fize, 1567 ; " De Blau Schuyte,"
" The Blue Ship," in large folio, all from Jerom Bos;
" The Combat of the Horalii and Curiatii," after Franc
Floris ; " Hercules ileeping, affailed by Pigmies," from the
fame mailer, both in large folio ; " King Ahafuerus, fur-
rounded by his Court, inverting Efther with Royalty,"
from Lambert Lombard ; " Jefus with his Difciples, at
the Houfe of Martha and Mary," I <:,l(>, in large folio ;
"Jefus at Table in the Houfe of Simon the Pharifee,"
1551, in folio; "The Refurreftion of Lazarus," both
from the fame matter, in large folio, all infcribed H. Cock,
exc.

Subjeas from Italian Maflers. — " Abraham offering up
Ifaac,'' and the angel appearing with a ram, from Raphael,
1J52, in folio; "The Nativity," from the fame painter,
in folio ; " Many are called, but few are chofen," in large
folio, from Andrea del Sarto, dated IJJS ; " Females
bathing," a folio print, from Lucas Penni ; " Captives re-
pofing," a frieze from Pohdore ; " The Paflage through
the Red Sea," from Angelo Bronzino, in folio ; " The
Vifitation of Elizabeth," from Sebaftian del Piombo, in
folio.

Jacob Bofius, or Boffius, furnamed in Italy the Belgian,
was born in the early part of the fixteenth century, but in
what part of the Low Countries we are unable to fay. He
ftudied in Italy under fome one of the difciples of Marc
Antonio, but never rofe above mediocrity. His ftyle is
neat, but wants both freedom and correftnefs of outline.
The extremities of his figures efpecially are heavy and not
well marked.

He often marked his engravings with two B's, Avhich
(hews that he adopted the furnamc of Bclgia, which was
conferred on him by the caprice of the Itahans. The time
of his death has not been mjntioned.

Of his works the following few appear to include all the
variety which Boffius was capable of exerting, and more
than he could exert with credit as an artitt.

The portrait of Michael Angelo, in odlavo. Bufts of
St. Thomas Aquinas, and Otho Truchfefs, biftiop of Albany,
in quarto. " The Crucifixion," in folio. A fet of the
four Evangelifts, after Blockland, in quarto. " Jacob's
myfterious Dream," and " St. Peter and St. John healing
the Cripple" both in folio, and after Raphael. The ftatue
of Pyrrhus^ king of the Moloffes, from the antique, in folio,

dated

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

dated iy6z ; and"TheBathsof Dioclefian,'' with other views
of antiquities executed in conjunftion with Ant. Lafrcri.

Lambert Suterman, or Suaviu?, was born at Liege, in
Flanders, in the year 15 lo, and became the difciple of Lam-
bert Lombard, with whom Sandrart confounds him ; but
Heinneken has removed all doubt on the fubjeft, proving
that Lombard was merely a painter and never uled the graver
at all.

Suavius engraved many plates both from his own defigns
and thofe of his niafter. His figures are generally tall and
thin ; the outlines of the naked parts of them are tolerably
correft, but dry and without dignity. His draperies are
generally divided into fniall folds, which by not being fuf-
ficiently varied or contrafted with each other, form unpleaf-
ing lines. The attitudes of his figures are feldom well
chofen, or properly adapted to the fubjeft, and the manage-
ment of the liglit and (hade by no means commendable. His
ftyle of engraving is very neat, and feems to have been con-
trailed in the German fchools ; but his mpce of defign dif-
covers more of the Itahan than the German tafte.

His engravings are numerous, but neither exquifite nor
very rare ; we fliall mention the few following

From Lambert Lombard. — " Charity," furrounded by
eight children; "The Refurreftion of Lazarus," both in
quarto, dated 1544; " Jefus travelhng to Emmaus, witli
his two Difciples," ni folio ; " The Entombing of Chrift,'' in
quarto ; " St. Peter and St. Paul healing the Sick ;" " The
Defcent from the Crofs," and "Our Saviour refturing the
Widow's Son," all in folio ; " Pfyche with the Vafe of Pro-
ferpine and Juno," marked with the name of Raphael, in
fmall folio.

From his own Drawings " The twelve Apofiles,'' in

quarto. Two circular prmts, reprefenting a prolile of our
Saviour, and one of the Virgin Mary. A bull of Melchior
Schets, in a circle, infcribed " Mundus regitur opinioni-
bus," 1561 ; Anna Stralen, " Mel Scheti conjux," 1554;
" Michael Angelo Buonarotus, nobilis FlorcnHnus," a circu-
lar print ; and a portrait of Cardinal Granvelle, in quarto.
All '.he portraits by Suavius are executed in a very delicate
ftyle.

The family of Goltzius were illufirious in art. Hubert,
the firft of that name who diftinguilhed himfclf as an en-
graver, was the fon of a pamter of Wurtzburg, but was
born at Venloo in the year 1520. Under the tuition of his
father and of Lambert Lombard, he acquired fome pro-
ficiency both in arts and in letters, and, having to copy fome
drawings which had been done from the antique, at the
houfe of the latter, they excited in him lo ftrong a defire to
fee and (ludy from the originals, that he forthwith fet out
for Rome. After remaining fome time in that dillinguifhed
metropolis, he travelled homeward through Italy, France,
and Germany, leaving few of the celebrated works of art,
or European monuments of antiquity, unfeen ; and finally
edablifhed himfelf at Bruges, where he fucceflively pub-
lifhed thofe volumes of medals, infcriptions, and other ob-
jefts of antiquarian refearch, coUetled during his travels,
which are ftill fought after by the curious ; and where he
died in the year 1583.

Strutt fays, "he was twice married, and the abominable
croflnefs and ill temper of his fecoiid wife (ill fuited as
a companion to a ftudious man) is faid to have fliortened his
days." Mo!l of his antiquarian writings are compofed in
the Latin language, and were printed, as well as their en-
graved accompaniments, in his own houfe.

Hubert painted fome few piftures which have been fpoken
of with commendation, and are valued for their rarity, but is
chiefly known as a raaa of letters" and an engraver. He ob-

tained the title of painter and hiftorian to Philip II. of Spair,
to whom he dedicated, " Fadi Romani ex antiquis nuraif-
matibus et marmoribus sere expreffi et illuflrati ;" and
" Icones Imperatorum Romanorum, et feries Auftriacorum,
&c." both in folio, and printed at Bruges.

The medals in thefe works are executed in clair obfiure ;
and it has fince been copied and reprinted at Antwerp by
Balthafar Moret, who has added five medallions from de-
iigns by Rubens, in order to bring down the feries to the
time of Ferdinand III.

The manner in which Goltzius produced his prints in
clair obfcure, was by firft printing from an outline etched
on copper, and afterward impreffing the half tint and deeper
fhadows from the furfaces of blocks of wood and with the
letter-prcfs. In this manner our artift produced two other
works, adorned with numerous engravings by himfelf and
.Tofeph Gietleughen of Courtrai, of which the firft, printed
at Bruges in 1563, and containing forty-fix prints, is en-
titled " C. Juhus Cfefar five hiftorite Imperatorum Caefarum
Romanorum ex antiquis numifmatibns reftitutje, liber pri-
mus, Huberto Goltzio HerbipoHta Vanloniano AuCtore et
Sculptore ;" and the fecond, containing two hundred and
thirty-four engravuigs, printed at Bruges in ij66, bears
the title of " Failos JVIagiftrorum et Triomphorum Roman-
orum ah urbe condita ad Augufti obitum ex antiquis Mo-
numentis reftitutos, Hubertus Goltzius Herbipohta Ven-
lo\ianus dedicavit."

Henry Golt/.ius was a man of more genius, though of lefs
refearch, than Hubert. His father, John Goltzius, was a
painter on glafs, of Mulbrcch, in the neighbourhood of
Venloo, where our artift was born ru the year 1558.

After acquiring fome knowledge in the rudimental part
of drawing under his paternal roof, Henry was placed, firft
under Jaques Leonherd, and afterward became the difciple
of Theodore Coornhacrt, who taught him engraving, and
under whofe tuition he foou began to difcover very furprifing
talents in that novel and difficult art, notwithftanding the
difadvantage of a lame hand, which was occafioned by fall-
ing uito the fire during his infancy.

Goltzius afterwards worked, for a fliort time, for Philip
Gallc, but ii! confequence of domeftic troubles and an ill
ftate of health, occafioned partly by his too clofe profcfTional
application, was advifcd to travel. His defire of improve-
ment coinciding with his medical advifers, he pafled through
Germany into Italy, vifiting Bologna, Florence, Naples,
Venice, and Rome, frequently alFuming a feigned name, that
he might with the lefs interruption apply himfelf to the
ftudy of the antique and \\ie grand giijlo of Michael Angelo.
Now was the time when whal the profeftbr Fufeli terms
the " frantic pilgrimage" of artills to Italy, raged with cru-
fading zeal, and no painter in the eftin^ation of the hyper-
critics, might be confidered as pcrfeft in his art, who had not
trembled before the Laft Judgment of the terrible Michael
Angelo; moderation in ftyle, was infeiifibility ; and Golt-
zius himfclf, though a man of difcernmcnt, became in fefted
to a certain degree with the falhiouable bombaft.

In the genial climate of Italy his health returned, and at
Rome he remained for fome years, producing there feveral
very excellent engravings from Raphael, Polidoro, and other
eminent mafters. He finally returned to the Low Coun-
tries, and eftablifiied himfelf at Haerlem, where he engraved
many plates, of which the fubjeCts conlift partly of his own
corapofitions, and are partly taken from the drawings which
he copied from celebrated works of art during his refidence
in Italy, where, in 1617, he died at the age of fifty-nine years.
He married a widow lady of Haerlem, whole fon James
Maetbam (the fruit of a former marriage) became (as we

fhaH

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

ffiall hare occafion to notice) a diftinguifhed engraver, under
the inllruAion of liis father-in-law. He is faid to have been
forty years of age before he began to paint. His pidlures
are few in number, and their rarity jKrliaps has railed them
to a higher value tlian they might elfe have attained.

But we have to fpeak. of him cliiefly as an engraver.
PofTeffing conGderable anatomical knowledge, he drew the
human figures admirably, and articufatfed the joints and ex-
tremities with fupcrior ikill. But conceiving lymfelf qualified,
on his return from Italy, to correft tlie littlenefles and Gothic
ftiffncfs of his Dutch and German contemporaries in art,
and the taile which prevailed among the connoifl'eurs of the
Low Countries, he too frequently ran into the oppofite
extreme, and twilled and bent his fingers and his feet, fome-
tim-s into abfolute diftortion, in-fpita of nature and his
own fupcrior knowledge. While the mania lalled, his in-
tended grace became real afieftation, and his grandeur ridi-
culous fwaggcring.

In order to llvew that the revolution in ftyle which he
aimed at accomplilhing, was the refuit of fuperior powers,
and that it proceeded not from his inability to emulate and
excel, at their own weapons, the heroes of Holland and Ger-
many, he took a molt effcdual method, in the profecution
of which he was eminently fuccefsful. ' He compofcd and en-
graved what are termed his chef-d'o;uvres, or tnajler pieces,
which fiiew the amazing verfatility of his talents ; and which,
though chiefly aimed at the reputations of Albert Durer
and Lucas -of Leyden, does not fcruple to provoke com-
parifon alfo, with Baffan, with Parmegiano, and even with
Rapliael himfelf.

There had not been \vanting among the connoiffeurs and
amateurs of the Low Countries, fome who inlinuated that
Goltzius deviated from the llyles of art which had called
forth their admiration, becaufe he had fancied or found them
to be inimitable. No expedient could more juftly or more
completely have filenced thefe obfervations, than the contri-
vance and execution of thefe fix large engravings. Before
he made public that of which the fubjeft is " The Circum-
cifion," and which was defigned to vie with Albert Durer ;
and before his general purpofe was known, he bellowed a
few years of age on an impreffion, by means of fmokc, and
exhibited it in the prefence of a chofen few, who, to the great
entertainment and fecret fatisfaclion of our artift, flood in
fpcdlacles and in raptures, before the fuppofed engraving of
Albert Durer. And, in truth, this print fo very much re-
fembles the ver)'' bell works of that mafter, both in defign
and execution, as to be icarcely any impeachment of the
difcernment of the connoiffeurs who were thus deceived.

Gohzius might now fearlefsly publifh his mailer-pieces,
which he did with extraordinary fuccefs, and in which, after
varying his flyle five times in order to imitate feverally the
mailers above-mentioned, he finillies the'fetof fix with an
" Holy Family," v/hich he meant fhould be underllood as
tiie improved flyle of Henry Goltzius, and which clofcs the
proceftion, and completes his triumph, — but not the cata-
logue of his merits.

He engraved portraits from his own drawings, in a very
mallerly manner, very taftefully uniting excellent drawing,
and vigorous effeft of light and fliade, with ncatnefs of exe-
ctition. He alfo engraved from his own compofitions on
wood, in the manner w-hich is technically termed dare obfcure,
or chiarofcuro, in which he differed from Hubert Goltzius,
by employing ihree blocks of wood ; on the firll of which he
cut his outluie with great boldnefs and fpirit ; the fecond
ferved to imprefs the demi-tints, the high lights being cut
away ; and the third the deeper fliadows. In the works
which he executed in this way, the lights appear as if em-

boffed, and they are en the whole very mafterly produc.
tions.

The power of Goltzius over his graver, which was the
chief inflrument of his art, and the freedom, boldnefs, and
copious variety of combination with which he hatched hii
cou'rfes of lines, is wonderful, and would have been truly
fafcinating, had he adhered to that pure and accurate ftyle
of drawing which once diftinguiflicd him, inflead of deviating
into extravagance and eccentricity.

The cypher with which he marked his engravings, when
he did not fubicribe his name at length, may be feen in our firll
plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of tfie Low Countries.

We begin our catalogue of his works, which will probably
long continue to rank in the very firfl clafs of the arts of his
country, with his

Portraits. — A bull of Gertrand AdriaaufTz Brederods,
in an oval, with an allegoric accompaniment of two
tigers and a laurel, a very rare print ; Henry III. king
of France, an oval, very rare, dated 1592 ; Frederic II.
king of Denmark, quarto fize ; William prince of Orange,
. in an oval, furrounded with a grotefque border, in folio ;
Charlotte of Bourbon, princets of Orange, companion to
the preceding ; both engraved in a very delicate flyle ;
Theodorus Coornhcrtius ad vivum dcpiftus et acri incifus,
ab H. Goltzius, a very rare folio print ; Hans Bol, after
Joannes Boltius, a folio print, furrounded with ornaments ;
John Stradan, a painter of Bruges, in quarto ; Philip Galle,
an engraver of Antwerp, of the fame fize, dated 1582 ;
Peter Forct, or Forellus, a Dutch phyfician, in odtavo,
dated I'fiS ; Julle-Lipfe, a celebrated critic, infcribed
" Moribus antiquis," dated 1587 ; a half-lengtii portrait
of John Zurenus, painted by M Hemfkerck, in quarto ;
Monfieur de la Faille, infcribi-d " Leges tueri. Harm.
Adolfs. exc." in quarto ; Madame de la Faille, companion
to the above, (a young woman with a llcull in her hand.)
This pair of portraits are executed with extreme delicacy,
and are much celebrated. Chrillopher Plantin, a famous
printer ; and Francis d'Egmont, completely armed, a half-
length portrait, both in quarto ; Robert, earl of Leicefter,
general in the United Provinces, 1586, a very fine print, in a
fmail oval ; S. Sovius, infcribed, " Bene agere et nil timere,"
1583, rare ; a half-length portrait of a man meafuring a
globe, infcribed " L'homme propofe, et Dieu difpofe,"
159J. This is believed to be the portrait of Petri, an
alfronomer of Amllerdam, in i2mo. A lady fitting in a
garden chair, fuppofed to be the portrait of Catherine Dek-
ker, of Haerlem, of the fame fize ; bull of a man with a round
hat, in 4to. ; bull of a female with a hat, executed entirely
with the graver ; half-length portrait of a female, veiled,
and covered with drapery, 1606, taftefully engraven in a
neat and elaborate ftyle ; and the buft of a man, with a cocked
hat, both of quarto fize. '

Various SubjeOs from his own Compofitions A circular

print in quarto, of " Judah and Tamar," one of the
earliell engravings of Goltzius. A fet of fix capital
prints, which we have particularly noticed in his biography,
and which are known by the name of the majlerpicces of Golt-
zius. I . The Annunciation, in the ftyle of Raphael. 2. The
Vifitation, in the ftyle of Parmegiano. 3. The Annuncia-
tion, in the ftyle of BaiTan. 4. The Circumcifion, hi the
ftyle of Albert Durer. 5. The Adoration of the Kings., in
the ftyle of L. of Leyden. And 6. A Holy Family, in his
own flyle, or, according to fome critics, in the flyle of Bar-
roccio, all of large folio fize.: it fhoud be known, that in the
Circumcifion he has introduced his own portrait. A very
rare print of "The Nativity," in large folio, which is un-
finiihed ; infcribed Jac. Matham, exc. 1615. "TheAdo-
7t ration

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

ration of the Kings," in quarto, rare; " The Slaughter of againft a fkuU ; an emblem of human vanity, in large quarto

the Innocents," C. Vificher excud. likewife very rare
and in an unfmifhed (late,- a very large folio. " A Repofo,"
H. Goltzius fecit, in 4to. 1589 ; " The Good Sama-
ritan," H. Goltzius fc. et excud. 1589; The Paffion of our
Saviour, in twelve plates, H. Goltz. fee. 1597, in 410.
Tliefe are engraven fomewhat in the ftyle of Lucas of Ley-
den. The half-length figures of Chriii, and thirteen apoftles,
with Latin infcriptions, engraved on fourteen plates, H. Goft-
zius fee. m odlavo, 1598. Another fet from the fame ori-
ginals, faid by Huber and Rod to be almolt as large as life,
and the name of each apoftle- added ; executed with very
bold courfes of lines. " The Adoration of the Kings," a
(ingular compojltion, and a very rare foho print ; " The
Infant Chrift," feated on a cufhion holding a globe, and
furr.iunded with a glory of angels, a very finely engraved
plate, in 410. dated 1597; "The Temptation of St. An-
tony," and " A Saint, holding a Book," (perhaps Jerome,)
both in quarto. A fet of fifty-two, from the Metamorphofes
of Ovid : it is believed that Goltzius was aflifted by his pupils
in the execution of this fet. Afet often of the heroes of ancient
Rome, viz. 1. The Horatii and Curiatii
Codes. :;. Mutius Scxvola. 4. Curtius. j. Torquatus
6. Corvinus. 7. Manilas. 8. Calphurnius. 9 and 10 are
allegorical fubjefts. This fet is executed with very bold
ttrokesi and have very fine back-grounds. A circular print
of Venus relling againft a tree, and Ciipid prefenting a
fword, infcribed " Sine Cerere et Baccho, friget Venus,"
executed in fo verv delicate a manner, that it forms a ftriking
contraft with the former. A fet of three ovals, reprefenting

1. Bacchus ; 2. Venus ; and j. Ceres, dedicated to Cornelius
of Haerlem. Another fet of three ovals, of i. Pallas;

2. Juno ; and 3. Venus, dated 1596. A couchant Venus,
f'.irrounded by the four elements, perfonified by cupids, an'
oval print, all of folio fize. " Mars and Venus, expofed to
the Ridicule of the Gods," 1585, in large foho. Three folio
plates of the loves of the gods ; 1. Jupiter and Juno.
2. Neptune and Amphitrite. 3. Pluto and Proferpine.
" Apollo in the Clouds," with an iafcription round his head,
158S ; " Pygmalion and the Statue," j 593, all in folio. A
fmall oval print of " Mercury and Argus," very rare ; the
nine mufes, dedicated to John Sadeler, dated 1592, in foho ;
three folio circular prints of " The Deftinies ;" " The three
Graces," crowned with laurel, in folio ; a large folio print
of " Apollo Pythius, Statua aiitiqua Roms, in palatio Pon-
tificis Bellevedere, etc." " Hercules AxlEviKAKOS In-
fcriptus Roman. Commodus Imperator. Statua antiqua
Roms, in palatio Pontificis Bellevedere, etc." in large
foho, with four Latin verfes ; and " Hercules Viftor.
Statua antiqua Romae, in palatio Cardinalis Farncfii, etc."
publiftied after the death of Goltzius by Herman Adolf, in
large foho. Thefe three ftatues form a very beautiful and
interefting fet, where the vigorous powers which dillingui[h
the graver of Goltzius, are exhibited in high perfection.
" Hercules ;" in the back-ground are reprefented fome of his
labours ; of very large folio fize, dated 1589. In this print
the artiil appears to have intended to convey an idea of god-
like ftrength, but has run far into the extravagance which
we have cenfured in his biography. "Apollo playing on
his Lyre, furrounded by the Mufes," a very large print, dated
1590. The feven cardinal virtues ; Faith, Hope, Charity,
Jullice, Prudence, Fortitude, and Temperance ; of quarto
fize ; feated on ornamental architecture. Three very fine
prints, in folio. Eight females embracing, reprefenting
human virtues in four very fine folio prints ; " Labour and
Diligence, (perfonified by a man and female,) embracing,"
a very rare quarto print, dated 1582. A.uaked infant relliag

Chriftian Prudence," reprefented by a drapered female,
infcribed " Aftute ferpentes, et fimplicitate columbas," a very
rare engravincf, in a fmall circle ; " The Blind leading the
Bhnd," a fmall circle, very rare ; "The War Chariot,"
with an explanation in French and Dutch, of large folio
fize. A young female, refufing the offer of a rich old man,
followed by a young one. A companion, of a young man re-
fufing an old woman, both rare prints, and of folio dimen-
fions. " The Dog of Goltzius," or " The Boy and Dog :"
it is pretended by fome that the boy who i.s introduced is
the fon of the Venetian painter Theodore Frifius, to whom
the print is dedicated ; and by others that it is the portrait
of the engraver himfelf : it is in large foho, an exquifite
print, and the good impreffions are now become rare and'
valuable. " Coridon au Silvia," a paftoral fubjed beauti-
fully engraven. A man in a Spaniili drefs, carrying two
flowers, in folio, infcribed " Sic tranfit gloria mundi," An^
officer with a halbert, with a battle in the back-ground, in'
fol. An officer marching, and a view of the city of Prague
in the back-ground, 1587. A grand mountainous landfcape-
2. Horatius with fhepherds tending their flocks in the fore-ground ; and
"^ in which Dedalus and Icaruo are feen in the air ; a large folio

print, and one of the fineft etchings by Goltzius.

Engravings on Wood, in Clair-olfcure , and Cameo A land-
fcape, with ruftic buildings, and a female drawing water
from a well, in 410. A landfcape, with an enormous rock
on the fliore of a raging ocean, and an hermit proftrate, in
4to. A ruftic fubjedl with flieep feeding, in 4to. Half-
length portrait of a warrior, , with lance and helmet, in
foho. " Hercules combating with the Giant Cacus," en-
graved on a fingle block, 'in folio. The fame fubjedl exe.
cuted in clair-obfcure. A fet of feven figures of heathen
divinities, viz. Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Thetis, Flora,.
Night, and Eternity ; thefe prints are in ovals of large folio
fize, and have a very ftriking e2"e6t.

Suhjeds from Italian Majlcrs. — " St. Joachim," from a pic-
ture by Raphael in the church of St. Auguftin at Rome, dated .
1592, in folio ; " The Triumph of Galatea,'' from a pic-
ture by Raphael, in the Farnefian gallery. Eight divinities
in niches, from Polidoro ; •uiz. Saturn, Neptune, Pluto,
Vulcan, Apollo, Jupiter, Bacchus, Mercury, in folio. Two
fybils, after antique ftatues, in 410. " The Laft Supper,"
from a very grand compofition by Paul Veronefe, dated
1585 ; " The Marriage of Cana," after J. Salviati, a very
large engraving, executed on two plates ; " St. Jerom me-
ditating in a Defart," from Palma the younger, in large

fol;

Suljsds from various Maflers in the Low Countries. — " The
Fall of our firft Parents," in 4to. from Barth. Sprano-er,
1585 ; " A Dead Chrift," fupported by an angel, from the
fame mafter, in large folio ; " The Celebration of the Nup-
tials of Cupid and Pfyche among the Gods," from the
fame mafter, executed on two large plates ; " The Drao-on
devouring the Companions of Cadmus," after Corneille Cor-
nehus, in folio, 1588 ; " Ulyffes reproving Irus before the-
Suitors of Penelope," from the fame mafter, in large folioi
Large circular prints of the four elements, reprefented by
Tantalus, Icarus, Ixion, and Phaeton ; •' St. Paul fhak-
ing off the Viper, in the Ifle of Melita," from j. Stradan,
in folio ; " Lot and his Family forfaking the burning City,"
from Ant. Blocklant, dated 1582, in large folio; and'
" The four Evangelifts at the Sepulchre of Chrift," front'
the fame mailer, 1583, of large folio dimenCons.

Julius Goltzius was probably of the fame family with
Henry, but the acquifilions of genius are unalienable, and
Julius attained to no eminence as-an engraver. He was ap-
parently

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

parently educated in the fchool of the Galles, but of his
birth or death there is no record, though his principal work
was executed in 158 1. He engraved on copper, but his
objefts are ill drawn and tallelefsly executed. Great part
of the figures in " Habitus Variorum Orbis Gentium,"
publilhed b)' BoilTard, is from his hand, as are alfo " The
good and bad Shepherd," from Martin de Vos, and " Chrill
appearing to Mary Magdalen," after Fred. Sucaris.

Henry Van Cleve, or Cleef, alfo called CUvenJis, was
born at Antwerp in the year 1520, and died in the fame
«iry in 1 S89. He was the broiher of Martin van Cleef,
whom Val'ari confounds with Martin Schoen. He ftudied
in Italy, and befidc his proficiency in engraving, became an
excellent landtcapo painter, poircffing great freedom of
touch, and producing an harmonious chiarof-curo. Upon his
return to his native city in Hjs, he was elefted a member
of the Antwerp academy of painters : he likewife engraved
A great number of plates, which he fonietimes marked with
the monogram, which will be found in our firll plate of
thofe ufed by the engravers of the Low Countries ; and at
others, with " Henricus Clivenlls fecit."

Among his works the following will probably be found
moil worthy of feleftion. A bull fight, exhibited at Rome,
before the Farnefe palace, in folio. Two landfcapcs and
figures, in folio. A fet of fix landfcapes, intitlcd, i. Veneris
Templum. 2. Forum iEmilii. j. Teinplum Fortunse. 4. Ca-
loris. 5. Cataraftes Tiburti. 6. Corfu Infula. H. van
Cleef fee. Ph. Galle exc. in folio. Another fet of land-
fcapes : I. View of abridge at Segovia. 2. A promon-
tory at Campania. ^. The tomb of the Horatii. 4. A
view on the lake of Aricia, m folio. There is alfo a col-
ieftion of thirty-five views by this artilt, publifhed under
the title of " Henri a Cleve ruinarum ruriumquc aliquot
delineationes executas, per Galleum," in folio.

Of his brother Martin van Cleef we know very little,
and of his engravings nothing, excepting that proftiTor
Chrill fays, they were marked with a monkey feated, with
the letters V. C. upon its body, in the manner reprefented in
our Plate I. of the monograms, &c. ufed by the engravers
of the Low Countries.

A monkey it feems, which in England is nicknamed
Jacko, is called Martin in Flanders : combined with the
initials of Van Cleef, it therefore formed a kind of pun ;
and the age in which thefe engravers lived, is known to
have been a time when puns were fashionable, and paffed for
wit. Martin van Cleef, fometimes miftaken for Schoen, is
the real Martin of Antwerp, of Vafari, and thofe Italian
writers who have copied his errors.

Adrian Collaert, the elder, an artift of great merit, and
likewife a printfeller, was born at Antwerp A. D. 1520.
He became acquainted with the rudiments of his art in his
native country, but made a journey to Italy, where he re-
fided foine time in order to perfeft himfelf in his profefiion.
He worked entirely with the graver in a firm and neat ftyle,
but fomewhat ftiff. His malTes of hght are rarely well
managed, or flcilfully blended with his demi-tints, and from
being too much fcattered and withoHt the neceffary gra-
duation, he rarely produced even a tolerable chiarofcuro.
But to compenfate thefe defefts (which may, in part at
lead, be afcribed to the age in which Adrian lived), he drew
with great ability. The heads of his figures are frequently
beautiful and charadlerillic, and the other extremities well
marked.

The engravings of the elder Collaert are fomewhat nu-
merous, and are generally marked with a cypher, for which
fee our fii-ft plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of'the

Low Countries. We feleft from them the following, be-
ginning with thofe which are done

Prom his own Compoftl'wns — A man and his wife con-
dufted by Death, dated 1562, in l2mo. An armed
warrior, to whom a feinale prefents a dog, a child, and a
cock. The four elements, with a verfe in Latin under
each, in 8vo. A lit of thirty-fix prints, in 1 2mo., en-
titled " Vita Jefu Salvatoris variis iconibus, ab Adriano
Collaert exprelTa." A fet of thirty, in 4to. entitled " Avium
vivae iconcs in aere incific et edita: ab Adriano CoUardo."
One hundred and twenty-five fubjedls, entitled " Pifcium
vivse icones." Another fet, entitled " Florilegiumab Hadri-
ano Collaert cielatum, et ab Piiil. Gallo editnm ;" in
twenty-four 4to. plates. A large folio plate from the
" Lall Judgment" of Stradan. " St. Anthony tormented
by Devils ;<' and " St. ApoUonius," furrounded by fubjedls
from his life, both of folio dimenfions.

From 'various Majtcrs. — The twelve months of the
year, from Jofliua of Momper, of 4to. fize : tlie fame
fubjeils were copied by Callot. A fet of twelve beautiful
horfes in various attitudes, from Stradan, 8vo. plates, en-
graved very delicately. A fet of chaces and fifiiing parties,
from Stradan, in 4to. Four fine landfcapes from H. van
Cleef, entitled " Regionum rurium varii atque amoeni pro-
fpeftus." A fet of hermitcires, from M. de Vos, in the
engraving of which, Adrian was affifted by his fon, 410.
fize. " The Ifraelitifh Women finging the Pfalm of Praife
for the Deftrudlion of the Egyptian Hoft in the Red Sea," a
4to. plate from Stradan ; " Maternal Love," prefumptively
a fatirical print, its real fubjcd being a woman tearing her
child to pieces with the fury of a lion, in 4to. from the
fame mailer ; " The Vocation of St. Andrew," from Baroc-
cio, in folio. This fubjeft was likewife engraven by
G. Sadeler. " The Myflcry of the Mafs," from Th. Ber-
nard ; " A Repofe during the Flight into Egypt," where
St. Jofeph is reprefented gathering grapes, from H. Golt-
zius, dated 158). The Annunciations of Ifaac, Sampfon,
St. John the Baptift,.and our Saviour. St. Jofeph, and the
Angel of the Shepherds, from the fame mafter, ij86, all
of folio dimenfions. Thefe laft fix plates are reckoned thp
bell engravings of Collaert.

Hans, or John Collaert, the fon of the preceding attill,
was born at the fame place, in the year 1 540. He learned
the elements of art of hia father, but afterwards went to
Italy for improvement. He affifted his father in mod 01
his larger works, befides engraving a great number of plates
himfelf ; which he did in a ftyle very much refembling that
of Adrian. He muft have lived to a great age, for his
prints are dated from ij'jj to 1622. He marked his
plates with his initials, combined in a cypher, which will be
found in our firft plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of the
Low Countries, and fometimes his name at full length.
Among his works we fhall fpecify the following, beginning
with thofe

From his own Compofitions. — Ten fubjefts in 410. dated
1 58 1, entitled " Monihnm Eullarum mauriumque artifi-
ciofiflimK Icones Joannis Collaert opus extremum." The
hiftory of St. Francis, in a feries of fixteen plates, with
grotefque ornaments, in 410. " A Chrift," accompanied
by two other half-length figures, perhaps intended for
Mofes and Elias, in an ornamental border ; " A Dead
Chrift; on the Lap of the Virgin," infcribed " Torcular
Calcavietc. Joan Collaert fculp. ;" " The Laft; Judgment,"
furrounded with fmall fubjefts from the life of Chrift, in-
fcribed, " Hunc veniant jufti, etc." all of folio dimenfions ;
"Marcus Curtiu* precipitating himfelf into the Gulf;"

and

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

and " Peace and Charity," with the motto " Pacem ha-
bete ;" both of foh'o fize.

From various Majlers. — " St. John the Baptift preaching
in the Defart," a grand compofition, in folio, infcribed
G. A. Z. inventor ; " Mofes Itriking the Rock," a large
print, lengthways, from Lambert Lombard. A great
number of fmall figures are introduced into this print, and
they are admirably well executed : the heads are fine, and
the drawing very correft. This is confidered as one of the
li' beft prints from the graver of John Collaert : it was pub-
lilhed by Jerome Cock, 1555, and is marked " Hans Col-
laert fecit." " A Satyr purfued by Females," from J.
Straden, in folio ; " A female Centaur fuckling her young ;"
and " A Centaur nurfing a young Bear," (companion lo
the laft ;) " Mars repofing on the Lap of Veims," in 4to.,
both from the fame painter ; " The Loves of Mars and
Venus," in four plates, with Latin verfes, in folio. From
Philip Galle of Haerlem. The following prints, for the
miflal of Moretus, from the defigns of Rubens, are much
fought after by connoiffeurs : i. The Annunciation.

2. The Nativity, with the Adoration of the Shepherds.

3. The Adoration of the Ealtern Kings. 4. The Laft.
Supper. 5. The Crucifixion. 6. The Refurreftion.
7. The Afcenfion. 8. The Defcent of the Holy Ghoft.
9. The AlTumption. 10. An Aflemblage of the Saints in
Heaven. II. David imploring the Mercy of God on his
People, afflifted with the Plague. And, 12. The Tree of
Genealogy of the Jewifh Kings ; all in fmall folio. This
lall fubjeft is very rare.

The following are hkewife from the compofitions of
Rubens: "Theology," perfonified by a female, holding a
flaming torch, on each fide of whom is a Thermes, repre-
fenting the old and the new laws. Frontifpiece to The Ec-
clefiaftical Hiilory from the Birth of Jefus Chrifl to the
Year 1622, wherein Religion is introduced holding a crofs
and tiara. Frontifpiece to The Lives of the holy Fathers,
by T. Vaders.

William Collaert was the fon of John, and engraved with

fome abihty. Of his works we are only acquainted with

" The Vifitation of Elizabeth," in folio ; and a fet of ten

y quarto plates for " BuUarum Inaurium, Sec. Archetypi

Artificiofi," from the defigns of his father.

Theodore or Dirick Volkart Coornhaert, or Cuerenhert,
was born at Amfterdam in the year 1522, and became one
of that extraordinary clafs of men, whom the world honours
with the epithet of Angular or eccentric wliilft they are
living, and rarely knows how to value till they are no more.
In other words, Coornhaert was a fl:udious man, of various
and extenfive attainments, and vvhofe perceptions and reflec-
tions were entirely his own.

Befide cultivating the arts of defign, he diftinguifhed him-
lelf in various literary purfuits ; was a good poet, and at
leait an original theologian. In his youth he travelled intc
Spain and Portugal ; but the motives or refult of his
journey, which was perhaps connefted with fome diplomatic
purpofe, have not been afcertained.

Returning to the Low Countries, he ellabhfhed himfelf
asanartill and fcholarat Haerlem, of which city he became
public fecretary, and was feveral times fent as ambaflador to
the prince of Orange, to whom he addrefied a mamfelto,
which has been celebrated, and which was publidied by that
prince in the year i ^66.

But unfortunately for the temporal concerns of our artill,
he deemed that religion was an affair between every mdi-
vidual man and his Creator, in which no other man had a
right to prefcribe tenets of dodlnne or modes of faith. He,
moreover, perceiving how the priellhood degraded them-

VoL. XXI.

felves by worldly purfuits, had the wifdom or the folly t*
maintain, that the channels of fpiritual communication haa
become corrupt ; and that without a fupernatural miflion,
accompanied by the power of working miracles, no perfon
had a right to adminifter in any religious office.

Such direft heterodoxy could not fail to draw on him
violent and f mpaffioned oppofition of the clergy. Both par-
ties became heated by difputation. Xhe priefts anathema-
tized ; and Coornhaert proceeded,to pronounce that man to
be unworthy the name of Chrillian, who would enter any
place of public worfliip ; a doctrine which he not only ad-
vanced by words, but evinced the lincerity of his belief, by
abftaining from all churches, and from all ghoftly commu-
nication with both Protellants and Papiils.

It is neediefs to add, that his deilruftion was now com-
plete. After being feveral times imprifoncd, during the
progrefs of the controvcrfy, without abjuring his herefies,
he fuffered the martyrdom of banifliment, and died at Dcr-
goude at the age of 68 years, perfevering in his religious
opinions to the laft.

Coornhaert had, early in life, acquired fome knowledge in
engraving, among his various purfuits, and occafionally
praftifed that art in the way of recreation, and merely for
the fake of the plcafure which he derived from it ; but the
pertmacity of his religious zeal having impoverilhed him, he
was obliged tn have recourfe to engraving for his fupport.
The fubjeAs of his prints are, for the moll part, taken from
the facred writings; and his ftyle, though flight, is original,
and the feeming refult rather of intuitive feeling than of
acquired knowledge. He worked with the graver alone, in
a loofe and open ftyle, fo as fomewhat to referable pen and
ink drawings.

Coornhaert fometimes worked in conjunftion with Philip
and Theodore Galle ; and it is no fmall addition to his re-
putation as an artift, that he was the inltrudor of Henry
Goltzius, of whom we have already treated. An edition of
his writings was publithed in three folio volumes, 40 years
after his death. Whether any complete edition had pre-
ceded this, we are unable to fay.

Our catalogue, which follows, of the works of this ex-
traordinary man, is unfortunately very imperfect. We
believe, however, that it includes the moll favourable
fpecimens of his talents. His plates are generally marked
with one or other of the two monograms, which will be
found in Plate I. of thofe ufed by the engravers of the Low
Countries, " The Defcent from the Crofs," in large folio,
after Lambert Lombard, dated 1556 ; " Jofeph explaining
the Dream of his Father, in the prefence of his Brethren,''
after Hemfkerck, dated 1549 ; the companion to which is
" Jofeph explaining the Dreams of the Prifoners before
Pharaoh," dated 1549; both from the fame mafter, in 410.
" Job fcourged by the Devil, and fcolded by his Wife ;"
" Balaam mal-treating his Afs ;" both in large folio. "The
illector of Saxony defeated at Muhlberg by the Emperor
Charles V. j" and " The Landgrave of ^Heife CaiTel prof-
trate before Charles V.;" all from M. Hemlkerck, of
quarto dimenfions.

Mark Guerard, or Gerard, wai born at Bruges A.D.
1^30, and died in England 1590. He was a proficient
in the various arts of engraving, architeClure, and painting,
both landfcape and hillorical. He alio drew and etched
animals with great fpirit, as is evinced in his fables of .£fop,
which are from his own co.mpofitions ; and m his fet of
eighteen quarto plates of wild and domellic quadrupeds.

He hkewile delineated and engraved a plan of the city of
Bruges ; and a fet of 1 4 oval prints, of the Paffion of Chrift;.

Of Crifpin Vanden Broeck, and his daughter Barbara,
% M wha

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

who flourifiicd about tliis period, we have ah-eady fpoken.
See thofe articles lefpectivc!)'.

Beikle his ceWhratcd ch'nirofcuro of the Circumcifion, wliich
is particularized in vol. v., Crilpin engraved a fet of feven
folio plates of " The Creation of the VVorld," or «' The firll
Week," with Latin infcriptions, heijinning " Ex informi
omnium ;" another ict from Bible hiitory, beginning with
" Eve eating of the forbidden Fruit,'' and ending with
♦' T!>e Conftruftion of the Tower of Babel," in nine folio
plates; a fet of nineteen, from " The Life of the Virgin,"
in folio ; a religious emblem, of our Saviour feated, whilft
people are occupied in catching the b'ood that flows from
Jiis wounds, in folio ; " Jefus Cbrill on the Crofs, with the
Virgin and St. John," in an ornamented border. Botli the
lall are marked with the cypher of the artiil. Four cir-
cular fubjeciS in dair-obfcure, likewife marked with Ins.
monogram: i. The Annunciation. 2. The Vifitation.
3. The Adoration of the Shepherds. 4. The Adoration
of the Kings: all'of which are very rare.

For the cyphers with which Broeck occarionally infcribed
his performances, fee Plate I. of the monograms of tiie en-
gravers of the Low Co'.mtries.

In a former volume, we have treated at fome length of
the family of De Fade, who, by tranfplanting thepraiSice
of the Low Countries, contributed to improve our indige-
nous ftock of Englifh engraving. The principal works of
Crifpin, the patriarch of that family.' are as follows :

Portraits. — Andrea Uoria, of Genoa, in fmall quarto ;
the cleftor, Frederic IV. of the fame fize, dated 1606;
Mary, baronefs of Rebourfe ; Adolphus, baron of Schwar-
zenberg ; Henry Frederic, prince of NalTau ; Henry IV.
king of France ; Mary of Medicis, queen of Henry IV.
all of quarto hze ; Philip II. king of Spain ; a bull of
Alexander Farnefe ; Axel Owenftiern, chancellor of Swe-
den, all of folio fize ; a circular prmt, in quarto, of Louifa
Julia, countefs of NalTuu ; lienry Cxfarius, juris-conful,
in quarto ; Nicholas Fontani, a phyfician, in folio ; Charles
Niel, a clergyman, of the fame fize ; M 'Uricc, prince of
Orange, on horfeb.ick ; Albert, archduke of Auftria, and
Maurice, prince of NalTau, both on horfeback : in the back-
groimd of the latter a camp aiid fortvefs are introduced ;
both in large folio. Queen Elizabeth lumptuoufly habited,
in quarto, from a piilure by Ifaac Oliver; king James I.;
Henry, prince of Wales ; Charles, prince of 'Wales, after-
wards king of England, both in ovals ; Anne of Denmark ;
fir Philip Sidney ; the earl of Effe.-v, on horfeback ; Tho-
mas Percy, a celebrated confpirator, a very rare print ; all
of quarto lizf. And fifteen plates, entitled " Speculum iliuf-
trium feminarum."

Hijhmcal Suhje3s from his oivn Comtroplions " ,-\dam

and Eve," wherein a dog is introduced ; " The Chafte S\i-
fannah," infcribed " Pietas et CaiUtas ;" and Cleopatra,
infcribed " Nee Pietas nee Caftitas," as a companion to
the former, both in quarto ; "Hercules and Antjpus,'' in-
fcribed " Vitium ut fuperas terra altius atiol ere," in folio ;
*' A Quarrel in the Interior of an Hotel," dated 15*9, in
folio. Three fmall circular buft,';, reprefentmg Faith, Hope,
and Charity, very fine engravings. " The F"our Evan-
gelifts," half-length circular prints, in oftavo. Twelve
plate-s reprefenting angels varioufly occupied, of the fame
fize. Another fet uf twelve, of the Sybils, infcribed " Crif-
pin de Pafie, inv. Crifpin, Simcn et Magdalen fc." in folio.
" The Seven liberal Arts," -and '■ The Nine Mufes," both
in i2mo. A let of feventeen, intitled •' Academia five
fpeculum vitse fcholaflicae. — Cnfpini PaflTaei, anno 161 2 "
" The Riding Academy of Antonia Fleuruiel," in a large
folio Yolump, executed in the heft inanuer of Crifpin.

Suhjefls from various Afa//ers.— "The Twelve Months of
the 'Vear,'' on fmall circular plate'?, from M. de Vos. Six
plates, comprifing " The Hillorv of Tobit," from the fame
painter ; " The Four Evangehlts. with their Attributes,!*"
infcribed, " Geldorpius Gorcius inventor et pinx." in large
foHo, very fine, and in the ftyleof Cornelius Cort. " The
Annunciation of the Shepherds," from Abraliam Bloemart ;
" Our Saviour on the Crofs, between the Two Thievi^s,"
from Jod. de Winghe, both in large folio ; " The Judg.
ment of Pari.-,'' from Crifpin vanden Brock, in folio ; " The
Siege of Troy," from the fame mafter, in large folio ; and
a fet of four mountainons landfcapes, witli figures, from
John Breughel, of folio fize.

Crifpin de Paffe, junior, produced but few prints,
and hence it has been fuppofed that he cither died young, or
quitted the profefTion Of engraving.

The principal of tliefe are the poftraits of Frederic,
cleiftor palatine, and Johannea Angelius Werdenhagcn, f oth
from his own drawings, but the date of the latter, 1630,
fliews that he lived at kail to the age of thirty years ; and
three plates from the HHlor'y of Lazarus A fourth plate
from this hiftory, \vhich completes the let, was engraven
bythe fenior de Pafie.

The works of William, the fecond fon, who refided
chiefly in London, were fon:ewhat more abundant, but con-
fill chiefly of portraits, among which are thofe of Robert
Dudley, earl of Leicefter ; Robert Devereux, earl of Effex,
on horfeback ; George Villi.-'rs, duke of Buckingham, alio
on horfeback ; and trance^;, duchefs of Richmond, See. ;
all of quarto dimenfions. King James I., with his family,
infcribed " Triumphus Jacobi Regis Augu''<E qui ipfiiis
fcrolis ;'' James I., with prince Henry of Wales ; fir John
Havwood, accompanied by emblems; John George, duke
of Saxony, alfo with emblematical accompaniments ; and
fir Henry Rich, in an oval, are all in folio ; and the latter
one of the moil carefully finiflied engravings of William de
Paffe.

A fet of the five fenfes, with each a Latin verfe, in quar-
to; a family of gypfies, dated 1621, in folio; and a fa-
mily-piece, fuppoled to be that of the paiatine, where 'he
youngcll child is reprefented playing with a rabbit, folio
fize. For the monograms of both thefe artiRs fee oi;r firll
plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of the Netherlands.

Simon, the yoimgeft of the fons of Crifpin, refided alfo
for fome time in England, where he was employed by Hil-
liard, who was the Reynolds of his day, and of whom Dr.
Donne wrote that often-cited paffage,

" A hand, an eye, by Hilliard drawn, is worth
An hiflorie by a uorfe painter made."

For Hilliard, Simon de Pafie engraved the portraits of
moll of the royal family of England. He was afterwards
employed by the king of Denmark, and probably died at
Copenhagen. 'Jhe latell of his works executed in England
are dated 161 3. They chiefly confiil of portraits, withfome
few devotional fubjeCls and bock ornaments ; and are marked
with his initials combined in a cypher, which will be found
in our fecond plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of the
Netherlands. The principal portraits are thole of king
Jam.es I. and Anne his queen, on horfeback, both in folio;
prince Henry and queen Elizabeth, boh in quarto ; Rc-
bert Carr, earl of Soir.erfct, an oval print, in foho ; Frances
Howard, countels of Soinerfet ; George Viliiers, duke of
Buckingham ; Francis Manners, earl of Rutland ; fir Wal-
ter Raleigh ; Thomas, carl of Arundel, from Mirevclt ;
William, earl of Pembroke, from Van Somer ; George,
archbifhop of Canterbury, dated 1616; Accuna, carl ot

Coi.domare,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Condomare, and plenipotentiary to Philip IV. ; fir Thomas
Smith, ambatTador to Ruffia ; Mary Sidney, countefs of
Pembroke ; Robert Sidney, carl of Lifle, afterwards earl of
Leiceller; Henry Wriothefley,earI of Southampton ; Lamo-
riil, prince of Gaver, and coimt of Egmont ; Manrice, prircc
of Orange, all of quarto dimenfions. Four whole length
portrait-i of celebrated dukes of Burgundy, Joim de Valois,
i'urnamcd the Litrepid ; Philip dc Valois, furnamed tlie
Hardy ; Pliilip the Good ; and Charles t!ie Timid, very
rare etchmgs ; the frontifpiece to the works of the lord
cliancellor Bacon ; a print, entitled " Vanitas vanitatum et
omnia vanita=,'' with four verfts in the Dutch language.
" Our Saviour with the Pilgrims on their way to Emmau?,"
in folio ; and " A Holy Family," where the infant Jefus
is reprefented taking a grape from St. Anne, after Ba-
roccio, are alfo from the graver of Simon de PalTe.

The principal engravings of his filler Madehne we have
already noticed in our article on En'GLISJI Engraving. Her
monograms are inferted in our Plate I. of thofc of the en-
gravers of the Low Countries.

The family of the Galles are more prominent than praife-
wonhy in the hiftory of Flemifli engraving. Philip, the firft
of that family, was born at Haerlem in the year 1^5;", but
refided chiefly at Antwerp, where he publifhcda great num-
ber of prints, and where he died in 1612.

Philip underllood the human figure, handled the graver
with facility, and difcovered a fliare of talent, that, if
bro\ight into aftion, and kept on the ilretch, might have
advanced the arts of his country ; but commerce was the
preiiding- deity of the Low Countries, and he alone was
eftcemed meritorious who became rich. The prelent writer
widies he were not (truck with too much of refemblance in
this refpecl; between the Low Countricj at that time, and
England at this.

Galle appears to have facrificed all defire of improvement
to the rapid produdfion of thofe fets of mediocre engravings
which from the fountains of Holland and Flanders began about
this time to flow over the reft of Europe : and in effecting
this purpofe he was, unfortunately for the progrefs of art,
joined by his own fons, and by the families of Wicrix and
Sadeler. Strutt very truly obferves that in all their works
we may trace the fame ftiff and formal ftyle, with little va-
riation, and without any attempt to add talle and freedom
t6 correftnefs of form, or the fnialleft erdeavour to enlarge
the compafs, or improve the harmony of chiarofcuro.

From thefe flight engravings of Phihp Galle, which for
the molt part are marked with one or other of the mono-
grams, which may be teen in our fccond plate of tlmfe of
the engravers of the Low Countries, we felect the follow-
ing, as being molt creditable to his abilities, and lead un-
worthy of the modern portfolio.

A fet of fix, of portraits of reformers and other diflin-
gnillied characters of the fixteenth century, viz. Martin
Luther, John Calvin, Ulrieus Zwinglius, Bilelaldus Pir-
cheymer, Dante, and fir Thomas More ; pcdcltrian llatue
of the duke of Alva ; portraits of Martin Hem(l<erck,
the paint:er, and WiUiam Philandre, a celebrated architect ;
all in quarto. A fet of thirty-four from the life of St.
Catherine. A fet of fix, in folio, of Sybils, &c. entitled
" Jefu Chrifti dignitatis virtutis et eflicientiac prxventus
Sybillis X." after Blockland. The Seven Wonders of the
World, in folio ; to which, as an ei.hth, Galle added the
Amphitheatre of Vefpaftan at Rome, after M. Hemfkerck.
A fet of feven battles, from Stradan ; entitled " Medicis
familia: ge.tarnm :" iii folio. '* Our Saviour travelling
with his two Dilciples to Emmaus," in large quarto, from
Breughel 5 "The Death of St. Anue," in large folio.

from the fame mailer ; « The Holy Trinity,"' a grand
compofition, in large folio, froin M. de Vos. This ig
eftcemed the belt engraving bv Phihp. " King Solomon
fuperintendin* the Building of the Temple of Jerufalem,"
from Franc. Floris ; "The Sacrifice of Ifaac;" an4
" Mutius Sccevola, in the Tent of Porfenna ; ' both from
the fame mailer : all in large folio. ,

Theodore Galle was tlie eldell fon of Philip, was bom
at Antwerp A.D. 1560, and having learned from hi«
father the rudiments of engraving, made a journey to Italv,
either with the view of improving himfelf in his art, or with
that of rendering the profits of the print trade more pro-
duftive or more fecure. At Rome he engraved feveral
plate?, but adhered to the ftyle of his father, though fur-
rounded by the finelt examples of fuperior art.

After his return to Antwerp, he continued occafionally
to engrave ; but ^rmt-felUng was with him the bufinefs of
life, and he publilhed the works of other artifts, as well
as his own. His own have the defeits of feeblenefs of
chiarofcuro, and Itiffnefs of llyle : yet the following prints
from his hand, will (hew, that in neatnefs he excelled hi»
father, and was a better draftfraan.

" Julius Lipfius,'' witli allegorical accompaniments, ex-
plained by fix I.,atin verfes ; " St. Jerome," m his caveru,
in the aft of adoratiun, both in folio, and of the oval form.
A rare and large folio fet of emblems, entitled- " Lites
abufus," &c. A fet of fmall plates from " The Life of St.
Norbert." A fet of twenty-eight ditto, from "The Life of
St. Jol'eph, and that of the Virgin Mary." A fet of thir-
teen ditto, entitled " Typus occafionis in quo reccpta com-
moda, negiefta vero incommoda perfonata fchemate pro-
ponuntur;'' (this is from his own defigns, and is now be-
come fcarce.) " The youthful Saviour contemplating the
Crofs and Inllruments of his Paffion ;'' " St. John the Evan-
gelilt," and " St. Jerome,'" all of oftavo fize; a folio plate of
" Count Ugolino and his Sons imprifoned in the Callle of
Pifa,'' from the Inferno of Dante, after J. Stradan, a rare
print ; " The Roman Matrons befeeching Coriolanus to
relent ;" " Tiber refting on his Urn, and the Veftal Tucie
receiving Water in a Sieve;'' "Cornelia, the mother of
the Gracchii, working with her Women," all of folio fize.
A frontifpiece, after Rubens, entitled " Aug. Mafcardi, fil-
varum. Lib. IV. ;" and another frontifpiece from Rubens,
entitled " Las obras en Verio de Don Francifco de
Boria ;" 1654; both of quarto i;zc.

Cornelius Galle, (commonly known bv the appellation of
the elder Cornelius) was the younger of the fons of Philip,
-nd was born at Antwerp in the year 1570. He imitated
his father's manner of engraving, and followed the fteps of
his brother Theodore, though with far better fuccefs as an
artilL

At Rome he refided a confiderable time, and acquired there
that freedom, tafte, and corredtnefs of drawing, which are
found in his bell works, and render them fa-- moreellimable
than thofe of his relatives. He finally fettled at Antwe'rp,
and took a fhare in, that confiderable commerce for prints,
which was carried on there by the family of Galle. Among
other engravings from hi» hand, the following will be found
more particularlv worthy of notice.

Porlraits of St. C.ia'les Borromeus, cardinal and arch-
bifliop of Milan, an-oCiagi),"al print, in folio ; Phihp Rubens,
father to ttie celebrated painter, ni quarto ; John van Havre,
and Mother Anne of Jelns, a Carmelite nun, in folio, both
after Rubens; Artus Wolf rt, a painter of Antwerp, in large
quarto, from Vandyke ^ Charles I. of England, in an
emblematic border, from N. V. Horll. in large quarto ;
Henrietta Maria, the queen of Charles L (furroSnded by
3 M 3 three

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

three goddtires,) in quarto, from the fame maftcr ; St.
Antony, in folio ; and Leopold William, archduke of
Aullria ; of the fame dimenfions.

Hiftorical SubjeHs, t^ttr "various Majiers — "Adam and
Eve," from John Baptilla Paggi ; "Venus carcfiing
Cupid,'' both in large quarto ; " The Return into Egypt,"
a circular plate, in large folio, from the fame painter ;
" Jefus at the Table of Simon the Pharifee," m folio, from
L. Civoli ; " St. Peter baptizing St. Prifquc," from the
fame painter, quarto iize ; ' The Virgin arul Infant Jefus,
to whom St. Bernard prefents a Laurel Branch and Book,''
in folio, from F. de Vanni ; " Chrift; on the Crofs,'" at the
bottom of which is introduced St. Francis and St. The-
refa, in large folio ; likewife from Vanni. A landfcape,
wherein Venus is reprefented fallcned to a tree, whilft Mi-
nerva fcourges Cupid, in quarto, from Aug. Caracci ;
«' The Virgin and Child," from Raphael ; " The Entomb-
ing of Chrill,'' in an oftagoii, quarto, from the fame mailer ;
" A Statue of the Holy Virgin," in a niche, around
which children are twining garlands of fruit and flowers,
from Rubens ; " Judith beheading Holofernes,'" in large
folio, a capital print ; "The Four Fathers of the Church,"
in folio, from the fame painter ; tliis plate was enlarged,
but there are impreflions from it of iis original fize, which
are more highly valued by colleftors, and which are known
by a black ftreak down either fide : " Progne difcovering
the Head of his Son and Wife, after he had eaten their Bo-
dies," in large folio ; as a companion to " The Rape of
Hippodamia,'' by P. de Bailliu. A naked figure, called
" The Colour Grinder," alfo from Bailliu, in folio ; and a
print, entitled " Romans et Graecs Antiquitatis Monu-
menta, e prifcis Numifmatibus erefta per Hubertum Golt-
zium Antv. 1645."
^ A dray-horfe never defcends immediately from the high

bred racers of Newmarket : but mental endowments are
rarely hereditary. Cornelius Galle, the younger, fo called
in contradiftinftion to the Cornelius of the preceding ar-
ticle, inherited engraving and print-feUing, but not talent,
from his father. He was born at Antwerp A.D. 1600.
He was educated under his father, and endeavoured to imi-
tate his flyle of engraving. His mechanical execution is
fometimes tolerable, but his drawing very incorrect. Strutt
thinks that he may have wanted the opportunity of ftudying
in Italy, as his relations had done : but as thofe relations had
enriched themfelves by trade, it is rather to be inferred
that he wanted motive or inclination to travel thither.

The portraits of Cornelius are fomewhat fuperior to his
hiftorical works ; and the bell of his portraits are thofe
of the emperor Ferdinand HI. ; Mary of Auftria, his
confort ; Henrietta of Lorraine ; and John Mieffens, the
painter, all in large quarto, and after Vandyke ; a folio
plate of Jodocus Chrillophorus Kup de Kupenftein, (a
fenator of Nuremberg,) after Anfclm van HuUe; and
Oftavius Piccolomini of Arragon, alfo in folio, with
a border of fruit and flsiwers, after the fame painter, &c.
which latti-r is probably, on the whole, the beft print of the
younger Cornelius.

From his hiftorical engravings, ^the following may be fe-
lefted : " A Nativity, with the Angel appearing to the
Shepherds," from D. Tenicrs ; " Venus fuckling the
Loves," from Rubens ; " The Defcent from the Crofs,"
from Diepenbeck ; " The Hofpitahty of Baucis and Phile-
mon," after J. Vandeu Hoeck, in folio ; '' Job abandoned
by his Friends and fcolded by his Wife," after Diepenbeck,
im folio ; and a quarto -late from " The Life of St. Do-
minic," after Vaiiden Hoeck.

Hans or John Bol was born at Mechlin in the year 1534,

and died at Amfterdam in 1593. His inclination leading
him to the arts, he wa'; inftruiled in painting by a mafter
of no great repute, wliom he foon quitted ; and, going to
Heidelberg, aflifted the progrefs of his own improvement
by copying the works of eminent arlifts. His fubjefls arc
chiefly landfcapes, with animals ; but he likcwjie painted
hiftory and miniature with no fmall fuccefs. Wc have by
him fome etchings, in a free fpiritcd ftyle, that indicate the
hand of a mafter : thcfe he marked with a monogram, which
will be found in Plate H. of thofe ufed by the engravers of
the Low Countries : and among them are " The Meeting of
Jacob and Efau," a quarto circular print ; " The firft In-
terview between the Servant of Abraham and Rebecca," of
the fame fize ; " The twelve Months of the Year," circular,
in 8vo. ; two fets of landfcapes, views in Holland, in
4to. ; and a large print, lengthways, rcprefenting an aquatic
divcrfion in Holland : a man appfcars in a boat, catching at
a goofe, which is faftened to a ftriiig over the river, and a
prodigious number of fpeftators arc depicted upon the
banks.

Cornelius Cort was born at Hoorn in Holland, A.D.
J 536. After having learned the iirft principles of drawing
and engraving, (as Strutt conjeftures, from Coornhaert,)
he worked for a time as the afliftant of Jerome Cock, and
afterwards travelled to Italy to complete his ftudies.

At Venice, where he was courteoufly received by Titian,
he made a long Hay : fome fay he refided in the houfe of
Titian. However this may have been, he engraved from
feveral of the piftures of that much admired artift, and no
doubt profited by his inftruclion and advice.

That his mind expanded in this genial climate of art,
where Titian ftioiic forth, there is indeed abundant proof to
be obtained, by comparing his engravings after that mafter
with thofe frigid works after Hem(l<erck, which he produced
under the influence of Germany and Jerome Cock.

He began now to engrave larger plates, in a bolder and
broader ftyle than that to which he had hitherto been accuf-
tomed ; and removing to Rome, eftabliftied there an academy
of engraving, in which feveral meritorious pupils (among
whom was Agoftino Caracci) liftened with advantage to his
initrutlions, and imitated his example with fo much fuccefs,
that Cort may with juftice be reckoned among thofe men of
genius who have contributed to the enlargement of the
boundaries of the art itfelf. But the career of our artift,
though brilliant, was fliort : he died at Rome, in the me-
ridian of his reputation, at the age of two-and-forty.

Cort worked with the graver only, in a bold and m_anly
ftyle : his drawing, though fometimes neglected, is gene-
rally correft ; and his chiarofcuro improves upon that of his
predeceffors. Even in the carclefs paflages of his works, fo
much tatle and freedom prevail, and fo many indications of
found knowledge, that his negligence muft ever i^e efteemed
the negligence of hafte, and ot a too eafy reliance upon
the friendlhip of the fpedtator, which he believes he has con-
ciliated : not that of ignorance.

Baftan, in eftimating his merit, praifes with juftice the
tafte and lightneis of touch with which he engraved land-
fcape, without the affiftaiice of etc'tiing ; and adds, that
" he was the beft engraver with the burin, or graver alone,
that Holland ever produced:" an encomium which our
countryman, Strutt, thinks may be a little overftramed.

His print of " Chrift praying in the Garden," which is
probably engraven from his own compofition, is marked with
a fmall inftrument, or utenfil, near the feet of one of the difci-
ple.'j. which is ufually taken for a lam^.', und has fometimes been
miftakenly attributed to an old mafter who flourifiied in 1509.
On other occafions, according to otrutt, he marked his

2 prints

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

prints with the two fmall fighting cocks, which we have
copied m Plate II. of the marks, &c. iifed by the engravers
of the Low Countries ; though for what reafon cannot eafily
be imagined, as he was not a Frenchman, unlefs it were to
denote that thefe engravings were performed by Jerome
Cock and himfelf in conjundtion.

The abbe Marollcs polTefred upwards of one hundred and
fifty engravings by this matter. Of thefe we are able to
enumerate the following, beginning with his

Portraits. — Cornelius Cort, engraved by himfelf, in a
quarto oval ; a pair of Henricus II. Gallorum rex, and
Catherine de Medicis, the French queen, in ovals of large
quarto fizc ; Don Juan of Auftria ; Marc'Antonius More-
tus, a Roman citizen ; Andrea Alciati, all in ovals ; three
portraits engraved for J. Cock, viz. Roger of Bruflels,
Theodore van Harlem, and Joachim Dionatinfis, all artitts ;
the genealogical tree of the illuilrious family of Medicis,
with the portrait of Scipio Amirato ; the genealogical tree
of the family of Cambi Importuni ; and two butts of De-
mocritus and HeracHtus, m i2mo.

SubjeSs from his own Compofilians. — " The Birth of the
Holy Virgin," in folio, dated 1568; "The miraculous
Conception," wherein the Virgin Mary is furrounded by
allegorical devices, dated 1567 ; " The Infant Jefus in the
Temple;" "A Repofe during the Flight into Egypt,"
156S ; " A Holy Family," wherein St. Jdfeph is repre-
fented giving a pear to the infant Chritt ; " The Latt Sup-
per ;" " A Crucifix," fupported by two angels, whdll others
are difplaying the tablets of the law, and a clialice ; " The
Refurreftion of our Saviour;" " St. Theodore the Patron
Samt of Venice, fighting with a Dragon ;" " St. Catherine
kneeling on the Inttruments of her Martyrdom, crowned by
two Angels ;" " St. Verediana, a Virgin, kneeling before
an Altar, with a Serpent at her Feet," 1570 ; two tem-
peftuous fea-pieces ; a frontifpiece, reprefenting the Virgin
feated between two chemitts ; " A Fawn placing a young
Bacchus in a Niche;" " A Soldier carrying an Infant;"
and " A young Man feated, drawing a Thorn from his
Foot," all of folio dimenfion^.

SubjeBs engraved from various Flemifb Majlers, before Cort
'went to Italy. — " Adam and Eve ;" they are feated under
the tree of life, whiltt a ferpent, with a human head, prelenls
an apple to Eve, fro-^i Michael Coxie ; " The RelurreC'tion
of Chritt;" " The Defcent of the Holy Ghott ;" " Our
Saviour accoiipanied by Sts. Peter and Paul," all of folio
fize, from Michael Coxie ; a leries of four folio plates, from
the parable of " Dives and Lazarus/' after Hemikerck ;
another feries of four, from the parable of " The good
Servant;" and the parable of " The Vineyard," all from
the fame painter, in folio; a let of fix, in folio, from '■ The
Hiftory of Noah," from Franc. Fioris ; " The Hiftory of
Abraham," in a fet of the fame number; " The Hiftory
of Jacob and Rachael," engraved on fix plates in the form
of a fan ; " The Labours of Hercules," m ten folio plates ;
" Ihe Hiftory of Pluto and Proferpuie, ' in four plates of
folio fize; "The Triumph of Bacchus and Venus," all
from the fame ; an emblematical fubjeCt on the immorlahty
of virtue, after Franc. Fioris, both in Ijrge folio ; " The
Defcent from the Crois," alter Van der WyOe, in folio ; a
ilanding fig'ire of St. Roch, from J. Speckart ; and St.
Lawrence, from the fame painter : " St. Dominic reading,"
from B Spranger ; "A HulyFamilv, lurroimded with
Angels," from the fame ; " 'i'he Virgin crowned in
Heaven," after G. Mottaert ; and " The Painting Aca-
demy," after Strsdan, all ot folio dimenfions.

SubjeBs ingraved in Italy from various great Mailers.
1. From Titian. — "The Annunciation," in large folio;

" The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, ' of the fame fize;
another "Annunciation," in folio ; " The Holy Trinity,"
known by the appellation of " the All-powerful," in large
folio ; " St Jerome reading," in folio ; another folio plate of
" St. Jerome, at the Entrance of his Cell, proftrate before a
Crucifix," a very rare print, omitted in Heinneken's cata-
logue of the works of Cort: a half figure of " A Mag-
dalen;" another " Magdalen in the Defart, before a Cru-
cifix ;" " Tarquin and Lucretia," folio fize ; " Diana and
Calitta," large folio ; " Prometheus chained to the Rock ;"
and " Rinaldo delivering Angelica from the Dragon," both
in large folio.

From Jerom Mutian. — " St. Peter walking on the Sea ;"
" Chriil crowned with Thorns;" " Chrilt bearing, the
Crofs ;" « The Defcent from the Crofs ;" " Jefus Chrift
appearing to the three Maries, and St. John, on their way
to Jerufalem ;" another " Defcent from the Crofs ;" " St.
Jerom meditating;" all of folio dimenfions; and "The
feven Penitents." Thefe are large landfcapes, in which are
introduced fmall figures of the faints, Mary Magdalen,
Jerome, John the Baptift, Hubert, Onophrom, Francis
(ftigmatifed), and Francis (inextacy) : fix of them are up-
right plates, and the feventh lengthways.

From Julio Clovio. — " The Annunciation ;" " The Adora-
tion of the Kings ;" a half figure of " The Virgin holding
the Infant Jefus ;" and " The youthful Jefus preaching in
the Temple ;" all in folio. " Jefus baptifed by .St. John in
the River Jordan ;" and " The Crucifixion," both in large
folio; " The dead Body of our Saviour, and one of the
Maries kilTing his Hand ;" " The Entombing of Chrift,"
in folio ; " Chrift appearing to Mary Magdalen," of thg
fame fize ; " The Converfion of St. Paul ;" " Chritt on the
Crofs," a grand compofition, both in large folio ; and " St.
George and the Dragon," in folio.

From Taddeo Zuccaro. — " The Creation of Adam and
Eve," in large folio ; " The youthful Virgin prefented in
the Temple," in folio ; a large folio plate of " The Nati-
vity," a rich compofition ; " A Holy Family," wherein
St. John holds a lamb ; " The Miracle of the five Loaves,"
both in folio ; " The Body of our Saviour before the Sepul-
chre," a grand compofition ; " The Defcent of the Holy
Ghott," both of large folio dimenfions ; and a folio print
of " The Martyrdom of St. Agatha."

jlfter Frederic Zuccaro. — " Moles and Aaron before Pha-
roah ;" " The Birth of the Virgin ;" and " The Con-
ception of the Virgin," who is iupported and crowned by
angels ; " The Annunciation of the Virgin ;" " The Na-
tivity," a grand compofition, all in large folio ; " The
Adoration of the Magi ;'' " A Holy Family," where a cat
is introduced catching a bird ; " The Flight into Egypt ;"
" Our Saviour tempted in the Wildernefs ;" " The ^V'oman
taken in Adultery ;" " Jefus turning the Money-Changera
out of the Temple;" " The Refurrection of Lazarus;"
" The good Samaritan ;" " St. Peter chofen Head of the
Church ;" " Our Saviour on the Mount of Olives ;" " The
Jews approaching our Saviour in the Garden of Olives ;"
" The Death of the Virgin ;" " The Coronation of the
Virgin ;" " St. Lawrence and St. Sixtus," furrounded
with an ornamental border, ail of folio dimenfions ; " The
Diipute of the Holy Sacrament," in large tolio ; " Labour
arid Juftice," an emblematical fubject, in lolit). A large fati-
rical print on the officers of pope Gregory XIIL, rcpre«
fenting a young man accufed by Calumny and proteifted by
Innocence, before a judge, with the ears of an als, [ihe
whole of which is taken trom Lucian's defcription of a loft
picture, by Apellcs) ; and another latirical print engraved on
two large plates ; in the lower part of the compolition is

introduced

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

' introduced a painter fitting at bis cafcl, painting the por-
traits of certain celebrated fiinplctons of the day ; in tlie
upper part fits Jupiter on his throne, furrounded by all the
gods, protedting the arts and fciences ; a very capital and
rare print

From Raphael d' Urhlno. — " The Transfiauration," from
the celebrated picture in tlie Vatican ; " The Conteft be-
tween the Romans and Pyrrlins," known under the appel-
lation of " The Battle of the Elephants," both of large
folio fize. A large print, executed on three feparate plates,
of " The Viftory of Conftantine over the Emperor Max-
entius, at Ponte-MoUe." Cert left this plate unfini(hed at
his death, but it was afterwards completed by Ph. Tho-
mafiin.

SulijeCis fr'.m various ether Itnllnn Mnjlers. — "Mount Par-
nallus," a folio print, from Fohdore ; " The Adoration of
the Shcpher<]s," in larj;e folio, from the fame malier ;
" A Repofe during the Flight into Egypt," in folio, after
B. Biifaro ; an unfmifhed print, in folio, ot " The Apo-
thcofis of St. Jerom," from the fame maftcr ; " The Vifi-
tation of St. Elizabeth," a large folio print, from Marc of
t)ieni;a ; " The Adoration of the Shepherds," a folio print,
from the fame matter ; another of " 'I'he Adora ion ot the
Shepherds," from Paris Romano ; '\ The Virgin fitting
near a Fountain, with the Holy Infant, and St. John," in
tfolio, from F. Baroccio ; a folio print of the " Baptifin of
our Saviour," after F. Salviati ; " The Marriage of Cana,"
from J.orenzo Sabbatini, in folio; "The Lall Supper,"
after L.^Agrefti Forlivetano (there are impreffions of this
plate both wi'h and without the mark of Cort), in large
folio ; " St. Stephen ftoned," in large folio, from Marcel-
lus Venuftus ; " St. Jerome before a Crucifix," after Riccio
da Sienna, m folio ; " St. Jerom, attended by two Angels,"
from Jacobus Parmcnfis, in folio ; " The Girdle of St.
Francis," after Caracci, in large folio ; a quarto print of
" The Marriage of St. Catherine ;" a folio print of " St.
Margaret of Cortona," from Tempelta ; " A Dance of
Dryades," in folio, from Maitre Rous, of Florence ; "The
three Dellinies," from Julio Romano, in folio ; and " The
Tombs of the Dukes of Mantua," in large folio, after
Michael Angelo. »

Of Philip de Sorge, Sericcus, or Sytius, very little is
known. Strutt fpeaks of the few prints which we (hall
venture to alcribe to him, as being the production of two
artifls : Roll and Huber«are more probably in the right, in
afcribing them to one. Sericcus Ihidied under Cornelius
Cort, and afterwards fettled at Rome, where it is probable,
from the icarcity of his works, he died at an early period
of life ; but neither the lime of his dcccale, nor that of his
birth, have been mentioned.

His ilyle of engraving, evidently formed upon tlist which
we may term the Italian Ityle of Cort, is open, vigorous,
and free ; but his knowledge of the figure was inferior to
tliat of his matter, and his chiarofcuro, though not dif-
■tordaut, not very forcible.

We are acquainted with no other of his works than a fet
of twenty-eight half-length figures of the popes in chrono-
logic lucceflion, from the year 204 to 1568, the year in
which they were publilhed"; they are in fmall foho, and ex-
ecuted with the graver only, in a ItifT, flight manner. Pope
Pius V. furrounded with emblematical figures, defigned by
Sericcus himfelf, and engraved in a Ityle fuperior to the
former. " Judith beheading Holofernes," in folio, after
Julio Clovio ; " The Angel warning St. Jofeph to depart
into Egypt," from C. Cort, of the fame fize as the ori-
ginal ; " St. Francis receiving the Siigmatics," in large
&I10 ; " St. Jerome before a Crucifi.'i in the Defart," fup-

pofed to be from Mutian, in large folio ; " The Virgin and
Infant Chrift," known by the appellation of " The Virgin
of Silence," infcribed " Dormiente puero Jefu divina Mens
vigilat," with the name of Philip Sericcus, dated 1566, in
large folio ; a large folio print of " Our Saviour on the
Ci'ofs," with the Virgin and St. John the Evangclilt, on
either fide at the foot of the crofs, after Michael Angelo;
and a large foho print, vvhicii is attributed to Soyc, although
it bears the name of Cort, reprefenting " Prometheus chained
to a Rock," from Titian's pifture in the royal palace at
Madrid.

John Ditmer, or Ditmar, was a native of the Low
Countries, and born in the year 1538, or thereabouts. By
this engraver we have a niiddling-fized .upright plate,
nearly fquare, reprefenting a figure of Chrill leated on the
clouds, with the fymbolical animals, feen in vificn by the
prophet Ezekiel, and which arc the ufual attendants on the
evangclills, and angels bearing the crofs, crown of thorns,
&c. It is execute'd in a ilyle greatly refemi.ling thai of
Cort, but coarfer, and by no means fo well drawn as the
works of that matter generally are. This print is after
Michael Coxie, and is dated in the year 1574, nor are we
able to fpecify more of the works of this engraver, who
was apparently inftrufted in his art by Cornelius Cort.

Gerard de Jode was born ^t Antwerp in the year 1521,
and died in the fame city A.D. 1591. He was celebrated
both as an engraver and geometrician, and was the fon of
Cornelius de Jode, a well-known geogiapher. Part of hi?
youth was paffed in the fervice of the emperor Charles V.,
after which he gave up his attention entirely to the arts and
fciences. He engraved fome geographical, and a great num-
ber of hiftorical, plates, in the ityle of his contemporaries
a!id countrymen, Wierix and the CoUaerts, and Papillon f«ys
that he executed fome meritorious ensjraviii'rs on \\ ood.

He likewife eftablifned at Antwerp a jirintfeller's fliop,
which, after his death, was carried on by his widow. Being
hereditarily known as a geographer, in which fcience he ex-
celled, he was much encouraged by Ortelins, w ho was fur-
named the Ptolemy of his age, and of whom we have fpoken
under the article English Engraving. The principal works
of Gerard de Jode, are a fet of twenty-nine, of the por-
traits of the popes, in 410. publidied in the year 1585. A
Roman triumph, on twelve plate>-, -after Hemlkerck, in 410.
A let of thirteen, intitled " Memorabilium, novi Tcltamcnti,
templo Gellorum Icones tredecim elegantifiimi ac ornatif-
fimi. Antwerpia excudebat Gerard de Jode," in folio, with
architectural back-ground, and a very large and well en-
graved print, executed on three plates of " The Crucifixion,"
after Michael Angelo.

Peter de Jode, the elder, was born at Antwerp A. D.
1570, and died in the fame city in 1634. He was the ion
of the preceding artift, who mltrufted him in the knowledge
of geometry and drawing, but he ftudied engraving under
Henry Goltzius, and afterwards travelled to Italy and to
Paris, to improve his conneiitions and complete his profef-
fional itudies. In Paris he remained forfre time, and with
the affidance of his ion, executed leveral plates there, which
were publiihed by A. Bonenfant. He returned to Antwerp
a few years after the commencement of the fucceeding cen-
tury, where he remained till the time of his death.

The engravings of the elder Peter poflefs great merit.
He was an excellent draftfman ; his chiaro-fcuro is not in-
ferior to that of the age in which he lived ; and in his ma-
nual execution he ufed the gnver alone, in a manner evidently
founded on the neater ftyle of Goltzius, but not with equal
freedom, nor equal power of expreffing the variety of inb-

llaiiccc

Rhine, in an oval, from Rubens, quarto fize ; Philip III.,
king of Spain, in an oval, froin Rnbcns ; Francis de
Mcllo, count of Azumar ; Amhrofe Spinola, furnamed
the Great General, all of quarto dimenfions.

Hyiarkal, l^c. — " The Virgin and Ci ild," from Titian ;

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

ftanccs which entered into the compofitions from which his Among his moftefteemed performances may be mentioned
pnnts are engfraven. the iollowing

He engraved both portraits and hiflory with fucccfs, but Portraits of celebrated artifts, &c. after the piflures of
did not excel in landfcape. From the whole of his works, Vandyke, of fmall folio fize. Peter de Jode, Junior, eii-
which arc fimewhat numerous, the connoill'eur may fcle£t graied by himfelf ; Jamesjordaens, painter of Antwerp •
the following with advantape. C.rneliusPcelenbourjr, painter, of Utrecht ; John Smellineux,

The Portraits of Henry du Puy, a Dutch philofophcr, p;>inter, of Antwerp (the fiefli of which is etched) ; Adam
in a drcle furnninded by a ferpent, in 410. ; John Boccacio, CoRer ; Andrew Colyns dc Nolo, a (latuarv of Antwerp •
from Titian, in folio >. Fcrdmand, count paktinc of the Genevieve d'Urphe, the widow of Charks Alexander, duke
"' . - « . ^ ~. .. of Croye ; Jane de Blois ; Henry Liberti, an org^.nilt ;

John Tzeniaes, count of Tilly ; Albert, duke of Friedland,
and count of Walienftein ; Diodorus de Tuldcn, profefFor
at Louvain ; Antonio Tried, bifliop of Ghent; Charles
Henri, biiron of Mettcrnich, in an ornamental border j,.
The Marriage of St. Catherine," bo'h in quarto. A V^uguftus Adolphus, baron of Trantorf, furrounded with
large folio print of a " Holy Family," in a mountainous an ornamental border, all of folio fize; Thomas Ricciardi ;
landfcape, both from the fame painter. Twelve prints of Simon Vouct del, in 4tn. ; Erneft, count of Ifembourg,
" The I^ife and Miracles of St. Catherine of Sit-nna," after chevalier of the golden fleece, a ha'f-lcngth portrait, in
Frar.ci"; Vanni, in folio ; " The Adoration of the Shep- armour, after Th. Willeboorts, in 410. ; and a folio print,
herds," likewife in falio ; " Chrift at the Himfe of Nico- entitled " Petrus de Francavilla, Gall. Regif Architeft et
demus," a night -piece, in large quarto ; " The DrcolIaHcn Sculptor," after J. Bunel.

of St. .John," in an oval, of oftavo fize, a rare priiit, from Hijlorical Suljcds. — " St. Auguftine," bifliop of Hip-

Rubens ; " Our Savi,)ur deliveri- g tlie Keys to St. Peter," pona, crowned by Religion, with other accefibry emblems^,
in foho ; "The Coronation of Si- Catherine," m folio, m folio ; "St. Francis kneeling before a Crucifix," after
An ailegoricnl fubjedt of government, reprefented by a Baroccio, in folio ; " A Holy Family," where Elizabeth,
fenvile crowning Prudence with a laurel wreath, in 410. St. John, and Zacharias, are explaining a book held by an
Another, of " Tiie Five Senfs," in fo'io. The frontifpiece angel, in large folio, from Titian; "An Emblem of
to a book, intitled " Annaia of Flanders," by M. Siitiro, Death," reprefented by an infant fleeping upon tlie oround,
reprefenting Flanders, perfonified, leaning on a pedeftal. &c. with a llcull lying by his fide, a fmall plate, lengthways,
&c. in folio, all from Riibeiis. Thirty-fix prints in quarto, from Arte'mifa Gentilefca ; " The Vifitation of the Virgin,"
from the " The Life of Cliriit ;" and " The Lafl Judg- from a piAure by Rubens, in the cathedral at Antwerp, in
nient," after a piflure by John Coufm, in the church of the large folio, a very fine and rare print. A fine print of
Minims at Vincenncs. The painter has introduced his own " The Three Graces," in large folio ; " Venus rifiny from
portrait at the left hand fide of the print. This is one of the Sea," furrounded by nymphs and tritons, in. large folio;,
the iargeit prints in exiftence, being engraved on twelve '' The Alliance of the E:irth and Sea," perfiinified by
plates ! Cybele and Neptune, a piate of folio fize, as a companion

Peter de Jode, the younger, the fon of him who is the to that of "Plenty," by Theodore van KefTel, ail after
fubjeft of the preceding article, v,-as born at Antwerp, ac- Rubins; "St. Francis and St. Clara, worfhipping the
cording to StMtt and the foreign authoritie?, in the year Infant Chrift, lying in the Manger," half figures, wiih the
1606. He ftudied under his father, whom he furpaffcd in effett of night, in folio, after G. Seghcrs, the companion
talle and facility of handling the graver, though he can to which is" " St. Peter denying Chrilt," engraven by And.
fcarcely be faid to have equalled him in the drawing of the de Paulis ; " Chrill difcourfing with Nicodemus," half
naked. Onr countryman, Sirutt, tliough generally not figures, with the effeft of night, from the fame painter;
deficient in accuracy of notice, has contributed to confufe " The Nativity," from .lordaens, a very fine and rare print,,
the chronology of this artift and his father. He fays, " it in large folio ; " St. Martin of Tours expelling the evil
does not appear that the younger de Jode went to Italy, Spirit from a Demoniac," very large folio ; "Folly and
bin he certainly accompanied his father to Paris, where they Ignorance," half figures, a large folio plate, all trom Jor-
engrai-ed conjointly a con!:derab!e number of plates for M. daens ; " St. Auguttin furrounded by Ancrels," a laro-e cir-
Bonefant, and le Sieur I'Imago," which, if our author's re- cular plate, after Vandyke; " Rinaldo and Armida," a
port of the return of the elder de Jode from Paris might be lar^e folio plate, from the fame mailer, beimr the corn-
credited, is making the fon travel to Paris and engrave, panion to another plate, which Bailheu engraved after the
before he was born ; forStrutt.in his account of the father, fame painter; " A Holy Family," where the infant Chrilt
exprefjly f.iys, " lie returned to Antwerp about the year is held by St. Anne, after Abr. van Diepenbeck. An
1601, where he refided till the time of his death." allegorical fubjedl of '• Peace," and " St. .John the Baptift

Perhaps the fenior de Jode Returned from his firft journey in the Defart," from Van Mol, all large upright plates,
in 1601, and afterward, as he did not die till 1634, made a Arnold de Jode, the fon of Peter de Jode the vounger,
fecond journey to Paris, taking with him his fon. was born at Antwerp in the year i6j6, and was inftrudcd

The prints of the junior de Jode are numerous, but very by his father in the art of engraving. In his youth he mi--
unequal in merit. Bafian fays of him, that in feveral of his grated to England, but being no great proficient in his art
engravings " he has equalled the bed engravers, and in was not able to contribute mucli to tlie advancement of
otliers has funk below himfelf." To which Strutt julUy adds, Engiifii engraving, though the art in this country was then .
" he was, without doubt, a very able engraver, but to place at a low ebb.

him (even in his beft exertions) upon an equ:ility with his He refided here at the time of the great fire of London,,
contemporaries, Bolfwert, Pontius, and Vorllermaii, is, in as may be learned from an infcription beneath his print of'
my opinion, eftimating his abilities at much too high a " The Infants Chrilt and St. John embracing each other,"'

rate.'

after Vandyke, which runs thus, " Arnoldus de Jodej
8 fculp>!

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

fculp. Londini, tempore incendii niaximi." It may be
worthy of note, that this engraving is dedicated to lir Peter
Lely, who was at that time the pofTcflbr of Vandyke's
pifture.

It feems not improbable, that the low ftate of Englifh
latte, and paucity of artifts at that period, enabled Arnold
to live with more profit and confequent comfort in this
country than in his own, for his talents were very indifferent,
and by no means comnienfurate to his early opportunities
of acquiring profefiional information.

It may be fufficient to mention the following prints from
his graver, of which the portraits will, generally fpeaking,
be found the belt.

The Portraits of fir Peter Lely, in large folio, from a
pifture by fir Peter himfelf ; Alexander Browne, (prefixed
to his Ars Pidtoria,) m fmall folio, from J. Huyfmans ;
Catherine Howard, duchefs of Lenox, &c. in folio, after
Vandyke ; cardmal Palavicini, in 410. after Titian.

Hifioucal, l^c. — " Mercury inllrufting Cupid," in fmall
folio, from Correggio, engraved in London, and dated
1667; "A Magdalen," a half-length figure from Van-
dyke. The folio print after Vandyke, mentioned in his
biography above ; and a landfcape after L. de Vadder, in
foUo.

In the fixteenth century, the orthography of proper
names, as well as that of words, appears to have been ejfr-
tremely unfettled. On the continent, as well as in this
ifland, men fpelled varioudy, as they vanoufly eltimated the
powers of letters, and Printing was as yet too young to
have erefted a ftandard.

John Wierix, Wierx, Wierinx, or Wirings, (for thus
capricioully has the orthography of this name varied from
itfelf,) was born at Amfterdam, in the year ijjo. His love
for the arts appears to have manifefted itfelf at a very early
period of his life. We know not from whom he learned
the firft principles of drawing and engraving ; perhaps he
owed them, as well as his fubfequent progrefs, principally to
kis own application and patient indullry. He ftudied the
works of Albert Durei" very attentively, and built his tafte
upon them ; but from too clofe and fervile a mode of copy-
ing them, he contrafted a ftiffnefs, of which he never di-
Telted himfelf. There is little or no originality in his prints.
His genius feems to have been confined, and he was fearful
of venturing beyond the bounds of a copyift. The incom-
parable neatnefs of his works executed with the graver
only, gives them, however, a value with the curious col-
leftor, which is encreafed by the correftnefs of his drawing,
and the manner in which the extremities of his figures are
marked, proves the great attention he muft have paid to that
part of his profeffion. His works are exceedingly muhi-
farious, confilling of devotional fubjefts of various kinds
and fizes ; from which the following may be felefted as
affording, on the whole, the mod fatisfadory fpecimens of
his abilities.

Portraits of Rodolpho II. emperor of Germany ; PhiHp
William, prince of Orange, in 4to ; Eleanor of Bourbon,
princefs of Orange ; James I. of England, with his queen,
whole lengths, a I'mall upright plate, very fcarce ; Philip II.
of Spain; Catherine of Medicis, wife of Henry II. ;
Henry III. of France ;" and the countefs of Verneuil, all
of quarto dimenlions ; the laft is a companion to the por-
trait of Henry IV. engraven by Goltzius.

Subjeds from his own Compofuions.- K fmall print of
" Chrill and the Virgin ;'' " The Refurreclion," in udavo;
"The Jefuit Martyrs," in 4to. with an explanation; :.n
allegorical fubjeft. called " The Penitent Heart," with

Dutch infcriptions ; " The Magdalen," at the entrance of
a cell, reading before a crucifix, a very beautifully finifhed
print, both of quarto dimenfions ; an allegorical print,
called "The Redemption of Man," in folio; and "The
four Elements," of the fame fize.

Sulje&s from •variotu Majlers — i^ fmall Satyr, from
Albert Durer, engraven by Wierix at the early age of
twelve, in lamo ; " Adam receiving the forbidden Fruit
from Eve;" a fmall upright plate, laborioufly copied from
the celebrated print of the fame fubjeft by Albert Durer.
It is dated 1566, and Weirix has added his own age, which
was only fixteen ; " St. Hubert at the Chace, proilrate be-
fore a Crucifix," a very fine copy from Albert Durer,
(whofe cypher it bears,) in lai-ge folio; " St. Jerom in
Meditation," a very good copy, done at the age of thir-
teen, in folio ; " The Marriage of St. Catherine," after
Dennis Calvaert, in quarto; "The Sacrifice of Ifaac,"
from M. de Vos ; " Ehas tranflated to Heaven ;" " Chr.ft
taken from the Crofs," after Otho Vanius ; " Tiie Laft
Judgment," from Michael Angelo, a fine copy from the
print by Martin Rota ; and another " Dead Chnll," after
Bernardino Pafferi, all of folio dimenfions.

Hieronymus or Jerome Wierix, was alfo born at Amfter-
dam in the year 1551, and is believed to have been the bro-
ther of John, of whom he learned the principles of drawing
and engraving, and imitated his ftyle with fo much precifion,
that it would be a matter of the utmoft difficulty to dilUnguifti
tiie works of the one from thofe of the other, were it not for
the marks with which they are infcribed. The prints of Je-
rom poftefs the fame extraordinary neatnefs, which we admire
in thofe of John, are as corredtly drawn, equally deficient in
tafte and freedom, and equally the refnit of careful labour.

Jerom Wierix marked his plates with his initials, or a
monogram, which will be found in our fecond plate of thofe
ufed by the engravers of the Low Countries. His works
are ftill more numerous than thofe of his elder brother ; and
thofe moft worthy of efteem, are the foUowing.

Portraits of the emperorCharlemagne, in octavo, decorated
with imperial ornaments ; Henry of Bourbon, king of Na-
varre; queen Elizabeth of England; Sigifmond III. of Po-
land ; Alexander Farnefe, duke of Parma; and fir Francis
Drake, all of very fmall fize ; John Coropi Becani, a phy-
fician, holding a flcuU, in folio ; De Conftain, and G. Ober-
ichie Delpheus, alfo in folio,

SiibjeHs from his onvn Compojttions. — " St. Francis,"
in i2mo. ; "St. Cecilia," in quarto; " St. Anthony,
held by the Devil," in i2mo. ; " St. Bruno," in octavo;
" St. Charles Borromeus," of the fame fize ; " St. An-
thony and St. Francis, to whom the Virgin prefents the
Infant Chrift ;" " The Holy Virgin fuckling the Infant
Jefns ;" " The Virgin Handing on a Crefcent, with the
Holy Infant furrounded with Rays of Glory," both in
12010.; "The Miraculous Conception;" "The Death
of Lucretia ;" " The four Monarchies of the World," on
four quarto plates ; " Chrift on the Crofs fufpended from a
Vine, lurrounded by four Saints," all of quarto fize ; an-
other " Chrift on tlie Crofs, in the midft of a Vine, fur-
rounded with Rays of Glory," the crucifix is fupported on
a bunch of grapes, which is held by the two Ifraelitifti fpies
of the bible, an odd conceit, in 8vo.

Sul'jetls from various Mqftsrs. — "A dead Chrift, fupported
upon the "Lap of the Virgin," after John Mabufe ; •' Chrift
receiving little Children," from Crilpin van den Broeck ;
" Chrift on the Crofs," at the bottom of v.hich is intro-
duced the king David, St. Paul, and St. John the Baptift,
after the fame mafter ; " A Holy Family," where St. Ca-

therine

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

therine is introduced kidinij the feet of the infant Jefiis,
after Dennis Calvaert ; " The Death of the Virgin," from
Otho-Vaenius ; " Chrift at the Table of Simon the Pha-
rifee," after the fame painter, all of folio dimenfions ;
" Death and Satan," combating for a tree, while a faint
and the holy Virgin are imploring Jefus Chrill to preferve it,
after H. van Balen, in oftavo ; " The Globe of the Earth
near its Dellnicxion, upheld by .lefus Chrift and the
Virgin," in oftavo ; " The oppofite Roads to Heaven,
and to the Infernal Regions," in quarto, from the fame
painter; " Our Saviour crowned with Thorns," after G.
Moftaert, in folio ; " Jefus Chrill on the Crofs, worfhipped
by two Angels, in the Clouds," on one tide of the crofs.
is introduced the Virgin, and on the other St. John, whilft
the Magdalen embraces the crofs; (this is efteemed tlie hnell
print from the graver ofjcrom;) "Enoch tranflatcd to
Heaven," after M. de Vos, in folio ; " The Death-bed of
the Juft," in large folio, from Amb. Franck ; " Jefus
baptifed by John," after H. Hondius, in folio, a iiiie en-
graving ; " The Vifions of Daniel," after Van Haecht, in
quarto ; " Jupiter defcending to Danae, in a Shower of
Gold," from the fame painter : a very capital print, after
Lucas Romanus, of " The Refurreclion of Chrift," in
large foho ; and another, from the fame painter, of " The
Scourging of Chrift," whig!) Strutt pronounces one of his
largeft and belt engravings, though not^fo neat as his other
works.

Antony Wierix was the younger brother of Jerome and
John, and, in general, adopted the fame neat and laboured
ftyle of engraving, efpecially when he worked upon fmall
fubjefts ; but fome of his larger prints are executed with
more freedom ; which, of courfe, adds greatly to their in-
tereft, in the eftimation of perfons of tafte. Antony drew
as correctly as his brother, and employed his gra%'er upon
the fame fort of fubjefts ; often indeed working conjointly
with Jerome. We fhall mention the following

Portraits, (all of which are very fmall,) pope Clement
VII. ; Phihp Emanuel, of Lorrain, duke of Mercoeur ;
Ifabella, of Auftria, daughter of Phihp II. of Spain;
Robert Bellarmin, cardinal ; and Albert of Auftria, arch-
bifhop of Toledo, and governor of the Low Countries, in
quarto.

Subje8s from his oiun Compojitions. — Saints " Therefa,"
in oftavo ; and " Sebaftian," in folio ; " St. Dominic
receiving a Rofary from the Holy Virgin ;" " The Virgin
Mary ;" and " The Marriage of St. Catherine," both in
I2mo. ; " The Litany of the Virgin," in eight leaves, of
oftavo fize ; " The Virgm and Child, to whom the eternal
Father difplays the Inftruments of the Paftion," in i2mo. ;
•' The purified Souls," with French and Latin verfes, in
oftavo ; " Chrift furrounded with the Reprefentations of the
Sufferings of various Martyrs," in quarto ; "The Emblems
of future Rewards and Punilhments," in oftavo ; and " St.
Jerom praying, accompanied by two Angels,'' in quarto ;
one of the bell engravings by Antony Wierix.

Engravings from various Painters. — "Abraham facrificing
Ifaac," and " The Adoration of the Kings," both in folio,
and from M. de Vos. Four plates in quarto, reprefenting
the Hiftory of the prophet Jonas. " Refignation,'' per-
fonified by a female, faftened to a rock, holding a crucifix,
■while an angel crowns her with laurel, from J. de Backer,
in folio ; " A Repofe during the Flight into Egypt,"
where St. Jofeph is reprefented holding a bunch of grapes,
after Cam. Procacini, in folio, executed in a bold broad
ftyle ; " The Death of St. Francis," in folio, from the fame
painter; asd " The Life of Chrift," towhich is added "The
Death and AfFumption of the Virgin Mary," vvithexplana-
VoL. XXI.

tions, forming a fet of fifty-nine prints in folio, engraved
conjointly by the three brothers, John, Jerom, and Antony.
Abraham de Bruyn, or Brun, was born at Antwerp
in the year 1540 ; and eftablifh'-d at Cologn. On account
of the finallneis of his prodeftions he has been ranked ia
that clafs of artifts, which is diftinguifned by the appellation
of the !ilt/f nuiflers, and feems hardly to have merited even
the diftinftion which he attained ; for his prints are evi.
dcnily rather the produftions of labour ^nd affiduity, than
of genius. The lights in them are fcattered and unharmo-
ni7,ed, which deftroy the effeft, and give them a cold, me-
tallic appearance, and his drawing is incorreft. It is true,
Rembrandt had not yet dawned, and inattention to the chia-
rofcuro has been termed by the apologills of iuch artifts as
Bruyn, " ratlier the fault of the age, than the profefTor ;"
and notwithftanding thefe dcfefts, the worksof this artift are
much fought after by connoifleurs. The two monograms,
which he affixed to his prints, will be found in our fecond
plate of thole ufed by the engravers of the Low Countrie* ;
and his beft engravings are entitled as follows :

Portraits of the eleftor palatine, Philip Louis, and Ann
his wife ; Albert Frederick, duke of Pruflia ; William, duke
of Juliers, and Mary his dtichefs ; John Sambucus, phyfician
(a wood engraving) ; " Carolus nonus Francorum Rex ;"
and Anne of Auftria.

Hijiorical, &c. — " Mofes and the burning Bufti," in
quarto ; " The Four Evangelifts," " Chrift and the Wo-
man of Samaria," and " A Philofopher," with a fcroll,
both in oftavo. A fet of feven fmall plates of " The
Planets," and another fet of " The Five Senfes ;" a
folio print, entitled " Imperii ac Sacerdotii ornatus, diver-
farum gentium ve.ftitus ;" another of the fame fize, entitled
" Diverfarum gentium armatura equeftris, 1577 ;" a fet of
forty-nine, infcribed " Omnium fere gentium imagines," &c.
quarto fize. Seventy-fix plates, of figures of knights on
hoifeback, in oftavo. A fet of friezes, of the various modes
of hunting and hawking, marked with his two cyphers.
Twelve plates of animals, in quarto ; " Pyramus and
Thifbe," after Franc. Floris ; " The Refurreftion of La-
zarus," from Crifpin vanden Broeck, both in quarto ; and
a fet of fmall arabefque ornaments.

Nicholas de Bruyn was born at the fame place with the
former artift, of whom he was the fon, and of whom he
learned the rudiments of his art ; though he did not imitate
him either in his ftyle of engraving, or the fmallnefs of the
prints which he executed. He rather copied the ftyle of
Lucas Jacobs of Leyden, whofe works he appears chiefly
to have ftudied ; and engraved large plates, which he exe-
cuted entirely with the graver, in a very neat but laboured
ftyle. His prints evidently prove, that he had more fertility
of invention than tafte, and he wanted judgment to felcft
fuch forms only, as were beautiful or luited to the occafion.
His compofitions are generally crowded with figures, but
from the following caufes his effefts are feeble ; the lights
are too much diffufed, and the breadths of fhadow by no
means fufiicient to relieve the principal objefts from thofe at
a diftance ; in conlequence of which, the whole appears
confufed and unfiniftied. His drawing is carefully attended
to ; but it is rather mannered than correft. The heads
of his figures are frequently very expreflive ; yet, amidft all
the difadvantages which this artift laboured under, much
fterling merit is coni'picuous in his produftions. The cy-
phers, with which he marked his plates, will both be found
in our fecond plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of the
Low Countries : and amongft his works we lliall feleft the
following as being moft worthy of notice.

From his own Compojitions. — " Adam and Eve in Para-
3 N dife,"

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

dife," in large folio ; " Adam and Eve eating of the for-
bidden Fruit ;" " The grand Fellival of the Jews, after fix
Years Bondage ;" "The King Balac, communing with the
Prophet Balaam ;" " The Prophet Jeremiah," in a land-
fcape; " The Vifion of Ezekicl;" " David .and Goliah ;"
and " Abij^ail meeting David ;" both with landfcape back-
grounds ; " Solomon and the Queen of Sheba :' ' " Solomon
adoring the Idols ;" " The Dream of Nebuchadnezzar ;"
" Daniel in the Lion's Den ;" " Sufannah and the Elders;"
" Sufannah judiiicd;" " Two old Men iloned to Death ;"
" The Nativity of our Saviour announced, to the Shep.
herds ;" " The Adoration of the Eaftern Kings ;" " A
Repofe during the Fhght into Egypt ;" " The Slaughter
of the Innocents ;" " St. John preaching in the Defart ;"
" Our Saviour preaching on the Mount ;" " The Centurion
imploring the Help of Jefus Chrill ;" " The Entry of Chria
into Jerufalem ;" " Our Saviour on his way to Mount Cal-
vary ;" " The Crucifixion ;" '■ The Refurreftion ;" " St.
Paul preaching ;" " St. Hubert perceiving a Crucifi.x be-
tween the Horns of a Stag ;" '< Orpheus charming the Ani-
mals with his Lyre." Peafants, with their children, regaling;
a landfcape, into which is introduced lions, tygers, and
ftags ; a large company of Spaniards in a foreft ; all thefe
are of large foho fize ; a fet of fix prints, in odlavo, for
goldfmiths, from fables ; twelve plates of animals for a
book of quadrupeds ; and two fets of thirteen each, of
birds and filhcs.

Subjeds from various Majlers. — " St. John preaching in
the Wildeinefs," from Lucas of Leyden ; " A Miracle per-
formed at the Tomb of St. James," a Spanifh apoftle, from
the fame painter ; " The Golden Age," from Abr. Bloe-
mart; this is confideredas his fined print, and was admirably
copied in a fmall circle by Theodore de Brye ; " Abraham
facrificing Ifaac," after Giles Coninxlo ; " The Predic-
tions of the Prophet Ifaiah ;" " The Judgment of Midas,"
a fine landfcape, with figures, all from the fame painter ; a
village fair, from Dav. Vinckenbooms ; a landfcape, with
a caftle ; a view of a garden, with buildings, and figures
dancing, both from the fame painter ; a flag hunt, after
John Breughel ; a fine landfcape, into which is introduced
the fibjedl of " Mofes defending the Daughters of Jethro,"
after Hans Bol. ; " St. Cecilia," accompanied by other
faints, copied, with fnme alteration, from Raphael; "The
Four Seafons," from M. de Vos ; and an armed knight
on horfeback, preceded by an allegorical figure on horfe-
back, and follo.vedby the devil on fjot, copied from what
is commonly termed " The Worldly Man" of Albert Du-
rer; all are of folio dimenfions.

The family of the Sadelcrs make a very confiderable
figure in the annals of engraving : yet are they, unlefs we
fhould except Giles, lefs illuilrious by the charatter of th..'ir
works as engravings, than vrorthy of notice on {iccount of
their number, fubjefts, and the period at which they were
performed.

Hans or John Sadeler was born at Bruflela, A.D. 1550.
His father is believed to have been an armourer, or work-
man in iron and Heel ; for the firll employment that is known
to have been exercifed by John, w.is to engrave ornaments,
&;c. upon thofe metals, in order to their being inlaid with
the precious metals. Hence Florence le Conite terms him
a dtimafqu'meiir of iron ; a word which probably, at that
time, was the proper technical denomination oi that parti-
cular branch of the armourer's profi-fiion, and which is per-
haps derived from Damafcus, where arms have been fabri-
cated with fimilar ornaments from a very early period.

It appears, however, that our artill did not confine him-
felf to the fcroU-work and heraldic ornaments, which were

prevalent at the time, but applied himfclf with requifite di-
ligence, at an early period of life, to the (ludy of the human
figure, of which he evinced an accurate knowledge ; though,
in confequence of early tuition, and the Flemifli and Ger-
man examples which had been placed before him for imita-
tion, he drew in a (liff and mannered (lyle.

From thefe early {hackles, lunvevcr, which, till Rubens
appeared, Flanders \inwittingly forged for all her fons,
Sad'.-ler in a great meafure emancipated himfelf, when he
came to ilrengthen his faculties by breathing the purer at-
mofphere of art that circulated in Italy.

He did not at once travel from Brufills to Italy, but
publifhed fevcral of his earlier engravings at Antwerp ; from
whence, in the year 1588, he went to Frankfort, and con-
tinued to travel over ^reat part of Germany, in order to
obtain inftruftion from the bed mafters who were then living
in that country. At Munich he remained a few years,
where his merit being made known to the duke of Bavaria,
he was very gracioufiy received ; and that nobleman made
him a prefent of a chain of gold. From Munich he went to
Verona ; from thence to Venice, and afterwards to Rome ;
bnt not meeting vvitli the encouragement he expefted from
the pope, he returned to Venice, where he eltablifhed him-
felf, and died in that city of a fever, in the year 1600. It
is uncertain from whom he firft learned the art of engraving ;
but it appears that he availed himfelf of tlie inllruftions of a
variety of mafters. His earliell produdtions have much of
that iliffnefs, not only in drawing, but in point of manual
execution, which eclipfes the merit of the old engravings of
the German fchool. It is true, that after he refided in
Italy, he made a confiderable improvement in his ftyle of
engraving, efpecially in the landfcape parts of his plates ;
but he never entirely divellcd himfelf of the habit he at firft
acquired. He worked with the graver only, in a clear
neat ftyle ; but his plates were never highly finifhed. We
fee in them, however, the hand of a very able artift, much
correftncfs of drawing, and great exprefllon. His en-
gravings are exceedingly numerous ; and though a complete
colleftion of them is rarely to be feen, detached prints and
fets of prints are by no means uncommon. They are ulually
marked with his initials combined in a cypher, for which
fee Plale II. of tiiofe ufed by the engravers of the Nether-
lands. The following are thofe which are held in moil
eftimation.

Portraits. — Orlando Laffus, mailer of the chapel of
William, duke of Bavaria, in 8vo. ; Sigtfmond Feyerabend,
a famous printer of Frankfort-on-the-Manie, in 410. ;
George Hoefnagle, an artift of Antwerp, and one of the
coadjutors of Ortelius the geographer, an engraving of
merit, in 410. ; her royal highnets Mary de Medicis, queen
of France and Navarre ; Charle.", prince of Sweden and
duke of Sudermania; Chrillopher, baron of Teuffenpach,
from J. ab. Ach., all in 4to. ; a three-quarter portrait of
Herdefianus, a celebrated juris coniuke, with twelve Latin
verfes, in folio ; a profile of Martin Luther, in folio ; Otho
Henry, count of Schwarzenberg, and counfellor of William
of Bavaria, fitting at a table, in large foiio ; an hiltoncal
portrait of Clement VIII., in an oval ; and St. John Capif-
tranus, a monk of the order of St. Francis, both of folio
fize.

Various Sets. — " The Creation of the World," cnm-
meni ing with the forming of the fun and moon, and ending
with the exile of Adam and Eve from Paradife, in a fet of
eight, after Crifpin Vanden Broeck ; a fet of fix, con-
taining the hillory of Adam and Eve, and Cain and Abel,
after Michael Coxie ; fixteen fubjects from the book of
Genefis, with Latin verfes, from Martin de Vos ; " The

Life

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Life of Chrift," from the fame painter ; a fet of hermits,
engraven conjointly by the two Sadelcrs, from the fame
painter. This fet is much efteemed, partly on accoimt of
the romantic variety of the back-ground landfcapes. A fet
of twelve landfcapes of the months of the year, from P.
Steevent ; " The four Parts of the Day," after Theod.
Bernard; "The four Seafons," with Latin verfes, after
H. Bol, all of folio dimenfions.

Hijlorical Sithjeas. — " The Virgin and holy Infant afleep,
and an Angel," from Carracci, in 4to.; " The Fcaft of
Dives," after BafTan ; " Jefus at the Houfe of Martha ;"
and " Jefus with the two Difciplcs at Emmaus." Thefe
three prints are commonly known arriong colleftor-; by the
appellation of " Sadeler's Kitchens." "The Angel appearing
to the Shepherds," a night-piece ; three plates of " The
Nativity," treated in different ways, all of folio fize, from
Baffan, and a fourth of the fame fubje£l from Polidore de
Caravaggio, in large folio; " St. Jerome praying, in his
Cell, before an Image of the Virgin ;" " Mary Magdalen
praying in a Cell," both very fine engravings, after Giles
Mollaert ; " The patriarchal Family of Enoch," in a very
fine landfcape ; " St. Roch and his Dog, with two Pil-
griiTis," both in folio, from the fame painter ; " Jefus calling
litt'.e Children," in large folio, from J. de Winghe ; " Bac-
chus feated on a Tub, accompanied by Love and Mufic ;"
" St. Paul at Corinth, at the Houfe of Aquila," all in
large folio, from the fame matter; " The Annunciation,"
from Pietro Candido ; " The three Maries at the Se-
pulchre;" and " St. Mary the Egyptian," all in 4to. ;
" The Lafl: Supper," in folio ; " The Virgin and Infant
Chrift, worfhipped by St. Stephen and St. Lawrence," in
large folio, all after Candido ; " The Martyrdom of St.
LTrfula," in large folio, from the fame painter; " The Na-
tivity," after Hans von Achen, in 410. ; " The Death of
our Saviour ;" " The Virgin and Infant Jefus, with the
Magdalen killing his Feet, behind them is St. Jofeph,"
both in 4to. ; " The Virgin and Infant Chrift feated on a
' Throne, with the two St. Johns and Angels," in folio, after
the fame painter; " A Repofe during the Flight into
Eg}'pt," from Chriftopher Schwann, in folio ; " The Cru-
cifixion," with the Virgin and St. John al the foot of the
crofs ; " The Pafllon of our Saviour," in feven large folio
plates ; " The Laft Judgment," in large folio, a very
capital print ; " A Courtefan fitting by a Fountain, playing
the Lute, wiihing to attract the Attention of a Youth,
whom a Sage is condufting another way," in folio, all from
Schwarz ; " The penitent Magdalen," from Frederic Suf-
tris, in folio ; " Jefus appearing to the Magdalen as a
Gardener," in folio; "The Annunciation," in 4to. ; a
whimfical compofition of " A holy Fanjily, ' with angels
in the air, carrying the materials for the church of Jefuits at
Munich, in folio ; " Hercules between Vice and Virtue,
with Jupiter in the Clouds," in large folio, all from Siillris ;
*' The good Shepherd," from H. Bol ; " The mercenary
Shepherd," from the fame; " The four Seafons ;" a land-
fcape, where three herons are introduced in the air, from
Pai:l Bril ; " The four Seafons," from Bol ; a pair of land-
fcapes, and a mountainous landfcape, with a caftle on a
»ock, all after Bril, in folio ; " Msn furprifed by the Ad-
vent of the Deluge," and " Man furprifed by the Arrival
of the Day of Judgment," a companion to the former, both
from Th. Bernard, m large folio, two of the moft celebrated
and beft engravings by this artift ; " The Son of God fitting
at the right Hand of his Father, in the Clouds, attended by
the Holy Ghoft, the Archangel Michael, and other An-
gela," after a pifture by Antonio-Maria Viani at Munich,

a very fine and rare print ; and " A View of tte City of
Venice and Bucentaure," both in large folio.

Raphael Sadcler the elder, was born at Bruffels in the
year i 555, and was the younger brother of John. Like
him, Raphael was originally a Damafqmncur of iron and
fteel, a profeflion which is now ivjcomc obfoletc ; and
like him, travelled through Germany to Italy for his im-'
provement in art, and finally fettled at Venice.

Whether Raphael followed .John, or the brothers accom-
panied each other to Italy, is uncertain ; but he continued
to refide at Venice, having a joint (hare, as is believed, v.ith
his brother, in a commercial eftabliHimcnt there, till the
time of his death, which happened in the year 1616.

When he was about the middle period of life, it was
found that his application to engraving had weakened his
fight ; jjainting, he thought, required lefs optical exertion,
and in this art he fought and found refuge, till, the ftrength
of his eye-fight returning, he refumed the graver.

With his fuccefs as a painter, we are not acquainted.
His engravings greatly refemble thofe of his brother ; he
underllood the human figure exceedingly well ; his extre-
mities are in general flcilfully marked, and his hiftorical heads
are charatleriftic and expreffive. His portraits too, of which
he executed feveral, poflefs a confiderable fhare of merit.

The Sadelers, John and Raphael, often worked in con-
junftion, and produced a great number of plates. Sepa-
rate portraits of them of quarto dimenfions, were engraved
and publi(hed by Cornelius Waumans, with French infcrip.
tions beneath.

Of the engravings of Raphael, the following, generally
fpeaking, will be found moft worthy of feleftion.

Portraits. — Paulus V. Pont. Max. in fmall folio ; St.
Charles Borromeus, cardinal, in folio ; Erneft, archbifliop of
Cologn, in folio ; Leopold of Auftria, bifhop of Salzbourg,
and Pafiau, after H. Keffel, in 4to. ; Leopold, archduke of
Auftria, biftiop of Ratifbon, in folio ; John Dietmar, abbe
of Furttenberg, in folio ; Hypolyte, Guarinonius, Dr. of
Medicine, in 4to. ; Philip de Monte, mufical direftor to the
emperor Rodolph IT., in 8vo. ; Ferdinand, archduke of Auf-
tria, in a 4to. oval ; and Charles-Emanuel, duke of Savoy,
on horfeback ; after John Carrara, in large folio.

liijlorkal, from •various Majlirs. — Four fubjecls from the
Lifeof the Holy Virgin ; i. The Salutation. 2. TheVifita-
tion. 5. The Marriage. 4. The houfliold Management of
the Virgin, in i2mo. A fet of twenty-eight from the Life
and Paflion of our Saviour, in i2mo. ; " Mary Magdalen at
the Sepulchre, with Sts. John and Peter," after Jod. de
Winghe, in 4to. ; the voluptuous life of Sardanapalus, fur-
rounded by his women, in 410 ; " Lot and his Daughters,"
in a fine landfcape, in large folio, both after the fame
painter; "A Holy Family," confifting of the Virgin and
Child, Elizabeth introducing the infant St. John, St. Jofeph
reading, an angel, and two half figures, in folio, from Hans
von Achen ; " The Entombing of Chrift," in an oval, of
folio fize ; " Two Angels in the Sepulchre, with the Body
of our Saviour," in folio ; "The Refurredlion," infcribed
" Chrifti de morte triumphus," a circular print, in folio ;
(thefe three prints are very much efteemed ;) " The Mag-
dalen in a Cell," with a crofs in her hand, reading a book,
fupported by a Ikull, in 4to. ; " Love carefling the Mufes
of Painting and Mufic," in 4to. ; "The Judgment of
Paris," a grand compofition, all after Von Achen, in folio ;
"The Nativity of our Saviour," after Matth. Kager, io
4to. ; " St. Cunegonde, attefting his Innocence ;" and " St.
Elizabeth relieving the Poor," both in folio, and from the
fame painter ; " The Virgin and Child," with St. Jofeph,
3 N 2 and

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

and two angels prcfentinj; fruit, in fmall folio ; a half figure
of ihe Virgin, with the holy infant on a cufhion, in 4to. ;
" The Virgin and Child crowned," in folio, both after
Candidus ; " St. Francis," (in the hack-ground is a figure
proftrate before a crucifix,) in folio ; and " The Immacu-
late Conception," both in folio, and after Candidus ; " The
Virgin feated under a Canopy," prefenting the infant
Chrift to a high-priefl, accompanied by many other figures,
in large folio, from the fame painter ; " The Refiirreftion
of Lazarus," after J. Rotenliamer, in folio ; "The Mar-
riage of St. Catherine," in a landfcape, from Henry Golt-
zius, in folio ; " God appearing to Cain, after the Murder
of Abel," fromM. deVos; " The Dead Chrill," attended
by the three Maries, St. John, and two angels holding
torches, after Stradan ; " Venus, Bacchus, and Ceres,"
infcribed " Sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus. Gil. Coig-
iiet inv. ;" "The Uncertainty of Life,'' e.Kcniplified by
Death feizing a lady at a grand repaft, after Stradanus ;
" Chrid on the Crofs, attended by St. .lohn and the two
Maries," from the younger Palma, all of folio fize ; " The
Virgin fuckling the Infant Jefus," furrounded by a garland
of flowers, in 4to. from Carracci ; " A Holy Family,"
where the infant Jefus has one knee on his cradle, and the
other on his mother's lap, while St. John prefents him a
little crofs : the back-ground prefents a mountainous land-
' fcape, in folio, from Raphael. A fine circular print of " The
Annunciation," a poetical compofition, after F. Zuccaro,
in folio; "The Adoration of the Kings," in folio, after
Baffan;" Jefus at Table with the Pilgrims to Emmaus," after
the fame painter ; a female milking a cow, and giving drink
to a little boy, in folio, known by the appellation of " The
Little Milk-woman," in folio ; " The Four Seafons," in
folio, engraved by Raphael in conjunftion with his brother
John, all from Baffan ; " The Four Seafons," after J. Stra-
dan, in folio. Six landfcapes, ornamented with rocks,
wood, and water, after P. Steevens, in 410. Two wild
landfcapes, after Matth. Bril, in folio. Four landfcapes,
with the hi (lory of the good Samaritan, in folio, from P. Bril.
_ Four land.^capes from the fame painter, in folio. Another
fet of four, aft^r the fame. A fet of fix emblematical
figures, infcribed "Amor," " Nuptia," "Labor," "Ho-
nor," " Arma," and " Venatio," after Martyn de Vos.
A fet of four allegorical fubjefts, on the four tempeiaments
of man, in folio, from de Vos. A fet of faints, entitled
" Bavaria fanfta," and " Bavaria pia," in folio, after Matth.
Kager, engraved by Raphael the elder, and his fon of that
name. And " The Battle of Prague," engraved on eight
plates, in folio, extremely rare, and marked with the name
of Raphael Sadeler.

Egidius, or Giles Sadeler, was born at Antwerp
AD. 1570, and died at Prague in 1629. He was the
nephew and difciple of the two preceding artifls, and fol-
lowing their ileps, travelled through Germany and Italy,
refiding awhile in thofe cities where art flourilhed, for his
improvement.

He was afterwards invited to Prague by the emperor Ro-
dolphus II. who gave him a pcnfion, which was afterwards
continued by his fucceffbrs, tlie emperors Matthias and Fer-
dinand II. He handled the graver with more facih'ty, tafte,
and freedom than his uncles, and reprefcnted the textures of
his objefls with more feeling than had hitherto been dif-
played, unlefs by the very firft artiils of the German fchool.
He treated portraits and hiftorical fubje£ls in a broad free
llylc, and harmonized and oppofcd his lights and fhadows
in fo judicious a manner, that it produced forcible elfeft,
without blacknefs.

He generally drew correftly, but in the fubjcdls he en-
graved after Spranger, the contours of his figures, in con-
formity with the extravagant ftyle of that mailer's defign,
are overcharged ; he excelled both in portrait and land-
fcape ; and was called by his contemporaries the phoenix of
engraving. The following remarks from the pen of Watelet,
which he intended fliould be applied to the whole family, are
more particularly applicable to Giles. " It is allonifliing the
fuccefs with which the Sadelers have engraved landfcape with
the graver ; the old trunks of trees have all the freedom of
the pencil, and playfiilnefs of etching ; and it is iir.pofllble
to leprefenl, in any better way, falls of water, rocks, and
the depths of forells : tlic various weeds and plants which
are introduced on the fore-grounds are extremely like nature,
and the buildings and back-grounds are executed with fo
much tade, that it reprefll'S our regret for the difcouragement
of etching." From the numerous engravings of this matter,
the following will be found vsorthy of feleftion.

Portraits. — Burckhard de Bcrliehing, privy-coimfellor
of the emperor Rodolphus II. ; Chrillopher Guarinonius
Fontaru:, phyfician to the emperor Rodolphus, a very ex-
cellent and rare print ; John George Gxdalmaiin, juris con-
fulte ; Joachim Huber, counfellor ; Jacob Chimarrliaeus,
grand almoner to the emperor; the cardinal of Dietrich-
ilein, biihop of Olniutz ; Otto de Starfchedel, counfellor to
the eleftor of Saxony, all of quarto fize ; William Angelic,
plenipotentiary to Henry IV., in folio ; John Matthew
Warenfels, counfellor; Adam, baron of Trautmanfdorf ;
Siegfried de Kolonitfch ; Ferdinand de Kolonitfch ; the
three ambaffadors from the fophi of Perfia to the emperor
Rodolphus, TOz. Mechti Kuli, Beg Sinai Chaen, and Cu-
chein Olhbeg, all in folio ; Torquatus Taffo, a very rare
print, in 4to. ; Oftavins Strada, antiquary, in <)to., rare;
Peter Breughel, the elder, in tolio ; Martin de Vos ; Si-
gifmond Bathori, prince of Tranfvlvania ; Michael Voivode
of Walachia, in an oval ; Charles de Longiievai, count of
Buquoi, all in folio ; buft of the emperor Matthias, fur-
rounded with allegorical figures and infcriptions ; a pair of
the emperor Matthias, a three-quarter figure, and its com-
panion, the emprefs Anne, both in large rolio ; a large up-
right print of the emperor Rodolphus on horfeback ; the
emperor Ferdinand II. on liorffback, with various em-
blematical figures and infcriptions, in two large piates,
joined ; an allegorical fubjecl on the marriage of the emperor
Ferdinand with Eleanor of Mantua, in folio ; and an alle-
gorical fubjeft on the protection given to the fine arts by
the emperor Rodolphus, a very fine print, in large folio.

Suhjeds from his oivn Compojlt'ions. — A fet c-f twelve, of
angels with the inltruments of the pafijon of our Saviour,
in linall 410. ; a fet of tour, of the Evange'iils, in 4to. ; a
fet of fifty-two views in Rome, entitled " Vefligi delle An-
tichita di Roma," in folio; a landfcape and figures, a rare
print, in Svo. ; " The Burning of Troy," an etching in
410.; a building with niches, introducing the four feafons ;
" Charity," with three children, both in folio ; " Narciffus
admiring himfelf in a Fountain," in large folio; " Pan and
Syrinx preparing to bathe," in folio; "St. Seballian
dying, with the Angel extrafting the Arrows from his
Side," in large folio; " St. Dominic receiving the Infti-
tutioQS of his Order;" " St. Peter and St. Paul ;" " The
Scourging of Chrift ;" " The Crucifixion," all in large
folio ; and a grand compofition of " The Hall of Prague,"
on two plates, a very capital engraving.

H'ljlor'ual, ^c. after -uariBus Maflcrs. — " The holy Virgin
fuckling the Infant Chriit," from a picture by Raphael, in
the Florentine Gallery, known by the appellation of " Ma-

fS donni

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

donna della Segiola ;" " The Angel appearing to the Shep-
herds," after BalTan, in foho ; " St. Chriilopher bearing the
Infant Chrift on his Shoulder ," in tolio ; " The Murder of
the Innocents," in large folio, from Tintoretto; "The
Call of St. Peter," after F. Barroccio ; " Chrill carried to
the Tomb," a fine print, arched at the top, from the fame
painter; "The Scoiirgingof Chrift," from Jofeph d'Anpinas;
«' The Martyrdom of St. Sebailian," after the youDger
Palma ; " The rich Man in Hell, and the poor one in I lea-
ven," from the fame painter ; "Angelica and Medora," writing
on the bark of a tree, from Carlo Cjliari, all in large
folio ; " Efclavonia," a young female, elegantly apparelled,
from Titian, in folio; an allegorical print on the death of
the wife of Sprangcr, accompanied with a medallion ; " The
three Maries going to the Sepulchre ;" " The Arts and
Sciences triumplung over Ignorance and Barbarifm ;"
" Hercules and Omphaie ;" " Venus and Cupid," all in
large fo'io, after Spranger ; " The Annunciation," after de
Witt, in large folio ; " Reward," a winged figure. ft.anding
on a globe, infcribed " Dat Deus o:nne Bopum ;" an
obehflv with the armour of the count of Mansfeld, infcribed
" Sum Uiibra Alarum Aquila:," both in large folio; two
bufts of angel;, after Albert Durer ; two fine heads of
youths; "The Virgin and Child," in a landfcape, fur-
rounded by aninrals ; in the back-ground is introduced the
Annunciation of the Shepherds, engraved with great deli-
cacy ; " Chrill b.-'aring the Crofs," all after Albert Durer,
in folio ; " Judith with the Head of Holofernes," from
H. von Achem ; " The Adoration of the Shepherds ;"
" The Virgin and holy Infant, careffing the little St. John,"
all in folio,' from the fame painter ; " Minerva introducing
Painting to the Mufes," a grand compofnion, in the talle of
Spranger, in large folio, from Ab. Ach ; and four fubjects
fro:i; the Life of the Virgin, v'l-z. " The Annunciation,"
" The Vintation," " The Circumcifion," and "The Af-
fumption," after J. Speccard, in folio.

LanJj'capss. — A fet of fifteen, from John (commonly
called Velvet ) Breughel, in folio, in which are introduced,
1. St. Jerome before a crucifix. 2. A repole during the
flight into Egypt. 3. Tobit with the angel. 4. Our Sa-
viour tempted in the wildernefs. 5. St. Francis Itigmatifed.
6. A fifh-market on the fea-coall. 7. A view of a gulf,
with company on the fhore. S. A llage-coach driving.
9. A windmill and village on the banks of a river. 10. A
company of gypfies. 1 1 . A flone and a wooden bridge,
with two pilgrims. 12. Two travellers, one cf whom is
repofing. 13. A woody landfcape. 14. Soldiers defcend-
ing a mountain. 15. A ferry-boat.

Various, from Paul Bril, in foUo- — A mountainous land-
fcape, into which is introduced a repofe during the flight
into Egypt ; " A Hermit reading in his Cell," in a land-
fcape ; two bridges of wood and Itone ; a mountainous land-
fcape, ornamented with cattle and figures; fix vievis in
Italy, with buildings and cattle ; fix landfcapes, into which
are introduced the twelve months of the year, very capital
engravings.

Landfcapes from Roland Savery. — A fet of fix views in
B'lhemi-i, witli mills, water, and wood, in fmall 4to. ; an-
other let of fix, in Bohen-ia, with catarafts, travellers, &c.
in fmail folio; anoiher fet o' fix: I. Villagers regaling
under a trellis-arbour. 2. Buildings on the banks of
a canal. 3. A flag-hunt. 4. Labourers on the top of
a moui.tain. 5. A goat-herd rep<>fing near a cafcade.
And, 6. A warrener, in folio. A fet of five grand land-
fcapes, from '.he mountiins of Tyrol, in folio, with cata-
ra£;s, figures, &.c. ; and two others, of rock and forell
fcencry, alfo from the mountains of Tyrol.

From Pietro Stephar.i. — A fet of four rich landfcapes, of
the feafons, in large folio ; a fet of eight fine landfcapes,
with wind-milb, figures, &c. in large folio; and another
fet of twelve, in folio, of the months of the year.

Of the fame family, but of merit fomewhat inferior, were
Jooll or Juftus, Philip, and Raphael Sadeler the younger,
who were feverally inllrucled by their parents, and worked
mechanically in the fame (lyle, merely multiplying the num-
ber of prints, without advancing in the fmalleft degree the
general claims or capabilities of their art.

Juftus was the fon of John, and his beft performances are
certain portraits of the family of Gon/ague, and an odd fort
of Dutch " Holy Family," from Rottenhamer, wherein
the holy Virgin is rcprefented fwaddling the infant Saviour,
while an angel is ftrangely bufied in warming his linen.

Raphael Sadeler, the younger, was the fun of the Raphael
whom we have mentioned above, andoccafionally alGftcd his
father in his prufelTion, particularly in engraving the fet of
Bavarian faints. H? alfo engraved " Venus and Adonis,"
a fmill upright, from Titian, and "The four Evangclifts,"
from P. Candidus, with other devotional fubjcfts.

Philip was the degenerate fon of Giles. A Mark Sadeler
has alfo been mentioned, but is believed to have been only
the publilher of the works of his more ingenious relations.

Among the caprices of fortuit.-iu? biography, it has been
the fortune of fome who have benefited mankind, to have
their merits p^ifs unrecorded. Von Londerfel, on the con-
trary, though not of firft-rate talent, has" been celebrated
under two names, both by Papillon and by Stnitt.

He appears to have been a native of Holland, born about
the middle of the fixteenth century, and to have beea
chiefly engaged in the execution of letter-prefs engravings,
in a reat and d'-licate ftyle, refembling that of Virgil Soils,
and which are marked fometimes with one and at other
times with the other of the two monograms, which will be
found in Plate II . of tliofe of the fch.^ol of the Low Countries.

It is not unlikely that thefe two marks may have given
rife to the leparation of his works into thofe of Ahafuerus
Lardfeld, and Ahafuerus Londerfel. That he was related
to the John Von Londerfel, of whom we fhall treat here-
after, is highly probable. From the fmallnefs of his pro-
duftions, of which the greater number adorn the bocks that
were publilhed at Antwerp about this period ; he i.'i claffcd
among the little mailers, but his engraving of " The Lad
Supper" is on a fomewhat larger fcale.

Among the books which he thus decorated, are the 4fo.
edition, in the French language, of ■' The Travels of Ni-
cholas de Nicolay into I'urkey," printed at Antwerp in
1576, and the large Herbal of Matthias de Lobel. Detached
fuhjects from the holy fcriptures are fometimes to be met
with, which probably belong to a bible, m which Londerfel
at leaft alhfted in the produftion of the engravings.

Charles de Mallery was bom at Antwerp A.D. 1571^ ;
it is not known of whom he learned the rudiments of draw-
ing and ergraving, but from the great refemblance his flyle
bears to that of the two Wierixes, it is probable he (ludied
in their fchool. He was a very laborious artill, and ei graved
a great number of devotional fubjeCls, animals, and book,
orntimc: ts.

He worked with the graver onlv, and fo exceedingly neat,
that he, in fome inilances, equalled the moft laboured per-
formances of Jerom and Antiiony Wierix. But then he did
not draw fo corrcflly , fo that witli inferior powers as an ar-
ti/i, he fecnis to have pofTtfl'td the fame fliare of patience and
attention, and manual fliill. He had the. honour of having
his portrait twice paint( d by Vandyke, both were fuc-
cefsful pidurcs, and the prints after them by Vorfterman and,

Morin,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE,

Morin, are well known. In the colk-ftion of the abbe MaroUes
were three hundred and forty-three of the engravings of Mal-
lery; among the bell of which may be mentioned "The Ado-
ration of the Kings," in l2mo.; "The youthful Saviour," in
a landfcapc, accompanied by two angels ; " The Canaanitifh
Woman ;" " A Crucifix," held by a man furrounded with
allegorical figures ; " St. Francis;" and "St. Jacintha,"
in i2mo. ; "The Holy Family," accompanied by a Mag-
dalen, in 4to. ; " Clu-ill among the DoAors," in i2mo. ;
various heads of Chrill, the Virgm Mary, the apoftles,
faints, &c. Some of the plates, for the great hunts by
Stradan, which were produced in conjunftion with the
Gallcs, Collaerts, &c. in 410. The hiltory of the filk
worms (which were brought by two monks into Europe),
on fix middUng-fized plates, lengthways, from J. Stradan,
entitled " Vermis Sericus ;" a bull of " St. Anthony," in
an hiftorical border, after Stradan ; the fable of " The Man,
his Son, and his Afs, going to the Fair," in four 4to. plates ;
and various plates of horfes, for a book entitled " De la
Cavalerie Francaife," in 410 , from the fame painter.

Having already treated of the education and general merits
as an artift of Paul Bril, of Antwerp, who performed fome
fpirited etchings of landfcape fcenery about the period now
under our review, it remains but to mention fuch of his
etchings as are held in moll i-equefl among connoifTeurs.
Thefe are all of folio dimenfions, and arc known by the fol-
lowing defignations : a pair of views in the Campania of
Italy, with rocky fore-grounds, adorned with buildings, &c.
dated 1590 ; another pair, infcribcd " Paulus Bril inv. et fee.
Vicenzo Cenoiformis Roma: ;" another view in the Cam-
pania, of the upright form ; four landfcapes belonging to
a fet, of which the remainder are engraved by Nieulandt.
Sandrart mentions alfo a large and grand engraving by this
artift, of which the fubjert is a view in the Campo Vaccino.
For further information refpetting this artill, fee the article
Bril in our fifth volume.

Chriftopher Van Sichem was born in Holland in the
year 1580, and refided chiefly at Amfterdam. He was in-
ftrufted in the principles of engraving by Goltzius, from
whom he copied fome good portraits. The merit of his
engravings on copper, cunfiils principally in the neatnefs of
their executions, but thofe on wood, after his mailer, are
engraved in a bold ftyle, and often pofTefs a good effeft,
though he wanted tafte. His monogram will be found in
our fecond pkte of thofe ufed by the engravers of the Low
Countries.

The moll; confiderable work he executed is intitled
" Iconia Haerefiarcharum," &c. It confiits of a great num-
ber of fmall upright plates, of the principal reformers of
the church, is engraved from his own defigns, and was pub-
lilhed at Amfterdam in 1609.

On Copper. — A profile of Johannes Calvinua Nouioduni,
holding a book, furrounded with an hiftorical border;
David Georgius Delphis, in Batavia, pcrniciofillima; feftx
auftor ; Durch Chnftop Von Sichem, Formjchncidcr und
Kupfirjlecher (i. e. cutter of wood, and engraver of copper) ;
Rob. Dudleus, Leyceftriae comes ; Francis Valefins, dux
Alengon ; the emperor Charles V. in the imperial coftume,
infcnbed " Carolus quintus Impcrator Cajiar Auguftus;"
and queen Elizabeth, in regal attire ; all of quarto dimen-
fions. The two latter portraits hare been by fome attri-
buted to Charles Van Sichem. Chriftopher alfo engraved
the whole-length portraits of the earls of Holland and
Zealind, in folio, from drawings by himfelf.

On Wood. — A fet of twelve hiftorical fubjcfts, in i2mo.
rare ; " Efther before King Ahafuerus," in 410. from Lucas
of Leyden ; " The Adoration cf the Shepherds," after Ab.

f II

Bloemart; "The Circumcifion," after H. Goltzius; "Judith
with the Head of Holofernes," all in 4to. ; " St. Cecilia
playing on the Organ," and four other figures finging ; buft
of a man, with a hat and feathers, all from the fame painter ;
buft of an African prince, with a helmet ornamented with
diamonds and feathers, from J. Matham ; a fet of four,
reprefenting Judith, Sifera, David, and Sampfon, from
H. Goltzius ; and a fet of four, reprefenting the Evange-
lills, with a hiftory of their lives in Dutch ; very meritorious
prints : all the latter are of folio dimenfions.

The baron Hcinneken mentions two other Dutch engra-
vers of the name cf Van Sichem (■uiz. Cornelius and
Charles) ; and Papillon and Baflan, the latter copying and
magnifying the error of the former, has given ideal exift-
ence to a third.

Cornelius is often confounded with Chriftopher, but was
of interior talent. He was of the fame family, and flou-
riftied about forty years afterwards.

Of laborious induftry, and as if pleafureable ftimuli rarely
reached his mind, he fcraped together not fewer than 600
fubjefts of figures of holy perfocages, fcripture hiftories,
and legendary tales, which he engraved in a ftiff and heavy
ftyle, but many of them were copies from prints.

Charles was alfo of the fame family, and engraved both
on copper and on wood, but his prints merit not much atten-
tion. Their feveral monograms will be found in Plate II.

Jacques de Gheyn, or Ghein, the elder, was born at
Antwerp in the year 1565, and died in 1615. He learned
the elements of painting of his father, who was a painter on
glafs ; and engraving he ftudied under Henry Goltzius.
He fuccefsfully imitated the manner of his mailer, and
worked with the graver only, in a bold free ftyle, which
manifefts the great command he had of that inftrument.
He drew corretlly and frequently with much tafte ; but all
his works want efteft, from the lights being fcattered, and
too equally powerful ; neither are the niaflcs of fhadow
fufficiently broad, nor well harmonized. The number of his
engravings amount to one hundred and feventy. He likcwife
painted flowers and fmall figures with confiderable ability.
The monogram of this artift will be found in Plate II. of
thofe ufed by the engravers of the Low Countries. Among
his works the following are moll worthy of notice.

Po/-/;-i2;/j.— Tycho Brahc, the celebrated Danifti aftrono-
mer ; Abraham Gokevius, a famous antiquary of Amfter-
dam ; Hugo Grotius, the Itill more famous philofopher ;
and Philip de Marnex, a diftinguiftied Calvinittic reformer,
all in 8vo. ; Cofmo de Medicis, who is here called " The
Father of his People," a circular print ; Sigifmond> Mala-
tefta, a military officer ; and Joannes Bafilowitfch, auto-
crator of Ruilia, all in 4to.

SubjeUs from his own C ompqfit'wns . — " Vanity," repre-
fented by a fem.ale figure at her toilet ; " Mary Magda-
len," a fmall oval ; two fmall medallions of Mars and
Venus ; " A Giply telling a young Woman her Fortune,"
in folio ; " The Statue of Laocoon and his Sons," in large
folio; " A Lion couchant," with a landfcape back-ground,
a very rare oval print, in folio. A fet of ten, very rare
and celebrated prints, in fmall folio, of Mafques. The
twelve firft Roman emperors, a fet of circular prints in
quarto, very much fought after ; " The Sabbath, or Ren-
dezvous of Sorcerers and Sorcerefles ;'' a large folio print,
engraved on two plates.

Siibjdts after "various Painters. — The Paffion of our Sa-
viour, a fet of fourteen, engraved in coojundlion with his
pupil Zechariah Dolendo, after Van Mander, in oftavo ;
" The Twelve Sons of Ifrael," half-length figures, after
Karl van Mander, in quarto ; two emblematical fubjefts,

on

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

on the folly of thofe people who fpend their time and
money in purfuit of pleafure, on two large plates ; " The
Ereftion of Babel, and Confufion of Languages,'' in large
folio ; » The Adoration of the Trinity," in folio ; " The
Judgment of Midas," in large folio ; " The Prodigal Son,"
a very fine print, in large folio, all from Karl van Mander ;
"The Crucifixion," a grand compofition ; and " The Ap-
ple of Difcord thrown among the God?,'' both in large fo-
lio, and after Vanden Broeck. A fet of four, in circles,
of the Evangelifts, after H. Goltzius, in quarto • " The
Empire of Neptune,'' a circular print, in folio, after Guil.
Telcho. A fet of twelve, reckoned among the very bell of
the engravings of our artift, of the g-uards of the em-
peror Rodolphus II. after Henry Goltzius; "The An-
nunciation," after Abr. Bloeraart ; " A Repofe during the
Flight into Egygt," in a circle ; " Chri'l preaching to the
Multitude ;" and " The Miracle of the Loaves and Fifhes,"
(of the oval form, ) are all in folio, and after the fame mafter ;
"Daniel in the Lion's Den,' and "Diana changing Ac-
tion to a Stag,'' after Th. Bernard, in folio ; and " Po-
lyphemus, -'^ cis, and Galatea," in Hill larger folio, after Cor-
nelius de Harlem.

Jacques de Ghein, the younger, was of the fame family
with the preceding artiil:, and was born at Antwerp in the
year 1610. He travelled to Italy, and, as is fuppofed,
became the dilciple of Antonio Tempefta, whofe llyle of
etching he imitated with no fmall fuccefs : he fometimes
worked in conjunftion with Coryn Boel, and marked his
prints with his name at length, fometira -s with the addition
of " Ju ior."

Among hi- works may be mentioned with diftinftion, the
portraits of Francis I. at the battle of Pdvia, after A.
Tempefta ; and that of the emperor Charles 'V. on horfe-
back, accompanied by his general officers, at the battle of
Muhlherg, bo'h in fol.o. He alfo engraved, in co 'cert
with C'ryn B"el, the plates for " The Life of the Em-
peror Charles V." after Tempeda.

Gull aume de Ghein was alio 3 native of the Low Coun-
tries, b'lt of wh:it part is uncertain, and was !iorn fome time
about the year 1610. Prefumptively he was of the fame
family with Jacques. He travelled to Paris and ftudied there,
or, at leaft, praclifed engraving, under J. de Blow, for
whom he engraved two, wa. *' Spring," and "Summer,''
of the four feafons, perfonified fomewhat ridiculoufly, by
female figures attired in the French collume of the age of
Louis XIII. Here alfo he engraved the portrait of Louis
XIV. when a youth ; he is reprefented on horfeback, and
attired for the chafe ; and that of the duke Bernard, of
Weymar, alfo on horfeback ; both are of large folio dimen-
iions, and engraved in a ftyle which bears ftrong refemblance
to that of Abraham Bofle.

Louis de Vadder was born at BrufTels in the year 1560.
He was the ftudent of Nature alone : at leaft he has ac-
knowledged no other inftrudlor, and no other has been re-
corded ; and paintfd and etched landfcape with much abi-
lity : he was particularly fuccefsful in his reprefentations of
Morning, and often introduced the rifing fun diifipating the
dank vapours of Night, and tinging the tops of the moun-
tains, and other lofty objects, with golden luftre. His ftyle
of etching is fph-ited and free, much refembling that of
Van Uden ; and among his beft prints will be found afraall
village fcene The fame fcene, with falconers preparing
to fet forth oa their morning's diverfion ; and a folio land-
fcape, with the effect of a ftorm ; which, in addition to the
name of Vadder, bears that of Vorftermans ; from which
circuinibince it may be prefumed that the latter artift either

affifted in etching it, or worked upon the plate afterwards
with the graver.

Gilbert van Veen, or Vaenius, was born at Leyden in th^
year 1566, and died at Antwerp in 1628. He was the
brother of Otho Vxnius, a celebrated painter of portraits
and hiftory, who was the inftruftor of Rubens.

Gilbert worked with the graver only, in a flyle greatly re-
fembling that of Cornelius Cort ; and from the number of
engravings that he produced after the Itahaii maftcrs, it
has been interred that he travelled with Otho into Italy.
His engravings are flight, but his outline is good ; his heads
exprefhve, and his hands and feet marked in a ftyle that
fhews the foundiiefs of his knowledge, and, as Strutt fays,
does him honour.

In the year 161 2, we find him living at Antwerp, where,
in the courfe of that year, he publiftied " The Emblems of
Horace," after his brother's defigns ; and fliortly after, a
fet of plates, of which the fubjefts are taken by Otho,
from the " Life of St. Thomas Aquinas,'' a meritorious
v,-ork, engraved under the influence of a fupcrintending
fimplicity, perfeftly homogeneous with the ftyle of his bro-
ther's defigns, and which fhewed that they were brothers in
mind, as well as by confanguinity.

The principal works of this artift are the Potlraits of
Erneil, duke of Bavaria, in a medallion, fupported by
Fame ; John of Bologna, and Alexander Farnefe, after
Otho Vmius, furrounded with allegorical figures, all of
foli ) fize.

Of his Hy}orkal IVorks may be mentioned, " The Em-
blems of Horace,' in quarto ; "The Emblems of divine
and piofane Love ;" and " The Life of St. Thomas Aqui-
nas,'' all after Otho Vaenius ; " The Four Seafons," from
Raohael del CoUe, in folio ; " The Marriage of Ifaac and
Rebecca," in a frieze, compofed of five folio plates, after
Balth. Peruzzi, a very rare and capital work ; " The Vi-
fitation of St. Elizabeth,'' in folio, from Baroccio ; and
" Our Saviour crucified, attended by the Virgin and St.
John," in large folio, after the fame mafter.

Bartholomew Dolendo was born at Leyden A.D. i^G6,
and became the dilciple of Henry Goltzius. He worked
entirely with the graver in an open ftyl?, fomewhat refem-
bling the flighter works of his mafter, but was much his
inferior, both as an engraver and diaftfman ; yet it is faid,
that Gerard Douw learned the £ril principles of drawing
from Dolendo.

He marked his engravings with one or other of the cy-
phers which may be feen in Plate II. of thofe ufed by the
engravers of the Low Countries, and his aiotl efteemed
produtiions are " The Prophet J.inas thrown into the Sea,"
which is companion to " The Prophet Jonas afleep under
his Gourd," in circles; "A Dutch Village Fete,'' in
quarto ; " Adam and Eve receiving the forbidden Freit,"
after Karl van Mander, in quarto ; " Jefus appearing to
Mary Magdalen as a Gardener," in folio, from his own
compofirion ; " The Holy Family,'' and " St. John preach-
ing in the Defart,'' botli in foho, after M. Coxie ; " Py-
ramus and Thifbe," after C. vanden Broeck, in quarto ;
" Jupiter and Ceres," after B. Spranger, in large folio;
and "The Aft^umption of the Holy Virgin,'' alfo in large
folio.

Zachaiiah Dolendo was born at Leyden in the year 1 j6~,
he was related to the preceding artift, and learned the ele-
ments of his art of Jacques de Ghein. He drew correctly,
and was, in no reipeft, inferior to his mafter. We have, by
his hand, a number of portraits which are equal to tholje of

Wieris j

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Wierix ; his monotrram will be found in Plate II. of thofe
ufed by the Low Country engravers.

* From his works we (hall feletl the foUowinej, as being
mod worthy of elleem : — William, prince of Orange, a
half-length figure in armour, in a quarto oval, and finely en-
graved ; " Andromeda chained to a Rock," from his own
corapofition ; " The Virgin feated on a Throne, crowned
by two Angels," after Jac. de Ghein, both of quarto
fize ; "The Crucifixion," in large folio, irom tlie fame
painter ; " Adam embracing Eve, whillt {he receives the
Apple from the Serpent," after Spranger ; "St. Martin
dividing his Mantle between two Beggars,'' from the fame
painter, in quarto ; " The Continence of Scipio," a cir-
cular print, from Ab. Bloemart, both in quarto; and a let
of "The Heathen Gods and Goddeffes," from H. Golt-
zius. His naked Andromeda is a well-drawn figure,
with the head and extremities marked in a mallerly ftyle.
Of the two Dolendos, who were probably brothers, it may
fafely be afferted, that Zachariah was the fuperior artill. The
time of his death has efcaped notice : if that of his birth
has been truly regiilered by Huber, he could have been
only in his fourteenth year (which is fcarcely credible) when
he produced his excellent portrait of prince William of
Orange, for the print bears the date of 158 1.

The family of Bloemaert attained a juftly founded cele-
brity as engravers, during the period which is now under
our review : for an account of them the reader is referred to
the article Bloemaert, in our fourth volume.

James Matham was born at Haerlem in the year 1571.
As we have already ftated, he became the fon-in-law and
pupil of Henry Goltzius, in confequence of his widowed
mother marrying that diftinguithed artift. during the ado-
lefcence of James. Advifed, no doubt, by his tutors, he
travelled to Italy to complete his ftudies, and in that coun-
try produced a confiderable number of engravings : yet after
his return he continued to work under the eye and the
direftion of Goltzius, and though he produced many va-
luable prints, they poffefs little originality as engravings,
being executed in the ftyle, or rather, in the munner of his
father-in-law, whom, however, Matham never equalled in
correftnefs of outline, or in tafte, or in the fcience which
enabled Goltzius to adapt his powers to the feveral occa-
fions which called them forth. In (hort, though his manual
command of the graver, which was the fole inftrument of
his art, evinced extraordinary (kill, yet, like motl imitators,
in feizing the groder part of the art of Goltzius, he let the
effence efcape. His numerous engravings, however, have
been valued by mod coUeftors, and are principally as
follows.

Portraits. — A buft of -Philip Winghius, after H. Golt-
■zius, in oftavo ; a buft of T'leeft al van den Velde, in an
hiftorical border, in quarto ; and Nicolas Bulius, alfo in
•quarto ; Abraham Bloemaert, in folio, after Paul Morelfen;
Michael Angelo Buonaroti, in folio ; Philip William,
prince of Orange, after Mirevelt ; and Henry of NalFau,
priilte of Orange, both in large folio.

jifter various Italian Majlers. — " The Statue of Mofes,"
a fitting figure, after Michael Angelo ; and the " Statue
of Chrift," from the fame mafter, both in folio ; " A Holy
Family," where the Virgin is reprefented carrying the
infant Chrift, accompanied by St. Anne, after the pidture
of Raphael, which was prefented to Charles II. of England,
by the republic of Holland ; " Mount Parnaffus, with
Apollo, the Mufes, and the Poets," both in large folio;
♦' A Holy Family," accompanied by St. Catherine, after
Titian, in foho ; " The AUiance of Venus, Ceres, and

Bacchus," from the fame painter ; " The Vifitation of the
Virgin," a rich compofition, after F. Salviati, in large
folio; "The Saviour's Feet anointed," a circular print,
after Thaddeus Zuccaro ; " Chrift on the Mount of
Olives," both in folio ; " The Nativity," and " The Af-
fumption of the Virgin," grand compofitions from the
fame painter, in very large folio ; " The Adoration of the
Kings;" "Chrift heahng the Sick;" "The Refurrec-
tion of the Widow's Son," all grand compofitions, after
Zuccaro, of large folio fize ; and " The Vifitation," after
P. Veronefe, a circular print, alfo in large folio.

Various fubjetls, after Golt%'ius. — " The Fall of our Firft
Parents ;" " The Holy Family," with St. Elizabeth ;
" Chrid on the Crofs," at the foot of which is St. John
and the Virgi;: ; " Chrift appearing to the Magdalen, in
the Garden," all of folio dimenfions ; " Jefus at liable with
hisDilciples at Emmaus ;" "St. Luke painting the Virgin,"
in large foho ; " Venus requefting Cupid to aim an Arrow
at Pluto," in quarto ; " The Loves of the Gods," t/z.
I. Jupiter and Europa. 2. Phoebus and Leucothoe.
3. Mars and Venus. And 4. Hercules and Dcjanira, en-
graved as a fet ; " The four Seafons," in circles ; " The
three Chriftian Virtues," Faith, Hope, and Cliarity, all in
folio ; " Tlie feven Cardinal Virtues," in quarto ; and " The
Seven mortal Sins," in folio ; " Tlie Picture of Ccbes," or
" The Type of Human Life," a very large compofition,
engraved on three plates, in a very fine ftyle.

Hijlorkal, after various Painters. — " Abraham difmiffing
Hagar," ia fulio ; "The Annunciation," in half figures;
" The Adoration of the Shepherds," all in folio; " The
Parable of the Sower," with a laiidfcape back-ground, in
large folio ; " The Virgin in a Glory," and her head fur-
rounded with feven ftars, the crown of immortality, in
folio; " St. Veronica and St. Suaire, with two Angels,"
in large folio ; " St. Stephen kneeling ;" " The Loves of
Jupiter andDanae;" and " The Loves of Cupid and Pfyche,"
all in folio, from Ab. Bloemaert ; " Samplon alleep on the
Lap of Dalilah," after Rubens, in large folio ; " The Holy
Women, weeping over the dead Body of Chrift," after
Jer. Franck, in folio ; " The Crucifixion," after Albert
Durer, known by the appellation of " The Grand Cal-
vary a I'accolade," large and rare; "Venus afleep, furprifed
by Satyrs," after Rotteiihamer, in quarto ; and a let of
five very rare prints, after Peter Van Aertfen, (called
, by the French Peter tlie Long) ; namely, i. The Poulterer
and Fruiterer. 2. Six Women and a Man, furroundcd with
Provifions of all kinds. 3. The Kitchen of the wicked rich
Man. 4. Jefus and his Difciplcs, in the Kitchen at Em-
maus. And 5. The Toafter ; of which fet it is very dif-
ficult to meet with goad impreflions.

Theodore Matham was the fon and pupil of the pre-
ceding artift, and was born at Haerlem in the year 1600.
He travelled into Italy, where he (ludied in the fchool of
Cornehus Bloemaert, and in conjunftion with him, Perfyn,
Natalis, and other artifts, he engraved the llatues of the
Juftinian palace. He did not work with the graver only,
but fometimes made ufe of the point ; moft of his works
confift of portraits, many of which are executed in a man-
ner which does honour to the artift ; among his works we
(hall mention the following as being moft worthy of the
notice of the colleftor.

Portraits. — Michael le Blon, agent of the queen of Swe-
den, after Vandyke; Jooft van de Vondel, a Dutch poet,
after Sandrart ; Jodocus Larenus, a reforming minifter ;
Vopifcus Fortunatus Plempius, dotior of medicine ; D.
Gerardus Voffius, Canonicus Cantuarienfis, after Sandrart ;

Cafpar

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Cafpar Barlaeus, doftor of medicine ; four fine portraits,
after John Spilbcrg ; •viz.. i. Philip William, count pala-
tine of the Rhine ; 2. Wolfgang William, count palatine ;
^. Catherine de Medicis, and 4. Stephen Vacht, dean of
Sarten ; Claude Saumaife, after Dubordieu ; Henricus Re-
gius, Philof. et Med. from H. Bloemaert, all of folio fize ;
and D. Leonardus Marius Grezanus, in large folio, from
Moyart.

HiJloriu!l,.i^c " The Virgin and Child, with St. Joim,"

after Baflan ; far the coUeftion of engravings from the
piftures in the cabinet of M. Reynot ; " A Holy Family,"
a grand compofition, after Joachim Sandrart, in large folio;
" Sainte Be^ga, the Daughter of Peflin, duke of Brabant,"
from Van Eyck, in folio ; " Aftson metamorphofed into a
Stag," in folio ; " The Body of Chrift, taken from the Crofs
by St. John and Jofeph of Arimathea," a very large plate ;
and " The Allegory of Virgil," from Jooft van Vondel, in
quarto.

Adrian Matham was alfo of Haerlem, related to Theo-
dore and James, and born fome time about the beginning
of the feventeenth century, but he was, on the whole, in-
ferior to thofe artifts in merit. He worked with the graver
only, imitating the elder de Ghein, but was always behind
him, nor can it be necelFary to dwell on his demerits.

He engraved part of the plates for the large folio volume,
which was publifhed at Antwerp in 1628, and entitled
" Academic del'Efpee;" "The Golden Age," from Golt-
zius, in large folio ; '■' An old Man prefenting his Purfe to
a young Female," (a large upright) from the fame mafter ;
♦' A Group of itinerant Muficians," after A. Vander Vcnne,
in folio ; '■ A Combat between fix grotefque figures, with
culinary Implements," from the fame painter : his other
works are lefs worthy of notice.

He alfo engraved portraits, among the beft of which are
thofe of Pieter Bor Chriftiaenfz, a Dutch hiftorian, after
Frank Hals ; and D. Sibrandus Sixtius Oiftervirius, after
N. Moyart, both in foho.

Herman Muller was a native of Holland, but we know
not the precife time or place of his birth. If he frequented
the fchool of Henry Goltzius, which appears very doubt-
ful, though it is afierted by Strutt, it muft have been be-
fore the peculiar ftyle of that artift was formed, and con-
fequently before his migration to Italy. He worked in
conjundion with Cornelius Cort, in the earher part of the
career of that artift, for Jerome Cock. The fole inftru-
ment of his art was the graver, which he handled with
tolerable precifion, but not much freedom ; and iu his beft
works his drawmg is performed with care. In his later
works, he aimed at the bold and free ftyle of Goltzius,
which had by this time excited the furprife of moft of his
contemporaries and the admiration of fome, but in this en-
deavour our artift was not very fuccefsful.

His engravings are numerous and not uncommon ; they
are marked with one or other of the three monograms, Sor
which fee our Plate II. of thofe ufed by the engravers of
the Netherlands. Among them may be diftinguiftied '• The
three Deftinies," and "> Cleopatra," after Cornelius de
Harlem; " Lucretia," after C. Kettel, (an upright)
" St. Cecilia," in which plate it may be feen he has at-
tempted to embolden his ftyle. A fet of four of " The Car-
dinal Virtues," after Martin Hemil^erk ; another fet of
*' The fix Commandments of God," illuftrated by fubjedls
from bible hiftory, from the defigns of thfe fame painter,
and fome other bible fubjedts which range in fets, with cer-
tain works from the gravers of the Sadelers and Galles,
from J. Stradan and M. de Vos, of various foho dimenfions.
Vol. XXI.

John Muller, of the fame family, was an artift of more
vigorous powers. He was born in the year IJ70, as is
fuppofed at Amfterdam, but how he ftood related to Her-
man is not known. His vigour, however, as an artift, was
not wifely employed, like that of an Hercules ; but rather
extravagantly la>Tiftied ; he fwaggered like a giant of ro-
mance. Studying under Henry Goltzius at his worft
period, hs learned to exceed even his exceftes. He caught
the enthufiafm of that great artift, but fell fiiort of him in
judgment and variety. " The modefty of Nature," was
with Muller as with Spranger, entirely out of the queftion,
and the more he could " Out-herod Herod" in his manual
execution and ftyle of defign, (efpecially when engraving
after Bartholomew Spranger,) the better he appears to have
pleafed himfelf.

Hence fome of his extravagancies are fcarcely lefs ludi-
crous than others are ferioufly furprifing. Watelet fays of
him, that " he handled the graver with the greateft freedom,
and will ever be worthy of the attention of thofe artifts
who wifti to diflinguifti themfelves in the mechanical part of
engraving ; but they muft learn to fubdue the audacity of
his ftyle. It is very difficult to employ lefs work thaa
Muller, in rendering the textures of objefts, 2nd he always
worked his plates up to a good tone. He underftood the
human figure vi'ell, but from engraving much after Adrian
van Vries and Bartholomew Spranger, acquired a mannered
habit of drawing, which particularly difcovered itfelf in his
hands and feet."

To this eftimate of his merits, Strutt adds, " the faci-
lity with which he handled the graver, for he worked with""
that inftrument only, cannot be fufliciently expreGTed ; his
works mull be feen to convey a proper idea of it to the
mind, yet if in freedom of execution he equalled his mafter,
in every other requifite he fell far ftxort of him," &c.

That Solomon Muller was of the fame family with Her-
man and John, as Strutt has conjeftured, appears very
doubtful, if not altogether an error. He fometimes wrote
his name Miller, and is fo utterly deftitute of the talent and
enthufiafm of the MuUers, that he appears, from his fmall
Bible prints, which v.-ere produced about the period now
under our review, rather to have copied the worft of the
Wierixes, with equal neatnefs, but with deeper dulnefs.

Of the engravings of John Muller, the moft diftinguiflied
are the

Portraits of Bartholomew Spranger, a kindred fpirit,
whom Muller terms, in the infcription beneath, " M. Piclor
ceieberrimus," it is dated in 1597, is in folio, and after Joab
ab Ach ; Everhardus Reidanus, eomitis Guilhelmi Naf-
favoy Confiliarius ; Maurice, prince of Orange ; John
Neyen, of Antwerp, laying his hand on a fltuU ; Arabrofe
Spinola, the celebrated general, in large folio, both from
Mirevelt ; Chriftian IV., king of Denmark, from Ifacks ;
Albert, archduke of Auftria, from Rubens, a.id its com-
panion, Ifabella, infanta of Spain, from the lame painter,
in large folio.

Subjecfs from his own Compofitions. — " The Baptifm of
Chrift, celebrated, in Heaven," in folio ; " An Ecce
Homo," furrounded by angels, a circular plate, in large
folio ; " Balthafar's Foaft," and " The Adoration of the
Kings," two very capital plates, in large folio, very much
fought after by connoiffeurs ; " Chilo, the Spartan Philo-
fopher," and " Harpocrates, the God of Silence;" two
heads as large as hfe, engraved in a very bold, vigorous
ftyle.

' Subjects from various Mafias. — " H agar in the Defart,

comforted by an Angel," in quarto ; " Lot and his Daugh-

3 O ters,"

LOW COUiNfTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

ters," in large folio, slmoft fquarc ; " The Nativity," with
eight Latin veifes, in large toho ; " The Holy Family,"
attended by two angels, in folio ; " A young Hero, con-
duced by Hercules and Scipio to the Temple of Glary,"
in quarto ; " Venus attended by Nymphs and Satyrs," in
folio ; " A Satyr dreffing the wounded Foot of a young
Fawn," in quarto ; " Venus and Mercury," with four Latin
verfes, in folio ; " Ceres, Bacchus, and Venus, before a
Fire," in large folio ; " Mercury and Minerva arming Per-
feus," a very fine engraving, in large folio ; " The Goddefs
Bellona,'' engraved on two large plates, and dedicated to
the archduke Matthias; " Pfyche contemplating Cupid
aflcep,'' io large folio, all from B. Spranger ; " The Re-
furreftion of Lazarus,' after Ab. Blocmart, a very capital
print ; " The Murder of Abel," after Cornelius of Haer-
iem ; " The Difcomfiture of Irus, before the Suitors of
Penelope," in large folio ; " Arion mounted on a Dolphin,"
in krge folio; " Fortune diltnbuting her Gifts," a large
and grand compofition, engraved on two plates, all from
Cornelius of Haerlem ; " The Martyrdom of St. Sebaftian,"
after Jean von Aehen ; a very large engraving, performed
on three plates, of " The Race of the Sabines," from a
compotitlon in wax by Adrian van Urics ; " Mercury and
Pandora," in large folio, from a group in bronze, by the
fame extravagant artill ; and a fet of fevtn circular plates,
entitled " The Works of Creation," after Henry Goltzius.

Paul Moreelfe, or Moreelfen, was born at Utrecht in
the year 1571, and died in the fame city in 1638. He
iludicd painting under Michael Mirevelt, whom he foon
equalled, and fucceeded in portraits, hillorical fubjecls,
and arcliiteiSture ; the latter is fufSciently telHfied by the
gate of St. Catherine, in the city of Utrecht, which was
built from his delign. He ftudied during fume time
in Italy, and we have by him fome excellent wood cuts
in chiarofcuro, executed on three blocks ; the firll for
the outline, which is cut in a very fpirited llyle ; the
fecond for the dark fhadows ; and the laft for the demi-
tints. Thefe prints have a light airy appearance, the hatch-
ings by this artill being performed with great deUcacy.
They are drawn in a flight, but mafterly manner, and the
union of the feveral tints produces an agreeable effcft. He
ufually marked his plates with a monogram, which will be
found in our fecond plate of thofe ufed by the engravers of
the Low Countries.

Of the engravings on copper by this artiit we are only
able to fpecity the two iollowing, which are both in folio.
*' Cupid with feveral dancing Figures,' and " The Death
of Lucretia."

John Sacnrecam was born at Leydea in the year 1570.
lie lluJied the elements of engraving iucceffively under
Henry Goltzius and jan.es de Gheyn. Pofleffed by the
infatuation in favour of clear and fleck lines, which was
falhionable at the time, he appears never to have reforted to
etching, but executed his plates, which are fomewhat nu-
merous, with the graver alone. He bandied that inllru-
ment, however, with great facility, und hii ftyle is at once
free, clear, neat, foft, and dehcate, but his chiarofcuro is
deficient in vigour. '

He appears to have underftood drawing belter than he
always praftifed it, as may be feen by comparing the plates
which he has engraved after his own compofitions, with thofe
which he hase.tecuted after piitures by other mailers. The
outlines in the former are generally much more corrtft, and
they are for that reafon iougtit after by connoiffeurs with
more anxiety.

Some of his prints a'c large. Their number is eflimatod
by riotcn: le Comtc at one huiidtcil and thifty-iwo, wlu^h

they probably fomewhat exceed : among them we (hall men.-
tion the following as being moft worthy of the notice of the
colleftor. The artill ufually affixed to them one or other
of the two monograms, given in our fecond plate of thofe
ufed by the engravers of the Netherlands.

Portraits. — Carl van Manden, after Goltzius, in quarto ;
John Cefaree, painter and philofopher, a rare print, in folio ;
John de la Cliumbre, writing mailer, alter Franc. Hals ;
and Peter Hogebert Hornanus, a poet and phyfician, fur-
rounded witli allegorical figures, after C. van >ianden, both
in folio.

SubjeBs from hh own Compofitions. — " Sufannah and t!ie
Elders," a fmall oval ; " Deborah Handing at the Foot of a
Rock," perhaps fingiiig or meditating her celebrated canticle,^
in folio ; " Hercules, between Minerva and Venus," a folio
print, nearly- fquare ; " Lycurgus giving Laws to the Spar-
tans," and exemplifying the advantages of good edueatio?i,
from the habits of two dogs, in folio ; " The ^siife a';d
foolilb Virgins," on five plates, with nine Latin verfes ; very
capital, and executed in fo delicate a ilyle, that the plate
foon wore under the hand of the printer, and it is therefore
difficult to meet with a good impreflioii ; in folio. A large-
allegorical fubjeft, relating to the government of the leven
United Provinces under the houfe of Orange, reprefented
by a proceflion attended by Concord and other political vir-
tues, in large folio. Another allegorical fubjeCl, relating to
the government of the Low Countries by the infanta Jia-
bella. That princefs herfelf is reprefented llanduig under a
tree on the right hand. Both very rare prints. And a re-
prefentation of a large whale, which was thrown upon the
coaft of Holland, with thirty-two Latin verfes ; a very fine
and rare print.

Subjects after varieus Painters. — " The Fall of our firft
Parents," in quarto, after Henry Goltzius ; " Lot and. his
two Daughters," in folio ; " Judith with the Head of Hc-
lofernes ;'' " Sufannah furprifed by the Elders ;" The fix
penitent women of the New Teftament, i-iz. i. Mary Mag-
dalen. 2. The Woman of Samaria. 3. The Woman of
Cana. 4. The Woman taken in Adultery, j. The Woman
with the Hemorrhoids. And 6. The paralytic Woman : with
Latin explanations ; in quarto. A let of three, 1. Ceres,
worfhippedby Labourers; 2. Venus, worfliipped by Lovers ;
and 3. Bacclius, worfhipped by Drinkers, in large fclio ;
very fine and rare prints. " The Union of Ceres, Bac-
chus, and Venus,'' in folio ; " Venus and Cupid, V in
quarto ; " Diana, with her Nymphs," in a fet of three
plates, each containing two figures ; " Diana difoovering
the Incontinence of Calillo ;" " Andromeda delivered by
Perfeus ;" •' The Five Senfes," in quarto ; " The Seven
Planets ;" the three marriages, vt%. " The Marriage for
Interell ;"' " Tne Marriage for Paffion," and " The Mar-
riage of true Aflettiun," in quarto ; a painter drawing the
portrait of n icmaie kneeling before a mirror, known by the
name of " The Painter," in folio ; all from Henry Goltzius.
" The Life of Adam and Eve," after Abr. Bloemart,
on fix plates, in folio. The hiftory of the prophets Elilha
and Elijah, four folio plates. " Elijah with the Widow of
Sarepta;'' " The Annunciation of the Shepherds," both is
lirge folio ; "The Prodigal Son," with a laudfcape back-
ground, in folio ; " Vertumnus and Pomona," and " The
Rape of Ganymede," both in lar^^e foiio ; all from Abra-
ham Bloemart. ". Mars and Venus," with four Latin verfes,
from P. Ifaacs, in quarto ; " The Bath of Diana," from
Moreelfen, commonly called " The Great Bath of Diana,"
to diilinguilb it frcmthe former one after the compcfitiOR of
Saenredam himlelf ; " Judith putting the Head of H0I0-'
femes in a Bag held by her Servant,'' in folio, from Lucai
4 ®f

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS

OF TFIE.

*f LeySen ; " Deborah nailing the Head of Slfera," in
folio, from the fame painter ; " The Meeting of Eleazar
and Rebecca," after Carl van Mander, in large folio ;
" David witli the Head of Goliah" on his fword, from Lu-
cas of Leyden ; " The Daughter of Herodias dancing at
the Feftival of Herod," after C. van Mander ; " The Nati-
vity," a grand compofition ; and " Paul and Barnabas refuf-
ing the Sacrifice of the Inhabitants of Lyflra," a grand com-
pofition, all in large folio, after the fame painter ; " Adam
and Eve in the terreftrial Paradife," in folio, from Corne-
lius of Haerlem ; " Sufannah and the Elders ;" " St. John
preaching in the Wildernefs ;" " Paris and Oenone cutting
their Names on the Bark of a Tree ;'' " Angelica and Mc-
dora engraving their Names on a Beech Tree ;'' " Vertum-
ntjsand Pomona ;" all in folio, from the fame painter. " The
Grotto of Plato,'' a celebrated parable, Shewing that mod
mortals prefer darknels to light, with twelve Latin vcrfes,
from C. of Haerlem, in large folio ; a very fine print, both
in compofition and execution. A wounded general, carried
by his toldiers, formerly fuppofed to be Scipio, but as the
coftume of the figures is Grecian, and not Roman, it is
more probably "The Death of Epaminondas ;" it is en-
graved after a drawing by Goltzius. '" The Redemption
of Rome by the Dictator Camillas," after a drawing by
Goltzius ; both of folio fize. In the latter print, the ^ha-
rafters of the Romans and Gauls are finely contrafted. A
fet of eight foho plates, dedicated to the duke of Aque-
.parte, of " The Hiftory of the Unfortunate Niobe and
her Children," from the drawings of Goltzius after Cara-
vaggio ; wkh Latin verfes, very rare. The pitlures form a
frieze in the palace of Buffjl, at Rom^. " Tlie Entomb-
ing of Our Saviour," after Michael Angelo ; and " Our
Saviour at the Houfe of Levi the Publican ;" executed on
five plates, from the pitlures of Paul Veronefe in the church
of 'St. Paul at Rome, of large folio fize, and very rare.

Peter Serwouters, or Shcrwouter, was born at Antwerp
in the year 1574, where he always relided. He worked
in a clear neat ilyle with the graver only, but without much
tafte. His plates are not fufficiently finiihed to produce a
pleafing eifeA, nor accurate enough to bear critical exami-
nation.

From among his works, which are not numerous, the fol-
lowing may be dillinguilhed as lead unworthy of the notice of
the coUeftor. A fet of ten fubjefts of Chafes, after D.
Vinckenbooms, in fmall folio, lengthways ; " The Fall of
our firft Parents," of which the artifts of the Netherlands
appear to have thought their countrymen could not be too
often reminded. In the prelent inftance, French and Dutch
Terfes lend their aid in imprefling the religious leffon, and
the whole forms a large folio print. " Sampfon killing the
Lion^" "David killing the Bear;" and an emblematical
plate, reprefenting in the front a Dutch merry-making, with
figures dancing, and a cottage in the back-ground, from the
door of which a man and his wife are ilTuing forth to oppole
a man with' a drawn fword; all in folio, from the fame
pai.iter. Serwouters alfo engraved part of the plates for
Thibault's " Academic de I'Efpce," in folio, publilhed at
Antwerp A. D. 1628. The monogram which this artill
fonietimes affixed to his prints will be found in PJate III.
of thole ufcd by the engravers of the Low Countries.

John von Londerfeel was born at Bruges in the year 15 So.
He worked entirely with the graver, in a lliff dry Ityle,
greatly refembling that of Nicholas de Bruin, whofe difciple
he probably was. However, his prints are not without
Xome fhare of merit ; and are fought after by connoitTeurs.

He marked his plates in various ways, fo.metimes with his
Aaitials, combined as in our Pljle IV. of the monograms, 5cc.

ufed by the engravers of the Lowr Countries, or, at other
times, J. Lond. or J. Londer fee. Among his works, we.
fiiall feiecl the following as being mod worthy of the atten-
tion of the coUeftor. The theological virtues. Faith, Hope,
and Charity, perfonified by female figures, with a landfrape
back-ground; the Five Senfes charafterifed by figures, feated
in a landfcape, both in large folio, and apparently from his
own defigns. A woody landfcape with hunters; and one with
the fable of Apollo and Daphne, both in folio, from Jac.
Savery ; " The difobedient Prophet devoured by a Lion ;"
" Tobit journeying with the Angel;" "Jacob tending
the Flocks of Laban," with landfcape back-grounds;
" St. John in the Wildernefs," a'l in large folio, and after
G. Hondecoter ; " The good Samaritan ;" " The blind
Warrior;" " The Woman with the Haemorrhage;' and
" Abraham facrificing Ifaac," all after Giles Coninxloo.
A perfpeftive view of the interior of the church of St.
John de Lateran at Rome, after Hendrick Arts, (a painter
with whofe name we are otherwife unacquainted.) The
following are all after D. Vinckenbooms ; " Saul anointed
King of the Hebrews ;" " The Rape of Tamar ; " "The
Prophet foretelling to Jeroboam the Divifion of his King-
dom ;" " Sufannah fiirprifed by the Elders ;" " The
Temptation in the Wildernefs ;" " The Saviour praying
on the Mount of Olives ;" " The Maries approaching the
Holy Sepulchre;" " Diana and AAaeon ;" and " The
Plealurcs of Summer." The latter is a meritorious land-
fcape, and they are all of large folio fizcs.

•Tohn Bara, or Barra, was a native of Holland, born A.D.
1572. He emigrated to England, and in the year 1624
was refiuing in London. His llendcr talents, however,
merit not much attention. His inilrument was the graver, '
and that only : his "rvori may be truly fo termed, being en-
tirely without the vivacioufnefs of art, and charafterized by
all the tamencfi and coldnefs of manual labour, in which
refped the word imitator of the worll of the Sadelcrs did
not outdo him.

Of the engravings of Barra, it may be quite fufficient to
mention the

Poi'traits of prince Maurice of Naffau and Orange ;
Charles II., elector of Saxony ; Joachim, count of Ortem-
berg ; and Lodovicus, duke of Richmond and Lenox, the
latter of which was engraved in this country.

Hi/lorkal SuijeNs, tfc. — " Phaeton's fatal Requed to
Apollu," introduced in a landfcape, of folio fize. Four
other landl^capes in quarto, in which are introduced the
pilgrims to Emmaus, and different events in the hiilory of
Tobit. Two hiftorlcal landfcapes from the dory oi " Su-
fanna and the Elders;" " The Parable of the Sower;"
" Herodias receiving the Head of John the Baptid," all in
quarto. The lad fubjecl is from J. van Achen. " Time
and Truth" is from Paulus ab Edstis, and is a fmall up-
right, as is alio " Bathftieba at the Bath."

Nicholas, or Claus Coeck, is fcarcely more worthy of
notice than him whom we have jud difniiifed. He was of
Leyden, born m the year 1576, and, according to the baron
Heinneken, dudied under Frank Floris, though his en-
graving appears rather to contradidl this, and to point t<»
Cornelius Cort as his niader..

Of his works, which ars not numerous, it may be fuffi-
cient to name " The Four Elements," perfanified by half-
length fi2;"res, and " The Judgment of Midas," all after
Carl van'Mander, and of folio dimenfions.

Gidiert van Breen, or Van Brecht, was born in HoJland
fome time about the year 1576. He worked entirely with
the o-raver, and is fuppofed to have been trie difciple of

3 O 2 jUK-oS

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

James de Gheyn. His engravings are not deftitute of
merit, tboujjh inferior to thole of his matter.

From among them the connoifTeur may with advantage
feleft the Portraits of James I. of England, his queen,
and the young prince of Wales, on the lame (folio,)
plate. A fet of fix fmall prints of " The Life of a
Libertine," prefumptively from his own compofitions,
" The Marketers with Fowls and Eggs," after Claufe
Coeck ; " Envy dripping the Clothes from the Back of a
Lady," after the fame author, both in fmall folio. A fati-
rical print, wherein certain perfons are bufily employed in
walhing an angry jack-afs. A pair, in the firft of which
two young libertines are diflipating their wealth, and in the
fecond are reduced to want and mifery, in quarto, and after
Van Mander. An inllrumental concert, after SbraiTen. A
fet of fmall friezes of fea-ports, with (hipping, &c. after C.
Nicolai.

Whether the Nicholas, or Claus, Braen or Breen, who is
mentit ned by Balfan, was related to the preceding artilt, we
know not. They have by feme writers been confounded
together ; but Nicholas appears to have been of the fchool
of Saenredam, and was the author of a fet of four ovals from
compofitions by himfelf, of which the fubjefts are, Samfon,
Sifera, Judith, and David, (David is here the llrippling,
and bears the head of Geliah). He alfo engraved " A Peni-
tent Ma5;;dalen," after James Matham, in folio ; and
*' Chrift conduced to Calvary," alfo in folio, and after
Tintoretto.

William van Swanenbourg, or Swanenburch, was born at
Leyden in the year 1581. He was the difciple of Saen-
redam, and did honour to his mailer and himfelf, by the
freedom and vigour of his engraving. Abram Bofle recom-
mends his prints to lludcnts in the art, on account of the
beauty of his touch : yet it muft be confeffed that the
drawing of Swanenbourg is mannered and defeftive ; and if
fludents fhouid imitate, where it is applicable, tlte boldnefs
of his handling, and his dexterity of touch, they (hould
afpire to piu-er delineations of form.

He affixed to his engravings a monogram, for which, fee
Plate IL of thofe ufed by the engravers of the Netherlands.
We fhall fpecify the following prints from the graver of
Swanenbourg, as being moll worthy of the attention of the
tonnoilTeur.

Portraits. — Abraham Bloemart, in an ornamented border ;
Janus Hautenus, iecretary of Leyden, both in 4to. ; Daniel
Heinfius, proteffor of Leyden ; John Heurnius, doftor of
medicine at Leyden; John William, duke of Cleve; Maurice,
prince of Orange and Naflau ; Erneft Cafimir, count of
Naffau, frem P. Moreelfen, in large foho ; and Petrus
Jeanninus, eques, banc maximi viri efRgiem ex vultu es-
preffit Michael Mirevelt, &c. in folio.

Hijlorical, i^c. after various Painters. — "Jacob defrauding
his Brother outof Ifaac's Bleffing ;" and "The Refurreftion
of Our Saviour," both from P. Moreelfen, in large folio.
A ruftic fellival at the entrance of a village, after Vincken-
booms, in large felio. " The Judgment of Paris," from
M. Mirevelt ; " Perfeus refcuing Andromeda," after Saen-
redam, in folio ; " The Adoration of the Shepherds," after
Abr. Bloemart, in fmall folio ; " The Six Penitents," in
folio, mz. Saul, St. Peter, St. Paul, Zaccheus, Judas If-
cariot, and the Magdalen. " St. Jerome in the Wilder-
nefs ;" " The Repentance of St. Peter." Three fubjefts
emblematical of Piety, Riches, and Vanity, in fmall foho,
all from Bloemart. " Lot and his Daughters ;" and
" Jefas at Table with the Pilgrims at Emmaus," both from
Rubens : and a fet of fourteen, commencing by " Jefus
Chrift carrying the Crofs," and ending with " The Laft

Judgment," entitled " Thronus Jufticiae. Hoc ell optimoa
Jullicix traftatus eletliffimis quibufque exempUs judiciariis
aeri incifis illullratus. Joachim Uytenwael, pinx. G.
Swanenburch, fculp. 1605, 1606."

Cornelius Boel was born at Antwerp in the year 1576.
He was of the fame family with Peter Boel, the eminent
painter of animals and flowers, but ftudied engraving ap-
parentlv in the fchool of the Sadelers. He made little uie
of any other inftrument than the graver, which he handled
with ability in a clear and neat ftyle.

Boel engraved a fet of fmall owl plates for the fables of
Otho Vxnius, which were infcribed with Latin, Englilh, and
Italian verfes, and publilhed at Antwerp in 1608. " The
Lafl Judgment," from a compofition by himfelf, in fmall
folio, and the portrait of Henry, prince of Wales, in an
ornamented border, and of quarto fize.

From this latter plate, and the infcription beneath the
frontifpiece to the large folio Bible, which was publilhed
here by royal authority in the year i6n, which infcription
runs, " C. Boel fecit, in Richmont ;" it is inferred that
our artill vifitcd England about the middle period of his life.
But hi;i principal and great work was a fet of eight large
plates, from Antonio Tempella, of which the fubjefts are
" The Battles of Charles V. with Francis L"

The family of Hondius or de Hondt was numerous, and
fome of them of dillinguiflied merit in the arts. Joll, or
Jodocus, was the fon of Oliver Hondius, a very ii.genious
artill of Ghent, where, in the year 1563, our artill was
born, and where he pafled his youth in the fuccefsful ftudy
of fome branches of the mathematics ; but the intelline com-
motions which agitated that city, about the period that Joll
attained the age of manhood, occalioned him to feek refuge
in England.

Here he foll»wed various purfuits, as various occafions
called forth and developed the variety of his talents. He
made mathematical inftruments, fabricated types for letter-
prefs printing, and engraved maps and charts. Here alfo
he married in the year 1586, and had feveral children. He
afterwards removed to Amfterdam, and died there A.D.
1611.

Jodocus alfo engraved a few portraits, which are neatly
executed, though in other refpefts their intrinfic merit is
not confiderable : among them are the celebrated Englilh
navigators, Thomas Cavendilh and fir Francis Drake. The
latter is a large plate, and is commended by Strutt.

From an artill, hovs'ever, fo varioufly employed as Hon-
dius wasi no man expefts exquifite engravings ; the place of
his refidence being England, and the time, the clofe of the
fifteenth and the commencement of the fixteenth centuries.
He fometimes marked his plates with the cypher, which
may be feen in Plate HI. of thefe of the engravers of tiie
Low Countries ; and at others, with a hound barking, and
infcribed " fub cane vigilante;" which hound is, in taft, a
pun upon his family name.

Befide what we have mentioned above, Jedocus engraved
the charts for Drake's Voyages, and feveral of the maps
for Speed's CoUeftions, in large folio, which latter are in
general embellilhed with figures ; and Flerent le Comte
mentions, among the works of this engraver, a large per-
fpeftive view of London, publilhed at Amfterdam in 1620 ;
but Strutt very reafonably infers a millake either in tlie
engraver's name, or the date of this print.

Henry Hondius the elder, fo called in contradillinftion to
him of whom we fhall fpeak hereafter, was born at Duffel
in Brabant, A.D. 1576, and died at the Hague in 1610.
Whether he was the fon or brother of Jodocus has been dif-
puted, but is not known.

He

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE

He appears to have lludied in the fcliool, and to have
contrafted the ftiffnefs of Jerome Wierix, but pofllfles not
liis corredlnefs. His principal engravings are the

Portraits of Cornelius Cort, Henry de Clave, Giles Co-
ninxloo, and Hans Holbein, (all painters ;) John Bugen-
hagcn, Pliilip Melanfthon, John Wickliffc, John Knox,
John Calvin, and Jerome Savonarole, (celebrated reformers,)
all in 4to.

Hijlorical, i^c. — " The Judgment of Solomon," and
" The Woman taken in Adultery," both after Carl von
Mander ; " A Flcinifli Recreation;" a fet of "five engrav-
iiigs, reprefentmg the celebration of St. John's day, at
Menlebeck, near Brufil-la, by healing the lick, both from
P. Breughel the droll ; ^nd " Mufarum Officia," or the
Mufcs giving a concert on mount Parnaffus, an agreeable
compofition, though the expreflion of the heads is rather
common, after Th. Zucckero, all of folio dimenfious.

Henry Hondius the younger is, with better rcafon than
Henry the elder, believed to have been the fon of Jodocus,
and to have been born in London, — according to Huber, —
;n 1580, which is unfortunately fonr years before, — ac-
cording to Strutt, — his father was married. He is fup-
pofed by Strutt to have iludied under his father, and to
have applied himfclf v.lth dihgence to the art of engraving.
His prints are neat, but difcovcr little art.

Befide fir^idiing fome plates which had been begun by
Jodoc'.is, the following are enumerated among his works.
Portraits of Bernard, duke of Saxe Wcymar, in folio ;

na large head of queen Ehzabeth ; James I. of England,
dated i6o8; William, prince of Orange, after Alex.
Cooper, dated 1641 ; Ferdinand, emperor of Gerniany, in
4to., dated 1634 ; and fir Francis Drake, in folio.

Land/capes, h'ljiorical Subjeds, Isfc. — A fet of the four
feafons, after Paul Bri!, dated 1643 ; another fet of the
four feafoBS, confilling of landfcapes, adorned with various
architecture, after P. Stephani, both ni folio ; a fet of
twelve landfcapes of the months of the year, m which are
introduced feaionable occupations and diverlions, in large
folio ; two print? reprefentmg drunken peafants, with land-
fcape back-grounds ; two grotefque fnbjefts of fools, &c.
both after P. Breughel ; " Chrill going to Emmaus ;" and
"The Shipwreck of St. Paul," a companion to the former,
both from Giles Mollaert, all of folio fize ; " Tobit fiihing,
attended by an Angel ;" " St. John the Baptift preaching
in the Wildernefs ;" and a view of the Hague, a rare print,
all from Giles de Saen, in large folio.

The younger Henry vifited Holland about the time of his
arrival at manhood, or a little before, and refided at the
Hague. Here he engraved the view of that town, which
we have mentioned above ; and here, in the year 1600, was
born his fon William or Guillaume Hondius.

WiUiam acquired the rudiments of engraving under his
paternal roof; from whence he removed to Dantzic, and to
the Hague, and became diftinguiflied by the merit of his
portraits, of which he engraved a conliderabie numbe.-.

His cypher may be feen in Plate 111. of thofe of the en-
gravers of the Low Countries ; and his molt remarkable por-
traits are thofe of himfelf, after Vandyke, with the addi-
tion of " Chalcographus HagE Comitis ;" Francis Frank
the younger, painter of Antwerp, after the fame mailer,
both in folio ; prince Maurice of Auftria, an excellent print,
probably from a drawing by Hondius himfelf; Ladif-
iaus IV. of Poland, infcribed " W. Hondius fecit 1637 ;"
Theodore ab Werden Burgio ; Berhard, duke of Saxe
Weymar, all prefumptively drawn by himfelf; Henry
Cornelius Longkius, after Mytens ; Jean Cafimir, king of

Poland ; Charles, prince of Poland and bifhop of Brelfaar,
both after D. Scultz ; and Louifa Maria de Gonzague,
queen of Poland, after Jufte d'Egmont, bearing the name
and addition of " Wilhcl Hondius Chalcographus Regius,"
from which it appears that our artiil enjoyed the honour of
being engraver to the king of Poland.

Abraham Hondius, the juftly celebrated painter of ani-
mals, was of the fame family with the preceding artifts ; for
whofc biography and general merit as an artiil, fee HoNr
Dius, Abraham. He etched a few plates in a flight,
fpiritcd, and pamter-like ftyle, yet with fom.c degree of
neatnefs, of which the fubjcfts are the huntings of various
beads of chace ; tliefe afford very (Iriking examples of animal
expreflion, efpecially when their pallions are roufed to fury.
His folio prints of " A Boar Hunt," and " The Chace of
a Wolf," are, in this rcfpeft, admirable works, and are
probably his bell; productions in this mode of art.

With the fixteenth century arofe the genius of Rubeng,
which has gilded the fine art of the Netherlands with un-
fading glory, and even tinged with its radiance the ethics
and theology of Europe. His biography and extraordinary-
merits as a painter will be treated under the article Ruekxs,
Sir Peter Paul. He etched a few plates, of which the
merits are not tranfcendental, though they evince the power-
ful and free hand of a mafter ; but he effetted a revolution
in painring, and indeed may be faid to have given a new
coiiilitution, more eflentially free than that which preceded
it, to tlie arts of his country, as our fubfequent pages, de-
voted to the progrefs of engraving in the Low Countries,
will attefl.

The etchings of Rubens are performed in a flight and
bold ilyle, from his own compofitions : " St. Francis d'Af-
iize receiving the Stigmata," in 4to. ; " The penitent Mag-
dalen," ditto; " St. Catherine," with the initruments of
her martyrdom, &c. defisined for a ceiling, and one of the
belt of the etchings uf Rubens, of folio fize ; " The com-
munication of Light," a fmall upright : the plate being
afterwards finifned with the graver, either by Paul Pontius
or Lucas Vorllerman, impreflions of the etc!,;--^, as it came
from the hand of Rubens, are exceedingly rj.re aiiu valuable.
The compofition coniills of a boy hghting a candle at an-
other, which is held by an old woman. Thefe, and the
portrait of an Englifli minifter, a fmall head, in an oval
border, are all the prints with which we are acquainted,
proceeding from the etching-needle of this very diftinguiflied
matter.

With the vigorous and original powers of Rubens, co-
operated by the fine taile of Vandyke, and roufed by the
trumpet that founded forth their fame, Bolfwert, the Vor-
ftermans, and Pontius girded their loins, and leaped forth
candidates of high enterprife and extraordinary promife, in
the race of hiitorical and portrait engraving.

The belt of the engravers of Italy, with Marc Antonio
at their head, had added truth of charadter to exquifite
purity of outline. The heroes of the German fchool, led
on by Martin Schoen and Albert Durer, had exprefled the
textures of the various furfaces or fubftances which adorn
the face of nature, with nice difcrimination ; and had made
fome fuccefsful approaches toward a vigorous and har-
monious chiaro-fcuro. It remained for Bolfwert, Pontius,
and the Vorltermans, the champions of the Netherlands, to
polTcfs themfelves of their trenches, and complete the cir-
cumvallation of engraving : and this they accomphfhed,
aided by the commanding judgment and exquifite talle, and
ftimulated alfo by the fuccefsful example, of Rubens and
Vandyke.

To deeper and richer tones than had heretofore been pro-
duced.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

dueed, they added a talent of rendering local colour in the
abftraft, which they poflefled and exercifod in enviable per-
fedion.

Lucas Vorderman the elder was born at Antwerp, AD.
-15S0, and at firll (ludied painting in the fchool of Rubens ;
" but, counielled by his mailer, who had remarked the true
bent of his geniu", he quitted the pencil for the graver.
He greatly dillinguilhed himfelf as an engraver before he
■quitted the Low Countri'J?, in particular by the prbdutlion
of his print of " The Adoration of the Eaftcrn Kings,"
after Rubens ; which is pi-onounccd by Huber to be one
of the ilncft engravings that was ever executed, and is indeed
a print of tranfcendent merit. But Vorflerman is of the
number of thofe artills who were attracted to the court of
London, by the talle and patronage of Charles L; and as
he contributed' largely to the advancement of Englilh en-
graving, the reader will find fuch of the fubfequent events
of his life, as are of importance to art, detailed, -and accom-
panied by a general eftimate of his merits, in our account of
the Origin and Progfffs of En'GIJ.'ih Engraving. A moi-e
copious lift of the bell works of fo dillinguillied an artift
than we were then enabled to offer, is now I'ubmitted to the
admirers of legitimate engraving.

iucas commonly figned his plates with a cypher, for
■W'hich fee Plate 111. of thofe u fed by the engravers of the
Low Countries.

Portraits after Vandyke. — Peter de Jode ; Charles de
Mallery ; James Callot ; Theodore Galle ; Wencellaus
■Coeberger ; Deodatus del Mont ; Peter Stevens ; John
Vin Mildeit ; Hubertus Vanden Eynden ; Lucas Van
•Uder. ; Cornellius Sachtleven ; Horatius Gentilefcius ; and
John Livens, all diftinguillied artills, in folio ; Ifabclla
■Clara Eugenia, infanta of Spain ; Gallon, of France, duke
of Orleans, brother to the king of France ; Ambrolius
■Spinola, goveinor-general of the Low Countries ; Wolf-
gang William, count palatine of the Rhine, and duke of
.Bavaria; Francis of Moncade, count of OlTona; Nicolas
Fabricius, of Peirefe ; Alfonfo Perez de Vivcro, count of
•Fuenfalds ; Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, all of folio
•dimenlions ; Nicolas Roccokxius, an amateur of Antwerp ;
one of the fined portraits of Vorllerman, in large folio.

Portraits after -various other Majlers — A bull of P'ato,
after an antique marble ■; bull of Seneca the philofopher,
alfo after an antique ; a pair of Cofmo of Medicis, and Lo-
renzo of Medicis, in circular borders ; pope Leo X., an
oftagon plate ; Julius Lipfius, Ifcanus ; and Claudius
Maugis, abbe of St. Nicholas, from Ph. de Champagne,
all of 4to. fize ; John de Serres, after N. Van der Horft,
xn 4to. ; Conllantine Hughens, fecretary to the prince of
•Orange ; John Livins, del. ; a bull of tl.e emperor
Charles V. and the conftable of Bourbon, both from Titian,
IB folio ; another of the emperor Charles V., after a copy
•by Rubens, from Titian ; Charles de Longueval, count of
Bufquoi, after Rubens, a very fine and rare print, in large
•folio.

Hfiyrical, after varioas Painters. — " The Holy Fa-
mily," on a black ground (engraved in England), after
Raphael ; " The Entombing of Chrift," and " St. George
on Horleback," both from the fame painter, in folio ;
■" Chrill in the Garden of Olives," after Caracci, in large
■folio ; " The Virgin and Holy Infant," worshipped by two
-pilgrims, ia folio, after Michael Angelo ; " The Adorati(Dn
•of the .Shepherds;'" the fame fubjeft differently treated;
" The Adoration of the Eallern Kings," a very fine and
'Xare print ; a repetition of the fame fuhjeft, all in large
ibiio ; " The Holy Family," accompanied by St. Anne ;
.another "Holy Family," where ihe infant Chrift carefles

his mother ; " The Virgin and Holy Infant"", aecompa'nied
by St. John ; " Ctefar's Tax, or the Tribute Money," all
in folio ; " The Defcent from the Crofs," in large folio ;
(the beft impreffions of this plate are infcribed C. Van
Mtrlen) ; " The Angel appearing to the Holy Women ac
the Sepulchre of Chrill," in folio ; " St. Francis receiving
the Stigmatics ;"' " The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence,"
both in large folio ; " Mary Magdalen throwing away her
JeweLs ;" the frontifpiccc of a book, intitled " A general
Ecclefiatlical Hillory, from the Birth of Jefus Chrill to the
Year 1624," in folio, all after Rubens. " The Flagel-
lation of our Saviour," in large folio, after G. Seghers ;
" The Death of St. Francis," after the fame painter ;
" St. Ignatius of Loyola ;" " The Fable of the Satyr and
his Gueft, who blew hot and cold with the fame Breath,"
after Jac. Jordaens, in large folio ; " The Chace of a Bear,"
after Snyders ; and " A Vocal Concert" of fix perfons,
among whom a girl is playing the guitar, after A. Coder,
both of folio dimenfions.

Contemporary and compeering with the elder Vorderman,
were the Bolfwerts. The biography of thefe was inferted
in our fourth volume before our prefent arrangement in
fchools was determined on (fee Bolswerf, Adam, or
BoE'rius, and Sheltiu.s) ; but of the works of artifts fo
illultrious, it has been judged proper to add a more co-
pious lift for the information of colleftors, omitting thofe
which are already before the reader in vol. iv. The mono-
grams with which thefe artills feverally marked their per-
formances, mav be feen in our third plate of thofe ufed by
the engravers of the Low Countries.

Worts of Boetius. a Bolf'wert. — The portraits of Adatn
Salbout, with the motto "Omnia Vanitas ;" a pair of
ditto of John Bergman, (a celebrated Jefuit,) kneeling
before a flcull ; and St. Alo'ife Gonzaga, kneeling before
a crucifix, both in folio ; Guillaume Louis, comte de
NalTau, and (its companion) the corpfe of the fame no-
bleman lying in date, dated 1618, and after M. Mirevelt,
in folio ; a fet of feventy-feven fmall plates, from defigns by
Bolfwert himfelf, done to accompany " The Life of Chrift;'*
another fet of fmall book plates, alfo from his own defigns,
engraved for a myilical work, entitled " Le Pelerinage."

Hijlorical SubjeHs after various Mafers. — " The Adoratioa
of the Shepherds," after Abr. Bloemart ; " A Repofe
during the Flight into Egypt ;" both in large folio. A
fet of four landfcapes, and fourteen plates of animals, in
4to. both from the fame mader ; " Jefus at the Houfe of
Martha and Mary," a rich compofition, after J. Goiemar,
a very large plate, very much fought after ; " Death and
Time, conquering Men and Animals," in folio, after D.
Viiickenbooms ; •' Adam and Eve in the terreftrial Para-
dife," furrounded with animals, a very fine engraving from
the fame painter. Thefe three prints are very rare, and
much fought after by colleftors.; and " The Judgment of
Solomon," a large folio plate, after Rubens.

The moft elleemed works of Sheltius a Bolfwert, omit-
ing thofe mentioned in the Cyclopaedia, vol iv. and beginning
with his lamlfcapLs, are as follow : — The landfcapes of
Sheltius are indeed very furprifing performances. When
we conlider the pifturefque ruggednefs of his rocks, and
boles of treeSj and the freedom and loofenefs of his foliage,
it feems fcarcely credible that fo high a degree of excel-
lenoe in this department of the art (hould have been attained
by the ufe of the graver alone ; yet in all his landfcapes not
a line of etching appears. Nor is our wonder lefs excited
when we contemplate the tones, rich or exquifite as the
various occafions required, which Bolfwert has here pro-
duced, more perfeAly vibrating -with thofe of the original

pii^tures :

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

pifttires : we had almotl faid than thofe of any other land-
fcape-engraver whatever. But certainly, in this re^ft, no
engraver has fiirpafled him.

A large landfcape, wherein is introduced a lion-hunt, with
a cavalier overthrown and another coming to his refcne. This
is one of the fineft engravings of the whole fet. A grand
mountainous fubjeft, with romantic falls of water, into which
IS introduced theeffeft of a ftorm, and the fable of the hofpi-
tality of Philemon and Ba'.icis towards Jupiter and Mercury.
The companion to which is a fea-ilorm and fliipwreck ; the
fore-ground is occupied by mariners who have efcaped the
wreck, and are kindling a fire on the (liore. (This print is
commonly called the " Tempell of Eneas.") A foreft-
fcene, into which is introduced the fable of iVIeleager and
Atalanta ; the champaign of Maliues, with haymakers ;
a large landfcape, with animala. in a ftable, and a female
filhng a pig's-trough with food. (This laft, completing
the fet, is engraved by P. Clouet.) A landfcape with ruined
edifices, and two women carrying balkets in the fore-ground.
Ruins on a plain, with various ruitic figures. A landfcape,
in the fare-ground of which is a wooden bridge, with a
fiiepherd and flock. A champaign country, witli two wo-
men in the fore-ground, one of whom carries a balket, and
the other a rake ; a rainbow is reprefented in the clouds.
Sun fet, with a man bringing horfes to water, aiid a land-
fcape, with the effect of mooii-light.

Devotional SiilijeSs, l^t. fiom his s-wn Defgns. — "The
Infants Chriit and St. John playing with a Lamb ;" " The
Virgin and Infant adeep ;" " The Virgin fuckling the
Holy Infant ;" " A Statue of the Virgin, with her Hands
orofied on her Bolom ;" all in 2mo. " The Virgin and
Child in the Air, attended by Angels and Cherubim ;"
•' The Virgin carelTed by the Infant Chrill, with St. Jo-
feph." Twelve figures of faints, half-length. Another fet
of twelve of faints, ali in Svo. '■ A Hermit proitrate
before a Crofs ;'' " The Mother of Grief, piercing her
Bofom with a Sword;" " Jefus Chrill trinmpiiing over
Death ;•" both in foho. " St. Barbara, a Virgin-Martyr ;''
" St. Staniflaus Koflca, kneeling before an Altar ;" " St.
Francis Borgia;" " St. Alphonfo Rodriguez ;" •' R.obcrt
BcUarmin, at a Bureau ;" " Leonard LefTius ;" all in large
folio., " The refigned Death of a Saint," and " Dreadful
Death of a Sinner," two folio prints. An embkmatical fnb-
jeft- relating to prince Ferdinand, the governor of the Low
Countries, in large folio. " A Thefis," dedicated to Sigif-
mond, kind of Poland, on two large plates. The frontif-
piece, and five other plates for Thibault's Fencing Aca-
demy, in large folio, and a rare print, . entitled "The
Difpute between the Fat and the Lean," in large folio.

Portraits after fir Jlnthmy Vundyke. — Sheltius a Bolfwcrt;
Andrea Van Ertvelt ; Martin Pepyn ; Adrian Brouwer ;
and John Baptifta Bartc ; (all diftinguilhed artills ;) Juftus
Lips, an hillorian ; Albert, prince of Aremberg, Biirban-
•fon, &c. ; Maria Rutenj the wife of Vandyke:; Margaret
. of Lorrain, duchefs of Orleans ; V/illiam de Vos ; and
Sebafiian V.rank ; painters, all of folio din.enfions.

Hijlorical Suljeds after Vandyke " Maria Mater Die,

or the Virgin in Extafy," in foho ; " The Virgin with the
Infant Chriil on her Knees, .attended by St. John, and an
Angel with a Crown," in large folio ; " The Vu-gin con-
templating the- Infant Chrift on her Lap, accompanied by a
■Saint holding a palaa Branch ;" " The Virgui feated, with
the holy Infant alleep in her Arms, with St. Jofeph," both
cf folio fize ; another " Holy Family, attended by Angels;"
" TVie Elevation of the Crofs on Mount Calvary ;" " Chrill
i>a the Crofs," at the foot of which are. St. Dorainic and

St. Catherine of Sienna, both in large fcKo ; and " A
Drvwiken Silenus, attended by Bacchanals and Satyrs/' in

folio^

Hijor'rcal, after •various Maflers. — " Chrift on the Crofs',"
with St. John and the holy women at the foot, afttr Jor-
dacns ; " Argus lulled to deep," with Mercury prepariiii^
to behead him ; " The Infant Jupiter," with a iiyicph,
milking the goat Amalthea, accompanied by a fatyr playing
the tambourine, both in large folio. The two latter are
the fincit of Bollwert's engravings after Jac. Jiirdacns. A
family concert, infcribed "SooD'Oude fongen, Soo pipen de
Jongen." " Pan holding, a Badcet of Fruit, accompanied by
Ceres crowned with Wheat, and a Figure blowing the Horn,"
both in folio, and from .Tordacns. Impreffions of the latter arc-
become very r.ire ; " The holy Salutation," after Gerard
Seghers. "The Returnfrom Egypt," v.'heretlie Infant Chriit
appears walking between St. .lofeph and the Virgin ; " The
Virgin appearing to St. Ignatius of Loyola ;" " St. Francis
Xavier tempted by Satan, and comforted Iiy the Apparition
of the Virgin and Child ;" " The Denial of St. Peter," m an
afiemblageof foldiers, playing at cards ; and its companion,
" The Smokers," two very capital prints in large folio, after
G. Seghers ; " A Concert," after Theodore Rombout,
being the companion to one of the fame fubjcft engraved by
Vorllerman, after Coilcr ; " The Virgin and holy Infant,"
(who holds the globe of the earth,) after Erafmu&Qiiclinus ;
" The Communion of St. Rofe," after the fame painter ;
" The Body of Chrill on the Lap of the Virgin,"' after
Diepenbeck ; . and " The Crucifixion of three Jefuits at
Japan," after the fame painter, all of large folio dimen-
fions, .

Hiftoricn], Ij^c. after Rubens. — " The Annunciation," the
bed impreffions of which are marked with the nam.e.of Van-
den Enden ; " The Return from. Egypt ;" " The E.xecu-
tioner giving the Head of St. John the Daptill to Herodias,"
in folio ; " Chrill crucified between- the two Thieves," in
folio; " A Crucifixion," wherein a foldier is piercing the
fide of Chrill ; St. John and the Virgin are (landing at the
foot of the crofs ; a very beautiful engraving, executed in a
bcld.llyle, in large folio ; " A Crucifixion," with the city of
Jerufalem in the back-ground ; and another engraving of the
fame fubjeft, both in large folio ; " The Body of Chrill on the
Lap of the Virgin, with St. Franci8,"in large folio ; " The
Refurr^ftion," and " The Afcenfion of Chnll," two large
folio plates; "The Trinity," where ChrilUs reprefented dead,
a fore-fhortened figure fupported by the Deity ; " The four
Evangelills," in large folio ; "The Triumph of theChurch,"
a large folio plate nearly fquare ; " The Deftrurtion of
Idolatry," a Wge print lengthways,, on two plates ; " The
Fathers of the Church, furrounding St. Clare, with the Sa-
craments," a large folio plate nearly fquare ; " The im.ma-
culate -Conception of the Virgin,'' a circular print in large ■
folio ; another " Affumption of the Virgin," where a dif-
ciple raifes a flone at the mouth of the fepukhre ; " The
Virgin embraced by the Infant Chrift,"' " The Infant Chrill
on a Table careffing his Mother ;'' " The Virgin, with the
holy Infant on her Lap, holding a Globe and Sceptre ;'*
"The. Holy Family," where the infants Chrill and John
are playirg with a Jamb ; and four other engravings of the
fame fubjeil, in large folio ; *' St. Francis Xavier ftanding
before a Crucifix," in folio ; and its companion " St. -Igna-
tins of Loyola," before the name of Jefus, furrounded
with rays of glory ; " St. Cecilia playing on the Organ,"
a diftinguilhed plate, thefirft imprcfBons of which are infcribed
G. Hendrix. Thofe where the name cf Witdoeck is fubfti-
tutcd for that of Bolfwert are retouched, aad of very. infe. .

lior .

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OE THE.

rior value. " St. Therefa interceding at the Feet of Chrift,
for the Souls in Purgatory," in large folio. Nymphs and
fatyrs laden with fruit and game, half figures, commonly
called " The Return from thcChace," in folio. " A drunken
Silenus," fupported by a fatyr, and another figure. The
impreflions, with the name of Bolfwert only, without the
addrefs-, are die earlieft and bell. " The Continence of
Scipio," in large folio. Thofe imprefTions are the bell with
the name of Hendrix. " A triumphal Arch," in honour of
Ferdinand, cardinal-infanta of Spain, and governor of the
Low Countries, in large folio, and " Jefns Chrift, the two
.Virgins, four Angels, and many other holy Perfons," en-
graved by S. a Bolfwert and Corn. Galle, and infcribed with
the name of Hendrix, in folio.

Paul dc Pont, or Pontius, the third of our celebrated
chalcographic triumvirate of the Netherlands, was born at
Antwerp A. D. 1596, and became the dileiple of the
elder Vorfterman, both mafter and pupil being at the time
befriended and improved by the frequent counfel and advice
of Ruljens. The bell works of Pontius, and which form
the bans of his well founded celebrity, are free graphic tranl-
lations from the originals of that great mailer, in the ac-
complidiment of which he united preciliou of touch, with a
nice perception of form, charadter, and expreflion. His
manual power and command of the graver was fcarcely in-
ferior to that of his contemporary Bolfwert, and if in tafte
he was inferior to Vorfterman ; in a juft and even penetrating
obfervation of the peculiar merits of the pidure before him,
and the principles upon which thofe excellencies were pro-
duced and connefted, he was inferior to neither. Care, ob-
fervation, feeling, were pre-eminently his; and hence the truth
and vigour of his hiftorical heads. Genius, and profound
knowledge of the human figure, certainly belonged in
higher degrees of perfeftion to Vorfterman and the Bolf-
werts.

In commenting on the produdlions of this illuftrious tri-
umvirate, a foreign critic of eminence dwells with juft em-
phafis on the negleft and the importance of afcertaining
what ought to be elleemed principle in engraving, as well as
in all other arts that are with propriety fo termed ; and
when we call to mind, and apply the well-founded apliorifm
of Hippocrates, that " art is long, Ufe fhort, opportunity
fleeting, and even experiment, fometimes fallacious," it may
well fecm extraordinary that among the critics and connoif-
feurs of the Low Countries, nothing was done towards
afcertaining and publicly explaining the merits of thefe admi-
rable engravers, and that in any part of Europe, fo little has
been done in this art toward afcertaining principle at all. The
art of the ftatuary, and the fiftcr art of painting, have been
cultivated, and have flourifhed under the mild apd cheering in-
fluence of fettled laws ; their aftual progrefs, as well as oc-
cafional retrogradations, are known and un^derftood : while
engraving has been doomed to the undetefted endurance of
the wildeft anarchy ; of hcentious and contradictory prac-
tice ; and merit, demerit, and mediocrity, have alike had
their hour of idle gazing, and have alike fleeted from that
fteady critical comment which (hould have marked the ftages
of the progrefs of the art.

Some writers have idly aflerted that Rubens occafionally
worked on the plates of thefe artifts. The fact is, (as we
have reported in our fhort notice of the etchings of this
mafter), that Rubens had fo little pretenfions of this kind,
indeed was fo far from pofteffing any power over the graver,
that the few touches that were wanting after corrofion, to
the completion of his plates, were fupplied by his friends
Vorfterman, Bolfwert, or Pontius. The error has origi-

nated from its having been the cuftom of thefe artifts, for Ru-
bens to revife and touch from time to time upon trial-proofs
that were taken to afcertain the engraver's progrefs: in doing
which, as thefe engravers worked after Rubens and Van-
dyke, with the freedom and fellow-feeling of friends, not
with the fervility of (laves, it was fometimes found necef-
fary to vary the chiarofcuro from the original piftures, m
order that when the local colours were abllrafted, tlie fpec-
tator's perceptive faculties fliould be impreiTed or operated
upon, in a fimilar manner, and conlequently his mind af-
fefted in the fame way, as by the combinations of colour with
light and (hade in the original pictures : for, paradoxical
though ic may appear, it is clear that thefe men of genius
thought and felt thus upon the f\ibjeft, nor is it lefs clear to
thofe wlio ftudioully compare the engravings of thefe mailers
with Rubens' original piftures, that they were right in fo
thinkin"-.

o

The following engravings, from the hand of P. Pontius,
are defervedly held in confiderable eftimation.

Porlrails after Vaiidyhe. — Paul Pontius, engraved by
himfelf ; fir Peter Paul Rubens ; James de Breuck, archi-
tedl ; John Wildens ; John vans Ravellein ; Palamede Pa-
lamcdelTcn ; Theodore Vanioo ; Theodore Ronibouts ; Ge-
rard Honthorft ; Henry van Balen ; Adrian Stalbent ;
Gerard Segher ; Simon de Vos ; Daniel Mytens ; Gafpar
de Crayes ; and Martin Pcpyn ; all celebrated artiils of
Antwerp. Gafpar Gevartius, juris-conlulte ; and Nicholas
Rockok, niagiftrate of Antwerp ; John van den Wouwer,
counle'.ior to the king of Spain ; C^far Alexander Scaglia,
abbe of Staphard ; Guftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden ;
Mary of Medicis, queen of France ; Emanuel Frocas Pe-
rera, count of Feria ; Francis Thomas, of Savoy, prince
of Carignano ; John, count of NafTau, general to the king
of Spain ; Don Alvarez, marquis of Santa Cruz, and go-
vernor of the Low Countriet; ; Don Carlos, of Colonna, (a
Spamih general ;) Don Diego Philip de Gufman, marquis
of Leganez, and Spanidi general ; Mary, princefs d'Arem-
berg ; Henry, count de Berghe ; Cornehus van den Geeft;
and Balthafar Gerbier, minifter from the court of Spain to
that of England, all of folio aimenfions ; Frederic Henry,
prince of Orange ; and Francis Thomas of Savoy, prince of
Carignano, both in large folio.

Portraits after Ritlcns. — Sir Peter Paul Rubens ; Gafpar
Gevaerto, juris-confulte ; Ladiflaus Sigifmond, prince of
Poland and Sweden, all in folio ; Philip IV. king of Spain;
and its companion, Elizabeth of Bourbon, his queen, (the
beft impreflions of thefe portraits are before the name of
G. Hendrix, was inferted ;) Ehzabeth Clara Eugenia,
infanta of Spain ; Ferdinand, cardinal, infanta of Spain,
and governor of the Low Countries ; Gafpar Gufman,
duke of Olivares, a very fine portrait, done from a copy by
Rubens, of a pifture of Velafquez, all in large folio ; and
a fet of three, in folio, very fine and rare portraits, of Chrif-
toval, marquis of Callel-Rodrigo ; Manuel de Moura Cor-
tereal, marquis of the fame place ; and a Spanifh lady,
adorned with a necklace of precious ftones ; the mother of
Manuel of Callel-Rodrigo.

Portraits from •various other Painters. — Raphael d'Urbino,
in the collume of his age ; Ambrofius, count of Homes,
after F. de Nys ; Abel Servien, count de la Roche des
Aubins, and miniller plenipotentiary to the court of Mun-
fter, after Anf van HuUe ; and John de Heem, a painter
of Utrecht, after John Lyvins, all of folio dimenfions.

Hijlorical Subjects, after Rubens. — " Sufanna furprifed by
the Elders;"/ "The Adoration of the Shepherds,'' (a cir-
cular plate,) both in large folio ; " The Slaughter of the
1 1 Innocents,''

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Innocents," a very large print, lengthways, on two plates;
" The Prefentation in the Temple," a fine plate ; " Chrili
bearing his Crofs ;'' an allegorical piece, known by tbe ap-
pellation of « The Chrift of the Clenched Fill," becaufe
one of the angels who are overthrowing Sin and Death has
his fill clenched, a very fine engraving; "The Madre Do-
lorofa, or Dead Body of Chrili on the Lap of the Holy
Virgin," and " The Dcfcent «f the Hely Glioft, or Mi-
racle of the Cloven Tongues," all of large folio fize ;
" The Holy Spirit fubduing the Flelli," (an allegorical
fubjeft,) a very rare print, in folio: a large folio print,
called " Rubens's Epitaph," from a pifture in the church
of St. James, at Antwerp. The fubjeft is a religious
allegory, in which Rubens himfelf appears in the cha-
racter of St. George. A head of Chrili, in an oval, of
foho fize ; " The AlTi.mption," in large folio ; " The Co-
ronation of the Virgin," one of the latter engravings of
Pontius, in folio ; " The Virgin fucklingthe Infant Jefus,"
a rare print, in oflavo ; " The Holy Family,'' where the
Infant Jefus is careffing his mother, half-length figures ;
" Chrift appearing to St. Roch," with " Eris in pefte
Patronus" infcribed on a banner, a fine print, and engraved
from a pifture which is efteemed among the very fineft of
the works of Rubens ; a very large and rare engraving, in
which real and allegorical perfonages are oddly afTociated,
a la Rubens, for the fake of complimenting the princes
of the houfe of Aultria and the Cordeliers ; and a very
large upright print, of " The Difpute between Neptune
and Mmerva," dedicated to pope Urban VIII.

Hiflorkal, i^c. after various Painters. — " The Flight into
Egypt," after Jac. Jordaens, (the beft impreffions of the
engraving are before the name of Bloteling was inferted ;)
"The Feftival of the Kings" after the fame painter, a
fine engraving ; " The Adoration of the Kings," after
Gerard Seghers, all in large folio ; " The Virgin and Holy
Infant, accompanied by St. Anne," in folio ; " St. Francis
Xavier, prollrate before the Virgin and Child," a circular
print; "St. Sebaftian, and an Angel drawing an Arrow
from his Side," all from G. Seghers ; " The Dead Body
of Our Saviour on the Lap of the Virgin,' or, "Madre
Dolorofa," after Vandyke, all in large folio ; " St. Her-
manus Jofeph," from a pifture painted for the Jefuits of
Antwerp, and now in the royal gallery at Vienna ; " St.
Rofalia, receiving a Crown from the Infant Jefus," both
from the fame painter, in foho ; " The Holy Family," after
John van Hack ; and " The Entombing of Chrift," after
Titian, in large folio.

Of merit very inferior to that of his father, was Lucas
Vorfterman the younger; he was born at Antwerp in the
year 1600, and learned the elements of engraving under his
paternal roof. He alfo praftifed the art of drawing por-
traits from the life. But though he fcarcely reached above
mediocrity in either art, his productions, of which the fol-
lowing are thofe moft worthy of efteem, are fought after
by the curious.

Lucas Vorfterman, the father, from Ant. Vandyke, in
folio; "The Virgin Mary," ftie is reprefented in the
clouds, and furrounded by angels ; " Chrift crowned with
Thorns, and mocked by the Jews," both in quarto, after
Vandyke; "The Trinity,'' after Rubens, in folio; the
fable of " The Satyr and his Gueft, who blew hot and
■-old,' in large folio, nearly fquare, after Jacques Jorda-
ens ; part of the plates for the large folio " "Treatife on
Horfemanftiip,' by the duke of Newcaftle ; feveral of the
plates from the gallery of the archduke Leopold, at Bruf-
fels, which v/ere publilhed by David Teniers, the younger:
and part of the coliedion of drawings of Nicholas Lanier,

Vol XXI.

a mufician and amateur of the reign of Charles I. Thi«
latter fet is, perhaps, the beft part of the works of the
younger Vorfterman.

Peter Soutman was born at Haerlem in the year 1580,
or not long afterward, and became the difciple of Rubens.
Befide etching and engraving, he painted both hiftory and
portraits with fuccefs, and was patronized, not only in
Flanders, but alfo in Germany and Poland.

We have a great number of prints by this artift, both
from his own compofitions and thofe of other painters, par-
ticularly his great niafter, Rubens. They are for the moft
part etched, and with great fpirit, not all in the fame ftyle,
but under the influence of the different notions and feelings
which from time to time appeared to have prevailed, as he
endeavoured to explore the capabilities of a new art, in
which the practice of his predeceffors and contcmporarie*
fhewed him that there remained much to difcover. He is
like an early voyager, who fometimes warily coafts the lands
whicii others have touched at before him, and fometimes
with better hopes and bolder navigation pufhes forth into
unknown regions, obfcurely guided by the dubious bear-
ings of the headlands which he fancies he has defcried.
Watelet fays his ftyle is, in fome inttances, contrary to the
theory of the art, though as no fyftem of principle was
then fettled, or is even yet afcertained, he can only mean
that in thofe inftances it is oppofite to the prafticc of cer-
tain engravers, whofe works had obtained the praife of fuch
reputable and eftablifhed connoifi"eurs as Watelet himfelf. He
continues, " but his prints always convey an idea of the
foftnefs of flefh, and the colouring of the piilures from
which they are taken. He engraved in a pure ftyle, with
the fame merits and faults as I have remarked in his etch-
ings." And Strutt, with perhaps a perception fomewhat
clearer of Soutman's intentions, informs his readers that
" Soutman feems to have aimed at giving a ftriking elfeft.
by keeping all the maffes of light broad and clear ; but by
carrying this idea too far, almoft all his prints have a flight
unfinillied appearance, though the engraving is, in itfelf,
fufficiently neat. There is the ftyle (of drawing) of the
mafter in the treatment of the heads and other extremities of
his figures," &c. &c.

For the fake of not difconnefting thofe artifts who moft dif-
tinguiftied themfelves by their attainment of that particular
merit which moft llrongly charafterifes the fchool of the
Netherlands, and who fliould therefore be contemplated to-
gether, we have placed Soutman a httle behind his chro-
nological rank ; but it ftiould be recollefted to his credit,
that Vorfterman was his fellow pupil, and that, in all pro-
bability, the enterprifing prow of our artill, and the beacons
he fet up, at once ftimulated and taught Pontius and the
Bolfwerts when and where to launch forth, and how to
traverfe, with leaft danger, the unfathomed ocean of their
art.

Of the engravings of Soutman, it may be fuffieient, is
this place, to mention the following.

Portraits. — Joannes Wolferdus de Brederod, gener. Mar-
fchalcus Belgii confederati ; Gerard von Honthoril pinx ;
the armouries of Orange Naffau, furrounded with trophies
and allegorical figures ; the frontifpicce to the portraits of
the counts of Flanders; Soutman pinx. et fculp. ; theem-
paror Adolphus of Nalfau ; the em.profs of Ferdinand II,,
queen of Hungary and Bohemia, both from Van Sompel ;
John the Intrepid, count of Flanders ; and Phihp IV. king
of Spain and the Indies, all in large folio.

Hijhrical, i^c. — " The Fall of the Damned," a large

upright, after Rubens, the early impreffions of which are

known from thofe fubfequently printed, by their havina

3 P bee^

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

been taken before tlie addrefs of the junior Bouttats was in-
fcribcd Ijeneath the plate ; " The Defeat of the Army of
Sennacherib by the exterminating Angel," alfo after Ru-
bens, and in large folio ; " Jcfus grving the Keys to St.
Peter," from Raphael; "The miraculous Draught of
Fifhes," from Rubens, all in large folio; "The Lalt Sup-
per," a very long print, engraved on two plates, from the
celebrated picture of Da Vnici, in the refeftory of the Do-
ininicaiis at Milan, engraved through the medium of a
dra«fing by Rubens ; " Chrill on the Crofs," after Ru-
bens, of which plate it is very uncommon to find a good
imprefTion ; " Chrifl. laid in the Sepulchre." The firit im-
prefiions of this plate being very faint, Widoeck worked
afterwards on the plate, to give it more effect. " The
Creation of a Billiop," all in folio; " The Rape of Pro-
ferpine ;" " The Triumph of Venus," in large folio ; and
" A drunken Silenus, ' fnpportcd by a fatyr and a negrefs,
all after Rubens ; " The Grand Sultan on Horfeback," at-
tended by his principal oificers at the head of his army, in
folio, from a piAure by Soutman himlelf ; a fet of four
large hunting pieces, nasnely, the chace of a lion and
lioneis, ditto of a wolf, ditto of a boar, and ditto of a
crocodile and hippopotamus, engraved on two plates, all
after Rubens ; " A couchant Venus," after Titian ; and
•' St. Francis kneeling before a Crucifix," from Michael
Angelo, both of folio lize.

Sneyders was flourifliing at this period, and contributed
to the advancement of engraving by a book of animals,
which he etched with a degree of truth and animation cor-
refponding with what we beheld with fo much pleafure in
his pitlures. His etchings confilt, we believe, of fixteen
plates, which are not all of the fame dimenllons. For the
biography of this extraordinary artift, fee the article
Sneyders, Francis.

John Vredifnan Frifius was born at Leuwarde in the year
1527. He was an architeft of loine talent, as well as an
engraver ; and is the defigner of the arch erefted at Ant-
werp, in honour of the triumphal entry of Charles Vt and
Lis fon. The principal engravings of the elder Frifius are
•ontained in a book of fepulchral monuments, which are
prefumptively from his own defigns. The work was pub-
lifhed at Antwerp, A.D. 1563. His ilyle confifts of a
coarle and heavy mixture of etching, with the work of the
graver.

Related to the above artift were John EiUart Frifius and
Simon Frifius : the former is the author of fome few por-
traits, among which are thofe of Henry IV. of France, and
Henry of NaiTau, prince of Orange ; both of which are
folio dimenfioDS.

But Simon Frifius was an artift of abilities very fuperior
to thofe of his relatives. He was born at Leuwarde in
Fxiefland, A.D. 1580, and learned the rudiments of en-
graving of EiUart, or of Vredifnan. He handled the
etching-needle with great tafte and facility ; and his etchings
are now become rare, and are much fought after. Abram
Boffe fay.<!, " Simon Frifius handled the point with great
ireedom, and. his hatchings pofiefs the firmnefs and neatnefs
of engraving." He adds, (what we do not Very well un-
derftand,) that " this artift made ufe of a foft kind of
■varnilh,. iuch .as is ufed by refiners in the feparation of
laetals."

He fometimes fubfcribed his plates with " F. fecit;"
ard at others, with his initials " S. F. ;" and his beft prints,
are a fet of heads of the fybils and faints, in 4to., from his
own defigns; a fet of portraits, after H. Hondius, in fmall
folio ; a large collection of folio landfcapes, after Matthew
Briil, entitled ." Topogiaphia variorum Regionumj" two

landfcapes, from Henry Goltzius, of which the fubje£t of
one (of 4to. fize) is a cottage and figures on the fca-ftiore,
the other is an architectural landfcape in foho, with figures,
in the introdudlion and execution of which Frifius was par-
ticularly excellent ; another iandfcape, in which is intro-
duced the ftory of Tobit and the angel, after P. Laftmann ;
another, with the flight into Egypt ; and a very rare Iand-
fcape, delicately engraven, wherein are buildings and ruftic
figures, in large folio.

James Foiiguieres and Jodocus de Momper, or Mompert,
were both born at Antwerp in the year 15S0. For an ac-
count of their merits as landicape painters, fee their names
refpeclively. Both occafionally practilcd wich fuccefs the
art of ctchirg ; working from their own compofitions.
Fouguicres' eicliings are not numerous, and confilt of fmall
landfcapes : Mompert's are fomewhat l;u-ger, and one in
particular, which is now become rare, is a large folio land-
Icape, a rocky icene, and etched in a very bold llyle, quite
in the extreme of boldncfs.

Adrian Stalbent Was alfo of Antwerp, and contemporary
with Fouguieres and Mompert. He refided for fome years
in England, from whence he returned rich ; though it may
reafonably be fnfpedted whether, at this period, his riches
could have been obtained in this country by painting and
etching landfcapes. He, however, continued to paint and
etch in the city of Antwerp, until he attained to upwards of
fourfcore years of age.

Of his etchings, the beft with which we arc acquainted is
a foho landlcape of the ruins of a magnificent Englilh abbey,
with fiieep on the fore-ground ; it is infcribed " Adrianus
van Stalbent fecit in aqua forti."

James William Delft was the fon of William James, of
whom we have fpoken in our account of the Origin and PrO'
gt-e/s of English Engraving. He was born in the year
1619, at Delft, and died in the fame city in 1661. He
learned the elements of painting and engraving of his father,
vvhofe ftyle he always copied, and which, with the fimilarity
of their names, has occafioned their works to be often con-
founded. He engraved a fet of portraits in ovals, of folio
fize, of which the following are the moft remarkable :
Charles I. of England; queen Elizabeth; Ferdinand 1\.
emperor of Germany ; Frtdcrick, palatine, king of Bo-
hemia ; Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, count ot Naftaii
Katzenellenbogen ; Gultavus Adolphus, king of Sweden ;
James, king of England; Louis XIII. of France; Axel
Oxenftiern, a Svvedilh miniller ; Philip HI. of Spain;
Philip IV. of Spain ; Ambrofius Spinola ; and Vladiflas IV.
king of Poland.

John Savary, or Savery, was born at Courtray in the
year 1580. He ftudied engraving under Hans Bol, refided
during moft part of his life at Amfterdam, and was related
to John and Roland Savery, who were both painters, and
to Solomon Savery the engraver, of whom we ftiall next
proceed to fpeak.

The following engravings are all we can fpecify by the
hand of this artift, who was alfo a Iandfcape painter : a fet
of fix mountainous landfcapes, with figures, in 4to., after
Nic. de Clerc ; a ftag hunt, with a landlcape back-ground,
ill folio ; the ftory of Sanipfon killing the lion, introduced in
a Iandfcape, in large folio ; and a w oody fcene, with a water-
fall, in folio.

Solomon Savery is believed to have been a native of Am-
fterdam : the time of his birth we have not afcertained ; but
as his engravings were produced from the year 1620 to 1640,
he was perhaps tl?e fon and pupil of John Savery, whom we
have jnft difmiifed. He is fuppcfed to have pafTed fome
years of his life in England ; a luppofition which appeai-s to
J be

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

be confirmed by the circumftance of his principal works
be n^ portraits of the public charaiSers of this country.
But be this as it may, his merits were very coiifiderable.
He handled his graver with tafte, and a degree of fltill wh.ich
had not then been exceeded ; and exprcfTed the texture-
of the various objefts, which he reprefentcd, v/i;h nice
difcrimination ; of which his portrait of John Speed the liif-
torian, among feveral others, affords a pleafing and fatis-
faftory proof. Kis portraits are probably his bed per-
formances, though his hillorical fubjedls are not without a
confiderable (hare of merit.

Among thefe may be diftinguifhed king Charles I.,
■wherein Savevy appears to have engraved the face from a
pifture by Vandyke, and to have added the high-crowned
hat, and compofed the other accompaniments ; Thomas,
lord Fairfax, and Speed the chronicler, of which we have
Ipokcn above, have alfo their heads covered with hats, to
which circumftance our engraver appears to have been
partial, as giving effeiS: to the faces of his portraits, and
affording fqope for the exercife of his manual power over his
graver.

His bell hiftorical works are, " Chrift expelling the
Money-changers, Sec. from the Temple," in lar.je folio,
from Rembrandt; feventeen plates for Ovid's Metamor-
phofes ; and a feries of fmall plates of frieze proportions, of
" The Entry of Mary de Medicis into Amfterdam."

James de Bie, or de Bve, was born at Antwerp in the
year ijSi, and not only diftingui;1:ed himfelf as en engraver,
but alfo as a draftfir.an asd an antiquary. He lludicd on-
graving in the fchool of the Colberts, and fuccefsfuUy imi-
tated their ttyle ; finiflting his plates entirely with the graver
in a neat, clear, and determined manner.

De Bye drev.- correftly. The heads of his figures poffefs
confiderable accuracy of character and expreflion, and their
hands and feet are well marked ; bnt from his lights being
fo much fcattered, and his fhadows fomewhat feeble, his
chiarofcuro is by no means powerful. His prints, how-
ever, may rank with thofe of the bell early Flemifh mafters.
He, with his contemporary Battilla Barbe, afTuled the
CoUaerts in engraving " The Life and Paffion of Chrift,"
fiom Martin de Vos. The work confitts of fifty plates, of
which N i8, (■' The heahng of Peter's Mother-in-Law,")
and N 30, (" The Refurreclion of Lazarus,") are fine
fpecimens of the abilities of de Bye, efpecially the latter.

He alfo engraved the medals of the Roman emperors,
from the cabinet of the duke d'Arfchot, which were ori-
ginally publifhed in the year 1617, and of which an edition
was reprinted at Berlin in 1705 ; a -medallic hiftory of the
kin^-s, queens, and dauphins of France ; another fet of the
portraits of the kings of France, from Clovis to Loui.-. XHI.,
copiiiling of fixty-four plates, of which fifty-eight are por-
trait's ; the genealogy and portraits of the houfe of Croix,
on fixtv folio plates ; the portrait of Francis I. of France, in
folio, afcer M. de Vos ; and a fet of metaphyfical perfonifi-
cations from his own defigns, publilhcd at Paris in 164J,
with esplanationi; by J. Baadouin.

Mark and Nicholas de Bye were of the fame family with
our artift, but are not worthy of much notice asv engravers.
Mark performed fome etchings, after P. Potter and M.
Gerard ; and Nicholas engraved portraits, among the beft
of which is Charles IX. king of France.

Peter Lallman was born at Haerleni in the year 1581.
He was an hiftorical uainter of merit, and is reported to
Mave been one of the inftrufiors of Rembrandt. Laftman
etched fes'eral plates after his own compofitions, in a very
good talle, which are at prefent very rare : of thefe we can
only fpecify two, the fubjetts of which are " Judah and

Tamar," introduced into a landfcape, in fmall folio ; aiij
a female veiled, reclining in a bower, in 4.to.

Nicholas Laftman was the fon of Peter, and born at
Haerlem in 1619. He was inftruflod in the elements of
printing, and the general rudiments of art, by John Pinas ;
and it is probable he learned engraving from Saenredam.
Among other things, he engraved the portrait of Carl von
Mander," after Saenredam, in 4to. ; " Our Saviour in the
Garden of Olives," after his father, in large folio ; " St.
Peter delivered from Prifon by the Angel," after J. Pinas ;
and its companion, " The Martyrdom of St. Peter," both
in fmall folio ; " The Good Samaritan," from a pifture by
himfelf, is probably his chef-d'auvre. The ftory is intro-
duced in a very piflurefque landfcape, towards the right
fide of which appears a ftone-bridge over a river, along
which the uncharitable priell and Levite are walking.
" This print is very little known, though it deferves great
attention from the tafte and beauty of the execution." So
fays Huber : but what we have not witneffed, we cannot
confirm ; and what we have feen from the graver of Laft-
man, though neat, are taftelefs produftionf.

For the biography and extraordinary merits, as painters,
of the two Tenicrs, fee the articles Texiers, David, the
elder, and the younger. They each produced feveral
etchings from their own compofitions, which go to fhew
that very great painters may pofiibly m.ake but indifferent
engravers. By this is not meant that their etchings are de-
void of fire and freedom ; but that they fall fhort of what
might naturally be expefted from the high reputation which
is juftly attached to the name of Teniers, and particularly
in that paftoral elegance of touch and handling, which con-
fers poetic charms on their painted village feilivities, in
fpite of the caprices of faftiion, and the royal French tafte
of Louis XIV., who, when an admirable picture of the
younger Teniers was placed before him, is reported to have
turned round and fald to his firtl valet-de-chambre, " Qu'on
m'ote ces magots !" which of courfe was echoed in the ap-
plaufes of the whole French court.

The etchings of the Teniers find, however, a very proper
and indeed indilpenfable place in the port-folios of thofe
connoifTeurs, who collect the productions in fine art of the
Netherlands. As both the father and fon marked their
prints with the fame cypher, which will be found in Phte III.
of the monograms, &c. ufcd by the engravers of the Low
Countries, it is not cafy to diltinguifti them ; but the fol-
lowing are generally afcribed to Teniers the elder ; " A
Pilgrim, with his Staff and Chaplet," in i2mo. ; " A Pea-
fant feated, applying a Plafter to his Hand ;" " A Peafant
feated at Table, with a Crutch and Glafs ;" another pea-
fant with a fnr hat on ; and one with a pipe; " An old
Woman, with a Chaplet; and " An old Man and Doj; ;"
" A Man with a Staff;" a fet of four, of peafants, half-
length ; "A German Kitchen;" another fet of peafants,
fmoking and playing at bowls, all ot oclavo fize ; and a
quarto print, called "The Bowl Players."

And to the junior Teniers are afcribed, " A Peafant
fmoking," he is feated on a cheft, and in company wkh
another ; a landfcape, with cottages and peafants con-
verfmg ; another landfcape, with four peafants converfing;
" Villagers feated round a I'irc, infide a Cabin," witli the
effedl of moon-light, all in 8vo. ; two prints of peafants
travelling; " Peafants (tooting at a Mark ;' '^ The Tempt-
ation of St. Antony;" " A Flemilh Feftival ;" " A Vil-
lage Entertainment;" three heads, apparently portraits,
namely, an old man with an hoiir-glafs, an old man playing
on a flute, and a ladv holding a (lower, fmall upright piates ;
" The Infide of a Cottage," with a dead calf hanging up,
_; P 2 and

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

and a man and a woman (landing by tlic fuk of it, a fmall
plate lengthways.

John Baptilta Barb6 was born at Antwerp in the year
1585. He iludicd engraving in the fcliool of the Wcirixcs,
and after attaining a competent maftery of the graver, and
fucccfsfully imitating the dry and elaborate neatnefs ofhisin-
ftruftors, he travelled to Italy for improvement.

No artift of that day, with genuine profeffional objefts in
view, covjd travel to Italy altogether in vain. Barbe made
confiderable improvement in his knowledge and tafte of
forms, but was not able to emancipate himfelf from the
fliackles of his earlier education.

Accordingly we find that in his latter engravings, though
his fio-ures are drawn with tolerable correftnefs, and his ex-
tremities well marked, his chiarofcuro is flat and pov/erlcfs,
and his manual execution painfully neat, dry, and infipid.
He worked with the graver only ; fometimes defigning and
inventing his own fubjefts ; and at others, working after
the originals of other mailers.

Of the former kind are " The Annunciation," infcribed
" Spiritus Sanftus ;" " The Nativity," infcribed '< Pcperit
Filium ;" " The Arrival of the holy Virgin and St. Jofepli
at Bethlehem ;" " The holy Virgin and Child," furrounded
by a garland of flowers, and infcribed " Beatus Venter/'
&c. ; " Jefus Chrift on the Mount of Olivesf" "Our
Saviour with the Difciplcs at Emmaus ;" " The Cruci-
fixion," infcribed " Protie Fili mi," &c. ; " St. Ignatius
kneeling before an Altar ;" and a fet of four emblematical
fubjeds, entitled " The Chnftian Virtues," all of fmall
dimenfions.

After various other Majlers. — Barbe engraved " The Holy
Virgin fitting at the Foot of an ancient Monument, with
the Infant Chrid and Jofeph," in fmall folio, after J. B.
Paggi, (one of his bell prints) ; another " Holy Family,"
in 4to. after Rubens, alfo in the improved ftyle of our en-
graver, and certainly a meVitorious work ; the proof im-
preffions of which (taken before the name of Rubens was
infcribed on the plate), are rare, and bear a high price. A
fet of twenty-four in i2mo. of the Life and Miracles of
Father Gabr.el Maria, founder of the Anncnciades, after
Ab. van Diepenbeck ; and " The Holy Virgin feated on a
throne with the Infant Chrift," after Francifco Frauk, in
fmall folio, and efteemed one of the mafterpieces of our
artift.

William van NieulaHt was born at Antwerp in the year
1585. He became the difciple of Roland Savery, but
after quitting his mailer he went to Rome, and refided
three years m that city with his countryman Paul Bril.
He afterwards returned to the Low Countries, and took up
his refidence a" Amllerdam, where his pitlures were held in
high eftimation, and where he died in the year 1635.

Nieulant etched fevcral plates of landicapes, both from
his own defigns and thofe of Paul Bril. They are executed
in a flight free ftyle, and often worked upon afterward with
the graver, to harmonife the lights, and ftrengthen the
malTes of ftiadow.

Among the etchings of this artift, the following are held
m raoft eftecm, -vn. a fet of fixty, of views in Italy, orna-
ir.ented with figures. Tv.-o landfcapes with ruins, into one
of which is introduced the ftory of the good Samaritan,
and in the other Tobit and the angel, both in folio,
from P. Bril. Two marine fubjefts, one with ftiepherds on
the fea-fhore, and the other with veffels, and a fortrefs on a
rock, from the fame painter; " The Ruins of the Temple
of Juno, in the Capitol ;" " The Ruins of the Temple of
Venus ;" " A View of the Triumphal Arch of Septimus
SeveruSj" all in folio ; and the three bridges acrofs the

Tiber, with views of the city of Rome, engraved on three

large plates, from hij own drawings.

William fhould not be confounded with Adrian van Nieu-
lant, a latidfcape painter of fome eminence, who was likewife
a native of Antwerp, and who died at Amftcrdam in the
year 1601.

Peter HolRein was born at Haerlem in the year 1582, and
refided in Holland at the commencement of the fcventeenth
century. He occafionally praclitcd the art of painting on
glafs ; but was chiefly an engraver of portraits, among the
chief of which are a fet of twenty-fix of the plenipotentiary
minifters of Munfter ; John Saenredam, and Jacob vander
Burchius, both in ovals ; Fabius Chifi, a negotiator for
peace from Weftphalia, afterwards pope Alexander VII. ;
John Erneft Pictoris, a counfcUor of the eleflor of Saxony ;
all of 4to. fize ; John Hiiydecooper, burgomafter of the
city of Amfterdam; .lohn Reyner, hiftoriogrKphcr for Mun-
fter ; Conftantius Sohier ; and Albert Vinkcnbrink, a
fculptor of Amfterdam ; all in folio.

Cornelius Holftein was likewife born at Hafrlem in the
year 1620, and was the fon of the preceding arlill, ot whona
he learned the elements of art. He painted hillory with a
moderate degree of fuccefs. He likewife eiicraved fome
fubjetts from his own defigns, and fcveral of the plates for
the cabinet of Gerard Reynft, a magittrate and connoifTcur
of Ainllerdam. Yet of his engravings we are able to nam^-
only the following : a bacchanalian fubjeft, of children at
play, forming a long frieze, engraved on fix plates, a very
rare print ; and a female feated, ornamented with jewels,
fuppofed to be the portrait of Ifabella, marchionefs of
Mantua, from a pifture by Correggio, or Julio Romano ;
engraved on a large folio plate for the cabinet of Reynfl.

Peter van der Borcht was born at Bruffels in the year
1540. The period of his life has not been recorded, but
he appears to have refided in his native city, except, perhaps,
occafionally in that of Antwerp, til! fome years after the
commencement of the fucceeding century.

He acquired fome reputation in landfcapc painting, but
applied himfelf to etching with ftill greater affiduity, and
produced a confiderable number of prints, moft of which
may be properly termed hiftorical landfcapes. They art-
etched with little care, in a rough and licentious kind of
ftyle, and the figures which are introduced are by no means
corredtly drawn.

Though the works of this artift manifeft great fertihty of
invention, they evince no very profound knowledge of com-
pofition, nor perception of the fufceptibilities of the en-
graver's art, and, therefore, but httlc judgment. He
ufually marked his prints with his initials, or a monogram,
which^will be found in our third plate of thofe ufed by
the engravers of the Low Countries.

Of the numerous works of this artiil, it may fuffice
to mention the following : — The Hillory of Elias and
Elijah, in ovals of 4to. fize. A fet of landfcapes, with
fubjefts from the New and Old Teftanicnts, in 410.
Rural feftivals, in folio ; a company of archers re^
galing ; a peafant's wedding, both in folio. A land-
scape with the hiftory of Hagar and Ifhmael, in large
folio ; a folio print, entitled " Emblemata facra e prseci-
puis utriufque Teflamenti hiftoriis concinnata ;" and a fet
of one hundred and forty plates, from Ovid's meta-
morphofes, in 4to. ; printed and publifhed at Antwerp by
Theodore Galle.

Henry van der Borcht, the elder, was born at Bruffels,

A.D. 1583, and died at Frankfort in 1 660, where his family

were obliged to feek an afylum from the political troubles

which agitated their native country. His {atbcr, on dilcover-

I ing

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

ing his taftc for the arts, placed;him under Giles Valkenbourg,
from w!iom he learned the rudiments of art, and whom he
afterward accompanied to Italy.

Italy was at that period at once the grave and conferva-
tory of ancient art ; and fculptural wonders were every day
dug from the ruins of the claflical ages. The knowledge
and opportunities of vander Borcht during his refidence in
that country, enabled him to form a collection, which the
Enghfh earl of Arundel had afterward the honour of pur-
chaiing.

From Italy our artift returned to Frankenthal, where he
refided fome time, and afterwards migrated to England, but
finally returned to the Netherlands. His portrait was en-
graven by Hollar, from a piAure by his fon, who, being of
the fame name as his father, is often confounded with him ;
but the engravings which are moft generally afcribed to the
former, are " The Holy Virgin and Child,'' after Parme-
giano, engraved at London in 1637, in fmall folio. "A
Dead Chrill, before the Entrance of the Sepulchre," 1114^0.
after a copy b)' Parmegiano trom Rafphael's original, in the
Arundelian coUeftion. And a fet of twenty-two in fmall
folio, of which the fubjects difplay the entrance of the
eleftor palatine Frederic, with Ehzabeth, the princefs royal
of England, into Frankenthal. It was accompanied with
defcriptions by Miroul, and was pubUlhed in the year
1613.

Henry vander Borcht, the younger, was born at Franken-
thal in the year 1620, and was the fon of the preceding
artift. At an early period of life he appears to have dif-
covered talents both as an artift and an antiquary. The
earl of Arundel, when on his travels, found Henry at
Frankfort, and fent him into Italy to Mr. Petty, who was
then coUefting art and antiquities for his lordfhip, and hence
he was retained in the fervice of that nobleman as long as
he lived.

After the death of his patron, Van der Borcht was em-
ployed by the prince of Wales, (afterwards Charles II.)
and lived in efteem at London, but afterwards returned to
Antwerp, where he died at an advanced age. The portrait
of Vander Borcht, the younger, was engraved by Hollar,
after J. Meyfens, and his monogram will be found among
thofe of our engravers of the Low Countries.

The following engravings, which are chiefly from the
ArundeUan colledion, are attributed to him. " Abraham
entertaining the three Angels," after Louis Caracci ; " The
Infant Chrift embracing St. John," copied from a print by
Guide ; " A female Figure offering a Cup to another who is
kneeling,'' after Correggio ; and " Apollo and Cupid," in
an oval ; all of 410. fize. This artift ufed a monogram, for
which fee our Plate III. of thofe ufed by the engravers of
the Low Countries.

Count Henry Goudt, of whom we fhall next treat, is
among the rare inftances that art may boaft, and that For-
tune in her caprice has allowed us to exhibit, the tenour of
whofe life and purfuits is in diredt hoftihty to an un-
generous and immoral maxim, which, promulgated by the
proad and unfeeling among lax philofophers, has obtained
but too much credit and currency throughout Europe.

The maxim to which we here allude, is, that the goad-
ings of fhe iron (which fophiftry has mifnamed the golden)
fpur of neceflity is indifpenfable to the due progrefs of
genius. Count Goudt was born in affluent circumftances,
and of a noble family, and yet became a great artift, as
well as an exemplary man.

Among that clafs of fociety, toward which meritorious
profeffors of the fine arts are allowed to look for patronage
and encouragement, are fome— always more confiderable

from their rank and infectious example, than from then-
numbers— that would juftify the perverfion of riches and
of rcafoning, by perverting Nature alfo, and who, miftak-
ing what might pofiibly be applicable to the exertions of
•mere manual iiiduftry, for the fprings of mental cxpanfion,
imagine, and inculcate with all the luxurious languor of in-
finite complacency, that the plants of genius thrive beft in
a rugged foil ; that the chilling damps of poverty fupply
the ardours of talent ; that ftarvation is the very pabulum
of ability ; and that mind foars the higher for being chained
to the earth. Before thefe intellectual arithmeticians of
exquifite feeling and refined liberality, proceed to calculate
by what inverle ratio of difcouragement the apotheofis of
genius may be confummated in the cxtinftion of its final
fpark, it might be well for them to attend to the leading
traits which mark the life of this diftinguilhed enoraver.

Henry de Goudt, knight of the palatinate, and ufually
called (but whether by courtcfy or by right we are igno-
rant) count Goudt, was born of a noble family at Utrecht,
in the year 1 5 85.

Among the few profeflions which, from the ftate of Euro-
pean manners and philofophy, are allotted to gentlemen of a
certain rank, young Goudt obferved, that in the army officers
were, by the very nature of the tenure by which they held
their commiffions, obliged to refign the nobleft charafteriftic
of their nature as men, — namely, the privilege of judging
for themfelves ; and refign it too, in cafes touching the lives
and liberties of others, which of all poffible cafes are the
moft interefting and important to minds of feeling. Young,
and aftive-mindod, but tender-minded, as he was, he could
not but perceive, that foldiers became at once, from the effen-
tial natiue of military fervice, that degraded rank of beings,
which philofophic patriotifm itfelf reluctantly glances at, and
almoft fears to caD the flavifh inftruments of the deftruftion
of their fellow men. A ftate of fociety, and a principle
of mental and corporeal occupation, which converts the hor.
ror of philanthropy into the bafis sf merit ; which requires
that men, for the fake of being termed mihtary officers,
and the falfe glory that accrues from it, fhould abdicate
their own natural rights and powers of reafoning on the
juftice of the caufes of national quarrel in favour of heredi-
tary rulers, however feeble-mmded, or ignorant, or ill advifed,
was not, could not be, the voluntary choice of a mind at-
tuned to the harmonies of art and nature.
- In the church, our uncontaminated youth faw, that though
religion was not denied to be an affair between individual
man and his Creator, yet that no public teacher might think
and acl for himfelf, unlefs he voluntarily embraced the tram-
mels of epifcopacy, without incurring the reproach and the
penalties of heterodoxy.

The law was repulfive, ifiafmuch as principle was rather
overwhelmed and endangered, than recognized and refreftied,
and fuftained, in acts of memory and the fophifms of rhe-
toric.

Of the ftudy and pradlice of medicine, Goudt might with
juftice think much more favourably : yet, to produce good,
was better than to remedy evil. But in preferring and fol-
lowing the proper objefts of imitative art, to which it may
have been, that the natural bent of his genius ftill more inclined
him than this procefs of ratiocination, he anticipated the lofty,
and independent, and virtuous, fatisfaftion of contributing
the utmoft of his pleafuiable exertions, free from the re-
ftraints of human tyranny, to the pleafure and improvement
of his countrymen : and as he could do this with dignity
and d-light, he hefitated not long in refolving to become an
artift ; and with this view, and ample means of accomplifh-
ing his object, he fet forth on his travels to Italy, at that
1 i time

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

time the great iiicropoUtan temple, the fanftified centre of
pilgrimage, where, from all parts of the civilized world, met
the devotees ot art.

The wonders of Rome, the miracles of art which he there
beheld, called forth all his eiithiiiiaf'.Ti ; but taught him to
hope humbly. He applied himfelf with afilduity to the
praclical iludy ot art ; and drew diligently m the Roman
fchools : but under what matter he learned the rudiments
of engraving is not known. Nor is it furpriling that the
progrefs of his improvements was rapid ; for this will ever
be liie cafe ivherf the mind of a ihident is operated upon
by pleafurable ilmiuli alone, and is free from the rellraints
and pecuniary obftrudlioiis by which the advancement of a
large majority ot artiils is fadly retarded.

In this great metropolis, furrounded and pervaded as it is
"by an highly falubrious atmofphere of art, every mind de-
voted to fuch purfuits, freelv infpires and imbibes what is
congenial to its nature. Adam EKliiemer of Franckfort,
of whom we have treated in vol. xiii., had been ftudying
there for fome years whi-n our young artilt arrived, and the
admiration with which he beheld the works of that great
painter, gradually brought them acquainted.

Another circumftance contributed much to increafe their
intimacy. The misfortunes of EKhiemer had been pitied,
but not-rehcvod. Goudt had the happinefs of releafing him
from prifou, and of becoming at once the firm friend, pupil,
and generous henefaftar of the man in the world, to whom,
of r.ll others, he looked up with the mofl heartfelt reve-
rence.

From this period he ftudied ur;der the direftion of El-
{hiemer, and appears to have exclulively devoted himfelf to
the taflc of engraving after his piftures. We know not of
a (ingle work of Goudt's that is engraved after any othe*
mafter.

From this period, too, his peculiar talent for engraving
began to develope itfelf. By comparing nature with the
exquifite produftions of his mafter, he formed an original
ftyle of engraving, in moll. (though we thirik not in all) re-
fpefts perredlly homogeneous with that of Elfhieiner's paint-
ing, and v.'hich difcovers deep and clear infight into the
recondite energies of the engraver's art. No man before
Goudt had produced thofe bright, fudden, and power-
ful eflefts of chiaro-fcuro, which we behold with fo much
gratification in his fire, moon, and torch, lights, from wh'ch
the engravers of the prefent, and of after ages, may flndy
with advantage. No man, like EKhiemer, had dipped his
pencil in the depth of night, and in the dawn of morning.
And no man before Goudt, and fcarcely any fince, lias been
able to fuggeft, in his engravings, the lliades between du-
bious and pclitive colour wliich tlien prevail.

His " Aurora" is, in this refpeft, a perfect mailer-piece.
The fcene is a bird's-eye view, or rather a view from an
eminence, over a hilly and extenfive country : bi.l the frcfh-
nefs of a fummer's morning, at the early hour of day-break,
is rendered with poetic feHcity. It is, in the words of Gray,
an

• " incenfe-brcathing morn."

^nd the charmed fpeftator fees the miftn exhaling, and
liilens wiri a poet'^ ear to the hymn of inanimate nature.

All had hitherto been enjoyment with connt Goudt.
As Virtue beckoned him forward, Pleafure attended his
fteps, and ftrewed his path with flov\-ers. But earth is not
■heaven, and fublunary happinefs is rarely of long conti-
Auanee. It was the ill fortune of our artilt to Hve during
the Aurora of rational philofophy, when fir Francis Bacon
hid npt fhonc forlhj and my fiery and credulity were not dif-

fipated. He remained at Rome as long as EKliiemer lived ;
but on his return to Utrecht, a fuperllitious female, by
whom he was beloved, the Medea of the town, believing in
the occult virtues of herbs and minerals, when combined
with judicial allrology, to controul or infiame the paflions,
adminiflered, at an entertainment, what was termed a love
potion, which (he fatally believed would have the efTeft of
fixing his affeftions on hrrfclf ; and thus literally poifoned
his cup of delight. He was from this time afiiidted with a
fpecies of delirium, or idiutilm, of the mod melancholy
charafter, under which he Ijnguiflied for foir.e confiderable
time, and at length died ia his native city, at the age of
forty-five.

It has bce'i remarked as extraordinary, but is probably
only an ordinary denotation, and refult of the mafter-paflion,
that though the mind of Goudt was loft to every other in-
tereft ; yet, whcn^iine art became the fubjecl of convcrfa-
tiori, he would difcourie upon it in a very rational manner.

By thofe who do not narrowly examine his prints, it vrill
fcarcely be credited that the graver was the fole inftrument
of his art, fo remarkably loofe and free is his delineation
of the forms of uncultivated oLjefts. A ftriking inftance
of this, may be fecn in the vine-leaves, and other foliage, near
the door of the cottage where Ceres is drinking from a
pitcher. His effefts are always powerful, and his (liadows
produced by neat and numerous crofs-hatchings ; fo that in
very dark receflfes he fometimes has not fewer than five
courf.-s of lines. In commenting on the above print, Strutt
obferves, tliat, " confidering tue precifion v.-ith which he
executed his engravings, the freedom of handling the graver,
which may be difcovercd in them, is very afloniftiing. The
weeds, and other parts of the fore-ground in that admirable
print of Ceres, are very finely exprefTed. The heads of the
figures are correftly drawn, and the other extremities are
managed in a judicious manner. The powerful and flriking
effedl of this engraving cannot be properly dcfcribed. The
very deep (hadows are perhaps rather too fudden upon the
ftrong hghts in fome few inftances ; but in the fine impref-
fions this is by no means fo confpicuous as in thofe after the
plate had been re-touched."

His engravings, from the elaborate neatnefs and care be-
ftowed on tliem, could have been but (lowly produced ;
when we refleS, too, that his object was to excel other
men in the merit, not the number of his pnnts ; that he
followed this art only for the pleafure it aflbrded, aad did
not engrave when his mind was not attuned to the purfuit,
it will not appear furprifing that the v.umber of his perform-
ances fliculd be fo fraall.

The following feven are generally enumerated as being
the whole of his works ; they are all after the p.iintings of
his friend Elthiemer ; but the coUeflion of Mariette con-
tained nine, which, at a public auftion at Pans, were fold
for two hundred and feventy livres.

I . The Ceres mentioned above, in fmall upright folio, which
is by fome diftingiiifhed by the title of " The Sorcery ;"
2. The Flight into Egypt, in folio; and a laiidfcape (uith
fmall figiires ) in which the efFefts of fire-light and moon-light
are contrailed v/ith great flciil : the liars alfo fiiine forth, and
the mahiSM is faintly difcernible. 3. Another landfcape, in
fmall folio, in v;hich the angel and Tobit are introduced.
The weeds on the fore-ground of this engraving, and the
br-'.nches of the trees in front, as well as the foliage and
weeds hanging from them, are beautifully expreiTed. On
this print an obfervaticn has been made which is applicai^le
alfo to feveral palTages in the other engravings of Goudt ;
na.nely, that he tails w the diilam woods, which grada:e one

from

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

from another, and require that freedom of determination
which etching alone can give.

Of the fubjecl of " Tobit and the Angel," there arc two
prints by this inafter. In the firft, Tobit is dragging the
fifh along ; in the fecond, which is of 410. fize, he holds the
fifh under his arm, whilft, with Rapliael, he is crofTing a
ftreamof water by means of ftepping-llones. J. Baucis and
Philemon entertaining Jupiter and Mercury, in 4to. dated
1612.

6. The Aurora, upon which we have commented above,
and 7. A ver^' fmall oval print of " The DctoUation of St.
John the Baptift," arc all theengravirgs, by'this mafter, with
which we are acquainted, and the lail, which is of the leaft
intrinfic value, is by far the fcarceft. Perliaps the additional"
two that were in the collection of Marielte were nothing
more than juvenile attempts of our artitt.

Of Robert Vander Vocrft, the meritoriuos rival of Vor-
fterman, we have already treated at fome length. (See
English Engnrjltig, Origin and Progreji of.) He was
a native of Arnheini, and born in the year 1596.

Michael Natalis wa? born at Licgem the year 1589. He
was iaftruded in drawing by Joachim Sandrarl, but learned
the rudiments of engraving at Antwerp of Charles Mallery.
From Antwerp he travelled to Rome, where he joined Cor-
nelius Bloemart, Theodore Matham, and Regnier Perfyn,
(all artiiU from the Low Countries), and affilled them in
completing the ftatues and bulls of the Juftinian gallery,
conlilliiig of one hundred and fifty prints. Stimulated by
emulation, and affiiled i:i his iludies by Bloemart, Natalis
now made conquerable progrefs in his art. He engraved
many other plates from the pictures of the great matters of
Italy ; and after his return to Flanders, was invited to Paris,
where he refided a confiderable time. Natalis engraved
fomewliat in the ilyle of Bloemart : his prints have merit ;
yet the fquare-grained mode of execution, to which he was
partial, does not happily exprefs fleth or drapery, but is
rather adapted to the reprefentation of itone.

When he quitted this open fquare manner, which was
very feldom, his prints were mellow and foft ; but the heads
of his figures want character, and the other extremities are
but indiiFerently drawn. He frequently combined his ini-
tials in a monogram, for which, fee Plate III. of thofe ufed
.by the engravers of the Netherlands. His portraits are the
mod efteemt- d productions of his graver, from which we (hall
felecl the following as being moil worthy of the reader's
attention.

Porlra'tti. — Jofephus Juftinianus Benedifti Filius ; Jacob
Catz, a Dutch poet ; Eugenius d'Alamond, bifhop of Ghent,
in large folio ; Maximilian Emanuel, eleftor of Bavaria,
after his firft mafter ; Joach. Sandrarl ; and Frederic, count
of Merode, both in large folio ; Gabriel Maria, theologift,
from Abr. van Diepenbeck ; Erneftine, princefs of Ligne,
and countefs of NalTau, from Ant. V^andyke ; and the mar-
quis del Guaft as Mars, with his mittrefs, in the character of
Venus, after Titian, all in folio.

Hijlorlcal, after various Majlers. — " The Holy Family,"
from Raphael, in large folio ; " The Virgin and Child,
with Jofeph feated behind, leaning his Head on his Hand,"
after Andrea del Sarto, in folio ; " The Holy Family,"
a grand compofition, from Pouffin, in large folio : the firft
imprenions are before the nudity of the infant was covered
with linen. " The Extacy of St. Paul," from a pifture by
the fame painter, belonging to the cabinet of the kings of
France ; " The Holy Family, with Angels fcattering
Flowers over the Head of the Infant Chriit," from Seb.
Bourdon ; " The Marriage of St. Catherine," from the
fame painter, all in large folio ; " St. Bruno at his Devo-

tion," after Bertholet Flemel ; «' The AlTembly of illuf-
trious Ecclefiaftics," a large print, lerigthways, engraved on
four plates, from the fame painter ; " Mary \Va(hinp- the

in folio ; and an allegorical Thefis, dedicated to the emperor
Ferdinand III., on two large plates, all from the fame
mailer.

.John Valdor was born at Liege in the year 1590, and
refided during the greater part of his life at Paris. He
does not appear to have been a man of any genius, or of
much talent : he wanted that animation which is neceflary to
form a great artift ; inftead of which, in him was fubftituted a
painful laborious attention to the neatnefs and prec-ifion of
the mechanical part of his plates, and in this refpedt he has
fucceeded, fo as in fom.e inftances to excite our furprife.
In France he engraved part of the plates for a book, en-
titled " The Triumphs of Louis the Juil," a work which
confills of forty-nine engravings, and which was printed at
Paris A. D. 1637, in one folio volume ; the few following
are likewife by his hand, all fmall upright plates ; " Jefua
lihus Dei ;" " Ecce Ancilla Domini ;" " St. Catharine ;"
" Regnum Mundi ;" " Jefu Chrifti ;" " Virgo Gratia Va-
lentina Miraculis Clara ;" " The Head of St. Ignatius of
Loyola,", the face of which is fo neatly executed, that the
dots which blend the lights with the fhadows, are hardly
perceptible to the naked eye : and " A Holy Family re-
pofing," in folio, from Herm. Swanevelt.

Cornelius Schut was born at Antwerp, A.D. IC90, and
died in the fame city in 1660. He was the dilciple of
Rubens, and painted hillorical and poetical fubjeAs with
much fuccefs. Schut likewife handled the point in a very
free fpirited ftyle, refembling tlvitof Cafliglione, but bolder
and more determined. The drawing of the naked parts of
his human figures is often incorreft, but the charafters of
his heads are generally exprelTed in a mafteriy manner.

From his numerous etchings we feleEt the following : A

let of one hundred and thirty-three prints of various fiib-
jefts and dimeiifions, from his own defigns ; four Virgin
Maries, half-length figures, in i2mo. ; " The Holy Fa'-
mily, accompanied by St. John ;" " The Virgin and Holy
Infant ;" «^ thrill on the Mount of Olives ;" " The Vir-
gin furrounded with Rays of Glory, and worthipped by
the Saints of Paradife," ail in folio ; " Mars, Venus, and'
Flora," a fmall upright oval ; and its companion, " Bacchus,
Ceres, and Pomona;" "A Sacrifice to Venus;" "The
Triumpii of Peace," and " The Triumph of Neptune,"'
all of folio fize; and " The feven liberal Arts," a fet of
eight middlisig-fized plates, lengthways.

This artilt is fometim.es confounded with his nephew Cor-
nelius Schut, who was direftor of the Academy at Seville,
and a portrait painter of fome reputation ; but tlie latter is
not known to have engraved at all.

Cornehus de Wael, or Waal, was born at Antwerp in
the year 1594, and died at Genoa in 1662. His father was
a painter, and he learned the elements of art under his
paternal roof ; but afterwards travelled to Italy, and ftudied
under various mailers. He painted battles, landfcapes, and
hiftorical fubjefts, with great fuccefs ; and was patronifed
both by Philip III. and the duke of Arfchot.

De Wael engraved feveral of his own compofitions in a
very fpirited ftyle ; his figures have much expreffion, and are
very correctly drawn, and his chiarofcuro is better than that
of the majority of his contemporaries. Among his beft
etchings are, a fet of feven, intitled " Ilbri. D.D. Gui-
lielmo Vander Stradan, venullas hafche imagines, C. de

Waei

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Wael amoris dicat." i. Reprefents a fountain playing on
fome figures who are running to a^oid it. 2. Hunters
halting at an inn door. 3. Peafants beating an overladen
afs. 4. A quack doftor (hewing fpecimens of his ikill
at the door of a tavern. 5. Peafants before an alehoufe
door. 6. A man on an afs, and fpeftators laughing at
him. 7. An alTembly of people of rank of both fexes ;
and a tennis-court with peafants fightmg ; a fmall plate
lengthways.

CorneUus had a nephew, John BaptiRa de Wael, who
engraved feveral of the pictures of liis uncle, and among
tliem " The Life of the Prodigal Son," in eight fmall
Mpright plates.

Lucas Van Uden was born at Antwerp in the year 1595,
and became a very didinguilhed painter and engraver of
landfcape. He was inftruded by his father, who was alfo
an artiil, but, by his accurate obfervation of nature, Lucas
foon furpalfed him in merit. He particularly ftudied, and was
happy in reprefenting, the various effefts of fun-fhine, from
the firft dawn of morning till his light feebly glimmers in
the evening horizon. Rubens faw his landfcapes with ad-
miration, and tametimes peopled them with figures, while
Van Uden returned the favour by occafionally painting the
landfcape back-grounds of that great mailer. His llcies and
diftances are beaatifully clear and finely toned, while of his
trees it has been faid that their foliage was fo loofely pendant,
that it feemed fwayed by the motion of the air.

Van Uden etched many of his own compofitions, and
fome few plates from thofe of other painters, with great
delicacy, fpirit, and freedom. Huber thinks that his prints
merit not lefs praife than his piiilures. Among them may
be diftinguilhed three pair of fmall, but beautiful, land-
fcapes, confining of village fcenery adorned with trees and
figures. A landfcape of padoral character, on the tot'e-
ground of which is a piping Ihepherd with his flock. A
landfcape with a wooden bridge and two windmills. A land>
fcape adorned with travellers, with a woody fore-ground, and
the city of Antwerp in the back-ground. A landfcape
with figures carrying a litter, in folio. Four fine land-
fcapes after Rubens, in fmall folio, the earlieft impreffions of
which are without the name of the painter, i. A landfcape,
and figures converfing. 2. Cows in a river, and a man
bringing horfes to drink. 3. A landfcape, with water,
cows, and figures. And 4. A landfcape, in which are two
women with bafliets. A landfcape, into which a holy family is
mtroduced ; and another with the goed Samaritan, both in
folio, after Titian.

Of that well-known and very diftinguilhed artift, Jacques
Jordacns, we have already treated as a painter in our
nineteenth volume. ( See Jordaens.) His biographers
have ftated, that his early marriage prevented that journey
to Italy, which was at the time etleemed an alinolt indif-
penfable part of the education of an artift. Whatever
caufe kept him at home, taught him to depend lefs upon
other men, and more upon nature and himfelf, and to this
it is probable, that if we owe his low choice of fubjeds,
we owe alfo the vigour by which his produdions are cha-
raderized.

His etchings are haftily performed, but glow with the
fire, and teem with the intelligence of a mafter. Accord-
ing to Hecquet, who has favoured the public with a cata-
lotrue raifonee of the works of Jordaens, they are thirty-
three in number, and Huber has juftly regretted "that they
are not more numerous, as they rank with the fineft pro-
diidions of the Flemifti fchool."

In colleding thefe etchings, which are all from compo-
fitions by Joi-daens himfelf, the connoiffeur will bear in

mind, that the earlieft and bell irapreflions are infcribed with
the words " cum privclegio."

Of the thirty-three prints mentioned by Hecquet, we
are only able to enumerate " The Flight into Egypt,"
dated 1652; " Jefus Chrift expelling the Money-Changers
from the Temple;" "The Defcent from the Crofs ;"
" Mercury beheading Argus ;" " Jupiter and lo ;" "The
Infant Jupiter fuckled by the Goat Amalthea ;" " A Pea-
fant arrelling an Ox by the Tail, aniidll a great Concourfe
of Spedators." Thefe are all in fmall folio, and engraved
in the courfe of the fame year, namely 1652. "Saturn
devouring his Children ;" a very rare 4to. plate, without
any name or cypher, is alfo attributed by moll connoifteurs
to the hand of Jordaens.

John Percelles, the pupil of H. Cornelius de Vrooms,
was born at Ley den in the year 1597. His fon Julius was
a native of the fame city, and both excelled in painting and
engraving fhipwrecks, and other marine fubjeds. From the
circumftance of the works of the father and fon being
marked with the fame initial letters, fome confufion has
arifen ; nor is it known whether to attribute the twelve
fmall fea views which bear thefe initials, to John or Ju-
lius.

Another fet of twelve in folio, of which the fubjeds are
the Dutch navy, are etched in a fomewhat broader ilyle,
and are moft likely the performance of the elder Percelles,
being infcribed " Notatas a famofiffimo Navium Pidore
Johannes Percelles," without any feparate mention of the
engraver's name.

Roland Rogman, or Roghman, was alfo born at Leyden
in the year I5'97, and died there in 1685, or 1686. He
was an original artiit ; he ftudied under no mafteo, but
formed his ftyle, both of painting and etching, from the
ftudious contemplation of nature only. His piftures are
fpoken of with great commendation, and he etched feveral
landfcapes, whicli confift chiefly of views in Holland and
the Low Countries, in a Iketchy, but mafterly ftyle.

Among them may be diftinguiftied " A View of the
Caftle of Zuylen," in folio ; a pair of ditto with bridges
and canals, &c. in 4to. A fet of four mountainous land-
fcapes and figures, in 4to. ; and another pair of town views,
in folio.

Gertrude Rogman is believed to have been of the fame
family with Roland, after whofe pidures ftie executed feveral
engravings, among which is a fet of four in fmall folio, of
the domeftic occupations of the fair fex.

The family of Van de Velde are of great celebrity in the
annals of fine art. Efaias, or Ifaiah, was born at Leyden,
A.D. 1597. He became tha difciple of Peter Deneyn.
With what talent he painted landfcapes and battles will be
fpoken of in our biography of Van de Velde, as a painter.
His etchings, which are executed with confiderable firmnefs
and intelligence, are rare, and, what is much better, are of
intrinfic value. A landfcape, with peafants drinking on the
fore-ground, in foho. Another of quarto fizle, with a bridge
and round-tower, in which is introduced a Ihepherd and
fliepherdefs tending their flocks. Another, with cottages
among ruined architedure ; and another of paftoral cha-
rader, with a ftiephf rd's hut near the fore-ground, of folio
dimenfions, are all we are able to enumerate of the cngravingfi
of Ifaiah Van de Velde. He fometimes combined his initials
in a monogram, which will be found in Plate III. of thofe
ufed by the artifts of the Low Countries.

John Van de Velde, brother of Ifaiah, was born in the fame
city, and in the following year ; and though a painter of
great merit, is, perhaps, better known by his excellent

engraving? ;

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

engravings ; which are numerous, and are executed in two
diftinft and very different ftylcs.

The etchings he produced are very bold and determined.
The hghts are kept broad and clear ; but perhaps the
(liadows may, in fome inftances, want ttrength ; however,
the hand of the flcilful mafter is evident in all of them ; and
the fniall figures which are occafionally introduced, prove
the geodnefs of his tafle, by the fpirited manner in which
they are executed.

His other ftyle of working was with the graver, affifted
occafionallv with the dry point ; thefe prints are exceflively
neat and laboured, and rcfembic thofe of count Goudt in
the vigour of their general effects ; they conliit chiefly of
fcenes by candlelight, and fuch fubjects as require great depth
of (hadow ; yet, with all the merits which they pofTefs, they
are not, on the whole, equal to his etchings ; for whatever
advantages may appear to be gained in neatnels and toning,
are loll in their want of that fpirit, lightnels, and freedom
by which his etchings are characlerifed.

The following will probably be found mod: worthy of the
attention of the connoifleur : beginning with his portraits :
John Van de Velde, himfelf, in large quarto ; Jacob Matham,
from P. SoutmaiiS ; John Torrentinus, a very line and rare
print, in large quarto ; John Crucius, a clergyman of Haer-
lem, of the fame fize ; Michael Middelhoven, F. Hals,
pinx. in quarto ; John Acronius, theologian, in folio ;
Jacob Zafiius, archdeacon of Haerlem, in folio, both trom
the fame painter ; John Oven, (engraved in mezzotinto) ;
John liaccius Pontanus, hiftoriin, both in 410. ; Charles,
duke of Troppau and Jaegerndorf, in folio ; Ohver Crom-
well, a very rare portrait, in large folio ; and Lawrence
Cofter, of Haerlem, with a long Latin inlcription, in 4to.

Hlftorical Land/capes- — " The Adoration of the Kings,"
after P. Molyn. In this engraving the effedl of night is well
managed. " The Magic Lanthorn," after the fame painter ;
" The good Samaritan ;" " An Old Woman frying Pan-
cakes, and Boys eating them," all in fmall 4to. ; " A Pea-
fant and his Wife gomg to Market, at Day break, with
Cows and Goats," in folio ; a landfcape with ruins, and a
cow-herd tending cows, in oftavo ; " The Mountebank ex-
pofing his Medicines," a capital print ; " The Gamefters,"
with a ftriking candle-light efFed, both in folio ; " A vil-
lage Feftival," a verj' rich compofition ; two landfcapes,
one reprefenting buildings and travellers by moonlight, the
other fun rife, and travellers ; two landfcapes, one with
figures fiihing bv moonlight, and villagers warming them-
felves by a large fire, the other travellers by fun-rife, in
folio; four fubjecls from the Hillory of Tobit, in 4to.;
the four parts of the day , very beautifully finifhed plates ;
the four elements, after W. Bugtenwegh, in folio, with
very fine effetls ; the four feafons, in large folio ; a different
compofition of the fame fubjefts, in large folio ; the twelve
months of the year, in quarto ; another let of the fame fub-
jefts, engraved in a broader ftyle ; a champaign country in
Holland, with robbers attacking a coach at the entrance
of a wood ; a champaign in Italy, with buildings and
water, after P. Molyn the younger, or the chevalier Tem-
pefla, both in large folio ; an open country, with ruins and
travellers, in folio ; the bridge of St. Mary at Rome, in
large folio ; a view of the callle of Eruxelles, a very large
and rare print ; and a fet of landfcapes, intitled " Play-
fante Landfchappen," all of folio dimi nfions.

Adrian Van de Veldc was born at Amfterdam, A.D.
1639, and di^d in the fame city in 1672. He was the ne-
phew of John, whom we have jutl difmiffed, and the difciple
of Wynants. As a painter he will be treated of in a future
volume.

Vol. XXI.

To fpeak of him as an engraver, we have, by this mafter,
a fet of twenty etchings, executed in a very free ar.d fpirited
ftyle, of cattle and peafantry. Another fet of ten plates of
groups of cows and other domeftic animals, with a bull for
the title page ; three plates of fheep ; the return from
hunting, in quarto ; a large landfcape, lengthways, and
a fmaller one of the fame form, enriched with hillorical
figures, both rare prints, but the latter by much the rareft.

John Miel was born in a village, near Antwerp, in the year
1599, and died at Turin in 1664. He learned the rudi-
ments of art of Gerard Seghers, and afterwards travelled to
Italy for improvement, where he lludied in the Ichool of
Andrea Sa'cchi.

By contemplating the bell works of the Italian mafters,
he by degrees emancipated himfelf from the trammels of his
earher education, and formed a ftyle of art for himfelf, in
which the general characlenftics of thofe of Flanders and
Italy, were happily blended.

Th'i talents of Miel, and the reputation which followed
and brightened their exercile, induced Charles Emanuel,
duke of Sdvoy, to invite him to Turin. Under the patron-
age of this nobleman he remained five years, and the duke
was fo fond of our artilt, that he inverted him with the order
of St. Maurice, and prefented him with a diamond crofs of
great value ; notwithllandmg which favours, he languifhed
in vain to return to Rome. Rome was the place where he
had beheld thofe objeAs that firil expanded his mind with the
pleafures of art. Hence his wifties to return thither, and
hence the regret which is by fome fuppofed to have fhortened
his days. If he gained honours, he had facrificed liberty and
independence attheir fhri!)e,anddid not, therefore, enjoy them.

Miel etched feveral plates from his own compofitions in a
very mafterly ftyle ; and the figures which he occafionally
introduced are drawn with great fpirit and freedom.

Among thefe are " The AfTumption of the Virgin Mary;''
'• The Holy Family;' four palloral fubjeds, with fhepherds
and cattle, beautifully executed, in quarto, and an unknown
number of battles and flvirmifhes for Strada's Wars of
Flanders.

Philip Verbeck, or Verbecq, a Dutch engraver of (lender
talent, was born fome time about the clofe of the fixteenth
century. He is chiefly remarkable for having etched fome
plates in a fcratchy manner, which bears inferior refemblance
to the ftyle of Rembrandt.

Inferior, as is this refemblance, it has led fome coUetlors
into the error of purchaling his works and placing them in
their Rembrandt portfolios. Gerfaint firfl informed them
of their miftake, and by comparing Verbecq's etchings with
thofe of Rembrandt, not only the name or cypher of the
former artift may be obferved, but the dates alio of his en-
gravings, which ftiew that he was anterior to Rembrandt,
and therefore, at leaft, not a copyill.

The following are all we are able to fpecify from the hand
of this artift, and which are much fought after. " Efau
felling his Birth-right;" "An eaftern Kmg, feated on his
Throne, with a Supphant kneeling before hira," bothin4to;
" A Shepherd, feated at the Foot of a Tree ;" a buft of a
young lady in a bonnet and pelifTe ; and a three-quarter por-
trait of a nobleman in a tartan and feathers, (companion to
the above,) all in fmall ovals.

Rodermondt, Rottermondt, or Rottcrmans, with whofe
Chriftian name we arc unacquainted, was alfo of Holland, and
born in the year 1600. He etched feveral portraits and fome
other plates much in the manner of the preceding artift, and
with at leaft equal freedom and fpirit. Among thefe are fir
Wilham Waller, major-general of the parliamentary army,
with a battle in the back-ground, after C. Janfen; John the fe-
3 Q * ■ cond,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

cond,acel#bratedLatin poet, a very rare print, infcribed" Jo-
annes fcciindus Hagienfis Poeta. Rodcrmont fecit," in large
4to. ; a three-quarter view of a man with a curly beard,
(this print, which is not above mediocrity, is in the ftyle of
Rembruiidt ; by Gerfaint it is attributed to Verbecq, and
by Bartfch to Rodertnonl) ; and " David praying," with
his harp and turban befide him, in 410.

Peter van Sompel, or van Sompelin, was born at An-
twerp in the year l6co ; and became the pupil of Soutman,
whofe ftyle he always copied. He drew correal/, and
treated the naked parts, and efpecially the extremities of the
human iigure, -.vitli intelligence. He engraved in a neat
laboured llyle, efpecially his portraits after Vandyke and
Rubens, among which the following will be found moll
■worthy of notice.

Portraits. — Paracelfus, the celebrated phvlician, in folio;
the emperor Adolphus of NafTau, in large folio ; Maiianna
tie Bavaria, wife of the emperor Ferdinand ; Henry, count
of Naflau, and Philip of Naflau, prince of Orange, both
in large folio ; and all from Soutman. The emperor
Charles V., frura Rubens ; cardinal Ferdinand, brother of
Philip IV. governor of the Low Countries, from'Van-
tiyke; Ifabella Clara Eugenia, infanta of Spain; Gallon
John Baptilf, duko of Orleans, brother of Louis XIH.
and Margaret his wife, all from Vandyke. Philip the
Hardy, duke of Burgundy, from Van Eyk ; Frederic
Henrv, of Naffai:, from G. Hontlioril ; all of large folio
dimenfions.
' Hifiorical Siiljeas. — " Chrift on the Crofs," a large
upright plate, arched at the top ; " Chnlt Gnung with the
Pilgrims at Emmaus,'' in folio, nearly fquare ; " Erich-
tonius in the BaO^et, difcovered by Aglaurus and his Sif-
ters," all from Rubens, and " Ision deceived by Juno,"
from the fame painter ; all in large folio.

William de Leeuw was born at Antwerp, A.D. 1600.
and fiouriflied in the Netherlands in 1650. He was a pupil
of Soutmans, but did not engrave in his ftyle ; inftead of
which he employed fhort playful ftrokes, which produced a
pifturefque effect, united With a tolerably good chiarofcuro.
Moll of his engravings are from Rubens or Rembrandt,
but in a fet of large landfcapes after Nieulandt he has quite
altered his manner of execution, and engraved the ground
and Iky m a manner fo delicate, that it requires good eyes
to dillinguilh it from a tint of Indian ink.

De Leeuw commonly marked his prints with his initials, or
a monogram, which will be found in P!ate\l\. of thbfe ufed
by the engravers of the Low Countries. The following are
afeleclion of his bell works : " Lot and his Daughters," in
foho (the bed impreffions of this place are before the name
of C. Dankerts was inferted) ; " Daniel in the Lion's Den,"
in large folio ; the Holy Virgin kneeling-, Uipported by
angels, commonly called " The Virgin of Grief," a very
rare print, in folio; " The Martyrdom of St. Catherine,"
a very fine and rr.re print, all after Rubens, and a fet of
four chafes, from the fame painter, namely, the chace of
a lion and lionefs ; ditto of a wolf; ditto of a wild boar;
ditto of a crocodile and hippopotamus ; all in very large
folio. •' Tobit and his Wife," in fjlio, from Rembrandt.
This print is executed in a very good talle, and has a fine ef-
fect. " David playing the Harp before King Saul ;" a half-
length profile of Rembrandt's wife, both in large folio :
the portrait of a female veiled, at the bottom of the print
''Marianne" is infcribed in capital letters ; aU after Rem-
brandt. A you.ig man habited in a cloak, and a hat and
feathers, in Imall folio ; "St. Francis meditating," a half-
length profile, from Livens, in folio. And the following
fet iu krge folio, fr«cQ Nieulandt, wbic!» are very rare ami

beautifully executed. A view in the Tyrol, with water,
calcades, and travellers. Another fcene in the mountains
of Tyrol, with travellers on horfeback ; to the right a
high mountain is crowned with the ruins of a temple, and
On the plain below is a hermitage and two figures. A land-
fcape of the fame character as the former, with wood and
water ; cows feeding on a plain and the effect of fun-fet.
And another with filhers, and men on horfeback : on an
eminence towards the right is a church, and on the plain be-
low a village and (heep feeding.

John Louys, or Loys, was born at Antwerp, A.D.
1600, he was the dlfciple of Soutman, and engraved chiefly
after the pid'.u'cs of Rubens and Vandvkc. There is a
very fine engraving by him, with a powerfi'l chiarofcuro,
of " The Refurredtion of Lazarus," from J. Livens, which
is generally and juftly regarded as his mallcrpiece. From
among the works of this artift, the following are moll worthy
of feleftion.

Portraits. — Phihp the Good, duke of Burgundy, from
Soutman ; Lous XIII. of France, from Rubens, and its
companion, Ann of Auftria ; Philip IV. king of Spain,
from Rubens, and its companion, Elizabeth of Bourbon,
his queen ; and Francis '^homas of Savoy, prince of Carig-
nano, from Ant. Vandyke ; all of large foho dimenfions.

HiJlor!cal,lsfc. — " The Refuireftion of Lazarus," ^which
is mentioned above ;) "The Repofe of Diana, or the Re-
turn from the Chace," from Rubens ; " The Iniide of a
Flemilh Cottage, with a Wom.an fcouring a Cauldron," after
Ollade ; " Peafants regaling,'' and " The Chefnut
Seller," after the fame mafler, all in quarto ; and " The
Interior of a Dutch Kitchen," in which the principal ob-
ject is a dead pig hanging up; in folio, after W. Kalf.

Jonas Suyderhoef, of Leyden, was another of the dif-
ciples of Soutman, born in the fame year with the pre-
ceding artitl, but of very fuperior abilities.

Suyderhoef purfued the llyle of engraving which had
been invented or adopted by his mafler, but, by degrees,
far furpafl'ed him in the foftnefs and beauty of his finidiing, 1
He had the art of uniting great force, as well as harmony
of chiarofcuro, with conllderable neatnefs of execution, and,
where his fubjedt required it, with great exaftitude of de-,
tail. His engravings are jullly held in elleem by the ex-
perienced colledtor, and by all men of tafle. His portraits,
of which he executed a confiderable nurr.ber, are exceed-
ingly beautiful, and probably, on the whole, fuperior to his
hillorical works. His practice was, to bring them very
forward in the etchifig, and afterwards flrengthen them,
where deeper fliadows were required, with the graver ; im-
parting to them, at the lame time, amenity of tone, and
greater accuracy of refemblance. Perhaps we ought to
except from this general preference, his " Treaty of Mun-
fter," rfttr Gerard Terburgh, which is truly an hittorical
engraving, though it confifls of an affemblage of the por-
traits of the moll celebrated flatefmen of Europe, and cf
the age when that important treaty was concluded. The
exquifite pidnre, from which this plate was engraven,
which form its rare merits, and its importance as a diplo-
matic and hifiorical event, ought always to adorn a royal
or a national gallery, was lately brought to this country, by
Mr. de la Hante, and is probably Hill in Pail-mali, in that
gentleman's poffefTion. Not only the perfon and drcfs of
every plenipotentiary who was prefent on that memorable
occafion, are here pourtrayed with the utmofl delicacy of
finifh, but the place of meeting alfo, with every minutis
of coflume.

The profeffional diligence of Suyderhoef was fearcely
inferior to his extraordinary merit : this merit has, to a

6 c-rtain

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

certain extent, been appreciated through Europe, and fine at Rotterdam in the year 1600, and always refided in that

impreflions of his bed works are, in confequence, become city. lie painted convcrfational fubjcfts and landfcapes.

extremely Hire. Marietta's collection of his works amounted

to one hundred and eleven : nor are we certain that Ma-

riette had collefted the whole. From among tlicle, it may

he ufeful to dillin^uifli the following, as thofe which are

more eminently worthy of the reader's notice.

Portraits. — Maximilian, archduke of Auftria, in large
folio J Philip III. of Spain, in fmaller folio ; Albert, arch-
duke of Auftria, and governor of the Netherlands ; and his
dnchefs, Ifabella Clara Eugenia, infanta of Spain, in large
folio, all after fir P. P. Rubens ; Charles I. of England,
and his queen Henrietta Maria ; and Francis de Moncado,
count of Orfonna, all m large folio, and after Vandyke ;

He likewife etched, in a good ityle, fome few fubjedts
from his own defigns, of which we are able to mention only
the following.

A pair, reprefenting " Young Villagers carrying Poul-
try to Market ;" a fet of feven, of " The Coliume oP
Noblemen ;" a fet of fix, of " The Coftutne of La-
dies," all in oi'.tavo ; and a fet of ten landlcapes with ruins,
trcw, and figures, entitled, " Verfcheide Landfckapjcs.'
Buytcnweg marked his plates cither with a monogram,
which will be found among thofe of the engravers of the
Loiv Countries, or vnth hia name at length.

George Henry Scheyndel, or Van Schiendel, was a na-

the emperor Maximilian I. and his emprefs Maria, botb in tivc of Holland, the contemporary of Buyteiiweg, and we
folio, and after Lucas of Leyden ; duke John, and duke prcfume was, like him, eilablifhed at Rotterdam. He en-
Charles of Burgundy, after Soutman, of large folio dimcn- graved in a very neat, fpirited llyle, very nearly refembling
lions; Aldus Swalmius, an old man with a long beard, from that of Callot. His landfcapes poflefs great merit, and arc
Rembrandt ; Rene Delcartes, the celebrated piiilofopher, ornamented with excellent little figures.

from F. Hals ; Van Bloemaerts, a half-length, feated at a Scheyndel marked his prints with his initials G. V. S.

table, with books and a crucifix ; beneath is a long Latin We have, by him, " A Company of Peafants, feated before

infcriptinn, after Van Spronck : Mark Zucrius Boxhor- a Houfe Door ;" another " Company of Peafants, with a

nius, of Bcrgenopzoom, profeffor at Leyden, from Diibor- young Pig and Chickens ;'' " A Dijntift, at a Fair;" "The

dieu ; Adrian Heerebond, profeffor of philofophy, from the Execution of a Criminal," all in i 2mo. ; " A Village Fair,"

lame painter ; Jacob Maeftcrtius, juris conlidte at Leyden, in odlavo ; another " Village Fair, with a Conjuror," of the

from Van Negre ; Andreas Rivetus, profeffor of theology lame fize ; a winter hndfcape, with Waiters ; a landfcape,

at Leyden ; Claude Saumaife, a famous critic, both from with a water-fall ; another landfcape, with a bridge, figures

the fame mafter ; Noah Smaltius, a celebrated furgeon of and animals ; a fet of four views of a caltle, oue of which

; " A drunken Bacchus, fupported by a Satyr fame fubjeil otherwife treated (though not lefs fuccefsfuUy, )
," a fmall upright plate, hulf figures ; " The both in tolio ; comprife perhaps the whole of his etchings.

Haerlem, after Th. Pas ; Albert Kuperus, doctor of medi-
cine at Leyden, after D. liailly ; John Coccejus, profeffor
of theology at Leyden, from De Vos ; Conftantine, tutor
of prince Maurice of Naffau, after Baudrigcen ; Abraham
Heydanus, a ftiepherd of Leyden, from Schooten ; Daniel
Heinfius, a Dutch hiftorian, from Marck ; Anna Maria
Schurman, celebrated for her tafle and knowledge of the
arts and fciences, from J. Livens ; John Beenius, theolo-

fian, from J. Vliet ; Julius de Beyme, profeffor of law at
.eyden; and Pierius Winfemius, profeffor of hiilory, both
without the painter's names, and all of folio dimenfions.

Hijlorkal, i^c. after various Majlers. — '■ The Fall of the
Damned," a large upright print, engraved on two plates,
from Rubens ; " The Virgin Mary, with the Infant Jcfus
embracing her," ui quarto ; " A Bacchanal," a fmall plate,
lengthways ;
and a Moor,

Cliace of the Lions," in large folio, very fine and rare, all
after Rubens ; a compofition of " Satyrs playing with
Tygers," the befl jmpreffions of which have a forcible and
fine effect, after De Laer, in large folio ; " The Return
from a Country Excurfion," in larije folio, after Berghem ;
" The Conclufion of the Peace at Munlter," containing the
portraits of nil the plenipotentiaries who were there afl'embled,
a large folio plate, after Terburgh, very fine and rare ; " A
Quarrel of Dutch Peafants," in large folio, after the fame
painter; another " Quarrel of Pealants," after Van Oftade,
containing many figures ; " The four Burgomailers of Am-
iterdam," a folio plate after Th. Keyfer ; "Three Old
Women regaling," from the fame malter, in an oval of
folio fize ; " Three Peafants feated, one of whom plays the
Violin," a fine and rare print in folio; "Peafants gaming,"
in folio ; " Peafants regaling at the Door of an Alehoufe,"
in folio, all from Van Oltade ; " The enraged Drink-
ers," in large foho, from De Witt ; " Peafants quar-
relling," in folio ; and " Peafants dancing at an Ale-
houie," commonly called " The Ball," in large folio, all
aftf r De Wit.

William de Butenweg, or Van Buytenweck, was bom

has alfo a windmill ; a fet of eleven landfcapes, with Dutck
infcriptions, all in quarto ; a fet of the coftume of the
Grecians and Turks, in oCtavo ; and a fet of the habits
of the countrywomen of the feveral cantons of Holland,
twelve fmall upright plates, from Buytenweg.

Peter de Molyn was born at Haerlem in the year 1600.
For an account of his merits as a painter, as well as thofe
of his mure celebrated fon, fee the article MoLv.v, &c.

Molyn etched fome few plates from his own compofitions,
in a good taffe, which are chiefly remarkable for their
ftriking effects of chiarofcuro, and are s-ery much fought
after by connoiffeurs. A let of four landfcapes ornamented
with very good figures, in folio ; another let of four fine
landfcapes, with cattle and figures, in large quarto ; the
ftar of Bethlehem, with a very fine night effed, and the

cliings
All, except the laft, are marked P. Molyn fecit. ; but by fome
writers the two latter are faid to be by J. van de Velde.

This artill marked his engravings with his initials, in the
form of a monogram, which will be found in our Plate 111.
of thole ufed by the engravers of the Netherlands.

The works oi this artift have been confounded by Strntt
with thofe of his fon Peter Molyn the younger, who
is better known by his cognomen Tempefta.

The younger Molyn was alfo a native of Haerlem, born
in the year 1637, and, according to fome of his biographers,
was the pupil of Snyders, whefe manner of painting Lett
firft imitated.

Either the whirlwind of his violent pafTions, or, as fome
have expreffed it, his genius, which Ud him to the ftudy
of llornis at fea and other difmal fceiies, obtained for hini
the diflinrtive addition of '/(v?;/'r//i3 ; he was otherwife nick-
named Piciro Mulier, for a much worfe realon, but which
ftill has reference to the ungovernable and tempciluous cha-
racter of his mind. He caufed his wife to be alfaffinatedk
in order that he might be at liberty to n.arry a young ladr
of Genoa, with, wiioin he was paffionately in love.

However viliaiaous-this critjie, and however incoicpatibV

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

with the purfuits of art, Molyn (lands conviftctl of the full
amount of its enormity. He was difcovertd, fei/ed, im-
prifoned, tried, and capitally condemned. The greatnefs
of his merit, however, as an artift, caufcd his fentence to
be mitigated. He ranfomed his life with the lofs of his
liberty, endured an imprifonment of fixteen years, and in
all probability would have ended his days in captivity, but
that the bombardment of Genoa by Louis XIV. afforded
■ him an opportunity, which lie failed not to embrace, of
efcaping to Placentia.

During his confinement, he confoled himfelf with his
profeffional purfuits, and probably executed fome of the
engravings which have been aicribed to him. Of thefe we
are only able to particularife one which is in a ftyle refcm-
bUng that of the elder Molyn and John van de Velde, the
fubjeft is a niafquerade by candle-light, with a fort of mock,
proceflion in the back-ground. Tempefta died in the year
1710.

Albert Flamen was born in the year 1600, but in what
part of Flanders we are unable to fay. He acquired fome
reputation as a painter of landfcape and IHll-life, but from
the number of excellent prints he produced, is better known
as an engraver. At one period of his life he refided at
Paris.

His prints are for the moft part etchings, performed in a
mailerly and fpirited ftyle, and finifhed with fmall affillance
from the graver. They are marked with the monogram
which may be feen in our Piste HI. of tliofe ufed by the
engravers of the Low Countries, and conlill principally of
four fets of various fidt, with landfcape back-grounds, of
fea-pons, &c. engraved on forty-eiglit plates ; a fet of
feven landfcapes and figures; a fet of four views ofConflans,
Pernay, Marconfli, and the Port a I'Anglois, all in large
quarto ; and a folio print of the encampment at the Faux-
bourg de St. Victor.

Claas, or Nicholas, Wieringen, was born at Haerlem
fome time about the commencement of the feventeenth cen-
tury. He was fent to fea in his youth ; employed much
of his time in ftudying marine objecls ; and after making a
few voyages, fettled on fliore, and became a painter and
engraver of (hipping and other marine fubjefts.

His prints confift of etchings wliich difplay much talent
and feeling for art, and the fubjects of which are fea views
and landfcapes, either drawn from iiature or engraved from
his owncompofitions; a fet of fix landfcapes of village fcenery,
with ruftic figures, &c. in quarto, are very excellent plates,
and are all we are able to fpecify of the works on copper
of this mafter.

Contemporary with Wieringen was Claas, or Nicholas,
Moojaert, or Mooyaert of Holland, the happy imitator of
EKhiemer, and the inftrutlor of Berghem. Vander Does,
Koningh, and Weenix. The name of this artift has been
varioufly fpelled, and his hiftory is obfcure ; BafTan firft calls
him Nicolas Moojaert of Amfterdam, and afterward Claas
Moyard, a Dutch painter.

He etched feveral plates in a ftyle bearing fome refem-
blance to that of Rembrandt, and as far as is -known,
worked entirely from his own compofitions. Among his
beft prints are a fet of fix plates of animals, etched in ap-
parent imitation of Swaneveldt ; " Lot and his Da"ghters,"
in that of Elfhiemer, and a landfcape with cows and (heep,
of various quarto dimenfioas.

Chriftian Louis Moyart was a native of the Netherlands,
the time and place of whofe birth are not known, but who
was refiding and praftifing engraving in the city of Amfter-
dam in the year 1630.
- Among a few uther works of no very extraordinary

merit, he produced a fet of monftrous allegorical compli-
ments, of folio dimenlions, wherein Hercules and Minerva
appear quite out of their element, and which is entitled '• An
emblematical Ilillory of Queen Mary de Medicis." Moy-
art marked his plates with a monogram which will be found
in our Plate HL of thofe ufed by the engravers of the Lowr
Countries.

Mathew Montague, otherwife Plattenberg, was born at
Antwerp in the year i6oo, and died at Paris in 1666. He
went at an early age to Italy, and made a long (lay at Flo-
rence, where he engraved in concert with his countryman
•John Affelin. From thence he journeyed to Paris, where,
for reafons which we are unable to ftate, he changed his
name from Plattenberg, to Plattemontagne, and afterwards
to Montague. He painted (hipping, fea-views, and land-
fcapes, in a very good Ilyle, and acquired great reputation.
Montague likcwifc etched fome few plates of landfcapes
and fea-views, from his own pifturea, in a ftyle refeinbling
that of Fouquieres ; of which the principal are as follow ;
a landfcape with buildings and figures ; a fea-port, with
veftels and figures, both of folio lize ; a pair of circular
prints, one reprelenting velfels on the fea, and a hght-houfe
on a mountain; the other a landfcape with wood and water;
a pair of landfcapes, one of which is ornamented with figures
cutting wood ; the other a canal with watermen, and a vil-
lage, all in folio ; and another pair, one of which has a
village, trees, and three fmall figures on the fore-ground ;
the other conlills of ruins and trees, without figures, in
quarto ; they are all marked M. Montagne in. et fee.

Nicolas Montagne, the fon ot Mathew, was born in the
year 1631, and died at Paris in 1706. He ftudied painting
under Philip Champagne, to whom he was related ; and
engraving under Morin, whole ftyle he improved upon. He
painted portraits and hillory with fuccefs, and in 1681 he
was chofen profefTor of painting of the Royal Aca'demy at
Paris. The moft confidurable work he engraved was a fet
of portraits, on which v.e find his name infcribed, Nicolas
de Plattemontagne. He drew the human figure very cor-
reftly, and his plates pofTefs a very agreeable effeft ; we
(hall mention the following only, " Oliver de Callella," a
lieutenant-general, killed at the fiege of Tarragone in 1644,
in large folio ; " St. Genevieve," a whole length figure, after
Ph. de Champagne, in folio ; and " A dead Chrill," from
the fame painter ; the figure is finely drawn, and the flefti
executed with dots only, but the back-ground and drapery
are finifhed with ftrokes in a bold and free Ilyle, and is alto-
gether a print of confiderable merit.

William Akerfloot was born at Haerlem foon after the
commencement of the feventeenth cenfury. Under whom
he ftudied is not known, nor are his works entitled to rank
above mediocrity.

He engraved portraits and hiftorical fubjefts, and
among others the following ; Frederic Henry, prince of
Orange, in folio ; AmeUa, princefs of Orange, between her
daughters, with a cattle and figures in the back-ground,
both after A. van der Venne ; " Chrift in the Garden of
OHves," after H. Hondius ; " Chrift loaded with Chains,"
after P. Molyn; " The Denial of St. Peter," after the
fame painter ; and a large cartouche, with vefTels on the
fea, all in folio.

Mofes Uytenbroeck, furnamed Little Mofes, was born
at the Hague iu the year i6oo. It is prefumed he was
the difciple of C, Poelenbourg, in whofe ftyle he compufed,
and fometimes fo exactly imitated him, that his pictures
have been fold for the works of that artift. He painted
landfcapes, which he ufually embellilhed with fubjefts taken
from the Greek and Roman poets. We have by this mafter

many

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

many engravings of landfcapes from his own compofitions,
they are executed in a tafteful fpirited ilylc, but the figures
which he fomctinnes introduced are incorreftly drawn.
We fhall mention the following as being moft worthy the
notice of the colledlor ; " Diana difcovering the Incontinence
of Califto," in 4to. ; and its companion, " A Female fhow-
ing to her Child Tobit blind, feated at the Door of his
Houfe," very beautiful engravings ; " Hagar in the Dcfart
comforted by an An^el ;" " Mercury and Argus," both
in 4to ; a fet of " The Hiftory of Tobit," in four land-
fcapes ; a fet of fix landfcapes with hiftorical figures ; a fet
of fix landfcapes ornamented with buildings, figures, and
animals, in the ftyle of Poelenbourg ; a fet of four with
ruins and figures, all of quarto dimenfions ; three landfcapes
with various animals, in quarto, nearly fquare ; " The
Flight into Eijypt," a palloral and poetic fubjeft, of a fhep-
herd and his flock entertained by a mufe ; a (hepherd and
fhepherdefs taking refuge in a cave, from a violent ftorm ;
another pattoral fubjed. with a fliepherd in the antique
drefs feated, furrounded by animals, all in large quarto ;
and a folio print of Hercules preventing Cacus from ilealijig
his cows and horfes, the figures in which are in the antique
ftyle ; thefe two laft prints are very rare.

J. G. Blacker, or Bleker, was born at Haerlem fome
time about the year 1606. He engraved a confiderable
number of print^, both from his own compofitions and thole
of other matters, in an intelligent and fpitited ftyle.

Blecker marked his plates in various ways, which has
given rife to miftakcs, for Heinneken calls him John Gafpar,
and Florent le comte, Cornelius ; which has led our country-
man Strutt into the error of making two artifts of the name
of Blecker, one of whom he calls Cornelius, and gives him
the monogram, for which fee our third plate of thofe ufed
by the artifts of the Netherlands. The following are among
the beft of his works.

From his cwn Compojitions. — A landfcape with the meeting
of Jacob and Rachael ; a landfcape, into which is introduced
the meeting of Abraham's fervant with Rebecca. He has,
in this inftance, worked upon the etching to harmonize ir
(efpecially upon the heads of his figures) with the point of
the graver, fcratching upon the copper, in a (lyle fomethi' g
like that which Worlidge afterwards adopted ; but he has
by no means fucceeded. " Two Peafants travelling in a
Cart ;" another engraving of the fame fubieft ; " A Car-
riage flopping before an Inn door, with Horfes feeding ;"
" A Peafant feated, obferving a Girl, who is milking a
Cow," all of folio fize ; a landfcape with animals ; another
landfcape, with a woman on horleback, both in 4to. ; and
two others, in which animals and a pipii.g (hepherd are in-
troduced, both in folio.

The follo'wing are after Pnelenbourg. — " Jacob and Laban
parting their Flocks ;" "The Lyitrians attempting to fa-
erifice to Sts. Paul and Barnabas" both in large folio ; and
" Chrift on the Crofs," at the foot of which appears the
Virgin and difciples, in folio, three very capital engravings.

The Viffchers, whom we now approach, were a very
diftinguiflied family of artifts, and who, by the number and
extraordinary merits of their engravings, have conferred
much honour, ;nd no fmall advantage, on their country.

Cornelius Viftcher was born in Holland, A.D. 1610, he
was the difciple of Soutman, but foon furpafled him in
merit. M. W.,.:e!et truly fays, (in his Diftionary of En-
graver?,] that very few artifts combined etching and engrav-
ing with fo much tafte, or fo well imitated with the graver
alone, all the playful pifturefquenefs of the point, as Cor-
nelius Viftcher. He drew with great talte, ana the com-
pofitions which he made for many of his engravings, fuf&-

ciently prove the extenfivenefs of his genius, and hie powers-
of combination. His etchings are free and delicate ; but
his works with the graver mu.'l excite the admiration of
every tafteful beholder. His mode of performance with
that inftrumcnt was as fingular, as the effeiEl he produced was
pidlurcfque and beautiful. Among the engravings from his
own compofitions that of " The Rat-Catcher," " The
Bohemian Woman," " Gellius de Bouma," and " The
Cat," deferve the preference ; in the Bohemian, the rough
freenefs of the etching needle is finely contrafted with the
ftiining fmoothnefs of the lines produced with the graver.
The portrait of Bouma is yet more exquifite and furprifing,
his old and wrinkled flcin being engraved in a manner which
is peculiarly ch^raftcriftic of the laxity and feeblenefs of the
decaying mufcles and flirivelling integuments of old age, par-
ticularly about the chci-ks ard temples ; the nofe (fa)'S
Huber) appears like flelh itfelf, and the mouth, which is
partly concealed by the beard, feems to be alive, as do alfo
the eyes, the execution of which is beautifully clear, and
expreffive of the dimmed brightnefs of a mind which time is
eclipfing. The fame nice feeling, accuracy of difcrimina-
tion, and p iwer over ttie iiiftruments of his art, marks the
execution of his celebrated Rat-catcher, in which the fhining
face as well as negro features and complexion of the youni"-
African, are admirably depicted, and the mafter rat-catcher
with his furred cap, and highly characterillic habiliments,
rat cage, ' &c. and, above all, his animated phyfiogncmical
countenance, which together mark the profoundeil; of adepts
in the mylteries of his craft, are exprefied with that broad
and general, and therefore ftrong, refemblancc to nature,
which all eyes rauft have feen,and is finiftied with the utraoft.
vivacity of touch.

Cornelius was an engraver of truly original powers ; he
was a man of a felf-willed character of mind, and perhaps
fhould not have endeavoured to copy the feelings, and trans-
fufe the forms, which had originated in the minds of other
artifts. It is acknowledged that his engravings after the
Italian painters, are of inferior merit to thofe which are
after nature and his own compofitions ; the plates which
were executed for ''the cabinet of Reynft,"' are arv.ong
his earlier performances, nor did he fucceed fo well as -Vorf-
terman, Pontius, and the BollVerts, in engraving after
Rubens ; yet he claims to be ranked among the firit artifts
of his country, for genius always fhould be eftimatcd, not
by its freedom from defects, but by the dimenfion of its
merits.

Among his beft uorks, the coUeftor may reckon the fol-
low'ing ; thoie who would fee a more copious catalogue, may
confult Baflan's Dictionary of Engravers.

Portraits. — Cornelius Viftcher, in a fugar-loaf hat ; an-
other portrait of ViiTcher, with the fame kind of hat, and a
cloak, bo'.h in 410. ; Andrea Deonyfzoon, called among
print dealers, ' the man with the piftol," becaufe a fmall
carbine or piltol with feveral gun locks appears in tiie back-
ground ; this print is one of the fineft, and the moft rare, of
the engravings of this mafter, but perhaps the very Icarceft
of all, and certainly the moft intrinfically valuable of his
portraits, is that of Gelhus de Bouma, minilter of Zut-
phen, aged leventy-feven years ; William de Ryck, an ocu-
lift of Amfterdam : this portrait, and the preceding, are
fometimes called " The great Beards," and are uncommonly
fine, all of folio fize ; a bilhop feated at a table, with a cru-
cifix, &c. half length ; John Merius, the paftor of Span-
broeck, both in large folio ; Cornehus Vofberg, the paftor
of Spaerwouw, in folio, a very fine and rare print ; John
Wachtelaer, an ecclefiattic of Utrecht, in large folio ; Wil-
liam van-den Zande, theologift, in an oval border ; Adrian

Motman,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Motman, accompanied by cheruBs, a (IcuU, and a cenfer ;
John Boelenfz, in an oval border, witb " Sanftitato et Doc-
trina" infcribcd on aftreamcr ; Adrian Pauw, knight of the
order of St. Michael ; David Peiterz de Vries, chief mafter
of the artillery in the Dutch States, very rare; Jodiua Von-
del, a Dutch poet, half length, all of folio iize ; Jacob
Werterbacn, lord of Brandwick, &c. half length, in an oval
border, octavo fize, very rare ; Alexander VII. fovereign
pontiff, with the motto " Juftitia et Veritatc" on a car-
touch fupported by children ; Coppenol, commonly called
the writer, bccaufe he holds a pen ; Peter Scriveriiis, a phi-
lofopher of Haerlem, (of this engraving it is uncommon to
meet with a good imprefTion) ; John de Paefs, holding a
piirfc, and a cartonch, on which is written his occupation of
an exchange broker, all in folio ; an etching of an old
woman, commonly fuppofed to he the mother of VilTcher ;
another portrait of the fame perfon, with a bomict on, botii
of quarto fize ; Robert Junius of Rotterdam, a clergyman,
in an oval border, " Palmidas pinx." in folio ; Conlhmtine
Huygens, nobleman of Zuylichcm, father to the celebrated
mathematician of tl-.at name, a fine and rare print ; a bult
of Peter GafTendi, in an octagon border, with Latin vcrfes ;
both in 4to. ; William of NalTan, foil of Frederic Henry,
prince of Orange ; Mary, cldeft daughter of Charles t.
wife of the former, both in large folio, from Hondthorft ;
Clirifliana, daughter of Gullavus Adolphus, and queen of
Sweden ; Frederic William, eleftor of Brandenburg ;
Charles Louis, palatine of the Rhine, and eleftor of i3a-
varia ; Charles II. of England, all after Hondthorll ; Janus
Douza, lord of Northvvick, and of fome celebrity as a philo-
fophcr, all of large folio dlmenfions. And two very rare
portraits, which we do not find fpecified in the catalogue of
Hecquet, -viz. Francis William, bifliop of Ofnabruck ; and
Louis Cutz, theologian, both in ovals, of 410. fizc.

Hijforkal, l^c. from his oiun C ompofit'ions . — " The Four
Evangelifts," half lengths, with attributes, in folio ; " The
Pancake Woman," a large folio plate, the bell impreffions
of which are before the name of Clement de Jonghe was
affixed to it ; the fecond bell, before that of .John VifTcher.
It wns afterwards retouched by BalTan, and t!ie name of
John VilTcher crafed ; but the lall imprefiions are eafily dif-
tinguiflied from the firft by their palpable inferiority. " The
Rat-Catcher," the firll impreffions of which were taken be-
fore the name of Clement de Jonghe was affixed to it ; "The
Bohemian or Gypfey Woman," with three children, to one
of \yhom (lie gives the breaft, all in large folio ; the name of
Viflcher, in the earlieil impreffions of the latter plate, is upon
the margin at the bottom. It was afterwards obliterated to
make room for the infcription, and affixed to the upper
part of the plate ; " The Interior of a Cabaret," with a
party of five men fmoking and drinking, in folio ; " The
Antiquary," reprefeuting an amateur in his cabinet, looking
over his curiofities, in large folio. By fome this is niillakenly
faid to be from a pifture by Reynll, and others attribute it
to Correggio. Charles Gullavus, king of Sweden, and his
queen, accompanied by a great crowd of perfons, and an
old man reading a paper ; " The Coronation of the Queen
«f Sweden," infcribed " C.irolus Gullavus : — Hedwig
iileonora ;" all of large folio fize ; a boy holding a candle,
and a girl with a moiife trap, in which is a moufe : this print
19 ufually called " The Moufe Trap," in 4to. A figure
lying on a tomb, above which Chrill appears with cherubs,
beneath is a bas-relief with two genii placing a ferpent on a
fliuU crowned with laurel ; above is infcribed " Fortiter, fed
fuaviter," in large folio. A cat fleeping, with a rat before
her, in 4.to ; a cat fleeping upon a napkin, a very fmall plate
Jengthways, This print is exceedingly rare, and at the auction

of Mariette's colleftion, it fold for the fum of three hundred
and fixty-one livrcs.

hi/iotical, i^c. a/tr various Italian Majlers. — " The Angel
commanding Abraham to quit his Country, and iojourn in
the Land towards which he points," from Baifan; "Abraham
at Sichem,and God appearing to him in a Dream," from, the
fame painter; "Sufannah and the Elders," from Guido. Tiie
bull of a woman with her liand upon her breall, a very fine
print, thought to be from Parmegiano, all in folio ; '.' Chrilt
carried to the Tomb ;" " The Refurrettion," after P. Vero-
nefe, infcribed " Ego et Pater unus fumus," in large folio ;
" The Holy Family," where the infant Chrilt is on the lap
of the Virgin, and St. John prefeiits fruit ; thought to be
from Palma ; " The Holy Family," in which the infant
Chrill is playing with flowers on the lap of his mother, and
in the back-ground is Tobit brought by an angel ; and an-
other " Holy Family," where St. John prelents a pear to
the infant Chrill, both without the painters names, and all
of folio dimcnlion.s.

Suhjeds from Fkmijl Maflers. — " The Lall Judgment,"
after Rubens, a fine engraving, on two large folio plates ;
" The Holy Virgin and Infant Chrilt iurrouiided by
Angels," alter the fame painter, in large folio ; " St.
Francis d'AfCfe receiving the Infant Chrilt from the
Virgin," in large folio ; " Achilles difcovered by Ulyfles
at the Court of Lytomedes," in large folio. At the
time Viifcher engraved this plate he was under the di-
redlion of Soutman. A hoy lighting his candle from that
of a woman with a balket, in large qaarto ; all from
Rubens. A man playing the violin, accompanied by live
children, from Van Ollade, a very fine engraving, of which
it is very difficult to find a good impreliion. An etch-
ing of the fame fubjett, marked "A. Van Ollade pinx.
C. Viifcher fecit, aqi a furti." The interior of a fmoking-
room, with fix men, a woman, and two children ; all in lirge
folio. The bell imprefiions ot this plate arc before the
names of VifTcher and Ollade were inferted. A fmoking-
room, with two men and a woman drinking ; a man and
woman in a public houlc, on whole faces drunkennefs and
vulgarity arc depiited molt admirably ; both from Ollade.
A party of five men in an alehoufe, one of whom plays
the violin, whilll the others fing, from Ad. IJrouwcr,
both m folio. A furgeon performing an operation on a
man's foot, in folio ; from the fame matter. Three very fine
prints, after P. van Laer ; iiiz. i. The pillol-fliot, or the
coach robbed ; in folio. 2. An attack on a convoy.
3. The lime-kiln ; both the lall in large folio. A party of
hunters on horfcback, with liounds, &c. from P. de Laer ;
and its companion, a man featcd on the banks of a river, in
which women are waflung. A huullcape with a moonlight
effedt, which expofes two robbers making off with their
booty, after having knocked down a man ; and its compa-
nion, a rural fubject of a man and woman tending fheep,
both in large folio, from de Laer ; and two fcts of fi^ur
foho plates, each after Berghem, ot which the fubjeCts are
landfcapes, adorned with ruins and rullic figures.

The merits of John Viflcher, as an engraver of landfcape,
cattle, and ruUic figures, were not lefs original and extra-
ordinary than thofe of his brother Cornelius. He was born
at Araiterdam in the year 1636, and has been fpoken of as
a painter as well as an engraver. His pictures we have not
feen, and his engravings alone are fufficient to entitle him to
the fame he fo jultly enjoys.

With artill-hke regard to the demands of theclafs of fub-
jedts which chiefly engaged his abilities, a much larger por-
tion of his engravings is performed with the etching-point
than in thofe of Cornelius, which initr'xiient he handled

vcilh

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

with the utniod freedom and pifturefque playfulnefs. Ber-
{;hem, of whom we fliall pn.'fcntly Ipeak, and of whom wo
have treated in vol. iv. was a paftoral painter, and no man
to this hour has tranflated the poetry of Bcrghem's painting,
with more fuccefs tiian John Viflcher, iiniefs Laurent, an
Engiifh engraver, who died young at Paris, might be ex-
cepted.

Trees, efpccially thofe of thorny-charadlered foliage, fnch
as Derghem painted ; broken ground ; the rough hides of
cattle, in all their wild varieties; mofly rocks, and the
crumbling furfaces of ruined edifices, he treated with
fmgnlar feeling and felicity, b'ending a painter's and
slmoll a natnralift's knowledge of the details oi the forms of
fuch objefts, with an engraver's talle and manual power of
execution. Shallow brooks, in which, dillurbed by ford-
ing cattle, tlie funfliine glitters, as .long as prints can be
preierved, will continue to fparkle with the merits of
Viifcher, while his deeper ftrearas and lakes reflect the me-
ridian glow of his reputation.

Middiman, as v/cU as many other modern engravers, ap-
pear to have formed th»ir ftyles of etching grafiy ground,
and rocks patched with lichens, from contemplatnig the
prints of this mafler, and no man better than he imparted
truth of charafter and animal expreflfion to cows, horfes,
afTes, goats, Iheep, and all '.he various tribes of domeftic
animals which his great mafter Berghem delighted to paint,
and therefore painted fo well ; or difplayed on paper vvitli a
readier hand the rufticities of Ol^ade.

The portraits of John Vifrcher. with which we {hall com-
mence our li!t of his fupcrior performances, fhew that he oc-
cafionally handled the graver with fcarcely lefs freedom and
tafte than the etching-needle.

Portrni'.s. — John de Viterbogaert, from a drawing by
Viifcher himfelf, in quarto ; Peter Prochns, a minifter of
Amilerdam, after Van Noort ; Thadeus Lautman, paftor
of La Have, after J. de Bane, both in folio ; Abraham
vonder Hulll;, vice-adnairal of Holland, in large folio;
Petrus Paulus Rubens, an etching from Vandyke ; Mi-
chael de Ruyter, admiral of Holland, H. Berckmans
pinx. ; both in folio ; a man with his hair drefftd, after
C. Viffcher. in quarto ; and a negro fliooting an arrow from
a bow, after the fame mafter, in folio.

After OJlade, — A company of peafants under a trellis-
work, gaming ; '■ Ruftic Economy," where a man is winding
ofFcotton, and his wife fpinning it ; " A ruftic Party," com-
poled of twyo fmokers, and an old woman and child ; " Pea-
fants rejoicing ;" " A Skirraifh before tiie Door of a Ta-
vern ;" " A Peafant's Wedding," infide of an alehoufe ;
and a drunken peafant putting his hand on the bofom of a
woman, all of folio dimenfions.

Aftir Ber(;hein. — Several peafants dancing in a cottage,
commonly called " The Ball," in large folio ; a beautiful
landfcapc, ornamented with figures and animals, and Us
companion, a mountainous landfcape, with a man and horfe
fravell:ng ; " Summer," in large folio ; a landfcape, with a
man clad in goat'd-flcin, on horfeback, in folio ; and its com-
panion, a girl milking a goat, in a landfcape ; a pair of
paftoral fubiecls, in one of which is a fhepherd meditating,
w the other a woman milking a goat, and a piping fhepherd.
The four parts of the day, Aurora, Meridies, Vefpcr,
and Nox, beautiful landfcapcs, ip large folio. A fet of four
large folio etchings of landfcapes, in which the figures in-
troduced are ; i. A man on a mule. 2. A woman.
3. A fhepherd guiding his flock. And 4. A mule loaded
with pea-hens. A fet of fix landfcapes; i. Men flioeing
an afa. 2. Two women and a dog, one of whom is carry-
•Bg a fack. 3. A fhepherd on an als, driving his fheep.

4. A woman carrying faggots, and a peafant on horfeback.

5. A peafant on an afs leading a cow. 6. An old man with
a beard, fitting againft a wall, in folio. A fet of four, the
title-page of which is a monument or tomb. 2. A fhepherd
playing the bag-pipes. 3. A fhepherd and his dog fording
a brook. And, 4. A boy carrying faggots; in fohc
Another fet of landfcapes, of which tlie title-page is a foun-
tain or watering-place for cattle, with a woman milking a
goat. 2. A (liepherd wrapped in his cloak, with a ftick.
3. A fliepherd fcated on a lullock, and another in paftoral
converfation. 4. A woman on an afs, and a girl Handing
befide her ; all in folio. Four other fets, of various numbers
of landlcapcs, with fimilar ruftic figures introduced ; all of
folio dimenfions. And the ornamental decorations of various
geograi)hical charts, for which Berghem fupplied the
defigns.

From other painters of cottage fcenery, he engraved a fet
of eight prints of figures and animals, after H. du Jardin -
a fet of four large folio prints, after P. de Laer, which have
beeti attributed by fome to Cornelius Viffcher, though with
better foundation, by others to John. They confiH of
1. A party of beggars playing ;it cards, furrounded by a
crowd of fpertators, 2. A woman on horfeback guiding
cows, near whom is a man who has difmounted to drink out
of his hat. 5. An hoftlcr bufied at an inn-door ; near which
is a Ikble with horfes feeding. 4. A forge, with a man
fhoeing a horfe, and others converfing-.

After P. li*ouvermans . — A viftualling tent, and horfemen
flopping to drink ; another vidualling-tent, with men ca-
rouling ; horfemen diverting themfelves before their tents,
and, as ufual in the compofitions of Wouvermans, a white
horfe with trappings ; all in large folio. A fet of four in
folio, of I. The marfhalling of an army, with a horfe on the
fore-ground. 2. A viftuailing tent. 3. A party of tra-
vellers. 4. A riding-fchool.

A fet of twelve after G. van Goyen, of landfcapes and
fca-pieces, enriched with various buildings and figures, in
quarto ; and another fet of twelve wild landfcapes, and
marine fubjefts in Italy, after Herman Swaneveldt, which
are very interelting, and adorned with figures ; muft con-
clude our lift of the works of this meritorious artift.

Lambert Viffcher, the brother of Cornelius and John, was
born at Amfteidam in the year 1634, and died at Rome,
whither he had travelled for improvement or employ, and
where he engraved in conjunction with Bloemaert, Spierre, and
others, from the pitturesof Pietro da Cortona, in the palace of
Pitti, at Florence. He engraved both portrait and hiftorv,
working with the graver alone, but did not poffefs any very-
great ihare of merit. The following are a felcdlion of the
beft of his produtlions.

Portraits. — Stanitlaus Lubienitz, M. Scheitz pinx. ; John
Rutgerfius, counfellorof Guftavus Adolphus, both of quarto
fize ; Chriilopher de KannenS'rg, privy counfcilor to the
eleftor Frederic William of Brandenburg ; Maria, Thcrefa
of Auftria, queen of France, from VanLoo; all in folio.
Charles Rabeniiaupt, baron of Sucha, and liei:tenant-gene-
ral of Holland; John de Wit, the diftinguiflied peufion.ary,
and patriot of Holland ; and Cornehus Tromp, vice-admi-
ral of Holland, F. Bol pinx. ; all of large folio dimenfions.
H'ljlar'ual, iifc. — " The Gencroiity of Seltucus to An-
tiochus," from P. da Cortona ; and "Virtue dcliverinjr
young Man from ti'.e Embraces of Voluptuoufnefs,
large folio, from the fame painter.

Nicholas John Viifcher was of the fame family as the pre-
ceding artifts, and born at Amfterdam fome tim.e about the
year 1580. We have by him a confiderable number of
etchings, executed in a free agreeable ftyle ; he partioilarly

fucceeded

a
ill

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE

fucceeded in fmalllandfcapcs, with figures and animals. He
likewife engraved a few portraits, which he marked with his
name at length, or fomctimes with a moriojrram, compofed
of C. and V. for Claus or Claas, being the Dutch abbre-
viation of Nicholas, and which will be found in Plate III.
of thofe ufed by the engravei-s of the Low Countries.

The following of his engravings are moil worthy the at-
tention of the coUeftor. William Laud, Archbifliop of
Canterbury ; Charles L of England, in a large round
hat, both ni 4to. ; John Calvin, in folio ; Didier Erafmus
of Rotterdam, from Hans Holbein ; .lames H. of England,
and James, duke of Monmouth and Buccleugh, both in
large folio.

Etchings. — '• The Tab^e of Cebes," an allegorical fubjeft
on human lite, in large folio ; " The Execution of the
State Criminals, of the Seft of Arminians, at the Hague,"
in folio ; two landfcapes with Dutch callles, in large
folio ; and a view of the caflle and environs of Loven-
fteyn, which was ufed as a prifon. At the bottom of the
print is a perfpetlive view of the caltle in the form of a
frieze ; and on each fide a medallion. This is a folio print,
very rare, and beautifully executed.

Peter Nolpe was born at the Hague, A. D. 1601. The
circumllances of his life are rather obfcure, but his works
prove him to have been a man of talent. He is fpoken of
as a painter ; but apparently his engravings are far more nu-
merous than his piftures. He worked with the point and
graver, and generally united them ; but fome of his plates
are executed with the graver only, which inftrument he
handled with much more facility than tafte. He engraved por-
trait, hillory, and lahdfcape, but excelled mod in the latter,
for he was but imperfectly mailer of the human form, whereas
his landfcapes poifefs a certain air of boldnefs and freedom,
which manifeft a praftifed hand, though not a mind of pro-
found information.

The moll valuable of his works are the portraits of John
Adler Salvius, a miniller plenipotentiary to the court of
Sweden, in 410. A fet of eight horfemen, in 8vo. ; very
rare etchings. A fet of eighteen etchings of beggars, in
4to. after Qnaft, of whom we fliall fpeak anon, and treated
in his manner. " The Angel delivering St. Peter from
Prifon," after J. V. Vucht, in folio ; " Judah and Tamar,"
in a landfcape of large folio fize. The fame figures he after-
wards introduced into a landfcape of a much fmaller fcale.
" An Inundation," occafioned by the burllmg of a water-
bank. This is a very fcarce print, executed with much
" force. " Daniel in the Lion's Den," after Blanchard ;
" The Voyage of his Majelly, the King of Great Britain,
to the Coafts of Holland." An emblematical print on the
marriage of the prince of Orange, with the princefs
Mary of England. A fet of fix landfcapes', after 'Van
Nieulant. Six ditto, which are efteemed beautiful, after
Rogman, all in folio. The ;#bmainder are of larger folio di-
menfions. A view of the guard-houfe at Amftcl, near Am-
rterdam ; eight of the months of the year, which are very
beautiful, with fine efFefts. A fet of the four feafons; an-
other of the four elements, from Peter Potter ; " The Pro-
phet Elias, with the Widow of Sarepta ;" " St. Paul the
Hermit fed in the Wildernefs by an Eagle," both in large
folio ; and .1 very capital print, engraved on five plates, after
C. Molyn the y-junger, of "The Cavalcade made by the Citi-
zens of Amllerdani, on the Entrance of Mary of Mcdicis ;"
fome of which he marked with a monogram which is copied in
Plate III of thofe ufed by the arcills of the Netherlands.

Peter Quad. There is a certain fanciful quaintncfs about
this artill, of a diverting kind. The grotelque quirks of
his morricc-dancing beggars are perfectly homogeneous with

the twirUng Q's in his various monograms, and makes qi
anticipate fomething entertaining ui the hillory of his privsatc
life, of which alas ! we know nothing, but that he was
born at the Hague in the year 1602, and was the intimate
friend of Nolpe, whom wc have jaft difmilfed.

He defigned and engraved groups of peafants, battles,
beggars, and barbers' (hops, and even in his battles there is
fomething aUied to drollery. His talents, in many refpefts,
were but little inferior to thole of Callot, with whom he
was contemporary, and to whom, in the management of his
tools and ftyle of engraving, he bore a remarkable re-
femblance.

The monograms of Quad may be feen in Plate III. of
thofe of the engravers ot the Netherlands, and his principal
works, are, " Fyf finnen te Koop," (or the five fenfes)
in oftavo, dated 1638 ; the four feafons, perfonified by
grotefque ligures, in quarto. A fet of twelve plates of
Capriccio and grotefque figures, in 8vo. Another fet of
Capriccio, of whicli the fubjedts are beggars, old women,
and oddities, fuperfcribed on the title page " Tis all ver-
vart Gaeien :" this fet confifts of twenty-fix plates in 4to.
Another fet of ten quarto plates of beggars, with quizzical
names and correfpondiug landfcape back-grounds; and a fet
of twelve plates in 4'0. of whimfical modes and fafliions, in
the talte of the noblelfe of Callot.

Francis Vander Steen was born at Antwerp, A. D.
1604, and having in his youth loll the ufe of one of his
legs by an acciilent, his parents thought of fine art as a
profitable or pleafant occupation ; and if a corredt judgment
may be formed by his luccefs, moll probably the former;
for he obtained high patronage, though he polfeffed not
much merit. The archduke Leopold afligned him a pcn-
ilon, which was continued by Ferdinand III-

His engravings, however, of which the following are the
chief, find their way into the port-folios of thofe who col-
left the produftions of this fchool, either on account of their
fubjefts or fnppofed merits.

Portraits Cornehus Cort, in 8vo. ; Theodore Coorn-

haert, in 410., both celebrated engravers ; Andrea del
V'aulx, or 'Vallenfis, profeffor at the academy of Louvain,
in 4to. ; and George Seballian Lubomirflii, count of Wif-
niez, Herdt. del ; in folio.

Hyiorical, ISjc. after ■various Majlers. — " The Holy Fa-
mily," where the intant John prefents flowers to Chrift, trom
Titian; " The Holy Family," with St . Jofeph fealed on a
fack. This fubjeft is called in Italy "La Madonna del Sacco,"
from Andrea del Sarto, and has fince been engraved by Bar-
tolozzi and by Raphael Morj^hen. " The Dream of Michael
Angelo," from Michael Angelo ; " Soldiers playing at
Cards," from Manfredi, all in folio ; " A Man holding a
Flagijon and a Cup, in company with another Man," in 410. ;
" A Peafar-it leated, reading the Newfpaper, whilll an old-
Woman careffes him with one Hand and holds a Pot of Beer
in the other ;'' " A Village Party." of quarto fize ; " The'
Mifer and his Wife counting their Gold," in folio, allaftcr'
Teiiiers ; " A drunken Silenus fupported by Satyrs and
Bacchanals," from Vandyke; " ACupid forming a Bow from
the Club ot Hercules," after Correggio, in foiio. At the
bottom of the print are two children, one of whom cries and
the other laughs. " Jupiter and lo ;" " The Rape of Ga-
nymede." Thefe three engravings are very rare, from the
piftures of Correggio in the gallery of Vienna, and at the
fale of Mariette's coileftion were fold for two hundred and-
fifty livres. " The Martyrdom of eleven thoufand Vir-
gins," engraved on four plates from the drawings of Van-
Hoy, after the original piftures by Albert Durer ; " St.-
Pepin and St. Begue," half-length figures on the famo-

plate.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

plate, from drawings by Rubens, after the piftures by Van
Eyck ; and the portico of the picture gallery at BrufFels!,
commonly called " The Gallery of Teniers," from Van
Hoy, all of folio fize.

Hans or John Witdoeck, Withouc, or Witdouck, was
born at Antwerp, A. D. 1604. He was among tlie num-
ber of artifts who enjoyed the friendlhip and inllruAions of
Rubens, and leems to have entirely devoted himfelf to en-
graving the piftures of that great mafter. Witdoeck did
not well underlland the human figure, for the naked parts
are but indifferently exprefled, the extremities ar-e heavy,
and the markings of the joints are not" properly determined.
Neither is the mechanical part of his engravirig lefs excep-
tionable. It proves that he had very little command of the
graver, or did not fufficiently lludy that part of the art to
produce a clear and agreeable effect. Notwithftanding thcfe
faults. Baffan has praifed him, and the prints wtiich he exe-
cuted under the eye of Rubens in chiarofcuro, poffefs a
tolerable effeft.

The following engravings from the hand of this mafter,
are thofe which are moft worthy the notice of the collector.
A pair of bulls of " Cicero" and " Demofthenesi," in folio ;
*' Melchizedeck prefentiiig Bread and Wine to Abraham
and his Followers ;" " A Nativity," both in large folio,
from Rubens. This latter plate underwent feveral alte-
rations, chiefly to add to the effeft. The firft impreffions
are without the addrefs of Com. Coeberch, the fecond
liave the addrefs ; after which the plate came into the
hands of S. Bolfwert, who engraved on, and improved 'it
very much. He effaced the name of Coeberch, and
inferted his own. " The Adoration of the Kings," in
large folio, from Rubens. This print likewife under-
went feveral alterations in the effect. " The Elevation
of the Crofs," a large print lengthways, from Rubens, on
three plates ; " Chrift at Table with his two Difciples at
Emmaus,"a large folio plate, nearly fquare. There are fome
few impreffions of this plate, with the addition of a tint from
a wooden block ; but thefe are very rare. " The Affump-
tion of the Virgin," a very fine and rare print, in large folio,
of which thofe impreffions that are marked C. Van Mulen
are retouched. " The Virgin and Infant Chrift," in an oval
border ; " The Holy Family," where the Virgin is repre-
fented fuckling the Infant Jefus. The be ft impreffions of
this engraving have the addrefs of Moermans. Another
" Holy Family," here the Holy Infant is rcprefented
afleep on the bofom of his inother, all of folio fize ; " St.
Ildefonfe receiving a Chafuble from the Holy Virgin," a
very fine and rare print, in large fofio ; " The beheading of
St. Juftus ;" and " St. Ceciha," both in large folio, and all
after Rubens.

■/Ijter Cornelius Schut. — ".ludithand Holofernes;" "The
Holy Family ;" «' The Virgin on a Crefcent ;" « The
Virgin feated in a Landfcape, furrounded by Angels;'
" The Virgin and Chrift, accompanied by St. John and
Angels,'' all in folio ; and " St. Nicholas appearing to the
Emperor Conilantine, and delivering three Tribunes from
Prifon," in large folio.

Remoldus, or Rombaiit Eynhouedts, was born at An-
twerp in the year 1605, in which city he always refided. His
plates are executed with a firm dark point, and in a ftyle which
he had the art of varying and adapting to thofe of the feveral
painters after whom he engraved. His drawing, though not
always equally correft, is very fpirited, and his maffes of light
and fhade very well preferved. His principal engravings
are after Rubens and Schut, but he likewife engraved fome
fubjefts for " The Cabinet of Teniers."

We (hall fpecify the following from the hand of this artift :
Vol. XXI.

" A dead Chrift," after Palma the younger ; " Chrift rifing
from the Tomb," after the elder Palma ; " The Adoration
of tlie Kings," after Rubens, very rare ; " The Refurreftioa
of Chrift," from the fame painter ; " The Fathers of the
Church," and " St. Clare holding the Holy Sacrament ;" all
of folio fize. " The Virgin feated, furrounded by Saints ;"
"The Chapel where Rubens was entombed," in 410.;
" St. Gregory, between Prudence and Courage, leaning on
a Staff;" above is a pifture of the Virgin and Chrift, and
angels holding wreaths of fruit, after Rubeni, in large
folio. " St. Chriftopher," in folio, after the fame painter;
"St. Peter" and " St. Paul," in folio; " Cambyfes, King
of Perfia," who liaving ordered an evil judge to be flayed
alive, caufed his fkin to be fprcad upon the feat of juftice,
and placed the fon of the culprit upon it, making him
judge in his father'.^ jtead ; a fmall fquare plate. " Peace and
Happinefs," Peace is crowned by Victory, andisfupported by
Power and Jufti.c, accompanied by other al egorical figures,
all after Rubens ; " St. Ann," in folio ; " The Affump-
tion of the Virgin ;" and " The Martyrdom of St. George ;"
both in large folio, after Schut.

Peter Clouet, Clowet, or Clouvet, was bom at Antwerp,
A.D. 1606 ; he learned the elements of art in his native
country, and afterwards went to Italy fcr improvement,
where he ftudied under Spierre and Bloemaert. He returned
by way of Pari.', where he remained and exercifed his pro-
feffion for fome time, but finally fettled at Antwerp.

He worked entirely with the graver in a clear firm ftyle,
not a little refembhng that of P. Pontius. His prints are
generally deficient in middle tints, and therefore in harmony,
and though full of colour, and boldly engraven, from too
equal a diftribution of the fhadows, and the hghts being too
much fcattered, they lofe a great part of their effedt. How-
ever, his prints, cfpecially thofe after Rubens, are much
fought after. He exercifed his art both on portraits and
hiftory ; and the following is a felection of his moft merito-
rious engravings :

Portraits. — Peter Aretin; Nicolas Coffin ; ThomasaKem-
pis ; Ferdinand Cortez ; Amerigo Vefpucci ; and Francis
de Malherbe ; all of quarto fize, and without the names of
the painters. Michael Boudwyns, a phyfician of Antwerp ;
William Cavendifti, duke of Newcaftle, on horfeback, both
in folio, from Diepenbeck ; Chriftopher Vander Lamen, a
painter of Antwerp ; Theodore Rogiers, a goldfmith of
Antwerp ; Charles Scribanius, a Jefuit of Antwerp ; Ann
Wacke, holding a plume of feathers ; and Henry Rich,
count of Holland ; all after Vandyke, in folio.

Hiflorical, i^c. after various Majters " The Defcent from

the Crofs," from Rubens, in large folio ; " The Epitaph
of Rubens," in folio ; « The Death of St. Antony," a
fine and irare print, in large folio ; " St. Michael vanquifti-
ing the Devil," in foho ; " A Converfation between feveral
Lovers in a Garden :" the beft impreffions have Flemifti
verfes beneatli, but thofe with French are likewii'e much
fought after. This converfation piece is a very fine and
rare print, in large folio. A ftanding female figure, in
folio ; a winterfcape, with a cottage, and the fnow falling,
belonging to a fet of fix, the other five of which were
engraved by S. Bolfwert, all after Rubens. " The Vir-
gin luckling the Infant Chrift," after Vandyke, in large
folio ; and " A Party at Table," where the mafter and
miftrefi are crowned with laurel ; " The Family of the
Duke of Newcafte," after Diepenbeck, in folio.

Albert Clowet, or Clouet, was born at Antwerp in the

year 1624. He was nephew to the preceding artift, and

went to Italy to ftudy under C. Bloemaert. During hit

refidence at Rome he engraved a confiderable number of

3 R plates.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

plates, and among them feveral of tlic portraits for tlie
L,ives of the Painters, by Bellori, which were printed in
that city, A.D. 1672. He always worked witli the gra-
ver in a neat ftyle, imitating, in his hiftoriiral works, with
tolerable fuccefs, that of C. Bloemaert. His portraits are
fomctimes in theilyle of Mellan, at others in that of F. de
Poilly, and fometimes in that of Nanteiiil ; though by no
means equal in merit to the works ol thofe great, mailers,
t'ither in drawing, cffeft, or mechanical execution.

Among various other Portraits, he has executed a colleftion
entitled " Effigies Cardin;il. nunc viveutium," which were
publifhed at Rome by J. Rofli. The following are likewifc
by him.

Nicolas Pouflln ; Antony Vandyke ; the cardinal A zzo-
lifius, from Vonet ; cardinal Jacob Rofpigliofi, from J. M.
Morandi; cardinal Charles Rofetti; cardinal Francis William
de Wartenberg ; Maximili:in, count of Wolfegg ; and the
medallion of pope Alexander VH. fupported by the car-
dinal virtues ; all of quarto dimcnfions.

Hijlorkal, i^c. — " St. John de la Croix," the flrft infti-
tutor of the order of Carmehtes ; Lazaro Baldi, pinx. in
large folio; " The Statue of the Happy Umiliana," after
a drawing by Baldlnucci ; " The Sepulchral Monument of
Pope Paul HI." from Dom. Barriere, both ■" folio ; " The
Obelift placed on an Elephant, erefted on the Place of Mi-
nerva," after G. L. Bernini, in large folio ; " The Myfte-
rious Conception of the Virgin," after P. Cortona, engraved
on two plates, very fine and rare ; " A Combat of Horfe-
Soldiery," after Jac. Courtois ; and a large print, engraven
on four plates, of " The Battle of Jofliua," after William
Courtois, brother to the preceding artill.

A much more extraordinary artill is now to be introduced
to the reader's notice. Of wild, vigorous, and original
powers, both as painter and engraver. Paid Rembrandt
Gerretz, or Van Rhyn, gave a new impetus to art, and
efFefted a revolution in talle, of which the eifecls will long
continue to be felt.

The profeffor Fufeli, by a grand metaphor, which fpeaks
whole pages in praife of the talents, powers, and influence of
our artift, fays, that the frantic pilgrimage of painters to
Italy ceafed at the apparition of the two meteors of art,
Peter Paul Rubens and Rembrandt Van Rhyn. Both Fufeli
and the profeffor Opie (who was too foon, alas I lofl to his
country) have ju'.Uy eftimated and defervedly praifed the
merits of Rembrandt as a painter, and they will doubtlefs
be not lefs faithfully reported in this work, when the writer,
to whofe pen is confided our biography of painters, ihall
arrive at his name. In this place he will be treated as an
engraver ; yet if the prefent writer fhould any where be
thought to trench on the province of painting, let it be
recolleiled, that of two arts fo intimately connefled as
painting and engraving, and which call forth and exercife
the fame energies of mind, how difEc.ilt, how almoll impof-
fible it is, to write feparately and to write well.

Rembrandt was the fon of Herman Gerretz, a miller of
the neighbourhood of Leyden, and was born A.D. 1606,
in his father's mill, which flood on the banks of the Rhine,
between the villages -of Leyerdorp and Koukerk. A fpot
which became intereiling from being the birth-place of fo
great an artill as Rembrandt, became doubly intereiling
when brought to our view by the magic of his pencil. A
picture of this mill, which was once in the Choifeuil Collec-
tion, is now in the gallery of William. Smith, efq. M.P. for
Norwich. It reprefents a very early hour of morning, and
perhaps the figures which are introduced may have other
local allufions, of which the meaning is now lolt, to the
time and circumilance of his birth.

Finding that he pofTelTed an enquiring and capacious mind,
Herman fent young Rembrandt to the college at Leyden,
where his reigning paffion for fine art, and his difi clination
for all other lludies, were foon manifell. Other maflers were
accordingly provided to inllrudl liim in the elementary prin-
ciples of art ; and Rembrandt iludied fucceflively under
Van Sccotens, Peter Laftmann (an engraver of whom we
have already treated), James Pcnas, and James Van Zwa-
ncnbourg.

How a man of fo great genius came to feek inftruftion
from fo many mailers, it were difficult to fav, and Hill more
difficult to think that they did not encumber his progrefs ;
but, perhaps, to the variety of their advice, we may in part
owe the originality of Rembrandt. He did not, probablvj
remain long enough under the direflion of» any one of them,
to trammel his habits, or overwhelm or ftultify thofe feelings
and perceptions of nature, which are the genuine and free
inlets to lofty and original attainments in art.

Hence Rembrandt has been compared to Shakefpeare ;
and hence, like another wild poet whom •' Leyden aids nt>
more, with many-Ianguagcd lore," and who voluntarily

*' leaves the lofty Latian drain.

Her ilately prole, her verfe's charms,
To hear the clafli ol rufty arms ;"

he allowed that the ancients were " pretty fellows in their
day," but would point with farcallic air to the walls of his'
ftudy, which were hung round with fiiits of armour, rich
fluffs, and the pidlurefque dreffes of various ages and na-
tions, and fay " thefe are 7ny antiques."

Both Rembrandt and his wife have been accufed of an
over-weening fondnefs for money. She fold his engravings
that he might not be interrupted in his profefTional purfuits ;
and underttanding the " tricks" of pnntfellers, w-as too much
of a " traveller" to allow herfelf to be impofed upon by
them. It is faid that a confiderable fortune was thus ac-
quired, xwhich devolved to an only fon, Titus, to whom
nature was as niggardly in her gifts, as fhe had been pro-
digal to the father. The mean propenfities of Titus have
been mentioned, and his inability to avail himfelf of his
father's inltruftions in art ; but the amount of his fortune
has never been flated, and has probably, by unrefledting
readers, been much over-eftimated.

One of the mofl valuable paragraphs in Strutt's Difti-
onary of Engravers, is that which he has written on the
prints of Rembrandt ; becaufe while it defcribes their me-
rits with the fellow feeling of an engraver, it marks the
difference, which cannot be too ilrongly marked, or too
often repeated in the public ear, between mere rarity and
intrinfic worth ; the want of which dilcrimination, more,
perhaps, than any other caufe, has been the bane of engrav-
ing : retarding its progrefs, by keeping us too intent upon
nominal and extrinlic value, and too rcgardlefs of thofe in-
trinfic qualities, which, as men of tafle, fhould alone engagx;
our attention.

He fays, " His prints, which are partly etchings, and
partly engravings, performed with the graver in a fingular
manner, have all that freedom of touch, fpirit, and greatnefs
of efFcft, difcoverable in his paintings, fuppofing them to be
aflilled by the vai-iety of colours. Confidering the great
quantity of etchings he made, we cannot fuppofe they
fhould be all equally well executed, or equal in value.
However, (according to the common courfe of things, on
which an imaginary value may be railed by accidental
caufes,) they are not always his bell prints which produce the
greatell prices ; but thofe that are the fcarrell. Thus we
frequently fee a print of great intrinfic worth in itfclf, if

confidcred

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

confulcred as a beautiful fpecimcn of the abilities of an ar-
tift, thrown afide for no other fault than that of being too
ealily obtained ; vvhil|l another, which perhaps is rather a
difgrace than an honour to him, is purchafed at an extra-
vagant price, and anxiouOy prefcrved becaufe it is unique.
It is merely owing to this caprice, that fo many trifling
alterations in the prints of Rembrandt, rather than a proper
examination of their real merit, iiicreafe or diminifh the
worth ot the fame print. I myfelf, commiflioned by an
eminent colleftor, gave fix-and-forty guineas for the great
Coppenol, with the white back-ground, that is, before it
was tiiiirnv'd ; when, the fame evening, at the fame fale, I
bought a moll beautiful impreffion of the fame print finifhed,
dillinguifhed by having a black back-ground, &c. which
had an addrefs to Rembrandt at the bottom, written by
Coppenol himfelf (for he was a writing-mafter of Amftcr-
dam, and this print is his portrait,) for fourteen guineas
and a half. In the fccond inftance, I exceeded my com-
miffion by the half guinea ; in the firft, I did not reach it
by nearly twice ten guineas. It cannot be realonably fup-
pofed, that fuch a difference could exitl between two good
impreflions of the fame plate ; and, fpeaking as an artift,
I ihouid certainly have taken the laft in preference to the
firil."

The " flngular"' manner of which Strutt fpeaks, appears
to have been (hrewdly gueffed at by Watelet and Bartfch,
who fay, that " it would be difficult to difcover the way
in which Rembrandt worked : he certainly made great ufe
of the dry point, which he fometimes fcraped but ffightly,
and the burr partially ftopping up, or blending with the
lines, refembled a wafh," yet poffeffed more warmth and
richnefs. The dry point which Rembrandt ufed was either,
as Strutt has fuppoled, the pent of a graver, or it was
fuch a dry point, as has fince, in our own country, been
much ufed by Worlidge.. namely, cylindrical fleel wire,
whetted to a triangular point.

But the great wonder of his art, as an engraver, is his
chiarofcuro. He feems to have been born to ihew us how
much intereft could be excited in a print without drawing,
or any attempt at rendering local colour in the abllrafi, by
mere dint of compoiition and chiarofcuro, and chiefly of the
latter. Or, more ftriftly fpeaking, to fhew us with how
little drawing, and how entirely without the refinement of
feleftion, in regard to forms, a powerful chiarofcuro may
be kept together, and brought to operate on our imagina-
tion and judgment.

In the dilpsfition of his lines, he feems to have been
guided by no principle, but the fpontaneous feeling of the
moment ; yet a certain tatl of mind always attended him,
and imparted ftyle to his works.

It was probably from this fpontaneoufnefs of feeling,
which in his prints llands inftead of ftudy, that we fee fo
many variations in fome of his plates ; which appear to have
been fuddenly thought of, and promptly executed from
time to time, juil as his mufe infpired. At leaft, this is a
more artill-like, as well as natural fuppofition, than that his
own avarice, or that of hh wife, prompted theft- alterations
(which have become fo great objefts of connoiffeurfliip)
with the folc view of obtaining the money which the addi-
tional fale produced. What man who maintains the con-
trary opinion, has proved that Rembrandt altered his plates
for the worfe ? Yet this is abfolutely neceffary to the fup-
port of the mercenary fide of the argument.

The genius of Rembrandt was univcrfa!, and whatever
the iubject of his engravings, whether hillory, landfcape,
or portrait, all are marked by the fame energetic
truth ; the fame wild graces ; the fame forcefuj phiaro-

.'curo. He painted and engraved what he faw, and did not
attempt to generalife his objefls by any procefs of abftrac.
tion, or accommodate or quahfy them, by what he might
fuppofe others had imagined. The learned precepts of his
prcdeceflors, fuch as that art fhould render men as they
ought to be, not as they are, were difregarded or defpifed
by Rembrandt, and fo ftrong is the internal evidence of
his works, or fo perfuafive his powers, that no fpeftator
can entertain a doubt that his portraits, whether of perfons
or places, are tranfcripts of Nature, executed under a firm
conviftion that where (he was pidlurefque, according to his
view of the capabilities of art, flie was as (he ought to be.

The prints of this mailer are dated from the year 1628
to 1659 : their number, when added to that of his piftures,
is furprifing, and atteds at once his profefliopal diligence,
and the rapidity of his powers. Mariette polfeffed three
hundred and feventy-five fubjefls : Yever, of Amfterdam,
and Gerfaint of Paris, in a defcriptive catalogue which he
formed, have enumerated more, and Mr. Daulby, of Liver.
pool, as the prefent writer has been informed, more ftill :
fo that their precife number is probably not known. It is
fcarcely neceflaiy to add that no engravings, in their rare
ftages, or fine imprelTions, have been fought after with more
avidity.

Of himfel.^, Rembrandt has engraved no fewer than
twcnty-feven portraits, to diflingui(h which from each other,
by means of words alone, might not be eafy. One holds
a pencil, and is more carefully finiffied than the red : another
is in a fort of Perfian habit, with an oval border ; in another,
his wife alio is introduced, and moil of them are of quarto
dimenfioiis.

From the reft of his works, the following may be felefted
with advantage.

Suljeas from the Old Tfjlarner.i .—" Adam and Eve in
the terrefti-ial Paradife," rare ; " Abraham fending away
Hagar and Ilhmael ;" « Abraham and Ifaac," arched at
the top, all in quarto ; " Jofeph recounting his Dreams to
his Father, in the Prefence of his Brethren ;" " Jacob
mourning for the Lofs of Jofeph ;'' « Jofeph folicited by
the Wife of Potiphar," in oftavo ; «' Mordccai conduftei
in Triumph by Haman ;" and «' The Angel Raphael dif-
appearing before Tobit and his Family," both in large
qua-to.

Suhjeds from the Netu Tijlament. — "The Annunciation
of the Shepherds," with a very myfterious fentiment and
povN-erful chiarofcuro, in folio ; " The Adoration of the
Shepherds," in large quarto ; " The Circumcifion of
Chrift," with an extraordinary good effedl ; " The Prc-
fentation in the Temple ;" •' The Flight into Egypt,"
both in i2mo. ; another " Flight into Egypt," executed iu
his more fcratchy (lyle, in quarto; another "Flight into
Egypt," in the (lyle of EKluemer, in folio, a very much
elleemed print ; " The Holy Family," where the Virgin is
reprefentcd feated in an eafy chair, and flic and the Infant
appear affeep ; " Jefus preaching to the Multitude," all in
quarto; " Ctefar's Tribute Money," in i2mo.; " Chrill
turning the Money-Chans/ers out of the Temple;"
" Chrill and the Woman of Samaria," a circular print ;
another of " Chriit and the Woman of Samaria," iii
quarto, a very fine brilliant-toned engraving ; " The Rc-
iurreclion of Lazarus," a circular print, with a powerful
eff'edl, in large folio ; " The Refurrcftion of Lazams," a
fmaller print than the- former ; " Chrift healing the Sick,"
a famous print, known by the name of " The hundred
Florins ;" an " Ecce Homo," a very grand compoiition.
and a very capital engraving ; " Chrift taten from the
Croff," attended by the Magdalen and the Holy Virgin, (a
3 R - companion

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

companion to the former print ;) " Jefus Chrift prefented
to the People by the High Priell ;" and its companion,
" The Crucifixion of our Saviour," all of large folio fizc ;
(there are many impreflions of this enj;raving, with various
alterations:) "The Entombing of Chrill," in quarto;
" Chrift with his two Difciples at Emmaus," in folio ; en-
graved with broader ftrokes than is common in his prints ;
" The Good Samaritan arriving at the Inn with the
wounded Man ;" a very fine engraving, in folio , " Saints
Peter and John healing the paralytic Man ;" " St. Phihp

Beggars. — A beggar in rags, leaning on a flick ; ther
profile of a beggar, in the ftyle of thofe of Callot ; another
in the fame ilyle ; an old beggar woman foliciting charity.
Lazarus K!ap, a dumb beggar, fcated on the ground, with
his flick between his legs, in 8vo. : this is engraved in a
broad ftyle, and is very rare ; a beggar feated on the
ground, covered with rags, in his countenance is pidlured
extreme mifery ; beggars at the door of a houfe receiving
charity : the group is compofed of an old man, a young
woman with an infant at her back, and another child, in 4to.
This print is the moil interefting, and the befl executed of

baptifing the Eunuch of Queen Candace ;" and " The

Death of the Virgin," a very fine forcible engraving, both the whole fet
of folio fize. Various Figures, aciulemical, l^c. — A young man and

Pious Subjeds. — " St. Stephen ftoned ;" " St. Jerome," female in bed, furrounded with curtains, very rare ; a

engraved when Rembra»dt was in his meridian; "St. fliepherdefs feated at the foot of a rock, making a garland

Jerome at rk'votion," all in o£l.avo ;" St. Jerome writing," of flowers, and a young fliepherd lying near her, playing the

with fpeftacles on, in quarto ; " St. Jerome," an unfiiiiftied flute, in 4to., a very rare engraving ; "The Draughtfman,''

plate, the compofition of which is rich, and the finiflied
part admirable ; " St. Francis at Devotion :" great part of
this plate is unfiniftied, and the prints are very rare.

Hifiorical and Allegorical Suhjetls. — " The Hour of
Death," an allegory on the vanities of the world ; " Youth
furprifed by the Arrival of Death," reprefented by a young

reprelenting a man drawing from a caft of a female, fur-
rounded with other models : this print in Holland is known
by the name of " The Statue of Pygmalion ;" and if it had
been finiftaed as well as it was begun, would have bten very
fine, in folio ; " The Bath," reprefenting figures bathing,
in 4to. ; "The Woman and the frying Pan," in folio;

manjand girljwalking together, and a figure of death ftarting " Venus at the Bath." It has been remarked, that Rem-

"'^ ■"'■ brandt was not very liappy in drawing naked figures ; but
here he has given his Venus the charaftcr of a goddefs, in
large 410.

Land/capes. — A fmall landfcape, engraved with great
freedom, of trees and a houfe ; " The Bridge of Six," with

on them ; " Medea, or the Marriage of Jafon and Creufa,"
reprefenting the interior of a temple and the ftatue of Juno,
a very careful engraving, in folio ; " The Star of the
Kings," a ceremony ufed in Holland on certain nights,
during which a lanthorn is fattened to the end of a long

ftick. The print is in quarto, and has a ftriking effedl of figures on it, in folio ; a view of Amfterdam, a very good

night. A pair of " Lion Hunting." A chace of Hons, in
one of which a Turk is combating a lion, and another
hunter is overthrown ; " The Wandering Muficians," com-
monly called " The Blind ;" it reprefents an old man and
boy playing the bagpipes. " The little Spanifli Gipfey,"
reprefentin,x an old woman in a wood, converfing with a
young perfon of diftinftion ; " The Rat-Catcher," repre-
fenting an old man with a ftick, accompanied by a boy with
rats in a trap, all in quarto ; " The little Goldfmith,"
a man occupied in forming a fmall figure of Charity, in
izmo. with a very fine tone ; " The Pancake Maker," an
old woman frying pancakes, furrounded with children, one
of whom is crying at a dog, in oft avo, engraved in a very
delicate ftyle ; " The Jew's Synagogue," reprefenting two
doftors of the law converfing ; in the back-ground is a fy-

engravmg ; a landfcape, with a village and fpire, on the
fore-ground of which is introduced a hunter with two
hounds, very rare, in folio ; a very rich and celebrated land-
fcape, known by the name of " The three Trees," with
the eff^eft of rain, in foho ; a very highly finiflied landfcape,
into which is introduced a girl with pails, and a dog ; a
landfcape, with wood, water, and buildings ; thi? engraving
is very rare and Angular, being wafhed with Indian ink,
which gives it the appearance of a drawing. A pair of land-
fcapes, one with a coach in it, with a view of a city and
two windmills ; the other is a mountain fcene, with wood
and water, in 410., in the form of friezes, both waflied with
Indian ink ; a landfcape, arched at the top, of a village,
with peafants before a cottage in the fore-ground : it has a
very grand cffeft. Another; village fcene, arched at the top,

nagogue. " The Nail Cutter," a young woman feated, and with a fquare tower introduced, and two fmall figures feated

an old woman on the ground cutting her toe-nails, a very on the ground; a landfcape, with two cottages, and animals

rare print ; " The Schoolmafler," in oftavo ; " The Quack feeding on a meadow ; on the fore-ground a figure is intro-

Do6tor," taking drugs from a baflcet, in i2mo., a very duced drawing: this engraving is known by the name of

fparkling engraving; "The Peafant, with his Wife and " The Landfcape Painter." A landfcape, executed with the

Child," an unfiniftied print ; "The Jew with the Large dry .point, called " The Clufter of Trees," among which

Hat," leaning on a ftick, engraved in a free, but decifive is introduced a foldier's hut ; a landfcape, arched at the

manner ; " The Onion Woman," reprefenting a miferable top, known by the name of " The Hay Stack," towards

old woman, with her feet on a chaffing-difti, anxibus to fell the right is a village and wood, and a flock of fheep guided

a rope of oniors, all in oftavo ; " The Attrologer," an old by a fliepherd, all in 410. ; a large landfcape of an oblong

man in a profound (leep, fitting at a table with a candle, a
globe, and books : in his right-hand he holds a pen, and his
fpetfacles in the other ; a quarto plate, with a very fine
effeft. " The Philofopher" in his apartment, contemplating
a globe by candle light, has a very brilliant effeft, in i znio. ;
" A Man meditating," feated at a table, above which a
lamp is fixed againft thj wall, which throws a glimmering
light on all arouni' in quarto ; " The Perfian," a man in a
hat and feathers, '..itii d cloak on, in oftavo, engraved in a
very delicate ftyle ; " The Skaiter," a man fl<aiting with a
bundle acrofs his fhoulder, in oiSavo, a very free, delicate
engraving, rare.

form, reprefenting a cottage wirh a Itream running before
it, over which is a wooden bridge, and a country girl
crofllng it : in the back-ground is a town, and a river, which
winds to the fore-ground, where a man is introduced
angling, with a child befide him ; its companion is 1 land-
fcape of the fame fize and form, of a canal and .i ""''ge tree,
by the fide of which a cottage is reprefented with two chiK
dren at the door : in the back-ground is a village and a
windmill. " The Obelilli," a very well finiflied landfcape,
of a circular form, of an obclifk and a village, wiili water,
in 4to. ; " The Windmill, or Birth-place of Rembrandt,"
with his father's houfe ; a view of the champaign of the rt>

2 ceiver

( I

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

ceiver Utenbogaerd : towards the right hand of the print is
a canal, with buildings, and two villages in the back-ground,
both in large 4to.

Portraits of Men, — An old man, with a long grey beard,
a very fine portrait, though left unfinifhed at the death of
Renibr.indt. G. F. Schmidt purchafed the plate and
finifhed it. A man with a chain and crofs, in the aft of
writing ; John Antonides vander Linden, profelFor and
doftor of medicine at the univeriity of Leyden, in his robes
of ceremony, a very fine uortrait ; James Silvius, clergy-
man of Amfterdam, in robes trimmed with fur, feated at a
table, all in ^.to. ; a young man feated, meditating : he has
on a robe trimmed with fur, in 8vo. ; the Jew Manafleh
Ben Ifrael, a commentator on many of the vifions of the
prophets : I'.e is reprefented with a pointed beard, and a hat
with a large round border. Doftor Fauftus, (whom Ger-
faint calls Fautricus,) a profile, down to the waift, is
drefled in a robe, and wears a white hat : he is in the aft of
examining magical charafters, a very rare portrait. Renier
Anfloo, an anabaptift, feated before a table, writing, with a
hat on ; his gown is bordered with fur. This is the moil:
finifiied and the fined portrait we have from the point of
Rembrandt. Clement de Jonge, a print-feller, feated in an
eafy chair, with a hat on, and his hair plaited : this plate is
arched at the top. Abraham France, an amateur of en-
gravings, feated at a table, examining a print ; the elder
Haring, with a leathern cap on ; the younger Haring, fon
of the preceding, feated; John Lutma, a famous goldfmith
of Groningen, one of the fineil portraits of Rembrasdt : he
holds in his hand a little figure of metal, all in 410. John
Affelin, a painter of Antwerp, known in Holland by the
name of " Crabbetje," or little John: it is a half-length
portrait, with long hair, and a hat on : before him is a table,
with a paletce and books, in folio. Ephraim Bonus, a
Jewirti phyfician, with a hat on, in the aft of defcending a
ftair-cafe. This is one of the beft of Rembrandt's portraits,
all in 4to. Utenbogardus, a minifler of Holland, in an oval,
oil an oftagon plate : he is feated at a table, with an open
book before him, and has on his head a leathern cap, in folio.
John Cornelius Silvius, in an oval, around which is infcribed
" Spes mea Chriftus. Johannes Cornely Sylvius. Amftelo-
damo bat. funftus S. S. Minit!^. aos 45 et 6. menfes. In
Frifia, in Tyemarum et Phirugura aos 4," &c. Utenbo-
gaerd, the banker and receiver of the dates of Holland,
commonly called " the gold-weigher ;" the little Coppenol,
the Dutch writmg-mader ; the great Coppenol, both very
rare prints, all in folio; the lawyer Tolling, a very fine and
rare portrait : he is reprefented feated at a table with books,
in large 4to. The burgomafter, John Six : this celebrated
portrait is very rare, and fold at Mr. Grode's fale, fome
years fince, for five-and-thirty guineas. It is faid, there is
an imprelTion of this plate without the names of the burgo-
mafter or Rembrandt, in folio.

Iiieal Heads of Men. — An eaftern figure, with a little cap
on, and ihort hair, covered with a fur gow n ; a profile,
with a turban on ; an eaitern figure, with a long beard, in
a turban, very rare. Thefe are all marked " Rembrandt
Venetiis, 1^)35 :" and it is faid that he fo marked uhem, to
make the amateurs believe that he had been at Venice. Bud
of a man with a (liort curly beard, in a black gown ; buft
of an old man, with a long beard, whofe head is reclining as
if he fiept ; an old man, with a long grey beard, and very
little hair on his head, habited in a long robe, in 8vo. ; a
young man, half-length, in profile ; bud of an old man, v^ith
a fquare cut beard, with a velvet cap on ; a man, witli muf-
tachios, half-length, with a hat on, and a gown trimmed
with fur ; a half-lengtk portrait of a man feated, at an eafel

painting, infcribed " W. Droft," mod probably the por-
trait of Rembrandt's pupil, Drod, very rare ; the bud of a
young man, with long hair, engraved on a white ground,
fuppofed to be Titus, the fon of Rembrandt, in 410., rare;
a half-leiigth profile of a man, with the phyfiognomy of a
negioc, with a turban on, in 410. ; a philofopher, with a
fable, a long fquire bearded head, with a fur cap on.

Femak Portraits.— K three-quarter view of a young
Jewefs, feated, in folio ; the little Jcwefs, newly married,
three-quarter, with long hair hanging on her dioulders ; two
portraits of old women, in black veils, very highly finidied,
in 4to. ; " The Reader," a young woman feated at a table,
reading, a very good engraving ; and its companion, an old
woman, reading, in 410. ; a half-length profile of a lady
with her hair dreffed with beads, in 8vo. ; an old woman,
with her hair dreffed in the eadern ftyle, feated. It is en-
graved in fo delicate a dyle, that a clear impreflion is feldom
met with. A bud of the mother of Rembrandt, with her
hair dreded, in a black veil ; an old woman afleep, reding
her head on her hand, dreded in a turban ; bud of an old
woman, three-quarters, in a black veil, engraved in a broad
dyle, in i2mo., very rare ; the profile of a young girl in a
hat : die holds a baflcet acrofs one arm, and a purfe in the
other hand. A nearly profile head, in a veil turned up, and
a feather, in 8vo. ; an old woman with fpeftacles, a half-
length profile, reading, a very fpirited engraving, and very
rare.

Studies and Sietehes, yc— Several ftudies engraved on the
fame plate, among others we difcover a head of Rembrandt
himfelf ; a clump of budies, furrounded with a wall, a horle,
and feveral heads, very rar# ; dudy of fix heads, among
which is the wife of Rembrandt ; ditto of five heads of men ;
ditto of three female heads, a very fpirited engraving ; a
plate of itudies of various heads and figures ; fet of ditto,
among which we didinguidi the head of Rembrandt, with
other figures : this is very freely engraven, and is one of the
rared of the dudies of Rembrandt. A very tadeful un-
finidied engraving of various objefts, and a tree, very in-
definite, in i2mo. ; profiles of three old men's heads, in 8va.
All the preceding are of quarto fize.

Doubtful Suhjeffs. — " King David kneeling, at Devotion,
crowned ;" " A Repofe during the Flight into Egypt,"
with the effect of night ; the Holy Family are feated on a
bank at the foot of a tree, to which is fadened a lanthorn,
which cads a glimmering light over the whole fcene, in
oftavo. " Jefus Chrid taken to Calvary," a very rich
compofition ; " A Skirmidi, or Village Fair," a very fine
engraving, in a flight dyle ; on the fore-ground is a rat-
catcher holding a baflcet on the end of a long dick, with
rats in it. A buft of a man, w.tii a bandolier on his dioulder,
with a double clafp of precious Itones ; " The Pen maker,"
an old man feated at a de{l<, with fpeftacles on, mending his
pen ; " The young Scholar," feated on a done at the foot
of a tree writing, very rare ; bud of an old man laughing,
with a little hat on : this is executed entirely with the dry
point, and finifhed in a very good dyle, all in 410. Klaas
van Ryn feated, with a long beard, inlcnbed on the mar-
gin w^ith his name, in 1 2mo. ; and three dromedaries, fol-
lowed by two camels, with eadern trappings, engraved in a
free fpirited dyle.

John Lievens, Livens, or Lyvyns, was born at Ley-
den in the year 1607. He became the pupil of George
van Schooten, and afterwards of Peter Laltman. He ex-
celled principally in painting portraits, but likewile exe-
cuted fome hidorical piftures with great fuccefs. In the
year 1630, he came into England, where he refided threa
years, and painted the portraits of Charles I., the queen, the

prince

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

prince of Wales, and feveral of the nohility. Lievcns made
a confidcrahle number o.f engravings and etchings, fomcwhat
in the ilyle of .Rembrandt, fcarccly lefs piilurefque, but
coarfer, and in general lefs fniifhod ; but he always managed
his cliiarofcuro (o as to produce a very good effeft.

Adam Bartfch informs us, that Lievens drew more cor-
retlly than Rembrandt, (which he might eafily do,) but
did not engrave in fo pidurefque a (lyle : thole plates which
he meant to fm\(\\ highly ho execnted with a very delicate
touch, and fometimes he ufed to hatch fo clofe, that the
aquafortis bit his hnes nearly into a blot ; for inftance, thofe
which are on the fore-ground of " The Refurrcdlion of
Lazarus." It does not appear that this artift made much
nfe of the dry point, but frequently ufed the graver to
llrengthen the ftrolces. His print of St. Jerome is ftrongly
retouched with that tool, and two of his fined portraits,
thofe of Daniel Heinfius, and Jacques Gouter, are wliolly
executed with the graver ; tliey are in a very pifturefque
ftyle, and bear fome refemblance to etching. He marked
his prints either with his initials, or his name, which he
fometimes fpelled Lyvyns. The following are a fcleftion of
thofe engravings by this mafter, which are moll worthy the
•notice of the coUeiftor.

Portraits and Heads. — Doftor Ephraim Bonus, a half
figure feated ; Jood, or Julius Vondel, a Dutch poet ;
Daniel Heinfius, profeffor of hiftory and politics at Ley-
den ; Jacobus Gouter, the Englilh mufician, a half figure,
with a lute, all in folio ; an old man with his head fliavcd
and a long beard, taken for the portrait of Conrad Leo-
nard, an early preacher of the gofpt-1 in Greece ; the pro-
file of an old man, with a long beard ; bull of a man with
a turban on, very fine, after Rembrandt ; ditto of a man,
■with long hair ; half-length figure of a woman, with long
hair ; bull of a young man, with an open robe, in the Ilyle
of Rembrandt, all in quarto ; ditto of a man, with a bonnet
on, in the tafte of Rembrandt, in i2mo; profile of an old
man, with a Ihort beard ; profile of an old man, with a
long and pointed beard ; a half-length portrait of an old
man feated, all in quarto ; bull of an old man, with a fliort
beard and bald head, in oftavo ; ditto of a Perfian, with a
cap and robe ; ditto of a man, with curly hair ; profile of
a man, with a hat on ; ditto of an old man, with a little
cap on ; ditto of an old woman, with a veil on, in the ilyle
of Rembrandt ; ditto of a young woman, with a pearl
ornament on her head ; profile of a woman, with her hair
faUing on her flioulders ; head of a young woman, with the
charaiiler of a negro, all in l2mo. ; bud of a Capuchin,
with a long pointed beard, and a hat and mantle, in
folio.

H'l/lorical, ef^.— "The Virgin and Infant Chrill," with
St. Joleph, and various other figures, in o£lavo ; " The
Virgin and Infant Chrift," to whom (lie prefents a pear;
" The Refurreftion of Lazarus," a grand compofition, in
folio ; " St. John the Evangeliil feated at the Foot of a
Tree, with a Book," in quarto ; " St. Jerom feated in his
Cell, holding a Crucifix and a Skull," in folio ; " St. Fran-
cis in his Cell, meditating," in large quarto ; " The An-
chorite," or St. Francis, differing very little from the pre-
ceding engraving, in quarto ; " St. Anthony feated, with
a long Beard, and a Capuchin Cowl," in folio, very rare ;
" Mercury and vVrgus," iu large quarto ; " Jacob perform-
ing a Sacrifice ;" an eaftern figure in a cloak ; bull of a
man in eaftern attire, with a chain round his neck, in folio,
both on fhadowed grounds ; bull of a man with long curly
hair falling on his fhoulders, in large 410. ; an engraving
of three trees, without any back-ground, in folio : both
•tliefe engravings are executed on wood, but do not poflefs

any great fliare of merit. " Death ftriking two Peafantr-,"
who are reprcfented gaming and quarrelling, of folio fize.

Erafmus Quellinus was born at Antwerp in the year
1607, and died in the fame city, in the cloiller to whicli
he had retired in 1678. He (hewed an inclination early
in life for the arts, and (ludied under Rubrns : he became
an hillorical painter of confiderable merit, and likewifc exe-
cut.'d feme landfcapes in a very mafterly ftylc. Quellinus
etched fome plates from his own compolitions and thofe of
Rubens, of which it may be fuflieient to fpecify the fol-
lowing : Erafmus Quellinus, which was puhlillied with an
account of his life in the French language, in quarto ; a
folio landfcape, with a dance of fatyrs and children, rare ;
" Sampfon killing the Lion," in quarto, from Rubuns ;
and "The Holy Virgin and Child," in foho, after Rubens.

Hubert Quellinus was born at Antwerp in 1608 ; he
was of the fame family as the preceding artill, and brother
to Artus Quellinus the fculptor. Hubert engraved fcme-
v.-hat in the Ilyle of Soutman, bringing his plates very for-
ward in the etching, and finifliing them with the graver in
a very neat pleafing (lyle.

He ufnally marked thofe plates which he engraved from
the fculpture of his brother with the initials of Artus, as
well as his own. The following are feledted from the works
of this artift as being mod worthy of attention.

A fet of the ilatues which his brother Artus executed
in marble, for the Stadthoi;fe of Amilerdam, after the
drawings of John Bcnnokel, in a folio volume. The por-
trait of Artus Quellinus, aifo in folio; a fulfome piece of
adulation offered to Philip IV. of Spain, who is reprefentcd
on his throne, furrounded by allegorical virtues, &;c. ; " The
Judgment of Solomon ;" "The L'giflator Zaleucus redeem-
ing the Penalty of his Son ;" " The Province of Holland,"
perlonified and furrounded with emblematical figure.s ; and a
fet of twelve plates of naval and military triumphs, and oflicr
decorative ornaments of the Sladthoufe at Amftcrdam, all
of folio dimenfions.

Theodore van Thulden, of Dutch anceftry, was born at
Bois-le-Duc in the year 1607 ; but became the difciple of
Rubens, whom he accompanied to Paris, and affillt-d in his
grand undertaking of the Luxembourg gallery.

He painted a few other pidlures which are defervedly
held in elleem, and etched a confiderable ntimber of plates
in a firm, clear, and determined, but flight ilyle.

In his praife as an engraver, much cannot be faid. His
chiarofcuro is but feeble; to exprcfiion of the textures of
fubdances, he gave little heed, and his drawing is fo man-
nered, that the fpeclator of obfervation eafily traces in his
prints the fame hand, though working alter very difierent
niaftcrs.

He engraved the principal events in the life of St. Jolin
of Matha, in a fet of twenty-four (mall folio plates, from
pidlures with which he adorned the church ot the Mathurins
at Paris; "The Hillory of Ulyffes," on fifty-eight fniall
plates, from the pittures of Primaticcio at Fontrtinbleau ;
" The triumphal F^ntry of the Infanta Ferdinand into the
City of Antwerp," on eight folio plates, after Rubens;
a fet of fix fmaller plates, Irom the parable of " The Pro-
digal Son," after the fame mailer, befide other works of
inferior importance.

Janus, or John Lutma, was a goldfmlth of Amfterdam,
who didinguilfied himfelf by the invention of a new mode of
art, which had its day of novelty, and was for a time popu-
lar among fuperficial connoifieurs ; it was termed Opus
Mallei, being performed with a hammer, and fmall pointed
punches, which made an imprefiion upon the copper, and
by being repeated as occalion requirfd, the (hadows were

8 formed

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

formed eitlier darker or fainter, at pleafure. The burr,
whiL-ii was neced'arily raifcd upon tlie fuiface of the copper
by fuel) an operation, was not entirely removed by the
fcraper ; and in tlie early imprefllons, is the means of pro-
ducing a foft and agreeable efFeft. He eneraved fo;ir plates
in this ftyle, which are as follows : Janus Lnttna ; John
Lutm?, his father; the poet Vondel ; and P. C Hooft,
the hiftorian, all of them in folio, and apparently from his
o«'n drawings.

John Lutr.ia, the fon of the preceding- artift, was born
at Amfterdam, A.D; 1609. He was likewife a goldfmith,
and executed fomc few plates ; among others the following :
the portrait of John Lutma the father, habited in a robe
bordered with ermin, holding fpeftacles and a pencil ; por-
trait of himfelf, feated at a table, drawing ; he has on a
broad brimmed hat, which overfliadows his face : this print
is very rare, both in folio ; and a view of a large fountain
with {lati:es, and the Antonine column, with fome other
ruins at Rome. It is firft etched in a coarfe, bold (lyle,
and the (hadows are worked upon with a fine mezzotinto
tool. 7"he cffeft produced by this mixture is confufed and
heavy, but not altogether difaijreeable to the eye.

James Lutma was of the fame family, and alfo refided
at Amfterdam ; by this artift we have a fet of twelve mid-
dling-fized upright pla'es of ornamental fliields and foliage,
etched in a neat llyle and finiflied with the graver ; likewife
the portraits of the three L itmas, marked " John Lutma of
Oiide inv. James Lutma fecit, aqua forli."

Adrian Brouwer, fc celebrated for his attainments in art,
and his wild and immoral habits, executed a few plates about
this period, of fuch fubjefts as he ufually painted. (For his
biography, fee the article Brouwf.r.) His principal etcl.:-
ings, which are executed with much fpirit, freedom, and
tafte, and are generally fubfcnbed with his initials, are, a
party of four peafants, infcnbed " T'fa orienden," &c. ;
a rufiic dance, where a female is playing the flute, infcnbed
" Lultig fpcll,'" &c. both in folio Three peafants fmoking,
infcribed " Wer aent fmoken," in fmall folio ; a drunken
party of four rullics ; two peafants in converfation ; a droll
fmoking party, conlilHng of a man, a woman, and an ape,
infcribed " Wats dit voor en gcdrocht," &c. ; a ruftic
baker making cakes, a circular print ; a peafant lighting his
pipe, and a fet of fix of male and female peafantry ; all of
quarto dimerfions.

Solonvn Koninck was born at Amfterdam in the year
l6oq, and was the fon of Peter Koninck, a celebrated con-
roifleur and jeweller of that city, who at the age of twelve
placed his fon under David Colyn, to learn the rudin-ents
of drawi'ig ; he afterwards ftudied fucceffively under Francis
Verns::do and Nicholas Moyart, and became a painter and
engraver of fonie eminence. He etched feveral fubjetts in
the ftyle- of Rembrandt, after his own deCgns ; ot which
the following conltitute the more eftimable part. A head in
profile, of an old man with a long be.ird ; ditto of an old
man, in euftcrn attire, with mutlaciiios ; a companion to the
preceding, but engraved in a much more delicate manner ;
a three-quarter bud of an old man with a furred hat ; an
old man leated in an eafy chair, at devotion, a very fine en-
graving ; bud of a venerable looking old man, witha beard ;
and a landfcape with cottages, all ot quarto fize.

Nicholas Berghem alfo performed fome etchings about this
time, which confift chiefly of what may be termed Italian and
Dutch paftorals, and beam with tafte and intelligence. It
is believed that all his prints are folcly the refult of aqua-
fortis and the etching-point, and that his plates were never
touched with the graver. They are all from his own com-

pofitions, and for themoft part appear like tranfcripts from
the flcvtch-book, wherein he drew atiimals from nature.

The etchings of Berghem, like his pictures, delight by
the found and intimate knowledge of drawing and chiarofcuro,
wluch they difplay or imply ; and the exquifite feeling which
every where attends his touch, and which feoms almofl,
fpeaking without figure or hyperbole, like aftual contaft be-
tween mind and its objeft.

Thcfe are the qualities which impart fuch truth of texture
and charafter to his various A)mcftic animals, whether rough
or fmooth-coated ; fuch piclurcfquenefs to his graffy grounds
and earthy and rocky banks, and fuch importance to his
trifles.

For the biography of this artift, fee Berghem, Nicho-
las. In conformity with our general plan, we fliall here
add fome account of his principal engravings, referring
thofe who may wifh for more particular information, to the
catalogue of Henry de Winter, which was pubhfhed ia
Holland in the year 1767.

Six fets in fmall quarto, of fix prints each. Thefe are
performed with all the fire and fervour of Berghem, and
each fet confifts of five plates of animals, and an appropriate
title page, by^ which the fet is known, e. gr. there is " The
Milk-man" fet, " The Shepherdefs" ict, " The Goatherd"
fet, fee &c. The title-pages are all infcribed with the fol-
lowing words, which fhew that they are, as we have before
furmifed, the probable contents of the f!<etch-book in which
our artift was accuftomed to draw from nature ; -vn. " Ani--
malia ad vivum delineata et aquaforti ceri impreffa Audio et
arte Nicolai Berchemi." A fet of five folio landfcapes,
which are diftinguifhed from each other by the figures and
cattle which are introduced, and which are as follow :
I. A Peafant feated playing on the Flute. 2. A Group
of Cattle, with a Woman and Child crofling a Rivulet.
3. A Shepherd, with Sheep and various Cattle. 4. A
ruftic Gi'l on an Afs, flopping for Refreftiment at an Ale-
houfe Door. 5. A Shepherd on horfeback, reading to a
Woman on an Afs, as they flowly travel. A fet of four, ia
quarto,' viz. I. A Landfcape, with Oxen, and a Woman
milking a Cow. 2. Another with three Horfes and two
Cows, with a Shepherd in the Back-ground. 3. Another
with two Cows, and fome Goats. 4. Another with an Afs,.
Goats, and a Shepherd ; and a fet of fix fmall plates, which
are very rare, and uncommonly fine, of heads of rams and
goats.

Detached Suljfds vf Berghem. — \ cow, in folio, the earliefl
imprtffions of which have tiie name of Berghem in italics ;
a famous print of a cow watering, in foiio ; a landfcape
with two cows lyicig down, and another Handing on the fore-
ground ; a landfcape with cows, and a man on an afs ; a
landfcape, with a fhepherd on an afs, driving goats, in the
back-ground a woman is introduced with a baficet on her head,
all in folio ; a woman wafhing her feet in a brook, and a man
beliind her leaning on a ftick, with other ruftic figures r.nd
animals, in large folio ; a landfcape, with a man- Itandirg
playing the flute, and a woman feared on the ground near
him, a rare print, in folio ; and its companion, a Ihcpherd,
and his wife feated fuckling her child, a very rare print ; and
a boy feaied on an afs, fpeaking to another boy, who holds
a pair of bagpipes.

The beauty and value of the works of this mafter depend
much upon the imprellions, and early, good, and well pre-
fervcd imprefTions are now become very icarce.

The author of the Abecedario, mifled by the cypher
of Berghem, which the reader will find in our Phtc HI.
of the monograms of the engravers of the Netherlands, has .

fiilka

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

fallen into the error of calliii^^ him Cornelius Berchcm. Flo-
rent le CoHjte has alfo fuppofed that there were two artifts
of this funnanie, one of whom he calls Cornelius ; whereas
the letter C in Bcrgliem's cypher llands forClaus, the com-
mon abbreviation of Nicholas' among the nations of the
continent.

Herman Zacht-Lceven, or Sachtleeven, was born at
Rotterdam, AD. 1609, and died at Utrecht in 16S5. He
was the difciple of John van Goyen, and became a landfcape-
painter of great eel ;brity. He etched fome few plates in a
free and intelligent ; le from his own compolitions, of which
the following are t bell ; a landfcape and cattle ; a moun-
tainous landfcape, . ith figures and water; both in quarto.
A fet of fix landfcapes, the firft of which is executed by
Ag. Winter, and the remainder by Sachtleeven, in quarto;
and a landfcape, wr.h two elephants, in folio.

Cornelius Sachileeven w ,s the younger brother of Her-
man, mentioned in the preceding article, and was born at
Rotterdam in the year igi2. He painted in the ftyle of
Brouwer and Teniers, commonly fclcCting fuch fubjedts
as village parties, foldiers regaling, &c.

This artift likewife etched feveral plates from his own com-
pofitions in a flight fpirited ftyle ; amongft which the follow-
ing are thofe which are held in moft ellecm. " The Five
Senfes," intitled " De vyf Smnen, wt ghebelt door Cor.
Sachtleeven." A fet of twelve fmall plates of animals; and
a landfcape, with animals and a goatherd, of quarto fize;
executed in a broad and pifturefque ftyle.

John George van Vliet was born at Delft in the year
1610 ; and was one of the moft fuccefsful of the difciplei
and imitators of Rembrandt. He executed a confiderable
number of etchings, fome of which poffefs great merit, par-
ticularly thofe from the drawings and piclures of his great
matter. They are exceedingly powerful in effeft ; the fha-
dows being dark, and the lights broad and clear ; but his
figures in general are very incorreft, the extremities badly
marked, and the draperies heavy.

Van Vliet ufually etched his plates with a very delicate
point, afterwards ftrengthening tliem with aqua-fortis and the
graver. His plates are well worthy the obfervation of fuch
artifts as wifti to make a proper diftribution of hght and
fhade an efTential part of their ftudy. At the fale of Ma-
rietta, a complete fet of his works was fold for one thou-
fand and feventy-five livres. He commonly marked them
with his name, or a monogram, whicii will be found amongft
thofe of the engravers of the Netherlands. The following
are the moft worthy the attention of the connoifTeur.

Portraits and ideal Heads. — Buft of a man, from Rem-
brandt; an Oriental head, drefled in a turban, and diamond
•rnament ; head of a warrior ; profile of an old man, with
his hands clafped, looking upwards ; ditto of an old man
with a grey beard and a leathern cap ; ditto of a man with
muftachios, and a fur bonnet and mantle ; all in folio. Buft
of an old man with muftachios, habited in a mantle ; Pro-
file of an ofBcer, with a hat and feathers, both in quarto ;
and a beautifully finilhed plate of an old woman reading, her
head is covered with drapery which falls on her (houlders,
in folio ; all from the pitlures of Rembrandt.

Hijlorical, iffe. — " Lot and his Daughters," a foho print,
in which the chiarofcuro is remarkably well managed.
" The Baptifm of the Eunuch of Queen Candace,'' agrand
compofition, of which good impreflions are very rare, in
large folio ; " St. Jerom kneeling, at Devotion," a very line
print ; all from Rembrandt, and in folio. " St. Jerom
reading," from a picture by Van Vliet himfelf ; " Ifaac dif-
coveringhis Miftake in having given his Bleffing to Jacob ;"

" Sufanna furprifed by the Elders," bo'th from Livens, in
large folio ; "The Refurreclion of Lazarus," from his ov.rii
compofition, in large folio. John Louys copied this print,
and his copy is niperior to the original. " The Ballad-
finger," who is rcprefented in a village ftrect, furrounded
with ruftics, in folio ; " The Rat Seller," in quarto ; four
figures in Spanifti ;ittirc, playing at trictrac ; a woman and
chil 1 liftening to a man who is feated on a bafl<et turned
upfide down ; " Tlie Philofophcr reading," with a remark-
ably fine effeiH ; " Tlie Mathematician wrilin;; by Candle-
light," all in quarto ; " An Orgie of Pcafants," a very good
compofition, of fix figures, in folio ; all from his own
defigns.

Ferdinand Bol was born at Dordrecht in the year
i6to, but lived and died at Amfterdam, where lils parents
came to refide when he was but three years old He ftudied
in the fchool of Rembrandt, and attained great celebrity as
a painter of hiltory and portraits. He executed a confider-
able number of plates in a bold free ftyle ; the lights and
ftiadows are broad and powerful, which renders the chiaro-
fcuro of Bol particularly ftrikiiig ; but his prints want that
lightnefs of touch and admirable tafte which thofe of Rem-
brandt poffefs in fuch high perfection. The following are a
felection of the bcft engravings of Bol, and are nearly, if
not quite, as much fought after as thofe of Rembrandt.

Po'tr.iits and Heads. — Half-length portrait of a young
man, with a hat on ; portrait of an officer, both in 4to.
Half-length portrait of a man, with a hat and feathers ; a
young woman with a cap and feathers, in an oval ; both in
8vo. The woman and the pear, being a portrait of a young
female in a veil, prefenting a pear, a very fine print, in
410. An old man feated, habited in a fur robe, in large
4to., a rare print. A very fpirited half-length engrav-
ing of an old man, with a cap on. And a buft of an old
man habited in a fur robe, in an oval of quarto fize, very
rare.

HiJloricaU ^c. — " A Philofopher in his Study," with
globes, books, &c. and a very fi;ie effeft ; " A Philofopher
reading." An old man feated before a table, on which arc
placed globes and books. This print is commonly known
by the name of " The Aftrologer," all in 4to. A family
in a room, confifting of a man, woman, and child fucking,
known by the name of " The Chamber of the Accoucheur"
in folio ; " Abraham's Sacrifice," arched at the top, in large
folio ; " Hagar and Iftimael in the Defart," in folio ; " The
Sacrifice of Gideon," reprefented at the moment when the
angel lights the facrifice, in the back-ground is the altar of
Baal, in4t().; and " St. Jerom contemplating a Crucifix,"
in a circle of folio fize.

The events of the life of Dirick or Theodore Stoop are
very obfcure. He was born fomewhere in Holland in the
year 1610, or thereabouts, but how he acquired his great abi-
lity in painting and etching is not known. His etchings are
from his own compofitions, are performed in a very neat and
pifturefque ftyle, and are much and defervedly celebrated,
and highly valued.

His principal work is a fet of twelve plates in fmall folio,
of which the fubjefts are horfes, dogs, and peaiantry,
engaged in various rural occupations, and marked D.
Stoop, fee.

Rodrigo Stoop was the younger brother of Theodore,
and was born in Holland, A. D. 1 61 2. According to .
the author of " An En"ay towards an Englifti School of
Painters," the baptifmal name of this artift was Peter, but he
always placed the initial R before his family name, and is
called Rodrigo by the continental writers. He came into 1

England

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

In:;?aTid with queen Catherine, and refided here till the time
of his death, which happened in 1 686.

This artul engraved feveral plates, after his own compo-
fitions and thofe of Barlow. They are executed with great
fpirit, in a ilyle which docs him much credit, but wo can

to the emperor Leopold, and had a confiderable penfica
allowed him by that prince.

Thomas etched feveral plates, in a bold, free, and fpirited
ftyle, which are much fought after by colleftors, among
which the following may be reckoned the Left. " Mercury-

only fpecify " the following ; A fet of eight, views of conduding a Gholl before Hecate ;" " A Lady at her

Lilbon, dedicated to queen Catherine ; another fet of eight. Toilette ;" "A Shepherd carefling a Shepherdefs ;" « A

reprefcnting the proceffion of queen Catherine from Porlf- Satyr offering Violence to a Shepherdefs ;" all of 410. fize,

mouth to Hamoton Court, dated 1662; and feveral of from his own defigns ; and a palloral fubjed, compofed of

the plates for Ogilbv's edition of /Efop's Fables, pub- hx figures, three men and three women, one of the former

lirtied in 1678, after Barlow. Thcfe are flight hafty per-
formances.

Anthony van der Does was born at the Hague in the
year '610. He chieny engraved portraits; if he was not
the difciple of I'aul Poiiliu?, he imitated his (lyle ; and
although he never equalled that great matter, yet his bcft
engravings poflfefs a confiderable (hare of merit. He en-
graved moft of the plates for a colle£lion of portraits of
the ilhillrious men of the feventecnth century, publidied at
Amfterdam, many of which are dated 1649. .Among his
bell portraits are thofe of Gerard Cock, a plenipotentiary
to the court of Ofnabruck ; George Wagner, plenipoten-
tiary to the court ot Ofnabruck, both in folio, after Anfelm
Van Hull ; Ferdinand, cardinal infanta of Spain, and go-
vernor of the Low Countries, after Diepenbeck, in large
folio ; the marquis of CalUe-Rodrigo, after Rubens, in
large 4to. ; Francis de Mello, fmall folio ; Francis de Mello,
on horfeback, in folio, from .1. Buffart.

And of his Hijlorical Prints, the moll efteemed are " A
Magdalen," half figure, in 4to., from Vandykej "A
Miracle performed by St. Francis," after Diepenbeck ;
" A Madonna and Child," after Erafmus Quellinus; and
•' A Holy Family," from the fame painter, both in folio.
The Holy Family is accompanied by two angels, one of
whom is ilrangeiy employed in warming linen for the child,
whilft the other makes its bed. Of the remainder of this
family of artifts, we have already treated in vol. xii. See
Does, Jacob and Simon", Vander.

An account of the lives and works of Cornei.iu.s Bega,
and Leon'.\rd CoogheN', (which fliould clfe have been in-
troduced in this place,) will alfo be found under thofe lieads
refpeflively. The plates of the former, imprefTions from
which are much fought after by connoiffeurs, have recently
been purchafed and republifhed by a foreign print merchant,
with defcriptions in the French and Dutch languages. They
amount to thirty-four plates cf humorous and vulgar ruf-
ticity.

Edward Eckman, or Ecman, was born at Mechlin in the
year 1610. He was a moll excellent engraver on wood,
and copied many of Callot's prints, even imitating the free
ftyle of that matter with great fuccefs. The dillant parts
of his engravings are very neatly executed ; and the perfeft
forms of the imalleft figures exceedingly well preferved.
Among other engravings by him, is the reprefentatiou of the
fire-work upon the river Arno, from Callot, which Papillon,
who has certainly judged well in this inttance, calls an admi-
rable print, adding, that it is impoffible to find a more deli-
cate engraving on wood.

Eckman engraved alfo from Louis Bufink, Abi-aham

is pliiying upon the bagpipes, m folio ; likewife from his
own invention. Tlie two latter are compofed fo much in
the ftyle of Rubens, that fome authors have attributed their
invention to him, but without foundation.

John Troyen, or Van Troyen, was 3 native of the Low
Countries, and born A. D. 1610. He produced feveral
etchings from the pi(Sures of Italian roaflern, coHefted by
D. TenierS, for the gallery at Brufiels. They are executed
in a (light, coarfe, incorreft ftyle, but his prevailing tones
of light and (liade arc tolerably good.

The following are the beft part of them. " Salome pre-
fenting the Head of St. John to the Daughter of Herod,"
after L. da Vinci ; " The penitent Magdalen ;" after Cor-
reggio ; " The Adoration of the Kings," after P. Veronefe ;
" Jefus Chrift healing the Sick," from the fame painter;
four fubjeclfs of " The Seafons," after Baflan, all in folio ;
and a grand compofition, in large folio, after L. Pordonna,
of "The Entombing of Chrift."

Peter Lifebetius, or Van Leyfebetten, was the contem-
porary ot Van Troyen, and, like liim, was employed in en-
graving part of the gallery of Teniers. His plates are ex-
ecuted in a coarfe and incorrect ftyle ; among them are a
portrait of David Teniers, fenior, in 4to., from Van Mol ;
" Diana repofing," attended by an old woman, after Titian ;
"The Marriage of St. Catherine," after P. Veronefe ;
" The Vilitation of Elizabeth," after Palma the elder ; " The
Virgin at Prayers, and St. John carefled by the Infant Sa-
viour," after the younger Palma; " Cupid prefenting Venus
with Fruit ;" and " Diana and Endymion,'' after Paris Bor-
donna, all of foho fize. The two laft are remarkably ill
drawn, and the reft reach not above mediocrity.

John MeyfTens, or Mytens, was born at Bruffels in
the year 1612. He learned the principles of painting from
Anthony Van Obilal, and afterwards became the difciple
of Nicholas vander Horft. He painted both hiftorical
fubjedts and portraits, but was moft fuccefsful in the latter.
He refided at Amfterdam, where he publilhed feveral collec-
tions of engraved portraits, not only from his own paintings
but thofe of Vandyke, and a variety of other mafters.
Meyffens engraved and etched, and we have by him a col-
lection of portraits which he publilhed in 1649. Pjofper
Merchand, in his hiftorical dictionary, mentions a book of
portraits by this artill, (hkewife publidied by himfelf,)
which is become very rare, on the frontifpiece of which is
the name of " Speckkraemer." They are in general
greatly inferior to what might have been expeded from his
hand, and do not do him much credit as an artill. Of thefe
mediocre performances, it may be fufficient to fpecify tlie
following, which are rather valued on account of the pic-
tures from xvlience they are engraven, than on account of the

BolTe, and others. The number of his prints is faid to be merits of the engraver.

one hundiva and five. Porirait of himfelf; Henry de Keyfer, architefl and

John Ttiomas was' a native of Afpres, and born in tlie fculptor ; Guido Rheni ; Daniel Scghers, Jcfuit, and

year 1610. He was a (uccelsful pupil of Rubens, and af- flower painter, from Livens ; Cornelius de Bie, from Eraf-

terwards, in company with his fellow ftudent Diepenbeck, mus Queliinus ; WilSam de Nieulandt, painter, from the

went 10 Italy, where he met with great encouragement from fame mailer ; Mary Ruten, the wife of Vandyke 4 "The

the bilhop ot Metz. In 1662 he was intitled' firft painter Virgin and Child," half figures, from Titian, all in 4to. And

Vol XXL 3S " Mdeagcr

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

" Meleager prerenting the Boar's Head to Atalanta," from
■Rubens, in folio.

Cornelius Mcyflens was the fon of John, and born at
Antwerp, A. D. 1646. He learned the elements of art
under his paternal roof, but removed from thence to Vi-
enna, where he remained fome years. Fie fecnis chiefly to
have been employed by his father in engraving portraits,
which he executed entirely with the graver in a ItilF, lallelefs
ftyle. His bell prints have no great merit to recommend
them, and the red are mere flovenly performances, evidently
executed in a hurry. The moll co.ifiderable work we have
by this artid is a fet of portraits of the emperors of the houfe
of Aullria, in folio, entitled " EtTigies Imperatorum domus
Aullriaca:, delineatx per Joannen MeylTens, et acri in-
fculpts per Filium fuum, Cornehum Meyifcns." This
proves, beyond contradiftion, that he was the fon of John,
and not the nephew, as BaiTan affirms. His work of next
importance is in folio, and entitled, " Les Effigies des Sou-
verains Princes et Dues de Brabant." In thefe he was
ainiled by Peter de Jode, Wanmans, Van Schupcn, and
other artills. OcVavius, duke of AreaBurgli ; >:\ntonius
Barberinus, Cardinalis Camcrius, both in 410 ; Rinaldo
Principe Ellenfe, cardina'e protettore della Corona di
Francia, in folio ; Giovanni de Witt, Signor di Linfchoten,
&c. Penfionario di Olandia ; Cafparus Keidtwerdius, Pallor
Ecclefiac Vcfala, from B. D. Meyes ; and David Conte di
WeidenwoliT, Signor di fon et Enfegg ; S. B. Van Dry-
•vveghen delt. all of folio dimenfions, may alfo be admitted
into coUeAions of the fchool of the Netherlands.

Marc de Bye was born at the Hague in 1612, of a noble
family ; he palTed fome of the years of his youth in the
army of the Dutch repubhc, and became a member of the
Academy of Arts in 1664.

He learned the principles of painting of James vander
Does, painted animals with all the truth and tafte of that
mafter, and etched feveral fets of plates, of which the fub-
jefts were wild and domeftic animals, in a very neat fpiritcd
ilyle, after Paul Potter and Marc Gerard.

The followmg may be felctled with advantage from the
refi. of his works : Two fets of eight quarto plates, each of
horned cattle, after P. Potter ; another fet in quarto, from
the lame painter ; a fet of eight, of goats and (heep ; a
fet of fixteen, of goats; a fet of fixteen, of lions, bears,
wolves, leopards, &c. after the fame painter ; and a fet of
lixteen, of " The Natural Hillory of the Bear," in dif-
ferent countries, after Marc Gerard, very rare prints, in
quarto.

Francis vanden Wyngaerde was born at Antwerp in the
vear 1612, a:id eftabhihed himfelf in that city as an en;jraver
and print-merchant. His works prove him to have been a
man of ability ; his etchings are executed in a flight and
free, but mailerly Ityle, and are much fought after by con-
noifleurs. Among thofe which are the moll worthy of at-
tention, are the following :

'•■ Sampfon kilhng the Lion," from Rubens, in 410. ;
*' Jefus Chrift appearing to Mary Magdalen in the Garden,"
in folio ; " The Marriage of Thetis and Peleus," in large
folio ; a bacchanalian fubicft, where Bacchus is reprefented
drinking from a cup, into which a bacchanal is fqiieeziiig
grapes, a fine and rare print, in large folio ; " Soldiers re-
gahng in an Alehoufe ;" all after Rubens. " The Entomb-
ing of Chrift," after A. Vandyke, both in folio ; " Achilles
dilcovered at the Court of Lycomedes," after the fame
painter, in folio ; " The Return from Egypt," in which
the Holy Virgin appears in a ftraw hat, from J. Thomas, a
iine engraving, in large foho ; " Peafants fmoking and
tkinking before an Aiehoiife Door," from 'I'eniers ; " The

Temptation of St. Anthony," from his own compofition, a
very rare print ; two women, one of whom is contemplating
a flccping infant by candlelight, after Callot ; and its com-
panion, a female leaning on a fliull before a looking-glafs,
after the fame mafter, all of folio dimenfions.

Reynier, or Remigius Nooms, better known by his cog-
nomen Zeeman, was br.rn at Amilcrdam in the year 1612.
He was originally a failor, but having an innate love and
natural talent for fine art, he accuftomed himfelf to imitate
on paper what he law, and by purfuing this mode of ftudy
in the fchool of nature alone, gradually became a marine .
painter and engraver of confiderable rank and abihty.

It flioidd be known that the Dutch word zeeman is fyno-
nimous wi'h feaman, or mariner, As the imitative powers
of l/je failor difclofed thenifelves, his countrymen could not
but heboid his productions with fome degree of pleafing
wonder, nor was due encouragement withheld. At one
period of his life he accepted an invitation to Berlin, and"
if we may judge from twelve of his engravings of flilpping,
&c. which were publilhed here by Tooktr, he refided for
a time in London, but finally returned to Amfterdam, where
he executed a confiderable number of plates from his own
defigns, in a bold and intelligent fi.yle. They confift of
fhipping and marine views, ornamented with good figures,
and clofed by back-grounds, wliich are often beautifully ex-
ec\ited and appropriately introduced.

Of thefe, the moft important are, a fet of eight naval
fubjefts, entitled " Qu -Iques Navires," &c. dated 1632, in
4to. ; another fet of fix, of views of public edifices on the
fi;a-fliore, and the yatcli which travels between Haerlem and
Amfterdam, in folio j a fe: of twelve, of ihipping, naval
arfenals, &c. in folio, publiflied in London by A. Tooker ;
four Dutch fea-ports, in folio, entitled " Raan Poortie ;"
" St. Antoni's Poort ;" " Regihi-rs Poort ;" " Saaghmeu-
lins Poortie ;" dated 1636. Another fet of four, of Dutch
fea-ports, alio in folio ; " The I'our Elements," in 8vo. ;
a pair of " The Fanxbourg of St. Marcian ;" and " The
Porch of St. Bernard," at Paris ; a fea-fight with fliips on
fire, and another marine fubjefl, with two fliips engaging, all
of foho dimenfions, and from compofitions by the engraver
himfeif.

Henry Snayers, or Sneyos, was born at Antwerp in tlie
year 16 1 2, and always refided in his native city. Of whom
he learned engraving is uncertain, btit he evidenily imitated
the llyles of P. Pontius and the Bolfwerts. His prints, as
is believed, are the lole pruduftion of the graving tool ; he
drew correttly, and much of the charafter, exprcflion, and
fpirit of the original pictures after which he worked, are
infufed into his tranflations.

When engraving after Rubens, his prints, of which the
following are the bell, bear ftrong refemblunce to thole of
Scheltius a Bolfwert.

The portraits of Adam Van Oort, after Jordaens, and
prince Robert, count palatine of the Rhine, after Vandyke j
" The Holy Virgin and Infant Saviour appearing to St."
Alanus of Rupe, " a rare print, in large folio, and pre-
fumptively after a compofition by Snayers himfelf ; " The
Holy Virgin feated and furrounded by Saints," in large
fulio ; " The Fathers of the Church dt bating the Queftion
of Tranfubltantia'.ion," of very large folio dimenfions ; " St.
Francis d'Affife receiving tiie Sacrament of Extreme Uiic-
tion," all after Rubenv ; and " Sampion de.ivered to the
Philiflines," after Vandyke, alfc in large folio.

Alexander Voet, or Voert, the young'r, was a native of
Antwerp, and born in the year 1613. Ht was probably
the difciple of Paul Pontius, ,. hof- fty.e he triquentiy imi-
tated, but not with any very gre.1l luccels. There is a want

' cf

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

of efPed, and an incorreftnefs of outline, even in his bed
works, though engraved very neatly. He executed a con-
fiderablc number of plates, after Flemifh mailers, but more
particularly after Rubens ; the beft of which are as follows :
" Judith and Holofernes," in large folio (the earlieft im-
preflionrf of which are before the name of C. Galle was
inferted) ; " The Return from Egypt," in folio ; " The
Virgin and Child," to whom angels prefent a balket of
fruit, in f»lio ; " The Martyrdom of St. Andrew," a fine
print, in large folio ; " St. Auguilin," rare, in large folio ;
" St. Agnes with a Lamb," in folio ; "Seneca in the
Bath, bidding Farcwel to his Friends ;" " Roman Charity,"
both in folio; •' A Satyr with Fruit," accompanied by a
bacchante, in large folio, all after Rubens ; " Folly," after
Jac. Jordaens ; " The Card-Playcrs," after Corn, de Vos,
both in large folio ; and " Chrift bearing the Crofs," a
capital print after Vandyke, engraved on three plates.

Peter Bail'u, or Balliu, was born at Antwerp in the year
1614. He learned the rudiments of painting in his native
country, after which he went to Italy for improvement,
■where, in conjundlion with other artifts, he was employed
in engraving the Jullinian Gallery. On his return to An-
twerp, in the year 1635, '^^ ^'^^ much patronized, and his
engravings are, by many coUeftors, held in ao fmall efteem.
Huber dalTes him among the fu-ft engravers of his age.
His works exhibit fome talent in the art of expreffing the
textures of various furfaces, and his chiarofcuro poflefles
confiderable force ; yet his heads are feldom expreflive or
beautiful; and the extremities are heavy and not wcU marked.
He engraved both portrait and hiilory, and executed his
plates entirely with the graver. Among his moll efteemed
works are the following :

Portraits. — Louis Pereira, and Claude de Chabot, envoys
to Munller, both in 410. without the name of the painter;
John Leuber, counfellor of Drefden, from A. van Woef-
bergen ; pope Urban VHL giving his benediftion ; the
four heads of the church — St. Jcrom, St. Auguilin, St.
Ambrofe, and St. Gregory, all in folio ; Jacob Backer, a
painter of Holland, in 4to. ; and John Bylert, a painter of
Utrecht, both from his own piftures ; Albert, prince and
count of Arenberghe, in large folio, from Vandyke ; Lucy
Peraye, countefs of Carlille ; Anthony of Bourbon, count
of Morel, fon of Henry IV. ; and Honorus Urphee, count
of Novi Catlellie, &c. all in folio, from Vandyke.

H'ljlvrica! SubjeSs after •various Italian Majlers. — " Helio-
dorus chafed from the Temple by Angels ;" a very large
upright print, engraved on two plates, after a drawing by
Van Lint, from Raphael's pifture in the Vatican ; " A
dead Chritl lying on the Knees of the Virgin Mary ;"
a large upright plate from An. Carraci ; " The Archangel
Michael overcoming the Dasmon," after Guido ; " The Re-
conciliation between Jacob and his Brother," after Rubens,
all in large fuho ; " Chrill in the Garden of Olives;"
" The expiring Magdalen," fupported by angels, both in
folio ; The Rape of Hijipodamia, or the Combat of the
Centaurs and Lapitha;," in large foHo, all after Rubens ;
" A Holy Family," after Theodore Rombout, in folio ;
" Mary Magdalen and St. Francis at the Feet of Chriil ;"
"The Virgin in the Clouds," both in large folio, from
Vandyke; " Rinaldo and Armida," in large folio, after
"the fame painter (the companion was engraved by P. de
Jode) ; " Sufannah at the Bath," after Martyn Pepyn ;
" The Flagellation," after Diepenbeck ; " Chrill crowned
with Thorn.i, ' after the fame painter'; " The Itivefttion of
the Crofs, before St. Helena," af:er Van Lint; "The

Emperor Theodofius holding the Crofs before St. Am-
brofe," altej tlie fame painter, all in large folio; " Jefus

Chrid failened to a Column," attended by angels, with the
inilruments of the paiTion, after John Thomas, in folio ;
and " St. Anaftalius feated in a vaulted Apartment read-
ing," after Rembrandt, a folio print, with a fine effeCft of
light and fliadow.

John van Akcn was born in Holland, A.D. 1614, and
was the fellow-ftudent of Bamboccio. He has frequently
been miftaken for John van Aaclicn, of Cologne, the Utter
of whom did not engrave.

The following etchings, from the hand of Van Aken, are
free and maderly, and in a ftyle much refembhng tjiat of
J. Both.

A fet of fix horfes, with landfcape back-grounds, in 8vtf;
marked J. V. Aken, fecit. M. de Heinneken likewife cites
the two following : a landfcape, where a horfe appears in
the fore-ground faddled, and a man leated on the ground be-
hind it, with only liis back feen, and towards the left, another
man with his hat on. This is very fcarce ; and four fine
mountainous landicapesj ornamented with figures, wood, and
buildings, in folio, both marked with his name, to which is
added fecit ; and in the latter H.L. inventore.

John Almelovcn was born in Holland in the year 1614.
He was a painter as well as an engraver ; the latter pro-
feflion he exercifed chiefly for the bookiellers, but with great
credit to himfelf. His etchings, of which the fubjea,* are
principally landfcapes, abound with freedom and intelli-
gence. Of thefe it may be fufficieut to mention, in this
place,

The Portrait of Gilbert Voetius, marked J. Aln'eloven,
inv. et fee. ; a fet of twelve views of towns and villages,
ornamented with figures ; a fet of fix mountainous land-
fcapes, with figures, and the fonr feafons, from Herman
Saftleven, all in quarto.

Matthew Borrekens, or Borekens, was the contemporary
and friend of the preceding artill, and relided at Antwerp.
He worked chiefly with the graver, in a neat tlyle, refembling
in manual execution that of P. Pontius, but his drawing is
far lefs correal.

The principal parts of his works are the copies he made
from Bolfvvert, and other eminent engravers, for Vandett
Eaden, of which the bell are as follows :

Portraits oi Augullus Carpzou, plenipotentiary of Fre-
deric William, duke of Saxony, Anfelme van Hulle pinxit, in
folio ; Gerard Schepeler, plenipotentiary of the peace of
Olnabruck, from the fame painter ; the prelate Chrillopher
Buthens, after Diepenbeck, all in folio.

Ilijlorical SuiJeSs, Iffc. — " Mary Magdalen embracing the
Crucifix," accompanied by the Virgin and St. John, after
Vandyke, in very large folio; "The Virgin Handing upon
a Globe, treading on a Serpent," in foUo, after Rubens ;
" St. Francis Xavier," and " St. Ignatius of Loyola," all
in folio ; " St. Barbara," in large folio, a very rare print ;
all from Rubens. '• Jelus Chrill bound," furrounded with
angels bearing the inllruments of the paffions ; " The good
Shepherd," " The Myilery of the Mai's," both in large
folio ; and the frontifpiece to " Butkins's Trophies of the
Duchy of Brabant," in folio ; all after Diepenbeck.

Andrea Stock was born in Holland, A.D. 1616, and
refided the greater part of his fife at Antwerp. He was
the pupil of Jacques de Gheyn, and imitated his llyle with
tolerable fuccefs. His profeffional talent was of a general
nature. He engraved portrait, landfcape, and hiltorical
fubjedls, but can fcarcely be faid to have rileu above medi-
ocrity.

His bell prints are, the Portraits of Albert Durer, in 4"o.

after Thomas Vinidor de Bologne ; Ha::s Holbein, from a

picture by that mailer, in 4to. ; Lucas of Leyden, from a

3 S 2 pifture

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

pifture by himfelf, in 4(0. ; Peter Snayers, afler Vandyke,
ill folio; "Abraham iacrilicinj; Ifaac," a brge upright,
after Rubens ; " Tiie twelve Months of the Year," after
John Wildens ; and a fet of eight landfcapes, after Paul
Bril, all of quarto dimcnfions. Thefe, wij:h the " Acade-
mie dp I'Epce" of Thibault, which was publiflacd at An-
twerp, will probably afford fufficient fpecimens of the
various talents of this engraver.

Antonio Waterloo was born among the fcenes which he
fo admirably reprcfcnted, in the fiiburbs of Utrecht, in the
year 1618. Tiie events of jiis life are very little known,
but none who have talle and fenlibility to appreciate his
merits, can read and rcflcft on that little, without wonder
and regret. Though born to a comfortable patrimony, and
bleffcd with an excellent genius, he died in a miferablc ftate,
as is reported, in one of the liofpitals of Utrecht, at the
age of forty !

This feems reproachfnl either to fociety or to Waterloo
iiimfelf; but reproaches may well be allowed to fink in
filence, when we know not where they ought to attach.
Great talent is often eccentric, and, to all but the eye of
philofophy, will feem to- frtoot madly from the focial orbit :
that the undeviating fons of Coinmcrcc^nu'Hild turn from a
bright prodigy to a barometer or a weather-cock, is per-
fedtly natural ; meanwhile the meteor glares and expires.
Eartli is illumined, but are the merchants enriched ?

Hundreds of dealers have anialTed fortunes, and others
will for centuries continue to amafs fortunes by felling the
works of an artift of our own country, who kept fcliool in
Bunhill row, and difpofed of his Paradife Loft for almoft
nothing.. Hundreds have in like manner enriched them-
tlves by dealing in the works of Waterloo, who languiihed
and died in an hofpital.

" Father forgive them, for they know not what tliey do,"
is a divine prayer, which intelligent Chriftians, in pity to ig-
norance, cannot too often repea,t. Neither know tliey whom,
nor what, they negleft.

Averting our attention, then, from the private life — the
frail and mortal part — of this great artift, to works that will
live and be admired as long as engraving (liall endure, we
have to obferve, that he was rather an engraver who occa-
fionally painted, than a painter who occalionaUy engraved ;
for while h:s plates are numerous, hi? pi£lnres are very few.
For an account of his merits in the latter art, the reader is.'
seferred to the article Waterloo.

If he had any tutor in engraving, it has efcaped reco)-d.
The woods, the winding roads and villages in the environs
, of Utrecht, appear to. have been hisftudy, and of many of
thsfe his etchings are faithful portraits, rendered with a-
maftcr's hand and poet's fenfibility. The frankncfs and
beauty of his ftyle, fhew that he read the book of nature
with intuitive readinefs ; and that the charaftcr which was
occult to others, was to him eafy and familiar.

Gilpin fays, that " Waterloo is a name beyond any other
in landfcape. His fubjefts are perfe611y rural. Simplicity
is their charafteriftic. He feledfs a few humble objeds. A
coppice, a corner of a forell, a winding r(.)ad, or a itrag-
ghng village : ixor docs he always introduce an otTskip. His
compofition is generally good,, and. his light often" well dif-
t»-ibuted ; but his chief merit lies in execution, in which he
is a confummatc mafter. Every objcft that he touches has
the character of nature ;. but he particularly excels in the
foliage of trees."

But Waterloo fometimcs compofcs ideal landfcapes of a
gratid and impreffive charafter, though- Hill under the influ-
ence of the fame prefiding fimplicily. The fcenes to whiclv
'tiiiffic romance, or the fobliraitics of Loly writ have ilimu»

lated his imagination, appear to have been produced with z^
little effort, as the forell glades, or rulliy and fecluded pools,
overhung with alders, or pidfurefque knolls, which he
doubtlefs drew and etched, jull as he faw them in nature.

Of this, his " Tobias and the Angel" may ferve as an
inftance, of which the revejrend writer above quoted has, in
another place, written as follows. " The landfcape I mean
is an upright, near twelve inches by ten. On the near
ground Hands an oak, which forms a diagonal through the
print. The fecond diltance is compofed of a riling ground,
connefted with a rock which is covered with flirnbs. The
oak and the llirubs make a vifla, through which appears an
cxtenfivc view into the country. The figures, which con-
fift of an angel, Tobias, and a dog, are defcending a hill,
which formr, the fecond dillance. The print, with this de-
fcription, cannot be miftaken. The compofition is very
plealing. The trees on the fore-ground, fpreading over the.
top of the print, and (loping to a point at the bottom, give
the beautiful form of an inverted pyramid, which, in trees
efpecially, has often a line efTeft. To this form, the in-
clined plane on which the figures ftand, and which is beau-
tifully broken, is a good conlraft. The rock approaches-
to a perpendicular, and the dillance to an horizontal, line-
All together make fnch a combination of beautiful and con-
trailing lines, that the whole is very pleafing. The kecpino-
is well preferved. The fecond and third diftanccs are both
judicioufly managed. The light i& well difpofed. To pre-
vent heavincfs it is introduced upon tlie tree, both at the
top and at the bottom ;. but it is properly ii-pt down. A
mafs of fliade fucceeds over the fecond diftance, and the
water. The light breaks in a blaze, on the bottom of the
rock, and maffes the whole. The trees, (hrubs, and upper
pare of the rock are happily thrown into a middle tint.

" Perhaps the cffeft of the diftant country might have beca
better, it the light had been kept down ; leavin:^ only one
eafy catching, light upon the tovm and the rifing ground on
which it Hands.

" The execution is exceedingly beautiful. No artift had a '
happier manner of exprefiing trees than Waterloo ,• and the
tree before us is ore of his capital worlfLS. The (hape of it
we have already criticifed : the bole and ramifications are as.
beautiful as the fivipe. The foliage is a raafter-piece. Such
a union of ftrcngth and lighuiefs is rarely found. The ex-
tremities are touched with great tendernels ;. the Itrong,
maffes of light are relieved into fhadovs equally ftrong ;
and yet eafc and f.iftncfs are preferved. The tore-ground is.
highly enriched ; an* indeed the wh ,le print,, and every part
of it, is full of art and full of nature."-

Thefe remarks from ihs pen of Mr. Gilpin, on the To-
bias of Waterloo,, are fo pertinent, and fo applicable to the
generality of his works, that it is only neceflary to add that ,
tlic mode in which thefe extraordinary prints v,-erc produced,,
i.s fimply etching, whirh he is fnppofed to have worked up
to fo powerful an efFeft of chiarofcuro with his etching
needle, by mere dint of drawing and the various pretfure of
his hand,, as to render aWJIoppwg out (as it is termed) of his-
lighter tints, unnecelfary. His plates are believed to have ■
been hit in (or corroded) at one operation of the aquafortis,,
and not to have been touched afterward with either graver
or point.-

iSome of the foreign writers on art, to whom we are in-
debted for defcriptive catalogues of the worlcs of Waterloo,
are, however, of a different opinion, and affert, that after
the procefs of corrolion, he ftrengtiiened and enriched his
tones, and efpecially the boles and branches of his trees,,
with the graver.

The prcfent writer, from tlie comparifons which he has(

been.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

been- able to make between various iniprefTions, and his
knowledge of the manner in which engraved plates wear
under the hand of the printer, is inclined to believe, that
ti>e darkeft parts of Waterloo's plates, which are generally
the over(hadowed boles and branches of his trees, would of
courfe begin to wear lirll:, (from the ridges of copper in
fuch parts being either exceedingly minute, or entirely cor-
roded awav) and would confequently vi'ant retouching be-
fore any other parts began perceptibly to we-r, which re-
touching was at that time always performed with the graver,
the art of rdnting being unknown.

Hence, in coUeetiiig the works of this mailer, it is of the
utaioft importance to attend to the goodnefs of the im-
prcffions ; for the demand for them has been fo great, and
the plates have in confequence been fo frequently retouched,
that the latter prints are altogether unworthy of the name
of Waterloo. You fee in them, indeed, the general forms
of the objefts, but every trace of the elegant freedom and
fpontaneous grace of the mailer, is irrecoverably gone :
back-grounds and fore-grounds are jumbled together, and
in fome inftance* nothing is left but a few llrong, HifF, un-
meaning lines on a faint and unintelligible ground.

The "high eftimation in which the works of this jnflly cele-
brated landfcape engraver has ever been held, have occa-
fioned frequent republications of his plates, and Huber,
Roil, and Adam Bartfch, of the imperial library at Vienna,
have written defcriptive catalogues of them, of which the
following lift is an abridgment. The cypher which Water-
loo fumetimes affixed to his etchings, m.ay be feen in Plate I.
of the monograms, &;c. of the engravers of the Netherlands.

Vicivs and Compofit'ions. — A pair, of a ruined building,
and a woodv recefs with two peafants. A fet of four, ■viz.
the hermitage ; the padage of the rclcka ; the httlc water-
fall ; and the mountain bridge, all in oftavo. A fet of
twelve, in quarto ; viz. the iilhennan's return ; the ar-
rival of travellers, at a country inn ; the ruftic well ; the
village mill ; the village church ; tlie cailie on the bank of
a river ; the little bridge, with three anglers ; the four pea-
fcnts ; view on the road to Schevelingen ; the fifher.rian, (a
river fcene ;) the two towers, (another river fcene) ; and a
palloral landfcape, on the fore-groimd of which are a goat,
ram, and ewe, which Bartfch has attributed to Marc de Bye.
The mill dam, and the entrance to a foreft, a pair in quaito,
are two of Waterloo's early performances, coarfely exe-
cuted, and evidently done before his powers had attained
to maturity. Another fet of twelve, of which t'ne fubjefts
are, i. The fruit trees. 2. T!ie church-yard. 3. The
cottage. 4. A view on the fea-(hore, on the middle ground
of which is a village fpire. 5 Another view, with two
fi'lk.-rmeM, 6. Anotlier view, with cattle and figures in a
boat.. ■]. Tile traveller and two trees. 8. A paftoral fcene,
with fheep and a fhepherd crolfmg a brid^^'e. 9, The de-
fcrted village. 10. The inhabited village ; three peafants
are here rcpofing on a fore-ground hillock. 1 1. The fentry
box. And 11 The ftone bridge. Another fet of fix, in
quarto; TOa i. A foreft fcene, with travellers. 2. A river
fcene, called " tiie llttlj bridge." 3., Sheep fording a ftrcam.
4. The boys and a dog, drinking at a brook. 5 and 6, Paf-
toral landfcapes, with (hepherds repofing under trees, &c.
A pair of cottage fcenery, in quarto, with the effefts of
moonhght and twilight, of the upright form. A fet of
fix, in quarto; t'/z. i. The rock biidge, over a mountain
torrent. 2. The travellers converfmg. j. .V cottage fur-
rounded with trees. 4. The oak, (imder which a male
and female pealant are converfmg.) J and 6. Views from
nature, vith travellers and their dogs. Another fet of fix,
ef the fame dimenfions ; v'rz. i ..The hermit's chapel. 2. The

loaded afs. 3. The deeping peafant. 4. The ftreamlet.
J. The mountains. And 0. iThe wooden bridge. Anotjier
fet of fix, denoted as follows: i. Tlie foreft traveller.
2. The cottage, overdiadowed with trees. 3. The entrance '
of a wood. 4. The gate. 5. The knotty tree. And
6. The foreft river. Two other fets, in quarto, of fix fub-
jefts, each coni'ifting chiefly of rural and foreft fcenery.
(^It is to be remarked of tliefe, and of Waterloo's works,
in general, that while their real merits and beauties rcfide
in the landfcape, colleftors have, with little fenfibility or
refledlion, denominated them from the figures which they
contain, (which are •the worft parts of Waterloo ;) fo that a
grand mountain fcene with rocks and cataraiSs, is fome-
times knov/n by the filly title of the boy and dog, or the
milk-maid.] A fet of fix grand landfcapes of larger di-
menfions, entitled, I. The double cafcadc. 2. The caftle
and cataraft, or triple cafeade. 3. Rocks and mountains,
with three figures on tlie fore-ground. 4. A wild mountain
fcene. 5. The grand waterfall. And 6 C<-ttagers at the
foot of a mountain. Another fet of fix, viz. the temple,
with a cupola and waterfall in the middle ground. 2. The
rock bridge. 3. The large tree, with four figures. 4. Huntf-
men in a foreft. 5. A paftoral fcene, with a ftiepherd and
his flock. 6. A watermill, with a cowherd and cattle.
Another fet of fix, in large quarto ; wz. I. A plain, with
clumps of trees. 2. The wildfowl hunter. 3. The return
from the chace. 4. The travellef- by twilight, a foreft fcene.
y. A river fcene, with boys bathing. 6. A foreft glade,
with figures repofing. Another fet of fix, in large quarto,
all of which are views from nature, chiefly of villager.*:^
but the names of the places have not yet been mentioned.
A fet of twelve beautiful landfcapes in fmall folio; vix.-
I. A garden fcene. 2. Ruir.s of a city, with figures and
cattle- on the fore-ground. 3. The two bridges, (one of
which is of ftone, and the other of wood.) 4. The caftle
and rock. j. The two travellers. 6. The city gate. 7. A
river fcene. with two ftone bridges. 8. A (liepherd con-
dufting his j%ck acrofs a ftone bridge. 9. A water-m.ill in-
a wood. ic. The dcirts of a foreft, with a falconer and
greyhounds. 11. The pointed tower, a foreft fcene, with
fportfmcn repofinc;. 12. Another foreft fcene, with three-
large trees on the fore-ground. Another fet of fix, in large
folio, of foreft fcenery, with rivulets and ruftic bridges, all
of which are believed to be views from nature, of places
not named. Another fet of fix, in 'large folio, and of great
beauty, which are numbered and named as follows ; I. A;
country-inn, with pedlars refting.- 2. A champaign country,
with figures in converfation. 3. A woodland fcene, with
two very fmall figures. 4. Two trees on the bank of a-
ftream, with an open gate. 5. Another woodland fcene,
viewed from a corn-field. 6. A plantatioij of young trees,;^
vrith a fleeping (hepherd an the fore-ground. A fet of fix ■.
large upright landfcapes ; viz. I. The large windmill, fo
called, but the mill itfeif is at a diftance, and tlie near ob-
jcfts are an old houfe furrounded with trees, and on the
left a wooden chapel. 2. A woodland fcene, with two
peafants and a dog. 5. A mountain fcene, with a road
winding- over a wooden bridge, towards a foreft. 4. A
village fcene, with a woman and" children repofing on the
fore -ground. '5; The entrance of a wood, with two travel-
lers repofing, and a horfcman advancing from among the
trees. 6. A: other woody Icene, with a cliurch fpire in the
diftance: A fet of fix compofi:ions in large folio, and of the
upright form,- with poetical fubjtcls introduced from thc-
hea then mythology; i-;s. i. Alpljoiis and Arethula. a.Apoilo
piirfuinL. Daphne. 3. Mercury enchanting .Argus. 4. Pan
purfuing Syrinx. 5. Venus and Adonis. And 6. The death.

i of

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

of Adonis. Another let of fix liiftorical landfcapes, in
large folio, with fiibjctls from the Old Tellarnent ; <vlz.
I. Abraham difmifiing Ha^ar and Iflimael. 2. Ifhmael
laiigutlliina; in the defart, is comforted by an angel. 3 The
deatli of the difobedient proph'^t. 4. Tebias and the an-
gel, upon which wo have commented at length. 5. Zippo-
rah kneeling, executing the divine commands on the Ion of
Mofes. And 6. The prophet ITlijah fed by ravens in the
w-ilderncfs^ all of which are very grand compolUions, and
executed in the higiieil tallc of Waterloo.

Egbert van Pandoren was born A.D. 1606. He refided,
during great part of hij life, at Antwerp, but he olten
added the word Haerlemtnfis to his name, from which we
may infer that he was a native of Haerlem. He worked en-
tirely with the graver, in a (lifF formal ftyle ; and Tiis prmts
have neither harmony of effeft , nor correftnefs of drawing
to recommend them. The following are feleiScd from thofe
moft worthy of notice : God, an angel, a man, and the
Devil, or " The Hillory of Sicknefs and Medicine," from
Henry Goltzius, in quarto, very rare ; " The Virgin Mary
interceding with Chnll for the Salvation of Mankind," after
Rubens, in folio ; " The Four Evangelills,'' half figures,
after P. de jode ; "St. Louis, Birtiop of Thouloufe,"' after
the fame painter. Part of the plates for a large folio vo-
lume publidicd at Antwerp, 1628, entitled *' Academic de
I'Epce,'' bv G.' Thibault, all of folio fize ; fix engravings
of quarto fize, of horfes, from Ant. Tempelta ; " Maurice,
prince of Orange, on horfcback," after the fame painter,
in large folio ; and "Pallas" "Juno," and "Venus, "after
Spranger, in circles of foho fize.

Theodore van Keflel was born in Holland, A.D. 1620,
and', it is probable, was related to the Keffels, who were
painters of no fmall repute in that country. His works,
which are rather numerous, confill chiefly of etchings ;
and (when he did not attempt to draw the human figure,)
are by no means devoid of merit, but frequently are exe-
cuted in a firm and free llyle. He etched a fmall folio
volume of vafes and ornamental compartments, confifting
of eight parts, from the defigns of fir Adam de Viane, with
his portrait at the beainmng. They were publifiied at
Utrecht by his (on, Chriflopher de Viane ; and almoft all
the plates are marked with the monogram of the inventor,
formed by an A and V joined together, and the initials of
the engraver's names, T. V. K. to winch f. or fee. is fome-
times added: thefe initials are commonly joined together m
a manner reprefented in P.W HI. of thofe ufed by the en-
gravers of the Low Countries. Several of the plates for
the gallery of Teniers, and alfo the following, were exe-
cuted by Van Keflel ; viz. an etching of the portrait cf
the emperor Charles V. after Titian, in quarto ; " St.
Gregory meditatmg,'' a half-length figure, executed with
the graver, T. Wilbontius inv. ; " A Repofe during the
Flight into Egypt," after Glorgione ; " Chrift and tlie
Woman of Samaria;" " The Woman taken in Adultery,"
bo;h from Caracci ; " Sufannah and the Elders," after
Guido ; " The Holy Virgin worrtiipped by Angels,'' after
Vaiidyke, all of folio dimenfions ; an allegorical iubjeft, re-
prefenting " Abundance," in large folio ; the companion to
which v\as engraven by P. de Jcde, both after Rubens. A
fet of four baf -reliefs, after the fame painter, reprefenting
I. The triumph of Galatea. 2. A Triton embracing a fea
nymph. 3 A nymph in the ar.Tis of a fea god. And 4. A
fawn feated near a rock, with two children and a goat.
■«'The Hunting of the Caledonian Boar," a large plate
lengthways, is from the fame mafter : a man wheeling a
barrow of peas and beans, with a man and woman driving
COBS, in the back-ground. A lacdfcape, the communion

to the preceding, into which is introduced a girl with milk-
pails, both in large folio, are alfo from Rubens. A fet of
battles and (kn-miflies of banditti, after P. Snayers, in fo-
lio, dated 1656, muft conclude our felettion from the works
of this engraver.

Abraham Conrad, orConradus, was a native of Holland,
and born in the year 1620. Under what mailer he
liudied is not known. He engraved hiltory and portraits,
but chiefly tiie latter ; many of which are from his own
drawings, and prove him to have been an artill of confider-
able ability.

His mode of engraving is various, and free from bigotry
to any particular ityle: fo[nttimes he imitated that of Liieas
Vorderman with great fucccfs, and at others, a llyle l«)me-
what rcfembling fome of the heads by Rembrandt, but Hill
more reiembhng that which has fince been adopted by our
countryman V\'orlidge ; employing etching, or the work of
the graver, or dry needle, as occalion appeared to him to
require.

The Portraits of Chriftopher Love ; Jacob Triglandc, a
profelfor of the univerfity of Leyden ; Thomas Mourios, of
Canterbury, after D. Boudringeen ; and Godefroid Hotton,
pallor of the French church at Amfterdam, after H. Moir-
mans ; generally efteemed the very belt of the engravings
ot Conrad, all of folio dimenfions.

Of h:s iyi/?or;W works, '' The Flagellation," and "The
Crucifixion of our Saviour," both in folio, and after Die-
penbeck, are all we are able to fpecify.

Having already treated of the biography of Bartolomco,
fee Breemberg ; it remains only to mention in this
place, that the llyle of his etchings is fcarcely lefs mafterly
and intelligent than that of his pictures. They are much
lought after by collectors, and good imprelTions are by no
means common. His mark, when he did not fign his name
at length, was B. B. F. and fometimes two B's, in the
way (hewn in Plats IV. of monograms ufed by the en-
gravers of the Netherlands.

We have by the hand of this artill, a fet of twenty-four
landfcapes, with figures and animals, entitled " Verd hiden
verfallen Gebouden," with an etching of the portrait of the
artill, publilhed in o6tavo, and alio in quarto. Another let
cf twelve, entitled "Antiquites de Rome." A landi,.ape,
marked with his cypher. " Joleph diftributing Corn,
during the Famine in Egypt," in large folio ; and its com-
panion, "The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence." There are
many good copies from the two lall fubje£ts, particularly
thofe etched by Bifchop.

Henry Naiwinck, Naiwyncx, or Naiwikex, of Utrecht,
according to foire authors, was the difciple of Bartolomeo.
He was a landfcape engraver of confiderable merit : he
painted alfo, and in the cabinets of the connoifieurs of
riolland, are drawings in Indian ink by this artill, which
are performed with much care, and alfo witli feeling and
tafte.

His reputation, however, was chiefly founded on his
etchings of landfcape. He caught the mantle of Waterloo:
he was, perhaps, fomewhat kls free and painter-like, but
with regard to evennefs of tones, and what is termed en-
graver-hke execution, improved on his prototype.

His works are faithful leprefentations of Nature, and the
feeling and delicacy which ' every where accompanies his
etching-needle, has occafioned his prints to, be much fought
after both by artiits and collectors.

Of his etchings we are only acquainted with fixteen, of
which the earlicil and beft impreflioas are known to dealers

by

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE

fay their having heen taken before the nam? of Clement de
Jonghe wa5 iiuerted as the publifher ; they form two fets in
large quarto.

Thefirft fet contains, i. A foreft-fcene with afore-ground
of oaks. 2. A river-fcene with trees, &c. 3. A rocky
fcene uath -.vood and water. 4. A mountainohs landfcape
ivlth a wooden bridge towards the left. j. Another moun-
tainous landfcape with wood and water. 6. A canal, or
river, winding through a rocky country. 7. A rivcr-fcene
Vkith a vilkge churcli in the back-ground. 8. Trees and
water, with a mountainous dii'.ance.

The fecond fet confifts alfo of eight fubjefts of fimilar
general character, chiefly of mountain fcenery.

Naiwinck alivays etched from his own piftures or draw-
ings, and very rarely introduced any figures into his land-
fcapes.

Herman Swanevclt, or Swanefeld, furnamed Herm.an
{i.e. t/jf Hermit), of Ifaly, was born at Voerden, in Holland,
A.D. 1620, and died at Rome 1690. He was the dilciple
of Gerard Douw, but ioon quitted the fchool of that m.af-
ter, and migrated to Italy, where he placed himfelf for a
while under the inftrudtions of Claude of Lorraine.

But like all artills of original powers, he was much lefs
indebted to any in!i;ruclor fir his acquirements, than to his
own unremitting lludies from nature.

The reclufe life vvhichhe led in Italy, and the long and foli-
tary rambles which he took in that claflical and romantic coun-
try, for the fake of enjoying nature, and contemplating land-
fcape at its pureft fources, obtained for him the cognomen
of the hermit, which, generally fpeaking, is well fuilained
in his works, by the retired gloom of his choice of fub-
jecls.

For an account of his merits as a painter, the reader is re-
ferred to the article Sw.-iNEVELx. As an engraver, he was
original, bold, and free, always working from his own pic-
tures and drawings, which are either cumpofitions or views
from, nature, and which he enriched with figures and cattle,
that for drawing and appropriate introduction far exceed
tho.'e of his mailer Claude.

The general characleriilics of his landfcapes are wildnefs
and fublimity. He has more of breadth and ordonnance,
or the ftudied graces of landfcape compofition, than Wa-
terloo, and more of mechanifm in his mode of execution,
but lefs of fine feeling and tafte. His chiarofcuro is
grander, but he pofiefll-s lefs fcnfibility to the fimple graces
of nature when viewed in detail. Swanevelt is more fym-
metrical and wifely arranged, Waterloo more fpontaneous.
If Swanevelt is more epic, Waterloo is more pafloral.
The latter etched what was before him without any feeming
effort ; the former went abroad tojfudy, and ftudied with
effed.

The engravings of Swanevelt are fomewhat numerous,
and are much fought after ; fo that good impreffions are by
no means common. Thofe mod worthy of the attention of
the coUeftor are as follows :

A fet of eighteen rural fubjefts, with figures and Italian
buildings, in ovals, entitled " Varis campeftri fan'.afise a
Hermano Swanevelt invent, et in lucem editas ;" a fet of
thirteen Italian landfcapes, including a dedication to Gedeon
Tallement, in fmall quarto ; a fet of twelve Italian land-
fcapes, enbvened with figures, and entitled " Diverfes Veucs
dedans et dehors de Rome, deflinees par Herman van Swane-
velt, dediees aux Vertueux," in quarto ; a fet of feven, of
domeftic animals, with landfcape back-grounds, in fmall
quarto ; a fet of four mountainous landfcapes, enriched
with figures of nymphs and fatyrs, in 410. ; four landfcapes,

into which are introduced hiflorical fubjefts, ilz. " Abraham
receiving the three Angels;" "The Angel conducting
Tobit ;" " Elias in the Wilderncfs comforted by an Angel ;"
and " The Angel encouragihg Tobit to take the Fifh," all'
of quarto fize ; a fet of. fix Italian landfcapes with figures ;
another fet of the fame number, with remarkable buildings
and figures ; four landfcapes, in each of which the Flight
into Egypt is variouHy reprefented ; four views of the
Apennii^es, with rultic figures, all of folio dimenfions ; a
fet of four landfcapes with figures and animals, in fmali
folio ; fix landf apes, forming a feries, into wliich the hiftory
of Venus and Adonis is introduced, in large folio ; and a fet
of four wild landfcapes, with legendary fubjefts, in large
filio, viz. " St. Jerome meditating before his Cell ;" "A
Satyr oiiering Fruit to St An;hony in the Defart ;"
" St. Anthony regaling his Friend Sc. Pacome ;" and " The
Death of the Magdalen.'".

Aldert van Everdiiigen was born at Alkmaer, in Hol-
land, A.D. 1621, and died in the fame city in 1675. He
frequented fucceffively the fchools of Roland Savery and
Peter Molyn, both of whom he foon furpaffed. During a
voyage in the North fea, he was thrown by a tempeft on the
coaft of Norway, where he refided upwards of twelve
months, and employed his time in ftudying the wild and
romantic charafter of the landfcape fcenery of that country.
He etclied with the fame piclurefque feelmg and talle with
which, as we ha»e already ftuted (fee Eveiidinge.v) he
painted, and among his works are a let of one hundred fmall
views in Norway, executed with admirable variety, pecu-
liar characleriibc wildnefs, and as much vigour of geniu*
as the calcades of Tivuli, by Salvator Rofa. Mod of his
engravings are of Norwegian fubjefts, and are marked fome-
times with his initials, and at others with his name at
length.

Believing that there is, in our language, no defcriptive
catalogue of the works of this artift, we ihall proceed to fpe-
cify thole moll worthy of admiration.

A pair of fmall oval landfcapes of rural chara£ler ; a pair
of very fmall upright?, one reprefenting a foreil with four
figures in the Norwegian collume, the other a champaign
country with a cottage ; four fmall mountainous landfcapes
with figures and water ; four, in octavo, etched in a very-
free flyle, of cottages and figures.

Another fet of four, in octavo, of cottages and figures ;
three marine fubjeils with veflels and figures, in 4to.

Six mountainous landfcapes, with figures, trees, wind-
mills, cottages, &c. in 4to.

A fet of three, in quarto, one reprefenting a windmill and
fluice ; the fecond a perfpeClive view of a village and
church ; the third is of wild character, with three peafants
and a dog on the fore-grround.

A pair, in quarto, one reprefenting a mountainous fcene
with fir trees and a hermitage ; the other cottages and trees,
with a fwineherdand two hogs in the fore-ground.

Two woody iandlcapes, of quarto fize, in one are rocka
on the fore-ground and cottages ; the other is a cottao-e-
fcene, with a man and woman in converfation. The four
lall are (contrary to the cuilom of Everdingen) length-
ways.

A pair of landfcapes, in quarto, of rocky charaSer, with
fir trees and figures ; in the fecond two figures are feated at
the foot of a rock, one of whom writes on a llcne the name
of Everdingen.

A pair of mountainous landfcapes ; in one of them is a

wooden bridge communicating from oiie rock to another ;

the other is a ftone bridge communicating with very lofty

6 rocks,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

rocks, acrofs which a pc(]h\r is travelHng, in the middle-
ground a man is feated, who appears to be drawing.

A pair of woody landfcapee, in quarto, with cottages ;
on the road towards the left hand are two figures and a
horfe ; the other is a rncky fcene with trees, in the back-
ground is a view of the fea.

A pair of ditto, with the cffeft of night ; one of them is
a rocky fcene with a cottage and figures ; the other is an
iramenfe pile of rocks crowned with wood, all of quarto
liz.e.

A pair of ditto, one of which reprefents a monument ;
the other a cottage and pcafants.

A pair of ditto, one is a farm-yard with poultry and
figures ; the other confifts of piles of various trees cut down
for building, with two- pcafants, all in quarto.

A forell fcene, a river is winding through the fore-ground,
over which an old oak fpreads its horizontal arms. Of
this engraving there are two fets of impreflions, one being
lefs than the other by a third part.

A woody fcene with cottages and figures, in the fore-
ground is a waterfall with figures angling.

A beautiful cafcade formed down the fide of a mountain
by water which turns a mill; towards the right a peafant is
feated on tiie Itump of a tree.

A large wooden bridge with a peafant croffing it ; in the
middle diilance is a cottage and church fpire, with a per-
fpeftive view of a town.

A mountainous landfcape with a watermill ; on the fore-
ground are three figures.

A mountainous fcene ; on the middle plain is a cottage
with oaks and fir trees.

A landfcape ornamented with very tafteful figures ; towards
the right is a monument in the antique ftyle, with columns
of the Doric order.

And a landfcape, on the fore-ground of which is a Gothic
■temple, towards which a great number of figures of both
fexes are crowding ; towacfls the right is a chapel fur-
mounted with a ft at ue of St. Nicholas, all of large quarto
-fize. ,

Thefe laft eight prints are the moft capital of the engravings
of Everdingen. He 'likewife publiflied a fet of one hundred
views in Norway, and a fet of fifty-fix octavo plates, from his
own defigns, from a book entitled " The Tricks, or De-
ceits of the Fox," which was written by Henry d'Alk-
inaer.

Nicholas Lauwets^as born at Leufe, in Hainault, in the
year 1620, but ellabhdied himfelf and pubhfhed his en-
graviiigs -at Antwerp. He emirlated the merits of the
/chool of Rubens, and, as Strutt thinks, ftudied under Paul
'T»ontiuf, whofe ftyle of engraving he for the moft part imi-
tated, working with the graver alone. He was, however, by
no means equal- to tha't great mafter, either in his knowledge
of forms, powers of dehneation, or excellency of handling.

Lauwers engraved after feveral of the Flemidi matters, but
'his beft prints are decidedly thofe which are from the pi£lures
of Rubens, of which the chief are as follow^

" The Adoration of the Eaftern Kings," of the upright
form; "The Ecce Homo," of the fame form. {Note. — In
the latter imprefTions of this plate, the name of Lauwers is
erafed, and that of Scheltius a Bolfwert fubilituted in its
Jl.ead, which is probably the trick of fome Dutcli dealer,
which has been put in execution., in order to enhance the nc-
minal value of the imprefTions..) " 'I'he Defeent from the
"Crofs," of the fanr-.e form, and " A Dead Chrill 0:1 the Lap
of tlie Virgin iMary,'' all- of folio dimenfions. "The
'Triumph of the New Law" is a very large and fine print,
lengthways, which Lauwers has engraved on two plates, and

is alfo after Rubens, as well as his portrait of IfabcUa, in-
fanta of Spain.

There are, however, fome few exceptions to our general
aftertion that the beft works of this mailer are after Rubens.
His large print of " Baucis and Philemon entertaining Ju-
pitcr and Mercury," (which Strutt has miftakenly attri-
buted to his brother Conrad,) is after Jordaens, and may
certainly be claffcd among his very beft productions. His
" Holy Virgin and Child," and " St. Agabus," after
Diepenbeck, and his " St. Cecilia," and " Interior of a
Cafearet," after Se;!;hcrs, have alfo confiderable merit.

Conrad Lauwers was the elder brother of Nicholas, and
worked much in the fame ftyle, with the graver only, but
with Ibmewhat inferior powers. He was born at Leufe in
the year ifiij, but rer;ded principally at Antwerp.

'1 he Fortraiti of Acrtus Qucllinus, an architeft, after
J. de Decyts ; Peter Verbrugghen, a fculpior, after E.
Quellinus ; Marius Ambrofius Capdlo, biftiop of Antwerp,
after Diepenbeck ; and Father Antony Vigier, afterj. Cof-
fiers, may be reckoned among the beft works ol Conrad. And
his

ITiJlor'ical prints of moft rep-.itatioii are, " The Prophet
Elijah vifited by an Angel in the Dcfart," a lai-ge tipright
folio; and " Chrift bearing the Crofs," both after Rubens ;
" The Baptifm of the Emperor and Emprefs of Monomo-
tapa ;" " The Great Crucifixion," after .1. Coflius, in large
foli.) ; and " The Holy Family," in a landkape after Schia-
vone.

Coryn or Querin Boel, defcended from Cornelius, and
was related to Peier Boel, the painter. Probably, as there
is only three years difference in the dates of their birth, he
was the elder brbthcr of the latter.

Coryn was born at Antwerp in the year 1622. He went
to BruiTels to work for the publication which is commonly
called the Gallery of Teniers, which was produced under tlie
patronage of the archduke Leopold. He worked with the
graver and etching needle, but chiefly with the latter, his
ftyle of handling which, was coarfe, heavy, and by no means
corrcft with regard to the forms of his objects.

Yet he had the addrefs to feleft good originals to engrave
from, and his works are therefore, we prefume, held in fome
requell. The moll important of thefe are, " The Eagle of
Jupiter tranfporting Ganymede through the Air," after
Michael Angelo ; a landfcape after Giorgione, in which are
introduced a knight armed with a poignard kneeling before
a female ; " The Adoration of the Shepherds," after Titian ;
" Adam and Eve fitting within an Arbour of Paradife,"
after Paduanino ; " Venus and Adonis," after Schiavone ;
" The Rape of Europa," after Titian ; " The Relurreclion
of Lazarus," after the elder Pal ma : "Diana and her
Nymphs bathing," after the fame; " Perfeus delivering
Andromeda," after Domenico Fetti, all of folio dimenfions.
And, after Teniersthe elder, " The Barber-furgeon Apes,"
and "Cats performing a Concert ;" " The Vilhge Fete,"
with Dutch peafantry playing at nine'pins ; " The Interior
of a Flcmifli Cabaret," with a joyous company of drinkers
and fmokers, all in folio ; and a pair of 410. fize, of half-
length figures of Dutch peafantry.

Wallerant Vaillant, (who is flightly mentioned in our ac-
count of Englisu engraving ?s the coadjt:tor of prince Ru-
pert,) was born at I^iide, 111, Flanders, A.D. 1623, and died
at Amfterdam in 1677. He was the eldeft of five brothers,
who all of them attained {'one reputation in the arts. Wal-
lerant wen: to Antwerp, and ftudied under Erafmus Qi.ielli-
nus ; he excelled in portrait painting, and met with great
encouragement ; for having fuccefsiully painted the portrait
of the emperor Leopold, his occupation incrcafed fo rapidly

that

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

tliat lie foon acquired a competent income. Ke accompanifj
tiie Marechal do Grammoiit into France, where lie com-
pleted his fortune, and after a (lay of four years returned to
the Netherlands, and fettled at Amflerdam. He was an en-
graver of :nerit, particularly in mezzotinto ; and made fome
conliderable improvement in that branch of art, but the
grounds of his plates, when compared with modern produc-
tions in mezzotinto, were indifferently laid, and the lights
uneven, particularly where they were much fcraped. The
moll important of his works are as follow.

Portraits and Subjects from his O'-^n Defgr.s. — His own
poi-trait, and that of his wife, in oval borders, both in folio ;
prince Rupert ; another half-length of prince Rupert, read-
ing, both in 4to. ; John Frobenius, a printer of Bafle, after
Holbein, in folio ; fir Antony Vandyke, feated, in large
folio ; Siniac, a miniature painter, in fmall folio ; Hardouin
de Perefis de Beaumont; archbilbop of Paris ; Cornelius tSta-
dus, rector of theGymnafe at Amilerdam ; Conrad Hoppe,
a reformer of Amfterdam ; a young man feated, reading,
fuppofed to be the portrait of Andrea Vaillant, (a fine and
rare engraving); Baarent Graa', a painter of Amilerdam,
all of folio dimenfions, (the firll imprefiicns of the latter
plate were printed in brown ;) Hum.phredus Henchman,
epiic. Lond. " An old Woman (hewing a Letter to a
young One ;" " A young Man returned from Hunting, with
a Hare and Wild Fowl," both in large folio ; " Our Sa-
viour kneeling, furrounded with Angels bearing the Inftru-
nients of his Paflion," in 4to. ; " St. Chrillopher carrying
the Infant Chrill acrofs an Arm of the Sea," with the effetl
of night, in large 410. ; Leopoldus, Dei gratia. Roman ;
Joannes Philippus, Mogunt ; Carolus Ludovicus, conies
palat. Rheni et eleift. ; and Sopliia, comit. palat. Rheni,
all in folio ; thefe four lait portraits are executed with
the graver, and are very rare.

Hijiorical, ISjC. after 'oarhus Majlers. — " St. Barbara,"' a
half figure, after Raphael, in Svo. ; " Judith," after Gnido,
in large folio ; " The Holy Family," after Titian ; " The
Temptation of St. Anthony," after C. Procaccini ; bud of
a warrior, after Tintoretto ; " St. Jerome," after a pidure
by Jac. Vailhnt, all of folio fize ; "Venus lamenting the
Death of Adonis," in large folio, from Eraimus Quellinus ;
a group of three figures, after Terburgh, in folio; "A
young Man painting at his Eaft-1," after Metzu ; " Two
Boys," after Fr. Hals ; " A Child carefilng a Dog," after
Vandyke ; " A Peafant and his Wife," after Teniers ;
" The Prodigal Son," after Marc Gerard 5 "A Party of
Gamblers," after the fame painter ; " Judith," and " Jael,"
from Gerard de Lairefle ; ;' A Party of Peafants," one of
whom is fmoking, from Corn. Bega ; " A Company of
Peafants," with a woman and child, after the fame painter ;
. " A Party of Peafants iinging," from Ad. Brouwer ; " Two
Peaiants fmoking," from the fame painter ; " A Trum-
peter Pigeon, delivering a Letter to a Lady," after Wil.
Mieris ; and " The Gold Weigher," after Rembrandt, all
ol folio dimenfions.

Bernard Vaillant was born at Lifle, andwasthepupilofhis
brother Wallerant, whom he accompanied in his travels to
Frankfort and to Paris. He gained confiderable reputation
as a crayon painter, and fcraped fome of his ewn compoli-
tions and portraits in mezzotinto, which he figned with his
initials. Among them are the

Portraits of John Lingelbach, from Sohwarz ; Paul Du-
four, after a picture by his brother ; Efaias Clement, mi-
uirter at Rotterdam ; Charles de Rochfort, minifter of the
French church at Rotterdam ; Paul Dufon, a preacher at
J^eyden ; and heads of St. Peter and St. Pa«l, allXrom his
cvn drav.'ings.

Vol. XXL

Andrea Vaillant was the youngcH of the five brothers, and
ihidied engraving at Paris, after having learned the elerr.ents
ol art of his cldeil brother. He engraved but few plates,
among which are the portraits of .^loifi lis Bcrilaqua, patriarch
of Alexandria, in large folio; and John Eriiefl Schraden,
irifpefior of the Gymnafium at Berlin, in 4to.

Francis Pool! was born at Haerlcm in the year 1624, and
learned the elements of art of John Pooft a painter on glafs.
In 1647 he went in the fuite of prince Maurice of Nadau to
America, where he redded for fome years, employing a large
portion of his time in painting and drawing from nature.
After his return to the Low Countries, he made a confi-
derable number of etchings, in a mafterly ilyle ; among which
is a fct of views of Brazil, from, his own drawings ; " View
of the Gulf of All Saints in America ;" "View of Cape St.
Auguftin ;" and "A Vitw of the 1 Hand of Thamaraca,"
all in large folio ; the three latter are very capital engravings,
and are now become rare.

Cornelius Coning, or Koning, was Lorn at Haerlem,
A.D. 1624. He is among thofe artifts who are but little
known, and who dcftrve to be known better. A^^e have fome
portraits of the iliullrious men of the fixteenth century, en-
graved by him in a firm and pleafing (ly'e ; but can only
fpccify the following few ; Laurent Colier, the printer of
Haerlem, from J. V. Cainpen ; Martin Luther, the reformer,
both in large folio ; Dicrk Piiilius, theologian ; Menno
Simons ; and Adrianus Tttrodius, of Haerlem, from P.
Grebber ; and fome of the princes of Friefland, after An-
diceflin, which we are not able to detail, all in folio.

Bernard Baleau, or Bailhi, or Van Balen, was a native of
the Low Countries, who flourilTied at Rome during the
latter half of the feventeenth century, but the events of his
life are obfcure, and we are not acquainted with his birth-
place ; he worked entirely with the graver, in a heavy ftyle,
and his portraits, which are tlie chief of his works, have ro
great (hare of merit, either with refpecl to drawinj;, or the
execution of the engraving. The following are the moft im-
portant.

, Portraits of cardinal Urfini, who was chofen pope in the
year 1672 ; Canute, ki-g of Denmark, after C Panig ;
" Our Saviour between St. Aicanta and Mary Magdalen,"'
from Lazaro Baldi ; " St. Mary Magdalen de Pazzio,"
from the lame painter, all of folio fize ; " St. Peter of Al-
cantara, to whom the Virgin and Infant Saviour are appear-
ing," from the fame mailer ; and the five faints canonized
by Clement X. 'Si-z.. "St. Cxjetan;" "St. Francis Borgia;"
"St. Philip Benitius;" "'St. Louis Bertraiidti! ;" and
" St. Rofa, with ti-.e Infant Chri!l," all in large folio, after
Ciro Ferri. This artill hkewife engraved many of the plates
for a work intitled " ElTigit s Cardinal, nunc vivcntium."

Paul Potter, the very celebrated painter and etcher of
animals and'landfcape, was born ?.t Enkhuifen in the year
1625. He was the fon and difciple of Peter Potter, a
painter of inconfiderable talents, but is far lefs indebted for
his extraordinary attainments to his father's inftruclions,
than to his own afliduous iludy of nature. No artift has
(hewn more fcnfibihty to the beauties of rural landfcape
fcenerv, or more Ciify and thorough knowledge of the forms
and colours of thofe animals which coiillitute its moll bril-
liant ornament ; the Ilyle of none is more fimple, original,
and unlophiiljcated.; the genius of none (hcne with a brighter
ray, for the (hort day of his glory, over the pailoral and
domeilic Xcenery of his native country. He died at Am.
ftcrdam x\. D. 1654, at the early age of twenty-nine years.

The works of Paul Potter are held in very high ellima-
tion. His etchings are greatly and jullly admired for the
ie,fte, fgirit, and simplicity of ftyle which, are difplayed in

T

ther,.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

them'; and coUcflors often pay large fums for fine impref-
fioiis of them.

His prints ar« original works, /. e. done immediately from
his own compolitions and Itiidies from natnre, and are not
numerous. But we are uncertain whether or not the fol-
lowing rtiort lift contains the wliole of his engravings.

A fet of five, in fmall foho, of various horfes, with land-
fcape back-grounds. A fet of eight, in quarto, of cows and
bulls, fi:c. A mountainous landlcape, with a pcaiant driving
cattle, a very fine and rare print, in folio. Another very
beautiful landfcape, in which a fliephcrd, furroundod by his
(lock, is playin<r on his pipe, alfo of folio dimenfions ; and
a fet of fmall plates of plants and flowers.

Nicholas Ryckmans, or Richmaus, was born at Antwerp
in the year 1620. He was probably the difciple of P. Pon-
tius, whofe (lylc he imitated, or ratlier tried to imitate. He
worked with the graver only, in a neat but llifT manner, and
the outlines of tlie naked parts of his figures (the extremities
efpecially), arc exceedingly incorreft. The following arc
among the bed of his works, which the merit of Rubens,
rathir tlinu his own, have recommended to public notice.
" The Adoration of the Wife Men," from Rubens, in large
folio ; the firll impreffions of which are prior to the inler-
tions of the addrefs of either Gafpcr Huberti, or Corn,
van Merlen. " The Entombing of Chriil ;" " A Head
of Clirill ;" and " The Holy Family," very rare, all in
folio ; " Ulyffes difcovering Achilles at the Court of Lyco-
■medes," in large folio ; " Our Saviour and his Thirteen
ApotUes," half figures, on a fet of fourteen leaves, in quarto,
all after Rubens : and a work, intiiled " Palazzi di Ge-
iiova, raccolta e defignati da P. P. Rubens." It is divided
into two parts, reprcfenting the plans, elevations, and fcftions
of the principal palaces and churches at Genoa : th.e firll
part contains feventy-two plates, and the fecond fixty-feven.
It was firft printed at Antwerp in 1622, and reprinted in
1652, and is of large folio dimenfions.

Cornelius van Caukcrken was born at Antwerp, A. D.
1625, where he eilablilhed a print-fhopof refpcQability, and
engraved feveral plates from Rubens and other mailers.
He worked entirely with the graver, in a heavy, laboured
ftyle, without much tafte. He ufually crofTed his fecond
ftrokes fquarely upon tiie firft, which mode of engraving
requires more exquifite handling of the graver than Cauker-
ken pofielTjd, to render the ettc6t agreeable. His lights
are generally too much covered ; and his drawing is very
defeftivc. However, fome of his beft prints are by no means
devoid ef merit : among which number the following may
be reckoned.

Portraits. — Peter Snayers, of Antwerp, from Van Heil ;
Tobias Verhaefl, a landfcape painter, from Olho-vxnius ;
Peter Meerte, a portrait painter of Bruffels ; Robert van
den Hoeck, a painter of camps, from Gonzales Coques ;
Jolin de Carandolet ; Francis de Faino, baron de .Limajo ;
Charles van den Bofch, bifhop of Bruges, in an oval, with-
out the names of the painters, all of quarto fize ; and
Charles II. of England, with a back-ground by Hollar, in
large folio.

Hjjlorkal, life, after various Majlcrs. — " A dead Chrift
lying on the Ground, with his Head on the Lap of the
Virgin," after Caracci ; " A dead Chriil, fupported by
the Holy Virgin and St. John," after Vandyke ; " The
Defceiit of the Holy Si)irit ;" " Charity with three Chil-
dren,'" both from the fame painter ; " Roman Charity,"
after Rubens, a plate much to be preferred to the otiier
engravings of Caukerkeu, and of which it is uncommon to
find good imprelTions ; " St. Anne and the Virgin," after
Rubens, in folio, a rare print ; " The Martyrdom of St.

Lievin," birtiop of Ghent, after Rubens, in large folio (thofc
impreffions are the beft with the addrefs of Hollander) ;,•
and " A Female fuckling a Child," in folio, from Ab.
Diepenbeck.

Phihp Fruyticrs was born at Antwerp in the year 1625,-
He was originally an oil painter, but afterwards preferred
water-colour, and greatly excelled in miniature painting.
His works chiefly confill of portraits and convcrlatiiins,.
which he executed in a very mallerly ftyle. . His heads are
very exprefTive, and his draperies well drawn. Rubens waif
fo much pleafed with this painter, that he and his family fat
to him ; and the pifture of them, which he painted, was-
conlidered as his mafter-piece.

I'ruytiers likewife excelled in etching, which he performed
in an intelligent ftyle, worthy of a great painter; and gene-
rally produced powerful effefts of chiarofcuro. His en-
gravings are not numerous, nor are we able to fpecify more
than the following

Porlrails of Godofredi Wendelini, a philofopher of the
feventeentli century, in folio ; Marcus Ambrofius Capello,.
tifltop of Antwerp; Jacob Edelherr of Louvain, both in--
large folio ; Hedwige Elconora, queen of Sweden ; and.
an emblematical fubjecl on the birth of the Virgin, in folio,,
all from his own pictures.

For an account of the merits of John Fyt as a painter,
fee vol. xvi. part ii. He flouriflied at the period which is-
now niider our review, and etched fome few plates of animals
with his accuftomed feeling and vigour, of which the follow-
ing is a lift. A fet of eight, in quarto, of various animals.
And a let of feven, comprifing the title, with a dedication
to Don Carlo Guafco, marchefe di Solerio, &c. Sec. of dogs,
\'--ith landfcape back-grounds, in fmall folio. Few painters^
have produced etchings in a more feeling and animated llyle
than this fet is executed.

Henry Bary was a: native of Holland, born A. D. 1626.
His ftyle of engraving feems to have been formed from
Undying the prints of Cornelius VifTcher ; and the imi-
tation appears moil evident in his portraits ; efpecially
thofe wnich he has executed in his neatell manner. In,
drawing, tafte, and harmony of chiarofcuro, he is fre-
quently deficient; yet fometimes he has difcovej-ed much
mechanical fl<ili, and feems to have handled his graver with;
facilit.y. One of his beft and moft finiihed prints is " Sprino--
and Summer," perfonified by two children, a fmall up-
right plate, from Vandyke, and executed as a companion to
the "Autumn andWinter," engraved by Munichuyfcii, after-
G. Laireffe. This plate is executed entirely with the-
graver, in a clear neat ftyle, and Ihews his management of-
that inftrument in the moft ftriking light. Among the bell
of his remaiiiing engravings are the following.

Portraits 'without the Names of the Painters — Dirk and-
V/alter Grabeth, painters on glafs ; Adrian Hcerebond, a
philofopher; Hieroaymus van Bevcrnink ; Didicr Erafmus
of Rotterdam, ail of quarto fize; Wilhelm Jofcph, baron
of Ghent, and admiral of Holland ; Rogibout Hagcrbeets,,
both in folio ; Anitius Maniius Severinus Boetius, in quarto ;
Jacobus Taurinus ; the count John of VValdftein, both 111-
folio ; and the duchefs de la Valiere, in large folio.

Portraits Jigried iviih the Names of the Painters — Hugo-
Grotius, after Mich.iel Jaiifon Mireveldt ; Cornelius Ket-
tels, the painter, from a pifture by himfelf, both in quarto ;.
Jacob Backer, the painter, after G. Terburgh, in an oval of
folio fize ; John Schellhammer, minifter of Hamburgh -^^
John Zas, a reformer of Gouda, from Chr. Pierfon ; Jacob-
Batelicr ; and Arnold Guftermans, from VV'efterbaen, all in
folio ; Michael de Ruyter, the D Jtch admiral, after F. Bo! ;.
admiral Vlugh, after B. vander Helft, bu:h in large folio j.

Lea

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Leo van Altzcma, a Dutch hillorian, after J. de Bane, in
lari;e folio ; and George de JNIey, a celebrated theologian,
after Coan Diemen, in folio.

Hijlorkal, Isfc. — "Neptune," a quarto plate, engraved
from Bary's own conipofition. An allegorical litlc page
to a work by Leo van Aitzenea, after Seemer, in folio. A
woman fuckling an infant, without the painter's name, ai:d
perhaps dcfigned by himfelf. A pair of peafantry, in quarto,
after A. Brouwer ; the country houfe-keeper, after P. van
Aerften, in fulio. A pair, intitled " Take Care of the
Water!" and "Wine makes the People infolent," after

F. Mieris, each infcribed alfo with four Dutch verfes, in
folio ; and " A Youth dreffed in a Hat and Feathers," after

G. Terburgh, alfo in folio.

John Munnickhuvfen, or Munichuyfen, was a native of
Fiiedand, born A. D. 1636. He relided at Flanders, and
executed a conliderable. number of meritorious works with
the nrraver, among which are the following

Portraits of Hendrick Dirckfen Spiegel, a burgo-mafter,
a very fine engraving, from J. M,. Limburg ; Francis Bur-
mann', profeflbr of theology at Utrecht, from C. Maas ;
Gerard Brandt, preacher at Rotterdam, from iVI. Mufcher,
all in folio ; Peter Zurendonk, rector of the Ljtin fchool
of Amfterdam, from David Plaats, in large folio ; John
van Wayen, preacher at Middleburg ; Daniel Gravi, a
clergyman of the fame place, from Z. I51yhof, both in large
folio ; Peter van Staveren, a clergyman of Ley den, from
Wilhelm van Mieris, in folio ; admiral Van Tromp, of
Holland, a fine portrait, from D. A. Piaffe, in large folio ;
and the companion to Bary's "Spring and Summer;"
reprefenting "Autumn and Winter," perfonified by chil-
dren, after Vandyke.

Hercules Zeghers, or Zegers, was born at Utreciit in
the year 1625. He is fpoken of by the author of " Lives
of the Dutch Painters, &c." (Defchamps), as having been
an artift of fertile invention, but an unfortunate exemplifica-
tion of the fcriptural text, that " the race is not to the
fvvift, nor the battle to the ftrong, nor riches to men of un-
derftanding, nor favour to men of flcill."

He both painted and engraved landfcape. The above
writer fays, that his compolitions are very rich, and much
yaried ; and that he commonly reprefcnted very extenfive
fcenes, with far diilant horizons, but met with no patronage
or encouragement. Nor was he a whit more fortunate, in
this refpeft, in his etchings, which foon ilTued forth from
tlie retail fhops, as wrappers to other commodities.

The prefent writer has not feen any of the works of
Zeghers, and is inclined to think that Defrhamps may have
overrated his merits. It is not eafy to jelicve that at
Utrecht, in the feventeenth century, good prints would
have been depreciated to the value of wafte paper ; or if
a foiitary inftance or fo, of fuch depreciat-on had occurred,
that very circumftance would have advanced meritorious en-
gravings to fome public notice, which mufl have led towards
appreciation, and have finally benefited the arlill, however
obfcure, in fpite of the crafty practices of the print-dealers.

That Defchamps was not very obfervant as a connoiffeur,
nor very correct as a writer, may be inferred from his ftate-
mcnt, that Zeghers d'tfcovered the fccret of printing in
colours upon canvas : where, for difcovered the fecret, we
fliould read, had recourfe to the expedient ; and for canvas,
according to the baron Heinneken, we fnould read paper.

The concluding anecdotes related of this artiit are pro-
bablv more worthy of credit and of regret. Hercules made
a laft, and, according to Delchamp^, a ftupendous effort,
ipanng neither time nor pains, nor any kind of exertion of
which he was capable, and produced an admirable land-

fcape, of which he offered th* engraved plate for fale to a
print-dealer. The dealer advifeii him to convert his plate
into fnufT-boxes ; and the ar'.ift heard with indignation that
he would purchafe ic at no higher rate tiian the value of the
copper. Zeghers took back his landfcape, and, vowing
that each impreflion fhould fell for as much as the dealer had
offered for the plate, deilroyed his engraving in a paroxyfm
of difappointment. The artift thus verified his vow, and
the dealer loft his bargain ; but two proofs had been taken
from the plate, and they were purchafed at the price of
fixteen ducats each.

Nothing certain, however, can be inferred from thi.<!
anecdote, without feeing one of the two imprefTions from this
plate, or hearing fome more faithful report of its merits
tiian Defchamps appears to have been qualified to give ;
fince we know not who were the purchafcrs : and the ig-
norant part of the tribe of collectors, will often freely giie
thofe funis for rarity, which they withhold from meritoriotis
exertion.

Unable longer to endure the fcorn and the negledt with
which he was treated by the dealers and the public, this un-
fortunate artift addicted himfelf to drinking ; and, one day
returning to his houfe in a ftate of intoxication, fell down
ftairs, and fo materially injured himfelf that he died in a few
hours.

It is almoft fuperfluous to add, that tlie works of Zeghers
arc very fcarce. In the public hall at Drefden are fifteen of
his pictures ; and another is mentioned by Houbracken,
vol. ii. p. 136.

Gerard Vaick, the fervant, and afterwards the brother-
in-law, of Bloteling, was born at Amfterdam in the year
1626. But both thefe grtills migrated to England; and
the reader will find an account of them, and their works, in
our account of the Origin and Progrefs of English En-
graving.

Cornelius van Dalen the younger was born at Antwerp
in the year 1626. He was the fon of a print-feller of the
fame baptifmal name, and, out of diftindtion, always added
the word junior to his name. He is faid to have learned en-
graving of Cornelius VifTcher ; but his ftyle varied front
time to time, refembling, as occafion appeared to him to
reqiiire, thofe of Lucas Vorfterman, P. Pontius, S. Bolf-
wert, and other mafters. A fet of antique ftatues, en-
graved by him, are in a bold, free ftyle, as if founded upon
that of Goltzius : others, again, feem imitations of that of
F. de Poilly. In all thefe different manners he has fuc-
ceeded ; and they manifeft the extraordinary verfatility of
his powers, and great command he had of the graver : for
he worked with that inftrument only.

He engraved a great variety of portraits, fome of which
are very valuable, and form the beft, as well as the larger
part of his works. He did not fucceed fo well in drawing
the naked parts of the human figure : his outlines are heavy,
and frequently incorre£l ; and the extremities, the feet efpe-
cially, are feldom weU marked. The following are feleCted
from his beft engravings :

Portraits. — Queen Catherine of Medicis, feated, a very-
fine engraving, in large fo'io ; Francis Deleboe Sylvius, a
phyfician, C. V. Dalen del. ; John Ruppert van Groenen-
dyck, the burgomafter of Leyden ; Jacob Baudes Heertoot
WafTenaer, lieutenant and admiral ; the old, old, very old
man, Thomas Parr, aged one hundred and fifty-two, all of
large folio fize ; Efaias Dupre, the theologian, from D.
Baudrigeen ; Anna Maria Schierman, with fix Latin verfes,
after Van Ceulen ; Andrea Rivetus, profeffor of theology ;
Frederic Spanheim, from Van Negre, profeflbr of theology,
all in folio ; James, duke of York and Albany, from Si-n.
•^ T 3 LutticTinys j

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Luttichiiys ; Charles II. of England, companion to the
preceding, from the fame painter ; John Maurice, prince of
Naffau, after Gov. Hinck ; Maarte Harpertfz Tromp, the
Dutch admiral, after Livens ; four very fir.e portraits, after
Titian, from the cabinet of Reynft, "viz. Peter Aretine,
.Tohn Boccace, George Barherelli, and Sebatlian del Pi-
ombo, all of large folio dimenrion,<i.

Hijlorical, isfc. — " Tlie Adoration of the Shepherds;"
" Tiie Virgin and Infant Ctiriil," both in 410.; an alle-
gorical engravincf, rcprcfenting a fatyr leading an afs, and
a woman and child lying near a cock, in 4to. ; " The four
Fathers of the Church," after Rubens, in folio, exicuted
in the llylc of P. Pontius ; " The Graces embeljifliing a
Statue of Nature," atter the fame painter, a large lipright
print on two plates. In the e.\ecution of this print, he
leems to have had an eye to the neater works of S. Bolf-
wert. " A Shepherd crovirning a Shepherdefs with Flowers,"
after Caltelyn, in 4to. ; " The Holy Virgin prefcnting the
Breaft to the Infant ChriH," after Hinck; "Venus and
Cupid ;" and a head of a ncgrefs, both from the fame jjainter,
all in folio ; " The four Elements," reprefented by children,
in ovals of quarto fize ; a concert of four perfons ; " Gior-
gione," in large fijlio, from the cabinet of Reynll ; and "Th.e
iVIonument of Admiral Van Tromp," after a marble group
by Verhullt, a very rare print, in large folio.

Nicholas van Hole, or Van Hoy, was born at Antwerp
in the year 1626. He was but an indifferent engraver ; but,
at the death of Francis Leux, was entitled cabinet painter
to the emperor of Germany. In conjunftion with Steen,
Offenback, and other artifts equally indifferent with himfelf,
he engraved the colleftion of pifturcs, whicli D. Teniers
the younger made for Leopold, archduke of Auftria. This
colleftion was publiflied at Antwerp in the year 1660, in
folio, confining of two hundred and forty-three prints, and
is ufually known by the name of the Gallery of Teniers.
The following engravings are likewife by him : " The
Virgin and Holy Infant, with St. Jerome," after Baroc-
cio, in 4to. ; " Chrifl and the Woman of Samaria," after
Raphael ; " The dead Body of Chnll extended on the
Earth, and the Vu-gin prollrate before it," from D. Fetti ;
and " Apollo and the Mufes on Mount Parnaffus," after
Tintoretto, all of folio fize.

Richard Collin was born at Luxembourg in the year
1626. He went to Rome to ftudy under Sandrart, from
v.-hofe drawings he engraved feveral plates. He afterwards
returned to Antwerp ; from whence removing to Bruffels,
he was honoured with the title of engraver to the king of
Spain. But in his engravings he feldom exceeded medio-
crity. There is a portrait of this artift, with a long infcrip-
tion in bad French. The following are fome of his beil
engravings :

Portraits of Artus Ouelllnus, a flatuary of Anitlerdam ;
John Philip van Thielen, a flower-painter, both from E.
Qucllinus, in 4to. ; Joachim Sandrart ; Cornelius Hazart,
a controvcrtift, both in folio; Bartholomew Murillo, the
celebrated painter of Spain; Chriflian Albert, bifhop of
Lubeck, both in large folio ; Anna Adelhildis, uxor prin-
cipis de la Tour et Taxis ; Claude Francis de la Viefville,
abbe of Louvaine, in large folio ; Arnold John Philip de
Raet van Voont, knight of the order of Chriit ; and the
thirty portraits of the faints of mount Carmel, all in large
folio.

Hijlorical, iifc. —" Etther before King Aihafuerns," in
large folio, from Rubens ; " Chrifl carrying the Crofs,"
after Van Diepenbeck, in folio ; " St. Arnold," after tlie
fame painter ; and " The Sepulchral Monument of Peter
Pafqual," both in 4to,

Francis van Neve, or de Neve, v.-as born at Antwerp,
A.D. 1627. He ftudied the works of Rubens and Van-
dyke, and afterwards travelled to Italy. He became a
landfcape-painter of confiderable merit, and fucceeded re-
markably well in introducing fmall figures into his pi6\ures.

On his return to his native city, Van Neve etched a coufi-
derable number of landfcapes, into which he introduced
hiftorical figures with much judgment. They are executed
in a flight, bilt intelligent ilyle ; the cfTefls are very agree-
able, and they are ail from his own compoiltions, proving at
once the excellency of his tafle, and the fertility of his ge-
nius. Tiie following are fcledled from his work?-, as being
the mall meritorious.

A pair of mountainous landfcapes with buildings, and
.figures in the colUime of the Grecians ; a pair of landfcapes of
the faine character, with an angler and two other figures in
one, the other has a large tree and a river in the fore-ground,
and a man tending flieep at a dillance ; a pair of palloral
landfcapes, with figures in the drefs of Arcadian fliepherds ;
a pair of landfcapes, into one of which is introduced Diana
and Endymion, and in the other Venus and Cupid ; and
another is Venus repofing on the banks of a river, and
Cupid fwimming in it ; a pair of hiilorical landfcapes, in one
of which is Narcifl'us admiring himfelf ; and the other is a
pafloral fcene, with a fliepherd playing the tabor, accom-
panied with his flock ; all of folio dmienfions.

Henry Verfchunng was born at Gorcum in the year
1627. He learned the rudiments of art under Theodore
Govert/,, whofefchool he quitted to ftudy under John Both.
From Utrecht, where Both refided, he went to Rome,
where he frequented the public academy, and travelled fuc-
ceffively to Florence and to Venice. In 1655 '^^ returned to
his native country, where he painted battles, f].;irmillies, and
fubjefts of that kind, with great fuccefs ; he always imitated
nature with much truth, and his compofitions abound with
wild variety and charafteriftic fpirit.

Verfchuring executed a conliderable number of flight
etchings of fliirmifhcs, mihtary furprifes and purfuits, from
his own compofitions, of which the prefent writer is unable
to fay more than that they are very Icarce.

This artift was drowned in a tempeft at fea, on the twenty-
fixth of April, 1690.

Joh.n or Jofhua Offenbcck was born at Rotterdam in the
year 162", and became a landfcapeand cattle-painter, whofe
merits will be treated under the article Ossenbeck.

He travelled fuccefTively, either for patronage or improve-
ment, to Frankfort, Mayence, Ratifbon, and Vienna, find in
the courfe of his proftflional career, executed a confiderable
number of etchings in a free and painter-like ftyle. Huber
thinks they are the produftion of his leifure, but it may
fairly be prefumed that at leail thofe which he executed fcr
the gallery of Teniers were done as much for profit as for
plea lure.

Among thefe are " The Death of the Children of Niobe,"
after Pahna ; " The Children of Ifrael gathering Mantua in
the Defart," after Tintoret ; " Orpheus charming the
Brutes," and "The Four Seafons," all after Balfan, and of
folio fize. Oflenbeck is thought to fucceed better in etch-
ing after the piilures of Baffan, than thofe of any other maf- •
ter, and liie laft-mentioncd are among his very beft prints.

For other publications he produced two fets, of twelve
quarto plates each, from his own compofitions, of which one
fet confifts chiefly of animals ; " A View of the Campo
Vaccino," at Rome^ and " The Cafarella, near the Gate of
St. Sebaftian," in the fame city ; " A Boar-hunt," after Bam-
boccio, and the chateau of M. de Wenzelboiu'g, drawn
prefumptivcly by himfelf, all of folio dimcnfions.

8 A fet

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

A fet of fix large upright folio etchings, entitled " The
Gallery of Wenzclbourg," and after Salvator Rofa, Peter
de Laer, ard St. Vlicger, are of great variety; and "The
Reprefentation of a grand FeiHval given at Vienna," after
a picture by Akx. Lartucci, in large folio, is alfo among the
fincll and rarcll engravings of this mailer.

Adrian vander Kabcl, or Cabel, was born at Ry fwick, near
the Hague, A.D. 1631. He was the difciple of John van
Goyen, but appears to have formed his (lyle partly from
ftudying the works of Salvator Rofi. He painted and
etched landfcapes, which were fometin.es of partoral, and at
others of marine charafter, all of which he iludied from na-
ture, and imitated her with great accuracy.

The Rev. Mr. Gilpin juftly remarks of his etchings, that,
" in thofe which he has Ihidied, and carefully executed, there
is great beauty. His manner (llyle) is loole and mallerly.
His prints want effeft, but abound in freedom. His trees
are often particularly well managed : and his fmall pieces in
general are the beit of his works.'

Among thefe may be diilinguifhed a fet of fix quarto
landfcapes, ornamented with figures and ruined edifices ;
another fet of thirty of mountainous characler, with rocks,
catiles, and cataraits ; another fet of four, alfo of romantic
charatter, adorned with figures and ruined fabrics, in folio ;
a pair of landfcapes of the fame general characler, alfo in
folio ; and, in larger folio, another pair of " St. Jerome in
tlie Defart," and " St. Bruno," or, accordina^ to Strutt,
" St. Anthony," alfo in a wild and favage landfcape. It is
remarkable, that in the latter plate the figure of the faint is
engraved, without any crofs-hatchings, in the ftyleof Mellan,
and if Strutt's conjeclure be right, is inferted by fome other
artift. The two latter prints are probably therareft, though
not the bed, of the prints of Vander Kibel, who died at
Lvons in the year 1695.

Jeremiah Falck, or Falk, was born at Dantzic fome
time about the year i6jo. In his youth he travelled to
Paris, and Iludied under Chaveau, but fettled afterwards in
Holland, where he etched and engraved feveral plates for
the cabinet of Reynil, in confequence of which he is
generally ciafled with the engravers of the Low Countries.
He worked both with the etching-needle and the graver, and
engraved hillory and portrait with confiderable fuccefs. In
the courfe of his life he vifited the courts of Denmark and
Sweden, but finally eftablilhed himfelf at his native city of
Dantzic, where he died at an advanced age.

The number of his plates that are fiibfcribed with his
name, v/ilh the addition of " Van Stockholmia," Ihew that
he mud have remained in Sweden for fome years, and have
given rife to the fufpicion of Strutt, that he was a native of
that country. His llyle of engraving is vigorous and free,
and his drawing tolerably correct, but his chiarolcuro is de-
fective in harmony.

The Abbe MaroUes was in pofieffion of ninety-three en-
gravings from the hand of Jeremiah Fakk, from which the
following may be felecled, as affording the bell fpecimens
of his abilities ; •viz. the Portraits of Tycho Brahe, infcribed
" Non habere fed effe ;" William Blaeu, the difciple of
Tycho Brahe, a celebrated geographer, both in folio, and
from drawings by himfelf; Conftantine Ferbor, of Ham-
burgh, after Ad. Boy ; Andrea de Lelzno Lefczynflci,
bifhop of Kaminiec, infcribed J. Falk, Polonius fc. ; queen
Chriilina of Sweden ; Peter Gembici, bifhop of Cracovie,
all after his own drawings ; Hans Schack, a Danifii general,
after C. van Mander ; Louis de Geor, after David Beck ;
Leonard, count of Torftenfohn ;. Axel, count of Oxeniliern ;
AxelLiiio, afenator of Sweden; Adolphus Johan, prince pa-
latiae; Charles Guftavus, prince of Sweden, all after D. Beck,

and in folio ; and Adrian Spiegelius, for the folio edition of
his works, which was publiflied at Amllcrdam, A D. 1045.
Hiftorical, Sifr.— A fet of " The four Evangcliils," haif-
length figures, in quarto; " A Concert of Mufic," confid-
ing of four performers, after Gnercino, engraved for the
cabinet of Reynft, in large folio ; " The Virgin and infant
Chrid, accompanied by St. John," after J. Stella, in folio ;
"The Cyclops at the Forge," after Michael Angelo;
" Efau difpofing of his Birthright to Jacob," after Tinto-
retto ; " A Man and Woman Tinging," from a pifture at-
tributed to John Lys, in folio ; " The old Coquet at her
Toilette," from the fame painter; and " St. John preaching
in the Defart," after Bloemart, a very capital engraving,
both in large folio. The lall five engravings were for the
cabinet of Reynd.

John Hackacrt, the landfcape-painter of Amderdam, of
whom we have treated in our vol. xvii. etched a few plates,
about this period, with much ability, and in a dyle refembling
that of Waterloo.

Of thefe the chief are a fet of fix quarto plates of fimple
rural fcenes, apparently views from nature. They are etched
■with tafte, and No. 4. is particularly beautiful.

Daniel Stoppendael of Holland was born in the year l()30
In his dyle of engraving he was a follower of CorneUus
Viffcher, but, like oihtrfol/ozvtrs, was always beiiind.

His principal engravings are, a portrait of Erafmus read-
ing, on a pededal, in large folio ; a fet of twelve of figures
and animals, in quarto, dated 1651 ; a coUeftion of lixty
views, entitled " Les delices die Diemen Meer," engraved
from his own drawings, and another fet of thirty-four views
in Holland, all of quarto dimenfions.

B. Stoppendael, or Stoependaal, was the countryman,
and contemporary of Daniel. Whether they were related
is uncertain. He migrated to England with William HI.
and his principal works, which are now become fcarce, re-
cord the events of the revolution, which placed William and
Mary on the throne of thele kingdoms.

" An Attack of a Convoy of Provifions ;" the robbery-
of a coach, commonly known by the title of " The Pidol
Shot," and " The Lime-kiln," were engraved by Stoppen-
daal, after Viffcher's prints from Bamboccio, and are at pre-
fent more fought after than the originals. " The Depar-
ture of V/illiam III. ;" « The Arrival of that Prince in
England ;" " His Coronation ;" and " His Opening of
the Parhament," are of folio fize, and from defigns by the
engraver himfelf.

Frederic Henry van Hohe was born at Haerlem, A.D.
1O30, but migrated to England, and refided cl,iefly in Lon-
don, \Yhere he was employed by the bookfellers, and chiefly
by John Duntqn. His abilities were not confiderable, but
at a period when few engravings appeared that were fuperior
to his, it is not to be wondered at that thofe of Van Hove
fiiould have been held in fome degree of ellimation.

His prints are dated from 1648 to 1692, in which lalt
year he executed the portrait of king William on horfcback,
which was prefixed to " The Epitome of War." His belt
engraving, according to Strutt, is the portrait of Jacob
Cornells, a raiddling-fized upright plate arched at the top,
from C. Viffcher, whofe dyle of engraving he has imitated
with fome little fuccefs. The prcdudtions of his graver
were chiefly portraits, among wliich are thofe of fir Ed-
mundbury Godfrey, in folio ; and fir Matthew Ha!e, in
quarto. He engraved this lad portrait twice, but thc'fmalleft
is the mod efteemed. Several frontifpieces and book orna-
ments, and many of the plates for Quarles's Emblems, are
alfo among the prints of Van Hjvc.
The Bouttats were a numerous family of painters and

engravers.

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

•entrravers. Frederic was born at Antwerp A.D. 1650,
and liad twenty-fonr children, of wliom twelve were edu-
cated to different branches of fine art. Frederic publiflied
the works cf other engravers as well as his own, and
•mav del'erve more credit in the annals of commerce (if fuch
there be) than can be allowed him in thofe of art. He
.worked with the graver only, in a neat but dry ftyle ; his
works arc numerous, and confilt chiefly of portraits, but
their merits are fmall. From among them the following
may be felecled with advantage.

The /Porl raits of J. Baptitl van Heil, a portrait-painter
of Bruffels ; Daniel van Heil, a landfcape-painter ; and Leo
A'an Heil, an architeft, from piftures by J. Baptitl van
Heil; David Ryckaert, from a pidlure by himfelf; Charles
Emanuel, duke of Savoy ; Charles Gafpar, elcilor of
Treves ; Chnltina, queen of Sweden ; Oliver Cromwell ;
Frederic-William, elector of Brandenburg; John George,
tledlor of Saxony, all in quarto.

Of his Hijlorical engravings — " The Holy Virgin, with
.St. John and the Infant Saviour;" apd " A Card Party,"
from a delign by himfelf, are alone worthy of notice.

Gafper Buuttats was a younger brother of Frederic,
■who worked chiefly for the Dutch bookfeilers. His prints
.confift chiefly of etching, which he performed without
tade, in a tame and rapid llyle.

Befide his book-plates, which we fliall not ciuimerate, he
engraved a few of larger dimenfions, among which are,
«' The Mafl'acre of the Huguenots ;" " The Affaffination of
Henry IV. of France ;" and " The Decollation of the
.Counts Nadafti and Cerini, and the Marquis Franciflani,"
all of large folio fi/.e, wliich, as they are without painters*
jiames, are perhaps defigned by himfelf ; and " A Provifion
Tent," after Wouvermans, alfo in folio.

Gerard Bouttats was of the fame family, and was born
A.D. 1634, at Antwerp. He travelled during his youth
to Vienna, where he became engraver to the univerfity.
His works rife not above mediocrity, and conCft principally
x>f portraits from his own drawings : among them are
Adanius Mund.s ; Antonio d'Aument ; Charles Jofeph,
archduke of Aullria; and Don Peter, king of Portugal,
all of quarto fize.

His beft Hijhvical prints are, " The Name of Jefus ;"
and " The Refurreclion of our Saviour," both in quarto.

Philibert Bouttats was likewife a native of Antwerp, and
one of the fons of Frederic. His engravings are inoftly
portraits, but are deflitute of merit. Among them is pope
Innocent XI. in large folio ; the dauphin, fon of Louis
XIV. ; and its companion, Mary-Ann Viftoria of Ba-
varia, both in folio ovals ; Elizabeth Charlotte, ducliefs
of Orleans ; William-Henry, prince of Orange ; Chrif-
tian V. king of Denmark ; Herman Werner, bifliop of
Paderborn, in a circle; Alexander Sidney, ambaflador ;
John Sobicfl<i, king of Poland, all in folio ; and a Thifis,
with the portrait of the birtiop of Munfter, in large folio.
We pafs over Peter Balhafar, and the remainder of this
family, as too inconhderable to be worthy of the reader's
attention.

Adrian Lomelin was born at Amiens in the year 1636.
He lludied the art of engraving at Antwerp, and always
refided there. He worked with the graver only, and handled
it very indifl^erently, but, unfirtunately, feveral of the ca-
pital pidures of Rubens f-ll into the hands of this engraver,
and his works are liere fpccified chiefly on account of the
merits of the originals.

However, tome of his portraits after Vandyke are not
wholly deititute of merit, and from thefe the following may,
nitL advantage, be felefted.

•Charles I. king of England ; Ferdinand of Auftria, go.
vernor of the Low Countries ; Jacob le Roi, lord of Her.
baix ; John Charles de la Faille, a Jefuit of Antwerp ;
Alexander de la Faille, an Antwerp fenator ; Zegher van
Houtfum, of Antwerp ; Adrian Stevens, an ecclefiaftic ;
John Malderus, bifliop of Antwerp ; John de Wael ; and
John Baptifta de Bilthoven, an Antwerp Jefuit. This lad
is reckoned the very beft of the portraits of Lomelin : all
are after Vandyke, and of folio dimenfions.

HsJhncaU &f. — " Abigail apjieafing David ;"-" The
Adorariiin of the Eaftern Kings;" " The Cirtumcilion ;"
" The Baptifm of Chrift ;" ''Mary wafliing the Feet of
Clirill ;" " Chrifl; appearing to Mary Magdalen ;" " The
Trinity ;" " The Triumph of Charity ;" " Time unveil-
ing Truth and conquering Herefy ;" " The Affumption ;"
" The Virgin and Infant Saviour," attended by St. Do-
minic, and various otliers, all of large folio fize; "St.
Cecilia," in folio ; " The Judgment of Paris," in lar^e
folio, all after Rubens; " Chrill taken in the Garden,"
from Vandyke ; and " The Holy Virjjin," with the youth-
ful Saviour prefeiiting a crown to four fathers of the church,
in folio, after Diepenbeck.

Nicholas Pitau, or Pitliau, was born at Antwerp in the
year 1633. He was the fon and pupil of James Pitau.
He travelled to Paris A.D. 1660. Baffan erroneoufly in-
forms us that he was born in 1664 at Antwerp ; and Wa-
telet fays at Paris in 1633 ; Huber and Martini correft thefe
millakes, and from other authorities it appears certain that
he was at Paris the time we have mentioned above, and
died there fome time about the year 1676. His flyle of
engraving nearly refembles that of Francis de Poilly, though
his Itrokes are more vigorous. His drawing is in general
tolerably corrcft, but, at times, is rather heavy, efpecially
ill the extremities of his figures. He worked with the
graver only, and appears to have handled that inftrument
with much facility ; but from the famenefs of manner with
wliich he has treated his figures, draperies, and back-grounds,
the effect ®f his prints is cold and filvery. Watelet, who
generally writes with more tafte and feeling than almoft any
other of the foreign critics on engraving, praifes him fome-
what too high'y, when he afferts that " Pitau's engraving
of the Holy Family, after Raphael, is a chef-d'oeuvre, both
for the beauty of the execution, the purity of the drawing,
and the ftrength and juftnefs of the effett. The character
of Raphael has, perhaps, never been fo faithfully tranflated
as in this print, which, by amateurs, has been preferred to
the famous engraving of the Saint, by Edelinck," which
is .after tl'.e fame celebrated mafter.

This artill engraved both portraits and hiftorical fubjefts,
and the following are feleflcd from his bell.

Portraits. — St. Francis of Sales, bifhop and prince of
Geneva ; Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon ; Oliver Crom-
well, after Vander Werf, all in folio ; Alexander VII., after
P. Mignard, in large folio ; Vincent de Paule, founder of
the congregation of the Miffion of St. Lazarus, after Sim.
Fran(^ois, in folio ; James Fabier du Bulay, mafter of the
court of Requcfts ; and Henry Louis Hubert de Mont-
mort, of the French Academy, both in ovals of folio fize ;
Theodore Bignou, mafter of the court of Req'uefts, all after
Ph. de Champagne ; Peter Seguier, chancellor of France,
from N. de Platte Montagne, in large folio ; Prioh, author
of the F.-cnch Hillory ; Alexander Paul Pitau, counfeilor,
both in folio ; Gafper de Fieubet, chancellor ; Nicholas
Colbert, in large folio, all after C. le Febure ; Louis XIV.
of France and Navarre ; the dauphin, fon of Louis X1V«
both from le Febure ; and an anonymous portrait of a man,
lialf-lengthj after John Daret, all of large fiolio fize.

4 Hijlorical^

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Nijlorical, i!fc. — " The Holy Family," after Raphael, in John le Ducq was a native of the Hague, and born fn-
Jblio ; "The Entombing of Cliriil," after L. Caracci, in the year 1636. He learned the rudiments of paintincf of'
large folio ; " The Virgin with the Infant Saviour read- Paul Potter, vvhofe ftyle he imitated with much fiiccefs.
iiig," in an oval, after Guerchino ; "A dead Chrill, In 1671 I,e Ducq was made direftor of the academy of
with Angels weeping over him," from the fame painter ; painting at the Hague, and enjoyed the reputation of a good
a iialf figure of " The Virgin with the Infant Clnilt," in artiil ; but after fome years he quitted the arts, and entered-
folio; " Jefus Chrill in the Clouds, with St. John and the th» military fervicc. I..C Ducq executed feveral etchings-
Virgin interceding for S.t. Bruno," in large folio ; " Chrift from his own defigns, with much intelligence and precilion ;-
and the Woman of Samaria ;" " The penitent Magdalen ;" among which is a fet of eight quarto plates, of dogs, dated-
" The Ci)un<il of St. Sulpitius ;" and " The Holy Fa- 1654.

niily," ail after Ph. de Champagne, and of folio fize. Romyn or Remain de Hooghc was born at the Hague in-
Another " Holy Family," wherein an angel is prcfcnting the year 1638 ; and being a man of genius, and of g-eat
the infant Saviour with a baflcct of flowers, after Villcquin ; fertility of mveution, foon dilUnguiflied himfclf both as a
and a large Thefis, after Seb. Bourdon. d.figncr and engraver. His llyle of art was firgular and-

Charles or Karel du Jardin was born at Amfterdam in extravagant ; but the furprife which his deligns excited-, and-
the year 163 J, and died at Venice in 1678. He was the the imprcflion which their novelty made on the public mind, .
difciple of Paul Potter, or, as fome authors affirm, of Ber- occafioned his compofitions to be much fought after ; and he-
ghem ; and after iludying for fome years in- his native compofed and engraved many of the frontifpieces to the-
country, made a voyage to Italy, under the pretext of ac- books which were at that time printed in Holia:;d-.
companying a friend to Livourna. The Rev. Mr. Gilpui fays of him : " Romain de Hooghe

Here he was fo well pleafed, either wi'li the climate and is inimitable in execution. Perhaps no mailer etches in a
Jandfcape fcenery, or the patronage which Italy afforded freer and more fpirited manner : there is a richnefs in it,
him, that he continued there for the remainder of his life, likewife, which we feldom meet with. His figures, too.
As a painter, we haw already treated of the merits of Du arc ofttn good; but his compofition is generally faulty : it
Jardin. Both as painter and engraver, he added fparhling is crowded and confufed. He linows little of the efTcft of
force to the tafre and touch of Berghem. He underllood light . There is a flutter in him, too, which hurts an eye-
the anatomy of domeftic animals, perhaps better than Potter accu Homed to, and pleafed- with, fimplicity."
or Berghem. He drew with the utmoft freedom, though His prints are generally eith&r hiftorical or allegoric ; -and-
his drawing is ftriStly correct. He copied nature limply an ong them, " I'he Deluge at Gceverden" (which, as Mr.
and exaftly, though not lervilely ; and has given us net only Gilpin fays, is finely defcnbed) has excited much notice,
the form, but the charatterillic peculiarities alfo, of each: This Deluge at Coeverden is a fmall folio print, and is
animal. He never indeed, like Hondiut, animates- his crea- properly an hiflorkal land/cape. De Hooghe had here a
tion with the violence of favage fury r his geniv:s takes a cowitry to defcribe, and s. Jlory to tell. The country is the
milder turn.- In his print?, all is quietnels and repofe. environs of Coeverden, a Dutch town, with an immenfe
His dogs, after their exercife, lie llretchcd at their eafe •,. bank thrown up again II the fea ; the ftory is the ruin of that'-
and the languor of a meridian fun commonly prevails through bank, which was broken through in three places by the vio-
tlie piece. His compofition is beautiful ; and his execution, ler.ce of a llorm. The fubjeft was great and difficult, and
though neat, is fpirited., tl;e artift has acquitted himfelf in a mafterly manner. The

Some of his prints are of quarto, and others of folio, di- tov\ n of Coeverden fills the diftant view: the country is
menfion-; ; but they are generally met with, bound togtthtr overfpread with a deluge, the iky with a tempeft, and the -
in a folio volume, which is highly and juftly valued by all bleaches in the bank appear in all their horror. The com-
perfons of tafle, and c«nli!ls of fifty leave?. His fubjcdfs por;tioii, in the diftant and middle parts, is as pleafing as
are gentralh/ landfcapes, or paftoral converfations, in which I'uch an extenfive fubiefl can well' be. An elevated lionzon-
cattle arc often the principal objeds. Of that uhich is u-as necefiary to give a dillinft view of the whole. The
. placed the lifih in the volume, the Rev. Mr. Gilpin has light is thrown over the landl'cape in good mnlTcs ;. and the
written : " The defign, though humble, is beautiful. The degree of flutter, which Mr. Gilpin feems to cenfure-above, .
two dogs repofing at noon, after the labour of the morning, was here congenial to the fuljeft. The exprefflon of the
the implements of fowling, the ficlitious hedge, and the figures, of the horfes efpcc!-«l!y, is very ftrong : thofe which
ibop-hoL?5 through it, all correfponff, and agreeably tell the the driver is turning, to avoid the horrid chafm before him,
little hillory of the day. The compofition alfo is good, are imprelfed with th> wildell character of terror ; and in-
The. nets and fowling-pieces are judicioujly r,dded, and make deed the whole fcene of diftrefs, and the horrible confufion
an ag-eeable Ihape with the dogs. The hedge adds another in every part of it, are admirably defcribed.
pyramidal form. The light is well dillributed. The The execution, though gcod, is inferior to that of .fome
drawing and espreffion are pure nature,, and the execution others of the works of De Hooghe; and, with rlie fore-
elegant and malterly.'' ground, a popular critic finds the following fault ; The
RuYSDAEL, (for an account of the, charafter of whofe fpirit, he ftiys, which the artill has maintained through ths-
merits as a painter, fee that article,) executed, about this reit of the piece, feems here to flag : -whereas- here he (iKHiii
period, fome very malterly etchings :. they are wight, but have clofed the whole with fome. noble -eonfufion, which'
very pifturefque, and may be confidered as beautiful Ikctchcs would have fet off the diftant parts, and llruck the fpeClatop
from nature. The following are a feleCtion of the beft : with the llrongcit images of hoiTor. Inftead of this-,- we are
a very Icarce, woody landlcape, of very delicate execu- prefcnted vvith a few pigs and calves floundering in the
tion, in fmall 4to. ; a fea-view, with veifels, and a mountain water. The thought fcems borrowed from Otid. , In the.
towards the left, crowned with trees and buildings, in 4to. ; midli of a world in ruins,

a. cottage embofomed in trees, with a wooden brid;re, and a <t \t . 1.,.,.... :„.«_ „ „ ■>

r ° ■, , • r , 3 • 1 , '^n , " Mat lupus inter ove?.

pea!a.".t and dog, m tolio, executed m a broader Ityle ; a

foreft fcene, in folio; and a laiidfcape of wild cWaifter, Among the numerous productions of thfs artiir, the fo].-

with a hovel on the defccut of a liill, in foUo, lowir" ave the mult diflinguillu-d; Servati.s Galiceui, R:>.

ter.odaHienli&,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

•teroBamenfis Batavus, in folio ; admiral Michael Adriaenfz the fame charafter, and alfo in 4to ; a fet of four moiin-

dc Ruytor, a very fine portrait, in largo folio; "The taiiious laiidifapcs, with water and buildings ; four gard.-n

Army of William III. at tiie Battle of the Boyne," and a views with figures and ftatnes, in 4.0 ; a jiair of very fine

medallion of himfclf and qnecn Mary, in large folio ; " Wil- Italian views, ornamented with fignres and ilatnes ; an

linm Henry, prince of Orange, on Horfeback, accompanied Italian garden, with fonntains and figures ; a large laudfcape

by the young Princes, entering the City of Amfterdam ;" with a waterfall; and a rocky fcene with water, all of

an allegorical fubjeft, relating to prince William Henry ; large folio dimenfions, are generally reckoned to be his very

anotkcr allegory, in compliment to Leopold II.; "The bell prodvidtions.

Marriage of WilUani, Prince of Orange, with the Princefs
Tvlary ;" " The Entry of the Prince of Orange into Lon-
don ;" « The Coronation of William III. in Weftminfter
Abbey;" " The Flight of .Tames II. into France;"
" Louis XIV. receiving Barnes at St. Gennains ;" "The
Siege of Vienna by the Turks ;" "The Return of John III.

James Neefs was born at Antwerp, A. D. i6jo, and
was probably related to Peter Neefs, the celebrated painter
ot architefture. He worked principally with the graver,
and handled it with great facility. He drew the liuman
figure with fome degree of correftnefs, but in a mannered
ftyle. The charaflers which he has given to the heads of

king of Poland, after dcfeatiiig the Turks ;" ; " The Siege his figures, efpecially when they required alfo an animated
of Rochefter," and " Taking of the Fort of Sheernefs," exprellion, is often exaggerated.

both fubjeCls on one plate; " The Excefles committed by
the French Soldiers at Bodegrave, and other Places in Hol-
land ;" <' The Defeat of the French at Hochlladt in 1704,"
with the medallions of prince Eugene and the duke of Marl-
borough, all of large folio fize ; " The taking of Conftan-
tinople by the Turks," in folio ; " The Jews' Synagogue
at Amfterdam ;" " The taking of Nerva by Charles XII.
in the Year 1700;" " The City of Gran, affaulted by the
Imperialiils," both in large folio ; " The Battle of St.
Denis," on two large plates ; " The Prince of Orange de-

He engraved both portrait andhiftory, and his bed work--,
though faulty in the above refpefts, have much merit on the
wiiole. The following ace feledled as tieing moft worthy
the attention of the colledor.

Portraits. — Jofcph Bergaigne, a Roman prelate, from
Th. van Thulden ; Gafpar Nemius, bifliop of Antwerp,
from G. Seghers ; John Tollenario, a Flemifii .Tefuit, from
P. Fruytiers ; Francis Snyders, the painter, the plate of
whi(,-'i was etched by Vandyke, and finilhcd witli tlie graver
by Neefs ; Anthony de Taffis, from Vandyke ; tlie mar

clared Stadtholder of Holland ;" " The Arrival of the chionefs of Barlemont, and countefs of Egmout ; Jofhua

Prince of Orange at London in 1688," in large folio; de Hertoghe, a niinifter of his Catholic majeily at Rati.'bo!! ;

twelve plates, illuftrative of the fafhions of the feventeenlh Martin Ryckaert, landfcape painter at Antwerp, all from

century, invented by De Hooghe, in 410. ; " The Deluge Vandyke ; Jaan Dolenaris, Jefuit and author of the Spc-

at Coeverden," in folio, (the plate on which we have com- culum Vanitatis, after Ph. Fruylier.^, all of folio fize.
inented at fome length) ; " The Entry of Louis XIV. into H'ljhrkal, l^c. — " The Fa'l of the Damned ;" " Melchi-

Dunkirk," a large print, lengthways, on two plates, from zedeck prefenting Bread and Wine to Abraham;" " Chrift ■

Vander Meulen ; " Charles II. king of Spain, defcending on the Crofs," all in large folio ; " St. Aiiguftin," in folio ;

from his Carriage to pay Homage to the Hoft," in folio, " The Martyrdom of St. Thomas ;" " The Judgment of

from De Hooghe's own compofition ; " Tiie Mafiacre of Paris;"" — ~ • . . _ .

the two De Witts," in folio ; an emblematical print, ex- folio

pofing the vices of the monks and other ecclefiaftics of the king of Spain crowned by two genii

." " The Triumph of Galatea," very rare, all in large
; " Philippus Prudens, Antwcrpia," reprefenting the
of Spain crowned bv two jrenii, in folio ; " The*Car-

Romilh church, a middling-fized plate, lengthways, with
the name of Loggan affixed to it, though it is evidently the
work of De Hooghe, who, fearful perhaps of affixirg his
own, name, fathered this engraving upon a foreign artill ;
and " The Fair at x^rnheim," in large folio.

Abraham Genoels, furnamed Archimedes, was born at
Antwerp in the year 1638. He learned the rudiments of
art of Jacques Backreel, and afterwards travelled to Paris
for improvement, where he was employed by Le Brun and De
Seve, and v.'here a royal penfion.and apartments in the Go-

dinal Infanta of Spain," in folio, all after Rubens ; a woman
with rnilk pails, and ancther with a baflcet on her head ;
" Jefus Chrift and tlie fix Peiutcnts," after Seghtr?-, i:i large
folio ; " Job mal-treated by his Wife," in folio ; " The
Martyrdom of St. Lievens ;" " Jefus Chrift appearing to
Mary Magdalen," in large folio, after Seghers ; " Chriil
before Piiate," after Jordaens ; " The Satyr, or the Gucit
who blew Hot and Cold," in large^folio ; " A Shepherd
and Shepherdefs at rural Diverfion," both after the fame
painter, in fofo ; and " St. Roch inteiceding for thc.fe

belins were affigned him. From the French metropolis, afflicled with the Plague," after Erafmiis Quellinus, in folio.

Genoels travelled to Italy, the common theatre of improve-
ment, and after ftudying there awhile returned to Paris, with
the reputation of an excellent artill. In 1682 he vifited his
native city, where he died at an advanced age. Genoels exe-
cuted a eonfiderable number of etchings of landfcapes in a free
mafterly ftyle, ornamented with very good figures and ani-
mals ; a eonfiderable number ef them are from his own defigns,
and the large ones are particularly excellent. His compofition

Anthony Francis Baudins, or Baudouins, was born at
Dixmude in the year 164O, and died at Paris in 1700. He
was the difciple of Vander Meulen, and con-difciple of Van
Hugtenbourg. He etched in a bold, free ftyle, not unlike
that afterwards adopted by Chatelain. Baudins executed a
great number of plates, moft of them from Vander Meulen ;
the belt of which are as follows : a fet of fix landfcapes, in
fmall folio ; a fet of fix, with buildings and figures, dedi-

is in general good, though perhaps, in fome inllances, a little cated to Ph. de Champagne, in large folio ; a let of eight,

too much crowded with objeds. His prints (hould be
viewed as engraved Jketches, not as tranilations of finifhed
pictures. This is the limit of their pretenfion, and thus re-
garded they are beautiful produdtions. The monogram of
this artift will be found in Plate IV. of tliofe ufed by the
artifts of the Netherlands.

The following are a feledtion of the works of Genoels. A
pair of mountainous landleapes, with figures and monuments

of buildings and figures ; a hunt of hinds, dedicated to the
marquis ot Louvois ; a ftag hunt, a very rich compofition ;
a large landfcape, into which is introduced the m.arch of the
king to Vincennes, dedicated to Le Brun ; a lar.dfcape,
witli the march of the queen to Veriaille^', dedicated to the
duke de Noailles ; a view ef Befan^on, on two plates;
view of the city of Ardres, in Picardy ; view of the
city of Gray in Franche Compte ; the city of Bethune in

an the antique tafte, in 4to ; three pair of landfcapes of Artois, on two plates ; a view of St.

Lawrence de l.i
Roche,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF liiE.

Roche, in Franche Compte ; the caftle of Jeux, on the
frontiers of Franche Compte ; the caftle of Verfailles, a?
it was formerly ; another view of the fame calUe as it is
at prefent j the caftle of Vincennes on the pari- (Idc- ;
the caftle of Fontainbleau, on two plates ; and two line
Italian garden views, after Genocls, all of them of very
large folio dimenlions.

Michael Mouzin, or Mofyn, was born at Amfterdam in the
year 1636 In the execution of his plates he united the point
and die graver, but not fuccefsfuUy, for his ftyle is heavy
and laboured, and his drawing incorreCl. The following
areextradled from his works as being moft worthy of notice.
Admiral van Wafienaer, of Holland, in 410. oval ; ad-
miral Ruyter, after H. van Aide, in folio ; Cornelius de
Witt, after the fame painter, in large folio ; John van
Galen ; a Dutch admiral, from Livens, in largo folio ; a
couchant Venus, after Jae. Ad. Backer ; the four ele-
ments under the empiie of Venus, from Holftein, in large
folio ; a group of children dancing to the mulic of a
tambourin and triangle, played by a woman and fatyr ;
another group of three children dancing ; and a fatyr
prefenting a bunch of grapes to a female and child, all after
Holftein, in folio.

Jacob van Meurs was born at Amfterdam, A. D. 1640,
but is rather an obfcure artift. He chiefly engraved book

Claudius de Lingendes, in 4to. ; Joannes Veriufius,
doftor of theology, after X.oir ; Samuel Bochart ; Gilles
Menage, from de Pilles; and Nicholas le Camus, all in folio;
Rcnai'd, cardinal of Elle, and biftiop of Reggio, in large
folio ; Anne de Courtenay, confort of Maximilian, duke
of Sully ; Francis Pithou, juris confulte, and Peter Pjthon,
his brother, all in folio ; Anthony Chaffe', prior of the
monaftcry of St. Vcdaft ; Peter Mercier, a general, all in
folio ; Francis Villani, hifliop of Tournay, from L. Fran-
cois ; Anne Adolphme, baronefs of Pauterfen, from the
lame painter, both in large folip ; Claude Bazin of Befon,
from le Febuie, in folio ; Louifa Mary Armand de
Simianes, coiintofs of Lyons ; Louis le Pelletier, a parlia-
mentary minifter, from Nicholas de Largilliere ; Francis
van Meulcn, the painter; and the prince of Wales, both
from the lame- painter ; Juliu?, cardinal Mazarine, from
Nic. Mignard ; Louis XIV. in a laurel border of oval
form, from le Brun ; the chancellor Seguicr, from le
Brun ; Maximilian Henry, eleftor of Cologne, from Bar-
tholet Flamael ; Bernard de Foix, duke of Valette, from
P. Mignard ; Fliilip Defpont, doftor of theology, from
his own painting, all of large fol o dimenlions.

Hijlorktd, Isfc. — " The Holy Virgin feated, with the
Infant Chrift," in an oval border of olive leaves, after
Raphael, dated 1661, in foho ; " The Holy Family, with

plates and ornaments, and fome few portraits in a neat ftift" St. John, who holds a Dove," from Seb. Bourdon. The

ftyle, among which are portraits of iTicliolas Copernicus,
the altronomer ; Sibrandus Fran(;ifcus Eydelfchemicus,
trom T. Faber, both in 4to. ; profefTor George Calixtus,
in folio ; Henry van Dieft, doftor of theology, from
Glauwe, in a quarto oval, and Charles II. of England, in
folio, from Ant. Vandyke.

Levinus Cruylius, or Lewin Cruyl, was born at Ghent in
the year 1640, but embraced the ecclefiaftical life, and re-
fided at Rome. He drew and etched a conliderable number

earlieft imprefhons are before the nudity of the infant was
covered with drapery. " The Holy Family," after Gafpar
de Crayer ; another " Holy Family," the fame, except
that the figure of St. Jofcph is crafud ; " St. Sebaftian,
with an Angel drawing an Arrow from his Body ;" after
Vandyke, all in large folio : and " King David," after
Ph. Champagne, in folio.

The reader has probably already perceived that we are
now arrived at a period, when the natural operation of

of views in Rome, enriched with figures and buildings in a commerce had tamed down engraving to the trading level,
very intelligent pleafing ftyle. Many of his drawings were and an engraver rarely appeared in the Low Countries
engraved by Julius Tefta, and we have alfo fome very fine worthy of particular notice, though ivortmm of that pro-

etchings by himfelf, that are marked with a monogram
which will be found in Plate IV. of thofe ufed by the en-
gravers of the Low Countries. Of tbofe the chief are a
fet of twenty-three views of Rome, ancient and modern, in
large folio ; and another very large fet of Roman views,
with buildings and figures.

fellion fwarmed both in Holland and in Flanders.

The principle of the rapid acquifition of pecuniary pro-
fit, wliich is the main fpring of trade, feems to be effen-
tially at variance with all the nobler purfuits of art and fci-
ence. An extraordinary artift: — a phenomenon — may in-
deed now and then appear under luch circumftaaces; as

Peter Phihppe, an artift of fmall account, was a native of Mr. Bird, in our own times, has ftepped majeftically forth —
Holland, born fome time about the year 164c. He en- the painter of pathetic fentiment — from the tea-board ma-
graved portraits, among which the following, thougli with- nufaftories of Birmingham ; but the gener;J principles of trade
out poflefling much merit, are probably the beft. are not to be the lefs regarded as deftruftive, or at leaft deeply

A half-length of Louis Henry, prince of Naffau, in folio; injurious in their tendency, to all lotty intellectual effort,
ince Henry Charles de la Tremouille, after Vander Bane ; and all philofophical enquiry into thofe principles, on which
~ ------- - improvement in art and fcience maybe perpetuated. To

be exercilVd with honour and advantage to a nation, fine
art has ever required a nobler impulfe and more foftering
care, than the fhort-tightednefs of commerce has been in-
clined or prompted to beftow. The golden eggs of art
arc never laid fall enough for the cupidity of dealers. And

prince .

the aftembly of the States General of Holland, after J.
ToornfleS ; and a Dutch banquet, after the fame painter,
all of large folio fize.

Peter van Schuppen was born at Antwerp in the year
1623. Of whom he learned the earlier rudiments of art
is not known, but he completed his ftudies at Paris,

whither he was invited at the fame time with Edelinck, by the Cyclopedia might blufh to detail the records of fome

the minifter Colbert. His juvenile talents muft therefore engravers, wlio found a degree of favour and proteftion

have been of high promife. with the printftllers, which the word patronage was fome-

At Paris, he very judicioufly placed himfelf under the times proftituted to exprefs, merely becaufe they nuorhcd

inftru:tion of Nanteuil ; here he became juftly celebrated cheap, and worked fulimr//Ively.

both for the number and merit of his engravings, and here
he died at an advanced age, A. D. 1702.

He engraved a confiderable number of portraits, chiefly
from his own drawings, and in a ftyle wliich proves him to
have been a man of confiderable talent. The following are
a feleftion of his beft portraits, I'ome of which are very fine.

Vot.XXI,

Among thefe obfequious tools, the engraver who would
be content to afford the merchant the largeft (hare of profit,
it became his intereft to hold forth to the public, or to that
part of the fenfelefs herd on whom Fortune fhowers her fa.
vours in her moments of caprice, as the beft artift. Dif
heartened by preferences lo unprincipled, the engraver of
^.; U modeil

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

modeft merit would retire in fiJence, and either change his
pro*" ffion, or, if he were unable to do this, would look
round for refuge wliere he might.

Several of thofe of the Low Countries, who lived at this
period, fought an afylum in England. Bouyed up by hope,
perhaps attrafted by falfo reprefentations of our national
tafte or profperily,they failed hither over a feaof Difappoint-
ment. They imagined an Hefperian garden, and found a
fterile wafle. They cfcaped from the rapacity of one fet
of dealer', to drudge under tafl<-mallers that were more
taltelefs, and probably not lefs inexorable ; and that fine
ethereal mental cflenee, which is the fpirit of art, was eva-
porated, partly by the ardours of trade, and partly by the
agitations of political revolution.

We, therefi-re, fhall pafs flightly over the dregs of Dutch
engraving, with fomc regret on account of the nature of
chronologic annals, and referve the remains of our parti-
cular attention for Houbraken, /^ udenaerd, Pmit, and a
few other artifts of deferved celebrity, with which mud be
clofed our account of the icliool of the Low Countries.

Conrad Waumanj was born al Antwerp in the year 1 630,
and becamv the dil'ciple of Peter Bailliu. He unfortunately
imitated his mailer, when much better models might have
been found, and his drawing is not lefs incorrett, and his
(Jyle of handling his graver fcarcely a whit more principled.
Yet he is the engraver of a confiderable number of plates,
which collettors have thought worthy of fome attention.
The chief of thefe are the

Portraits of John Both, (the landfcape painter and en-
graver,) after Willars ; Herman Saftleeven ; David Bailie
of Leyden, and Cornelius Janfen, both from piftures by
that diftinguilhed artill, and all of 410. dimenfions. Li
folio he engraved the marquis of Mirabelle ; Emily, prin-
cefs of Orange ; Frederic Henry, prince of Orange, clad
in armour; and Maria Clara, princefs de Croye; all after
Vandyke.

Hijlorical, &c — " The Defcent from the Crofs,'' in large
folio ; " The AfFumption of the Virgin," in 4ta. ; " The
Holy Virgin and Infant Saviour," in folio; " The Holy
Family with the abbe Alexander Scaglia receiving the Bene-
diction of St. John ;" and " Venus and Mars," in large
folio ; all after Rubens.

The family of Danckert, or Dankerts of Antwerp, though
they mamtained their ftation as dealers in that commercial
city for upwards of a century, were as artifts, and fpeak-
ing of them in the aggregate, fcarcely of fuperior preten-
fions to thofe of Waumans.

Cornelius was born at Amrterdam in the year 1561, and
eftablifhed himfelf as a printfeller at Antwerp fome time
about the middle period of his life. In his youth he pro-
duced a few meritorious prints, but (either by choice or
neceffity) his talents as an artilt were gradually abforbedby
the craft and folicitudes of trade.

The Portraits of Guftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden ;
Jacob WafTenaer, carl of Obfdam ; Cornelius de Wit ; John
Cafimir, count of Nadau ; John Calvin ; and Peter Moli-
nsus, all of folio dimenfions, are among the bed of his
engravings ; to which the coUeAor may add the following
few Hijlorical plates.

Equeltrian figures of " Ninus," " Cyrus," " Alex-
ander," and"C2:far," with emblematical accompaniments,
in large folio. A fet of " The Seven Planets;" another of
«' The Seven Wonders of the World ;" another of " The
Twelve Sybils," in large quarto, all from his own deCgns ;
and " Meleager prefenting the Boar's Head to Atalanta,"
from Picou

born at Antwerp fomc time about the commencement of the
feventeenth century. He was educated to engraving, but
he was educated alfo to commerce, and fucceeded his father
as a printfeller.

He engraved portrait and landfcape, mingling in his
technical praftice the work of the etching needle with that
of the graver. In his ftyle of treating Tandfcapes, pafto-
rals, and cattle, he imitated Berghem and VifTcher, but pre-
fcnted us with little more than the caput mortimm of their
abilities. He gradually fell into a dry and heavy habit of
crofling his firlt courfes of lines with fquare fecond courfes,
and the talle and intimate knowledge of forms by which
thofe great mailers are dillinguiftied, were in Dankerts ut-
terly extindl.

He engraved chiefly after Berghem, and his beft produc-
tions are "The Hartcngaft," or Stag-liunt ; " Het Vin-
kebaantze," or, the Bu-d Catcher, both in large folio. A
fet of four large landfcapcs of palloral fubjetfs, of which
one has the effeA of moon light. Another fet of four, with
cattle and figures, of fumewhat fmall dimenfions. Another
fet of fix, of fimilar fubjefts, and a fet of four, in folio,
of which the title-page bears the infcription " Danckert
Danckerts fee. et exc." cut on a ftone,all from the piftures
of Berghem.

Of his Hijlorical prints we need only mention " The
Departure of Charles II. for England ;" "Venus, Cupid,
and Satyr," and a fountain with fifhermen. There is alfo
a print, which bears his name, of a curious cryllal vale,
which was found in the treafury at Vienna ; and his mod
elleemed portraits are thofe of Charles II. of England,
and Bernard, earl of Martenitz.

,Iohn Danckerts was of Anilterdam, and of the fame fa-
mily with the preceding artift ; the year of his birth has
not been recorded, but foon after the middle of the feven-
teenth century he emigrated to England, where he en-
graved feveral plates after Titian and other mailers, and
where he is faid to have produced the defigns for the
Englifh tranflation of Juvenal, which were engraven by
Hollar.

Juflin Danckerts was of the fame family, and was alfo a
printfeller of Amfterdam. He engraved the portraits of
William, prince of Grange, and Cafimir, king of Poland ;
a Venus and fleeping Cupid, and a fet of the feven gates
I of Antwerp ; more than which it would be needlefs to
fpecify of works fo utterly vvorthlefs as produtlions of art.

Henry Danckerts was brother to John, and was likewife
educated an engraver, but quitted tliat profefiion to take up
the pallet and pencils. He excelled in painting landfcape,
and travelled to Italy for improvement, where he refided
during fome time ; from thence he came into England, and
was patronized by Charles II. who employed him to paint
views of the royal palaces, and the lea-ports of England
and Wales. Thefe works are dated 1678 and 1679. At
the difcovery of the Popilh plot, being a Roman Catholic,
and probably a fuipefted charadler, he returned to Amfter-
dam, where he foon afterwards died.

The following are the moll important of his engravings :
Portraits of king Charles II. ; Ewald Screvelius ; and
Chriftian Rompf, (both phyficians to the prince ol Orange,)
in large folio ; a fet of the fea-ports and palaces of Eng-
land, and a large view, engraved on three plates, of the Y
at Amllerdam.

Simon Vlieger was born at Amfterdam in the year 1612.
He ftudied painting under Vandcr Velde the younger, and
excelled in reprefenting landfcapes and fea-views. This

ar-
tift likewife etched feveral paltoral fubjefts, ornamented
Danckert Dankerts was tb« fon of Cernelius, aad was with figures and animals, in a ftyle which combined that of

1 1 Rembrandt

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Rembrandt with the fpirit of Van Uden. The mark which
he frequently affixed to his engravings will be found in our
Pliite IV. of thofe ufed by the artilla of the Netherlands :
and the following is a feloftion of his bell works.

A landfcape, with a barge unlading on the banks of a river;
a pair of landfcapes, with trees, water, and figures, in quarto,
executed in a very delicate ftyle ; a fifh-market, with figures ;
a Dutch inn ; a landfcape, with water and ruins ; and an-
other landfcape, with a number of turkies on the fore-
ground, all of folio fize.

Valentine le Febrc, or Le Febure, was born at Bruffels
in the year 1642. In his youth he went to Venice to ftudy
the works of Titian and Veronefe, and acquired fome re-
putation as a painter. But his engravings, in general, are
feeble, and want harmony ; and the naked parts of his
figures are heavy and mannered. He, however, handled the
point with great facility, and produced good effefts of chiaro-
fcuro.

In the year 1680, a fet of fifty engravings, by this artift,
appeared at Vienna, entitled " Opera feleftiora, qux Titi-
anus Vecellius Cadabrienfis, et Paulus Calliari Veronenfis
invencrunt ct pinxerunt ; qiiasque Valentinus le Febre
Bruxellenfis delineavit et fculpfit." In 16S2, another edi-
tion was pubhfhed, and in 1749 a third, with the plates
retouched by John Adam Schweighart, of Nuremberg.

John Francis Milet, furnamed Franclfco, was born at
Antwerp in the year 1644. ^^ ^^^^ *^f French extrac-
tion, and becoming the difciple of Lorenzo Frank, was in-
ftrufted to imitate the learned and admirable ftyle of
Pouffin.

He became a painter and engraver of epic and heroic
landfcape ; travelled to Paris, and from thence to England,
where he left fome tellimonials of his merit as an artitt. On
his return to Paris he was elefted a profefTor in the French
academy, and ended his days in that metropolis, in the year
1680, leaving behind him feveral children, of whom two
became pointers.

The engravings of Francifco are juftly regarded with
fome intereft by connoiiFeurs. D'Argenville mentions the
fubjetls of only three, but the following are all after his
compofitions, and have every appearance of being the pro-
■duSions of the fame hand.

An heroic landfcape, with Egyptian edifices, "The Nile,
and Mofes floating in the Ark of Bultufhes." Another,
with the ftory of Cephalus and Procris ; a mountainous
fcene, with buildings and figures in the tafte of Pouffin ;
another with paftoral figures ; another with figures bathing ;
another, in which is introduced the ftury of the woman
of Canaan ; an Italian garden fcene with a bridge and
; figures, and a pair of upright landfcapes, with ruined build-
ings and figures in the coftume of antiquity, all of large
folio dimenlions.

Cornelius Vermeulen was barn at Antwerp in the year
1644. He travelled to Paris for profcllional improvement,
and refided there for fome years, but at length returned to
his native country, and died there in 1702.

He handled the graver with judgment, his chiarofcuro is
tolerably good, and his Ityle of manual execution poffelTes
confiderable neatnefs and clearnefs ; but he did not under-
fland the human figure correftly enough to excel in hillori-
cal fubjefts, and hh parlmits are therefore his belt works.

From thefe the collector may with advantage feleft thofe
of queen Elizabeth ; Anne Bo'eyn ; Catherine Howard ;
and Oliver Cromwell, all after Vander Werf ; John Bap-
tifta Boyer d'Aquilles; Louis de Clermont, bilhop of Leon;
Henry Meyercron, envoy to the court of Denmark from
France, all in fulio ; Maria Louifa d' Orleans, duchefs of

Montpenfier, in an oval ; Louis de Luxembourg, marftial
of France ; Peter Vincent Bcrtim ; Bardo Bardi Magalotti,
a Florentine gentleman ; Jofeph Rocttiers, a medal engraver,
all from H. Rigaud ; Philip V. of France ; Maximilian
Emanuel, elcftor of Bavaria ; Nicholas de Latinat, marfhal
of France ; Agnes Frances Lelouchier, countefs o( Arco,
all after J. Vivier, in large folio ; Louis Urban le Fevre de
Caumartin, mafter of the Requefts, from F. de Troy, in
folio ; Francis Brunct, prefidcnt of the grand council, and
Mezetin Angelo Conltantine, both after the fame painter ;
Maria Louifa de Taffis and Nicholas vander Borcht, both
after Vandyke.

Thefe are his principal portraits, which are all of folio
dimenfions. His few A^orjiru/ engravings that arc worthy
of notice, are " Erigone, with Bacchus under tlie Form of
a Bunch of Grapes," in folio, after Guido. On? of Ru-
bens's Luxembourg gallery, from the Life of Queen Mary
de Medicis, and a courtly allegory of " Louis XIV. con-
quering Herefy,'' from a marble group, by Le Conte,
both of folio fize.

Adam van Zylvelt was born at Amilcrdam, A.D. 164c ;
under what mafter he ftudied is not known, but he evidently
imitated the ftyle of John Vificher. His principal works
confift of portraits, in the execution of which he rarely went
beyond mediocrity, and of thefe the chief are Coornhaert
the engraver, in 4:0. ; Stephen le Moine, a theologian of
Leyden ; Chriftophcr Wittichus, profefTor of the Leydeii
academy, and Herman Witfius, a theologian ; all from
J. Heyman, and all of folio fize.

Albert Meyeringh was a painter and engraver of land-
fcape and ornament. He was born at Amlterdara in the
year 1635, and died in that city in 1714.

Albert learned the rudiments of art of his father Fre-
deric Meyeringh, but owed the dcgice of excellence to
which he attained rather to his own genius, and his friend-
ffiip with Polydore, who was his fellow ftudent. In his
youth he travelled through France, and from thence to Italy
for improvement. Here he firft became acquainted with
Polydore, and here for ten years the two friends purfued
their ftudies together.

Meyeringh now returned to Holland, and was much em-
ployed in painting the ceilings and other decorative parts of
various public edifices. He alf* painted landfcape, and
etched feveral foho plates, all from his own compofitions, in a
free and painter-like ftyle. Their fubjefts confift chiefly,
like thofe of the etchings of his friend Polydore, of rocky-
mountains, cataradls, and other romantic landfcape fcenery,
adorned with cattle, figures, and ruined edifices.

Of the fuperior merits and general biography of John
Glauber, the reader will find an account under the article
Polydore. The etchings of this mafter are performed in
a flight ftyle, and their chiarofcuro is but feeble. Yet are
they valuable, on account of the claffic or paftoral beauties
of his compofition.

He in general etched after his own piflures, but he pro-
duced one claffic landfcape with rocks and waterfalls after
Pouffin, and his allegorical fet ef the revolutions of the
four great nations of antiquity, which is intitled " Statum
Afl'yriorum, Perlarum, Graecorum, et Romanorum," is after
Gerard Lairefi'e, as is alfo " Abilhag before David." All
the prints of Polydore are of folio dimenfions.

John Biffchop, or Epifcopiii's, was born at the Hague in
the year 1646, and died at Amilerdam in 16S6. He owed
his excelleiice as an artift entirely to his own genius, having
never ftudied under any mafter. He made defigns in dil-
temper with great tafte, and which are beautifully finifhed ;
and his etchings are very much eftcemed by conuoiffeurs,
3 U 2 tliey

raiiding ;" " Two Horfe Soldiers difmounting before a Vic-
tualling Tent," both in folio ; "A Halt before an Inn ;"
"Departure for Hunting;" "A Combat of Horfe Sol-
diers ;" another " Combat of Cavalry ;" and " The Im-

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS GF THE.

they arc harmonifed with the graver, and though flight, are Albert of Chevrcufe, in large folio ; " The City of LifTc,
free, intelligent, and plcafing, He imparts riclmefs to his inverted by the French Army," on two large folio pbtes ;
tones, and roundnefs to his figures, far beyond what is " The taking cf Dole," in large foHo, on two plates ;
ufually done with the joouit, lo little afTifted as it is m the " The March of Louis XIV. and his Retinue, over the
prints of Biffchop by the graver. His figures in general Pont-neuf to the Palace," in large folio ; all after Van der
are drawn with ability, yet in a mannered rather than a cor- Meulen. " The Battle between the French and Germans
reft ftyle. The extremities, indeed, are not always well in Italy," in large folio, after D. Hoogllraten ; and " The
marked, nor his heads equally expreflive or beautiful. grand Procefliou of Horfes in Holland," dedicated to Fre-
His molt conliderable worfe is intitled " Paradigmata gra- deric William, fon of the king of Pruffia, in large folio,
phices variorum artiphicum tabuiis jEneis," H^ague 1672, Thefe two laft are etched, and then harmonifed with the
in fobo. Two editions of this work were publillied in the graver, and are very capital performances.
fame year, one by the artirt, confifting of one hundred and Mezzotinlos from his own Defigns. — " Two Cavaliers ma-
two plates ; the other contains one hundred and thirteen, "' '

and was publifhed by Nic. Viffcher. As they differ effentially,
the curious are generally deiirous of poflefllng both.

The mark ufed by this artill was a J and E, becaufe he
latinifed his name, fubftituting Epifcopius for Biffchop : this perial Cavalry fighting againd the Turks," all in large folio

Peter Schcnck was one of thofe who regarded engraving
as a trade, or means of obtaining money, merely ; and on
whom it IS fruitlefs to dwell. He was born at Elberfeld,
A.D. 164J ; became a printfeller of Amfterdam, and died
at Leipfic in 1711.

While he continued to engrave, he was a mere working-
man of induttry. Sometimes he fcraped mezzotiMto por-
traits; and fometimes he etched views ; but both were very
indifferentlv performed. Thofe of his produftions which are
beif entitled to notice, are the

Mczzofintos of Petrus Schenck, after J. P. Feuerling, in
folio ; another portrait of Peter Schenck, fcated at table
with his wife, in large folio ; Martin Luther ; Gottifried
Keck, after D. Richtcr ; Gerard Lairefle ; Philip Jacob
Spener, theologift ; John Oleraris ; Peter de Witt, a di-
vine, after Muris ; Simon Schynvoet, an architeft of Am-
iterdam ; William Henr)', prince of Orange ; Charles XI.
fieci-ee, &c. ; and was employed by prince tugcne to and Charles XII, kings of Sweden; bull of the Virgin; "A
paint and engrave the battles and fiegcs he fo fortunately Criminal confeffing to a Monk;' " A young Woman con-
coridufted. This artift not only charafterifed the different felling to a Monk;" " Death playing the Violin, and pre-
nations he reprefented by the coftume, but by the general
phyfiognomy of his figures.

He likewife etched a confiderable number of plates in a
flight, fpirited ftyie, with great freedom, and in a way
which manifells the hand of a mailer. The figures, horfes,
and other principal objeds, are executed with peculiar feel-
ing and ability.

The work which he executed from the piftures which
be painted for prince Eugene is ufually bound up in a
large foho volume, with biftorical explanations by M. J.
Dumont. They were publithed at the Hague in 1725,
on the frontifpiece is infcribed " Dcffeintes et gravees en
taille douce, par le Sieur Jean Huchtenbourg." This work
is curious and confiderable, but is not confidered as con-
taining his beft engravings ; he likewife fcraped mezzotinto
a good deal, but his performances in that art are not fo
good as his etchings ; and it is very difficult to find good
imprcfiions.

When this artift did not fign his name at length, he fub

monogram will be found in PIcite IV. of thofe ufed by the
artiils of the Netherlands.

The remainder of the engravings by BilTchop, are
" Chrift and the Woman of Samaria," in large folio, after
Annibale Caracci ; " Jofeph diftributing Corn to the
Egyptians," in large foHo, from Bartholomew Bru'.berge ;
" The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," its companion, from
the fame painter. A large book from the dravvings of the
great marters ; and a book of ftatues.

John van Hugtenburg, or Huchtenbourg, was horn at
Haerlem, A.D. 1646, and died at Amfterdam in 1733.
He ftudied painting under John Wyck, and afterwards
went to Italy for improvement, and refided a coiiliderable
time at Rome. On his return he vilited Paris, and often
painted on the fame canvas with Van der Meulen, though
his ftyle bears refemblance to that of Wouvermans.
Hugtenburg excelled in painting battles, encampments,
&c. ; and was employed by prince Eugene to

fenting himfelf to a Man," infcribed " Mortis in^rata Mu-
fica," bU of folio fize.

John vander Bruggcn was another who merged the artift
in the tradefman. He v.'as born at Brufiels, A.D. 1649 '
and worked for fome time in his native country, but after-
wards went to Paris, where he eftablifhed liimfelf as a print-
feller. In 1698 he publifhed the works of La Page, with
the portrait of that artift engraved by himfelf in mezzotinto,
after Largilliere.

There is a great number of mezzotinlos by Vander Brug-
gen, which, though not entirely deftitute of merit, are fueh
as do hini no great honour as an artift. The mark which he
frequently ufed will be found in our Plate IV. of thofe ufed
by the engravers of the Low Countries.

The following are the molt important of his engravings.
The portrait of himfelf after Largilliere ; Antony Vandyke ;
and the portrait of Louis le Grand, all in foho. " The Gold
weigher," after Rembrandt; "An old Woman weighing
Gold ;" "A Man feated, with a Goblet in his Hand ;" A

ftitHted his initials, in the manner expreffed in Phte IV. of Man leaning againft a Table, and a Woman behind him

thofe ufed by the engravers of the Netherlands. The fol-
lowing are confidered as fome of his beft engravings.

"Travellers halting before a Forge," in folio; "Wil-
liam III. reviewing his Army near Arnheim," in large folio ;

fet of eight oval prints, in 4to., reprefeming marches.

fcolding;" "A Man feated under a Tree lighting his Pipe;"
" A Man fleeping, and another ftanding near him ;" " Cu-
pid and Pfyche ileeping ;" a large fkull, infcribed "Me-
mento mori ;" " An old Man in a Public-hcufe,, with a
Girl playing the Flute ;" " A Party of Peafants in a Pub-

encampments, battles, &c. ; a fet of four mountainous land- lic-houfe, fmoking and drinking ;" both the latter are after
fcapes with figures ; " Hunters refting," in a woody land- Teniers ; and all are of quarto dimcnfions.
fcapc, in large foho ; all from his own piftures. " A com- Sufanna vander Bruggen was doubtlefs related to this
hat of Cavalry," in large folio, after Van der Meulen; artift, and engraved fome few plates of no great merit, after
smother " Combat of Cavalry," dedicated to duke Charles Vandyke and Rubens.

.Toha

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

John Luycken, or Luyken, wns born at Amfterdam feme
tirne about the middle of the feventeenth century, and died
:n that city in the year 1712. He ftudied the arts under
Martin Zaagmoelen. Baffan fays of his prints, " we remark
in them a fertility of genius, joined with great fpirit, judg-
ment, and facility of execution, he is the Callot, the Delia
Bella, and the Le Clerc of Holland." But this is fayiog a
jrreat deal too much. He neither drew fo corredly, nor
etched in fo clear and determined a llyle as either of thofe
diftinguiihed engravers. It is true there are few of his
prints, into which he has not introduced a great number of
figures, but the groups are feldom artfully managed ; the
lights, for want of harmony, and b^-ing too much icattered,
confufe the fubjeift, and fatigue the eye. This is fpeaking
of them, however, only comparatively ; confidering them by
themfelves they pofTefs great merit.

He chiefly engraved after his own defigns, and the moil
confiderable of his works is the large bible, which was pub-
liflied by IVIontier in two folio voluuies, and the following.

A fet of " The Ten Commandments," in 8vo. ; a fet of
feventeen, of "The Hiftory of Lapland and Finland," in
4to. ; a fet of feventeen views, &c. which accompany the
Eaftern Travels of M. Thevenot, in 410. Tlie hillory of
William III. king of England, m 8vo. ; " The Republic of
the Hebrews," in twenty-eight plates, in 8vo. and 410.
" The Theatre of Martyrs," from the time of Jefus Chrill,
to modern times, in a fet of one hundred and five plates, in
4to. ; "The Prophet Jonas, preaching to the Ninevites,"
in large folio ; "The Affairination of Henry IV. of France,"
in folio ; " The Flight of the Reformers at the Revocation
of the Edift of Nantes," in large folio ; " The Malfacre
of St. Bartholomew, or the Death of admiral Coligny," a
very capital print, engraved on two large folio plates.

Gafpar, or Cafpar Luycken, was the fon of John Luy-
ken, mentioned in the preceding article, and was born at
Amfterdam in the year 1660. He learned engraving from
his father, and defigned and engraved a confiderable number
of plates; but his works are neither fo numerous nor fo mij-
ritorious as thofe of his father, whofe ftyle he imitated.
Among them the following will probably be found moft wor-
thy of feledion. " St. Francis Xavier preaching before
the Emperor of Japan ;"' " The Jefuit MifTionaries obtaining
Audience of the Emperor of China ;" " The Emperor Jo-
feph I. receiving the Holy Sacrament ;'' " The Miracle of
the Five Loaves," all of large folio fize ; " The Twelve
Months of the Year ; ' " The Four Seafons;" and " The
Grand Roman Cabinet ;" all in folio.

Paul van Somer was born in Holland, A.D. 1649. He
refided during fome time at Paris, and afterwards came to
London. He etched, engraved, and fcraped in mezzotinto,
but his works in either art do him no great credit ; among
them the following are moft worthy of attention.

" Tobit burying the Dead," in large folio, from Sebaf-
tian Bourdon; " Mofes found in the Ark of Bulrulhes,"
after Pouflin ; " The Baptifm of our Saviour," after the
fame painter, both in folio ; " Nil placet, &c." or the fable
of the old man and his als, after GrifEer, on a fet of fix
folio plates.

From hisonvn Compofitions. — "The Holy Family ;" "The
Adoration of the Shepherds," both in folio ; " A Ruftic
Converfation of Four Peafants," in large folio. The four
parts of the day, on 4to. plates, mz. " The Morning," (Ce-
phalus at thechace;) " Noon Day," (Arethufa bathing in
the river Al.pheu3 ; ) " The Afternoon," (Diana and Ac-
teon ;) at/d "The Evening," ( Py ramus and Thifbe.)

The two following are in mezzotinto. " The Ceuntcfs

of Meath," after Mignard ; and « An Officer and Girl in
converfation," both in folio.

John van Somer was born in Holland in the year 1640,
and was probably related to Matthias van Somer, who, ac-
cording to profeflbr Chrift, engraved a fet of landfcapes.
John engraved in mezzotinto, and with the graver, but did
not much exceed mediocrity. The following are fome of
his bcft productions. Antony Gregatus, profelTor of theo-
logy at Heidelberg ; Daniel Sachfe, theologift, both in 410. ;
Charles Louis, eleftor of Bavaria ; Michael Adria.itfz, ad-
miral of the United Provinces, a fine portrait, in large folio,
from Du Jardin ; " Tliree Peafants drinking in an Ale-
houfc," from J. Both; "Dutch Smokers," after Oftade ;
" A Dutch Concert," from Teniers ; " A Man filbng his
Pipe, and a Girl drinking," from Gerard Terburgh, all in
folio ; " The Angels appearing to Abraham," in large
foho, from Laftman ; and " A Party of Pleafure," from
his own defign.

S. A. Van Lamfweerde was a native of Utrecht, born
fome time about the year 1650 ; but he appears to have
been an artift of no great merit. He engraved portraits
fomewhat in the ftyle of Suyderhoef, among which the fol-
lowing are moft worthy of notice.

Francis Gomarius, a theologian of Bruges, in folio ;
Henry Alting d'Embden, a theologian of Heidelberg, in
4to. ; Anna Maria Schurman, in folio ; Cyprian Regnier,
a juris confulte, at Utrecht, after Gerard Duffeit ; and
Charles de Maets, profeflbr of theology at Utrecht, after
Hendrick Bloemaert ; both in large folio.

John Lamfvelt was born at Utrecht in the year 1660.
He was probably a difciple of Romain de Hooghe, whofe
ftyle he has tried to imitate. His principal works are por-
traits, part of which he engraved for the hiftory of
Louis XIII., by Michael le VafTor, among which the fol-
lowing are the moft important. A Head of Oliver Crom-
well, in an oval of quarto fize ; John de Wit ; Conielius
Pieterfzoon Hooft ; George Caflander ; Hubert Duifhuis,
of Rotterdam ; all rare and much fought after by connoif-
feurs ; and a large folio engraving of " The Siege of
Tournay, by the duke of Marlborough and prince Eu-
gene."

John Verkolie was boru at Amfterdam in the year 1650,
and died at Delft in 1693. He became an artift owing te
an accident he met with in his youth, which obliged him to
keep his bed for three years, during which time he amufed
himfclf with copying pifturcs and drawings : he acquired
the rudiments of perfpeftive from books, and he foon tried
to paint in oil, without any other inftruftions. He after-
wards became the difciple of John Lievens, and ftudied with
afliduity the piftures of Van Zylc. Verkolie refided at
Delft, where he was obliged to employ great part of his
time in painting portraits, but he hkewife fucceeded in
hiftorical and converfational fubjefts. He amufed himfelf
with fcraping in mezzotinto, which was then but recently
difcovered ; and the prints which he executed are much
fuperior to what might have been expedted at fo early a
period. The following Portraits are fome of his beft pro-
dudions in that art.

Himfelf, after De Leeuw, in 8vo. ; Steffan Wolters, from
P. Kneller, in quarto ; Jofias van de Kapelle, a clergyman
of Lcyden ; Cornehus van Ackcn, a clergyman of Delft j
William Henry, prince of Orange ; and Hortenfia de
Mancini, duchefs of Mazarin, after Lely, all in folio.

Various Htjlorical SubjeSs, \Sfc — " Jupiter and Cilifto,"'
from G. Netfcher, (the companion to " AShcpherdand Shep-
kerdefs," by G. Valck, from the fan:>e painter) ; " Venus

and

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

and Adonis," from his own compofition, companion to"Ce-
phalus and Procris," engraved bv Broedelct, after Gerard
Hoet; " Venus and Cupid ;" " Pan and Flora ;" "A
young Man and Girl converfnig," from Ochtenvelt, ail of
folio fize.

Nicholas Verkolic was born at Delft in 1673, and was the
fon of the preceding artift. He became tin- pupil of his
father, and lucceeded in painting hiftorical fubjefts and por-
traits. He was alfo celebrated for his Indian ink drawings,
which he finilhed with great delicacy. Nicholas learned the
art of mezzotinto icraping from his father, ant! praftifed it
with rtill more fuccefs. The following are fome of his bell
engravings.

Portraits. — Nicholas Verkolie, from a pifture by himfelf ;
the painter drawing from a model ; the amateur Moelards
with f folio, all in quai to ; .Tohn Peter Zomer, a con-
noiffeur, holding a print ni his hand, from A. Booner. Some
few impreffions were taken from this plate, without the
print, which is held by Van Zomer ; b\it thefe are exceed-
ingly rare ; Martin van Bockelin, from his own pifture ;
and Bernacd Picart, after Nattier, all in folio.

Various, from his oiun Dijigns, and after ether Mailers. —
" The Holy Family," after A. vander WerfF ; " Diana and
Endymion ;" and its companion, " Bacchus and Ariadne,"
both in folio; "A Shepherd careffing a Shepherdefs," in large
folio, all after G. Netfcher ; " An Entertainment in a
Garden," in folio, after J. B. Weninx ; " Two Men drink-
ing and fmoking,'' after A. Matham, in large folio ; " A
Youth afieep on a Girl's Lap," from his own defign ; " A
young Girl and her Lover having their Fortunes told.'"
" An old Man feated in a Garden, with a Girl, who holds
a Miniature in her Hand," both in folio. Heads of a man
and woman laughing ; a lap-dog playing on a chair ; and
two dogs at play, all in quarto, very delicate engravings.

Solomon Savery was born at Amlterdam foon after the
middle of the 17th century, and by fome writers is faid,
with great probability, to have refidcd during part of his
life in England. Under what mafter he ftudied, if \inder
any, is not known ; but he handled his graver with a degree
of vigour, feehng, and charafteriftic touch which proclaims
origii al powers. The mechanical exaftnefs and regularity
of his hatchings, he, with great addrefs, rendered fubfervient
^o his art of exprefhng the feveral furfaces which fo beau-
tifully diverfify the ample face of nature : his chiarofcuro is
fufficiently pcnverful ; and if the graver was not the fole in-
ftrument of his art, he very rarely employed the point.

He produced, a few hiftorical fubjetts ; but his chief (ex-
cellence lay in portrait engraving, and he feems to have been
partial to fuch heads as were covered with hats, either be-
caufe he engraved the high-crowned hat, which was then in
fafhion, with confiderable ability, or becaufe he believed
that fo broad a mafs of darknefs which thefe hats afforded,
gave effedl to his faces.

lAh principal Portraits are thofe of doftor Camphuyfen,
furrounded by an olive wreath, and three allegorical figures,
after C. Cadeyn ; Simon Epifcopius, and Andrea Calvius,
after Cuyp ; Ifaac Saaly of Ziriczee ; John Speed, the
Englifli chronicler, with his hat on, a very excellent plate ;
king Charles L with a high-crowned hat, the face of which
portrait is believed to have been taken from a pifture by
Vandyke, and the hat and the other accompaniments added
by Savery himfelf; and Thomas, lord Fairfax, alfo with a
hat on, all of folio fize.

Hijlorieal Subjeas, i^c. — " Chrift expelling the Money-
lenders from the Temple," in large foho. A man's head
with mujlachios and fliort curly hair, both after Rembrandt,

A errand entertainment given oh the water, in honour of
Mary of Medicis, after S. Vlieger, (which belongs to a fat
of engravings that were publilhed at Amfterdam in the year
1633, and entitled " Medicca Hofpes.") A grand procef-
fion, in large folio, after M. de Jonghe ; and a fet of feven-
teen etchings, of whi h the fubjeCls are taken from Ovid's
Metamorpholes, after F. Cleyn.

Thomas Wyck, The, dore Maes, Julius Fran5ois, (fur-
named Norizoiiti), Louis Deyller, Charles de Moor, and
Richard and John van Orley, were Dutch and Flemifti
painters, who lived al this period, fome of whom performed
a few etcliings, and others of whom fcraped a few mez-
zotintos.

The etchings of Wyck are fmall, but free and delicate.
Fourteen of them, which were in tli-; poffeniou of Mariette,
and were fold at his anction for three hundred and fix livres
and fix fous, are probably all that Wyck ever produced.
They confill of pafti>ral and military fubjefts, and are all
from his own compolitions.

In thofe of Maes, much of painter-like intelhgence may
be difcerned. " The Holy Virgin and Infant Chrift, at-
tended by two Ang.ds ;" and a fet of fmall plates, of cavalry
(liirmifhing, &c. are all that we know of from the needle
of this artift.

The elcliings of Horizonti, like thofe beautiful water-
colour piftures with fardiftant and fweetly-painied horizons,
from wliich he obtained his cognomen, are landfeapes in
which Tivoli and the Campania of Italy are frequent
features.

Deyller filled up fome of his hours of feclufion with etch-
ing and mezzotinto fcraping ; and his produftions in thefe
arts partake of the charatter of his genius as a painter, of
which we have already treated. Among them is a fet of
four landfeapes, in rather a grand ilyle, of quarto fize,
which are rare and much efteemed.

The excellence of De Moor lay in portraiture. He ,
etched, in a fpirited manner, the heads of his mafter, Gerard
Douw, Van Goyen, and Mieris, and he alfo, according to
Baffan, fcraped a few plates in mezzotinto, of which we
know not the fubjefts.

Richard van Orley was born at Bruffels, A. D. 1652,
and died in the fame city in 1732. He learned the element*
of art of his father, who was a landfcape painter of no great
eminence. He began by painting miniatiires ; but feeling
a delire to gain a more elevated Hation in art, he ftudied
in the fchools of defign with great affiduity, and became an
hiftorical painter of no mean talent.

He likewife executed a confiderable number of etchings
in a flight coarfe ttyle, and which, in fome inftances at leaft,
are defeftive in point of drawing ; among them, the follow-
ing are the moll meritorious.

" The Marriage of Joleph and the Virgin," after Lucas
Giordano, in folio ; " The Fall of the rebel Angels," a
large folio print, from Rubens ; " A drunken Bacchus,
fupported by Satvrs," from the fame painter ; and " Ver-
tumnus and Pomona," ?11 in folio. A fet of twelve, in
oftaro, from Guarini's " Paftor Fido." A fet of twenty,
eight folio plates, lengthways, taken from the New Tefta-
raent, from drawings by John van Orley.

John van Orley was the brother of Richard, and did not
diftinguifti himfelf lefs as an artift ; he frequently made
drawings from pifturcs for the latter to engrave after ; and
likewife aflifted in engraving the fet from the New Teila-
ment, after his own defigns.

John Gole was born at Amfterdam about the year 1660,
He worked with the gravet in flrokes, and fcraped feveral

mez-

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

mezzotintos. His works are numerous, but not very edi-
mable. On the whole, thofe appear to be the bed which
are executed with the graver. A few of the belt of his en-
gravings, in each manner, are fpecilied below.

Line Engraving. — Charles XI., king of Sweden ; the
duchefii de la Valliere ; the imfortunate Grand Vizier ;
Kara Muftapha ; Mahomet IV., emperor of the Turks ;
Abraham Hellenbrock, a clergyman ; the head of a man
of letters, in an oval ; Nicolas Colviiis, a clergyman of
Amfterdam, after B. Vaillant, all of folio fize.

Mez,zotinto Engravings. — Bernard Somer ; .John Oyers ;
and Jacnb Gole juris confulle), the latter after D. Plaes ;
George Au'^uftus, prince royal and eleftor of Brunfwick,
after Hirlman ; Charles III. king of Spain ; admiral Van
Tromp ; Charles, landgrave of HofTe-Cafiel ; Balthafar
Becker, author of the Enchanted World; "Peafantsfmoking
round a Fire," after Oftado. . " A Group of three Peafauts
in an Ale-houfe, one of whom plays the Violin," after
Brouwer ; " The Tooth-drawer," after Teniers, all in folio ;
"The School-mafter," after Jiemflcerck ; r^rtd " Heraclitus
deploring the Mifery of hiuiian Nature," after C. Dufart,
both in quarto.

John Groenfvclt, or Groenvelt, was born at the Hague
in the year 165O. He etched a coufiderable number of
plates, after Berghem, Van Goyen, Lingelbach, and other
mafters, which are much elleemed ; atid a few portraits, in
which the faces are ahnoil entirely ilippled. His general
ftyle of manual execution is neat, but finnewhat IlifF : and
the following are fpecified as being fome of the beft of his
engravings.

" Dorothea, countefs of Sunderland," after Vandyke, in
folio ; " A Girl with a Cat," after Bloemaert, in q;'arto ;
" The .Adoration of the Eaftern Kings," after P. Veronefj;
" Chrift before Pontius Pilate," after Andrea Schiavone ;
and, " .-V Man aileep on a Tub," all of folio lize ; a fet of
fix landfcapes, after .Berghem ; and another let of four,
after the fame mafter, of quarto fize, the fubjetts of which
are various palloral incidents.

Arnold Houbraken was born at Dordrecht in the year
1660, and died at Amderdam in 17 19. He ftudied under
various mafters, and laftly under Samuel de Hoogllraeten ;
he painted portraits and hiftorical fubjefts ; and is the author
of a work in the Dutch language, entitled " The Great Thea-
tre of the Dutch and Fleinifli Painters, by Arnold Houbra-
ken, with their portraits, engraved by himfelf." According to
our countryman Strutt, Honbrakfn came into England, and
made drawings from the pictures of Vandyke, which were
afterwards engraven by Peter van Gunft, and he received
one hundred guilders for every drawing. He executed fe-
veral flight etchings, with great inteUigence, from his own
defigns ; which are riuch fought after by amateurs. His
heads of the painters ,ire engraven, with much tafte, in orna-
mental borders, with feveral on one plate ; and the follow-
ing are likewife by him : .-^ fet of etchings of boys and
vafes ; " Vertumnus and Pomona ;" an emblematical fub-
jeft, reprefenting three women looking at a child in a fort
of bafl<et, or cradle, encircled by a ferpent ; and " The
Difciples at Emmaus," in the llyle of Rembrandt, all in
quarto, and from his own compofitions.

James, or Jacob Ploubraken, was an engraver of admirable
talent, to whom England is largely indebted for perpetuat-
ing, and diffufing through Europe, the portraits of feveral
of her moft illuilrious poets, ftatefmen, and warriors. He
was born at Dordrecht in the year 1698. and was the fon
of Arnold, of whom we have treated in the preceding ar-
ticle. He dated many of his productions from Amfterdam,

which feems to affprd evide^^rtce of his long refidenee there
but he died in his native city in the year 1780. '

Houbraken had no other maflcr than his father, but his
genius, and the ftudy which he beflov.ed on the belt por-
traits of Nanteuil and Edelinck, fupcrfeded inftruftion, or
rendered it fuperfluous. Strutt thinks, and with much of
the appearance of reafon, that he formed his ftyle of en-
graving more particularly, by an attentive ftudy of that
portrait of Le Brun, which is engraved by Edelinck, and
prefixed to his battles of Alexander. However this may-
have been, his very high rank, as an engraver of portraits,
was foon acknowledged througli Europe, and has called
forth the juft encomiums of Watelet, of Gilpin, of Martini,
and of Strutt. In the colledtion of portraits of iliuftrious
men, which was publiftied in London by J. and P. Knap-
ton, which perhaps, on the whole, may be efteemed the
principal work of Houbraken ; the furrounding accompani-
ments arc faid to have been defigned and engraven by
Gravelot. Thefe accompaniments are etched with confider--
able tafte and energy, and form an harmonious and very
agreeabk contraft, to the rich and deep-toned foftnefs and
more elaborate execution of the portraits themfclves, to
which they are kept in due fubordination. In fome of hig
foreign produaions, however, Houbraken has himfelf op-
poled, in a fimilar manner, though not perhaps with quite
equal fuccefs, the pifturefque wildnefs and roughnefs of
etching, to the more poliftied fweetnefs and mello\.nefs of
his dry needle and graver, and even in the laCcd ruffs and
other ornamental parts of the drcfles of his 'Enghfh por-
traits, he has contrived to mingle a fmall portion of etch-
ing with enviable fuccefs. But his chief ftrength lay in
the truth and taile of his drawing, and the vigour and de-
licacy with which, as occallon "required, he handled his
graver. Sometimes, in the fame production, may be beheld the
boldeft c(,urfes of mellow lines, — as in the armour of his por-
trait of the marquis of Montrofe, after Vandyke, — blended
and harmonized,^ witii admirable addrefs, with the utmoft
fweetnefs and deucai y of execution in the face and hair.

The monarch, or parhament, who could prevent engravers
from affixing their names to any other than their own pro-
duftions, would probably perform a moft effential fervice
to engraving as an art. The demai.ds of commerce will
have the matter othcrwife. Tiie cupidity of gain, in all
trading places, fuUies the purity of an honourable love of
fame, and damps the ardour of difinteretted exertion. In
the age and country in which it was the fortune of Hou-
braken to be placed, he was almoft of neceffity fubjetl to
this ba: eful influence : and his name accordingly appeai-s to
fome engravings that are certainly in parts, if nht alto-
gether, the produftions of inferior men. He who would
meafure the true ftandard of the merits of this diftinguilhed
artift, or form a juft eftimate of his attainments, fhould
look at early impreffions, (not fucli as are now common
in the London ftiops, and taken from the retouched plates,)
of the portraits of tir Thomas More, Hambden, Schomberg,
the earls of Arlington and Eedford, the duke of Richmond,
and fome others in the fame valuable volume.

Strutt is more critically obfervant in commeutintr on the
worlds of Houbraken, than in moft other parts of his bio-
graphical diftionary. He details the intcreft with which he
rrgarded thefe portraits, with feeling; and exemplifies the
companfon which he made between Houbraken and thofe
admired portrait engravers who ftand foreinoft in the fchool
of France, by an elegant analogy.

After admiring the foftnefs and delicacy of execution,
good drav.'ing, and fine tafte, which are difplayed in the
works of Houbraken, he fays, " If his bell performances

bave

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

havf fver be.-ii turpaffed, it is in the mafterly determination
of the featuics, which we find in the works of Nanteuil,
EdeHnck, and Drevct : this gives an animation to the coun-
tenance, more cafily to be felt than defcribcd. From liis
fchcitudc to avoid the appearance of an outhne, he feems
freqnently tn have neglcfted the httle niarpnedes of light and
fhadow, which not only appear in Nature, but, like the acci-
dental femitoncs in mulic, raife a pleafing fenfation in the
mind, in proportion as the variation is jndiciaufly managed.
For want of attention to this eifential beauty, many of his
celebrated produdions have a milty appearance, and do not
ftrikc the eye with the force we might expeft when we con-
fider the excellence of the engraving."

The biographer here certainly touches his inflrument with
a finger of exquifite feehng : yet, as the wild mufic which
fhould accompany and aid the varying fcntimcnt of mental
emotion, is of a diilinft charaftcr from that Lydian mea-
fure and thofe dulcet tones, that

-" Sooth the foul to pleafure ;"

fo Struttmuft not be fuppofed to mean that one particular
ftyle of engraving is fuited, in preference to all others, to
portraits of every kind, and engraved after whatever painter.
The prefent writer entertains little doubt but that the femi-
demi dillinftions which he perceives between the ftyles of
different engravers, analogous to thofe which are noted in
mufic, will one day be fo generally felt and underftood by
profeiibrs, and finally by the public at large, as to become
the fubjeft of critical admeafurement and animadverfion ; and
when that day of pleafure (hall arrive, the foftnefs and
fweetnefs, and delicate indefinity which addrefles the fancy
rather than the fenfe, which confers that exquifite meking
roundnefs to which female and infantile beauty is fo much
indebted ; which may be traced in the ftyle of Houbraken,
and which, in our own times, has played among the zephyrs,
the loves, and the graces of Cipriani and Bartolozzi, will
be as much admired, when properly introduced, as the
more energetic touches of manly charafter and expreffion,
or " little (harpncfTes" which our Englifh critic has de-
fcribed with a feeling fo technically juft.

Comparifons might, doubtlefa, be feverally inftituted
with advantage to our critical knowledge of portrait en-
graving, between the Dutch artift and thofe great orna-
ments of the French fchool whom Strutt has named, but
it would perhaps lead us into too wide a field for the prefent
occafion. To compare him with Drevet alone : his works,
though lefs elaborate, are fcarcely lefs highly finifhed, and
are more mellow and free. Drevet feemed always approxi-
mating toward an ideal ftandard of perfeftion in which
cxaftitude fhould blend with truth and the graces, and
the peculiar tafte, and even the redundant ornaments of
Rigaud, the portrait painter of a (howy and luxurious,
rather than a tafteful age, are feduloufl) rendered ; Hou-
braken, dif^uifing every appearance of folicitude, is always
mallorly and free, and always like the painter after whom
he works, whether it be Holbein, Vandyke, or Lely. Dre-
vet trunfcended all his predecelTors, and left pofterity to
wonder at his powers of execution, and defpair of attaining
them -. Houbraken is more praftically meritorious ; when
we iee one of his portraits, we believe, as we admire it, that
the fame hand and mind might have accomp!i{hed many,
whereas, when we behold the St. Bernard, or archbifliop of
Paris, of Drevet, we think that fcarcely lefs than a life
could have been bellowed on them, and that he who has
engraved thefe plates has done enough for one man, if he has
done no more. If Drevet appears to defy competition, he
does fo with a ftretch of careful attention, and a (hare of

manual and vifual power, which we cannot but admire, where-
as Houbraken is always eafy, and always fuccefsful, when
he does not allow a lubftitute to handle his graver. He ap-
pears, in his works, to have lived to be eminently and ex-
tenfively ufefnl ; the fpeftator cannot regard one of his
portraits, without fuppofing that he muft, or knowing that
he might, have done many ; becaule he perceives that tlie
artiit knew tiie point where an high degree of excellence
might, with practical advantage, (lop (hort of the elaborate
precillon, and recondite beauty of executive detail, which is
difplayed in the portraits of Drevet.

The following lilt contains the whole of the works of
Houbraken with which we are acquainted.

Portraits in Folio. — A half-length of himfelf, after Quink-
hard, dated 1749 ; Arnold Houbraken, the father of Jacob ;
WiUiam VIH. landgrave of Heffe Cafill ; Jacob van
Hoorn, who married, for the fourth time, at the age of
ninety-feven, a young woman of twenty-three ; and its com-
panion, his laft wife, Jacoba van Scliled ; Albert Seba, of
Erzeel, in Ooilfrife, member of the Academy of Natural
Curiofities at Amllerdam ; John Burmar.n, doftor of me-
dicine ; Francis Burmann, of Utrecht, theologian ; Gufta-
vus WiUiam, baron of Imhof ; Peter Mufchenbroeck,
profellor of medicine at Leyden, all after Quinkhard ;
George, lord Anfon, after J. Wanderlaar ; Ferdinand van
Collen, a burgomafter of Amfterdam ; Gerard Arnoult, a
burgomafter ; Herman Alexander Roell, theologian, both
from the fame painter ; Peter Burman, profeifor at Utrecht,
after Herman vander My, or Myn ; Jerome Gaubius, a
phyfician; John Conrad Rucker, a juris confulte, both from
the fame painter; George I. king of England ; Thurlow,
fecretary to Oliver Cromwell ; and Thomas, lord Fairfax,
both after Cooper ; Catherine Howard, queen of Hen-
ry Vni. ; fir Thomas More, the chancellor, both from
Holbein, the toter a Tery celebrated engraving ; William
James Sgravefande, a mathematician, after Vandyke ; Wil-
liam Ruffell, duke of Bedford, from the fame painter ;
George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, after C. Johnfon ;
Sigbert Havercamp, profeffor at Leyden, after F. Mieris ;
Mary Stuart, conforl of WiUiam III. prince of Orange,
after G. Nctfcher ; John de Witt, grand penfionary of Hoi-
land, from C. Netfcher ; John Rodolphus Facfcli, of Bafle,
from J. R. Huber ; lieutenant-general Talmafh, after fir
Godfrey Kneller ; Anthony, duke of Shaftelbury, after fir
Peter Lely ; Mary Louila, of Helfe Caffel, from B. Ac-
cama ; Henrietta Wolters, from a pifture bv herfelf; Cor.
nelius Frooft, the painter of Amfterdam ; Jacob Compo
Weyerman, from C. Frooft ; Nicholas Verkolie, from a
pifture bv himfelf; Herman Schyn, fchoolmaller, from
Henrietta Wolters, called Van Peene, all in quarto ; Chrif-
tian Gottlieb Glafey, after P. Salice ; John Mannekemolen,
after Schouman ; the czar, Peter the Great ; William VHL
landgrave of Heffe Caifel ; and William, prince of Orange,
all of folio dimenlions.

Hiftorical, life, after C. Frtiojl. — " The Grandmother,"
from the cabinet of Pinto, at Amllerdam, in large folio :
" Avarice deceived," from the cabinet of Vander Mark, of
Leyden, in folio ; " The FelUval oi St. Nicholas," from
the cabinet of Muilman, at Amfterdam ; " The Cymbal
Player," a grand compofition, from the cabinet ot Vcrf-
churing ; '■ The Fair at Amllerdam," from the cabinet of
Neyman ; " Tartuffe, the Iiiipoftor," from the cabinet of
Braamcamps, all in large folio. And the two following for
the Drefden gallery ; " Daniel Barbaro," a Venetian noble-
man, after P. Veronefe, in ftjio ; and •' The Sacrifice of
Manoah," in krge folio, after Rembrandt.

John van Vianen, of Amfterdam, was alfo a portrait
t 2 f ngrayer^

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

engravei", but of talents very inferior to thofe of Hou-
lirakcn. He was born in the year 1660. He drew por-
traits from the life in ^ manner which has the reputation of
accuracy, but his ftyb of engraving, though neat, is talle-
kfs.

Among his portraits are thofe of John Turretin, of Ge-
neva ; Auguflus Pfeiffcr, of Lubec ; and Simon de Vries,
from drawings by Vianen himfelf ; and Frederic William I.
king of Prulfia, in cameo, with ornamental accompaniments,
after J. Goeree, all of folio dimenfions.

Vianen alfo engraved and publifhed feveral views of his
native city of Amllerdam.

Wilhehn, or William Swidde, was born in the province
of Holland, A.D. 1660. He probably iludied under one
of the VifTchers. Soon after his pupillage he travelled to
Sweden, where he obtained patronage, and where he pro-
bablv pafTed the remainder of his lite.

He both drew and engraved landfcape in a very pleafing
ftyle, in which delicacy is united with fpirit, and his name
and works have the honour of defcenduig to polleruy with
thofe of PufFendorf, for the firft edition of whofe hfe of
Charles Gullavus, of Sweden, Swidde produced the engrav-
ings, and alfo for " Suecia Antiqua et Hodierna."

The reft of his prints are generally found in fets, of v/hich
there is one, of twelve views of towns and cities in the pro-
vince of Friedand ; another fet of fix beautiful engravings,
entitled " Verfcheyde landfcliapjes feer aardig getckent
door D. Dalens, geetft door W. Swidde, et uytgegeven door
N. VilTcher ;" and another fet of iix mountainous land-
fcapes, with ruined edifices, cattle, and figures, in fmall
folio, alfo after Dalens.

John de Leeuw, the portrait-engraver, is worthy of fmall
notice. He was born at the Hague foon after 1660, and
was probably defcended from William de Leeuw, of whom
we have already treated.

Inconjunftion with John Lamfvelt, he engraved the por-
' traits for " The Hillory of Louis XHL" by Michael le
Vaffor. He alfo engraved the portrait of John, duke of
Marlborough, which is infcribed wuh the motto " Veni, Vidi,
Vici," in folio ; a very neat portrait of Karolus Niellius, in
quarto ; Jofeph Juftus Scaliger ; and Cowley, the poet.

Robert van Audenaerd, or Oudenord, was born at Ghent,
A.D. 1O6;. The name is provincial, and means literally
of OudcntrJ, of which place the father of our artift is be-
heved to have been a native.

Robert applied himfelf to the fludy of art at a very early
period of life, under the direftion of Van Cleef, and other
Flcmifh mailers. He afterwards travelled to Rome for im-
provement, and was received into the Academy of Carlo
Maratti.

At this period he is fpoken of with praife as a painter ;
but we ihall here confidcr him only as an engraver. His
early progrefs in the latter art, was interrupted by an aft
of profeflicnal indifcretion, which is thus related by Strutt.
" He frequently ufcd to amufe himfelf at his leiture with
the point ; and being pleafed, as it fhould feem, with a
fl<etch of his matter, reprefenting the marriage of the Vir-
gin, he etched a plate from it, of which Carlo Maratti knew
nothing, until the impreffions being circulated about, he
accidently faw one of them in a print-fhop, and by enquiry,
foon difcovered its author. Audenaerd telt fevorely the
effefts of his refeiitment, which he carried to fuch an height,
that he forbade him to approach hi;; fchool, declaring he
would never fee his face again." Maratti, however, though
warrm in his refcntment, was not implacable, and the prefent
writer would willingly afcribe the reconciliation which aftcr-
VoL. XXL

ward took place between the mafter and difciple, to the
interceflion of Giaconio Frey.

Frey (as we have relatpd in our biography of that very
diftinguiitied artift), was the liberal friend and fellow ftu-
dent of Audenaerd, and with the energy and indifcretion,
poifeffed the gcnerolity, of genius ; every principle of fym-
pathy muft, tlicrefore, have operated with him in obtaining
the forgivcnefs of his mafter, and the return of his friend.

It fcems not improbable that the alliduity of Audenaerd
was quickened by this occurrence, for he foon made fo great
progrefs in engravmg, that Maratti was extremely pleafed,
poured forth his inward feelings relpecting his art, ere they
were mcilowwd into principle, in the prefence of his two
favourite pupils ; and many of h.is belt piAures were, at
his own inrtance, put into the hands af Audenaerd to en-
grave. In particular, it was by his recommendation, which
has fince been perceived to have its foundation in the foundeil
theory, that the two fellow- Undents learned to incorporate
fo large a portion of etching as we behold in their hiftorical
prints, with the work of the graver.

On tliis point, Strutt judicioufly fays, " the plates which
were done by this artilt entirely with the graver, are not
equal, in my opinion, to thole where he alfo ufed the point ;
they arc cold and dellitute of effeft, and often, from his
great folicitude to avoid an outline, his draperies appear
heavy, and want (liarpnefs in the folds. The fame heavinefs
appears alfo in his heads and other extremities, and all the
naked parts of the figure in general, as I thmk, will readily
be allowed on examination of that, which reprefents " The
Affumption of the Virgin," from Carlo Maratti, a middling-
fized upright plate, vvith this infcription, " Quafi aurora
confurgens ;" whigli, if compared with the flight etching
of " Hagar and Khmael," from the fame mafter, I think the
fpirit of the latter will well repay the want of that neatnefs
which is found in the former. Audenaerd certainly poifefied
great knowledge of the human figure, and his drawing is fel-
dom incorreft."

During his ftay in Italy, cardinal Barbarigo, with be-
coming regard for the fame of his anceftry, engaged our
artift to engrave the portraits of the dillinguiftied men of
that family, with emblematical accompaniments.

The work confifts of one luuidred and fixty-five plates,
and for fome years remained imperfect on account of the
death of the cardinal, but at length the five plates which
were wanting to its completion, were engraved at the expence
of one of his defcendants, and the work appeared at Padua,
in large folio, accompanied by certain Latin poetry, in the
year 1762 ; fince which period it has been fold at the Bar-
barigo palace, at the price of twelve fequins.

After i-efiding feventeen years in Italy, Audenaerd re-
turned to his native city, where he died in 1743, being
fourfcore years of age. Wc fabjoin a lift of his belt
engravings.

Portraits. — Cardinal SacrilTanti ; cardinal Turufi ; and
cardinal Ottoboni, all from J. B. Gauli ; cardinal Francis
Barbarini, alter Carlo Maratti ; cardinal Henry de hi
Grange d'Arquien, aftei; Defpontes; cardinal Jofepk
d'Archinto ; cardinal Andrea di Santa Croce, both from
Jofeph Pafleri ; and father Francis Caraccioh, worftiippiiisj
the facrament, after And. Procaccini, all of folio fize.

Hijlorkal, ISc. after Carlo Alaratli.—" Hagar in the
Defart ;" " Abraham oifering his Son Ifaac ;" " Abra-
ham's Servant meeting Rebecca ;" " David with Goliah's
Head;" "The Celebration of the Victory of David;"'
" Bathiheb^ at the Bath ;" " The Annunciation ;" " Thi?
Adoration of the Magi," an etching ; " The Flight inlu
Egypt ;" " A Repofe during the Flight into Egypt," all
3X 13

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

'n folio ; " Chrill on the Mount of Olives," in large folio ; Peter van Giinft was born at Amfterdnm in the year 1667.
*' Chrid on the Crofs ;" " The Body of Chrift on the Knees This artill poffcned infinitely more patience than good tafte.
"of his Mother," accompanied by St. John and the holy He worked with the graver only, in a ftyle which feems
women ; " The Death of the Virgin ;" " The Aflumption evidently formed upon the works of the Drevets. His firft
of the Virgin," after a picture in the cathedral of Urbino, and fecond courfes of lines are eijiially neat, and equally
all in large folio ; " The Death of St. Jofeph," an etching powerful, which gives them a cold, filvery effeiS. The
in folio; "The Virgin diftributing the Rofary to the folds of his draperies, though not ill drawn, are marked too
Nuns," commonly called " Our Lady of the Rofary ;" harlhly, efpecially upon the outlines of the lighter parts of
" The penitent Magdalen ;" " The Martyrdom of St. them. His flefh is generally extremely neat, and linilhed
Blaife;" " St. Anthony of Padna kiffing the Foot of the with fmall dots; but the lights are too much covered,
Infant Saviour ;" "St. Philip of Neri ;" " James I. king which makes them appear heavy and laboured ; and he drew
of Italy, received among the Gods ;" " The finding of Ro- but incorreftly. His portraits are by far the bell, as well
mulu6 and Remus," all in large foho ; " Daphne purfued as the molt numerous of his works ; but they arc, in a great
by Apollo," after a pifture in the cabinet of the king of meafure, liable to the fame objeftions as his hillorical tub-
France, on two large plates. jefts. The following are feleCted from his works, as being

Hijiorical, i^c after ■various Italian Majlers. — " The Na- of the mod importance :

tivity of our Savionr," after P. da Cortona, in large folio ; Portraits. — Urbain Cherreau, from John Petitot. This

a fet of five etchings from " The Life of St. Bibiene," the i.s believed to be the only print engraved after that mailer,

fourth and fifth are from ftatues by Bernini, the remainder who was a celebrated enaiiiel painter. Cornelius de Witt ;

from P. da Cortona ; a group of " Atalanta and Hippo-
mene," after Bernini ; " The Rape of the Sabines," from
John de Bologna ; " St. de Facunda," after Hiac. Brandi,
all in folio ; " The Birth of the Virgin," from Annib. Ca-
racci ; " The Flagellation," and " Supplication of St.
Andrew," both in large folio; and " St. Andrew tranf-
ported to Heaven," in folio, all from Dominichino ; " The
Holy Family, with St. Lvike painting the Portrait of the
Virgin Mary," after M. A. Francefchini of Bologna ;
" The Anger of Achilles," a large engraving on three
plates, dedicated to pope Innocent XI I., and after J. B.
Gauli ; and a very rare and large engraving of an allegorical
thefis, in which the fame pope appears feated on a throne,
or m the cliair of St. Peter, overcoming herefy, &c. : it
alludes alfo to the converfion of Frederic Auguftus, and
contains medallions of that prince and queen Chriflina of
Sweden.

Arnold van Wefterhout was born at Antwerp in the year
1666. After learning the rudiments of en^jraving of his
father, he journeyed to Italy, and remained for fome time
at Florence, ftudying his art under the patronage of the
archduke Ferdinand, from wlience he removed to Rome, in
which metropolis he remained till the year 1730, which was
that of his death. His plates are executed with the graver
only, in a neat, clear ftyle ; but his chiarofcuro is feeble,
and the outlines of his figures are not always correft. He
engraved a confiderable number of plates from his own com-
pofitions, and fome few after other mailers, among which
the following are mod worthy of attention.

Portraits. — Michael Angelo Zamburinus, fuperior of the
Jefuits, after Odati ; Julius de Arrighettis, fuperior of the
order of the Servites, after Dio. Godin, both in 4to. ; car-
dinal James Antony Moriga, after L. David ; and prince
Rofpoli, in an oval, from the fame painter, both in folio.

Hijiorical., (jfc. after various Majlers. — " St. Peter No*'
lafque borne through the Clouds by two Angels," and
" ViAory," both from his own compofitions ; a female,
vnth. a unicorn, in a landfcape back-ground, after Caracci,
in 4to. ; " The Defcent from the Crofs," after Daniel de
Volterra, in large folio ; " The Virgin and Child," after
Carlo Maratti ; " St. Paul preaching at Athens," after J

Charles de St. Evremond, after Parmentier, all m 410. ;
Balthafar Bekkcr of Amftcrdam, author of the Enchanted
World, after Webber ; Jahacob Saporteu, a famous rabbi
of Amfterdam ; Francis Valentine of Dordrecht, an eccle-
fiallic, after A. Houbraken ; Frederic Dekker, doftor of
medicine at Leyden, after C. de Moor, all of folio dimen-
fions ; Salomon van Til, theologian, from the fame painter,
in large folio ; Hero Siberfma, a clergyman of Amlterdam,
from Bo'Jaud; John William Trifo, prince of Naflau, after
B. Vaillant ; Boris, prince of Kurakin, miniller of the
Ruffian dates, after Kneller ; Didier Erafmus of Rotter-
dam, after Holbein ; Mary, queen of England, after Van-
der Werff ; Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland ; Frederic,
palatine, king ol Bohemia ; Elizabeth, his queen ; James I.
of Great Britain ; Hugh Latimer, bilhop of Worceder ;
Francis Junius, painter and author, all after Vander Werff;
head of William III. of England, after J. Brandon, all of
folio fize ; Charles II. of England, after F. Stampart, in
large_ folio; John Chiuxhill, duke of Marlborough, after
Vander Werff; a ftt of ten portraits, of Charles I., his
queen, and the Englifh nobihty of both fexes of his court,
whole length figures from Vandyke ; and a fet of nine, of
" the Loves of the Gods," after Titian, all in large folio.
The fame fet was engraved in mezzotinto by J. Smith.

Bonaventura Overbeck, furnamed Romulus, was born at
Amderdam in the year 1667, and died in the fame city in
1706. He was the difciple of G. LairefTe, and publiihed
three folio volumes, (entitled " Rehquise antiqua: Urbis
Romx,") of the antiquities of Rome; to whicli city he
travelled three times, to make the neceflary dudies from
nature, after which his plates were etched : and hence he
obtained the cognomen of Romulus. His engravings are
much admired for their firmnefs of ftyle, and judicious dif-
tribution of light and fhade, and were publifhed at Rome
in the year 1709; but prefumptively there was an earlier
edition.

Ifaac Mouchcron was likewife a native of Anifterdam,
and born in the year 1670. He was the fon of Frederic
Moucheron, an admirable landfcape painter, of whom he
learned the rudimental principles of art ; but at the age of
twenty-four, travelled to Rome for improvement, where he

B. Lenardi ; " The Mufes protefting the Monuments of made a great many drawings of Tivoh, and other places in

fine Art from the Ravages of Time," all in folio, from the and about Rome. After his return to Amftcrdam, he foon

fame painter ; " The Elevation of Virtue, and DeprcfTion became known by his excellent lansJfcapes, enriched with

of Vice," dedicated to Lazari Pallavicini, in large folio; figures and animals, which are held in the highed edima-

" A Woman kneeling, crowning an Eagle, accompanied by tion. This artijt executed a confiderable number of etch-

Pegafus," perhaps the mufe of Pindar, after S. David, in ii^gs, in a very delicate dyle ; the moft important of which

folio. , are a fet of twenty-fix folio plates, entitled " Views of

2 Heemlled,

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Heemfted, in the Province of Utrecht, drawn and engraved
by J. Moucheron, and publiflied by the Widow of Nicholas
Viflcher, with the Permifiion of the States General."
They arc accompanied with French and German letter-prcfs.
Four garden views, with ruins and ii^urcs in the antique
ftyle ; another fct of four, of the fame character, in large
folio, from his own drawings ; four hmdfcapes, with build-
ings and figures, entitled " Einige Landfchapen, gefchildert
door G. Pouflin in Ronien, in t'Koper gebracht door J.
Moucheron in Amilerdam," in foho ; and a landfcape, men-
tioned by Baflan, of which we know neither the title nor
defcription.

Matthew Pool was born at Amfterdam in the year 1 670,
but ftudied engraving at Paris, where he refided for fome
years. He afterwards returned to his native comitry, where
he married the daughter of Barent Graat, and engraved a
confiderable number of plates after various mailers, in a
ftyle refembling that of Bernard Picart. The moll im-
portant of his engravings arc as follows : Petrus Hogen-
betius, phyfician and poet ; Barent Graat, the father-in-law
of our artill ; " Jupiter fuckled by the Goat Amalthea,"
fifter B. Graat, all in folio; " Cupid caught in a Net by
Time," after Guerchino, in an oval ; a bacchanalian fub-
'jeft, after Pouffin ; a fet of twelve, after Rembrandt, all in
4to ; a fet of one hundred and three, entitled " The Cabinet
of the Art of Sculpture, by Van Boffuet, engraven by M.
Pool, from the Dra,wings of B. Graat," in folio; and the
three large burlefque reprefentations of the ceremonies prac-
tifed by the Dutch painters at Rome, on the reception of
a member into the fociety, called " Schilderbent," from
drawings by Barent Graat, after the original piftures by
Dominique van Wynen, all in large folio.

James Coelmans was born at Antwerp in the year 1670,
and died at Aix, in Provence, in 175^. He was the dilciple
of Cornelius Vermeulen, and was invited to Aix by M. de
Boyer d'Aguilles, to engrave his collcftion of piftufes, in
conjuniftion with Sebaftian Barras. This fet of engravings
was finidied A.D. 1709, but was not publilhed till 1744.
It is the moil confiderable, and the bell of the works of
Coelmans, though the plates are executed chiefly with the
graver, in a dark heavy ftyle, deftitute of harmony.

The drawing of the naked parts of the human figure is
defective, and the exprefiion of the heads is likcwife but
poor. The fet of engravings above mentioned, conl'ift of
one hundred and eighteen, from which the following are
felefted as being the moft important.

Portraits. — Donna Olympia Maldachini ; the niece of
pope Innocent X. from a picture by Jofephin ; the miilrefs
of Alexander Varotari, furnamcd Veronefe, from a piclure
by that painter, both in quarto ; a head of Paul Veroneie,
painted by himfelf, in folio ; Qonradus Ruten, from Bronk-
horft, in quarto ; Francis de Malherbe, after Finl'onius
Belga ; Vmcent Boyer, comte d'Aguilles, Sec. from a
picture by le Grand ; and John Batifta Boyer, comte
d'Aguilles, &c. after Plyacinthus Rigaud, all of folio
dimenfions.

HifloricaU yc — " The Holy Family," with a landfcape
back-ground, from F. Maflbli Parmenfis, in large folio ;
" St. Dominique pafiing the Holy Writings through the
Fire, without damaging them," after Fr. Vanni ; " The
firft Interview of Rachael and Jacob," after Michael An-
--elo ; and its companion " Laban recompenfing Jacob with
Rachael," from the lame painter; " Jacob quitting Laban,"
a fine compofition, after Caftiglione ; a very rich compoli-
tion of rauficians, dancers, drinkers, &c. furrounded with
whatever-can add to the luxury and fupport ot mankind,
infcribed " Omnia vanitas," from the fame painter; " Diana

and Aftseon," from Otlovasnius, all of large folio Cze ;
" Lot and his Daughters flying from Sodom," after Ru-
bens, in folio ; the interior of a Gothic church, with
figures, after Stcenwyck, in quarto ; " A Satyr drinking
from a Vafe, which is fupported by a Cupid," accompanied
by a nymph, who feems to fay, that is enough ! and \%
probably intended for Temperance, after Pouflin ; " The
Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew," after Seb. Bourdon ;
" Mount Parnaftus," a rich compofition, from Euftace ie
Sueur, all in large folio ; " The Flight into Egypt," after
P. Puget ; " The Murder of the Innocents," from Claude
Spierrc, both in folio ; and a head of '' The Holy Virgin,"
after Seb. Barras, in large quarto.

Albert Haelwegh was a native of the Netherlands, and
born about the year 1670. In 1690, he refided at Copen-
hagen ; but was afterwards invited to Denmark, where he
engraved a confiderable number of portraits, in a ftiff", dark
ftyle, but which, for fome reafon with which we are not
acquainted, are collefted with fome degree of avidity by
the foreign connoilTeurs. Of the works of Haelwegh, the
following are moft worthy of notice ; Louis, landgrave of
Hefle Caffel, from S. Duarte; Joachim de Gerfdorf, of
Synbyholm ; Otten Krag de Woldberg ; Gundee Rofen-
krantz de Winding ; Frederick Ratz de Tygeilrup ;
Peter de Reetz de Tygeftrup ; and Magnus Kaas de S'of-
ring, all Danifh fenators, from Albert Wachters, in folio ;
Sophia Amelia, queen of X)enmark and Norway, in large
folio ; Chrillian, count de Rantzou, earl of Brandenbourg,
a fine portrait, in large folio, both from the fame pain'er ;
the frontifpiece to the " Flora Danica" of Simonis Pauli,
with a portrait of the author, after Carl van Mander, in
quarto ; and " The Four Seafous," from the fame painter,
alfo in quarto.

Francis Pilfen was born at Ghent in the year 1676,
and became the pupil of Robert van Audenaerd. There
are very few prints by the hand of this artift, ai.id the fol-
lowing are all we can fpecify. " The Holy Virgin fuck-
ling the Infant Chrift," after Rubens, in odtavo ; "The
Converfion of St. Bavon," a grand compofition, arched at
the top, after Rubens, in large folio ; " The Judgment of
Midas," after the fame painter ; and " The Martyrdom of
St. Blaize," from Gafpar de Crayer, both in folio.

Abraham Rademacker was born at Amfterdam, A.D.
1675, and died at Haerlem in 1735. He became an ex-
cellent landfcape painter and engraver, without any in-
ftructions, having never ftudied under any mafter.

Rademacker drew in Indian ink, and painted in diftem-
per, many views in Holland, which he embellifhed with
figures and animals ; he alfo etched a colleftion of views in
the United Provinces, in a very niafterly ftyle ; it con-
tains three hundred prints, and was pubhft.ed at Amfter-
dam in 1 73 1, in two quarto volumes.

Francis Harrewin was born at Bruflels in the year i68i.
He was the difciple of Romyn le Hooghe, and engraved a
confiderable number of plates from his own compoiltions,
and thofe of other mafters. Among his works is a fet of
the caftles and villas, for le Roy's account of the Brabant
family, which was pubhftied in 1699; and alfo the follow,
ing portraits of Henry de Lorraine, duke of Guife ; Mar-
garite de Valois, both in odtavo ; Albert, archduke of
Auftria, a whole length figure at prater with St. James;
its companion Ifabclla, infanta of Spain, alfo kneehng,
while St. Margaret is prefenting her with a wreath of
flowers, both very rare prints in large folio, and after Ru-
bens. Two folio views ot the houfe of fir P. P. Rubens, at
Antwerp, after Van Croes, may alfo be reckoned among
the beft produdions of Harrewin.

3X2 Francis

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Francis Je Wilde was a native of Holland, born fome and was fo much iiiterelled in the general profperity of the
time about the year 1680; according to Hiiber, but pro- fine arts of his native country, that he became one of the
bably at a fomewhut earlier period, fince the etchings of mod diftinguifhed and ilrenuous advocates in Amflerdam for
his daughter were publifhed in 170^. He refidcd at the creftion of a public drawing academy in that city.
Amllerdam, where he etched and publilhed " The Angels Wandtlaar paid great attention to the (ludy of anatomy, and
appearing to Abraham;" " The Birth," or " Triumph of was acquainted with the three greateil anatomical profefTors of
Venus ;" views, of a fea-port, and the city of Chalons, the age, namely Ruyfch, Kant, and Albinus, for the great
a landfcape with reapers, and fome few other fubjedts, both work of the latter of whom he engraved the large anatomical
hiftorical and landfcape, which are believed to be all from figures, fo much and fo juftly admired. They were drawn
kis own compofitions. His etchings are performed in a from the fubjeCts themfelves by Wandelaar under the infpec-
pleafmg and fpirited (lyle, and the above were publidied tion of Albinus, who appears to have directed him, though,
early in the eighteenth century. copying from dead and flayed fubjcifls, to f.vell out the

De Wilde aifo acquired fome celebrity by his colleftion mufcles to the natural plumpnefs of living and ftrong men.
of antique gems, which were etched by his daughter Mary, The plates are engraved m a clear llyle, well adapted to the
on fifty quarto plates, and publilhed at Amilcrdam, in the occafion, and were firft pnbliihed in the year 1 74.7. The
year which is mentioned above. work appeared under the title of " Tabiilas fcclcti et mufcu-

.Fiihu Admiral, or P Admiral, was born at Leyden, A.D. lorum corporis hmnani," and was foo.c tranflated iiuo
16S0. Under whom he ftudied is not known, but his in- Englifh, and the plates copied by Grignion, Raveiict,
genuity was very confiderable, and he employed much of Scotin, and otliers. Wandelaar likcwifc painted portraits on
his lime in engraving natural hiftory and anatomy. The pafteboard ; and drew with great ability in red and black
anatomical plates which he engraved for the work of the chalks, frequently copying the pi£tureo of the old mailers,
celebrated Ruyfch are held in great cftimation, and his The following engravings alfo are by him. A fct of twelve
other mod important work is engraved from liis own cabinet quarto plates, of " The Bir-h, Life, and Death of Our
of infefts, tcvcolleft and arrange which occupied thirty years Saviour;'' the portrait of Herman Bocrhaave, profeflTor of
of his life, excepting that portion of his time which was medicine at the Leyden academy, in folio : and two oftavo
necefiarily fpent in his profellional purfuits as an engraver, plates of " The Grand Emir and his Wife ; or King and
This colkftion was engraved on tv/enty-four plates, and Queen of the wandering Arabs."

publiflied by I'Admiral himfelf in 1746. Jacob Folkema was born at Docknm, in Friefland, in

A. van der Laan was born at Utrecht in the year 1690. the year 1692, and eilablillied himfelf at Amllerdam, v.here
He travelled to France, and remained there fome years, he died A. i). 1767. He ftudied engraving under his father,
during whicli time he was chiefly employed by the Parilian and produced a great number of plates, of which fome are
bookfellers. afcer Picart, and others from his own compofitions. They

The moll confiderable work we have by this artift, is a confiil chiefly in fuiall portraits, and vignettes for books,
fet of landfcapes, many of which are of the heroic and This artift had a filler Anne, who painted miniatures with
clafiical fubjcfts which were painted and drawn in Germany fome fuccefs ; and likewlfe made fome few etchings,
and Italy, by Polydore. They are etched in a very deli- The moll cfteemed of the engravings of Folkema are, an
cate ilyle, but on clofer examination they appear to want emblematical fubjecl on the death of the prince of Orange,
precifion. William IV. ; " Time unveiling a Bull of Francis Rnbelais,"

This artift alfo engraved a good number of plates after furrounded with allegorical figures, in quarto, an odd coin-
Van der Meulen, among which are the frontilpiece for pofition. A lion and dog llceping ; and its companion, a
Ryer's Alcoran, in quarto ; the portraits of Lawrence lion and cat fleeping, in fclio. The portraits of Michael
Coft.er of Haerleni, in folio ; a burlefque hunt ot dwarfs, Cervantes de Saavt-dra, from G. Kort ; John Ens, pro-
in large folio ; and two large folio plates of " The Vv'hale felTor of theology at Utrecht, after Colla ; Petrus de Maf-
Fifiiery." tricht, profelTor of theology at Frankfort, from the fame

Peter Bout was a native of Bruflels, and was born painter; Humphry Prideaux, dean of Norwich, after E.
in the ye.ir 1690. He painted converfational fubjefts, Seeman jun. all in quarto.; Snethlagius, an eccleliaftic of
and always introduced the figures in the landfcapes of Amflerdam, from Anne Folkema, in folio; and " The
Bodevvyns. There are fome flight etchings by the hand Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul," in large folio, after
of this artift, from his own compofitions ; among which Nicolo del Abbale, for the Drefden colledtion.
the following are the moil important. A fet of four land- Jacob de Wit was born at Anifterdam in the year 1695',
icapes, two of which are winter fcenes with ikaiters, the and died in the fame city in 1754. He was fucceflively the
third a poll chaife flopping at the door of an inn, and the difciple of Albert Spires, a portrait painter, and Jacob van
fourth is a marine fubjeft,! n folio. Halen, an hiftorical painter, but he greatly conduced to his

A. F. Bargas was the countryman and contemporary of own improvement, by Iludying the piftures of Vandyke and
Bout. He executed fome few etchings- of landfcapes in a Rubens. De Wit painted hillory, and excelled in painting

in imitation of bronze and marble baflTo -relievo. In the year
171 2, which muft have been while he was yet a youth of

free and fpirited ftyle, both from his own compofitions and

thofe of P. Bout ; which he ulually marked with the letters

A. F. CO- biued in a cypher, and placed before his name.

Among thefe are a fet of fix views of towns, villages, &c.

embelhflied with figures from his own defigns ; and a fet of or aflifted Punt in engraving. He likewife et

four after P. Bout, fiz. " A Fi(h Market ;" " The Bride other plates in a free intelligent ftyle, among whicl

feventeen, he made drawings from the ceilings in the Jcfuits'
church at Antwerp, by Rubens, fome of which he engraved,

~" " " " died a few

h are " The

conducted to Church ;" " A Country Wedding ;'" and
" A Village Fair," all of folio dimenfious. This laft fet was
publifhed, both with and without the names of the artifts.

John Wanderlaar, or Wandelaar, was born at Anifter-
dam in the year 1692. He ftudied the principles of draw-

Floly Virgin and Infant Saviour," in fmal! quarto ; and a
fet of four of groups of cupids and genii, varioufly en-
gaged, in large quarto ; the latter fet are probably his very
bell produftions in this art.

John Punt was born at Amflerdam in the year 1 7 1 1 . He

ing and engraving under Folkema and WiUiam van Cauwen j ftudied engraving under Van der Laan, and the art of paint-

ing

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

inp in imitation of bafTo relievo, under Jacob de Wit. He
alfo painted hillory in a ftyle which bears (Irong- refemblance
to that of Tcrveftin, and after the agL- of fifly-iive executed
feveral ceilings ; but we hare here to treat of him only as an
engraver.

In his folio prints from the compartments of the eieiin^s
of thejefuits' college at Antwerp, Punt difcovcrs admirable
tafte and flvill. Perhaps in the works of no engraver what-
ever, maybe fern better examples of the bold fore-fhortening
of Rubens, whofe knowledge ef the pcrfpedive of objects,
wlicn feen from beneath, and efpeci;illy tliat of the human
figure, is admirably difplaycd in thefe ceilings, and is not
le(s admirably rendered in the engravings, through the me-
dium however of drawings, which we have already mention-
ed, and which muft in all probability have been excellent, by
J. de Wit.

Punt is one of tliofe artifls whofe genci-al reputation in the
world has been bv no means in proportion to their merits.
Struct, as the prefent writer conceives, could not have feen
his produftions, or could only have feen thofe few plates
ivhich, though they bear his name, are evidently the work of
fome inferior artift, for he calls him, with a tone of ac-
quiefcence in the deficiency of his fame, " a Dutch engraver
of no great note ;" and Huber and Martini have fallen into
another error refpefting him, (as will be noticed below,) which
has alfo tended to deprive him of fome portion of his jull
meed of reputation.

Regarding his " Mofes on the Summit of Pifgah ;" his
" Queen of Sheba in the Prefence of Solomon ;" his " Na-
tivity of Chrift," or any other of the beil of this feries of
engravings from the ceiling of the Jtfuits' college, we fcarce-
ly know whereto look for an hiftorical engraver whoaccom-
pliilied more fuccefsfully, \rhat he evidently aimed at ; or who
has imparted to his works more of the appearance of finiili
with the reality of flightnefs. Other men may proceed in
the produftion of more operofe works by careful obferva-
tioa and patient induftry ; a weil-prattifed hand, guided by
tiie vivid and fpontanecus feeling of a tafleful mind, is alone
adequate to the produftion of fuch prints as thefe. The art
of leaving broad mafles of white paper, without the lead
appearance of baldnefs, crudenefs, or chalkinefs, Punt
pofTeffed in an exemplary degree ; and notwithftanding his
- flightnefs, his tones, when required to befo, are iweet, hazy,
and aerial, in the upper parts, and it fhould be remem-
bered that, in thefe celebrated ceilings, the perfpeftive
points, of fight and diftance, are not in theh6rizon but in the
Leavens, while, in the lower part, his engraving is rich, mel-
low, and vigorous. In " The Adoration of the Magi,"
and " St. Michael expelling the rebellious Angels," thefe
qualities are more efpecially obfervable. In the latter the
rolling clouds, and fmouldering fmoke, and bickering flame,
as well as the nudities, wings, fliield, and drapery of the
figures, are treated in a viry fuperior ftyle. His metal
vafes, armour, and other fuch objefits, have alfo, though
done with fmall labour, a peculiarly polifhed and gh'.tering
charailer, and all the various objefts that enter into thefe fe-
veral compofitions are harmonized Vith artf\il fimphcity, and
in each are fo thoroughly incorporated, that all evidently ap-
pears to be the produftion of the fame hand and mind ; and
that mind, at no time languid ; but always animated, rapid,
in full poffcflion of itfelf, and carrying the fpectator of talle
I along with h.

The chiarofcuro of Punt is broad, bold, and harmonious ;
his lights are bright ; his fliadows and reflexes cleared and
enriched by vigorous touches of the graver, and his moll
delicate tints are firm. His ftyle of manual execution, gene-
rally fpeaking, confifts of naafterly courfes of lines firmly

etched, or freely engraven : fo freely, that the dextrous iir»-
corporation of thefe two modes of art are in his works
much to be praifed. Sometimes he throws a fecond, and
fometimes a third courfe of engraved lines acrofs his etch-
ing with the utmotl freedom, as may be feen in the drape-
ries, clouds, groimd, and other paflages of his works ; and
upon other occafions, as in metallic and other (l|ning or
polifhed fubft^nces, he employs an interline, always adapt-
ing his hatching, fo as to charailerize, in proportion to their
relative degrees of importance in the compofition, the feve-
ral textures of the furfaces to be expreffed.

Iluber and Martir.i ftate that of the fet of engraving*
from the compartments of the ceiling^ of the collegiate
church of the Jefuits, ten were etched by Jacob de Wit,
namely, " The Fall of the rebel Angels;" " The Afcen-
fion of Elias ;" " Etther before Ahafuerus ;'' " The Na-
tivity;" " The Triumph of St. Jofeph ;" "The Temp-
tation," " RefurreCtion," and " lAfccnfion of Chrift,"
and " The Affumption" and « Coronation of the Holy
Virgin."

Now, thefe ten engravings exhibit two fuch diftinft and
almoft oppofite ftyles of etching, that they cannot all be
the produftion of the fame artift. It is further obfervable,
that the whole fet of thirty-fix bear the name of De Wit as
the draughtfman who, in the firlt inftance, made tliofe co-
pies from the ceilings of Rubens, from which the plates
were engraven, — one only of thofe ten mentioned by Huber
and Martini bears the addition of " aquaforti" to the words
" J. de Wit delineavit," and that one is " The Temptation
of Chriil in the Defart," which is etched in a ftyle very in-
ferior to " The Fall of the rebel Angels," and thofe other fub-
jefts which are enumerated above; anotiier, which isinfcribed
" De Wit aquaforti," is " Abraham oficring up Ifaac,"
which is not mentioned by thofe author; as being the pro-
duftion of his etching-needle. On the whole, we are there-
fore led to claim all the moil meritorious of thefe engravings
for John Punt, and to conclude that Huber and Martini
muft, in this inf|ance at leaft, have written at random.

The works of this artift, with which we are acquainted,
are the portraits of Joanna Koerten Block, as a medal-
lion with attendant genii, and Jacques de Roure of An-
twerp, from a pifture bv himfelf, both in quarto. A fet of
forty fmall folio plates, of which the fubjefts are taken from
I.,a Fontaine's fables, after the defigns of d'Oudry, pub-
lifhed in 175S and 1759 ; a fet of thirty-fix folio plates frofn
Rubens' ceilings of the collegiate church of the Jefuits at
Antwerp, prefaced by an hillorical portrait of this great
painter, with allegorical accompaniments defigned by De
Wit. " The Afcenfion of Our Savioui," engraved after
Sebaftian Rica, for the work which is entitled " The
Drcfden Gallery;" "The Enghfli Coach," after G. van
der Myn, both in large folio ; " The Guard-Houfe of the
Dutch Officers," after C. Trooft ; engraved for the cabi-
net of M. Braamcamp at Amfterdam, by Punt and Tanje,
and, by the fame engravers in coiijunftion, " The Declara-
tion of Love," and " I'he Propofal of Marriage," both,
after Trooil, and of folio dimenfions.

John Louis KrafTt was born at BrufTels, A. D. 1710. In
1733, he pubhflied a book, intitled " Trefor de Fables
choifies des plus excellens Mythologiftes," containing one
hundred and fifty of his engravings. And afterwards the
portraits for the hiflory of the houfe of Aullria, which was
publilhed in three folio volumes at Bruftels, in 1744. This
artift likcwife etched five fubjefts after Rubens, which are
fpccified in the catalogue of the works of that mailer, all
of which are very rare ; and alfo, '■ Job furrounded by his
Friends and Lis Wife ;" " Chriil giving tks Kays to St»

Peter ;"

LOW COUNTRIES, ENGRAVERS OF THE.

Peter ;" •■ Chrift with Nicodemus," (half fijrures,) all
from Rubens ; " Jupiter and Danae," from a drawing by
Rubens, after Titian, all in 4to. ; " Venus and Cupid,"
from a drawmg by Rubens, after Giorgione ; " St. Martin
dividing his Cloak with the Beggar," after Vandyke, in
large foUp ; " The Village Goatherd," and " Country Con-
veriatioj^" both in folio ; and a Itormy fea view, in large
folio, all from Teniers. ^

Krafft heightened fome of the impreffions from his en-
gravings with white chalk, which, from the difBcnlty of
preferving fuch works, are now become rare and va-
luable.

Cornelius Trooft was born at Amfterdam in the year 1697,
and died in the fame city in 1750. He was the pupil of
Arnold Boonen, and befides engraving both in lines and
mezzotinto, he painted portraits, fancy fubjefts, and hiftory,
and was furnamed the Watteau of Holland, from the fparfc-
ling delicacy of his touch, and purity, and beauty of his
colom-ing. The etchings of this mafter are much fought
after for their truth and brilliancy ; he likewife fcraped feveral
fubjefts in' mezzotinto, among which are, a bull of an
old man with a long beard, and a girl drawing, both in
4to ; the portrait of. Pietro Locatelli da Bergamo, and
that of Vlaming, the poet, with two Dutch verfes beneath,
both i-n large folio, and all from his own drawings and
paintings.

Phihp Endlick, or Endehck, was born at Amfterdam
A. D. 1700. He was the difciple of Bernard Picart, and
always refided in the place of his nativity. The following
portraits are engraven by him, frem his own drawings, and
are executed in a firm ftyle. John Taylor, the celebrated
oculift, of London ; Herlry, count of Moens ; John Philip
d'Almerie, governor of the ifle of St. Martin ; John Gofe-
wyn Eberhard Alllien, John Noordbeck, Peter Holle-
beck, and Leonard Beels, all clergymen of Amfterdam, of
folio fize.

Peter Tanje was a native of Amfterdam. He was born
in the year 1700, and died in the fame city .in 1760. Tanje
was a laborious artift, and engraved a great number of
portraits, vignettes, &c. But his moft; confiderable work
is five plates, from the famous windows of St. .Tohn's
church at Gouda, and he likewife worked for the Drefden
gallery. The following are felefted from his engravings, as
being moft worthy the attention of the connoifleur.

Portraits. — Peter Tanje, from J. M. Quickhard ; John
Maria Quickhard, both in folio ; Martin Luther, from
Lucas Cranach, in 410. ; Benjamin de Briffac, an ecclcfiaf-
tic of Amfterdam, from L. F. du Bourg ; Charles Lin-
naeus, profeflbr of botany atUpfal; John Ofterdyck Scheht,
doftor of medicine at the Utrecht academy, after Quickhard;
Albert Vogft, theologian ; John Beukelman de Honn, an
ecclefiaftic, from P. M. Brafler ; John van Marie, an ec-
clefiaftic of Rotterdam, after Curland ; Thomas Philip de
Boflu, cardinal and archbiftiop of Mechlin, from Snyers,
all in folio ; Lawrence Heifter, furgeon ; and Henry
Ulhonn, phyfician ; two medallions on the fame plate, from
Quickhard in 4to. ; William van Haren, regent of Frief-
land, from Akem.a, in an oval ; William, prince of Orange,
from F. de la Croix ; Geprge H. of England, from Faber ;
Charles VH. of Germany; Chriftina, queen of Sweden,
from Seb. Bourdon ; Guftavus Reinbeck, doftor of theo-
logy, from Pefne ; and M. Fagel, after G. J. Xavery, all
in folio.

For the Gallery of Dre/dcn. — A man with a book, from
Correggio, known by the name of "The Phyfician of Correg-
gio/' in large folio ; a woman in a bonnet, after Rubens,
in foho ; " A dead Cb-ift," from F. Salviati ; " Children

dancing before the Ahar of Love," from Albano, both
in large foho ; " Card Players," after Michael Angelo j
" Tarquin and Lucretia," from Lucas Jordaens, both in
folio ; " Jofeph and the Wife of Poliphar," half figures,
from Carlo Cignani ; and a portrait of a man, after Rem-
brandt, half length, both of folio fize.

H'tJloricaU ^c- — " The Temptation of Job," after Trooft,
in 4to. ; " The Court of Law, of the Peafants of Puiter-
vcen," for the cabinet of M. Ploos van Aniftcl ; and its
companion, " The wicked Tavern-keeper at Puiterveen ;"
" Falfe Virtue or ftiam Sorrow ;" and its companion, " The
Tutor deceived," all in folio ; " The Philofophers, or the
runaway Girl ;" " The fick Chamber of the Dutch ;" and
" The Marriage of Chlorus and Rofetta," all in large folio,
after Trooil.

Peter van Bleeck the younger was born in the year 1703,
fomcwherc in Flanders, but for the greater part of his life
refided in England, and died in London A. D. 1764. He
was a mezzotinto fcraper, and the fon of Richard van Bleeck,
a portrait painter ; he always added the word junior to his
name or cypher, for which fee Plate IV. of thofe ufed by
the artifts of the Netherlands.

Moft of his works are portraits, and are executed in
a ftyle not inferior to that of John Sinith. The following
are fome of the moft important. Richard van Bleeck,
from a pi6\ure by himfelf; Francefco du Quefnoy, from
A. Vandyke ; Paul Rembrandt van Ryn, from a pifturc
by himfelf ; Eleanor Gwin, from fir Peter Lely ; Mrs.
Cibber in the charafter of Cordelia ; Mrs. Clive, in the
charafter of Phillida ; the comedians. Griffin and Johnfon,
in the characters of Tribulation and Ananias, all from hi:i
own drawings ; and " The Virgin with the Infant Saviour,"
after Vandor Werff. The four lafl are in large foho, the
reft fomewhat fmaller.

Arthua Schouman was born at Dordrecht in the year
1 7 10, and ftudied the principles of art under Adrian vander
Burg. Pie became a painter of fome repute, and in 1748,
he ettabliftied himfelf at the Hague, where he continued to
exercife his various talents in crayon and water colour,
painting; etching; mezzotinto fcraping ; and engraving on
cryftal, till toward the clofe of the century.

Among his beft prints are a fmall etching of St. Francis ;
a man's head with muftachios, in 410 ; and a lady at her
toilette, in 4to. ; Saartze Jans, after Trooft, with fix Dutch
verfes ; a mezzotinto engraving in folio, and a party of
amateurs at the houfe of a painter, alfo after Trooft, and of
4to. fize.

Simon Fokke was born A.D. 1712 at Amfterdam, and
ftudied engraving under John Cafpar PhiKps. He was a
man of patient mduftry and unremitting appli-jation, but
of little tafte, and no genius. The greater part of his
works condfts of fmall portraits and vignettes, which he
executed for the Dutch bookfellers with confiderable neat-
nefs. In the large hiftorical v.'orks which he attempted he
was far lefs fuccefsful.

Among his bell produftions are the portraits for a work,
intitled " Portraits hifloriques des Hommes illuftres du
Dannemarc ;" it was publiflied in 1746, in 4to. : and alfo the
prints for another work, intitled " Arrivement et Sejour de
L. A. S. S. et R. Monfeigneur lo Prince Stadholder Here-
ditairedes PaysBas, et de Madame fonefpoufe, a Amfterdam
le 30 de Mai et jours fuivans, en 176S." Of his fingle
prints upon a larger fcale, the following are to be preferred.
A portrait of himfelf, in 4to. ; a view of the Y before
Amfterdam, in folio ; " The Statue of the Prince of Naf-
fau Weibourg," from Haag ; " Jacob keeping the Sheep
of Laban," from the Drefden gallery, after Efpagnoletto;

" Women

L O W

LOW

« Women bathing,'-' after Troofl; ; a burlefquc on the death
of Dido, in the Dutch llyle, after the fame painter ; a
landfcapc, with the effcdl of winter, after P. Breughel ; a
view of the port of Livourna, after Vernet ; and its com-
panion, a view in the neighbourhood of Narni in Lombardi,
from the fame painter, all in folio.

Jiirian Cootwick, or Kootwyck, was originally a gold-
fmith, and born at Amfterdam in the year 1714. He ex-
celled in drawing with Indian ink and crayons, and en-
graved after many of the old mailers, with fonie ability.
A:i old woman feated, with a paper in her hand, m
imitation of a drawing in black and white chalks ; another
of the fame fubject, a man feated, with his hat on his
knees ; a (hepherd playing the flute, accompanied by a
fhepherdefs ; a landfcape ; the fame landfcape with al-
terations ; a pair of landfcapes ; a pair of rulHc fubjcfts,
with cows ; and a loaded afs, are all believed to be after his
own drawings.

He alfo engraved a fea view, after Lud. Backhuyfen,

which is very rare ; a vei-y highly finifhed engraving of the

fame fubjecl: ; a paftoral fubjeft, with a flicpherd and his

. flock, after Berghem ; and a fet of three of cows and an afs,

after P. van Bloemen.

Jacob vander Schley waTlikewife a native of Amfterdam,
and born in the year 17 15. He was one of the beft of the
pupils of Bernard Picart, under whom he lludied till the
death of that artift, and afterward finifhed mod of the plates
wWch were left imperfeft by hiin.

The greateft part of the engravings of Schley are vig-
nettes, portraits, and other book ornaments, which he ex-
ecuted in the fl;yle of his mafter : the following are fome of
the bed of them.

'• An Emblem of Divine Juftice;" John Baptifta Boyer,
marquis d'Argens, from Th. van Pee ; Antonio Bernard
Prevot, almoner to the prince of Conti, both in 4to. ; Ber-
nard Picart, furrounded with allegorical figures, defigned
by Schley himfelf in folio ; Henry de la Tour, vifcount
Turenne ; and " The Combat between Jarnac and Chataig-
neraye," both fmall plates, and from drawings by the en-
graver himfelf.

Peter Spruyt was bopi at Antwerp in the year 1720.
He was a man of fome talent, and etched feveral plates,
amonglt which are the following, all after Rubens.

*' Sufannah furprifed by the Elders ;" •' The Rape of
Orythia ;" " The Continence of Scipio ;" and a group of
children with wreaths of flowers, all of folio fize.

C. Exfliau was a native of Holland, whom Brandes mif-
takenly fuppofesto have been an Englifliman. Hewa^ born
in the year 1730, and became one of the moll; fuccefsful of
the numerous imitators of Rembrandt, after whofe piAures
and prints he chiefly engraved.

Among his beft works are, the head of an old man with
a beard and large round hat, executed by means of mezzo-
tinto combined with etching ; head of an old man with a
beard and fliort hair, both fmall ; " Jofeph accufed by the
Wife of Potiphar," a large folio print, with a ftriking
chiarofcuro; " The Storm and Ship," wherein are the apof-
tles, alfo dillinguiflied by its very grand efi'eft, all after Rem-
brandt 5 a girl with a bafl<et of dherries, accompanied by
two boys, IS after Rubens.

Chriitina Chalon was born at Amfterdam in iTie year
1749. She was diilinguifhed, frorrt a very early period of life.

two diftinguiftied painters of the fame name, wrfio are now
praftiilng their art with fo much credit to themfelves, and
benefit to the public, in this metropolis. There are prints
from her hand which were produced at the very early age of
ten years ; in particular one, containing three fifjures, a pro-
mif5ng and honeft earncft of her future attainments. She
engraved both in lines and in imitation of crayons,^ In the
latter mode of art, her print of a fcuUion in converfation
with two children, is ftippled with fufficient neatnefs.
Among her beft works in lines are two pair of heads in
fmall circles ; " The Entrance to School ;" " The Inferior
of a Village School," and fome other plates, of which the
fubjefts are various incidents of domeftic converfation, and
Dutch rufticity.

We are now arrived at the time which gave birth to an
engraver of the Low Countries, who is ftill living, following
his profeffional purfuits in England, and known to theprefent
writer. Ever regardful of the public, he ftops fliort with a
diftruft of his own feelings, which may not be thought un-
becoming, at the name of Mr. Anthony Cardon.
Low Flanl and Hemifphere. See the fubflantive?.
Low IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the S. coaft of Cumbava. S. lat. 9 i'. E. long.

Low Green Point, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Sumatra. S. lat. 7 ' 12'. E. long. 106 '.

Low, in the Manege — To carry Low. See Carrying.
Low Mafs. See Mass.
Low Style. See Style.
Low Water. Sec Water.
Low Wines. Sec Lo-zu Wines.

LOWCOOTY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; eight miles W. of Mongir.

LOWDEBA, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad ; 24
miles S S.W. of Allahabad.

LOWE, Peter, in Biography, a furgeon of the fixteenth
century, was born in Scotland. In a work, entitled "A
Difcourfe on the whole Art of Chirurgery," publilhed at
Glafgow in 1612, he acquaints his readers, that he had
pra6tifed twenty -two years in France and Flanders ; that he
had been two years furgeon-major to the Spanifli regiment at
Paris ; and had then followed his malter, the king of France
(Henry IV.) fix years in his wars. In the title page of
his book, he calls himfelf doctor in the faculty of furgery
at Paris, and ordinary furgeon to the king of France and
Navarre. It does not appear how long he bad rcfided at
Glafgow ; but he mentions that, fourteen years before the
publication of his book, he had complained of the ignorant
perfons who intruded into the praftice of furgery, and
that in confequence the king (of Scotland) granted him a
privilege, under his privy feal, of examining all praiElitioncrs
in furgery in the weftern parts of Scotland. He refers to a
former work of his own, entitled " The Poor Man's Guide,"
and fpeaks of an intended publication concerning the difeafes
of women. His epitaph in the cathedral church-yard of
Glafgow (fee Pennant's Tour to the Hebrides, p. 134.)
is, however, dated i6l2, in December of which year the
work juft mentioned was publiftied ; fo that he was probably
prevented by death from fulfilhng his intention. Thp " Dif-
courfe on Chirurgerv" appears to have been in efteem ; for
the fourth edition of it was printed in London in 1 654. It
is, indeed, copious, plain, and methodical ; full of references

by her talents and love for the fine arts, and was inflruftert to ancient and modern authors ; and, in fait, like the ma
in that of engraving by Van Amltel, and Sarah Trooft. The jority of books of ihofe time-s is more founded on authority
final period of her life has not been recorded, and flie may than obfervation. Ames mentions another work of his with
perhaps be ftill living. the following title, " An eafy. certain, and perfeft Method to

Chriftina is believed to be of the fame family with the cure and prevent the Spanifti ficknef* ; by Peter Lowe,

dottor

LOW

LOW

<loAor in the Faculty of Chirurgerie at Paris, Cliirurgeon entitled " Diatribas Thoirrae Willifil M.D. et Prof. Oxon.

to Henry IV." London 1596, 410. Aikiu's Biog. Mem.
of Med.

LOWEN, in Geography, a royal town of Silefia, in the
county of Glatz, the inhabitants of which are chiefly em-
ployed in turning ; ij miles W.of Glatz. N. lat. 50' 13'.
E. long. 16' 3'.

LoWEN, Lohen, or Leivin, a town of Silcfia, in the prin-
cipahty of Brieg, on the Neifie ; nine miles S.E. of Brieg.
N. lat. 50° 40'. E. long. 17^ 33'.

LOWENBERG, or Lemberg, a town of Sllcfia, in
the principality of Jauer, near the Bober ; 25 miles W. of
Jaucr. N. lat. ji° 5'. E. long. 15° 42'.

LOWENDAHL.Ulric-FredericWoldemar, CoHB/
of, in Biography, a celebrated general, was born at Ham-
burgh in the year 17C0. His fatlicr, grand marlhal and mi-
nifter of the king of Poland, eleftor of Saxony, inured him
to arms when he was only thirteen years old. He rofe gra-
dually in the army, and ferved in feveral campaigns, expofed
to the dangers and fatigues of warfare, proving himfelf, on
all occafioivs, worthy of the rank he held, by his valour and
prudence. In 1 721 the king of Poland gave him the com-
mand of his horfe-guards and a regiment of infantry ; his
leifure time he employed in the profound ftudy of guiuierV
and fortification, and in 1728 he was made field-marlhal and
infpeftor-general of the Saxon infantry. After the death of

de Febribus Vindicatio adverfus Edm. de Meara Ormondien-
fem Hibern. M.D." 8vo., a work of confiderablc learning
and force of argument, but not witliout fome fallacies, as
he afterwards himfelf admitted. But his mod important
work was, his " Traftatus de Corde, item de molu et ca-
lore Sangiiinis, et Chyli in eum tranfitu," which was firil
printed in London in 1669. In this work the ftrufture of
the heart, the origin and courfe of its fibres, and the nature
of its aition, w-ere pointed out with much accuracy and in-
genuity. He likewife demonRrated the dependance of its
motions upon the nervous influence, referred the red colour
of the arterial blood to the aftion of the air upon it in the
lungs, and calculated the force of tlie circulation, and the
quantity and velocity of the blood paffing through it. In a
word, this treatife was one of the molt: important contribu-
tions of the time to anatomical and phyCological improve-
ment. The work excited particular notice, in coufcquence
of the chapter on the transfullon of blood from the vodels of
one living animal to thofe of another, which the author had
firft performed experimentally at Oxford, in February 1665,
of which fome account had been laid before the Royal So-
ciety, and printed in the Philof. Tranfadtions 1(166, through
the requeft. of tlie Hon. Robert Boyle. He fubfequently
praflifed the transiuilon upon an inlane perfon before the
Royal Society. Lower claims the merit of originality in
this matter ; but the experiment had certainly been luggefted

the king he dillinguillied himfelf in the defence of Cracow ; j^^^^g before by Lilc-utus (which fee), and 'it is a matter of

in the following campaigns he commanded the Saxon aux- jifpute with whom the thought firll originated. It is al-

iliaries on the Rhine under prince Eugene, and he had a chief lo^^^^d, however, that the French lirR tried tlic experiment

command at the ftorming of Otchakof. In 1743 he entered upon the human fubject. But it were ufelefs to enter into

the fervice of the king of France, and was for fome years ^j^^ queftioii ; iince experience foon decided, that the opera-

aftively employed in the war in which that monarch was en-
gaged. In 1747 he attained the fummit of his glory as a
belieging general, by making a fwecp of feveral towns of
Flanders, concluding with that of Bergen-op-Zoom, which
had been deemed impregnable. Immediately after the cap-
ture of this laft place Lowendahl was declared a marlhal of
France. He now retired from the aftive fcenes of war, and
diftinguiihed himfelf as a wortiiy eftimable charaifler in pri-
.Tate life, equally agreeable and inllruftive in converfatio-.i, and
furnidied with a variety of knowledge. He was converfant
with many languages, and devoted a large portion of his
time to reading. He died at the age of fifty-five. His
name had been fome time enrolled among the honorary mem-
bers of the Academy of Sciences. Moreri.

LOWENDOLL.^R, or Lyondoll.^r, a Dutch filver
coin, valued at 42 flivers, or a little more. This coin is -J
of the ducatoon, weighs 17 dwts. I4grs., and is valued at
43. 07*/. in fir I. Newton's Table of AfTays, &c.

LOWENSTEJN, in Geography, a town and capital of
a county, which is a fief annexed to Wurtemberg ; nine
miles E.S E. of Hejlbron. N. lat. 49- 6'. E. long. 9 28'.

LOWER, RiCKAJiB, in Biography, an eminent phy-

tion was attended with pernicious confequcnces, and it w;
therefore exploded. Lower had removed to London foon
after the commencement of thefe experiments, and in 1667
had been a fellow of the Royal Society, and of the Collcg :
of Phyficians. The reputation acquired by his publication-
brought him into extenfive practice ; and after the death ot
Dr. Willis, he was confidcred as one of the ablell phyfician.s
in London. But his attachment to the Whig party, at iIk-
time of the Popifh plot, brought him into dilcrcdit at court,
fo that his praftice declined confiderably before his death,
which occurred in January 1690-91. He was buried at St.
Tudy, near his native place, in Cornwall, where he had pur-
chafed an eftate. In addition to the writings above-men-
tioned, he communicated fome papers containing accounts of
anatomical experiments to the Royal Society ; a fmall traft
on catarrh, which was added, as a new chapter, to the edi-
tion of the treatife de Corde of 1680 ; and a Letter on the
flate of medicine in England. Gen. Biog. Eloy Did.
Hift. de la Med.

LowEK, To, in S^a Language, is to eafe down gradually,
exprefled of fome weighty body, which is fufpended by

„ , , tackles or other ropes, which being jlackened, Uiffer the

Jician and anatomift, was born at Trcmere, in Cornwall, body to defcend as flowly or expedilioufly as the occafion re-
about the year 1631. He was defcended from a good quires. Hence lowtr haiuljonuly, and lower f/if^r/)', are op-
famiJy, and received a liberal education, being admitted as pofed to one another ; the former being the order to lower
king's fcholar at Weftminller. fchool, and thence elefted to gradually, and the latter to lower expeditioully.
Chrjft-church college, m Oxford, in 1649. After the l„,^.j.^ Allonvafs Creek, in Geography, a townfhip of
ufual courfe of univerfity ftuQ.es, he took the degree of ^^^^^-^^^^ ;„ ^^Xem county. New Jerfcy.

Lower Creek, a river of America, in the weftern terri-
tory, which riiRS into the Ohio. N. lat. 40" 9'. W. long. -

43''

M.A.in 165:5, and then turned his attention to medicine.
He became acquainted with the celebrated Dr. Willis, who
employed him as a coadjutor in his diffections, and found
him fo able an afliilant, that he afterwards became his Itcady
friead and patron, and introduced him into practice. In
1665, Lower took the degrte of M D. ; and in the
iixas year puihlliei a defence of Dr. Willis's work on fevers,

Lower Dullin, a townfhip of America, in Philadelphia
county, Pennfylvania, containing 1495 inhabitants.

Lower Landing, or Ecift Latuliiig, lies on Niagara river.

Upper

LOW

LOW

Upper Canada, oppofite to Queenftown on the Niagara-fort
fide.

Lower Marlhorovgb, a poft-town of America, in Mary-
land, 30 miles fronii Annapolis, and 1 2 from Calvert court-
houfe.

Lower Milford, a towndiip of America, in Burk's county,
Pennfylvania.

Lower Penn's K'ecl, a townfKip of America, in Salem
county, New Jerfey.

Lower ff^eau Tazuns, lie in the territory N \V. of the
Ohio, 20 miles below Rippacanoe creek, at its mouth in
Wabafh river.

Lower, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied to
a lever in fome places.

LOWERING, in the DiflllUry, a term ufed to exprefs
the debafing of the llrength of any fpirituous liquor by mixing
water with it. The ilandard and marketable price of thefe
Lquors are fixed, in regard to a certain ftrength in them called
proof ; this is that ftrength, which makes them, when fliook
in a phial, or poured from on high into a glafs, retain a froth
or crown of bubbles for fome time. In this ftate fpirits con-
fift of about half pure or totally inflammable fpirit, and half
water ; and if any foreign or home fpirit is to be expofed
to fale, and is found to have that proof wanting, fcarce any
one will buy it, til^it haj been diililled again and brought to
that ftrength ; and if it is above that ftrength, tlie proprietor
ufually adds water to it to bring it down to that ftandard.
This addition of water, to debafe the ftrength, is what is
called lowering it. People well acquainted with the goods
■will indeed buy fpirits at any ftrength, only lowering a fam-
ple to the proof ftrength, and by that judgmg of the ftrength
of the whole ; but the generality of buyers will not enter
into this, but have it all lowered for them.

There is another kind of lowering in pratlice among the
retailers of fpirituous liquors to the vulgar : this is the re-
ducing it under the ftandard of proof. They buy it proof,
and afterwards increafe their profit upon it, by lowering it
with water one-eighth part. The quantity of fpirit is what
they generally allow themfelves for the addition of water ;
and whoever has the art of doing this, without deftroying
the bubble proof, as this is ealily done by means of fome ad-
dition that gives a greater tenacity to the parts of the ipirit,
will deceive all that jv.dge by this proof alone ; that is, very
nearly all who are concerned in the ipirit trade. Such an ad-
ditional quantity of water as one-eighth makes the fpirit tafte
fofter and cooler, and will make many prefer it to the
ftronger fpirit, which is hotter and more fiery ; but unlefs
the fpirit, thus lowered, were tolerably clean, or the proof be
fome other way prefervcd, the addition of the water lets loofe
fome of the coarfe oil, which makes the liquor milky, and
leaves a very naufeous talle in the mouth. Shaw's Effay on
Diftillery.

The w-ay to judge of fpirits not being thus lowered or
debafed in ftrength, is to examine them by the eye and
tongue ; and in buying a quantity of proof goods, fuch
ihould always be chofen as are clean, thin, and light, ar.d
have a good crown of froth, which goes off^in large bubbles,
fuch as tafte foft and uniform, and are not high flavoured,
of an alkaUne guft) nor acrid and fiery, but loon quit the
tongue.

Lowering the Flag. See Flag.

LOWES Water, in Geography, a lake of England, in
the county of Cumberland, about fix miles in circumference ;
10 miles S. of Cockcrmouth.

LOWEST Region. See Region-.

LOWESTOFF, in Geography, a market-town and parifh
in the hundred of Mutford and Lothingland, on the coall of

Vol. XXL

Suffolk, England. For a confiderable period it wag deno-
minated Lothnwiftoft, as' fome think, from Lothbroch, a
noble Dane, who landed in this neighbourhood about the
year 864, and 'w'l/la, a half hide of land. This derivation of
its name is extremely doubtful. The town, however, is cer
tainly of much eariicr origin. Mr. Gillingwater, in hia "Hif-
tory of Loweftoft," fays it can be traced back to a period
anterior to the fourth century. This town has fuffered
much from the plague at dilTerent periods, particularly in the
years 1:48 and 1547. It has likewife fuHained frequent
pimidering and dep^redations, on account of the attachnxei.t
of its in!ial)itants*to the caufe of royalty.

The fituation-of this town is lofty, and exhibits a fine
and commanding appearance. It extends about a mile ia
length, and confifts chiefly of one principal ftrcct, running
in a gradual defcent from north to fouth, which is inter-
fetted by feveral fmaller ftrtets or lanes from the weft.
The whole is, in general, well paved, and many of the
houfes, having been lately rebuilt in the modern llyle, give
the town an appearance of great neatnefs. From its fitua-
tion and expofure to the northern ocean, over which it
commands an extenfive pn fpeft, it enjoys a moft falubrious
air, keen, but bracing. On the declivity of the cliff a num.
ber of hanging gardens are formed, which are intcrfperfed
with alcoves and fummer-houfes. At the foot of thefe
gardens is a long arrangement of fiftiing-houfes, extending
the whole length of the town. Between thefe and the
beach ftand the boats employed in the herring- fifiiery, which
is thechieffupportof thetown, 70,000 barrels being exported
from hence every feafon. fiere are alfo two hght-houfes,
conveniencies for boat-building, and accommodations for
bathing. A confiderable number of families refort here for
the benefit of the falt-water. Befides thefe fources of wealth
to the inhabitants, there is a tolerable mackarel fifliery, whicli
commences in May and continues till the latter end of June,
and fupplies the adjacent markets, as well as the metropolis.
A fmall china manufaclory, and a ropery, alfo belong to
the town.

The church, fituated about half a mile weft from the
town, is a very fine building, in the pointed ftyle of archi-
tecture, and confills of a nave with two fide aifles. The
prmcipal entrance is by a ftately porch, on the fouth fide of
which are three niches, the centre one intended for the re-
Cijption of a ftatue of St. Margaret, the faint to whom the
church is dedicated. The chancel is particularly neat and
elegant. The font, which is very ancient, is afcended by
three Hone fteps, the upper one bearing an infcriptior, but fa
much corroded as to be almoft unintelligible, li is fur-
rounded by three rows of faints, each row containing twelve
ficrures, and is otherwife finely adorned by carved work.
Mr. Whifton, the friend of fir ll'aac Newton, and fome time
profelTur of mathematics in the univerfity of Cambridge,
from which he was expelled for his Arian principles, was
long vicar of this church. This town had likewife for-
merly three chapels of eafe, but only one of them now con-
tinues to be ufed. There are dillenting mecting-houfeS
here for Methodifts and Prefbyterians. A theatre was credcd
in 1790.

Loweftoff is protefted by ftrong batteries on the fea.^de.
From its extenfive fiftiery, it is a good nurfery for feamcn,
and has given birth to feveral eminent naval officers. A
great fea-fight took place off this town on the 3d of J^nne,
1665, between the Britiih fleet under the duke of York,
and the Dutch fleet, which was commai.dcd by admirals
Opdam and Van Tromp, in which the latter were defeated
with the lofs of eighteen ftiips taken and fourteen funk.
In this adlion, admiral fir Thomas Alien, a native of this
3Y to.vn.

LOW

LOW

>ovm, particulr\rly diflingiiidiej fiimfelf. In the vicinity of
Lowelioflf formerly flood the village of Newton, wliich has
, been entirely fwallowvd up by the fea.

Lnweftoff, according to the parliamentary retflrns of
1800, contained 572 hruifes, and 2^ ;2 inhsbitants. The mar-
ket is held on Wednefday, and liic fairs on the 12th of May
and 19th of Odlober. A very full hiilory of this town has
been piiblilhed under the following title, " An hiftorical
Account of the ancient Town of LoweftofF, with cur-
fory Remarks on the adjoining' Parilhes, and a j^reneral Ac-
count of the Ifland, by Edm. Gilhngwatcr, 410. 1790."

LOWHILL- a lowndiip of Am>'rira, in Northampton
county, Ponnfylvania, containing 5^45 inhabitants.

LOWITZ, GiiORGE MoiUTZ, m Biography, profeffor at
Gottingen, and member of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences at Peterfburgh, was born, in 1722, at Fiirth, near
Nuremberg. He was put apprentice to the trade of a
goldfmith, and by his expertnefs in the biifincf'i, he was
enabled afterwards to conftru6t and improve mathematical
inftruments, with the ufe of which he was well acquainted.
He now turned his attention to fcience, and made a very
vincommon progrefs in mathematics and natural philofophy.
In 1748, hs diftmguifhed himfelf by conftrufting two charts
of the folar eclipfe, which was to take place in the following
July. He afterwards obferved the eclipfe with great ac-
curacy, by a new method of his own invention. Next year
he publilhed a chart reprefenting the folar eclipfe announced
for the 8tli of .Tanuary, 1750, as it would appear to the in-
habitants of Peterfburg, Rome, Berlin, Nuremberg, Lif-
bon, &c. During thefe years he had been employed in the
education of young perfons, and in I 75 1 he was appointed
profeffor of mathematics and natural philofophy in the
Egidian feminary at Nuremberg, and was entrulled with
the care of the obfervatory. On his entrance into this new
office he pronounced an oration on the advantages which
might be derived from the ftudy of the higher branches of
■jnathemalics, which was printed in 1752. He publifhed in
the fame year an account of various experiments on the pro-
perties of the air, which he employed as a guide in his lec-
tures. About this time he removed to Gottingen, and was
made profeffor of praSical mathematics, with a falary of
■four hundred dollars. Having little to do as profeffor, he
filled up his vacant hours in writing papers on various ufeful
fubjefts ; the greater part of thefe were read before the
Royal Society of Gottingen, and they added, in a con-
fiderable degree, to his reputation. He was at the fame
time employed by the Cofmological Society in conftrufting
globes ; but, after a time, conceiving his fervices had not
been fufficiently remunerated, he quitted the fociety with
difp-u!l. After this he was appointed, by the Hanoverian
government, direftor of the obfervatory, an ofBce which he
refigned in 1764, together with the profefforfhip ; and he
now refided at Gottingen as a private individual. He foon
found that his means were infufficient for his fupport : his
affairs became embarraffed, and his lituation would probably
have been forlorn, had not the Academy of Sciences at
Peterfburg invited him into Ruffia for the purpofe of ob-
ferving the tranfit of Venus, which was to take place in the
year 1769. In a fhort time after this he was appointed a
member of the Academy of Sciences in the adronomical de-
partment, and he was ordered to repair to Surjef, a fmall
town on the river Ural, a few miles froin the Cafpian fea,
the place deftined for obferving this curious phenomenon.
This miffion he accomplifhed in the completeft manner, and
publifhed an account of it in the year 1770. He then pro-
ceeded, in the month of September, by the Cafpian fea, to
Aftrachan, and having determined the geographical pofition

of that city, he repaired to feme other places for the like
purpofes. He was next engaged in furveys for a new canal,
which he continued, at diflerent periods, till the month of
Augufl, 1774, when the whole undertaking was unfor-
tun. tely flopped by a iudden and unexpefted irruption of
fome rebel troops. Lowitz, and his friend and affiftant,
betook ihemfelves to places which they hoped would afford
them fhelter and fecurity. The latter, after burying his
books, inflruments, and other property, fought for fafety in
the fortrcfs of Dnietriefflc, from whence he proceed^•d to
Aftrachan. Lowitz, with his family, fet out for the Ger-
man colony of Dobrinka, but unfortunately fell into the
hands of the rebel chief, who put him to death in the moll
barbarous manner. His wife and fon were fuffered to
efcape after they had been plundered of the beit part of their
property : but Lowitz's books, papers, and inftruments,
having been depofited in an unoccupied houfe, were, by
good fortune, preicrved. Gen. Biog.

LOWK, \a Agriculture, a provincial term, lignifying to
weed corn, or other crops fown broadcaft.

LO\VKOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Volhynia ; 10 miles E. of Zytomiers.

LOWLANDS, a denominati'n applied to the fouthern
difln6ts of Scotland, in contradiftinition to the High-
lands ; which fee. The inhabitants of, thefe different
diftriCls differ from each other in language, manners, and
drefs ; but the difference has been gradually decreufing.
Tlie language, manners, habits, and drefs of the gentle.iieii
in the Low Countries refemble thofe of their Englifh neigh-
bours, with whom they have frequent intercourfe. ThC
peafantry and middle clafs are fober, induftrious, and good
economifls ; hofpitable and difcreet, intelligent, brave, fleadv,
humane, and benevolent. Their fidelity to one another is
a flriking feature in their character. In their mode of
living and drefs there are fome peculiarities, but thefe are
gradually wearing out. Within thefe few years the ufe of
pottage, and bread of oatmeal, is almoll di.ufed among the
commonalty, and tea, wheaten bread, and animal food, are
as common on the north as on the fuuth of the Tweed. See
Scotland.

LOWMAN, Moses, in Biography, was born in London
in the year 1679. He was O'lginally intended for the pro-
feffion of the law, was educated accordingly, and entered '
a ftudent in the Middle Temple. When he attained to
years of manhood, he abandoned the law, and determined
to qualify himfelf for the office of minilbr among the Pro-
tefbant diffenters. With this view he proceeded to Holland,
and purfued his fludies at Utrecht and Leyden, and on his
return in 1710 he was chofen affiftant preacher to a diffent-
ing congregation at Clapham, of which he was afterwards
elefted pallor. In this conneftion he continued during the
remainder of his life, difchai'ging the duties of his ftation
with conilancy and regularity, elteemed and beloved by his
flock, and highly refpeded by thofe who knew him. As an
author, his iirft publication was in 1740, and intitled "j\
DilTertation on the Civil Government of the Hebrews, in
which the true Defign and Nature of th^ir Government are
explained, and the Juftice, Wifdom, F«d Goodnefs of the
Mofaical Conftitutions vindicated, &c." In 1745, he pub-
lifhed '' A Paraphrale and No^es upon the Revelation of
St. Jolm," winch is held in high eltimation by the moll
judicious critics. The next work of Mr. Lowman was
upon Jewifh antiquities, intitled "A Rational of the Ritual
of Hebrew Worlhip, &c." Befides thefe, he printed a
finall traft concerning " The Demonllration of a God, from , ,
the Argument a priori," and a fermon on Popery. ,He
died in 1752, in the 73d year ef his age. As he was a firm

believer

I. o w

LOW

believer in the Chrillian revelation, fo he had imbibed the"
fpirit which it recommends ; and thofe virtues and duties
■which he inculcated upon others he carefully praftifed
himfelf. Ciojr Brit.

LOW^DSITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Leitmeritz ; four miles W.S.W. of Leitmeriiz.
N. lat. 50 50'. E. long. 14" 9'.

LOVVOWECH, or Neustat, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw; ^3 miles W. of Pofen.

LOWREY, a town of Hlndooflan, in the circar of
Gohnd ; 36 miles E.S.E. of Raat.

LOWTAIAH, a town of Algiers ; 27 miles S. of
Tubnah.

LOWTH, William, in B'wgrnphy, a learned Englifh
divine and commentator of the fcriptures, fon of an apo-
thecary, was born in the parifli of St. Martin's, Ludgate,
in the city of London, in the year 1661 : he was inftrufted
in the clafTics at Merchant Taylors' fchool, and made fuch
progrefs iii them that he was deemed fully qualified for
the univerfity before he was quite fourteen years of age,
and was accordingly elefted from thence into St. John's
college, Oxford, in 1675. ^^^ took his <iegree of M. A. in
1683, and proceeded bachelor of divinity in 1688. His
firil publication was "A Vindication of the divine Autho-
rity and Infpiration of the Old and New Teftament,'' in
anfwer to Le Clerc's famous five letters on this fubjeft.
This work attracted public notice, and he was appointed
chaplain to Dr. Mew, bilTiop of Winchefter, and ihortly
promoted to a prebend in th; cathedral church of that fee,
and to a redory in Hampfiiire. Mr. Lowth ne.^t publish-
ed a fmall piece, which has been very frequently reprinted,
entitled " Directions for the profitable reading of the Holy
Scriptures," Sec. In 17 14 he publilhed two fermons, and
alfo " A Commentary on the Prophet Ifaiah," in quarto,
which was followed, in 1718, by "A Commentary on the
Prophet Jeremiah." In 1 723 he gave the world his " Com-
mentary on the Prophet Ezekiel,'' and foon after one on
Daniel, and the minor prophets. Thefe illuitrations of the
prophecies were afterwards collected in a folio volume, as a
continuation of biihop Patrick's Commentary on the other
parts of the Old Teliament, in which form they have been
frequently reprinted. Mr. Lowth, though an able fcrip-
ture expofitor, was a good general fcholar, and furnillied
Dr. Potter, afterwards archbifliop of Canterhiury, with notes
on Clemens Alexandrinus, which were publilhed, with the
author's name to each, in the doftor's edition of that father.
He communicated to Dr. Hudfon remarks on Jofephus, of
which that editor availed himfelf, and acknowledged his
obligations in the preface to his edition of the Jewifli hillo-
rian. To the labours of Mr. Lowth many other learned
men and valuable writers have been indebted, befides thofe
above referred to. He died in 1732, being in tile leventy-
third year of his age. He was ditlinguiihed for unafFedted
piety, a mod exemplary zeal in the difcharge of the palloral
functions, and for an unremitting defire of being ufcfnl' to
his pariihioners. Biog. Brit.

Lowth, Robert, fon of the preceding,wasborn at Win-
chefler in the year 1710. Here he was educated in gram-
mar learning at the fchool founded by William of Wykeham,
in which he acquired an accurate knowledge of the Greek
and Roman claffics, and made confiderable progrefs in
oriental hterature. Even at fchool he difcovered a poetical
genius, and among other pieces which he wrote at that
perio'd, was a beautiful poem on " The Genealogy of
Chriit," as it is reprefented on the eaft window of Win-
chefter college chapel ; and another, which appeared in tlie
twenty-third volume of the Gentleman's Magazine, entitled

" Catherine's Hill," the place where the Winchefter fcho-
lars are allowed to play on hofidays. In 1 7 28, he was
fent to New coihge, Oxford, of which inflitution he was
eledted a fellow iti 1734: took his degree as M.A, in
1737, and was, in 1741, elected profeffor of poetry in the
univerfity of Oxford. In the difcharge of the duties of this
office he delivered his " Prslefliones" on Hebrew poetry,
which will be noticed more at large hereafter. His firft
preferment in the church was the redtory of Ovingdon, in '
Hampfhire, to which he n-as prefented by bifhop Hoadly.
In 1748, Mr. Lowth accompanied Mr. LcRgo, afterwards
chancellor of the exchequer, to Berlin, uho went to that
CO .rt in a public charafter, and with whom, from his. ear-
liell years, he lived on ter.i.s of the moll uninterrupted
friendihip. In the following year be undertook the charge
of the fons of the duke of Devonftiire, as travelling tutor
on the continent. The duke was fo thoroughly fatisfied
with the conduft of Mr. Lowth in this office, liiat he after-
wards proved his fteady friend and patron. In 1 750 he
was appointed archdeacon of Wincheder, and three year*
after he was prefented to the reftory of Eaft Woodhay,
in the county of Southampton. lii 17^3 he publiflied his
work already mentioned, entitled " De facra PoeC He-
brieorum Praeleftiones Academicse ;" of which he gave
the public an enlarged edition in 1763, in two volumes 8vo.
The fecond volume confills of additions made to the work
by the celebrated Michaelis. This work, though entitled
oiily " Ledtures on Hebrew Poetry," will be found '< An
excellent compendium of all the betl rules of talie, and of
all the principles of compofition, illullrated by the boldcft
and moll exalted fpecimens of genius, which antiquity has
tranfniitted to us, and which have fcldom fallen under the
infpection of rational criticilm. But thefe lectures teach
us not only tafte, but virtue ; not only to admire and revere
the fcriptures, but to profit by their precepts. The au-
thor has penetrated into the very fanftuaries of Hebrew-
literature ; lie'has inveRigated, with a degree of precifion
which few critics have attained, the very nature and cha-
racter of their compofition : by accurately examining, and
cautioufly comparing every part of the lacrcd writings ; by
a force of genius, which could enter into the very defign
of the authors ; and by a comprehenfivenefs of mind, whick
could embrace, at a fingle view, a vaft feries of correfpond»
ing palTages, he has difcovered the manner, the fpirit, the
idiom of the original, and has laid down fuch axioms as
cannot fail to facilitate our knowledge and underllan'ding of
the fcriptures." Such is the opinion of this work given
by the tranflator of i', the late Dr. George Gregory.
Subjoined to the " Prileftiones" is " A fhort Confutation
of Bifhop Hare's Syllem of Hebrew Metre,'' In the year
1754, the univerfity of Oxford honoured the author with t'ne
degree of doCtor of divinity, and in the following year he
was nominated firft chaphiin to the marquis of Hartington,
lord lieutenant of Ireland. Thither he accompanied that
nobleman, and was, in a fliort time, offered the biihopric of
Limerick, which however he exchanged for fome prefer,
ment in the county of Durham, in his own country. In
1 758, Dr. Lowth preached a fermon at Durham, on Free
Enquiry in Matters of Religicn, which has been frequently
reprinted. In the fame year he pubhdied his " Life of
Wykeham, Lilhop of Wincheiler," and founder of the col-
leges in which lie had received his education. His next
piece has been exceedingly popular in our fchools, though
now generally fuperfcded by a work of the fame kind by
Mr. l.,indley Murray, w's. " .'\n Introdudtiou to Engliih
Grammar.'' Paffmg over a coiitrovcrfv between Dr. Lowth
and Dr. Waiburton, which did not rcHc^ mr.cli credit on
" ■ 3 V 2 tUa

L O W

L O X

the ancrry tempers of the difputants ; we may obferve tliat
Dr. Lowth was elcfted a fellow of the Royal Society at
Gottingen in the year 1765, and in tlie following year he
was promoted to the fee of St David's, and almoft imme-
diately tranflated to the bifhopric of Oxford. In this hip;h
ofBce he remained till the year 1777, when he fucceeded
Dr. Terrick. in the fee of London, in 1778 he publidied
the laft of his literary labours, entitled " Kaiah : Anew
Tranflation, with a preliminary DifTertation, and Notes,
critical, philological, and explanatory." His defign, in
this work, was not only to give an exaft and faithful re-
prefentatioii of the words and fenfe of the prophet, by ad-
hering clofely to the letter of the text, and treading, as
nearly as may be, in his footlleps ; but, moreover, to
imitate the air and manner of the author, to exjjrefs
the form and fafliion of the compofition, and to give the
Enghfh reader fonie notion of the peculiar turn and call
of the original. This verfion, excellent in itfelf, was not
entirely faulllefs, and the miftakes were pointed out by
Michael Dodfor, efq. (See Dodson.) In 1779 the bilhop
ivas called on to preach a fermon before the king at the
Chapcl-royal, on A!h-Wednefday, in which he attacked
the opponents to the minillerial fyftem of goverimicnt,
among whom was the celebrated Dr. Richard Price, who
defended himfelf with energy and fpirit. In 1781 bifhop
Lowth was engaged in a law fuit with Lewis Difney
Ffytche, efq., concerning the kf^ality of general bonds of
refignation, which, if Dr.Towers's llatementof the cafe be at
all accurate, was highly difcreditablc to his lordlhip : fuffice
it to fav, that in this cafe the decifions of the courts of
law, almoll unanimoufly pronounced, were unexpe-ftedly
reverfed by the houfe of lords, by a fmall majority of one,
and of tl-.e numbers who voted on this occafion fourteen
were bidiops, and as fuch parties in their own caufc. (See
Dr. Towcrs's Obfervations on the Caufe between the Bilhop
of London, and L. D. Ffytche, efq.) In 17S3 the bidiop
was fixed on to fucceed archbifliop Cornwallis, but on ac-
count of his advanced age he thought proper to decline the
high honour of the archbifhopric of Canterbury. In tlie
latter years of his life he endured a great degree of fut-
fering from that dreadful diforder, the llone, v hich he bore
with fortitude and refignation to the divine will. He ex-
perienced alfofome of the mod painful ftrokts of calami-
ties which a father can experience, in the lofs of affectionate
children. In 1768 his eldeft daughter died at the age of
tliirteen, of whom he was paflionately fond, and whofe
<ieath he deplored in the following exquifitely beautiful
epitaph, which is infcribed on her tomb:

Cara, vale, ingenio praftans, pietate, pudore,

Et plufquam nata: nomine cara, vale.
Cara Maria, vale. At veniet fclicius sevom

Quando iterum tecum, fim modo dignus, ero.
Oara, redi, l;Eta turn dicam voce paternas,

Eja, age in amplexus, cara Maria, redi,

!n lySjj, his feconj daughter, as (he was preliding at the
*ea-table, fuddenly expired. Hiseldcll fon alfo, of whom
he wa' led to form the highell expeftati ins, was linrried to
the grave in the bloom of youth. His lordfhip died at
Fiilham in 17R7, having nearly completed the 77th year of
Lis age. Of oifhop Lov.th'o extenfive learning, fine talie,
and peculiar qualifications for the ftation which he tilled, lie
lias left abundant proofs. While his amiable manners ren-
•leied hi:n an ornament to the high rank in which l.e moved,
and endeared him to all with v. hom he converfed, his zeal
for the e'lablLlied religion of the country nude him an-
xious to promote to places of trail and dignity fuch cler-

gymen as he knew were beft qualified to fill them. Hf
united, in an eminent degree, the qualities of the gentle-
man with thofe pf the fcholar : he converfed with elegance,
as he wrote with aceuracy. His heart was tender and fym-
pathetic. He polfefled a mind which felt its ow" llrength,
and decided on whatever came before it with promptitude.
In thofe trials where aillidlion was to be fuffered or fubdued
he behaved as a man and a Chriftian. His piety had ni>
tinfture of morofenefs ; his charity no leaven of ollcntatiou.
The bilhop was author of fome fermons, preached on parti-
cular occalions, and of many poetical pieces, fome of which
have been frequently reprinted ; the titles of which will be-
found in the General Biography.

LOWVILLE, in Geography, a poll-town of America,
in Oneida county, New York ; 550 miles from Waih-
ingtoii.

LOWYA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; ij miles
S.S.E. of Bettiah. N. lit. 26 ' 35'. E. long. 84 43'.

LOXA, or lojA, called by Abulfeda Lufchah, an ir-
regularly built town of Spain, in the province of Grenada,
fituated partly on the declivity and partly at the foot of 3
hill near the Xenil, about five leagues VV. of Grenada,
and taken from the Moors in 1486. It contains three pa-
rifhes, four convents, four hofpitals, a bridge, and the ruins
of a ca^le ; together with a falt-work and a copper forge.
It is the chief town of a corregidorad ; the country about
it is pleafing, fertile, and full of olive tree?, gardens, or-
chards, fine fruit trees, and flowers. In the vicinity are
immenfe numbers of hares and rabbits. Near the town, to-
wards Grenada, are a fmall plain and a valley, both fown
with corn, flax, and hemp, and producing alfo a great
quantity of vegetables. N. lat. 37" i8'. W. long. 4 18'.
It contains about 8000 inhabitants.

LoxA, or Ltija, a town of South America, the capital
of a jurifdiftion of the fame name, in the province of Quito,
founded in the year 154C, by captain Alonfo de Mercadillo,
and refembling in ex'ent, form, and buildings, the city of
Cuenga ; but the temperature of the air is confiderably
hotter. Befides two churches, Loja has feveral convents,
a nunnery, a college of Jefuits, and an hofpital. In its
diftrift are 14 villages, and within the territory of its jurif-
diftion is produced the famous fpecific for intermitting
fevers, well known by the name of Cafcarilla de Loja, or
Quinquina. (See CASC.i.uiLLA and Cinchona.) Thcjurif-
diftioii of Loja derives alio great advantage from breeding
the Cochineal; which fee. The inhabitants of Loja, known
over the whole province by the name of Lojanos, do not
exceed 10,000 fouls; though formerly, when the city was
in its greatell profperity, they were much more numerous.
Their charafter is much better than that of the inhabitants
of Cuenga ; and befides their affinity in culloms and difpofi--
tion to thofe of the other villages, they cannot be reproached
■with the charailer of being llotliful. In this jurifdittion
fuch numerous droves of horned cattle and mules are bred,
that it fupplics the others of, this province, and that of
Piura in Valles. The carpets alio manufadlured here are
of futh remarkable finencfs, that they find a ready fale
wherever they are fent. The corregidor of Loja is governor
of Yaguarfongo, and principal alcalde of the mines of
Zaruiiia ; but the pod of governor of Yaguai'fongo is at
prefent a mere title without any jurifditlion ; part of the
villages wbich formed it being loft by the revolt of the
Indians, and the others added to the government of J<ien ;
fo that the corregidor of Loja enjoys only thofe honours in-
tended to preferve the remembrance of that government.
The town of Zaruoia, in the jurifdiclion of which are mines
of gold, has prelented the corregidor of Loja with the title

L O X

ef its alcalde major. It was one of the firft towns founded
in this province, and at the fame time one of the molt opu-
lent; but it is at prefent in a mean condition, owing chiefly
to the decay of us mines, on which account moll of the
Spanilh families have retired, fome to Cuen9a, and others to
l,oja ; fo that at prefent its inhabitants are faid not to ex-
ceed 6000. The declenfion cf thele mines, which is owing
to the negligence of thofe that are concerned in working
them, more than to a fcarcity of tiie metal, has been dif-
advantageous to the whole department of Loja ; and con-
fequently diminiilied tiie number of its inhabitants. S. lat. 4'.
W. long. 79~ 14'.

LoxA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Savolax ;
108 miles N. of Nyllot.

LOXARTHRUS, (from m|o.-, oblique, and <x.pp,, a
joint,) in Surgery, deformity of a joint.

LOXIA, \n Natural H'lflory, a genus of birds of the
order pafle:es, of which, according to Latham, there are
eighty-five fpecies ; but in the lail edition of Gmelin, tliere
are an hundred fpecies enumerated and defcribed. This
latter arrangement wd' Ihall follow in the prefent article.
The elTential charafter is as follows : the bill is ftrong,
thick, convex, rounded at the bafe ; the lower mandible is
bent in at the edge ; the noftrils are fmall, and round at the
bafe of the bill ; the tongue is trunca'.e. The familiar name
of this genus is grnjhiah.

In the loxia, cniberiza, and fringilla genera, both man-
dibles are moveable, by which means they are able to Hiell
and break in pieces the feeds they feed upon. Of this
numerons tribe there are but live fpecies that are Britilli,
which will be noticed by afterilks prefixed to the fpeciiic
names.

Species.

* CuuviROSTRA ; Common cnf^-bill. Mandibles crofTrng
each other; body varying in colour; wings and forked tail
brown. Linn, Le bcc-cro'ife, BrifT. Shrhl-apple, or crofs-
hill, Willoiigiibv. This is the moll remarkable bird of the
whole genus. Both mandibles are hooked, and turned dif-
ferent ways, fo that they do not meet in a point. The bill,
however, is not uniformly in the fame diredlion : in fome in-
. dividuals the under mandible is twilled to the right, in
others to the left fide ; a circumllance tliac has been noticed,
to prove that the variation in the bill is rather ownig to cer-
tain ufes to which it is applied by the bird, than to any fixed
appointment in nature. This fpecies is found fometimcs in
Britain, though it is not by any means a conllant vifitor in
thefe iflands. It inhabits more generally the northern
countries of Europe, efpecially. fome parts of Germany,
Switzerland, Rufiia, Sweden, &c. where it is permanent
the whole year. Birds of this fpecies migrate, from un-
known caufes, into other countries, not regularly, but in
the courfe of feveral years. They inhabit the pir.e forefts,
and feed upon the cones ; for the fcahng of which their bills
are admirably formed. This bird is obferved to hold the cone
in one rlaiv, like the parrot ; and to have- all the actions of
that bird, when kept in a cage. It is laid to make its neft
in the very higlieft parts of the fir trees, faflening it to the
branch with the refinous matter which exudes from the trees.
Mr. Latham fays, " I have never heard of its breeding in
England, but know one inftance of its being (hot at large
in the middle of fummer. I have been told that they have
done great damage in orchards, by tearing the apples to
pieces for the fake of the feeds, the only part they delight
in. Many are taken with a bird-call and bird-hmc, and
others by a horfe-hair noofe fixed to a long fifhihg-rod : for
fo intent are they on picking out the feeds of the cone, that

L O X

they will fuffcr thcmfclves to be taken by the noofe being
put over the head.

There are two varieties : the one reddiTh, head fcarJct ;
the other larger, bill thicker and fhortcr. The male is red,
varied with brown and green, and is faid to change its
colours thrice a year ; the female is olive-green, mixed with
brown.

Lkucoptera ; White-winged grolbeatc. Mandible*
crofling each other ; feathers whitifli, edged with red ; rump
pale red ; vent whitilh ; tail and wings black, the latter
with two white bands. It inhabits North America ; is
about fix inches long. The bill is of a horn colour ; legs
are brown. Latham received fpecimens both from Hud-
Ion's Bay and New York.

Psnr.vcE.v ; Parrot-billed grofbeak. Olive colour ;
quill and even tail-feathers edged with ycllowilh ; lower
mandible much (liorter. The plumage in the female is not
unlike that of the male, except the head, which is the fame
as the other parts of the body, with a mixture of yeUowifh-
grey about the fides of the head. It inhabits the Sandivich
iflands.

* COCCOTIIRAU.STES ; Hawfinch. This is le gros-bec of
Bridon, and is rather larger than the foregoing fpecies. It
is of a chefnut-a(h colour ; wings with a white line, having the
middle quill-feathers rhombic at tlie tips ; tail-feathers black
at the bafe of the thinner web. The female is lefs bright in
colour ; the part between the bill and the eye is grey, inllead
of black. This may ferve as a general deltription', but the
colours vary very much. This fpecies, thoucrh ranked
among the Britilh birds, vifits thefe kingdoms occafionaliv,
and for the moll part in winter, and has never been known
to breed here. It is more plentiful in France, where it mav
be feen in abundance about the beginning of April ; and
foon after makes its neft between the fork of the branches-
of trees, about ten or twelve feet from the ground. It is
compofed of fmall dry fibre?, intermixed with liverwort,
and lined with finer materials. The e?;gs are of a roundifh
fhape, of a blueidi-green, fpotted with olive-brown, with a
few irregular black markings^nterfperfed. It is alfo com-
mon in Italy, Germany, Sweden, and the wellern parts of
RufFia, where the wild fruits grow : in the reft of the em-
pire they are exceedingly fcarce, except beyond lake Baikal,
where they arrive from the fouth in great plenty, to feed on
the berries of a tree peculiar to that country. From the
fticn Jth of the bill, it cracks the ftones of the fruit, of the
haws, cherries, &c. with the greatell eafe.

* Eksixleator ; Pine grolbeak. Gros-bec de Canada,

BrilTon. Le dur-bec, Buffon. Gnalejl bullfinchi Edwards.

AVings with a double white line; tail-feathers all black;

head, neck, brcaft, and rump, in the young bird red, in

the old bird yellow; female olive, or greenilh-brown. with

here and there a reddilh or yellowifli tinge, but chiefly at

the top of the head. It frequents the moft northern parts

of this kingdom, being only met v.ith in Scotland, and.

efpecially the Highlands, where it breeds, and inhabits the

pine-foreih, feeding on the feeds like the crofs-bill. It is

found in all the pine-forefts of Siberia, Lapland, and t!ic

northern parts of Ruflia \. common aliout St. Peter.'burgh

in the autumn, and is caught in great plenty at that time

for the ufe of the table, returning north m the fpring-.

Thefe birds are like wife common in the northern parts of

America, and appear at Hudfon's Bay about the moDth of

May, to which place they are faid to come from the fouth,.

and are obferved to feed on the buds of the willow.

Macuoura ; Long-tailed grofticak. Black ; band on •
the wings and back rcd*ii(h-yellow ; tail long, wed<^ed. Ih-

habita

I. O X I A.

h-.bits Africa, near the Senegal. It is about feven -uches
long ; the bill and legs are black.

Aurea; Gold-backed grolbeak. B'ack ; hack golden ;
wing-coverts pale brown, fpotled with black ; legs blueilh.
t inhnbits Benguclo.

RumciLLA ; Caiicafian grofboak, fo called froin the
Caucafian mountains which it inhabits. It is about eight
inches long. Scarlet, fpotted with v\hite; belly and vent
rofy ; greater wing-coverts brown ; tail black ; feathers of
the body cinereous at the bafe, giving the plumage a waved
appearance.

* Pyrhuula ; Bullfinch. Le BouvrcuU, BrifTon. The
bill of this bird is of a dark horn colour, the upper mandible
hooked, and projects over the lower, which is roundifli, like
a parrot's ; top of the head, feathers round the eye, and a
fpot under the beak, of a dark blue gloffy black ; the hind
part of the neck and the back are grey ; the throat and
bread are of a beautiful flefii-coloured red ; belly and vent
white, as is the rump ; quill-feathers and tail black ; wing-
coverts blue-black, the Icfs ones tipped with white; legs
very fliort and black. The female is black on the head,
flight-featiicrs, and tail ; bread and under parts of a reddifh-
brown ; the rump whitilh. There are three other varieties :
I. Entirely black. 2. White, back with a few black
fpots. 3. White; head, neck, bread, and belly rofy.

Thefe birds are very troublefome vilitors to the orchards
and gardens, in the fpring of the year ; feeding on the buds
of cherries, plums, and other fruit-trees. They retire to
woods and clofe cover, to build their neds in May. They
have no fong in the date of nature, but are readily taught
fme notes of mufic, and even to fpeak. Females are made
as perfeft as males in mufical tunes. They form a flight
ned of twigs laid crodways, and lay four egfgs.

Cahdixalis ; Cardinal grolbeak ; Virginian nightingale.
Le gros-bec de Virginie, Bridon. Creded, red; frontlet
black ; bill and legs blood-red ; bill and legs pale rofy ;
cred, when ereft, pointed. The female differs from the
male, being modly of a reddifli-brown. This fpecies is met
with in feveral parts of North .\merica, and lias obtained
the name of nightingale, on account of its line fong. In
the fpring, and mod part of the fummer, it fits on the tops
of the highed trees, finging early in the morning, fo loud
as to pierce the ears ; frequently kept in cages, in which it
fings through the year : lomctimcs it is quite mute for a
time, and again redlefs, hopping from perch to perch, and
finging alternately. It inhabits North America ; feeds on
grain and Indian corn, which it hoards up.

Carlfoxi. Red ; chin black ; rump, tail, wings, and
legs brown. Inhabits the iflands of the Indian fea ; it re-
fembles tRe cardinalis, but is not creded.

BoETOKEKSis ; Indian grodieak. Creded, red ; frontlet
red ; bill and legs yellow ; the toes are long ; claws diarp,
pointed ; wing-coverts black. It inhabits India, and is
about eight inches long.

Madagascariensis ; Madagafcar groftieak. Red, ocu-
lar band black, back fpotted witlf blackidi ; the bill alfo
is black; wings and tail brow.', edged with olive. It is about
five inches and a half long, and inhabits Madagafcar. The
young birds at fird are-olive, and do not arrive at the red
colour but by degrees. ^

Mexicana ; Mexican grofbeak. Red ; wings and tail
black. It inhabits New Spain, and is about fix inches and
a half long.

Brasiliana ; Brafilian grofbeak. Brown ; beneath red-
dilh, with fpots annulate with black ; head and middle of th«
belly red j crefccnt on the nape and tip of the tail white j

the bill is of a fledi colour ; wings and tail black ; wing-
coverts and lecond.iry quiU-tcathers reddilh at the tips. It
ij found in B.'-azil.

DoMlNKAN.\; Le gros-lec dii Brefil, Briffun ; yfin-rican
lullfinch, WiUoughby. Black ; head and chin fcaikt ; bread,
belly, and edge of the quill-feathcrs white ; the neck is
blackifli above ; back, rump, and wing-coverts grey a little
fpotted with blai k ; vent and fides of the neck whitidi ;
wings and tail black ; legs cinereous. It inhabits Brazil,
There is a varieiv ; cinereous, beneath fnowy ; fore part
of the head and ihroat red ; tail-featlicrs black edged with
cinereous, the outmod white on the outer edge. It is
about the fize of a lark.

Cuct)LLAT.\ ; Creded Dominican grofbeak. Cinereous ^
creded ; head and chin fcarlet ; breail and bel'y white j tail
long, the lateral feathers blackifii. This, wliich by Latham
is reckoned a variety of the Dominicana^ and which is about
the fame fize, inhabits Brazil.

SiBlRiCA ; Siberian grolbeak. Size of a linnet, but
fuller of feathers. Bill lomewhat longer than that of a bull-
finch ; round the bafe of it the featli'A'S are of a deep purple ;
head and back in iome birds of a deep vermilion ; in others
of a rofe-colour marked with blown, as in the linnet ; the
under parts paler, and not fpotted. The female and young
birds are of the colour of a linnet, with a tinge of red on
the belly and rump.

This is a mod beautiful fpecies. and inhabits the bufliy
fhrubs about the rivers and twrrents of the foulhern moun-
tains of Siberia, and particularly about lake Baikal; fond
of the feeds of the bhieifh and other mngworls ; it is a
redlefs bird, and in winter unites into fmall flocks, and keeps
in warmer fituations among the flirubs.

ViRGiNiCA ; Yellow-beUied grofbesk. Head, neck,
middle tail-feathers, and body beneath red ; belly yellow j .
nape, lower part of the back, wings, and lateral tail-feathers
olive. The bill is yellow, and the bird is fourtd in Vir-
ginia.

Cristata ; Creded grodjeak. Whitilli, front is creded ;
the rump and legs are red ; middle tail-ftjathers very long.
It inhabits Ethiopia, and is one of the larged of itb tribe.
Cred and bread in the male red, female white.

EuvTllROCF.i'ii.iLA ; Paradife grofbeak. Le cardinal
d' Angola, Brilfon ; Sparrow of Paradife, Edwards. Pale
afii ; head pnrplifh ; brcait fpotted with wiiite ; bill and
legs fiefli colour ; chin red ; body beneath ; a double ob-
lique band on the wings white. It inhabits Angola. . "

Maj.\ ; White-headed gn.fbeak. Brown; head white.
It inhabits Malacca and China, and is about four iiiclies
long. The head and neck are whitifh, and fo alfo are the
fecond and fourth quill-feathers.

Flavicans ; Yellow grofbeak. Back greenidi ; head
tawny ; the wings and tail are of a greenitb-yellow. It is
the fize of a canary, bird, and is an inhabitant of Afia.

BoN'.\RlEN'.sis ; Marigold grofoeak. Head and neck
blue ; body abpve blackilh, beneath yellow ; belly and vent
fulphur ; wings and tail blackilh, edged with blue. It in-
habits Buenos Ayrcs, where it is rarely feen till September ;
it frequents cultivated places and gardens ; feen in pairs, and
apparently very much attached to each other ; feeds on
grafs and on feeds. The bill is blackifli ; the legs are red-
dilh ; claws fliarp, curved, grooved, the hind-one very
large.

Okyzivoh.v ; Java groflieak. Le gros-lec cendre de la
Chine, BrifTon ; Padda, or Rice bird, Edwards. Cinereous;
temples white ; bill red. It inhabits China, Java, and
Africa, is five inches long, and very dedruiSive. to rice
plantations. The female has the bill and eye-lids very pale

redj

L O X I A.

rci, and wants tlie whhe on the cheeks ; but the edge of
the wing is white ai well as the under tail-covtrts. It is
tlijught to be a Chinefe bird, by its being often met with
in the paper hangings of that country. Latham thinks this
tlie more likely, as he has feen it among foine Chinefe paint-
in~s, in uhich it bore the Eiame of '■ Hung-tzoy."

Fl\bei.l^fkra ; Fan-tailed grofbeak. This fpecies is
the fize ot a fparrow ; length about five inches. Bill Itout
and du/lcy ; the upper parts of the body are reddifti-iroivn,
))alell on the rump ; the under the fame, but fomcwhat
paler, and more inclined to red ; quills, tail, and legs dulky.
One of thcfc birds had a grey bread and belly. They in-
liabit Virginia, where they are called fan-tails, and con-
tinually carry the tail fpread in an horizontal dircftion.

P.\sicivoka; Wliite-winged grofbeak. Black; fpuri-
ous wings black ; bill flelh-colour. It inhabits Africa, and
is feven inches and a half long.

Mal.^cca ; Ma'acca grolheak. Bay ; head and belly
black ; bill blue ; the breall and flanks are white ; and
the legs are brown It inhabits Java and China, and is
rather more than four inches long. There is a variety
that is ferruginous, head and lower part of the neck
Lhch.

Molucca ; Molucca grofbeak. Browniih ; head, throat,
and t iil-feathers black ; the bill is black ; hind-head
'. ro'.vn ; rump waved white and black ; wings and legs
bi'own. It inhab;ts the Molucca ifles.

PuNCTL'LARiA ; Cowry grofbeak. Bay; belly black,
fpotteJ with white ; the bill and legs black ; hind-head
and back reddifli-brown ; breall and flanks black,- with
hearted vvhi^e fpots, m;ddie of the belly and vent white.
It inhabits Java.

UsDULATA ; Eaflern grofbeak. Brown-red, beneath
waved with brown ; the tad is a pale rcd-afh. It i habits
Afia ; is fix inches long. The bill is fhort and flrong.

Ho!inE.vCE.\ ; Yellow-rumned grofbeak. Tawny ; tem-
ples white ; tail and brealt black. Inhabits India.

SANCUiNiaosTRis ; Red-billed grofbeak. Crey, be-
neath white ; bill and legs red ; ttie front and face arc
black ; breatl ai^d belly pale ochre ; the feathers are fome-
tinics bhckifh in the middle ; wtngs and tail brown. It in-
habits fome parts of Africa and Afia.

AsTRiLD ; Waxed-bill grofbeak. Brown waved with
Wackiih ; bill, orbit, and brealt fcarlet. It inhabits the
Canaries, America, and Africa ; is about four inches long ;
hides itfelf under grafs and herbs, and. feeds on feeds.
There are two other varieties, -viz. i. Rump and vent
fcarlet. 2. Beneath rofy-white ; crown, neck, and back
'blue ; a fcarlet band acrofs the eyes.

I.EUCURA ; White-tailed grofbeak. Bill and legs red ;
liead and wing-coverts cinerenis ; back yellow ; brealt and
belly ycllowifh ; tail white, the outmoll feathers black. It
inhabits Brazi', and is three inches long.

CyANE.\ ; Angola blue grofbeak. Blue ; wings and
tail black ; the bill is of a lead-colour, irides hazel^ legs
Wack. It ifthabits Angola.

ViRES-s. Greeniih ; Ihoulders blue ; wings and tail black,
«dged with green. It mhabi"s Surinam.

Akgolexsis ; Angila grofbeak. Black-blue ; belly fer-
TUj^inous ; wings with a white fpot ; the bill is black ;
■wings edged with white ; legs purplifh-flefh-colour. Found
in and near .Angola.

Ferruginea ; Brown-headed grofbeak. Head and chin
brown ; body above black, beneath ferruginous ; even tail
and quill-feathers black, edged with yellow ; the bill is of
a horn colour, and the legs are pale ; its length is about fix
ischcs*

Melakuiia ; Grey-necked grofbeak. Head and tail
black ; neck above brown ; throat and vent grey ; belly
reddifh ; vent white ; quill-feathers black, the primaries near
the tip, and the fecondaries on the inner edge, are white. It
inhabits China, and is the fize t>f the hawfinch. The head
of the female is grey.

Auuantia; Orange grofbeak. Ora-igc ; crown black ;
quill and tail-feathers black, edged wilh orange The female
has the whole head, and forc-part of the neck, black ; the
under part of the body white ; the rcfl of the body orange
but lefs bright ; and the quills edged with grey. It inha-
bits the ifle of Bourbon, but fome fpecimens have been feiit
from the Cape.

ToRRiDA ; White-billed grofbeak. Black ; breafl and
beily bay ; middle tail-feathers very long. It inhabits South
America.

LiNEOLA ; Lineated grofbeak. Black ; the frontal line
and temples are white. The body above is black-blue, and
beneath it is white; bill black, with a white fpot above the
upper mandible ; tail is forked ; quill-feathers black, the
primary white at the anterior bafe. It is found \a many
parts of Afia and Africa.

Ha.mburoia; Hamburgh grofbeak. Head and neck
chefnut above; chin, band in the middle of the white throat,
and rounded tail, brown ; l)ack, breaft, and rump yellowifn-
brown, fpotted with black ; belly, vent, and two bands on
the wing-coverts, white. It is about fix inches long ; inha-
bits Hamburgh and its neighbourhood; feeds on infedts, and
climbs trees like a creeper.

Me.xicana ; Yellow-headed grofbeak. Spotted with
brown ; front, chin, rump, and eye-brows pale yellow.
It inhabits New Spain, and is nearly fix inches long.

* Chloris; Greenfinch. This is a well-known bird ; the
colour is a yellowifh-green, paleft on the rump and breaft,
and inclining to white on the belly : the quills are edged
with yellow, and the four outer tail-feathers are yellow
from the middle to the bafe ; the bill is pale brown and
flout ; and the legs are fleth- colour. The female incline*
more to brown.

The greenfinch is common in Great Britain, and makes •
its neft in fome low bufli, hedge, &c. corapofed of dry
grafs, lined with hair and wool ; the fema'e lays five or
fix eggs, marked at the larger end with red-brown : fhe it
fo anxious and careful of her charge during incubation,
that file is often taken on the iiell. The male takes his
turn in fitting on the eggs. The greenfinch foon becomes
tame ; even old birds are familiar almoll as foon as they are
caught. It is apt to grow blind, hke the chaffinch, if much
expofed to the fun ; it flies in troops in winter, and lives
five or fix years.

It^is common in many parts of Europe, but in RufTia it
is rarely feen, and never in Siberia, hence it is imagined
that it fhifts its quarters according to the fcafcn. It is
common in the northern parts of England and in many
parts of Scotland.

Sinensis; Chinefe grofbeak. Head and neck greenifh-
grey ; back pale brown ; primary quill-feathers, the firfl
half yellow, lower part black ; ficondiTies within black,
without grey, vent yellow. It inhabits China.

BuTYRACEA; Yellow-fronted grofbeak. Greenifh; head
and back fpotted with black, beneath yellow ; bill, tail,
quill-feathers, and legs black. The front, eye-brows,
and temples are yellow ; fpots on the female brown aini
the tail tipt with white. It is found in India and at the
Cape.

Do.MiNENSis; St. Domingo grcfbeak. Greeti-brown, be-
neath pale rufous, fpotted with brown ; veut and area cf

L O X I A.

the tyes white ; wings black ; tail and legs brown. It in-
habits St Domingo.

Afkicana ; African grofbcak. Varied with preenidi-
brown and grey, bent-ath white ; breall varied with brown ;
primary quill and lateral tail-feathers edged with rcddidi-
while, tlic outmoil with a white fpot. Inhabits the Cape
of Good Hope.

Hvpox.^NTiiA ; Sumatra grofheak. Yellowifii ; front
and eye-brows pale yellow, quill and tail-feathers black,
edged with yellowilh. Inhabits Sumatra.

C.WADESSIS ; Canada grofbeak. Le gros-bec di Cayenne,
BrilTon. Size of a houfe-fparrow ; bill afh-colour, and
the edges of it fomewliat projefting in the middle ; the up-
per parts of the plumage olive-green ; the under paler, and
luclininc; to yellow ; the feathers I'ound the bafe of the
bill, and the chin, blacky the legs are grey. It inhabits
Cayenne and Canada, as its different names figuify.

)5uLPHURATA ; Brimftone groflieak. Olive-brown ;
throat and belly pale yellow ; eye-brows yellow ; it is about
fix inches in kngth, and inhabits in (locks near the Cape of
Good Hope, frequents tl;e banks of rivers, and builds a
pendulous neft, with a long neck beneath, in trees and
ihrubs.

Flavinentkis ; Yellow-bellied grofbeak. Olive fpot-
ted with brown, beneath yellow ; quill and tail-feathers
brown, edged with olive ; above the eyes a yellow ftripe ;
the rump is olive coloured ; tail forked ; legs grey. Inha-
bits the Cape of Good Hope. There is a variety ; hind-
head, cheeks, and chin cinereous.

■Coi.LAiiiA ; Nun grofljeak. Yellowilh ; bread and col-
lar yellow ; temples black. There is a variety with a
broader collar. Inhabits India and Angola.

Grisea ; Grey grofoeak. Blue-grey, neck and front
white ; bifl and claws brown, legs reddilh.

Bevgai.f.S'SI.s ; Le moineau de Bengale, Briffon. I'lUoiv-
headed Indian fparroiu, Edwards. Btngal grojbeah, Linn.
Grey ; crown yellow, temples whitifh ; belly whitifli ; fpot-
ted with brown. " This bird," fays fir William .Tones, '♦ is
exceedingly common in Hindooftan ; he is ailonifliingly fen-
fible, faithful, and docile ; never voluntarily deferting the
place wht-re his young are hatched, but not averfe, like moft
other birds, to the fociety of mankind ; ardeafily taught to
perch on the hand of his mailer. In a Hate of nature he
generally builds his nelt on the higheft tree he can find ;
efpecially on the Pa'myra, or on the Indian fig-tree, and he
prefers that which happens to overhang a well or a rivulet :
he makes it of graft;, which he weaves like cloth, and fliapes
like a bottle, fufpending it firmly on the brancliL'S ; but !o
as to rock with the wind, and placing it with its entrance
downward, to fecure it from the birds of prey. Its neft
iifually confifts of two or three chambers ; and it is popu-
larly believed that he lights them with fire-flics, which he is
faid to catch alive at night, and confine with moift clay or
with cow-dung. That fuch flies are often fuund in his neft,
where pieces of cow-dung are alfo ftuck, is indubitable ;
bat as their light could be of little ufe to him, it feems
probable that he only feeds on them. He may be taught
with eafe to fetch a piece of paper, or any fmall thing that
his mailer points out to him. It is an attelled faft, that if a
ring.be dropped into a deep well, and a Cgnal be given to
him, he will fly down with amazing celerity, catch the ring
before it touches the water, and bring it up to his raafter
with apparent exultation ; and it is confidently afferted, that
if a houfe, or any other p'ace, be (hewn to him once or twice,
he will carry a note thither immediately on a proper fignal
being made. The younr Hindoo women at Benares, and in
. other places, wear very thin plates of gold called I'lcas,

(lightly fixed, by way of ornament, between their eye-brows;
and when they pafs through the ftrects, it is not uncommon
for the you hful libertines who amufe thcmfelves witli train-
ing theft birds, to give them a fignal which they underftand,
and fend them to p'uck the pieces of gold from the fore-
heads of their millrefies, which they bring in triumph to
their lovers.

MALABAnicv ; Malabar grofbeak. Cinereous ; quill and
tail-feathers black ; chin and vent white ; the bill is black.
It inliabits India.

AFit.\ ; Black-bellied groflieak. Beneath black ; head,
flanks, and tail-coverts yellow ; wings and tail brownifh.
It is found in Africa.

Caffka. Tilack, quill-feathers brown ; fliowlders red ;
plumage filky ; bill brown-a(h ; quill-feathers at the edges
and coverts white ; tail longer than the body ; legs grey.
It is of the fize of a bull-finch, and inhabits the Cape of
Good Hope.

ToTTA. Quill and tail-feathers all black, the very
tips white ; the body is of a brownifli colour, but be-
neath is a pale orange ; front greenilh-brown ; it has fix
primary quill-feathers; eight fecor.dary ; ten tail-feathers
beneath footy ; (hanks yellowilh ; legs black.

Indica ; Afh-headed grofbeak. Blackifh, beneath
whitilh ; head and neck cinereous ; tail tipt with white.
Inhabits India ; is very imall ; and has blue legs and bill.

Asiatic'A ; Afiatic grofbeak. Reddilh-afn, beneath
cinereous ; belly pale red ; head, greater wing-covsrts,
quill-feathers, and tip of the tall black. It inhabits China,
and is the fize of a bull-finch. There is a variety ;
bluei(h-afli ; head, wing^, and tail black ; quill and two
middle tail-feathers and tip of the tail black.

Canoka ; Brown-cheeked grofbeak. Dirty greenifh,
beneath cinereous ; cheeks brown, furroundcd with a
yellow fringe." It inhabits Mexico, and fings charmingly.

Lineata ; Radiated grofbeak. Black, beneath white ;
fides of the body, and bafe of the primary quill-feathers,
tranfverfely ftreaked with white and black.

Perlata ; Pearled grofbeak. Black, beneath brown ;
near the tail varied with white and black. It inhabits
Africa.

Fasciata ; Fafciated grofbeak. Brownifh, with black
crefcents ; quill-feathers, tail, and cheeks brown, under
the chin a broad red band ; the bill is blueifli-grey,
and the le^^s are of a flefli-colour. It inhabits Africa.

Cantans ; Warbling grofbeak. Brown, tranfverfely
lined with blackifli, beneath white ; tail brown, wedged. ■
It inhabits Africa, and is about four inches long. A
variety of this fpecies has a yellowifli belly ; chm and
fides waved white and blackifh, and is named the Gambia
grofbeak.

Mklanocepiiala ; B!ack-headed grofbeak. Pale yel-
low ; head black ; bill cinereous ; throat and irides black;
legs blue-afli. It is about fix inches long, and inhabits
Gambia.

Erytiiromeas. Red ; head and chin black ; the bill is
black, white at the bafe ; tail rounded. Female above
greenifh-orange, mixed with red, beneath orange ; quUl-fca-
thers olive, the outer edge rufous.

Coronata ; Black-crefted grofbeak. Scarlet, beneath
blue ; crefl on the head and fpot in the middleof the throat
black. It inhabits America.

Cana ; Cinereous grofbeak. Hoary; quill and tail-
feathers brown, legs red; bill cinereous; greater quill-fea-
thers white at the bafe, blackifh at the tips ; tail blackifh,
edged with paleafli ; legs flelh colour.

rillLlPPlNA; Philippine grofbeak. Brown, beneath
j^ yellowifhn

L O X I A.

yellowidi-wliite ; crown and bread pale yellow ; chin
brown. The female has the upper parts brown, margined
with rufous ; rump of this lad colour ; legs yellowifh.
Thefe inhabit the Pliilippine idands, and are noted for making
a moil curious nell, in form of a long cylinder, fwelling
out into a globofe form in the middle. This is compofed of
the tine fibres of leaves, and fallened by the upper part to
the extreme branch of a tree. The entrance is from be-
neath ; and after afcending the cyhndei*^s far as the globu-
lar cavity, the true nellis placed on one fide of it, where,
fays Latham, this little architeft lays her eggs, and hatches
her brood in perfcft fecurity. There are three divifions in
the nell; of this bird ; the iiril is occupied by the male, the
fecond by the female, and the third contains the young ; in
the firft apartment, where the male keeps watch, while the
female is hatching, a little tough clay is placed on one fide,
and on the top of this clay a glow-worm, which is faid to
afford it Inhabitants light in the night-time.

There is a variety of this fpecies. Tail and quill-feathers
greenifh-brOwn, edged with yellow. Inhabits Abyffinia.
This makes a nell fomewhat like the former, of a fpiral
fliape, not unlike that of a nautilus. It fufpcnds it, like
the other, on the extreme twig of fome tree, chiefly one
that hangs over fome Hill water ; and always turns the open-
ing towards that quarter from whence leail rain may be ex-
pected.

Abyssintca ; Afeyffinian grofbeak. Yellowidi ; crown,
temples, tliroat, and breaft bla^k ; (boulders blacklfh ; quill
and tail-feathers brown, edged with yellow. It inhabits
Abyffinia ; fize of the hawfinch ; makes a pyramidal pendent
nell, the opening of which is on one fide, facing the eafl ;
it is divided in the middle by a partition, and the nell is
within this cavity en one fide ; by this means it is fecure
from the intrufion of fnakes, fquirrels, monkies, and other
mifchievous animals, and defended from the wellerly rains,
which lafl; for feveral months almoi unceafingly.'

Pensills ; Penfile grofbeak. Green ; head and throat yel-
low ; ocular band green ; belly grey ; vent rufous-red ; bill,
legs, tail and quill-fe.ithers black, the lall edged with green.
This fpecies inhabits Madagafcar; is the fize of a houfc-fpar-
row ; conllrufts its penfile r.eft of ftraw and reeds, Ihaped
like a bag, with an opening beneath, on one fide of which
is the true nell. The bird does not choofe a new fituation
every year, but fallens a new neil to the end of the lall ;
fometimes as far as five, one hanging from another ; builds
in large focieties, and brings three young ones at each
hatch.

A bird fimilar to this is mentioned in Kxmpfer's Hillory
of Japan, which makes the nell near Siam, on a tree, with
narrow leaves and fpreading branches, the fize of an apple-
tree ; the nefl in the ffiape ot a purfe, with a long neck,
made of dry grafs and other materials, and fufpended at the
end of the branches ; the opening always to the north-well.
The hiftorian fays he counted fitty on one tree only ; and
defcribes the bird itfeli as being like a canary-bird in colour,
but as chirping like a Iparrow.

SociA ; Soci;ible grolbeak. Rufous brown, beneath
' ellowilh ; frontlet black ; tail fhort. This fpecies inhabits
the interior parts of the Cape of Good Hope : they live to-
gether in va!t tribes under one common roof, containing fe-
veral nells, wliich are built on a large fpecies of mimofa ;
ibis, from its fize, its ample head, and llrong wide Iprcad-
iiig branches, is well calculated to admit and fupport their
dwellings. Tlie tallnels and fmoothnefs of its trunk
are alio a perfedl defence againft the invafions of the
ferpent and the monkey tribes ; in one tree defcribed
by a very intelligent traveller, Mr. Paterfon, there were
Vol. XXI.

fcvcral hundi-ed nefts under one general roof. It is defcribed
as a roof, becaufe it rcfemblcs that of a thatcned houfc,and
projcfts over the entrance of the n^ft below in a firgubr
manner. " The induftry of thefe birds," fays this author,
" feems almoll equal to that of the bee. Throughout the d-^y
they feem to be biifily employed in carrying a fine fpecies
of grafs, which is the principal material they ufe for the
purpofe of erctting this extraordinary work, as well as for
additions and repairs. Though my fliort (lay in the country
was not fufficieiit to fatisfy me by ocular proof that they
added to their nell as they annually increafed m number-; ;
Hill, from the many trees which I have feen borne, down by
the weight, and others which I have obferved with their
boughs completely covered over, it would appear that this
is really the caie. When tl:e tree, which is the fupport of
this ai^rial city, is obliged to give way to the increafe of
weight, it is obvious that they are no longer protedled, and
are under the necefiity of building in other trees. One of
thcle dcferted nplls I had the curiofity to break down, to
inform myfelf of the internal ftruclure of it ; and found it
equally ingenious with that of the external. There are
many entrances, each of which forms a regular ilreet,
with nefts on both fides, at about two inches diilance from
each other. The grafs with which thoy build is called the
Bolhman's grafs, and I believe tlie feed of it to be their prin-
cipal food ; though, on examining their nefts, I found the
wings analogs of different infefts. From every appearance
the neft which I diffeded had been inhabited for many years,
and fome parts of it were much more complete than others.
This, therefore, I conceive to amount nearly to a proof that
the animals added to it at different times, as they found ne-
cefi^ary from the increafe of the family, or rather of the
nation or community."

Striata ; Striated grolbeak. Brown, ftreaked with fer-
ruginous, beneath white ; throat black. About the fize of
a wren. It inhabits Bourbon.

Zeylonica ; Ceylon grofbeak. Ferruginous brown, be-
neath purple, waved with black ; front and rump blueifh.
Inhabits Ceylon.

Ludoviciaka ; Louifiana grofbeak. Black ; breafl,
belly, band on the wings, and bafe of the quill -feathers white.
Inhabits North x-^merica, and is about fix inches long. There
is another variety with a rofy breafl.

Maculata ; Spotted grofbeak. Feathers of the upper
part of the body black, fpotted with white towards the
tip, of the lower part whitilh, llreakcd with black ; quill
and tail-feathers whitifh on the outfide. It inhabit*
America. '

Obscura ; Dufl<y grofbeak. Middle of the throat, and
double band on the wing-coverts white ; quill-feathers green,
flanks white, fpotted with brown ; feathers of the head,
neck, and back edged with brown. Inhabits in the neigh-
bourhood of New York.

Hudsonica; Hudfon's Bay grofbeak. Brown; belly-
white, fides fpotted with brown ; wing-coverts with two red
bands. It inhabits Hudfon's Bay, from whence it derives
its name. It has ftrong bill and legs ; feathers of the back
and rump, fecondary quills and tail-feathers edged with palf
rufous ; tail a little forked.

Capensis ; Cape grofbeak. Blackifli-brown ; rump ar.d
wing-coverts pale yellow. There is a variety with feathers
above brownifh, in the middle fpotted vnth black, beneatk
whitifh, fpotted with black. The bill and legs black j
feathers of the head fliort, and in breeding time filky ;
wings chefnut, edged with grey ; greater quill-feathert
edged with yellow, back fometimes pale yellow. Inhabits
^ Z Coraniacd?!

L O X

L O Y

Coj-omandel and the Cape ; is found chiefly in thickets near
rivci-s ; eggs cinereous, fpotted with black.

Nigra J Black grofbeak. Le houvreml nolr du Mexique,
Briflbn and Buffon. Liatlf hlnct hulljinch, Catefby, Albin.
&c. This fpecies is of the fize of a bullfinch ; the bill
is blnck, itout, and deeply notched in the middle of the
upper mandible ; plumage black, except a little white on
the fore -part of the wing, and b:\fe of the two firll quills ;
legs black. Inhabits Mexico.

CuAssiuoSTKis ; Thick-billed grofbeak. Black ; bafe
of the quill-feathers, and middle tail-tcathers in the middle
white ; legs whitifli ; the bill is thick and yellovvilh.

Rkgull'.s ; .Crimfon-crefted grolbeak. Bill very thick
and (Irong. There was a fine fpecimen of this bird in the
Leverian mufseum.

Americana ; Black-brealled grofbeak. Black ; be-
neath white ; peftoral band black; wings with a ^double
white band ; tail rounded; legs brown. It inhabits Ame-
rica.

CyT.RULEA ; B'ue grofbeak. Le houvreuU bleu de la
Caroline, Briffon. This fpecies is the lize of the bullfinch :
bill half an inch, llout, and bro%vn ; the bafe of it furrounded
with black feathers, which reach on each fide as far as the
eye ; the whole plumasre befides is of a deep blue, except
the quills and tail, which are brown with a mixture ot green,
and acrofs the wing-coverts a baud of red ; the legs are
dufky. The female is brown with a little mixture of
blue.

" I fufoeft," fays Latham, " this to be Bancroft's bird,
which he fays is (l^y-btue, with the outer edges of the quills
and tail crimfon ; and the more fo, as I have lately met with
one from Cayenne, which had tlie chin, as well as round
the bill, black, and both the flioulders, fome of the wing-
coverts, and the edges of the fecondaries, marked with
reddifh."

Uri.x; Grenadier grofbeak. Grey; bill, front, and belly
black ; neck and rump tawny ; fometimes the wings are
white, and the tail is brown. It is the fize of a fparrow ;
inhabits Africa, and is found chiefly in marfhy grounds and
among the reeds. The neft is formed with fmail twigs, fo
clofely interwoven with cotton, as not to be penetrated in
any weather. It is divided into two compartments, of which
the upper is for the male, and the lower for the female and
the young.

Flaminoo. White ; head, neck and breaft, and belly
rofy. Inhabits Upfal ; refembles the bullfinch; bdl and
legs reddifh ; feathers of the frontlet blackifh at the tips ;
third and fourth quill-feathers and fpot on the rump
black; tranfverfe line on the wings and upper furface of the
tailfooty.

ViOLACEA ; Purple grofbeak. Le bou-vreiul violet de
Bahama, BrifTon. Black fparro'w, Raii Syn. This is the
fize of the fparrow ; bill is black ; plumage violet black,
except the irides, a ftreak over the eye, the chin, and the
▼ent, which are red ; legs dulky grey. Where the male is
black, the female is brown, and the red is not fo bright ; it
inhabits the Bahama iflands, Jamaica, and the warmer parts
of America

Gross.\ ; White-throated grofbeak. Blueilh hoary ;
throat and tail-feathers blackifh ; chin white ; bill red. In-
habits America.

MiNrM.\ ; Dwarf grofbeak. Brown ; beneath teflace-
ous ; primary quill-feathers at the bafe and fecondaries on tlie
hind-part white. This fpecies is very fmall ; it inhabits
Surinam.

FuscA ; Brown grofbeak. Le petit bouvreull nolr d /IjVique,
BrifTon. Size of a canary bird ; bill fliort and thick,

and of a lead colour ; the head and upper parts of the
body brown ; the under of a pale afli-colour ; vent pure
white ; the quills dulky black ; the bafe of eight of the middle
quills white ; tail the colour of the quills, with palifli ends;
legs pale. It is an inliabitant of Africa, and is met with al
Bengal.

GuTT.VTA. Brown ; breafl; black ; bill and rump red ;
fides of the body black fpotted with white. It inhabits NcVv'
Holland.

Septentrioxalis; Northern grolbeak. Black; wings
with a white fpot. Inhabits Scandinavia ; refembles the
bullfinch.

MiN'tJTA ; Minute grofbeak. Grey ; rump and belly
beneath ferruginous ; fome quill-feathers on each fide white
at the bafe ; tail entire. It inhabits Surinam and Cayenne ;
is very fmall, aftive, and bold ; frequents inhabited places,
and feeds on feeds and fniit. Bill and legs brown ; cries like
a fparrow ; makes a roundifli nell, compofed of a reddifli
herb, and placed on the trees which it frequents.

Blcoi.oR ; Orange-bellied grofbeak. Brown ; beneath
red : another variety ; brownifh, beneath white ; chin forae-
what ferruginous. Inhabits India; the bill is whitifh and
legs are brov.'n.

Pr.\.ssixa ; Red-rumped grofbeak. Olive-green, beneath
yellowilh hoary, rump pale red ; legs yellow. This is the
defcription of the male ; the female of a variety is olive
brtiwn, beneath yellowilh hoary ; rump pale red ; legs
yellowifh.

Thidactyla; Three-toed grofbeak. Le Gwfso Ballto,
Buffon. Bill tootlied on the edges; the head, throat, and
fore-part of the neck of a beautiful red,, which is pro-
longed in a narrow band quite to the vent ; the upper part
of the neck, back, and tail black ; the wing-coverts
brown, edged with white ; quills brown, with greenilh
edges ; legs dull red ; the wings reach half way on the tail ;
the toes three only, two before and one behind.

This inhabits AbylTiuia ; frequents woods, and is a foli-
tary fpecies; feeds on kernels and feeds, which it breaks with
the greateft: eafe with its bill. Latham, Lewin, Gmelin's
Linnaeus, &:c. &c.

LOXOCARYA, in Botany, from K'^'^;, ollique, and
KKfMv, a nut. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 249. This
genus is leparated from Rejllo, folcly on account of its
having an undivided llyle, and a fruit of one cell, which is
as it were a third part, or one lobe, of that of RcJlio. We
prefume to think this difliuiSion fcarcely fnfficieiit. One
ipecies only is mentioned.

1^. cliurea ; found by Mr. Brown in the foiith part of
New Holland.

LOXODROMIC Table. See Tablk.

LoxoDRo.Mics, the art or method of oblique lailing, by
the loxodroniy, or rhumb.

LOXODROMY, Loxodromia, fn-med of AoJo.;, ob-
lique, and l^rjjj.rj:, courfe, the line which a fliip defcribes in
falling oa the fame collateral rhumb.

The loxodromy, called alio the loxodromic line, cuts all
the meridians in the lame angle, called the loxodromic angle.
This line is a fpecies of the logarithmic ipiral, defcribed on
the furface of the fphere, having the meridians for its
radii.

LOYAL, in the Manege. A horfe is fald to be loyal,
that freely bends all his force in obeying and performing any
manege he is put to ; and does not defend himfelf, or refill,
uotwithilanding his being ill treated.

A loyal mouth is au excellent mouth, of the nature of
fuch as we call mouths with a full relt upon the hand.

LOYALSOCK Creek, in Geography, a river of Ame-
rica,

L O Y

L O V

rica, in Norllmmberland county, Pennfylvania, whicli runs
into the W. fide of the branch of Sufqiiehannah river, from
the N.E. ; 26 miles from Sunbury. It is navigable 20 or
;o miles up for batteanx of 10 tons. N. lat. 41 ij'. W.
long. 77 i'.

LOYHA, a fmali ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 65 6'. E. long. 25 .

I..OYOLA, Ignatius di:, in Biography, celebrated as
the founder of the order of Jcfuits, was defcended from a
noble Spanidi family, and born in 1491, at the ciflle of
Loyola, in the province of Gnipufcoa, whence he derived
his fnrname. At an eariy age he was appointed page at
the court of Ferdinand and I'abella, a id was iliewn diftin-
guiflied marks of favour. ■ Bnt the indo'ence and famenefs
of a cciirtier's life did not accord with young Loyola's
aclive difpofition ; he panted for fame, and to attain to a
confpicLioiis fituation, he determined to enter into the army.
He was taken under the patronage of the dnke de Najara,
a grandee of Spain, a foldier of high reputation, and under
his aufpices. he palfed through different degrees of mihtary
rank, and difcovercd on all occalions great courage, and a
ilrong attachment to the fervice. His morals, which had
been corrupted at court, were not reformed in the army,
.vhere, following the example of thofe about him, he ad-
dicted himfelf to the licentioufnefs too prevalent in the mi-
litary life ; he was, however, poffelTed of a high fenfe of
honour, was frank, difinterefted, and generous, and much
beloved by thofe who lervej under him. In lj'2r, he had
the command of the citadel of Pampclunn, thirn befieged by
the French, and after difplaying the utmoll valour in re-
pulfing the enemy, he was in a moment difabled by a fevere
wound in the left leg, and by a cannon (hot which broke
his right. Tlie garrifon having thus loll the example of
their leader, furrendered at difcretion. The French paid
every attention to Lovola, and as foon as he was in a Hate
fit to be moved, they fent him in a litter to his native place.
It was a conliderable time before a cure was effetted, and
during that period he happened to have no other fource of
amufement than what he found in reading the lives of the
faints, the effect of which on his mind, was to infpire him
with a delire of emulating the glory of the mod celebrated
among them. From this time he refolved to renounce the
vanities of the world, to vilit the Holy Land, and to de-
vote himfelf to an auftere religious life. Hence he imder-
took a pilgrimage to our lady of Montferrat, to hang up
his arms near her altar. His zeal at this time was without
all bounds ; he attempted to take away the life of a perfon
who fuggefted a doubt whether the Virgin Mary had re-
mained pure and immaculate after her delivery. Having
arrived at Montferrat, he adopted a new method of confe-
crating himfelf to the fervice of the Virgin ; he flripped off
his clotlics, which he gave to a poor man, put on a coarfe
garment of fackcloth, girded himfelf with a cord, from
which was fufpcnded a gourd for carrying water, put a
matted fhoe on one foot, which had not yet recovered the
injury produced by his wounds, leaving the other naked
and his head expofed to the violence of the weather, and
lubliituling in the place of his lance a plain crab-tree ftaff.
Thus equipped, he prefented himfelf before the altar of the
Holy Virgin, hung his military weapoiis on a pillar near the
altar, and watched all night, fometimes kneeling and fome-
timts tlanding, devoting himfelf as a champion. Early in
the following morning Loyola departed on foot for Man-
refa, three leagues from Montferrat, intending to go through
•I courle of penance, by way of preparation for his expedi-
tion to the Holy Land. He underwent, for the fpace of
twelve months, the mod rigorous mortifications of every

kind, after which he commenced his labours of fpiritual m-
hortation, both in private families and in public places, and
in a very (hort time he publillied his book entitled " Spiri-
tual Exercifes." Loyola, intent upon vifiting the Holy
Land, embarked for Italy, and proceeded to Rome to ob-
tain the pope's bleffing, which he obtained from Adrian VI.
with leave to puifue his pilgrimage to Jerufalem. After
vifiting the fcenes of our Saviour's principal tranfaftions in
that city, and the furrounding country, and going through
the exercifes ufually performed by pilgrims, Loyola formed
the defign of remaining in Pak-lHne, for the purpofe of
devoting himfelf to the convcrfion of the inhabitants of the
Eaft. This defign he communicated to the father guardian
of the Francifcans, by whom he was referred to the father-
provincial, who, aware of the danger of the enterprife,
refufed his confent, and fent Loyola back to Europe. At
Barcelona he commenced a courfe of fchool learning, which
he completed in two years, and then went to the univerfity
of Alcala de Henares, where he fuffcred himfelf to be
diverted to other objedls belides literature, and of courfe
made but a mean progrefs in his ftudies. He had taken as
his model the works of Thomas a Kempis, which he was
perpetually reading. He fpent a confiderable portion of
his time in the fervice of the lick, in begging excurfions,
and in inftructing and exhorting the people. Loyola had
now affociated himfelf with four companions who imitated
his plans of life, and looked up to him as a matter and
leader. Their different drefs, and extraordinary manner of
living, induced multitudes to become their followers : this
awakened the jealoufy of the inquifitors, who iniUtuted en-
quiries relative to Loyola's doflrine and behaviour, and
having found that he was a believer in the found faitli, he
was difmiffed. After this he v^'as fome time imprifoned <,n
the fafpicion of having perfuaded a lady of rank and her
daughter to undertake a long pilgrimage barefoot. Being
liberated, he went to Salamanca, and was a fecond time
imprifoned through the interference of the Dominican
monks, who were jealous of his popular exertions in a reli-
gious courfe. He was now determined to abandon his
native country, where he was fubjeCl to fo many hindrances
in what he conceived the way of his duty : he accordincrly
went to Paris in 1528, where he re-commenced the fludy of
the Latin language at Montague college ; went through a
courfe of philofophy in the college of St. Barbara, and
ftudied divinity under the Dominicans. His zeal in inftruft-
ing others expofed him to trouble in Paris, as it had dene
in the Spanilli univerfities, and he narrowly efcaped whip-
ping in St. Barbara's college-hall. No fuffering had the
effeft of cooling his zeal ; he formed an affociation among
the fcholars of that college, the members of which took a
vov.- to conform to a flridt religious difcipline, and to engage
in a new undertaking for promoting the interefts of the
Catholic faith. They agreed to preach in public places,
and in every place where they could obtain permiflion, re-
commending the beauty and rewards of virtue, and pointing
out the deformity and punifliments of vice, and this in a
fimple evangelical manner, without the vain ornaments of
eloquence ; that they (hould inffrucl children in the Chrif-
tian doClrine, and the principles of right conduft, and that
they (hould receive no money for exercifing their functions,
but be governed in all their proceedings' by a view to the
glory ot God. The fociety thus formed was to be deno-
minated " The Company of Jefus. " Loyola was now
anxious to obtain the approbation of the pope, in order
that a new inilitution might be formed under his fanction.
His holinefs, Paul III. referred the petition .of Loyola to
the committee of cardinals, who violently oppofed the efta-

3 Z 2 blifliment

L O Z

L U B

blifhment of fnch an order, rcprefcntiiig it not only as nn-
npcelTary but extremely dangerous. He again threw him-
felf at the feet of the pope, and propofed that bcfidcs the
three vows of poverty, ehaftity, and monallic obedience,
which are common to all the orders of regulars, the members
of his fociety (hould take a fourth vow, of obeilience to the
pope, binding thcmfelves to go whitherfoever he fhould
command for the fervice of religion, and without requiring
any thing from the holy fej for their fuppOrt. This was a
propofnl which the pope could not rejeft ; lie confirmed
tlie inlUtution of tlie Jefuits bv" a bull, granted the mod
ample privileges to the members of the fociety, and ap-
p->inted Loyola to be the firll general of the order. (See
our article .Iesuits.) In I 550, he was defirous of refigning
his office of general, but the fociety would not confent to
the meafure, and he retained it till his death in 1556, when
he was in the fixty-fi:<th year of his age. Before that event,
he had fecn his order Ipivad over the grcatelt part of the
old and new worlds, and ho had ellablilhed, in the (hort
fpace of lixtecn years, twelve large provinces, containing
at lead an hundred colleges. He was beatified by pope
Paul v., and in 1622 he was canonized by Gregory X\\
Bayle. Moreri. Robert fon, and art. Jefuits.

LoYOL.v, in Geography, a village of Spain, in the
province of Guipufcoa, formerly belonging to the family of
Ignatius, four.der of the order of Jefuits. See Jesuits.—
Alfo, a town of South America, in the audience of Quito;
50 miles S. of Loxa.

LOZE, a river of Congo, in Africa, which runs into
the Atlantic, navigable for boats, but having no harbour at
its mouth. S. lat. 7 95'.

LOZENGE, or LozANGE, in Geometry, a kind of pa-
rallelogram, or quadrilateral figure, confiliing of four equal
and parallel lines or fides, whofe angles are not right, but
whereof two oppufite ones are acute, and the other two ob-
tufe ; the diflance between the two obtufe ones being always
equal to the length of one fide.

Scaligcr derives the word lozenge from laurengla ; this
figure refembling, in fome refpefts, tliat of a laurel leaf.
In geometry, it is ordinarily called rkombits ; and, when the
fides arc unequal, rhoinboidcs.

LozENGK, in Heraldry, is a rhombus, or figure of equal
fides, but unequal angles ; refembling a quarry of glafs in
our old windows ; placed ereft, point-ways. It is in this
figure that all unmarried gentlewomen and widows bear
their coats of arms ; becau;e, as fome fay, it was the figure
of the Amazonian Ihield ; or, as others, becaufe it is the
ancient figure of the fpindle

The lozenge differs from the fitjil, in that the latter is
narrower in the middle, and not fo fharp at the ends.

LoZEXGES, among JewelLrs, are common to brilliant
and rofe diamonds. In the former they are formed by the
meeting of the fkill and ftar-facets on the bezi! : in the lat-
ter, by the meeting of the facets in the horizontal ribs of
the crown.

Lozenge is alfo a fort of medicine, made into fmall
pieces, to be held or chewed in the mouth till they are
melted there ; the fame with what are othcrwife called tro-
ihifcl. troches.

LOZERE, in Qengraphy, one of the nine departments
of the fouthern region of France, compofed of Gevaudan
and part of the Cevennes, N. lat. 44° 30', S.E. of Can-
tal, and S. of the Upper Loire, 18 French leagues long,
and 15 broad, contains 5390 kiliomctres, or 269 fqiiare
leagues, and 155 927 inhibitants. It is divided into three
diilrifts, 24 cantons, and 193 communes. The dillrifls are
Marvejols, including 60,750 inhabitants; MenJe, 52,813;

and Florae, 42,364. Its capital is Mende. Its contri-
butions amount to 'fM)'2,']-]G fr. and its expences to 179,687
fr. The northern dilhifts confift partly of granite moun-
tains ; towards the middle of the department the hills are
calcareous ; and in the fouthern part the Cevennes are com-
pofed of fchlllus. A confiderable proportion of this terri-
tory is not fiifceptible of culture. The chief produfts are
barley, flax, hemp, fruits, and paftures for flieep. Here are
mines of iron, copper, lead, and antimony, with mineral
fprings.

LOZICZE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Biellk; 56 miles S.W. of Biel/lt.

LOZZI, a town of the illaud of Corfica ; II miles
N.W. of Corte.

LOZZO.atown of Italy, in the Paduan ; Smiles S.S.W.
of Padua.

LU, a town of France, in the department of Marengo ;
8 miles W. of Alexandria.

Lu, in Chinefe Miific, implies a key. Dividing the oc-
tave into 12 feir.itones, they give the name of lu to eacli, nu-
Bieriollv. See Chinese Mu.sic.

LUA, in Geogrnphy, a river of the ifland of Cuba,
which runs into the fea ; 25 miles N.E. of Cape Cruz. —
Alio, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman, on tha
coail ; 10 miles N. of Sohar.

Lu.4, in Mythology, a Roman divinity mentioned by
Livy, lib. viii. and invoked in war. The name is fuppofed
to be derived iro-m here, to expiate.

LUABO, in Geography, a river on the W. coaft of
Africa, a branch of the great river Zambezi, which fe-
parates from it at the diftance of 30 leagues from the fea. —
Alfo, an ifland fituated between the Luabo and Zam.bezi.

See MOCMIANGA.

LUANA Point, a cape on the S. coaft of Jamaica.
N. lat. 182'. W. long. 77' 50'.

LUANCO, a town of Spam, in Afturia, near the W.
coaft ; 20 miles N. of Oviedo.

LUANZA, a town of Africa, in the country of Moca-
ranga, S. lat. 17^ 15'. E. long. 33 30'.

LUA RCA, a fea-port town of Spain, on the N. coaft,
in the province of Afturias ; 30 miles N.W. of Oviedo.

LLTBAD, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, on a
lake of the lame name, 21 miles long, and four broad ; 7 miles
S. of Burfa.

LUBAN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 20 miles S.E. of Sluck.

LuRAN, or Louban, one of the Philippine ifiands,
ab»ut 12 miles in circumference.

LUBA RTO W, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 36 miles
W. of Berdiczow.

LUBASZYN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Miiiflc ; 52 miles E. of Minfk.

LLTBAT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 28
miles W. of Burfa'.

LUBATCPIOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Ga-
licia ; 16 miles N. of Lemberg.

LUBBFCKE, or Luthicke, a town of Weftphalia,
in the county of Minden, confiliing of about 258 dwell-
ing-lioufes, wl'.ich obtained' the privileges of faints in 1270,
and was furroiinded with ramparts, ditches, and walls. This
town enjoys feveral immunities, and particularly a territo-
rial jurifdiilion over a confiderable diflrift. Its chief trade
coi'.fifts in yarn and linen, breeding of cattle, and brewing
of beer. It has fuftained, at feveral times, great damage
by fire ; 14 miles W. of Minden.

LUBBEN, or Lubio, a town of Lower Lufatia, fitu-
ated on the Spree, in a circle to which it gives name ;
0 36 miles

L U B

L U B

36 mUes S. of Berlin. N. lat. 51* 37'. E. long. ij°

45'-

LUBBERT, SiBRAXD, in Biography, a theological pro-

feiTor and divine, was born at Langoworde, in Friefland,
about the year T5J6. He ftudied in the colleges of Bre-
men and Wittemberg. He afterwards went to Geneva,
and diligently attended the ledlures of Beza, Cafaubon, and
Fraacis Portus. From Geneva he went to Newftadt, and
attended the leftures of the learned Zachary Urfinus, who,
after a time, recommended him as his own fuccefibr as pro-
feffor of logic, an honour which he declined, and accepted
foon af"er an invitation to become pallor of a congregation
at Embden. The duties of this office he difcharged with
fingiilar fidelity and zeal In 1584, he removed to Frief-
land, and was appointed preacher to the governor and de-
puties of the ftates of that province ; alfo profeflbr of di-
vinity in the new univerfity of Franeker. He went to
Heidelberg, where he was admitted to the degree of doftor
of divinity, and then returned to his profeflbrihip, which
he occupied %vith reputation nearly forty years. During this
period he was often en-ployed in very important affairs. He
died at Franeker in 1625, at the age of fixty-nine. He
was author of many learned pieces againil Bellarmin : he
pub'ifhed a work sgainft Sociiius, and he wrote againil Ar-
minius, Vorftius, Grotius, and the other defenders of the
caufe of the Remonilrants. His la(l work was a commen-
tary on ;he Catechifm of Heidelberg. Bayle. Moreri.

LUBCZ, in Geography, 2: town of RufEan Lithuania;
2J miles N. of Novogrodck.

LUBECK, a city of Germany, one of the three cities
of the Hanfeatic league, acknowledged a? fuch, together
with Hamburgh and Bremen, in the definitive treaty of in-
demnities, 25th of February 1803, with the guarantee of
their jurildiclion and perpetual neutrality. It is alfo one
of tlie college of imperial and free cities. It is fituated
within the limits of Holftein, on the navigable river Trave,
communicating by feveral ll reams with the Baltic and Ger-
man ocean. The town (lands on the two declivities of a
long hill, moderately high, the eaftern part extending to-
wards the navigable river Wackenitz, and the weftern to-
wards the Trave. Befides walls and towers, it is a'fo fur-
rounded by ftrong ramparts, and wide moats. The ftreets
are for the mod part fteep, and the houfes built of (lone,
and o'd fathioned, the doors being fo large as to admit car-
riages into the hail, which ferves frequently for a coach-houfe.
The ellabhihed religion, ever fince the year 1530, has been
Lutheranifm. It has four parochial churches, as well as
the cathedral of an ancient fee. The archbifhopric of
Lubeck lies in that part of the duchy of Holftein, which
was anciently called "Wagria." Its fee was firtl erected
by the «mperor Otho I. at Oldenburg, in 95!, for the con-
v^fion of the Wer.ds, or Veneti, who inhabited this coun-
try, and transferred to Lubeck in the year 1164. The
reformation of the dioctfe was begun under bifhop Henry
©f Bocholt, and being promoted by bis fucceffors, was ac-
eomplifhed in 1561. The bifhop of Lubeck, though a
prince of the empire, yet in the college of princes fat
neither on the fpiritual nor temporal bepch, but on a par-
ticular bench placed crofs-ways, and laid there for him and
the bifhop of Ofnabruck, when a Lutheran. He hsd alfo
a vote among the princes of the circle of Lower Saxony.
The cathedral (lands in the imperial city of Lubeck : but is
invelled with no authority. The chapter confifts of thirt) per-
foDS, who, with the exception of four Roman Catholics, are all
Lutherans. When the indemaities were fettled at Ratifbon in
i8c2, it was decreed that the bifhopric with its chapter
ihould be fecularifcd in favour of the duke of Oldenbarg :

referving only the property within the city, which was to be
added to the domain of the city. Lubeck was once the
chief city of the Hanfeatic league, which fee ; but this ho-
nour now belongs to Hamburgh. On the fpot where it
now Hands was formerly a town named " Bncu ;" but
when this was dcmolifhcd, about the year 1144, Adolphus
II., count of Holftein and Schauenburg laid the founda-'
tion of this city, which, in proccfs of time, became fo fa-
mous. In iij6 the town, which had fufiered much front
fire, B*as given by count Adolphus to duke Henry,
which, being rebuilt, he erefted into a free port, and con-
ferred upon it a municipal riglit of great importance.
This was confirmed in 1188, by the emperor Frederick I.,
and afterwards by fucceeding emperors. In 1 276, the whole
city, five houfes excepted, was deftroyed by fire. Lubeck
has various manufaclures, and its trade Ts very confiderable,
partly owing to the commodioufnefs of its fituation. The
quay of Lubeck is on the river Trare, which fa'ls into the
fea at the diftance of 14 miles, and admits vefTels from iro
to 200 tons burden, and fometimes, but rarely, 300. Mr.
Coxe obferved about 120 hierchant fhips deilined to Ruffia,
Sweden, and Denmark. The trade, however, is chiefly
a trade of commiiTien, drawing from Ru(ria, Sweden, and
Denmark their raw commodities, and fupplying them with
wines, filks, cloth, and (leel ware. The export?, partly
by Lubeck, and partly by Hamburgh, are grain, (lax, hemp,
hops, wax, honey, cattle, butter, cheefe, fruits, feathers,
dried geefe, tallow, hnfeed, wool, and timber. Lubeck,
according to Hoeck, contains 30,000 inhabitants. It was
taken by the French in 1806. N. lat. 53' J2'. E. long.
10' 40'.

Lubeck, or Luboi, an iflahd in the Ead Indian fea,
near Madura. Its diftance W. of Tonikaky is about 113
leagues ; and W. from the iflands of Saiembo 3 1 leagues.
S. lat. J- 43'. E. long. 1 1 2" 44'.

LUBEN, a fmall town of Silefia, with large fuburbs,
in the principality of Lignitz : here is a Lutheran col-
lege ; 12 miles N. of Lignitz. N. lat. 51° 22'. E. long.
16 15'.

LUBENAU, or LuBXOw, a town of Lower Lufatia,
in the circle of Calau, on a fmall river which runs into
the Spree, the chief place of a barony \\\xh a chateau ;
15 miles S.S.E. of Lubben. N. lat. 51' 53'. E. long.

13 '52'-

LUBE RS AC, a town of France, in the department
of the Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict
of Brives ; 8 miles W. of Uzerche. The place contains
3087, and the canton 10,351 inhabitants, on a territory of
247^ k'iiometres, in 13 communes.

LUBIEN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 26 miles
S.S.W. of Pofen.

LUBIENIETZKT, Stanil.\us, in Biography, a cele-
brated Unitarian rainifter in the 17th century, was bom at
Racow in the year 1623. He was educated with great
care, and his father introduced him, in due time., to perfons
of refpeftability and confequence in the (late. About the
year 164S he was admitted into the minillry by .the fynod -
of Czarcow, and appointed pallor of a church of that
name. This fituation he was obliged to quit in J655, upon
the irruption of the Swedes into that neighbourhood, and »
in the following year he retired with hii family to Cracow.
Here he employed much of his time with the other mi-
niflers, in frequent falling, prayer, and preaching ; and for
the benefit of the Hungarian Unitarians, who came thithec
with prince Ragot(ki, he frequently preached in the Latia
language. While he continued at Cracow he was much
noticed by the king of Sweden, who did luoi the honour

L U B

L U B

•f admitting him to his table. After that city fell again
into the hands of the Poles, in 1657, he followed the
Swedifh garrifon, with two other Unitarians, to fupplicate
that they and friends of the fame rehgious perfuafion,
who had placed thcmfelves under his protection, might be
comprehended in the anineily to be granted at the conclu-
fion of the peace with Poland. This was not granted, and
finding that there was no hope of remaining in fafety in his
native country, he went to Copenhagen, in 1660, to feek
an afylum from the king of Denmark for his perfocuted
brethren who liad been banifhed from Poland. He received
kind treatment from his majelly, who could do nothing
more than promife to connive at their fettlement at Al-
tena. Thus circumftanced, he thought it advifable to re-
turn to P(>nicrania, and arrived at Stettin in 1661. Perfe-
cution followed him to this place, and he was obliged to
remove to Hamburgh, where he diredled his family to join
him in the year 1662 : from this city he was driven by the
fame fiend in 1667, and took refuge again at Copenhagen.
He now hoped there Was a profpeft of a peaceful fettle-
ment, becaufe the magiftrates of Fredericktburg confented
that the Unitarians (hould refide in their town, and enjoy,
without moleftation, the private exercife of their religion.
He therefore removed to that city, and invited his bamflicd
brethren to join him, fparing no pains nor coll, that he might
fettle and provide for them there. Scarcely, however, had
they taken quiet polfenion of their new abodes, when they
were banifhed from the city, and even the dominions of the
prince to whom the city belonged. Lubienietzki was ill at
the time when he received the order, but promifed to obey it
as fpeedily as poffible. Before, however, he could be re-
moved, poifon was adminiftered to him in his food, to which
two of his daughters, as well as himfelf, fell facrifices,
while his wife, who had' eaten very fparingly, narrowly
efcaped the fame fate. He died in 1675, about the
age of fifty-two. He wrote many books, the greater
number of ' which was not printed. The principal pub-
liflied work was entitled " Theatrum Cometicum," in
two vols, folio, which contains a minute hillorical account
of every fingle comet which had been feen or recorded
from the deluge to the year 1665. At the time of his
death he was engaged in writing " A Hiltory of the
Reformation in Poland,'' which was printed in Holland in
1685, in 8vo, with an account of the author's life.

LUBIN, Augustine, an able geographer in the feven-
teenth century, was born at Paris in the year 1624. He
entered, at an early age, among the religious of the re-
formed order of St. Auguftine, and was diltinguifhed by his
proficiency in literary purfuits, particularly in ancient and
modern geography, and in facred and profane hillory. He
paffed through all the offices of his order, and his fcien-
tific fkiU was rewarded with the poll of geographer to the
king. He died at Paris in 1695. -^'^ principal works
are " Martyrologium Romanum, cum Tabulis Geographicis
et notis Hiftoricis;'' "Tabula Sacrne Geographies;, five
Notitia Antiqua, medii Temporis, et nova, Noniinum
utriufque Teltamenti ad Geographiam pertiilentium ;" being
a kind of diftionary to all the places mentioned in the
bible; " Geographical Tables ;" " Tlie Hiliory of Lap-
land," tranflated from Scheffer ; " The Geographical Mer-
cury," &c.

LuBiN, ElLU.iRD, was born at Wefterftede, in the county
of Oldenburg, of which place his father was miniller. He
ftudied at feveral German univerfities, and acquired an cxaft
knowledge of the Greek language, with the branches of
fcience ufually taught in thofe feminaries. He was ap-
pointed profeffor of poetry in the univcrfity of Roftock

in 1595, and ten years afterwards, was promoted to the
profeffoifliip of divinity. He wrote notes on Anacreon,
•Tiivenal, Pcrfius, S:c. His principal work was entitled
" Phofphorus de Caufa prima et Natura Mali,'' printed at
Rollock in 1596. He died in 1621. Bayle.

J.,UBIN1A, in Botany, was named by Commerfon, the
French botanill, in honour of his friend the chevalier de
St. Ijubin, who dilUnguifhed himfelf formerly at the fiege
of Madras, and was, it fecm^, in the confidence of Hyder
Ally. What pretenfions the chevalier had to commemo-
ration, as a votary of fcience, does not appear, nor wai
Commerfon very felecl in the diftribution of fuch honours.
Juffieu, who mull liave feeji fpecimens, paffed over the
plant and the name in filcnce. Lamarck refeired it to Ly-
fimach'ia. Venten. Jard. de Celf. 96. — Clafs and order,
Pcniandria Monogyn'ia. Nat. Ord. Lyfimachiic, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep, ovate,
rather unequal fegments, with membranous edges, perma-
nent. Cor. of one petal, nearly falver-lliaped, llightly ir-
regular ; tube funnel-lhaped, the length of the calv.x ; limb
in five deep obtufe fegments, the two lovvermofl rather the
fmallell. Slam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, inferted into the
lower part of the corolla, equal, the length of the tube ;
anthers cre£l, oval, two-lobed. Pi/l. Germen fuperior, al-
mo'l glcbular, fmcoth ; ftyle cylindrical, the lengih of the
flamens, permanent ; ftigma finiple, obtufe. Peric. Cap-
fule rouudifh-oval, crow ned by the ftyle, with five notches
at the top, of one cell, not burfting. Seeds numerous,
roundifh, comprefild, rough. Receptacle central, ovate,
fomewhat compreded, unconnefted with the capfule except
at the bafe, from which it feparates as the feeds ripen.

Eff. Ch. Corolla falver-lhaped, irregular. Caplule ovate,
not burfting, crowned with the ftyle, of one cell. Seeds nu-
merous, attached to a central receeptacle.

1. L. fpatulata. "Vent. Jard. de Celf. t. 96. (Lyfima-
chia mauritiana ; Lamarck Diet. v. 3. 372. Illuftr. r.
1980.) — The only known fpecies. Native of the iile dc
Bourbon. M. Cels appears to have had it in cultivation.
The root is faid by Ventcnat to be bienni?,!, and the floivers
to be produced in the beginning of fummer. This plant has
fomething of the afpeft of Convohuhis tricolor, but i.-;
firmer, and quite fmooth. The woody Jlcm produces a
few fimple branches, a fpan long, clothed with numerous,
fcattered, fpatulate, obtufe, entire, rather flefliy leaves, above
an inch long, tapering down into a bordered footftalk.
Flowers axillary, folitary, on fimple flalk?, half as long as
the leaves. Calyx dark brown, dotted with black, white
at the edge. Corolla yellow, nearly as broad as that of
Lxfimachia nemorum. — Capfule when prefled burfting ir-
regnlarly, fomctimes at the fides, fometimes, according to
Ventenat, into two or four apparent valves. Lamarck fays
it has five valves, but he perhaps judged from the notches
at the top. The fruit therefore, and the irregular corolla,
mark this genus as fufficiently dillinft from J^vfimachta ;
to which may be added, on tlie fcore of habit, its alternate,
not oppofite or whorled, leaves.

LUBISCHAW, in Geography, a town of PrufCa, in
the province ot Poniereha ; 18 miles S. of Dantzic.

LUBISCHMAT, a town of Pruflia, in tlie palatinate
of Culm ; 5 miles E. of Thorn.

LUBLENIETZ, or Lubenskv, a town of Silcfia, iu
the principality of Oppeln ; 19 miles E. of Oppcln. N. lat.
50' 39'. E. long. 18" 42'.

LUBLIN, a city of Poland, and capital of a palatinate
of the fame name ; part of which is annexed to the new
country of Galicia. It is furrounded with a wall and ditch,
and though not very large, its caftlc, whicii is built on a

high

LUC

Mgh rock, is feated on the river Byftzrna, in a pleafant and
fertile country. This town contains msny churches and
convents ; and in its fuhnrbs are many Jews, who arc ac-
commodated with a fpacious fynagogne. It lias three fairs
in the year, one of which lads a month ; and they are fre-
quented by German, Greek, Armenian, Arabian, RulTian,
Tnrkifh, and other traders and merchants. Tlie chief tri-
bunal for Little Poland was formerly held here, together
with a provincial diet and a court of judicature. Lublin is
diftant 8j miles S.E. of Warfaw. N. lat. 51 6'. E. long.

LUBNEKI, a town of Sa«io.jitia : 10 miles N. of Mied-
niki.

LUBNL a town of Ruffia, in tlie governn'.ent of Kiev,
on the Sula ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Kiev. N. lat. jo'. E.

lo»g- 5- 54'-

LUBOK, commonly called the Baviaan, or Baboon, an
ifland in the Eail Indian fea, not far from the coall of Java,
not large, but extremely populous. Seventy or eighty
veffels are continually pading to and fro between this iiland
and the coafts of Java and Borneo.

LUBOLO, a province of Angola, in Africa, on the
banks of the Coanza.

LUBOMLA, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ;
32 miles E. of Chelm.

LUBOZ, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of No-
vogrodek ; 16 miles N.E. "of Novngrodek.

LL^BRONG, or Teshoo-Loomboo, a town of Thibet,
and refiJence of Telhoo Lama, capital of that part of the
country which is immediately fubjeft to his authority, is
iituated in N. lat. 29' 4' 20", and E. long 89" 7'. This is
a large monafterv, confilting of three or four hundred houfes,
tlie habitations of the Gylongs, befides temples, maufoleums,
and the palace of the fovereign pontiff; in which are com-
preliended alio the refidence of the regent, and the dwellings
of all the fubordinate officers, both ecclefiallical and civil,
belonging to the court. It is included within the hollow
face of a liigh rock, and has a fouthern afpeif. Its buildings
are all of Hone, none lels than two ftories high, flat-roofed,
and covered with a parapet, riling confiderably above the
roof, compofed of heath and brufhwood, inferted between
frames of timber, which form a ledge below, and are
faihioned above into a cornice, capped with mafonry. All
the houfes have windows ; that in the centre projecting be-
yond the walls, and forming a balcony : they are not doled
with fliutters, but black mohair citr:ains. The principal
apartment in the upper ilory has an opening over it, covered
with a moveable fhed, which ferves the purpofe of fometimes
admitting light and an-, and in the winter feafon, occa-
iionally, the grateful warmth of the fun. Turner's Tibet.

LUBUNGAN, a town on the north coall of the iiland
of Mindanao.

LUBWACH, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 8 miles N.E. of Bamberg.

LUBZ, or LuBiT?;, a town of the duchy of Mecklen-
'"^■"gi 23 miles S.S.W. of Gullrow. N. lat. 53- jo'. E.
long. 12 .

LUC EN Diois, a town of France, in the department of
the Drome, and chief place oi a canton, in the diltridt of
Die, icated on the Drome ; 9 miles S. of Die.

LUCALA, a town of Africa, in Angola, on a river of
the lame name, whi-^h runs into the Coanza ; 30 miles N.E.
of Maflangano.

LUCAN, in Biography, a celebrated Roman poet, was
born- at Corduba, in Spain, about the year 39 before the
Chriftian era. His father, .-^nnxus Mela, a Roman knight,

LUC

was the youngefl brother of Seneca the philofopher ; and
his mother, Acilia, was daughter of Acilius Lucanus, an
eminent orator. Lucan was brought to Rome during the
firll months of his infancy, and was committed, at a very
early age, to the care of the ableft mailers in grammar and
rhetoric. He fludicd philofophy under the lloic Cornutus,
from whom he derived the lofty and free drain of fentiment
by which he is fo much dillinguifhed. It is faid lie com-
pleted his education at Athens. Seneca, then tutor to the
emperor Nero, ol)tained for him the office of qucllor : he
was foon after admitted to the college of augurs, and con-
fidercd to be in the full career of honour and opulence. He
gave proofs of poetical talents at a very early age, and ac-
quired reputation by feveral compofitions ; a circumllance
that excited the jealoufy of the emperor, who valued him-
felf on his powers as a poet and mufician. Lucan even ven-
tured to recite one of his own pieces, in competition with
Nero ; and, to the furprife of every one, the judges decided
in favour of Lncan. From this period Nero regarded the
poet with all the malignity of a vanquifhed rival, and made
ufe of his power in forbidding him a-gain to repeat any of his
verfes in public. In the confpiracy againil the tyrannical
emperor, Lucan took a part : the plot was difcovered, and
he was apprehended among the other confpirators. Tacitus
and other authors have accufed him of the pufdlanimity of
endeavouring to free himielf from pumlhiiient, by accuting
his own mother, and involving her in the crime of which he
was guilty. Mr. Hayley has endeavoured to refcue his
name from fo terrible a charge, by obferving and com^
menting on the fail, that the mother of Lucan was palled
over without punidiment : hence he inferred, that no evi-
dence exided of her having been charged by her fon, but
popular rumour ; becaufe it is well known that no other
perlon, however didantly implicated in the confpiracy,
efcaped without fome kind of penalty. At any rate, his
confedions were of no avail, and his mind recovered its firm-
nefs for the concluding fcene. No favour was granted him
but the choice of the death he would die ; and he chofe the
fame which had terminated the life of his uncle Seneca. His
veins were accordingly opened ; and when he found himielf
growing cold and faint through lofs of blood, he repeated
fome of his own lines, dcfcribing a wounded loldier finking
in a I'lmilar manner: thefe were the lall words which he ut-
tered. He died in the year 65, and in the 27th year of his
age. Of the various poems of Lucan, none but his Phar-
laiia remain, which is an account of the civil wars between
Citlar and Pompey, but is come down to us in an unfinilhed
Hate. ' Its title to the name of an epic poem has been dil-
puted by thofe critics, who, from the examples of Homer
and Virgi!, have maintained that machinery, or the inter-
vention of fupernatural agency, is effential to that fpecics of
compolition. As to the merits of the poetry itfelf there are
various opinions. Lucan certainly pofledes neither the tire
of Hoiner, nor the n-.elodious numbers of Virgil. If he
had lived to a maturer age, his judgment as well as his
genius would liavt been improved, and he might have claimed
a more exalted rank among the poets of the Augudan age.
His expreffions, however, are bold and animated ; his
poetry entertaining ; and it has been aderted that he was
never perufed without the warmed emotions, by any whole
minds were in unilon with his own. The bell edition of the
Pharfaha is the Variorum, Leyd. B. 8vo., 1669. The edi-
tionsby Oudcndorp, 1738 ; by Burman, 1740; by Bent ey,
1760; and by Barboii, 1767, are in good edeem. The
Phartaha has been trandated into Engliih verfe by Mr.
Nicholas Rowe. There was no Delphin edition of this

poem,

LUC

LUC

poem, devoted to the Iiitercfts of liberty ; but it was one of
the firft. pieces of ancient literature that was pubhlhed during
the French republic, by Didot, i« a fplendid folio.

LuCAN, in Gsography, a village of the county of Dublin,
Ireland, pleafantly fituated on the banks of the LifTey. It
is remarkable for a fulphureous medicinal fprina;, which is
much frequented. It is 65 miles W. from Dublin.

LucAN, /ll, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Aladulia ; 15
miles E. of Maralch.

LUCAN AS, a jurifdiftion of the diocefe of Guamanga,
in the viceroyalty of Peru, commencing about 25 or 30
leagues S.W. of Guamanga. Its temperature is cool and
. moderate. The parts of the former breed large droves of
all forts of cattle ; and thofe of tlie latter are fertile in grain,
herbs, and fruits. It alfo abounds in valuable filver mines,
in which the riches of Peru chiefly conlilt ; and by thefe
means it becomes tiie centre of a very extenfive commerce ;
great numbers of merchants refovting liither with their goods,
and others for purchafing iuch provifions as their own re-
fpe&ive countries do not afford, for which they give in ex-
change ingots and pinnas of filver.

LUCANIA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Italy,
bounded on the i-.orth by Campania and Apul^i!, on the eall
by Sinus Tarentinus, on the fouth by Brutium, and on the
weft by the Tufcan fea. A rid^e of the Apennines, running
from north to fouth, divides this province into two parts.

LUCANUS, in Natural Hlflory, a genus of infefts of
the order coleoptera : antenna: clavate, the club compreflTed
and divided into fliort peftinate leaves ; jaws projeding be-
yond the head, fo as to refemble horns, toothed ; two pal-
pigerous tufts under the lip.

This genus diflers chiefly from the ScahaBjEUS, (to
which the reader is referred,) in having the jaws confider-
ably elongated, fo as to give the appearance of a pair of
denticulated horns ; while the antenna; terminate in a laterally
flattened tip, divided on the interior fide into feveral lamellae.
There are twenty-fix fpecies, of which four are Britilh,
tvhich will be noticed by alleriflcs.

Species.

Alces. Jaws exferted, four-toothed at the tip. It in-
habits feveral parts of Afia. The head is large, depreffed,
black, finuate on each fide ; jaws longer than the head,
compreffed at the tip, and armed with a itrong tooth in tiie
middle within.

GiRAFi'A. .Taws exferted, deprcfled, with many dif-
ferent fi zed teeth; lip rounded. Inhabits Afia. The jaws
are likewife very long ; the teeth at both ends larger ; thorax
with an unequal margin ; body black.

* Cervus ; Stag-beetle, or llag-chaffer. Jaws exferted,
forked at the tip ; a fmall branch near the middle within.
It is the largeft of all the European coleopterous infcfts,
fometimes meafuring nearly two inches and a half in length,
from the tip of the jaws to the end of the body. Its general
colour is a deep chefnnt, with the thorax and head, which
is of a fquarifh form, of a blacker call ; and the jaws are
often of a brighter or redder chefnut colour than the wing-
ftjells ; the legs and under-parts are coal-black ; and the
wings which, except during flight, are concealed under the
ftiells, are large, and of a fine pale yellowifli-brown. This
remarkable infedl is chiefly found in the neighbourhood of
oak-trees, delighting in the fwcet exfudation, or honey-dew,
ft frequently obferved on the leaves. Its larva, which
perfectly refembles that of the genuine beetles, is alfo found
in the hollows of oak-trees ; refiding in the fine vegetable
iiaottid ufually feen in fuch cavities, and feediag on the fofter

parts of the decayed wood. It is of a vfry confiJerablc
fize, of a pale ycllowilh or whitifh-brown colour; and when
itretched out at full length, meafures nearly four inches. It
has been fuppofed by Roefel, that thcfe larva were the
cajji of the ancient Romans, which, according to Phny,
were in high ellecm as an article of luxury. What renders
this fuppolition the more probable is, that the larvj; of a
fpecies of cerambyx, as well as of a curcnlio, are well
known to be greatly admired by the inhabitants of the Well
Indian iflands, and are frequently coUedted at a great ex-
pence, as "a highly delicate difli, being broiled or fried for
that purpofe. When arrived at its full fize, which, ac-
cording to fome, is hardly fooner than the fifth or fixth
Year, it forms, by frequently turning itftlf, and moilleiiing
it with its glutinous faliva, a fmooth oval hollow in the earth,
in which it lies ; and afterwards remainnig perfectly lliU for
the fpace of nearly a month, divells itfclf of its ikin, and
commences pupa or chryfalis. It is now of a fhorter form
than before, of a rather deeper colour, and exliibits, in a
llriklng manner, the rudiments of the large extended jaws
and broad head, fo confpicuous in the perfect infeft : the
legs are alfo proportionably larger and longer than in the
larva ftate. The ball of earth, in which this chryfalis is
contained, is confiderably larger than a hen's egg, and of a
rough exterior furface, but perfeftly fmooth and polifficd
within. The chryfalis lies about three months before it
gives birth to the complete infeft, which ufually emerges in
the months of July and Augull. The time, however, of
this infedl's growth and appearance in all its ftates varic-3
much, according to the difference of feafons. It is not very-
uncommon in many parts of England.

The commonly fuppofed female differs fo much in ap-
pearance from the male, that it has by fome authors been
confidered as a dillinft fpecies. It is not only fmaller than
the former, but totally dellitute of the long and large
ramified jaws ; inilead of which it has a pair of 'very fliort
curved ones, flightly denticulated on their inner fide : the
head is alfo of confiderably fmaller diameter than the thorax.
In point of colour it refembles the former. Among thofe
who confider it as a diftinft fpecies m»f be numbered the
ingenious Mr. Marlhain, F.L.S., who, in his " Entomo-
logia Britannica," alRires us that the real female infedl ex-
tremely refembles the male, but is fmaller, and wants the
larger denticu'ation on the inner fide of each horn. The
generally fuppofed female he diftinguiflies by the title of
" Lucanus inermis."

Saiga. Jaws exferted, many-toothed ; lip abbreviated,
emarginate. Inhabits America. Body depreflfed, fmooth,
black ; jaws hardly forked at the end.

Elaphus. Jaws exferted, one-toothed, forked at the
tip ; lip deflefted, conic ; hind margin of the head much
elevated, emarginate. Female kfs ; the jaws not exferted.
Inhabits Virginia.

Caprkolus. Jaws exferted, the middle denticles dif-
ferently Ihaped, forked at the tip. Inhabits Germany. It
is about half the fize of the cervus above delcrlbed ; jaws
with two thick approximate lobed denticles in the middle ;
body black.

Da.ma. Jaws exferted, two-toothed within, as long as
the head. Inhabits Virginia. A variety has jaws entire at
the end ; thighs ferruginous.

Femoratijs. Jaws exferted, three-toothed; body black ;
thighs ferruginous. It inhabits Cayenne. The head is
plain, almoll without lip ; thorax more duflty ; the fore
margin fulvous, ciliate ; the hind margin two-toothed eacij
fide; fcutel fulvous, filky.

LUC

LUC

Bison. Jaws exferted, many-toodied ; thorax and fticlls
edged with red. Inhabiis America. Edge of the thorax
rufous, with a black line.

Gazella. Jaws two-toothed within ; body black ;
(hells edged with teltaceous. Inhabits Siani. The jaws
are fhort ; head with a fmall plate before the eyes ; hind
edge of the thorax notched on each fide ; flianks angular,
grooved.

Lama. Jaws exferted, three-toothed, {horter than the
head; thorax angular. Inhabits India.

SwTLRAi.i.s. Jaws exferted, thrcc-toothed at tlie bafe
within ; body teftac^ous, with a dorfal black line ; the head
IS teftaceons, with a bfack margin and dorfal line, which is
bind at the tip; thorax teftaceous, with a black dorfal line
and fpot each fide at the bafe.

CAfilN'ATU.s Depreffed ; thorax unarmed, fhortcr than
the head, the hinder angles excavated ; abdomen very fliort ;
breafl: ending behind in an acute angle. Inhabits India.

* Paralleli.epipedus. Jaws with a lateral elevated
tooth within ; body depreffed. It inhabits Europe, Body
black, very fmall : female with a double prominent dot on
the head.

Tene75R0ide.s. Jaws lunate, one-toothed ; bo<!y black ;
thorax margined ; fliells fubllriate. Inhabits Ruffia. Ab-
domen pitchy.

Cacuroides. J^s incurved, with a thick differently
fliaped tooth within ; {hells pun£l«red, (lightly downy ;
thorax a little grooved ; (hanks ferrate. It inhabits Van
Diemen's land.

* Caraboide.s. Blueifh ; jaws lunate; thorax mar-
gmed : varies in being greeHifh, with reddith legs and ab-
domen. Inhabits Europe.

PiCEUS. Black, fmooth, ftriate ; antennae, abdomen, and
legs pitchy. Inhabits Sweden.

Capensis. Exfeutellate, black; body depreffed ; thorax
ftriate. Found in Chili, South America.

PiLMUs. Exfeutellate, black ; (hells vifith puntlured
grooves. Inhabits the Cape. ■

Taeandus. Scutellate, black, very fmooth ; jaws ex-
ferted, three-toothed_ at the tip, two-toothed on the inner
fide. Inhabits Africa.

Antilope. Jaws exferted, edged on the inner fide, the
upper margin two-toothed, but the lower five-toothed ;
body brown, nearly fmooth. Found in different parts of
Africa.

BuB.iLUS. Black ; jaws bifid ; one part projefting, fnb-
lunate, three-toothed within ; the other larger, defletted,
arched entire. Inhabits Georgia.

In'terruptus. Antennae arched ; body black, with a
recumbent fpine on the crown ; thorax and abdomen remote ;
thorax and (hells ciliat^, with rufous. Inhabits America
and the Welt India iflands, under rotten fugar-canes. This
is the pafFalus interruptus of Fabricius.

Den'tatus. Antennae arched ; head many-tootheJ ;
thorax punftured at the fides ; thorax and abdomen remote.
Found m the ifland of Guadaloupe. This is the paffalus
dentatus of Fabricius.

MiNUTUS. Antennz arched; tliorax and abdomen re-
mote, ferruginous ; (hells teftaceous. This is the palTalus
minutus of Fabricius, and is found in the South American
iflands. The body is much depreffed, hardly larger than a
loafe ; jaws exferted, (hort, unarmed, pointed ; (liells hardly
flriate.

Dr. Shaw mentions a highly elegant fpecies, that has
lately been difcovered in New Holland, which difiers from
the reft in being entirely of a beautiful golden green colour,
with flioit, fliarp-pointcd, denticulated jaws of a brilliant

Vol. XXI.

copper colour. The whole length of tlie infecl ia rather
more than an inch. Gmelin's Linn. Shaw's Zoology.
Donovan.

LUCAR, am-^^ng the Romans, an appellation givca to
the money expended upon plays and public (howB.

LucAK Je Barinmeda, St., in Gcagraphy, a decayed fea-
port town of Spain, in the province of Seville, at the mouth
of the Guadalquivir, the key of Seville, with a good har-
bour, but difficult of accefs on account of a rock in the
water. A whole fleet may lie fecnrely in tha road. Thr chief
article of its trade is fait ; 13 miles N. of Cadiz. N. lat.
36 4^'. W. long. 6- 27'.

LuCAK de Guadiana, St., a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Seville, fituated on the Guadiana, on the contines
of Portugal, and defended by towers and baftions. The
tide flows up to the town, fo as to bring fmall veffels into its
harbour; 64 miles W. of Seville. N. lat. 37'^ 30'. W.
long. 7= 25'.

LucAR le Mayor, St., a town of Spam, in the province
of Seville, on the Guadiamur ; 10 miles W. of Seville.

LUC ARIA, an ancient feaft celebrated by the Romans.
Sext. Pompeius obfcrve.-!, that the lucaria were folemnized
in the woods, where the Romans, defeated and purfued by
the Gauls, retired, and concealed themfelves. The word,
according to Feftus and Sext. Pompeius, comes ircmlucus,
a grove or "Wood. Varro derives it from /ar^, the ablative of
the word lux, light and lilcrty. But the former etymology
feems the more natural.

It was held in the month of July, in memory of the
afylum they found m the wood, which was between the
Tybei* and the road called Via Salaria.

LUCAS, TuDENSis, in Biography, a Spanifh writer and
prelate, who flouriflied in the thirteenth century, was firft a
deacon in the church, and afterwards bifhop of Tny, a city
of Gallicia, whence he has his furname. He travelled into
feveral parts of the eaft and other countries, for the purpofe
of obtaining information concerning the rehgion and cere-
monies of different nations; and was raifed to his bifhopric
by pope Gregory IX. His principal work was " A Trea-
tife againft the Albigenfes." He w&i author, likewife, of
" The Life of St. Ifidure of Seville ;" and he made con-
fiderable additions to " The Chronicle of St. Ifidore."
Gen. Biog.

Lucas, Francis, a learned divine, who flourifhed in the
fevcnteenth century, was a native of Bruges, was educated
at Louvain, attained to the degree of dodlor, and was
made dean of the church of St. Omer's. He died in 1619.
He was profoundly (liilled m the Greek, and in all the ori-
ental languages ; and was an expert judicious critic. He
wa.s the author of " Notationes in facra Bibha, quibus
variantia difcrepantibus Loca, Exemplaribus fummo Studio
difcutiuntur," 4to., 1580 ; " Commentaria in Evangel."
in J vols., folio ; " Notae ad varias Ledliones in Evangel. ;"
" Concordantice Lutinorum Bibliorum .y ulgatae Editionis,"
and of many other learned works.

Lucas, P.mjl, a celebrated traveller, was born at Rouen
m 1664. He felt an early inclination to travel into foreign
countries, which he gratified by feveral tours through the
Levant, Egypt, Turkey, and other parts. He brought
back a rich treafure of medals and other curiofities for the
king's cabinet, who ordered him to draw up an account of
his travels, and who, jn 1714, nominated him one of his
antiquaries. He was afterwards employed by the duchefs
of Burgundy. In 1723 he took another voyage to the
Levant, by order of Lewis XV., and collected many cu-
rious and valuable manufcripts and medals. From this
period to 1736 he lived a life of repofe; but in the laft
± A named

LUC

LUC

named year he vifiteJ Spain, a country which he had never
before fecn, and was well received by the king, who en-
gaffcd him to arrange his cabinet of medals : but during this
employment he was taken ill, and died in 1737, at t\v- ;ige
of fevc ity two. He was author of a work, entitled, " Tra-
vels of Paul Lucas," in fevcn volumes. In four of them is
an account of his voyage to the Levant, to Greece, Aila
Minor, Macedonia, and Africa. His travels in Turkey,
Afia, Syria, Palellinc, and Egypt, were publiflied at
Rouen, in three volumes.

Lucas, Richard, a native of Wales, was born at Prcf-
teigne, in Radnorfhire, in the year 1648; and ivhen he
had laid a good foundation in grammar learning, he was
fent to the univerfity of Oxford, and entered a Itudent at
Jefus college in 1664. He took his degree of arts in 1668,
and in 1672 ; and was fome time mafter of the frec-fchool
at Abergavenny, in Monmouthfhire. From this place he
removed to London, and obtained the vicarage of St.
Stephen's, Coleman-itrcet, and became lefturer of St. Olaves,
Southwark, in 1683. In 1691 he took his degree of doftor
of divinity, awd was inllalled prebendary of Wcftminller in
1696. Soon after this, an inlirmity which he had ex-
perienced in his eyes, from his youth, deprived him totally
of his fight. He died in 17 15, at the age of fixty-feven,
and was buried in Weftminiter Abbey. He was highly
valued by his contemporaries for his piety and learning ; and
his writings have tranfmitted his name with honour to pof-
tcrity. Of thefe the moft important is his " Inquiry after
Happinefs," in two volumes, 8vo., which has gone through
many editions. It is remarkable that it was compofed by
the author, after he had loft his fight, and was rendered in-
capable of pubUc fervices. His other works are " PraiSical
Chriftianity," and " The Morality of the Gofpel ;" " A
Guide to Heaven ;" " Five Volumes of Sermons," and
fome fmaller pieces. He tranflated into the Latin language
" The whole Duty of Man," which was printed in 1680.
Biog. Brit.

Lucas, Si., in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guatimala ; 12 miles E. of Guatimala. — Alfo,
a fmall ifland near the coail of Mexico, in Salinas bay.
N. lat. to- 15'. W. long. 85" 22'.

LUCAU, or Lucca, in Geography, a town of Saxony,
in the principality of Altenburg ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Al-
tenburg. N. lat. 51^ 6'. E. long. 13 iS. — Alfo, a town
of the duchy of Carinthia, near the Geil ; 32 miles E. of
Brixen.

LUCAYA I.SLAUDS. See Bahama.

LUCAYO, one of the Bahama illands ; 20 miles long,
and five broad. N. lat. 27^ 25'. W. long. 78^

LUCAYONEQUE, one of the Bahama iflands ; 75
miles long, and five or fix broad, but of an irregular form.
N. lat. 27^ W. long 77- ;;o'.

LUCCA, a fmall republic of Italy, on the coaft of the
Tufcan fea, in N. lat. 43" 50'. It is bounded N. by the
late duchy of Modena ; on the S.W. by the Mediterranean ;
and every where elfe by Etruria. It is computed to be
upwards of 35 miles in length, and from 15 to 20 in breadth,
and to contain 288 fquare miles, and within its extent one
city, 150 villages, and 120,000 inhabitants, of whom, it is
ftiid, that from 20,000 to 30,000 are able, on occafion, to
bear arms. The Luccanefe are the moil induftrious people
of Italy, and no fpot of ground is left uncultivated ; the
hills being covered with vines, olives, chefnut, and mulberry
trees, while the meadows near the coaft nonrifh numerous
cattle ; but the country does not produce corn fufficient for
the confumption of its inhabitants. Oil and filk are the
ckief exports of Lucca, and their motto is LibertjIS, a

goddefs, rarely found more amiable than here. Lucca was
anciently a Roman colony ; v.-hen the Lombards overran
Italy, it became tributary to them ; afterwards it was an-
nexed to the dominion of the Franks, and from them the
emperors of Germany claimed its fovcreignty. In the
reign of Charles IV. it became an independent ftate, and
has, during three centuries, maintained its hberty, under
the proteftion of fome foreign power. In the recent revo-
lutions of Italy, this ftate adopted a conllitution fimilar to
the French ; and it is now a principality, with the addition
of Mafia Carrara, and Garfagnana.

Lucca, the capital of the fore-mentioned principality,
and the refidence of the government, is delightfully fituated
in a plain, terminated by eminences, and diverfified with vil-
lages, feats, fummer-houfes, vineyards, meadows, and corn-
fields. This city is regularly fortified with eleven baftions ;
its circuit is about a league ; it is well-built, and the ftreets,
though irregular, are broad and well paved. Situated near
the river Serchio, 12 miles N.E. of Pifa, it contains a ftate-
palace, within whicii is a large arfenal, a Gothic cathedral,
with a richly furniflied chapel, 25 churches, 40 convents, and
about 40,000 inhabitants ; among whom are many artifts
and manrifafturers, efpecially in filk and gold, and filvcr
ftufFs. The bifiiop holds immediately of the pope, and is
entitled to the pallium, or crucifix, as an archbifhop. In
the cathedral is a volo fanto, or wooden crucifix, to which
a peculiar veneration is paid. In the year 1799, the French
entered this city, and impofed upon it a contribution of
2,000,000 liyres. They feem to have taken it under their
proteftion, and to allow it its freedom. N. lat. 43° J4'.
E. long. 10" 34'.

Lucca, a river of Afia, which rifes in Perfia, and runs
into the Indus, about 18 miles above the conflux with the
Chunaub.

LtJCCHESI, Andrea, in Biography, a native of Venice,
and maeftro di cappella, in 1772, to the eleftor of Cologne.
A pleafing compofer, whofe motets were frequently fnng by
Manfoli, and other great fingers in the cliurches of Italy,
and whofe fymphonics were much efteened, even in Ger-
many, where they have been brought to the greateft per-
feftion. In 1767, he compofed a cantata for a grand fef-
tival given to the duke of Wirtemburg at Venice. '

LUCCI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra ; \ miles S. of Bifignano.

LUCCOS, a river of Morocco, anciently called Lveos,
which runs into the Atlantic at Laracha.

LUCE, St., a clutter of fmall iflands in the Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Mad^gafcar. S. lat. 24'-' 30'. E.
long. 47^ 40'.

Luce, Eau de. See Eau de Lues.

LUCE A, in Geography, a bay or harbour, on the N.
fide of the ifland of Jamaica, into which run two rivers,
called Eaft and Weft Lucea ; 14 miles Wi of Montego bay.
N. lat 18= 28'. W. long. 78' 9'.

LUCENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova,
in which are ten convents ; 29 miles S.S.E. of Cordova.
N. lat. 37° 32'. W. long. 4" 29'. — Alfo, a town of Spain,
in Valencia ; 18 miles N.E. of Scgorbe.

LUCENAY l'Eveque, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftricl of Autun ; 7 miles N. of Autun.
The place contains 804, and the canton (>i68 inhabitants,
on a territory of 25'o kiliomctrcs, in 12 communes. N. lat.
47° 5'. E. long. 4-' 20'.

LUCERA, an ancient, inconfiderable, manufadturing
town of Naples, capital of the provicce of Capitanata,
and fee of a bifltop, fuffragan of Benevcnto ; containing

four

LUC

four churches and nine monaiteries, and pleafantly fituated
on an eminence in a plain, near the middle of the province,
"about 7J miles N.E. of Naples. The jurifdiftion of the
province is held here, and the manufadure is cloth. N. lat.
41*" 28'. E. long, ij^ 16'. — Alfo, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra ; 7 miles S. of Cofenza.

LUCERIUS, in Mythology, a name given to Jupiter, as
Luceria was given to Juno, as the deities which gave light to
the world.

LUCERN, inCeographyt a canton of Switzerland, bound-
ed on the W. and N. by Bern, en the E. by Zurich and
Schweitz, on the S. by Underwalden and Bern, lying in N.
lat. 47" 10' ; being from 30 to 50 miles from N. to S., and
from 25 to 30 in breadth, and containing 100,000 inhabitants,
who are chiefly employed in agriculture. The fouthern parts
of this canton are chiefly mountainous, and furnilh for ex-
portation cattle, hides, cheefe, and butter. The northern
diilriil is fruitful in corn, wliich, being more than fufficient
for the confumption of the canton, allows of a confl;ant
exportation from the weekly market held in the town, to
which the inhabitants of the fmall canton refort for the
purchafe of that and of other neceffaries. This commerce,
together witrh the paflage of the merchandize for Italy, is
the chief fupport of the town, and might be much improved
and augmented, confidcring its advantageous iituation ; for
the Reufs ifl'ues from the lake, pafles through the town,
and, having joined the Aar, falls into the Rhine.

Lucern, originally fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria, was
QXpofed to the inroads of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden,
when thefe cantons had feized their independence. Her
commerce to Italy was interrupted ; her fairs unfrequented ;
and her citizens compelled to be continually under arms,
in order to prote£i their territory from inceflant depreda-
tions. Under thefe circumftances, the Auftrians loading
the citizens with exorbitant taxes, Lucern made her peace
with the confederate cantons ; and, expelling the Auftrian
party, entered into a perpetual alliance with Uri, Schweitz,
and Underwalden, and became a member of the Helvetic
union. The accefEon of Lucern gave additional credit and
power to the confederacy, and enabled it to refill all the
efforts of a great and implacable enemy. In 1386, Leopold,
duke of Auftria, invaded the canton with a numerous army ;
when the combined troops gained a bloody vidlory at Sem-
pach, in which Leopold loft his life.

The government of Lucern was entirely ariftocratical, or
rather oligarchical. The fovereign power refided in the
council of 100, comprifing the fenate, or little council. The
great council w'a^ the nominal fovereign ; but the whole
power aftually relided in the fenate, confifting of 36 mem-
bers, who were formed into two divifions, exercifing the
ofSce by rotation. The adminiftration of the current af-
fairs, the care of the police, the management of the finances,
and the whole executive power, refided in the fenate, which
fat conftantly ; whereas the fovereign council was aflembled
only upon important occaiions. The fenate had cognizance
of criminal caufes ; but in cafe of capital condemnation the
fovereign council was convoked, in order to pronounce the
fentence. In civil caufes, an appeal lay from the fenate to
the fovereign council, which, in reality, was a matter of mere
foFra, as it was an appeal from the fenators in one court, to
the fame fenators in another. The influence of the fenute
over the fovereign council was abfolute ; for they conftituted
above a third of that body, chofe their own members, con-
ferred the principal charges of government, and nominated
to the ecclefiatlical benefices, which are confiderable ; nearly
two-thirds of the revenue of the canton belonging to the
clergy. From a view of this conftitution, it appears, that

LUC

when the fpirit of the conftitution is oligarchical, all lawi
enacted for the purpofe of counteraAing the power of the
nobles are mere cyphers. However, m fome inftanres,
the authority of the nobles is controuled ; for, in declaring
war and peace, forming new alliances, or impofing taxes,
the citizens were to be affemblc-d, and to give their confent.
Lucern, being the firft in rank and power among the Ca-
tholic cantons, was the refidence of the pope's nuncio, and
all affairs relating to religion were difcufiVd in the annual
diet, which aflembled in the town, and which was compofed
of the deputies ofthofe cantons.

Lucern, though an oligarchical ftate, manifefted, at the
time of the French revolution, an averfion from all innovation.
The people appeared to be fatisfied with their goverr.ment,
and refifted all attempts to effeft a change. During th«
progrefs of the revolution, Lucern afted with great fpirit,
and was inclined to join in defence of her own iiidependence,
as well as in fupport of the Helvetic union. Even after the
furrender of Bern and the dcfertion of Zurich, a numerous
body of peafants demanded the re-eftablilhment of the an-
cient government, and joined the troops of the fmall cantons
to refift the entrance of the French ; and the whole
canton did not acquiefce without much oppofition and blood-
flied. At length a corps of Frendi, after a Ihort in-
veftment, entered the town of Lucern, a-nd reduced the
people to unconditional fubmiflion. Soon after this event,
Lucern became the feat of the new Helvetic government.
According to the conftitution of the 29th of May, 1801,
Lucern was one of the 17 departments, or cantons, into
which Switzerland was divided : it retained its former extent
and deputed five reprefentatives to the diet. Near the
town of Lucern is mount " Pilate," formerly called Mons
Pikatus, from the Latin word pilea, becaufe its top is
generally covered with a cloud or cap. This word has
been corrupted into " Pilatus," whence fome have ridi-
culoufly contended that Pontius Pilate, after having con-
demned our Saviour to death, was feized with remorfe,
m^de an excurfion into Sviitzerland, and drowned himfe'f
in a lake at the top of the mountain. At the elevation of
5000 feet, and in the moft perpendicular part of this moun-
tain, near the pafture of Brunlen, is obferved, jn the middle
of a cavern hollowed in a black rock, a coloflal ftatiie,
which appears to be of white ftone. It is the figure of a
man in drapery, leaning one elbow on a pedeftal, with orx
leg crofled over the other, and fo regularly formed, that it
can fcarcely be a lufus naturae. This ftatue is called " Do-
minic" by the peafants, who frequently accoft it from the
only place in which it can be feen, and when their voices arc
re-echoed from the cavern, they fay, in the fimplicity of
their hearts, " Dominic has anfwered us." It is difficult
to imagine by whom, or in what manner, this itatue could
be placed in a fituation which has hitherto proved inaccef-
fible to all who have endeavoured to approach it. This is,
perhaps, one of the highell mountains in Switzerland, if
eftimated from its bafe, and not from the level of the fca ;
its elevation abos-e the lake being more than 6000 feet.
Soon after the French took poflefiion of Lucern, general
Brune erefted, with great fuleranity, the ftandard of hberty
on the top of mount Pilate ; thus, as Coxe fays, conferring
on the Swifs the (hadow, while he deprived them of the
fubftance of freedom. Coxe's Switzerland, vol. i.

Lucern, the capital of the abovc-delcribed canton, a
fmall, tolerably built, walled, trading town, containing about
3300 inhabitants, and agreeably fitu:ited on a plain almoil
environed by hills, at the efflux of the Reufs from the lake
of Lucern, and at the N.W. extrpmiry of the lake ; 30
miles S.W. of Zurich, and 40 E. of Bern. The cathedral
4A 2 and

LUC

L u c:

and Jefuiti' church are the only public buildings worthy of
notice; but they are overloaded with rich ornaments, and
difgraced by bad paintings. In the cathedral is an organ of
fine tone, and extraordinary fize ; the centre pipe is 40 teet
long, near three in diameter, and weighs iioo pounds. The
bridges which Ikirt the town, round the edge of the lake,
are the fafhionable walks of the place, and remarkable for
their length ; being covered at the top, and open at the
fides, they afford a conllanc view of the delightful and ro-
mantic country ; they are decorated with coarfe paintings,
reprefenting tlie liiilories of the Old Tedament, the battles
of the Swifs, and the dance of Death. In the Waffer-
thiirm tower, the Ireafure of the republic is depofited.
The nrfenal is well furnilhed with arms. This place is a
thoroughfare from Italy by mount St. Gothard ; but it has
no manufaftures of confequence, and little commerce. Of
late the principles of toleration have been better underllood
and more widely diffufed than they were formerly, and a lite-
rary fociety has been etlablilhed for the promotion of polite
learning. The lake is bounded towards the town of Lncern
by cultivated hills floping gradually to the water, contralled
on the oppofite fide by an enormous mafs of tarren and
craggy rocks. N. lat. 46' 56'. E. long. 8 6'. See the
preceding article.

LucERN, Lake of, called the Waldftaetter fee, or lake of
the four cantons, conlills of feveral branches and gulfs, dif-
tinguilhed by pai'ticular names, and affording variety of tine
fernery. See Lake.

LuCERX, in Botany. See Meuicago.
LucEHN', in /Igriculture, a plant of the artificial grafs
kind, chiefly cultivated as a green food for cattle, and which
affords a larger produce than mofl other forts in proportion
to the extent of land. It is knovvn among botanilts by the
name of medicago fati-va, and is the alfafa of the Spaniards,
and the grand trefle of the French. It has a perennial root,
and an annual ftalk, which rifes full three feet high in good
land, and is fiirnifhed at each point with trifoliate leaves, tiie
lobes of which are fpear-fliaped, about an inch and a half
long, and half an inch broad, fawed towards the (lalks.
The flowers grow in fpikes, which are from two to near
three inches in length, Handing upon naked footftalks two
inches long, rifing from the wings of the ilalks : they are
of the pea-bloom, or butterfly kind, of a fine purple colour,
and arc fucceeded by coniprclfed moon-fhaped pods, which
contain feveral kidney-fhaped feeds. It flowers in June, ajid
its feed ripens in September.

There are feveral varieties of lucern, as thofe with violet-
coloured flowers, with yellow flowers, with yellow and
violet flowers mixed, and with variegated flowers ; but
the editor bf Mr. Miller's Diftionary obferves, that they
are only variations of the fame plant, arifing accidentally
from the feed. However, neither the yellow nor the varie-
gated flowered lucern is ever fo ftrong as that with pur-
ple flowers ; and cannot of courfe be fo profitable to the
culrivator.

It may be remarked, that Columella efteemed this plant
as the choicell of all fodder, becaufe it lafted many years,
and bore being cut down four, five, or fix times a year.
In his opinion it enriched the land on which it grew, fat-
tened the cattle fed with it, and was often a remedy for fick
cattle. About three-quarters of an acre of it is, it is fup-
pofed, abundantly fiifiicicnt to feed three horfes during the
whole year. But tliough it was fo much efteemed by the
ancients, and has been long cultivated to advantage in France
and Switzerland^ it has yet found no great reception in this
country, though it will fucceed here as well as in either of
10

the above countries, being extremely hardy, and capable of
refilling tiie cold of our climate.

In the Synopfis of Hufh^ndry, it is noticed, that it is
not till within thefe thirty years that this gruls has been
much in repute with the farmer, though it was known in
England long before that time: but the cultivation of it
was chiefly confined to gentlemen who raifcd it on their own
dcmefncs ; for the hufbandmen, being v^-ell convinced of the
extraordinary care required to prepare the land for the
growth of i, were deterred from embarking in a bufinefs
which feemed to be attended w'itli much expcnce, and con-
tented themfelves with raifiug green fodder from their tares
and clover, le.iving the cultivation of this ufefnl grafs tg their
landlords, who could better fpare the money for that pur-
pofe. But now that its virtues are better known, and the
method of raifing it more perfeftly underflood, there are
few farmers, who do not choofe to fow fome acres of it, to
fupply their horfes with a whulefome and laftincr feed
tin-onghout the fummer. The feed is of a paler calt than
that of clover, and rather larger in fize. It is annually
provided from Holland by the feedfmen, and fold at dif-
ferent prices, from one to two Ihillings or more per pound,
according to circumllances.

Soil — In refpeft to thcfoils that are moil fuitable to the
culture of this plant, they are all thofe of the more deep,
rich, and dry kinds, as thofe of the found, meliuw, loamy,
and landy delcriptions ; but on fuch as are retentive of
moiilure, it fhould not be attempted, as the roots of the
plants are liable to be greatly injured, if not wholly de-
itroyed, by the ftagnation of water about them. Weepino-
gravelly lands, and all fuch as are not well drained, are of
courfe improper for this fort of culture. Mr. Young fug-
gelts, that " the foils that fuit lucern, are all thofe that are
at once dry and rich. If they poffcls thefe two criteria,
there is no fear but they will produce large crops of lucern.
A friable deep fandy loam or chalk, or wfrite dry marly bot-
tom, is excellent for it. Deep putrid fands, warp on a drv
bafis, good fandy loam on chalk, dry marie or gravel, all do
well : and, in a word, all foils that are good enough for
wheat, and dry enough for turnips to be fed on the landj do
well for lucern. If deficient in fertility, they may be made
up by manuring, but he never yet met with any land too
rich for it."

Preparation. — The author of the Syflem of Agriculture
remarks, that "in the preparation of the land, the foil
fhould be always brought into as fine a condition of mould
as poffible. This may be effected by repeated ploughing
and harrowing, and the previous growth of fuch forts of
crops of the green kind as have a tendency to clean and
render the land more fine and -mellow." In this intention
Mr. Young advifes the taking of two crops of turnips,
carrots, or cabbages, either in fucccflion, or alternating with
each other, the turnips in the heavier loams being eaten off
upon the land in the fecond autumn before it is ploughed up.
In either of thefe cafes, from tiie hoeing and conftant cul-
ture which is necellary while the crops are upon the lard, it
will be left in a fuitable itate of cleannefs and friability.
" Others recommend fallowing as a better praftice, the root
weeds of every kind being carefully picked out in the dif-
ferent ploughings.and harrowings. From the great length
of time the ground mufb remain unemployed in this miode of
preparation, it is probably only capable of being praftifed
with advantage where the lands are heavy and very full of
weeds." But whatever mode is employed, the land muft be
rendered perfeftly clean before this fort of crop is ventured
upon it.

And it is requifite, that before the feed is put in, the

mould

L U C E R N.

mould (hould be rendered perfeftly fine by ploughing it over
as frequently as may be neceflary, and breaking it well down
by occafional harrowing. It will feldom be necefiary to
nnakc ufe of manure ; but where the land is found to ftand
in need of it, the application is bed made with the firft of
the green crops. The objeA to be conllantly kept in view
in this bufmefs, is chiefly that of rendering the land per-
feftly clean from weeds, and at the fame time highly mellow
and friable.

Nature and Quantity of Seed. — As feedfmen are apt to
keep their feeds from year to year, it may be necefTary to
apprife the farmer, that that which is perfeftly fresh, is the
moft proper for being fown, as moll fmall feeds vegetate in
the mod; perfeft manner when new.

And with refpeft to the quantity of feed. Dr. Dickfon
has ftated that the proportion that is neceflary, ia variable
according to the nature of the land, and the manner in
which the cr. p is cultivated. In the broad-call method,
from eighteen to twenty pounds may be proper, while in
that of the drill, it will be confiderably lefs, according to
the diitances at which the operation is performed. In two
feet equidiftant rows, the ufual allowance is about flx
pounds ; in thofe of eighteen inches about eight pounds ; in
thofe of twelve inches, ten or twelve pounds ; and in nine-
inch rows, fixteen or eighteen pounds may be neceflary,
though Mr. Young only recommends from twelve to fifteen
pounds for the acre.

Time and Manner of Soiuing. — In his fyftem of agriculture,
the fame writL-r ftates, that " the moll proper feafon for
putting this fort of crop into the ground, is as early as can
be done in the fpring months, as in this way the plants maj'
be fully ellabliihed before the feafon becomes too hot. The
latter end of March, for the mcfre fouthern diftrifts, may be
the moft proper period; and the beginning of the following
month for thofe of the north. When fown late there' is
niore danger of the plants being deftroyed by the fly, as has
been obferved by Mr. Tull. If the plants be intended to
be tranfplanted out in the garden method, it will alfo be the
bell praftice to fow the feed, bed as early in the fpring as the
frofts will admit, in order that the plants may be flrong, and
fit to fet out about the beginning of Auguft."

In regard to the mode of fowing or putting in the crop,
this writer alfo fuggeils, that " ft fliould vary with the
circumltances of the foil, and the mode of after-manage-
ment that can be adopted with the moft convenience. Where
much attention cannot be beftowed on the bufinefs of hoe-
ing and keeping the crop cle^, the beft method is that of
fowing the land broad-caft ; though in this method the crop
may not laft fo long in the ground. But in cafes where the
crops are capable of being kept in a fufficiently clean condi-
tion by repeated hoe-culture, the drill may be more advifable,
particularly in narrow diftances. The praftice of tranf-
planting can, perhaps, only be done in particular cafes, on
fmall pieces of deep land that are in great heart, and require
the plants in confrquence to ftand thin and regular upon the
ground, as in thefe modes they become large and of vigor-
ous growth. In foils that are inclined to moifture at fome
depth below the furface, it ma)- be a ufeful method of
keeping the roots of the plants from being injured by their .
penetrating too deeply, as is more the cafe when the plants
rife from feed. The feed may be fown either alone or with
grain crops, in the fame manner as clover ; each method has
its advocates, and it is probable that they may be ufeful un-
der different circumftances, as in the deeper and more fertile
forts of land the firft may be the moft beneficial method, and
in thofe of the lighter and lefs deep kinds the latter ; as in
the deep forts of land there may be lefs lofs of time in pro-

curing the green produce for horfcs or other forts of ftock,
as well as a greater certainty of the crop fucceeding. But
in the lighter and more porous foils, by being fown with com,
the plants may be better protefted in theii early growth, as
well by the {hade as the moifture that will, in that way, be
preferved. Some indeed fpeak of its fujierior utility on the
ground of long experience, in its being better preferved from
the fly. Wherever this mode is made ufe of, the grain
fliould, however, be Town thinner than is ufually the cafe,
in proportion as the foils are more rich. Oats are preferable
to barley for the purpofe, as being lefs liable to lodge, efpe-
cially when fown thin. From five or fix pecks to three
bufliels, fown as evenly as poflible, may be the beft propor-
tions, the fmaller quantity being neceflary on the richeft
foils." Mr. Young remarks, that " the greatell fuccefs by
far that has been knov/n is by the broad-caft method, which
is nearly univerfal among the beft lucern farmers, even among
men who admire and praftife the drill hulbandry in many
other articles. But as they moftly (not all) depend on fe-
vere harrowing for keeping their crops clean, which is a
troublefome and expenlive operation, he ftill ventures to re-
commend drilling, but very different drilling from that which
has been almoft univerfally praftifed, ■m%- at dillances of
eighteen inches or two feet. Objeftious to thefe wide inter-
vals are numerous. If kept clean hoed, the lucern licks
up fo much dirt, being beaten to theearrh by rain, &c. that
it is unwholefome, and the plants fpread fo into th-fe fpaces
that it muft be reaped, which i> a great and ufelefs expence.
For thefe reafons, as well as for fuperiority of crop, he re-
commends drilling at nine inches, which, in point of pro-
duce, mowing, and freedom from dirt, is the fame as broad-
caft ; and another advantage is, that it admits a fcarifying
once a year, which is much more powerful and effeftive than
any harrowing. Thefe fafts are fufficient to weigh fo much
with any reafonable man, as to induce him to adopt this
mode of driUing, as nearer to broad-caft by far than it is to
drills at eighteen or twenty- four inches, which open to a
quite different fyftem, and a fet of very different evils.
Nine-inch rows might pra3ically, but not literally, he con-
fidered as broad-caft, but with the power of fcarifying."
And in regard to " the material point, of with or without
corn, two confiderations prefent themfelves. One is, the
extreme liability of lucern to be eaten by the fly, which
does great mifchief to many crops, when very young, and
againlt which the growing corn is fome proteftion. The
value of the barley or oats is another objeft", and not to be
forgotten. It is alfo gained in the firft year's growth of the
lucern, which is very poorly produftive, even if no corn be
fown, fo that he muft own himfelf clearly an advocate for drill-
ing it among corn, either between the rows of nine-inch bar-
ley, or acrofs drilled barley at a foot ; perhaps the latter is
the bell method, as there is lefs probability of the crop
being laid, to damage the lucern. The quantity of feed-
corn fhould alfo be fmall, proportioned to the richnefs of
the land ; from one bufhcl to a bufhel and a half, ac-
cording to the fertility of the foil; another fecurityagainft
the mifchief of lodging. If thefe precautions are taken, it
would be prefumptuous to fay that fuccefs muft follow, that
being always, and in all things, in other hands than our's ; feed
may prove bad, the fly may eat, and drought prevent vege-
tation, but, barring fuch circumftances, the farmer may reft
fatisfied that he has done what can be done ; and if he does
fucceed, the advantage will be unqueftionable."

In the broad-caft mode, in every cafe, as foon as poflible
after the grain has been fown and harrowed properly in, the
lucern feed fhould be immediately put in in that mode, by a
regular even caft over the fine furface, covering it with a

hght

L U C E R N.

light feed-harrow, but it (hould not be too deeply covered
in, two inches being fully fufficient. In the drill methcui, the
fame fyilcm Ihould be followed, the luceni feed being drilled
in immediately after the corn has been put into the foil.

It need hardly be noticed that the plats of ground fown
for thcpurpolc of railing plants, to befet out in the garden
method of culture, Ihould always be without grain, or other
forts of crops, in order that they may admit of having the
plants properly thiinied out and kept clean, and in a vigor-
ous ilate of growth, for being fet out with the moll ad-
vantage and fuccefs poflible.

With regard to the proper df<lance of the rows, it may
in addition be obferved, where the drill mode of culture is
praftifed, it fliould probably depend upon the ftatc and cir-
cumllances of the foils. Mr. Kent advifes two feet as the
bell dillance in all cafes ; while others think equal diftances
of a foot in rich foils, fuch as are worth from thirty to forty
fhillings the acre, and nine inches in thofe that are oi inferior
fertility, as from fifteen to twenty fliillings the acre, the
heft general dillances. On foils of lefs value it is probable
that this culture can feldom be had recourfe to with much
benefit to the farmer. The lail dillance approaches much to
the broad-call method, which is contended by fome as the
mod appropriate in almoil all cafes, and of courfe Tt'may
be preferable, as it admits of being plowed between by a
fuitable plough, in the room of the harrowed methodj and
the obfervations made above are decidedly in favour of the
method.

In whatever method this fort of feed may have been fown,
it is, when good, quick in its vegetation, beginning to fprout
in the courfe of a week, and foon fpreading the plants over
the furface of the land. And the fooner it obtains its
rough leaf the better, as it is then like turnip-plants, out of
danger of being dellroyed by the fly. But before thefe
plants arrive at this ilate of growth, they are liable, efpe-
cially in dry feafons, to be much injured, if not wholly con-
fumed, by the ravages of the fame fort of infedl as that
which is fo detrimental to the turnip crops. " Where the
greatell part of the plants are injured in this way, the au-
thor of " Praiflical Agric alture" thinks it is probably the
bell method, when the crop has been put in alone, to plow
up the land, and fow it down again with frefh feed, as foon
as poflible.'' And this he fuppofes" is an advantage which
the fowing the crop alone has over that of putting it in with
thofe of other kinds "

ylftcr Culture It may be ftated in regard to the after-
management of this grafs, that, as the economy of the plant
is fuch as to render it incapable of being grown with much
advantage, where other forts of plants, whether of the
grafs or weed kind, are apt to annoy it ; much care and at-
tention Ihould of courfe be employed in keeping it clean and
free from the intrulion of all fuch vegetable produdlions.
This, the fame author thinks, " may be effefted in different
ways, according to the methads in whitji the crop has
been raifed. Where the broad-cail plan has been purfued,
little is neceffary, where the land has been properly prepared
after the grain crop has been removed, except keeping all
forts of heavy flock from coming upon it. In a dry feafon,
if there be occafion, the field may however be fed a little by
calves, and other very light flock, but they fhould never be
kept long upon the plants at one time. When the fecond
cutting has been made in the following year, if any grafs
fliows ilfelf the land fhould be harrowed over in a moderate
manner, by a harrow which is not too heavy nor too long in
the tineSj lWO or more times, as may be neceffary in different
dire(£lioi.3, the graffy matter being collefted by a fmall light
implement of the fame kind, and removed from the land.

This bufinefs fliould be executed as foon in the early part o
the fpring as the nature and flate of the ground will admitj
as dry a perio4. as poflible being taken for pertorniing the
work. In the fucceeding years tuo fuch hai rowings may
be frequently required, one in the early part ot the fpring
feafon, and the other in the clofe of fummer. Lut in thefe
cafes, efpecially where there is much grafs app.-iuing. a
much heavier fort of harrow flioidd be made ule of." In
the 25th vol. of the Annals of Agric:ilture, one is sdvifed
of fuch a weight, as is fufficient for four horles, aiiii which
does not fprcad more than four or five feet ; but in 1. nit cafes,
efpecially where the work is fo frequently pertorm^-d, one
that requires lefs draught may be adequate to ihe [mrpoie,
as where fuch large heavy harrows are employt .1, iherii
is much danger in injuring the crowns of the plants, and
thereby caufing their dellruftion ; whereat by the ufe of the
lighter ones, they are moftly much benefited tr'.ui the mould
being ftirred about their roots. After thefe oj^erations, as
in the above cafe, the weeds fhould be brou.ht together,
and removed from the ground. When the crops are thin and
patchy, feed in proportion to the deficiencies fhould be fown
over fuch places befoie the harrowings comn.ince caclrtime.
In every cafe the roller fliould be applied iir.mediateiy after
the operation has been performed, noi only for the purpofe
of comprefling the mould at out the roots of ilie plants, but
to render the furface perfectly level and fit for the fcythe.
In this method of culture, " where the produce is not to
fome extent, it is probably bettfr to feed the crop by light
cattle-flock in the autumn than mow it."

In refpeCl to the dri 1-fown lucern, it is recommended,
" w'here the rows are fufficiently evident, in the autumn
feafon, after the grain has been fecui\ d, th:it a fmall fliim
Ihould be psfled between them, in order to extirpate all the
weeds and graffy materials, as well as to loofen the mould
about the roots. of the plants, and that they may be ren-
dered more perfectly clean, the hand-hoeing of the plai-.ts
in the rows : and that, in the fucceeding year, fliU more
particular attention to the ufe of the fhim and hoe will be
requifite. The bufinefs fliould be begun as early as the flate
of the foils will fafely admit of its being executed : being
continued occallonally in fuch a manner, as to induce the
cultivator to leave it again for the produttion of this grafs.
In fituations where fuch grounds could be conveniently
flooded or covered with water occafionally, they might
therefore be very advantageoufly converted into good mea-
dow or grafs-lands ; a fort of application that has long"
fince been recommended by De Serres, a French writer ot
great refpeflability : when fuch lands are pcrfeftly broken
up, they afford, in mofl cafes, admirable crops of the grain
kind : oats, as being leafl injured by a luxuriant growth,
may, in general, be the molt advifable as the firfl crop."

It has been advifed, " as a good rule in thefe cafes, to
give good hoeings, either of the horle or hand kinds, as
foon as weeds appear every time after the crops are taken
off. If the plants are perfeftly ftraight in the rows, which
fliould always be the cafe, a fliim may be had reconrfe to
with the greatell benefit, as it may be drawn fo clofely to
the plants, as in a great meafure to fave the expence of
hand-hoeing, as, in fuch cafes, it will be only neceffary to
extirpate the weeds or natural grals plants that may have
ellablillied themfelves among the lucern plants in the rows,
which is capable of being effefted in a very complete man-
ner by the ufe of a pronged hand-hoe. And it is further
recommended never, by any means, to fuffer fields of this
fort to become weedy, under the fuppofition, that the pro-
duce may not cut well, or be free from dull ; as where it
is of fufficiently vigorous growth, and of a fuitable dillance
II in

L U C E R N.

in the rows, according to the natare of the land, there can
be no reafon for fuch an injurious praAice, as it is only
where the planting is executed at larger diftances than the
• condition of the foil will permit, that any inconvenience can
be experienced in this way."

It may be ftated, that " where hand-hoeing ts the method
chiefly dependsd on for keeping crops of hicern in a proper
(late of culture, much of the bufinefs may be performed

Nearly double this is fometimcs made by foiling clover.

Number of Cuttings and Manner of Cutting. — In a late prac-
tical work, it is ftated that, " as this is one of the moft
forward of the artificial gralTes, it frequently attains a
fufficient growth for the fcythe towards the end of April,
or beginning of the following month ; and in foils that
are favourable for its culture, will be in a ftate of readinefs
for a fecond cutting in the courfe of a month or fix weeks

by women, or even children, and the expence be thus con- longer, being capable of undergoing the fame operation

fiderably leffened."

Application of Manure. — In cafes where the foils on which
this plant is grown are not of confiderable fertility, the oc-
cafional appUcation of manure may be of great advantage,
in thickening and increafing the quantity of crop ; for this
life clean well rotted dung is probably by mucii the beft
manure, as where earthy compofls, afties, or foot are em

at nearly fimilar diftances of time, during the whole of the
fummer feafon. In this laft fort of foil, with proper ma-
nagement, in the drill method, it has been found to rife to
the height of a foot and a half in about thirty or forty
days, affording five full cuttings in the fummer. But in the
broad-caft crops, in the opinion of fome, there are fcldom
fo many cuttings afforded in the feafon, three or four being

ployed, they are apt tg promote the growth of, or bring more common, as the growth is fuppofed to be lefs rapiif
up graffes too much ; the latter are, however, fometimes than by either of the other modes:"' this is, however
fown over the crop in the winter feafon. The dung is ad- contradifted by other cultivators, who have beftowed niuch

vifed, in the 25th vol. of the Annals of Agriculture, to be
applied in the quantity of about tv.enty tons to the acre,
every five or fix years. Mr. Kent, however, thinks it a
better practice to put a flight coat on annually in the fpring
feafon. As much expence might be incurred in the cul-

care on the fubjecl, as will be evident hereafter. A^nd it is
ftated, that " in order to have new fucccfGons of this grafs
conftantly becoming ready to be cut, it has been re-
commended, for the purpofe of foihng, to have the broad-
cail plantations formed into fo many divifions, as that

ture, eftabliftiment, and after management of tliis fort of of them may be cut daily, as about iixty ; and thofe of

crop, in order to infure a favourable produce, the farmer the drilled, and tranfplanted kinds, into from thirty to

(hould not too haftily attempt it, till he has found how far forty, according to the nature of the land, confumin? them

it will fuit his convenience and other circumllances. in the fame manner. Thefe cuttings muft, however, be

Expences cf Cultivation. — The various expences attending varied in proportion to the differences in the growth of the

it, as ftated by different writers before the late rife in the crops, and the confumption. The mpft economical mode of

price of labour, are thus given, as well as the profit in
foiling horfes. At prefent, however, a third more may be
added, and, in fome cafes, much more.

£.
o
o
o
o
o
o

Expences.

Two fpring ploughings extra - - -

Harrowings - -

Eight pounds of feed - - -

D ruling - . - .

HorfS-hoeing in autumn

Hand-hoeing ditto . . .

Firft year

Annual Expences afterwards.

To rent, titit:, a:, 1 rates
Four horle-hoeings
Three hai. d-hoeings

Five mow.igs - . . .

Raking tcgether
Loading a. id carting home
Manunng, to amount^^r annum

Clear pi-ofit •

Profit '.1 th: PraSice of Soiling Horfes.
By keeping five horfes, from beginning of l £.
May to middle of October, at zs. 6d. > 14
per horie, per week - - - J

d.

o
6
o
6
6
o

I 18 6

£.
i
o
o
o
o
o
o

d

o
o
o
6
o
6
o

4

<;

0

9

18

6

J4

7

6

d.

6

14 7 6

cutting the produce is, without doubt, by means of the
fcythe, though ihe reaping-hook has been made ufe of by
fome ; after being cut, the food fhould be conveyed, as foon
as polTible, to the animals : this may be done by a light
cart, or large barrow, made for the purpofe, according to
the fcale on which the bufinefs is conducted. One cutting
in the day is only adviftd by fome, but as there is a lofs as
well as injury dune to all forts of green-cut food by keep-
ing, even for a few hours in hot feafons, it may be a better
praflice to have two cuttings in the day, efpecially when
the weather is warm, and the lucern at no g^eat diftance.;
befides, the food is eaten better when quite frefh."

Falue and Application of. — It is ftated, that " the produce
of this fort of crop, in converting it to the purpofes of
foiling cattle, u'ill ncccfl'arily be different under different cir-
cumftances, but an acre can feldom, when under proper
culture and management, fupport lefs than from three to
five or fix horfes, or other cattle, during the fix fummer
months, the profit of which cannot be lefs than from fevcn
to ten or twelve pounds.'' " And in lettino- it remain
for hay, which is lefs advantageous, in three mowings, an
acre, where the crop is good, will feldom afford lefs than
from three to five tons of dry bay. In Mr. Arbuthnot's
trials, as ftated in Mr. Young's Tour, the produce was
four loads, but in thofe of others, on rich grounds, it was
five. It is hkewife remarked, that " in making this fort
of plant into hay, the fame direflions fliould be attended to
as for clover ; the lefs the produce is lliaken about the
better, provided it be fuflicientiy quickly dried, as the leaves
will be more fully preferved in the ftems, and the hay, of
courfe, more valuable. From its greater fucculence, it
will, in common, require rather more time than clover,
or faintfojn, in making into hay. As this Jort of liay
is held in lefs eftimation than that of either of the above
graffes, it .Qiould always be confumed at home by the farm
horfes, or other flock ; and that of the other forts fent for
fale.-'

But

L U C E R N.

But the principal and mod advantageous praftice, in the
application of hiccrn, is tliat of foiling horl'cs, neat cattle,
and hog^ ; yet as a dry fodder, it may alfo be capable of af-
fording much aifillance in many cafes ; and as an early food
for ewes and lambs, be of great value in particular cafes.
" As this plant bears repeated cutting, better rhan moft of
thofe of the artificial gv\l- Ivind, fprings ni a more quick and
expeditious manner, and affords a healthy nutritions food, it
mull be of valt utility to the farmer, where horfes and calile
form a large part of his ftock ; with horfes in this way, it
has been found by fome, as ftated in the fourth volume of
Mr. Young's Eallern Tour, ' to anfwer better than any
other fort of green food that has been tried. The number
of cuttings that it admits of, being on different foils, and
under different modes of culture, from about three to five,
affording a produce of green herbage adequate to the fup-
port of from three to four or five horfes, for a period of
nearly fix months in the fummer feafon, as has been feen
above ;' and though much of this vafl advantage, in the
fupport of thefe animals, may with propriety be afcribed to
the economy of the confumption of the food, that unavoid-
ably takes place in this excellent practice, the real produce
in green food, is, without doubt, larger than in niofl other
grals crops. The broad-cafl crops, in the trials of fome
cultivators, appear to have been more profitable, in this
mode of confumiug tlie produce, than thjfe of either the
drilled or tranfplanted methods of culture ; in the praflice
of Mr. Hall, the former fupported from four to live horfes
for twenty -fix weeks, while the tranfplanted crop, in rows
two feet afunder, only afforded produce fufficient for the
keeping, of three. And in thofe of Mr Clayton, in the
broad-caft meth.-d, without grain, five horfes were kept
from the middle of May tdl Michaelmas, while that drilled
in equidillant rows, at the diltanee of eighteen inches, only
fupported four." There are many other fafts, that lead
to the fame conclnfion. " On very rich foils, the drilled
lucern will, without doubt, when the plants are kept per-
fedlly clean, and the mould well ftirred between the rows,
and laid to tlieir roots, aflord an abundant produce, perhaps

more fo than in the broad-caft ; but to do this, great atten-
tion in the culture mull be beftowcd." And in "its appli-
cation, in the foiling of cows, and other forts of cattle, in
tin: foid yards, and in the feeding and fattening of oxen, its
importance is equally great. It is found that in foiling
cows, the proportion of this fort of food, confumed in
twenty-four hours, is from about lixty or feventy, to up-
wards of a hundred pounds, in thofe which are of the mid-
dling-fized kinds; an acre maintaining in the proportion of
about four for twenty wetks. In other trials, larger pro-
portions of ftock have been kept by this praiSlicc." In
feeding cattle with this fort of food, it is obfcrved, that
" in its green Hate, care is neceffary, however, not to give
the animals too much at a time, elpecially when it is moift,
as they may be hoven or blown with it, in the fame way as
with clover." The trials, it is added, that have been made
in fattening bullocks or other cattle v-ith this green fodder,
are not numerous, but they are fufficicntly fo to prove its
utility in fuch application. In Mr Young's trials, cattle
have been found to increafe faft in flefli by it, ])aying at the
rate of four fhiilings and fixpence a head per week, which
is conlidered as a great proof of the value of the plant in
this view. Its fuperiority to tares is prodigious. It has
alfo been confidered of the greatelt value in this view, in
Ireland, by Mr Herbert, after much experience of it. The
great power which it poflcffes in fattening is rendered indeed
fufficicntly evident, by the fudden eff-els wliicli it produces
in this wav, in foiling horfes ; in moft inftances they get into
high condition, in a fhort time becoming " tat, without oats
or hay," in fome cafes. And " fheep have hkewife been
fattened on this green food with great fuccefs, in Mr. Bald-
win's trials." Alfo, " in foiling hogs in the fold yards, it
has been attended with confiderable fuccefs and it has been
fuggetted that as thefe animals do not bite fo clofely as (heep,
they may be admitted upon the crop with fafety."

And the advantage of this mode of application over that
of making the crops into hay, and their cxpence, produce,
and profit, are ftated by Mr. Young in this way.

Average of Five

Crops.

•

Sails.

Application.

Expenccs.

Produ(?>

Crofit.

Light fandy loam

Rich black loam

Good loam . . -

Good loam - . _

Rich deep fandy loam

Averages . - . .

Soiling -

Soiling

Soiling

Hay

Soihng

£. s.
I 14

3 15
3 3
3 I'

d.

6
8
0
6

I

£. s.

13 °
11 5

14 7
9 ^
7 °

d.
0
0
6
0
••i

£.

1 1
6

10
5
3

s.

5

4

12

16

'3

d.
6

■ 4
6
6

3 8

1 1

10 8

8

7

10

5

1
1

Further, the refult of the comparative experiment made
by Mr. Anderton with this crop, and thofe of burnet and
laintfoin, as ftated by the fame writer in his Eaftern Tour,
(liews its fuperiority over them clearly.

Lucern, at four cuttings, green, produced 159

Burnet - - - - 84

Saintfoin - - - - 82

And the advantages of making them into hay, are thus

ftated :

One cutting of each.
Lucern, in grafs, 57^ lb. in hay, 22 lb.

Burnet, in ditto, 25 i 7

Saintfoin, in ditto, 29^ _— g

Although lucern crops fhould not be clofely fed down with
fheep, it is not improbable but that " in particular cafes they
may be applied as an early green feed for ewes and lambs with
great utility and convenience, as they may be rehcd on for
this fort of feed much fooner than any of the other kinds of
artificial grafs crops, efpecially in foils of the rich, dry, and
warm defcriptions, being often ready for this purpofe foon
after the middle of March, affording a good bite through
the whole of the following month ; the moll difficult period
for the providing of fuitable fupport for this kind of ftoek.
The benefit in the healthy growth and imnrovement of the
lambs in this mode, will much more than counterbalance any
lofs fuftained in the firft cut, for the foiling of horfes. The

{heep

LUC

LUC

fieep (liou'd not, however, remain on longer tlian while the
frefh fhoots are eaten down " And it is concluded on the
<4'liole. that " thoucjh this plant is capab'e of being- tluis ufc-
fnlly applied, conlidering the great expenccs which arc nc-
cefliiry in raifing and keeping liicern crops in a llate of pro-
duiflion, and their affording bnt little prodnce, cfpccially
when fown without corn, for the two firll years, nolwith-
ftanding they appear to yield a great advantage in the prac-
tice of foiling animals ; it is probable that much of the profit
depends upon the method of confuming triem, and not on
that of the particularly advantageous nature of the plant.
Its fujieriority to clover, when tlie differences in the expcnces
of their culture, and other circunnit-fnces, are fairly brought
into view, will not perhaps appear fo great as many, on a
fuperficial obfervation, may have fuppofed. The point in
which it mod materially excels that alrnoll invaluable plant,
IS, the duration, or time, which it lafts in the ground, after
being once introduced, continuing from ten to fifteen and
even twenty years, according to the (late and nature of the
•foil and the attention that is bellowed in the after manage-
ment. This is a circumftance of the firll importance, in
cafes where the cultivator widiea to avoid the trouble and
expence of grain crops, as he can keep a fuitable extent of
land under this crop, for the purpofe of foiling his llock
without them, while with clover it is utterly impoffible.
Where the proportion of land is fmall, and the quantity of
cattle and horfe tlock difproportionately large, it is a plant
■admirably calculated for the cultivator's purpofe, when
grown convenient to the farm-yards, and kept in due order
by proper cultivation. In has alfo been recommended on
dairy farms, as of great utility in fupporting the cows, and
increafing the quantity of milk. Where the foils are fuit-
able, a few acres under this grafs, round the houfe, mull in
<nlnio(l all cafes be valuable for the purpofe of early green
food."

The advantages of cultivating lucern are confulered by-
Mr. Young fo extremely great, that the " agriculturill
fhoulJ, he thinks, determine at all events to have fufficient at
the leall, for the fummer fupport of all his teams, and other
horfes ; and if in addition to this quantity, he provides alfo
for thus feeding much other flock in his farm-yard, he will
find it a mod profitable praAice."

Braking up old Lucern Grounds. — It has been already fug-
gelled, that " on attempting to break up lands that have
been long under this fort of crop, it has been fomctimes
-found, from the great ilrength of the roots of the Incern
plant?, and the confequent difficulty of dellroying them, that
they hav-e been reilored in fuch a manner, as to induce the
cul:ivator to leave them again for the produdlion of this
grafs." And that in fituations where fuch grounds could
be conveniently flooded or covered vi-ith water occalionally,
they might be very advantageoufly converted into good niea-
do-.v or grafs lands. Afore of application, that has long
fince been recommended.

In cutting lucern crops, the author of the Farmer's Ca-
!eidar fuggells that it (hould always be perfornied in a lon-
gitudinal direftion of the drills, or rows, or of the field, in
order that ,a fcarifying may be given to the young growth b*.
fore it is too far advanced. And the fame writer remarks,
that this fort of crop requires much manure, for though on
good land it may afford a good produce, without fuch appli-
cation ; to carry its cultivation to the highell flate of per-
fection, " not only of product but alio of clear projlt," it
ihould have plenty.

But though this fort of plant is feldom liable to be injured
by the froft, in the fouthern diilritla of the kingdom, where
ii is the moll extenfively cul:ivat€d} » writer in an ufefiil pe-

VoL. XXI.

riodical work, complains that in an experiment of bis, in
w iiich the lucern was drilled about a foot diflant in the rows,
it deltroyed every plant. "A few indeed, (fays he,) at
diftant intervals, recovered in the fpring, and grew very de-
cently, pufhing out long, flrong, and carrot roots ; but
their number was fo inconfiderabic, and the weeds fo abun.
dant and luxuriant, that it became nccefTary to plow all
down." In this cafe the land does not feem to have been in
a proper (late of either preparation or heart for the growth
of this fort of crop. And it is fuggeflcd, that in giving thij
fort of food to cow,=, it is neccdary to have the precaution
of letting it be made ufe of the day after it is cut, and not
the fame day, as in this cafe the animal is liable to fwell. In
his trials it was found that a large cow confumed about
eighty-four pounds of this food in twenty-four hours, and
that if more be given, the animal will probably wafle if.
And it is added, that the butter made from milk produced
from this fort of food, is equal to any made from cows fed on
the befl meadows and paflures.

LUCERNA, in G-.ography, a town of France, in the
department of the Po, lately belonging to Piedmont, in the
province of the Four Vallies, to one of which it gives name ;
five miles S.W. of Pinerolo.

Lucern.!, in Ickthyology, a fpecies of Tr'tgla ; which
fee.

LUCERNARIA, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of the
Vermes MoUufca clafs and order. Body gelatinous, w-riiikled,
branched ; mouth placed beneath. There are three fpecies,
which inhabit the Nr;r:l;crn leas, and live among the " fuel"
and " ulva>," generally adhering firmly to their habitation,
and rarely changing their abode ; they feed on polypes, or
onifci ; the body is commonly headlcls and eyele'fs, with
granulated tubercles.

Species.

QuADRtcORNi-s. Bcdy long coiled, with four forked
arms tentaculate at the tip. Inhabits fuci, and feeds on
polypes. The body is without liead or eyes, brown, pel-
lucid, quadrangular, each angle running into an arm, the
br.inches of which are terminated by a fafciculus of thirty
or forty tentacula ; tail fl.xuous in the middle and difpofcd
in numerous plaits and folds, thickened at the bafe and ta-
pering gradually, obtufe at the tip, and cxtcnfile, like
the tentacula: ; mouth white with cinereous flrii, and four-
toothed.

PllRYGlA. B^dy long papillous, with numerous globe-
rlferous arms deflected into an hemifphere ; fixed at the bafe
by a byfTus or mafs of filaments. This is found in the
Greenland feas at a confiderable depth, and feldom changes
its abode. Body varying in Ihape, about half an inch long,
reddidi with white globules and papilhe ; neck cretf, exfer-
tile, and befet with numerous exlertile papilla; ; arms ihort,
flender, and entaii'.ded together.

Auricula. Ilefembhng an oil-tlail< ; neck round, the
lower extremities dilated and furrounded with eight fafciculi
of tentacula. This fpecies is likewife found in the Green-
land leas, adhering very firmly to the largell uIv.t, frcni
which it rarely moves ; feeds on oni.''ci, and is about an
inch and a haif long. iJody black or rcddifh, rarely chi-f-
niit-brown with a gold tii ge, lubricofe, ghbrous, the mar-
gin furrounded with eight granulate tubercles, refemb.'intr fo
many fafciculi of tentacula, containing about fixty in each ;
thefe are black tipt with white ; mouth white.

LUCE RNATES, in the Ecchf.ajlkal H-Jlcry, a term uf-d
by the primitive Chriltians for canticles, which they fiing i:i
their iiudurnal aiTemblics ; probably from thefe rites being
erfortred by kmp-ligbt.

4 B LUCKNOV.*

\

LUC

LUC

LUCHNOW Hiu.s, in GsograpSy, a range of motrn-
taiiis ill HiiiJoollan, between the circars of Kuttunpour
and GooncUvaiia ; the patlajre over wliich is eallcd " Luch-
now Pals," and is lituattd about eight miles W. of Ky-
ragur.

LUCHO, a town of the principality of Pbnierelia ; t:
miles S.W. of Dant/,ic. — Alio, a town of the principality
of Luneburg, on the Jetze, in a moilt foil, fo tiiiit moll of
the houfes are eroded on piles ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Lune-
burg. N. lat. 52 5^'. E. long. II- 17'.

LUCHOWICZE, a town of Lithuania, in the pala-
tinate of Novogrodek ; 40 miles 8.S.E. of Novogrodek.

LUCIA, St., or, as it is called by the French, iV. /lloitfe,
from its having been difcovered on 6t. Lucia's day, one of
the Charaibf or Caribbee illands in the Well Indies, about
27 miles in lengtli from N. to S., and 12 broad. In this
ifland are feveral hills, two of which are remarkably round
and high, and faid to have been volcanoes. At the foot of
thefe hills are fine vallies, well-wateredy and having good
foil, that produces trees, the timber of which ferves the
planters- of Martinico and Barbadoes for building their
houfes and windmills. The ifland alfo fupplies plenty of
cocoa and fuftic. The air, fanned by the trade winds,
which, by the arrangement of the hills, are admitted into
the ifland, and thus moderating the heat, is reckoned falu-
brious. The ifland has feveral good harbours and bays,
which afford commodious anchorage ; particularly the
" Little Careenage," which is accounted the beil in all the
Caribbces,. and. which induced the French to prefer it to the
other neutral iflands. This harbour pofleffes feveral advan-
tages, luch as its depth, the excellent quality of its bottom,
and its convenient careening places. Thirty fliips of the
line may lie here flieltered from hurricanes, without the
trouble of mooring tiiem. As to the other harbours, the
winds are always favourable for going out, and the largell
fquadron may be in the offing in lefs than an hour. In the
illand are nine parillies, eight to the leeward, and only one
to the windward. A high road is made round the ifland,
and two others which crofs it from E-. to W,, and tluis af-
ford an ealy conveyance of the commodities of the planta-
tions to the barcadsres.or landing places.- In the year 1769,
the free inhabitants of the ifland a 1 ounted to 2^24; the
flavei to 10,270. Of cattle it Viad 1IS19 horned beads, and
^378 Iheep, belides 59S mules and liorfes. Its plantations
confilled of 1,279,680 plants of cocoa; 2,463,880 of cofl'ee ;
68 1 IquariS of cotton ; and 25-4 of I'ngar canes: 16 fugar
works were actually at work, and 1.8 nearly completed.
Its produce yielded 112 oooA, which was capable of being
improved to 500,000/. After the Engllfh had been fettled
for fome time in this ifland, the Charaibes, inlkigatcd by the
French in the year 1638, either kflled or drove from the
ifland the Englilh fettlers with their governor. When the
eivll wars broke out in England, a party of French arrived
here, under a perfon named Rouflielan, well provided with
ttores and ammunition. Rouflelan recommended hlmfelf to
the Charaibes, lo that he and his colony carried on an ad-
vantageous trade ; but upon his death in 16J4, he was fuc-
ceedtd by La Riviere, who with his whole colony was
maiiacred by the Charaibes. It is needlefs to recount the
attempts made by the French, and alfo by the Engllfli in
1672, and at a later period in 1723, to obtain and preferve
a lettlenient ki this Ifland. At lengthy vyhen the Engllfli.
were compelled to rehnq^uifli all hopes of obtaining this and
other ifl.inds by force, St. Vincent, D»minlca, Tobago,
and St. Lucia were declared neutral by the treaty of Aix-
ia-Chapelk In 1748 ; and thole who remained of the ancient
propcicturs were left m mimolelled poll'eflioii. Tile treaty

of neutrality was no fooner concluded, than both Englilli
and French appeared did'atisficd with the arrangement
they had made. The Eriglifli, in particular, difcovered,
that by acceding to the compromile, they had given up
St. Lucia, an ifland worth all the rell, and to which, it
mull be owned, they had fome colourable pretenfions,
founded on a treaty entered into with the Charaibeaji in-
habitants in 1664, 600 of whom attended an armament that
was lent thither by lord WiUoughby, and adtually put the
Engllfli pulillcly and formally into polTeflion. By the peace
ol Paris, February 1763, the three iflands of Dominica,
St. Vincent, and Tobago were afligned to Great Britain ;
and St. Lucia to France in full and perpetual fovereignty ;
the Charaibes not being oivce mentioned in the whole tranf-
aftlon, as If no fuch people exilled. Tlic Engllfli took this
ifland in the year 1779, but rellored it at the peace in 17S3 ;.
it was retaken b.y the Engllfli in 1794, rellored in 179^,
and retaken in 1796; rellored and recaptured iu 1803.
N- lat. 13 37'. W. long. 60 30'.

LueiA, St., a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demoiia ;

feveii miles N. of MefDjia Alfo, a town of the ifland of

Corlica ; fix miles N E. of Corte.~Al£o, one of the fraaller
Cape Verd iflands, about 24 miles in length, high and
mountainous-. On the E. lide is a harbour, defended by
two fmall illands, which afford good flicker and anchorage.
N. lat. 16' 46'. W. long. 24 30'. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the government of Buenos Ayres, 011
the E. lide of the river Plata; 140 miles N. of Santa Fe.
— Alio, a town of Brazil, m the government of Goyas,
on the river Tocantins. S. lat. 12° ao'. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the government of Buenos Ayres, on
the Parana; 110 miles S. of Corientes. — Alfo, a town
of Peru, in the governnient of Are(|uipa ; 50 miles S.E. of
Arequlpa. — Alio, a town of South .America, in theaudiencf
of Quito, on the Daiilc ; 35 ml!es N.N.W. of GuayaquiL
— Alio, a town ot Italy, in the Trevifan ; 20 miles E.S.E^
of Treviglo. — Alfo, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Indian fea ; S. lat. 28 . — Alfo, a river of America, in Eall
Florlds, which runs S.E. along the E. lide of the peninfula,
and communicates inland with the Indian river.

Lucia Bay, St., a bay on the E. coall of the ifland of
Borneo. N. lat. 4 16'. E-long 117 18'.

LUCIAN, in Biography, a dillinguiCied Greek writer,
a native of Saniofala, on the banks ot the Euphrates, was-
born in the reign of Trajan, of mean parentage, and in his
youth was placed with his uncle to learn the art of a lla-
tuary. Having no genius for the profelfion, and failing of
fuccefs in fome of lus iirll attempts, he withdrew from his
mailer, and went to Antioch, where he engaged in literary
iludles, and embraced the protfiiou of a pleader. He re-
ported, that he was induced to tliis. ftep by a dream, ia
which Learning feemed to draw him to her, and to promife
to his efforts fame and immortality. He was foon difguiled
with the contention of the bar, and confined hlmfelf to the
prailice of eloquence as a fophill or rhetorician, in which,
capacity he vilited feveral foreign countries, particularly
Greece, Italy, Spain, and GauL Theemperar M Aurelius
was fenlible of his great merit, and appointed him regiller
to the Roman governor of Egypt. Jrie dud about the
year A.D. 180, wlien he had attained the great age of go.
The works of Luclajii, which ai-e imnierou.s, and written in.
the Attic dialed, conhll chiefly of dialogues, in which he
introduces different charaftcrs wit'.i much dramatic pro-
priety. His llyle is eafy, iimple, elegant, and animated,
and he has llored his compolitlons with many lively fenli-
nients, and much of the true Attic wit. Flis frequent ob-
fcenities, aad his vulgar manner of expofing to ridicule

aljBulL

LUC

almoft every kind of religion, have drnwn upon liini tlie ccn-
fiire of moralifts in all ages. The bell editions of Liician's
works are tliofe of Bourdelct, Paris l6iy; of Grxviiis,
Amil. 1687 ; of Reitziiis, Amll. 1743, and the Bipontine
•edition in 10 vols. 1789 — 9^.

'Lucian, (de eleft. feu Cygnis,) is the only ancient writfr
ivho has dr.rcd to dcuibt of the mufical abiHties of fwans. He
tells us, with his ufual pleafantry, that he tried to afcortain
the faft, by making a voyage on the coalis of Italy ; and
relates, that being arrived at the mouth of the Po, he and
his friends had the curioiity to fail up that river, in ord -r
to afl^; the watermen and inhabitants concerning the tragical
fate of Phaeton ; and to examine the poplar?, defcendants
of his fillers, whom they cxpcfted to fhed amber inflead of
tears ; as well as to fee the fwans rcprefent the friends of
this unfortunate prince, and hear them fing lamentations and
forrowful hymns, night and day, to his praife, as they n fed
to do in the charafter of muficians, and favourites of Apollo,
before their change. However, thcfe good people, who
never had heard of any fuch metamorphofes, freely con-
fefTed, that they had indeed fometimes feen fuans in the
marlhes ne^r the river, and had beard them croak and fcream
in fuch a difagreeable manner, that crows and jays would
be firens, compared with them, in a mufical capacity ; but
that they had never even dreamed of fwans finging a fingle
note that was pleafing, or fit to be heard.

LuriAN, a Chriftian martyr in the fourth century, is
fuppofed to have been a native of Antioch, of which place
he became a prelbyter. He was a pious and learned man, very
eloquent, and well flcillcd in the knowledge of the fcripturcs.
He publifhed an edition of the St-ptuagint, with correAions,
fuggefted by a collation of ancient copies, which veriion
was generally ufed in Jerome's time by the churches from
Conftantinople to Antioch. He publiflied alfo an edition of
the New Tcllament, the canon of which appears to have
been much the fame with that of other Chrillians. Jerome
does not commend thefe editions ; he depreciates Lucian's
Septuagint in comparifon with Origen's. It is certain that
Lucian was in high elleem with the Arians of the fourth
century, and on that account it has been fuppofed that he
adopted their principles; thouoh he is claimed on the other
fide as the advocate of the doclriue of the Trinity ; but Dr.
Lardner, who has examined the qneflion with his ufual dili-
gence, candour, and impartiality, obferves, " Whether Lu-
cian's opinion concerning the Trini'y, particularly con-
cerning the Word, was the fame with that, which is now
reckoned orthodox, or not, which is a point not calily de-
termined ; we have fecn other accounts of him which are
iinquelHoned ; and all mull be fatisfied, that he was a pious,
learned, and diligent man ; that he believed Jefus to be a
divine teacher and the Chrift." During the pcrfecution of
the Chriflians iti the reign of Maximin, Lucian was appre-
hended, and condufled to Nicoraedia, where the emperor
then was. Here he was commanded, in the prcfence of
the monarch, to renounce the Cbridian faith ; this he not
only refufed, but delivered an able and very eloquent defence
of it, of which the fallowing is given in Lardner : " It is no
fecret, faid he, that the God whom v.-e ClirilHans worfhip,
is the one God declared to us by Chrift, and by the Holy
Gholl infpired in our hearts. I own, that w: alfo once
trufted in gods of our own making, but Almiglity God,
commiferating the errors of mankind, fent his wifdom into
this world clothed in fledi to teach us the knowL-dgc of
God, who made the heavens and the earth, who is eternal
and inviriblc. He, moreover, gave us a rule of life, and
<lclivered to us the precepts of rightcoufnefs ; he taught us
to praflife fobriety, to rejoice in poverty, to be very meek,

LUC

to bewflling to fnfPer, to preferve the purity of our minds.
To be patient at all times. He likewife foretold the thing*
that have fince happened to us ; that we fliould be brought
before kings and rulers, and be flaughtered as victims ; for
which .caule alfo, though he was immortal, as being the
Word and Wifdom of God, he yielded himfelf to death,
that, whilft he was in the body, he might fet us an example
of patience. Nor did he deceive ns by dying, but on the
third day rofe again, being innocent and unfpotted, and un-
dergoing death only that be might overccme it by rifing
again. Thefe things are well attelled, and a large part of
the world now acknowledge the truth of them." Upon
this he was fent to prifon, and fpeedily put to death, but
in what manner is not known. He was buried at Hele-
nopolis. Lardner, vol, iii. edit. 1788.

LUCIAN A, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Seville ; eight miles W.N.W. of Ecija.

LUCIANANO, a town of Etruria ; 12 miles W. of
Cortona.

I-UCIANISTS, or LucA>nsTS, a religious feft, fo
called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the fecond
century, being a difcipie of Marcion, whofe errors he fol-
lowed, adding fome new ones to them.

Epiphanius fays, he abandoned Marcion ; teaching, that
pe jple ought not to marry for fear of enriching the Creatorx
and yet other authors maintain, that he held this error in
common with Marcion, and other Gnollics. He denied
the immortality of the foul ; afferting it to be material.

There was another fcft of Lucianilts, who appeared fome
time after the Arians. They taught that the Father had
been a Father always, and that he had the name even before
lie begot the Son ; as having in him the power, or faculty
of generation ; and in this manner they accounted for the
eternity of the Son.

LUCIANO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New
Callile ; 19 miles W. of Civdad Reel.

LUCID Intervals, the fits of lunatics, or maniacs,;
wherein the phrenzy leaves them in poffefllon of their reafon.

It is faid, lunatics are capable of making a will in their
lucid intervals.

LUCIDA ConoN.'R, in /IJIrommy, a fixed ftar of the-.
fecond magnitude, in the noriliern crown. See Corona"
Borealls.

LuciDA Hydra. See CoR Hydra.

LuciDA Lyrt, a bright liar of the firft magnitude, in
the conllellation Lyra.

LLICIDO, vSt., in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra ; I I miles W.N.W. of Coleiiza.
■ LUCIDUM SEPTiiM. Sec SEi-ru.M.

LUCIFER, in Aftronomy and Mythology, a name given
to the planet Venus, when rtie appears in the morning be-
fore fun-rife.

Lucifer, in Biography, a celebrated bidiop of Cagliari,
the metropolitan city of the iHand of Sardinia, fl.nuriflied in
the fourth century. He was one of the deputies fent by
pope Libcriu"; to Milan, in the year 354, at the lime when
the emperor Conllantius had fummoned a council for th;
purpofe of condemning Athanafuis. Lucifer, and Eufebius,
bifhop of Verceil, adiiered moll ftrenuoully to the ciufc of
Athaiiafiu?, which fo enraged the emperor that he banlflied
them into the Eall. I.,ucifer was fent to a city in Syria,
from whence he •.as removed to Eleuthcropolis in Palelline.
Here he wrote two books, in defence of Athanafius and his
fupportcrs, with fo much boldnefs, or perhaps violence,
that St. Jerome fays he mull at the time have made up his
mind to the fufiering of martyrdom. Thefe books he not
only made public, but fent a copy of them to Conflantius,.
4 B 2 in

LUC

in his own name. The emperor, amazed at lus intrepidity,
defired them to be returned to the bifliop, in ord'jr thut he
might have an opportunity to acknowledge or tu difavow
them. The preintc avowed hinifiU' the author, and know-
ing the probable confequtnces, laid lie was ready to fuffer
death in defence of what he had written and done. Alha-
nafius fc-nt him a letter of thanks for the fervice which he
had performed for the Catholic canfc, and recjuelling a copy
of his works, which he either tranllatcd hlnih-lf, or caufed
to be tranihited from the Latin into Greek. On the death
of Conrtantins, I.ncifer recovered his liberty and came to
Antioch, v.'here the Catholics were divided into two parties.
Lucifer widened the breach already made, by joining \ itli
the opponents of the bilhop of Mlktns, who, tlfnigh a
Catholic, was ordained by billiops fiifpecled of Arianilni,
and had communicated with them, and ordiiined a Prolbyter
amon"- the mal contents to the epifcopal ofllee. This ftcp
was condemned by his friond, and formerly fellow fnn"erer
Eufebius, who had been fint to Antioch by tlie fynod of
Alexandria, witli the view of re-eilablilhing the peace of the
church. But Lucifer determined to maintain what he had
done, and withdrew from the communion of Eufebius, and
he formed a party, called after himfelf Luciferians, who
refolved to avoid all commerce or fellowdiip with thofe
bhhops who had declared themfelves in favour of the Arians.
With this refolution he went into Sardinia, and thereby pro-
duced a fchifm in the church, which at firll fpread widely,
but did not obtain numerous adherents, and does not ap-
pear to have out-lived the century. Lucifer died about tiie
year 370. His works are written in a harfh and barbarous
ftyle. According to Lardner, they conlill very mucli of
palTages of the Old and New Teilament, cited one after
another, which he quotes with marks of the greateft refped.
He farther adds, that the works of this prelate have not yet
been publillied with all the advantage that might be wilhed.
The titles of thefe works are " Ad Conllantimim Impcra-
torem, lib ii. ;" " De Regibus Apollatieis ;" " De non

conveiiiendo cum Heretic

■ De non parcendo Dehn-

quentibus in Deum ;" " Quod moriendum fit pro Filio
Dei ;' and " Epillola brevis ad Florentium." They were
eollecfed together, and publiflicd at Paris by John Till,
bilhop of Meaux, in 1568. Gen. Biog. Larduer, vol.iv.
edit. 1788. Moreri.

LUCIFERA, in Mylhoh^, a furname given to Diana,
under which title fhe was invoked by the Greeks in child-
bed. She was reprefented as covered with a large veil, in-
terfperfed with Itars, bearing a crefcent on her head, and
holding in he" hand a lighted flambeau.

LUCIFERIANS, a religious fed, who adhered to the
fchifm of Lucifer, bifhop of Cagliari, in the fourth century,
who was banifhed by the emperor Conftantius, for having
defended the Nic^ne doftrine concerning the three perfons
in the Godhead.

St. AiiguHine feems to intimate, that they beheved the
foul, which th-y confidered as of a carnal nature, to be
tranfmitted to the children from their fathers. Theodoret
fays, that Lucifer was the author of a new error. The
Luciferians increafed mightily in Gaul, Spain, Egypt, &c.
The oceafion of the fchifm was, that Lucifer would not
allow any ads he had done to be aboliflied. There were
but two Luciferian bilhops, but a great number of priells
and deacons. The Luciferians bore a peculiar averfioii to
the Ari.ms.

LUCILIUS, C.MU.?, in B'wgraphy, a Roman poet, was
born at Suefia, in the country of ihe Aurunci, about the
year 148 B.C. He was of a good family, and in tlie
Numantinc war bore erms under Scipio Af.'icanus the

LUC

younger, with whom, and his friend Lslius, he lived in terms,
of frienddiip. He is looked upon as the founder of latire,
and as the firll conhderable writer of fatires among the
Romans. From Horace, who refers to them feveral times
in liis own fatires, it appears tliat he imitated the old Greek
comedians in marking out by his cenfure individuals noto-
rious for their vices, even thofe of the very hig!iell ranlc-
Tiiough fupcrior to his poetical predecedbrs at Rome, and
though he wrote with great roughnefs and inelegance, he
gained many admirers. By Horace he is compared to a
river which rolls upon its waters precious faiid, accompanied
with mire and dirt. Of his tliirty books of verfes only a
few fcattered fragments arc come down to modern times.
He died at Naples about tlie year B.C. 105. His frag-
ments have been colleded and publilhed, with notes by
Francis Douza, in quirto. 'i'liey are alio given in Mat-
taire's "Corpus Poetarum."

LUCINxA, oi lux, lii^ht, in I\IythoIogy, a deity who pre-
fided over the labour of women and the birth of children.
This title is foir.etimes given to Diana, but moll commonly
to .luno.

LUCIO, St., in Geography, a town of Etruria ; 14 miles
E.S.E. of IjCghorn.

LUCIOPERCA, in hhlhyoh^y, a fpecies of Pcrca;
which fee.

LUCIPARA, or Ll'SII'AUA, in Geography, a fmal! bar-
ren ifland in the Ealt Indian fea, near the S. coall of the
illnnd of Banca. S. lat. .?^ 14'. E. long. 106 20'.

LUCrrO, a town of Naples, in the county of Mchfe ;
1 1 miles N E. of Molife.

LUCIUS I., pope, in B'logvnphy, fucceejed to the high
dignity upon the death of Cornelius in the year 252, and
after a Ihort pontificate he is fiippofed to liave died in
March 253. He was baniihed Rome im.nediately after his
ordination, under the reign of Gailiis ; but he foon refurned
to the great joy of his flock, who crowded to meet him.
St. Cyprian wrote him a letter of congratulation, in which
he obferves, that he was periiaps recalled to be immolated
in the iight of his flock, that they might be encouraged and
animated by his Chriflian conllancy and refolution. Cy-
prian in another place calls him a martyr, neverthelefs we
have no account of the manner of his death, and hence it
has been thcnight that the cxpivfiion made ufe of by this
father is not to be underdood llric^ly and lileraliy.

Lucius II. pope, raifed to that dignity on the death of
Celelline II. in 1 144, was a native of Bologna, who em-
braced the ccclefiaflical life among the canons of St. Au-
gulline. In 112J he was created a cardinal, and appointed
librarian of the Roman church. After this he was nomi-
nated the chancellor, and twice was fent papal legate into
Germany. A fhort tiir.e before the death of Innocent II.
the Romans threw off the papal yoke in temporal matters,
relloring the fenate, and creating their own magiilrates, to
wiiom they would yield obedience. In this attempt to
recover their ancient liberties, they perfil'ed after the elec-
tion of Lucius, whom they acknowledged for lawful pope,
but would not ovrn him for their fovtreign. They con-
tended that it was inconfillent with the profeflion of the
clergy, that they fliould poffefs lordfhips, ellatcs, and tem-
poral dominion, and that they ouglit to content themfelves
with fuch decent fublillence as they might derive from
voluntary tythcs and oblation?. To Lucius, as their bilhop,
they paid all due refpedt ; but foon after his election, ilu-y
veiled the patrician dignity in one of their own body, ai:d
fubmittcd to him as their prince. Lucius took every me-
thod to oppofe their plans ; he fought alfillance from Con-
rad, king of Germany, and when he was rcfufed, he put

himfelf

LUC

LUC

tiimfelf at the head of liis own troops, and marched againll the ftcond and third of the name of Lucius. The former,
the Capitol, where the fcnate was llttlng. His forces were as he afccnd.-d in batile array to affault the Capitol, was
dL'feated and hia.fclf wounded with a (lone, which tcrmi- (truck on the temple by a (lone, and expired in a fe'.v dayf.
nated his hfe in a few days, after a pontificate of about The latter was feverely wounded in the perfons of his fcr-
eleven or twelve months. Some of his letters are extant vants. In a civil commotion feveral of his priefts had been
in the loth vol. of the 0)lled. Concil. ; and two in the made prifoners, and the inhuman Romans, referving one as a
fecond vol. of Caluze's Mifcel. guide for his brethren, put out tlicir eyes, crowned them

Lucius II I, pope, a native of Lucca, was educated to witli ludicrous mitres, mounted them on adi-s with their
the chvu-ch, and af:er varicjus degrees of preferment, he was faces to the tail, and extorted an oath, that in this wretched
created cardinal by Iimocent II. Cy Adrian IV. he was condition they fiiould ofi'er themfelves a> a lefTon to the head
font k;^.ite into Sicily ; after this pope Alexander III. ap- of the church." Bower. Moreri. Gibbon, vol xii.
pointed him legate to the emperor Barbaroffa, and on the Lucius, \n Ichthyology, a fpecies of Efox ; which fee.
death of Alexander in il8[, he was raifed to the holy fee. Lutiu.s Marlnus, the Sea-pike, a name given by fome au-
He was tlie iirft pope who was cledted by the carJina's thors to the fiili more ufually called the inerlucius, and ia
a'one, to the cxchilion of the people and clergy, who had Englifli the hnhc. See Gadu.s.

hitherto taken a part in the choice of a new pope. To- Lucius Marlnus is alfo ufed by many authors for the
wards the clofe of the year 1182, a quarrel took p'ace fuilis, calhA z[(o hy iomQ fphyr^na.'

between the pope and the Romans, owing to his refutd to Luciu.s Tcinjlru, the Land-pike, in Zoology, the name of
comply with fome culloms which had been obfc-rved by all a very lingular Ipccies of American lizard, wliich has the
his predeceffors. The people broke out into infurieftion, fliape, fcales, &c. of the pike-filh ; ia the place of the fins
and drove him out of the city, purfuing him from one of that fifh it has four legs, but thefc are fo weak and
Urong hold to another, till he retired for fafety to Verona, flender that it makes no ule of them in walking, but crawls
At firft he was ably kipported by the emperor, who ordered along upon the ground in the manner of a fnake, and draws
Chriltian, archbifhop of Mentz, to march in his defence at its legs after it ; it grows to about fifteen inches Ion"-, with
the head of a powerful army. This prelate footi reduced a proportionable thicknefs ; it is all over covered with fmall,
all the llrong holds in the neighbourhood of Ro.me, and fo ilrong, and gloffy fcales, of a filver grey. In the night they
haraffed the Romans, that they were ready_ to receive the retire into holes and caverns, and make a very difagreeable
pope on his own terms, when the death ct Chrillian pro. and loud noife, much louder than the croaking of frogs. They
duced a fudden alteration in th; flate of affairs ; and the feldom llir out of their holes, unlefs in the diilk of the-
Romans, feeling their power, became more determined than evening; and if they are ever met with in the day-time^
ever in their oppofition. Lucius fent nuncios to all Chrif- their llrange motion furprifes all who fee them,
tian princes and billiops to gather contributions; large fums LUCKAMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
were gained which he fpent in bribing the leaders of the 70 miles N.W. of Midnapour.

oppofing parties, and then ventured to return to Rome. LUCKAU, or LuccA, a town of Lower Lufatia, in a
A fecond infurreftion drove his holinefs to Anagni, whence circle of the fame name, on the river Preile, containing four
he went into Lombardy, to implore the proteftion of the churches, a Latin fchool, and an hofpital ; 49 miles N. of
emperor, who was at that time on his march into Italy, for Drefdcn. N. lat. 51" Ji'. E. long. 13 40'.
the purpofe of holding a council at Verona. In 1184 the LUC KENS, a town of Swede-), in the province of Dron-
council was opened, and the pope preferred his complaints theiin ; 2; miles S.S.W. of Drontheim.
againft the Romans, painting, in the ilrongell colours, die LUCKENWALDE, a town and principal place of a
enormities wliich they had perpetrated ; and they were, with- circle, in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 50 miles E. of Magde-
out helitation, declared enemies of the church. To this burg. N. lat. 52 6'. E. long, l^j 3'.

council is to be tr.aced the origin of the inquifition againll LUCKERCOOT, a town of Hmdoollan, in Guzerat ■„
heretics. For not only were the Albigenl'es condemned 30 miles E. of Godra.

and anathematifed anew, under different names, but all who LUCKIA, a town of Hindootlan, in Oude ; 40 miles
fhould admit them into their houfes, fuffer them in their N.E. of Gooracpour.

territories, or afford them any fort of relief Under the LUCKIDAUR, a town of Bootan ; 40 miles N. of
fame fentence were included all thofe who held or taught Beyhar, 46 geographical miles in horizontal dillance from
different doctrines from thofe held and taught by the Ro- Taffafudon. N. lat. 26 56'.

man church. Some grounds of difpute arofe between the LUCKIGATCHY, a town of Bengal ; lomileaN.E-
emperor and the pope, as well with refpcA to the rcinllate- of Kifhenagur.
ment of certain billiops who had been fufpcnded ; as alfo LUCKINPOUR, a town of Hindonffan, in the circar

on account of the pope's refiifal to crown the emperor's of Cicacole ; 24 miles N. of Cicacole Alfo, a town o£

fan Henry, and to give him the title of emperor.^ The Hindoollan, m Surgooja ; 10 miles S.W. of Surgooja.

pope, however, was not willing to proceed to a direft rap-
ture with the emperor, and the bulinefs in difpute was fuf-
pended. In 11 S4, we find Lucius preffing, with great
earneftnefs, the Chrillian princes to fend powerful fuccours
to the alTiftance of their friends and brethren in the Holy
Land. While he was prom<)ti.=ig, to the utmofl of his power,
a new crufade, he died at Verona in November 1184, after
a pontificate of little more than four years. He is com-
mended for prudence, piety, and unblemifhed manners.

LUCKIPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 40 miles S E. of
Calcutta Alfo, a town of Bootan ; 55 miks S. of Taf-
fafudon.— Alfo, a town of Hindoolfan, in Bengal; 35
miles S.S.W. of Comillah. — Alfo, an ifland in the mouth ut
the river Ganges, about nine miles long and two broad. N.
lat. 22' 27'. E. long. 90' 48'. — Alfo, a town of Bengal,
on an ifland of the fame name ; 50 miles S^ of Dacca.

LUCKMIPOUR, a town of Hindoolbn, in Bahar ; 30
miles E. of Bahar. — Alfo, a to,vn of Beng&l ; 32 mile9

Two of the " Letters," and a " Decree" of this pope's, are

to be found in the loth vol. of the Collea. Concil. Mr. ^-^ ^- "' Curruckpour.

Gibbon, fpeakiiig of the 2d and 3d Lucius, fays, "lean- LUCKNADANG, a town of Goondwana ; 88 miles

not forget the fu.Terings of two poiuifTs of the fame age, N, of Nagpour.

LUCK.

LUC

LUC

LUCKNORE, a town of HinJooftan, in Baliar ; 2S
milrs S. of Patna. N. lat. 1^° 8'. E. long. 85^ 16'.
LUCKNOUTI. See Gouk.

IvUCKNOW, a circarof Hindooflan, in Oude, bounded
on the N. by Kairabad, on the E. by Oiide circar, on the S.
by Manickpour, aiid on the W. by Canage ; about 75
miles long, and 45 broad. The capital is Lucknow.

I^UCKNOW, a hirge and populous, but irregular and in-
elegant, city of Benga', capital of the fore-meutioned circar,
and of the ftibah of Oude, iituated on the Goomty, which
runs on the N, iiJe of the town, and is navigable for boats
of a common iize at all feafons of the year ; founded by
iatfchman, or Lacman, and rebuilt by Bikarmadjit, king
of Oude. The fpot on which the founder relidc-d is pre-
ferved in remembrance by a mofque, ei-efted for this pur-
•pofe by Aurungzebe. This is a very ancient city, and mo-
derately ex ten five ; many of the houfes are of bnck, but
the greateil pr.rt confifts of mud walls, covered with tiles,
and built on fcattcred eminences, fo that the afcents and
defccnts are numerou's and fatiguin,; ; and the ftreets are
narrow and filthy, no care being taken to preferve them
clean. Moll of the old palaces were deftroyed by Suja Dowla,
and others erefted. The magnificent edifices are few. The
lioufcs of the merchants are conllruiSted of brick, and are
lofty and ftrong. Lucknow is diftant from Allahabad 127
mi'.es ; from Agimere 428 ; from Arcot 1147 ; from Bahar
388 ; from Cabul 1118 ; from Dacca 790; from Dowla-
tabad 7 28 ; from Golconda 794 ; from Gwalior 211; from
Oude or Fyzabad 85; from Patna 316 ; from Seringapatam
1201 ; from Vifiapour 920. N. lat. 26 '52'. E. long.
81^ 14'.

LUCKO, or LuzK, a city of Ruffian Poland, capital
of the palatinate of Volhynia, with a callle, where the
bifliop of Vo'hvnia refided, and where the Jefuits had a
college ; it is alfo the rcfidence of a Ruffian bilhop, and
I'.as a provincial diet, and court of judicature ; 200 miles
E.N E. of Cracow. N. lat. jo^ 40'. E. long. 25 ' 19'.

LUCKOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sohajeuour ; 2 3 miles S. of Sohajepom-.

LUCKUMRY, a town of Meckley ; 3; miles W. of
Munnypour.

LUCO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra ; nine
•miles S.S.W. of Celano.

LUC ON, a town of France, and fee of a bithop before
■the revolution, in the department of the Vendee, and chief
place of a canton, in the dill rift of Fontenoy le Coftite ;
15 miles from it. It is filuated on a canal, about fix miles
in length, communicating witli the fea. The environs are
luarfliy, and the air is unwhnlefome. The place contains
2630, and the canton 8572 inhabitants, on a territory of
332^ kiliometres, in Jo communes. N. lat. 46° 29'. W.
long*. i'4'. .

LugoN', or Luzon, fometimes called MaiiUla. from its
capital, is the largeft and molt important of the Philippine
ifles, being more than feven decrees, or near 500 Britifii miles
in length, and about 100 of medial breadth. This ifland is
pervaded in its length by a liigh chain of mountains towards
the eall, fo that its interior parts are difficult of accefs ; and
the examination of it is alfo redrained by the jealonfy of the
.Spaniards. It is alfo traverfed by the branches of a confi-
fidcrablc river, on the banks of which the capital is feated ;
and Its lakes are numerous, the largcll of which isthefource
of the river M.inilla. Several volcanoes occur in this ifland,
nor are earthquakes uncommon. Its foil is uncommonly
fertile, and its produfts are gold, copper, and iron. Such
is the feriilitv of the foil, t'aat rice, which in other coun-
tries requires m.ucL culiiv.ition. grows every wliere with little

I

or no attention, and even in the higheft mountains, witlwnt
being watered. Of rice they have different kinds, fomc of
which requires four or (we months between the fowing and
the harveil, and fome which is fown and reaped within 40
days. Although they have no wheat but that which is im-
pni ted, the foil is very capable of bearing it, as appeared
by an experiment, in which one bufliel produced 130. The
grafs grows, the trees bud, blolTom, and bear fruit all the
year, not only in the gardens but on the mountain'!. The
richcft fruits of the Well Indies, as well as of the Eaft,are
here abundant, and fome that are found no where elfe. Here
are 40 different forts of palms, the molt excellent cocoas
and cafiia, the fugar-canc and cotton of peculiar beauty.
In the mountains are found wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs,
ebony, fandal wood, together with excellent timbi r for
building and Ihipping. Gold is found upon the mountains
in every part of the ifiaiid, walhcd out of the e:!rth by the
heavy rains ; in the mould of their vallies, carried down by
their rivulets ; and in the fand and mud of their lakes,
brooks, and rivers. The Spaniards obtain about 1 000 or
I JOG pounds weight every year, as a tribute of the .inha-
bitants. All kinds of cattle abound, fo that a large fat ox
does not coll above four pieces of eight. Civet-cats are
alfo very common, and their civet is highly valuable. Amber-
gris is alfo tiirown on their coaflis in prodigious qunnti-ies.
The natives, who are of a mild charatler, are called Taga's,
like all thofe of the Philippines, and feem to be of Malay
origin. They are tall and well made, wearing only a kind
of ihirt, with loofe drawers ; but the drefs of the women is
chiefly a large mantle, and their black and beautiful hair
fometimes reaches the ground ; their complexion is a deep
t%wny. Their houfes are of bamboo covered with palm
leaves, railed on pillars to the height of eight or ten feet.
The chief food is rice, which is often eaten with failed
fifii. M. Sonnerat has given fome account of the interior
part of the country, as far as he was able to penetrate it.
At the dillance of about a day's journey from the capital,
he found himlelf buried in woods, no habitation nor ap-
pearance of cultivation prefenting themfelves to his view.
Some fcattered Indians, liaving their fhoulders covered with
the Hvins of wild goats, tiie rell of the body being naked,
with a bow in their hands and arrows on their back, were
difcovered. Their looks were haggard, and their counte-
nances very unprepodl'lfing. They feemcd to be timid and
difpofed to flee from the face of man, and even from one
another. They have no focicty ; they are folitary wanderers ;
Hopping when niglit overtakes them, and fleeping in the
holl.nvs of trees. They have no families, and they feem to
be conftrained merely by inftinft to fue the females whom
chance has tlirown in their way. After travcrfing the
wood above-mentioned, M. Sonnerat was led to a large lake,
in tlie middle of which is an ifland, where fome Indian fa-
milies have taken refuge ; here they live by fiflung, and
preferve thei- liberty, fnffering no one to land on the place,
which ferves them for an afylum. On the E.,S.E. the lake
is bounded by high mountains ; the foil is fertile, and there
are many fruit trees ; and hence Manilla is fupplied with
fruit. Tiiefe mountains are inhabited by a mild fet of
people, who employ themfelves in making mats, cloth, and
different works with the abacca, a kind of banana which
bears no fruit, and of which the filaments are very llrong.
Thefe people have laws, and punilh crimes, the chief, in
their ellimation, being adultery. On the other fide of the
mountains, which bound ihe lake on the E.S.E., are im-
menfe plains, traverfed by large and deep rivers, which dif-
fufe fertility. Here are a few fcattered villages inhabited
by men, without morals, . witliout virtue, without equity ;

who

LUC

LUC

who fear each other, and having no proteftion from laws, trufl
to the force of arms alone for their fafety. In a word, they live
in perpetual diftrult and dread of one another. Nevcrthe-
lefs, fays our traveller, the arts have reduced this favage
nation, without foftening their ferocious manners. Culumba
was the nnme of one of the largell villages polfefled by this
favage tribe ; and on the d;iy of hisarrival the people had a
grand fellival, uhich they celebrated with divers fpedlacles.
Part of thefe fpeclacles was the exhibition of a tragedy, and
this was preceded by a cock-light, and by other games, at
which large funis were won and loll. Two leagues from
Columba, in a village of lefs extent, was a rivulet, whofc
water was hot and boiling ; and yet on the banks of this
rivulet were vigorous Ihrubs ; one of thefe fhrubs was an
" agnus callus," and the two ethers "afpalatus." The
Spaiiifh governor, conceiving that thefe waters poITefs fome
good qualities, has conllriifted near them feveral baths.
Fi:h were found fwimming in this water, the heat of wliich
was fo great, that our author could Hpt touch it. In tlie
interior of the country, he fays, there are many nations,
which the Spaniards have in vain endeavoured to fubdue. No
force is fiifficient to fubjugate them ; but they fly to a dif-
tant afylum, and there it is faid they fvvear an implacable
hatred againft the opprelfors of their country, meditating
and preparing means of venjjeance. From thence they ifTue
in meaa boats ; but fortified by courage, and animated
by hatred, they dare to approach the gates of the capital.
Their incurhons are a fucceflion of pillages, murders, ra-
vages, and rapes. On leaving the village, traverfed by the
rivulet of hot water, our author took an eafterly route, and
after tiiree hours' journey, found himfelf in an immenfe
plain, which was watered and rendered fertile by a rivulat
of clear, hght, and wholefome water, that defcended from
the top of a neighbouring mountai;;. Larsje meadows
were enamelled with flowers, whofe variety of colour and
perfume deligiued eqnally the fight and the fmell. The
inhabitants were friendly and hofpitable.

In fome provinces of this illand there are Pintadoes, that
is, painted negroes, whi^fe perfons are tall, llraight, llrung,
and active, and difpofition excellent ; and to the blacks,
fuch as we have defcribed, who live in the mountains and
thick woods, the Spauiards have given the name of Negril-
loes ; they are a rude ar.d barbarous people. In the moun-
tains, near fprings, and in caves plealantly fituated, there is
a nation called the liayas, or Tinghianos, who, as fome
fuppofe, are defcended from the Japaiiefe, as free as the Ne-
grilloes, but differing from them in difpofition and charac-
ter; for they are not only very brave, but very courteous
and humane. I'his ifland is divided into provinces, mod
of which are under thf junfdiction of the Spaniards. The
principal are the Balayan, in which are 2500 tributary In-
dians ; in that of Camarinas is th? city of New Caceres, the
fee of a bifliop. Paracale contains 7000 Indians, who pay
tribute to Spain ; ti\is province abounds in mines of gold
and other morals, and of valuable load-llones. In Cagayan
are 9000 tributaries ; but the richefl and molt populous pro-
vince is faid to be that of lilocos, whofe coail extends up-
wards of 90 miles. There are feveral others, fuch as Pan-
gafian, Bahi, lialacan, &c. N. ht, 12° 48' to iS^ 48'.
E. long. 120" 6' to 124 10'. See M.VKILLA.

LUCOTT.A., a fmal ifland in the Ealt Indian fea, near
the W. coaft of Sumatra. N, lat. i 43'. E. long. 97

LUCRETIA, in Biography, a dillingiifhed Roman
Jady, was the wife of Codaiinus, a relation cf Tarqui-:,
king of Rome. Her accon:pliihmenls proved fatal to her ;

and thepraifes whicha numberof young nobles at" A rdea, who
were attached to the Roman army, among whom were Colla-
tinus and the fons of Tarquin, bellowed upon the domeftic
virtues of their wives at home was, in truth, productive of
a revolution in the Hate. While each was waim with wine,
it was agreed that they (hoiild inllantly take their horfe?, and
go to Rome to afcertain the fadl how the wife of each was
employed. The hdies of the Tarquins were found palling
the night with their friends and relatives at a banquet, but
Lucretia v.'as employed in the n.idll of her female fervants,
and Iharing their domellic labours. The beauty and inno-
cence of Lucreti.1, who received her huftand and the young
princes with the ir.oil e.^quiiite female grace, made fuch an
imprtfTion upon Stxtus Tarquinius, th«it he refolved, at
whatever expence, to gratify the guilty and infamous paflion
whieli he had conceived. In a few days after, he left the
camp in fecreey, and came to the houfe of Lucrelia, who
entertained and lodged him with a noble and unfufpedling
hufpitality ; but, in return f r her kindnefs, in the dead of
the night he introduced himfelf to the virtuous lady, who re-
futed to his intreatie.';, what her fear and (liatre granted to
his favage threats. She fubraitted to the cruel wretch,
whom he not only, with a drawn fword, threatened to mur-
der, but to blall alfo her reputation, by kdling one of her
flaves, and putting him in her bed, that an apparent criminal
connexion might feera to have met with its defervcd punifli-
ment. Tarquin left her in triunqih, but his exultations were
(h'ort-livcd ; flie, who had loil her honour, had nothing left
in life of any value : (lie alfembled, in the morning, her huf-
band, her father, and nearell relatives, revealed to them the
indignities (he had fuffered, entreating them to avenge her
wrongs, at the fame time declaring that (lie was refolved to
expiate her own fault by a voluntary death. To their in-
treaties, their arguments, and remonftrances, (he turned a
deaf ear, and while tliey were inventing new reafons why die
ought to live to bear tellimony againll the monller, flie drew
a dagger that fhehad concealed for the purpjie, and plunged
it into her heart. Hiftorians have given the accounts fome-
what difierent ; our account is that of Livy, but all agree
that the melancholy cataftrophe was the inim.ediate caule of
the expulfion of the Tarquins, and the cliange of the Roman
form of government.

LUCRETIUS, Titus Carus, a celebrated Roman
poet and phiiofopher, born about the year 96 B.C., was
fent at an early age to Athens, where he is iaid to have llu-
died under Ztno and Plixdrus. Here he imbibed the phi-
lulophical tenets of Epicurus and Empedocles, which, at
that period, prevailed at the great feat of Greek learning :
thefe and otlier doctrines, popular among the literati, he af-
terwards explained and elucidated in his celebrated work, en-
titled " De Rerum Natura ;'* it contains, in faCi, the firll
complete and accurate ilalement of the Epicurean philofo-
phy in the Latin language. In this poem the writer lias
controverted all the popular notions of healhenifm, and even
thofe points which are fundamental in every fyilem of reli-
gious faith, the exiftence of a firfl tanfe, by whofe power
all things were and are created, and by whofe providence
they are fupportcd and governed. Neverthelefs, the mallerly
genius and n affcfted elegance of the poet are every whsre
confpicuous ; his huiguage and verfification iometimcs p.'.r-
take of ;he rudenefi of an early period of literature, and in
the argumentative parts uf his work, the poet is frequently
di.Hlcuit to be underllood ; but where tl-.e fubjccl admits of
elevated feaiimeiU and deieriptive beauty, no Roman poet
has taken a loftier (light, or exhibited more fpirit and fubii-
mity ; the tame aiiimated Ibain is fupportcd almoll through-
out

LUC

LUC

OHt entire books. Virgil fluified him, and lias borrowed
much of his diclioii. This poem ,v.ss written and finiflicd
while the poet laboured under a violent delirium, occafioncd
by a philtre, which the jealoufy of his niillreis or his wile
had adniinillered. Tlie morality of Lucretius is generally
pure, but many of his deferiptions are licentious. The ab-
furdities and inipioty of his philofophy cannot in this coun-
try, and in this age, be accounted dangerous ; and pcrfons of
high integrity and thcgreatell refpeftability have become, in
modern times, the editors and commentators ef Lucretius'3
poem. The bell editions are thoie of Creech, 8i'o. 1695,
Oxon.; of Havercamp, Lugd. B. 4to. 1725, and of ihe
celebrated Gilbert Waktiield, Lond. 3 vols. 410. The la!l
is exceedingly rare, on account of the fire which detlroycd
the greater part of the imprclTion. Mr. Good, the tranf-
lator of the poem, and wliofe work was publifhed in iPoj,
has taken advantage of this circumftance, and has given tlie
■entire text from NIr. Wakefield's edition, which had Lecn
collated and printed with the utmoll care by that learned and
much to-be-lamented cl.iffical fcholar. In the tranflation jult
referred to, there arc, befides elaborate annotations, a criti-
cal account of the principal editions and tranflations of liia
author, a hiflory of the poet, a vindication of his charafler
and pliilcifophy from vulgar mifreprefentation, and a compa-
rative llatcment of the rival fyitems of philoibphy that
flourifhedin the time of Lucretius. Tn this poem the tranf-
lator imagines he has difcovered the indiiclive method of the
illullrious Bacon ; part of the fublime phylics of fir I. New.
ton, and various chemical difcoveries of our own days, in
3 farprizing degree anticipated, as to their principles and
many important refults.

LUCRINO, in Geography, a lake near Naples, anciently
celebrated for its green oylters and other fifh, feparated from
the fea by an artificial bank. In the year ijjS, an earth-
quake formed a mountain near two miles in circumference,
and 200 feet in height ; conlifling of lava, burned ftcnes,
fcoria, &c. which left no appearance of a lake, but a morafs
lilled with grafs .-'.nd rufhes.

LUCULLEUM M.MtMon, in the Natural Hi/lory of
ih: Aiicisnts, the nam.e of a hard ttony kind of marble, of
a good fine black, and capable of an elegant polifh, but
little regarded from its want of variegations. When freflt
broken, it is feen to be full of fmali, but very bright ibining
particles, appearing like fo many fmall fpangles of tjlc.
It had its name from the lloman coniiil Lucui us, who firll
brought it into ufem that city. It is common in Italy, Ger-
many, and France. We have much of it imported, and
our artificers call it the Namur marble, the Spaniards call it
marble of Bu^a.

LUCULLIAN G.VMF.s, in ^intiqu'Uy, were annual
games decreed by the province of Afia, about ;he year 70
before Chrill, in honour of the exploits of Lucullus.

LUCULLUS, LlciL's Liciniis, in Biography, a Roman
commander, who has been celebrated for his tondnefs for lux-
ury, as well as for his miHtary talents, was born about the year
115 before the Chritlian era, and being well educated, he
foon dillinguifhed himfelf by his proficiency in the liberal
arts, particularly in eloquence and philofophy. As a mili-
tary man, he was firft noticed with applaufe in the Marfian
war, and was, on account of his good conduft, made an edile.
He was employed by Sylla in many important concerns, and
during the fiege of Athens was fent by that commander into
Egypt and Lyhia, to procure a fupply of (hips. With re-
fpeft to king Ptolemy he was unfuccefsful, but he pleaded
the caufe of his employer with more effeft in other places,
and coUeifled a fleet, with which he gave two defeats to that

8

of Mithridates, and convoyed Sylla's troops from the Thra-
cian Clierfonefus. After the peace he was appointed quteilor
in Afia, and prxtor in Africa, in which offices he rcndersd
himfelf illuftrious by his love of juftiee, moderation, and
humanity. He was raifed to the confulfliip when he was
about forty years of age, and entrufted with the care of the
Mithridatic war ; his firll prowefs was confpicuous in refcu-
iiig his colleague Cotta, whom the enemy had belieged in
Chalcedonia. This was foon followed by a celebrated vic-
tf ry over the forces of Mithridates, on the borders of the
Granicus, and by the conquell of all Bithynia. His viclo-
ries by fea were as great as tliofe by lard, and Mithridates
was driven with great lofs towards Armenia, to the court of
Tigrancf, his father-in-law. His flight was quickly difcovcr-
ed, and Lucullus crofled the Euphrates, and gave battle to
the vaft army which Tigranes had adembled to fupport the
caufe of his fen. It is not eafy to give entire credit to the
account of the numbers faid to have been flain on this occa-
fion, but the flaughter muft have been prodigious, when
Plutarch eflimates that not lefs than ico.coo foot, and
55,000 borfe foldiers loll their lives in this battle ; and this
at the expence of a very few Roman lives. Lucullus is re-
prefetited by Plutarch as having paid much attention to
dreams and auguries, yet he certainly exhibited, at the fame
time, an avowed contempt of vulgar fuperftition, for being
admoniflied by fome of his officers not to give battle on that
dav, being the anniverfary of a great defeat fullaincd by the
Romans from the Cimbri, he replied to the monitor, " I
alfo will make this a day to be remembered by after-ages."
The taking of Tigranocerta, the capital of Armenia, was
the confequence of the viclory, and Lucullus there obtained
the greater part of the royal Ircafures. This continued fuc-
ctfs rendered the commander haughty and imperious, and
hischanged manners were offei.five to the foldiers, and dif-
pleafing to tliofe who adhered to the caufe of Rome. He
was accufed in the fenate with defigiiedly protrafting the
war for his own emolument, and difconteiits proceeded fb
far that he was fupeifedcd, firll by the conful Glabrio ; af-
ter which Pompey was fent to fucceed him, and to ccr.t'nue
the Mithridatic war. His interview with Lucullus began
withafts of mutual kindnefs, and ended in the moll deter-
mined enmity. Lucullus was however permitted to retire to
Rome, and iCoo foldiers, who had (hared his fortune and
his glories, were allowed to acc<)mpany him. At Rome he
was coldly received, and he obtained with difliculty a triumph
which was claimed by his fame, his f'-ccelfes, and his vido-
ries. This was the term.ination t f his military glory, he
retired to the enjoyment of eafe and peaceful loeiety, and no
lunger interclled himfelf in the comm.otions which dillurbed
the tranquillity of Romie. He now adopted a life of luxu-
rious profufion, fcarcely parallelled by a private citizen in any
^geor couiury, but under the direction of a refined talle,
and not excluding the rational pleafurcs of literature. He
coUeclcd a fplendid library, which he threw open to all pcr-
fons of learning and curiofity. It was particularly the re-
fort of the Greeks who vifited Rome, and whom he treated
with great hofpitality, delighting to converfe with tliem on
topics of philofophy, with all the dodlrines and lefts of which
he was thoroughly converfant. He was himfelf principally
attached to the doftrinesof the old academy, the defence of
which is put into his mouth by Cicero, in a dialogue enti-
tled " Lucullus." Toward tl:e clofe of his life, Lucul-
lus fell into a delirium, and he died in about the fixty-eightii
year of his age, and «as much regretted by the Roma'! peo-
ple, who doubtlefs had tailed the fruits of hia munificence :
they would willingly have given him an honourable funeral

in

L U D

in the Campus Martins, but their offers were rejefted,
and he was privately buried by his brother at Tufcuhim.
Luculhis has been admired for his many accomphfiiments, but
he has been ceiifured for his feverity and extruvagance. The
expences of liis table were immoderate ; liis halls were dif-
tinguifhed by the different names of the gods, and when
Cicero and Pompey attempted to furprife liim, they were
aftoniihed at the coftlinefs of a fuppcr which had been pre-
pared upon the word of I,ucullus, who had merely faid to
his fcrvant that he %vould fup in the hall Apollo, In his re-
tirement I^ucullus was fond of artificial variety ; fubterra-
neous caves and paffages were dug under the hills on the coail
of Campania, and the fea-water was conveyed roimd the
houfe and pleafure-grounds, where tht, iiihes flocked in fuch
abundance, that at his death they were fold for a very large
fum ot money. LucuUus may rank among the great men of
E.ome, both for his civil and military qualifications. He was
alfo eftimable in many points of moral chaiadler ; he was
generous, humane, mild, and equitable. He was a perfect
ir.after of the Greek and Latin languages, and employed
himfelf feme time in compofing a concife hillory of the
Marfi in Greek hexameters. Such are the charafteriftics of
a man who meditated the conqueil of Parthia, and who
mijrht have difputed the empire of the world with a Csfar
«r Pompey, if his fondnefs for retirement had not withdrawn
him from the reach of ambition.

LUCUMA, in Botany, the Peruvian name of the Lin-
jisean Achras tpammaja, which Juffieu has feparated, under
this appellatioB, as a dillincl genus ; chiefly, as it appears,
on account of the flowers being pentandrous and five-cleft,
and the corolla globofe rather than bell-(haped. The feeds
.moreover are round or angular, not of that eUiptical com-
preflcd form, with the peculiar long fear of attachment,
which charafteriz.es Ach>-as ; fee that article. See alfo
JulT. 152, ^w^SapQla Achras, G^rtn. t. 104.

LUCY-LE-Bois, in Geo^-aphy, a town of France, in the
department of the Yonne, and chief p'ace of a canton, in
the diftrift of Avallon. The place contains 830, and the
canton 7886 inhabitant;?, on a territory of 242^ kiliometres,
in 16 communes.

LUCZAY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
WiV-a; 16 miles S. of Breflaw.

L/UCZYNCZ, a town of Pi land, in the palatinate of
Brac'aw ; 48 miles W.S.W. of Braclaw.

LUDAIA, a town and dillrift of the ifland of Java, near
the S. coaft.

I.UDAMAR, a Moorifh country of Africa, bounded
on the N. by the Great Delert, on the E. by Bambarra and
Beeroa, on the S. by Kaarta, and on the W. by Jaffnoo.
It is governed by a Mahometan prince. The country is not
fertile; the principal article of '..rade is fait, which they pro-
• cure from the Great Defert, and exchange for flaves, to be
difpofed of to the Europeans. The capital is Benowm, or
Bcnown. N. lat. 15 to 16-. W. long. 5^ to 8^ The
Moors of this, and the other ilate.-f adjoining the country of
the negroes, refemble in their perfons the Mulattoes of the
Weft Indies, to fo great a degree as not eafily to be dif-
tinguifhed from them ; and in reality, the prefent generation
feems to be a mixed race between the Moors (properly fo
called) of the north, and the Africans of the fouth ; pof-
feffing many of the wortl qualities of both nations. By
thefe Moors Mr. Park was taken captive, and confined for
fome weeks at Benowm. See Moors.

LUDDINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
fcifhopric of Manlier, on the Stever ; 12 miles S.^tW. of
Munfter. N. lat. 51" 4c'. E. long, ■i'-' 36'.

Vol. XXI.

L U D

LUDE, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriftof La
Fleche. The place contains 3018, and the canton 1 0,3 76 in-
habitants, on a territory of 2375 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes.

LUDENSCHEDE, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mark, the principal trade of which confifts in the manu-
fadure of iron ; 28 miles N.E. of Cologne. N. lat. 51^
8'. E. long. 7 - 42'. , •*

LUDER, a to)vn of Germany, in the bifhopric of Fulda,
the feat of a jurifdiclion ; fi.K miles W.N.W. of Fulda.

LUDGERSHALL, or Lucgeh.shai,I,, a market and
borough town in the hundred of Amefbury and county of
Wilts, England. In the year i8co this place contained
109 houfes, and 47 1 inhabitants, mod of whom are employed
in agricultural purfuits. Ludgerfhall is a borough by pre-
fcription, and fent members to all the parliaments in the reign
of Edward I. The returns were afterwards irregular, till
the ninth year of Henry V., fince which time it has con-
tinued to be reprefented by two members. Like the gene-
rality of fmall boroughs, this has occafioned fome parlia-
mentary inveiligation, and inft^ances of bribery and corruption
have been proved againll its members. About feventv per-
fons, who are freeholders, or leafe-holders, in the borough,
have the privilege of voting. The principal objedl of cu-
riofity, or hiltorical intereft, in this town, is its caftle ; a
fmall fragment of which only remains. According to a le-
gendary account, but which is not entitled to much credit,
this fortrefs was erected by king Lud, and thence obtained
the name of Lud-gars-hall. Stow, in his Annals, relates that
Richard I. gave this caftle, with another at Marlborough, in
the fame county, to his brother John, in the firft year of his
reign. Gough, m his additions to Camden's Britannia,
ftatcs that it belonged to " Geofrey Fitz-Piers, the wealthy
chief-jurtice of England, and earl of EflTex." It was pof-
feffed by this family till the reign of Henry III., when Jol-
Ian de Nevill was appointed its governor. In the reign of
Edward III. the manor,^caIllc, &c. were veiled in John,
lord Molins, who obtained a grant from that monarch to
impark the woods with 1 00 acres adjoining. See Grofe's
Antiquities of England, and Britton's Beauties of Wilt-
lliire, vol. ii. p. 156, Sic. Weft of this town is Chid-
bury, or Shidbury hill, faid to be the higheft eminence in
Sahfbury plain. Its fummit is inclofed with an entrench-
ment, which is deep, and which Aubrey attributes to the
Britons. From the top, a ditch extends down the northern
flope, and terminates at the bottom, where the inequahty of
the ground Ihews that a permanent encampment, or town
formerly exifted. The open downs in this part of the
county abound with barrows, or tumuli of various fizes,
and encampments. See Stukeley's Account of Stonehenge,
and Hoare's Ancient Wiltftiire.

LUDHANA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sirhind, on the Setledge ; 1 8 miles N.W. of Sirhind. N.
lat. 30' 2'. E. long. 74- 57^ .

LUDHOA, a town of Sweden, ia Eaft Bothnia; 3$
miles S.E. of Braheftad.

LUDI CiRCENSEs. See Circen.ses;

LuDl Oereales. See Cereales.

LuDI Florahs. See Florales.

LuDi Juvmiks. See December.

IjUniTrojivis. See Tkojani.

LUD I A, in Botany, from luJo, to fport. The name
was given by Commcrlon, as Juffieu informs us, becaufe na-
ture, to ufe a common exprelfion, /forts remarkably in the
fliape of the leaves ; which in the young {hrnb are minute,
4 C ivitk

L U D

L U D

with fpinous teeth, but in the adult one much larger, and en-
tire.— JuiT: 34J. Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 612. Illuftr.
t. 4^6. Wilid. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1129.— Clafs and order, Po/y-
anJr'ui Mono^yma. Nat. Ord. Rofacet, Ju(l'.

Gan. Cti. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in from
fo;ir to fevcn deep, nearly equal, roundifh, fprcading,
{ringed fegments, permanent. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments
iiumc-rous, thread-(haped, inferted into the receptacle, twice
or thrice the length of tiie calyx ; anthers roundidi, of two
lobes. Pijl. Germen fuperior, fcffiie, ovate ; ftyle co-
lumnar, fcarcely fo long as the (lamens ; ftigma obtufe,
throe or four-cleft, more or lefs deeply. Per'ic. Berry dry,
globole, tipped with the permanent ftyle, and ilanding on
tie refltxed, deformed, permanent calyx, of one cell. Seeds
nu;nerouS, fomewhat angular.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in ieveral deep fegments. Corolla none.
Siigma three or four-cleft. Berry dry, fuperior, of one
cell, with many feeds.

Obi. This genus is evidently moft nearly allied to Prock'ia,
and wherever the latter is placed, in a natural or artificial
lyilem, this muft go along witli it. Both feem to belong to
the Icofandrta, but they have been univerfallv clafTi-d in Po-
lj:intl>u!. Jacquin indeed aflerts that the ftameus of his Ludia
tiiberciilala are inferted into the receptacle ; but, on the other
hand, the Proch'ia Inte^rifoliu, Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1 2 14, is
as truly icofandrous as the ftrawberry or any other plant can
poflibly be, though Lamarck's figure, C. 465. f. 2, does not
expreis it. Hu has, moreover, made the ferratiires of the
leaves too ftrong, they being very (hallow in the original.

I. L. hcterophylhi. Lamarck n. i. t. 466. f. I, 2. —
Leaves of the adult (hrub obovate, coriaceous, fhining ; of
the young one fharply toothed. Stigma flightly notched. —
Gathered by Commerfon in the. ifland of Mauritius, where
it is called Boh Jans ecorce, or tree without bark. Lamarck
delcribes and figures the young (hrub with fmall roundifh
/eaves, fumiflied with ftrong fpinons teeth, fomewhat like
Qjtercus cocdfera, or Malfigbia cocc'ifcra. Jiiffien alfo relates
the fame. We have feen no fpecimens in this ftate. Our's
is an adult one, with coriaceous, obovate, obtufe or emargi-
nate, entire, alternate leaves, an inch or an inch and half
long, broad, veiny, and ihining, paler beneath, on ftrong
footftalks, half an inch in length ; fee Lamarck's fig. i.
We find no_y?/^;;/rtj. The Jlo'zvers are axillary, fohtary or in
pairs, on fliort, thick, fcarred ftalks, with numerous, mi-
nute, imbricated,- roundifh concave braHeas at the bafe of the
Halks. The rfl/)'.r is green, finely downy. 5to«raj long and
flender. Style ihort, eredt and thick, with a flightly notched,
very little enlarged, Jligma-

- 2. L. tnyrt'tfolia. Lamarck n. 2. t. 466. f. 3. — Leaves
ovate, nearly entire. Style fomewhat curved. Stigma with

three notches Native of the ide of Bourbon. — This is

v/hat Juflieu intends when he fays the leaves of the increafing
Jhrub (in Lutlia) are like myrtle or box, and entire ; as how-
ever the fpecimens are in flower, Lamarck judged them to
be arrived at perfection, and a diftinft ipccies from the
above; efpecially as thejlyle is fomewhat incurved, and the
ftigma has only three notches, inftead of four. We are to-
tally unable to form any decided opinion on the fubject.
The leaves of the prcfent plant are much fmallcr, thinner, and
generally more pointed than in the former ; but we perceive
here and there among them rudiments of teeth, and miiuite
Ipines, as if they were in » progrefTive ilate from one
(liape to tlie other. Neither arc the differences indicated in
thejryle zndjligma very (Iriking or decided. ' We are there-
fore moll inchned to adopt the opinion of Juflieu, that the
prefent is only the advancing, or firft -flowering, ftate of tlie

above very extraordinary fpecies. We have moreover a fpe-
cimen, gathered by Commerfon in Madagafcar, which is
e\'rdently intermediate in the form, margin, and texture of
its leaves, betwixt this myrtifolia and the adult heterophylla.

j. L. feJfiUflora. Lamarck n. 3. (L. tuberculata ;
Jacq. Hort Schoenbr. v. 1. 59. t. 1 12.) —Leaves elliptic,
lanceolate. Stigma deeply three-cleft. — Native of tlie ifland
of Mauritius. It flowered under Jacquin's obfervation, in
the Itove at Schoeubrun, in June and July, and formed im-
perfeft fruit, which he thought did not agree with Juffimi's
charafter, and which Willd^.-now ha.«, from his figure,
defcribed as being, in this fpecies, a berry of three cells, with
folitary feeds. But we prelumc nothing can be judged from
fuch an abortion. \Ve ihould have preferred Jacquin's fpe-
citic name to Lamarck's, as the flowers are rarely feffile, had
it not been equally applicable to both the former. This is a
fmall tree, with drooping, fubdivided branches. Leaves
fcattered, (talked, more or lefs elliptical, but rather irre-
gular in fhape, coriaceous, veiny, fmooth and Ihining, both
lldes nearly of the lame hue. /V'owwj axillary, folitary; ia
our fpecimen nearly as much ftalked as in the above. Calyx
all over very downv. Germen large, and rather elevated.
Style divided, almolt half v.-ay down, into three blunt cloven
ftjgmas.

LUDITZ, in Geography, a'town of Bohemia, in the cir-
cle of Saatz.

LUDLOW, Edmu'N'd, in Biography, a diftinguiftied
leader of the repubhcan party in the civil wars of Charles I.,
fon of fir Henry Ludlow, knight, was born about the year
1620, and received his academical education at Trinity col-
lege, Oxford, whence he removed to the Tc-mple to lludy
the laws and conftitution of his country. His father was
reprefentative for Wlltdiire in the Long parliament of 1640,
and having joined the party in oppofition to the court mea-
fures, Edmund adopted the fame principles, and entered into
a miHtary alTociation among the ftudents of law, with whom
he joined the army as one of the life-guards of the earl of
Ellex. In this fituation he was prefent at the battle of Edge-
hill, in which it appears that he endured much perlonal fa-
tigue and fuffering. Speaking of the night after ths
battle, he fay.s, " No man nor horfe got any meat that night,
and I had touched none fince the Saturday before ; (this was
Monday,) neither could I find my fervant, v/ho had my
cloak, fo that having nothing to keep me warm but a fuit of
iron, I was obliged to wtlk about all night, which proved
very cold by reafon of a fiiarp froft." And he farther adds,
" when I got meat, I could fcarcely eat it, my jaws, for want
of ufe, having loft a'moft their natural faculty." Soon after
this, Ludiow raifed a troop of horfe, which he commanded
at the liege of Wardour caftle. Of this fortrefs, when
taken, he was made governor, and he held it ten months
againll all the efforts of the king's party, till it was battered
to ruins. He was taken prifoner on its furrender, but was
foon exchanged, and then appointed by the parliament Ihe-
riff of the county of AVilts. He tock a commiffion un-
der fir William Waller, was prefent at the fecond battle of
Newbury, and at fcveral other important actions, in which
he difplayed equal valour and good conduft. When the
leaders of the prcfbyterian party were throvi-n out of power
by the felf-dcnying ordinance, Ludlow feceded with them,
and remained without public employment till he was chpfen,
in 1645, knight of the thire for the county of Wilts, in the
place of his father, who died two years before. At this pe-
riod the plans of Cromwell began to be developed, and
Ludlow was one of thofe who oppofed them with the greateil
firmnefs and opennefs. He appears to have afted with prin-

4 eiple.

LUDLOW.

«iple, and his meafures were all the refiilt of integrity and
konour. He was one of the king's judges, and foon after
that event, Cro-nweli, to keep him out of the wa)', caufed
him to be nominated lieutenare-general of horfe in Ireland,
and one of the commiflioners for civil affairs. After the
death of Ireton, the chief command of the army devolved
on Ludlo.v, !)Ut as he continued to oppofe the ambitious
projefts of the protestor, he was, in a very fluirt time, fu-
perfedcd. He was afterwards impriloned, but being ad-
mitted into the prefence of Cromwell, he vindicated his own
condudl and the repub ican principles on which lie adted with
great freedom and prefence of mind, and could not, by any
mea 'S, be induced to make any engagement for future fub-
BiiiTion. When Richard was declared proteftor, Ludlow,
with other republicans, joined the army party of Walling-
ford-houfe, and was i^ulruniental in 'the reiloration of the
Long parhament, in which he took his former feat ; was ap-
poinced one of the committee of fafety, and had llkewil'e the
command of a regiment. He was again fent to Ire'and as
commander-in-chief of the forces there, and his firft care
was to fix the oiEcers in the intereft of parliament. When
he found things taking a decided turn towards monarchy,
he haftened to London with a view of preventing this
change, and when lie found the effort hopelefs, and that
the tide of pub'ic inclination in favour of a kmg was irrefift-
ible, he began to confider of his own fafety. His name was
not among the leven excepted in the bill of indemnity ; never-
tllelcfs, the proc amation refpedting the perfons wlio fat in
judgment on the late king Charles filled him with juil appre-
henfion, and notwithilanding the ri monftranccs of his friends
to the contrary, he determined, as Iiis fafeft courfe, to with-
draw from the kingdom. He landed at Dieppe in 1660,
whence hf proceeded to Geneva, where he was joined by twis
other perfons who had likewife been judges of the late king,
but thinki-.gthem(elves not fufficiently feciire they witiidrew
into Switzerland. Even here, the vengeance of the royal
far^dy purfaed the regicides, fome of whom were a6tually
affaffinated by the agen's of the Englilh government ; an
attempt was made aganll the life of Ludlow, but being dif-
covered, he evaded the blow, and paffed the remainder ot his
life in "-he neighbourhood of Berne, highly refpected and
elleemed by the magiltrates and people of that city, as well
for his private virtues as his public character. In 1689 he
ventured to come over to England, and appear openly in
London ; but a motion being made in thehoule of commons
for an addrefs to the king to iffue a proclamatio.i for his ap-
prehenfion, he returned to the continent, and clofed,his life
in exile, at the age of feventy-three. A monument was
erected to his memory, in the principal chnrch at Vevay, by
his widow, who had been the faithful and courageous part-
ner in all liis fortunes. Edmund Ludlow was undoubtedly
one of the pureil and moll difintereltcd perfons who flou-
riihed in thofe times. He was equitable and humane, calm
and fedate, yet refolute ; virtuous without aufterity, and
pious without fanaticifm. His '« Memoirs" were firft printed
at Vevay, in two vols. 8vo. 1698, to which, in the follow-
ing year, another volume was added. They were reprinted
in one volume folio, London 1751 ; to this edition was added
" The Cafe of king Charles L," drawn up by John Cook,
folicitor to the high court of juftice on his trial. In the
fame year, the work was printed in three vols. i2mo. at
Edinburgh. An edition in 4to. was publiflied in 1771.
The " Memoirs" contain an account of the author's own
tranfaClions during the civil wars, and tlis fubfequent pe-
riod, together with many particulars relative to the general
iiiiiory of the times, written in a clear, interelting, and unaf-

feftcd ftyle. Biog. Brit. Ludlow's Memoirs, three vols.
l2mo.

Ludlow, in Geography, a market-towTi, fituated in the
hundred of Munflow, and county of Salop, England. It
(lands on an eminence at the jiinftion of the rivers Tcme and
Corvc, in a fertile and pifturefque di Uriel, and commands a
variety of beautiful profpedts. The ancient Britifh name of
this place was Dinan Llyt Tyuifog, or the Pnnct's Paliict.
Hence it is fuppofed to have been the refidcnce of fome
prince of tlie country, prior to the fubjeilion of Wales by
Edv.'ard I. This town extends about a mile in lei gth, and
in its broade.1 part is fomewhat more than half a mile in that
diredlion. It was formerly furrounded by a wall, fome part
of which is ftill Handing, but in a ftate of great dilapidation.
Towers were placed at certain dillances, and there were for-
merly feven gates, of which only one now remains. The
ftreets are modly wide, and well paved, and lie in a diverging
and inclined direction from the highe'.l, or central part of the
town. The houfes, in general, prcfent rather an elegant
appearance, and are more regularly difpofed than in molt in-
land towns of the fame antiqui'y. They are chiefly occupied
by families of independent fortune, who arc attradled by the
healthful fituation of the place. Gloves conllitute the prin-
cipal manufadlure, befides which, however, there is a confi-
derable trade in the tanning, timber, and cabinet making
lines. A number of perfons are likewife employed in the
various branches of mechanifm. There are four markets
during the week, but the moll important one is Iieid on Mon-
day, and is well fupplied with every article neceflary for the
fuppurt of man.

Ludlow, according to the parliamentary returns of i8or,
contained 804 iionfes, and 3897 inhabitants. It >vas incor-
porated by ct. alter in the reign of Edward IV. The go-
vernment is now veiled in a recorder, two bai iffs, two ca-
pital ji:flices, twelve a.dermen, twenty-five common coun-
cilmen, a town clerk, a corot.er, and ieveral other inferior offi-
cers. The elcdion of the baihffs is ufually attended with a
degree of magnificence and fplendour far furpaffing the fame
ceremony in other towns of fimilar extent. The quarter-
feffions are held here before the recorder and juliices of the
town, who, in former times, had the power of inflifting
capital punilhments, but all criminals liable to deat'i are now
removed to the county gaol at Shrewlbury. Ti.ere is a
court of record every week, in which the recorder and baihffs
fit as judges. Tliis place fends two members to parliament,
who are chofen by the common burgeffes, amounting to about
5C0 in :. umber.

Several cf the public buildings of Ludlo v are remarkably
neat ftruclures. The churcli, fituated in the highell portion
of the town, is a very fpac.ous and elegant edifice, in the
form of a crofs, and feems to have been built in the reigns of
Henry VII. and Vlil. In the centre riles a lof:y Iquare
tower, embattled at the top, and very handfomely embel-
liihed. This tower adds in no fmall degree to the beauty of
many of the views from the neighbouring country. The prin-
cipal entrance to the church is under a large hexagonal porch.
The nave is divided from its aides by lix lofty pointed art hes on
each fide. The choir is of large diinci.fions, and lighted by
five lofty pointed windows on each fide, and one at the eall
end, which occupies the whole breadth, and nearly the
whole height of the clioir. This great window is entirely
filled with painted glafs, reprcfentitig chiefly the legend of
St. Lav.rence, the, patron (aint of the church. On each
fide of the choir ilands a chantry chapeL That on the north
exhibits fome very fplendid remnants of painted glafs, pour-
traying the ftory of tlic ring prefented by feme pilgrims to
4C 2 Edward

LUDLOW.

^dwaid tlie coiife{ror ; whicli pilgrims the legend recites
were mm of Ludlow. The whole of this noble church is
ceiled w;th fine oak, and enibolliflicd with carving. It is 228
feet in length, and 7 ^ in breadth. In the chancel are many-
fine monuments of the lords prefidents of the council of
Wales, who refided in the neighbouring caftle. A variety
of tombs likewife appear in the church-yard, adjoining to
which Hands an alms-heufe, founded in 14^6, by Mr. .lohn
Hofier, merchant, for aged wii\ows and widowers, and re-
built by the corporation in 1758. Another alms-houfe,
fituated at the bottom of Corve llreet, was founded in the
year 1590. The grammar-fchool, ereiited by Edward IV.
in Mill-llreet, is a very excellent inftitution, where both the
ancient and modern languages are taught. Nearly in the
centre of tlie town, at the top of Broad ftivet, ftands the
crofs, a handfome ftone building, with rooms over it ufed as
a public fehool. The market-houfe, in CalUe-ftreet, is a
lariTe building ; beneath which is an area, lerving as a corn-
market, and the upper rooms, which are very extenfive, are
ufed for corporation meetings, balls, aflemblies, &c. The
guild-hall, where the quarter fcflions, &c. are held, is a neat,
commodious, modern ilrufture, and to the welt of the
church ibnds a range of buildings, called the College.
There is likewife aprifon, named Goalford's tower.

But the objett of greatcll intereft in I.udlow, and that to
which it owes its celebrity and importance, is its caftle,
which ftands on a bold wooded rock at the north-weft angle
of the town. It was founded, according to the generally re-
ceived opinion, by Roger de Montgomery, about the year
1130, though fome writers maintain it to be of earlier ori-
gin. Much, however, was added by others at different pe-
riods, particularly by fir Henry Sidney. Robert de Be-
lefme, grandfon of the founder, having engaged in rebellion
againft Henry I. it was feized by that monarch. The
caftle, now made a princely refidence, was greatly aug-
mented in the ftrength of its fortifications, and fupplied
with a numerous garrifon. In the reign of king Stephen it
was befieged in confequencc of the governor, Gervas Paga-
nel, having been induced to efpoufe the caufe of the emprefs
Matilda. With refped to the event of the fiege, different
accounts are handed down to us by hiftorians, fome afterting
that the king fucceeded in reducing it, and others, that
finding it impregnable, he was compelled to abandon the at-
tempt. Speed fays, that the governor, repenting of his con-
duA in withdrawing from' his allegiance, propoled a capitu-
lation , highly advantageous to the garrifon, which was
joyfully accepted. Daring this fiege, Stephen gave a fig-
nal proof of his perfonal bravery, in refcuing prince Henry
of Scotland, who had advanced too near the walls, and had
been caught from his horfe by a grappling iron, faftened to
the end of a rope. In the troublefome reign of Henry III.
the ambitious Simon Montfort, earl of Leiccfter, feized upon
this caftle, in conjtBidtion with Llewellin. From this period
nothing remarkable happened till the time of Henry VI.
when it was held by Richard duke of York, who laid claim
to the crown. Having affembled an army of t«n thoufand
men in the Marches, he drew up a dfchiration of allegiance
to the king, pretending that this large army was only raifed
for the fecurity of the public peace. Time, however, dif-
clofed ihc perfidy of his views ; for no fooner was he informed
of the defeat of lord Audley at Bloreheath. but he threw
off the mdlk, avowed his pretenfions to the throne, and
appointed the caftle of Ludlow as a place of rendez-
vous for his adherents. Upon this, the king's forces
advanced to Ludford, a vill at a little diftance from hence.
The king's troops preparing for the attack, the duke's forces

began to difband. Sir Andrew Trollop likewife went over
to the royal ftandard with a large boJv, whereupon the
duke and his two fons, with the earl of Warwick and other
chiefs, fled with precipitation. Edward, his eldeft fon, ob-
tained pofleffion of Ludlow in the courfe of the war, and
upon his accellion to the throne repaired it, and made it the
court of his fon the prince of Wales. Here the latter,
after his father's death, was proclaimed king before he re-
moved to London, at the inftigation of his uncle, Gloceftcr,
whofe barbarous uiurpaVion is not paralleled in the atuials of
England. Arthur, fon to Henry VII. fixed his refidence
at this caftle, and held a court here with vail fplendour and
magnificence after his marriage with Catharine of Arragon,
afterwards the wife of 'Henry VIII. At this time the
court of the Marches for the principality of Wales was
eftabliftied here, and continued for many ycar.^ with much
grandeur and lolemnity. The power of this court was very
extenfive, and conlilled of a lord-prefident, as many couniel-
lors as the prince plealed, a fecretary, an attorney, a folici-
tor, and four juftices for the counties of Wales. King
Charles I., when prince of Wales, vifited this caftle. It
war. next diftinguifiied by the reprefcntation of the cele-
brated Mafquc of Comus in 1634, during tlie prefidency
of John carl of Bridgewater. This exquifite effufion of
Milton's genius was founded on a real incident. The two
fons of tlte earl, and his daughter lady Alice, being on their
way from a houie belonging to their family in Hcrefordlhire
to Ludlow,

" To attend their father's ftate
And new intrufted fceptie,"

were benighted in Haywood foreft, where the lady was loft
for a fliort time. The adventure being related to the earl
on their arrival at the caftle, Milton, at the requeft of his
friend Mr. Henry Lawes, v,lio taught mufic in the family,
wrote the Mafque. Lawes fet it to mufic, and performed
the charafter of the attendant fpirit ; the lady herfelf play-
ing the part wliicli ftie had already adcd in real life. The
patronage afforded to the mufe of Milton, at this period,
by the earl of Bridgewater, does great honour to that
nobleman.

During the civil wars in the reign of Charles I. this
caftle was for fome time kept as a garrifon for the'king. In
1645, a fmall part of the royal army was defeated in this
neighbourhood, and on the 9th of ,Iunc, in the following
year, the fortrefs w?.s furrendered to parliament. After the
reftoration, the celebrated Samuel Butler, fecretary to the earl
of Carbery, then appointed lord prefident, wrote here a great
part of his incomparable poem of Hudibras. From this
period nothing remarkable happened till the reign of Wil-
liam and Mary, when the court of the Marches was dif-
folved by aft of parliament, being, as therein recited, " a
great grievance to the fubjeft." After this event the caftle
gi-adually fell into decay, and was defpoiled of its curious
and valuable ornaments. In the days of its profperity it ^
feems to have been one of the moft extenfive and fuperb ba-
ronial fortreftijs in Europe. It commands grand and exten-
five profpefts, and is ilrongly environed by embattled walls
of great height and thicknefs, with towers placed at con-
venient diftances. That portion of it which lies neareft;
the town, was likewife defended by a deep ditch. The
whole was divided into two diftinft parts or courts, one of
which contained the palace and lodgings, and the other the
court of judicature and records, ftables, tardeii, and other
offices. Tlie former conftituted what was properly denomi-
nated the Caftle, and the latter was called the Green or Bar-
6 bican.

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tican. This noble fabric now prefcnts a tnars of magnifi-
cent ruins, retaining, however, ample affiiranccs of its former
o-lory. Of the chapel, a circular building, in the inner
court, is all that remains. Over feveral of the ftable doors
tlie arms of Elizabeth and the earl of Pembroke are llill
vifible, and over the inner gate of the ca'lle are the arms of
the Sidney familv, with an infcription beneath. Along the
iijes of the eminence on which thefe fplcndid ruins are
feated are fome public walks, which vere laid out in 1772, at
the iniligation of the countefs of Powis. Part of l.udlow
caftle h'as been recently occupied by Lucien Buonaparte, his
family, and fuite, who are prifoners of war in this country.

The neighbourhood of Ludlow abounds with gentlemen's
feats and agreeable villages. In the village of Bromelicld
are the remains of a cell of Benedicline monks, formerly
belonging to the abbey of St. Peter, Gloceller. Tliefe ruins
ftand on a delightful fituation within the grounds of Oak-
ley park, the refidence of the dowager lady Clive. Richard's
caftle lies about three miles from Ludlow. The town con-
tiguous was originally called Gayton or Boytane, but the
luftre of the callle afterwards echpfed that name, and it is
now called by the fame appellation as the caftle. This was
once a place of confiderable importance, as is evident from
feveral old records prior to the time of Henry IL when
it began to decay, in fpite of the exertions of the noble
family of Mortimer to fupport its declining ftate. Softie
part of the keep and walls of the caftle are ilill remaining.
About four miles N.W. of the town is Dowton catlle, the

feat of Knight, efq., brother to R. P. Knight, author

of a poem called " The Landfcape," and of feveral other
literary productions. This gentleman built an irregular and
finguiar manlion here, and called it a cattle. He alfo laid
out the grounds, immediately adjoining the houfe, in a llyle
correfponding to his theoretical principles of the picturcfque.
On this fubjed both Mr. Knight and his friend Mr. Price
have publilhed fome eifays. The grounds and woods of this
dcmefne are particularly bold, grand, and diverfilied. See
the Ludlow Guide by J. Price, i8mo. 1797. Alfo an
Hiftorical Account of Ludlow Caftle, &c. by W. Hodges,

Li'Dl.ow, a townfhip of America, in Hampftiire county,
Mafrachufctts, 90 n>iles W. of Bofton ; incorporated in
1784, and containing 650 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip on
Black river, Windfor county, Vermont, containing 410 in-
habitants, 10 or 12 miles W. of Weathetsfield, on Conuec-
ticdt river.

LUDOLF, Job, in Biography, a learned orientalift,
born in 1624 at Erfurt, in Tluiringia, was educated in the
univcrfity of his native place, paying particular attention to
the ftudy of jurifprudence and of the learned languages,
efpecially thofe of the Eall. With the view of farther im-
provement he travelled into foreign parts, and was from
home during fix years, when he returned to Erfurt, where
he exercifed the funAions of a counfellor for nearly twenty
jears of his hfe. He frequently afhlted at the diets held
^pon the fubjeft of the contefts between the dukes of
Saxony and the archhilhops of Mentz. At length, weary
of public bufmefs, he obtained leave to retire, and chofe for
the place of his retreat the city of Frankfort on the Mayne:
but fcarcely had he fettled his family, when the elctlor pa-
latine placed liim at the head of his finances. In his fervice
he made two jourr.ies to France, where he confulted the li-
braries of Paris, in order that he might make fome advances
in his favourite ftudies. At length he returned to Frankfort,
and employed himfelf in finilhing and revifing the different
works wliich he had compofed. He died in 1704, univer-
fally eftcemed ; he has been charadlerized as equally fitted

for the difpatch of public bufinefs, and the retired purfuits
of the clofet. He was author of a great number of works,
of which the principal are, " Hiftoria ./Ethiopica," folio ;
"A Commentary on the fame;" and an "Appendix." In
thefe works the hiftory, religion, and manners of the
Ethiopians are detailed at length. He alfo publiftied an
" Abyffinian Grammar and Didtionary,'' folio; "Diflerta-
tio de Locuftis," folio ; " Fafti Ecclefiae Alexandrina: ;"
" De Bello Turcico feliciter Conficiendo." Moreri.

LuDOLF, Hknky William, nephew of the preceding,
was born at Erfurt in the year l6jj. He was well educated,
and was particuL'rlyinftrudlcd in the Oriental languages.
He was a man well calcu'ated for public bulinefs as well as
deeply learned : he obtained the poft of fecretary to the envoy
from Chriftiaii V, king of Denmark to the court of Great
Britain, who recommended him to prince George of Den-
mark, by.vhom he was appointed focretaryin 16S0. This fitu-
ation he held iome years, till a very violent fever rendered
him incapable of difcharging its duties, when he retired
wit a^handfome penfion. As foon as his health would per-
mit he fet out on his travels to foreign countries. He firft
went to Ruflia, and having foon acquired its language, he
met with a polite reception from the natives, and being a
good performer in mnfic, he had the honour of difplaying
his accompliftiments in this art before the czar of Mofcow,
to the furprize and delight of that prince. The various
knowledge which he difcovered in his converfations v.-ith the
Ruffian clergy led them- to confider him as a prodigy of
learning. He arrived in London in 1694, when he under-
went an operation of cutting for the ilonc Having re-
covered, he applied himfelf to the compofition of " A Ruf-
fian Grammar;" intended for the ufe not only of traders
and travellers, but of the natives themfelves, by exhibiting
the principles of their language in a more regular form than
had been laid down before. This work was printed at Ox-
ford in 1696. Ludolf's curiofity led him next into the Eall,
that he might obtain information concerning the llate of the
Chriftian church in the Levant. He arrived at Smyrna In
November 1698, whence he went to Jaffa, from Jaffa to
Jctufalem, and from thence to Cairo. As foon as Ludolf
had returned to England, his retleftions on the deplorable
ilatc of Chrittianity among thole who profeffed that religion
under the Turkifli government, induced him to undertake an
impreffion of the New Tellament in the vulgar Greek, and
to prefent it to the members of the Greek church. He was
very defirous that the Proteilant powers of Europe fliould
eftabllfli a kind of college at Jcrufalem, and that the per-
fons felefted for fuch an inftitution fhould not be devoted to
the prt>pagation of the peculiarities of any particular fyftems
concerning which Proteftants differ among themfelves, but
united by an agreement in the fundamental principles of the
gofpel, and by univerfal love and charity. In the year
1709, I.,udolf was appointed by queen Anne one of the
commiflioners for managing the money collefted for the re-
lief of the Palatines, who had been driven from their native
country. He died in 1710. He was author of feveral
works befides his " Ruffian Grammar," which were col-
lefted and publilhed in the year 1712. Gen. Biog.

LUDOLFfA, in Botany, a genus of Adanfon's,
(Families des Plantes, v. 2. 244.) named by him after
Michael Matthias Ludolff, author of a catalogue of the
plants of the garden at Berlin, where he was profeffor
of Botany and Materia Medica, and where his book was
printed in 1746. He publiflied alfo a German Pharmaco-
peia in 1734; and wrote on the lubjeft of botanical clalTi-
fication, in the Mem. de l'Ac:id. de Berlin lor 1745, "I'cre,
according to Hallcr, he rejeds the llamens as well as the

cotyle-

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cotyledons for the purpofes of arrangement. We liave not
fecn this treatife. What he offers relative to this matter and
others, at tlie end of his work iirft mentioned, gives no ex-
alted idea of his judgment. The above name has never been
ellablifhed, the plant of Adanfon being elleemed a Tctrago-
nia. It is curious that Boehmer, in his difTertation upon
plants named after botanills, fuppofes the Ludolfia to have
been called after Job Ludolf, author of the Hi/icria JEth'io-
pica, being ignorant, as it fcems, of the exiitence of the
Cerlin profeflor ; but we can have no doubt that Adanfon
meant to commemorate the latter.

LUDSCHliN, in Geography, a town of Priiffia, in
•Oberland ; 7 miles E S.E. of Marianwcrder.

LUDSWIGSBURG, a town of Wunemberg, contain-
ing two elripcls, one for Roman Catholics and another for
Lutherans, and a fine pidure gallery, a pleafant garden, and
-an old cattle. Ttie manufactures of this place are clo!h,
damailc hnen, and marble paper; 16 miles S. of Heilbron.
N. lat. 48 54'. E. long. 9° 18'.

Thougli Stuttgard was m 1772 llic nominal capital of the
duchy ot Wiirtemherg, it had not, for the preceding ten
years, been tlie refsdonce of its fovereign. And ihoiigh
<the operas and mnlicai ellabliflimetits of this prince ufed
to be the moit fplendid in Europe, during the (even years'
direftion of Jomelli, they were, ;it the time jull mentioned,
but the (liadow of what they hadhven. In Burncy's Ger-
man Tour, there is a lift of his ferene highnefs's mufical
cilablilhments, at their moft flourifiiing time, as well as at
that of their declenfion.

In 1 77 1 he had two new ferious operas, the one com-
pofed by Jomelli, and the other by Sacchini, entirely at his
own expence. The theatre is immenfe, and is open at the
back of the ftsge, where there is an amphitheatre in the
open an-, which is iometimes filled with people to produce
effefts in perfpeftive. It is built, like all other German
theatres, on the Italian model.

The prince svho reigr.cd in 1772 was hin.felf a good
harpiicliord player; Emanuel Bach dedicated to his high-
nefs the bed book of fix fonatas which he ever compoled,
printed at Nurcmburg. At one time this duke had in his
fervice three of the grc-ateit performers on the violin in
Europe ; Ferari, Nardiui, and Lolli : on the hautbois, the
two PLif, and Schwartz, a famous baftbon, with Walther
on the French horn, and Jomelli to compofe, for the beft
ferious ami comic fingers of Italy. At Srlitude, a favourite
country palace, a confervatorio was eftablifhed for the edu-
.cation of two hundred poor and deferted male children of
proraifing talents ; Qf ihefe a great number were taught
mufic, and from thcfe his highnefs had already drawn feveral
excellent vocal and inltrumental performers for his t'iieatre ;
fome were taught the learned languagnes and cultivated
poetry ; others were initiated into the practice of the ftage,
as aclors and dancers. At Ludfwigfbu'g the^ was a conler-
vatorio for a hundred girls, who were educated in the fame
mannei-, and for the fame purpofes. The building con-
ftrufted at Solitude for the reception of the boys, has a
front of fix or feven hundred feet. It ufed to be the fa-
vourite amufement of the duke to vifit the fcliool, to fee
the children dine and take their leffons.

L.UDUS Helmontii, fo called from Van Helmont,
who extolled its medicinal virtues, in Natural Hijlory, an
opaque foflil of an irregular (hape, but of a very regular and
fingular internal ftruCture. It is of an earthy hue, and al-
ways divided into feparate mafles, by a number of veins of
a different colour, and purer matter than the fefl. Thefe
maffes, into which it is divided, are fometimes fmall and
jrelty reguiarly fi^ ured ; in which cafe, they are called tall

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or hit, d'tci ; but they are more FrequpntJy of no regular
(hape at all. There are others of them cruitated, or com-
pofed of many coats, difpofcd one over another about a
central nucleus. In thefe the f^pta, or dividing veins, are
very thin and fine, in the others thicker.

Thefe fepta were ufed in medicine, being given in nephri-
tic complaints, as it lias been faid, with fuccefs : the dofe
from a fcruple to a drachm.

LUDWIG, Christian Theophilus, in Biography,
was born in Silefia in 1709, and educated for the medical
profelTion. Having a ftrong bias towards natural hiftory,
he was appointed to accompany Hebcnitreit in his expedi-
tion to the north of Africa. (See Hebe ;.streit. ) Soon
after his return in 17^3, lie became Piofeffor of Medicine
at Leipfic. The firit thefis defended there under his prefi-
dency, in 1736, related to the manner in which marine
plants are nouriflied. Thefe he fhewed to differ effentially
from the generality of the vegetable kingdom, as not de-
riving their noiirifhment by the root. In 1737 he publifhed
a Programma in fupport of the doftrine of the fexes of
plants, from his own obfervations upon the date palm. Two
years afterwards he, neverilielels, advanced fome objeftions
to the Linnaean fyflem of arrangement by ihe organs of im-
pregnation, under the tit'e of Obfa-vat'iones in Methoduni
Plantarum Sexualem Cel. Linmfi. This work begins with
much jull commendation of Linnasns, and even wi:h great
admiration of his fyttc.ii ; accompanied however by an at-
tempt at depriving !iim of the merit of originality, by in-
finuating that thrs fyftem had been " indicated by others ;"
without faying by whom. Thefe words are underlined by
Linnxus in his own copy of the difTertation. They are as
little to the purpofe as the fimilar charge of plagiarifm
brought againll the iuimortal Harvey. He proceeds to de-
tail various difficulties and millakes, which occurred to him
in his fcrutiny of this fyftem, fome of which relate to mat-
ters of opinion, others to anomalies or variations in Nature
herfelf. His remarks however are free from afpcrity or
ihiberality. He chiefly fail.";, in point of judgment, when
he blames Linnasus for making any particular charadler im-
portant in one genus or family, and not in all ; not perceiv-
ing that the very effence of Ikiil, in technical diicrimination
and arrangement of natural productions, confifts in difcover-
ing, in each particular cafe, what is the moft effential for
the purp>,fe in view. We do not f..e why his differtations,
" de m'muendU plar.larum gener'tbus" publifhed in 1 737, and
" de mimundis plantarum fpec'u'biis," in 1740, fiiould be deemed
inimical to Linnasus, to whom he gives full credit for hav-
ing eftabliflied the fureft principles for the advancement of
botany, though he criticifes him here and there in the de-
tail of their application. He alfo wilhes to indicate fome
fources of difcrimination, which Linnaeus has lefs regarded,
for the accomphfliment of the fame objeAs ; particularly
mentioning the anatomy of plants. He points out the co-
lours of flowers as fometimes affording permanent fpecific
diftinjtions, though Linnaeus has in general difcarded them
from his charadteis. It muft be allowed that Ludwig, irf
this and other inftances, feems prompted by a defire to dif-
fer and to find fault ; for Liiina;u? himfelf founds his pri-
mary divifions of fpccies in Mefmbryanthemum and Cnapha-
Hum, no matter whether judicioufly or not, upon this very
circumftance. Such critics however are ufeful to fcience,
as they promote enquiry and examination. Ludwig ;>.iftly
blames Limijeus ftjr confounding the bulbous Fumari^ as
one fpecies, and he may alfo be correct in fome other remarks.
The Inte lord Bute has well obferved, that Ludwig, like
Haller, was only a Linnu;an in difguife, having frequently
applied principles in unifon with his, if not imbibed from

Mm,

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Mm, to build fyftems, and toexercife criticifm, againft him.
Ludwijr, in 1756, 1758, and 1759, puJjliflied three dif-
fertations on the colours of flowers, tending to (hew their
vanablenefb ! If he has in one inllance fu^Qrelled an example
to the contrary, he is in that furely moll unfortuvate. Hal-
ler fays he points out the Fraxiiiella (Didamnus albus of
Linnaeus) as a cafe in which colour makes a fpecific dif-
ference. As this plant is frequently raifed from Iced, and
the progeny differs, under every body's eyes, in having fome
white-flowered plants, perhaps in every crop, we prefume
the qncjlion may be readily decided ; whetlrcr tiie Icfler
White Fraxinella, figured in Rivinus, Fl. Pentap. Irr.
t. 1 ;5, be a dilHnCt fpecies, of which we fee little probabi-
lity, or a variety in fize as well as colour. Rivinus himfelf
fays the common one, t. 134, is cither red or white.

Ludwig publilhed is I7^?7 his Defiuitloues Pluntarum, in
8vo. for tlie ufe of his pupils. In this the genera of plants
are arranged in a method fuppofed to be natural, founded
on the corolla in the firll place, the fubordinate charafters
being taken from the fruit. The generic dillinftions are
derived from the herbage, floiver, fmell, taile, colour, or
any thing that came in the author's way ; certainly with no
advantage whatever over the laws and praclicc of Linna:us,
but rather evincing, at every ftep, the' fuperiority of the
latter to the vague fcheme of his opponent. In another
little volume of Ludwig, the ^phcri/mi Botanic!, pubhdied
in if^S, the afl"ertion of his being "a Linna;an in difguife"
is llronc;ly juftitied. In vain does the writer try to forget
the Ph'iUf'jphia Botan'tca, and to feek originality, at any
rate, by wandering from its light. In vain does he extol
the fyllera of Rivinus in preference to all others. He is
brought back by his own iudgment, in fpite of hi-.nfelf, at
every ftep ; and as he could never give the lead degree of
popularity to the fyftem he extolled, the flighted "iludy of
his works will fliew it to have been a mill-llone about his
own neck. Boehmer gave a new and improved edition of
the Dejiiihioms Plantarum in 1 760. Vv'hether any ufe is
mad:- of this work at prefent, among the various botanical
fchools on the Continent, we have never heard, but we be-
lieve it has fallen into oblivion.

In 17.1.2, and again in 17,7, our author publilhed his
Injl'ituihnes Hyiorko-Phyfici Rsgul Vegef.aliUs, in 8vo. ; ftill
in purfuit of novelty rather than of ti-uth. he veje£ls the
I.innoean diilinttions between animals and vegetables, found-
ing the charafteriilic mark of the latter on the fuppofed
propuilion of their fluids through a cellular texture, and
not through a vafcular fyftem as in animals. This diftinc-
tion is now known to have no foundation. In this work at
length even the difguife of a Linnjsan is aimoft laid afide, a
fyllem of arrangement being propofed in which the' ftamens
.and ftyles make an elfen'.ial, if not a leading, feature. The
favourite old fyftem of Ri.vinus ftil! takes precedence, though
it ferves only as an additional impediment in the way of
natural affinities, which defeft is in fome meafure concealed
by the primary characters not being ftrifily followed.
Thus, though Eryngium is violently feparated by its inflo-
refccnce from its natural allies, Iberis is filently left amongft
the Tdrapetuli regulares. The Umbdlaii are kept together
by tht-ir inflorefcence, in fpite of the diverfity ef their
flovi-ers, as to regularity or irregularity ; a difficulty which
Rivinus had previoufly been obliged to overlook. It is
remarkable that our author, in thus profefi"edly adopting
the principles of Rivinus and Linnaeus combined, and dif-
claiming as he does, p. 86, all pretenfions to originality,
never mentions thofe perfons from whom he had long ago
aflerted that Linnaeus borrowed his fyftem. This volume
may therefore b« confidered as a tacit tribute of refpett to

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the illuftrious Swede, arifing from its author's progrefs irt
judgment and experience. He had no motive to withhold
this tribute, as Lmn^us never relented nor repelled his at-
tacks. The latter fays in a letter to Haller, " I have read
the Characlers of Dr. Ludwig entirely through. He has
given very great attention to the fubjeA ; but I wifh the
authors whom he chiefly follows may not have led him
aftray. All that comes from Boerhaave is not oracular.
I every day au8;ment or correft my own characters, which
are nothing but generic dcfcriptions, and therefore differ
trom th'jfe of Ludwig and Tournefort, as a fpecific name
(or definition) differs from the dtfcription of a plant. Both
are neceffary in Botany." Ep'tjl. ad Halhrum v. i. 312.
We give this paifage entire, becaufe Haller in his index
fays Linnajus here " carps at Ludwig," than which furely
nothing can be more unjuft.

Our author began, in 1760, to publilh impreffions, chiefly
of medicinal plants, taken from the dried fpccimen with
printer's ink, or with finoked paper, in folio, under the
title of Eclypa VcgelaViUum, which he continued from time
to time. 8uch impreffions give undoubtedly a correct out-
hne, at leaft if the plant be fully difplaytd, but the reft ii
a mafs of confuflon ; efpecially as the more elevated parts,
which fliould be light, are neceffanly the darkeft. He
wrote alfo occafionaliy on medico-botanical fubjects, as on
the etfeds of extraiA of Stramonium, and of the Belladonna,
or Deadly Nightfhade, in the epilepfy. His opinion feems
not to have been favourable of either.

Ludwig died at Leipfic in 1773, aged 64. He left a
fon named Chriftian Fredrick, born in 1 751, who became
Profeffor of Natural Hiftory in the fame univerfity, and is
the author of various trafts on Botany, Anatomy, and Phy^
fiology.— Ludwig's Works. Hall. Bibl. Bot. Dryandr.
Bibl. Banks. S.

LUDWIGIA, in Botany, named by Linnaus in honour
of Chriftian Theophilus Ludwig, Profefi'or of Medicine in the
univerfity of Leipfic. (See the preceding article Ludwjg
C.T.) Linn. Gen. 60. Schreb. 83. Wiild. Sp. PI. v. i.
672. Mart. Mill. Dia. v; 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i!

265. Jufl". 319 Lamarck lUuftr. t. 77. Gxrtn. t. 31.

Clrffs and order, Tetrandria Alonogynia. Nat. Ord. Caly-
eantham, Linn. Onagrx, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, p.^rmanent,
cloven into four, lanceolate, widely fpreading fegments,
equal in le:igth to the corolla. Cor. Petals four, inverfely
heart.ftiapcd, flat, greatly fpreading, equal. Stam Fila-
ments four, awl-fliaped, creit, Ihort ; anthers fimple, ob-
long, ereft. Pijl. Germen inferior, quadrangular, clothed
with the bafe of the calyx ; ftyle cylindrical, as long as the
ftamens ; ftigma flightly four-fided,' capitate. Perk. Cap.
fule of four valves, the partitions oppofite to the valves.
Seeds numerous, fmall. Recept. colum'nar, membranaceous,
four-winged ; wings at the angles of the partitions, bearing
feed at each fide.

Efi". Ch. Corolla of four petals. Calyx four-cleft, fupe,.
rior. Capfule fquare, inferior, of four cells, and many
feeds.

1. L. altermfol'ia. Linn. Sp. PI. 173. Trew, Rar. p 2.
t. 2. (Lyfimachia non pappofa, flore luteo majore ; Pluli».
Aim. t. 203. f. 2.) — Leaves alternate, lanceolate. Stalks
axilL-u-y, fingle-flowered. Stem erecl, angular. Calyx-
leaves remarkably large. — Native of Virginia, and feiit from
thence, to Miller, by Dr. Dale before 175c. It flowers in
June and July. — Root annual. Stem about a foot high, up-
right, branching. Flowers folitary, fmall ai.d 'yellow».
fituated at the bafe of the leaf-ftalks.

2. L. hlrfuta. Willd. n. 2. Lamarck Didt. v. 3. 614 .

Leaves

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Leaves alternate, lanceolate. Flowers axillary, folitary,
nearly fefTile. Stem round, dill'ufe. — A native of Soutli
Carolina. — Lamarck, obferves that this is very nearly albed
to the lall fpecies in the iorm and arrangement of its leaves.
The whole plant however is hairy. Stem woody, cylindri-
cal, branched. Leaves alternate, oblong-lanceolate, entire.
Flowers folitary, axillary, on fiich fliort ilalks as to be
nearly feffile, furnifhed at their bafe with two oppoiite, very
long brafleas. Fniil lefs angulated than in the other
fpecies.

3. L.ji/y^jEO/Wt'.f. Willd. B. 3. Lamarck Dift. V. 3. 614 —
Leaves alternate, linear-lanceolate. Flowers axillary, foli-
tary. Germen very long. — A native of niarlhy ground in
the I fie of France. — This is faid particularly to rcfcmble
Ji/fficfti in its habit, whence the fpccitic name. — Stem about
a tout and half high, ftirubby, branched. Leaves alternate,
fcattered, pointed, entire. Flowers folitary. Petals yel-
low, the lengtli of the calyx.

4. L. oppofitifoHa. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 161. Willd.
r.4. (L. perennis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 173 ) — Lower leaves op-
pofite, lanceolate. Stem ditFufe. — A native of the Eail
Indies. — Stems procumbent, fix or eight inches long.
Branches nearly all radical. Leaves fmooth, entire, llriated,
three or four pair of the lower ones only oppofite, the rell
alternate. Flowers yellow. Petals (horter than the calyx.

5. L. erigata. Linn. Syll. Veg. ed. 14. 161. Mant. 40.
Willd. n. 5. (L.triflora; LamarckDift. v. 3. 615.) — Leaves
oppofite, lanceolate. Stem ereft. — A native of the Fall
Indies.— /J so/ annual. Stem a foot high, herbaceou.";. Leaves
on footftalks, quite entire, fmooth. Flowers fo fmall as
to be fcarcely villble.

L. rc/if/w, Swart z, Ind. Occ. v. i. 273, proves, by a
fpecimen from himfelf, to be Ifnardia pahtllris of Linuteus,
as 'Willdenow mentions. ,

Michaux, in his Fl. Boreal Amer. v. i. 87, defines nine
fpecies as natives of North America, chiefly Carolina, of
none of which we have any precife information. They are
called n'ltula, pednncuhfa, microcarpa, angiiJlifoUa-, (which he
fuppofes to be ramuftjpind of Waller,) juffino'ides, (taken for
^i'r.'/rrfnj of Walter, ) macrocarpa, (which is the alternlfolia
of Linnaeus,) v'lrgata, mollis, and nipitata. The lall is faid
to be fuffrit'ieofn of Walter.

LUDWIGSBURG, in Geography, a town of Anterior
Pomerania, on the coall of the Baltic ; five miles E.N.E.
of Griefswalde.

LUDWIGSTAT, a town of the principality of Culm-
bach ; 13 miles S. of Saalfeld.

LUDWIGSTEIN, a town of the principahty of Heflc
Rhinfels ; 14 miles E. of Caifel.

LUDWIGSTHAL, a town of Wurtemberg, famous
for its iron forges ; about one mile from Dutllingen.

LUDWIGWALL, a town of Prufiia, in Natangen ;
four miles S. of Konigfberg.

LUC, St., the chief town of the captainfhip of Petagues,
in the north divifion of Brafil.

LUES, in a general fenfe, is ufed for a difeafe of any
kind.

LuE.s, in a more particular fenfe, is reftrained to conta-
gious and peftilential dileafes.

Lues Venerea, the venereal difeafe ; called alfo morbus
galUcus, fyphilis, morbus tieapolitanus, morbus eiphrojijius, is'c.
In French, la maladie vener'ienne, or la •ueralc, ox graruk verole ;
in German, lii/lf-euche franzofen.

The venereal dillemper arifes from a peculiar and fpecific
morbid animal poifon, which, when applied to the human
body, is capable of producing both local and conflitutional
f fTetts, fuch as primary fores or, chancres, buboes, fpots on

the furface of the body, nodes, ulcerations of the throat,
pains in the bimes, iecondary ulcers, &c. Excepting
chancres, none of thclc complaints can occur, unlefs fome of
the fyphilitic virus has been taken up, and conveyed inta
the conlHtution by the abforbents proceeding from the pri-
mary fore, or furface originally infefted. The venereal
poifon aficcts the human fpecies alone, and has not the pro-
perty of iir parting the difeafe to any other animals. When
applied to the human body, " it has the power of propa-
gating or multiplying itfelf;" that is to fay, it gives rife
to a fore, from vvliich is fecretcd matter containing a virus
of the fame fpecific nature. Of its appearance in an unmixed
(late wc really know nothing ; for we never fee the poi-
fon in any other form than that in which it is blended
with fluid matter. Its general properties are equally un-
known ; fo that, if we put out of confideration its peculiar
and remarkable effects on the human body, our ignorance of
its nature is complete. It is not contagious through the
medium of effluvia, or any volatile invifible matter in
ihe air, the infettion never being communicated, except by
aftual contaft. The vlru . mull be applied to a part of the
body ; the ufual local effect is 3 particular fore, called a
chancre ; and fome of the poifonous matter at length being
imbibed by the abforbents, buboes, eruptions, &c. follow.
Many cafes fcem even to prove that the poifon may be
abforbed from the (Icin, and buboes and conilitutional fymp-
toms take place, without the occurrence of any primary fore
at all in the part to which the infectious matter was firit
applied.

Before entering into a more detailed account of a dillem-
per which, as being a kind of fcourge to illicit pleafure, and
a curb to the moil impetuous of paflions, has made the gene-
rality of mankind very feelingly interellcd in the fubjeft,
we (hall folicit the reader's attention to a point that is in
tlie highell degree curious, and has afforded matter for nume-
rous difputations. "

Of the frjl Origin of the Venereal Difeafe. — Several
writers have endeavoured to prove the great antiquity of
this dillemper. The principal of thefe are, Mr. William
Becket, whofe papers are contained in the 30th and 3 ill
vols, of the Philofophical Tranfaftions ; Dr. Charles
Patin, and Dr. Sanchez, authors of differtations on the
origin of the difeafe. The opinion has even been main-
tained, that the venereal malady has exifted from time imme-
morial, and paffages in fupport of this fentiment are referred
to in Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, Celfus, and likewife
the holy fcriptures. " The Lord ftiall fmite thee in the
knees, and in the legs, with a fore botch, that cannot be
healed, from the fole of thy foot unto the top of thy head."
■ (Deuteronomy, chap.xxviii. ver. 35.) This, and many other
ancient quotations, however, cannot be received as proofs,
that fyphilis was the affliction alluded to, becaufe the leprofy,
elephantiafis, and feveriil other dileafes, attended with ulcers,
or eruptions, might be lignificd, as far as a juJgipent can be
formed, from the words atUially employed. (See Lombard
fur la Mai. Vcnerienne, torn. i. p. 39.) That the Greeks
and Romans were at all acquainted with the venereal difeafe
feems extremely improbable, and is an affertion quite un-
ellablilhed. As Dr. Adams has well obferved, the ancient
phyfician.'s, being ignorant of the medical povvers of mer-
cury, mufl have been infinitely more familiar with every
form of the difeafe than ourfelves. Yet, till near the clofe
of the I jth century, we have no defcription of local ap-
pearances that can be mill^aken for venereal ; and during
tlie following century, the induftrious All rue enumerates
more than one hundred writers on the inbjedl. If other
proofs are required, let us mark the difference between the

licentioi^

LUES VENEREA.

licentious poets of former times and our own. Can a reader
of common fenfe fuppofe that Horace, Juvenal, Perlius, or
Ovid, could have been filent on a fiibjeft fo perpetually oc-
curring in the fatirical writings of Pope and Swift? On
Morbid Poifons, p. 88. edit. 2.

But though it mull be owned that the attempts to trace
the exigence of the venereal difeafe as far back as the times
of Mofe-s and of the Greeks and Romans, have entirely
failed, we muft not infer that the people of thofe remote
periods were not fubjedl to maladies of the generative organs.
Celfu."! has exprefsly treated of fuch complaints, and they
probably afflided mankind at a much earlier period than
the reign of A'.iguftus. The ancients were certainly liable
to fores on the genitals ; but thefe ulcers, like many which
are met with at the prefeiit day in the f;mie lituation, were
not fyphiiitic, notwithftanding they might fometimes put on
a very bad afpeft.

Giving up the fuppofition of lues venerea being of fuch
antiquity, ftiU it is contended that the diforder prevailed in
Europe long before the return of Columbus from his voyage
to America, or Charles VIII. befieged Naples ; two events
which happened at the clofe of the ijth century, when it is
commonly thought that the difeafe firlt; began its ravages in
Spain and Italy, and thence fpread to other parts of the old
world. We are told that Gulielmus Salicetus, who prac-
tifed at Verona in 1210, was well acquainted with the caufe
and effefts of fyphilis, and, in confirmation of this remark,
we are referred to his work on furgery, where may be found
a chapter, intitled, " De puftulis albis, et fciifuris et cor-
ruptionibus quae fiunt in virga et circa praeputium, j)ropter
coitum cum meretrice, vel alia caufa." Gordon, who lec-
tured on phyfic at the univerfity of Montpelier in i 289, men-
tions, in chap, j, " De paffionibus virgae," the affeftions
originating from conneftion witti women whofe wombs are
foul, virulent, fanious, infetlious, &c. ; and he likcwile fpe-
cifies a remedy for a chancre proceeding from fuch a caufe.
See Lombard fur la Maladie Ven. torn. i. p. 40.

■ In the 30th and 3 i It vols, of the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
Mr. W. Becket publiflied his papers in fupport of the anti-
quity of lues venerea. In his firft differtation, he labours to
prove that a venereal gonorrhoea was known in England
fome ages before the year I4g4» under the name of ardor,
arfura, incendium, ifjc. in Englifh, Irenning or burning, of
which, indeed, there is frequent mention made by Britifh
hiftorians. In confirmation of this opinion, Mr. Becket
produces authorities, of which fome are earlier, and others
later than the year 1494, the period when lues venerea is
generally imagined to have firfl fhewn itfelf in Europe.

The earlielt of thefe authorities being the moll material,
will alone be noticed by us.

I. The firll is a manufcript treatife of John Arden, an
eminent furgeon in England, about the clofe of the 14th
century. In this book mention is made of turning, which,
according to Becket, is defined " a certain inward heat and
excoriation of the urethra."

a. The fecond authority refts upon certain phyfical
.pieces fuppofed to have been written about the years 1390
and 1440. Thefe works aie faid to contain fome receipts
for the cure of this brenning, both in men and women.

3. The third and lall that we fhall notice is founded upon
the manufcript.*, rules, and ordinances of the (lews, which
were by public authority allowed to be kept at London, in
the Borough of .Southwark, under the controul of the bifhop
of Winchefter. Thefe documents are fuppofed to have been
drawn up about tlie year 1430. One of them begins thus :
" Of tliofe, who keep women having a wicked infirmity,"
and further, it is ordered, under a fcvere penalty, that no

Vox^ XXI.

ftew-holder keep any woman " wytliin his hous that liath
any fycknefs of brenning.''

The celebrated Dr. Aflruc, on the other hand, has de-
duced a different inference from thefe productions, without
denying that they may be authentic ; for he will not admit
that this burning was the fame difeafe as a venereal gonor-
rhcea, or that a venereal gonorrhoea \\'as at any time expreffed
by fuch a term. His arguments are fupported by confider-
ations of the following kind.

1. The leprofy of the Arabians, which was formerly a
common difeafe in England, as well as in other parts of
Europe, was exceedingly contagious and infectious ; and,
therefore, lepers were, by fevt-ral fevere editts, prohibited
from having intercourfe with tlie red of mankind.

2. In cafe any perfon had carnal knowledge of a leprous
woman, the leproly was communicated to him by almoft
immediate infedlion. That the difeafe was thus imparted,
is proved by Forelhi.% Obf Chirurg. lib. iv. Obf 8. Pal-
marius de Elephantiafi, cap 2. Parous, Op. lib. xic.
cap. 8. Fernelius de Partium Morbis et Symtomatis, lib. vi.
cap. 19. Valefius de Taranta, Philon. 7. cap. 39. Gor-
don's Lilii Partic. i. cap. 22.

3. When the cafe did not turn out to be leprofv in the
worll form, yet the pudenda were for the moft part affefted
with an inflammation, eryfipelas, herpetic or miliary exulce-
rations, cuticular eruptions, &c. ; whence arofe a dyfuria,
called, in old language, ardor, arfura, incendium, caUfaSio,
and, in Engiifli, brenning.

4. In confirmation of this (latement, Aflruc cites Theo-
doric's Chirurg. lib. vi. cap. ,5 ; a manufcript treatife on
furgery, intitled Rogernia ; Gilbert's Compend. Medicin. ;
Glanville's Breviarium Medicinse, lib. ii. cap. 4 ; John of
Gaddifdeu's Rofa Anglica, cap. de infecl. ex concubitu cum
leprofo vel 'eprofa ; and, lallly, John Manardus, of Ferrara,
in Epift. Med. lib. vii.

5. All thefe writers defcribe the complaints caught by-
commerce with leprous women, and, on the whole, Aflruc
infers that the burning, or brenning, referred to by Mr/
Becket, was the fame dilorder as, according to the doftor's
authorities, might arife from conneftion with a leprous
woman, or one who had lately cohabited with a leprous
man. As for the nefanda injirmitas, mentioned in the laws
of the Hews, Dr. Allruc conceives it mufl have been the
leprofy itfelf. De Morb. Venereis.

We fhall not follow thefe gentlemen through the whole
of their arguments. The mofl important are fet before the
reader, and he mull judge of them himfelf. That difcharges
from the urethra, attended with heat and pain in making
water, muft have e.xilled from time immemorial, we de-
cidedly believe ; becaufe experience has well proved that
fuch coniplainls may often proceed from caufes which are
decidedly not venereal. Nay, it is even a queflion among
modern furgeons, wliether any claps at all originate from
the fame poifon as lues venerea. This point, though fo
highly interelling, is far from being fettled ; and notwith-
flanding the fentiments of Mr. Hunter, we think the argu-
ments and facls at prefent on record are rather more weighty
in favour of the doi'lrine, that a gonorrhoea does not depend
upon the fame virus as fypliilis. According to Fallopius,
wliat has been called a venereal gonorrhoia did not fhew
itfelf among the fvmptoms of this difeafe before the vear
1545, or T546, that is, above ixhy years after the period
commonly affigned for the firll eruption of fyphilis. (Traft.
de Morb. Giillico, cap. 23.) Suppofing that a gonorrhoea
really depended on the fame infcftious matter, is it credible
that the complaint fhould never occur for half a eenturr,
during all wluch time chancres, and other venereal afxeftions,
4D are

LUES VENEREA.

are known to have prevailed to a very great extent ? As
we {hall be obliged to touch upon this liibjeft again, and
have already mentioned it in the article Gonouuh(KA, we
(hall not piirfiie it at prefent. Tn our opinion, Bcckct has
fully proved tiiat inflanmiations, difcharges, &c. exilled long
before the year 1494 ; but his evidence fails in ellablifliing
tliat they were adlually venereal.

Allruc himfelF has very fenfibly remarked, '•' tliat the
genitals are no lefs fubjett to violent difeafes than the other
parts of the bodv, that they are equally cxpofcd to all the
caufes of indilpofition, and that they enjoy no prerogative
above the rell to guard them againll the attack of dillempcrs.
From the very infancy of phy-Cc, and long before the vene-
real difeafe was known, feveral writers have treated at large
of an abfcefs, ulcer, cancer, and moitilication in the genitals."
(See Galen, lib. vi. de locis affectis, cap. f), and Cornelius
Celfus, lib. ii. cap. j. lib. v. cap. 20. and lib. vi. cap. 18.)
Aftruc alfo quotes the hillorian Flavins .lofephus, who, in
his I'econd book againll Apion, related, that that vile
flandercr of the Jews was affliftcd with an ulcer in the
penis, of which difeafe, after feveral incifions to no purpofe,
he died in exquifite torments, the genital parts being mor-
tified. And again, (Hill. Jud. lib. xvii. cap. 8.) he fays,
that Herod, kmg of the Jews, died confumptive and con-
vulfed, his private parts being putrelied and eaten up by
worms. Allruc likewife quotes palTages from Eufcbius,
Pliny, and other ancient authors, fliewing, beyond all doubt,
that complaints and difeafes of the generative organs exilled
and prevailed in the earliell tmies. The phimolls, paraphi-
mofis, and hyperfarcofis, or caruncle of the urethra, among
•)ther cafes, were undoubtedly known to the Greek phy-
ficians ; but then, thefe diforders proceeded from an ordi-
nary caufe, and not from any venereal contagion, as will be
plain to any one who will take the trouble to confult the
old writers.

Difmiifing the idea of the venereal difeafe being fo ancient
as fome have fuppofed, let us examine what grounds there
are for believing that the dole of the fifteenth century was
the era, when the diforder firlt commenced its ravages in
Europe.

The authorities in fupport of the opinion, that the venereal
diftemper lirll made its appearance in this quarter of the
world towards the latter end of the year 1494, are the
united ti-(limonies of all the medical writers who at that time
iloiirilhed in Italy, and who could not confound it with the
leprofy, which, being then a common difeafe, was well
known to them. The practitioners of that period were
ailonilhed at the novelty of the malady ; and finding, from
experience, that the medicines, which were ufually given in
analogous cafes, proved ineffectual, were at a lofs what
method to purfue, and, for a time, gave up the treatment
into the hands of quacks.

Jofeph Grunpech, a German phyfician, pnblilhed, in the
year 1496, " Traftatum de Peflilentiali Scorrse, five Mala-
de Frantzos," in which he affirms, that it was a difeafe fo
lately inflicled on mankind, that it feemed to be a plague
fent down from heaven ; that it was a new kind of difeafe,
hatefid to nature, a molt horrid and terrible prodigy, and
altogether unknown to mortals before that time.

Alexander Benedict of Verona, who was phyfician in the
Venetian army, which Charles VIII. of France deflroyed
in the battle of Fornova, in the year 1495, and therefore
had tl'" opportunity of nbferving the firft appearance of this
new difoafe, alFerts in his work, " De omnibus Morbis,"
publifhed in 1496, that, " by the venereal contaft, a new
French difeafe, or, at Icalt, one that was unknown to former
f hyiicians, owing to the peftiferous alpeft of the liars, had

bnrd in upon them from the wefl ;" and, in another part of
his work, that " the French difeafe, a new plague whicii
had fprung up in the world, contrtnfted by lying together
and contaft, was reckoned in his time incurable."

Nicolas Lconicenus of Vicenv.a, profelfor of phyfic at
Ferrara, in a treatife, which he wrote in 1496, " De Morbo
Gallico," obferves, that " new difeafe; had appeared in
Italy, which were unknown to former ages, after the man-
ner of the lichcnis, which, according to Pliny, Ilill. Nat.
lib. xvi. were never known before the time of Claudius."
Then he continues: " Something like this has happened in
this age ; for now a new difeale, of an unufual nature, has
attacked Italy, and feveral other coinitries ; however, this
difeafe has obtained no proper name hitherto by our prefent
phylicians, but they commonly call it the French difeafe ;
as if the contagion had been imported by the French into
Italy, and that this country was infelled both by the difeafe
and the arms of France at the fame .time. I, for my part,
am forced to believe, (nor, indeed, can I conceive the cafe
to be otherwife,) that this infeftious difeafe, which has
lately fprung up, has haraffed this prefent age as it never did
any former om."

Coradinus Gilinus, in his " Opufculum de Morbo Gal-
lico," begins thus :

" Lall year (1496) a very violent difeafe attacked great
numbers of people, both in Italy and on the other fide of
the mountain':, which the Italians call the Freneli difeafe,
affirming that the French introduced it into Italy ; which
the French call tiie Italian or Neapolitan difeafe, becaufe,
they fav, they were firll infetled in Italy, and elpecialiy at
Naples, with tliis cruel plague ; or, becaufe the difeafe ap-
peared firll in Italy, at the time of the paffageof the French
over the mountains. And as this difeafe is yet unknown to
the moderns, and there have been, and Ilill fubfitt great de-
bates about it amongll phyficians, I have therefore deter-
mined to write fomething upon it."

Dr. Allruc further confirms the opinion, that the difeafe
was regarded quite as a novelty at the clofe of the fifteenth
century, by numerous other citations from the works of the
medical writers, who publifhed within a moderate fpaca
after that period : as, tor inllance, Bartholomew Montag-
nana, Gafper Torella, Anthony Bonevenius, Wendelinua
Hock de Brackenaw, Jacobus Cataneus, Peter Trapolinus,
John de Vigo, Peter Maynard of Verona, Ulrich Utten, a
German knight, who publifhed his own cure by guaiacum,
James \\ Bothincourt, Lawrence Phrifius, Peter Andrew
Matthioliis, Alphonfus Ferrus, Jerome Fracaflorius, An-
thony Mufa Braflavolu?, Gabriel Fallopius, kc.

Not only is the foregoing fiatement corroborated by
medical writers, it receives additional tcllimonials from fe-
veral hifiorians ; particularly Mark Anthony Coccius Sa-
bellicus, in KhapCod. Hill. lib. ix. firfl publidied at Venice
in IJ02 ; Baptill Fidgofiuf, in his treatife on Memor-
able Actions, written in 1509 ; Jean de Bourdigne, in his
Hiflory of the Province of Aiijou, publifhed 1529; Guic-
ciardini, in his Hiflory of Italy, 5:c.

That the venereal difeafe firll began to make ravages in
Europe, and in particular that it afHifted many foldiers of
the army of Charles VIII. at the fiege of Naples, towards
the clofe of the fifteenth century, appears then to be proved
beyond difpute. But Ilill other qnellions remain for deter-
mination. Was the venereal infeclion originalJy produced
in Italy? or, was it conveyed thither from .America, which
had been difcovered a little before the breaking out of the
dlilemper in Europe ?

We learn from hillory, that the new world was firft found
out by Chriltopher Columbus. In Augull 1492, lie fet

fail

LUES VENEREA.

fail with three (flips and no men, arrived at Hifpaniola in
December of tlie fame year, and returned to Spain in March
149;. On the 25th of September following, ho departed
from Cadiz again with 1 7 fliips and i yoo men, betides ma-
riners and workmen ; and, in November, he arrived once
more at Hifpaniola. In the following year, 1494, he dif-
patched 14 iTiips back to Spain. In April 1494, Barth.
Columbus, the brother of Criftopher, arrived at Hifpaniola
with three fliips, which returned to Spain, about the con-
chifion of the fame year, with Pedro de Margarit, a Cata-
lonian gentleman, and father Bayl, a Benedidine monk:
the former was, at that time, feverely afflifted with the ve-
nereal difeafe. In Auguft 1494, four other fhips arrived at
Hifpaniola from Spain, under the command of Antonio de
Torrez, and returned at the fame time as thoie laft fpecificd.
LalUy, in Oclober 1495, John Aguado, the envoy of their
Catholic majefties, came to Hifpaniola with four (hips, to
inquire into the crimes of which Chrillopher Columbus
flood accufed ; and, the year following, departed for Cadiz,
where he arrived with Chriftopher on the i ith of June 1496,
and with 2co foldiers, who were infeftcd with the venereal
difeafe.

The firft conveyance of this didemper from the Wed
Indies to Europe, by the followers of Columbus, is fup-
ported by numerous teftimoniei ; among which are thofe of
Anthony Mufa BralTavolus, John Baptilla Montanus,
Gabriel Fallopius, and Roderic Diaz Thelc confirm the
difeafe to have originated in the Weft Indies, and to have
been brought over by Columbus's men ; that it appeared in
Spain firit in 1493, at Barcelona, and there fpread immedi-
ately through the whole city ; that, in Hifpaniola and the
adjacent Well India iflands, the difeafe was very frequent
and familiar to the natives, who had found out an antidote,
called guaiacum wood ; and, laftly, that the diftemper in
America was milder than in Europe, where, on its firll
breaking out, it was undoubtedly more fevere than at fub-
fequent periods.

This laft circumftance is referred by fome authors to the
treatment being now better underftood, and, in particidar,
to the efficacy of mercury, with which praftitioners were for-
merly unacquainted Others appear to think the diftemper
actually milder in its nature. Mr. Foot entertains the firft
of thefe opinions ; while Aftruc and Sydenham prufefs the
latter. Our own ohfervations have induced us to believe,
that the difeafe has atluallv become fomewhat milder within
the laft fifteen years : for, we are lure, not half fo many
bad and fatal cafes are now met with in the London hof-
pitals, as were feen about the clofe of the preceding cen-
tury. If this be a fuel, it cannot be afcribed to our more
fa^llllar acquaintance with mercury, though it may perhaps
be imputed to better treatment : for there cau be no doubt
that many cafes have been exafperated by the long, unre-
mitting, and violent faiivations, which the old furgeons,
who were blinded by falfe fear: and prejudices, deemed io
eftential to the radical cure of the diftemper.

Thefe is only one other fentiment, which we have to
notice, rcfpefting the firft origin of fyphilis, namely, that
it was not brought from the Weft Indies, but began in
Europe, as an epidemical afFeftion. Mr. Hunter ieems in-
clined to think, that the diftemper did not originally come
from, the Weft Indies ; and he was led into this perfuafion
by reading a ftiort treatife, entitled, " A Didertation on the
Origin of the Venereal Difeafe ; proving, that it was not
brought f'om America, but began in Europe from an epi-
demical Diftemper. Tranilated from the original Manu-
fcript of an emment Phvfician. Loudon, printed for Robert
GrilE'.Ls, iJSi-"

In our opinion, however, Aftruc has adduced abundajit
proofs of the diftemper having exifted in Hifpaniola, before
it was at all known in Europe ; and he has explained, as fa-
tisfadlorily as can reafonably be expected, how the difeafe
was conveyed from the Weft Indies to Barcelona in 1493,
and to Italy fhortly afterwards.

The fuhject, whiih we are about to quit, is highly in-
terefting ; though the time that has now elapfed, fince the
commencement of lues venerea in Europe, forbids any ad-
vantageous inveftigations of the controverted points. That
the ancient leprofy could not be fyphilis. Dr. Aftruc has
entirely fatisfied us ; and we join him in the belief that th«
latter difeafe was originally imported into Europe from the
Weft Indies. It is unqueflionably a matter of infinite cu-
riofity, that the leprofy, common as it was in former times,
Ihonld fcarcely ever have made its appearance after the ve-
nereal difeafe fpread over Etirope ; but this may not be
more curious and unaccountable than the departure of the
plague, and the accefs of the fmall-pox. See Aftruc De
Morbis Venereis, and Foot on Lues Venerea.

General Obferimticiis. — As Mr. Hunter has remarked, in
whatever manner the difeafe arofe, it certainly began in the
human race ; for we know of no other animal that is capable
of being infeiied with this poifon. It is probable, too, that
the parts of generation were the firft affected ; for if the
diforder had occurred in any other part of the body, it
might probably never have gone further than the perfon in
whom it firft arofe, and, therefore, never have excited public
attention ; but as it was feated in the parts of generation,
where the only natural connexion takes place between one
human being and another, except that between the mother
and child, it was in the moft favourable fituatiou for being
propagated. Befides, as no conftitutional effeft of the poifon
can impart the difeafe to others, we are obhged to conclude
that the firft effefts were local.

We know little about the fyphilitic poifon, if we exclude
from confiJeration its effefts upon the human body. It is
commonly in the form of pus, or united with pus, or fome
fuch fecretion, and, when applied to parts, it has the pe-
culiarity of giving rife to a procefs, in which is produced
matter of fimilar qualities to its own. In moft cafe.-;, it ex-
cites an inflammatien in the parts contaminated : but there is-
not finiplv inflammation ; a peculiar mode of aftion is fuper-
added, different from all other aftions attending inflamma-
tion ; and, according to Mr. Hunter, it is this fpecific mode
of adion that produces the fpecific quality in the matter.
The peculiar mode of aftioii, however, may exift without
tlie prefence of inflammation : at Icaft, this inference is
drawn, fince the poifon continues to be formed, and a
healing chancre will comrsunicate the difeafe to another
perfon.

The formation of matter, alfo, though a very general, is
not a conftant attendant on this difeafe ; for fometimes the
fyphi'itic poifon produces a kind of inflammation, which
does not terminate in fuppuration. But, according to Mr.
Hunter, no venereal poifon can exift, unlels matter is
formed. A perfon, therefore, having the venereal irritation
in any form, not attended with a difcliargc, cannot com-
municate the difeafe to another. To impart the diforder,
the venereal action muft firft have taken place; matter muft
have been formed in confeqwence of that adlion ; and fuch
matter mutt be applied to the perfon who is to be infefted.
We have no examples of this diftemper being communicated
by vapour, or effluvia, like many other difeafes.

Mr. Hunter believed, that the circumftance of the virus '
being more or lefs diluted, m different cales, is not the caufe
of any variety in the eifefls produced, provided the dilutica
4 D e *

LUES VENEREA.

is not fo confiderable as to prevent the poifon from having
any aftion at all. The fame matter appears to affeft very
differently different people ; ami the diverlity of the fymp-
toms is, therefore, attributed to caufes exilUng in the con-
ftitution and habit.

In treating of GoNOltliHCEA, we have adverted to the long
difputed queilion, whether the virus of that diieafe is of the
fame nature as that which gives rile to lues venerea ?
We have there explained Mr. Himter's reafons for believing
in the identity of the two poifons, and niciilioned the
motives which have hitherto kept us from givin.; eredit to
thedoftrme. Mr. Hunter declares that he has fcen all the
fymptoms of lues venerea originate from gonorrhiea only ;
that he had even produced venereal chancres by inoculat-
ing with the matter of gonorrhosa ; and that he had repeated
thefe experiments in a manner in which he could not be de-
ceived. (On the Ven. Difcafe, p. 293, &c.) He has re-
ferred the different effefls of the virus, in thefe cafes, to
the difference in the nature of the parts affefted. He main-
tains that the matter of a chancre will produce either a go-
norrhoea, a chancre, or the lues venerea. Suppofing the
poifon to be the fame both m the chancre and gonorrhaa,
why do not thefe complaints always happen together in the
fame perfon ? For one would naturally think that the gonor-
rhoea, when it has appeared, could not fail to become the
caufe of a chancre ; and that fuch fore, when it happens
firll, muft produce a gonorrhoea. Mr. Hunter believes that
this fometimes really occurs, although he confeffes it is only
feldom ; and he fufpefts that the prefence of one irritation
in general becomes a preventive of the other.

The experiments made by Mr. Hunter with the matter of
gonorrhoea and chancre, have been repeated with a different
refult. (See B. Bell on Lues Venerea, chap, i.) On the
other hand, the defenders of Mr. Hunter's opinion contend,
that we cannot wonder at this contrariety, when we coniider
from how many caufes gonorrhoea may arife, and how im-
poffible it is to diftinguilh the venereal from any other. See
Adams on Morbid Poifons, p. 91, edit. 3.

Having already touched upon this controverted fubjeft,
in fpeakiugof Gonoirhma, we Ihall here refrain froin comment-
ing on the arguments adduced againft the identity of the
virus, from mercury being requifite for the cure of chancres,
and not neceffary in the treatment of gonorrhoea. Neither
fhall we expatiate on the afferted experiment, that venereal
matter, applied to the urethra, will produce a chancre in
that canal, and not fimply a difcharge. We wifh, however,
in this place, to call the reader's attention again to the circum-
ftance of gonorrhoea not being defcribed as a fymptom of
fyphilis, till nearly half a century after the other fymptoms of
the venereal difeafe were known. Fallopius was the firll who
fet down a clap as an effeft of the fyphihtic virus. The faift of
gonorrhcea not having been remarked as a fymptom of lues
venerea till fo long a time after this laft difeafe had been
known, has been brought forward as another argument
againft the identity of tlie poifons from which thefe difor-
ders arife. *^ late writer endeavours to place this matter in
a very different point of view, remarking;, that if the vene-
real gonorrhoea remained unnoticed till fifty years after the
other forms of the difeafe were defcribed ; what does this
prove, but that confagious gonorrhoea was fo common, as
to be difregarded as a fymptom of the new complaint? Can
there be a doubt (lays Dr. Adams), from the caution given
by Mofes, that gonorrhoea was conlidered as contagious in
his days ? During the claffical age we find inconveniences
of the urinary paffages were imputed to incontinence, and
the police of feveral ftates, before the Cege of Naples, made
laws for preferving the health of fuch as would content them-

felves with public ftews, inllead of difturbing the peace of
families.

In the opinion of the foregoing author, this is enough to
leffen our furprife that gonorrhoea ffiould be urnoticed for
fome time after the appearance of the venereal difeafe. But,
according to his fentiments, fo far is it from proving thi.- dif-
ference of the two contagions, that the faireft inference we
can draw is in favour of their identity. For, if fifty years
after the breaking out of fyphilis, this difeafe began to be
(o far underllood, that fecondary fymptoms were found to
be the confequence of primary ones in the genitals, it is molt
probable that the lirft fufpicion of venereal gonorrhoea arofe
from the occurrence of Inch fecondary appearances, where
no other primary fymptoms could be traced. Adams on
Morbid Poifons, p. 95, edit. j.

We are glad that this gentleman does not mean thefe ob-
fervations to afford any material fuppiTt to an argument,
which, as he acknowledges, refts on the bafn of experiment.
Every one will coincide with him that gcrorrhoeas muft
have prevailed from time immemorial, and hence, perhaps,
were not regarded as a novelty, or even fiifpefted of being
fyphilitic for many years after the firft breaking out of
lues venerea in Europe. Nor fhall we difpuie the probabi-
lity o Dr. Adams's conjecture, that the occurrence of fe-
condary venereal fymptoms, w here no primary ones could
be traced, excepting a gonorrhcea, caufed this lall complaint
to fall under the lufpicion of being itfelf lyphilitic. In
thefe points we rather agree with the anther ; but we can-
not perceive how they at all wa.rant an inference in favour of
the identity of the virus of the two difeafes. The antiquity
of gonorrhoeas certainly v. eighs againft fuch opir.ion, inaf-
much as it proves that fome fpecies of claps prevailed when
the venereal difeafe was unknown, and could not pofilhly
have any fliare in their ori>)in. The filence of medical writers
for fifty years after the venereal difeafe was known, in re-
gard to gonorrhoea being a fymptom of it, undoubtedly mi-
litates againft the identity of the virus producing thele afr
feCtions, fince it tends at leaft to prove that pradti'ioners
were unable all that time to difcern any evidence in proof of
the gonorrhoea depending upon the fame poifon as lues Tene-
rea. And when the occurrence of fecondary fymptoms, ap-
parently unpreceded by any primary ones, excepting a go-
norrhoea, firll gave rife to t!ie fuppofition of this lall affedion
being itfelf fyphilitic, the notion might be erroneous, and the
fecondary venereal complaints admit of explanation in another
way. Among the received doftrines concerning lues venerea,
the poffibilityof the fypliihtic virus being abforbed from the
furface of the body, without any ulceration of the (]<in,
feems to have gained the general affent of modern prafti-
tioners. In this manner buboes, fore throats, nodes, erup-
tions, and other fecondary venereal fymptoms, may be occa-
fioned. Such ablorption is the more likely to occur where
the cuticle is moill and thin. Many cafes, where ni-ither
gonorrhaea nor chancre has exifted, can be explained in no
other way ; unlefs, indeed, we fuppofe the fore to have been
fo trivial, and to have healed fo quickly, as to have efcaped
the patient's notice or recollection. Secondary venereal
fymptoms may be produced in either of thefe modes, and
yet, though no chancre can be traced, and a gonorrhcea, as
happening to be a previous maladv, falls under fufpicion of
being the original caufe of the conllitutional complaints, the
notion may be on the above account entirely erroneous.

We are aware of the fentiment entertained by Dr. Adams
and many other prattitioners, that it is the nature of a chan-
cre to increale in all diredlions till mercury is exhibited.
However true this may be as a general obfervation,, few fur-
geons of extenfive experience will be perfuaded that there are

no

LUES VENEREA.

no exceptions. We have heard it confe/Ted by a furgcon,
vlio has feen as much of the venereal dilpafe ab any man,
that fypliihtic fores, inftead of fpreaJing to an iinHmifd
extent, will i'ometimes heal up without a;i\ mercury beinp
given, the difoafc afterwards breaking out, however, in another
form. B^fides, who C'li doubt that guaiacum, ;ind tome
other remedies, have heakd venereal f.'res, thout;h they
mav not have extirpated the difeafe in Inch manner as to
hinder the accefs of future mifchief? We (h;'Uprefently find,
on the authority of Mr. Pearfon, that even bark, and other ar-
ticles, will make primary venereal complaints give v.ay,
without the afliilanee of mercury. Mr. Clutterbuck, in a
letter addreffed to Dr. Adams, makc^ the following re-
marks : " I have feen cafes whicli induce me "o believe that
the venereal difeafe, in fome of its ftaj^es, and in certain
circumllances, may get well without mercury, or any other
remedy. But this is contrary to the dodriiie of Mr.
Hunter, who fuppofed that venereal aftions go on increafing,
without any tendency to wear theinf-lves out.

" That ues venerea is much iiodiiied by climate and other
circumllances, is generally allowed ; tliat it has been cured
by other means than mercury, we have alfo very fufEcient
evide-nce in the older writers on the fubjecl : not to mention
the late fuccefsful trials with acids and other fubitances."
See Remarks on f.-me of the Opinions of John Hunter^
&c. by Henry Clutterbuck, p. 27.

Dr. Adams informs us, that according to the laws of
morbid poifons, when a chancre has exided and been cured,
a perpetual memorial of the event muft be left, becaufe the
fore heals without granulations. In prafticc, we have fo
frequently feen this obfervation contradidied, that we are
fomewhat furprized at its ever having been advanced. Chan-
cres are not only often filled up by granulatinns before be-
coming covered with (Icin ; but there is aftually a redun-
dance of luch new fubftance, and we are obliged to reprefs
it with lunar cauftic. Mr. Clutterbuck has remarked, in his
letter to Dr. Adams, " With rcfped to what you fuppofe a
law of m :rbid poifons, that lofs of fubftance in their primary
ulcers is never fupplied, but that fl<inning takes place imme-
diately, as foon as the poifon ceafes to aci, 'Ahlit, in the fe-
condary ulcers of thcfe difeafes grar.u'aticns as conftantly
take place and fupply the loft f.bftancc ; I fufpeft the dif-
ference to be r;jther owing to the nature of the afFcCled
parts, according to the greater or Icfs readinefs with which
they take on nnd complete the healing procefs. Thus, for
iuflauce, in .he confluent fijiail-pox, the face alone fuffers
materially from pitting, though the ll<in on o^ber parts has
been equally crowded with puftules, &c The traces of
previous chancre are much more vifibie on the glans than on
the prepuce.'' P. 71.

Thefe and other reflections, ftated in the article Gonor-
RHCE.\, make us difbelieve in the identity of the virus of this
malady and lues venerea, as well as the poffibihty of fecondary
venereal fvmptoms ever in reality being the conlequence of
any kind of gonorrhcca.

The Huntcnan doctrines refpefting lues venerea produced
a fudden and conliuera' le revolution in the theories concern-
ing the nature and treatment of this diftemper ; and, as they
are ftiU highly luterc'.ing, and continue to have vail in-
fluence over modern pr.iCtice, we feel it our duty to enter a
Lttle further into the explanation of them.

The effeifs produced by the venereal poifon appeared to
Mr. Hunter to arife from its peculiar or fpecific irritation,
joined with the aptnefs of the living principle to be irritated
by fuch a cauie, and the part fo irritated acting accordingly.
He therefore confidered it as a poifon, which, by irritating

the living parts in a manner pecnhar to itfelf, produced an
inflammation pecuhar to that irritation, and occafioned the
formation of a fpecific kind of maner, 'hat could alone arife
from that particular fort of infl?,nim< -i-jn. P. 10.

The following feems to us a very fair fummary of the
prmcipal opinions promulgated by this philofophical and ori-
gu;A charafter, on the fubir-ft of hies venerea.

1. That the venereal poifon, being taken into the fyflem,
becomes univcrfally diffufcd, and con'arriinates fuch pans 95
arc fiiiceptible of the venereal adion ; nnd tha' ii is foon
afterwards expelled the fyftem, along with fon.e of ihe ex-
cretions.

2. That the parts contamina'cd do not immediately go
into venereal aclion ; but that they acquire a new ftatc, or
condition, which is termed a d'ljpofuiijn to take on the vene-
real aftion.

3. That the number of parts contamirated does not de-
pend on the quantity orftrength of -he viru abforbed.

4. That the difpojilion once formed in a part, necefTarily
goes on to aftion at fome future period.

5. That mercury can cure the venereal aaion ; but cannot
remove the difpofttion whieh has been previoufly formed, and
has not yet come into aftion.

6. That although mercury does not deftroy the difpo.
fition already formed, yet that it prevents it from form-
ing-

7. That a'lhou^h the difpofition continues, it does not go
into aftion during the ufe of mercury.

8. That the aftion, Iiaving once taken place, goes on in-
creafing, without wea ing itielf out.

9. That parts once cured never become contaminated
again from the fame ftock of infeiflion.

10. That the matter of the fecondary ulcer is not in-
feftious.

H. That the venereal aftion is as foon deftroyed in a
large chancre as in a fmall one, the mercury aAing equally
on every part of the lore.

We (hall now endeavour to defcribe the different forms
in which fyphilis prefents itfelf to our notice ; we fhall thea
introduce fome general obfervations on the treatment of the
dileafe ; and afterwards conclude with fuch remarks as feem-
necefTary 'o convey the requifite information refpe6king the-
manage'Tient of each particular cafe.

Of Chancres — Whatever may be the efFeft arifing from
the application of venereal matter to a fecreting furface un-
covered with cuticle, whether gonorrhcca, as Mr. Hunter
reprefents, or a fyphilitic lore, as Mr. B. Bell has a(rerted,it
is admitted by all parties, that when the venereal virus is
applied to any part of the common Ikin, a peculiar fore,
called a chancre, is apt to be occafioned. This, which is
the primary venereal ulcer, is generally caught on the parts
of generation, 111 conlequence of a connection between the
fexes ; but any part of the body may be affefted by the
apphcation of venereal matter, efpecially if the cuticle i»
thni. In men, chancres ufu.dly occur upon the franum,
glans penis, prepuce, or upon the common il<in of the body
of the penis, the moft frequent fituation being the fra»num,
or corona glandis. The reafon why chancres commonly
affeft thefe parts depends upon the manner in which fuct
fo.-es are caught, and not upon any greater fpecific ten-
dency in the parts to catch 'the dileale, than exifts m other
fituations. They affedl the fnenura thus frequently, becaufe
that I; ;rt is irregular, and the inteftious matter is apt to lie
undi urbed in the folds, by which means it has time to
irri'die and inltame the place where it lodges, and to pro-
duce there the fuppurative and ulcerative inflammation. On

8 t}«.

LUES VENEREA.

■ftie other TianJ, fince the matter is eafily rubbed off pro-
■aiincnt parts by every thintr that touches them, they oftener
cfcape the diloafe. In lefs common initances, chancres are
■feen on the fcrotum, and even on the (kin of the pubcs.

In women, cliancres moftly take place on the labia and
nymphs. In a few examples they are met with on the
perinoum. They arc generally formed on the inner furface of
the labia, thongh fometimes juft on their edge, or even on
their outfide. Cliancres have been oblerved in the vagina ;
in thcfe cafes Mr. Hunter fufpefted, that the fores never
occupy ftich llluatidn originally ; but arife there from the
Ipreading of ulcers on the infide of the labia. In women
■the ulcenitions. are apt to be more numerous than in men,
becaufe tlie furtacc, lor the occurrence of chancres, is more
e-^teiifive.

From what has already been obferved, it mull be o!)vious,
■that chancres may be caught in other ways befides coition.
Whenever venereal matter accidentally comes into contaft
'with any part of the (km, where a fore, cut, or fcratch
cnifts, or whenever fuch matter is applied where the cuticle
is thin and moid, a chancre is likely to be the confequence.
Mr. Hunter faw on the red part of the lip a chancre, which
was as broad as a fi.xpence, and caught the patient knew
■rot how; it was attended with bubo under the jaw, and
might have been the confequeuce of infectious matter inad-
vertently conveyed to the part by the patient's own hngcrs.
( P. 217.) In Dr. W. Hunter's leflures, mention ufed to be
-made of a midwife in exter.five praftice, who, having caught
■a chancre on her right fore-hnger in examining a pregnant
woman that had the difeafe, infcfted no kis than eighty
other women in the courfe of her bufinefs. That lurgeons
occafionally catch chancres by venereal matter lodging in a
•flight cut, or fcratch, on their hands or fingers, is univerfally
known.

It does not follow, as a matter of certainty, that becaufe
•venereal matter has been applied to the furface of the body,
a chancre is lure to enfue. The thicknefs of the cuticle, no
jdaubt, frequently hinders infeftion, and the difeafe is often
prevented by the matter being waftied or rubbed away. It
-is believed, that fome perfons cohabit with difeafed women
with little rifle, and we are toM they are, for the mofl part,
-ilroiig fubjefts, with a fhort prepuce, and of courfe thegians
always uncovered.

It is a circumftance worthy of attention, that when a
■chancre is caught upon the hands or fingers, as related
above, the virus leems conltantly to operate more power-
fully than when fuch a fore is formed m one of the ufual
fituations. " I know a midwife," favs Svvediaur, " who
having been infected in this manner feveral years ago, Pill
fuffers from the dileafe ; and we have another inftance in
this metropolis of an eminent male practitioner in the fame
art. who, by delivering an infe<iled woman got ulcers in his
hand, and at this preient time llill laboiu'S under the confe-
quences, though it is now three years fince he received the
iufeiliopi. I know a gentleman, who wounding his linger
by accident with a pen-knife, expofed it the fame evening to
infection, without 'fufpe<5ting any bad confequences ; the
uound changed in two days to a very bad venereal ulcer,
-accompanied with a painful and obftiuate fwelling of the
whole arm, together with a bubo under the arm-pit, and
fymptoms of a general infection." Praftical Obfervations
jon Venereal Complaints, p. 194, edit. 1.

The time, which elapfes between the application of tlie
virus ar.d the appearance of a chancre, is exceedingly dif-
ferent in difi'ereiit cafes, depending however, in fome mea-
sure, uu the nature of the part affected. According to Mr.

Huntqr, the difeafe generally begins earlier in the franiim,
or termination of the prepuce in the glans, than on the glans
itfell, the fcrotum, or ihecomuron flcin of the penis. This
celelirated furgcon was acquainted with examples, in whi«li
chancres made their appearance as early as twenty-four hours
after infeftion ; but on tiie other hand, he mentions inftanccs
in which fuch fores did not begin till feven or eight weeks
after the application of the virus.

The inflammation which precedes a chancre, like mofl
other inflammations which terminate in ulcers, begins firlt
with an itching in the part. If it is the glans that is in-
flamed, a fmall pimple generally appear* full of matter,
without much liardnefs, or feeming inflammation, and with
very little tumefadtion, the glans not fwelling fo much from
inflammation as many other parts do, efpecially the prepuce.
Chancres on the glans are alfo lefs painful and annoying than
thofe on the prepuce. When, however, an ulcer of this
kind affefts the froenum, or in particular the prepuce, the
inflammation is more extenfive and viiible. The itching
gradually changes into pain. In fome cafes the furface of
the prepuce is lirfl excoriated, and ulceration afterwards
takes place; while, in other inftanccs, a fmall pimple or
abfcefs is the forerunner of the ulcers as on the glans. The
fore becomes furrounded by a thickening, which, at firft,
and while of the true venereal kind, is very circiunfcribcd,
and iiiftead of diftufing ilfelf imperceptibly into tlie fur-
rounding parts, has rather an abrupt termination. The
bafe of a chancre is hard, and the edges fomewhat promi-
nent. ^\^len the fore begins on, or near the fra;num, it
often happens that this p^rt is quite deftroyed, or elfe a
hole is made through it by the ulceration. Hunter,
p. 2i8, 219.

The indurated bafe, or furrounding thickening of a
chancre, is a moft: remarkable fymptom, and one to which
fiirgical writers exhort us to pay confiderable attention ;
for if the chancre heal, and a hardnefs remain, it will either
break out again, when the eonftitution becomes infeftcd, or
the hardnels will ftill be increafed, as ominous and indicative
of a conftitutional infeftion. " This fymptom, therefore,
will always explain, by its prefence, that the local infeftion
is not radically removed ; and by its abfence that it is." If,
by embracing the part, which was the feat of the chancre,
the appearance be thin, fo that the finger and thumb do
almoil meet, the cure may then be concluded to be perfect ;
but if a hardnefs and thicknefs remain, although it be
healed, and it there be a fcale upon the part where the chancre
was, then the cafe mult be deemed as not cured, and as
requiring much more to be done for it." Foot on Lues
Venerea, p. 413.

When chancres occur on the fcrotum, or body of the
penis, they generally firlt appear in the form of a pimple,
which turns to a fcab, and this being rubbed off, is fuc-
ceeded by a larger one. Chancres, thus fituated, are at-
tended with lefs inflammation than fuch as take place on
the fncnum or prepuce; but v\itli more than thofe on the
glans.

When the difeafe advances, it fomxtimes partakes of the
inflammation peculiar to the habit, and becomes more dif-
fufed, fo as to produce phymofis, paraphymofis, and other
difagreeable complaints, which tend to retard the cure.

Trie local or immediate elfefts of the venereal difeafe are
feldom wholly fpecific, but partake of the conilitutioual
inflammation. The firllappearance and progrels of chancres,
tlierefore, fliould be watched, as the nature of the conlli-
tution may thereby be afcertaincd. If, fays Mr. Hunter,
the iiifiammation ipreads fall and cofifiderably, it Ihews a

conftitutioB

LUES VENEREA.

crmllitution more difpofed to inflammation than natural. If
the pain is great, it (lievvs a itrong difpulitioii to irritation.
A llroniT tcncU'iK-y tr> mortilication is aUo fometinies be-
trayed by chancres beginning in an early ftage to form
doughs.

According to Mr. Hnnter, venereal ulcers have no dlf-
pofition to heal, which, generally fpeaking, is undoubtedly
true. We may add, that the edges of a chancre are com-
monly jagged and vertical, inllead of fhelving, like thofe of
moll other fort's ; and its furface, before the adramiftration
(if remedies, is fmeared with a greyilh vifcid matter, which
1^ in very fmall q'laiuity, and faid to have a peculiar fmell.
If a bit of lint is applied to the fore in this Hate, it becomes
adherent to the part, the matter fecreted not being enough
to moillen and loolen the connettion.

When there is a confiderable lofs of fubftance, either from
jloughing or ulceration, a profiife bleeding is no uncommon
circumltance, more efpecially if the ulcer is on the glans,
the blood efcaping from the corpus fpongiofum urethra:.
The ulcers, or lloughs, often go as deep as the corpus
cavernofum penis, and give rife to ftill more copious bemur-
rhaj'es.

A furgeon fliould never be too hafty in pronouncing fores
to be chancres ; the genitals, the common feat of a chancre,
are, " hke every other part of the body, liable to difeafes of
the ulcerative kind, and from fome circumllances raiher
more fo than other parts, for if attention is not piid to
c'eanlinefs, we have often excoria'ions, or fuperficial ulcers
from that caufe ; alfo, like every other part that has been
injured, thefe parts, when once they have fuffercd from the
venereal difeafe, are very liable to ulcerate anew." Hunter,
p. 215-.

Until fome of the virus has been abforbed from the fur-
face of a chancre, fuch fore is to be regarded as entirely a
local afFedion. Unfortunately, the time when this abforp-
tion happens can never be exaiflly known, fo that, in the
earliett ilage of the ulcer, moft praiftitioners are fearful of
acting, altOt;ether, as if there were no pofllbility of the con-
ftitution being already contaminated.

Some confequenccs of chancres will be hereafter fpoken
of.

Of Buboes, — A venereal bubo is an inflammation of an
abforbent gland, and arifes from the abforption of the fyphi-
litic virus, which, in being conveyed from the furface to
which it was firll applied, towards the trunk of the lym-
phatic iy.lem, has to pafs through glands, and in doing this,
it often makes thele parts inflame and fuppurate. Venereal
matter may be taken up by the abforbents under various
circumftantes. The leall frequent way is where it has only
been applied to fome found furface, without having pro-
duced any local efi"eft on the part, but has been abiorbed
immediately upon its application. Accorduig to Mr. Hun-
ter, another mode of abiorplion is where fome of the matter
of a gonorrhoea is taken up by the lymphatics, and carried
into the circulation. A third mode is the abforption of the
matter from an ulcer, and is bv far the moft comtr.on. A
fourth way is the abforp'.ion from a wound. Mr. Hunter,
■perhaps, with great propriety, ufed to call every ablcefs in
the abforbiiig fy flem, ariiing in conlequence of the ablorptioii
of venereal matter, a bubo, whether in the veflels or the
glands themfelves.

As thefe veffels and glands are immediately irritated by
the fpecific virus before it has undergone any change in its
paffage, the confequent inflammation mull, therefore, have
the tam.e fpecific quality, and the matter fecreted in the
fvvelling be venereal.

In conlidering tiie fubjefl of buboes, Mr. Hunter di-

vided the abforbent fyftem into the veniU themfelves, and
into their convolutions, or lymphatic glands.

The abforbent vedcls are not fo often inflamed as the
glands, but when they are thus afiected, in confequcnce of
a chancre upon the glans, or prepuce, they generally appear
like a hard cord, runnin,; from tke fore along the dorfum of
the penis. Such inflammations of the lymph.-.tics fometimes
ariit! from a thickening of the prepuce in cafes of gonori
rhtea, that part being ufually at the time in a llate of exco-
riation. Thefe cords often terminate infenfibly near thi
root of the penis, or the pubes. In other inllances they
extend further to a lymphatic gland in the groin.

The lymphatics, thus inflamed in confequcnce of imbibing
venereal, or, at leall, irritating matter, often fuppurate,
and this fometinies in feveral places, fo as to produce as
many buboes, or fmall ablcefles, on the body of the penis.

Inflammation of the lymphatic glands is much more fre-
quent than the foregoing afleCtion, and is caufed by the
venereal matter being carried into them. The llruclure
of thefe parts appears to coiifift of the ramifications of
lymphatic veffels, which, after branching it, re- unite again.
We may infer, from this kind -jf arrangement, that the fluid
abforbLd is, in fome mealure, detained in the glands, and
thereby has a greater opportunity of communicating the
difeafe to them, than to the lymphatic veffels, through whicb
its courfe is probably more rapid.

Since the lymphatic glands are liable to inflame from
many different caufes, furgeons fliould be careful to dif-
criminate fucli fwellings as arife from the venereal poifon,
from others of a divcrie nature. They fliould firll enquire,
whether there is any venereal complaint at a greater dif-
tanc« trom the heart, as chancres on the penis, or, whether
there has been any preceding difeafe in fucli lituation. They
fhould enquire, whether any mercurial ointment has been
rubbed on the leg or thigh of the affcfted iide, as mercurial
friclions, thus praCtifed for the cure of a chancre, will
fometimes give rife to a glandular fwelling in the groin,
that may be erroneoufly taken for a venereal bubo. We
are alfo advifed by Mr. Hunter to obferve, whether there
has been any previous dileafe in the conilitution, as a cold,
fever, &c. He direfts us, moreover, to pay attention to the
quicknefs, or llownefs, with which the tumour has formed,,
and warns us of the pofllbility of miftaking a rupture, lum-
bar abfcels, and an aneuriim of the crural artery, for 3
bubo.

Some cafes feeni to evince, that a bubo fometimes does not
begin till feveral days, and even longer, after the virus has
been abforbed, thechancris having been healed this length
of time, before the gland begins to inflame.

The gl.inds nearell to the leat of abforption are, in gij.
neral, the only ones attacked. Thus, when -lenereal matter
is abforbed from a fore on the penis, the glands in the
groin are in danger of being affcctud. When the matter is
abforbed from the vulva in women, the glands liable to be
inflamed, are thole lituatid between the labium and thigh,
and tlie round ligament.

Mr. Hunter believed, that, commonly, only one gland is
affeifed at a time by the abforption of venereal matter, and
he fuggells this circumftance as a dillinguilhing mark be-
tween venereal buboes and other difeafes of the lymphatic
glands.

The abforbent vefTels and glands, fituated beyond the firfti
order of glands, or fuch as are neareft to the feat of abforpi.
tion, are never affefted. Hence, thofe near the iliac veffe'i
and back always eicape the effetls arifing from the ab-
forption of venereal matter from the genitals. It is alfo
cbl'ervcd by Mr, Hunter, that when the duealk has been-
I contracted-

LUES VENEREA.

contrafted by a cut, or fore upon tlie finger, the bubo
takes place a little above the bend of the arm, upon the
iniide of ihe biceps mufde ; and that, when fiich bubo has
occurred, none is, in general, produced in tiie arm-pit,
whichMs the moft common place for the glands to be af-
fected by abforpfion. This celebrated furgeon, however,
mentions two rare exceptions, in which buboes occurred
as well in the arm-pit as above the elbow.

Mr. Hunter once fufpedted, that the reafon of the fecond
and third fcries of glands not being afTc(Sed, might be
owing to a change produced in the matter by the firft
glands, through which the virus pafles. Reflecting, how-
ever, that the matter of a bubo is infeftious, like that of a
chancre, and that fome of it can hardly fail to be taken up
bv the abforbents, he perceived that the above explanation
failed. He therefore altered his fentimeut, and concluded,
that the internal fituation of the glands, more remote from
the feat of abforption than the hrll order, might prevent
the venereal irritation from taking place in them. We may
remark, that this reafoning will not account for the occa-
fional production of a bubo in the arm-pit above another at
the bend of the arm. It is pofTible, however, that, in this
laft kind of cafe, fome of llie virus from the chancre on
the finger may arrive at the axiUa, without being conveyed
at all through the abforbent glands, which are iituated
at the inner fide of the arm, a little above the internal
condyle.

In men, buboes from a venereal complaint on the penis are
fituated in the groin. Mr. Hunter, we know, compre-
hended gonorrhoea among the caufes, and, in this cafe, he
thought, that both groins were equally expofed to bubo.
When the fwelling in the groin originates from a chancre,
it is generally on that fide of the body to which the fore is
neareft, though cafes happen which are exceptions to this
cbfervation, and admit of explanation by the anaftomofes
of the lymphatics.

Mr. Hunter apprifes us, that the inguinal glands are not
conftantly arranged in one exa£t manner, and that, there-
fore, the courfe of the abforbent vefiels mull be fubjetl to
variety. Hence a bubo, from a venereal fore on the penisj
has been a confiderable May down the thigh, or in front of
Poupart's jigament, or near the pubcs.

As, in men, chancres are almoft always caught upon the
penis, fo buboes in them are commonly fituated in the
groins ; but we have already noticed, that chancres occa-
fionally form in other parts of the body, and, of courfe, bu-
boes are not necefiarily confined to one fituation, the neareit
external glands, between the heart and the feat of abforp-
tion, every where in the body, being liable to (hare the lame
fate as thofe in the groin.

When buboes arife in women, unprecededby any chancre,
it is more difficult to find out whether they are venereal or
rot, than jn men. For, in the latter examples, when they
arife without any local complaint, it is know-n that no fuch
complaint exifts, and, therefore, that the bubo cannot be
venereal, except by ir.micdiate abforption from a found fur-
face. But, fays Mr. Hunter, in women, it is often difficult
to difcover v^'hether any infedtion is prefent or not ; and
the nature of the bubo can only be made out by paying,
attention to the way in which it began, its progrels, and
other circumftances.

When chancres are fituated near the meatus urinarius,
nyraphjE, clitoris, labia, or mons veneris, the abforbed mat-
ter is carried along one or both of the round ligaments, and
the buboes are formed in thofe ligaments, juft before they
enter the abdomen. Mr. Hunter believed that they never
extended further, and he fuppofed them to be inflammations

of veflels, and not of glands. When chancres are fituated
far back, near or in the perineum, the abfi)rb'.'d matter is
carried forwards, along the angle between the labium and
the thigh, to the glands in the groin. "M^hroughout this
courfe fmall buboes may occur ; or th; virus, entering
the inguinal glands, a bubo in the groin is frequently
produced.

The bubo, fays Mr. Hunter, commonly begins with a
fenfe of pain, which leads the patient to examine the part,
where a fmall hard tumour is to be felt. This increafes,
like every other inflammation that has a tendency to fup.
purate ; and, unlefs prevented, it goes on to fuppuration and
ulceration, the progrefs of the matter to the Run being very
quick. 'J here are, indeed, fome cafes whii'h are flow in
their progrefs : in thele, Mr. Hunti-r thought the inflam-
matory prcceiswas kept back by mercury, or other means ;
or clfe retarded by a fcrofiilous tende :cy, fuch a difpofition
in the parts not fo readily admitting the true venereal
a£lion.

At firft, the inflammation is confined to theg'and, which
is moveable in the cellular membrane ; but as the fwelling
increafes in fize^ or as the inflammation, and, r'ore efpeci-
ally, the fuppuration advarcv, the fpecific diliance is ex-
ceeded, the furroundmg cellular membrane becomes more
inflamed, and the tumour is more difiufed. Sorre buboes
become eryfipclatous, by which means they afL' r -ndered
more diffufed and (Edematous, and do not readily luppurate.

The following is then, according to Mr. KuuIlm, the true
charadler of a venereal bubo : it is coniined to one gland ; it
keeps within the fpecific difiance, til! fuppuration has taken
place, and then becomes more difTufed. It is rapid in its
progiefs from inflammation to fuppt-ration and ulceration.
In general, the fuppuration is copious, confidering the fize
of the tumour, and the abfcefs is fingle. The pain is very
acute, and the inflamed fkin exhibits a florid red colour.

Where no local difeafe has exifted, the nature ef a bubo
will always be attended with more uncertainty, than when
there has been fome difeafe on the penis. As, however,
every inflammation of the inguinal glands is fu)ped\ed, the
patient runs but little riflv of not being cured if his cafe is
venereal ; but, (continues Mr. Hunter,) " I am all aid, that
patients have often undergone a mercurial courie, when there
has been no occafion for it.'' P. 266.

The fame diftinguiihed praftitioner thought, that> there
were two forts of butjoes arifing without any vllible caufe.
One kind inflame and fuppurate brifl<ly, as thole buboes
ufually do which arife from chancres, or gonorrhoea. The
manner of their progrefs made him always fufpect them to
be venereal,

'I'lie fecond kind are generally preceded and attended
with flight fever, or the common fymptoms of a cold, and
they are generally indolent and flow in their progrefs. If
they are more quick than ordinary, they becom.e more dif-
fufed than the venereal, and probably are not confined to
one gland. When very flow, they give but little fenfation ;
and though the fenfation is more acute when they are
quicker, yet it is not fo (harp as in the true venereal
bubo. Befides, they do not commonly fuppurate ; but be-
come flationary. When they do fuppurate, it is (lowly,
and often in more glands than one, the inflammation being
more diflufed, and yet not very fevcre, confidering the fize
of the fwelling. The matter makes its way to the fkin
flowly, unattended with much pain, and the colour of the
fwelling is fomewhat purple, inftead of the florid rednefs
which the furface of the venereal bubo difplays. Sometimes
the abfcelTes are very confiderable ; but then they are not
painful.

In

LUES VENEREA.

In judging of the nature of a bubo, Mr. Hunter re-
•ommends us lirlt to conlider, whether or not there are any
venereal complaints exilling. If there are none, this is a
prefumptive proof, th.at the glandular fwelling is not vene-
real. If the tumour is only in one gland, very flow in
its progrefs, and gives but little pain, it is likely to be fcro-
fulous. If the fvvclling is coniiderable, diffufed, and at-
tended with fome inflammation an(T pain, then, in all pro-
bability, a conditutional aftion prevails, attended with
laflitude, lofs of appetite, want of fleep, fmall quick pulfe,
&c. Such fwcllings, (adds Mr. Hunter,) are flow in their
cure, and are not afFefted by mercury, even when it is ap-
plied very early.

This gentleman likewife adverts to other cafes, which he
terms mixed, when the venereal matter, like a cold, or
fever, has only irritated the glands to difeafc, producing in
them fcrofula, to which they were predilpofed. In thefe
examples, the fwellings commonly arife llowly, give but
httle pain, and feem rather to be haftened in their progrefs,
if mercury is given with a view of dellroying the venereal
difpofition. Some fuppurate under fuch treatment, while
others, which probably had a venereal taint at firft, be-
come fo indolent, that mercury has no effedl at all upon
them, and in the end, they either get well of thcmfelves,
or by other remedies. See Hunter on Ven. Difeafe.

AVith refpeA to the bubo which arifes from gonorrhoea,
we believe it is only fyinpathetic, or the con fequencc of ir-
ritation, though, as we have already ftated, Mr. Hunter
looked upon fome of thefe cafes as aftually venereal,
and originating from the abforption of the gonorrhoeal
matter.

Dr. Adams avers, that he is unacquainted with any in-
ftance in which the conftitution has become affefted in con-
fequence of a bubo, without a previous chancre, or go-
norrhoea ; for the reader (hould underlland, that even a
venereal bubo does not imply a general contamination ; the
virus is only on its way towards the circulation, when it
gives rife to the fwelling in the groin. Dr. Adams more-
over alfures us, that he has never feen reafon to repent the
not having treated fuch buboes as venereal. " If," (fays
this gentleman,) " a bubo has been the confequence of an
ulcer on the penis, which healed fpontaneoufly, we may be
certain that it is not venereal. It may be the effecl of a
morbid poifon, as probably many of Celfus's were ; it may
be afilfted by, and even heal under, the ufe of mercury ;
but thi^ will be no proof of its venereal origin." On
Morbid Poifons, p. 1 28. 2d edit.

Some additional remarks on buboes will be introduced
when we conlider the treatment-

Of Secotidtiry; or Conjlkutlonal Symptoms. — By fecondary,
or conftitutional fymptoms, are commonly underltood thofe
effefts which arife from the fyphihtic virus being abforbed
and carried into the common circulation. It is moft likely,
that in cafes of chancre, the contamination of the fyilem
takes place about the beginning of the local complaints ;
for, in moft inilances, the chance of fuch infeftion hap-
pening afterwards is greatly lelfened, by the patient having
fpeedy recourfe to the ufe of mercury, which generally afts
as a preventive.

The abforption of venereal matter into the fyftem raoftly
arifes from a chancre, and Mr. Hunter joined in the belief,
that it nay alio foifietimes originate from a gonorrhoea. We
have already adverted to the opinion, that the virus may
poffibly be obferved, in fome inftances, without there being
any fore at all produced in the feat of abforption, that is, where
the matter is applied. Mr. Hunter thought, that this might

Vol. XXI.

happen upon a half-internal furface, like that of the glans
penis, though, perhaps, not on the found /kin. Venereal
matter may likewife be received into the conftitution by
being applied to common ulcers, although not neceffarily
rendering thefe ulcers themfelves venereal. Wounds alfo
afford a furface for fuch abforption, but Mr. Hunter be-
lieved, that ulceration was always firft produced.

Some parts of the body are much lefs fufccptible of luc*
venerea than others ; and many parts, as far as prefent evi-
dence extends, feem quite incapable of being affefted.
Mr. Hunter never faw tlie brain, heart, llomach, liver, kid-
nies, S:c. thus difcafed. This celebrated writer divides
the parts which are capable of becoming contaminated, in
confequence of the abforption of the virus into the circulation,
into two orders. The firft order confifts of the fkin, tonfils,
nofe, throat, infide of the mouth, and fometimes the tongue.
Thefe are the parts commonly affefted at an early period,
after the paftage of the virus into the conftitution. The
fecond order confifts of the periofteum, fafcix, tendons, aad
bones ; parts which become difeafed lefs early.

Mr. Hunter, with much appearance of reafon, has endea-
voured to account for this feeming greater fufceptibility in fome
parts than others, by the manner in which the former are
expofed to cold. Thus, he obferves, the fl<in is continually
fubjefted to more cold than the internal parts are ; and the
venereal difeafe always more readily affefts parts fo expofed
than others. This may be the reafon why the mouth, nofe,
and fliin are affected with particular freauency, and alfo why
the periofteum, and moft fuperficial furfaces of the bonts,
are moft liable to be difeafed. .The diftemper, however,
feems to fliew fome preference to fuch bones as are pai^
ticularly hard.

In treating of chancres and buboes, we had occafion to
obferve, that the matter, in both thefe cafes, partook of the
fpccific quahty, and, of courfe, was capable of communi-
cating the difeafe. We have now to notice, that this is not
the cafe with the matter of fecondary venereal ulcers, or
fuch as arife in confequence of the introduftion of the viru*
into the fyftem at large. Indeed, none of the fecondary
fymptoms are infeftious. As Mr. Hunter has ftated, thif
form of the difeafe has not the power of contaminating
parts, not already under its influence, even in the fame confti-
tution. Probably, the poifon only irritates juft after it»
abforption, and is foon expelled with fome of the fecretions,
inftead of circulating with the blood during the whole time
of the difeafe.

Mr. Hunter has concluded one of his moft interefting
chapters with the follovving inferences.

Firft ; that moft parts, if not all, that are affefted in the
lues venerea, arc afi'efted with the venereal irritation at tlie
fame time.

Secondly ; that parts expofed to cold are the firft that
admit the venereal aftion ; then the deeper parts, according
to their fufceptibility for fuch adion.

Thirdly ; vhe venereal difpofition, when once formed
in a part, muft neceflkrily go on to form the venereal
action.

Fourthly : that all parts of the body, under fuch difpO'
fition, do not run into aftion equally faft, fome requiring
fix or eight weeks, others as many months.

Fifthly ; in the parts that come firft into aflion, the dif-
eafe goes on increaiing, without wearing itfelf out ;
while thofe which are fecond in time, follow the fame
courfe.

Sixthly; mercury hinders a difpofition from forming ; or,
in other words, prevents contamination.

4 E Seventhly ;

LUES VENEREA.

Seventhly ; mercury does not deftroy a difpofition already
formed.

Eiglitlily ; mercury hinders the aftion from taking place,
although the difpofition be formed.

Ninthly ; mercury cures the aftion.

Secondary Vemreal Ulcers. — Thefe are of a very different
nature from chancres, or fucli fores as originate direftly
from the application of venereal matter to the (kin. They
are generally much lets p:iinful than the latter, attended
with lefs inflammation, and do not fecrete matter, that can
communicate the difeafe to others, or caufe buboes in the
patient himfelf. They are more readily formed on mucous
membranes, than on the common integuments, and there-
fore are very frequent on the tonfils, and other parts of the
throat. Sores of this defcript:on arc often of a round (liape,
though, in certain examples, they eat away the parts, like
herpetic or phagedenic ulcers, fprcading from one part to
another, deftroying the (kin, and licaling on one fide, while
they are extending themfclves on another. Riclieraud has
feen ulcers of this kind, fpread in this manner nearly all
over the patient's body, producing one vail cicatrix ; and
he adverts to a particular fpecies of fccondary venereal ulcer,
which is of a round fhape, and begins to heal at its centre,
fo that towards the termination of the complaint the lore
reprefents an ulcerated circle, encompafling a round cicatrix.
When this variety of the difeafe makes progrefs, the ulcer-
ated ring becomes larger, while the cicatrix in the centre
undergoes a proportional increafe in fize. (Nof. Chirurg.
tom. i. p. 331, 332. edit. 2.) It may be doubted whether
the latter cafes are really fyphilitic : they certainly yield to
many remedies befides mercury, as our own obfervation
has convinced us. They may be cured by guaiacum, nitric
acid, a decottion of iarfaparilla, and elm bark, &c.

Vinereal Eruptions. — On this fubjeft Mr. Hunter has
pointed out to us the following circunillances.

The appearances on the ilvin generally occur all over the
body. The difcolourations make the flcin appear mottled,
and many of the eruptions difappear, while others continue,
and increafe with the difeafe.

In other cafes, the eruption comes on in diftin6l blotches,
which are often not obferved till the fcurfs have begun to
form. At other times, the eruption afTumes the appearance
of fmall diftinft inflammations, containing matter, and re-
fembling pimples, not being, however, fo pyramidtil, nor
fo red at the bafe. Mr. Hunter alfo obferves, that venereal
blotches, on their firit coming out, are often attended with
inflammation, which gives them a degree of tranfparency,
which is generally greater in . the fummer than the winter,
efpecially if the patient be kept warm. In a little time this
inflammation difappears, and the cuticle peels off in the form
of a fcurf. Tlifi lattec-pccurrence often mifleads the patient
and the furgeon, who look upon this dying away of the in-
flammation as a decay of the difeafe, till a fucceffion of
fcurfs undeceives them. Mr. Hunter adds, that the difco-
lourations of the cuticle arife from the venereal irritation, and
are to be feldom regarded as a true inflammation, finte they
rarely have any of its charatleriftics, fuch as tumefaction
>iandpain. Hdwever, he explains that in parts which arc
well covered, or which arc conftantly in contadt with other
parts, there is more of the true inflammatory appearance,
efpecially about the anus.

The parts affefted next begin to alter their appearance,
and form a copper-coloured, dry, inelaftic, cuticle, called a
fcurf. This is thrown ofi^, and new ones are formed. Mr.
Hunter relates, that thcfe appearances fpread to the breadth
of a fixpence, or Ihilliag ; but feldom more-extenfively, at

leaft for a confidcrable time. In the mean while, every
fucceeding fcurf becomes thicker and thicker, till at lall it
becomes a common fcab. Then the difpofition for the
formation of matter takes place iu the cutis underneath, and
a true ulcer is formed, which commonly fpr,ead3, although
in a flow way.

Thefe appearances arife firft from the gradual lofs of the
true found cuticle, which the difeafed cutis cannot re-produce.
As a kind of fubflitute for this want of cuticle, an exuda-
tion takes place, and forms a fcale. The matter afterwards
acquiring more confillence, at lafl forms a fcab. However,
before the difeirfc has attained this condition, the cutis has
ulcerated, after which the difcharge is more like true pus.
When this form of the lues venerea attacks the palms of the
hands and foles of the feet, where the cuticle is thick, this
latter part firfl becomes feparated, and peels off. A new
one is immediately formed, which alfo feparates. In this
manner, a fcries of new cuticles take place, in confequcnce
of fcurfs not being fo leadily formed as on the common flcin.
When the difeafe is confined Lo the palms of the hand<!, or loles
of the feet, Mr. Hunter mentions, that there is difliculty in
determining whether it is vfenercal or not : becaufe moft dif-
eafes of the cutis, in thefe fituations, produce a fcparation
of the cuticle, attended with the fame appearances in
all, and having nothing charaCleriRic of the venerea! dif-
eafe.

When the affefted part of t^ie flcin is oppofed by another
portion of flcin, which keeps it in fome degree more moift, as
between the nates, about the arms, between the fcrotum and
the thigh, in the angle between the two thighs, on the red
part of the lip, or in the arm-pits, the eruptions, inftead of
being attended with fcurfs and fcabs, become accompanied
by an elevation of the flcin, which is fwollea with extravafated
lymph into a white, foft, moiil, flat furface, which difcharges
a white matter.

A venereal eruption often attacks tfiat part of the fingers
on which the nail is formed. Here the difeafe renders that
furface red, which is feen fliining through the nail ; and if
allowed to continue, a fcparation of the nail takes place,
fimilar to that of the cuticle in the above cafes. However,
Mr. Hunter ftates, that there cannot be the fame regular
fuccefilou of nails, as of cuticles in other inftances.

Such furfaces of the body as are covered with hair may
alfo be attacked, and the hair feparates, and cannot be pro-
duced as long as the difeafe lafts.

Venereal Affed'ions of ihe Parts about theThroat. — Accord-
ing to Dr. Adams, the venereal ulcer in the throat is always,
what may be termed, a foul ulcer. Though its edges are defined,
its furface is always ragged and uneven, of a complexion
which can never be miftaken for a clean or healthy fore, that
is, for a fore difpofed to heal. The pus is of various colours,
from the afli-colour to the duflcy brown. From the nature
of the parts, a fcab cannot be formed, fo that the ulcerous
appearance is never interrupted. Its progrefs is more rapid
than on the flcin, as every adlion of inflammation, ulceration,
or healing, is always more rapid in thefe very fanguiferous
parts. It is rarely attended with pain. On Morbid Poifons,
p. 167. edit. 2.

When the throat, tonfils, or infideof the mouth, ar« af-
fefted, it is the nature of the difeafe to make its appearance
at once in the form of an ulcer, without much previous
fwclling.

The venereal fore-throat fliould be mofl carefully difcrimi-

nated from others, a thing that is not always at firfl very

eafy ; for fores in this fituation, which are really fyphilitic,

femetimes have much the fame appearance as others which

II are

LUES VENEREA.

are not fo. It is the character, however, of a venereal
fore-throat to be^in with ulceration of the furface of the
parts. Now, as Mr. Hunter has explained, it is the nature
of feveral other dileafes, in the fame fitiiation, not to pro-
duce direftly this kind of ulceration. One of thefe is com-
mon inflammation of the tonlils. The inflamed place often
fuppurates in the centre, fo as to form an abfccfs, which
burfts by ?. fniall opening ; but never looks like an ulcer,
that has bo^un upon the furface, like a true venereal fore.
The cafe, jullnow mentioned, is always attended with too
much inflammation, pain, and fwelling of the parts, to be
venereal. Alfo, when it fuppurates and burfts, it fubfides
directly, and it is generally attended with other inflammatory
fymptoms in the conftitutio.T.

Notice is likewife taken, by this moft celebrated furgeon,
of an indolent tumefaction of the tonfils, which is peculiar
to many perfons of a fcrofulous conftitution. The complaint
occafions a thicknefs of fpeech.

Sometimes coagulable lymph is thrown out on the furface
of the parts affevted, and produces appearances which are
by fome called ulcers, by fome^lloughs, and occafionally by
others, putrid fore-throats. The cafe is attended with too
much fwelling to be venereal ; and, with a little care, it may
eafily be dillinguifhed from an ulcer, or lofs of fubftance.
However, when this difference is not obvious at firft fight,
it is proper to endeavour to remove fome of the lymph, and
if the furface of the tonfil underneath fliould appear to be
free from ulceration, we may conclude, with certainty, that
the difeafe is not venereal. Mr. Hunter ftates, that he has
feen a chink filled with coagulable lymph, fo as to appear
very much like an ulcer ; but, on removing that fubftance,
ths tonfil underneath was found perfedlly found. He adds,
that he has feen cafes of a fwelled tonfil, having a flough in
its centre, which flough, before its detachment, looked very
like a foul ulcer. The ftage of the complaint, he fays, is
even more puzzling, when the flough has come out ; for
then the difeafe has moft of the charadters of the venereal
ulcer. Whenever he met with the difeafe in its firft ftage,
he always treated it as if it had been of the nature of eryfi-
pelaJ, or a carbuncle. When the complaint is in its fecond
ftage, without any preceding local fymptoms, he recom-
mends the praftitioner to fufpend his judgment, and to wait
a tittle, in order to fee how far Nature is able to relieve her-
felf. If there fliould have been any preceding fever, the
cafe is ftill lefs likely to be venereal. Mr. Hunter informs
us, that he has feen a fore-throat of this kind miftaken for
venereal, and mercury given till it afiaded the mouth, when
the medicine brought on a mortification of all the parts con-
cerned in the firft difeafe.

Another complaint of thefe parts, which Mr. Hunter
reprefents as being often taken for a venereal one, is an
ulcerous excoriation, 'which runs along their furface, be-
coming very broad and fometimes foul, having a regular
termination, but never going deeply into the fubftance of
the parts, as the venereal ulcer docs. No part of tlie infide
of the mouth is exempted from this ulcerous excoriation ;
but Mr. Hunter thought, that the difeafe moft frequently
occurred about the root of tlie uvula, and fpread forwards
along the palatum moUe. He remarks, that the complaint
is evidently not venereal, fince it does not yield to mercury.
He has feen thefe ulcerous excoriations continue for weeks,
without undergoing any change, and a true venereal ulcer
makes its appearance on the furface of the excoriated part.
He fays, that the excoriations in queftion have been cured
by bark, after the end of the mercurial courfe, which cured
the fyphilitic fore.

This author defcribcs the true venereal ulcer in the throat

as a fair lofs of fubftance, part being dug out, as it werei
from the body of the tonfil ; it has a determined edge, and
is commonly very foul, having thick white matter, like a
flough, adhering to it, and not admitting of being walhed
away. Ulcers in fucli fituations are always kept in a moift
ftate, and the matter cannot dry and form fcabs, as it does
on fores upon the fl<;in. The ulcer is alfo much more rapid
in its progrefs, and generally has thickened edges. Hunter
on Venereal Difeafe.

Dr. Adams, after reminding us not to confider every rag.
ged ulcer of the throat as certainly venereal, takes occa-
fion to remark, that he has feen more than one of this
defcription, which has healed whilft he has been making up
his mind, whether he fliould falivate his patient. He fays,
"the only diftinftion I know between thefe and true vcne-
real ulcers, is that the former are ufually attended with
more pain, the edge is alfo for the moft part lefs defined,
and the furface itfelf is more irregular ; the fever too, if any
attends, is not fuch as we have defcribed in fyphilis. But
the venereal ulcer is not always entirely free from pain, and
there is generally fome irregularity in its furface ; the fever
too, we have remarked, is often flight. Happily, this in-
tricacy does not often occur, but often enough to teach us
not to value ourfelves on a hafty decifion, when a little delay
will be unattended with danger, and perhaps fave our patient
a tirefome and unneceflary procefs. By watching the ulcer
attentively, we fliall be able to obferve wliether it continues
to fpread regularly, though flowly, ftill retaining its cha-
rafter, and not healing in any part. If this (hould continue
a few days, we fliall have no reafon to doubt its fyphilitic
charafter; but if the progrefs is flow, there can be no harm
in a further delay, the only inconvenience attending which,
will be the importunity of your patient. If, as is fome-
times the cafe, from the nature of the part, and the irrita-
bility of the conftitution, the progrefs of the ulcer fliould
be quicker, the charafter in all other refpefts well defined,
and the hiftory of the cafe leading to a fimilar conclufion,
we may, by ufing every poflible means of introducing mer-
cury, eafily accelerate our courfe. This will rarely be very
difficult, becaufe the fame irritability of conftitution which
produces an ulceration more rapid than ufual, is for the moft
part attended with quicker fuiceptibihty of the mercurial
irritation. i

" The fame directions are applicable, whether the ulcer
is feated on the tonfils, uvula, or palatum molle, or any of
the neighbouring parts, excepting the tongue, in which cafe
the progrefs is flower, the edges confequently thicker from
the ftruclure of the part, and the pain and inconvenience
greater from the fame caufe?, and alfo from its particular
offices." (Adams on Morbid Poifons, p. 167, 16S.) Ac-
cording to Mr. Hunter, lues venei** fometimes produces a
thickening and hardening of the tongue. We have feen a
cal'e or two, in which this part has been ftudded over with
largifli tubercles, or hard lumps, which yielded to mercury.
We doubt, however, whether thefe inftances were really
fyphilitic.

Venereal AffeShns of the Bones, Periojleum, Fafci£, and
Tendons. — Nodes-fyphilitk Pains. — Thefe complaints are
nodes and pains in the bones. A fwelling of the parts enu-
merated, originating from a fyphilitic caufe, receives the
appellation of a node. We have already obferved, that
Mr. Hunter divided the parts in which fecondary fy.mp-
toms manifeft themfelves into two orders ; the firft compre-
hending the fl<in and parts about the throat and mouth ; the
fecond, the bones, pcriofteum, fafcia:, and tendons. Thefe
latter ftructiires do not in general become affedled till the
dil'eafe has troubled the patient a confiderable time, nor
4 E 3 before

LUES VENEREA.

before it has made its attack on the firft order of parts.
Mr. Hunter, however, had feen a few cafes which were ex-
ceptions to this obfervation, the malady affefting the bones
before any complaints of the lliin or throat had happened.

When the deeper-feated, or fecond order of parts become
affefted, the progrefs of the difeafe is more gradual than in
the firft. The complaints produced bear a great refem-
blance to fcrofulous fwelliiigs, and the effefts of chronic
rheumatifm, excepting, however, that the joints are lefs
fubjedt to be affedted. At a time when there has been no
poilible means of catching the infedion for many months, a
fwelling will be formed on a bone, and having given little
pain, will not be taken much notice of till it is of confider-
able fize. In other inftances the pain may be fevere, and
yet no fwelhng occur at all, or be perceptible for fome time
afterwards. The fame remarks are equally applicable to
fwellings of the tendons and fafcix. As it is the charafter
of nodes to increafe by (low degrees, tlwy are not attended
with much inflammation. When they attack the periolleum,
the tumour being clofely connected with the bone, fcems in
id&. to arife from it.

The malady continuing to grow worfe and worfe, fup-
puration takes place in tlie node ; but the matter which is
produced is not good pus. Some nodes, both of the ten-
dons and bones, laft for years, before they form any matter
at all. Thefe cafes, Mr. Hunter fufpefted, might not in-
variably be venereal.

In cafes of nodes the pain is fometimes very confiderable,
while at other times it is hardly fuch as to deferve notice.
In certain inftances, the tendinous parts, when inflamed,
occafion a heavy kind of pain ; and in other examples, they
will fwell very much, and yet excite no pain worth men-
tioning.

The pains arifing from a fyphilitic affeftion of the bones,
are ufualiy periodical, having exacerbations moftly in the
night. Rheumatic pains, which the venereal much refemble,
are alfo generally worft in the night. See Hunter on
Venereal Difeafe, p. 328, 329.

Having defcribed the fecondary fymptoms of lues ve-
nerea, as occurring in the firft and fecond orders of parts,
k remains for us to notice a few other difeafes frequently
fuppofed to be fyphihtic.

Warts, Excrefcences, l^c. — Parts acquire, from the irrita-
tion of venereal matter, a difpofition to form excrefcences,
or cutaneous tumours, called warts. Thefe are moft prone
to grow where chancres have been fituated, which fores,
indeed, not imfrequently heal into warts. Such excref-
cences are liable to be hurt by bodies rubbing againft them,
and often a fimilar caufe will make them exceedingly painful,
and bleed very profufely. They are confidered, by the
generality of furgeons, mjt Amply as a confcquence of the
venereal poifon, but as poflefled of its fpecific difpofition,
and, therefore, have recourfe to mercury for the cure of them.
Mr. Hunter obferves, however, that he never faw mercury
have fuch an erfeft, although given in iufficient quantity to
cure, in the fame perfon, recent chancres, and fometimes
fecondary fymptoms. We cannot fay that our experience
is in fupport of this laft obfervation, though we join in the
belief, that warts are never venereal. In St. Bartholomew's
hofpital, it is the common praftice to give mercury for the
cure, and it is done with unequivocal fuccefs. But then
the fame excrefcences might be cured much more judi-
cioufiy either with the knife, ligature, or efcharotics, ac-
cording to the ftiape, fize, and fituation of them. In all
thefe ways we have feen a lafting cure accompliflied, with-
out any employment of mercury. On the whole, therefore,
we think with Hunter and Dr. Adams, that fuch complaints

2

never partake of the fpecific nature of the venereal difeafe.
With refpeft to other excrefcences, thofe called rhagades,
fici, and condylomata, were defcribed long before lues vene-
rea was ever heard of. The firft arc common in warm cli-
mates, particularly about the ends of the fingers, and are
never venereal. " There are (fays Dr. Adams) a number
of foft excrefcences about the anus, to which various names
have been given. They arife fometimes in confequence of
a difcharge from the redtum, ftimulating the neighbouring
parts to ulceration. If fuch ulcers are prevented from
healing by the difcharge continuing, or by the frittion of
the parts, they muft either ulcerate deeper and wider, or the
cuticle will fend out proceftes to defend them. Thele, on
account of the preffurc they receive, grow in various Ihapes,
from which they have acquired their names.

" They will arife from a venereal origin in two ways.
If a fecondary ulcer is featcd in thefe parts, that ulcer
having no power of healing itfelf, will take the cliaradter
above defcribed, from the nature of the parts. Sometimes,
alfo, the matter cf gonorrhoea, by falling from the vagina
along the perineum, will produce ulceration, and the fame
confequenccs follow. In eittier of thefe cafes, the remedy
which cures the firft difeafe will cure thefe local complaints;'
or, if they afterwards remain, they will no longer retain
their fyphilitic property, and may readily be cured by topi-
cal remedies." (On Morbid Poifons, p. 173, edit. 2.) On
this fubjedl we muft obferve, that we have never feen more
reafon for confidering fuch excrefcences about the anus, as
really fyphilitic, than for regarding warts on the genitals in
the fame light. We fpeak of the excrefcences alone, and
not of any ulcers which may exift with them. Thefe tu-
mours may always be extirpated without any bad confe-
quenccs, and mercury is unnectlfary in the cure.

Among the fecondary fymptoms of fyphilis, the venereal
ophthalmy might be confidered ; but as we fhall have an
article exprefsly on the various fpecies of inflammation
affedting the eye, we lliall poftpone this fabjedt till a future
opportunity. See Ophthalmy.

General Olferval'wns on the Treatment of Lues Venerea

From the remarks already delivered, the reader muft be ap-
prifed, that mercury is the grand remedy for all complaints
unequivocally venereal. This is fo much the cafe, that this
medicine is ufualiy regarded as a fpecific, and the only one
to be depended upon for a cure. That mercury is power-
fully efficacious in checking and curing fyphilitic affections,
is a truth as well eftablifhed as any in the pradlice of furgery.
But whether there may not be other fubftances which poffefs
anti-venereal qualities fiifficiently to be of fervice, and even
preferable to mercury, under particular circumftances, and
whether fuch remedies alone can ever be confided in for a
permanent and radical cure, are queftions of more difficulty
and uncertainty. As long as many difeafes prefent them-'
felves, having nearly the fame appearance as iyphilitic com-
plaints, and as long as mercury cures not one, but a hundred
diforders, there will always be obftacles in the way of an
eafy fettlement of thefe contefted points. All men muft
firft agree, that the cafes in which the trial of any medi-
cine is made, are decidedly venereal, or elle the experiment
will avail nothing.

If it be fuppofed that mercury is the only medicine to be
trufted in the treatment of the venereal difeale, of courfe
we can have httle more to do than relate the various plans of
ufing this renowned remedy, and explain the principles by
which its adminiftration ought to be regulated. We mean,
ho.vever, to be more impartial, and not totally iilent re-
fpedting otlier medicines.

When lues venerea firft invaded Europe, towards the con-

clufion

LUES VENEREA.

elufion of tlie fifteentli century, the confternation which the
new diftemper excited may be more eafily conceived than de-
picted. The mode in which the malady was moft common-
ly communicated, the unrelenting fury with which it pro-
ceeded from one order of painful and difgulling fymptoms
to another, and above all, the inefiicacy of the feveral me-
thods of treatment which were adopted by the phyficians
and furgeons of that period, furniihed reaions but too co-
gent for regarding it as one of the moft deftruftive fcourges
that had ever vifited the human race. See Pearfon on Lues
Ven. IntroJuftion.

The difeafe, however, had not raged long in this quarter
of the world, when the efficacy of mercury in curing it
■was afcertaioed. The Arabian phyficians had long been in
the habit of applying mercury to the purpofes of medicine.
Rhazes, the Arabian author, by whom moll of the oriental
practice was communicated to European praftitioners, re-
commended an ointment, in which quickfilver was an ingre-
dient, for the cure of cutaneous eruptions. It was probably,
therefore, from analogy, that Vigo, Berengarius Carpus,
Fallopius, and others who praclifed at the time when the
venereal diieafe firft made its appearance in Europe, were
induced to try th.; effect of mercury in the form of oint-
ments and plallers,for the cure of cutaneous complaints pro-
ceeding from a fyphilitic caufe.

That the difeafe was unknown to Europeans before the
return of Columbus from America, appears to derive mate-
rial confirmation from the contternation, defpair, and igno-
rance of the diftemper, which are confefted by ailllie moft
learned praAitioners of that time. Many of them at firft refufed
to have any thing to do with the unfortunate patients, fome
of whom were expelled from human fociety, and compelled
to feek refuge in the fields and woods. Fortunately, things
did not long go on in this wretched manner. The analogi-
cal application of mercury was foon tried, and found Itnking-
ly beneficial. Berengarius of Carpi, who was the firft that
tried the effefts of mercury in the cure of fyphilis, foon
made an ample fortune by the praftice of the fecret, accord-
ing to the report of Fallopius. Berengarius and Vigo were
almoft the only practitioners who were acquamted with the
important difcovery of mercury being a cure for the new and
dreadful diftemper, and it was from their fuccefs, and the
candid reprefentations of Vigo and Fallopius, that mercury
became the accepted and eftabliftied antidote for the venereal
difeafe. The old practitioners employed mercury in the form
advifed by Rhazes ; they ufed it as an ointment, and, with-
out knowing that the mineral was taken into the conftitution
by m.eans of the abforbents, they continued the pra('\ice en-
tirely from the beneficial confequences demonftrated to them
by experience. When patients were afflicted with pains in
the bones, the plan of applying mercurial plafters to the
parts affefted foon became a cullom. The phyficians and
furgeons, at the time when mercury firft began to be ufed
for the cure of the lues venerea, were not acquainted with
many chemical preparations of that mineral, and indeed, as
it was regarded as a poifon when internally taken, exter-
nal ointments and plaiters were alone deemed juftifiable. The
hydrargyrus nitratus ruber, however, was kn.wn to John de
Vigo, who has rc«-ommended it as an application to chan-
crous i:lcers. The internal exhibition of mercury was at
firft generally condemned ; and fo fearful were practitioners
of the effects of this mineral, that even its external employ-
ment was conducted with the molt extreme caution. In fadt,
the ointment which was at firft ufed only had in its compofi-
tion one-fortieth part of qiickfilver ; the proportion was
afterwards increafed to one-fourteenth, and laftly, to one-
eighth. Befides ointments and plafters, fumigations were

foon introduced into practice ; for as it was fuppofedthat
mercury produced a cure altogether by coming into centaCt
with the part affeCted, it was judged necelTary to contrive forae
mode of introducing mercury to fores in the throat, and for
that purpofe fumigations were adopted.

At length the chemifts fet themfelves to work in making
numerous mercurial preparations, to fome of nhich fuperior
efEcacy was imputed. It was as early as the year 1553 that
lotions of fublimated mercury were firft employed by An-
gerius Ferrerius. Two ounces of it were diffolved in fix
pounds of diftilled water. With this mixture the whole
body was wafhed and rubbed, excepting the head, breaft,
ftomach, and arm-pits ; and this method was continued once,
twice, or thrice a day for ten days, according to the ftrength
of the patient, and other circumftances. The patient was
at the fame time fweated moft profufely ; for fweating was
conceived to affift in the cure, becaufe the diftemper was
more eafily overcome in the Weft Indies, where diaphoretic
means had long been ufed in aid of guaiacum. Quickfilver
girdles for the loins and wrifts were alfo in fafhion. The fu-
migations were made with mercury extingulftied in turpentine,
or elfe with cinnabar blended with inflammable ingredients.

John de Vigo was the firft who avowed giving mercury in-
ternally, about the year 153J. The medicine that he ex-
hibited in this manner was the hydi-argj'rus nitratus ruber,
which had been previoufly praifed both by Vigo himfelf and
Nicholas Maffa, as a moft beneficial application to venersal
ulcers. The violent effeCts of this preparation, when admi-
niftered internally, foon brought it into difrepute, and then
pills of crude mercury came into ufe.

If, however, the firft employment was generally conduct-
ed v^'ith extreme caution and timidity, there were many ex-
ceptions, and afterwards, when the profeffion became more
familiar with the method, they became of courfe bolder.
For we learn that, after a time, the flagrant evils ariCng out
of the improvident ufe of the medicine, and the frequent
inftances of death from its poifonous aCtion, excited an uni-
verfai clamour againft it, and many preferred enduring the dif-
eafe to the mercurial remedy. It is no wonder, therefore, that
guaiacum, when brought into Europe in 1517, China-root
in 1535, farfapariila about the fame time, and faffafras a little
afterwards, were received with wonderful appiaufe, as deli-
vering the afflicted from a dreaded diftemper, and a more
dreaded remedy. (See Foot on Lues Ven. lect. 19.) What
degree of merit fuch medicines poflefs, we (hall prefently
enquire.

As foon as it was afcertained that pharmaceutical prepa-
rations of mercury might be internally given, without the
degree of danger formerly apprehended, myriads cf fecret
formulas began to be obtruded upon every town and every
country of Europe. Among the^oft famous remedies
were the mcrcurli.s dulcis ; the common .£:hiops ; mercu-
rius alkalizatus ground with oyfter-ftielLs ; mercurius antithi-
ficus with dry balfam of P.ru ; mercurius anufcorbuticus
with gum guaiacum ; mercurius duicis with manna ; mercu-
rius diureticus with juniper gum ; and mercurius catharticus
with fcammony. Afterwards rougher preparations were
made ufe of, fuch as mercurius precipitatus albus ; a folu-
tion of red precipitate in aquafortis corrcCted, red precipi-
tate, turbith mineral, green precipitate, befides numeroirs
high founding panacex Even a folution of corrofive fubli-
mate, mixed with barley-water, or water-grtiel, was lotig
ago execrated as '•' the vile praCtice of London quacks" by
our countryman Wifeman.

With fuch a farrago of mercurial preparations it is hardly
to be expected that any regular and rational plan of treat-
ment could be purfued by the generality of the old practi-
tioners.

LUES VENEREA.

tioners. The common methods were chiefly empirical, and
it was not until towards the beginning of the eij;hteenth
century, that the treatment of the venereal difeafe began to
be regulated by fcientific principles.

In the elegant edition of Aphrodifiacus by Boerhaave, a
full accou:;t may be feen of circumftances confirming the
preceding ftatemcnt.

Wlioevcr willcoufvilt Wifeman, one of the moft refpcftable
authors we have in furgery, will fmd that the fymptoms of
the venereal difeafe were in general much more fevere in his
time than they are at prefent, and at the fame time that the
mode of praftice was ftill much feverer. In claps, large and
repeated dofcs of draftic purges, calomel, and turpeth mi-
neral were the medicines employed, even in the inflammatory
ftatc of the difeafe, and fomc turpentine remedies were given
to complete the cure. Venereal fores were powdered with
red precipitate, and drefled with the moil acrid and ft.imu-
lating applications. In confirmed fyphilis, the hot falivating
method of treatment was adopted ; the patient was crammed
into a fmall room heated with a (love ; the admittance of
frefli air was prevented by blankets put up at the door and
windows ; and the patient himfelf was furroundcd with a
fcreen. There he fat, half fuffocated in his own hot putrid
atmofphere, and was rubbed with mercurial ointment, until
his tongue generally lolled out, and the inlide of his mouth
was covered with floughs. In this hideous pickle it was
cullomary for him to lie from twenty-five to thirty days.

It is no wonder, as Mr. Deafe has obferved, that many
fell viftims to this prepollerous mode of treatment, few con-
ftitutions being able to endure it, and no conilitution efcap-
ing without material and permanent injury.

Our Enghfli Hippocrates, the great Sydenham, lays it
down as an axiom, that, as the venereal virus is of a very
inflammatory nature, the principal end to be aimed at in the
treatment ought to be evacuation. In gonorrhoea he advifes
llrong draftic purges, which are to be perfifted in for a long
time. The firft fourteen days of the difeafe he purges the
patient every day ; then every fccond day ; and, towards
the latter end of the cafe, twice a week. Should the cure
advance but flovvly, eight grains of turpeth mineral, given
twice or thrice, at due intervals, Sydenham reckons extreme-
ly effeftual. Where purgatives are rejefted by the mouth,
he fubititutes clyfters. Balfam of Mecca, or Cyprus tur-
pentine clofes the cure. He thinks injeftions do much more
mifchief than fervice ; and is averfe, in thefe cafes, to the
ufe of mineral waters, and decoftions of the woods.

As Sydenham does not account mercury a fpecific, in the
cure of lues venerea, only inafmuch as it is pofleffed of a
fuperior efScacy in exciting falivation, he confiders as ufelefs
and hurtful all preparation, as bleeding, purging, or bathing,
before putting the patient into a falivation. He thought
that the lefs the patient was weakened, the greater was the
probabihty of a cure. His whole attention, in the treat-
ment, is to ifeep up a high degree of fitlivation. If the
rubbing does not have this efi^eft, he gives turpeth mineral,
or calomel ; and, of the latter medicine, he gives a dofe
once a week, for fome months after the cure is apparently
efFe£led, for fear of a relapfe. He is againll carrying off,
by purging, any remains of the fpitting after the courfe is
over ; and, during the whole treatment, allows the patient
fuch light meats as may be defired.

The methods of treating lues venerea,' as laid down by
Wifeman and Sydenham, were for a long time followed,
throughout Europe, .with no material variation. At length
the celebrated Aftruc gave one of the moft elaborate trea-
tifes on this diftemper ever publiflied.

The treatment of a gonorrhoea he confiders at three dif-

ferent periods. In the firft, or inflammatory ftage, he
direfts us to employ large and repeated bleedings ; and
thinks, that the mdication for copious bleedingJs as ftrongly
pointed out in this cafe, as in that of a peripneumony, or
dyfcntery. He orders large quantities of cooling emulfions
to be. frequently drunk, the bowels to be kept open with
emollient glyfters, opiates, if the fymptoms are violent,
cooling injeflions, fomentations, poultices to the penis and
perineum, and a very flender regimen. In the fecond ftage,
when the inflammatory fymptoms have fubfided, after
purging two or three times with jalap, diagredium, or ca-
lomel, he has recourfe to mercurial triflions every fecond
day, to be more immediately employed about the parts of
generation and perineum. He continues the fame fevere
regimen. In the third ftage, he completes the cure by fome
of the turpentines, mineral, acidulated, vitriolic, or fteel
waters, or the common aftringents. He reprobates aftrin-
gent injeftions. In what he terms the dry gonorrhoea, he
pufhes the antiphlogiftic treatment much farther ; for he
even bleeds every fourth hour. ^

In the cure of fyphilis, Aftruc prefers falivation by mer-
curial friftions. He enters into a long defcription of the
ncccfiary previous preparation ; bleeding, purging, warm
bathing, medicated broths, and flender regimen. He fays,
it is feldom we can difpenfe with lefs than ten baths ; more
generally, he orders twenty. After this courfe of bathing,
the bleeding and purging muft be repeated. He then has
recourfe to the mercurial friftions, which he fo directs as to
keep up^nremittingly a foil regular fpitting, from two to
three pints in twenty-four hours, until the cure is com-
pleted. The patient is then cleanfed in a warm bath, and
purged.

Not long after Aftruc's work made its appearance, prac-
titioners becapie extremely divided in opinion as to the me-
thod of adminiftering the mercurial friftions, for the cure of
lues venerea. Some of the moft refpeftable followed the
plan laid down by Aftruc ; while the greater number of
praftitioners in France followed the Montpelier mctliod of
extinftion j" that is, after having firft made the patient take
twenty or thirty warm baths, and kept him for fome time
on a very flender regimen, the fridlions were fo adminiiiered
as not to raife any fpitting, and thus continued for three
or four months, until the venereal virus was totally eradi-
cated.

The celebrated Van Swieten, in the fifth volume of his
Commentaries on Boerhaave's Aphorifms, adopts, in a
great meafure, the opinion of hisiUuilrious mafter in treat-
ing of this difeafe. In the treatment of gonorrhoea, if we
except his difapprobation of bleeding, which he thinks is
very feldom neceflary, we find nothing new : for he follows
the general mode of praftice, and effefts a cure chiefly by
purgatives.

In the treatment of ftriftly venereal cafes, he gives a pre-
ference to falivation raifed by internal mercurials, inftead of
employing the undion. He thinks that the quantity of
mercury, introduced into the fyftem, is much better afcer-
tained, when mercurius dulcis three times fubhnied, or white
precipitate, is made nfe of, in lieu of fridions with mer-
curial ointment. He confiders that the quantity of mer-
cury, introduced in this latter method, muft be uncertain;
and that as it does not pafs out of the fyftem as readily as
faline mercurials, it may accumulate, and be depofited in
dangerous quantities, in different parts of the body, and be
produAive of the worft confequences. But, above all other
methods of curing the difeafe. Van Swieten prefers the well
known folution of corrofive fubhraate in brandy, or fpirits.
By this medicine, which was in general ufe in St. Mark's

hofpital,

LUES VENEREA.

hofpital, Vienna, four thoufand eight hundred and eighty
perfons are faid to have been perfeftly cured of the venereal
difeafe, in the courfe of eight years, without undergoing any
tedious preparation, or having any dangerous fynnptom in-
tervene.

The ingenious author of the Parallel of the different
Methods of treating the Venereal Difeafe (fuppofcd to have
been the phyfician Petit) is extremely fevere in cenfuring
this method of treatment, and afferts that, from repeated
experience, he has found the adminiftration of the folution
to be very precarious, and by no means produftive of the
good effedts fo lavifhly promifed by the Vienna praftitioners.
See Obf. on the ditTerent Methods of treating the Venereal
Difeafe, by W. Deafe, 1779, the Introduftion.

From thefe obfervations on the mercurial remedies em-
ployed, and plans adopted, by the old furgeons, in the
treatment of fyphilitic afteClioiis, let us pafs on to the con-
fideration ot the practice of modern times, which has been
vattly influenced by the doftrines promulgated by Mr. Hun-
ter. The leading points of his theory having been already
llated in the foregoing columns, we ihall not repeat them
at large in this place. SufHce it to fay, that this furgeon
inculcated, that when the venereal poifon was abforbed, it
contaminated the fyftem at once, leaving only a difpofi'.ion
behind it, which is brought forih into attion in various parts
at various times ; that the local caufe ot this difpofition, and
its effects, maybe cured by mercury, but that the difpofi-
tion itfolf cannot ; and that parts, once cured, cannot be
•contaminated again from the iame ftoclc of infectio«u

It muit nut be dilTembled, that the theories of Mr. Hun-
ter, refpeC^ing lues venerea are in fome refpefts obfcurc and
queftionable. Much difScul'y has been experienced in
rightly comprehending his exaft meaning ; ar.d he has even
been accufed of inconlillency and contradiction. Dr.
Adams, in his C^mm-'ntary on Hunter's Treatife, has pnb-
lifhed the fubftance of a converiation, which he once had
with this famous character, with regard to the difficulty at-
tending the comprehcnfion of the doArines in qiieltion. On
this orcalion, Mr. Hunter related the following cafe, to
fliew how eafily his opinions might be,underllood, even by
a perfon altogether unaccuflomed to fuch inquiries.

" A gentleman," faid Mr. Hunter, " who had been
cured ot a chancre at a diftance from home, called to con-
fult me whether he might conlider himfelf as perfedlly free
from the difeafe. Whi'ft he was taking great pains to ex-
plain to me how he had been falivated, and how long he had
continued the ufe of merc.iry, after the chancre was healed,
I interrupted him by obferving, that if he had continued the
ufe of mercury till now, I could not protend to fay whether
he was free from the difeafe. — How then, faid the gentle-
man, am I to afcertain my real fituation ? — If, replied I,
you find no fymptoms in the courfe of three months, the
probability is that you will remain well, till you expcfe
yourfelf to a new fource of infection.

" In about fix weeks he returned, with a fore throat and
eopper fpots- ' I explained to him, that he fhould not blame
his furgeon, who, even if he had known what was to hap-
pen, could not have prevented it. The patient went
through a very neceffary courfe of mercury, till he was
cured of every fymptom, and then demanded, with fome
impatience, whether he was then fecure. — You are Iccure,
replied I, from every return on your genitals, and on your
ildn and throat ; but as it is impoffible for me to fenow ■
whether your bones are contaminated, I cannot pretend to
fay whether you will have nodes in a few weeks' time. He
now began to comprehend t:ie doftrine, and fubmitted to
await the reiult. In about fix weeksf he aSuallv had nodes ;

after the cure of which, by a fevere falivation, I made no
fcruple to affure him that he was perfcftly free from the
difeafe."

According to Mr. Hunter's principles, then, if mercury
were exhibited for ten years, it could not prevent the dif-
pofition, after it is once formed, from proceeding to action
fome time or another; and although this author admits that
this remedy may altogether hinder the difpofition from
takinp- place at all, yet that it has no power of eradicating
any for.ms of the difeafe, except what is pofitively in action,
and confequently more or lefs palpable. As it was likewife
a poficion in Mr. Hunti-r's theory, that the parts contami-
nated, or thofe to which the difpofition was imparted, be-
came thus infefted all about the fame time, and very foon
after the firft abforption of the virus into the conftitution,
the inference necelTarily followed, that mercury could feldom
avail in hindering the formation of the difpofition, except in
an early ftage of the cafe. According to the Hunterian
opinions, mercury given as a preventive, on any other prin-
ciple, was entirely ufelefs. The parts :ontra'ied the dif-
pofition foon after the virus had been abforbed into the- fyf-
tem, iinlefp, by good luck, mercury had been employed (o
early and efficiently as entirely to prevent fuch difpofition
from taking place. If it had not been ufed early enough,
and with fufficient effeft to prevent the formation of the dif-
pofition in the parts fufceptible of contamination, thefe
could not fall of falling afterwards, but at an uncertain
period, into a palpable ttate of lyphilitic action, and in that
ftate alone were capable of being cured by mercury. The
difpofition, though it might have been prevented, could not
be cured by mercury. That part of the doftrine, alfo,
which inculcates that parts, which have been once cured,
cannot be contaminated again from the fame flock of infec-
tion, tends ftrcingly to (horten .a mercurial courfe ; becaufe,
as the foregoing cafe iihiflratcs, when one order of parts
have been cured by mercury, there is no danger of a recur-
rence of the diflcmpcr in them : and though the difpofition
may exift in another order of parts, and, of courfe, mull
come into aClion, it would be abiurd to continue mercury
on that account, both bccaule tliis mineral abfolutely has not
the power of deftroying the dilpofition, and it can never be
known, a priori, whether thefe other parts arc contaminated
or not.

The employment of the term difpofition has led to much
difputation. Many have not been able to underlland the
word, and others have raifed feveral obje£tions to it. The
critical examiners of Mr. Hunter's dodrine afk, how is it
poffible to prove that a venereal difpofition has, or has not,
exilled at any particular time ? If, after a certain courfe of
mercury, and the confequent removal of a chancre, blotches
fhould appear, then, fays Mr. Hunter, a dipofition had been
formed, which no quantity of mercury could have dellroyed.
But, cbfcrve the critics, may we not, with at Icafl equal
probability fay, that in fuch cafes mercury ha\^_been infuffi-
ciently ufed ? If, on the other linnd, after fuch a courfe,
no blotches fhould occur, the friends of the doAriiie tell us,
the fecondary order of i)arts had not been contaminated ;
but, in this cafe, it may be contended by the oppofite party,
that the mercurial courfe had been judicious and efficient.
It is infilled by Mr. Hunter's opponents, that the exiflence
of this incurable difpofition cannot be proved ; nor by his
friends can it be jnflly and confillently affumed ; for if it
be aflion, then its coincidence with other adlions is admitted
contrary to their principles ; if it be not action, then the
difeafe which follows is motion without impulfe, and effect
without a caufe. Tliis opinion, indeed, with regard to the
diS'erence of difpofition and action, it is maintained, was not

fleadily

LUES VENEREA.

ileadily and uniformly contemplated by Mr. Hunter himfclf
in his praftice, or even in his theories ; for he fometimes
talks o£. the cure of hies venerea in tlie Hate of difpofition,
and generally continued the exhibition of mercury, after the
difappearance of the fymptoms. (See London Medical
Review, No. il,p. 248, 249.) For our .own part, with-
out undertaking to defend the inconiiltencies into which
Mr. Hunter has undoubtedly fallen, we have no hcfitation
in declaring our belief, that his opinion,s and doftrines in
general concerning lues venerea, and the power of mercury
over it, are the bell and mod rational that have ever
been promulgated. In particular, we cannot concur with
the anonymous critic quoted above, when he thinks it as
reafonable to refer the perfeftion, or imperfe&ion of the
cure, to mercury having been fufficiently, or infufficiently
ufed. We have known inflances in which patients have
been almoft conflautly employing mercury for twelve and
eighteen months for the cure of local complaints, fucccedcd
by fore throats and eruptions, and yet, after all this time,
and after all this perfevcrance in the ufe of mercury, nodes
on the cranium, flcin, or ulna, have arifen. Certainly,
when a patient has been for many months in a (late of
falivation, and has thereby got rid of all his palpable
fymptoms, we are not juftified in concluding that be-
caufe future complaints begin, thefe might have been hin-
dered by a further continuance of the mercurial courfe.
Mercury is fo often ufed in immoderate quantities, and for
fo unreafonable a length of time, without preventing a fuc-
cellion of fecondary fymptoms, that we cannot bring our
minds to believe, that the recurrence of the difeafe, in fuch
cafes, can be hindered by any judicious or prafticable per-
feverance in the employment of this mineral. At the fame
time we are not fuch bigots to the Hunterian theory as to
fuppofe, that the ufe of mercury ought not to be continued
an inftant after a chancre, or bubo, is either healed or appa-
rently converted into a common fore. It is generally im-
poflible to afcertain, with precifion, the exadl moment when
venereal aftion ceafes. The difpofition, or contamination of
other parts, may poffibly fometimes happen later than Mr.
Hunter fuppofed, and we have every reafon to conclude that
fuch (fifpofition may be imparted at any time, while the
venereal aflion in a chancre, or bubo, is not completely fub-
verted. Mr. Hunter fuppofed, that the fyphilitic poifoii
could only be abforbed when blended witli pus. Perhaps
the virus may exift, and be taken up by the abforbents in
other forms. The induration left after a chancre is healed
is not always free from the venereal aflion, though not a
drop of matter is now fecreted ; yet as there are fo many
inexplicable circumllances in certain cafes of the prefent
difeafe, it feems almoft warrantable to believe that the virus
may exilt, and be imbibed by the abforbents, fo as to impart
the difpofition to the diftemper at later periods than Mr.
Hunter conjedlured, and under an additional number of
ftatcs and circumllances. According to Mr. Hunter, the
matter of fecondary ulcers is not poffefled of the fpecific
venereal quality, and cannot produce the difeafe, when
abforbed, as the matter of a chancre or bubo does, Sup-
pofing this to be true, whatever opinions may be enter-
tained refpecling the continuance of mercury, after the
venereal adion of a chancre or bubo has apparently ceafed,
there can be no diverfity of fentiment in regard to the in-
utility of perfevering in that medicine, after fecondary fores
are either healed or have had their character entirely altered.
Having detailed the ancient praClice, mentioxed the forms
in which mercury was formerly exhibited, and endeavoured
to give fome idea of the degree of power which this me-
dicine poffelTes over fyphilitic affeftions, it is our place to

make a few obfervations en the mercurial preparations, to
which modern practitioners generally give the preference.

As long ago as the days of Berenger of Carpi, who, as
we have recited, was the firft perlon that afcertained the
efficacy of mercury in the treatment of fyphilis, it has been
well known that this metal, in its rcguline itate, pofl'effes no
medicinal virtue. Its power of ading agaiiift difeafe only
exiRs when it is in the flate of a fait, or oxyd. Its pre-
parations have alfo very dilTerent degrees of effuacy.

The moft aftivc of all the preparations of mercury is the
oxygenated muriate, the oxymurias, or, as it is generally
called, the corrofive fublimate, which is, in faft, a violent
poifon. We have already Rated, tliac the celebrated Van
Swieten was exceedingly partial to this mcdicii,e in fyphilitic
cafes. He diflolved it in brandy, or alcohol, and diluting
this mixture with a certain proportion of water, prefcribcd
the remedy in a fluid ftate. The ordinary dofe is a quarter
of a grain every day ; but the quantity may, in particular in-
llances, be increafed to half or tlirce quarters of a grain every
24 hours. Sublimate is, even at the prefent time, ufually
prefcribed after the manner direfted by Van Swieten, the
folution in alcohol being ordinarily taken, cither in fome -
warm milk, a decodtion of farfaparilla, or blended with fome
fyrup, which vehicles are fuppofed to prevent the fublimate
from difordering the ftomach and bowels. Notwithlianding
thefe corredlives, this preparation of mercury often pro-
duces confiderable ficknefs and griping pains, and it is
reckoned extremely improper for patients labouring under
pulmonary affedions. It (hould only be tried in cafes
where the conftitution is ftrong and free from much irrita-
bility. But the moll important truth to be attended to is
the decifion of many experienced furgeons, that the cor-
rofive fubhmate, though a powerful medicine, has not fo
much efBcacy in accomplilhing a radical cure of fyphilitic
difeafes, as feveral other more limple and mild preparations
of mercury. Hence it is feldom exhibited by furgeons of
the prefent time for the cure of primary venereal fymptoms, •'
except when particular circumftances are in the way of other
more approved methods. The convenience and fccrecy with
which a folution of the corrofive fublimate may be taken,
and the circumftance of a fmall phial of it being in fome
inftances fufficient for the cure, may, perhaps, be reafons
why it has been more extenfively adminiftered, than its com-
parative efficacy appears to jullify.

The fubmurias hydrargyri, or calomel, is far lefs aftive
than the oxymurias, or corrofive fublimate, and tliough not
now very much employed in this country for the cure of
unequivocal fyphilitic complaints, it is, like every otlier pre-
paration of mercury, anti-venereal, and was at one time com-
monly given. Whenever it is exhibited at prefent, it is
almoll always in the form of pills, containing from one to
three grains. When the dofe is larger, purging is generally
excited, and little fpecific effedl on the difeafe is the confe-
quence. Hence, when calomel is prefcribed v/ith a view of
producing a falivation, opium mull generally be conjoined
with it. Calomel has alfo been mixed with ointment, fo as
to form a dreffing for venereal fores, or admit of being in-
troduced into the fyftem by being rubbed upon the ikin.
Attempts have likewife been made to cure fyphilis by fric-
tions with calomel on the gums, and infide ot the lips and
checks. However, violent and dangerous ptyahlms having,
in this manner, been fometimes produced, without the difeafe
being radically cured, the method has fallen into difrcpute.
In the article Fumigation, we have defcribed a powder,
made with calomel, for the purpofe of being applied to the
furface of the body in the form of a vapour, or a fubtile
powder raifed by heat.

Sometime.'i,

LUES VENEREA.

Sometimes, wlien patients cannot rub in mercurial oint-
ment, or fritlions alone have not fufficient effeft, a grain of
t!ie hydrargyrus calcinatus, now called hydrargyri oxydum
rubriim, is prefcribed, and to prevent bad effefls on the
bowels, half a grain of opium is generally direfled to be
taken at the fame time. The grey oxyd of mercury,
formed by the trituration of quickfilver with fat, is the moll
c>.)mm()n, fafe, and efFeftual preparation for the cure of
fvphilitic complaints. A piece of this ointment, about as
large as a nutmeg, is ordinarily rubbed into the furface of
the body, for about half an hour before the lire. Wlien
there is a bubo in the groin, the leg and thigbv on the affefted
Tide, are genera'ly preferred for the friftions ; but when this
is inconvenient, the ointment may be rubbed upon any other
par: of the body. Mercurial ointment, provided the fat is
not rancid, which it is very apt to be, makes an eligible appli-
cation to both primary and fecondary venereal ulcers, when
it is fpread upon lint. The iutroduftion of mercury into
t!ie conllitution, by friftions with ointment, is one of the
oldell and belt methods. When the patient cannot rub in
lumfelf, the bufinefs may be done by an attendant, who mud
be provided vvith gloves, made of oil-ftin, or pig's bladder,
lelt he falivate lumfelf. The fridlions are faid to have the
molt eflfeft when made along the infide of the limbs, where
anatomy (hews that the largell lymphatics are fituated. It
is always a prudent maxim to begin a courfe of mercury in
a very gentle way, only fmall quantities of the ointment
being at firft ventured upon. Perhaps half a dram is enough
to begin with. Nor need the trictions be made every day
ui.til the ability of the co ilUtution to bear the medicine has
been tried. Thus, the patient may commence with rubbing
half a dram of the ointment on the inlide of the leg. After
letting one day intervene, he may make the fecond frifti«n
on the infide of the thigh. When another intervening day
has elapfcd, the third application of the ointment may be
made to the hip and lower part of the abdomen. The
fourth friftion may be made on the arms, unlefs the patient
(hould prefer begnining again on the leg. During fuch
employment of the onitment, the patient, if convenient,
fliould wa(h hinifeif now and then in a warm bath, and have
coftivenefs obviated by mild purgatives. The preceding
method is generally commendable, becaufe it removes all
chance of too fudden and violent a fahvation, as well as
diininifhes the peril, with which the adminiftration of mer-
cury is liable to be accompanied in particular conllitutions.
Though fuch is the motl prudent plan to be followed in the
generality of cafes, it mull: ftiU be remembered, that there
are certain inllanccs in which the affeftion of the fyllem
with mercury ought to be expedited, for the purpofe of
preventing the lerious conicquences, which might aiile from
the fpreading of venereal ulceration in particular fituations,
as where a chancre threatens to detlroy the whole glaiis, or
an ulcer in the throat to eat away all the velum pendulum
palati. In every cafe it is highly proper, that the patient
ftiould have fome tendernefs of tlie gums, and a copper talle
in his mouth, as tells of his conllitution being under the
influence of jnercury ; but all violent falivations, attended
with extreme forenefs and floughing of the mouth, and vaft
f'*ellin'g of the face, are condemned as unnecelTary, and in
every refpedl blameablc, by all the moll judicious pradli-
tioners of the prefent time.

The grey oxyd of mercury, made by triturating quick-
filver with fngar or honey, compofes the common pil. hy-
drarg. or blue pill, which, in ordinary cafes, is the btfl
mercurial medicine for internal ufe. It is given, either to
aflill the action of the ointment, or when the friftions can-
sot be executed. Tbe coBunen dofe is ten gfains every

Vol,. XXI.

night, opium being added when any griping or purging is

excited.

Such are the preparations of mercury ordinarily ufed by
Britldi furgeons in the treatment of fyphihs.

In addition to the foregoing directions, refpecling the
management of a mercurial courfe, there are many olluf
circumllances to be obferved. livery furgeon (liould be
imprefled with the importance of the patient keeping him-
felt warm, and avoiding all expofure to damp and cold,
during the employment of mercury. He fliould be re-
commended to keep to his room, and wear worllcd fiock-
ings, and flannel drawers and waillcoat. Experience hai
proved, that expofure to the damp cold air fometimes deter-
mines the adlion of mercury viok-ntly either to the mouth,
or the bowels, and materially leflens its effect upon the
difeafe.

According to Mr. Hunter, when a courfe of mercury is
about to be undertaken, we a'e to coniider two things ;
firll, the preparation and mode attended with the lead trou-
ble or inconvenience to the patient ; and fecondly, the pre-
paration and mode of adminillering it, that moil readily
conveys the neceffary quantity into the conllitution. Mer-
cury is carried into the conllitution in the fame way ac other
fubllances, either by being abforbed from the furface of the
body, or that of the alimentary canal. It cannot, how-
ever, in all cafes be taken into the conllitution in both ways ;
for fometimes the abforbents of the Ikin will not readily
receive it, at Icall no cffeft is produced, eitb:;r on the dif-
eafe, or conllitution, from this mode of application. In
this circumftance, mercury mull be given by the mouth,
although the plan may be very improper in other refpefts,
and olten inconvenient. On the. other hand, the internal
abforbents fometimes will not take up the medicine, or at
lead no efl'tft is produced on the difeafe, or the conlli-
tution.

In Inch cafes, all the different prep.ti-ations of the medi-
cine flio'.ild be tried ; for fometimes one fucceeds when
another will not. In fome cafes, mercury feems to have no
effefl, either applied outwardly, or taken into the (lomach.
Many furfaccs feem to abforb mercury better than others ;
fiich are probably all internal furfaces and fores. Thirty
grains of calomel, rubbed in on the fl<in, have not more
effcdl than three or fcur taken by the mouth. Drefling
fmall ulcers with red precipitate fometimes caufes a faliva-
tion. Hunter on the Venereal Difeafe, P- 335, 336.

Befidcs the praiticablenefs of getting the medicine into the
conllitution in either way, it is proper to confider the ealielt
for the patient, each mode having its convenience and in-
convenience, depending on the nature of the parts to which
it is applied, or on certain fituations of life at the time.
Hence, it (hould be given in the way moll luitable to fuch
circumllances.

In many, the bowels can hardly bear mercury at all, and
it (hould then be given in the miideil form polTible, con-
joined with fuch medicines as will lelTen, or correct its
violent local effects, although not its fpecific ones on the
conllitution.

When mercury can be thrown into the conllitution with
propriety by the external method, it is preferable to ths
internal plan, becaufe the ikin is not nearly fo efl'ential to
life as the llomach, and, therefore, is capable in itfclf of
bearing much more than the llomach. The conilitutiou is
alfo lefs injured. Many conrfes of mercury would kill the
patient, if the medicine were only given inlernL.ily, becaufe
it proves hurtful to the ftonnch and iutedines, when given
in any form, or joined with the greated correctors. Every
oae, however, has not .opportunities of rubbing in mercury,
4F ^aik

LUES VENEREA.

and is tlicrefore obliged, if poffiblc, to take it by the mouth.
Hunter, p. 338.

Mercury has two effeftj, one as a ftimulus on the confti-
tation and particular parts ; the other as a ' fpecific on a
difeafed aftion of tlie whole body, or of parts. The lat-
ter adion can only be computed by the difeafe difap-
pearing.

In giving mercury in the venereal difcafc, the firft atten-
tion fiiould be to tiie quantity, and its vifiblc cffefts in a
given time, which, when brought to a proper pitch, are
only to be kept up, and the decline of the difeafe to be
watched ; for by this we judge of the invifible, or fpe-
cific effecSls of the medicine, and know what variation in
the quantity may be neceffary. The vifible effefts of mer-
cury affcft either the whole conftitution, or fome parts ca-
pable of fecretion. In the firft, it produces univerfal irri-
tability, making it more fufceptible of all impreffions. It
quickens the pulfe, increafes its hardnefs, and occafions a
kind of temporary" fever. In fome conllitutions it operates
like a poifon. In fome it produces a kind of hedlic fever,
that is, a fmall quick pulfe, lofs of appetite, rellleffncfs,
want of fleep, and a fallow complexion, with a number of
confequent fymptoms ; but fuch cffccls commonly diminiHi
on the patient becoiving a little accuftomcd to the medi-
cine. Mercury often produces pains like thofe of rheu-
matifm, and nodes of a fcrofulous nature. Huntei', p. 339,

34°-

The quantity of mercury to be thrown into the conftitu-
tion, for the cure of any venereal complaint, muft be pro-
portioned to the violence of the difeafe. However, we are
to be guided by two circumllances, namely, the time in
which any given quantity is to be thrown in, and the eftecls
it has on fome parts of the body, as the falivary glands, flcin,
or inteftities. For mercury may be thrown into the fame
conilitation in very different quantities, fo as to produce the
fame ultimate effeft ; but the two very different quanti-
ties mull alfo be in different times ; for inftance, one ounce
of mercurial ointment, ufed in two days, will have more
effeft upon the conftitution, than two ounces ufed in ten.
The effeas of one ounce, ufed in two days, on the confti-
tution and difeafed parts, are confiderable. A fmall quan-
tity, ufed quickly, will have equal effefts, to thofe of a
large one employed (lowly ; but if tliefe effefts are prin-
cipally local, that is, upon the glands of the mouth, the
conftitution at large not being equally ftimulated, the ef-
feft upon the difeafed parts muff be lefs, whicb may be
known by the local difeafe not giving way in proportion to
the effeCls of mercury on fome particular part. If it is
given in very fmall quantities, an-d increafed gradually, fo
as to fteal infenfibly on the conftitution, a vaft quantity at a
time may at length be thrown in, without any vifible efFeft
at all. Hunter, p. 341.

Thefe circumftances being known, mercury becomes a
muck more efficacious, manageable, and fafe medicine, than
it was formerly thougl It to be ; but, unluckily, its vifible
effefts upon the mouth and the inteftines are fometimes
much more violent, thao its general effect upon the confti-
tution at lar^e. Thefe parts muft therefore not be ftimu-
l:ited fo quickly, as to hijider ilie neceffary quaiiiity of mer-
cury from, b&ing ufed.

The conftitution, or parts, are more fufceptible of mer-
cury at 'firft than afterwards. If the mouth is made fore,
arid allowed to recover, a much greater quantity may be
thrown in, a fecond time, before the fame forenefs is pro-
duced. However, anomalous cafes occur, in which, from
unknown caufes, mercury cannot at one time be made to

produce any vifible effefts ; but afterwards, the mouth and
inteftines are all at once aflfefted. Hunter, p. 342.

Mercury occafionally attacks the bowels, and caufes vio-
L'nt purging, even of blood. Tiiis effeft is remedied by
intermitting the ufe of the medicine, and exhibiting opium.
At other times, it is fuddenly determined to the mouth,
and produces infiammation, ulceration, and an exceffivc flow
of faliva. To obtain relief in this circumftance, purgatives,
nitre, fulphur, gum-arabic, lime-water, camphor, bark, kali
fulphuratum, blifter?, &c. have been advifed. Mr. Pearfon,
however, does not feem to place much confidence in the
efficacv of fucli means, and the mercury being difconti-
nued for a time, he recommends the patient to be freely ex-
pofed to a dry cold air, with the occafional ufe of cathar-
tics, Peruvian bark, and mineral acids, and the affiduous
application of " aftrlngent gargles. " The moft material
objsdtion, (fays Mr. Pearfon,) which I forefee againft
the method of treatm.ent I have recommended, is the ha-
zard, to which the patient will be espofed, of having the
faliva fuddenly checked, and of fuffering fome other difeafe
in confequence of it.

" That the hafty fupprcffion of a ptyalifm may be fi^il-
lowed by ferious inconveniences, has been proved by Dr.
Sylvefter, (Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. iii.) who publifhcd
three cafes of perfons who had been under his own care ;
tv/o of whom were afflifted with violent pains ; and the
third fcarcely retained any food in her Itomach for the fpace
of three months. I have feen not only p.ains, but even ge--
neral convulfions, produced from the fame caufe. But this
fingular kind of metaftafis of the mercurial irritation docs
not appear to me to owe its appearance to finiple expofure
to cold and dry air ; becaufe I have known it occur in
diffe'-cnt forms, where patients continued to breathe a warm
atmofphere, but ufed a bath, the water of which was not
fufficiently heated. Cold liquids, taken in large quantity
into the flomach, or expofure of the body to cold and-
moifture, will alfo prove extremely injurious to thofe who
are fully under the influence of mercury ; whereas breathing
a cool air, while the body is properly covered with ap-
parel, has certainly no tftidency to produce any diftrefling
or dangerous confeqnences.

" if, however, a fuppreffioii of the ptyalifm (Iiould be
occafioned by any aft of indifcretion, the remedy is eafy
and certain ; it confifts only in the quick introduftion of
mercury into the body, fo as to produce a forenefs of the
gums, with the occafional ufe of a hot bath." Pearfc'n on.
the Effed of Various Articles in the Cure of Lues Venerea,
edit. 2. p. 163, 164.

Mercury, when it falls on the mouth, produces, in many
conftitutions, violent inflammation, which fometimes termi-
nates in mortification. In thefe habits great caution is
neceffary. The ordinary operation of mercury does not
permanently injure the conftitution; but, occafion.ally, the
impairment is very material ; mercury may even prc^duce
local difeafes, and retard the cure of chancres, buboes, and
certain effects of the lues venerea, after the poifon has been
deftroyed. Hunter, p. 342.

When an immoderate and violent falivation is fuddenly
produced, the means in repute for lefi'ening this accident
are, bathing the feet in warm water, clytters, cathartics,
and blifters. The application of pounded ice to the jaw,
and waffling the mouth and throat with cold acidulated
gargles, are, perhaps, meafures as ferviceabie as any that
can be adopted.

In the article Eretiii.'imu.S, we have def;ribed a dangerous

ftate of the fyftcm, fometimes occafioned by the ufe of mer-

cury, and producing death in the moil fudden and unex-

(5 peded

LUES VENEREA.

peifted manner. This is a fubjeA urgently requiring the
attention of the praftitioner ; but as we have treated of it
elfewhere, we (hall here be content with referring to the
above-mentioned part of the prefent publication.

Mercury occafionally gives rife to a mod fevere apd es-
tcnfive rafh all over the body, attended with alarmintr in-
difpofition. This complaint is noticed in the article Ery-
thema, and is one with which every furgeon fliould be well
acquainted.

The precife manner in which mem.ory a<fts in checkinpr
and curing fyphilitic difeafes, has been the fnbjetl of various
conjeiSures. Some writers fancy that it muft operate by
neutralizing the virus, juil as an alkali deftroys an acid.
Others, feeing that njercury only exerted an anti-venere?,l
quahty, when combined with oxygen, have endeavoured to
account for the aftion of this mineral, by the quantity of
oxygen which it conveys with it into the fyftem. Againft
the firft of thefe fuppofitions it is argued, that mercury
cannot aft by neutralizing the virus, fmce its effeft would
then always correfpond with the quantity introduced into
the fyftem. This experience contradicts, and the Hun-
terian doftrines lead us to conclude, that the virus does
not long remain in the conilitution, after contaminating
the parts, and communicating to them the difpofition which
is afterwards to come into aftion. Againft the fecond
opinion it may be obferved, that though mercury has no
effect in its fimple ftate, yet thofe mercurial preparations
which have the moft power over fyphilis, are fuch as are
combined with the fmalleft quantity of oxygen. Befides,
there are othar fubftances which contain infinitely more
oxygen than mercurial medicines, and yet have not gained
the celebrity and confidence which furgeons place in mer-
cury, as an antidote for fyphilis. There can be no doubt,
however, that the nitric and nitrous acids, the oxygenated
muriatic acid, and the oxygenated muriate of potafta, fub-
ftances which largely abound in oxygen, are in a certain
degree anti-fyphilitic, though they cannot be deoended
»pon fo much as mercury. With refpedl to the modus
operandi of mercury, it was Mr. Hunter's belief, that this
mineral produced in the coulUtution an irritation which
counterafted the venereal and entirely deftroyed it. Trcatile
on Ven. Difeafe, p. 3(55.

The indifcrete and immoderate employment of mercury
fometimes gives rife to difeafes, which are very liable to be
millaken for continuations of the fyphihtic affection, for
which that remedy was at firft prefcribed. Mr. Hunter
himfelf confeffes that thefe cafes puzzle confiderably, it
being difficult to fay when the venereal aftion is abfolutely
deftroyed. He obferves, that fuch complaints are moft
common in the throat ; for while a mercurial courfe is
going on, and the ulcer on the" tonfils healing, or even
healed, thefe parts will fometimes fvvell, and excoriations
occur and fpread over the whole palatum moUe. Mr. Hun-
ter believed that fuch excoriations, as well as other appear-
ances of difeafe coming on during the ufe of mercury, were
feldom or never vene.eal. Hence he recommended mer-
cury to be-contimied no longer than was fufficient to over-
come the original fypliilitic difeafe. In thefe cafes, he
thought that bark was often of fervice, and that it might
be uicfully givsn, either with the mercury, or after the mer-
curial courfe was over.

Frequently venereal abfceffes will not heal up, though
they have become confiderably better ; for while the fyphi-
litic actions remained in the part, mercury difpofed that part
to heal ; but under the mercurial courfe, the conttitution
and part had acqui-red another difpofition, proceeding (to
ufe Mr. Ranter's language) from a venereal and mercurial

irritation, affefting a particular habit of body, or par^, at
the time which new difpofition differs from ths venereal,
mercurial, and natural, being a fourth difpofition arifing
out of all the tliree. Mercury, when continued under fuch
circumftanccs, afts as a poifon, and makes the local difeafe
grow worfe and fpread. Some of the fores, formed in this
way, not only refift all means of cure, but often inflame,
ulcerate, and produce hard callous b«fes, fo as to put on a
canceruus appearance. New difeafes may arife from mer-
cury alone, as fw'elling of the tonfils, unattended with
any fyphilitic difeafes, thickenings of the perioftcum, and
oedema, and lorenefs of the parts over the bones. Thefe
complaints, arifing under a courfe of mercury, are too often
regarded as veneieal, and that mineral pufhed to the ntmoft;
extent. If mercury has already been given fufficiently to
cure the original difeafe, it ought to be now immediately
left off, and not continued for thefe incidental afFections,
which will be rendered worfe by it. If, after the cure of
fuch maladies, the venereal difeafe (hould begin to come
into aftion again, mercury muft be given a iecond time.
Mr. Hunter fufpefted fhat'the diforders of the tonfils and
periofteum, above alluded to, originated from fcrofulr,, and
he entertained a favourable opinion of bark and fea-bathing
for their relief. P. 369 — 37 1. The terrible forms of difeafe,
which we every day fee fyphilitic complaints converted into
by rafti local and mercurial treatment, are really deplorable.
The worft phagedenic buboes, and deftruftive lioughing
chancres, and other ulcers, ate often more owing to the
wrong continuance and immoderate exhibition of mercury,
and bad local treatment, than any original fault in the
habit.

From mercury, we proceed to notice a few of the other
principal remedies which have obtained repute for their anti-
fyphilitic virtues.

Gcaiacum is the medicine with which the natives of the
Weft Indies are faid to have cured fyphilitic affeftions
before thefe difeafes made their appearance in Europe.
Many writers of the i6th century contended that guaiacum
was a true fpecific for the venereal difeafe ; and the cele-
brated Boerhaave, in the i8th, maintained the fame opinion.
We learn from Mr. Pearfon that he was firft; entrufted
with the care of the Lock hofpital in 1781. Mr. Bromfield
and Mr. Williams were in the habit of repofing great con-
fidence in the efficacy of a decoftion of guaiacum wood.
This was adminiftered to fuch patients as had already em-
ployed the ufual quantity of mercury ; but who com-
plained of nofturnal pains, or had gummata, nodes, oza:na,
and fuch other effefts of the venereal virus connefted with.
fecondary fymptoms, as did yield to a courfe of mercurial
friftions. _ The diet confifted of raifins and hard bifcuit ;
from two to four pints of the decoftion were taken every
day; the hot-bath was ufed twice a week ; and a dofe of
antimonial wine and laudanum, or of Dover's powder, was
commonly taken every evening. Conftant confinement to
bed was not deemed neceffary ; neither was expofure to the
vapour of burning fpirit, with a view of exciting perfpira-
tion, often praftifed, as only a moift ftate of the fkin was
defiled. This treatment was fometimes of Angular advan-
tage to thofe whofe health had fuftained injury from the
diieafe, long confinement, and mercury. The itrength in-'
creafed ; bad ulcers healed ; exfoliations were completed ;
and thefe anomalous fymptoms, which would have been ex-
afperated by mercury, foon yielded to guaiacum.

Befides fuch cafes, in which the good effefts of guaiacum
made it to be regarded as a fpecific for lues venerea, the medi-
cine was alfo formerly exhibited by feme praftitioners on
the firft attack of the venereal difeafe. The difordcr, being
4 F 2 thus

LUES VENEREA.

tliiii benefited, a radical cure was cenfidcicd to be accom-
pliflied ; and though frequent relapfes followed, yet as
thefe partly yielded to the fame remedy, its reputation was
ftill kept up. Many difeafes, alfo, which got well, were
probably not really venereal cafes. Mr. Pearfon feenis to
allow, that, in fyphilitic affcftions, it may, indeed, operate
like a true antidote, fufpcndir.g, for a time, the progrcfs. of
certain venereal fymptoms, and removing other appearances
altogether ; but he obferves, that experience has evinced
that the unfubducd virus yet remains adlive in the conllitu-
tion.

Mr. Pearfon lias found gnaiacum of little ufe in pains of
the bones, except when it proved fudoritic ; but that it
was then inferior to antimony or volatile alkali. When the
conlUtution has been impaired bv mercury and long confuie-
ment, a thickened Hate of the ligaments, or periolleum," or
foul ulcers, ftill remaining, Mr. Pearfon fays, thefe efleits
will often fubfide during the exhibition of the decoftiun.
He fays, it will often fufpend, for a ftiort time, the progrcfs
of certain fecondary fympton.s of the lues venerea ; for in-
ftance, ulcers of the tonllls, venereal eruptions, and even
nodes. Mr. Pearfan, however, never knew one nillance in
which guaiacum eradicated the virus ; and he contends,
that its being conjoined with mercury, neither increafes the
virtue of this mineral, leffens its bad effcfts, nor diminilbes
the neceffity of giving a certain quantiiy of it. Mr. Pearfon
remarks, that he has feen guaiacum produce good efiects in
many patients having cutaneous difeafes, the ozxna, and
fcrofulous affeftions of the membranes and ligaments. See
Pearfon on the EfFefts of various Articles in the Cure of
Lues Venerea, edit. i. 1807.

Mezereon was recommended by Dr. A. RufTel for a par-
ticular clafs of venereal fymptoms, in the following terms :
" The difeafe, for which I principally recommend the de-
codtion of the mezereon root as a cure, is the venereal node
that proceeds from a thickening of the membrane of the
bones. In a thickening of the periolleum, from other
caufes, I have feen very good effefts from it : and it is fre-
quently of fervice in the removal of thofe noiSurnal pains
with which venereal patients are afflicted ; though, in this
lad cafe, excepting with regard to the pain that is occafioned
by the node, I own I have not found its effefts fo certain,
as I at firft thought I had reafon to believe. I do not find it
of fervice in the cure of any other fymptom of the venereal dif-
eafe." (Med. Obf and Inq. vol. iii. p. 194, 195.) Mr. Pear-
fon, however, aflerts, unequivocally, that mezereon has not
the power of curing the venereal difeafe in any one ilage,
or under any one form, and if the decottion fhould ever re-
duce a venereal node, yet there will be a neceffity for taking
mercury in as large quantity, and for as long a time as if no
mezereon had been exhibited. CuUen found this medicine
of ufe in fome cutaneous afFetlions, but excepting an inllance
or two of lepra, Mr. Pearfon has very feldom found it pof-
felTed of medicinal virtue, either in fyphihs, or the fcquelse
of that difeafe, fcrofula, or cutaneous affeflions. The root
of farfapanlla was brought into Europe about 1530, It
was at firll reputed to p oflefs Angular efficacy in venereal
caies ; but afterwards loft all its fame. Sarfaparilla was
again brought into notice by Dr. W. Hunter, who advifed
Di". Chapman to make trial of it in a bad cafe of phagedenic
bubo ; and the benefit obtained in this inftance led Dr.
Hunter to extend the recommendation of the medici.ie.
Sir William Fordyce ftated, that farfapariila would quickly
relieve venereal head-achs and nofturnal pains, and, if pcr-
jifted in, cure them; that, in emaciated or conlumptive
habits, from a venereal caufe, it was the greateft reltorer of
appetite, flefti, colour, and llrength, which he knew of ; that

8

when mercurial friftions had been prevloufly employed, it
would generally complete the cure ol difeafe of the throat,
nofe, palate, or fpongy bones ; and that it would promote
the cure of blotches and ulcers, fometimes accomplifti it,
even without mercury ; though, in this circumllance, there
was danger of a relapfe. Sir W. I'ordyce faid, farfapariila.
was of little ufe in ch:mcres ; but when thefe, or buboes,
would not heal, after the employment of mercury, it would
often cure, and always do good. He allows, however, that
in all venereal cafes " farfapariila is not to be truftcd to,
unlefs preceded by, or combined with, the uie of mercury :"
and he thought farfapariila would probably always cure
what refilled mercury. Medical Obi. and Inq. vol. i.

The celebrated Cullen conlidered farfapariila as poffefiing
no virtues of any kind ; for (fays he) " tried 111 ev.:^ry
(hape I have never found it an effectual medicine in fyphilis,
or any other difeafe." Mnt. Med. vol. li.

Mr. liromfield declares, that he never faw a fnigle inftance
in which farfapariila cured the venereal dileafe without the
aid of mercury, either given before, or in conjunition with
it. (Praft. Obf. on the Ufe of Corrofive Sublimate, &c.
p. 78 ) Mr. Pearfon alfo " contends, that farfapariila has
not the power of curing any one form of the lues venerea ;"
but he allows that it may fufpend for a time the ravages of
that contagion, the difeafe returning if no mercury (hould
have been ufed. This gentleman admits, alfo, that farfa-
pariila will bUeviate iymptoms derived from the venereal
virus. He maintain?, that the exhibition of larfaparilU djes
not diminifh the neceffity for giving lefs mercury. Noclurnal
pains in the limbs, painful enlargements of the elbow and
knee, membranous nodes, cutaneous ulcerations, and certain,
other fymptoms, refembling venereal ones, are often ex-
perienced after a full courfe of mercury. Such complaints,
Mr. Pearfon allows, are greatly benefited by farfapariila,
and exafperated by mercury ; and he obferves, that it is.
frum thefe complaints having been miilaken for venereal
ones, that the idea has arifen, that farfapariila has cured
fyphilis when mercury had tailed. Mercury, and the ve-
nereal poifon, may jointly produce, in certaisi conllitutions,
fymptoms which are not ftnilly venereal, and are fometimes
more dreadful than the iimple eftedts of fyphilis. Some of
the worll of thefe appearances are capable of being cured by
farfapariila, while the venereal virus ftill remains in the
lyftem. When this latter difeafe has been eradicated by
mercury, farfapariila will alfo cure the fequelx of a cuurfe of
the other medicine. Pearfon on the Eftects of various
Articles in the Cure of Lues Venerea, 1S07.

China-root once obtained the charadler of being a certain
fpecilic for fyphilitic complaints. Its reputation rofe very
high, in confequence of its having been reported to have
cured the emperor Charles V. At prefent Its medicinal vir-
tues are ellimated very low indeed ; and it feems to have
now loft all its advocates. It was firll uied in praclice about
the year 153 J.

Cinchona, or the Peruvian bark, has no fpecific virtue i.n
fyphilitic cafes, but, according to Mr. Pearfon, if it has been
alleged upon plaulible grounds, that guaiacum pod'eflcs
medicinal efficacy in venereal pains ; farfapariila, where there
are phagedenic ulcers ; and mezereon, in. cafes where there.
arc membranous nodes ; fo bark has a claim to praife for its
faiutary agency in incipient buboes, in ulcers of the tonfils,
and in gangrenous ulcers fj-om a venereal caufe. This gentle-
man has feen venereal buboes reduced, though not cured, by
it ; fyphi itic ulcers in the throat healed by it, though the
difeafe recurred ; and fudden mortifications of the penis from
chancres terminate in a cure of the diftemper, with the ex-
hibition of bark, unaffifted by mercury. In thefe laft cafes>

Mr.

LUES VENEREA,

Mr. Pearfon conjcftiires, that, as the extinftion of the vene- of more attention than feveral otiier articlfes. The laft
nal poifon could not be afcribed to the fpccific virtues of author fays he has employed it, during many years, where

the bark, the abforption of the virus mud have been antici-
pated and prevented by the death of the part. This gentle-
man acknowledge?, however, that there are gangrenous
chancres met vjth, where, after the detachment of the
Coughs, the fpecilic difeafe in the part continues, and the
ulcer fpreads, fo that mercury is indifpenfable.

Opium has been faid to be a fpecific in venereal cafes ;
and in the firit volume of the Medical Communications,
feme facts were publifhcd in funport of this opinion. But
in the years i7S4and 1785, Mr. Pearfon made fcvcral ex-
periments on the virtues of opmm in lues venerea, at the
Lock hofpital. Thefe are related in the fecond volume of
the preceding work. The refult was very unfavourable to
tlie character of opium as an anti. venereal. In a later work,
the fame gentleman obferves that he has been long accuf-
tomcd to admmiller opium with great freedom, during the
mercurial courfe ; and the experience of more than twenty
years has taught him, that wlien this medicine is combined
wnth mercury, the proper efScacy of tlie latter is not in any
meafure increafed ; that it would not be fafe to rely upon
a fmaller quantity of the fpecific mineral, nor to fhorten the
mercurial courfe at all more, than where no opium has been
employed. (On Lues Vcn., p. 68, 6g.) Though opium
may poflV.fs no anti-fvpliiiitic virtue, it is unqueftionably ufe-
ful on other principles, m many venereal cafes. It often
prevents mercury from difordering the ilomach and bowels ;
and it will frequently lelTen the, irritability and reltlefsnefs
produced by the introduftion of mercury into the conilitution.
But, regarded as a fpecific for fyphilitic affections, we may
conclude with Mr. Hunter, that it has no effeft, till mer-
cury has done its bell, or its worlt. This latter furgeon
owns that opium has certainly confiderable effeils in many
difeafes, both in fuch as are confequciit to the venereal dif-
eafe, and in others arifing from different caufes. It had
long' been a favourite m.edicine v.ith him, not only as re-
heving pain, but as capable of altering difeafed aftions. In
all fores attended with irritability, he fays, a decoftion of
poppy heads, made into a pouhice, is an excellent applica-
tion. He tells us, he had even feen two doubtful fyphilitic
cafes cured by the internal exhibition of opium : but on his
trying this plan in an unequivocal cafe of venereal blotches
and fore throat, fo far was opium from producing the de-
fired cftefk, that, after a perfeverance of three weeks, the
fores were rather worlc,

pains in the limbs and indurations of the membranes have
remained, after the venereal difeafe has been cured by mer-
cury, and feldom without manifell advantage. P. 81.

The deceftion of the woods and the Lilbon diet drink
are famous prefcriptions in fyphilitic cafes. Where the
difeafe is doubtful, or mercury difagrees, or is done witbr
fuch remedies may ccrtainlv be often taken with benefit.
No. I.
I^ Sarfaparillas coucifie.
Ligni faffafras.
Ligni fantali rubri.

Ligni guaiaci ofncinalis, ling. una. iff.
Radicis mezerei

Seminum coriandri fing. unc. IF.
Aquae diftillats, lib. x.
Thefe are to be boiled till only half the fluid remains^
The dofe is a quart, or more, in the day.
No. 2.
l]i Sarfaparill^E concifx.
Ligni fantali rubri.
Ligni fantali citrmi fing. unc. iff.
Radicis glycyrrhizx.
Radicis mezerei fing. 5ij>
Lig'.ii rhodii.
Ligni guaiaci officinalis.
Ligni fadafras fing. unc. fi".
Antimonii unc. j.
Aqux dilliUalcE, lib. v.
Thefe ingredients are to be n^acerated for twenty-foup
hours, and afterwards boiled till the fluid is reduced to half
its original quantity. From one to four pints are given
dally.

Befides the preceding, Mr. Hunter has alfo noticed-
the following formula in his Trcatife on the Venereal
Difeafe.

No. 2-
J|t Sarfaparills concifae.

Radicis chins, fing. unc. j.
Nucum juglandis cortice (iccatarum, N" xx-
Antimonii unc. ij.
Lapidis pumicis pulverizati unc. j.
Aqu£e diilillatae, lib. x.
The powdered antimony and pumice ftone are to be tied-
and boiled along with the other'

Treatife on Venereal Difeafe,. in feparate pieces of rag,

p. ^7^. ingredients.

Dr. Storck has related fome cafes, in whch cicuta, or This laft decoclion is reckoned to be the genuine Lifbon.

hemlock, is ftated to have cured fyphilis, when other re- diet drink, whole qualities have been the fubject of fo much

medics had failed. (Lib. ii. De Cicuta.) At prefent it encomium. Pharm. Chirurg.

ii?ems to have loft its charafter, as poffeffing any fpecific The muriatic and fulphuric acids have been exhibited in.

virtue over the venereal difeafe. It is not, however, a medi- venereal cafes with fome advantage, as they are capable of

cine without its ufes. According to Mr, Pearfon, the ex- improving the appearance of fyphihtic uliers, and rellraining

tract and the powder of hemlock may be fometimes advan- for a time the progrefs of the difeafe.

tagecufly given in fpreading irritable fores', whether they
are connefted with the a6tive ftate of the venereal virus,, or
they remain after the completion of the mercurial courfe.
Cicuta fonutirres does good, when opium will not ; and,
therefore, Mr. Pearfon thinks it may have other virtues
than thole depending upon itj anodyne qualities. P. 7J,

Fo.-^ remarks on the anti-venereal effects of faffafras, juni-
perus, bardana, faponaria, dulcamara, juglans, lobelia fy-
philitica, aftragalus exfcapus, ammonia prxparata, barytes
muriata, &c. we mull refer to Mr. Pearfon's publica-
tion.

But the nitrous and nitric acids have gained the greatell
repute for their anti-venereal qualities. Thefe acids have
been tried by Dr. Rollo, Mr. Cruiklhank, Dr. Beddoes, ,
Mr. Blair, and many others, as fubflitutes for quickfilver,,
in the cure of lues venerea. The pratlice began with Mr. -
Scott, a furgeon in Bengal, who is laid to have derived the '
idea from Girtanuer, who fuggefted that the eificacy of the .
various prepara.ions of quickfilver might, arilie from the
oxygen which they contained.

A multitude of cafes have been brought forward in favour -

of nitric acid, as an anti-fyphilitic ; but there are alfo lom.e '
A dccoAion of the green riod of the walnut feems worthy others adduced, w hich feem very decidedly to controvert its i

claims^

LUES VENEREA,

claims to that charafter. It (hould be carefully remem-
bered, that it is tiie nilric acid, not the nitrous, which feems
to drferve a further trial in fyphilitic cafes.

The common way o( giving the nitric acid, at firft, is to
mix Sj with a pint of dillillod water, the mixture beiiiir
fweetened with fimple fyrup. This quantity is to be drank,
at different times, in the courfe of twenty-four hours,
through a fniall glafa tube, which is ufed to keep the teeth
from bciniT injured. If no inconvenience is fell, the dofe of
tlw acid may be incrcafed to 3ifl> 3ij) and even, in certain
eafes, to 3iij.

The acid is faid to incroafe the appetite, and fecretion of
urine ; to caufe more or lefs thirtt, a white tongue, fizy
blood, and an incre.ife in the aflions of the whole fyflem,
but nothing hke mercurial falivalion is produced. It does
rot agree, however, equally well with all conftitutions.

The nitric acid is beneficial both in the primary and fc-
condary fymptoms of the venereal difoafe ; more fo, how-
ever, in the former. But, in the latter, even mercury itfcif
frequently fails, and proves hurtful, fo that the nitric acid
fuffers no difparagement from this faft, A change is faid
to be produced on the difeafe, by the acid, in fix or eight
days, aiid a cure very often in little more than a fort-
right.

The oxygenated muriate of potafh, which contains an
immenfe quantity of o.-tygen, is faid by Mr. Criiikfiiank to
be more efficacious than the nitric acid, in relieving venereal
fym.ptoms.

Richerand informs us, that experiments, confirming the
fupcrior efficacy of mercury, in the cure of fyphilis, were
made for the fpace of a year, in the hnfpital of the Ecole de
M6dicine at Paris, before a committee of gentlemen ex-
prefsly appointed for the purpofe. It is ftated, that fome
patients derived only temporary relief from the oxygenared
fat and nitric lemonade ; that a very few got quite well ;
aHd that others, after appearing to be entirely rid of the
difeafe, fuffered fuch relapfes as evinced the fuperiority of
the ordinary method. Nofographie Chir. torn. i. p. 352.
edit. 2.

It appears to us, that there is one very important circum-
ftance made out by the trials of various medicines in the
treatment of the venereal difeafe. According to the Hun-
terian opinions, we are to fuppofe that it is the invariable
charafter of the diftemper to proceed regularly from bad to
worfe, unlefs checked by the fpecific remedy, mercury.
This doctrine is taught in fome of the prefent fchools, and
feems to be adopted by Dr. Adams in his work on morbid
poifons. Were this idea a matter of faft, it would be of
material confeq".ence in praftice ; for, in many difficult and
ambiguous cafes, we might often form a juft decifion, by
obferving whether the complaints recede at all, without the
aid of mercury ; fince, if they do fo, they cannot in reality
be fyphilitic. This affertion. however, is by no means
eflablidied ; and from the oblervations pubhlhcd by Pearfon,
and other writers, on the effeiHs of difterent remedies on the
difeafe, we are to conclude that it is erroneous. The re-
marks, which we have quoted above, tend to fhew that,
even under the mere adminiftration of bark, venereal buboes
and fyphilitic ulcers in the throat may fometimes be healed.
The tellimony of Mr. Pearfon alfo confirms, that the mu-
riatic and fulphuric acids will improve venereal fores, and
reftrain for a time the progrefs 6f the difeafe. The com-
mittee at the Ecole de Medicine, we find, announce that
fome few cure?, were efTeiled by oxygenated lard and nitric
lemonade. Thefe ftatenients, joined with the large body
«,£ refpeftable evidence from feveral other quarters already

fpecified, can^not fail to ioduce a fufpicion, that many medi-
cines, befides mercury, have a certain degree of power in
refilling the ravages of the venereal difeafe ; and that even
fyphilitic buboes and ulcers will fometimes recede, look
better, and heal, without mercury. We do not wiffi to
infiuuate, that thefe things are dccifively cftablidied ; the
diagnofis of imie venereal complaints being often fo difficult,
that m<in of great judgment and experience are liable to
millakes.

Ohfer-valions on ll}e Treatment of particular Symptoms.

Treatment of Chancres Belbre the virus has been taken

tip by the abiorbents, a chancre is (Iriflly a local afledtion,
quite unatteiided with any contamination of other pans. ■ In
this ftate, there can be no doubt that tlierc is a poffibihiy of
accomplifliing a cure by deltroying with c.iuftic the fore,
and adjacent part affeftcd with the venereal atlion. Such
an endeavour muft be the more likely to fucceed, wdien it is
made while a chancre is fmall, and in an incipient Hate.
The argentum nitratuni is commonly employed for this
purpofe : but perhaps it n.ight be preferable to ufe the kali
purum and quicklime, wliich operate with more eifcft and
quicknefs. Unfortunately, the period at which the abforp-
tion of the virus begins is fo uncertain, that the foregoing
method is fcarcely ever deferving of fuch implicit reliance,
that mercury need not be employed at all. Small puftulcs
and ulcerated points on the penis are frequently dellroyed
with cauftic, and a lading cure is eiTcdled without mercury.
Poffibly fome of thefe cafes may not be venereal ; and when
the pratlitioner infers that he has fucceeded in preventing .
the abforption of the virus, he may be deceived. In other
inftanccs, the endeavour to iuperiede all occafion for mer-
cury, by extirpating a chancre with cauftic, is only at-
tended with a temporary appearance of fttccefs ; ulcerations
of the tonfils, and other fymptoms, denoting a general af-
fetlion of tiie conftitution, coming on foon after the healing
of the fore. Hence it is generally deemed prudent, not to
be content with the attempt at extirpatkm with caullic, but
to exhibit, at the fame time, for a few weeks, the pil-
hydrarg;yri. The mercury may fometimes, indeed, be given
unneceffarily ; but with its exhibition, and the cauftic, the
patient has a double chance of fecurity againft the extenfion
of the difeafe to his conftitution.

We fliall firft confider the topical application to chancres.

Mercurial ointments have been commonly ufed as dreffings
to chancres ; but Mr. Hunter was of opinion, that if the
mercury were joined with watery fubftances, inftead of oily
ones, the application, by mixing with the matter, would be
continued longer to the fore, and would prove more effec-
tual. This, he obferves, is one advantage, which poultices
have over common dreffings. He has often ufed mercury
rubbed down with fome conferve inflead of ointment, and
it anfvvered extremely well. Calomel ufed in the fame way,'
and alfo the other preparations of mercury mixed with
m.ucilage, or honey, aniwer the fan^^e purpofe. Such dreff-
ings, according to Mr. Hunter, will eiTecl a cure in cafes
which are truly venereal, and free from other morbid ten- "
dencies. '

Some chancres are indolent, and require a little warm
balfam 'or red precipitate to b* joined with the mercurial
dreffing. Mr. Hunter fays, that calomel mixed with falve
is more aftive than common mercurial ointment, and is
attended with better effeds, when the cafe requires ftimu-
lants.

Solutions of blue vitriol, verdigris, calomel, &c. have
been recommended. But Mr. Hunter very judicioufly ob-
ferves,

LUES VENEREA.

feryes, that, as all tneR' applications are only of fervice in
remedying any peculiar difpolition of the parts, as they
have no fpecific power over the venereal poifon, and as fuch
difpolitions are innumerable, it is almoft impoffible to fay
\vhat applications will be cfTeftual in every inllan -e. Some
kinds of dreffings will anfwer in one ftate of the fore ; fome
ill another. The parts aflcdled are often found extremely
irritable, in which circumftance the mercury (bouid be tnixed
with opium (jr preparations of lead.

Mr. Hunter was an advocate for changinij the dreffings
very often, becaufe the matter feparates them from the fore,
fo as to diminilli their effetls. He ftates, that champing
the applications thrice a day, will not be found too often,
parcicularly when they arc in the form of an ointment.

When the venereal nature of a chancre is removed, the
fore frequently becomes ftationary, in which cafe Mr,
Hunter obferves, that new difpofitions have been Required,
and the quantity of dife.ife in the part has been increafed.
When chancres are only llationary, Mr. Hunter fays, they
may often be cured, by touching them (lightly with the
lunar cauftic. . No cicatrization, in this cafe, feems poffible,
till the contaminated furface, or the new flefli, which grows
on that furface, has either been deftroyed or altered. It
is often furpriting, how quickly the fores heal up, after be-
ing touched with the application.

At the fame time that topical applications are made to
chancres, mercury muft be internally exhibited, both with
a view of curing thefe ulcers, and preventing a lues venerea.
Mr. Hunter believed, that the venereal diipofition of the
chancre would hardly ever withlland both local and internal
mercurials.

When local applications cannot eafily be made to chancres,
as in cafes of phymofis, there is a ftill greater necelEty for
giving mercury internally, by which means, the cure may
in the end be cfFedled.

Mercury fhould always be given internally in every cafe
of chancre, let it be ever fo flight, and even when the fore
has been deftroyed on its very firfl; appearance. The re^
medy fhould always be exhibited the whole time of the cure,
and continued fome time after the chancre has healed ;
for, fays Mr. Hunter, as there are, perhaps, few chancres
without abforption of the matter, it becomes abfolutely
neceffary to give mercury to aft internally, in order to hinder
the venereal difpofition from forming. How much mercury
-fhould be thrown into the conilitution in the cure of a chan-
cre, with a view of keeping the fyltem from being affefted,
cannot eafily be determined, as there is no dileafe adlually
formed, by which we can be guided. Mr. Hunter ftates,
that the quantity muft in general be proportioned to the
fize, number, and duration of the chancres ; or, in other
words, proportioned to the opportunity, which tiiere h.as
been given for abforption.

The mercury, which is exhibited to aft internally, may
be conveyed into the fyftem, either by the Ikin, or llomach,
according to circumftances, and it fliould be fo taken, as
to produce a flight afFeftion of the mouth.

Mr. Hunter next remarks, that when the fore has put on
an healthy look, when the hard bafis has bscome fofc, and
the ulcer has Ikinned over in a favourable manner, it may
be regarded as cured. '

The fame diitinguifhed writer notices, however, that in
very large chancres, it may not always be neceffary to con-
tinue the application of mercury, either for external or in-
ternal aftion, .till the fore is healed, for the venereal aftion
isjuft as fo«n deftroyed in a large chancre, as it is in a fmall
one, fince every part of the fore is equally affefted by the
JBedicine, and, of courfc, cured with equal expedition.

But, in regard to cicatrization, circumftances are different,
becaufe a large fore is longer than a fmall one, in becoming
covered with flciq. Hence Mr. Hunter very juiUy explains,
that a large chancre may be deprived of its venereal aftion
long before it has healed ; while, on the other hand, a fmall
one may heal before the fyphilitic afFeftion has been de-
ftroyed. I;i the latter cafe, this gentleman reprefeiits it
as moft prudent, both on account of the chancre and con—
ftitution, to continue the employment of mercury a little
while after the fore has healed.

Mr. Hunter, in the valuable work which he has left on
the prefent fubjeft, takes notice of (loughs, which occur in
the tonfils, from die effeft of mercury on the throat, and
are apt to be miftaken for venereal complaints. He alfo
mentions, that fometimes, when the original chancre has
been doing well, and been nearly healed, he has feen nev/
fores break out on the prepuce, near the firft, and affume
all the appearance of chancres.

When, in the treatment of chancres, a bubo arifes, while
the conftitntion is loaded with a fufficient quantity of mer-
cury to cure fuch fores, which medicine has alio been rubbed,
into the lower extremity, on the fame fide as the bubo, Mr.
Hunter fufpefted, that the fwelling in the groin is not
venereal, but is produced by the mercury. In thefe cafes,
he always preferred conveying mercury into the fyftem ia
fome other manner.

With refpeft to the treatment of chancres in women,
fince it is difficult to keep dreffiiigs on the parts. Mr.
Hunter advifcs the fores to be frequently waftied with. fome
mercurial folution, and fpeaks of one made with corrofive
fublimate, as perhaps being the beft, fince it will ac^ as a
fpecific, and ilimulant alfo, when this is lequifite. When
the chancres, however, are irritable, they are to be treated
in the fame manner, as fimilar complaints in men. When
the fores extend into the vagina, this pafTage muft be kept
from becoming conftrifted, or clofed, by the introduftioa
of lint.

Sometimes, after a chancre and all venereal difeafe are
cured, 4he prepuce continues thickened and elongated, fo
that the glans cannot be uncovered. Perhaps, the cafe is
often without remedy. Mr. Hunter, however^ very pro-
perly recommends trying every poffible means, and he in-
forms us, that the fteam of ^varm water, hemlock fomen-
tations, and cinnabar fumigations, are frequently of fingular
fervice.

Wlien the thickenirrg and enlargement of the prepuce
cannot be removed by applications, all the portion, anterior
to the glans penis, may be cut away. See PiiVMOsls.

Mr. Hunter has very ably explained, that chancres, both
in men and women, often acquire, during the treatment,
new difpofiiions, -which are of various kinds, lome retard-
ing the cure, and leaving the parts in an indolent thickened
ftate, after the cure is jaccomplillied. In other inftances,
a new difpofition arifes, which utterly prevents the parts
from healing, and often produces a much worfe difeafe, than
that from which it originated. Such new difpofitions may
lead to the growth of tumours. They are more frequent
in men than women, and generally occur only when tl.e in-
flammation has been violent from fome pecuhanty of the
parts, or conftitution. They have fometimes been confidered
as cancerous.

Among the difeafes in queftion, Mr. Hunter notices thofe
continued, and often increafed inflammations, fuppurations,
and ulcerations, which become ditfuled through the whole
prepuce, and alfo along the common Jkiu vi the penis,
which become of a purple hue, attended with fuch a general
thickening of the .cellular membrane, as makes the whole

organ

LUES VENE-REA.

«rpan appear confiticrably enlarged. Tlie fame writer ob-
serves, that the ulceration on the iiillJe of the prepuce will
fometiines increafe, and run between the fliui and the body
of the penis, and eat holes through in different places, till
the whole is reduced to a number of ragged fores. The
glans often (hares the fame fate, till more or iefs of it h
gone. Frequently, the urethra in this fituation is wholly
deftroyed by ulceration, and the urine is difcharged fonie
way farther back. The ulceration, if unchecked, at length
deltroys all the parts. In tliis acute cafe, prompt relief is
demanded ; but often the proper mode of treatment cannot
be at once determined, owing to our ignorance, in refpedl
to the exatl nature of the peculiar caufe of the difeafe.
Mr. Hunter ftates, that the decoclion of farfaparilla is often
of fervice, when given in large quantities, and that he lias
known the German diet-drink effe<£f a cure, after every
other remedy had failed.

_ Mr. Hunter alfo dates, that the extraft of hemlock is
Jometimes of fervice, and that lie has known Ica-bathiiig
effett a perfecl cure.

Sometimes, when fuch fores are healing, it becomes ne-
ceffary to keep the orilice of the urethra from clofing, by
the introdudion of a bougie.

Sometimes, after a chancre has healed, the cicatrix breaks
cut again, and puts on the appearances of the preceding
lore. Occafionally, fimilar difeafes break out in different
places .frfim that of the cicatrix. Mr. Hunter reprefents,
that they differ from a chancre in generally not fpreading
fo fad, nor fo far ; in not being fo painful, nor fo" much
i.'iflamed ; in not having fuch hard bales, as venereal fores
have ; and in not producing buboes. This writer was of
opinion, that they were not venereal. They are very apt
to recur.

Mr. Hunter does not fpecify any particular mode of cure
for all thefe cafes; but he mentions one inftaiice, which
feemed to be cured by giving forty drops of the lixivium
faponarium, every evening and morning, in a bafin of broth;
and he adverts to another caie, which was permanently cured
by fea-bathing.

In fome inllances, after a chancre has healed, the parts,
as Mr. Hunter remarks, do not ulcerate; but appear to
become thickened and indurated. Both the glans and pre-
puce feem to fwell, fo as to form on the end of the penis a
tumour, or excrefcence, fhaped very much like a cauli-
flower, and, when cut into, ("hewing radii, running from
its bafe, or origin, towards the external furfacc. It is
extremely indolent. It is not always a coufequehce of
the venereal difeafe ; for Mr. Hunter has feeii it arife fpou-
taneoufjy.

No medicine feems to be at a'l likely to cure the difeafe :
the only fuccefsfu! means is to amputate a cotifiderahle part
of the penis, and then to keep a proper catheter introduced
into the urethra.

Warts. — Chancres often induce a difpofition to the
formation of warts on the penis. We- have m a former
column dated our belief, that they are not venereal,
though fometimes curable by mercury. Hunter feems
to think them not Typhi itic, and we never have feeu any
which could not be cured without mercury, and this with-
out the continuance of the original difeafe in any other
form.

Thefe fubdances are excrefcences from the body, they
are not to be confldered as truly a part of the animal, not
being endowed with the common, or natural animal powers.
Many trifling circumtlances make them decay. An inflam-
mation of the found parts round the wart, or ftimuli applied
to its furface, will often make it die. Eletlritity will alfo

induce an aftion in fucli excrefcences, which tliey are not
able to fupport ; an inflammation is excited round them,
and they drop ofl.

From this account, we mud perceive, according to Mr.
Hunter, that the knife and efcharotics are not always ne-
ceffary, although thefe modes will aA more quickly than
any other, efpecially when the neck of the wart is fmall.
When fuch is the form of the excrefcence, perhaps a pair
of fciflars is the bell inllrument ; but, fays the above didiii-
guidied writer, when cutting inftrumeuts of tiny kind are
horrible to the patient, a filk thread, tied round the neck of
the wart, will do very well. However, whichever plan \i
adopted, it is in general necelfary to touch with cauftic the
bafe of the little tumour, after this has feparated.

Mr. Hunter remarks, that efcharotics att upon warts in
two difforent ways, iva. by deadening a part, and lUmulat-
ing the remainder, fo that, by the application of cfcharotic
after efcharotic, the whole excrefcence decays moderately
fad ; and it is feldom neceffary to deftroy them down to the
very root, which is often thrown off. This, however, is
not always the cafe, and the wart grows ag»in, in which
circumdance, it is proper to let the caullic deftroy even
the root ilfelf.

The kali purum cum calce viva, lunar caullic, and blue
vitriol, are all proper applications. But one of the bell
ilimulants is the aerugo xris and powder of faviM-leavcs,
mi.\ed together.

Trcalmait of Bulocs. — W'^hen a bubo is certainly a venereal
one, and only in an inflamed llatc, an attempt is to be made
to relolve the f.velling. The propriety of the attempt, how-
ever, depends on the progicfs which the difeafe has made.
If the bubo be verv large, and fuppuration appears to be
near at hand, refolution is not likely to be effected. When
luppiiration has already taken place, Mr. Hunter much
doubted the probability of any fuccefs attendnig the endea-
v^iur, which now might poflibly ouiy retard t!ie fuppuration,
and prutratl the cure.

The refolution of thefe infl.imrr.ations, fays Mr. Hunter,
depL-nds principally on mercury, and almoll abf jlutely ou
the quantity which can be made to pafs through them.
Wiien fuppuration has taken p'ace, the cure alfo depends oo
the lame circumilances.

I'he quantity of mercury, which can be made to pafs
through a bubo, i.s reprefented by Mr. Hunter as depending
principally on the quantity of external furface for abforption
beyond the bubo.

The mercury is to be applied to fuch furfaces as allow
the remedy, when abforbed, to, pafs through the difeafed
glaiid. In th:s manner, the difeafe in the groin is fub-
dued, and the conditution is lels liable to be contami-
nated.

However, Mr. Hunter accurately notices, that the fitua-
tiua of many buboes is fuch, as not to liave much furface
for abforption beyond them ; for iiidancc, the buboes on
tbe body of the penis ariling from chancres on the glands,
or prepuce.

W'hen the bubo is in the groin, Mr. Hunter recommends
furgeona to pay attention to whether the fwelhng is in the
upper part of the thigh and groin, on the lower part of the
belly, before Pouparl's ligament, or near the pubes. When
the buboea are lituated on the body cf the penis, the ab-
forbents leading diredtly from the feat of abforption are
theinfelves difeafed. W.hen the bubo is in the groin, and
at the upper part of the thigh, we may conc'ude that the
lymphatics, both from tlie penis and thigh, fun to the af-
fected gland. When the bubo is high up, or on the lower
part of the belly, before Poupait's ligament, probably the

abfoibeutSj

LUES VENEREA.

ahforbents, which «Tife from about the groin, lower part of
the bellv and pubes, pafs throui^h the bubo. When the
bubo is far forward, the abforbents of the penis and (kin
about the pubes paf;> through the fwelling. Mr. Hvinter
contends, that the knowledge of thefe circumftances is very
necefTary, in order to apply mercury in the moil advantageous
fituations.

The utility of nibbing the mercury into furfaces, the ab-
forbentsof which lead through tiie bubo, mull be obvious,
v.'hcn it is confulered, that the medicine cannot pafs to the
common circulation without going tlirough the difeafed
pans ; that it mull promote the cure, as it pafies through
them ; and that it alfo prevents tlie matter, whieh has already
palled, and is IHII continuing to pafs into the conltitution,
from ading there. Thus the bubo is cured, and the con-
ftitution, at the fame time, preferved.

Mircnry alone, however, is not always capable of ef-
feilinc; the cure of buboes.

When the inflainmation rifes very high, bleeding;, purging,
and fomenting, are generally recommended. When the in-
flammation was eryfipelatous, Mr. Hunter had a high opi-
nion of bark ; and when it was fcrofulous, he ufed to re-
commend hemlock, and poultices made with fea-water.

The fame eminent writer alfo takes notice of the fa£l of
emetics fomecimes orcafioning the abforption of buboes, even
after they contain matter.

1 . Refolution of the Infammahcn of the Ahf»hents on the
Penis. — Though there is not furface enough beyond the
bubo, for rubbing-in a fufScicnt quantity of mercury, to
prevent the effefts of abforption, Mr. Hunter ilill advifes
this furface to be kept conftantly covered with mercurial
ointment. In confcquence of the turface in queihon being
fo fmall, more mercury muft alfo be conveyed into the fyilem
by the mouth, or fritlions on fome other part. Mr. Hunter
obferves, that this is neceifary, both in order to prevent a
lues venerea, and to cure the parts themfelves. The quantity
of mercury raufl be regulated by the appearances of the ori-
ginal complaint, and the readinefs with which the difcafe
gives way. The fame method, he adds, is to be followed
m women, and the ointment fhonld be kept continually ap-
plied to the infide and outiide of the labia.

2. RrfrAution of Buboes in the Groin. — The inflammation
of the abforbent glands is to be treated on the fame principle
as that of the velfels. In the firll cafe, however, we are
able to make a larfjer quantity of mercury pafs through the
difeafed parts. When the bubo is in the groin, the mer-
curial ointment is to be rubbed on the thigh. This furface,
as Mr. Hunter remarks, will in general ahforb as much
mercury as will be fufficient to relolve the bubo, and pre-
ferve the conllitution irom being contaminated ; but when
refolution does not readily take place, the fame author ad-
vifes us to increafe the furface ot friction, by rubbing tiie
omtment upon the leg.

When the bubo is on the lower part of tlie belly, the oint-
ment ihould be rubbed alio oi) the penis, fcrocum, and belly.
The fame plan fhould be followed when the bubo i» Hill more
forvsrard.

Mr. Hunter ftates, that when the bubo gives way, the
mercurial friftions mull be continued, till it has entirely fub-
Ijdcd, and, perhaps, lunger, on acconot of the chancre,
which may not yield fo fcon as the bubo. After the bubo
has fuppurated, Mr. Hunter is doubtful, whether rubbing-
in m.ercury is ufeful, or not.

7,. Refolution of Buboes in IVomen. — When the fwellingsare
ftuated between the labia and thigh, Mr. Hunter recom-
jiier.ds the mercurial ointment to be rubbed-in all about the
anus and buttock, trom which parts the abforbcnts jirobably

Vol. XXI.

run through the feat of the difeafes. 'WTien tlic buboes are
in the round ligaments, the furface for abforption will not
be large enough, and more mercury muft be internalh given,
or rubbed into other furfaces.

When the bubo is in one of the inguinal glands, the fatne
plan is to be adopted as in the fame cafe in men.

4. Buboes in unufual Situations. — When buboes form in the
arm, or arm-pit, in confequence of tliu abforption of vcnr-
real matter from wounds on the hands, or fingers, mercurial
ointment Hiould be rubbed on the arm and fore-arm. Mr.
Hunter adds, however, that this furface may not be fiiir!-
cient, fo that it may be proper to convey more mercury in;o
the fyftem in other ways. He ftates, that lie has fcen a trut-
vencreal chancre on the middle of the lovver hp, attended
with a bubo, on each fide of the neck, under tlie lovi'cr jaw,
clofe to the maxillary gland. The fwellings were refoiveJ
by appl)ing m.ercurial ointment to them, and the chin and
lower lip.

5 . Quantity of Mercury necrjfaryfor the Refolution of a Bubo.
— Mr. Hunter obferves, that the quantity of mercury ne-
ceffary for the refolution of a bubo, mud be proportioned
to the obftinacy of the complaint ; but that care muft be
taken not to extend the employment of the medicine fo far
as to produce certain efiedls on the conllitution. "When the
bnbo is in a htuation which admits of a large quantity of
mercury being rubbed in, fo as to pafs through the fwelling,
and when the complaint readily yields to the ufe of half a
dram of mercurial ointment every night, the moiith not
becoming fore, or at moft only tender, ihe above author
thinks it fufficient to purfue this courfe, till the gland is re-
duced to Its natural hzc. In this manner, the conftitution
will probably be fafe, provided the chancre, which may have
caufed the bubo, heals at the fame time. When the mouth
is not affeded in fix or eight days, and the gland docs not
readily refolve, then two fcruplcs, or a dram, may be ap-
plied every night ; and, continues Mr. Hunter, if tliere
fhould Hill be no amendment, even more mull be rubbed in.
In fhort (fays he) if the redudlion is obftinate, the mercury
muft ^e pufiied as far as can be done without a falivation.

When there is a bubo on each fide, fo much mercury can-
not be made to pafs through each, as the conliitutiou in gc-
neral will not bear tliis method. However, Mr. Hunter
fanftions the plan of minding the forencfs of the mouth lefs
in this kind of cafe ; though, he adds, that it is better to let
the buboes proceed to fujipuration, than to load the fyftem
with too much mercury.

When the filuation of buboes will not allow an adequate
quantity of abiorbcd mercury to pafs through tl.iem, the
fridions mutt be continued in order to affed the cor.ftiMilion ;
but, according to Mr. Hunter, more riiercury in this ca.'e
will be rcquifite, tlian when the remedy can be made to pafs
dircdly through the difeafed gland.

Many buboes remain fwoilen, without either comino- to
refolution, or fippuration ; and, notwithftanding every at-
tempt to promote thefe changes, the glards become hard
and fcirrhous. Mr. Hunter conctivcd, that cafes of this
fort are either fcrofulous at firft, oi- became fo as foon as
the venereal difpofition is removed. He advifes the ufe of
hemlock, fea-water poultices, and fea-bathing.

6. Treatmtnt of Buboes which fiippurate The fuppuralion

of buboes frequently cannot be prevented by any known
means. They are then to be treated, in fome refpeds, like
any other abfcefs. Before opening buboes, Mr. Hunter
conceived it was advantageous 10 let the ll.in become as thin
as pofFiblc, as a large opening would then become unnercf-
fary, and no me.-.fures would be rec^uifite for keeping the ikin
from clofing, bcfcre ilie bottom of the fore hadhealttd.

4 G Mr.

LUES VENEREA.

Mr. Hunter thinks it doubtful, whether the application
of mercury fhould be continued through the whole fuppura-
tion. He was inchned to conliiuie it ; but in a fmaller quan-
tity.

There has been much difpiitc, whether a bubo (hould be
opened, or allowed to burft of iifclf, and whether the open-
ing (hoiild be made with a cutting mftrument, or caullic.
On this fubjeft, Mr. Hunter remarks, that there is no pecu-
liarity in a venereal abfcefs to make one practice more eli-
gible than another. The furgcon, he fays, fliould in fome
degree be guided by the patient. Some patients are afraid
of cauftics ; others, of cutting inllruments. But when
the furgeon has the choice, Mr. Hunter exprofles a prefer-
ence to opening the bubo with a lancet, in which method no
(kin is loft. But, he obferves, that when a bubo is very
large, and there will be a great deal of loofe flcin, after the
difcharge of the matter, lie thinks that cauftic may, per-
haps, be better, as it will dcftroy fome of the redundant flcin,
and occafion lefs inflammation than what is caufed by an
incifion. The kali purum, with the calx viva, is the cauftic
commonly employed.

After the bubo has been opened, furgeons ufually poultice
it as long as the difcharge and inflammation are confiderable,
and then they employ dreflings, which mull be of fuch a
quality, as numerous undefcribable circumftanccs may indi-
cate. The ufe of mercury, in the mean while, is to be con-
tinued, both to make the bubo heal, and prevent the bad
effefts which might otherwife arife from the matter conti-
nually abforbed. The mercury (hould alfo be fo rubbed in,
as to pafs, if poffible, through the difeafed groin.

The mercurial courfe is to be purfued till the fore is no
longer venereal. But, in general, fmce this point is difScult
to afcertain, the mercury mult be given till the part has
healed, and even fomewhat longer, when the bubo has healed
very quickly ; for the conftitution is afterwArds very apt to
become contaminated.

However, mercury is not to be continued thus long in all
cafes ; for, as Mr. Hunter explains, buboes often affume,
befides the venereal, other difpofitions, which mercury can-
not cure ; but will even exafperate.

Ccnfequcncts of Buboes. — Sometimes the fores, when they
are loliBg, or entirely deprived of the venereal difpofition,
become changed into ulcers of another kind, 'and, moft pro-
bably,of various kinds. How far it is a difeafe arifing from
a venereal taint, and the efTefts of a mercurial courfejointly,
fays Mr. Hunter, is not cfrlain. This writer fufpedled,
however, that the nature of the part, or conftitution, had a
principal (hare in the malady.

Mr. Hunter obferves, that fuch difeafes make the cure
of the venereal affeftion much more uncertain, becaufe,
when the fore becomes ftationary, or the tncrcury begins to
difagree, \\e are ready to fi\fpeft that the virus is gone;
but this is not always the cafe. Perhaps the aftion of the
venereal poifon is only fufpended, and will commence again
as fooa as the other difeafe ceafes.

In thefe cafes, Mr. Hunter recommends attacking the
predominant difeafe ; but he allows there is difficulty in af-
certaining its nature, and finding out vi hether it is venereal,
or not.

The fame author alfo acquaints us, that he has feen fome
buboes exceedingly painful and tender to almoft every thing
that touched them, and the more mild the dreflings were,
the more painful the parts became.

In fome inftances, the fl<in only feems to become difeafed.
The ulceration fpreads to the furrounding integuments,
while a new fkin forms in the centre, and keeps pace with
the ulceration, fo that an irregular fore, which Mr. Hunter

compares with a worm-eaten groove, is formed all round.
It appears only to have the power of contaminating the
parts which have not yet been affefted ; and thofe which
have readily healed.

When buboes become ftationary, and feem little inclined
to fprcad, attended with a finus or two, hemlock, joined
with bark, is, according to Mr. Hunter, the medicine moft
frequently ferviceable. It is beft to ufe it both externally
and internally. The fame author alfo fpeaks favourably oi
farfaparilla, fea-bathing, and fea-water poultices. He
ftates, that at the Lock Hofpital, gold-refiners' water has
been found a ufeful apphcation ; that, in fome cafes, drink-
ing large quantities of orange-juice, and in others taking
mezereon, have been found ferviceable.

Treatment of fecondary Symptoms. — Before treating of thi«
fubjeft, it may be as well to recapitulate a fevr of the leading
points in Mr. Hunter's doftrine.

1. Syphilitic matter, after being abforbed into the fyftem,
circulates with the blood, and is thrown out by the common
emunftories ; but in its progrefs it may contaminate other
parts of the body, and give them a difpofition to difeafe.

2. When this difpofition is given, the difeafed aftion does
not follow till a certain time, which varies according to the
conftitution and other circumftanccs ; but never happens while
the conftitution is under a mercurial irritation.

3. When the difpofition has taken place, the aftion may
be fufpended by mercury ; but the diipofition will remain,
and the aftion ihew itfelf at fome period after the mercurial
irritation has ceafed.

4. When the aftion has begun in an order of parts it may
be cured, and will not return in the part, or that order of
parts from the fame flock of infeftion.

5. But the difeafed aftion may take place in another or-
der of parts, if that other order has been contaminated ;
and, in this order, it muft be treated as in the former.

6. When the difeafed aftion has taken place and been cured
in the part firft infefted, in the throat and fauces, the fl<in,
and the bones or periofteum, the fubjeft may be faid to be
free from the difeafe, as far as our knowledge has hitherto
traced it.

7. The ufual time of the flcin or fauces taking on the dif-
eafed aftion is, on a medium, fix weeks after the mercurial
irritation that cured the firft fymptoms has iubdivided ; and
in the bones about twice that time.

8. Whatever doubtful appearances may arife on the /kin,
throat, or bones, during the mercurial irritation, under
which chancres, or buboes are giving way, they are certainly
not venereal : and even if fuch fecondary fymptoms appear
after that mercurial irritation has ceafed, but earlier than the
period fpecified in the preceding propoCtion, they are to be
regarded with doubt.

9. If no fecondary fymptoms appear for three months
after the mercurial irritation has ceafed, and the conftitution
has not in the mean time been occupied by any other difeafe,
we have for the moft part no reafoii to apprehend any thing
in the flcin or throat from that ftock of inh-dtion.

LalUy, there are uncommon inftances, in which the fe-
condary fymptoms occur fooner or later than the periods
above ftated. See Hunter's Treatife, and Adams on Mor-
bid Poifons, p. 159, 160.

The treatment of fecondary fymptoms confifts almoft
entirely of the judicious employment of mercury. Frittions
with the ointment are generally the moft preferable ; but
fometimes the pill hydrarg. oxydi rubri, the folution of the
oxymuriate, or the adminiftration of mercury by fumiga-
tion (fee Fumigation), may be proper and advantageous.
The continuance of the mercurial eourfe muft always be

fufpended,

L U E

LUG

fofpended, when the effefts produced are attended with too
much violence or diforder. Opium may be given to lefTen
and check the diarrhoea, which fometimee arifes from mer-
cury, and both weakens the patient and diminifhes the fpeci-
fic aftion of that mineral on the diftemper. Sometimes other

Hunter to be fometimes capable of preventing the difpofitioB
from being formed at all, if exhibited in an early ftage of a
chancre, before the virus has been abforbed. But as much
abforption, and the confequent difpofition for the difeafe in
certain parts take place at an early period of the cafe, all

medicines will be ufeful, either given after the mercury is perfeverance in mercury for the prevention of any more fe-

done with, while it is omitted for a time, or even in conjuiic- condary fymptoms is, according to the Munterian tenets,

tion with it. This may be faid of bark, cicuta, opium, far- altogether fruitlefs. If the foft parts or firft order have beeu

faparilla, and the diet-drinks already fpccified. Whatever cured, wecan:iotconfider"ourpatientfafe,refpectingthebones,

doubtsmay prevailrefpeftingtheantivenereal qualitiesof nitric periefteum, and tendons, or fecond order, till a medium of

acid, none remain with regard to its utility in meliorating the at lealt fix weeks after the lail mercurial irritation has ceafed.

ftate of many complaints, which may exift after the fyplii-
litic aftion has been entirely fubdited by a previous exhibition
of mercury. But in our general obfervations we have al-
ready been fo full in our diredlions for the management of a

Of this the patient fhould always be warned. The affeftiorj
of this fecond order of parts generally confift of nodes and
pains. But it is not every fwelling or pain in a fufpefted
bone that is really venereal. Mercury itfelf will fometimes

mercurial courfe, and in our account of the effefts of other bring on painful affections and enlargements of the bones.
medicines in cafes of fyphilis, that it would be the moll fu- Even when nodes arc fyphilitic, it often happens that no
perfluous prolixity to enlarge on this fubjeft. continuance nor quantity of mercury will totally remove the
There is one queflion, however, that prefents itfelf as fwelling. Such medicme is only to be continued till we.
deferving confideration, namely, how long a mercurial courfe have reafon to infer all fyphilitic aflion in the part is fubdued,
ought to be continued ? We find that it was one of Mr. Whatever degree of thickening or enlargement may now re-
Hunter's opinions, that when venereal matter is abforbed, main is only of a common nature, does not demand mercur)',
it may produce in parts a difpofition to the difeafe, or, in and frequently admits of being materially lefTened, or even

other words, a ftate of contamination, which, though it
might have beenhindered by the timely effefts of mercury, and
may now be. kept from going into aftion as long as the fy ftem

entirely removed, by blifters, if care is taken to keep up a dif-
char^e from the excoriated furface with the favme cerate.
Some other cafes, connefted with the fubject of lues ve-

isunder the influenceof mercury, yet cannot becured, but muft nerea, will be confidered in the articles Phimosls and

fome time or another proceed to attion, or a ftate of palpable
difeafe. In this condition alone it is curable. We obferve,
however, that Mr. Hunter, in his pra^Elice, is not altoge-
ther regulated by this principle ; for in his direftions for the
cure of a chancre, he recommends mercury to be followed

Paraphimosls. See alfo Gleet, Gonokrikea, &c.

LUESIA, in Geography, a town of Spam, in the pro-
vince of Aragon ; 20 miles S.W. of Jaca.

LUFF, a fea-term, the fame with /oo/".

LUFFA, in Botany, the Arabic name of an herb of the

up fome time after the fore is cured, which medicine being Cucumber family, Aiomordka Luffa, Linn. Sp. PL 1433.

fuppofed not to be capable of curing the difpofition that may Veiling. iEgypt. 48. t. 50, 51. Cavanilles, 'v\\i\% hones,

be formed, (and if formed at all, muft have formed ere this,) v. i. 7, t. 9, 10, has applied it generically to a plant called

the method, according to reafon, can be of no fervice. We by him Luffa frtida, a native of the Eaft Indies, with which

cannot pretend to dehver an opinion whether the praftice is he thinks it probable that the above Momordica may agree

pofitively right or the theory wrong. One thing or the in generic charafters. WiUdenow has adopted this Luffa,

other muft be the cafe. But it h our duty to ftate that the in his Sp. PI. v. 4. 383. How far the difference in its lla-

generality of furgeons think it prudent to go on with mer-
cury a certain time after ordinary chancres are healed. But
in the treatment of fecondary fymptoms we believe the per-
feverance in mercury, after all palpable fyphilitic mifchief is
removed, is utterly wrong and unneceffary. In other refpefts,
the mercurial courfe for the relief of fecondary fymptoms

mens, whofe anthers are all fcparate, and which are accom-
panied by five abortive filaments, may ferve to keep it dif-
tinft, we very much doubt. As to the fruit, it appears
nearly to agree with Momordica Operculata.

LUG, in Agriculture, a long meafure of land, the fame
with pole or perch, fixteen feet and a half. In Gloucefter-

is to be condufted exaftly in the fame manner as in cafes of Ihire, it however fignifies a land-meafure, of fix yards, or

chancre or bubo, and according to the diredlions given in
our general obfervations. Should the fecondary fymptoms in
the throat, fliin, mouth, or nofe, have taken place and been
cured by mercury, we may affure the patient that whatever
appearances may now prefent themfelves in thefe parts, the
complaints cannot be really fyphilitic. Therefore the con-

tinuance of mercury is not indicated. But though we may fquamsfus of Willughby.

a rod, pole, or perch of fix yards. It is a meafure by which
ditching and other fimilar operations are performed in that
diftri£l. This term is likewife applied to the ftick by which
the work is meafured. It is fometimes called log.

l^VG-a-Leaf, a name uled in fome parts of England for
the rhomboides of Rondeletius, and the rhombus non acukatus

venture to predict that the difeafe will not recur in this firft
order of parts, we cannot promife as much with refpeft to
the fecond order, •ui%. the bones, periofteum, and tendons.
Whether thefe have contrafted the difpofition, or, in other
words, are contaminated or not, can never be known rt^r/or/.
If they have contrafted the difpofition, this cannot be cured
by mercury, but will, fome time or other, take on the fyphi-
litic aftion, or, in other terms, fall into a ftate of obvious
and palpable difeafe. It is only in this laft condition that mer-
cury can exert its beneficial power in eff^efting a permanent
cure. Were this medicine given under the idea of preventing
fyphilitic mifchief, it might indeed delay the coming on of the
complaints, but after the difpofition has been formed, they
muft fooner or later follow. Mercury was fuppofed by

We have it on our own ftiores ; and the Cornifti people,
who frequently catch it, call it the lug-a-lcaj. See PiEU-
RONECTES Plateffa.

'L.XiG-Jail, in Sea Language, is a fquare fail, hoifted occa-
fionally on the maft of a boat or fmall veflTel, upon a yard
which hangs nearly at a right angle with the maft. Thefe
are chiefly ufed in the barca longas, navigated by the Spa-
niards in the Mediterrane.in.

LUGA, in Geography, a town of Ruflla, in the govern-
ment of Peterfburgh, on a river of the fame name ; 8s
miles S. of Peterfburg. N. lat. 58' 25'. E. long. 29'

30'-

LUGANO, or Laurs, a territory of Italy, ceded to the

Swifs cantons in 1513 ; it is environed by the diftrifts of

4 G 2 Mendrit

LUG

Mendris Liigaru?, Billinzona, and the diiehy of Milnti *, it
is i'ortili; and populou?, about eiffht leaj^ues long and five
broad, lying in N. lat-. 4.6 \ and is divided into quarters,
containing Ic6 market towns and villages, and 53,000 inha-
bitants. This territory prodiicea palturc, corn, fruit, and
lillc ; olives are in great abundance. It is now ceded to
Italy- — Alfo, the capi'al of the fore-mentioned bailinic or
diitrif^, vvliich is a fmall, tok-rably built, trading town,
tlelightfnUy fituated round tlie curve of a bay, and backed
by a fucceinon of hills, rifing in gentle fwells to a conlider-
able height ; in front a bold mountain clothed with forefl:
prcjefta into the lake, of which a noble branch extends to
jts right and left. To that fpot boats of various fi/.es are
continually palling and repading, its bafe being perforated
with canlhic, or taverns, to which the inhabitants lend their
meat, and all forts of provifion, where it is kept untainted
for fcven or eight days, and the wine preferved with deli-
cious coolnefs. The heats are moderated by the furround-
ing hiils, and the cool breezes from the lake. It is no Icfs
flu-ltercd from the Alpine blails, which, chilled by the
neighbouring fnows, would otherwite dedroy the tempera-
ture of this equal climate. OHve, almond, and all the
loitthern fruits ripen here to perfeftion. Lugano 15 the empo-
rium of the greater part of the merchandifc which pades from
Italy over the St. Gothard, or the Bernardin. At the end
of autumn, the Swifs mountaineers bring down numeroui
herds of cattle for fa!e, and return with lefs bulky com-
modities. The town contains about 8000 inhabitants ; moll
of the houfes are built of tuf-!loiic ; the refidence of the
capitano, or governor, is a low buiMing; and on the. walls
are the arms of the twelve regent cantons. On an eminence
above the town Hands the principal church, remarkable only
for the beautiful carvings in ftone round the doors and rofe-
windaw, and for the dehcious profpett from its towers!.
In the c'.oiller of the Recollets is a capital pifture attributed
to Luvipo ; their church is handfo ne, and the Ikrecn is or-
namented with the paintings of the Paflion by the fame
mafter. The pahce of the Marquis de Riva contains a few
good piflnres J 16 miles N.W. of Como. N. lat. 45" 50'.
E. long. 8 53'. Coxe's Switzerland, vol. iii.

Lt.'(;.\NO, Lale rif, a lake adjoining to tlie toiyn above
defcribed, aboht 25 miles in length, and from two to four
in breadth ; its form is irregular, and bending into continued
finuofities- From Porto, a fmall village, fituated at its
fouthern extremity, an arm of the lake bends northward,
and difcharges iifelf into the Lago Maggiore, by means of
the river Tnfa. It is fcarccly poffible, fays Mr. Coxe, to
imagine a more perfeft or greater variety of beauties than
this noble piece of water affords. The vaft- overhanging
woods, the bold precipices, the tranfparency of the wa'er,
unite to form a f.enery in the highell degree luxuriant. This
lake is about 190 feet perpendicular higher than the lake of
Como and Lago Maggiore. The two lall mentioned lakes
are of the fame level, and about 240 feet higher chan the
city of Milan Coxe. See Lake.

LUGARBEN, a town of rrnffia, in Natangen ; 36
jniles S.E. of Ko;iigfberg.

LLG R-NUEv'O, a town of Spain, in Valencia, on
the coa i ; eight miles S. of Alicant.

LUGDE, or LuDE, a town of Weftpkalia, in the
biihopric of Paderborn, osi theEmmer; 24 miles N.N. E.
cf PjdcrL'crn. N. lat. 51 ^ 55 - E. lo-g 9" iW.

LUGDUNUM, iu Ancient Geography. See Lyoxs.

L.UGDUNUM Batavorum. See Levden.

LUGGS, the E'lgl.fli nam ■ for apeculiar fpecies'of infeft,
found in great plentv on the lliores of Cornwall. It is of
the nature of X^eJ'celo^endra, anilis called by Mr. Ray vfimis

LUG

fnloptnJrolJes. It grows to twelve inches long, and has in-
Itcad ol legs nineteen pair of itifl' brillles, all which (land.
toward the head part of the creature. The tail is at lead live
inches long when full grown, and has no mark of them.
Its body is rounded, and much rtiembles the body of the
common earthworm, and is of a llsfh-colour, or pale red.
It has no forceps.

LUGMON, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine illanus to a fpecics of turtle, the
female of which has a tuft of red feathers, of a pale blood
colour, on her breaft, which have greaUy tjie appearance
of a wound, fo much that any body would really be deceived,

LUGN.-^QUILL A, in Geography, mountains of Ire-
land, in the county of Wicklow.

LUGNV, a town of France, in the department of the
Saane and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dillritl
of Macon; 10 miles N. of Macon. The place contains
1 133, and the canton 12,776 inhabitants, oil a territory of
173^ kiliometres, in i() communes.

LUGO, Jons' DE, in Biography, a learned Spanifh Jefuit
and cardinal, was born at Madrid in 15S3. He give early
proofs of his attachment to the introduftory parts of karn-
in.:, and was fent to iludy the law at Salamanca, where
he entered the lociety of Jefuits, thereby following the ex-
ample of his brother, though contrary entirely to the
wiih of his father. Upon the death of the father, the two
fous divided a very large eftate that had fallen to them
among the Jefuits of Seville and Salamanca. He became
profeffcr of philofophy at Medina del C.inipo, then profeffor
of divinity at Valladolid, and afterwards he filled the divinity
chair at Rome. In 1643 he was raifed to the dignity yf
cardinal by pope Urban VIII. without his knowledge, und
he died at the age of fevcnty-feven, in the year 1660. He
was the author of ievcn folio volumes, chiefly in theology 1
and morals, of which a few tracts only have any degree of
merit, Inch as " De Virtute et Sacramento Penitentias," and
" De Jultitia et Jure." He is, however, particularly ce-
lebrated as being the perfon who brought the virtues of bark
into notice, wliich he introduced into France in the year
1650, and which, under the name of " Cardinal Lugo's
powder,'' he adminilfeied gratis to the poor, but obliged
the rich to purchafe with its w eight in gold. Bayle.

Lugo, hucus Augujli, in Geography, a very ancient town
of Spain, in the province of Galicia, which, in tlK* time of
the Romans, was the centre of one of thofe jurifdictiMiS that
were named " Conventus." At prefent it is the fee of a
biihop, fuffragan to St. Jago, and worth 1550/. fterlmg.
It is fituated on an eminence near the banks of the Minho^
I J leagues from its fource. Here feveral councils liave been
held ; and among others, one in 564 to regulate the limits of
the billioprics of Galicia and Portugal. It is at motl three
miles in circumference : and the ftreets are tolerably haitd-
fome and well paved. It has 12 fquares, three fountains,
and five gates. The walls are ancient, but in good repair.
The city contains a cathedral, feveral churches and convents,
the bifhop's palace, a col rge, a hofpital, and an afylum.
The civil admimllratlon is compofed of an alcalde major, a
regidor, and feveral diUritt alcaldes. The cathedral is a very
ancient budding of Gothic architecture, with a modern portal.
Lugo is fuppofed to contain more than 4600 inhabitants,
'i'fiey work up wools in this town, but not enough to fend
any out of the country. In its terntory is a number of
thermal fprings, temperate and boiling. Wheat, barley,
rye, and maize, are produced in the environs ; and many
large flocks of fheep are to be feen, The Minho fupplies 1

truut, lalmon, and lampries. Lugo is diitant from St. Jago
13 leagues. N. lat. 43° 2'." Y/. long. 7° 32'.— Alfo, a

town

L U I

town of Italy, in the Veronefc ; eight miles N. of Verona.
— f\.Ho, a town of Italy, in the Paduan ; lo miles E. of
Padua. — Alfo, a town of Italy, in tLe department of the
Lower Po ; I J miles S. of Ft rrara^

LUGOS, a town of Himgary ; ^7 miles S.W. of Co-
lofvar. — Alf >, a town of Him^ary, in thebannat of Temcf-
var, on tlie Temes ; 23 miles E. of IV-mcfvar.

LUGUBRE, Fr. in M/t/ic, a term which implies gloomy,
melancholy, dejetlid.

L.UHANGO, in Geography, a town of Swedep, in the
province of Tavailland ; 60 miles N.i>i.E. of Tavaftland.
LUHEA, in Botany, fo named by Willdenow, in com-
pliment, as we prcfiime, to F. K.Frcyherr von der Liihe, who
publiflied at Vienna, in 1797, a German hymn to Flora.
His poetry ought to be very fine, as we hope it is, to merit

fo magnificent a plant. — Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 1434 Ciafs

and order, Polyadelph'ta Pdyandrla. Nat. Ord. Columm-
fir<s, Linn. Mahiace^, Jud.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, double ; the outer of
nine equal, linear leaves, channelled at the back ; inner in
five deep, lanceolate fcgments, internally fmooth, naked,
and coloured. Cor. Petals five, longer than the calyx, broad,
roundiHi, wavy, crenate, veiny. Neftaries five, (talked,
pencil-fhaped, hairy. Siatn. Filaments numerous, hairy,
united into live fets at their bafe ; anthers incumbent,
roundifh, fmnoth. PiJI. Germen roundifh, or conical, with
five angles, hairy ; ftyle columnar, thick, Ihorter than the
flamens, fmooth upwards ; ftigma orbicular, broad, de-
preffcd, with feveral radiant furrows. Perk. Capfiile of
five cells. Seeds w'm^eA.

EfT. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer of nine leaves; inner
in five deep fegments. Petals five. NeiTtaries five, pencil-
fhaped. Style one. Capfule of five cells. Seeds winged.
I. h.fpeciojj. Wilid. Nov. Ad. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Bcrol.
V. 3. 410. t. J — Native of lofty mountains in the Caraccas,
from whence we have a fpecimen, gathered by Dr. J. Msrter,
to whom, though we do not meet with his name, the Viei.na
gardens are indebted for many of the finell plants publifhed
by Jacquin. From him we learn what is mentioned above
refpectiug the capfule and feeds, about which Profeffor
Willdeno.v had no information. We have had no opportu-
nity of confukiiig his original account in the memoirs of the
Berlin fociety, which is here cited on his own authority in
his Speclis PLmtiirltm.

This, the only known fpecies, isAtree, 20 or 30 feet high,
with alternate, round, brown branches, downv vvlicn young.
Zmucj alternate, on ihort, thick, Aovivty Jlaiks, roundilh-
oblong, pointed, flightly heart-fhaped and a little unequal
at the bafe, three or four inches long, unequally and iharply
ferrated ; fmooth and naked above ; white with denfe Hel-
lated down, furniihed with three prominent ribs, and nume-
rous tranfverfe parallel veins, beneath. Flowers white,
large and handfome, not many together, in downy, terminal,
fimple clufters. The calyx and partiul_y?a//'j are clothed with
dei-ife pubefjence, of a rully hue in ttie dried fpecimen. —
This plant is clofely allied in habit and fcuit to the Ptero-
f^ermum of Sehreber and Willdenow (Pcntapcles fuberifolia
and acerifoHa oi Linnxus) ; the differences in their flowers
however teem elTential, elpecially as the calyx of Pterojper-
mum is fimp'.e.

LU-'iYNY, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Poland;
24 mibs W. S W. of Owrucza.

LUICHEN, a city of C'huia, in Quang-tong, fituated
in a fertile and pleafant country, near ihe fca. N. lat. 28^
58'. E. long. lio' 8'.

L U I

LUIDA, in Botany, Adanfon v. 2. 492, was fo called
by that writer after Mr. Edward Llwyd, the corrc fjjondent
of Ray, who is mentioned in his Synopjis as the diftovcrer
of feveral molfes and other plants in Wales. This flip,
pofed genus however will neither immortalize him, nor its
whimfical author, being made up of various fpegies of
Hypnum, Bryum, Splachnum, &c. cbaraflerif^d by having
fome leaves triangular and fome orbicular ! Mr. Llwyd ap-
pears, by what Ray fays of iiim, in the preface to the fe-
cond edition of his Syiwpjis and elfewhcre, to defcrve more
permanent commemotation.

LUIGI Ro.s,si, in Biography, one of the eariieft and
mod volumnious compofers of cantatas in the fevcnteeiith
century. He ir celebrated iu 1640 by Pietro della Valle,
in his letter to Guidiccioni, for his grave canzonette, par-
ticularly that vvliich begins " Or cVe la iiottc del filcnrio
amica."

Many of his cantatas are prcfcrved in all the collcflions
which include the imific of the lall century, particularly iu
the Brit. Muf Bibl. Harl. 1265 and 1273, and iu Dr»
Aldrich's CoUedlion, Chrift church, O.-ton.

His cantata, "La Fortune," in the Mufeum coIlcftion.No.
laOj, is of an immeafurable length. The recitative, how-
ever, with formal clofes, has pleafing cxprefru)n^ in it, that
Hill live. No da cupo, or fign of reference, appears in his can-
tata, and he writes twice or three times over the fame airs ; a
trouble which tiiefe expedients would have fpared. He feeins
to have llarted feveral flimfy divifions, which .-.fterwards be-
came common ; and, indeed, it appears from his cantatas,
that as foon as fecular mufic had divefted itielf of tiie pe-
dantry of perpetual canons, fugues, and multiphed j.art.s,
another vice crept into the art, by the frequent and exceflivc
ufe of divifion-s. Luigi, in fongs for a fingle voice, has
fome of this kind as long as thofe in modern bravt;ra airs.

In the Magliabecchi library at Florence, we foundafcene
of oratorio called " Giufeppe Figlio di Giacobbc, opera
fpirituale fatta in niufica da Aloigi de Roffi, Napolitano, in
Roma.'' And under the name of RoJJi many of hiscompo-
litions may be found in the mufeum.

Luigi, in his motets that are preferved in the Chrift-
church coUtftion, appears to have been as able to write a.-
cappella, in many parts wiih learning, as with elegance in
few.

LUIGNA, in Geograplj, a town of Spain, in Afturias; ,
20 miles N. W. of Oviedo.

LUI-LUNG-TA. See Stcrioo-

LUING, or Long Isla.nd, one of the fmaller weftern
iflands of Scotland, between Scaiba and Kerrera.

LUINI, BoMETTO, of Brefcia, in Bkgrciphy, an opera
finger in foprano, who had been in Ruffia and other foreign
countries, and acquired great wealth, but diiiipated <Treat
part of it by play. Ytt, after lofing ten thoiifand pounds in
one night of the money which he had gained an ic.fua virtu,
he was (liil faid, in Italy, lo be very rich.

LUIS, St , in Geogrepky, a town of South Acierica, in
the government of Bienos Ayres, and province of Cordova;
170 miles S.W. of Cordova. *S. lat. 32'- 10'. W. long.
67 I 2'. — Alio, a town of South America, in the province
of Moves ; 72 miles N.W. of Trinidad. -^Alfo, a miflion
of Spanilh monks in New Albion ; 10 miles N.E. of Punta.
el Eiteros. — Alfo, a town of New Navarre ; 50 miles S. of
Cala Grande.

Luis de la Pizz, St , a town of Mexico, in the province of
Mecboacan ; 100 miles N. of Mechoacan. N. Lt. 21^ 50'.

W. long. 1Q2^ !&'.

Luis Je Marancn, St. See St. F£iaPE»

Liis

L U K

L U K

Luis de Potoft, St., a city of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca, pleafatitly fituatcd, and environed with rich gold
mines. Tlie town is handfome and well built, conlidcrable in
fize, and populous. The ilreets are flraiglit and neat, the
churches magnificent ; and the inhabitants, who arc chiefly
Indians, poflefiinsr all the conveniencies and comforts of life ;
190 miles N.N. W. of Mexico. N. lat. 2 2 25'. W. long.
10,?" 6'.

Luis de Zacatecas, a town of Mexico, capital of the pro-
vince of Zacatecas, the fee of a birtiop, and reiidence of a
governor; 240 miles N.N. W. of Mexico. N. lat. 22" 50'.
W. long. 103^ 46'.

LUI-SHIN, in Mythology, the Jupiter of the Chincfe,
or fpirit that prefides over thunder. The figure of it has
the wings, beak, and talons of an eagle. In his right hand
he holds a mallet, to ftrike the kettle-drums with which he
is furrounded, whofe noife is intended to convey the idc;: of
thunder ; while his left is filled with a volume of undulating
lines, very much refembling thofe in the hands of fome of
the Grecian Jupiters, and evidently meant to convey the
fame idea, v'i%. that of the thunder-bolts, and lightning.

LUISIANA, in Geography, a diftriftof Spain, in Anda-
lufia, three leagues from Ecija, fettled in 1791 by a colony
of Germans, who built houfes in an uniform plan, allotting
to each houfe a portion of land, which conftituted a village ;
but the honfes are already beginning to fall into ruin.

LUISINUS, Louis, in Biography, a phyfician, was
born at Udina, in the ftate of Venice, where he obtained
confiderable reputation about the middle of the fixtcenth
century, and was not lefs diftinguifhed by his acquifitions in
literature, than by his medical Ikill. He was author ot the
following works : " Aphorifmi Hippocratis hexametro car-
mine confcripti," Venice, 1552 ; " De compefcendis ani-
mi affeftibus per moralem philofophiam et medendi artem,
Traftatus in tres Libros divifus," Bafle, 1562; " Aphro-
difiacus, five de Lue Venerea, in duos Tomos bipartitus,
eontinens omnia qusecumque haftenus de hac re funt ab om-
nibus Medicis confcripta,'' Venice, 1566, foho. The firll
volume contained an account of the printed treatifes on the
lues up to that year ; the fecond, publifhed the year follow.-
ing, comprehended principally the manufcript works on the
fubjetl, which had not then been committed to the prefs.
Eloy Did. Hift. de la Medecine.

LUISNANSBERG, in Geography, a town of Sweden,
in Weftmanland ; 48 miles N.W. of Stroemlholm.

LUJULA, in Botany, &c. See OxALl.s Acetofella.

LUK, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Saatz ; 6 miles E. of Carlfbad.

LUKAU, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Znaym ;
eight miles W.N.W. of Znaym.

LUKAWETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau ; 28 miles S.W. of Czaflau.

LUKE, St , in Sacred Biography, one of the evangelifts,
and the writer of the gofpel bearing his name, and alfo of
the book of the Afls of the ApolUes. Concerning his pro-
fefllon and country, previonfly to his converfion to Chrifti-
anity, there is a difference of opinion among both ancient
and modern authors. The firll mention of him in the books
of the New Teftament occurs in his own hiftory. ( Adts, xvi.
10, II.) When the apoftie Paul was again, a fecond time,
in Greece, it appears, from Afts, xx. 1 — 6, that St. Luke
■was with him ; and that he acccompanied Paul from
Greece through Macedonia to Philippi, and went with him
from thence to Troas. It further appears from the fequcl
of the hiftory in the Afts, that he accompanied the apoftie
to Jerufalem, and remained wiih him there. When the

apoftie was fent a prifoner from Ceefarea to Romp, Luke
was in the fame (liip with him, and ilaid with him at Rome
during the whole interval of his two years' imprifonment in
that city. Of this faft wc have alfo collateral evidence from
the epiiiles of St. Paul written at this time. (2 Tim. iv. 11.
Philem. v. 24.) And if Luke the beloved phyfician, men-
tioned Col. iv. 14, be the evangeliR, this patf.ige affords
additional proof of his being then with the apolUe. Some
have alfo fuppofed that he is the perfon mentioned
2 Cor. viii. 18, as "the brother, whofe praife is in the gofpel
throughout allthe churches.'' Dr. Lardner, with his ufual
indullry and accuracy, has collefted the teftinionies of vari-
ous ancient writers concerning the evangelift Luke; and
from thefe he deduces feveral inferences that fcrve to fettle
his profeffion and country, and to corre£l the miftakes of
other authors. The notion which fome have entertained,
that he was a painter, is without fo\indation, as it is not coun-
tenanced by ancient writers. The learned Grotius and
J. Wctllein have fuggefted, that he was a Syrian and a
Have, either at Rome, or in Greece ; and that having ob-
tained his freedom, he returned to his native place, Antioch ;
where he became a Jewifh profelyte, and then a Chriftian.
This opinion is alfo rcjcfted by our author ; who obferves,
that the account given of this evangelift by Eufcbius, and
by Jerom after him, that he was a Syrian, and a native of
Antioch, is not fupported by the authority of Irenius,
Clement of Alexandria, TertuUian, or Origen, nor indeed
by any other writer before Eufebius. Cave and Mill have
intimated, that Luke was converted by Paul at Antioch ;
but it is alleged, on the other hand, that if Luke had been
a Gentile, converted by Paul, he would have been always
uncircumcifed, and unfit to be the companion of Paul.
For the apoftie would not have allowed the Greeks or Gen-
tiles of Antioch, or any other place, to fubmit to that
rite. Befides, no hints occur in the Afts, or in the epiftle
ot St. Paul, that Luke was his convert. It has been
doubted by feveral learned men, whether the evangelift Luke
was a phyfician. Dr. Lardner allows, that the diftinguifh-
ing charafter of "beloved phyfician" (Col. iv. 14.) has 00
caConed a difficulty, which, however, he thinks, is not in-
fuperable ; and he conceives it probable, that Luke the
evangehft was by profeffion a phyfician. That St. Luke
was a Jew by birth, or at leaft by religion, our author argues
from his being a conftant companion of Paul m many places,
particularly at Jerufalem. If he had been an uncircum-
cifed Gentile, fome exceptions would have been made to
him, which we do not find from St. Paul's epiftles, or
the AiSs, to have been the cafe ; and befides, he follows the
Jewifti computations of times, fuch as the paffover, the
pentecoft, and the faft. (See Afts, xii. 3. xx. 6. 16. xxvii. 9.)
In this opinion, that St. Luke was a Jew, many learned and
judicious moderns, as Mr. L Bafnage and J. A. Fabricius,
concur ; and Dr. Lardner thinks, that it ought not to be
queftioned. Moreover, he was probably an early Jewifh be-
liever, foon after Chrift's afcenficn, if not a hearer of
Chritt, and one of the 70 difciples. The moft ancient
writers fpeak of Luke as a difciple of the apoftles. Some
have reckoned him one of the Seventy, others have thought
him to be Lucius, mentioned by St Paul in the epiltle to the
Romans, and others have fuppofed, that he was one of the
two difciples that met Jefus in the way to Emmaus. If
Lucius be the evangelift Luke, which is an opinion adopted
by feveral learned writers, we may conclude, that he was a
Jew, and related to the apoftie. We may know his charac-
ter, and, in part, his hiftory, from Adts, xi. 19 — 21, and
xih. 1 — 4. He was an early Jewiftt believer after Chrift'j

Q afcenfioii,

L U K

afcenfion, and together with others was very ferviceable in
preaching the gofpel, at an early period, to Jews and Gen-
tiles out of Judea. And if the other difciple, who accom-
panied Cleopas in the way to Emmaus, be Luke the evan-
gelift, he was a difciple and eye-witnefs of Jefus Chrift ;
though we do not allow him to be one of the 70. It ap-
pears further, that St. Luke was for a confiderable time a
eonftant companion of St. Paul ; and that he was alfo ac-
quainted with other apoftles. It is probable, that St. Luke
died a natural death ; becaufe none of the mod ancient
writers, fuch as Clement of Alexandria, Irensus, Origen,
Eufebius, and Jerom, fay any thing of his martyrdom.
Gaudentius, bilhop of Brefcia, about the year 387, obferves,
that in his time it was generally faid, that Luke and Andrew
fini(hed their courfe at Patra; in Achaia, but without adding
that it was by martyrdom : and if St. Luke be called a
martyr, the appellation may be underilocd in a general fcnfe,
as equivalent to confefTor, or a great fuffcrer for the golpel.
Cave fays (Hill. Lit. p. 2J.) that Luke lived a ilngle life,
and died in the 84th year of his age, about the year of
Chrid 70, but of what death is uncertain. Phiioftorgius
informs us, that in the reign of the emperor Conflantius,
the reliques of St. Luke were tranllated from Achaia to
Conftantinople ; and therefore it mull have been a general
perfuafion in thofe times, that St. Luke had died, and had
been buried in Achaia, which, Gregory Nazianzen fays,
was the province affigne ! to St. Luke. I^ardner.

Lvke's GofpeU St., HI Biblical Hiflory, the gofpel written
by the evangelill Luke. That the gofpel and the Afts were
written by St. Luke, is a fadl that is confirmed by the telli-
mony of the moil unexceptionable of ancient writers. To this
purpofe we may obferve, that this gofpel is often cited by
Juftin Martyr, who lived A.D. 140, and by the martyrs of
Lyons, A.D. 177. Irenaeus, A.D. 178, fays exprefsly,
that Luke, the companion of Paul,'' put down in a book
the gofpel preached by him. Clement of Alexandria,
A.D. 194, has borne ample teftimony to this gofpel, as
well as the Afts. TertuUian, A. D 2co, affcrts againd
Marcion the genuinenefs and integrity of the copies ut St.
Luke's gofpel, owned by himfelf and Chridians in general,
and for this he appeals to divers apodolical churches Lake's
diged, fays this ancient father, is often afcribed to Paul ;
it being eafy to take that for the mader's which the difci-
ples publidied. Origen, A. D 230, mentions the gofpels
according to the order in which they are now generally
received ; and " the third," he fays, " is that according to
Luke, the gofpel commended by Paul, publifhed for the
fake of the Gentile converts." Enlebius of Caeiarea, AD.
315, fpeaking of St. Paul's fellow-labourers, fays, " and
Luke, who was of Aiitioch, and by profeiBon a phyfician,
for the mod part a companion of Paul, whg had hkewife a
more than flight acquaintance with the red ot the apoitles,
has left us in two books, divinely infpired, evidence of the
art of healing fouls, which he had learned trom them. One
of thefe is the gofpel, which he profefleth to have written,
as they delivered it to him, " who from the beginning were
eye-witnedes and minilters of the word," with all whom he
fays Hkewife, he has been perfeftly acquainted from the
very fird. The other is the Atls of the Apodles, which
he compofed now, " not from what he had received by the
report of others, but from what he had feen with his own
eyes." In the Synopfis, alcribed to Athaiiafius, but fup-
pofed to be written about the end of the tifth century, it is
feid, •' that the gofpel of Luke was ditlated by the apodle
Paul, .and written and publillied by the bleffed apollle and
phyfician Luke." But it is neediefs in this place to cite a
greater number of authorities.

L U K

As to the time in which this gofpel was written, it may
be fettled without much difficulty. Thi.- Aits of the apodlet
were publilhed A.D. 63 or 64, and not long after the gof-
pel, as is generally allowed. Accordingly Dr. Mill fup-
pofes, thofe books to have been two parts of one and the
fame volume, and to have been publilhed in the year of
Chrid 64. The gofpel itfelf bears internal charafters of the
time in which it was written. As to the place where it was
written, learned writers have differed. Jerom fays, that
Luke, the third evangelift, publidied his gofpel in the coun-
tries of Achaia and Bueotia. Gregory Nazianzen alfo fays,
that Luke wrote for the Greeks, or in Achaia. Grotim
fays, that about the time when Paul left Rome, Luke de-
parted to Achaia, and there wrote his books, which we
have. Cave thought that they were written at Rome, and
before the termination of Paul's captivity. But it is faid
by Mill, Grabe, and Wetdein, that Luke publidied his
gofpel at Alexandria in Egypt. Dr. Lardner has parti-
cularly examined thefe different opinions; and he concludes,
that " upon the whole, there appears not any good reafon
to fay, that St. Luke wrote his gofpel at Alexandria, or
that he preached at all in Egypt. It is more probable,
that when he left Paul, he went into Greece, and there
compofed, or finidied, and pubhdied his gofpel, and the
Acts of the apodles." Origen was of opinion that this gof-
pel was written for gentile converts ; Jerom fays, that of
all the evangelids Luke was bed Ikilled in the Greek lan-
guage, and that he wrote his gofpel more efpecially for
gentiles, but Chryfodom maintains that he wrote for all in
general. Luke himfelf, at the beginning of his gofpel,
alligns the reafon of his writing, declaring, that whereas
many others had raOiiy undertaken to give a' relation of the
matters which he moll furely believed, he thought himfelf
obliged, in order the better to divert us from the uncertain
relations of others, to deliver in his gofpel a certain account
of thofe things, which he was well affured of from his inti-
mate acquaintance and familiarity with Paul, and his con-
verfation with the other apodles. So fays Eufebius.

St. Luke has infcribed his two books, his gofpel, and the
Ads to Theophilus, by whom fome underdand any good
Cliridian in general, others a particular perfon. Aucrudin,
Chryfodom, and many others, have underdood Theophilus
to be a real perfon. Cave fuppofed him to be a nobleman
of Antioch ; but it feems more probable, that if St. Luke
publilhed his books in Greece, as we have already dated,
Theophilus, to whom they are addreded, was a man of the
fame country. It is of greater importance to afcertain,
who are delignated by the many mentioned by the evan-
gelill, who before him had attempted to write hidories of
Jelub Chriil. Epiphanius fuppofcs, that St. Luke here
refers to Cei'inthus, Merinthus, and others of that defcrip-
tion. Origen and Jerom fay, that many attempted to write
gofpels, as B-ilibdes, Apelles, and others ; and they men-
tion feveral fuch, not received by the church ; fuch as the
gofpel of Thomas and Matthias, the gofpel of the Egyp-
tians and of the Twelve. Theophyladt fee;ns to imagine,
that the evaugclid referred to the two latter golpels now
named. Grabe, while he allows that St. Luke did not
refer to the gofpels of Balilides or Thomas, or fome others
mentioned by Origen, for they were no publilhed till after
St. Luke's death, thinks, that St. Luke might refer to the
golpels according to the Egyptians, and according to the
twelve, and fome oihers. But againfl this opinion it might
be urged, that the gofpel according to the Egyptians was
not compofed before the fecond century. Dr. Mill is of
opinion, that of the many :,arratious to which St. Luke
refers, the two principal were the gofpels according to the

Hebrew*,

1. U K

1 U L

Hebrews, and accordinf; to the Eojyptians. About tlic
year 58, or fomewlut fooner, fays Mill, were corr.pofed, by
iome of tlie faithful, evangelical narrations, or (hort hillories
of Chrirt. The writers were not onr evangelifts Matthew
and Mark ; but fonie of the firft Chriftians, who, before
Luke, and alfo before Matthi^w and Mark, wrote hiilories
of the things done by Chrill, and received from apoilo-
lical tradition, not with a bad or heretical defign, but with
the lame deiign with onr evangelifts ; but their hillories, as
we may inft r from St. Luke's account, were inaccurate
and imperfect, and they contained fome things not certain,
or well attelled, and poffibly fome millakes. Dr. Lardner,
who upon the whole approves the preceding ftatemeut, can-
not allow the gofpel according to the twelve, or according
to the Hebrews, to have been one of the memoirs or narra-
tions to which St. Luke refers ; for thefe were fhort hifto-
ries, whereas that uas a full gofpel, fuppofed to have been
•cither St. Matthew's original Hebrew gofpel with additions,
or his original Greek gofpel, tranfl.ifed into Hebrew with
additions. Moreover, the gdfpel according to the Egyp-
tians conid not have been one of tlieie memoir,?, bccaufe it
was an heretical gofpel, probably compofed m the'fecand
century by iome Encratites, who were enemies of marriage.
Whatever the memoirs or narrations were, none of them
now remain, nor even fo much as any fragments, nor quo-
tations of them occurring in any Chnllian v/ritings now ex-
tant. Marciop, a heretic who lived in the firft half of t))e
lecond rentury, rejetled all the gofpels, except that of
St. Luke, and this he mutilated and altered, and interpo-
lated in a great variety of places. He would not allow it
to be called the gofpel of St. Luke, erafing the name of
that evangelift from the beginning of his copy. Some of
his followers confidered it as written partly by Chrift him-
felf, and partly by the apollle Paul. Marcion retrenched
the firft and iecond chapters entirely, and begun his gofpel
at the firft verte of the third chapter, and even read this in
a manner ditTerent from our copies, viz. In the 15th year
■oi Tiberius Caefar, God delcended into Cajiernaum, a city
of Galilee. Some late Chriilian writers have concurred in
Marcion's retrenchment ; but without fufficiciit authority.
Lardner.

St. Luke, fays a modern writer, is pure, copious, and
flowing in his language, and has a wonderful and entertain-
ing variety of feleft circumftances in his narration of our
Saviour's divine aftions. He acquaints us with numerous
paffages of the evangelical hiftory, not related by any other
evangehft : both in this gofpel and Apoftolical Afts, he is
accurate and neat, clear and flowing, with a natural and cafy
grace ; his ftyle is admirably accommodated to the defign
of hiftory ; it had a very canfiderable refemblance to tliat
of his great matler St. Paul ; and, like hiin, he had a
learned and liberal education, and appears to have been very
■converfant with the beft claffics ; for many of his words
and expreflions are exaftly parallel to theirs. Blackwall's
Sacred ClalTics.

Luke's Day, St., is a feftival obferved on the i8th of
Oaober.

Luice',s Hoffital, St. See Hosi'itai.

Luke',s Keys, in Geography, two Imall iflands near the
«oaft of Honduras. N. lat. 15'^ 50'. W. long. 86' 35^.

LUKIN, a town of Poland, x\\ Volhynia ; y6 miles N.
of Zytomiers.

LUKINJA, a town of Samogitia ; 24. miles N. of
Miedniki.

LUKOIENOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Niiinei-Novgorod ; 80 miles S. of Ni^nei-Novgorod.
N. lat. ijj} 58'. E. lung. 54'= 20'.-

LUKOMLA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Polotfk ; 60 miles S.S.E. of Polotdc.

LUK0W, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lub-
lin ; 40 miles N. of Lublin.

LUKOWA, a town of Pol.tnd, in the palatinate of
Bclcz ; 44 miles W.S.W. of Belcz.

LUKOWO, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefc ; 80 miles E. of Pinfk.

LULANIS, in Botany, a name given by fome of the
arxient Greeks to a plant, ufed very frequently for a yel-
low colour in dyeing, and by the ladies for tinging their hair
yellow, the favourite colour of thofe times. Neophytns
explaining this word, fays, that it fignified the fame with
ifati^, glaftum, or woad ; and feveral others have bien of
that opinion, though very abfurdly, fmce the glaftum or
woad dies a blue colour, not a yellow ; and by no means
anfwers the defcription of the lulanis, which is the fame
with the lutum, or iutea herba of the Romans, and with
the geniftella tiniSoria, or d3^er8*-weed of thefe times.

LULEA, or LuLA, in Geography, a lea-port of Swe-
den, in Weft Bothnia, on the N. I:de of the river Lulea, at
the N.W. extremity of the gulf of Bothnia, with a good
harbour; 68 miles W. of Tornea. N. lat. 65 38'. E. long.
22 ' 4'.

LULES, Lo.s, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Tucuman ; 50 miles N. of St. Miguel de Tu-
cunian.

LULLI, John Baptist de, in Biography, fecretary to
Louis XIV., and fuperintendunt of his mufic, was born at
Florence in 16:53, having a miller for his fire. A Cordelier
gave him his firft leffous in muilc upon the guitar, though
he afterwards applied to the violin. He was only thirteen
when the Chevalier de Guife, being on his travels in Italy,
propoled to liis parents to take him into France, and engage
Mademoifelle de Guife, liis fifter, to take him among the
officers of her kitchen.

This princefs having accidentally heard him play on the
violin, hud him taught, and he became in a fiiort time au
excellent performer.

Louis XIV. being dcfiro'.'.s to hear him, was fo pleafed
with his performance, tliat in 1652, he appointed him in-
fpetlar-general of his violins, and foon after created a uew
band, which was called les pct'its v'lalons. Thefe new mufi-
cians formed by LuUi foon became the firft in Europe,
which is not faying much for them, as fuch was -the igno-
rance of the generality of inftriimental performers at this
time, that they could execute nothing which they did not
know by heart.

The genius, therefore, of LuUi was obliged to contradl it-
felf to the abilities of his orcheftra, and it is fuppofed that
he would have written as well as his fucceflbrs, if he had
lived a hundred years later.

Before the ellahlKhmeiit of the opera in France, the king
every year gave to his court magnificent Jpetlaclcs called
ballets, in which there was a great number of fymphonies,
mixed with recitatives. Lulii firft began by only compofing
the raulic to the dances in thefe ballets ; but the king be-
came fo fund of Ills cumpofitions, that he would hear no
other.

In 1672, Perrin, to whom the patent for an opera was
firft granted, rcfigned it to I.,u11t, whofe genius began
to expand, and he may be regarded as the creator of this
kind of miiiic, which (according to M. Laborde) has not
been fo much improved (ia France, he (hould have faid) a9
fome imagine, and in many particulars has, perhaps, loft
more than it has gained.

It is true, that he was affifted by the immortal Quinatilt,
4. oV

L^U L

L U L

oF whom he had the penetration to difcover the genius, and
the dexterity to fecure the allillance by a deed, in which
the poet engaged to lupply him every year with -a new
drama, for 4000 Hvrcs, about 200/.

(juinaiilt iketched many plans, and carried them to the
kin^ for his approbation : after which LuUi pointed out
to him the places where the dances were to be introduced,
and let liim hear the airs. Tlie fcenes were examined, by his
majefty's command, in the Academic des Belles Lettrcs,
Thus by their united opinions, all the dramas ofQuinault
were regulated, which remain the bell that were produced in
Trance during the 17th century, and will probably con-
tinue the belt, if new let, for many ages yet to come. The
enemies of Quinault, jealous of his glory and talents, con-
trived to bring about a quarrel between the poet and
muiician. LuUi had recourfe to La Fontaine, who, at his
requed, produced the opera of " Daphne," but as foon
as Lulli had heard it read, he did not conceal from the
author, that he thought his talents did not extend to writing
operas. La Fontaine, piqued at having laboured in vain, to
revenge himfelf on Lulli, for his coarfe rejeftion of his
drana, wrote his comedy, or rather fatire, of " The Flo-
rentine," but as he had a good heart, he foon fubdued his
wrath, and they were fincerely reconciled.

The king, more and more pleafed with his mufic, con-
ferred on him the title and emoluments of fecretary to his
majefty, and heaped upon him many other favours for his
family.

The king having been extremely ill in 1686, Lulli com-
pofed a Te Deum on his recovery, which was executed in
the church of the Feuillans, Rue Saint Honore, the eighth
of January 1687. In enthuliaftically regulating the time
with his cane, he ftruck his foot fo violently, that, probably
from a bad habit of body, a mortification came on. He
was at firft advifed to have the toe taken off which was
wounded by the cane, then the foot, and then the leg. But
fome quacks having promifed to cure him without amputa-
tion, MelTrs. de Vendome, who had a fincere regard for him,
offered to the quacks 2000 piltoles if they cured him, and
lodged them in the hands of a banker. But all their efforts
were ufelefs, and it was announced to him that he mult pre-
pare for death. His confeflTor rejufed to give him abfolu-
tion, but upon condition that he woidd burn the opera of
Achilles and Polixene, which he had been preparing for tlie
ftage. He confented, and the coinpoiltion was committed
to the flames. •

Some days after, fancying himfelf a little better as the
gangrene encreafed, one of the young princes of Vendome
came to fee him ; "What ! Baptilt, (^ fays he,) haft thou been
fo foolifh as to burn fuch good muiic." — " Hufh, hufli ! my
lord, (whilpers LuUi,) I liave got a copy of it." However,
it is afferted, tliat he manifelted in his lall moments a fincere
repentance, and teftified the higheft fenfe of religion. He
died at Paris on the 22d of March 1687, in the 54th year
of his age. He was buried in the church of Les petits Peres,
in La Place des Vi6loires, where a fine monument was
erected to his memory, and where may have been read, be-
fore the revolution, the following epitaph by Santeuil :

" Perfida mors, iuimica audax, temeraria et excors,
Crudelifque, et coeca probris te abfolvimus litis,
Non de te querimur, tua fint hoec niunia magna.
Sed quando per te populi Regilque voluptas,
Non ante auditis rapuit qui 'cantibus orbem
LtJLLlus eripitur, querimur modo, furdus fuifti."

Lulli was a fortunate man to arrive in 3 country where
tnufic had been fo little cultivated, that he never had any
Vol. XXL

rival, nor was there throughout the whole kingdom o"
France an individual who had the courage to doubt of his
infallibility in his art. He was fortunate in fo magnifi eut
a patron, and tlill more fortunate in a Lyric poet, who
could interell an audience by all the powers of poetry, by
the contexture of his fables, and variety and force of liis
charafters.

Lulli was rough, rude, and coarfe in his manners, but
without malice. His grcateft frailties were the love of wine
and money. There were found in his coffer 630,000
livres in gold, an exorbitant fum for the time in which he
lived. He had the art of making himfelf at once beloved
and feared by the performers of Ivis mufic, which is doubt-
lefs the moll effential talent for governing fuch eccentric
and mutinous fubjedls ; but however difficult it may be to
keep them in order and in good humour, true merit, exaft
juftice, and a fteady conduct always fucceed.

Lulli married the only daughter of Michel Lambert, the
celebrated mufician, and the bed ringing-mailer of his time.
By this marriage he had three fons and three daughters, to
all of whom he left an ample provifion, and friends in power,
who conferred on them places, penfions, and kiiidnefs.

LULLY, Raymond, a philofopher and cliemiil of great
note in the dark ages, was born in the ifland of Majorca in
1236, of an illullrious family of that name at Barcelona.
From the works that bear his name, it is fuppofed that he
was ardently attached to the fludy of the Iciences, of phi-
lolophy, theology, chemiilry, and medicine ; but there is
great doubt as to the genuinenefs of many of thofc works,
which were probably written by his pupils, or even by pcr-
fons who lived confiderably polierior to his time. In his
youth he bore arms, and led the hfe of a man of pleafure.
It is related of him that he fell in love with a young danifel,
named Eleonora, who obftinately rejetted his addrelTes ; and
at length, when he was one day llrongly preffing his fuit,
and demanding the reafon of her refufal, (he expofed her
bread coiifumed with a cancerous ulcer. This fpectacle is
faid to have infpired him with a refolution of feeking a re-
medy for her difeafe, and to have been the motive which
led him to the chemical ftudies, for which he became cele-
brated, as well as to a journey into Africa, for the purpofe of
confulting the works of Geber. But others affirm that the
fight had fuch an effeft upon him, that he plunged into
religious retirement, and devoted the reil of his days to
pious purpofcs. It appears certain that he undertook a
courfe of travels into Africa and the Eaft, with the view of
converting the Mahometans to the Chrillian faith, where lis
incurred greath hardlhips and dangers, and whence he was
permitted to depart only upon condition of not returning.
He was ilill, however, fo much inflamed with zeal for tins
objcft, that he entered the Francifcan order, and again vi-
Cted Africa. When he was again found there, he was
thrown into prifon, and after fufl'eriiig much torture, was
releafed through the interceffion of fome Genoefe m.cr-
chants, who took him on board their fliip ; but he died on
the palfage when juft in fight of his native land, in 1315.
Others affert that he was Honed to death while preaching
to the infidels in Africa, on the 26th of March of that

From this narrative, which reprefcnts LuUy in the light
of a fanatic miffionary, we ihould not expecl that fcientific
chatadler w'hich has cauled his name to be preferved to mo-
dern times. It feems, however, that he had travelled in
England, Fiance, and Germany ; and he calls himfelf a dil-
ciple of Roger Bacon, whom he had probably feen in his
journey. As a chemill, indeed, he appears in an extraor-
dinary light ; for although he is believed to have been the
4H fir.l

L U L

L U M

firft who mentioned the philofopher's ftonc, and though
that was tlu: leading objetl of his lefearches, together with
thf fancied panacea, or univerfal remedy ; yet he maintained
that cliemillry was only to be acquired, and thofc objcfts to
be obtained by a feries cf experiments ; and that the art
was not to be tauglit by words. Boerhaave fays ef the
clicmical works extant in Lully's name, liiat he has pcrufcd
mod of them, and linds them beyond all expedalion excel-
lent ; fo that he lias been tempted to doubt whether they
could be the work, of that ap;e. " So fnll," fiys he, " are
they of the experiments and obfervations which recur in later
writers, that either they muil be iuijpoiitilious, or the an-
cient chcmifts muft. have been acq^iiainted with many things
which pals for modern difcoveries."

Lully has alio been celebrated as a fcUoIaflic mctajihy-
fician. He introduced into the fchooh a " new tranfccndant
art," which was dilhngnifhed by his name, and by means of
which a perfon miglii hold a difputation for a whole day,
upon any fiibjeft whatever, without underftanding any thing
of the matter. This invention fuited the genius of the age'.
It conlided in collefting a number of general terms, com-
ir.on to all the feicnccs, of which an alphabetical table was
to be provided. Subjefts and predicates taken from thcfe
were to be refpeftively infcribed in angular Ipaces upon cir-
cular papers. The effences, qualities, afFeCHons, and rela-
tions of things being thus mechanically brought together,
the circular papers of fubjefts were fixed in a frame, and
thofe of predicates were to placed upon them as to move
freely, and in their revolutions to produce various combi-
ne; icns of fubjects and predicates, whence would arife defi-
nitions, axioms, and propofitions, varying infinitely. This
contrivance, worthy of Laputa, was greatly admired in its
time, and its author acquired the title of the mojl enlightened
donor.

The following are the titles of thofe of his works which
re'ate to chemillry : " De Secretis Naturae, feu de Quinta
juTentia, Libellus," firft printed in 1518, 4to. and frequently
republiflied ; " Apertorium de veri Lapidis compofitione,"
1^46; " Teflamentum duobus Libris univerfam Artem
Cliemicam compleftens. Item ejufdem Compendium animx
tranfmutatioms Artis metallorum," 1566 ; " Liber Mer-
cr.norum;" " De Arte brevi ;" " Secreta Secretorum ;"
«' Codicillus, feu Vade Mecum, in quo fontes Alchymicas
Artis ct Philofophicx rcconditioris uberrime traduntur."
Mriny manufcript cffays of Lully are preferved in the library
at Leydcn, and upwards of a hundred, it is faid, which have
never been publifhed, in that of Venice. A complete edi-
tion of all the writings attr?buted to this author was pub-
liihed at Mayence in 1714, including treatifes on theology,
irorals, medicine, chemiftry, phyfics, law, &c. Gen. Biog.
Eloy Dic-L. Hiil.

Lully's Art. See Art, and the preceding article.

LULOLA, in Geography, a ilrung town in Angola,
fituated on an illand about lOO miles from the mouth ol the
Coanza, fortified by the Portuguefe.

LULWORTH, East, a parifli in the hundred of Win-
frith, in Blandford diviuon of Dorfctfhire, England, is fituated
fix miles from Wareham, and I16 from London, and con-
tains 74 houfes and 364 inhabitants. The chief objcil

v.-orthy of notice here is Lulvvorth caftle, the feat of

Weld, efq. It is fituated in the fouth-eaft. corner of an
extenfive park, which occupies a circuit of nearly four miles
and a half, and has been lately furrounded by an excellent
ftone wvl, upwards of eight feet high. The prefent edi-
fice, which was built on or near the fcite of a caftle men-
tioned fo far back as the year 1146, was commenced in
1588, and £ni(hed in 1 609, except the iBternal decorations.

wliich were not completed till after the- year 1641, when
the ancellor of the late owner purchafed the'ellate. The
caille is an exaft cube of eighty feet, with a round tower
at each corner thirty feet in diameter, and rifing lixtccn feet
above the walls, which, as well as the towers, are embattled.
The hall and dining-room are fpacions, and the rooms in
general eighteen feet high. The pnncipal front is on the
call, and is faced with Chilmark llone, decorated with ila-
tuary. In the year 1789, during their majellies' rcfidence
at Weymouth, Mr. Weld had fevi-ral roval nfits, the par-
ticulars of which are recorded in two inlcriptions over the
entrance to the caftle. Mr. Weld has lately erected an
elegant little chapel for the convenience of his family ; this
ftrufture is of a circular form, increafcd by four fettions of
a circle, fo as to form a crofs, and finiihed with a dome and
lantern. 'J 'he parifli church of St. Andrew (which was an
ancient aud curious fabric) has been recently rebuilt at the
expence of Mr. Weld.

United with_the foregoing parifli, and about a mile diftant
towards the fea, is that of Weft Lulworth, which contains
•J^ houfes and 312 inhi-rfjitants. At a finall diiUnce is Lul-
worth Cove, a fort of natural bafin, into which the fea flows
through a wide gap in the cliff, fufficient for the entrance of
veffels of 70 or 80 tons burthen. About a mile from tha
eove is the Arched Rock, which projects from the land into
the fea, having an opening near 20 feel high in ti.e middkv
formcd like an arch, through which the profpedl of the fea
has a peculiar effett. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. iv.

LUMACHELLE Marble. See Marble.

LUMAMPA, in Geography, a town of South Amci'ica,
in the province of Tucuman ; po miles S. of St. Yago del
Eftero.

LUMBAGO, in Medicine, fignifies a pain in the loins
[lurnbt), efpccially from rheumatiim, affecting the ligaments
of the fpine, or the mufclcs of the back. See RiiEL'MA-

TL'iM.

The only difeafes which are liable to be miftaken fcr
lumbago in general, are painful affeftions cf the kidnies,
which, it is we'l known, are feated within the lumbar re-
gion on each fide of the fpine ; efpeeially inflammation of
thefe glands, or the formation of calculi in them, or the
paiTage of thefe concretions through the ureters towards
the bladder. The fymptoms, attendant upon thefe difor-
ders of the kidnies, will be found defcnbed in. their proper
places. (See ^s'ephralgia, Nki'hritis, and Gravel.)
We may obferve here, that, in lumbago, the pain docs not
follow the courfe of the ureters, it is not accompanied with
retraction of the tefticle in men, it is not increafcd by ex-
ternal preffure, it is often little felt, except in the eredl
pofture, and there is no vonviting, nor any cliange in the
quantity or quality of the urine ; the contrary of all \n Inch
is obferved in ii'.fiammatory and calculous afi^edions of the
kidnies.

The internal remedies, commonly adminifteredfor the cure
of other forms of rheumatifm, are alfo beneficial in the lum-
bago ; fucli as opiates, with antinionials and other fudorificf,
taken at bed-time, and followed by laxatives in the morning,
or combined with laxatives, efpccially the fubmuriace of
mercury, preparations of fulphur, or falts. Much relief,
however, is afforded by the application of local llimulants
to the lumbar region externally. Liniments of camphor,
turpentine, and fimilar fiibfl-.nccs, have been found from the
experiments of Dr. Home, Dr. Fcrriar, and others, among
the moft efficaciotis of thefe applicacions. Dr. Fcrriar
affirms, that he has found a fohition of camphor infiilpliuric
ether relieve the pains of difeafed joints, r.fter all other
I 8 applicaiiciis

L U M

L U M

applications had failed ; and he relates feveral cafes in wliich
a liniment, refemliling that propofed by Dr. Home, .proved
a;i effectual cure for lumbago. He ufcd two drams of
camphor, an ounce of bafilicon, and half an ounce of black,
foap, omittiKg the oil of turpentine, ammonia, and feeds of
cyminum, prcforibed by Dr. Home. The effeft of this
application, he fap, is commonly the removal of the pain
within three days, often in a much (horter time. See
Ferriar. Med. Hill, and Refleft. vol. i. p. i88. Plome,
Cln. Exper. p. 261, § xiv.

LUMBALIS, in Anatomx, an epithet applied to fomc
parti placed about the ,luins. The lumbar arteries are
branches of the aorta, and the lumbar veins terminate in the
inferior ver.a cava. (See Artery and Vein'.) The lum-
bar nerves are five pairs proceeding from the medulla fpi-
nalis. (See Nerve.) The lumbar mufcles are thQ pj'cs ;
vhich fee. For an account of the lurnbar vertebrx, fee
Spike. The lumbar region of the abdomen is the lateral
a: d pofterior part of the umbilical region, the part, in (liort,
which conftitutes the loins in common language. See Ab-

DOM I-.N'.

1X''MBAR, in G/'Cfr,'j^/._j', a town of Spain, in Nivarre ;
Ij miles N. of Sanguefa.

Li.'Mr.AK Ahfafs, in Surgery. See Psoas Alfcfs.

LUMDERTON, in Geography, a poll-town of^America,
in North Carolina, and capital of Robefon county, on Drown-
ing creek ; 32 miles S. of Fayetteville ; it has a court-houfe,
and about 36 dwelling-houfes.

LUMBI, in /inatomy. See LojNS.

LUMBO, in Geography, a town of Bengucla ; i 20 miles
E. N. E. of Benguela. S. lat. 1 1° 45'.'

LUMBORUiNI QuADKATus, in Anatomy, ileo-coftien of
Dum.as, a mufcle IJtuated towards the fide and lower part of
the vertebral column, and extending from the crilla of the
OS innominatum, and the ileo-lumbar ligament, to the lower
edge of the lall faUe rib, and to the tranfverfe procefies of
the foi:r tirll vertebrce of the loin?. It has the form of an
elongated fquare, but is rather broader below than above.
Its anterior furface is covered above by the diaphragm, then
by the anterior lamina of the aponeurolls of the tranfverfus
abdominis, and towards the infide by the pfoas. It ccr-
refponds to the kidney aiid to the colon. Its poilerior
furface is covered by the middle aponeurofis of the tranf-
verfus, which feparates it from the common mafs of the
facro-lumbahs and longiffimus dorfi. The outer edge is
inchncd a little from above downwards, .and from with'n
outwards, and corrcfponds to the angle formed by the fepa-
ration of the anterior poilerior laminx of the aponeurofis of
the tranfverfus abdominis. The inner margin is attached to
the points of the tranfverfe procefies of the four tirft lum-
bar vertebrjE by as many flattened pieces. The lower edjje
is attached to the middle of the pofterior part of the crifta
ilii„ fur an extent of about two inches ; it is alfo fixed to the
iieo-lumbar ligament. The tipper edge is inferted in the
lower margin of the lad falfe rib, for a more or lefs confidcr-
able extent in different fubjcils ; in fonic it occupico nearly
the whole length, in others only theinr.er third part.

It is fixed to the criila of the os innominatum by aponeu-
xofcs, which afcend to a confiderable height on the anterior
Surface and tlie outer edge. Thefe fibre.';, which proceed
/rom below upwards, are crofied below by others, which
anfe from the tranfverfe proeofs of the h.ft lumbar vertebrx.
The ilefiiy fibres afcend rather obliquely from without in-
.wards, and the internal are the (lior'.elt ; they terminate at
the tranfverfe procefies of the lumbar vertebra; by tendinous
fibres. The external and lunger ones end at the lower edge
,«f the Ult falfc nb by iiiort aponeurofes. So.mejiir.es an-

other mufcular (Iratum avifes from the front of the tranfverfe
procelfes of the third and fourth lumbar vertebra, padee
obliquely outwards, and is blended with the reft of the
mufcle.

The quadratus lumborum inclines the loins towards its
own fide ; when thefe are fixed, it may raife the pelvis en
that fide, and lower it on the oppofite. By drawing down-
wards the laft falfe rib, it may be concerned in refpiration.

LUMBRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Straits of Calais, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diltrift of St. Omer, The place contains J02, and
the canton 13,655 inhabitants, on a territory of 26 2 i kilio-
metres, in 36 communes.

LUMBRERAS, a townof Spain, in Leon; 22 mi'ea
N.N.W. of Civdad Rodrigo.

LUMBRICALES, in Anatomy, certain fmall mufcles
of the fingers and toes, ccnncdttd with the flcsor tcndoas of
thofe organs. See Fl.EXOR.

LUMBRICOIDES. See Ascini.'.

LUMBRICUS, Earth-woum, in Natural Hijlory, a
genus of the vermes-inteilina clafs and order. Body round,
annulate, with generally an elevated flilhy belt near the
head, moftly rough, with minute concealed prickles placed
longitudinally, and furnifhed v.ith a lateral aperture. There
are fixteen fptcies contained in this genus, of which four are
natives of this country.

Species.

* Terrestki.s; Comir.on earth-worm, fometimes named
dew-worm. Body red, with eight rows of prickles. There
is another variety t-^aftly like this, only half the fize. The
body contains abjut one hundred and forty rings, each of
which has fi;ur pair of prickles, not vifible to the naked
eye, but difcoverable to the touch : when expanded, it \i
convex on each fide ; but when contrafted, it is flattilh be-
neath, v.ith a red canal down the body ; the belt is wrinkled
and porous ; mouth placed beneath the prcbofcis. It in-
I'.abits decayed wood and common foil, which, by per-
forating, it renders fit to receive the rain : it devours the
cotyledons of plants, and wanders about by night ; it is the
food of moles, hedge hcgs, ai'.d various birds.

This worm has neither bones, brains, eyes, nor feet. It
has a number of breathing holes fituated along the back, and
near each ring. The heart is placed near the head, and
may be obferved to beat wirh a very ditlinct motion. The
fmal' rings are furnilhed vf ith a fet of mufcles, that enable it
to aft in a fort of fpiral direftion ; and by this means it ii
capable, in the moll complete manner, of creeping on the
earth, or penetrating into its fubllancc. Thefe mufcles en-
able the worm to contraft or dilate its body with great force.
The rings are each armed with fmall llifF (harp prickles,
which the animal is able to open out or clofe upon its body ^
a::d from beneath the fi<in there is fecreted a flimy matter,
which, by lubricating the body, greatly facilitates its paf-
fage through the earlh.

This worm has been conf )uvded with the Asc.\liis Lunir
IricolcLs, or round worm of the human intcllines; which fee.
Tfae difference between the two may be b;:iefiy pointed out
in this place.

The common earth-worm has its extremities nnjch blunter
than thofe of the jnte^inal ; its mouth confills of a fmall,
longitudinal fiflur;', fituated on the u;ider furface of a fmall
rounded htad, there being no appearance of the three vc-
ficles which are found io the afcaris. On the under-furface
of the earth-worm there is a large femi-lunar fold of ikin,
into which the head retreats ; but this is .wanting in the
afcaris. The anus of the eanh-wcrm opens at the very ex-
4 H 2 tremity

L U M

L U M

tremity of die tail, and not, as in the afcaris, at a con-
fiderable dillance fiom it. The afcaris wants the tranfverfe
rugs, whicli are fo llroncrly marked in tl.c ca.th-worm, as
well as the broad yellowifh band by which the body of the
latter is furrounded.

The internal flruflure of the two worms is alfo extremely
different. In the earth-worm there is a complete and large
llomach, confiding of two cavities; and the inteftinal canal
in the latter is larger, and more formed into faccuh than in
the afcaris. The parts fubfervient to generation in thcfe
worms are very different : in the afcaris there is a dillinftion
of fex, but the common earth-worm is hermaphrodite.

Dew-worms, though a final), and frequently regarded as
a defpicabie link, in the chain of nature, would, if loft, be
greatly miffed by tliofe who arc apt to confider them as a
nuifance. For, independently of their affording a large fup-
ply of food trt birds, &c. already noticed, they are of great
life in promoting vegetation, by boring, perforating, and
loofening the foil, and rendering it pervious to rain and the
fibres ot plants, by drawing ftraws and ftalks of leaves and
twigs into it ; and, moil of all, by throwing up fuch num-
bers of lumps called worm-cafts, which aft as a fine manure
for grain and grafs.

* Makinus; Lug. Back with two rows of briilly
tubercles ; body pale red, round, and annulate, with greater
or lefs rings ; the tirft prominent, with two oppolile tufts
of ihort briflles on each, the lower part fmooth. It is
found on the fhores of England, and other parts of the
European coaft, where it buries itlelf in the fand to a great
depth, leaving a little riling with an aperture on the furface.
It is ufed as a bait for filhes.

Vkkmicularis. Body white, with two rows of prickles.
It inhabits the wet and decayed trunks of trees, and among
moil! leaves, moving very expeditioully in moill places, but
^willing itfelf up in dry ones. Its body is polifhcd and
glabrous.

Variegaths. Rufous fpotted,. with fix rows of prickles.
It inhabits wet plantations, and is the moft beautiful of the
whole genus. The body red, very finely te^flellate with
brown, having a fanguiueous line running dovi-n the whole
body. It eafily breaks in pieces, and as eafily reproduces
what has been loft by accident or otherwife.

TuBlFEX. Body reddifli, with two rows of prickles ;
the body is pellucid, very fimple, thin, and truncate at the
tip, with a dark inteftine. It is found at the bottom of
rivuletsj: where it forms a perpendicular tube of earth for its
habitation.

LiNEATUS. Body white, with a longitudinal red line..
Found vory abundantly on the fhores of the Baltic, among
fea-weed. It is pellucid, with rather a fhort body, having
a yellow artery on the back, and a bifid vein towards the
head.

CiLlATUS. Body rufous, and cihate between the rings ;
the body is glabrous, witii about forty fegments ; the intcr-
feftions are armed with four tufts of fhort briftles.

TUBICOLA. White, with a red dorfal fpot on each of
the fegments. This fpecies is found in the bays of Norway
that have a clayey bottom, in a round membranaceous tube,
covered with mud, and about an inch longer than itfelf. It
has twenty-five fegments in the body, of which the intcr-
lettions are armed with two brillles on each fide ; the intef-
ti.ae is black, and running down the whole body.

EcuiuRvs. Body covered with rows ct granulations ;
the limd-part obtufely truncate, and furrounded with a
double crown of briftles. It inhabits the fandy bottom of
the Ihores of Belgium ; is moft obfervable in winter, and is
the chief food of eod-fifh. Body wliitifh-grey, with fulvous

vifccra, about the fize of a perfon's middle finger; tongue
flefhy,*tliickifli, and boat-lhaped.

* TuALASSEMA. Body ftriate, dirty red, with ftiining
red fpots, beneath grey ; mouth furrounded with a funnel-
like tube, which is wrmkled within, and plaited at the
margin ; the body is glabrous, mucous, thicker at one end,
and foinowhat pointed at the other ; the mouth is placed
above, with a faffron funnel. Inhabits the fhores of Corn-
wall.

Eduli.s. Body whitifh^^iefli-colour, fubclavate behind,
dilated and papillous before ; mouth terminal, and fur-
rounded with a villous rim or wrinkle. There are two hun-
dred and fevcnty-eight rings between the villous part and
the hinder end, feparated by an annular itria ; the hind-part
bulbous, with a double papilla ; the fore-part befet with
numerous fiefh-colourtd one\i difpofed in tranfverfe rows.

* OxyuKU.s. Body wliiiilh-livid, very fliarp at the hind
extremity, and obtufe before, with a round, retractile, and
exfertile probofcis. This fpecies is found on the Suflex
coaft, is about an inch and a half long, and annulate with
very fine ftrix ; fnout truncate, and very fine, granulate,
with a pore at the bale fcarccly vifible.,

Fhagilis. Body red, with lateral divided warts, and
fafciculate briftles. Tiie body of this fpecies refembles the
terreftris, with above five hundred fmooth and very brittle
rings ; the head is conic, with an approximate wrinkled
moHth. It inhabits the muddy bottom of the bays of Nor-
way.

AilMlGKH. Body red, with double lanceolate lamella:
on the belly, and none on the fore-part ; is about two inches
long, and confifting of about two hundred rings. Found ia
the iflands of Norway.

CiRRATUs. Body armed with very long cirri. Inhabits
the Norway feas.

Sabellaris. Body jointed, and truncate at one end;
the interfeftions of the joints thick, and armed with two
prickles. It refembles the tubicula, and is found in the
Norwegian feas.

LUMELLA, in the Glafs-trade, the round hole in the
floor of the tower of the leer, which is direftly over the
working furface, and by which the flame is let into the
tower.

LUMELLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Gogna. This place lately gave name to a
diftrift in the duchy of Milan, called " Lumalline," on the
Gogna; once the refidence of the kings of Lombardy, now
a village; 26 miles S.W. of Milan. N. lat 48- 57'. E.
long. 8 47'.

LUMHAG AN, an ifland in the ftraits of Malacca, near
the coall of Salengora, 12 miles long, and 5 broad; fe-
parated from the continent by a narrow channel, called the
" ftraits cf Lumhagan." N. lat. i 54'. E. long. loi" 24'.

LUMI.TOCKI, a town of Sweden, in Eall Bothnia;
12 miles S.W. of Uiea.

LUMINOSA StMiTA. See Semita.

LUMINOUS CoLL'MN, and Fire. See the fubftan-
tives.

Luminous Emanations, have been obferved from human
bodies, a,s alfo from thofe of brutes. The liglit arifing
from currying a horfe, or from rubbing a cat's back, are
known to moft. Inllances of a like kind have been known
on combirg a woman's head. Bartholin gives us an account,
wliich he entities " mulier fpletidens," of a lady in Italy,
whole body would ftiine, whenever flightly touched with a
piece of linen. Thefe effluvia of animal bodies have many
properties in common ivith thofe produced in glafs ; fuch as
their being lucid, their fnapping, and their not being ex-
cited

L U R

L U N

t ted without fome degree of fridlion ; and are undoubtedly
J eieftrical, as a cat's back has been found ftrongly elcflrical
when ftroaked. See Ei.ectuicitv and Light.

Human bodies not only appear Kiminous, but even the
exhalations from them adhering to their clothing will caufe
it to fhine likewife.

LUMINOUSNESS oftk- Sea. See Light and Sea.

LUMIO, in Geography, a town in the ifland of Corfica ;
5 miles N.E. of Calva.

LUMME, in Ornlihohgy. See Coly.mbus TrrAk.

LUMO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba ;
4j miles S.S.W. of Havannah.

LUMP- Fish, in Ichthyology. See CvfxopTERvs
Lumpiis.

Lump of Fltjl},/m the Manege. See Bouillon.

LUMPARAN, in Geography, an ifland of Sweden, eaft
of Aland, between th.e B:titic and the gulf of Bothnia. N.
lat. 60' 7'. E. long. 20' 3'.

LUMPEN, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifli, common
in the markets at Antw-erp, of a long and round body,
growing gradually flenderer to the tail. Its colour is a
greenilh-yellow, with black broad lines on the back, placed
tranfverfely ; and it has a little rednefs at the end of its
tail.

The lumpen is a fpi-cies of the b'enni, diftinguKhcd by
Artedi by the name of the blemiius, with fins like cirri
under its neck, and traiifverfe Itreaks on the back. The
•cirri are bifid.

LUMPOKOLSKOI, Niznei, in Geography, a town
of Rufila, in the government of Tobollk, on the Oby. N.
lat. ei"". E. long. 76- 54'.

LuMPOKOLSKOI, Verchne}, a town of RufTia, in the go-
•vernment of Tobollk. N, lat. 60 54'. E. long. 78^ 22'.

LUMPS, in Rural Economy, a term made ufe of to
fignify barn-floor bricks, in fome places.

LUNA, in AJlronomy. See Moon.

Lu.v.'i, in Ancient Geography, Lunegiano, a town fituated
on the Macra, which had a port in Liguria, called " Lunse
Portus," which, according (O Strabo, was a very largo and
fine harbour, containing feveral others. The town was
fituated to the weft of the mouth of the river Macra, and
was afterwards called " Cariaram," both names alike figni-
fying Luna, the moon, and referring to its form, wtiich
was that of a crefcent. Lucan fpeaks of its arufpices ;
Servius and Martial of its chcefe, marble, and wine. Ac-
cording to Strabo, it was deft.royed by Nero ; and fome of
its ruins are ftill vifible in a place called Lunigona, and its
fmall territory is named Lunegiano. M. Gebelin conjec-
tures that the name Luna was derived from the Celtic lun,
water.

LuKA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Arragon ; 22
miles W. of Huefca. — Alio, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Troki ; 16 miles S.E. of Grodno.

LuN.\ Cornea, in Chcm'ijlry, is the combination of marine
acid with filver, or the white curdy precipitate of muriat of
filver, which takes place, when the nitrat, acetat, or any
other foluble fait of filver comes in contaft with muriatic
acid, either finglo or in any foluble combination. See
Silver.

To make this combination, the filver is firft diffolved in
nitrous acid ; to this folntion marine acid, or more ufually
common fait diflblved in water, is added. The mixture
"foon becomes turbid, and a copious precipitate is formed in
it, which has always the appearance of curd. The folution
ef fait is added, till no more precipitate is formed. The
precipitate, when feparatcd from tlic liquor that fwims over

it, is called luna cornea ; becaufe if this matter be expofed
alor.e to fire, the acid carries off with it a portion of the
filver, and the remaining matter melts, afl'uming the form
of a horny fubflance.

The bell method of reducing luna cornea, or of fcparating
filver from marine acid, according to Margraaf, is to diflblv^
half an ounce of fine filver in aquafortis, to precipitate it
by a fca-falt, ai.d edulcorate tlie precipitate, which will
tlien weigh five drams fixteen grains. For the reduction of
this precipitate, mix it with an ounce and a half of dry vo-
latile fal ammoniac, triturate them well together with a little
water during a quarter of an hour ; then add three ounces
of mercury obtained from cinnabar by means of- quick-lime,
and continue to triturate during fome hours with a little
more water. Thus an amalgam will be formed, which
being vvaflied from a while powder and dried, will weigh
three onnces and half a dram. By diilillation of this amal-
gam, a refidiuim of filver, four grains lefs than tlie original
half ounce, will be obtained. By fubliming the white pow-
der, which weighs five drams, three grains of filver will be
obtained ; but if the amalgam and white powder be diltiiled
togetiicr, the operation will fail, and the luna cornea be
recompofed. (Berlin Mem. 1749.) M. Beaume fays, that
luna cornea may be reduced without lofs by fufion with four
times its weight of, fixed alkali.

Luna cornea mixed with fea-falt and tartar rubbed on
brafs gives a filver-Iike appearance ; and is the fiibllance em-
ployed for the filvering of the dial-plates for clocks. A
more fubflantial filvering may be given by the above mixture,
if t!ie piece of brafs to be filvered be previoufly heated con-
iiderably, and cleaned with a fcratch brufti ; and if the ope-
ration be repeated, till the filver fecms to be fufiiciently
thick. The brafs having a flronger difpofition to unite with
the marine acid than the filver has, feparates this acid from
the filver, which is then precipitated upon the furface of
tlie brafs plate. The luna cornea will alfo ferve in exami-
nation of mineral waters, or of any other liquor, t» diflblve
if they contain marine acid in whatever bafe it be engaged,
except metallic bafes; for if thefe waters contain the fmalleft
quantity of marine acid, a luna cornea will be precipitated
by them .from a folution of filver in nitrous acid, and this
luna cornea is known by its acid-like appearance. Macquer,-
Cliem. DliS. Engl. edit.

Luna, Cryjlah of. See Cry.stal.

Luna, Vitriol of. See Vitriol.

Luna, in Ichthyology. See Zeu.s luna.

Luna Marina, a name by which Gcfner has called a
peculiar fpecies of ftar-fifli, called alio the fa-fun. See-
SoLElL cle Mcr.

LuN.l Pifcis, a nanie by which fome have called the inola,
which we ufually call in Englith ihc fun fi/h. Sec Tetko-
DON mola.

Lux.?;, Lac. See Lac lims.

LUNACHI, in Geography, a town of Chili; 42 miles
E.N.E. of Valparaifo.

LUNAGUANA, a town of Peru, in the audience of.
Lima; So miles S.S.E. of Lima.

LUN.-\HOLM, a fmaU ifland among the Siietlands,-
N. lat. 60 '44'. W. long. 1° 16',

LLTNALE Bezoardicum. See BrzoARBicusr.

LUNAN Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E. coafl of
Scotland, celebrated tor its lecurity againtl all but eallerly.
winds; four miles S. of Montrofe. N. lat. 56 37'. W.
long. 4- 17'.

LUNANESS, a cape on tlie E. coaft of Shetland. N.
lat. 6o'"43'. W. long i- 17'.

LUNAR,

L U N

L U N

LUNAR, fomething relating to the moon.

Lc-sAU Caujlic. See Caustic.

Lunar Cycle. See CvcLi:.

LuNAU Dial. See Djal.

Lunar Eclipfe. See Eclipse.

LuXAR Horofcope. Sec HoitOSCOPE.

Lunar Month. See Month.

Lunar Olfcrvatwin, or Lunar MctljoJ, is the metliod of
•finding the lonc;itiide, hy taking tlic diftance betwet-n the
TOOon and the fun, or a fixed Itar, which has been already-
explained under the article Loxgitudk; but the great irh-
portancc of this problem induces us here to give a further
and more minute explanation of its principles and opera-
tions, and of the different methods tliat have been devifed for
•obtaining the folution.

This method of finding the longitude is the greateft mo-
deni improvement in navigation : the idea, however, is not
modern, but it has not been applied with any fucccfs until
within the lad fifty years. M. de la Lande mentions cer-
tain aftronomers who, above two hundred years ago, pro-
,pofed this method, and contended for the honour of the
difcovery ; but its prefent ftate of improved and univerfal
practice he very iuilly afcribes to Dr Maflielyiie. The
difcovery, indeed, feems to claim lefs honour than its fjblc-
■quent improvements ; it is one of thofe things which are
obvious in theory, hut ditncult in practice. The moil; an-
■cient n;ethod of finding the longitude was by the lunar
eclipfes ; and that of finding it by the lunar diilances is
perfeffly ar.alogous : it is therefore highly probable that the
method was thought of at a very early period, but the want
of projier tables and apparatus prevented its being reduced
.to pr.iftice.

It may be obferved, that, in the moft practical methods
of finding the longitude at fea by celellial obfervations, the
moon is the chief guide or inftrument ; for the quickneis of
her motion renders her peculiarly, well adapted for mea-
furing fmall portions of correfpondent time. Now, as llie
is feen in the fame part of the heavens nearly at the fame
inflant of abfolute time, from all parts of the earth where
file is viiible, and as file is continually and feniibly cliang-
ing her place, it is evident that if two correfpondent obtervers
were to note the precife m.oment of the r refpective times,
when fhe is feen in any particular part of the heavens, ihc
difference betzveen th-fe times "ojould Jl.^eiu the difference of longi-
tude.

In every method of finding the longitude by the moon,
the firfl objeft is to be able to afcertain the "part of the
iieavens where (he is : this is ealily feen at the time of her
-eclipfes, or at the occultation of a fixed (lar ; and ihefe were
naturally the firll methods reforted to, bi!t they occur too
feidom for general ufe : 'he moon's place, however, may be
marked with equal precifion, by taking her dilhiice from
fome fixed objeiif , whofe latitude and longitude are known ;
and liars in or near the zodiac are preferred, as the nearer
fuch objeifls are to the moan's orbit, the gfreater will be her
motion with refpeft to them : and though her motion is not
uniform, ytt, during the fliort fpace of time that fhe is near
any (tar, (he may be confidered as moving uniformly.

It has been above obferved, that if two perfons under
different meridians were to mark the moon's place, and alfo
their relative times of obfervation, they mif;ht thence tell
their difference of longitude; but they could not communi-
-cate their obfervations fiifBciently foon for practical pur-
jjufes; and even admitting the poffibiiity of this, it were

neceffary that the longitude of one place fliould be known,
in order to determine that of the other. Now tlie Nautical
Almanac i-^ calculated to fupply all thefe wants. This ad-
mirable work may be confidered a perpetual obferver," that
communicates univcrfallv and infbuitaneoufly certain celellial
appearances, as they take p'ace st Greenwich Obfervatory,
Here the niftanccn are given between the moon and the tun,
and certain remarkable ftars in or near the zodiac, for every
three hours ; and at;y intermediate didance, or time, may be
thence found by tlie rule of proportion with fuflicient accu-
racy. If, therefore, under any meridian, a lunar dillance
be obferved, ihc difference bel'iueen the time of ohfer'vation and ■
the time in the yllmnnac, ivhen the fame di/lance ivas to tale
place at Qrcenivich, -will fhetu the Irmgitude. For example,
if the obferved dillance between the fun and moon be 50 ' at
ei;;ht o'clock, but by the Almanac tlie fame dillance cf e^o'
will take place at Greenwich at fix, it is cviileiit that tiie
difference between the obferved and computed time is two
hours, and therefore the longitude is jo ; and it is alio clear
that the longitude is eaft, the time being mofl advanced at.
the p!ace of obfervation.

A method fo apparently fimple mufl have been long fince
adopted ; but two difficulties occured : one the want of
proper inftruments, which want lias been happily fupplied by
the invention and fubfequent iu'.provement of Hadley's
quadrant; and the other, correel lunar tables; for the
moon, though fo near and fo confpicuous to the earth, has
always perplexed allronomcrs more than any other ceklli;J
body. The various inequalities of her motions were never
properly underilood, until fir Ifaac Newton difcovcred the
phyfical laws which govern them ; and from his theory pro-
fefTor Mayer formed lunar tables, which have been found
fufiiciently correft for nautical praflice, and from which
thofe tables in the Nautical Almanac of the lunar diilances
had been calculated under the diveclion of Dr, Mi;fl<elyne
for many years. In 1806 the French board of longitude
pubhfhed new lunar tables, calcu'ated by Du Burgh, fr'.m
the theory of La Place and the obfervations of Dr. Mafke-
Ivne ; and from thofe tables the lunar diflanecs in the Nautical
Almanac of 1815 are computed, and in tlic Almanacs that
follow.

The above two difficulties having been obviated, a third
feems fli'l to remain ; and though this is in lome meafurc
removed by the application of the Nautical Almanac and Rc-
quifite Tables, yet the calculation is (till more tedious lha«
might be wiflied ; nor is it poffible to render it much fhortcr,
as the problem neceffarily comprehends folutions in two
Ipheric triangles : this ariles from the circumftance of the
ol/erved diflnnces between tile heavenly bodies not being the
true dijlnnces ; for th.e altitude? of thofe bodies are more or
lefs affefted both by refraction and parallax ; and though
thefe effedts only operate in a vertical direction, yet that
which changes the altitude of two bodies muft alfo change
their dillance afunder. This is evident from the coiilidera-
ti(m, that the altitude of a celellial objeft is an arc of an
azimuth circle intercepted between the objeft and the ho-
rizon ; and as all azimuth circles incline gradually to each
other from the horizon to the zenith, where they meet, it is
plain that the more two bodies are apparently ruifed, the
lefs will be their apparent dillance afunder, and the con-
trary.

It is well known that the heavenly bodies are raifed by
refraftion, arid depreffed by parallax ; and that thefe eflects
are greatelt in the horizon, and gradually diminifh tg thp
zenith, where they become nothing. , Refraftion depends 1
upon altitude alstie, but parallax depends upon bc.th altitudp ,

and '

LUNAR OBSERVATIONS.

r.-.i didanec. All celedial objefls, except the moon, are
'ore afifeiStcd by rcfraftion than by parallax, and therefore
, .ipear above tlieir true places ; but the moon is always fcen,
t .reptinfi^ in the zenith, below her true place, being more
p.iTccted by parallax ilian refratiion, on account of her
proximity to the cartli.

Tliefe clTeCls of parallax and rcfraftion, though counter-
silincr each other, fcldom do it fo cqua ly as to render all
t-irreiSion unncceffary. Sometimes the apparent diftance is
r.earlr a whole degree more or lefs thia the true diftance ;
and jlie principal canfe of fo great a difference is the moon's
parallax : for this body, which is the chief guide to the
lj:ig;tude, is a'fo the great caufe of error in the diftances»
aiid is therefore the principal object of corredlion.

In making a hmar obfervation, four perfons arc generally
en-ployed, one of whom takes the diftance, two the a!titudcs,
a :d the fourth'notes the time. Thefe things fliould be per-
f^.rmed at the fame inilant; and if the obfervation be re-
;^C3ted feveral times, and a mean taken, the work is likely
'. . be the more correS i and great care is here neceffary,
i r an error in this part of ihe operation, particularly in
t.king the dillancc, will pervade tlie fubfequcnc parts of the
v.ork, and will of courfe produce a wrong foliition. The
ranner of adjufting the indruments, and cf making the ob-
; ivations, is bi-'ft taught by practice. Thufe who with for
written inftruflions on the fubject are referred to the Britiih
Mariner's Guide by Dr. Mafkelyne, to Dr. Mackay's
book upon the longitude, or to profefibr Vince's Pradtical
Aftronomy.

Of corred'mg thi Ahitudss of the obfrveJ Objefls. — When a
lun \r obfervation is made, the firll cbjeft is to clear the al-
ti'.udes from femidiameter, dip, refraClion, and parallax.
The moon's parallax in altitude mult be next calcu-
-laled; by faying, uls radius is to the fine of her zenith dif-
tance, fo is the fine of her horizontal parallax (as given in the
Nautical Almanac) to the fine of her parallax in altitude.

In correfting the moon's altitude, an allowance iliould be
made for the sugmentation of her femidiameter, which gra-
dually takes place from the horizon to the zenith. I'his
inercafe is given, ii the IVth of the Requilite Tables,
for every five degrees of aliitude, which corrediion is to
be added to her horizontal femidiameter given in the Nauti-
cal Almarac.

The augmentation of the moon's femidiameter is caufed
by her being nearer to the fpeftator in the .zenith than in
the horizon by a femidiameter of the earth — for the magni-
tude of a body is in the inverfe ratio of its di'lance from
the obferver ; and as the earth's femidiameter bears a very
fenfible proportion to the moon's diilance, (he is feen under
the greatefl angle in the zenith, which angle gradually dimi-
niflies to t!ic ho.izon.

Thc.-e are other correftion: of the altitudes which may
be neceffary in cafes of particular nicety, but which are
feldom noticed at fea.. Thefe are — an allowance for the
contraction of the vertical femidiameters of the fun and
moon by rcfraftion ; a correftion of the moon's parallax,
fuppofing the earth an oblate fpheroid ; a correftion for
tlie refrattion, according to the aclual ftate of the atmo-
fphere, as (hewn by a thermometer and barometer, and not
according to the mean al^ronomical refraction which is com-
monly ufed. Thefe correftions, though perhaps neceffary
towards the perfedtion of this prrblem, being very fmall, and
frequently counterafting each other, are generally confidercd
of little confequence in nautical praClice, where greater errors
are unavoidable.

From the or relied Altitudes to Jind the true D'flance. — It is
eafy to conceive, that by a lunar obfervation, the three iides

of a fpheric triangle are meafured in the heavens, whicU
fides are the apparent co-altitudes of the obferved bodies,
and their apparent diftance afunder.

The co-altitudcs or zenith diftances being ccrrefted, the
queftion is, to find the true diftance between the obferved
bodies ; but here there arc only tv.'o things given, and tlierc-
foic it cannot be performed unti' the angle at the zenith is
known, which is determined from the three given fides of the
triantjle, by the rules of fpheric trigonometry.

As the efFefts of parallax, refraction, &c. operate only
in a veriical direction, it is evident that the corrcdlions of
the zenith dillanees or containing fides will not change the
included angle at the zenith ; and therefore three things are
now known, namely, the correcled zenith diftances and the
included angle, whence the other fide is determined by
Ipherics, and this fide is the true diftance fought.

A General View cf the different Methods of •ivorling the
Lunar Olfervations, — Few problems have been ever more in-
veftigated or ftudied than that of clearing the lunar dif-
tance, and many ingenious methods lv>ve been devifed for
contrafting the operation. Thefe methods are founded on
fome of the following general principles.

The firft; general principle is fpheric trigonometry, as be-
fore explained ; the fecond is the doftrine of proportional
errors, by which the effects that the errors in the alti-
tudes produce on the diftance are folved by fluxions, or by.
xXvi differential calculus : and a third principle has been lately
dilcovered, which is founded on the properties of a qnad-
i-angle infcribed in a circle, as explained and exemplified Ijy
the inventor, Dr. Andrew, in his Altronomical and Nautical'
Tables. ^

Various methods of working the lunar obfervations have
been devifed chiefly by Halley, Euler, Mayer, Maikelyne, .
Lyons, Witchcll, Burrow, Borda, Wales, Mackay, Kelly,
Gerrard, Andrew, and Mendoza. The methods of the
two laft authors appear the moft concife, but all are fuffi-
ciently correft, and leainen generally prefer fuch as they have
firft learnt. It may indeed be obferved, that operations which'
appear the moft concife are not always the moft cxpedi-
tioufly performed, as much depends on the number and.
variety of tables required, and the manner of applying
them. No method has hitherto obtained an exclufive pre-
ference over the reft, nor does it appear poffible to reduce
the calculation to a concifenefs to anfwer the general pur-
pofcs or wifhes of feamen ; and hence, other modes have
lieen devifed, of obtaining approximate folutions by pro-
jection or graphic operation.

The firll graphic method for clearing the diftances was
that by La Cai'le, called the Chajfis de redudion, which has
fuice been copied by La Lande, Mackay, and others. It.
is an orthographic projeftiun, conliftmg of a great num-
ber of lines accurately drawn, and various fcaL-s for ob-^
taining the different corrections.

Another graphic operation, of a different defcription, was
executed by the late George Margetts, and p^bli(hed in
1790. It confifts of fevetity large jl.ttes, containing nume-
rous lines drawn from ttie folutions of lunar diftances in
Dr. Shepherd's Tables. By Margetts' Longitude Tables
the folution of a lunar obfervation may be obtained in
about one-fourth of the tirj-e required by calculatinn ; and
the anfwer, though not perfeftly accurate, is fulBciently.
correft for the general purpofes of navigation.

An orthographic projection, founded on the fluxional
analogies of fpheric triangle?, has been devifed by Dr.
Kelly, and publifhed in his Introduction to Spherics and.
Nautical Ailronomy, where an inveftigation of its prin-
ciples is given (p. 195, edit. 2 and 3.) with a demon--

ftraticDj,

L U N

ih-ation, fliewing, tlia* in all proper altitudes it will give tlie
true dillance within a few feconds. The fimplicity of this
projeftion is extremely curious, as giving an approximate
folution of a complicated problem, by drawing four right
lines only from the fctle of chords, and it mull therefore be
very ufefiil wliere great expedition is required.

Lunar Rainbow. See Rainbow.

LuNAK Tear, confills of three hundred and fifty-four
days, or twelve fynodical months. See Year.

In the firfl ages, the year ufed by all nations was lunar ;
the variety of courfe being more frequent in this plaaet, and
of confeqiience more confpicuous, and better known to men
than thofe of any other. The Romans regulated their year,
in part, by the moon, even till the time of Julius Csfar :
the Jews too had their lunar months. Some rabbins preten^,
that the lunar month did not commence till the moment the
moon began to appear ; and that there was a law, which
obliged the perfon who difcovered her firft, to go and inform
the fanhedrim tiicreof. Upon which the prefident folemnly
pronounced the month begun, and notice was given of it to
the people by fires lighted on the tops of mountains. But
thij appears fomcwhat chimerical.

LUNA RE Os, in Anatomy, one of the bones of the
carpus. See ExiTiEMiTiEs.

LUNARIA, 'm Botany, elegantly fo named by the older
botanills and by all fuccecding ones, from lima, the moon ;
on account of the filvery femi-tranfparent afpeft, and broad
orbicular fliape, of its feed-vefTels. Honelly or Sattin-
flowcr. Linn. Gen. 537. Schreb. 440. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 3. 476. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. i.
V. 2. 385. JulT. 239. Tourn. t. 105. Lamarck lUultr.
t. 561. Gsrtn. t. 142, reilmma. — Clafs and order, Tetra-
dynamla SUir.ulofa. Nat. Ord. ■S'J/Vj'ao/i, Linn. Cniclfer<f, Ju{[.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, oblopg, of four ovate-
oblong, obtufe, cohering, deciduous leaves, of which two
oppofite ones are gibbous and pouched at the bafe. Cor.
cruciform, of four equal, large, undivided, obtufe petals,
as long as the calyx, each tapering down into a claw of the«
fame length. Stnm. Filaments fix, awl-fhaped, about the
length of thj caly.'c, two of them rather (horter ; anthers
^rect, or llightly fpreading. Pijl. Germen {talked, ovate-
oblong, compreffed ; ftyle (hort, permanent ; ftigma obtufe,
undivided. Peric. Pouch elliptical, compreffed quite flat,
undivided, ereft, very large, {talked, terminated by the
ftyle, of two cells and two valves ; tlie partition flat, paral-
lel and equal to the valves. Seetls feveral, projcfting into
the middle of the pouch, kidney-fliaped, compreffed, bor-
dered, fupported by long thread-fhaped ftalks, infcrtcd into
the lateral futures.

Eff. Ch. Pouch undivided, elliptical, flat, ftalked ; valves
equal and parallel to the diflepiment, flat. Calyx-leaves
bagged at the bafe.

1. L. redhiva. Perennial Honefty. Linn. Sp. PI. Qti.
(L. grasca perennis ; Befl. Eytl. vern. ord. 1. t. 21. t. i.
'\'iola lunans, longioribus filiquis; Ger. em. 464. f. 2.) —
Leaves doubly and fharply toothed. Pouches elliptic-lance-
olate, acute at each end. — Native of Germany, Switzer-
land, and Greece. In our gardens it flowers in May or
June, and is perennial, but by no means common. Tlie

Jlems are three or four feet high, erect, round, leafy.
Leaves on long (talks, heart-fliaped, pointed, nearly fmooth,
doubly, iharply and finely toothed ; the lower ones oppofite,
the red alternate. Flowers numerous, large, corymbofe,
fragrant, crimfon. Pouch two inches long and not one
broad, e'liptical, making a fharp angle at each extremity,
green or brownifli.

2. 'L. annua. Annual Pionefty. Linn. Sp. PI. 911.

L U N

Mil. Illuftr. t. ^4. (Viola lunaris, five Bolbonac ; Ger.
cm. 464. f. I.) — Leaves fimply and bluntly toothed. Poucli
elliptical, fomcwhat orbicular, rounded at each end. — Na-
tive of Germany and Switzerland ; very common in gardens,
flowering in May and June. The root is annual or rather
biennial, tapering. Stem folitary, branched. Leaves vi'wh.
much broader and lefs taper teeth than in the former, in a
fimple feries only. Floivers copious, large, fcentlefs, crim-
fon. Pouch glaucous, fcarcely more than an inch long, and
nearly as broad, being almolt orbicular, rounded at each
end.

LinnKUS having founded his fpecific differences of thefe
plants on the oppofite or alternate fituation of their leaves,
in which refpedl they both vary, has led fome to fuppofe
they were both the fam.e. Nothing however can be more
diltindt than the fliape of their feed-veffels, to which wa»
have added the different manner in which their leaves are
toothed. They alfo permanently differ as to duration.

Willdenow charges Gasrther wrongfully with figuring the
pouch of L. rediviva for Rkotia ; tlie latter differs in not
being elevated on a ftalk above the bafe of the flower, which '
Ita'k in the faid Lunnria is an inch long, or more. Ricolia
is obferved by Mr. R. Brown, as well as by Goertner, to
have, fometimes at leafl, two cells.

L. annua was difcovered wild in Switzerland by M. Schlei-
cher, though Haller feems not to have been aware of it.

Lt7N.\RiA, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the herba-
ceous, annual, and perennial kinds, of which the fpecies cul-
tivated are, the perennial honelly (L. rediviva) ; the annual
honefty, moor-wort, or fatin-flower (L. annua) ; and the
Egyptian honefty (L. Egyptiaca.)

In the fecond fort the feed-veffels, when fully ripe, become
tranfparent, and of a clear fhining white, like fatin ; whence
the name of fatin flower.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be raifed by fow-
ing the feed in a fhady border, or, which is better, in patches \
in the fituations where they are to remain, in the autumn, ^
keeping the plants afterwards properly thinned out and free '\
from weeds. They may like wife be fown in the early fpring ; 1
but the former is the better feafon, as the plants rife Itronger.
The laft fort fhould have an open fituation. When fown in
beds, the perennial fort fhould be fet out where they are to
remain, in the following autumn after being fown.

Thefe plants all afford ornament and variety in the borders
and clumps of pleafure-grounds, in whieh the iirft fort fiiould
be placed more backward.

LuNARi.\, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Perca ; which
fee.

LuNAKiA, in Natural Hijlory, is alfo ufed by fome
authors for the felenites.

LUNARIS Cochlea, the name of a genus of fliells
of the fnail-kind, according to the claffiflcation of fome
writers, the dillinguifliing charadler of which is their hr.ving ,
a perfeftly round mouth. Thefe are univalve, umbilicated
fhells, with a depreffed clavicle, and a furface fometimes
fmooth, but more frequently ftriated, furrowed, laciniated,
or covered with tubercles.

It is faid, that Archimedes took the invention of the
fcrew, fo famous ever fince his time, and flill called after
his name, from the form of this ihell ; and it is generally
allowed, that architects have taken the hint of their wind-
ing flights of ftairs from it. See Trochus, Heli.x, Sec.
under Conciiologv.

LUNAS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Herault, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridl of Lodeve. The place contains 1296, and the

A canton

L U N

L U N

canton 6122 iiiliabltants, on a territory of 292^ kiliometres,
in 12 communes.

LUNATI, Carlo Ambrosio, in Biography^ of Milan,
furnamed // Gobbo della Regina, who came to England in
the reign of James II. Lunati was a mod celebrated per-
former on the violin, and Gemiiiiani's firll mafter on that
inftriiment.

LUNATIC, LuKATlCLs, a perfon fuppofed to be af-
fefted, or governed by the moon. Heace, epileptics were
anciently called lunatici, becaufe the paroxyfms of that dif-
eafe feemcd to be regulated by the changes of the moon.
Thus Galen, (De Diebus Criticis, lib. iii ) fays, the moon
governs the periods of epileptic cafes ; and others referred
the difeafe entirely to this planet. A retxiis de Diuturnis Mor-
bis, lib. i. cap. .;. See Mead's Treatife concerning the In-
fluence of the Sim and Moon upon the Human Bodies,
p, :;S. 46, &c.

Mad people are flill called lunatics, from an ancient but
now almoft exploded opinion, that they are much influenced
by that planet. A much founder philofophy hath taught
us, that if there be any thing in it, it mutt be accounted
for, not in the manner the ancients imagined, nor otherwife
than what the moon has in common with other lieavenly bo-
dies, occafioning various alterations in the gravity of our at-
mofphere, and thereby aftetling human bodies. However,
tliere is confiderable reafon to doubt the faft ; and it is cer-
tain that the moon has no perceivable influence on our mofl;
accurate barometers.

A lunatic, in the contemplation of the law, is properly
a perfon who hath lucid intervals ; fometimes enjoying his
ienfcs, and fometimes not. See Non-CO,mpos.

The flat. 17 Edw. II. cap. 10. ordains, that the king is
to provide that the lands of lunatics be fafely kept, and
they and their families maintained by the profits, and
the refidue {hall be kept for their ufe, and be delivered to
them when they come to their right mind ; the kmg tak-
ing nothing to his own ufe ; and if the parties die in fuch
ftate, the refidue fhall go to their executors or adniiniftrators.
A warrant is now ifTued by the king, under his royal fign
manual, to the lord chancellor, or lord keeper, or lords
commifTioners for the cuftody of the great feal, to perform
this office for him. All matters, therefore, touching luna-
tics, are within the peculiar jurifdiftion of the court of
chancer)-.

Lunatics are not legally accountable for any crimes they
commit in this ftate. (i Hawk. c. I.) And alfo, if a man
in lus found memory commits a capital offence, and before
arraignment for it he becomes non-compos, he ought not
to be arraigned for it ; and if, after he has pleaded, the
prifont-r becomes mad, he (ball not be tried : if, after he be
tried and found guilty, he lofes his fenfes before judgment,
judgment fliall not be pronounced : and if, after judg-
ment, he becomes of non-fane memory, execution fliall be
flayed.

By tlie common law, if it be doubtful whether a criminal,
who at his tri.il is in appearance a lunatic, be fuch in truth
or not, it fliall be tried by an inquett of office, to be re-
turned by the fherifF; and if it be found by them, that the
party only feigns himfelf mad, and he Uill refufe to anfwer,
he fhall be dealt with as if he had confeffed the indiftment.
1 Hawk. c. I. f. 4.

By 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 94. ; in all cafes, where
it fhall be given in evidence upon the trial c)f any per-
fon for treafon, murder, or felony, that fuch perfon
was infane at the time when the offence was committed,
and fuch perfon fhall be acquitted, the jury (hall be re-
quired to find fpeciallv, whether they acquitted him on

Vol. XXI.

account of infanity ; and if they do fo find, the court fhall
order fuch perfon to be kept in llriA cultody in fuch place,
and in fuch manner as to them (hall feem fit, until his majeily's
pleafure fhall be known ; whereupon his majeft,y may give
fuch order for the fafe cullody of fuch perfon during his
pleafure iu fuch place and manner as to his majetty fhall feem
fit.

When any perfon, who fhall be indifled for any offence,
and upon arraignment fhall be found by the jury to be infane,
fo that' he cannot be tried, or when upon the trial he fhall
be fourrd to be infane, the court may record fuch finding, and
order the party to be kept in drift cudody until his majeily's
pleafure (hall be known ; and if any perfon, charged with
any offence, Ihall be brought before any court to be dif-
charged tor want of profccution, and fuch perfon fhall ap«
pear to be infane, the court may order a jury to be im-
panelled to try the fanity of fuch perfon ; and if the jury-
find him to be infane, the court may order futh perfon to
be kept in drift cudody, &c. ; and in all cafes of infanity
his majelly may give fuch order, &c. as dated above.

And for the better prevention of crimes being committed
by perfons infane, if any perfon fhall be difcovered and ap-
prehended under circumttances that denote a derangement
of mind, and a purpofe of committing fome crime, for
which if committed he would be liable to be indifted, any
juftice, before whom fuch perfon ihall be brought, may, if
he think fit, iffue a warrant for committing fuch perfon as
dangerous, and fufpefted to be infane, fuch caufe of com-
mitment being plainly cxprefTed in the warrant ; the perfon
fo committed fhsU not be bailed, except by two judices,
one whereof fhall be the juftice who iflued fuch warrant ;
or by the quarter feffions ; or by one of the judges.

By 17 Geo. II. c. 5. it is enafted, that whereas there
are fometimes perfons, who by lunacy or otherwife are furi-
oufly mad, or are fo far difordered in their fenfes, that
they may be dangerous to be permitted to go abroad, it
fliall therefore be lawful for two or more judices, where
fuch lunatic or mad perfon fliall be found, by warrant di-
refted to the conftables, churchwardens, and overfcers of the
place, or fome of them, to caufe fuch perfon to be appre-
hended, and kept falely locked up in fome fecure place
within the county or precinft, as fuch juftices fhall urider
their hands and feals direft and appoint, and (if fuch juftices
find it neccffary) to be there chained, if the fettlement of
fuch perfon fliall be within fuch county or precinft.

And if fuch fettlement fhall not be there, then fuch perfon
(hall be fent to his fettlement by a vagrant pafs (^mutatis
mutandis) ; and fhall be locked tip or chained by warrant of
two juftices of the county or precinft to which fuch perfon
is fo fcnt in manner aforefaid.

And the reafonable charges of removing, and of keeping,
maintaining, and curing fuch perfons, during fuch redraiut
(which fliall be during fuch time only as fuch lunacy or
madnefs fhall continue) fliall be fatisfied and paid (luch
charges being firft proved upon oath) by order of two
judices, direftiug the churchwardens or overfeers, where
any goods, chattels, lands, or tenements of fuch perfon fhall
be, to feize and fell fo much of the goods and chattels, or
receive fo much of the annual rents of the lands as is necef-
fary to pay the fame ; and to account for what is fo feized,
fold, or received, to the nest quarter feffions : but if fuch
perfon hath not an eftate to fatisfy the fame, over and above
what fhall be fufficient to maintain his family, then fuch
charges fhall be paid by the parifn, town, or place to which
fuch perfon belongs, by order of two judices, direfted to
the churchwardens or overfeers for that purpofe.

Provided, that any perfon aggrieved by any aft of
4 1 luctt

L U N A T 1 C.

fuch juflices out of feflions may appeal to the next fefiions,
giving reafonable notice ; wliofe order therein (hall be
fiRal.

And nothing herein (hall reftrain or abridge tlie power of
the king or lord chancellor ; nor (hall reftrain or prevent
any friend from taking them under their own care and pro-
teftion.

But the above parts of the aft relate to vagrant lunatics
only, who arc liroUing up and down the country, and do
not extend to pcrfons, who are of rank and condition in the
world, and whofe relations can take care of them properly
by applying to the court of chancery. 2 Atk. Rep. 52.
See Madhouses.

When a perfon is legally found to be non-compos, (fee
Non-compos,) the lord chancellor ufually commits the
care of his perfon, with a fuitable allowance for his main-
tenance, to fome friend, who is then called his committee,
which fee. However, to prevent finillcr pradiccs, the next
heir is feldom permitted to be this committee of the perfon ;
becaufe it is his intcreft that the party (hould die. But it
hath been faid, there lies not the fame objeftion againll his
next of kin, provided he be not his heir ; for it is his in-
tereft to prefcrve the lunatic's life, in order ta increafe the
perfonal eftate by favings, which her or his family may
be hereafter entitled to enjoy. (2 P. Wms. 638.) The
heir is generally made the manager, or committee of the
ellate, it being clearly his intcreft by good management to
keep it in condition ; accountable, however, to the court of
chancery, and to the non-co/npos himfelf, if he recovers ; or
otherwifc, to his adminiftrators. In this care of idiots and
lunatics, the civil law agrees with ours ; by affigning i;hem
tutors to proteft their perfons, and curators to manage
their eftates. But in another inftance the Roman law goes
much beyond the Englifh. For, if a man by notorious
prodigality was in danger of wafting his eftate, he was
looked upon as non-compos, and committed to the care of
curators or tutors by the praetor. And by the laws of
Solon fuch prodigals were branded with perpetual infamy.
But with us, when a man on an inqueft of idiocy hath been
returned an unthr'ijt and not an idiot, (which fee,) no fur-
ther proceedings have been had. Bro. Abr. til. Idiot 4.

By 29 Geo. II. c. 31, a lunatic may furrender a leafe in
the court of chancery or exchequer, in order to renew
the fame. Alfo, by direftion of the lord chancellor, he
may accept a furrender of fuch leafe, and execute a new
one. II Geo. III. c. 20.

By 43 Geo. III. c. 75. whereas great injury fre-
quently happens to perfons found lunatic or of unfound
mind, and incapable of managing their affairs, and the
creditors of fuch perfons are delayed in obtaining payment
of their demands for want of fufficient power to apply the
property of fuch perfons in difcharge of their debts and
engagements, it is enafted that it ftiall be lawful for the lord
chancellor, lord keeper, or lords commifiioners for the
cuftody of the great feal, to order the freehold and leafe-
hold eftates of fuch perfons refpeftively to be fold, or
char^red by way of mortgage or otherwife, for raifmg
fuch fum of money as ftiall be neceffary for payment of the
debts, and for performing the contracts or engagements of
any fuch pcrfons refpedlively, and [of] the cofts and charges
attending the fame, and attending fuch lale or incumbrance
refpeftively, and to direcl the committee or committees of
the eftate of fuch perfons refpeftively to ex'."cute in the
name and on behalf of fuch perlons conveyances of the eft.ites
fo to be fold or incumbered, and to procure fuch admittance
to and make fuch furrenders of the copyhold eftates of fuch
psrfoas found lunatic or of unfound mind, and to do all

2

fuch afls as fhall be riecefTary to effectuate the fame in fuch
manner, as fuch chancellor, &c. ftiall direit ; which con-
veyances fliall be as good in law, as if the fame had been
executed by every fuch perfon when in his or her found
mind.

And in cafe of any furplus of money to be raifed by any
fuch fale as aforefaid, after anfwering the purpofes afore-
faid, the fame ftiall be applied in the fame manner as the
eftate fold would have been applied, if this aft had not been
made.

And whereas many fuch perfons may be feifed and pof-
fefled of freehold and copyhold lands, 5:c. either for the
term of their natural lives or for fome other eftate, with
power of granting leafes and taking fines, referving fmall
rents on fuch leafes for one, two, or three lives, in poffeffion
or reverfion, or for fome nuinber of years determinable
upon lives, or for terms of years abfolutcly ; be it enafted,
that in every fuch cafe every power of leafing fuch lands,
&c. which is or ftiall be vefted in fuch perfon, having a li-
mited eftate only, fhall and may be executed by the committee
or committees of the eftate of fuch perfon, imder the di-
rection and order of the lord chancellor, lord keeper, or
lords commiffioriers ; and fuch leafe or leafes ftiall be as
good in law, as if the fame were executed by the faid perfon
in his or her found mind.

And whereas perfons fo found lunatic or of unfound
mind may be feifed or poftefled of, and entitled to free-
hold or cOpyhold eftates, in fee or in tail, and an abfolute
intcreft in leafchold eftates, and it may be for their benefit
that leafes or under leafes fhould be made of fuch eftates
for terms of years, and efpecially to encourage the ereftion
of buildings thereon, or repairing buildings adually be-
ing thereon, or otherwife improving the fame ; be it enafted,
that it fhall be lawful for the lord chancellor, &c. to order
and direft a committee or committees of the eftate of fuch
lunatic to make fuch leafes of the freehold, copyhold, or
Icafehold eftates of fuch perfons refpeffively, according to
his or her intcreft therein, and to the nature of the tenures
of fuch eftates, for fuch term or terms of years, and fubjeft
to fuch rents and covenants, as the lord chancellor, &c.
fhall direft ; and that every fuch leafe fhall be as good in
the law, as if the fame had been executed by fuch per-
fons in his or her found mind.

Every aft to be done by fuch committee or commitees
by virtue of this aft, and the order of the lord chancellor,
&c. ftiall be as valid and binding agamft the faid perfons fo
found lunatic and of unfound mind refpeftively, and all per-
fons claiming by, throug'n, or under him or her refpeftively,
as if the perfons fo found lunatic or of unfound mind re-
fpeftively had been in his or her found mind, and had per-
fonally done fuch aft or afts refpeftively.

Provided neverthelefs, that nothing herein ftinli extend to
fubjeft any part of the freehold, copyhold, or leafehold
eftates of any perfon found lunatic or of unfound mind, to
the demands of his creditors, otherwife than as the fame are
now fubjeft; by due courfe of law ; but only to authorife
the lord chancellor, lord keeper, or lords commiffioners for
the cuftody of the great feal of the united kingdom and of
Ireland refpeftively, being intrufted by virtue of the king's
fign manual with the care and commitment of the cuftody
of the perfons, and eftates of perfons fo found lunatic or
of unfound mind, to make order in luch cafes as are herein-
before .iientioned, when the (ame fhall be deemed for the
benefit of fuch perfon fo found lunatic or of unfound mind,
and incapable of managing his or her affairs.

To make a will, it is not fufficient that the teftator have
memory to anfwer to familiar and ufual quelUons, but

he

L U N

L U N

We ought to have a difpofing memory, fo as to be able to ifland are in cultivation ; of which joo are arable, and the

make a difpoiition of his ellate, with underllandiiig and refl palture : wheat is the chief produce. The elevated

reafon. fituation of the land, in fome places 800 feet above the

For the marriage of lunatics, fee Mai{iiia»e. fca, and the violence of the N.E, winds, prevent any trees

For lunatic afyhims, fee Mad-HOUsks. from growing, though a confiderable expence has been in-

LUNATION, the period, or fpace of time, between currcdin planting. Rabbits and rock birds arc numerous ;

one new moon and another ; alio cal!ed_/)'/W;Va/ man//;. Sye and in the fcafon, lobftcrs, crabs, and other fifh may be

:>dooftj

an,

obtained in abundance. About 400 head of fheep, and 80
of cattle, arc fed here ; but the former do not thrive. The
iiiclofures are ilonc fences. Of the hiftory of the ifland
but little is known. Rifdon relates that one Morifco, who
had confpired to kill king Henry III., retired hither, and
turning pirate, committed great depredations ; on which
the king arrelted, and had him executed on an elevated part.
About the middle of the lall century, it was purchafed
of government by a nobleman, who entrufted it to the care
of a perfon named Benfon, a notorious fmugglcr, who car-
ried on a confiderable illicit traffic. The next proprietor
of the ifland was (ir John Borlafc Warren, who, about the
year 1781, fold it to John Cleveland, efq. ; but it appears
to have been recently re-pnrchaled by government. The
whole rent is but 70/. per annum ; no taxes are paid ; nor
can it maintain any revenue officer, the duties in feven years
fcarcely amounting to five pounds. The number of houfes"
is only feven ; the inhabitants, in the year 1794, were but
twenty-three. The population of the ifle was probably
greater at fonie diftant period, as many human bones have
been ploughed up ; and Camden fays, " the furrows (hovr
it to have been once cultivated." The chief antiquities
are, the ruins of St. .'\nne's chape', and what is termed
Morifco's caftle. The latter is near the fouth-eaft end,
and was ftrongly fortified with large out-works and a ditch ;
a few old difmounted cannon occupy the battlement, be-
neath which is a curious cavern. In the reig[i of Charles I.
lord Say and Scale held the caftle for the king ; and in
the time of William and Mary, the French furprifed it by
a ftratagem, plundered it, and kept pofTeffion for fome time.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i».

LUNE,in Fortification. See DEMi-LUNEand Lunette.

EuNE, or Lugne, in Geography, a river of England, which

rifes in the county of York, and runs into the Irifh fea,

a few miles below Lancafler. N. lat. 53 57'. W. long.

z" 49'.

LUNE, Lunula, in Geometry, is the fpace included be-
tween the arcs of two unequal circles, forming a fort of cref-
ccnt, or half-moon, the area of which may in many cafes be
as accurately determined as that of any reftilineal figure.
The lunc was the firll cnrvilineal fpace of which the quadra-
ture was afcertained, and this is faid to have been firll efleft-
ed by Hippocrates of Chios, thougli others fay it was dil-
covered by CEnopidas of Chios. However this may be, the
former geometer has generally had the honour of the difco-
very attributed to him, and the figure ftill bears his name,
being commonly denominated the lune of Hippocrates,
the co.Tflruftion of which is as follows.

On the diameter of a femicircle {Plate X. Geometry,
Jig. 2.) defcribe a right-angled triangle, of which the angular
point will ncceflarily fall in the circumference. Then on each
of the fides A D, D B, defcribe a iemicircle, and the two
figures AGED, DHEB will be lunes, and the area of
beach admits a fecure approach, and is fhcltered by a de- them will be equal to the area of the right-angled triangle
tached portion of rock, called the Ifle of Rats, from the A D B. For circles, and confequently femicirc'es, being to
great number of thofe animals which burrow here. On each other as the fquares of their diameters ; and fince A B'
landing, vifitors are obliged to climb over various craggy = A D' -f- D B' ; therefore the femicircle A D B = A G D
maffes, before they can reach the lleep and winding traft -f D H B ; from thefe equal fpaces taking away the corn-
that leads to the fummit, which commands views of the mon fegments A F D and DEB, there remain the two
Englifh and Wellh coafts. About 400 acres only of this lunes equal to the triangle A D B ; aud therefore, if the

4 I 2 tw*

Cycle and El'act

LUNA WAR A, in Geography, a town of H
in Guzerat ; 50 miles E.of Amcdabad.

LUND, a town of Sweden, in Weil Gothland, on the
Wenner lake ; 36 miles N.N.E. of Uddevalla.

Lund, or LunJen, the moll ancient town of Sweden,
the capital of Scania, Schonen, or Skonen, of which a
proverb is recorded, lit. that when our Saviour was born,
' Lund was in its glory. Lund contains fcarcely more than
800 inhabitants, carries on but little trade, and is principally
fupported by the univerfity ellabiillicd by Charles XL, and
called, from the name of its founder, " Academia Carolina
Gothorum." When Mr. Coxe vifited Sweden, it had 21
profelTors and 300 ftudents. The library contains 20,000
volumes. The botanical garden was not in a flourilhing ftate,
the number of plants not exceeding 1 200. Linnreus was ma-
triculated at this univerfity. (See Linn.eus. ) At Lund
was inftitutcd, in 1776, a Royal Phyfiographical Society,
which was incorporated by the king in 1778. The fubjedts
treated of in its afts relate only to natural hiftory, che-
miftry, and agriculture. Lund is an archbifhopric. The
cathedral i.s an ancient irregular building, raifedat different
intervals; 21 miles E. of Copenhagen. N. lat. 55 ' 44'.
E. long. 13 .

LUNDA, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ; 10
miles W. of Nykoping.

LUNDBY, a town of Norway, in the province of A g-
gerhuus, on the Glomme ; 60 miles N.E. of Chriftiania,

LUNDE, a town of Norway, on a lake of the fame
name; 28 miles W.N.W. of Chrillianfand. — Alfo, a town
of Norway ; 17 miles N.W. of Skeen.

LUNDEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 24 miles
W. of Rcndft)org.

LUNDO, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
S miles N.E. of Abo.

LUNDRESS, in our Old Writers, a fterling filver penny ;
which had its name from being coined only in LondoH, and
not at the country mints.

LUNDSAY, in Geography, a town of Pegu, on the
W. fide of the river Ava ; 60 miles W.N.W. of Pegu.
N. lat. 18-30'. E. long. 95 43'.

LUNDSJE, a town of Perfia, in the province of La-
riftan, on the Perfian gulf. N. lat. 26 38'. E. long.

54' 36'

LUNDSKORON, a town of Poland; 18 miles S. of
Cracow.

LUNDY IsL,\ND, is fituated in the mouth of the
Briftol channel, nearly four leagues from the coafl of De-
vonfliire, England, It is rather more than three miles in
length, and about one in breadth ; contains about 2000
acres ; and is environed by high and ftesp rocks, which
render it iiiacceffible, except iu one or two places. The
only fafe landing place is on the eafl fide ; where a fmall

L U N E.

two fides AD, D B, become equal, as in Jig. 3, the two
luncs are each equal to half that triangle, and confequently
the q'.iadratiire of them is determined, being each equal to
a given redilineai figure ; and this is what is properly called
the lune of Hippocrates, and it was the only one of which he
could determine the area, for though he, in all cafes, had the
nieafure of the fpace of botli together, yet it was only in the
cafe of equality that he could fnid the area of the fingle lune,
though he could r.Kvays determine a lune that fhould be equal
to any given reftilineal fpace. For in_/f 1^.-5, the arc DEB
is a quarter of a circle to the radius C B, andD H B is a
femicircle. If, therefore, we conftrudl the il ofceles right-
angled triangle B C A, ifg-'i-) equal to any given fpace, and
on A B defcribe the femicircle B D A, and from C as a
centre, and with C A as a radius, defcribe the quadrant
B E A, we (hall have the lune B D E A equal to the given
fpace as required. This, as we have obferved abo/e, was
the firll inilance of the quadrature of a curvilineal fpace,
that is, of its being fhewn equal to a reftilineal figure ; for,
properly fpeaking, it i-; not abfolutcly a quadrature, as was
that of Archimedes, when he demonilrated that every para-
bola was two-thirds of its circumfcribing rcdtangle ; Hip-
pocrates arriving at his refult only flep by (lep, by fubtradl-
ing equal quantities from equal fpaces, and hence finally, as
by chance, coming to a cafe in which a curvilineal area is equal
to a retlilineal one.

This dilcovery of Hippocrates, it feems, ir.fpired him
with great confidence of being able to find the meafure of
the circle itfelf ; and the reafoning which has been attributed
to him on this fubjeft, though very erroneous, is Itill ex-
tremely plaufible. Hippocrates fuppofed a femicircle
A D E B {fig. 4. ) in which he drew the three chords or radii
A D, D E, E B, and on each of thefe chords he defcribed
a femicircle and a fourth, as F, equal to them. Then the four
femicircles A G D, D E H, EI B, and F, being each
equal to a quarter of the femicircle A D E B, they are
therefore together equal to it, and taking away from each
the faiall fegments A G D, D H E, E I B, we (hall have
on one fide the rectilineal figure A D E B, equal to the
three hines, together with the ftmicircle F. If, therefore,
the area of the lunes be taken away from the redlilineal
A D E B, there will remain the area of the femicir-
cle F, equal to a given reflilineal fpace. This reafoning,
however, though ingenious, is iWl very dcfedive, in confe-
quence of the lunes em ployed in this cale bemg dilTcrent from
thofe of vi-hieh Hippocrates had found the quadrature, for
that, as we have feeu, is bounded by a quadrant of one cir-
cle, and the half of another, whereas thofe in the above
figure are bounded by a femicircle, and the fixth part of
another circle, which is very different from the former, and
the quadrature of it equally as difficult as that of the circle
itfelf. All, therefore, that Hippocrates could draw from his
i".veilii;ation, was merely this, that if any geometer (hould be
able to find the area of thofe lunes, the quadrature of the
crcle would neceffctrily follow, and as this problem was not
at that time thought fo difficult as it is now known to be, it
is not improbable that confiderablc hopes of fuccefs were en-
tertained after the difcovcry which this able geometer had
made of the polTibility of fquaring what is indeed apparently
a more complex figure than the circle. In faift the quadra-'
ture of the circle might be accomplilhed, if we only knew
the ratio of the two luncs, defcribed as in Jig. ?. ; for then
knowing the fum of the two, and their ratio, it is obvious
that we fhould have the real area of each, and confequently,
by taking A D equal to the radius B C, the area of the cir-
cle would follow, as we have (liewn above.

Bill though Hippocrates and the ancient geometers were

unable to fquare any other lune, except that above-men-
tioned, yet the moderns have found feveral other cafes in
which the quadrature may be obtained, as alfo certain por-
tions of them cut off by right lines, drawn in certain direc-
tions. In the lune of Hippocrates, the radii of the bound-
ing circles are to each other in the ratio of two to one ; but if
the two circles are to each other as three to one, or as
three to two, or as five to one, or five to three, they may
alfo be fquared, or may be conlfrufted equal to given fpaces,
by means of the fimplc elements of geometry ; but other ra-
tios, as four to one, fix to one, feven to one,' Sec. require
the affiftance of the higher geometry, being of a fimilar
dcfcription of problems to thofe of trifeftiiig an angle,
doubling a cube, &c. ; and can only be folved by the fame
means.

We fliall take this opportunity of giving a fummary of
fome of the mod curious obfervations, added by modern
geometers to the difcovery of Hippocrates.

1. If from the centre F, {Jig. J.) there he drawn any
ftraight line whatever F E, cutting off the portion of the
lune AEG i\, th^t portion will be qnadrable, and equal
to the reftilineal triangle A H E. For it may be readily
demonilrated, that the fegment A E will be equal to the fc-
mi-fegment A G H.

2. From the point E, if EI be let fall perpendicularly on
A C, and F I and E F be drawn, the fame portion of
the lune A E G A will be equal to the triangle A F I.
For it may be eafily demonilrated, that the triangle A F I is
equal to the triangle A H E.

3. The lune, therefore, may be divided in a given ratio, by
a line drawn from the centre F ; nothing more being necel-
fary than to divide the diameter A C in fuch a manner, that
A I fhall beto C I in that ratio ; to raife E 1 perpendicular
to A C, and to draw the line E F : then the two fegments
of the lune AGE and G E C will be in the ratio of A I
to CI.

All thefe remarks were firfl made by M. Artus de Lionnc,
bifliop of Gap, who publifhed them in a work, entitled
'•■ Curvilincorum Amsenios Contemplatio," 1654, 410., and
afterwards the following' were added by other geometers.

. 4. If two circles, forming the lune of Hippocrates, be
completed, the refult will be another lune, which may be
called the conjugate to the for.mer, and in whicli mixlilineal
fpaces may be found, which may be fquared as in the pre-
ceding cafes.

From the point F, if there be drawn any radius F M, in-
terfedling the two circles in R and M, we fhall have the
mixtilineal fpace R A M R equal to the reftilineal triangle
L A R ; which can be eafily demonilrated ; for it may be
readily feen that the fegment A R, of the fmall circle, is
equal to the femi-fcgment L A M of the greater.

6. Hence, if the diameter in O touch the fmall circle in
F, it follows that the mixtilineal fpace A R F n; A will be
equal to the triangle A S F, right-angled at S, or to half
the lune A G C B A. We might have added here various
other properties relating to lunes and their fegments, but
our limits will not admit of it ; we muil therefore refer the
curious reader to Ozamam's " Mathematical Recreations,"
where the fuhjeft is amply ilhiilrated See alfo the remarks
of David Gregory, Calwell, and Wailis, on the quadra-
ture of the lunula, in Phil. Tranf. N' 2^^, or vol. iv.
p. 452, New Abridgment ; and for " the Umieiifions of the
folids generated by theconverfion of the lunula of Plippo-
crates, and of its parts about feveral axes, with the iuc-
faces generated by that converfion," fee DeMoivre's paper
in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, N'' 205, or vol. iv. p. 505,
New Abridgment.

LUNELLE-

L U N

L U N

LUNELLE-LA-VILLE, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Herault, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftriift of Montpeilier. The place con-
tains 420"), and the canton 945 I inhabitants, on a territory
of 145 kiiiometres, ii 11 communes. N. lat. 43' 40'.
E. long- 4 13'.

LUNEN, a town of Gtrmany, in the county of Mark,
:!» •',(-■ contliix of the Zefick and Lippc ; 20 miles S.S.W.
(if Mitiifter. N. lat. Ji" 36'. E. long. 7' 37'.

LUNENBURG, a town of PrufTm, in the province of
Nalaiigen ; 34 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg.

LuNEXBURG, or LuHifiurg, a city of Wcflphalia, capi-
tal of a principality, lituated on the Ilmenau, fnrrounded
with rroats and walls, fortified with towers, and containing
three churclies, about 1300 honfes, and 9000 inhabitants.
It has alfo three hofpitals, in each of two of which is a
church. The prince's palace and the guild-hall are in the
market place. The anatomical theatre was built in 1713,
and an academy for martial exercifes was founded on the icite
of the convent of St. Michael, which was fupprefied. The
burg-hers con'.ift of four orders, the patricians, the brewers,
the merchants and tradefmen, and the artizans ; and to ihefe
four clafTes fome others might be added. Since the year
1639 the migiftracy has been compofed of one moiety of pa-
tricians, and of another of men of letters. The Sr-.lze,
which.is a diftinft part of the town, enclofed by walls, has
its own feparate magiltracy. This town confills of lifty-
four fmall houfes, funk in the ground, in each of which are
four large leaden pans, containing brine, which is left to ex-
hale for the manufacture of fait ; and the fait water is con-
veyed mto them by a common pipe from the feveral fprini^s.
The falt-houfes, being ^4 in number, and containing 216
pans, which are daily boiled, and every falt-houfe being ef-
timated at 40,000 rix-doilars, the capital of the whole Salze
much exceeds two millionsof rix-dollars. Of thefe fait- works
a fifth belongs to the fovereign's due ; and the town of Lune-
bnrg pays annually to the treafiiry near 6000 rix-dollars. Of
late the falt-trade has very much declined. The exports of
the town are fait, lime furnifhed by two rocks in its vicinity,
and beer. It iikewife carries on a trade in wax, honey,
wool, flax, linen, and frize. Goods are alfo brought here
from all parts of Germany, and forwarded by the Ilmenau
to Hamburgh and to Lubeck. Luneburg is 36 miks diRant
S.E. from Hamburgh. N. lat. 53'^ i j'. E. long. 10° 36'.

Lunenburg, oThvuEnvna-Zeile, aprincipahty of Weit-
phaiia, the foil of which is various ; confiihng of fruilfi'.l
inarfli-land that lies along the Elbe, tlie AUer, the Jetze, and
fome other fmall rivers, other parts, amounting to upwards of
3000 acres, that are faudy, and others that comprehend heath,
Inrf-moors, and fwamps. According to the diverfity of its
foil, it produces whea^, rye, barley, oats, peafe, buckwheat,
fl'.x, hemp, hops, garden-ihifF, oak, beech, firs, pinci,
iiirch, and alder. The v/heat differs in quantity in different
di'.frifts, fome fuper-abounding, and the others being defi-
cient ; and fome breed but few horned cattle and horfes,
\i hilft they abound in others. The heaths are covered with
numerous flocks of a fmall kind of fhcep, the wool of which
is long and coarfe. The culture of bees furniilies confider-
able quantities of honey and wax. The rivers fupply plenty
of good fifh. The river Elbe, which traverfes the E. and
N. fides of this principahty, ferv'es to fertilize the adjacent
raarfii-lands, and to afford other advantages by its fifneries,
r.avigation, and tolls. This principality contains three large
towns, wz. L.monburg, Velzen, and Zellc, with eleven
fmaller, and thirteen large villages. Its principal manu-
factures are thofe of linen, cotton, cloth, ribbons, ftockiii^s.

and hats. The king of Great Britain derived from this
principality a feat and voice in the college of the princes of
tliL- empire, and the circle of Lower Saxony. By the peace
of Tillit, it was annexed to the new kingdom of Wedphalia.

Lu.VENBURG, a county of Virginia, adjoining Noltaway,
Brunfwick, Mecklenburg, and Charlotte coui.ties ; about
30 miles long, and 20 broad. It contains 4505 free inha-
bitants, and jSyGflaves. — Alfo, a towniliip in Effcx county,,
in Vermont, feate^d on Connefticut river, S.W. of Guild-
hall, and N.E. of Concord, and containing 393 inhabitants.
— Alfo, a townfliip of Worcttter county, Mail'ach ifetts, on
an elevated fituation, 25 miles from the Great Monadnock
mountaii'i, in New Hamplliire. It contains 14.000 acres of
land, on which are I 243 inhabitants, and is more di.linguifhtd
by its falubrity than by its wealth. Tlie inhabitants have
little intercourfe or trade with their neighbours ; but they
carry on the nailing bufintfs to advantage. — Alfo, a town of
New York, i.i Green county, now called " Efperanza,"
fituatcd on the W. lidc of Hudfon's riiJcr, oppofite to the
city of Hiidlon, and 30 miles S. of Albany. The foil of
this thriving village, or town, is uneven, nor is the foil very
good. — Alio, a county of Nova Scolia, on Mahone bay,
on the S. coaft of the province, facing the Atlantic ocean.
Its chief tovi'ns are New Dublin, Lunenburg, Chefter, and
Blandford. In Mahone bay, La Have, and Liverpool,
feveral fhips trade to England with timber and boards.^
Alfo, a townfhip in the above county, Ctuatcd on Merli-
queth, or Merliquaf.i bay, well fettled bv a number of in-
duftrious Germans. The lands are good, and well culti-
vated ; 35 miles S.W. by S. from Halifax.

LUNENSE Marmor, in ihs: Natural Hiflory of the j^n-
cieiits, the name of liiat fpecies of white marble, now known
among us by the name of the Carrara-marble, and diltin-
guifiied from the flatuary kind by its greater hardnefs and
lefs fplendour. It was ever greatly eilcemed in building and
ornamenial works, and is fo Itill. It is of a very clofe and
fine texture, of a very pure white, and next in purity to the
Parian marble. It has always been found in great quantities
in Italy, and is fo to this day. See Qarrara M.\RBLE.

LUNES, or LowiNGs, m Falcowy, leafhes or longlafhes
to call in liavvks.

LUNETTE, in Fortification, an invelopcd counterguard,
or elevation of earth, made beyond the fecond ditch, oppo-
fite to the places of arms ; differing from the ravelins only
in their fituation. ■

Lunettes are ufually made in ditches full of v/ater, and
ferve to the fame purJ)ofe as fauffcbrays, to dilpute tlie pai-
fage of the ditch.

Lunettes arc placed on both fides of the ravelin, as B, B,
Plate Vlll. Fortification, Jig. 9:. to increafe the Itrength of
a plac? : they are conilruCted by biicfting the faces of the
ravelin with the perpsndicnlar L N, on which are fet off 30
toifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one of its
faces ; the other face P N is found by making the femigorge
T P of 25 toifes ; the ditch before the lunettes is 1 2 toifes ;
the parapet three, and the rampart eight. Tliere is fometimes
another work made to cover the faliant angle of the ravelin,
fuch as A, called bonr.ti, whofe faces are parallel to thofe
of the ravelin, and when produced bilccl thofe ot the lu-
nettes ; the ditch before it being 10 toifes. There are like-
wife fome lunettes, whofe faces are drawn perpendicular to
thofe of the ravelin, within a third part from the f.uiaat
angle, and their femigorges are only 20 toifes. Mr. MuUer
recommends the face P N to be perpendicular to that of the
baftion, which would then defend it in a diredl manner ; and
if the femigorges of the bonnet A were only fcvcn or eight

toileS)

L U N

L U N

toifes, it would be lefa expenfive, and its ditch and the coTcrt-
\Tay before it would be better defended by the lunettes.
Eleni. of Fortif. p. 36.

LuNETTK, in the Manege, is a half horfe-flioe, or fueh a
(hoe as wants the fpunge, i. e. that part of the branch which
runs towards the quarters of the foot.

liUNETTEisalfo the name of two fmall pieces of felt, made
round and hollow, to clap upon the eyes 'of a vicious horle
that is apt to bite, and ftrike with his fore feet, or that will
not fuller his rider to mount him.

LUNE'VILLE, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a dillrift, in the department of the
Meurthe, lituated between tlit Vefouze and the Meurthe,
in a marfhy plain, which has been drained. An academy was
inftituted here by king Staniilauf, and furniflied with a good
library. The place contains 9797, and the two cantons
2 2,334 inhabitants, on a territory of 345 kiliometrcs, in 37
communes; ij miles E.S.E. of Nancy. N. lat. 48 36'.
E. long. 6° 34'.

LUNGKORCKE, a town of PrulTia, in the palatinate
of Culnj ; 10 miles N. of Stralhurg.

LUNGOBARDI, in Ancient Geography. See Lom-
bards.

LUNGON, in Geography, a fmall ifland on the W. fide
of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 62 ' 40'. E. long. 17^
48'.

LUNGPOUR, a town of the country of Cachar ; 15
miles E. of Cofpour.

LUNGRO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra, chiefly
inhabited by Greeks; 10 miles S.S.W. of Caffano.

LUNGRY, a town of Bengal ; 36 miles S. of Calcutta.
N. lat. 21^58'. E.long. 87° 35'.

LUNGS, \\\ Anatomy and Pliyfwlogy, are org-ans of the
body, (ituated in the cheft, through wliich the blood paffes
on its courfe from the right to the left fide of the heart, and
in which it is changed from the venous to the arterial ftate,
by means of expofure to the atmofpherical air received into
thefe organs in refpiration.

The two lungs, (right and left,) are entirely alike in
their compofition'"; their fize is confiderable, and they con-
fift of feveral different tilTccs, which render their flrufture
complicated. Thefe tiffues are almoft all vafcular, which
gives to the lungs their charadlcriftic fpongy and foft nature.
They poffefs, befides the properties arifing from their orga-
nization, only the infenfible organic contradtility, or tonic
power. Perhaps the mufcular (ibres of the air-velTels may
conllitute an exception to this obfervation. In confequence
of their vital properties being limited to thi.s tonic power,
they are not capable of any motion in themielves ; and they
therefore remain motionlcfs, unlefs foine exterior agency puts
them in motion ; yet, in their funftions as refpiratory or-
gans, they exhibit a continual movement, an alternation of
dilatation and contraftion, by which the air is firll received
into their interior, and then expelled after a certain interval.
If this be interrupted for a very (hort time, the blood is no
longer ch<inged, the circulation ceales, and death follows.
The lungs then require fomc auxiliary means for the execu-
tion of the funftions to which they are dellined ; thefe are
furnifhed by the confiderable organs of motion fiirrounding
them, which at the fame time compofe a fufliciently firm de-
fence to proteft them againft external injury. The ribs
with their cartilages, the llernum, and the dorfal verlebrse,
form the fohd part of the cavity containing the lungs ; the
diaphragm and intercolfal muftles the moveable parts :
the cavity itfelf refulting from their union, is named the
tbxirax. To the fides of this cavity we mull refer the pheno-

mena of dilatation and contracElion of the lungs, which are
entirely pallive, and follow the inipulf* received from this
fource. Thus the thorax conftitutes an edential part of the
refpiratory apparatus.

But the thorax contains alfo the central or^an of the cir-
culation (the heart), and the large blood-veflels conneflcd
with it ; thus the apparatus of this fundtion is brought near
to, and in a manner confounded at its origin with that of
refpiration. Yet they are diftinft, by the difpofition of the
common cavity which contains them. For the heart occupies
that part of the chell which is formed by the vertebral co-
luinn behind, by the fternum in front, and by the aponeu-
rotic centre of the diaphragm below ; parts which are either
immoveable, or capable only of a Imall degree of motion.
The lungs, on the contrary, occupy the mod moveable
part of the chell ; thofe formed by the ribs and intercollal
mufcles, and the mufcular parts of the diaphragm.

The following account of the refpiratory apparatus will
include defcriptions, ill, of the chell, in which the lungs are
contained ; 2dly, of the motions which that part is capable
of ; 3dly, of the membranes lining the cavities ; 4thly, of
the lungs themfelves; and Jlhly, of their funclions.

The chell or thorax is a conical cavity, flightly flattened
in front, occupying the upper part of the trunk, and confe-
quenrly having a much larger Ihare of the fl<eleton below
than above it. Yet, if we compare its pofition to that of
the mod important organs, we Ihall find tlie latter placed al-
moll equally near the vifcera contained in the thorax. The
parts fituated in the head, and thofe contained in the abdomen
differ very httle in their diilance from the heart ; while the
latter organ is placed at very unequal diftances from the
upper and lower extremities. Hence the heart is the centre
of the organs contained in the head and abdomen, while it
exerts a much lefs aftive influence on the lower than on the
upper limbs.

The chell is fituated in front of the vertebral column ;
but the curvature of the ribs, which is very prominent be-
hind, caufes the cavity to pafs a little beyond the fpine in
that direftion, particularly towards the middle. The plane
of the front of tiie cheft is poilerior to that of the front of
the face ; commonly it is nearly on a level with that of the
abdomen ; but the numerous variations of the latter cavity
produce correfponding varieties in this refpedl.

A falfe idea wou'd be formed of the chell by examining it
when covered with foft parts, and articulated to the upper
limbs. The numerous mufcles furrounding it above, the
flioulder, and particularly the clavicle, give to its upper part
an extent in the tranfverfe direftion, which does not exill in
the flieleton, where the chell reprefents a cone flattened in
front and behind, with the bafis downwards and the apex
upwards. The longitudinal axis of this cone is oblique from
above downwards, and behind forwards ; but all its fides do
not partake equally in this obliquity, which belongs only to
the anterior and lateral parts : the poilerior, formed by the
fpine, has no concern in it. Hence a vertical line, drawn
from the middle of the fpace, included between the vertebral
column and the enfiform cartilage, perpendicularly through
the cheft, would not pafs out at the centre of the fupenor
aperture, but would go in front of the clavicular extremity
of the llernum. The diameters, whether antero-polterior
or tranfverfe, of the cone reprefented by the cheft, are all
larger in proportion as they are nearer the balls.

In its general capacity the cheft holds a middle place
between the head and the abdomen. Its depth, from above
downwards, is much lefs in the natural ftate, than it appears
in the Ikelcton. The diaphragm below forms a confiderable

arch

LUNGS.

arch projefting into the cheil, and very coiifiderably lefTen-
ing its extent in this direftion. But this diminution affefts
the middle, which is occupied by the central tendon, much
lefs than the fides. Again, the clavicles above very mani-
feftlv furmount the (lernum, and contribute to make the
cheii appear higher than it really is. The breadth is much
lefs at the upper part, than it appears to be on the firft
view, becaule the clavicle and the mufcles enlarge the ex-
terior forms without afFefting the internal dimcnfions. The
capacity conftantly inoreafes in proportion as we proceed
downwards. Yet fhe habit of wearing clothes that are very
tight about the waift, particularly (lays, contrafts that part,
fo that the cheft is fometimes (hapcd like a barrel, narrow
above and below, and broader in the middle. The concavity
in the dorfal part of the fpine makes the cheft more capa-
cious in its middle ; yet this enlargement is not equal to the
contraftion produced by the anterior prominence of the
bodies of the vertebras. In faft, the antero-pofterior dia-
meters are all much Itfs extenfive along the middle lirie of the
cheft than on the fides ; fo that the fternum is feparated from
the fpine by an interval much fmaller than that which exilts
between the cartilages of the ribs and the hollows at the
fides of the fpine.

In the female the cheft is proportionally broader, but
fhorter than in the male.

Any caufe of diftentiori afFefting the abdomen, as preg-
nancy, afcites, large tumours, &c. ftrongly elevates the
cheft, prelTes the ribs together, and diminilhes the perpen-
dicular axis, while the tranfverfc and antero-pofterior dia-
meters are rather increafed, particularly below. There are
malformations of the cheft, particularly affefting the (lernum
and ribs, which diminifh the breadth, while they leave the
height nearly the fame. Individuals predifpofed to phthifis
are remarkable for this tranfverfe contraction of the cavity,
which makes the prominence of the fternum very conl^piciious
in front. In other inllances the cheft is affected, in confe-
quence of deformities of the fpine : when this is curved, the
ribs are brought very clofe together on one fide, and are
proportionally feparated on the other, fo that the two fides
of the cavity are rendered very unequal. The chell, in fuch
inftauces, is generally very prominent.

Defcrlption of the particular Bones of the Chejl. — It is com-
pofed of a common, and of proper parts. The dorfal por-
tion of the fpine is the former (fee Spixe) ; the fternum in
front, and the ribs on each fide, are the latter.

The Jlernum is a fymmetrical bone, placed in the front
and middle of the cheft, flattened and elongated, bro?d
above, contradled about the middle, then a>;ain becoming
a little broader, and terminating at laft below by a prominent
point. It is divided into a cutaneous and a thoracic fur-
face, a clavicular and an abdominal extremity, and lateral
edges.

The cutaneous furface is anterior, covered by the (kin,
and ir.ore immediately by the aponeurofes of the fterno-
tr.aftoidei and great pedloral niulcles : it is marked fome-
times by lines dividing it into furhices of unequal breadths,
and correfponding to the original divilions of the bone. It
is a little convex at the upper part, and then flattened.
The attachment of the mufcular fibres, and of the ligaments
of the ribs, ;;ives it a roughnefs. The thoracic furfac^ is
pofterior, a little concave, fmooth, and fometimes exhibits
tranfverfe lines fimilar to thofe already mentioned. It cor-
refponds above to the ilerno-hyoidei and (lerno-thyroidei ;
then, for a ftiort fpace, to the cellular tiffue of the mediaf-
tin'.-m, and afterwards to the triangularis flerni'.

The clavicular extremity is the broadeft and thickeft part
of the bone. Its middle confifts of a broad concavity, al-

moft entirely occupied by the inter-clavioular ligament : on
each fide of this is a large fuperficial excavation, concave
from within outwards, and convex from before backwards,
articulated to the clavicle, ar.d furrounded by ligamentous
infertions. The abdominal extremity is called alfo the enfi-
form or xiphoid cartilage or appendix. It is thin, flattened,
broader above, .and terminating in a narrower way below.
Its figure varies greatly in different individuals : the lower
end fometimes turns forwards, fometimes backwards ; occa-
fionally it is perforated. It generally is cartilaginous, in a
greater or lefs degree, until the later periods of life. It
affords infcrtion to the aponeurofes of the abdominal
mufcles ; the retli cover it in front, and the diaphragm be-
hind.

The margins of the fternum are thick, and exhibit feven
articular cavities, to which the carti'ages of the true ribs are
articulated. Thefe a'C oblong, and not very fmooth. The
firft, which is fuperficial, and not clearly marked, is im-
mediately below the concavity that lodges the clavicle.
The fucceedirg ones are fiparated by flight concavities cor-
refponding to the intercoftal fpaces, and become nearer and
nearer to each other, in proportion as they are placed
lower.

The fubftance of the bone is almoft entirely cellular, and
its furfaces are covered by a very thin compaft ftratum of
bony texture : hence the (ternum is very light'in proportion
to iis fize. It confilts at firft of ei^ht or nine piec-s, en-
clofed in a niafs of cartilage : thefe are foon reduced to
feven, and then to five ; which number continues for a long
time, the individual portiims bemg (lill feparated by car-
tilaginous ftraia. The firft of thefe pieces is the largert,
and is broader above than below , th-.- two following are
nearly fquare, and very (hort ; the fourth is longer; the laft
includes the enfiform appendix already mentioned. This
divifion no longer exifts in the adult ; the pieces are uni'ed
in the following order. Tlie fecond is confolidated uith the
third, a-id then the Litter with the fourth : the other divi-
fions generally cjntinue through life ; fo that the fternum is
ordinarily delcribed as being compofed of two bones and a
cartilage. The firft bone ends at the fecond rib, which is
artic':lated between it and the fecond bone. The two
pieces are united by a thin layer of cartilage, and their union
is often confolidated by bone. The eufiform cartilage is
connected in the fame w.iy to the end of the fecond bone ;
but after a certain age, it is generally more or lefs of-
fified.

The ribs are bones of irregular figure, placed in fuccef-
fion from above doivnwards, on each fide of the cheft, con-
fiding generally, but not conftantly, of twelve pairs, flat-
tened and rather thin in front, rounded and thicker behind,
and more or lefs arched. They differ in length, breadth,
and direflion. The length, v.hich is incmfiderable in the
firlc, is fuddenly increaled to a very confidcrable degree in
the fecond ; and this augmentation proceeds gradually as
far as the eighth. From this thty again decreafe, fo that
the tv.'elfth is about as long as the firft. The firtt rib is the
broridcft ; the fucceeding ones become narrower, but in an
almoft infenfib'e degive. Each individual rib is narrowell
from its vertebral extremity to the angle: it grows broader
in front of this part, and incrcafes to its ftcriTai end. The
firft rib forms nearly a right angle with the vertebral co-
lumn ; the following are more and more inclined outwards
and downwards. Id that their vertebral are higher than tiieir
cartilaginous extremities. The firft forms a fmall, but
nearly regular femicircle ; the fucceeding ones form lefs
perfeft fegments of circles, which increale i'ucceffively as far
as the eighth, and then decreafe. All are more curved be-
hind

LUNGS.

hind thnn in tlie front : and hence arifcs the deep excavation
on each fide of the cheft, in the former direftion, for lodging
the lungs. They are all twifced on themfelves, fo that the
two extremities cannot rcil at the fame time in an horizontal
plane. The point of twilling is at the angle, coni'equently
the firll, which has no angle, does not exhibit this circum-
Ihmce, which is the more fenfible in proportion as the angle
is more ilrongly marked. The ribs are diftingnilhed into
two clafl'es : the feven fuperior ones, articulated to the fter-
num, are called Inw, or thoracic ; the five inferior, joined
to each other in front by their cartilages, which are not
connefted to the fternum, are named ya^, or abdominal.
Each is divided into a vertebral and a cartilaginous ex-
tremity, and a body.

The vertebral extremity is pofleriorand articulated to the
fpine. It exhibits a rounded itnd contraftcd neck, of about
an inch in length, reiling on the tranlverfe procefs of the
correfpondiiig vertebra. Tliis neck is (lightly expanded at
its pofterior end, to form the head of the rib, which ex-
hibits a cartilaginous furface for articulation with tlie ver-
tebral cohimn. The fuiface is rounded in its outline, fingle
in the firft, eleventh, and twelfth ribs, v.'hich are each arti-
culated to a fingle body of a vertebra, and divided by a
rifing line into two parts in the nine others, which are fe-
verally articulated to hollaws formed between two vertebrsc.
Of thefe two portions the lower is the largeft.

The cartilaginous extremity is elongated from above
downwards, broad and concave in the ten iirft ribs, and
narrower in the two lalt. It is moll clofely joined to the
correfponding cartilages, fo as to appear perfeftly con-
tinuous with it.

The body of the rib may be confidered under four dif-
ferent points of view ; ii/z. the external and internal furfaces,
the fuperior and inferior margins. I. On the outfide it is
convex, and piefents behind a tubercle, marking the ter-
mination of the neck, and divided into two portions : the
inner of thefe is a fmooth cartilaginous furface, nearly cir-
cular in its figure, articulated to the tranfverfe procefs of
the lower of the two dorfal vertebrse, between the bodies of
•which the head is articulated; the external is rough, and
affords attachment to a ftrong ligament. This tubercle is
confounded with the angle in the firll rib, and is deficient
in the two laft. In front of this eminence is the angle, or
part at which the rib, after being continued from the ver-
tebral column obliquely downwards and outwards, turns
forwards : inflead of being angular, as its name implies, this
bend is gentle and i-ounded. It has a prominent oblique
line, not feen in the firft and twelfth, bijt flight in the fecond
and eleventh, and more Ilrongly marked and diftant from
the tubercle, in proportion as the rib is lower down : it gives
attachment to the facro-lumbalis. Between this angle and
the tuberofity there is a furface direfted backwards, oc-
cupied by the longitTimus dorfi, and becoming broader as
■we trace the ribs from above downwards. The reil of the
rib, in front of the angle, forms a nearly fmooth furface,
direifted upwards in the firfl, where v.'e obferve in it two fu-
perficial iinprefnons made by the ccurfe of the fubclavian
arterv and vein, feparated by a furface, in which the fca-
lenus is inferted, and inclined more and more outwards in the
■ fucceeding ribs, in proportion as they are lower. In the
middle of the fecond there is a mark from the attachment of
the ferratus anticus, and on the others analogous iniprc-ffions
from various mufclcs of the cheft and abdomen, as the ob-
Jiquus extemus, pedtoralis minor, furratus anticus, ferrati
poltici, &c.

2. On the inlide the furface is uniformly concave and
fmooth, covered by the pleura, diretted downwards in the

firft, a little inclined in the fame direftion in the fecond, but
completely internal in the remainder.

J. Above, the body of the rib forms an obtufe margin,
which is internal in the firft, inclined upwards in the fecond,
and direftly fuperior in all the others. It affords attach-
ment to the intercoftal mufcles, except in the firft rib.

4. The inferior margin is (harp, particularly near the tu-
bercle, and becomes more obtufe in front. Juft within this
is found the groove of the rib, which is deep at the back
part of the bone, becomes gradually fhallowcr, and is in-
fenfibly loll in the front. It lodges the intercoftal nerves,
but is hardly perceptible in the firft and laft ribs. This
inferior margin affords attachment to the intercoftal mufcles.
Thefe bones are thin in coinpaiifon to their length, and
have confiqiicntly coi fideri-.ble elafticity, which is not ob-
ferved in any 01 her part of the fl<eleto;i. They are com-
pofed moftly of compaft bone, with a little cellular ftruc-
ture in their centre : the latter is more abundant at the
anterior and polterior extremities. They are developed at
an early period in the foetus, and are more perfeft at the
time of birth than any other bones, except thole belonging
to the organ of hearing. They are formed from a fingle
point of olTification, excepting the head, which is not con-
folidated to the body till the formation of the flccleton is
ircarly complete.

Sometimes there are thirteen ribs: the thirteenth may
be either above or below the ordinary feries.

Art'iculalwris of the Chejl — The cheft, formed by bones of
an arched figure, moll of which reft on the fternum by one
end, and by the other on the vertebrx, prefents in front
and behind articulations correfponding to thefe relations.
The joints, feparately confidered, do not admit of much
motion ; but the pettoral cavity, taken altogether, enjoys
an extenfivc power of movement.

The pojlenor ylriuvlations of the Cheji. — The ribs are united
to the vertebrte ; ill, by the articular furfaces of their
heads to the cavities in the bodies of the vertebrx, each of
which cavities is formed in a fingle vertebra for the firft,
eleventh, and twelfth, in the two adjoining bones and their
connefting fibro cartilage, for the other ribs ; 2dly, by
the articular furfaces of their tubercles to the tranfverfe pro-
ceffes of the vertebras, excepting the two laft ribs, which
have not this kind of articulation. The firft has been
called the cofto-vertebral ; the latter the cofto-tranfverfal
articulation.

Tiw cojh-ij.'ricbral]omt%. In each of thefe the union is
effecled by means of an anterior and an inter-articular hga-
ment, and two fm,all fynovial membranes. The anterior
ligament is a broad, thin, flattened, and irregularly quadri-
lateral fibrous fafciculus, attached in front, above and be-
low the articular furface of the head of the rib, diverging
tov.ards the fpine, and fixed by its fuperior fibres to the
body «f the vertebra that forms the upper part of the
correfponding cavity, by its inferior to that which forms
the lower, and by tlie middle to the intermediate fibro-
cartil;ige. The latter are in general Itfs fenfible than the
two former, each of which forms a very diftindl fafciculus.
The difpofition of this ligament is not exactly the fisme
in the firft, eleventh, and twelfth ribs, each of which is ar-
ticulated to a fingle vertebra ; yet the fibres extend a little
on the neighbouring vertebras. It is covered in front by
the great lympatlietic nerve, by the pleura, and on the riglit
fide by the vena azygos : it has a radiated figure, is fhort
and ftrong, compoied of longer fupcrficial and fhorter
deep-feated fibres, and lias fmali vafcular intervals. It is ap-
plied over the joint, for wliich, in ccnjundion with the

middle '

LUNG 3.

middle collo-tranfverfiil iierarr.cnts, it may be eonfidered as
forming a kind of fibrous capfule.

The inter-articular lifjament does not exill in the joints
of the firil, eleventh, and twelfth ribs. It is a more or
lefs thick fibrous fafcicidus, of a flattened figure, fixed on
one fide to the prominent angle of the head of the rib, and
on the other to the correfponding depreffion of the cavity
in which it is received. It feparates the two fynovial mem-
branes from each other, and is continuoiis with the fibro.
cartilaaje, as we may perceive by fawing the joint acrofs, fo
as to divide it into a fuperior and an inferior half.

The fynovial membranes are double in the joints that
pofTefs the ligament lad defcribed ; but in the others there
,is only a fingle one, covering the whole extent of the cor-
refpondmg articular furfaces, and reflefted from the one to
the other. Where there are two, each capfule belongs to
its correfponding upper or lower half of the arti:ulatio:!,
and is feparated from the other by the inter-articular liga-
ment. Thefe membranes are not clearly marked, do not
exhibit the ufual polifh on their furface, contain a remark-
ably fmall quantity of fynovia, and occupy often a very
fmall fpace on account of the great fize of the inter-articular
ligament. The latter is fometimes fo thick, that it may
almoll be doubted, wliether the joint poflefles any fvnovial
membrane ; in other inftances, however, tlicfe membranes
are very dilb'ntl. Although the bones are held together
almoft as clofely as at the anterior articulations between the
cartilages and the fternum, the joint is not fo frequently loil
in the old fubjeil". Yet anchylofis does fometimes occur ;
and this is a charatier dillinguifiiing it from joints where the
membrane is clearly marked, which may be anchylofed
from accident or difcafe, but hardly ever undergoes this
change in the natural progrefs of offification.

The C'l/lo-tran/ivrfa/ ■j.rUtsul^itions are formed by a fmall
fynovial cavity, a pollcrior, a middle, and an inferior collo-
tranfverfal ligament. The latter does not belong to the
tubercle and procefs which are contiguous : but extends
from the procefs to the upper edge of the rib immediately
below. The potterior ligaTi^nt arifes fioni the end of the
procefs, paffes nearly horizontally outwards, and is inferted
into the rough eminence of the tubercle of the rib. Its
fibres are parallel and clofe, form a very diltin£t fafciculus
nearly quadrilateral in its figure, correfpond behind to the
rhufcles contamed in the excavations on the fides of the
fpinous proceffes, and in front to the articulation. The
middle ligament is a coUettion of irregular reddifh fibres,
rather cellular than ftridly ligamentous, placed between the
fr^mt of each tranfverfe procefs, and the correlponding
part of the rib. When we forcibly feparate thefe parts,
we dillinguifli the fibres which are torn by the feparation :
to !ee them entire we fhould faw through the procefs and
rib in their connefted ftate. The inferior ligament is a
diflinft fi«rous fafciculus, compofed of numerous (Irong
and parallel fibres. It arifes from the root of the tranf-
verfe procefs, paffes obliquely to the upper edge of the rib
immediately below, and is inferted near the vertebral ex-
tremity. The fird and the laft ribs do not pofTefs it. It is
covered in front by the intercollal veffels and nerves, be-
hind by the longiffimus dorfi : on the outfide it is continu-
ous, by means of a tiiin aponeurofis, with the intercollal
m'lfcle, and it completes on the infide a fmall cellular fpace
traverfed by the polterior branch of the nerves. Between
this fpace and the vertebral column there is commonly a
fmall fibrous fafciculus, arifing from thebafis of the procefs,
and attached to the articular extremity of the rib below,
where it is united to the upper part of the radiated liga-
ment. The two cartilaginous furfaces, of the tranfverfe
Vol. XXI.

procefs and the tubercle of the rib, are covered by a fmill
fynovial membrane, which is loufcr, contains more fynovia,
and is always more dillinct than that of the preceding y^i.i'.
Hence it never becomes anchylofed by the mere progrefs of
age.

/Inltr'ior jlrticulalions of the Chejl. — Thefe are not formed
by the bony portions of the ribs, but by a feries of cartilages
terminating them : the fevcn fuperior of thefe are joined to
the flernum, while the five inferior, connected to each other,
have no other kind of connection. Thefe cartilages muft,
be defcribed before we fpeak of the articulations. They
are not uniform in their length, breadth, and direction.
That of the firft rib is very (liort ; the fucceeding onei in-
creafe in length as far as the laft of the true ribs. Thofe of
the falfe ribs again become (horter and fliorter, fo that it is
fcarcel) perceptible in the lalL The firft is the Tjroadeft,
and they become narrower as they are placed lower down.
The breadth of the two firft is nearly uniform throughout ;
it diminillies in the others from the coftal towards the oppo-
fite extremity. This diminution, however, is not regular in
the fixth, feventh, and eighth, which are confiderably in-
creafed in breadth, where they are joined to ea;;h other. The
firft cartilage is a little oblique from above downwards ; fo
that tlie angle formed between it and the fternum is acute
above and obtufe below ; the fecond is nearly horizontal,
and follows the fame direction as the rib to which it be-
longs. The following cartilages of the true ribs are more
oblique from below upwards, and more nianifcftly curved
where they arife from the ribs in proportion as they are
lower. At this curvature the ribs and their cartilages take
oppofite direftions : the firft defccnd from the fpine, the
others afcend to the fternum. This curvature is diminiftied a
little in the firft of the falfe ribs, where, however, it is
ftill very confiderable, and decreafes fuccefiivcly to the laft,
in which the cartilage follows the direction of the bone.

The general figure of the cartilages correfponds to that
of the bones to which they are connected. The furface of
the body is rather unequal externally, or on the front,
nightly convex in moft, covered by the peftoralis major
above, by the obliqnus externus and rectus below. The
firft gives attaclnnent to the cofto-clavicular ligament. Be-
hind or on the infide it is flightly concave, and correfponds
in the firft five or fix to the pleura and triangularis fterni,
to the tranfverfus abdominis in the fucceeding ones. Tiie
upper edge is more or lefs concave, and the lower convex :
they afford attachment to the intercoftal mufcies, and form
a continuation of the intercoftal ipaces, which, as well as
the mufcies of the fame name, become narrower in pro-
portion as they are lower. Thofe between the fixth and
ieventh cartilages, and between the latter and the eighth, are
interrupted by imall articulations, formed by the contiguous
cartilaginous furface.'.

Each cartilage has an external or coftal and an internal
extremity, which may be alTo called fternal in the fevcn
firft. The former confifts of a fmall convex and unequal
furface intimately united to the correfponding concavity in
the extremity of the rib. The latter has in the true ribs
a fmall articular furface of a convex figure, adapted to tlie
hollow of the fternum, in which it is received. In the three
firft falfe ribs this extremity is elongated, fituated immedi-
ately under the cartilage above it, and united to it : in the two
laft it is feparated from the cartilage above by a marked
interval.

In refpeft to their ftrufture, the cartilages of the ribs

have a great analogy to thofe of the larynx. Both are

very denfe and compaft, exhibit, at firft view, no marks of

organization, although they poffefs really a peculiar llruc-

.\. K ture,

LUNGS.

ture, are difficultly reduced into gelatine by boiling, and
are remarkable for their tendency u> oHification. Kven in
fubje^s not much advanced in age, . we frequently tind a
bony point in the centre of thefe cartilages : this is the
commencement of olTirication. Thofe of the firll ribs un-
dergo this change mod readily : they are often com-
pletely bony, while the others (lill exhibit their natural tex-
ture. This ofTification is always preceded by a yellowifh
tint, which fuccceds to the white colour that characterizes
the cartilages of the child. When they are converted into
bone, they refemble the ribs in being compaft externally
and ceHular on tlie inlide. In the rib of an old perfon the
cells of the rib and of its cartilage are continuous.

/Inu-iihitions of the CartUage! of the true Ribs. — Each of
thele has a finall, furface at its llernal extremity, received
into a correfpending hollow of the edge of the flernum,
covered by a thin layer of cartilage. The joint poireffes
an anterior and a polterior ligament, and a fynovial mem-
brane. The feventh rib is moreover united by a pecuhar
ligament to the enfiform cartilage. The anterior ligament
is thin and broad, compofed of radiated fibres arifingfrom
the extremity of the cartilage, diverging as they traverfe
the front of the articulation, and expanded on the front of
the flernum, where they are mixed with thofe of the oppo-
lite fide, with the periofteum, and with the fibres of in-
lertion of the peftoralis major, by which this ligament is
covered in front. The fiipcrficial fibres are long : the more
dceply-feated are fhorter, and proceed direftly from the
cartilage to the neighbouring portion of tlie flornum. They
are intermixed, not only with the oppofite fibre?, but alfo
with thofe of the ligament immediately above and below.
From tlie union of all thefe fibres a thick ftratum is formed,
covering and llrengthening the fternum, and more ftrongly
marked below than above. The pofterior ligament differs
from the preceding by being thinner and having its fibres
lefs apparent : in other refpefts they are neaiTy fimilar ;
that is, they proceed in a radiated manner from the car-
tilages to the llernum. The fibrous ftratum on this furface
of the bone Ls as thick as on the other, but it exhibits a
more uniform kind of organization. We do not fee in it
the dece.flation of numerous diftintf fafciciri, but a fmooth
and almod polifhed ftratum, adhering very clofely to the
bone, with many of its fibres not derived from the ligaments
of the ribs, but purfuing rather a longitudinal direftion.
The fynovial membrane is remarkable for its fmall extent,
and for the want of polifti on its furface. If we did not
difcern a fmall quantity of fynovia in the joint, we might be
inclined to doubt the cxiftence of fuch a membrane. In
this refpect it very much refembles that of the cofto-verte-
bral articulation. In general, it is rather more Irofe in
the two or three lower articulations, than in the fuperior
ones. In the adult it certainly does not esift in the firft :
the cartilage is continuous with the bone, which explains
the fmall amount of motion, of which this rib is fufcep-
tible. In the articulation of the fecond rib there is a fmall
inter-articular ligament. A finall elongated and very thin
fibrous faiciculus goes from the lower edgn; of the feventh
rib obliquely downwards and inwards to the front of the
enfiform cartilage, where it forms an angle with the ligament
of the oppofite fide. It is covered by the reftus ab-
dominis.

j4rticulr.t'wtis of the CarttJages of the falfe Ribs. — We have
ftated, that the neighbouring edges of the fixth and feventh,
and of the feventh and eighth cartilages, are articulated by
means of oblong furfaces. Thefe are covered by fynovial
membranes much more apparent, more loofe, and containiH<T
snore fynovia. ;h!nv lUofe wbich are found between the fupe-

rior cartilages and the fternum. Sometimea between the
fifth and fixth, more rarely between the eighth and ninth, a
fimilar articulation, and confequently a liniilar fynovial mem-
brane, are found, which manifeftly refer only to the mobi-
hty of thefe cartilages. To maintain the cartilages of the
falle ribs in tlleir pofitions, feveral ligamentous fibres, hold-
ing them llrongly, particularly in fi'oiit, pafs from the lalt
true to the firft faU'e rib ; from the latter to the fecond, and-
from it to the third. Thefe fibres arc particularly evident
in front of the lynovial membranes which we have mentioned.
Analogous fibres attach the extremity of each of the firft
three falfe cartilages to the lower portion of the cartilage
immediately above it. The only connediun of the two la(s
is by means of the mufcles. Ligamentous fibres alfo pafs be-
tween the cartilages of the fixth and feventh true ribs.

The Chefl confidered in general. — We (hall arrange the de-
fcriptioii of this cavity under the divifions of its external and
internal furface ; fuperior and inferior circumference. The
external furface comprifes four regions ; an anterior or fter-
nal, a poilerior or vertebral, and two lateral or coftal. The
anterior is the narrowcll, more or lefs flattened or projecting
in different fubjetts, and according to the prevalence of
ccrtrnn prediipofitions. In the middle we have the cuta-
neous furface of the llernum, on the fides the cartilages of
the true ribs, and a feries of Imes, which indicate in each
rib the point of its union with the correfponding cartilage.
This feries may be conceived as united into one generaL
line, running obliquely from above downwards and from
wiihin outwards, forming the lateral boundary of the ante-
rior region, which, from this particular difpofition, is much
broader below than above. Between thefe cai-tiiages broad
intervals appear in the firft true ribs, narrower one* in the
laft : they are ftill more narrowed in the firil falle ribs, but
grow brcader again in the two laft of this elafs.

The pofterior region prcfents the row of dorfal fpinous
proceffes ; the correfponding portions of the mufc'ular chan-
nels of the vertebrfe ; the tranlverfe procefies of the dorfal
vertebrae ; their articulations with the tubercles of the ribs ;
a feries of furfaces belonging to the latter, broader in pro-
portion as they are lower, comprehended between the tuber-
cles and the angles, and giving attachment to the longilfimus
dorfi ; and, laftly, a general line running obliquely from above
downwards and within outwards, formed by the feries o€
angles of the ribs. The dillance between the angles and
the tuberofities increafing downwards, determines ihe obli-
quity of the linejufl mentioned, the increafing breadth of the
furfaces which it terrninates, and the form of this region,
which is of confiderable breadth below, and becomes nar-
rower as we trace it upwards. This difpofition is analogous
to that of the anterior region, where the cbliquity of the
lateral lines pi-oduces in the fame manner an inequality of
breadth.

The lateral regions are convex, narrow above, and broader
below, formed by the ribs and the intcrcoilal intervals.
The latter are, in general, difpofed like the bones which
form them, but with fome varieties. 7^hey are fliort, and
broad above; then diminifh lucoeflively in breadth, and in-
creafe in length down to the jundlion of the two clafTes of
ribs ; after which, without growing broader, they again de-
creafe in length to the laft, which is very (hort : all of ihem'
are broader before than behind ; hence the dillance is much
greater between the anterior than the pofterior extremities
of the firft and laft ribs. Thefe fpaces are aU filled by the
intercoftal mufcles.

The internal furface of the cheft, which lodges the prin-

cipal organs of refpiration and circulatHjn, alfo offers four

regions to our obfervation. The anterior entirely refembles

ii that

LUNGS.

^hat of the external furface, and is compofed of the fame
■parts. The poilerior has in the middle a prominence formed
iy the bodies of the dorfal vertebrx, concave from above
downwards, and dividing the chefl into two internal halves.
On each fide of this is a confiderable elongated concavity,
narrow above, broad below, deeper in the middle than in any
other part, and containing the pollerior convexity of the lungs.
The lateral regions are concave ; farmed by the internal
furfaces of the ribs and the intercoftal fpaces. The pleura
lines them, as well as the pofterior hollows and the pec-
toral portion, excepting as much of the latter as corre-
fponds to the mediaftinum.

The fuperior circumference is fmall, in coraparifon with
the inferior, and reprefents an oval placed tranfvcrfely. It
is formed behind by the vertebral column, in front by the
fternum, and on the fides by the firll ribs : the clavicles pro-
jeft a little at their inner ends, fo as to contraft this open-
ing in a flight degree. The trachea, the oefophagus, the
large blood-veffels, which either go from the heart to the
upper parts of the body, or return from the latter to the
Tieart, and feveral important nerves pafs through this open-

The inferior circumference is very large, at lead four
times greater than the former, and differs from it in being
fufceplible of enlargement and contraftion. The fuperior,
•formed by two ribs nearly immoveable, preferves always the
fame capacity, and is, moreover, protefted by a conliderable
thicknefs of parts from the imprelHons of extraneous bodies,
that might tend to contraft it. To the mobility of the in-
ferior circumference are chiefly owing the variations in the
-.dimenfions of the cheft, produced by iiifpiration and exfpira-
tion, by caufes which aft on it from within outwards, and
dilate it, as dropfy, pregnancy, and the various abdo-
minal tumours, or by thofe which affect it in the contrary
■way, and tend to contrail it, as the flays of women. It
ihould be obferved, at the fame time, that the vifcera placed
at this circumference can accommodate themfclves to thefe
varied dimenfions : while thofe which pafs through the fupe-
rior aperture, particularly the. trachea, would be affefted
very dangeroudy by any contraction of its fides. In this
inferior circumference there is a large notch in front, of a
triangular figure, with the bafis do^A'Uwards, the fides of
■\vliich are formed by the edges of the cartilages of the falfe
ribs : in the apex of the triangle the enfiform cartilage pro-
j-cfs. On each fide of this notch there is a convex edge,
formed by the cartilages of the falfe ribs. Behind thefe
convexities there is a fmall notch on each fide, formed by
t!\e inclination of the laft rib, with refpeft to the vertebral
column. Several of the abdominal inulcles are attached
to all parts cf this circumference.

Developement cf the Chejl. — The heart and the thymus,
which are fituatcd on the median li le of the chefl, in the
fcEtus, and are of very confiderable fize, require a propor-
tional extent in the antero-pofterior diameters, which then
predominate, while the tranfverfe are comparatively fmall,
on account of the imperfeft condition of the lungs. The
Uernum, feparated by a wide interval from the fpine, makes
3 confiderable prominence in front, fo that a large fpace is
left for the heart and thymus. The pollerior foffte, at the
fides of the vertebral column, are fmall, as the ribs are not
much curved at this part : hence the prominences behind,
formed at the fides of the fpine by the curves of the rib'3,
are not fenfible at this time. The cheft is particularly nar-
row in ihis direction at the angles of the ribs. The want
of this pollerior curvature is the principal caufe of the aug-
mentation of the antero-pofterior diameters. In fad, the
ribs are nearly as long, proportionally, at this time as after-

wards; but they fwell lefs behind and at the fides, are
thrown more forwards, and, confcquently, carry the fternum
in that direftion. Thefe curves arc formed in the progrefs
of age ; the pofterior fofta: of the chefl are, confequently,
devt loped, and the fternum comes nearer to the fpine. The
tranfverfe diameters arc noiv increafed ; but the general
capacity of the cheft is not much augmented in proportion to
o'liier parts, as it lofes in one direttion what it gains in the
other, and its differences in the ftetus, and in the fubfequent
times, are referrible to the different relations of its dianrieters.
Thefe changes affedt the fuperior and inferior circuraferences.
The former is more capacious from before backv.'ards, but
lefs from fide to fide : the latter is very wide between the
enfiform cartilage and the fpine ; it is one-third wider here
than in the adult, in proportion. The tranfverfe diameteri
are lefs contradled here than in the reft; of the cheft ; fo that
the inferior circumference altogether is remarkable for its
great capacity in the fcetus, a difpofition which is accom-
modated to the very marked volume of the gaftric vifccra>
and particularly of the liver, which it includes.

The different bones of the cheft are not developed in an
uniform proportion. The ribs are almofl entirely offificd at
the time of birth : they are more approximated, particularly
below, probablv from the great fize of the liver. The perfec-
tion in the oftification of the ribs may be explained from the
nature of the fun£lion in which thev are employed. Re-
fpiration commences at the moment of birth, and requires in
its organs as great a degree of perfeftion as is necefl'ary at*
any fubfequent age : the newly born child refpires at once
as it will refpire always. The organs cf locomotion, on the
contrary, go through a kind of education, advance very
flowly to perfeftion, and are, confequently, flowly deve-
loped.

The fternum, which is lefs direftly concerned in refpir^
tiofi, but concurs more immediately in giving folidity to the
chefl, is not fo much advanced as the ribs : on the contrary,
it is almoft entirely cartilaginous.

The contents of the thorax undergo a great change at the
time of birth : the lungs, hitherto contraftcd, are diftended
by the admiffion of air to a much greater volume than they
poffeffed before ; and that part of the cheft which contains,
them muft be proportionally increafed.

Towards the period of puberty, although no remarkable
change occurs in the ordinary feries of phenomena connefted
with the growth and progrefs of the bones, yet the form of
the cheft feems to acquire its fixed charafter. It either af-
fumes that lateral expanfion, and happy conformation which
indicate a vigorous conftitution, or the fternum projefts is
front, and gives the alarming prefage of a difpofition to
phthifis. At this time the cartilages become more denfe,
and the ligaments ftiffer. The motions of the ribs are more
confined. Hitherto they have been the chief agents in refpir-
ation : but in future the diaphragm is more excited. The
different pieces of the fternum are joined ; the ribs receive
more earthy matter, and become more brittle. At a later
period the cartilages begin to be converted into bone at
their centres, and oftification goes on until they are made
completely bo:iy. The twilling of the cartilages, which
we ftiall mention prefently, is now impoflible, and the upper
part of the cheft no longer admits of motion in its individual
parts. Hence in the old fubjeft relpiration is efiefted chiefly
by the diaphragm.

Mechanifm of the ChcJl. — This part of the trunk has two

principal ufes to fulfil : it protefts the included organs by

itt folidity or power of refillance ; and it concurs by its mo-

biUty in the various funftions of thefe organs, particularly of

4 K 2 th*

LUNGS.

the lungs. We have to confider it under this double point of
■view.

The refiftance of the cheft to the aftion of external force
IS dificrent on its anterior, poftcrior, and lateral afpefts.
I. The thick mufclcs placed behind annihilate the efkdls of
falls and blows on that part. Two prominences formed by
thefe mufcles, and feparated by a groove correfponding to
the fpinous proccffes, occupy the pl;:ce of tlie two longitu-
dinal chaimels obfcrvcd in the fl^elcton : thcfe fupport the
cffedts of blows. The provilions for protection in this htu-
ation, refer to the fpinal marrow as nuich as to the peftoral
viicera. 2. In front, where the mufcles are fewer, the
modeof relillance variosin infpiration ;ind exfpiration. When
the chell is ftrongly dilated, the llcrnum fupports any
effort directed againll it in the manner of an arcli, and more
tfiicacioully in proportion as the infpiration is ifronger. In
this way. individuals lying on tlieir backs lupport enorrrous
■weights on the front of the chell : e g.s blackfmith's anvil, on
■which a horfe-flioehrisat the fame time bei-n hammered. Here,
however, the mechanifm is not the fame as that by which the
cranium tupports a wt:ie;ht bearing on it perpendicularly : in
that cafe the bony arch alone is concerned, the mufcles have
nothing to do with the phenomenon. In the cheft, on the
contrary, the e.xternal mufcles, particularly the lerratus an-
ticus, draw the ribs llrongly outward":, and relift their de-
prcflton : they arc the active fupports of the bony arch re-
prefented by the cheft. If the force be fuperior to the re-
fiftance, fratlure cnfucs : this may either be dire£t, and
affett the flernum, which is rare ; or it may take place by
contrecoiip at the part which has experienced the greatelt
effort, as in the middle of the ribs, Thefe obfervations nia-
nifelUy applv to the true ribs only. Fraftnres by contre-
coup may alfo take place from fudden blows, where the
mufcles have no time to contradt and fupport the ribs, and
the latter are confeqnently left to the full operation of the
force. In exfpiration the cheft eludes the force by yielding :
the ribs are prefied inwards, and the vifcera are in lome de-
gree comprefted. This yielding ia much more manifcit in
the lower ribs. 3. The cfFe6ts of blows, or violence of
other kindb, affcdting the fides of the cheft, are obviated in
nearly the fame manner, whether in infpiration or exfpira-
tion. The arch rcprefented by the rib has its points of
fupport in the llcrnum and the vertebral column : the bone
may be direftly fraftured at the point where the violence is
oifered, which is the moft common cafe, or by coritrecoup,
which is more rare. The ftrength of the ligaments at the
anterior and pofterior- articulations is fo confiderable, and
the fupport adorded by the tranfverfe" proccfies fo firm,
that luxations cannot take place while the joints are in a
healthy ftate. The laft ribs, which terminate loofely in the
abdominal parietes, cannot be faid to offer any reiiftance to
the force which is applied to them : they yield towards the
abdomen. The firft and fecond ribs are fo covered by
external parts, that they can hardly be afFefted by blows or
other kinds of force.

The motions of the cheft are direfted to two principal
objefts ; its dilatation and contraction, which correfpond to
infpiration and exfpiration. It may be dilated in tliree diiferent
directions ; perpendicularly, tranlverfely, and from before
backw,;rds. i. The diaphragm alone is the agent of per-
pendicular dilatation, and produces alone in the adult thofe
flight infpirations, in which but little air enters the cheft. Its
fleihy iides, which correfpond to the lungs, defcend much
more than the tendinous centre, which fupports the heart.
(See Diaphragm.) 2. In the next or greater degree of in-
spiration the cheft is firft dilated perpendicularly, and then
tranfverfely by the iatercoilal mufcles. (See Intekcos-

TAi.r.s. ) Befides the caufes mentioned in that article for the
little power of motion in the firft rib, we may notice the
inconllderahle length and great breadth of its cartilage, and its
confolidation with the fternum, inftcad of bein;^ joined by
a moveable articuhition. The remarkable ftiortiiefsandbreadtlj
of the rib itfelf alfo concur m producing the fame cfleft.
In conicquence of the oblique pofition of the ribs, they
cannot be elevated without having their middle carried out-
wards, which produces a tranlverfe enlargement of the
cheft ; moreover, this elevation twifts the cartilages, which
throws the ribs ilill more outwards. 3. In the preceding
motion the ribs are carried a little forwards, and as this effedl
takes place in a greater degree below, where the ribs are
longeft, the fternum is carried forwards at its lower extre-
mity, tlie upper remaining nearly motiotdefs ; and the
cheft is confequently enlarged from before backwards. This
motion, however, is very Imali in an.ount, as we may afcertain
by obferving the refpiration of a lean individual ; it is
infignificant in companion to tlie motion by which the ribs
are carried outwards. As the llerHum correfponds to the
heart, while the ribs furround the lungs, erilar'.rement is
lefs needed in the former than the latter diredlion.

Thecontraflion of the cheft, correfponding to exfpiration,
is effected by a mechanifm exaftly oppollte to that which
we have jull explained. It takes place from below upwards
by the elevation of the diaphragm. In the tranfverfe
direftion it is effeftcd by the denreffion of the ribs, which
are carried inwards by the twilled cartilages recovering their
original ftate. The elevation of the bone in infpiration pro-
duces a tvtifting of the cartilage ; and in exfpiration the re-
covery of the latter depreffes the former; fo that the bone
and the cartilage reciprocally determine motion in each other.
The effedt of this twifting of the cartilages muft not, how-
ever, be over-rated : in order to make it contiderable, they
ought to be confolidated to the ilernuin, whereas their arti-
culation to that bone allows a certain degree of motion.
The greater this motion, the lefs will be the tvi illlng ; and it
would not cxift at all if the articulation were loofe enough
to allow full fcope to the elevation of the rib. It cannot
have any effeft in the falfe ribs. In proportion as the ribs
defcend and are carried inwards, the fteniuin is alfo reftored,
its inferior portion pafTing backwards.

All thefe movements, whether of dilatation or contrac-
tion, are much more fenfible at th.e lower part of the cheft, in
confcquence of the iilore extenllve motion enjoyed in this
part ; a circumftance that coincides with the greater breadth
of the inferior portion of the lungs.

We have to point out, in the next place, the powers by
which thefe motions of the cheft areeffedtcd. We may dif-
tinguifh two kinds of changes taking place in the cheft ; an
enlargement and fubfeqiient contra'^tion in the perpendicular
direction, and another acting circularly. The diaphragm
is the iole agent of the perpendicular enlargement ; and as
it extrends the cheft downwards, where the cavity is moll
arnple, it produces a very confiderable dilatation. (See
Di.'\PllRAGM.) This niufcie can defcend three inches, or
more, and has four or five times as much effect in the en-
largement of the cheft, as all the other powers put together.
Hence injuries or difeafes of it produce the greateft diftur-
bance in the fundtion of reipiration. The perpendicular
contradlion is cfFedtcd by the abdominal mulcles ; that is,
by the obliqui externi and interni abdominis, the tranfverfi
and redli. Thefe, which form the fides and front of the
abdominal parietes, yield to the vifcera thruft downwards by
the defcent of the diaphragm : hence an elevation of the
belly is perceptible on infpiration. They then contradl, pufti
backwards and upwards the parts which had before defcendcd,
6 rellore

LUNGS.

redore the diaplira^m to its former (late, and confeqiieiitly
diminilhthe capacity of the cheft.

The enlarfreinont of the tliorax in the circular direftion is
ordinarily effffted by the intercoftiil miifcles, fee Inter-
tosTALKs) : and tlie fubftquent contntftion is owing partly
to the reftoration of the ribs by the elallic power of their
cartilages, and partly totheaftion of the triangularis fterni.
But other powers affift occafionally, when the circulation
.ind confequentlv the breathing are iuirried ; or when dif-
■afe of the chc-it caufes this function to be performed labo-
noufly. Under fuch circumftances, every mufcleis brought
into aftion that can alFifl in elevating the fternum or ribs, or
in fixing the upper pairs of thefe bones. Hence the fcaleni,
fterno-cleido-malloidei, fubclavii, cervicales dofccndentes,
levatores coftarum, ferrati niagni, ferrati pollici fuperiorts,
l.itiflimi dorii, peftorales majores & minores, and trapi'zii, are
all employed. The flioulders are elevated, the neck is
itretched, and the head itfelf thrown backwards in the moft
violent efforts of difficnlt exfpira"ion. There are alfo auxi-
liary powers occafionally employed in exfpiration, but thefe
are not fo numerous as thofe concerned m infpiration. The
ribs may be depreffed, not only by the tnangularis Iterni,
but alfo by the obliqui, refti and tranfverfi alulominis, the
quadrali lumborum, longifllmi dorfi, facro-lumbaiis, and fer-
rati poftici infericres.

In the healthy fubjccl the enlargement and contraftion of
the cheft conftantly fticceed each other, and are performed in
a regular alternate manner. The diaphragm and abdominal
mufcles feem to be chiefly employed ; but the intercoftal
rnufcles alfo aflift. In the female the latterpowers are more
concerned in refpiration than in the male.

Although both modes of refpiration are obfcrved to con-
cur in this fundlion in the natural itate, it may be and often
is carried on fey one exclufivcly. When a rib is broken, or the
pleura inflamed, motion of the chefl is exceedingly painful,
and the diaphragm and abdomnial mufcles carry on the
funftions alone. On the contrary, in inflammation of the
peritoneum, in the laft periods of pregnancy, in large
dropfical accuniulations, the abdominal mufcles and dia-
phragm cannot aft, and the intercoilals only are then
concerned.

In ordinary refpiration, enlargement and contraftion of
the cheft, or infpiration and exfpiration, are performed in re-
gidar alternate fucceffion : but this order is often interrupted,
and various modifications of the procefs take place, dillin-
guithed by particular names.

In Jlrdining, the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles aft to-
gether ; a deep infpirati-.in is firll made, and the diaphragm
defce:'ds confiderably ; the abdominal niufcies then contraft,
but do not expe.l air from the cheft, as they are refilled by
the former power. The aft of ftraining takes place in all
powerful exertions of the body : by it the trunk is fixed, and
affords a firm point from which the limbs may be moftadvan-
tageoufly moved. The ereftors of the fpine at the fame time
extend that part, and firmly maintain it in that pofition,
Thus all the power of the mufcles moving the limbs is em-
ployed in jumping', dragging, pulliing, moving a weight,
&c.; and none is loft in moving the thorax or pelvis towards
the limbs, which would be the cafe if thofe parts of the
trunk were not previoufly fixed. So long as the effort lafts,
it is obvious that refpiration muft be interrupted ; hence it is
called, in common lan^^ruage, holding the breath : and when
it is too long continued, all the inconveniences arifing from
fuch interruption take place.

The powerful aftion of the diaphragm and abdominal
mufcles fubjects the contents of the abdomen to prefTure : it
impels them and whatever they may contain towards the cavity

of the pelvis, and muft alfo comprefs the blood-vcffels and alr»
forbents. Hence this effort is employed in expelling the con-
tents of the ftomach in vomiting, in evacuating the reftum and
urinary bladder, and in parturition ; it is fo effential in all
thefe cafes, that the different objcfts juft mentioned could net-
be accomplifhed without it. Of the amount of the force
exerted we may form fomc cftimate, when we fee the effefts
occafionally produced by fuch efforts ; — the contents of the
abdomen are protruded and form ruptures, the vifcera are
torn, and the tend )ns of the abdominal mufcl.'S lacerated.

Whether the palfage of bile through its dufts, or of cal-
culi through the fame tubes or the ureters be facilitated by
ftraining, is a doubtful point.

In panting there are fliort and frequent infpirations, fuc-
cecded by Ihort and quick exfpirations. It is accompanied
wiih great anxiety, and is attended with, or caufed by, a
more rapid return of bl^od to the lungs ; hence it heats and
fatigues. It is produced by violent motion of the body, in
wounds of the cheft, in difeafes of the refpiratory organs,
and ofen in the Itruggle preceding death.

A long and deep mfpiration, followed by an exfpiration of
the f^ime kind, conllitutcs ajigli. It feems to be an effort at
promoting the pafTage of the blood through the lungs ; and
has been faid to be employed when the aftion of the heart is
languid, when it is oppreffed by the quantity of the blood,
or when obftacles exift to its paffage through the lungs.
Sit-'hing takes pUce under mental afHiftion or coiii'dcrable
buddy fatigue : we generally recover from a ftate of fyncope
by a figh, and afthmatic pcrfons frequently figh.

In ya-wn'mg there is a ftill larger infpiration than in
fighi'-.g, performed in a very flow and protrafted manner,
and accompanied by a fimilar correfpuuding exfpiration. In
both a peculiar found is ufually pruduced. The mouth is
opened widely, indeed to the utmoft extent that the arti-
culation of the lower jaw will allow. Yawning is often
ended by a llgh. That it is produced by bodily fatigue,
obfer^ed moft fr quently on the approach of deep and on
waking, and takes place alf> when h''ngcr is troublcfome ;
alfo that newly born ciiildren yawn in their firft attempts at
refpiration, are well known fafts , but we cannot explain
how this happens. Soemmerring fays, " that the circulation
of the blood tlirough the lungs goes on more flowly Ijefore
yawning ; and that we endeavour to obviate by a flrong in-
fpiration, which may promote the circulation through the
lungs, the fenfe of weight, inconvenience, and fleepmcfs
that would arife from this caufe." De Corporis humani Fa-
brica, t. vi. p. 82.

Coughing is an effort of the refpiratory organs, generally ■
made for tlie purpofe of removing from the trachea or its ^
branches fome irritating matter, as mucus, pus, or any
foreign body, through the means of powerful exlpiraticns,
preceded by fimilar infpirations. Yet the prefence of a
ftimuluS in the fituation juft mentioned is not neceffary,
ahhough it is the moft frequent caufe : irritation of the dia-
phragm, as from difeafed liver, or an aftion of the will, can
produce coughing. A lar^;e quantity of air furnilhed by a
confider.ible infpiration, is violently and luddenly expelled,
with a confiderable noifc, by a very llrong and almoil con-
vulfive exfpiration, and in its paliage clears away mucus, or
any thing elfe which may happen to be in the air paffages.
Tlie air may be driven out at once or at leveral exfpirations:
in the latter cafe tie exfpirations are continued often as long
as any air can be expelled, and the emptied chelt is again
fupplied by an infpiration accompanied with a peculiar
noile, as in the hooping cough. Violent a^id protrafted
coughing from the interruption of the refpiratory pheno- .
xneiia, io accompanied with turgefcer.ee and livid colour of

the

LUNGS.

•tlie parts about tlie head, and with a fenfc of fufFocatioir:
'when continued tor along time it caufes hcad-achc, loreiiefs
of the chell, &c.

Snet'z-ing is an aftion fimilar in its nature, but more vio-
lent in degree than coughing ; and it has a different caufe,
■viz. irritation of the nnembrane lining the nofc. A (liort
but generally full infpiration is followed by a mofl vehement
exfpiration, (baking almoll: the whole body. The expelled
air, which in coughing patfes through the mouth, is directed
in fneezing, through the nofe, for the purpofe of removing
the irritating caufe. Any extraneous bodies brought into
■coiitaft witli the pituitary membrane, as inllruments or irri-
tating powders, fuch as fnuff, &c. or its own mucous fecre-
tion, and in fome individuals fudden expofure to Itrong and
dazzling light, will produce fneezing. Although it is an
involuntary cflbrt, it may be in fome degree increafed or
diminiflied by the will. It is a fmgular fatt, that preffure
about the bridge of the nofe, applied when the inclination is
felt, will generally prevent it.

How far the following obfervation of Soemmering tends
to elucidate the manner in which llimuli applii'd to the pitui-
tary membrane aft on the rcfpiratory mufcles, in exciting
this convulfive motion of them, is left to the judgment of
the reader. " Sneezing ariles from fome rc-action of the
■fcrain, when irritated, through the medium of the nafal
nerves, i. e. the olfactory and filth pair?, upon the phrenic
nerve ; and that it mud be produced in this way is proved
by the fa£l, that the phrenic and thefe nerves have no con-
nection out of the head." De Corporis humani Fabrica,
t. vi. p. 84.

In laughing, a full infpiration is followed by frequent, im-
perfect, and as it were broken exfpirations, by which the
chcll is not completely emptied. As rcfpiration is hurried
beyond its natural rate in this aft, the circulation is rather
quickened ; and from the convulfive kind of aftion in which
it confifts, a general agitation muft be imparted to the ab-
dominal contents. In many individuals, a very obvious
fnaking of the cheft and abdomen accompanies laughter,
particularly when violent, lo as to have become matter of
very common obfervation : hence the forenefs experienced
from its long continuance. The features are at the fame
time affefled in a peculiar manner. In fome individuals the
latter circumftance is chiefly obferved. The flighter cafes
of laughter, which are rather called faiihng, confift merely
of this change of features ; but when it goes further, the
diaphragm and abdominal mufcles are brought into aCtion.
A confiderable prcduftion of found takes place at the fame
^time, reprefenting in men chiefly the vnwe's a and 0 ; in
women c and i. The moutli and its neighboinnng parts are
principally aflfeftcd in the face ; the corners are drawn up-
wards and outwards, fo as in many cafes to expofe the
teeth ; the cheek is fwelled, and the general elevation of
the integuments raifes the loner eye-lid, fo as to contraft
the aperture between the two lids. As the interruption in
the regular performance of refpiration produces turgefcence
about the beid in violent and long continued laughter, the
lacrymal fecretion is augoiented, and a copious flow of tears
often enfues.

The catifes of lau'ghter are partly moral and partly phyfi-
cal ; with the former we h:ive nothing to do in this article,
except to obferve that laughing and weeping feem quite
peculiar to the human fubjec^. Gentle friftion and preffure
of various parts of the body, as the fules of the feet,^the
axillx, hypochondria, &c. commonly called tickUng, are
the chief of the latter kind.

Involuntary laughter is a fvmptom of fame difeafes, as
Jiyiteria ; and the ancients- were of opinioa that injuries of

the diaphragm produced it : in this cafe they called it rifuj
fardonicu?. Modern obfcrvations do not confirm this faft.
IVceping begins with a deep infpiration, which is followed
by fliort, interrupted exfpirations, at longer intervals from
each other than in laughing : thefe often ihake the thorax
and abdomen, and even the head. They are finiflied at lall
by a (Irong exfpiration, followed by another infpiration or a
figh. This, like laughing, is generally produced by certain
mental aftcftions ; but in fome inllances it owes its origin
to phyfical caufes, as bodily pain ; and difeaies, as hyftcria,
hypochondriafis, &c. Children generally cry immediately
on their birth. The features are confiderably affefted in
weeping ; the eye-lids are contraftcd, and the fore-head
wrinkled : the mouth has its corners drawn downwards.

Hiccough is fometimes afibcialed with weeping. It con-
fills of a full, violent, fonorous, and Ihort, or fometimes
even convulfive involuntary infpiration through a contracted
glottis. Some confider that the epiglottis is concerned in
producing the peculiar found of hiccough, and that this
organ is Itruck by the air as it forcibly enters the larynx.
The diaphragm appears to be the part principally concerned
in this convulfive infpiration. Sometimes an expulfion of
air from the (lomach through the oefophagus is joined with
hiccough. Two, three, or more natural infpirations and
exfpirations take place in the interval between tivo hiccoughs.
It may be occafionally prevented by depreflTing the dia-
phragm, and thus holding the breath ; or by iwallowing
fomething fiowly.

There are many caufes exciting it. The nearnefs of the
ilomach to the diaphragm occafions the latter to be often
affefted by particular ilates of the former organ. Eating
cr drinkingr too much, or unwholefome articles, is a frequent
fource of the complaint. Wounds or difeafes of the (to.
mach, or of the diaphragm, may produce it ; as alfo various
general difeafes of the frame, in which it often appears as
the precurfor of death.

Infpiration is immediately concerned in the aft oi fueling.
The lips are clofely applied round an objeft, e.g. thofe of
the child to th.e mother's nipple. The air" contained in the
mouth is then more or lefs completely exhaufted by infpira-
tion, and the preffure of the furrounding air forces into
this more or lefs complete vacuum the contents of the lafti-
ferous tubes. When a liquid is lucked through a tube into
the mouth, the vacuum is formed in that tube, which is
embraced by the lips, and the air, preiTing on the furface of
the liquor, forces it up the tube into the mouth. If the lips
are direCtly immerfed in the fluid, a vacuum is formed, and
the fluid rifes into it exaftly in the fame way. The aft of
drlnh'-ng is effefted on the fame principles.

Dejcription of the Pleura and Mediajlinum. — The pleura is
a thin tranfparent ferous membrane, lining the cavity of the
thorax, and reflefted over the contained hings. Each of
the latter organs is eticlofed in a particular bag of its own,
which bears the fame relation to the lung, as the pericar-
dium d()(« to the heart ; furrounding it like a loofe bag or
(liealh, and immediately invefting its furface : hence we na-
turally diflinguilh two parts of this membrane, viz. the
lining of the chell (pleura coflalis), and the external co-
veri/ig of the lung (pleura pu'monalis.)

As there are two lungs, there niuft alfo be two pleura?,
a right and a left. We may form a notion of them by
conceiving two membranous bags, forming entire and im-
perforated cavities, placed laterally with refpeft to each
other, and forming, by their appofition, a partition dividing
the chefl; into a right and a left fide, and containing in its
fubftance feveral of the orgai-.s belonging to this cavity.
That the two membranous bags are perfeftly dillinft, lo

that

LUNGS.

tnat notliing can pafs from one to the otlitr, h rendered
obvious ; lit, by anatomical examinations, in which they may
be feparated without any injury ; 2dly, by experiments on
dead bodies, in which fluids may be thrown into one pleura
without palling into the other; and jdly, by obfervations on
difcafcd fubjefts, in which water, pus, &c. are often con-
tained for long periods in one plei;ra only.

In order to underftand the relations of the pleura to the
lungs and to the other thoracic organs, let us defcribe it as
if it began behind the fternum. From this part it extends
outwards, covering the ribs, their cartilages, and the internal
intercoftal mufc'es, confequcntly lining the fides of the cheft.
At the heads of the ribs it covers the ganglia of the great
fympathetic nerve, and their branches. When it has reached
the back of the cavity, and the vertebral column, indead of
pafling in front of that column, -it is continued from be-
hind forwards, on the fide of the aorta and the ccfophagus,
In front of which it is applied againll the membrane of
the oppofite fide, to form the potlerior part of the medi-
aftinum. It would be continued in this way from the fpine
to the fternum through the whole length of the chelt, if it
did not meet with the fafciculus of velTels entering the root
of the lung ; it is reflefled over thefe, and over ihe ferface
of the lung, to the fubftance of which it is clofely con-
nefted, forming its exterior covering. At the front of the
root of ths lung it covers the anterior furface of thefe
vetfels : th;n is continued from behind forwards on the fide
of the pericardium. It is then applied to the bag of the
oppofite fide, to form the front of the medialliiuim, and,
laftly, terminates on the back of the fternum, where we
fuppofed it to begin. Below it extends over the whole fu-
perior furface of the diaphragm.

Thus it appears that the figure of the pleurae is com-
pletely determined by that of the cavity which the ti-.em-
branes line. Each of thefe bags is conical : it rifes into
an obtufe point within the fpace included by the firft rib ;
on the anterior, outer, and pofterior afpefts it is convex,
where it lines the ribs and intercoftal mufcles ; below it is
concave and expanded over the diaphragm ; and on the in-
fide, where it contributes to the mediaftir.um, nearly plane,
but (lightly concave in the fituation of the heart. Some
anatomifts diftinguifli in the pleura three portions, according
to the parts of the cheft wiiich they cover : -viz. the coftal,
the diaphragmatic, and the mediaftinal.

The pleurae adhere with different degrees of firmnefs to
the parts which they line. The medium of this connection
is a cellular tifluej continuous below with tJiat of the ab-
dominal parieles, alcove with that of the neck and upper
extremities, and in all directions with that which fills the in-
terftices of the muLles forming the fides of the cavity.
In the neighbourhood of the vertebra:, and in fome parts of
the mediaftinum, this tifTue is copious, and often contains
fat : the adhefion is elofer to the ribs and intercollal muf-
fcles, and moft firm to the diaphragm.

The relative fituation of the two bags varies at different
parts of the cheft, as different organs are interpofe.l be-
tween them. Towards the upper and anterior part, imme-
diately under their obtufe points, behind the arteries coming
from the arch of the aorta, and above the pericardium,
they are contiguous and feparated only hy cellular texture.
In the middle and lower part of the chell, they are widely
feparated by the intervention of the heart, pericardium,
large blood-veffels, &c. Hence the axis of the cavity muft
pals from above obliquely downwards and outwards.

The ri^ht and left do not precifely correfpond to each
other. The former, on account of the oblique pofition of
the heart, lines nearly the whole pofterior furface of the

fternum : hence it is broader than tlie left ; but it is at the
fame time ftiorter, becaufe the diaphragm is more ftrongly
arched on this fide. The left is applied, for the fpace of
fome inches, to the aorta.

The capacity of the two pleura: taken together is about
one hundred cubic inches in the dead body. It is generally
larger in the male than in the female fcx ; and is very dif-
proportionately fmall before birth. The right exceeds the
left in the fame proportion as the right is larger than the
left lung.

The meillajllnum is the partition which feparates the two
bags of the pleurx, and divides the cheft into a right and a
left fide. It is formed by the appofition of the two mem-
branous facs, and extends from the vertebral column to ihe
fternum and cartilages of the left ribs. We defcribe in it
tv,o lateral furfaces, a pofterior and an aniericr edge, a
bafis and an apex. The lateral furfaces are fmooth, and
contiguous to the internal furfaces of the lungs, except
where tiie pulmonary velTels enter thofe organs : they form
the inner portions of the two bags of the pleun. The
pofterior edge is attached to the fpine, of which it exadUy
follows the dircftion. The anterior is fixed in an oblique
line to the fternum above, and to its edge and the cartilages
of the left ribs below. Hence, if we thruft 5^ pointed in-
ftrument through the middle of that bone, it will penetrate
the right pleura, and not touch *he mediaflinum. The ob-
lique pofition of tlie heart fecms to carry with it, as a con-
fequence, this obliquity of the mediaftinrm. Yet this
difpofition does not hold univcrfally : in fome fubjects the
mediaftinum defcends along the middle of the fternum : in
others, which indeed are very rare, it is inclined from left
to right, fo that the right fide of the cheft is narrower
than the left. Sometimes the right layer of the mediaftinum
is fixed to the middle of the fternum, while the left is at-
tached at the articulations of the cartilages. The bafis of
the mediaftinum correfponds to the fuperior furface of the
diaphragm, and prefents a wide feparation of the pleura:,
lodging the heart and pericardium. The apex correfponds
to the upper end of the cheft ; it enclofes the trachea,
the ccfophagus, and the veffels and nerves which are entering
into or going out of the cheft.

The .Tiediaftinura is formed by the two pleurae, which, in-
ftead of coming into contaft with each other, leave a con-
fiderable interval between them filled by various organs.
Above and in front, they lodge the thym.us ; below and in
front, the heart v.ith its pericardium, and the largs veffels
conne&ed to its bafis ; behind, the ccfophagus and aorta.
The two laniinE of the mediaftinum touch each otlier only
in front of the pericardium, between the lower end of the
thymus and the diaphragm, and behind that membrane, in
front of the cefophagus, from the firft dorfal vertebra to
the cardiac orifice of tlie, diaphragm. The latter circura-
ftance has occafioned a divifion of the mediaftinum into atj
anterior and a pofterior part ; the firft includes all that is
placed in front of the ccfoph.^gus, the latter all behind it.
Thefe divifions are often called anterior and pofterior, or
fternal and dorfal mediaftina. The former is the broadcil
and ftiorteft of the two ; it ends about the fifth or fixth
rib ; while the latter extends to the eleventh.

In.the anterior mediaftinum, or triangular fpace placed
behind the fternum and cartilages of the left ribs, befides
fome fat and cellular fubftance, and fome abforbing glands,
we have the thymus, the trunks of the internal mammary
arteries, and the heart. In the pofterior mediaftinum, or
interval of the pleurs immediately in front of the verte-
bra:, are found, in addition to fome adipcus and cellular
texture, aj'.d feverai abforbing glands, tlie end of the trachea

■with

LUNG S.

-t'.-ith the commencement of the bronchi, the greatcft part
of the cefopliagus, with the nerves of the eighth pair, the
pulmonary ariery and veins, the defcending aorta, the tho-
racic dufl, and the vena azygos.

When the flernum is rsiftl, in order to expofe the con-
' tents of the thorax, the fpace feparating the two plonrs be-
.hind tliat bone, and forming the anterior mcdiaftitiuiti, is
increafed, becaiife the membranes are partly detached from
the tlernum and ribs, to which they before adhered. Tlie
cellular fubllance occupyinji; the interval becomes tilled with
•air, and is confequenily rendered more fcnfible.

The lamina; compoling the mediatlinum are rather tliinner
than the pleurx in other fituations. They are united to
each other, and to the parts included between them, by a
cellular tilTue continuous with that of the general external
furface of thefe bags. This tidue, as well as that con-
nefting the different parts together, is tolerably copious,
-and contains more or lefs fat. It is fufceptible of iiifiam-
malion and fuppuratio", as in other parts of the body ; but
•lefs frequently. Hence abfccffes fometimes occur here. The
laminae of the mediaftinum arc, however, more clc-fely at-
tached to the furface of the pericardium ; it is diflicu't
to feparate the two membranes completely. The right
lamina is more tenfe than the left ; a conliderable protu-
berance is obferved in the latter, and formed by the fitua-
tion of the heart : hence the former only, if either, can have
any effeil in fupporting the diaphragm.

The mediadinum receives its peculiar blood-veffels. In
front its arteries come trom the internal mammary, and
the comes nervi phrenici ; behind, from the inferior thy-
roid, the fiiperior intercoltal, the pericardiac, ocfophageal,
and bronchial arteries. The veins correfpond to, and accom-
pany thefe.

The media;1inum divides the thcil into two lateral halves;
feparatcs the membranous bags containing the lungs, and
renders their aftion independent of each other. It con-
fines alfo to one fide various morbid afFcclions, as effu-
ilons of blood, pus, Sec. Some phyfiologills conceive that
it is further ulctul, by fupporting the weight of the oppo-
fite lung, when we lie on the one fide, and protecting there-
fore the lung of the fame fide on which we lie.

The pleura is nearly tranfparent, fo that we can eafily
diilinguifh through it the colours of the fubjacent parts.
The fibres of the diaphragm and intercollal mufcles, the
intercoilal veffels and the ribs are immediately difcerncd
through this membrane. We can (till more clearly perceive
all the fhades of colour in the lung through the pleura
puhnonalis ; this indeed is thinner than the pleura coftalis,
and adheres very clolely to the organ. Boili::g dellroys this
tranfparency, and gives the membrane a dirtyifii white ap-
^pearance. It is very ItroTig in proportion to its ihicknefs.
Concerning its inimate organization we have nothing far-
ther to fay than what the reader will find in the general ac-
count of the ferous membranes.

The arteries and veins of the pleura, befides what have
been already meotioned as belonging to the mediaftinum,
are derived chiefly from the interco tal vefFels. The ab-
fjrbents are exceedingly numerous, and pafs through glands
fituated about the heads of the ribs to the thoracic diict.

Th- internal furface of the pleura is in all parts fmooth,
pale, and covered by a ferous moilfi'.re produced from the
cxhahng veffels of the membrane. This obfervation applies
as well to the pleura pulmonahs, as to the p. coftalis : the
jn'crnal furface of the former conilitutes the outer furface of
.the lung : the two portions of the membrane are contiguous
atall points. In a living animal, or in one recently fiaugh-
tered, and opened whilit yet warm, this ferous exhalation cf-

capes in the form of a light whitifh fmokc : the furface of
the membrane has a foft llippery feel, but no aftual fluid is
difcerncd in the cheft. When the body has cooled, this
vapour is condcnfed into a few drops of liquor, which is
foon increafed by the tranfudaiion through the b'ood-veflels,
and then it conilitutes what authors have defcribed under the
name of liquor pleura;. It has been queflioned whether this,
or the fluid of the pericardium, which is alfo in very fmall
quantity, compoied the watery part of what iffued from the
lide of our Savinur when pierced by tlie foldicr. We are of
opinion, that the period, at which this occurred after death,
was too recent for us to fuppofe that any fluid, or if any,
not more than an exceedingly minute portion of fluid, could
be contained in the pleura or pericardium. Confcquentl)
the fac\ does not admit of a natural explanation, but mud
be referred to the miraculous powers fo fignally exerted in
other refpefts on this occafion.

This ferous exhalation is conftantly abforhcd and renewed.
It keeps the lung in an infulated (late, and feparatcs it from
the parietes of the thorax. How far this is eflential to the
funftions of the organ, will be examined prefently.

The exhalation of the pleura is varioufly changed in difeafe.
It confills of aftual fluid, either dcpofited in unufual abun-
dance, or not abforbed with the ufual activity, in hydro-tho-
rax. In pleuritis it is the coagulating part of the blood,
which afterwards forms the adhelions ot the two pleurae, fo
commonly feer. in the dead body, that hardly any fubjett is
entirely free from them.

As the pleura pulmonalis and coftalis are always conti-
guous, it follows that the lung always fills the cavity of this
membranous bag. If we diffeft away carefully the mufcular
■ parts, that fill the interval of two ribs, fo as to expofe,
without penetrating the pleura, the tranfparency of the lat-
ter membrane allows us to fee the lung through it, and to fee
that there is no interval between them, but that they are in
accurate contaft in all parts of the cheft. The relult of this
examination is the fame, both in the living and the dead fub-
jeft. From this reprefentation it follows that the motions of
the cheft muft be accompanied by correfponding changes of
the lungs ; that air will enter into or pafs out of thofe organs
through the trachea, which is conftantly open, according as
the cheft is enlargt'd or diminiflied ; and, in faft, that the
dilatation and contraflion of the thorax are conftantly at-
tended with a fimilar dilatation and contraction of the lungs.
Thefe motions of the cheft refer entirely to the funftions of
the lungs, which are paffive in refpiration, which poflels in
themfelves no independent power of enlargement and dimi-
nution.

Different opinions were, for a long time, entertained on
this fubjeCt ; it was funpofed that a fpace filled with air, fe-
parated the lungs from the containing cavity. A frequent
&nd careful performance of the difiection mentioned above,
has however (hewn the hmg always in contact with the
pleura, when the latter has not been injured ; and the cheft
has been opened under water without a (ingle particle of air
efcaping. ' Indeed it is only by this contact that the function
of refpiration can be explained, if we admit the pafTive na-
ture of the lung : the expanfion and contraction of the
clieft would be no longer attended with enlargement and di-
minution of the lung, if air were contained between this
vifcus and the fides of its containing cavity.

All the preceding obfervatious apply to the natural ftate
of the parts, in which the bag of the pleura is entire ; if
that be wounded, fo as to make a communication between
its cavity and the external air, the lung no longer continues
in contact with the fides of the cheft. It has been almoft
univerfally received, that when an opening is made into the

thorax

LUNGS.

thorax in the h'ving fuhjcft, the Iting falls from the fides of
the cavity, becomes diminiflied in fize, or, in technical lan-
guage, collapfes, and remains motionlefs. Such is the repre-
lentation given by Haller (Element. Phyfiol. lib. viii. feft. 2.
J 6.) If an extenfive wound be made on botli fides, it
feems generally admitted that the lungs are rendered mo-
tionlefs, that refpiration (lops, and the animal dies. But
it is not equally clear that a fmall wound is attended inva-
riably with collapfe and a fatal termination. Cafes are
recorded, in which penetrating wounds of the cheft have
been attended with protrufion of the hmg — a (late apparently
the direft reverfe of collapfe. And Mr. Norris, who had
met with fuch an inilance, opened the thorax in (lieep, on
oae and both lldes, fufficiently to enable him to introduce
a finger. Refpiration was not rendered difRcult. (Sec
Memoirs of the Med. Soc. of London, vol. iii.) Tims it
(hould feem that the fize of the wound influences tlje refult of
the experiment in a living aaimal ; which is not irrcconcile-
able to the reprefentation we have already given of the palTive
ftate of the lung. For the furface expofed to the external
prelfure of the atmofphere by a fmall wound may not conn-
teraft the effeft produced by the contaft of the two plcurs
in the whole of the reft of their extent. In all thefe experi-
ments the wound (hould be carefully kept open, if we are
to derive any inilruclive inferences from the refult : if its
fides are allowed to come in contaft, no collapfe of the
lung could be expedled. We do not know how to explain
the protrufion of the lung from wounds.

If a wound be made in the lung, when there is no commu-
nication between the thorax and the external air, as by a
broken rib, air efcapes into the thorax, and cannot pafs out :
a collapfe of the lung is a necelfary confequence. This is
what occurs in emphyfema, and occafions the difiiculty in
breathing ; the air alfo efcapes through the wound of the
pleura into the cellular fubftance of tlie body.

When a wound is made into the cheft, in the dead fub-
jeft, the lung, which was before in contact with the pleura,
immediately recedes from it. The feparation is more marked
in front, lefs at the fides ; and at laft the lung, much dimi-
nifhed in volume, lies againil the back of the cheft. Of courfe
an empty fpace is left, proportioned to the collapfe of the
lung, and the pleura is ftretched over this, with a whitidi
opaque appearance. This experiment never fails, except
when the lung is adherent. The air contained in the cheft
at the time of death is cooled as the reft of the body grows
cold; its volume muft be diminilhed, and the lung containing
it muft undergo a correfponding diminution, by virtue of its
contraClility of tifTue. Hence a tendency to the formation
of a vacuum enfues, in confequence of which the prefture
of the external air puflies the diaphragm ftrongly upwards,
and makes it very concave towards the abdomen. This is
the condition in which that mufcle is conftantly found in the
dead fubjedl, although we might fuppofe that the weight of
the thoracic contents, prefTmg on it above perpendicularly,
would drive it downwards when it is no longer fupported by
the abdominal vifcera below. If a fmall opening be made
in it penetrating the cheil, it immediately finks, and a ipace
is created above it by the atmofpheric air entering the ca-
vity.

How is the collapfe of the lung In the dead fubjeft to be
explained ? Are we to conceive that air efcapes through the
glottis when the lung finks in confequence of an opening in
the cheft ? On this fuppofition the organ muft previoudy
have been maintained by its contadl with the fides of the
cavity, in a ftate of greater diftention than it vi'ould exhibit
if left to itfelf. The accefs of the air to the thorax enables
the Isng to pafs into its natural ftate, by allowing its con-

Vol. XXI.

tradiiity of tifTje full fcopefor exertion. But vi-e have af-
certained that the phenomenoil, called collapfe of the lungs,
takes place in the dead body, wlien a ligature is placed oa
the trachea, fo that the contra<flility of tiffue cannot operate.
It depends entirely on the finking of the diaphragm, wliich
gives way towards the abdomen, and is followed by the lung.
The latter organ therefore is not diminidicd in fize, and can-
not with any propriety be faid to have fuflcrtd collapfe.
Let it be remembered that the concavity of the diaphragm
is maintained by the prelTure of the atmofpI;ere, forcing i:
into the cheft, to fill the fpace left by the gradual dimi-
nution of volume of the lung conlequent oir the cooling of
the air, and its contradtility of tifTue ; and that this arifes en-
tirely from the accurate mutual contact of the lung and tho-
racic cavity. When the latter is expofed, the air prelTes
on the lung at tlic fituation of this expofure above, as much
as it does againil the diaphragm below, and thtfc two organs
confequcntly take that pofiiisn which their weight and con-
nedtions, independently of any other caufcs. would deter-
iiiine. We believe that the contractility of tilTue of the
lung has been exerted nearly to its full extent, before the
chf ft is opened, and that it would be exerted to the utmoft
extent, if the diaphra;;m could be forced up fuflicien'.ly to
fill all the fpace left by the cor.traftion of the organ. It
feems to us that the lung does contraS after the cheft has been
opened, and confequcntly that the diaphragm is not capable
of filling all the fpace which the contractility of the lung
might leave. Bichat refers the collapfe of the lung in the
dead fubjeft entirely to the coohng of the air contained in thu
organ atter death. This, he fays, prodi'res a vacuum
between the lung and the pleura coftalis ; lue lung collapfes
before the cheft is opened, becaufe the air-cells contract in ■
proportion as the air is condenfed. Tl.c affcrtion that a
vacuum exifts is contrary to all obfervation ; indeed the thing
is obvioufty inipofiiblc. If we underftand him rightly, he
denies that the collapfe takes place on opening the cheft.
"Thus," fays he, " there is this difference between opening
a dead and a living body : in the former the lung ha? already
coUapfed ; in the latter it collapfes at the inftant of the
opening. The contraction of the cells, when the cooled air
is condenfed and occupies lefs fpace, is an effeft of the ccn-
traftility of tiffue, which remains in the organs to a certain
degree after death. Moreover, if the lung collapfed in the
dead body at the moment of opening the cheft, the caufc
would be in the prelTure of the external air, whi.h would ex.
pel through the trachea what was contained in the organ.
But if, in order to prevent the exit of the air, you clofe the
trachea, and then open the cheft, the lung is found in the
fame ftate of collapfe ; therefore the air h.ad quitted it al-
ready. Make the fame experiment on a living animal, and
you will always prevent the collapfe of tW; lung." RJ-
cherches fur la Vie ct la Mort, p. 193, note i.

It remains for us to advert again to the feroi'.s fccrctioo
which moiftens the furface of the pleura. Is this feorction
neceflfary to the phenomena of refpiration ? is that function
fenfibly impeded, when the ferous fluid is no longer pro-
duced, and the pleura pulmonalis and coftalis are united to-
gether throughout ? For a long time the affirmative of this
qucftion has been maintained, and it has even been ufual to
attribute habitual difiiculty of breathing to adhefioiis be-
tween the lungs and pleur*. Yet the following confidera-
tlons render tliis fuppofition very doubtful. I. It has been
clearly proved, that in the healthy ftate the lungs and the
containing cavities are perfectly contiguous, both in infpira-
tion and exfpiration : reafoning alone might have (hewn this.
What end do the movemetits of the chelt ferve, if the lung*
poffefs in themfelves an independent power of motiop ?
4 L * Since^

LUNGS.

Sioce, then, the lungs and cheft always move together, Iiow
can there be an empty fpace between them ? and if there
can be none, how can an accidental union ohflruil the
motions? 2. Adhelinns between the pleura pulmoiialis and
coftahs are extremely tre([uent. They are found, not only
in individuals who have died after a lon<j difeafe, but alfo in
thofe whom a violent death has furprifed in a (late of health.
In many inftances the whole furface of the lung adheres to
its cavity: yet in general the individuals have enjoyed perfeft
freedom of refpiration. We muft therefore conclude, that a
continuity of furface l^etween the lungs and cheft does not
injure the freedom of the refpiratory functions. Tiie utility
of the feruus fluid does not then appear fo clear to us in the
pleura, as in other cavities of the body. In the refpiratory
apparatus, the motions of the fides of the cavity and of the
contained organs hold a certain neceflary and invariable rela-
tion to each other. The brain tends to move in an immove-
able bony cafe ; the gallric vifcera may change their pofition
and relations to each other, without any alteration in tha
abdominal parietes : in the fynovial cavities there are two
furfaces conftantly moving in an inverfe direftion to each
other, &c. We every where fee the different portions of
a ferous furface Aiding on each other in a more or lefs mark-
ed degree, and we naturally conclude that the prefonce of a
fluid is indifpenfible to ihat motion. The thorax alone pre-
fents to us two ferous furfacea always in conta£l at the lame
points.

The two lungs occupy th» ferous cavities on the fides of
the chelk, lined, as already defcribed, by the pleura. They
are feparated from each other by the mediallinum, but
united by the circumllance of their receiving from two com-
mon trunks (the trachea and pulmonary artery) the air and
blood which are neceiTary to their phenomena. They are
rot fymmetrica', but differ both in fizc and form, exhibit-
ing the irregularity which belongs to the organs of the or-
ganic life ; or rather holding a middle place in this refpeft,
as well as in their funftions, between thofe and the organs
of the animal life. The heart, which is turned to the left,
and placed ahnoll entirely on the left fide of the cheil, di-
minifhes the tranfvcrfe diameter of thccorrefponding pleural
the liver elevates the diaphragm very fenfibly on the oppofite
fide, fo as to redi;ce the perpendicular meafurement of th^
right pleura. Hence the left lung is the longed, and the
right the broadelt of the two.

Their volume, in the natural (late, is always cxaftly the
fame as the capacity of the bags of the pleurx : thtir ex-
ternal furface is conllantly in contact with thefe cavities.
As they Iwve no power of motion in tliemfelves, and follow
every cliange which the fides of the chell undergo, their
capacity is conftantly varying : when the cheil is enlarged,
they are dilated by the entrance of air into their iubflance
through the trachea, and when it is contrafted, tliey undergo
a correfponding diniiuutiua by the expulfusn of air. For
further explanation and proofs on this fubjeft, fee the ac-
count of the pleiu-a. Yet we cannot always judge of the
Tolume of the lungs by the apparent extent of the peClorat
cavity : the heart diS'ers ccfiiliderably in fize, and fimilar
■variations of the liver, influencing the height to which the
diaphragm afcend.", are flill more common. Tlie collapfe
of the lungs, which we have conddered in fpeaking ot the
pleura, is lefs marked when thefe organs are dillended with
blood : it is generally lefs in children th.ui in adults, and
does not take place at all in the converfion of thefe organs
into a folid mafs like the liver, at lead in the parts immedi-
ately affcfted. Thus the bulk of the lungs depends more
en the fluids which they contain, particularly the blood and
air, thaa ui> ilicir folid fublUnce. They iire dilated in m-

fpiration ; but Ail! thoroughly penetrated with air !n the
moll complete exfpiralion. Long and continued compreflion
or cxtraftion of the air by an exhaufling fyringe ri-durcs
them tn fo ("mall a bulk, that they do n n equal one-fourlli
of the cavity which is defigncd to contain them. Prcter-
n-itural accumulations of fluid, as water or pus, diminifh tha
fi/'- of the organs in the fame way diiriog life. The inofl
numerous incilions and the Itrongell prelTure will hardly gi-t
rid of all the air from the lungs : if wc cut a very fmall
portion, and fqueeze it molt forcibly, there is (Idl enouj;!l
air to keep up the fize beyond what the folid matter would
caufe, and it lljll fwinis in water. In fliort, this air can be
completely got rid of only by ebullition, maceration, or
means that entirely (ieflroy the texture of the organ.

The lungs generally contain mare blood after death ihaa
during life, as an accumulation takes place in their veffcla
in the aft of dying: the quantity of thii fluid influences the
bulk of the organ, when the cavity of the cheft is expofi'd.
When there is much blood, incilions into the lung produce
a lefs marked diminution of volume than we might cxpeft ;
they only give iflTue to the air and not to the blood. The
ready efcape of the air, too, requires a free communication of
the air-cells with each other, which the ftagnation of the
blood prevents, by confining the air in every part, fo that
only the cut portion is evacuated by the incifions. Where
the individual has died of hemonhage, tlie lungs arc almoft
entirely irce from blood, and owe their vulun.c to the air:
here fuperficial incifions produce a fudden and marked col-
lapfe. This has been particularly obferved in perfons exe-
cuted by the guillotine : thn-c or four incifions have fpeedily
reduced the lung to nearly the half of its original Cze.
(Ijichat, Anat. Defcript. t. iv. p. 12.) For the fame reafon,
the degree of collapte of the lung will be much influenced
by the quantity of mucous fluids contained in the air-velTels
and cells of the lung?.

The lungs are the lighteft organs in the body ; they con-
ftantly fwim when immerfed either entire, or hi parts, io
water. This property depends obvioufiy on the fame caufa
as their volume, namely, the air wliich they contain. When
entirely deprived of this fluid, and reduced to their own fub-
ftance, they do not fu im. This is feen when one of them
is fo compreflTed and flattened by the efTufion into the chefl
of a large quantity of fluid, as to ferve no longer for the
purpofes of refpiration. In certain difeafes, too, the lung
is rendered folid and impervious to air, and then finks in
water ; but this is a pathological phenomenon. Immerfioa
in water is, thei-cfore, the ordmary and beft m.ethod of de-
termining the fpecific gravity of the lung. The greater
or fmaller qtiantity of blood whicii may be contained in thtir
vefTels at the time of health occafions them to vary in weight
when compared in different fnbjects.

There can be no doubt that the lungs of a perfon, who
has died of afphyxia, are heavier than thofe of one who
has perilhcd from hemorrhage : and that thel'e organs will
be lighter after a chronic dileafe, which has exhaufted the
vital powers, and diminifhed the energy of the circulation,
than after llrangidation, in which there is a confiderabie
afflux of blood into them to the laft moment.

The form of thefe vifcera is in general conical, with the
bafis dou-nwards, and tlie apex upwardr. This form is
tolerably conflant, becaufc it depends on that of the thorax,
which varies little in its natural nate. They corrtfpond im-
mediately to the folid fides of the cheit only at the upper
and outer parts : on the inner fide they he againft the heart,
and below are feparated from the abdominal organs by the
diaphragm: in the two latter afpedts, therefore, their form i«
influenced by that of the neighbouring parte. The heart,

' placsd

I. U N G S.

'y'.aced chiefly on the left fide of the cheft, leaves a m;ich
narrower fpace for the bafis of the left than for that of the
-tight King. Tlie natural or accident;il varieties in the form
«r the cheft, as curvatures of the fpine, with the concomi-
tBnt deviations in the figure and direction of the ribs, are
always attended with correfponding varieties in the lungs.
We may defcribe in each lung, belid.-s the ba;:s and apex,
two furfaces, an internal and external.

The external furface is convex in its whole extent, and
«orrcfp:nds to the thoracic parietcs, from which it is fepa-
ratcd by the pleura coftahs ; it is liaooth and polidicd, and
li'bricated by a ferous exhalation. A confiderable groove
U obferved in it, beginning behind a little below the apex,
and rutniing obliquely forwards ai\d downwards to the balis.
T'lis groove runs throughout the fubftance of the lung,
which it divides into two nearly equal iialvcs called lobes;
tiicfL' are conneftcd together at the root of the organ by the
r''floxion of the pleura, and by receiving their blood-veficls
£roai a common trunk. The two lobes are in contact with
each other by broad and flat furfaces, which are fmooih and
I'.ibricated, like the external furface of the lung, as they are
covered tliroughout by the pleura. The upper lobe of the
Rcht lung 13 marked by another groove, direilted obliquely
from abi>ve downwards, and within outwards; fo that its
mafs !S divided into three lobes : the middle is the fmallell,
and trian^^ular in its figure. This fecondary groove is more
variable than the former in its exillence, its length and depth.
Sometimes, but ver)- rarely, it is rot found ; and it is often
incomplete, io as not to divide the middle lobe entirely from
the fi:peri.)r. It is very feldom feon ii! the It-ft lung.

The internal furface is nearly plane, and divided into two
unequal portions by the infertion of the bronchi and pulmo-
nary vefleli, which takss place towards its upper and back
part.

It is at this point, which is called the root of the lung,
that the pleura is reflected over the organ : here, there-
fi-re, the pleura pulmonalis and coltalis are continuous.
This is the only fituation in which the lung adheres to the
containing cavity ; the furface is free and unattached every
■where elfe ; it is fometimes caUed, from this circumllance,
the ligamentum pulmonis.

The bronchus, the pulmonary artery and veins, the nerves
and lymphatics of the organ, furrounded and connected by
ocllular lubftance, and forming a fingle large fafciculut,
pafs out of the niedialliflum to the lung. The pleura is
r-eflefted over this fafciculus, covers it, and is continued
over the lung. That portion of the inner fide of the lung
which is behind the root i^ narrow, and correfponds to the
lateral furface of the vertebral column : the anterior divifion
ic broader, and is contiguoivs to the heart and pericardium ;
it is (lightly concave at this part. Above and below the
ififertion of the veffels the inner iurface of the lung is not di-
vided into thefi; two parts.

The external and internal furfaces of the lung are united
by two edges. The anterior is thin, particularly below,
irregular in its outline, directed obliquely downwards and
forwards, and has in the left lung a fmall notch correfpond-
ing to the apex of the heart. The pofterior is obtufe, not
clearly marked, directed vertically, and correfponding to the
hollow at the angles of the nbs. On the latter is feeii, above,
the commencement of the great groove, which divides tlie
iung into two lobes.

The bafis of the lung refts on the -diaphragm, and is con-
cave, to fuit the convexity of that great muTcular partition.
Jt is directed obliquely from within outwards, from above
downwards, and from before backwards ; correfponding in
ttis refpecl entirely to the diaphragm, Tlie concavity of

the bafis is more marked in the right than in the left !iin(»,
on account of the greater convexity of liiis fide of the dia-
phragm produced by the liver. The termination of the
great groove is found on this furface of the organ, fo that
tiie two lobes are dillintl here as well as in other fituations :
but the fuperior lobe coii'.ributes to tlic formation of the
bafis only in a very fmall part of its extent, ra'ticularly on
the right fide. The circumference of the bans prefentb a
thin edge, with a rather irregular outline intcrpofed betw«-en
the ribs and the diaphragm, near the attachment of the lat-
ter. This is more fenfible on tlnj ri^jht than on the left fide.
Its appearance varies according to the ditTerent states of
the lungs ; the preceding defcription applies to tlie dead
fubjeft. In infpiration, the diaphr5gm deic^nds a"d becomes
nearly plane ; the lung follows it, and affumes a correfpond-
ing figure, its edge, inllead of being thin, becuming thick,
and no longer included between the diaphrajzm and ribs.

The apex of the lung is fmall and obtufe, and corre-
fponds to the cul-de-fac of the pleura under the firft rilx. In
tliis way it is completely infulated from the lower part of the
neck. It exhibits feveral more or le'.s marked tubercular
rifings.

The whole furface of the lungs is unconnefted to the ira-
vity, except in the fituation ot the ligainerita pulmonum.
The oppofed furfaces of the lobes are in the fame way uucon-
nccted to each other, and covered by the ferous mem-
brane. All thefe parts are moiller.cd by a ferous exha-
lation.

The colour of the hmgs, when not influenced by that of the
fluids which they contain, is extremely pale ; fometimes a flight
tawny brown, but more frequently grey or alh-coloured ;
and lometimts completely white. This colour is feen over
the whole organ, both on its furface, and in the interior,
when it is quite free from blood ; but is no !<jnger vifible
when the lung is loaded with that fluid. Hence we under-
iland why we meet with it fo feldom in the dead body,
fince a diltcntiun of the pidmonary veifels with blood is one
of the moll ordinary phenomena of death. The only cafes
in which we caa expeft with fome eertainty to find the
li4ngs exhibiting this pale colour throughout, are thofe of
deaths from hemorrhage. It was noticed by the Freuch in
individuals who peri(hed by the guillotine. We may often
obferve it in fome particular points of the organ, where the
abfence of blood may be afcertained by incilions. The
tawny or greyifh colour of the lungs is interrupted by fmaM
black or brown fpots, irregularly dillemiuated over the fur-
face, and very variable in number and form. Often the or-
gan is very thickly fpolted in this way ; at other times they
are fcattered here and there at confiderable dillances ; fome-
times, but very feldom, they do not exiil at all. Thefe
fpots do not depend in the leall on the blood. Simple in-
fpeCtiou is futficient to prove that they belong to the organi-
zation of the part. They are very dilUnft in the paleltand
moll bloodlefs luntjs, and may he eafily recognifed in the
general hvid tint of thofe w hich are moil loaded ; they fecia
to polfefs always the fame intenfity of colour; and they are
always circumfcribed, while the marks arifing from the blood
end imperceptibly. Thefe black fpots prefent every variety
of figure. Some are fuperficia], others extend into the fub-
ilance of the lung, and feme are found in the interior of tke
organ. They feem to belong entirely to the pulmonary
tilfue, as they are never feen on the bag of the pleura, and
are found in the fubftance of the lung.

But generally the lungs are loaded with blood at the time

of death, and do not confequently exhibit the palenefs which

we have defcribed as belonging to their proper tiflue. They

areuiually livid, TioletTColoured, brpwujlh,orreddiIh; and die

4 L 3 inlxture

t U N G S.

riixture of thefe varimis tints gives them the marbled ap-
pearance, whicli has generally been regarded in difTcftiiig
rooms as the natural ftate of tl'.e organs, although 'it is merely
produced by di-ath. The brown, blueifh, or violet colour
is the mod frequently obferved, and occupies the lung moll:
extenfively. It depends on the prefcnce of venous blood,
\vhieh flagnates as foon as rcf;>iration has ceafed to colour
what the right ventricle ftili impels. The tint varies as llie
blood is accumulated more or lefs in particular liuiations.
1'he higheft de^^ree of this congeftion produces the black
obferved in the lungs of thole who die of afphyxia ; the
brown or violet colour is caufed by a {lighter degree of the
fame effeft.- The colour is always the deepeft in the moft
depending part of the lung, as the blood, obeying only the
laws of gravity after dtfath, fettles in the lowed parts. Prom
the ordinary pofition of the body this deep colour is nlually
feen at the back of the lung ; but if the fubjetl be laid on
the face, tlie J"arae phenomenon is exhibited in front. Thefe
dark colours are not the only ones obferved in the lungs ;
inore or lels extenfive patches of a bright red are often feen ;
this may occupy a large portion of tne organ, while the red
is brown or violet-coloured. This red colour is univorlal ia
the lungs of children, which do not prefent the black fpots ;
the former gradually difappears, and the latter increafe with
the progrefs of age. The fame bright tint extends into the
fubdance o-f the Tung. We are at a lofs for a fatisfattory
explanation of this appearance : if it arofe from the blood
being afted upon after death, by the air contained in the
pulmonary air-cellSj we (hould expeft to find it more univer-
fal and more frequent. The parts of the lung, however,
in which this tint is obferved, certainly contain fcarlet blood,
and owe the colour to that.

The lungs are the lead denfe, and lead refiding of all or-
gans formed of folid tilfues. They yield readily to coinprcf-
fion, preferve the mark of the preliiire, and are redored im-
perfe<31y to their original date. This obfcrvation applies
only where they are not loaded with blood, but contain
merely that quantity of air, which never leaves them after
they have been once didended with it. When full of blood,
they acquire a confidence foreign to their own fubdance, re-
fift prefTure more effeftually, and redore themfelves more
readily. Hence foftnefs and flaccidity more particularly
charafterize the lungs of perfons who have died of hemor-
rhage. When we fqueeze the air forcibly into a part of the
lung, a peculiar crackhng noife is produced by the burfling
of the air-cells : this crepitation does not take place in dif-
eafed lungs.

The foftnefs of the pulmonary texture arifes from the
Jungs being entirely compofed, as we diall fee prefently, of
various vafcular fydems. It accords very perfectly with tlie
paffive part that they perform in the refpiratory phenomena :
poIfefRng no power of motion in themfelves, they expand
and contraft merely in confequence of motions of the
thed.

The lungs are compofed of a cartilaginous and membranous
tube, by which air is conveyed into them ; of the pulmonary
artery and veins, of which the former termisates the fydem
of black blood, and the latter commence that of red blood ;
of the bronchial veflels concerned in the nutrition of thefe
organs ; of a peculiar tilfue, compofing a congeries of mi-
nute cells, which receive the air admitted jn refpiration ; and
'T>f lymphatics and nerves. Thefe parts are all united by
cellular tilTue, and covered externally by the refleded
pleura.

The air-vefTds compofe the eflential part of the lungs,
with refpeft to their funftions as organs of refpirition.
They introduce the fluid by which the blood is changed ;

this procefs goes on at their' furface ; nnd the air, after fcrv*
ing the purpofes of refpiration, is expelltd through them.
When taken altogether they form the cavity of the refpira-
tory apparatus, which is analogous to tliat of the digedivc
canal, in having a mucous lining, but differs in its arrange-
ment, as it is fubdividcd into a vad number of canals, de-
crcaling fucceilively like arteries. Thefe are the only tubes
in the body conllantlv open ; it is necedary that the air
fliould have free aad condant accefs to them. This order
of tubes is begun by a fmgle trunk, which unites the two
lungs, and necelFarily renders their phenomena fimultane-
ons. The common trunk is called trachea (afpera arteria,
trachee artere) ; and its primary diviiions the right and left
bronchi.

The trachea is placed in front of the vertebral column,
extends from the upper part and middle of the neck to the
upper part of the ched, beginning immediately below the
larynx, and ending about the level of the fecond or third
dorfal vertebra. It is placed on the middle line of the body,
and is fymmetrical in its whole extent ; in this rcfpcS it ap-
proaches to the external organs : the fymmetry ceafes in its
diviiions. It appears cylindrical in front, but is flattened
beliind. Its diameter varies according to the age of the fub-
jcdt, and the natural volume of the lungs ; it may be about
tight or ten lines in the adult, and is exactly the fame with
that of the larynx, meafured at the cricoid cartilage. It
continues the fame through the whole length of the trachea.

In front it is covered above by the two portions of the thy-
roid gland, which unite together at the middle of the tube.
Lower down the derno-hyoidei and derno-thyroidei, and the
inferior thyroid veins cover it. In the ched it is enclofed in
tlie poderior mediadinum, and correfponds to the thymus,
to the left fubclavian vein, the arteria innominata, and the
arch of the aorta. Behind it covers the cefophagus, and to-
wards the right the vertebral column. On the fides it is co-
vered above by the lateral portions of the thyroid gland, and
is contiguous below to the common carotids. A loole and
abundant cellular tilfue forms the medium of its conne6xioa
to all thefe parts. The fuperior extremity is conneifed to
the cricoid cartilage by a ligamentous fubdance ; tlie inferior
is placed at the right fide of the defcending aorta, is bifur-
cated, and produces the two bronchi. The latter begin
about the fecond or third dorfal vertebra, and feparate from
the common trunk nearly at a right angle, yet they go with
fome obliquity, downwards and outwards, each to its cor-
refponding lung. Here we begin to meet with the irregu-
larity of form that charafterizes the organs of the internal
life. The left bronchus is imaller than the right, and takes a
much longer courfe : it paffes under the arch of the aorta,
while the other goes immediately to its lung. Theie tubes
enter the lungs at the (ituations already defcribedas the roots
of thofe organs. They ramify in every direiSion, and di-
vide into branches, becoming fucceffively imaller and fmaller.
Thefe fubdivifions are fo numerous, that every part of the
lung contains them. The cxa(S manner of their termination
is not underftood.

The air-tubes are compofed of three parts, an exterior
membrane, of a fibrous and probably mufcular texture ; a
cartilaginous ilrufture, which is united to the preceding ;
and a mucous lining. The exterior membrane rifes above
from the circumference of the cricoid cartilage, and occu-
pies the whole extent of the trachea and bronchi, forming
a very effential part of thofe tubes. It is tolerably thick in
the greated part of its courfe, but grows thinner in the
fmaller ramifications of the bronchi, where it cannot be
ealily traced. It is formed of parallel and clofely arranged
longitudiaiil fibres, the nature of which is doubtful ; fome

confidej

LUNGS.

eonfider them ns nuifcular, others rertard them as a fibrous
organ, to which their appearance is very fiinilar. 'J'liis
membrane alone conf 'tiites tlic folic! portion of the trachea
behind ; and hence arifes the flattened ligure ofthe tube
at that part. This peculiarity in the back of the trachea
has been referred to the fituntion and motions of the afo-
phagus, wliich lies clofe behind it : but the fame ftrufture
exilis in the bronchi alfo, where it cannot admit of that
explanation. The arrangement is different on the anterior
part and fides of the trachea, in two-thirds at leafl of the
circumference of the tube. The fibrous membrane is inter-
rupted by portions of cartilage (annuli cartilaginei), which
keep it on the llretch, and thereby preferve the air-lubes
conltantly open. Each of thefe cartilages reprcfents two-
thirds of atircle. Tiiey are bent on themfelves, flattened
on their furfaces, uniform in length, but of diflFercnt breadths.
Their convexity forms a part of the exterior furface of the
tub/ ; their concavity correfponds to the mucous mem-
branes, from which a thin celiidar ftratum feparates them.
Thi-ir fuporior and inferior margins are rounded, continuous
on the outfide with the fibrous tlffue, and (lightly prominent
through the mucous membrane on the infide. Their extre-
mities projeft more or lefs behind in the fibrous tidue, are
alien the fame level, are rounded, and a little bent upwards.
They vary in number from about iixtecn to twenty ; they
may be more or lefs broad ; and, as the length of the tube is
nearly uniform, they mull be more numerous in proportion
as they are narrower. In general, they are broader in front,
and diminidi progrelTively to the back part : but the reverfe
of this fometimes happens ; or two may be u^iited at their
edges. Commonly their direftion is liorizontal to the axis
of the trachea ; but many of them are often more or lefs
oblique.

Id colour and texture they refcmble the fibro-cartiiages
of the organs of fenfe : they are very elaftic.

The firll cartilage is generally much larger than the fuc-
ceeding ones ; the lall has a prolongation from its middle
correfponding to the bifurcation of the bronchi.

In the ramifications of the bronchi the cartilages become
lefs regular in their form, and fewer. They no longer ex-
hibit that annular form, but coufiil merely of fmall pieces,
fometimes feparatc, and fometimes united. As the fubdivi-
fions are mukiphed, the cartilages become lefs firm, and at
laft difappear altogetlier, fo that we find only a membranous
flrufture when we have traced the air-tubes as far as the eye
can go.

The external furface of this fibrous membrane is fprinkled
behind with fmall lightifh brown and flattened bodies of
very variable figure, round, oval, &c. Thefe are mucous
glands, of which the excretory dufts open on the internal
furface of the tube. Tliey are fmaller on the bronchi than
in the trunk of the trachea, and they become more minute
in proportion as the veffels ramify. Their (trufture feems
to be very fimple ; one duft comes from each gland geaerally ;
but fometimes two or three glands are united, and there
the dufts are more numerous. The fibrous membrane ex-
hibits none of thefe glands in the intervals of the cartilages,
on its external furface. The inner furface of the membrane,
in the fame fituation, correfponds to the mucous lining of
the tube, from which it is feparated by numerous fmall and
clofely arranged granular bodies, which are probably mucous
glands. At the back part of the tube there is found, under
the fibrous membrane, a (Ira'ium of tranfverfe fibres extended
between the extremities of the cartilages, to which they are
attached. Thefe are difpofed in fmall fafciculi, have not
the white aponeurotic appearance of the fibrous membrane,
a&d feem to be real mufcular iibrea. They are corinefted

14

to the raucous lining by a loofe cellular tilTue, and may be
molt advantas;eoufly feen by dilfefting a^ay that membrane
«froni the infide. In what manner ihefe fibres affect the
phenomena that occur in the trachea we do not know.
The longitudinal ones, that compofe the fibrous membrane
already defcribed, have generally been regarded as of a
mnfcular nature : but their appearance by no means warrants
thisreprefentation. Tiiey polTefsconfiderable elaflic power, fo
tliat the trachea, when extended, recovers itfe'f very quickly
and completely : this property is frequently brought into
exercife in the living (late from the motions of the head and
neck. The effetl of the cartilaginous femi-circles, wliich
are incorporated with this membrane, in preferving the air-
tubes permanently open, and the neceffity of this arrat;ge-
ment to thii execution of the refpiratory fundlions, arc too
obvious to require atiy detailed illullration.

The mucous membrane, or the third conflituent portionr
of the air-tubes, is the fecond divilion of that great mucous-
apparatus, called by Bichat gajlro-pulmonaire. We trace its-
continuation from the pharynx into the larynx, through that
cavity into the trachea and bronchi, to their ultimate rami-
fications. Ill the latter, it is faid to cxill alone, or without
the other two parts already mentioned : but the minutenefs
of the parts makes it difTicult to afcertain this point by direft
examination, although fuch a flrufture would be favourable
to that more intimate conneftion between the blood and air-
vcffels, which is neceffary to the chemical phenomena of
icfpiration, according to flie notions commonly entertained
refpefting thefe phenomena. The external furface corre-
fponds behind to the tranfverfe fibres ; and in. the reft of its
extent to the fibrous membrane and cartilages, which latter
project through it. The connecting medium which attaches
it to all thefe parts is a cellular fubftancc, admitting eafily
of feparation. The internal furface is fmooth, 'and con-
ltantly lubricated by a mucous fecretion : it forms the
cavity of the air-tubes. The excretory canals of the mucous
glands open on it in many parts very dillindlly. In the
back of the tube, where there is no cartilage, it exhibits
numerous prominent and regular longitudinal folds : thefe
extend into the bronchi and their ramifications. They are
not produced by the contraftion of any parts fituated ex-
teriorly, but exift when the membrane has been detached^
and are not affefted by tranfverfe extenfion of tlie tube :
they feem to arife from fmall fibrous columns form.ing a
part of the flrufture of the membrane.

tor the organization of tliis membrane, we mud refer to
the general view exhibited in the article Membrane. It
is thinner, lefs fpongy and foft, and more firmly attached i:i
the trachea than in the larynx : the orifices of the mucous-
dufts are alfo fmaller ; in the bronchi it is Hill more delicate,
and this tiiinnefs increafes as the tubes rlivide. In the na-
tural flate it is white, fo as to indicate that the capillary
fylleni is not very clearly marked in it. Thefe veffels are
developed and become perceptible under numerous circum-
ftances, particularly in catarrhal affedtions, to which the
pulmonary mucous membrane is very fubjeft. ITic blood
is then accumulated in the capillaries, and gives to the mem-
brane a red colour, which it does not poffcfs naturally.

It is fuppofed tliat this membrane compotes entirely the
air-cells, or veficle.s of the Uuigs, in which the minute rami-
fications of the air-tubts end. If we impel air mto the
trachea, the whole lung becomes diileuded, and increafes in
volume in proportion to the quantity of air inflated. At->
tentive obfervation will then convince us that its whole
fubltance is compofed of fmall cells, which we can readily
difcern on the furface. If the inflated ung be dried, or i£
the organ be diilendcd with ipirit of wine, and then cut, its

whole-

LUNGS.

wliok> fubftance is found to h<^ compofcc! of tliofc cells, as \vA\
as its external fiirfjce. Injedtion with qiiickfilver will do-
mon Urate the fame (Irudure. This gives to ihc lung, wlien
cut or torn, a porous aad Ipoiiirv appearance tliroiighoiit.
The cells, when attentively furveyed on the fiirface of tiie lung,
have a roundilh liguro, but their outline is often irregnhtr.
When inflated they meafure ilh or ,' th of a line in diani»t.r.
They communicate together in nil direiilions fo completely,
by the ramifications of the air-tubes, that air might pafs
eafdy from a lingle cell into all parts of the lung; but tlie
cells of the neighbouring lobules do not feera to haw any
diredl commutjication.

The mucous membrane, in an extremely delicate ftate,
continued from the minute ends of the air-tubes, is fuppofed
to compofe thefe cells ; but the niinntenefs of the objects
renders our defcription of them, excepting a fe«' general
fads, rather uncertain. Anatomy difcovers to us rather a
fpongy net-work, filled with air, and formed by blood-
vefleis croffing in every direction, than any clear arrange-
ment of diltindl cells, connected to the bronchial ramifica-
tions, like grapes to their flalk, aa they have been defcribcd
and drawn by feveral anatomifts.

In this view of the fubjeft, the extent of furfacc of the
mucous membrane muil be enormous. Many attempts have
been made to exprefs it in numbers. Hales makes tlie air-
cclls -j-^jidth of an inch in diameter; the lurface of the air-
tubes equal to 1033: fquare inchej ; and that of the air-cells
to 20,000. Keil ellimates the number of the veficles at
174,418,615, and the whole internal furface of the lung at
21,906 fquare inches. Lieberkulm carries his eliimate'of
the iurface as high as 1500 cubic feet. We mention thefe
circumftances only to fliew the great extent of the mucous
membrane, and nut bccaufe we place much faith in their ac-
curacy. In reading defcriptions of the minute flnifture of
the lungs, and, indeed, in all other analogous parts of ana-
tomy, we fhould always bear in mind the obfervation of
Haller ; " Ea fere hoimnum eft infclicitas, ut omnis ultima
rerum phyficarum hilloria parum fu-ma fit, et ut altera ilia,
rerum geftarum memoratrix, in mythices fines terminatur."

A mucous fluid conftantly lubricates the whole of this
furface. It is limpid, mild, and nearly infipid, or (lightly
fakifli, aad but little tenacious in the natural ftate. When
free from air, it finks in water. It is produced in fo fmall a
quantity, that it feenis to be diffolved in the air, and thus
to pafb off iufeniibly in exfpiration, or to be taken up by the
abforbents. It is poured out much more abundantly under
various circumftances, and is altered m colour and confid-
ence : it is then expelled by the expiratory efforts which
conlHtute cough. In children it has a reddifli colour ; and
it is often rather livid in adults.

The watery vapoqr difcharged from the lungs in exfpira-
tion concurs in lubricating the furface ol the air-paflages.
Whether there be any exhalation from the general mucous
furface, in addition to the mucous fccretiou, feeras a point
hsrdly fufceptible of pofitive determination.

The pulmonary mucous membrane is the part in which
the chemical phenomena of refpiration are carried on ; its
furface is in contadl with the air taken into the lungs. The
latter fluid is the on-Iy one, in addition to its natural mucus,
of which it can bear the contact. All other fubftances,
even the clearelt water, are immediately and powerfully re-
jcfted by it. In itfelf it pcfTefles no power of expelhng any
irritating matter from its furface; but it excites the ex-
piratory nuifcles which adl convulfively and repeatedly until
ii\" caufe is removed.

The velTels and nerves of the lungs are principally diftri-

bated on thff air-tuber, of which t"hcy every whn-f foUovr
the couriv.-. The artiries of the trachea come from the in
ferior thyroidcal ; thofe of the bronchi tire derived immedi-
ately fronT the aorta, and are called the bronchial arteries.
The latter ramify in conjunftion with the air-tubes, and ad-
here cloiely to them : they are dillributed cliiefly on the
internal membrane. Several branches are fpent on the
bronchial glands, and on lli€ parietes of the pulmonary vef-
fels. D:i they anafiomofe with the pulnionarv artery ? We
ihould be inclined to fuppofe that they <!o «ot, from con-
fidering that the two kinds of vefl'els cf.nlain blood of dif.
ferent natures, and have altogether different offices. TJie
bronchial arteries convey arterial blood for the nutrition of"
the lung ; the pulmonary artery takes the venous blood,
that it may be fubmitted to the aftion of the air in rcfpira-
tion. Yet it has been afl'erted by feveral anatomifts, that
fuch an anallomofis does take place. The bronchial veins
accompany the arteries: their trunks end in the \':na
azygos on the right fide, and in the fuperiur intercuflal vein
on the left.

The par vagum furnifhes nearly all the nerves belonging
to thefe organs : thofif of the trachea come from it alto-
gether. The nerves of the bronchi are derived from the
pulmonary plexufes formed principally by the par vagum,
but partly alio by branches from fome ganglia of the great
fympathctic. As thefe nerves feem to be dillributed entirely
on the air-tubes, perhaps the epithet bronchia would be
more proper for them than pulmonary.

TIk' vafcular fyilem of the lungs may be divided into
three parts, dillinct in their nature, properties, and the
immediate ohjeif of their phenomena. The firll is the pul-
monary artery, or the end of the general fyflem of black,
blood ; the fecond, the pulmonary veins, or commencement
of the general fyllem of red blood; and tlie third, the ca-
pillary iyflem intermediate to the two preceding. (See
Circulation- and He.\rt.) The pulmonary artery arifes
from the upper and anterior part of the right ventricle, in
front of the origin of the aorta. It paffes upwards and
backwards, lying clofe on the left fide of the root of the
aorta, and, after a courfe of about an inch and a half, di.
vides into a right and left branch det'uned for the corre-
fponding lungs. Thefe two divifions feparate moil widely
at their origin, going off from the trunk at right angles,
and hardly forming a fenfible angle with each other. The
feparation takes place on the left fide of the aorta. The
right trunk goes immediately behind the aorta and luperior.
vena cava, and follows a tranfverfe courfe to the right lung ;
the left has an analogous courfe en the left fide of the body,
but is much fiiorter than the right, on account of the latter
paliQng beiiind the aorta and vena cava. Both arc placed in
front of the bronchi, and crofs the courfe at firll, being di-
reeled a little from below upwards ; but they are fubdivided
exaftly like the bronchi, and follow their courfe, being
clofely cojineded to them throughout ; the artery is gene-
rally placed above its correfponding air-tube. For the or»
ganifation of this vcffel, we refer to tlic article Heaht.

The pulmonary veins, arifir.g from the capillary fyftem,
follow a courfe analogous to that of the arterial divifions.
Thefe alio accompany the air-tubes, and are fituated under
them. They unite gradually into larger and larger tubes,
and form ultimately four confiderable trunks,;tvvo belonging
to each lung, and terminating in the left auricle of the heart.
The fuperior right pulmonary vein paffes out of the lung
below tlw bronchus, and goes with a little obliquity down. ■
wards : tlie inferior afcends obliquely towards the auricle.
The left veins have a fimilar arrangement; one defccnds,
aiid the other ^fcenda: they are more approximated than oa^
IS t^

LUNG S.

the right fiJc. For the Ofganifation of tli'.fc yc!TcI», fee
Ukvrt.

Tlie capillary vv-fTels oftlie lang are tiiilribiitnl in infinite
numhcr tlirough all parts of the org^in, of t!ie prcipcr tifTue
(if which they coinpofe a Tery contiderable {liare. As they
h ivo no conncflion with the niitrttioii of the part, and per-
forin no fecrct:on, they give paffap^e only to the blood, and
are hence remarkably diilinguilhed trotn the general ca[)ii.
lary fyKem. Thefe veffels cover in vail proftifnn the
ai.-cclls of the lungs ; fo that when they are injeftcd with
coloured fluids alter death, the whole fubllancc of the organ
appears dyed of the peculiar colour. In them the blood is
expofed to the air, and converted from the dark or venous
i:ito the red or arterial ftate.

The fubllance of the lungs, on fuperficial examination,
tfTers a foft fpongy mafs, yielding eafily to preffure, and
reftoring itfelf afterwards to its original ftate in an impcrfedl
m'lnner. When we view it more attentively, we obferve on
the furface fmall whitifli lines circunifcribing fpaces of dif-
ferent figure*!, as triangular, quadrangular, &c. Thcfearc
called lobules of the lungs, and vary confidcrably in lize as
ivell as fiijure. They are again divided into other fmaller
parts. Thcfe lobules are all connected together by a loofe
and foft cellular lubllance, which never contains any fat ;
;,nd the fame fubllance unites the rcflcfted pleura to the ex-
ternal furface of the lung. If we tear the fubllance of
the organ, and inflate it, the air fills the cells of this cellular
tc.sture, and makes it more fenfible ; it is alfo in fome cafes
rendered more obvious, by being the feat of a watery de-
pofition, which conflitutes anafarca of the lu[igs. Its cells
have no communication with the air veficles, unlefs the latter
b." broken by inflation, as when we fcjueeze the air in them
Krcibly, they crack, and the air efcapes into the cellular
t.Kture, uniting the Inbu'i. On the other hand, we n-ight
i. ilate the cellular i''ubllance dillindlly from the air-cells.

Each lobulas of the lung eonfills of a branch of the air-
tube vith a correfponding proportion of cells, a branch of
the pulmonary artery and vein, a portion of the pulir.onary
capillaries of the bronchial veflels and nervous ramifications,
connefted by the cellular fubllance already defcribed.

The lymphatics of the lungs are numerous, and divided
into a fuperficial and deep-feated fet : the former conftitute
a net-work on the furface of the lung, and communicate alfo
with the latter. They pafs through numerous glands, called
bronchial; placed on the trunks of the air-tubes and blood-
veffels, partly within, but chiefly without the fubllance of
the lung. Other larger glands are fituated about the divi-
fion of the trachea, and the abforbents of the right and left
ling communicate in them. Some abforbents of the right
lung terminate iu the right abforbcnt trunk ; the reft, with
thofe of the left, end in the thoracic duft, pafling through
glands on the fpine.

The branchial glands are large in Gzc, and numerous in
proportion to the lung ; but they vary in both thele re-
fpefts in diflcrent fubjefts. Several of the fmalleft are found
on the bronchi, within the fubftance of the lung. Their
colour is the moft remarkable of their properties ; in the
adult it is a deep livid or black. Their confillcnce is rather
foft, and a coloured fluid may be expreffed from them, when
cut or divided. Il is now clearly afcertained that thefe
bodies belong to the lymphatic fyftem. Anatomifls for-
Jnerly conceived that they fecreted a particular fluid, and
poured it into the bronchi. We are quite ignorant of the
taufc of their peculiar black colour.

The lung, then, is made up of the tiffues jiift defcribed,
covered on the lurfacc by the very thin and tranfparent
pkura pu'monaiis, which i; conneded to the organ by

cellular fubftant*, and gives it the fmooth external fu*.
face.

De\)fli,pement fjf thi Lungs. — The foetus has so refpira-
tion : from the circumllanccs under which it is placed in the
iiteru*, it muft obvioiiOy be altogether precluded from ex-
ercifiiig that fuuiJtion ; but it begins immedia:ely after
birlh; hence the lungs, formed nearly as funn as the prin-
cipal organ of circulation, pofTefs, at a very early penod, a
conliderable devclopement and well-marked form. Their
organilation, too, is ixrfeft, or at leaJl they arc capable of
executing tlieir tunction?, before the time at which they na-
turally come into aftion : for there are inltances of children
born long before the end <-;f the ninth mouth, as, for in-
ftunce, at the feventh, or even fooner, who have been pre-
ferved alive by great care. In the early periods their colour
is reddifli ; they then atTuinc a (lightly tawny hue, which \i
continued till the time i.f birth, and is not even changed by
refpiration, although the admifFion of air into the organs at
that time is followed by the entrance of a larger quantity of
blood.

The lobuli are very diftinifl in the foetus, and eafily fe-
parable : the conncfting fubllance appears to be more
copious. Although the lungs a-e fmall in a fcctus at full
time, compared to thofe of a child who has breathed, we
cannot fay, as fome anatomilts reprefent, that they are ex-
tremely diminutive, and confined to the back of the clieft.
As they are at this time entirely free from air, ihey polTefs
a dcnfity, wiiich makes them link inllantly in water, when
plunged into it either entire or in dices. They are pene-
trated by much lefs blood than after breathing ha< begun,
and therefore reduced almoft entirely to their fulid and or-
ganifed contents : they form at this lime about y^th of the
weight of the whole body.

Ai the funftion of refpiration, which commences at the
moment of birth, goes on afterwards uninterruptedlv, and
as the phenomena are as regular and perfect at this time as
in more advanced age, we have no reafou to expetl that the
intimate llrufture of the organ, that is, the arrangement of
the different component tifl'ues, will be different at that age
from what we know of it in the adult : but the vafcular
trunks belonging to thefe parts exhibit fome peculiarities,
of which the details will be found in the articles H£.\Rr and

CiRCUL.ATIO.V.

Breathing begins immediately after birth ; the enlarge-
ment of the chcll occafions the lungs to be dirtcnded with
air, and confequcntly to become fpeciiically lighter ; a
greater quantity of blood paffes through them, and thus
they acquire greater abfolute weight. The increafc of vo-
lume mull be limited by the capabihty of enlargement in the
chell ; and this cannot be very confiderable immediately on
birth. This enlarged lize is not, therefore, fufEcitntly
marked, to be relied on as a proof that refpiration has be-
gun. It ia a well-known fadl, which we have already ftated,
that the lungs of an individual, who has breathed, I'wim in
water, whether they be immerfed entire or in Hices. This
is a property remarkably contrafled with what takes place
under the fame treatment before birth. A criterion has
been fought for in this fource, to determine, in doubtful
cafes, whether a child h.is been born dead or alive : and the
coniideration is a highly important one, from the influence it
may produce on medical opinions, in cafes of fufpcited
child-murder. We fhall only oblerve here, that the con-
vulfiie attempts to eftablifh refpiration, although not fuc-
cefsful, may introduce air enough into the lungs to make
them buoyant in water; that attempts to inflate them, in
order to preferve the child, er after it has died, may ha^e
the fame cfFeft ; that the dii'cngagcmen; of air by putrefac-
tion

LUNG S.

wliole fubftancc is found to ht compoffd of tluTc cells, as will
as its extiTiial furface. InjedHon with qiiickfilvcr will do-
mon Urate the fame (Initture. 1'his gives to the lung, when
cut or torn, a porous ;uul fiJongv appearance tl.roughout .
The cells, when attentively furvcyedmuhe furface ot the lung;,
have a roundilh ligure, but their outline is often irregular.
AVhen inflated they nu-afure J-th or ,', th of a line in diani-^Lr.
Tliey communicate together in all direi;lions fo completely,
by the ramifications of the air-tubes, that air might paU
eafdy from a liugle cell into all parts of the lung ; but the
cells of the neighbouring lobules do not ieein to ha\-e any
direft communication.

The mucous membratie, in an extremely delicate flate,
continued from the minute ends of the air-tubes, is fuppofed
to compofe thele cclh ; but the minutenefs of the objects
renders our defcription of them, excepting a few general
fafts, rather uncertain. Anatomy difcovers to us raiher a
fpongy net-work, filled with air, and formed by blood-
velFels crolTing in every diredlion, tlian any clear arrange-
ment of dillinft cells, connected to the bronch'al ramifica-
tions, like grapes to their flalk, as they have been defcnbcd
and drawn by feveral anatomifts.

In tliis view of the fubjeft, the extent of furface of the
mucous membrane mull be enormous. Many attempts have
been made to exprefs it in numbers. Hales makes the air-
cells -j^a^.dth of an inch in diameter; the furface of the air-
tubes eq-ual to lo:;, fquare inchcj ; and that of the air-cells
to 20,000. Keil ellimates the number of the veficles at
174,418,615, and the whole internal furface of the lung at
21,006 fquare inches. Lieberkuhn carries his eliimate'of
the furface as high as 1500 cubic feet. We mention thefe
circumftances only to fliew the great extent of the mucous
membrane, and not bccaufe we place much faith in their ac-
curacy. In reading dcfcriptions of the minute ilriifture of
the lungs, and, indeed, in all other analoj^ous parts of ana-
tomy, we (hoidd always bear in mind the obfervation of
Haller ; " Ea fere homiuum eft infeticitas, ut omnis ultima
rerum phyficarum hilloria parum iirma fit, et ut altera ilia,
rerum geftarum memoratrix, in mythices fines terminatur."

A mucous fluid conftantiy lubricates the whole of this
furface. It is limpid, mild, and nearly infipid, or (lightly
faltini, aHid but little tenacious in the natural ftate. When
free from air, it finks in water. It is produced in fo fmall a
quantity, that it feoms to be dilTolved in the air, and thus
topafs off iufenfibly in exfpiration, or to be taken up by the
abforbente. It is poured out much more abundantly under
various circumftances, and is altered in colour and confid-
ence : it is then expelled by the expiratoi-y efforts which
conftitute cough. In children it has a reddifh colour ; and
it is often rather livid in adults.

The watery vapoi^r difcharged from the lungs in exfpira-
tion concurs in lubricating the furface of the air-paffages.
Whether there be any exhalation from the general mucous
furface, in addition to the mucous fecretioa, feems a point
hardly fufceptible of pofitive determination.

The pulmonary mucous membrane \e the part in which
tbe chemical phenomena of refpiration are carried on ; its
furface is in contaft with the air taken into the lungs. The
latter fluid is the only one, in addition to its natural mucus,
of which it can bear the contaft. All other fubftancee.
even the clearell water, are immediately and powerfully re-
jcfted by it. In itfelf it poflefl'es no power of expelling any
irritating matter from its furface ; but it excites the ex-
piratory mufclcs which aft convulfively and repeatedly until
itiz caufe is removed.

The velTels and nerves of the lungs are principally diftri-

buted on the air-tube?, of which tlicy every where foUow
the courfe. The arteries of the trachea eome from the in-
ferior thyroidcal ; thofc of the bronchi sin' derived nnmcdi-
ately froiiT the aorta, and are called the biniiciiial arteries.
The latter ramify in conjnudVion with the air-tul)es, and ad-
here cloltly to them : they are dillributed cliiefly on the
intern.il membrane. Several brandies are fpent on tiic
bronchial glands, and on tlie parietes of the pulmonary vef-
fels. D;) thi-v anadomofe with the puhuoiiary artery ? We
ihould be inclined to iuppofe that they do not, from con-
fidering that the two kinds of veflils contain blood of dif-
ferent natures, and have allogtiher diflercnt offices. The
bronchial arteries convey arterial blood tor the nutrition of
the lung- ; the pulmonary artcrv takes the venous blood,
that it may be fubmitted to the attion of the air in refpira-
tion. Yet it has been aflTerttd by feveral anatomifts, that
fuch an aiiallomofis does take place. The bronchial veins
accompany the arteries; their tranks end in the wna
a/ygos oil the right fide, and in the fuperior iutercoftal vein
on the left.

The par vagum furnirties nearly all the nerves belonging
to thefe organs : thofe of the trachea come from it alto-
gether. The nerves of the bronchi are derived from the
pulmonary plexufes formed principally by the par vagum,
but p irtly alio by branches from fome ganglia of the great
fynipathetic. As thefe nerves Item to be diliributed entirely
on the air-tubes, perhaps the epithet bronchia would be
more proper for them than pulmonary.

Ti>e vafciJar fyftem of the lungs may be divided into
three parts, dillinct in their nature, properties, and the
immediate olyeiEt of their phenomena. The firil is the pul-
monary artery, or the end of the general iyllom of black
bhiod ; the fecond, tlie pulmonary veins, or commtnccinent
of the general fyllem of red blood ; and tlve third, the ca-
pillary iyftem intermediate to the two preceding. (See
CiucuLATiOK and Heart.) The pulmonary artery arifes
from the upper and anterior part of the right ventricle, in
front of the origin of the aorta. It pafles upwards and
backwards, lying clofe on the left fide of the root of the
aorta, and, after a courfe of about an inch and a half, di-
vides into a right and left branch detUned for the corre-
fponding lungs. Thefe two divifions feparate moft widely
at their origin, going off from the trunk at right angles,
and hardly forming a lenfible angle with e.ach other. The
feparation takes place on the left fide of the aorta. The
right trunk goes immediately behind the aorta and luperior
vena cava, and follows a tranfverfe courfe to the right lung ;
the left has an analogous courfe en the left fide of the body,
but is much fliorter than the right, on account of the latter
palling beiiind the aorta and vena cava. Both are placed ia
front of the bronchi, and crofs the courle at firll, being di-
refted a little from below upwards ; but they are fubdivided
exaftly like the bronchi, and follow their courfe, being
clofely connefted to them throughout ; the artery is gene-
rally placed above its correfponding air-tube. For the or-
ganifation of this veffel, we refer to the article Heart.

The pulmonary veins, arifing from the capillary fyftem,
follow a courfe analogous to that of the arterial divifions.
Thefe alio accompany the air-tubes, and are fituated under
them. They unite gradually into larger and larger tubes,
and form ultimately four confiderable trunks,-two belonging
to each lung, and terminating in the left auricle of the heart.
Tlie fuperior right pulmonary vein pafles out of the lung
below tlie bronchus, and goes with a little obhquity down-
ward.s : the inferior afcends obliquely towards the auricle.
The left veins have a fimilar arrangement ; one defcendt,
ajid the other afcends : they are more approximated than oa

^S

the

LUNG S.

tfie right fiJc. For the Ofganifation of tlii.-fe ve.TclB, fee
Hjeart.

The capi'lary vt-ni-ls of the lung are diilribntctl in infinite
'number tliroiigh all parts of the orgsn, of the proper timic
of which they coinpofe a rery confiderable {liare. As they
have no connexion with the nutrition of the part, and pir-
fonn no fecrction, they give pafHif^e only to the bh^oel, and
are hence remarkably dillinguifhcil from tlie general capil-
lary fyfti-m. Thefo vetfels cover in vail proftifit n the
air-cells of the hnigs ; fo that when they are injeftod with
coloured fluids after death, the wiiole fiiblf ancc of tiie organ
appears dyed of the peculiar colonr. In them the blood is
expofed to the air, and converted from the dark or venous
into the red or arterial ftate.

The fiibilance of the lungs, on fnperfici.d examinatiovi,
offers a fott fpongy niafs, yielding eafily to prcffure, and
reftoring itfelf afterwards to its original ftate in an impcrfedl
manner. AVIieii we view it more attentiTely, we obferve on
the furfacc fmall whltifli lines circnnifcribing fpaces of dif-
ferent figures, as triangular, quadrangular, ^c. Thefeare
■called lobules of the lungs, and vary confidcrably in lize as
•well as figure. They are again divided into other fmaller
parts. Thcfc lobules are all connecled together by a loofe
and foft cellular fubllance, which never contains any fat ;
and the fame fubllimce unites the rcfleftcd pleura to the ex-
ternal fnrface of the lung. If we tear the fubllance of
the organ, and inflate it, the air fills the cells of this cellular
texture, and makes it more fenljble : it is alfo in fome cafes
rendered more obvious, by being the feat of a watery de-
polition, which conflitutes anafarca of the lungs. Its cells
have no communication with the air veilcles, unlefs the latter
be broken by inflation, as when we fqueeze the air in them
forcibly, they crack, and the air cfcapes into the cellular
texture, uniting the lobuli. On the other hand, we n.ight
inflate the cellular fubllance diltindtly from the air-cells.

Each lobulas of the lung eonfills of a branch of the air-
tube with a correfponding proportion of cells, a branch of
the pulmonary artery and vein, a portion of the pulmonary
capillaries of the bronchial velfels and nervous ramifications,
connefted by the cellular fubllance already defcribed.

The lymphatics of the lungs arc numerous, and divided
into a fuperficial and deep-feated fet : the former conflitute
a net-work on the furface of the lung, and communicate alfo
with the latter. They pafs through numerous glands, called
bronchiali placed on the trunks of the air-tubes and blood-
■veffels, partly within, but chiefly without the fubllance of
the lung. Other larger glands are fituated about the divi-
fion of the trachea, and the abforbents of the right and left
lung communicate in them. Some abforbents of the right
lung terminate in the right abforbcnt trunk } the reft, with
thofe of the left, end in the thoracic du6l, pafTiiiij through
glands on the fpine.

The brsnchial glands are large in fizc, and numerous in
proportion to the lung ; but they vary in both thefe re-
fpedls in different fubjefts. Several of the fmalleft are found
on the bronchi, within the fubftance of the lung. Their
colour is the moft remarkable of their properties : in the
adult it is a deep livid or black. Their confillence is rather
foft, and a coloured fluid may be exprelfed from them, when
cut or divided. Il is now clearly afccrtained that thefe
bodies belong to the lymphatic fyfteni. Anatomifts for-
Werly conceived that they fccretcd a particular fluid, and
poured it into the bronchi. We are quite ignorant ot the
caufe of their peculiar black colour.

The lung, then, is made up of the tiffues juft defcribed,
covered on the furfacc by the very thin and tranlpaient
pleura pu'monalis, which i; conneAed to the organ by

cellular fubftanes, and gives it tiie finooth external fufc
face.

Dcvilf/p.inenl of the Lungs. — The foetus has RO refpir.i-
tion : from the circumllanccs under which it is placed in the
uterus, it mull obviouQy be altogether precluded from ex-
crcifing that fuui'tion ; but it begins immediately after
birlh: hence the lungs, formed nearly as foon as the prin-
cipal organ of circulation, poffefs, at n very early period, a
conllderable developcment and well-marked form. Their
organifation, too, is ]Krfeft, or at leall they are capable (A
executing their functions, before the time at which they na-
turally come into adtion : for there are inftanccs of ciiildrcn
born long before the end sf the ninth month, as, for in.
fiance, at the feventh, or even fooner, who have been pre-
ferved alive by great care. In the early periods their colour
is rcddifli ; they then affumc a flightly tawny hue, which is
continued till the time i.f birth, and is not even changed by
refpiration, although tlie adinilfion of air into the organs at
that time is followed by the entrance of a larger quantity of
blood.

The lobuli are very diftincl in the fcftus, and cafilv fe-
parable : the connecting fubllance appears to be more
copious. Although the lungs a-c fmall in a fcctus at full
time, compared to thofe of a child who has breathed, we
cannot fay, as fome anatomifts reprcfent, that they are ex-
tremely diminutive, and confined to the back of the cheft.
As tbey are at this time entirely free from air, they poffefs
a denlity, which makes them link inllantly in water, when
plunged into it either entire or in (licee. They are pene-
trated by much lefs blood than after breathing lia* begun,
and therefore reduced almoll entirely to their folid and or-
ganifcd contents : they form at this time about y^th of the
weight of the whole body.

As the function of refpiration, which commences at the
moment of birth, goes on afterwards uninterruptedly, and
as the phenomena are as regular and perfecl at this time as
in more advanced age, we have no reafon to expeft that the
intimate llruilure ot the organ, that is, the arrangement of
the different component tifl'ues, will be different at that age
from what we know of it in the adult : but the valcular
trunks belonging to thefe parts exhibit fome peculiarities,
of which the details will be found in the articles He.^kt and

ClKCUL.ATIOM.

Breathing begins immediately after birth ; the enlarge-
ment of the chcll occallons the lungs to be dillended with
air, and confequently to become fpeciiically lighter ; a
greater quantity of blood paffes through them, and thus
they acquire greater abfolute weight. The incrcafe of vo-
lume mull be limited by the capability of enlargement in the
cheft ; and this cannot be very coiifiderable immediately on
birth. This enlarged lize is not, therefore, fufficiently
marked, to be relied on as a proof that refpiration has be-
gun. It is a vvell-known fadl, which we have already flatcd,
that the lungs of an individual, who has breathed, fwim in
water, whether they be immerfed entire or in dices. This
is a property remarkably contralled with what takes place
under the fame treatment before birth. A criterion has
been fought for in this fource, to determine, in doubtful
cafes, whether a child has been born dead or alive : and the
conlideration is a highly important one, from the influence il
may produce on medical opinions, in cafes of fufpcited
child-murder. AVe fhall only obferve here, that the coti-
vullive attempts to cllablifh refpiration, although not fuc-
cefsful, may introduce air enough into the lungs to make
them buoyant in water ; that attempts to infla"e them, in
order to prefervo the child, er after it has died, may have
the f.»me cffeftj ttat the (ijfenjjagemeni of air bj- putrefae-

tiua

LUNGS.

lion may thus malce tliem fpecifically Rghtei* tlian water ;
not to mention, that the child may have breathed and died
afterwards : fo that the mere naked circumftauce of the
lung fwimming is altogether an infiifficient proof that the
child has been murdered ; and to condemn a mother to
death on fiich gronnds, exhibits a degree of ignorance and
barbarity worthy only of the dark ages.

The increafe of abfolute bulk in the lungs after birth is a
phenomenon very worthy of being remarked. We have
ftated already, that thefe organs in the foetus, at full time,
are y'{,th of the body. According to the reicarches of fonie
German and French anatomifts, they are no more than
Tr'jth, or -jVth in a child who has breathed. There may be
ibme variation in this point, but the organs are never fo
light as to approach at all to the proportion wliich they ex-
hibit before birth ; a faft which is highly important in its
application to quellions of fuppoied infanticide.

The colour of the lungs does not remain through life the
fame as at the time of birth. In tlie earlier years it has dill
the reddifli, mixed with a tint of yellow, which we have al-
ready mentioned. After the twentieth year the livid or
black fpots appear, and become more uumerous as age ad-
vances.

Phyjlology of the Lungs. — Two very different kinds of
phenomena take place in the lungs. The firll are entirely
mechanical, and relate to the motions of the fides of the
cheft, by which the cavity is enlarged or diminidied ; and to
the dilatation or contraftion of the air-cells, and the adniif-
fion and expullion of the air, which are confequent on thefe
motions. Thefe have been already confidered in thofe parts
of the prefent article which relate to the motions of the
thorax. The phenomena of the fecond kind are purely
chemical, and confiil of the various alterations which the
refpired air undergoes, of the changes elFeftcd in the com-
polition of the blood, &c. For an account of thefe, the
reader is referred to Resi'inATiON, and Heat, /Iniimil.

Thefe two divifions of the rcfpiratory phenomena belong
refpeftivcly to the two great clafl'es of vital proceflcs ; the
animal and organic. The motions of the cheft are per-
formed by voluntary mulcles, and confequently are fubjeft
to the influence of the brain : hence a fetlion of the medulla
fpinalis above the origin of the phrenic nerve, or a divilion
<H the nerves which fupply the mufcles of refpiration, im-
njediately annihilates thefe motions. Commonly, indeed,
the motions of the cheft are performed fpontancoufly, that
is, without any exertion of the will ; and they go on during
fleep, when the aftion of all voluntary organs is fufpcnded.
But an aft of the will can accelerate, retard, or otherwife
modify the movements of the cheft ; and many of the
mufcles coneerncd afTilt in moving the trunk, on occalions
that have nothing to do with refpiration. The changes of
the blood, on the other hand, go on in the capillaries, and"
are performed without our conlcioufnefs : the brain has no
influence on ttem. The refpiratory funftions, then, offer
the point of union of the animal and organic lives, in which
thefe may reciprocally influence each other.

The chemical and mechanical phenomena of refpiration
are in a ftate of mfitual dependence : the interruption of one
is always quickly followed by the ceflatioii of the other.
Without the former, the latter would have no materials to
aft upon. If the mechauical .phenomena were interrupted,
the blood would no longer be lit to excite the brain ; and
that organ could not influence, in the proper manner, the
intercoftal mufcles of the diaphragm : hence thefe mufcles
would become inaftive, and even the mechanical phenomena
inull ceafe.

The heart does not influence thefe two kinds of phenomena
in the fame way.

The heart of black blood has obvioufly no power over the
mechanical phenomena of the lungs ; but it is ellentially con-
cerned in producing the chemical phenomena, as it fends to
the organ the fluid v.'hich derives certain properties fron; the
air, and imparts others to it. Thus, when the funftions of
the auricle or ventricle uf blaek blood, or of the great
venous trunks, are interrupted, as by a wound, or a liga-
ture applied in experiments, the chemical phenomena are at
once annihilated ; but the dilatation and contraftion of the
cheft ilill goes on. No blood arrives at the left ventricle,
and confequently the requifite motion cannot be imparted to
the brai:i : hence its funftions are iufpended, and confe-
quently the intercoftal mufcles and diaphragm ceafe to ^
aft.

In the cafe of a wound afFefting the auricle or ventricle
of red blood, the aorta, or its great branches, when a liga-
ture is artilicially apphed to the latter, or an anenrifm
burfts, &c. the funttions of the lungs ceafe in the following
order: i. No more impnlfe communicated to the brain;
2. No more motion of that organ ; 3. No more aftion ex-
erted on the mufcles, and confequently no more contraftion
of tlie intercoftals ar.d diaphragm ; 4. No more mechanical
phenomena. Without the latter, the chemical phenomena
cinnot take place : \n the foregoing cafe, they were Itopped
for want of blood ; in this, they ceafe from the interruption
in the fupply of air.

The preceding obfervations are derived from the Re-
cherches Phyfiologiques of Bichiit. In the 6tli, 7th, 8th,
and 9th articles of the fecond part of that work, he has en-
tered at length into the confideration of the influence of the
lungs on the heart, the brain, and the organs of tlie body in
general ; of which fubjefts he has given more clear and cou-
nefted views than any other phyfiologift. We fliall, there-
fore, avail ourfelves of his labours in this concluding divifion
of the prefent article.

Influence of the Death of the Lung upon that of the Heart. -~
The ceflation of aftion in the lungs m^ begin either in the
mechanical or the chemical phenomena. A wound expofing
them extenfively on both fides of the chelt, and producing
their fudden coUapfe ; a divifion of the fpinal marrow fud-
dcnly paralyfing the intercoftal mufcles and diaphragm ; are
cafes in which the death of the lungs begins in the me-
chanical phenomena. It commences in the chemical, in
afphyxia from noxious gafes, from ftrangulation, fubmerfion,
expofure in vacuo, &c.

The heart's action can be interrupted by the cefTation of
the mechanical phenomena of the lungs only in two ways :
I. Direftly, if the blood meets in the lungs with a real me-
chanical obftacle to its circulation ; 2. Indireftly, becaufe
where the mechar.ical aftion of the lungs ceafes, they no
longer receive air, which is neceflary to their chemical phe-
nomena, the cefl'ation of which interrupts the aftion of the
heart.

All phyiiologifts have admitted that the pulmonary cir.
dilation is interrupted in the former of thefe two ways.
They have conceived, that where the lung is not diftended,
its veflels are folded and comprefl'ed, and therefore tranfmit
the blood with difficulty : and by this explanation, derived
from hydraulic phenomena, they have accounted for the
death which enlues, where expiration is too long con-
tinued.

Goodwyn proved that a fufficient quantity of air remained
in the pulmonary veficles to allow mechanically the paflTage
of the blood; and, confequently, that protrafted expira*
tioii is not fatal in the way commonly fuppofed. (Con-

neftioo

LUNGS.

tieiJtion of Life witli Refpiration, Sec. ) An experiment,
winch any one may very eafily perform in his own perfon,
vill prove that point very calily. Lee him exfpire as fully
as polfible, and not inlplre again : the pnlfe is not changed,
and confeqiiently the circulation through the lungs is not
impeded. But the numerous and varied experiments of
Bichat place the fnbjeft beyond all doubt. Exhanft, fays
he, the lungs of an animal, by means of a fyringe mferted
in the trachea, and open the carotid artery. Here the cir-
culation ought to be fuddenly interrupted, according to the
common fuppofition, fmce the pulmonary veflels are reduced
from ihcir ordinary degree of diftention to tlie greateft pof-
fible collapfe and folomg : yet the blood continues for fome
■time to be forcibly thrown out of the opened artery, and
muft confequently circulate through the lung in tliis (late of
extreme collapte. The fame circumftance is obferved when
the Inngs collapfe, in confeqtience of the thorax being
opened on both r!,des ; even if, ini\ddition to this collapfe,
■%ve exhauft the air more effeftually with a 1) ringe.

The pulmonary circulation is continued, and even per-
formed with facility, when collections of water, pus, or
blood, exill in ihe cheli, and diminifii, in a very confider-
able degree, the air-cells of the lungs ; and when, confe-
■ quently, the angles and folds of the vcffels, if they are found
at all, muft be very confiderable. We may conclude, then,
that the interruption of the mechanical phenomena of refpira-
tion does not ilop the heart's aftion direftly ; but that it
operates indireftly, by cutting off the fupply of the ma-
terial, which is ncceflary for the exercife of the chemical
phenomena.

The death which fucceeds to protrafted infpiration has
been afcribed to the mechanical diilention of the pulmonary
veflels by the air, which has been fuppofcd to impede the
circulation through them. But this explanation is as ill-
founded as that which we have jull confidcred. Diflend the
lungs of an animal by injecting a large quantity of air, and
ccnline this by a itopcock faftened in the trachea ; then
open the carotid artery. The blood continues to flow for
fome time with its natural freedom.

Two opinions have been entertained concerning the man-
ner in which the interruption of the chemical phenomena of
the lungs produces a ceiTation of the heart's aclion. ■ Ac-
cording to Goodwyn, the black blood does not ftimulate
the left ventricle ,• fo that, in his manner ot viewing afphyxia,
death takes place, becaufe that cavity fends nothing to the
different organs. Its fource, therefore, is exclufively in the
heart. Biehat conceives, that when the chemical pheno-
mena of the' hmg£ are interrupted, there is a general aflec-
tion of all the organs : that the black blood carries to every
part debility and death, fo that the organs do not ceafe to
aft becaufe they receive no blood, but becaufe they receive
no red blood. The effefts of the contad of black blood
on the organs of the body wiU be illullrated prefently ;
we (hall confider here the phenomena of its contadt with the
parietes of the heart.

Many circumilances (hew that the black blood is capable
of ftimulating the left ventricle, fo as to excite it to con-
traftion. If this were not the cafe, death fhould commence
in afphyxia with the ctflaticn of the heart's aftion, and the
annihilation of the fnnflions of the brain fliould be fecmdary.
But, kill an animal l:y ftopping the tra>.liea, by pbcing it
in vacuo, by drowni-: ; or inimerfion in noxious gales, &c.
and you will confta:;'ly obferve, that the animal hfe is lirlt
interrupted, that tl -. fenfations, motions, and voice are fuf-
pended, fo that the animal is dead externally, whi e the heart
ftill beats and the pulfe is kept up for fome time. The
different organs, therefore, do not ceafe to act in atpiiyxia,

Vol. XXI.

becaufe the heart fends them no blood, but becaufe it fends k
kind of blood which is not fuited to them.

Let the trachea of an animal be flopped and an artery-
opened, the blood iffuing from the latter is at firft red, then
grows gradually darker, and at laft is black venous blood.
Neverthelef3,it is fliU expelled for fome time with confiderable
force. If the lungs be exhaufted by a fyringe, previous to
clofing the trachea, and an artery then opened, black blood
comes from it immediately, without going through the (hades
mentioned before, and a tolerably tlrong jet is kept up for
fome time. If the black blood did not poffefs the power of
exciting the left ventricle, its flow ihould be fuddenly inter,
rupted in this cafe, where it can undergo no change froav
th; Inng, and exifts in the aorta in the fame ftate as in the
venas cava:.

It is moreover ftated by Biehat, that he lias rc-cxcited th*
contraftioiis of the left ventricle, after they had ceafed in
various kinds of violent death, by injefting black blood
through one of the pulmonary veins. It is obvious too,
that wiien lufpended refpiration is reflored by inflating the
lungs, the left ventricle mull firft propel the black blood with
which it is loaded, before the red blood can arrive at the
lungs. The heart of red blood has, therefore, the power
of impelling black blood into all the organs ; and in this
way we explain the peculiar colour of the different furfaces
in afphyxia.

The mere contaft of black blood has no more fenfible
aftion on the internal furface of the arteries than on that of
the heart. If, when the trachea is clofed, an artery of the
foot be opened, the blood is propelled from it for fome time
with the natural force.

" From thefe conliderations and experiments we may con-
clude," fays Biehat, " that the black blood has the power
of exciting the internal furface, and determining the aftion
«f the heart and arteries ; and that if no other caufe inter-
fered with their funftions the circulation might be continued,
not, perhaps, with equal force, but at leaft in a very fenfi-
ble manner. What then are the caufes which interrupt
the circulation in the heart of red blood and in the ar-
teries, 'when the lung tranfmits to them only black blood ?
For when the latter has flowed tor fome time, the jet is
gradually weakened, and at lall entirely ceafes : if the ftop-
cock fixed in the trachea be now opened, it is again fpeedily
reftored. I believe that the black blood afts upon the heart
as upon all other paj-ts, as we fliall fee that it influences the
brain, the voluntary mufcles, the membranes, &c. ; that is to
fay, by penetrating its tiffue, by debilitating each individual
fibre. 1 am well convinced, that if black blood could be
circulated in the coronary vcffels, while the red ihould pats
as ufnal through the left auric'e and ventricle, the circulation
would be interrupted almoft as quickly as in the preceding-
cafes." We conclude then, in general terms, and without
attempting to determine how this takes place, tliat the heart's
aftion ceaies when the chemical phenomena of the lungs are
interrupted, becaufe the black blood, which penetrates its
mufeular fibres, is not capable of keeping up their aftion. ■

In this view of the fubject, the right ventricle will be as
much affefled as the left, fince the black blood is diftributed
equally to the fibres of each. Yet the latter ceaies to aft
firft, and this is fo conllantly and well known afaft, that the
right fide of the heart has been called the- ii^timum moriens.
This arifes, as Haller has already clearly explained, from
the circumftance of the right cavities being- longer excited
than the left. (See Hear-i', and Circulation'.) It dot*
not prove that the left ventricle dies firfl in afpliyxia. If
that were the cafe, the left aiu-icle anc ventricle Ihould be
diftended with blood after death, and tliis diftention fliouM
4 M be

LUNGS.

be propagated from them into tlie pulmonary veins and
right fule of the heart ; that is to fay, the cufgeftion of
blood ftiould begin in the refer^oir which firft ceafes to
aft, and it fhould be propagated from that into the others.
The examination of animals, who have perifhed from af-
phyxia, fliews us, on the contrary, that the cavities of red
blood and the pulmonary veins contain but a fmall quantity
of bhck blood in comparifon with that wliich diftends tliofe
of the oppofite fide ; that the point at whieh the blood has
ftoj'ped is principally in the lung, fiom which we are to
trace its ft jgnation in the whole venous fyftem ; and that
the arteries contain as much in proportion as the correfpond-
ing ventricle, fo that deathcannot be fuppofed to have begun
in it rather than in any other part.

Bichat Hates afterwards, that he cannot entirely rejeft
<he notion of the lefs aptitude of the black blood to ftimu-
late the left ventricle. When an artery- is opened, a ftop-
cock being fixed in the tracl»ea and clofed, the iet of blood
is gradually weakened ; open the ftopcock, and the blood
becomes again immediately red, and is thrown out more
forcibly. This change is too fiidden to admit of our ac-
counting for it by the red blood penetrating the tilTue of
the heart. Yet it may happen from the powerful motions
of infpiration and exfpiration which the animal makes as foon
as air enters the chefl. For if an artery be opened, and
refpiration thus hurried, the jet of blood will he raanifeftly
increafed. On tlie whole, therefore, even if it be allowed
that red blood is a more powerful ftimulus to the heart than
black, the excefs mull be very trifling.

In connexion with this fubjeft, we may confider the
explanation of the remarkably diftended ftatc, in which the
pulmonary artery, the right cavities of the heart, and the
venou? fyitem are found in in (lances where death commences
in the chemical phenomena of the lungs, compared with
the comparatively empty condition of the fyftem of red
blood. Tlie phenomenon is fo remarkable as to have attrafted
the attention of all who have opened the bodies of animals
killed by afphyxia ; it has been commonly explained by the
folds of the pulmonary vcfltls, which we have already con-
fidered.

The lungs are found in tuo very different ftates, accord-
ing to the manner in which life ends : when death is inftan-
■taneous, they are not loaded with b!ood ; the auricle and
ventricle of black blood, the pulmonary artery, and the
general venous fyllem, are not remarkably difiended. On
the contrary, when the chemical phenomena of refpiration
are flowly dellroyed, when an animal has been kept as long
as poflible in the diftrcfs and anguifti which attend inter-
ruption of the funftions of the lungs, thcfe organs are
extremely Uiaded with blood, and diftended to a volume very
far exceeding that which they prefent in the other cafe. In
whatever condition the lungs of an animal, which has pe-
rilhed by afphyxia, may be found, whether they be loaded
or empty, and conCcquently whether death have been brought
un flowly or fuddenly, the vafcular fyftem of black blood
is always full of this fluid, particularly about the heart ;
there is conftantly a great difference in this refpeft between
it and the vafcular fyftem of red blosd, and confequently
the principal obftacle to the circulation is in the lung.

Bichat explains this phenomenon from certain ccnfider-
ations connected with the blood, the lung, and the heart.

1. The black blood circukting in the arteries is inca-
pable of furnifhing to the organs of fecretion, exhalation,
and nutrition, the various materials neceflary for the exercife
cf thofe funftions ; or if it conveys the materials, it cannot
excite the organs. Hence, the venous fyllem receives an
tinufually large quantity of blood, as all Uiat portion, which

is ordinarily removed by the funftions jufl mentioned, enter*
it ; and the difficulty of tlie pafTage through the lungs i»
proportionally augmented. All obfervers have been ftruck
by the gnat abundance of blood found in the veftels in
thefe cafes.

2. The lung is no longer excited by red blood : the^
bronchial vclTels carry black blood to it, and hence its
powers are enfeebled, as thofe of the heart are by the fame
fluid conveyed to it by the coronary arteries Again, the
pulmonary capillary iyftem contains nothing but black
blood. I'hat the tonic powers, by which the circulation is
carried on in thofe velTels, muft be much depreffed from
this caufe, cannot be doubted. Moreover, the habitual
excitation of the mucous furfaces by the atmofphei-ic air
is interrupted ; and this muft aflttft in lowering the tonic
powers.

3. Tlie auricle and ventricle of black blood aft more
weakly, and are Itfs capable of furmounting any refiftance
in the lung in confequence of their fibres being penetrated
by black blood. They can no longer refill the blood
brought by the \en.T cavx, and become diftended bj it.

Thefe confiderations feemto account fatisfaflorily for the
diftention of the fyftem of black blood in afphyxia ; ws
have next to explain why the fyftem of red blood contains a
quantity comparatively fo fmall. As the obftacle exifts in
the lungs, a fmaUer quantity arrives at the left fide of th«
heart. The natural ftrength of the left ventricle and the
arteries exceeds that of the right and- the veins ; confe-
quently the former can more ealily overcome the rcfiftanca
of the capillaries of the body in general, than the latter
can that of the pulmonary capillaries. Again, there is
only one caufe of retardation in the general capillary circu-
la'ion, •viz. the contaft of black blood with the organs j
while there is added to this caufe in the lungs, the ablcnce
of the habitual excitation produced by the atmofpheric air.
Thus, we find in the lungs more refiftance to the blood
brought by the veins, and lefs force to overcome that re-
fiftance ; while in the body in general the obftacles at the
jimftion of the arteries and veins are more feeble, and the
force tending to overcome them is greater.

Although the general capillary fyllem offers lefs refiftance
to the arteries, than the pulmonary capillaries do to the
veins in afphyxia, yet there is a manifeit obftruftion evea
here ; and it gives rife to two remarkable phenomena.
Black blood is coUefted in the arteries in a much greater
quantity than ufual, although in a fmaller proportion than
in the veins ; hence injeftion fucceeds badly in fuch fubjefts.
The accumulation of black blood in the extremities of the
arteries gives a livid colour to all the furfaces of the body,
and a bloated apjiearance to the various parts, as the face,
tongue, lips, &c. Thefe two phenomena indicate a con-
geftion ol black blood in the arterial extremities, as the ana-
logous appearances of the lungs denote a difScuIty of paf-
fage through the pulmonary capillaries, where indeed thje
congeftion is much more manifeft, becaufe the fyftem is con-
centrated within a fmall fpace, while the other is fpread
over the whok- body.

Influence ivhich the Dtath of the Lung produces on that of the
Eratu. — The black blood afts upon tiie brain as it does on
the heart ; that is, by penetrating its tiffae, and depriving
it of the excitation neceffary for keeping up its aftion.
What we have faid concerning the heart is therefore equally
applicable to tliis fubjeft. The experiments of Bichat on
this point have been very numerous and diverfified. He
firft transfufed through a tube the blood of the carotid of
one dog into the carotid of another : this does not hurt the
animal if a vein be opened to obviate plenitude of the veffels.

LUNGS.

It proves that the contaA of extraneous red blood does not
injure the cerebral funftions. He then opened the jugular
vein and carotid artery of a dog, received the blood of the
former in a fyringe heated to the temperature of the body,
and injeifted it into the latter. The animal was almotl im-
mediately agitated ; the refpiration was hurried, and the
diftrefling kind of fuffocation that belongs to afphyxia was
produced. Soon all the fymptoms of the latter ftate ap-
peared ; the animal life was entirely fufpended j the lieart
ftill continued to beat, and the circulation went on for half
an hour, at the end of which time the organic life alfo was
extinft. This experiment was often repeated, and inva-
riably with the fame refult : about fix ounces of black blood
were injeded. If the point of the fyringe was infertcd into
the vein, fo as to draw up the blood without any poffibility
of its coming in contaft with the air, the refult was the
fame, except that death came on rather more (lowly.
Various other fubftances, fuch as ink, oil, wine, water
coloured blue, urine, bile, mucous fluids, produced the
fame effects. That the fatal effecis arife in thefe cafes from
the aifiion of the black blood, J^c. on the brain, and not on
the internal furface of the arteries, is proved by injefting
them into the crural artery ; the injection is never morral,
although numbnefs and even paralyfis generally follow. If
blood be taken from the carotid artery of an animal who
is fufferinor afphyxia, and injefted into that of another, the
fame effects with thofe already mentioned are produced.
Alfo, if the carotids of two dogs are united by a lilver tube,
fo that the heart of the one fends its blood to the brain of
the other, and a (lopcock be placed in the trachea of the
former, no bad effeft is produced, fo long as that remains
open. Clofe the (lopcock, and black blood will be fent
inftead of red. Now, the dog whofe carotid receives this
blood becomes coiifuled and agitated, drops his head, and
lofes his fenfes ; but thefe phenomena come on more (lowly
than when black blood taken from the venous fyftem is in-
jefted into the artery. If the transfufion be ftopped, the
fymptoms of afphyxia may go off, and the animal recover ;
but death invariably follows the injeftion of blask blood
with a fyringe.

In fumming up his experiments, Bichat concludes, that
the nature of the principles contained in the black blood
render it either incapable of exciting the aftion of the brain,
or aftually injurious to the organ ; but he cannot decide
whether its influence is exerted negatively or polltivcly.

He proceeds to make fome interefting obfervations on the
nature and treatment of afphyxia. " We might conclude,"
fays he, " from the above-mentioned facts, that the beil mode
of treating thofe who are fuffering from afphyxia, would be
to impel into the brain red blood, which is its natural lli-
mulus. Two points of time fhould be di(liDgui(hed in
afphyxia; i, that in which the central funftions alone are
fufpended ; 2, when the circulation as well as the movements
of the chell have ilopped ; for, in this affeftion, the animal
life is firft fuddenly extinguilhed, and the organic ceafes
after a certain interval. In the (irll of thefe periods, the
transfufion of red blood towards the brain, from the carotid
of another animal, gradually re-animates the powers of mo-
tion ; the cerebral funftions are partly rertored, and the
arrival of blood in the brain is often announced by fiidden
agitations of the head, eyes, &c. ; bnt this improvement
foon difappears, and the animal relapfes if the caufe con-
tinues, as for example, if the (lopcock in the trachea re-
mains ihut. On the other hand, if the (lopcock be opened
in this tird period, the arrival of frefli air in the lungs al-
moft always gradually re-animates thefe organs. The blood
affumee the red colour, and is fent in that Itate to the brain,

and life is reftored without transfufion, which is completely
ineffedtual in the fecond period of afphyxia, that is, when
the organic movements, particularly thofe of the heart, are
fufpended. The transfufion of red blood towards the brain
does not, therefore, afford us any remedy in the cafe of
afphyxia. Neither does it fucceed after the injeftion of
venous blood into the brain by means of a fyringe, which is
invariably fatal. Afphyxia produced by injecting blood
taken from the vein into the brain is more prompt and cer-
tain, than that occafioned by the gradual chan-je of the red
into black blood, confequent on interrupted refpiration ;
and the nature of the two caies is manifelUy different."

The phenomena of afphyxia, as obfcrved in the human
fubject, coincide very well with what is obferved in experi-
ments on animals. In all cafes the brain is fird affeAed, its
functions are annihilated, and the animal life, particularly
fo far as regards the fenfes, ceafes ; the internal functions
are fubfequently arreftcd. When afphyxia is produced in. '
an animal with an artery open, it is curious to obl'erve how
the affciftion of the brain coincides with the change of colour
in the blood, while the energy of the heart is unabated.
Moft of thofe who have been expofed to afphyxia, and have
efcaped fuffocation,. have experienced only a general kind of
benumbing or paralyfis, the feat of which is manifelUy in
the brain ; while all in whom the pulfe and heart have
ceafed to beat, certainly die. Almoll all who have re-
covered fay, that they felt firft more or lefs violent pain in
the head, produced probably by the firft contact of black
blood with the brain. Bichat confiders the common notions
of the effects of charcoal vapours on the head, and the ex-
pre(rions concerning the heavinefs, giddinefs, &c. produced
by them, as ftrong proof that the firft influence is in fac't
exerted on the brain. He obferves further, that many indi-
viduals who have recovered from afphyxia produced by this
caufe, exhibit, for a longer or (horter period, various
affeftions of the intelleftnal funftions and voluntary mo.
tions, as for inftance confufion of ideas, and unfteady mo-
tions of the lower hmbs ; the fame effefts, in a fmaher
degree, which apoplexy produces more fenfibly. Convulfive
motions have fometimes taken place almoft immediately after
expofure to mephitic vapours ; and a pain in the head has
often lafted many days after the difappearance of the other
fymptoms.

From the foregoing confiderations, Bichat deduces the.
following conclufions ; i ft, that when the chemical pheno-
mena of the lungs are interrupted, the black blood aft»
upon the brain as upon the heart, that is, by penetrating its
tilFue, and thereby depriving it of the excitation neceffary
to its aftion; 2dly, that its influence is much more promptly-
exerted on the former tlian on the latter of thefe two
organs ; 3dly, that the inequahty of their influence deter-
mines the difference obferved in the ceffation of the two
lives in afphyxia, where Uie animal always ceafes before the
organic. Hence we may infer, how unfounded the opinion
is, that in thofe who are executed by the guillotine, the
brain ilill continues to live fome time, and that fenfations of
pleafure and pain may ftill be referred to it. The aftion of
this organ is intimately connefted to its double excitation ;
ift, by the motion, and zdly, by the nature of the blood
which it receives. As this excitation is fuddenly interrupted
m that mode of death, all feeling is as fuddenly fufpended.

Influence of the Death of the Lung on that of the Organs of the
Body in genrra!. — Bichat commences his view of this lubjeA
by examining the changes of colour which the blood under-
goes when the chemical phenomena of the lungs are in-,
terrupted. He found the hell method of obferving thefe
changes to be by fixing a llopcock ia the trachea of an
4 M 2 animal.

LUNGS.

animal, by wli!c]i tlie quantity and kind of air introduced
iiito the lungs can be regulated, and placing a fmalltube witli
a itopcock. in an artery, as the carotid or crural, which
enabled him to afcertain how the blood was altered.

1. When the ftopcock is clofed iminediately after an in-
fpiration, the blood grows darker in thirty fcconds ; it has
acquired a deep tint in a minute, aild it poiTeflTes entirely the
appearance of venous blood in a minute and a half, or two
minutes.

2. The produdion of the black colour takes place more
quickly by feveral fcconds, if the ftopcock be fhut after ex-
fplration, particularly if it has been a complete one.

3. If tlie air be drawn out of the lungs by a fyringe, the
blood becomes immediately black : twenty or thirty fe-
conds are fuflicicnt for the change. No fuccelTive gradations
of colour arc obfervcd.

4. If the lungs be extended by injefting air into thet'i,
and clofing the ftopcock, a longer time is necelTary for
changing the blood into the black Itate : three minutes will
then be required.

Thefe phenomena are obferved in the pafTiige of the
animal from a Hate of afphyxia to death : a lerios of an
oppolite nature is feen when it is rellored from alphyxia to
life.

1. When the ftopcock, after being clofed for fome mi-
nutes, is opened, the animal immediately performs fix or
foven great infpirations and exfpirations. A jet of red blood
fucceeds the black, which was flowing before ; and the in-
terval between the two is at moft thirty fcconds. There is
no fuccefllve change of tints, but a certain and decided alte-
ration.

2. If a fmall quantity only of air be admitted, the change
of colour is lefs confiderable.

3. If frcfh air be injefted, and the ftopcock then clofed,
the blood becomes red, but lefs manifellly than when
the air is admitted by voluntary refpiration : m the latter
cafe the animal firft expels the air that had become
fpoiled.

4. If the air inclofed in the lung be drawn out by a fy-
ringe, and frefh air injefted, the change of colour is effefted
more rapidly than in tlie preceding caiie.

J. When the lung is expofed by cutting through the
ribs, the circulation is continued for a certain time. If it
be alternately diitended and emptied by means of a fyringe,
the red and black colours are ItiU produced fo long as the
sirculation i.; kept up.

From the rapidity i^ith which the blood, in thefe experi-
ments, is changed from black to red on opening the ftop-
cock, we caniujt help concluding tiiat the principle which
caufcs this alteration patTes diredly from the lung into the
blood, through the membranous lining of the air-cells. The
acceleration of the motions of the heart in animals undergoing
afphyxia, as in the famous experiment of Hook, by itijett-
ing air into the trachea, muft be referred to the red blood
penetrating the fibres of the heart, and putting an end to the
debility which the contaft of biack blood was producing.
Yet this method will never re-produce the motions of the
heart when they have been once annihilated by the contaft
of black blood. Bichat has often tr:ed this without fuc-
cefs. The heart, fays he, cannot be re-animated by the
aflion of the air, ur.lefs the blood, coloured by that fluid,
eould penetrate the organ. When the circulation is flopped,
how can this take place ?

Hydrogen snd carbonic acid gafes were enip'oyed in re-
fpiration by filling bladders with them, and fixing them to
the tube in the trachea. The bldJder is a'ternaitly dirteiided
aAd emptied as tlie animal exfpires and infpires. He is at

firft tolerably quiet, but in about three minutes begins to be
agitated ; refpiration becomes hurried and troubled, the
blood flowing from an artery grows darker, and is black at
the end of four or five minutes. Thtre was very little dif-
ference in the time required for the change, or intenfity of
the colour, whichever ot the two gafes was employed.

The reafon why the change of colour takes place more
flowly when thefe bladders are adajited to the (tiipcock, than
when the latter is clofed, feems to be, that the air contained
in the trachea and its branches is repeatedly thrown from
the lung into the bladder, and vice -ver/a ; fo that its whole
refpirable proportion is fucceflively prefented to the blood.
This mqtion cannot take place in the latter cafe ; fo that as
foon as the pure part of the air contained in the bronchial
cells is cxhauftcd, the blood is no longer converted into tiie
red ftatc, although the trachea and its large divifions ftill
contain a confiderable quantity of air capable of ferving the
purpofes of refpiration. It appears that the converlion of
the blood goes on only at the extremities of the bronchial ra-
inincationi-, and that the internal furface of the large air-
veflels has no connection with this phenomenon.

We have already feen that the action of the heart conti-
nues for fome time after the chemical phenomena of the
lungs have been interrupted ; the arterial circulation is there-
fore itill maintained, although the arteries contain a different
fluid from that which is natural to tliein ; and the organs of
the body, accuftomed only to the red blood, become pene-
trated, in confequence of this circulation, by black blood.
Bichat has proved this by cxpofing various parts in an animal,
while the itopcock in its trachea was clofed, and the animal
was confequently undergoing afphyxia. He has examined
in this way the mufcles, the nerves, the fkin, mucous and
ferous membranes, and the granulations of wounds, and
found that the black blood penetrated them all, and pro-
duced more or lefs confpicuous alterations in tfieir colour,
which was rendered either brown or livid. The phenomenon
is very obvious in the fliin, which always prefents more or
lefs extenfive livid fpots in afphyxia. Thefe can only be
explained by the exillence of an obilacle to the tranfmiffion
of the blood in the general capillary fyftem : in the fame
way we account for the fwelling of various parts, as the
cheeks, lips, and head in general.

The black blood does not penetrate at all into fome parts
of the general capillary fyftem, and the natural colour is
confequently prcfcrved : in others it manifellly enters and is
obftrutted, producing a dark colour at the part, and more-
over a tumefaction, if it enters in large quantity : or,
laftlv, it may pafs this fyftem and enter the veins. In the
two former cafes the general circulatioB is arrcfted in the
capillary fyftem ; in the latter, which is the more ge-
neral, the courfe of the blood is fufpended in the capillaries
of the lungs.

The faft that the black blood continues to be circulated
for fome time after the chemical phenomena of the lungs
have been interrupted, explains a phenomenon, which muft
have been obferved by all who are much employed in dif-
feftions ; viz. that in the dead body we meet with black
blood only, even in the veffels which naturally carry red
blood. However death may be produced, the functions of
the Inno-s are troubled in the lali moments of exillence, and
end before thofe of the heart. The blood ftill moves, al-
though it no longer receives the influence of the air : it is
therefore circulated black for a certain length of time, and
remains in that ilate in the organs, although tlie circulation
is much k'fb evident than in afphyxia.

After having ftiewn that the interruption of the chen-.ical
phenomena of refpiration prevents the black blood from

being

LUNGS.

beinGT converted into the red flate, and that this black blood
is circiilT.ed thr.rigrh the body by the dill fiirvivinjT aftion
of the li"art, Bichat proceeds to (liew that the black blood is
not rj s.Hle of maiiitainincr the vital powers and ai'^ivity of
the or^rans, which are therefore killed by its contaft. i^he
re.l 'lood, he fays, gives to the organs their natural and
healthy excitation, by which their vifal powers are fupport-
ed. P^nibly this effect mdy be produced by the combina-
tion of the differeftt principles that colour it, with the va-
rious organs in which it is contained.

The organs of the animal and of the organic life have
their aftiois terminated in different ways. The former, be-
ing entiely dependent on the brain, have their funAions fuf-
peiided as foon as thofe of the Urain ceafe. We have already
(hewn that the contaft of black blood produces the latter ef-
feft almoft inftantlv ; confequently the organs of fenfation,
locomotion, and the v»,ice, mul be fuddenly paralyfed in
afphyxia. But the circulation of the black blood produces
ftill further effefts : when it penetrates the nerves, it ren-
ders them incapable of keeping up the communication be-
tween the brain and the fenfes on one fide, and the locomo-
tive and vocal organs on the other. The contact of the
black blood with the organs themfelves alfo annihilates their
action. Injeft into the crural artery of an animal blood
drawn from one of its veins ; the motions are foon weakened
very perceptibly, and fometimes a momentary paralyfis is
produced. The effeft cannot be afcribed to tying the artery,
for that alone is often attended with no fuch confequence,
whereas the refult of injecting black blood is always the
fame, except indeed that it varies in duration and intenfity.
Senfation is alfo manifelHy fufpended in this e.x.periment, but
later than the power of motion. The cffeft is always pro-
duced, particularly if the injeftion of black blood be re-
peated three or four times at fmall intervals.

The organs of the internal life being independent of the
cerebral aftion, have not their functions arrefted, like thofe
of the external life, by the fufpenfion of that aftion. It is
the contaft of the black blood only that afts in this cafe,
and confequently the death of thefe organs has one caiife
lefs than that of the locomotive and vocal parts, &c. We
have already explained the influence of the black blood on
the organs of circulation, and have fhewn how the heart
ceafes to aft as foon as it is thoroughly penetrated by that
fluid. Its circulation in the veffels of the coats of the arte-
ries and veins weakens thofe tubes, and fufpends their aftion.
It mud be exceedingly difficult, if not impoflible, to bring
forward any ilrift proof that the fecretions, exhalation, and
nutrition cannot derive from the black blood materials fuited
to their offices ; for that blood does not circulate in the ar-
teries long enough to admit of our making experiments on
thofe-funftions. We mull rely, therefore, chiefly on the ana-
logy of what happens in other parts, to prove that the or-
gans of fecretion, exhalation, and nutrition have their func-
tions interrupted when black blood is fcnt to them. This
ftatemenl is very much corroborated by the quantity of blood
found in the velTels of thofe who have perifhed by afphyxia ;
it is fo large as to be very troubleforae in diffefting fuch
bodies, which might naturally be expcfted when the ufual
outlets of the fecretions, &c. are ilopped.

From the preceding confiderations Bichat concludes, that
when the chemical functions of the lungs are interrupted, all
the organs of the body ceafe to aft li.nultaneoufiy, in confe-
quence of the contaft of black blood ; that their death coin-
cides with that of the heart and brain, although it is not de-
rived immediately from that caufe ; that, if it were poffible
for thefe two organs to receive red blood, while black was
fcnt to the others, the fumiiions of the latter would ceafe,

while thofe of the former would be continued : in a word,
that afphyxia is a general phenomenon, taking place at the
fame time in all ♦he organs, and not more decidedly marked
in any particular one

By refuming and comparing what has been faid concerning
the influence of the lungs on the heart, the brain, and the
organs in general, we (hall eafily form an idea how all the
funftions fucceffively terminate, when the refpiratory pheno-
mena are interrupted. When the mechanical phenomena are
fufpended'; i, there are no more chemical phenomena, for want
of airto fupportthem; 2, no more aftion of the brain, for want
of red blood to excite it ; 3, ceffation of the animal life,
that is, of the fenfaiions, locomotion, and the voice, becaufe
the organs are no longer excited by the brain, nor by red
blood ; 4, ceffation of the general circulation ; 5, ceffation
of the capillary circulation, of fecretion, abforption, and
exhalation, in confequence of the organs of thofe funftions
being no longer excited by red blood ; 6, no more digef-
tion, for want of fecretion and excitation of the digeltive
organs, &c.

When the chemical funftions of the lungs are interrupted,
the phenomena of death fucceed in a different order : i, in-
terruption of the chemical phenomena ; 2, fufpenfion of the
aftion of the brain ; 3, ceffation of the fenfations, and of
voluntary motions, confequently of the voice, and the me-
chanical phenomena of refpiration ; 4, (loppage of the
heart's action, and of the general circulation ; 5, termina-
tion of the capillary circulation, of the fecretions, exhalation,
abforption, and confequently of digeftion ; 6, annihilation
of animal heat, which is the refult of all the funftions, and
which does not leave the body until every kind of vital pro-
cefs is extinguifhed. In whatever fun&ion death may begin,
it alw-ays ends in this.

There is a very intimate conneftion between the brain and
the lungs : as foon as the former ceafes to aft, the funftions
of the latter are interrupted. This phenomenon, which is
conftantly obferved in warm-blooded animals, can happen
only in two ways : i, becaufe the aftion of the brain is
direftly neceffary to that of the lung ; or 2, becaufe the lat-
ter receives from the former an indireft influence through the
intercoftal mufcles and diaphragm, an influence which ceafes
as foon as the brain becomes inaftive.

The lung can influence the brain direftly only through tBe
par vagum and the great fympathetic nerve. Irritation pf
the former renders' refpiration hurried, but this is an effeft
produced by any confiderable pain. Divjfion of one nerve
of the eighth pair affects the breathing for a time : but tliis
goes off, and the refpiratory funftions are then carried on with
their accuftomed regularity. If both nerves are cut, refpi-
ration is ftiU more hurried : it does not return to its ordi-
nary rate, as in the preceding experiment, but continues la-
borious for four or five days, when the animal periflies.
Hence we fee that the eighth pair is neceffary to the pulmo-
nary funftions, and confequently that the brain has fome in-
fluence on thefe funftions : hut the agency is not a very
aftive or important one, fince the funftions of the lung are
continued for a long time without it, and confequently re-
fpiration is not fuddenly (lopped, through its interruption in
injuries of the brain. Experiments (hew that the iiitercej)-
tion of the influence derived from the great fympathetic is
equally inadequate to interrupt the funftions of the lungs.

Smce the lung is not affefted immediately from the inten-
ruptipn of the aftion of the brain, there muH be fome intei:-
mcdiate organs, through which tlie former is aftcd on by
the latter. Thefe are the mufcles of refpiration Subjeft,
by the nerves which they receive, to the immediate influence
of the braiuj they become paralytic as foon as the aftion of

the

L U N

•tTie latter has ceafed. If the fpinal marrow be divided be-
tween the lall cervical and firft dorfal vertebra, the intercof-
tal mufcles are paralyfed, and refpiration is carried on by
the diaphragm only. If tlie phrenic nerves be cut, the dia-
phragm is rendered motionlcfs, and the intercollals alone per-
form breathing. In either of thcfe cafes hfe may be conti-
nued for fome time. But if the phrenic nerves and the
fpinal marrow about the bottom of the neck be both di-
vided ; or, which comes to the fame thing, if the fpinal
marrow be cut through above the origin of the phrenic nerves,
all communication between the brain and the agents of refpi-
ration is fufpended, and death immediately follows. The
rdifferenceof half an inch in the height at which the feftion is
made is fo important, that, if it be done at one point, the ani-
mal fhall live fifteen or twenty hours, if half an inch nearer
to the brain, he will die immediately. In the former cafe it
is below, in the latter above the origin of the phrenic nerve :
in the one inftance refpiration and confequently li.'e ccafes,
becaufe the diaphragm and intercollal mufcles can aft no
longer ; in the other the diaphragm carries on the refpira-
tory fundlions, and confequently fupports life for fome
time.

The faftsjuft detailed fhew, that when the nervous fyftem
is injured above the origin of the phrenic nerves, the pheno-
mena of death fucceed in the following order : I, fufpenfinn
of the aftion of the voluntary nerves below the injury, and
confequently of the intcrcoftal and phrenic ; 2, paralyfis of
all the mufcles of the animal life fupplied by thofe nerves,
particularly of the diaphragm and intercoftal mufcles ;
3, celFation of the mechanical phenomena of refpiration, for
want of the agents neceffary to th>>fe phenomena ; 4, anni-
hilation of the chemical phenomena. The interruption of
.all thefe motions is as rapid as their fucceflion is quick in the
natural order. Death comes on in this way from a divifion
crcompreflion of the medulla fpinalis near the brain, from a
luxation of the fccond vertebra, from concuffion or compref-
fion of the brain, &c.

Thus we fee that refpiration is a funftion of a mixed kind,
placed in a manner between the two lives, and ferving as
their point of contaft, belonging to the animal life by its me-
chanical, and to the organic by its chemical phenomena.
Hence the aftivity of the lung depends as much on that of
the brain, which is the centre of the former, as on that of
the heart, which is the central organ of the latter.
LuNG.s, Confumption of. See Consumption.
Lungs, Dropfy of. See Duopsy.
Lungs, lufammation of. See PeripneumONY.
Lungs, Polypus of the. See Polypus.
Lungs, Wounds of the. See Wounds.
Lungs of InfeSs. See Entomology and Insects.
Lungs, Sea, in Zoology. See Medusa.
Lungs, Ship's. See Ventilator.
LUNGSAKP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
■Weft Gothland ; 57 miles from Gotheborg.

LUNGSUND, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland ; 25
miles N.E. of Carlftadt. N. lat. 58° 48'. E. long.

LUNGU, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
soaft of Qiieda. N. lat. 6 39'. E. long. 99 4Z'.

LUNG-WORT, in Botany, fe'r. See Pulmonaria.

LuNC^woitr, Cow's or Bullock's. See Verbascum.

LUNISOLAR, m Ajlnmomy and Chronology, denotes
fomething compofed of the revolution of the lun, and of
that of the moon.

LuNJsoLAR Tear, is a period of years made by multi-
plying the cycle of the moon, which is nineteen, by that of
the fun, which is twenty-eight ; the produfl of which i«

L U P

Cve hundred and thirty-two ; in which fpace of time tliofe
two luminaries return to the fame points.

LUNKA, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ; 40 mile!
N.E. of Micdniki.

LUNTENliUllG,or Brzed.slaw, atown of Moravia,
in the circle of Brunn ; 36 miles S.E. of Brunn.

LUNTZ, a townof Auilria; 15 miles S.E. of Bavarian
Waidhofen.

LUNULA, in Geometry. See Lunk.
Lunula, the Half-moon, among the Romans, an orna-
ment the patricians wore on their (hoes.

I^UNULA was alfo an ornament in form of a moon, worn
by the ladies.

LUNULAR Angles. See Ancle.
LUNULARIA, in Botany, fo called from the crefcent-
(haped calyx, as it is now thought to be, of the male flowers.
Midi. Gen. 4. t. 4. See Marchantia cruc'iata of Linnxus,
who bv miftake cites it by the name of Lunaria.
LUNUL.ATUM Folium. See Leaf.
LUOPIOIS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Tavaltland ; 23 miles N. of Tavafthus.

LUPANNA, an illand in the Adriatic, near the republic
of Ragufa, which has a good and fafe harbour. The foil,
though llony, is by the indnilry of tiie inhabitants rendered
fertile. The coafts abound with fiih.

LUPARA, a town of Naples, in the Molife ; 17 miles
N.E. of Mohfe.

LUPATA, a chain of African mountains in Mocaranga,
S. lat. I :; to 17-.

LUPERCALIA, feafts celebrated in Greece, and at
Rome, in honour of the god Pan.

The word comes from Lupercal, the name of a place
under the Palatine mountain, where the facrifices were per-
formed.

The Lupercalia were celebrated on the fifteenth of the
calends of March, that is, on the fifteenth of February;
or, as Ovid obferves, on the third day after the ides. They
are fuppofed to have been eftabliflied by Evander, or brought
by him from Arcadia into Italy. The Arundel Marbles
afcribe the inftitution of thefe feafts to Lycaon, king of
Arcadia, who afterwards polluted them by facrificing hu-
man viftims. This feaft, after having been interrupted for
fome ages, was re-eftablifhed in Athens, in the time of
Pandira, as we learn from the loth era of the fame mar-
bles. Lycurgus aboliihed at Lacedsmonia the barbarous
cuftom of offering human victims. Valerius Maximus
is of opinion, that this feftival was only introduced in the
time of Romulus, at the perfuafion of the fhepherd
Fauftulus.

On the morning of the feaft, the Luperci, or priefts of
Pan, ran naked through the ftreets of Rome, ftnking the
married women they met on the hands and belly with a
thong, or ftrap, of goat's leather ; which was held an omen
promifing them fecundity and happy deliveries.

The reafon of this indecent cuftom, in celebrating the
Lupercalia, took its rife, as it has been faid, from Romulus
and Remus : for while they were affifting at this feaft, a
body of robbers, taking hold of the occafion, plundered
them of their flocks. Upon this the two brothers, and all
the youth that were with them, throwing oif their clothes,
to be the more expedite, purfued the thieves and recovered
their prey. This fucceeded fo well, that henceforward this
ceremony became a part of the Lupercalia.

This feaft was abohlhed in the time of Auguftus ; but it
was afterwards reftored, and continued to the time of the
emperor Anaftafius. Baronius fays it was aboliftied by pope
Gelafius, in 469.

LUPERCI,

L U P

L U P

LUPERCI, a name given to the priefts of the god
Pan.

The Luperoi were the mod ancient order of pricds in
Rome; they were divided into two colleges, or companies;
the one called Fal'ii, and the otiier Qu'mtU'ii : to thele Ca;far
added a third, which he called Jul'i'i.

Suetonias mentions the iiiftitution of this new college
of Luperci as a thing that rendered Cafar more odious than
he was : however, it appears from the fame pafTage of Sue-
tonius, that this new company was not inllituted hy Csefar,
nor in honour of Pan, but by fome fsiendsof Cxfar, and in
honour of himfelf.

LUPI Crepitus. See Crepitus.

Lupi, DiDiER, in Biography, a good harmonilt. In the
fixteenth century he fet to mufic the fpiritual fongs of
Guillaume Guerret, publiQied in i5'48. He is mentioned by
Rabelais in the prologue of his fourth book.

LUPIA (from XtTTii, to mohjl,) denotes, in Sargery, a
tumour of the ganglion kind, or, according to CuUen, a
wen.

LUPIJE, in AncUnt Geography, a town and colony of
Italy, in Meffapia, fuppofed to have been near the fcite of
the modern Leece ; 24 miles S.E. of Brundufium ; but in
that vicinity no veftige of antiquity remains.

LUPINASTER, in Botany, BaftarJ Lupine ; a name
given by Buxbaum and Ammann to a Siberian fpecics of
Trefoil, TrifoUum LupinaJIer of Linnxus.

LUPINE, the common name of a fpecies of wild pea,
cultivated principally for being turned in as a manure.

This plant requires but little trouble or labour in its
cultivation, as it will thrive in any foil, except the bad
chalky, and fuch as are very wet. It will even grow well
upon poor, hungry, worn-out land, efpecially if it be dry
and fandy. When fown in February or March, after a
Cngle very (hallov; ploughing, and Ilightly harrowed in, it
will bloffom two or three times between May and Augiitt,
and prove an excellent enricher of the ground when
ploughed in, ju.1 after its fecond blooming. The bell time
for mowing this fort of crop, is after a (hower of rain, as
the feeds drop eafily out of the pods when they are gathered
too dry. They muft, however, be laid up very dry, or
worms foon breed in them. They are inferior to many other
plants for the above ufe.

LUPINUS, in Botaoy, fo called by Pliny and other
ancient writers. ProfelTor Martyn fays that the word owes
its origin to lupui, a wolf, becaufe plants of this genus ra-
vage the ground, by over-running it, after the manner of that
animal. Lupinuj is alfo faid to be dt-rived from Xut>:, grief,
whence Virgil's epithet, tri/Ies lupiai, from the fanciful idea
of its acrid juices when tailed producing a forrowful appear-
ance in the countenance. Both thefe ideas are avowedly
taken from Voflius. — Lupine. — Linn. Gen. 371. Schreb.
492. Willd. Sp. PI, v. 3. 1022. Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 3. Ait.
Hort Kew. ed. i. v. 3. 2S. Lonreir. Cochin c h. j,2(). Tour-
nef t. 213. JulT. 354. Lamarck Dift. V. 3. 620. Illuflr.
t. 616. GErtn. t. i)0. — Clafs and order, DiadtlpLia D.can-
dria. Nat. Ord PaplHoriaces, Linn. LtgumiiioJ'j:, JuIT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven.
Cor. papilionacious ; llandard heart-fhaped, roundifh, emar-
ginate, its fides refltxed, compreffed ; wings nearly ovate,
almoft the leiigth uf the llandard, not affixed to the keel,
joined together in the lower part ; keel cloven at the bafe,
falcate in the upper part, pointed, undivided, of the fame
length but narrower than the wings. Slam. Filaments ten,
all united, fomewhat afcending, dillinft above ; anthers ten,
five of them roundifh, and as many oblong. Pi/?. Germen
fuperior, awl-fhaped, compreffed, vlUofe ; llyle awl-(hape<l,
t4

afcending ; ftigma terminal, obtufc. Peric. Legume larg«,
oblong, I'.athcry, comprelfed, acuminated, of one cell.
Seeds numerous, roundifh, comprefTcd.

Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped. Five of the anthers round,
five oblong. Legume leathery, firulofe, compreffed!

Obf. 1'he calyx u fubjecl to variations in different plants
of this genus. Linnaeus was acquainted with only fcverj
fpecies of Lupine, at lead he ha"? only defcribed that num-
ber. Lamarck has feventeen in his didlionary; and WiUde-
now gives nineteen, which he arranges in three feftions.
Sffi. I . Herb.iceou.s with digitate or fingered leaves.
&'t?. 2. Shrubby, with fimilar leaves. 5f5. 3. Herbaceous,
with fimple leaves.

Of the fird feftion are

I... alius. White Lupine. Linn. Sp. PI. 1015. (LiJ-
pini ; Matth. in Diofc. v. i. 392. L. fativus ; Ger.
em. 12:17.) — Flowers alternate. Calyx without append-
ages ; its upper lip emargiiiate, the lower undivided*
A native of the Levant, cultivated in various parts of
Italy and the f )uth of Europe for food. The ft;eds are
boiled, and afterwards deeped in water to extracl their
bitternefs. It is common with the Romans to earry^
them in their pockets, eating them as they walk along in
the dreets. The flowers appear in July, the feeds in au-
tumn.— Stem about two fei;t high, branched towards the
top. Leaves fingered, compofed of fevea or eight narrow, .
oblong leaflets, hairy, of a darkifh grey cah>ur, covered
with a filvery down. Fhjivers terminal, in loole fpikes,
white and felTile. Legumes llraight, hairy, about thre?
inches long, containing Hve or fix Jieds, which are roundifh,
flatted, extremely fmaoth and.eveii, perfcdiy white, and
unfpotted.

L. luteus. Yellow Lupine. Linn. Sp. PI. loij. Curt,
Mag. t. 14.0. — Floweri in whorls. Calyx with appendages;
its upper lip cloven, the lower three-toothed. — A native of
Sicily. It flowers in July and Aug'.iil. — Stem a foot high,
branching. Leaves fringed, compofed of feven, eight, or
nine hairy leaflets. Fh-wers yellow, fragrant, in whorled
fpikes. Legumes ovm, flattidi, hairy. 5":v'i/f ovate, a little
compreffed, yellowidi-white, variegated with dark fpots. — ■
This is very commonly cultivated in flower-gardens, and
diould be fown in the fpring with other annuals.

The fecond fettion confills of feven fpecies, all natives
of the Brazils or of Peru, and defcribed originally
by Lamarck only, from whom Willdenow has adopted
them.

The third feclion comprifes two fine fpecies, viUofus and
integrifoUus, of which we are not acquainted with any figure ;

the former is a native of Carolina, the latter of the Cape

Loureiro defcribes two others of this fetVion, Z« achirichi-
nenfts and afrlcamis, but from the latter having its leaves
ternate, like thofe of L. /rifirtatris, Cavan. Ic. v. 8. t. 59,
we are inclined to think it (hould be referred to fome other
genus.

Lurn^US, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, annual,, and perennial na\very kinds; of which
tlie forts modly cuhivated are, the white lupine (L.
albus) ; the fmall blue lupine (L. varius) ; the narrow-
leaved blue lupine (L anguilifolius) ; the great blue lupine
(L. hirfutus) ; the yellow lupine (L. luteusj ; and the
perennial lupine { L. perennis).

In the fourth fort there is a variety which has flefh-
coloured flowers, and which is ufually denominated. the ro/£
lupine.

MjJiod of Culture. — Thefe well-known flowering plants
may be readily raifed by lowing the feeds in patches in the
borders, with other annuals in the fpring, where fhey are to

remain ;

L U P

L U P

remain ; tliinniiig them afterwards wliere tliey are too clofe,
and keeping them clean from weeds. In order to have a
fnccelTion of flowers, the feed (hould be fown at different
times, as in April, May, and June. The feed of tliole
only which are iirft fown, however, ripens well. And in
order to have good feed of tlic fourth kind, fonie feeds
fhould be fown in a funny border under a wall, or in pots
placed under frames, the plants in llij latter cafe being
turned out and planted with balls of earth about them
in the fpring. The lad fort ihould be fown at different
times.

Thefe arc all ufcful plants for producing variety in the
borders, clumps, and otlier parts of pleafure grounds and
gardens.

LUPO, in Geography, a town of Hinder Pomerania, on
a river of the fame name ; Ij; nviles E. of Stolpc.

LUPOGLAVO, a town, of Iftria; 22 miles S.E. of
Triei\e.

LUPPURG, a town of Bavaria, in the principality of
Neuburg ; 16 miles N.W. of Ratifbon.

LUPULUS, in Botany, the diminutive of lupus, a wolf,
a name applied by the older botanifts to the Hop, (fee
HuMULUs,) bccaufc, as the wolf preys upon other animals,
fo this plant, by immoderately impovcrilliing the foil in which
it grows, ifarves its vegetable neighbours. Such at leaft is
the explanation of Ambrofnius.

LUPUS, Wolf, in jSJlrommy, a fouthern conftellation
joined to the Centaur, whofe liars in Ptolemy's Catalogue
are nineteen ; in the Britannic Catalogue, with Sharp's
Appendix, twenty-four. See Centauii, and Constel-

LATIO.V.

Lupus Servatus, in Biography, a French abbot, ce-
lebrated for his learning, eloquence, and piety, defcended
from a confiderable family in the diocefe of Sens, was born
about the conynencemcnt of the ninth century. He had
from early youth a decided turn for theological purfuits,
and in 828 he went to the abbey Fulda in Germany, vihere
he ftudicd the fcriptures under the celebrated Rabanus,
who, at his rcquett, compofed his " Commentaries
upon the Epiflles of St. Paul." He obtained confider-
able church preferment by the patronage of Lewis le
Debonnaire, and Charles the Bald ; and by the latter he
was fent ambaffador to pope Leo IV., and he was ap-
pointed, in conjunflion with the celebrated Prudcntiu.'=, to
reform all the monaftcries in France. The time of his
death is unknown, but it is afcertained that he was living
in S61. He was a confiderable theological writer :. and he
publifhed accounts of the lives of St. Wigbert, and of St.
Maximin. A colleftion has been made of i ^o of his
*' Letters " upon different fubjefts relating to difiicuhies in
grammar, civil and ecclefiaftical affairs, points of dodlrine,
difciphne, and good morals, v.hicli are written with ele-
gance, and throw much light on the hiftory of the period
in which he lived. Moreri.

Lupu.s, Christian, a learned Flemifn monk of the
order of St. Augulline, was born .u Ypres in 1O12, and
embraced a religious life at the early age of fifteen. He
completed his maturer lludies at Cologne, and was after-
wards fent to Louvaiu to teach philofophy ; in whicli he
acquired fuch celebrity, as to fecure the particular elleem
of the learned Fabio Chigi, then the papal nuncio in Ger-
many, afterwards known as pope Ale.iandor VII. In
1655, Lupus was one of the deputies fent to Rome by the
univerfity of Louvain, to negociate fome matters of im-
portance with the papal court, which he executed to the
fatisfaition of his employers. On his return he was ap-
pointed profelTor of divinity at Louvain, the duties of
t7

Avhich he performed with great fuccefs. After this he filled
the principal polls belongmg to his order in that province,
pope Clement IX. would willingly have made.him a bifliop ;
;ir.d from Innocent XL and the grand duke of Tu(i:;any, he
received repeated marks of cfleem ; the latter was defirous
of fettling ■.:pon him a confiderable penfion, that he might
attach him to his court. He died in 1681, at the age of
feventy. He left behind him many valuable works, of
which the chief are " Commentaries on the Hillory and
on the Canons of Councils, both general and particular,''
in five volumes 410. ; " A Colleftion of Letters and Mo-
numents, relating to the Councils of Ephefus and Chal-
cedon ;" " A CoUeftion of the Letters of St. Thomas of
Canterbury, with a Life' prefixed ;" "A Commentary on
the Refcriptions of Tertulhan." Moreri.

Lupu.s, in Ornithology, a name given by fome authors to
the monedula, or jackdaw, from fiis voracious appetite and
habit of tlealing. See Corvu.s Momdula.

Ltipus, in Surgery, the difeafe frequently called noli mi;
tangcre.

Lupus, in Zoology, a fpecies ef Cams. See Wolf.

Lupus Aureus, tlie gold-coloured ivolf, the name by which
I^atin authars call the creature known in Englifh by tlie
name of the jackal. See Aureus.

Lupus Cervarws, a name by which many authors have
called the lynx, from its feeding on deer. See Felis
I^ynx.

Lupus Afciririus,a name given by Jonfton, Bellonius, and
Gcfner, to the Canis hyutia. See HyjENA.

Lupus Mnrlnus, the Sca-iuolf, the Anarhkas lupui of
Linnreus, in Ichthyology, a fierce and voracious fea-iifh,
confined to the northern feas of our globe, L is found
in thofe of Greenland, Iceland, and Norway, on the coalls
of Scotland and of Yorkfliire, and in that part of the Ger-
man ocean which waflics tlie (liores of Holland. Its head
is larger in proportion to its fize than that of the fhark,
and rounder, a little flatted on the top ; the nofe blunt ;
the noftrils very fmall ; the eyes fmall, and placed near the
end of the nofe; the body is long, and a little coniprefled
fideways ; the back, fides, and fins, are all of a livid lead
colour ; the two firfl marked downwards with irregular,
obfc'.:re, dulliy lines, which in different fidi have different
appearances. Tlie young are of a greenifh cafl ; the belly
is white ; the flcin is fmooth and foft, but his teeth fo re-
markably hard and flrong, that if he bites againfl an anchor
of a fhip, or other iron fubllance, he makes a loud noifc,
and leaves his marks in the iron ; the fore-teeth are flrong,
conical, diverging a little from each other, iland far out
of the jaws, and are commonly fix above a'ld fix below,
though tomctimes there are only five in each jaw ; thefe are
fupported withi;-.fide by a row of lefTcr teeth, which make
"the nu.tiber in the upper jaw feventeen or eighteen, and in
the lower eleven or twelve. The fides of the lower jaw are
convex inwards, and the grinding teeth of this jaw are
higher on the outer than the inner edges, and join to the
canine teeth, but in the upper are feparated from them ; in
the centre are two rows of flat itrong i«.*th, fixed on an
oblong bafis upon the bones of the palate and nofe ; thefe
and the other grinding teeth are often ftiund foffil, and
called bufonhes, or toadlloncs. The two bones that form
the under jaw are united before by a loofe cartilage, ferving
by a free motion to the purpofe of breaking, grinding, and
comminuting its tcflaceous and cruilaceous food, as crabs,
lobflers, prawns, mufcles, &c. At the entrance of the
gullet, above a'.id below, are two very fmall echinated
bones. It has two fins, hke wings, fituated juil under the
gills ; and one long dorfal Jin ruiuiing from the head to the

tail,

L U R

L U S

tsiT, and another reaching from the am:'; to the. tail; tlie
tail is round at its end, and conlifts of thirteen rays. This
fi(h ffrows to a larr^e fize, being fometimes found on tlic
Yorklhire coaft of the length of four feet, and near Shet-
land more than feven feet. Pennant.

LURA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the
province of St. Martha, on the Madalena ; 8 miles S. of
Teneriife.

LURBAH, a town of Bengal ; 20 miles S.S.W. of
Doefa. N. lat. 22^41'. E. long. 8,-^

LURCH, To, in Fenc'mg, is to make an opening in
order to invite your adverfary to thrull at you, when you,
being ready, may find a favourable repoft at Jiini.

LURCfiER, among Sport/men, a kind of hunting dog,
like a mongrel greyhound, with pricked ears, a (haggy coat,
and generally of a yellowi(h-white colour. Sec Doo.

LURCY-LE-S.vuv.^CE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Allier, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the dillritt of Moulins ; 7 miles E.N.E. of Don-
jon. The place contains 2461, and the canton 8^48 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 265 killomotres, in 12 communes.

LURE, in Falcnnry, a piece of red leather cut in form
of a bird, with two wings (luck with feathers ; and fome-
times baited with a piece of flefh : wherewith to reclaim, or
call back a hawk.

The word comes from the French lairre, which fignifies
the fame : formed, according to Skinner, from the Anglo-
Saxon, hura, traitor ; or, according to Tripaud, from Icora,
(.raftinefs. See Falcon' and Hawking.

IjUke, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrict, in the department of the Upper Saone,
near the Ougnon. The place contains 1918, and the can-
ton 12,339 inhabitants, on a territory of 2 2"^ kiliomctres,
in 2j communes. N. lat. 47" 41'. E. long. G' 34'.

LURGAN, a market and poft-town of the county of
Armagh, L-eland ; it is in the north-eaftern angle of the
county, near Down, and confifts of one long wide Ilreet,
remarkable for cleanlinefs. Its trade confifts in articles of
the linen and muflin maimfaClures, of vvliich the weekly
faies are averaged from 2500/. to 3000/. Fine diapers for
fable linen manufaftured in this town have been highly va-
lued. Lurgan is 68 miles N. from Dublin.

LuRGAV, a townfiiip of America, in Franklin county,
Pennfylvania, containing 758 inhabitants.

LunOAN Green, a fmall poll-town of the county of
Louth, Ireland, pleafantly fituated on Dundalk-bay. It
is on the great northern road, 37 miles N. from Dublin.

LURIDiE, in Botany, from luridus, pale, livid, or
ghailly, alluding to the livid and blueilh afpeil, frequent
in the tribe of plants thus denominated, which, feems to
announce tlieir deadly effedls on animal life. They conlli-
tute the 2<jth natural order, among the Fragmenta of Lin-
mu.', and are exemplified by Digitalis, N'icotiana, Atropa,
Hyofcyamus, Datura, Phyfjlis, Capjicum, Solatium, Verhafcum,
Celfia, L)\-iun\ Cejlrum ; to which Tr'iguera of Cavanilles, as
well as IVitherlngia of I'Heritler, are properlv added by
Gifcke. But JirozL'allia, F.lllfa, Sirychnci, Jgnatia, and
above all Catejbea, are with lels reafon referred hither by
Linnxus.

The true iurldx have commonly a fetid herbage, though
fometimes a fwcet-fmelling flower. They aft powerfully
upon the nerves, in v.hatever manner they are taken in-
wardly, and prove, under careful managerr.ent, in feme
cafes, very valuable medicines, though naturally violent
poifons.

LURIG.\NCHE, in Geography, a town of Peru, in
the jiirifdiftion of Lima.

Vol. XXL

LURIN, a town of Peru, in the jurifdi£lion of Lima.

LURKJAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chu-
fidan ; 50 miles N. of Suller.

I..URy, a town of France, in the department of the
Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the di drift of Bour-
ges, fituated on the Arnon ; 13 miles W. of Bourges. The
place contains J 1 2, and the cantcm 4575 inhabitants, on a
territory of 170 kiliomctrc;, in 9 communes. — Alfo, a
town of the ifland of Corfica ; 13 miles N. of Baftia.

LUS, St., a town of Mexico, in the province of Gua-
tiniala ; i 2 miles E. of Guatimala.

LUSATIA, a marquifate of Saxony, bounded on the
N. by the Mark of Brandenburg, on the E. by Silefia, on
the S. by Bohemia, and on tlic W. by Saxony ; about
84 miles lonn-, and 4, broad, divided into Upper and
Lower I^ufatia. The former abounds in mountains and
hills, and enjoys a purer air than the latter, which is covered
witli a great number of woods. Peat and turf are found
in different parts. Upper Lufatia is ill adapted to agri-
culture, but affords plenty of game. Lower Lufatia has
heaths and fertile tra'is. In both rye, wheat, barley, and
oats are cultivated, together with buck wheat, pcafe, lin-
tels, beans, and millet. Flax is alfo cultivated. As to or-
chard and gard.en fruit.s, and the culture of hops, tobacco,
and wine. Lower I^ufatia is preferable to the Upper.
Neverthclefs, the produfts of the country arc not adequate
to its confumption, fo that corn, fruit, hops, garden llutl',
and wine, are imported into both thcfe marquifatej. Cattle
are bred in confiderable number, and the rivers, lakes, and
ponds afford various forts of good fifli. In fome parts
are found pipemaker's clay, and ilone quarries. Stones
rcfembling the Bohemian diamonds, agates, and jafper?,
and iron ftone, are met with in fevcral places s and here is a
variety of medicinal fprings. The chief rivers are the
Spree, the Black Elller, and the Pulfnitz, In Upper Lu-
fatia are reckoned fix towns, called " The Six Towns,"'
16 fmaller towns, and four market towns; and in the
Lower four towns, which appear at the land diets, ij
county towns, and two n-.arkct ones. The fird known
inhabitants of this country were the Semnones, or Senones,
who were fucceeded by the Wandalers, and ihefe again in
the 7th century by a Sclavonian people, called the Sorber-
Wends. In the 12th century the inhabitants of this country
were intermixed by emigrants from the Low Countries and
the Rhine. Some of the towns are now wholly peopled by
Germans, but in the villnges the Wends are more nume-
rous than the Germans. Lutheranifm was introduced into
this country as early as the year i;2i ; it generally pre-
vailed, and has been the permanent religion of the coun-
try. In 1750, the Hernhutcrs obtained proteftion a?
faithful fubjefts, and in confequcncc of purphafing feveral
coufiderable eftates, they have not only acquired civil power,
but the patronage <if churcht^s. Tiie inh:-.bitants of Lu-
fatia gain their fubfiftence by tiie manufaftureof numerous
woollen and linen iluffi ; which moilly fioyrifh in Upper
Lufatia. The manufactures of Lufatia have been promoted
by the emigration of the Proteftants, who were driven
thither from Bohemia and Silefia by the conduct of the em-
perors Ferui!>f,nd 11. and IJI. and alfo of Leopold: and thus
they have been extended, beyond cloth and linens of various
forts, to thofe of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder, iron,
wax, glafs, and wax-ble?,chin£r, and a variety of handi-
craft arts and operations. By thcfe manufaihires tliej-
have been enabled to carry on a trade, fo that the commo-
dities they difpofe of exceed thofe which they import, which
are wool, yarn, and filk, corn, fruit, hop?, &c. The whole
of Lufatia, except a fmall pan which i* fubjeft to PruK
■ ^ N Ca,

L U S

L U S

fia', belongs to Saxony, having been ceded to the eleftor
about the middle of the i6th century, in confideration of a
large fum of money advanced by the eleftor to the emperor,
in his war with the Bohemians.

LUSCHETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan ; 8 miles S.W. of Prague.

LUSCINI A, in Omilhology, a fpecies of MotaciUa, which
fee. See alfo Nightingai.e. — Alfo, a fpecies of Certhia.
See Certhia Flaveola.

LUSCINIOLA, xhiBogeiich of Pennant, and redivarbler
of Latham. See Mot.\cii.la. Schocmbiiius.'

LUSCINIUS, Otiomarus, in Biography, a Benediftine
monk, born at .Strafburg, but an inhabitant of Augfburg,
publifhed in 1536 a work, entitled " Mufurgia fcii praxis
Mnficas," in fmall oblong quarto; a book chiefly curious
and valuable for the reprefentations of fuch mufical inftru-
ments as were ufed in Germany at the time it was written,
which, though coarfely cut in wood, are accurately drawn.
There are, among keyed-inftruments, the virginal, fpinnet,
and clavichord, all three in the form of a fniail modern piano-
forte ; an upright harpfichord ; a regal or' portable organ,
chiefly compofed of reed-ilops, and in Roman Catholic
coimtries ufed in pr^jceffions ; and a large or church-organ.
Of bowed-inftnuiients we have here only the raonochord,
rebec, or three-flringed violin, and the viol da gamba. The
vieUe, lu'.e, harp, and dulcimer ; cornet, fchalmey, or bafe
clarinet, both played with reeds ; flutes of various fize,
among which is the ^bjrcijpfiiti', flute traverfiere, or, as
we call it, the German flute; which accounts for its name,
as we believe, at this early period, it was unknown to the
reft of Europe. There are four other wind-inilruments,
peculiar to Germany and northern countries, exhibited here :
as, firft, the rufpfeiff', or Ruffian flute ; fecond, the kruni-
horn, or crooked horn, a kind of fliawm, in imitation of
which we hjve a reed-ilop in our old organs, called the
cromhorn, which has by fome been imagined to be a cor-
ruption of the viford Cremona ; third, gem fen horn, or wild
goat's horn ; and, fourth, the zincke, or fmall cornet.
After thefe we have the bag-pipe, trumpet, facbut, fide-
drum, kettle-drum, French-horn, bug!e-horn, and even the
Jews-harp, and clappers. Moft of thefe inftruments being
in common ufe, and well known, need no reprefentation
after the rude types of them given by Lufcimus, as they
have been fince much better delineated and engraved in Mer-
iennus, Kiicher, and in ftill later mufical writers.

LUSEPARA, in Geography, an ifland that lies in the
fouth entrance of the ftraits of Banca. S. lat. y 10' ^o

' 30"-

E. long. 106' 19'.

LUSHBURGHS, or Luxkxburgiis, in our Old
I'/rlten, a bafe fort of foreign coin, made of the llkencl'a of
Englifh money, and brought into England in the time of
Edward III. to deceive the king and his people : on ac-
count of which it was made treafon, for any one willingly to
bring any fuch money into the realm, as knowing it to be
falfe. Stat. 23 Edw. 111. 3 In ft. i.

LUSIAD of Camosns. See Ca.moens.

LUSIGNAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diflrijft of Poitiers. The place contains 2390, and the
canton 13,147 iniiabitants, on a territory of 342^ kilio-
ftiotrfs, in 10 communes. N. lat. 46' 26'. E. long, o" 14'.

LUSIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrift of Troycs.
Ttie place contains i\^^, and the canton 7225 inhabitants,
on a territory of 180 kiiiometres, in 14 commtnes.

LUSITANIA, in Ancient Geugruphy, one of the two
firoviDces into which Hifpania Ulterior was divided ; the

other being Boetica. (See Hispania.) Its limits have
been varioufly defined by different authors, and particularly
by Pliny and Ptolemy. Strabo intimates, that this pro-
vince extended from the Tagus to the Cantabrian ocean, or
at lead the Promontorium Celticum. That part of it, fitu-
atcd betwixt the Anas and the Tagus, was denominated
Celtica, or' the country of the Celts. After Auguilus
made the difpofiuon of S]jain, referred to under the article
Hi/pania, the Anas bounded Lufitania on the fouth, and
the Durius on the north ; fo that the whole traft lying be-
twixt the Durius and the Cantabrian ocean was annexed to
the Provincia Tarraconenfis. The interior limits of Lufitania,
upon tiie frontiers of the Vettones and Carpetani, are dif-
ferently fixed by different authors. The Lufitani pod'cfrcd
the dillrift bordering upon the Atlantic ocean, and ftretch-
ing itfelf from the mouth of the Anas to the Promontorium
Sacrum, now known by the name of Cape St. Vincer.t.
The fittiation of the Celtici, whofe true name was Mire-
brigenfes, according to Pliny, m.ay be inferred from the
preceding part of this article. Some of the ancient geo-
graphers make the Turduli and the Turdetani one nation,
particularly Ptolemy and Strabo ; though they were con-
fidered in a different light by Polybius. However this be,
the Turdetani were undoubtedly a powerful people, fince
they occupied a confiderable part both of Lufitania and
Bocnca, as we learn from Strabo. The fame may be faid
of the Vettones, who fpread tliemfelves over a large traft,
terminated on the north by the Durius, and on the iouth by
the Tagus. Neverthelefs, as the ancients differ with regard
to the extent of territory every one of thofe nations or can-
tons pofTeffed, it is probable that their frontiers were not al-
ways the farTiC. Some authors aflert Vettonia, or the
country of the Vettones, to have been a province diftindl
from Lufitania, and limited on the fouth by the Anas ; and
this notion is countenanced by an infcription in Gruter.
The principal cities of this province are Barbarium Promon-
torium, Oiifippo, Tagi Fluvii Oftia, Fortes Fluv., Lunas
Montis Promontorium, MondiE Fiuv. Ollia, Vaci Fluv.
0!Ha, Doris Fluv. Ollia, Hannibal. Inland towns were
Lavara, Aritium, Saliura, Elbocoris, Aradufla, Verarium,
Velladis iEminium, Chretina, Arabriga, Scalabifcus, Ta-
cubis, Concordia, Talabriga, Langobriga, Mendeculia,
Caurium, Turmogum, Burdua, Colernum, Ifallscus, Am-
mrea, Ebura or Ebora, Norba Ca:farea, Liciniana, Au-
g'.illa Enicrita, which was the capital, Evandria, Geroca,
C<ecilia Gemittina, Capafa, Conimbrica, Collipo, Bletifa,
Salman'ica, SaLitia, Pax Julia, and fome others of lefs
note. The chief promontories of Lufitania were the Pro-
montorium Sacrum, or Cape St. Vurcent ; P. Barbarium,
or Cape Spichel ; and the P. l^lagnum, or Ohfiponenfe,
denominated by fume moderns Cape de Rocca Sintra ; to
w'licli fom.e add a fourth, called by Pliny Cuneus or the
Wedge, fuppofed to be now known by the name of Cape
St. Mary. The principal ports of this province were thofe
of Oiifippo or Lisbon, and Hannibal. The only ifland en
the coafi of Lufitania was the Londobris of Ptolemy, the
Barlenga or Barlinges of the moderns. Tho only mountain
of note in this country was the Mons Herminius of Hirtius, _
or the modern Arminno, fince known by the name of Sierra
de Eilretta, running from north to fouth, between the pro-
vinces of Beira and Tra los Monies. On the top are two
extenfivc and deep lakes, calm when the fea is fo, and rough
when that is llormy. Thefe lakes are fuppoied to have
fome fubterranean communication with the ocean. Her-
minius Minor is now Sierra de Marvao. The warlike in-
habitants of the former were called Plumbarii, from their
lead-mines and works. The jnoll celebrated rivers of Lufi-
6 tania

L U S

L t; s

■ania were tlie Anas, now Guadiana, the Tagus or Taio,
and the Duriii? or Doiiro ; to whicli may be added the
Miinda or Mondago, and the Vacus or Voga : all thcfe flow
from eafl to well, and difcharge themfelves into the Atlantic
ocean. This province produced a confidcrable quantity of
gold, particles of it being mixed with the fand of the Tagus.
The lead-mine of Medobriga or Meidobriga, at the foot of
Herminius Mintjr, was famous.

The Lufitanians, according to Strabo, preferred exifling
upon the plunder of their neighbours to the improvement of
their own lands, though the foil was naturally fertile and
rich. In other cafes their manner of living was rude and
fimple. They ufed to warm thcmfelves by means of fire-
ftones made red-hot. They bathed in cold water, eat only
of one dilh at a meal, and very fjiaringly. Their drefs was
commonly black. They made no ufe of coin, but either
bartered one commodity for another, or for fome plates of
filver, flatted with the hammer, and cut into pieces. They
ufed, like the Egj'ptians, Gauls, and other ancient nations,
to expofe their lick on the highways, that travellers might
direft them to proper medicines for their cure. They were
exceedingly robutt, and fo warlike that the Romans did
not conquer them without great difficulty and length of
time. See Poutugal.

LUSITANICA Rubra Bolus, is an impure earth, of a
florid red colour, compaft texture, and heavy : it colours
the hands, and is very friable, readily diffoluble in water,
and raifes with it a tlrong ebullition ; it melts readily in the
mouth, has a ilrong allringent taile, is gritty, and adheres
firmly to the tongue. It acquires hardnefs and a brighter
colour by burning ; it is of an alkaline quality ; it is dug in
the kingdoms of Portujial and Spain ; it is alfo found iiear
the Havaimah and La Vera Cruz in New Spain. It has
been efteemed a ^'ery valuable aftringent, and an effeclual
remedy for fluxes and other diftempers of that kind. It has
been alfo accounted alexipharmic by the Spaniards and Por-
tuguef ■- They make an earthen ware of this bole, which
they call bucaros : the ware is of a fine red colour, fmooth,
and poiiflied, though it is merely dried, and not glazed.
They ufe it to filtre, cleanfe, and cool the water. Veffels
of the fame kind are alfo brought from the Havannah and
Vera Cruz.

LUSK, in Geography, a fair-town in the county of
Dublin. Ireland. According to Archdeil, an abbey was
founded here in the firft ages of Chriftianity ; and there is
adjoining the angle of the lleeple of the church, one of thofe
ancient round tov.'ers fo peculiar to Ireland: it is in good
prcfervation, and rifes fever?.l feet above the battlements of
the fleeple. It is ii miles N. by E. from Dublin.

LUSPA, a town of Sweden, in Eall Bothnia ; 28 miles
E. of Chri:Hnelladt.

' LUSSAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the diftritl of Li-
bourne ; 6 miles E.N.E. of Libourne. The place contains
Z032, and the canton 9072 inhabitants, on a territory of
IJ/A kiUometres, in 16 communes. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Vienne, and chief place of
a canton, in the diilriiS; of Montmorillon ; 6 miles W. of
Montmorillon. The place contains 1379, and the canton
9470 inhabitants, on a territory of 400 kilioraetres, in 13
communes.

LUSSAN, Margaret de, in Biography, was bom at
Pans in 1682. Her parents were in the lower rank of life ;
the mother being a fortune-teller, and the father a coach-
man. She, by fome means, attracted the notice of the
learned Huet, who, itruck with the vivacity of her temper,
eacoui-aged her to write romances. She derived great ad-

vantage in the formation of her tafte, from her conrcctioa
with la Scrre de Langlade, to whom (he was much at-
tached ; but the love was not muf.ial : her charms were
wholly mental ; her perfon and manners were even forbid-
ding ; but fl^.e was generous, humane, and conftant in lier
friendfliips. She died at the age of 75. Her work? arc
" L'Hilloire de la Comtefle de Gorr'ca," " Anecdotes de
la Cour de Philippe Auguftc," «' Memoires Secrets et In-
trigues de la Cour de Franco fous Charles VIII.,'' " Mane
d'Angleterrc," " Annales de la Cour de Henri II.," «' La
Vie du brave Crillon."

LussAN', in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrict
of Uzes ; nine miles N. of Uzes. The place contains 997,
and the canton 5'493 inhabitants, on a territory of 239 ki-
liometres, in 13 communes.

LUSSEMEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; iS miles E.S.E.of Hcillberg.

LUST, at Se3. If a fliip heel either to the ftar-board or
port, the feamen fay (he hath a hijl that way ; snd they fay
fo though irbe occafioned only by the (liooting of her ballail,
or by the unequal flowing of things in the hold ; though it
is more properly faid of a (hip, when fhe is inclined to heel
any way upon account of her mould or make.

LuST-TOOrt, in Botany. See Sivs-dtiu.

LUSTER, or Lustre, glofs, or brightnefs appearing
on any thing ; particularly on manufactures of filk, wool,
or fluff.

Luster is alfo ufed for a certain .compofition, or manner
of giving that glofs or brilliance.

The lullre of filks, in which their chief beauty confifls,
is given them by wafliing in foap, then clear water, and dip-
ping them in alum-water cold.

The luilre of black taflety is given by double-brewed
beer, boiled with orange or lemon-juice ; that of coloured
taffetas with water of gourds, diftiUed in an alembic. Cur-
riers give a luftre, or glofs to the leather feveral ways, ac-
cording to the colour to be illustrated. For blacks, the firfl
luftre is with juice of barberries ; the fecond with gut»
arable, ale, vinegar, and Flanders glue, boiled together :
for coloured leathers they ufe the white of an egg beaten
in water : moroccos have their luftre from juice of barberries,
aud lemon or orange.

For hats, the luftre is frequently given with common
water ; fometimes a little black dye is added. The fame
luilre ferves flcinners, .except that in white furs they never
ufe any black dye. For very black furs they fometimes
prepare a luftre of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox's mar-
row, and other ingredients.

The luftre is given to cloths and mohairs, by preffinj
them under the calender.

Luster, an appellation given to a branched eandleflick,
when made of glafs. See Brakcii and Jesse.

LUSTIG, Jacob 'U'^ilhelm, in Biography, organift of
St. Martin's church in Groniiigen, publiflicd, in 1771, ia
the Dutch language, " An Intiodudlion to the Art of
Mufic, 2d edition, corrected and enlarged," 8vo. This
introduction is better digefted, and more abundant in ufeful
information, than the generality of elementary treatifes.
The author had read, meditated, and iludied mufic regularr
ly, both in theory and pradice ; and was a good compofer
of the old fchool. He had been a difciple botli of Matthe-
fon and Telemann. Wc have feen a book of lefTons of his
compofition, which has great merit. In this book we found
the croff-hand jig, in "<,^, which the little Frederica, after-
wards Mrs. Wynne, and other infant performers, ufed to
play at the end of a nvnuet of Tartini with variations by Pa-
4 N 2 radicj,

I. u s

L U S

radies, generally known by the name of ParaJies' minuet.
In 1772 we had the pleafiircof coiivcrfiii^r with this worthy
profeflor (Lullig), and of hearing him play on the organ of
St. Martin's church in Gronnigen. of which he had been or-
ganic 44 years ; Hill retaining his hand, and, a few allow-
a.ices made for change of tailc and Uyle, he was Hill a very
able and good organift.

LUSTRAL, an epithet given by the ancients, to the
water ufed in their ceremonies, to fprinkle and purify the
people. From hence the Romanills have borrowed the holy
water iifed in their churches.

LtJSTRAL Jtty, dies Lujlricus, that whereon the lullrations
•were perfonned for a child, and its name given ; wlucli was
ulually tlie ninth day from the birth of a boy, and the eighth
from that of a girl. Though others performed the cere-
mony en the lail day of that week wherein the child was
burn, and others on the fifth day from its birlh.

Over this iealt day the goddefs Nundina was fuppofed to
preiide ; the midwivcs, nurfes, and domeilics, handed the
child backwards and forwards, around a iire burning on the
akars of the gods, after which they iprinkled it with water;
lience this feaft had the name of Amphidromia. The old
women mixed faliva and duft with the water. The whole
ended with a fumptuous entertainment. The parents re-
ceived gifts from their friends on this occafion. If this child
was a male, their door was decked with an olive-garland : if
a female with wool, denoting the work about whicli they
were to be employed. P -tter.

LUSTRATION, E.xpiatiok, in Anliquity, facrifices
or ceremonies, by which the Rcnans puritied their cities,
iields, armies, or people defded by any crime, or impurity.
Some of the luftrations were public, others private.

Tht-re were three fpecies, or manners of performing luf-
tration ; ii/z. by fire and fulphur ; by water ; and by air ;
which lad was done by fanning and agitating the air round
the thing to be purified.

There was alfo a peculiar kind of luftration for young
children.

Lomier has a volume exprefs on the luftrations of the an-
cients : Joh. Lomicri Zutphanenfis Epimenedes, five de
■vetcrum Gentilium Lullrationibus ; firll printed at Utrecht
in i68r, and fince, with additions, in 1702, 4to.

All .pcrions, flaves only excepted, he fhews, were mi-
niftcrsof fome forts of liillration. When anyone died, the
houfewas to be fwept after a particular manner, by way of
purification ; the pricft threw water on new married people,
with the like intention. To jjurify themfclves, people
wonld even fomelimes run naj'.ed through the flreets ; fuch
was their extravagance. And, as if fancy was not fertile
enough in inventing modes of hulration, they even ufed in-
chantments to raife the dead, in order to get inftrndlions
what they mud do to purge thenifelves of their fins. Add,
that they frequently raifed the opinion of the fanSity of their
expiations by ficlitious miracles.

It was common, on thefe occafions, to (lied human blood :
the priells of Cybele, Bellona, and Baal, made cruel inci-
fions on themfclves. Ereftheus, king of Attica, facrificed
his daughter to Proferpina. Several had their throats cut at
Rome, to obtain the emperor's health from the gods.
Thofe who commanded armies offered one of their foldiers
to appeafe the anger of the gods ; that he alone might fulfer
all the wrath the army deferved.

Ail forts of perfumes, and odoriferous herbs, had place
in luftration. The egg was much ufed among them, as
being the fymbol of the four elements ; its fliells, they fzy,
reprefent the earth ; the yolk, a globe of fire ; the wliite,
jsefembles the water ; and bcfides it has a fpirit, ihey fay,

wliich reprefents the air. For this reafon it is, that (hff
bonzes, or Indian priefts, believe to this day that the worid
came out of an egg. There is fcarce any pot-herb, puJle,
tree, mineral, or metal, which they did not ofl'er the goda by
way of expiation : nor did they forget milk, bread, wine,
or honey ; what is more, they made ufc of the very fpitile,
and urine.

Tlie poets had feigned, that the gods purified thenifelves,
and they did not omit to purify their ftataes. They made
luftration for children the eighth day after their birth.
When a man who had been falfcly reputed dead, returned
home, he was not to enter his houfe bv the door. It was a
tettled cultom to ofter no expiation for thofe who were hanged
by order of juftice ; or that were killed by thunder. Neither
did they oiler any for thofe who were drowned in the fca ;
it being the common opinion, that their fouls peri (bed with
their bodies. And hence it was, that perfons in danger of
ihipwreck, fometimes thruft their fwords through their
bodies, that they might not die in the fea ; where tliey
thought tlieir foul, which they fuppofed to be a flame, would
be totally extinguilhed. The moft celebrated expiatory fa-
crilice was the hecatomb, when they offered a hundred
hearts ; though they commonly did not offer fo many, but
contented themfclves with killing twenty-live ; but thoft;
being quadrupeds, their feet came to an hundred.

The manner ot the Macedonians purifying their army by
luftration was this ; at the time of their feftival Xanlhica,
tiiey divided a bitch into two halves, one of which, together
with the entrails, was placed upon the right hand, the other
upon the left; between tiiefe the army marched m this or-
der: after the arms of the Macedonian kings, came the firft
line of the army, confifting of horfe ; thefe were followed
by the king, and his- children, after whom went the life
guards ; then followed the reft of the army : this done, the
army was divided into two parts, one of which being fet in
array againtt the other, there followed £ fhort encounter in
imitation of a fight. Potter, Arclixcl. Gra;c. Lb. ii. c. :c.
torn. i. p. 417.

Luftrations, and liiftratory facrifices, were not only per-
formed for men, but alfo for temples, altars, theatres, trees,
fouiilains, rivers, flieep, fields, and villages. When tlie
Arval brothers offered a viftim for the fields, their facrillce
was called ambar-vaUa.

Cities were alfo to be purified, from time to time: fome
made the viftim walk round the.r walls, and then flew him.
The Athenians facrificed two men, one for the men of their
city, and the other for the uomen. Tlie Corimhians facri-
ficed the children of Medea fo : though the poets lay, Medea
killed them herlVlf. The Romans performed the ceremony
of purifying their city every fifth year ; whence tiie name of
lullrum was given to the fpace of five years.

Divers of the expiations were aullere : fome fafted ; others
abrtained froiri all feniual pleafures ; fome, as the priefts of
Cybele, caflrated thcmfelves ; others, that they might live
chafte, eat rue, or lay under the branches of a fhrub called
agtnis ciijjus.

They cafl: into the river, or at leaft out of the city, the
animals or other things tliat had ferved for a luftration, or
facrifice of atonement ; and thought themfelves threatened
with fome great misfortune, when by chance they trod upon
them. At Marfeilles, they took care to feed a poor man for
fome time ; after which, they charged him with all the fins
of the country, and drove him away : thofe of Leucade
faftened a number of birds to a man charged with their fins,
and in that condition call him headlong from a high tower ;
and if the birds hindered his being killed, they drove him
out of the country.

Some

L U T

L U T

Some of thefe ceremonies were abolillied by tlie emperor
CoMllantiiie, and his fiicccliors ; the rell fiibliilecl till the
Gothic kings were mailers of Rome, under whom they ex-
pired ; except that feveral of them were adopted by the
popes, and brought into the church, where they make a
tigure to this day : uitnefs the numerous confecrations, bc-
ncdiclionj, exorcifms, abhrions, fprinkhngs, proccffions,
fealls, &c. ftill in ufc in the Roman church.

LUSTRINGS. A company was incorporated for
making, dreliing, and kiftrating alamodcs and lullrings in
England, who were to have the fole benefit thereof, by ilat.
4 and 5 W. and M. And no foreign lilks known by the
name of luftrings or ahunodes are to be imporred, but at the
port of London, &c. Stat, y and 10 W. IIL c. 43. See
Silk.

LUSTRUM, a term ufed by the Romans, to fignify a
fpace of five years.

Varro derives the word from luo, to pav ; becaufe at the
beginning of every fifth year they paid the cenfus, or tribute
impofed by the cenfors ; whofe authority, at their firft infti-
tution, was continued them for five years; though after-
wards it was abridged to cne. Others rather derive the
word from hijlrare, to nude a rev'wjj ; becaule once in five
years the cenlors reviewed the army.

LviTKL'.M was alfo a ceremony, or facrifice ufcd by the
Ro;;i;:n3, after numbering their people, once in five years.
See LusTH.'VTroN.

The cenfus was accompanied always by a luftration of the
people, fo the word lullrum has conltantly been taken by
the ancients and moderns for a term of five years: )et
if we enquire into the real Rate of the cafe, we fiiall
find no good ground for fixing fu precile a fignification
I to it ; but, on the contrary, that the cenfus and luilrum
xverc, for the moll part, held irregularly and uncertainly,
at very diiferent and various intervals of time, as the par-
ticular exigencies of the ftate required. Middlet. of Rom.
Sen. p. 107.

LUTANGER, in Geography, a fmall iilaiid in tlie Eaft
India fea, near tl'.e S. coait of Mindanao. N. lat. 7' 19'.
E. long. \2l It'.

LUTATION, in Chem'ijlry, is ufed for the cementing of
chemical veiTeis clofe together.

LUTAYA, in Geography, one of the fmaller Philippine
illands, near the ifland of P.may.

LUTE, LuTUM, in Chemi/lry, a com.pofition of certain
tenacious fubttances, wherewith to clofe the apertures and
junftures of veffels in diftillation, &c. See Cement, Ce-
ment, and Mortar.

Lute, Leuto, Ital., Laute, Germ., a mufical ftringed
inftrument, of which, though the fhape or found is now
hardly known, yet during the fixteenth and feventeenth cen-
turies it was the favourite chamber inftrument of every na-
tion in Europe, and in the begmning of drimatic mufic the
recitatives were accompanied by the arch-lute, or theorbo,
inftead of the liarpfichord.

Sir Thomas Wyat, the elder, one of our bell early poets,
has left us a fonnet to his lute, written very early in the
fixteen'.h century ; and Congreve, at the end of the feven-
teenth, has celebrated the performance of Mrs. Arabella
Hunt on that inllrument.

The earliell mention of the lute that we have found
among the moderns is in Boccaccio, Glornata prima, where
the finging is generally faid to have been accompanied by
the lute. In Chaucer's Pardoner's tale, we are told :

" In Flanders whilom was a compagnie
Of youHge folk that haunted in folie,
&

As hazard, riot, ftev.e<; and tavernes
Whereas with harpcs, lutes, and guiterncJ,
They dauncc and play."

In Shakfpcarc's firfl part of Henry IV. Mortimer tell*'
his lady, who can fpeak no Englilh, that her tongue

" Makes Welfh as fweet as ditties highly perm'd,
Sung by a fair queen in a fummcr's bower,
With ravifliing divifion to her lute."

And in lord commilTioner Whitclocke's MS, narrative of
a mafque given in 1633, to Charles I. and his queen, by the
fonr inns of court, he foys, that " he engaged forty lutes,
belides other inftruments and voyces of the mod excellent
kind in conforte."

There was a lute at the Italian opera in England, to the
end of Handel's regency. And the place of lutenift in
the king's chapel was continued till the death of Giglier,
about the middle of the laft century.

It feems as if in France there had been a time when there
was no other inftruments in nfe than lutes, as hthkr not
only implies the maker of lutes, but violins, violoncellos,,
and other inftruments of the fame kmd.

There has been no fatisfaftory etymology given to the
\vord lute, though Scaliger aad Bochart have tried to find
or frame one, deriving it from the Arabic allaud, whilll
others have derived it from the German laute, or lauttn,
fonare.

The ftringed inftruments of the ancients were fo nu-
merous, and fo various in their forms, that we know
not the precife difference between the lyre and cithara.
The teftudo, among poets, not only imphes the lyre, faid
to have been originally made by Mercury of the back or
hollow fhell of the tejludo aquatica, or fea tortoife, but mufic
itfelf.

As to the different names that may have been given to
the fame kind of inllrument by the ancients, fuch as Cc^j.iy^^.
;^!?.L.-, teftudo, cithara, &c. we fhall leave the difpute, fays
Merlennus, to grammarians, who may confult Athenaeus,.
Julius Pollux, Ariftidfs, Quintilianus, and other Greeks }-
for fince we are in pofTeffion of the inftrument, they may give
it what nam.e they pleafc.

Vincenzo Galileo (Dial.) fays the bed lutes were made
in England.

Tile lute confifts of four parts, the table, the body or
belly, which has nine or ten fides, the neck or finger-board,
which has nine or ten frets or divilions marked with catgut
or bowel ftrings, and the head or crofj, wiiere the fcrews or
pins for tightening or relaxing the ftrings in tuning are
fattened. This is called the lute with tv;o necks, or the
tlieorbo, which has fom.etimcs only one ftring to each note.
lu the middle of the belly or table, there is a role or paf-
fage for the found. There is alfo a bridge, to which the
ftrings are failened, and a piece of ivory between the head
and the neck, to which the other extremities of the ftrings
are fitted.

In performing on the lute, the firings are ftruck with the-
right hand, and prefTed upon the frets -.vith the left.

Whoever with to teach themfelvei to play upon this in--
ftrument, as it will be difficult now to find a good mailer,
may attain confiderable knowledge in the praSice of it by
a perufal of Pcre Merfenne's Harmonic Univerlelle, printed
at Paris in 1636, folio, \vns ii. des Inllrumens, p. 4 j ; and
Mace's Mufick's Monument, folio, 1676, Graflineau. This
laft book is written \n a ityle amufmgly quaint : but it pro-
bably contains all the elTential rules known at the time it.
was wrjtiea, both for playing, judging. of the goodnefs of tho-

inllrument

L U T

L U T

inftrnment and ilrings, placing the frets, &c. But after the
deceafe of lioncil Thomas Mace, whofe ftyle much refemblos
that of Anthony Wood, thougli lie exceeds him in qiiaintncfs
and fimplicity, there were probably many refinements dif-
covered by great players, both in compofmg fur the inrtru-
ment and in performing upon it, which are now quite lolt.

The inhabitants of Congo have a lute of a fingular kind.
The body and neck of this inllrument refemble ours ; but
the belly, that is, the place where the rofc or found-hole has
place in our lutes, is of very thin parchment ; which pro-
bably implies that the whole table or belly of this inllru-
ment is covered with parchment inftead of wood. It is
ftrung with the hair of an elephant's tail llie (Irongefl and
the bell that can be chofen ; or elfe wiih the bark of the
palm-tree. The firings reach from one end of the inllru-
ment to the other, and are fattened to rings fixed at dif-
ferent places of the lute one above the other.^ To thefe
rings are fufpended fmall plates of iron and filver of dif-
ferent fizes and different tones. In thrumming the ftrings
thefe rings are put in motion, which likewife move the little
nietal plates, and the whole forms a kind of murmuring har-
mony, or rather a confufcd noife, which is pretended not
to be difagrceable. The inhabitants likewife add, that in
thrumming the llriiigs of this inftrument in the way we pro-
duce found from the harp, the mufician expreffes his
thoughts as clearly as if he were fpeaking. Encycl. Siippl.
folio.

Lute, Arcbi. See Akciluto.
Lute, Theorbo. See Theorbo.

LUTE A, in Natural Hijhry, the name of a fpecies of
fly founi'ifrequently near waters after rain ; it is of a dun-
nifh-yellow colour, the wings are long, and the eyes large
and prominent ; the tail is thick, and has two hairs of a cmii-
fiderable length growing at the head, fo that i: is of the
bifetK kind.

LuTEA is alfo a name by which fome authors have called
the yellow-hammer. See Emberiza Citrinella.

LUTEEFGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
fituated in a pafs between the mountains of Benares, where
the air is very infaUibrious ; 15 miles S.E. of Chunar'.

LUTEOLA, in Bota7iy, the herb Vv^eld, Dyer's-weed,
or Yellow-weed, fo called from luteus, yellow, becaufe it is
of very general ufe in various countries for giving that co-
lour to woollen clotli or yarn. See Reseda.

LuTEOLA, in Ornithology, a name given by many to a fmall
bird, the Motacilla Trochilus of Linnius (which fee),
called by others a/t/us, and by others regulus non crijlatus ;
but this lall is a name that has occafioned fome coiifufion,
as many have erroneoully called our common wren the regulus,
and as it has no crell, imagined it to be the bird meant by
this name.

It is, excepting the crefted wren, the fmalleft of all Eu-
ropean birds, and it very little exceeds that in fize ; its head,
neck, and back are of a greeiiilh-brown ; the rump is greener
than the reft ; it has a yellow line on each iide, extended
from the noftrils, beyond the eyes, to the hinder part of the
head ; the breall, throat, and belly are yellow, with a very
faint call of green ; the wings and tail are brown, and all
their feathers are tipped with green at their ends ; the under
part of the wings has much of a very fine green ; the beak
IS extremely llender, and half an inch long ; the mouth is
yellow within ; it makes a loud noife, like that of a grafs-
hopper, and is principally found among willows; it is con-
tinually creeping and finging among the branches of trees ;
it builds with liraw and feathers, and lays five eggs, which
are white, and fpotted with red : there is a confiderable
variation in the colours of thefe birds j fome of them being

much greener on the back, and much whiter on the belly
than others.

LUTE REE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore; 33 miles N. of Jummoo.

LUTHER, Maktin, in Biography, the celebrated author
of phe Reformation in Germany, deicended from parents in
very humble circumllances, was born at Eifleben, in Saxony,
in the year 14S3. He difcovered an early inchnation for
learning, and having attained the rudiments of grammar
under his father's roof, he was fent to fchool at Magdeburg,
where he continued only about a year, and during that ftiort
period he fupported himfelf, like many other poor German
(cholars, by hteraliy begging his bread. From Magdeburg
ho went to Eilenach, in Thuringia, and diftinguifhed him-
felf in a fchool of high reputation, by his diligence and pro-
ficiency. In I JO I he was entered at the univerfity of
Erfurt, and in a very fliort time, having a mind fu];erior to
the Icholaitic modes of inilrudtion then in ufe, he became
difgulled with thole fubtilc and uniiillrufli\-e fciences. He
immediately applied himfelf v/ith the greatell ardour and
affiduity to the works of the ancient Latin writer?, fuch as
Cicero, Virgil, Livy, Sallull, &c. and fuch was the fuccefs
with which he ftudied, that he became the objeft of admi-
ration to the whole univerfity. He took his degree of
M.A. when he was fcarcely twenty years of age, and im-
mediately afterwards began to read lefturcs on Arillotle's
phyfics, on ethics, and other branches of phiL>fcpliy. He
began now to conliderthe proftiTion which he (hould adopt
for his fupport in life, and, by the perfuafion of his friends,
he turned his attention to jiirifprudence ; but an accident,
to which he was witnefs, -y.'-s. the death of a friend by the
difcharge of a thunder-cloud, fo fenfibly affedled him, that
he determined to retire from the world into a convent of the
Auguftine friars. No entreaties on the part ot his friends
could divert him from his plan, which he conceived to be a
duty that he owed to God, and accordingly alTjmed the
habit of that order. He now applied himfelf very dili-
gently to the ftudy of theology, and turned his mind fo
eagerly to the reading of ths Latin bible, which he had met
with by accident, as to excite the moil lively emotions of
furprife and aftonifhment among the monks, who were little
accuftomed to derive their notions concerning religion from
tliat fource. Having paffed a year in the monailery of
Erfurt, he took the vows, and was, in 1507, admitted to
priells' orders. His great atid profound learning, the fanc-
tity of his moral conduft, and his extenfive knowledge of
the holy fcriptures, were generally knov.'n and applauded ;
and in the following year, Frederick, ele<;:tor of Saxony,
having lately founded an univerfity at Wittemburg, ap-
pointed Luther to the profcfforfl'.ip of philofophy, and
afterwards that of divinity. The duties attached to thefe
offices he difcharged with fo much ability, and in a method
fo totally different from the rfual mechanical and dull forms
of ledluring, that he was crowded with pupils trotu ail
quarters, and was regarded as the chief ornament of the
univerfity. In 15 10, Luther was fent to Rome by the
monks of his order, to get fome difputes between them and
their vicar -general fettled by his holinefs the gope. While
in that city, he made his obfervations on the pope and the
government of the church of Rome; he examined the man-
ners of the clergy, which he feverely cenfured, particularly
as to the hafty and flovenly method which they adopted in
performing divine fervice. The careleffiiefs with which they
were accullomed toqper up their prayers to Almighty God,
he declares excited in his bread fentiments of allonifliinent
and horror. As foon as he had accomphfhed the obje6t of
his miffioa he returned to Wittemburg, where, in 15 12, he

had

LUTHER.

fiad the Jsgree of" doflor of divinity conferred upon Iiim, at
the expence of Frederick, eleflor of Saxony, who frequently
attended his pulpit difcoii>-fes, and was as deliglited with
his eloquence as fatisfied with his extraordinary merits.
Luther was, at firft, defirous of declining the honour offered
him, conlidering himfelf too young for fuch a diftinftion,
but his objeftions were over-ruled, and he was told " that
he muft fubmit to be thus dignified, inafmuch as the Al-
mighty had importr>nt fer\'ices to be performed in the
church, and through his inftrumetitality." Little did they,
who made ufe of this expreffion, whether in a tone of fcriouf-
rcfs or levity, imagine how truly its prophetic language
fhould be verified, and how extenfively ufeful his future
labours (hould be, in clearing away the corruptions that had
almoil overwhelmed the Chriftian world, as it was then
called ; for real Chriftianhy, as diftated by its meek and holy
founder, was as difficult to be difcerned in the age pre-
ceding the great reformer, as it was among the moil bar-
barian nations devoted to the fuperftitions and idolatry of
Greece and Rome.

Under the article Reform.\tios, we ftwU endeavour to
exhibit, in its true colours, the itate of the papal dominion
and church, both with refpecl to the pecjpie and clergv, as
it exilled when Luther began his labour ; to develope the
caufes which produced fo important a change in the world ;
and trace its confequenccs with regard to ma'ikind. lii the
prefent article we {hall more particularly confine ourfelves
to the hfe and labours of Luther himfe'f.

This great man, almoft as foon as he was created doctor
of divinity, felt it incumbent on him to (hew that the title
and honour had not been conferred without reafon. He ap-
plied himfelf with all diligence to the duties of the theolo-
gical chair. He read lectures on the feveral books of the
fcriptures. He co:nmented on the epiitle to the Romans
and on the book of Pfalms, and his illudrations were fo
ftrikin?, that, by the thoughtful and the ferious, he was
regarded as the harbinger of a new day ready to break out
atter a long night of darkneis and ignorance ; and he led
multitudes to think and to reafon on matters of high im-
portance who had HL'ver reflected or thought before beyond
the concerns of the prefent world. He oppofed, with a ve-
hemence that could fcarcely be withilood, the errors which
had been long current in the church and the fchools, as
truth, fhewing that the fcriptures were the only ted of
found doctrine and pra&ical morality. He applied himfelf
diligently to the ftudy of the fcriptures, in their original
languages, and encouraged the cultivation of thefe languages
in the univerfitv, as the only fure foundation on which a
proper knowledge of religion could be built. Luther was
a ftrict difciplinarian in the college, but he exafted no more
from the young men under his infpeftion than he ftiewed
himfelf an example of in his own moral conduct ; and thus, by
uniting a practical regard to religious duties, with an earneft
zeal in enforcing them upon the minds of others, he contri-
buted, in an eminent degree, to rarfe the univerfity of Wittera-
burg to a high degree of reputation, which amply gratified
the eleiSlor for his munificence in founding it. He had him-
felf been early initiated in the Peripatetic phiiofophy, then
univerfally taught in the fchools ; but his eyes were foon
opened to its numerous defetts and filly fubtleties, and while
a profeffor at Wittemburg, in 1 ,16, he wrote to Jodocus,
a zealous Ariitotelian, who had been his preceptor at Erfurt,
ftating at firft only his doubts refpedling the doftnnes in
which he had been inftrufted, and which, in his turn, it
was expefted he (hould teach others. Jodocus, wholly un-
prepared for fuch remarks, made with firmnefs, mmgled
wih modefty, was higlJy incenfed againft the author of

them, and in his next vifit to Urfurt refufed to fee hiiB.
Luther had not a mind to be intimidated : even the refpcft
which he felt for the inftruftor of his early years forbad him
to recede a fingle ftep ; he had fet his hands to the plough,
and could not look back ; he had embarked in the caufe of
reform, and muft neceflarily advance, notwithflanding the
difficulties that might be oppofed to him by his dearefl
friends. He accordingly wrote a fecond letter to Jodocus,
in which he gave it as his decided opinion, grountled upon
indifputable evidence, that it would be impuffible to reform
the church, without entirely abolifhing the canons and de-
cretals, and v;ith them the fcholaftic theology, phiiofophy,
and logic, and^inftituting others in their (lead.

In early life, Luther, whofe comprehenfive mir.d could
grafp all fubjcfts, bad ftudied the writings of St. Auguftine,
Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and other celebrated fchool-
mcn ; and in the difputc concerning Univerfals, attached
himfelf to the party of the Nominalifts, but maturer age
and refledion inftrufted him to treat the whole controvcrfy
with contempt, l^iiis has been referred chiefly to liis early
acquaintance with the ancients, but it was probably owing
rather to that peculiar (Irength and ardour of mind which
led him eafily to difcover the abfurdity of the prevailing
modes of reafoning, and of judging upon theological and
philofophical fubjetls, and to obferve with regret and indig-
nation the fatal effects of co.Tupt phiiofophy united with
ecclefiaftical tyranny. Under the article Leo X. we have
alluded to the general fale of indulgences publilhed by that
pontiff : this proved the firil link in a chain of caul'cs which
produced a revolution in the fentimcnts of mankind, the
greatert, as well as the moft beneficial that has happened
fince the publication of Chriftianity. When Leo was raifed
to the papal throne, he found the revenues of the church
exhaulled by the vaft projcfts of his predecclTors : he fUt
no defire to purfue a fyftcm of economy ; his heart, as we
have feen, (fee Leo X.) was intent on aggrandizing his
family : to this may be added his love of fpleiidour, his tafte
for pleafure, and his munificence in rewarding men of genius
and merit, all which involved him in new expences ; in order
to provide a fu.^d for which, he tried every device thst him-
felf and friends coidd invent, to drain the credulous multi-
tude of their wealth. Hence the fale of indulgences, which
pretended to convey to the poflefTor, either the pardon of his
own fins, or the releafe of any one, ah-eady dead, in whofe
happinefs he was interefted, from the pains of purgatory. Leo
had not, however, the credit of the invention of this fyftem ;
it may be referred beck to the papacy of Urban II., in the
eleventh century, who had contrived the lucrative trade, in
order that the pope might have the means of recompenfing
thofe who went to join the army of the crufaders in the
Holy Land. They were afterwards granted to tliol'e v.ho,
being unwilling to ferve themfelves, hired a foldier for that
purpofe, and in a (hort time they were beftowed on fuch as
gave money for accompUfliing any pious work enjoined by
the holy pontiff.

Julius II. had beftowed indulgences on all who contri-
buted towards building the church of St. Peter at Rome,
which, as we have feen, was begun while he fat upon the
papal throne, and as Leo was carrying on that espenfivc
building, his grant was founded en the fame pretence. The
right of promulgating thefe indulgences in Germany, toge-
ther with a Tnare in the,profits arifing from the fale of thcni,
was granted to Albert, eleftor of Mentz, and archbifhop of
Magdeburg, who, as his chief agent for retailing them in
Saxony, employed Tetzel, a Dominican friar of hcenlious
morals, who executed his commifTion with great zeal and
fuccefs, but without regard to any principles of prudence

cr

L XT T II E R.

er decency. At length the trade wn? carried on with fo
little attention to the interefts of fociety, that it bccami^ a
general wi{h that fome chack (liould be given to it. Luther
was not an inattentive fpettator : he beheld, with concern
and indignation, the artifices of thofe who f'jld, and the foUy
or fimplicity of thofe who purcliafed indulgences. Having
examined the fubjed, and finding that the praftice derived
no countenance from the Icriptures, he determined openly to
protell againil fucli fcandaious impofitions on his deluded
countrymen.

In the year 15 17, he attacked, with all the vehemence in
his power, from the pulpit, in the gfeat church of Witteni-
burg, the vices of thole very monk? who dared openly to
iriiftribute indulgences : he tried their doftrines by the
ftandard of fcripture, and exhorted his hearers to look for
falvation to the means appointed by God in his holy word.
The boldncfs and fervour with which he uttered his exhort-
ations did not fall to make a deep and lading imprcffion on
the people-^ who, fufpedting the delufions to which they had
been long fubjei;!, were ivady to join any pcrfon, efpecially
one whofe character for integrity Hood fo high as Luther's,
ill throwing off a yoke which they were fcarcely able to
endure. Luther was not content with undeceiving the
pcrfons who crowded round his pulpit ; he advanced with
dignity to a higher authority ; he wrote to Albert, eledlor
of Mentz, End archbifliop of Magdeburg, remoiillrating
againft the falfe opinions, as well as the wicked lives, of the
defenders and dillributors of indulgences, intreating him, in
a moft fupplicatory tone, to exercife the authority veiled in
him for coirefting thefe evils. The archbifhop was, however,
too deeply interefted in thefe abufes to lend a hand in putting
an end to them. In addition to his letter, Luther tranfmitted
to the prelate ninety-five thefea, which he had propofed as
fubjedts of inquiry and difputation, and which he had pub-
licly fixed in a church at Wittemburg, with a. challenge to
the learned to oppofe on a given day, either in perfon or by
writing; and to the whole he added a folcrnn protcltation
of his profound refpeft for the apoftolic fee, and implicit
fubmiflion to its authority. On the appointed day no per-
fon appeared to conteil; Luther's thefes, which rapidly fpread
all over Germany, and excited univerfal admiration of the
boldnefs which he difcovered in venturing to call in queiUon
the papal power and authority, and to attack the Dominicans,
armed, as they were, with all the terrors of the inquilitorial
authority. The friars of his own order were delighted with
his inveilives againft the monks who fold indulgences, and
were anxious to fee them expofed to the hatred and fcorn
of the people ; and he was lecretly encouraged in his pro-
ceedings by his fovereign, the elector of Saxony, who thought
they might contribute to give fome check to the exaftions
of the court of Rome, which the fecular princes had been
long unfuccefsfully endeavouring to oppofe. The publica-
tion of Luther's thefes brought into the field many zealous
champions in defence of the holy church, who were lefs
eacer for the diffemination of the truth, than for the profits
which exifting abufes afforded them, and who accordingly
traduced the charafter of Luther, endeavouring 10 excite
the indignation of the clergy and populace againft him.
Luther, however, was not to be terrified by any meafures
which his prefent adverfaries could adopt : he found a large
body of the people adhering to his doctrines, and he was
content, in their behalf, to go through evil report as well as
good report : he even went fo far, in a pubhc declaration,
as to fay, " that if the pope and cardinals entertained the
fame opinions with his opponents, and fet up any authority
againft that of fcripture, there could be no doubt but that
^ome was itfclf the very feat of antichiift, and that it

would be happy for thofe countries which fliould feparatc
themfelves from her."

It does not appear that, at this early period, Luther had
any intention of fetting himfelf againft tiic power of the
pope ; he even wrote a letter to his iiolinefs in the motl
refpeitful terms, (Itewing the uprightncfs of his inteiitioiif,
and the jullice of the caufe of winch he was tlie advocate.
Shortly after this, by the inceffant reprefentations of Luther'j
adverfaries, tha'. the heretical notions he was propagating
threatened the moft fatal mifchiefs to the interells of the
church, Leo iffued an order fiw- his appearing at Rome to
jullify himfelf. The judges of his condudl were already
appointed and feledted on account of their hoftility to him.
Tiie reformer, by means of his own petitions, and the inter-
ference of thofe friendly to his caufe, was allowed to be
heard at Augftjurg, inllead of being obliged to travel to
Rome. Even here, his avowed enemy, cardinal Cajetaii,
was appointed to try the merits of tlie queflion. I^utlier
arrived at Auglburg in the month of October, 15 iS, and
was immediately admitted into the prefence of tlie cardinal,
who, in their feveral interviews, would not condefcend to
argue the matter with a perfon of fuch inferior rank : but,
by the mere diiflate of authority, required Luther, by virtue
of the apoliolic powers with which he was iuvclled, to re-
tract the opinions which he had advanced, and to lubmit,
without hefitation, to the judgment of the pope. Luther,
though, for the moment, furpvifed at the demand of recan-
tation, declared that lie could not, with a fiite confcience,
renounce opinions which he believed to be true, nor (lioulJ
anv confideration induce him to do what would be fo bafe
in itfelf and fo offenfive to God : Hill, however, he declared
his readinefs to fubmit to the lawful determination of tlie
c'lurch. He went much farther : he exprefled a willingness
to refer the controverfy to certain univerfities which he
named, and promifed neither to write nor preacii concerning
indulgences, provided the fame filence with refpeft to tliein
were enjoined on his adverfaries. Tiiefe offers were rejec'ted
by the cardinal, who peremptorily infilled upon a fimple re*
cantation,and, at the fame time, forbad the reformer to enter
again into his prefence, unlefs he came prepared to comply
with what he required. As he had no intention to fubmit,
he thought it more prudent to withdraw, which he -did in as
private a manner as poffible, having firft prepared a formal
and folcmn appeal from the pope, who was then ignorant
of his caufe, to the pope, at a time when he ftiould have re-
ceived more full and explicit information withrefpeft to it.

The fudden departure of Luther enraged the papal le-
gate, who wrote to the eledor of Saxony, requiring him to
witlidraw his protection from lo feditious a perfon, and
either to fend him prifonerto Rome, ortobanifh him from his
territories. The eleftor refufed to comply with cither of
thefe requefts, though with many external profeffions of
efteem for the cardinal ; but he at the fame time affured
Luther privately, tliat he would not defert him. Being
thus ably fupported, Luther continued to vindicate his
opinions, and he gave a challenge to all the inqiiifitors to
come and difpute with him at Wittemburg, promifing them
not only a fafe condufl from the eleftor, but liberal enter-
tainment, free from all expences, while they continued at
that place. In the mean time Leo's ambition urged him to
iffuea bull, by which he attempted, by his papal authority,
lo put an end to the difpute about mdulgences, and in this
public paper, he magnified, almoft without bounds the
efficacy of indulgences, and imperioully commanded all
Chriftians to affent to what he delivered, as the doctrine of
the Holy Catholic church. Luther was now falisfied that
the ftorm would fpecdily fall upon him, and therefore had

recourfj;

LUTHER.

recourle to the only expedient left him, to ward off the
efFeft of papal ceiifures, by appealing from the pontiff to a
general council, which he maintained to be fuperior in
authority to the pope. In January 15 19 the emperor died,
which rendered it expedient for the court of Rome to fuf-
pend any direft proceedings againft Luther ; for by this
event, the vicariat of that part of Germany, which is go-
verned by Saxon laws, devolved on the eleclor of Saxony,
and was executed by him during the interregnum which
preceded the eleftion of the emperor Charles V. Under
the admini (I ration of this prince, Luther enjoyed tranquil-
lity, and his opinions were fuffered to take root, and even
to grow up with fome degree of ftrength and firmnefs.

Leo now hoped he fhould be able to bring back Luther
to fubmiffion and obedience, without having recourfe to
harfh meafures. He accordingly fixed on Charles Miltitz,
a Saxon knight, a perfou endowed with much prudence
and dexterity, whom he fent into Saxony, as his legate, to
prefent the eleftor with a golden confecrated rofe, as a mark
of peculiar dillinftion, and alfo to treat with I^uther about
the means of reconciling him to the court of Rome. Mil-
titz, by his great addrefs and foothing manners, and his en-
comiums on Luther's charafter, produced a confiderable
efFeft on his mind, and he made fuch conceflions as proved,
that his principles as a reformer were by no means ileadily
fixed. He agreed to obferve a profound filence on the
fubjeft of indulgences, provided his adverfaries were bound
to the fame meafures ; and he WTOte a humble and fub-
miflive letter to the pope, acknowledging he had carried his
zeal and animofity too far ; and he even confented to publifh
a circular letter, exhorting his followers and adherents to
reverence and obey the diftates of the Holy Roman church.

Had the court of Rome been fufficiently prudent, and ac-
cepted this fubmiffion of Luther, and prevented its own
champions from engaging in the field of controverfy, the
caufe of the reformation would have been loft. But the
inconfiderate zeal of fome of Luther's opponents, renewed
the divifions which were fo nearly healed, and obhged
Luther and his followers to examine deeper into the enormi-
ties which prevailed in the papal hierarchy, as well as the
doftrines of the church. During this year a famous con-
troverfy was carried on at Leipfic, on the challenge of
Eckius, between himfelf and Carloftadt, concerning the
freedom of the will, and at the fame time he urged Luther
to enter the lifts with him, on the fubjecl of the pope's au-
thority and fupremacy. The challenge was accepted, and
on the appointed day the three champions appeared in the
field. The aflembly which met to witnefs the combat was
numerous and fplendid, and each of the combatants con-
dufted himfelf with great fkill and dexterity ; in the courfe
of the debate, Luther no doubt was carried farther than he
dreamed of going, led on from one argument to another :
he at length maintained, that the church of Rome, in the
earlier ages, had never been confidered as fuperior to other
churches, and combated the pretenfions of that church and its
bifhop, from the teftimony of fcripture, the authority of the
fathers, and the nioft approved ecclcfiaftical hiftorians, and
even from the decrees of the council of Nice, while the beft;
arguments of his adverfary were derived from fpurious de-
cretals, none of which could boaft of an antiquity equal to
that of four centuries. Hoffman, the prefident, refuted to
declare on which fide victory had fallen, and the queftion
v/as referred to the univerfities of Paris and Erfurt. Eckius
clearly faw that the auditors generally declared in favour of
tlie arguments made ufe of by his adverfary, and from this
moment he breathed fury and revenge againft Luther. The
latter had, however, the happinefs to know, that he had

Vol. XXL

conyinced the celebrated Philip Mclanfthon, at that time
profeffor of the Greek, at the univcrlUy of Vittemburg, of
the juftice of his caufe, and he foon aftvr found a vigorous
auxiliary in Ulric Zuingle-, a canon of Zurich, in Switzer-
land, whofe extenfive learning and uncommon fagacity were
accompanied with the utmoft intrepidity ar.d refolution.
The party of reformers now was great in the talents, and
illuftrious in the charafters of their leaders, who made, at
this period, the utmoll efforts to draw over Erafmus to their '
fide. The reputation and authority of this great fcholar
were of the higheft weight in Europe, as well on account
of his talents as of his ftrifturcs upon the errors of the
church, and upon the ignorance and vices of the clergy.
He had fown the feeds which Luther cherifhed and brought
to maturity, but was, however, too wary to entangle him-
felf fo deeply in the difpute as to lead him into any danger.
About this time the univerfitics of Cologne and Louvr.in
took part againft Luther, againft whofe decrees he imme-
diately wrote with his ufual fpirit and intrepidity. Eckius
likevvife repaired to Rome, intent on accomplifhing the
ruin of Luther, and he thought he had performed the deed
when, by his exertions and influence, pope Leo alTembled
the college of cardinals to prepare a fcntence againft him
with fuch deliberation, as it was hoped no exception could
be taken, either with regard to form or matter.

On the 13 th of June 1520, the bull was iffued, in which
forty-one propofitions, extrafted from Luther's works,
were condemned as heretical and fcandalous, and all perfons
were forbidden to read his writings on pain of excommuni-
cation ; thofe who poffelled any of them were commanded,
under fevere penalties, to commit them to the flames. Lu-
ther himfelf, if he did not within fixty days publicly recant
his errors, and burn his books, was pronounced an obftinate
heretic, excommunicated, and delivered unto Satan for the
deifruflion of the flefli ; and all fecular princes were re-
quired, under pain of incurring the fame cenfurc, to feize
his perfon, that he might be punifhed as his crimes fhould
be found to merit. Short-fighted priefts, and rafh bigots,
contemplated in this fentence the ruin of Luther, and the
termination of thofe principles which he had efpoufed ; but
it has proved fatal only to the church which uttered it, and
to the caufe which it was intended to fupport. When an
account of what had happened was brought to Luther, he
was neither difconcerted nor intimidated, but calmly con-
fulted the moft proper means of prefent defence, and future
fecurity. He appealed a fecond time to a general council,
and came to the refolution of voluntarily renouncing com-
munion with the church of Rome, and in juftification of his
own conduct, which he might well expett would be every
where, though not by all perfons, condemned, he cxpofed
to the world, witho it the leaft difguife or ceremony, the
abominable corruptions and delufions of the papal hierarchy;
he went ftill farther, and without hcfitation declared, in the
moft folemn manner, before the whole world, that the pope
was the predicted "man of fin," the anti-chrilt fct forth in
the writings of the New Teftament. Being now rtleafed
from all obedience to the pope, and fetting himfelf up in
oppofition to his power, he declaimed, without fcruple,
againft his tyranny, and he exhorted all Chriftian princes to
fhake off the ignominious yoke, which had been fo long im-
pofed on them, but the weight of which neither they nor
their fathers could well bear. He made it the theme of his
joy and exultation, that he was marked out as an objetl of
ecclcfiaftical indignation, becaufe he had ventured to affcrt
and vindicate the liberty of mankind. L\ithi.>- proceeded
from words to afts ; Leo had burnt the books of Luther,
and he, by way of returning the compliment, afTcmbled all

j^. O the

LUTHER.

the profcflors and ftudcnts of the univerfity of Wiitcm-
burg, and with much ceremony, in the prcfcnce of a pro-
digious multitude of people of all ranks aiid orders, com-
mitted to the flames the pope's bufl, and the decretals and
canons relating to his fupreme jurifdiftion : the example
was foon followed in feveral cities of Germany. He next
collefted from the canon law fome of the moll extravagant
propofitions with refpeft to the omnipotence of the papal
power, and the fubordlaation of all fecular jurifdidion to
the authority of the holy fee, which he publiOicd with a
commentary, pointing out the impiety of fuch tenets, and
their evident tendency to fubvert all civil government.
Within a month after this, a fecond bull was idued agaiiilt
him, by which he was expelled from communion with the
church, for having infulted the majefty, and difowned the
fupremaey of the Roman pontiff. The intimidating power
of papal condemnation had now loft its effect in Germany,
and the bull of Leo put his antagonift upon the projeft of
founding a church upo'. iirinciples direftly oppofitc to thole
of Rome, and to eftabiiili in it a fyllem of doftrine and
ecclefiaihcal difcipline, more confonant with the fpiril and
precepts of the gofpel.

From this time Luther never ceafed to attack the cor-
ruptions of the church of Rome, and his reafoning made
deep ii'ipreflions upon the minds of the people; their r'.'frefi
and revf'ence for ancient iiillitutions and doctrines in which
they had been educated were fhaken. Students crowded
from all parts of the empire to Wittemburg, and under
Luther, Melaniflhon, Carlolladt, and other eminent, and,
for the tiine, truly enlightened profeiTors, imbibed princi-
ples, which, on their return, they propagated among their
countrymen with zeal and ardour. On the arrival of
Charles V. in Germany, the firll aft of his adminillration
was to alTemble a diet of the empire at Worms. This
meeting was fixed tor the hxth of January 1521 ; in the
circular letter to the different princes, the emperor informed
them that the expref? p.irpofe of this meeting, was to con-
cert with them the proper meafures for checking the pro-
grefs of thofe new and dangerous opinions, which threatened
to difturb the peace of Germany, and overthrow the reli-
gion of their anceftors. At the fame time the pope gave
notice to the eleftor of Saxony, of the decree which he had
iiTued againll the herelies ot Luther, and requelled that he
would lo far concur with him as to caufe ail the writings of
Li:ther to be publicly burnt, and that he would either put
the author of them to death, or imprifoi him, or at leail
fend him to Rome. He fent a fimilar meffage to Wittem-
burg, but neither the eleftor nor the univerfity paid any
attention to the exhortations of his hohnefs. To tiie eleftor
of Saxony Luther was under infinite obligations, as by
him alone was the einperor prevented from taking fteps,
which would have been fatal to the progrefs of his caufe.
As foon as the diet was affembled at Wormr, the papal
legates infilled that they were bound, without deliberation,
to condemn a man who ii the pope had already excommuni-
cated as an obilinate heretic. The emperor in this was
ready to acquiefce, but the eleftor again flepped forth in
defence of Luther, and not only prevented the publication
of any unjull edift againil him, but infilled that he ought
to have his caufe tried by the canons of the Germanic
church, and the laws of the empire. It was therefore re-
lolved, that Luther fhould be fummoned before the diet,
and be allowed a hearing before any final fentence (hould be
pronounced againil bim. To proteft him againil the vio-
lence of hi; enemies, the emperor, and all the prince?
through whofe territories he was to pafs, granted him a lafe
cundud, and Charles himfelf wrote to require his immediate

attendance, renewing, in the moft folcmn manner, his af-
furances of protedlion from injury or ill-treatment. Luther
had no fooner received the f\immons than he prepared to
obey it. Nor could the rcinonftrances of his friends pre-
vent him from running the ri(l< of being treated as his books
had been already treated. Some of them, anxious for his
fafety, reminded him of the fate of the celebrated Hufs
under fimilar circumftances, and protcfted by the fame
fecurity of an imperial faft-condudl, and tilled with folici-
tnde, advifed and entreated him not to rufli wantonly into
danger. But Luther with calmnefs and dignity replied,
" I am lawfully called to appear at Wor • s, and thither
will I go in the name of the moft hi, h God, though as
many devils, as there are tiles on the lioufes, were there-
combined againil me."

On the i6thof April I.,nther arrived at Worms, where
greater crowds are faid to have affembled to beiiold lr,ni,lhan
had ever appeared at the emperor's public entry. While he
continued in that city, he was not only treated with refpeft,
but his apartments were rcforted to by pcrfons of !. '^Ii
rank, and by the princes of the empire, l.fiore tludiet he
behaved with becoming refpeft ; he acknowledged that he
had fometimes been carried away by the ardrmr of his tem-
per, and that the veln-n,( iice o{ his writii.gs could not al-
ways b- jiiflified. While, iiov\ ever, he readily admitted his,
errors, he (hewid n 1 inclination to renounce a linijle import-
ant principle which he had b'.en promulgating, and he dif-
played the utmoft prefence of mind when he was called on
to plead his caufe before the grand aftembly, on the 1 7th and
18th of April. That his redfoniiigs Ihould not change tha
minds of thole who came to condi.mn, cannot be a matter of
iurffi-ize, but when he was called on to recant, he folemnly
declared, that he would neither abandon !ii^ principle'!, nor
materially change his conduft> unlets he were previoufly con-
vinced, by the fcriptures, or the force of realoning, that his
fentiments were erroneous and his conduit unlawful. En-
raged at his unbending fpirit, lome of the ecclefiaftics pro-
pofed, notwithllandmg the promifes made to the contrary,
to avail theinlelves of the opportunity of having an enemy iu
their power, to deliver tlie church at once from fuch a pefti-
lent heretic. But the members of the diet and the emperor
alfo refuted to aft irl a manner that muft blaft their charafter
for ever with the world, and Luther was permitted to depart
in fafety. Scarcely, however, had he left die city, when,
in the emperor's name, and by the authority of the diet, he
was, in a moll fevere edift, pronounced an obilinate heretic,
a member cut off from the church, de: rivid of the privi-
leges which he had enjoyed as a fubjeft of the empire, and
the fcvereft punifhments were denounced againil ihofe wha
ftiouM receive, entertain, or countenance him, eith'-r by afls
of hofpitality, by converfation, or writing, and all wrre re-
quired to conc'jr i'l feizing his perfon, as foon as the eim of
his i.ife-conduft expired. This decree produced fcarcfly any
elfeft ; the emperor was too much engaged by the ct : 'mo-
tions in Spain, and in the wars in Italy and the Low C ;in-
tries, to attend to Luther, and the fovereign princes v ho
had not been prefent at the diet, and who felt for the liber-
ties of the empire, and the rights of the Germ.anic church,
treated it with the highetl indignation, or the utmoft con-
tempt. Luther was lid', to the eleftor of Saxony, the
ohjeft of his moll anxious folicitude ; and the meafures
which he adopted at this critical j.unfture, effeftuatly fe-
cured him from the threatening llorm. Li confequence of a
preconcerted plan, and, as fome hiftorians have imagined, not
without the knowledge of the emperor, as I,,uther was on
his journey, near Eifenach, a number of horfemen in malks
Tufhed out of a wood, and furcoundiug his company, car.

i;ied

LUTHER.

Tied him off with theutmoll fpeed to the caftle of Warten-
burg. There the noble-minded eleftor ordered him to be
lupphed with every thing that he could want, but tlie place
of his retreat was kept a profound fecret. Tiie fuddcn dif-
appearance of Luther not only occafioncd the moft bitter
difappointment to his adverfaries, but rendered them doubly
odious to the people of Germany, who, not knowing what
was becom? of their leader in reformation, conjefturcd a
thoufand things, till at length they were ready to give him
up as deftroyed by the fury of his enemies. Luther was,
however, living in peace, and irt the enjoyment of whatever
was neceffary to his well being and tolas amufement ; he was
frequently indulged with the exercife of hunting in the com-
pany ot thofe who had the chargeof him, living in this retire-
ment under the name of Yonker George. During the pe-
riod of his folitude, he tranflated a great part of the New
Tellamcnt into the German language, wrote and pubhflicd
tracts in defence of his doftrines, which, as foon as they
were feen, revived and animated the fpirit of his followers, and
wrote frequent letters to his friends ; he had alfo, during this
period, the fatisfaftion of knowing that his opinions were gain-
ing ground, and that they had already made fome progrefs in
almo ft every city io Saxony. Luther, weary at length of
his retirement, appeared publicly at Wittemburg, in March
1522: this (lep he took without the eledlor's knowledge or
confent, but he immediately wrote him a letter to prevent
the poflibility of his taking offence, aiTigning as a rcafon, that
it was in conlequence of the information which he had received
of the proceedings of Carloftadt, one of his difciples, who
was animated with fimilar zeal, but pofleffed lefs prudence
and moderation than his mafter. This perfon, in the ab-
fenceof Luther, had attempted to abohfh the ufe of mafs,
to remove images out of the churches, to fet afide auricular
confeflion, the invocation of faints, and in fliort had quite
changed the doftrine and difcipline of the church at Wittem-
burg, all which Luther faid was unfeafonably and raflily
done. At this time the doftrines of the reformer were not
known in France ; and in England, the fovereign, Henry
VIIL, had made the mofl vigorous exertions to prevent them
from invading his realrns : he even undertook to write them
down, in a treatife entitled " Of the Seven Sacraments,''
&c. This work he prefented to Leo X. in OAober 1521.
The pope was fo well pleafed with the royal attempt to
confute the arguments of Luther, that he complimented
him with the title of " Defender of the Faivh." Whatever
refpeft and reverence Luther might Ihevv to kings as fuch,
he had none for the arguments of an antagonift, though armed
with royal authority, and anfwered Henry with much feve-
rity, treating his performance in the moll contemptuous
manner. Luther now publifhed his tranflationof the fcrip-
tures, which produced fudden, and almoft incredible effects
on the people of Germany, and proved more fatal to
the church of Rome than all his other works. It was
read with the utmoft avidity by perfons of every rank,
who, with ailonilhment, difcovered, how contrary the pre-
cepts of Chrift are to the inventions of his pretended vicege-
rents, and being in poffeflion of the rule and flandard of
faith, they conceived themfelves qualified to judge of efta-
blilhed opinions, and to pronounce when they were conform-
able to that ilandard. About this time, feveral imperial
cities in Germany abolifhed the mafs, and the other fupcrlU-
tious rites of popery, and openly embraced the reformed re-
ligion. The elector of Brandenburg, the dukes of Brunf-
■wick and Lunenburg, and the prince of Anhalt, became
avowed patrons of Luther's opinions, and countenanced the
preaching of them in their territories. Luther now made
*)pen war with the pope and bifhops, and to render them as

defpicablc as potTible, he wrote one book again (I the popi-'s
bull, and another againft the order falfely called the order
of the bifhopS. The fame vcarhe wrote to the affembly of
theflatcsof Bohemia, in which he affured them that he was
labouring to cftablilh their doctrine in Germany, and ex-
horted them not to return to the communion of the church
of Rome. Ferdinand, archduke of Auftria, the empe-
ror's brother, promulgated a very feveri- cdift againft the
tranilation of the fcriptures, and forbade all the fubjefts of
his imperial majelly to polfefs any copies of it, or of Luther*^!
other works. In this ftate of things Leo X. died, and wag
fucceedcd on the papal throne by Adrian VL, who imme-
diately concerted meafurcs with his cardinals concerning the
bed means for (lopping the progrefs of liercfy. The diet
of the empire was holden'foon after at Nuremberg, to which
Adrian fent his brief, in which he obfcrves, that he had heard
with grief and indignation, that Martin Luther continued to
teach the fame errors, and to publifh almoil daily books full
of herefies ; that it appeared llrange to him tliat fo krge and
fo religious a nation coidd be fcduced by a wretched apollate
friar ; that nothing, however, could be more pernicious to
Chriftendom, and that he therefore accordingly exhorts them
to ufe their utmoll endeavours to make Luilier, and the au-
thors of thefe tumults, return to their duty ; or, if they re-
fufe and continue obftinate, to proceed againll thtm accord-
ing to the laws of the empire.

The admonitions of his hohncfs produced no cffedl what-
ever, and the difciples of Luther advanced in their career
with exultation and triumph. In IJ23, Luther publi(hed
feveral pieces ; among thefe were fome on the monaftic life,
which he attacked with great feverity, and his exhortations,
united with much ftrong fatire, produced important effefts,
for foon after nine nuns, among whom was Catharine de
Bore, whom he afterwards married, eloped from a nunnery
and came to Wittemburg, an aft that was as highly ap-
plauded by the reformer, as it was condemned by the devo-
tees to the Roman church. Luther compares the deliverance
of thefe nuns from the flavery of monaftic life to that of the
fouls which Chrift had dehvered by his death. This year two
of the f illowers of Luther were burnt at Bruffels, and
thefe were the firft who fuffered martyrdom for his caufe ;
and about the fame time that this tragical event was perpe-
trated, he wrote a confolatory letter to three noble ladies at
Mifnia, who were bnnifhed from the duke of Saxony's court
at Eriburg, for reading his books.

On the death of Adrian VI. , Clement VII. who fuc-
ceeded him, fent a legate to the diet which was to be held at
Nuremberg, to urge the neceffity of a fpcedy execution of
the edidt of Worms ; he was unfuccefsful in the objeft of
his miffion, and found that the Germati princes, in general,
were not at all inimical to the reformntion ; he accordingly
retired to Ratilhon with the bifliops, and tliofe of the princes
who adhered to the caufe of Rome, where they engaged vi-
goroully to execute the edift of Worms in their refp^ftive
dominions. It was in the courfe of this year that the coji-
trovcrfy between Erafmus and Luther on the doftrine of
" free-will" commenced. Erafmus had been long urged to
take up his pen againft the reformer, though it was with the
greatell reluftance that he yielded to the importunities of the
pope and Catholic princes, fufpetting that it would not be
found ti>^ beft mode of ending the differences, and cftablifti-
ing the peace of the church. At length he Itood forward in
defence of the doftrine of free-will, being defirous to clear
himfelf from the fufpicion of favouring a caufe, which he
would not wifh to be thought in any way to favour. Hi*
book was entitled a "Conference concerning Free-will,"
which was written with much moderation, and without per.
4 O 2 fonal

LUTHER.

fonal refleiftions. To foftcn the anger of Luther, he fays in
his preface, " Tliat lie ought not to take it ill that he dif-
fents from his opinic>nsin particular points, as he had allowed
himfilf the liberty of differing from the judgment of popes,
univerfities, and doftors in the church.'' It was fome time
before Luther took up his pen in defence of his own pofi-
tions, but his anfv. er was extremely fevere : he accufed his
opponent of " being carclefs about religion, and little folici-
tous what became of it, provided the world continued in
peace, and that hiS notions were rather philofophical than
diftated by ChrilHan truth." Luther was next engaged in a
controvorfy with Car'oftadt, refpefling the eucharift.
Though Luther had renounced the doftrine of " tranfub-
ftantiation," according to which the bread and wine were
changed by confecration into the body and blood ot Chrill,
yet he thought that the partakers of the Lord's fupper re-
ceived in fome myftical way, with bread and wine, the real
body and blood of Chrift. This dtiftrine obtained the name
of •' confubftantiation." Carloftadt, who, as we have feen,
was the difciple of Luther, maintained that the body of
Chrift was not aftually prefcnt, but that the bread and wine
were no more than external figns, or fymbnls, defigned
to excite in the minds of Chriftians the remembrance of the
fufferings and death of Chrift, and of the benefits which
arife from them. This opinion was univerfally embraced by all
the friends of the reformation in Switzerland, and by a con-
fiderable number of its votaries in Germany, but it was the
commencement of a controverfy that was carried on with
much bitternefs, which, notwithftanding the endeavours that
were ufed to reconcile the contending parties, terminated
at length in a fatal divifion between thofe who had embarked
together in the facred caufe of religion and liberty, and
which contributed to retard the progrefs of the reformation.

In the month of Oftober 1524, Luther threw off the
monaft:ic habit, which, though not premeditated and de-
figned, was regarded as a very proper introduftion to a ftep
which he took the following year, viz. his marriage to Ca-
tharine, the perfon already referred to, who had eloped
from the nunnery of Nimptchen. This meafure expofed
him to much obloquy from his own friends, as well as from
the Catholics. He was even aihamed of it himfelf, and
acknowledged that it had made him fo defpicable, that he
hoped his humiliation would give joy to angels, and be the
fource of vexation to devils. MelaufthoH, found him fo much
afflifted with his pad condud, that he wiote fome letters of
confoldtion to him. It was not, it was faid, fo much the
marriage, as the circumftances of the time, and the precipi-
tation with which it was done, that occafioned the cenfures
paffed upon Luther. He married fuddenly, and at a time
when Germany was groaning under the miferies of a war
which had been occafioned by the introduftion of the new
doftrines, and which will be noticed under the article Re-
FOR.MATlON. Luthcr foon recovered from the ftate of
abafement into which he had for a feafon fallen, and then af-
fumed his former air of intrepidity, and boldly fupported
what he had done. " I took," faid he, " a wife, in obedi-
ence to my father's commands, and haftened the confumma-
tion, to prevent impediments, and flop the tongues of flan-
derers."

About this period Luther loft by death his friend, and
the fall friend of the reformation, Frederic, eleftor of
Saxony ; but the blow was lefs fenfibly felt, as he was fuc-
ceeded by his brother John, a more avowed and zealous,
but lefs able, patron of Luther and his doftrines. Frederic
had been a kind of mediator between the Roman pontiff and
the reformers of Wittemburg, and had always entertained
the hope of refloring peace in the church, and of fo recon-

ciling the contending parties, as to prevent a feparatiou
either in point of ecclefiaftical jurifdiflion ' r r ligious com-
munion : hence, though rather favour:ibie to the innovations
of Luther, he took no pains to introduce any change into
the churches of his own dominions, nor to fubjeft them to
his jurifdiftion. But his fucceffor aflcd very difiercntly : he
ordered a body of laws relating to the firm of ecclefiailical
government, the method of public worfhip, the rank, of-
fices, and revenues ot the priellhood, and other matti rs of
that nature, to be drawn up by Luther snd Mclandlhon,
which he afterwards promulgated throughout his dominions.
The example of this prince was followed by all the other
princes and ftates of Germany, who renounced the papal
fupremacy and jurifdiflion. The Lutherans were now
threatened with a grievous perfeciition, which the public
troubles of Europe only prevented from being carried into
execution : they, on the other hand, were not negligent in
taking etfeftual meafures for defending themfelvcs againll
the fuperflition and violence of their adverfaries, and formed
the plan of a confederacy for that prudent purpofe.

In June 1526, a diet of the empire was held at Spires, at
which Ferdinand, the emperor's brother, prefided ; Charles
being fully occupied with the troubles in Spain and Italy.
When the Hate of religion came before the allembly, the em-
peror's ambaffadors ufed their utii oft endeavours to obtain a
refolution, that all difputes about religion ftiould be fup-
prefTed, and that the fentence which had been pronounced
at Worms againft Luther and his followers (hould be put
into rigorous execution ; but it was agreed, that they could
not execute that fentence, nor come to any determination
with refpedt to the dodlrines by which it had been occa-
fioned, before the whole matter was fubmittcd to the cogni-
zance of a general council, lawfully affembled. An addrefs
to the emperor was unanimoufly agreed on, befecchmg him
to affemble, without delay, a free and general council ; and
it was alfo refolved, that, in the mean time, the princes and
ftates of the empire fhould, in their refpeftive dominions, be
at liberty to manage ecclefiaftical matters in the manner
which they fhould think expedient ; yet fo as to be able to
give an account of their adminiftration to God and the em-
peror. This was a refolution the moft favourable to the
caufe of Lutheranifm ; and feveral potentates, whom the
dread of perfecution had hitherto prevented from declaring
for the reformation, being now delivered from their reftraint,
renounced pubhcly the fuperftition of Rome, and intro-
duced among them the fame form of religious worfhip, and
the fame fyftem of doftrine, which had been received in
Saxsny. Luther and his fellow-labourers, in the mean
time, by their writings, their inftruftions, their admoni-
tions, and counfels, were carrying on their great caufe with
a fpirit fuitable to the importance and greatnefs of their un-
dertaking. But this encouraging ftate of affairs was not of
long duration : the emperor began to take meafures for the
recovery of thofe prerogatives which had been fnatched from
his predeceflbrs, and which were necefiary to the promotion
of his ambitious fchemes. For this purpofe, he regarded it
as neceffary to fupprefs opinions, which might form new
bonds of confederacy among the princes of the empire, and
unite them by ties ilronger and more facred than any poli-
tical connedlion. He accordingly refolved to employ all
the means in his power for the full eftabhtlimcnt of the reli-
gion, of which he was regarded the natural proteftor ; con-
fidering this as the inftrument by which he could extend his
civil authority. He appointed, for this purpofe, a diet of
the empire to be held at Spires, in the fpring of 1529, for
the exprefs purpofe of taking into confideration the Hate of
religion. In that diet the archduke Ferdmand prefided,

and

LUTHER.

and had the addrefs to procure a majority approving a 3e-
I creo, which declared it unlawful to introduce any change in
I the dodrine, difciphne, or worfhip of the ettablilhed re-
ligion, before the determinations of a general council were
known. This decree was exceedingly revolting to the
eleftor of Saxony, and other princes, as well as to the de-
puties of fourteen imperial cities, who, in a body, when
they found their arguments and remonilrances of no avail,
entered their folemn ^ro/£/? againfl: it, on the 19th of April
1)29, 3"'^ appealed to the emperor and a future council.
On this account they were dilliiiguifhed by the name of
Protestants, which, from this period, has been applied
to all fefts of whatever denomination which have feparated
themfelves from the Roman church. The protetting princes
fent embaffies to the emperor, which were ill received ; and
in anfwer to one of them, they received an account that he
was determined to come into Germany, with a view to ter-
minate, in a diet to be held at Augfburg, in June 1530,
the religious difputes which had produced fo many aiid
grievous divifions in the empire. Charles had many con-
fultations with pope Clement VII. concerning the molt cf-
fedlual means for that purpffe. In thefe interviews the
emperor infilled, in the moll urgent manner, on the neceffity
of affembling a general council : to this his holinefs was a
decided enemy, becaule he had learnt from hillorv that
general councils were fsftious, ungovernable, and flow in
their operations ; and he contended that the fureit way was
for the emperor to do his duty, in fupporting the authority
of the church, and in employing all his power in executing
fpeedy vengf-ance on the obftinate heretical factions, who
dared to call in queftion the authority of the holy Roman
fee. Charles was itill for mild and conciliatory meafures,
but promifed if thefe ftould prove ineffeflual, that then he
would employ the ^veight of his authority in reducing the
rebellious to implicit obedience. In his journey to Augf-
burg he had full opportunity of knowing the fentiments of
the people, and, from his own obfervation, he was fatisfied
that feverity ought not to be attempted, until other mea-
fures proved ineffectual : he therefore called on the elector
of Saxony to obtain from Luther, and other eminent di-
vines, a written explication of their religious fyftem, and an
expHcit avowal of the feveral points in which they differed
from the church of Rome. Luther delivered to the elcftor
at Torgaw feventeen articles, called " The articles of Tor-
gaw," which were deemed by him a proper declaration of
the fentiments of the reformed. By others they were not
thought fufficiently open, and Melanflhon was delired to
give an account of the fame, who, with a due refpeft to the
fentiments of Luther, expreffed his opinions, and fet forth
his Qoftrine, with the greateft elegance and perfpicuity,
and in terms as little ofFenfive as poffible to their opponents.
Such was the origin of the creed, celebrated in hiftory as
" The confeffion of Augfturg." In June 1530, the diet
was opened ; and in a few days, the Proteftauts, who had
adopted the opinions of Zuingle, delivered their confef-
fion, drawn up by Martin Bucer. A refutation of this was
undertaken by Faber, Eckius, and Cochlzeus, which was
read publicly in the diet ; and the unlimited fubmifllon of
the Protellauts to the doSrines contained in it was required
by the emperor. Inllead, however, of yielding obedience
to the imperial command, they demanded a copy of the
paper, in order that they might have an opportunit^y of de-
monilrating more fully its extreme iiifufRciency and weak-
' nefs. This requeft was refufed, and there was now no
I profpeft of a reconciliation. The emperor next attempted
to bring over to his views the princes who had been lomc
time the patrons of the ne»v dodrines : but however deiirous

they might be of obliging the emperor, they would not
make facrifices to him of their integrity, and, in a firm tone,
refufed to abandon what they deemed the caufe of God, for
the fake of any earthly acquilition. The emperor, difap>
pointed and exceedingly vexed, rcfolved to take vigorous
meafures for afferting the authority and doftrines of the
eftabhfhed church, and enforcing the fubmilTion of heretics.
He accordingly condemned the peculiar tenets held by the
Proteftants, forbidding any perfon to proteft or even tole-
rate fuch as taught them, enjoining a drift obfervance of the
eftablifhed rites, and prohibiting any further innovation un-
der fevere penalties. This decree, which was regarded as
a prelude to the mod violent perfecution, convinced the
Proteftants that the emperor was refolved on their deftruc-
tion ; and the dread of the calamities which were ready to
fall on the church oppreffed the fpirit of Mclanfthon, who
refigned himfelf to a fettled melancholy. I^uther, however,
was not at all diflieartened, and ufed his utmoft efforts to
keep up the fpirits of thofe who were willing to give way ;
being allured that their perfonal fafely, as well as fuccefs,
depended wholly on union. In purfuance of this opinion,
they affcmblcd in 1J30, firft at Smalcalde, and afterwards
at Frankfcrrt, where they formed a lolemn alliance and con-
federacy, with the refoluticn of defending vigoroufly their
religion and liberties again (I the dangers with which they
were threatened by the edift of Augfburg. They invited
the kings of England, France, and Denmark, to join in the
confederacy ; and, by their negotiations, fecured powerful
protection and afhftance, in cafe of neceflily. Luther was
at firfl averfe from this confederacy, dreading the calamities
which it might produce. In this llate of things, the eleftor
palatine and the eleftor of Mcntz offered their mediation,
and endeavoured to reconcile the contending princes ; and,
in a fhort time, negociations were carried on, that finally
produced a pacification, the terms of which were agreed
upon at Nuremburg, and folemiily ratified in the diet at
Ratifhon, Augull 3d, 1532. By this treaty, the Pro-
teftant princes engaged to afhH the emperor with all their
forces, in refifting the invafion of the Turks ; and it was
flipulated that univcrfal peace fliould be ellablifhed in Ger-
many, until the meeting of a general coui.cil, the convoca-
tion of which the emperor was to endeavour to procure
within fix month? ; that no perfon fhould be molefted on ac-
count of religion ; that a flop fhould be put to all proceffes
begun by the imperial chamber againfl t'.ie Proteftants ; and
that the fentences already pafled to their uolrinient fhould be
declared void.

Luther now had the fatisfaftion and happinefs of feeing
one of the chief obllacles to the undifguifed profefGon of his
opinions removed ; and henceforth he might fit down and
contemplate the mighty, work which he had accomphfhed :
his difciples and followers, the Proteftants of Germany,
who had hitherto been regarded onfy ;is a religious feft,
came to be confidered as a political body of fome confe-
quence. The emperor, in conformity to the ftipulations of
the truce lately concluded, applied to the pope for a general
council : but Clement threw a multitude of obrtacles in the
way to prevent it ; and when he found that to be impoffible,
he infilled that the meeting fhould be held in Italy, but the
Proteftants contended for it in Germany. The latter in-
filled that all matters in difpute fhould be determined by the
words of Scripture alone ; the pope alfertcd that the decrees
of the church and the opinions of the fathers were of equal
authority. They required a free council, in which the di-
vines, commifiioned by different churches, fhould be allowed
a voice ; he aimed at modelling the council in fuch a man-
ner as would render it entirely dependent on his ploafure.

Above

LUTHER.

AboTC all, the Protertaiits thought it unreafonable that they
fliould bind thomfclves to fiibmit to the decrees of a council,
before they knew on what principles thofe decrees were
founded, by what perfons they were to be pronounced, and
what forms of proceeding they would obferve. The pope
maintained it would be unneccffary to call a council, unlefs
thofe who demanded it previoudy declared their refolution
to acquiefce in its decrees. The meeting was accordingly
pollponed dining the pontificate of Clement VII.

In 1^33 Luther wrote a confolatory cpillle to fome per-
fons who had fuffered hardfhius for adhering to the Aug-
ihurg confcfllon of -faith, in which he fays, " The devil is
the hoft, and the world is his inn ; fo that wherever you
come, you will be fure to find this ugly hoft." He had
alfo, abont this time, a terrible controverfy with George,
duke of Saxony, who had Inch an averfion to the dotElrines
promulgated by Lutliet, that he obliged his fubjefts to take
un oath that they would never embrace them. At Leipfic
there were found fixty or fex-enty perfons, who could not be
reftrained within the boundaries of the cftablifiied creed,
and it was dilcovercd that they liad confulted Luther about
it ; upon which the duke complained to the e!e£lor, that
Luther had not only abufed his perfon, but had preached
up rebellion among his fubjedls. Luther refuted the ac-
cufation, by proving that he had been fo far from ftirring
up his fubjefts againit him, on the fcore of religion, that he
had exhorted them rather to undergo the greateft hardfhips,
and even fuffer themfelves to be baniflied. In the following
year, the bible, tranfiated by Luther into the German, was
firft printed, with the privilege of the ele£lor ; and it was
publifhed the year after. He likewife gave to the world a
book againit mafies, and the coniecration of priefts, in which
he relates a conference which he had with the devil upon
thofe points : for it is a circumftance worthy of obfervation,
that, in the whole hiftory of this great man, he never had
-any conflicts of any kind, but the devil was always his an-
tagonift. In 1535 the new pope Paul III. was applied to
for a general council ; and in the hope of preventing it, he
appointed Mantua as the proper place. To this fome of
the Catholic fovereigns, and all the German Proteftants,
ftrongly objefted ; being fully perfuaded that, in fuch a
council, nothing would be concluded but what would be
agreeable to the fentiments and ambition of the pontiff;
and they demanded the performance of the emperor's pro-
mife, that they fhould have a council in Germany. At the
fame time, that they might not be taken by furprife, they
defircd Luther to draw up a fummary of their doftrine, in
order to prcfent it to the affenibled bifiiops, if it fliould be
required of them. This fummary, which was diftinguifhed
by the name of " The articles of Smalcalde," from the
place at which they were affembled, is generally joined with
the creeds and confeffions of the Lutheran church. While
•our reformer was bufily engaged in this work, he was feized
with a grievous and very painful difcafe, a fit of the ftone
and obftruftion of the urine, which continued fo long as to
give his friends ferious apprehenfions for his life. In the
midll of his agonies, and after eleven days' torture, without
the fmalleil relief, he fet out, contrary to the advice of his
friends, on his return home. The motion of the carriage,
which it was expedled would prove fatal to him, was the
caufe of removing the evil under which he was labouring.
In the year 1538, as a general aflembly feemed impracti-
cable, the pope, that he might not feem to negleft that
degree of reformation which was unqueftionably within his
power, deputed a certain number of cardinals and bifhops,
with full authority, to inquire into the abufes and corruptions
of the Roman court, and to propofe the moil effed.ual

method of removing them. It was intended to do as little
as poffible : Hill a multitude of enormities were unveiled, an
account of which was foon tranfmitted into Germany, much
to the fatisfadlion of the Proteftants there. This inveftiga-
tion, partial as it was, proved the neceffity of a reformation
in the head as well as the members of the church ; and it
even pointed out many of the corruptions, againft which
Luther had rcmonftrated with the greateft vehemence. It
was, however, intended only as a fiirce, and as fuch Luther
treated it ; and to ridicule it more ftrongly, he caufed 3
caricature to be drawn, in which was reprefented the pope
feated or. a high throne, fome cardinals about him with
foxes' tails, with which they were brufhing off the diift on
all fides. Luther publiftied, about the fame time, " A Con-
futation of the pretended Grant of Conftantine to Sylvefter,
bifiiop of Rome ; and alfo fome Letters of John Hufs,
written from his Prifon at Conftance, to the Bohemians."
On the death of George, duke of Saxony, the fucceffnn
devolved on his brother Henry, who was zealoufly attached
to the Proteftant religion, and who, notwithftanding a
claufe in his brother's will, by which he bequeathed all his
territories to the emperor add tl-.e king of the Romans,
(hould Henry make any attempt to introduce innovations,
immediately invited Luther and fome other Proteftant di-
vines to Leipfic. By their aid and advice he quickly over-
turned the whole fyflem of Popifli rites and doftrines, and
eftablifhed the full exercife of the reformed religion, with
the univerfal applaufe of his fubjecls, who had long wiftied
for this change. By tliis revolution, the whole of Saxony
was brought within the Proteftant pale.

Luther was inceffantly employed, till his death, in pro-
moting the caufc of which he was the great founder. In
the year 1546, he, in company with Melanflhon, paid a
vifit to his own country, which he had not feen before for
many years, and he returned in fafety ; but in a (liort time
after, he was called thither by the earls of Mansfeldt, to
compofe fome differences which had arifon about their boun-
daries. Though he had not been accuftomed to fuch kind
of bufinefs, yet he would not refufe the fervice which he
might be able to render by his advice and authority. On
this occafion he met with a fplendid reception, ufcd his bell
endeavours to fettle the matters in difpute, and fometimes
officiated in the church ; but the ftate of his health was fo
precarious, that it was feared every great effort would prove
fatal to him. His laft pubhc fervice was in the church,
where he was feized Avith a violent inflammation in the fto-
nach. His natural intrepidity did not forfake him ; and his
laft converfation with his friends was concerning the hap-
pinefs referved for good men in a future life. On the morn-
ing of the 1 2th of February IJ46, being awakened from a
found fieep by his diforder, and perceiving his end to be
approaching, he commended his fpirit into the hands of
God, and quietly departed this life at the age of fixty-three.
He did not forget his caufe even in his dying moments, but
admonifhed thofe about him to pray to God for the propa-
gation of the gofptl ; " bccaufe," faid he, " the council of
Trent, which has fat once or twice, and the pope, will de-
vife ftrange things againft it." Immediately after his de-
ceafe, the body was put into a leaden coffin, and carried
with funeral pomp to the church at Eifleben, when Dr.
Jonas preached a fermon on the occafion. The earls of
Mansfeldt requefted that his body might be interred in their
territories ; but the elector of Saxony infifted upon his being
brought back to Wittemburg, which was accordingly done,
and he was buried there with greater pomp than had been
known to have ac<;onipanied the funeral of any private man.
Princes, earls, nobles, and Undents without numbc-i, at-
4 tended

LUTHER.

tended llie proceffion, and Melanclhon delivered a funeral
dilcourfe. He left feveral children by his uife Catharine
de Bore. In uimerable were the calumnies invented by his
enemies refpefting his death, his principles, and his conduft,
which it is needlefs for us to repeat, as they have been
amply refnted by the moil refpedable hillorians. The zeal
. and madnefs of the Papifts againft their formidable anta-
gonift, who had (haken to the foundation the pillars of their
faith, did not ceafe with his death. They urged the em-
peror Charles V., while with his army at Wittemburg, to
canfe the monument erefted to his memory to be deriplilhed,
and his bone< to be dug up and burnt with every indignity ;
but the mi- d of Charles was fuperior to fuch childilb and
malignant acts, and he inllantly forbad that any infuk fliould
be offered to his tomb, or his remains, upon pain of death.
" I have," faid the emperor, " nothing farther to do witli
Luther; he is henceforth fubjedl to another judge, whofe
jurifdidion it is not lawful for me to ufurp. Know, that I
make not war with the dead, but with the living, who are
ftillin arms againll me." We cannot bring this article to a
clofe, without referring to the teftimonies of the learned
and the wife refpecling the character of Luther, wlio intro-
duced, not into Germany only, but into the world, a new
and moll importat.t era, and whofe name can never be for-
gotten while any thiug of principle remains that is deferving
of remembrance. It mu!l not be overlooked, that the grand
and leading doflrine of Latheranifm, and that on whii.h the
permanent foundation of the reformed religion was laid, is
the right of private judgment in matters of religion. To
this, as we have feen, he was at all time'i ready to devote his
talents, his character, and his life ; and fays the biographer
of Leo X., " the great and imperifhable merit of the re-
former conlills in his having de^nonftrated it by fuch argu-
ments, as n.'ither the efforts of his adverfaries, nor his own
~ fubfequent condutl, have been able either to confute or in-
validate." In paffiii _r judg 1 ent upon the characters of men,
fays Robertfon, we ought to try them by the principles and
maxims ot their own age, and not by thofe of another : for
although virtue and vice are at all times the fame, manners
and cultoms are continually varying. Some pars of L\i-
ther's behaviour, which to us appear molt c.dpable, gave no
difguil to his contemporaries. It was even by fome of
thofe qualities, which we are now apt to blame, tliat he
was iktvd for accomplifhing the great work in which he
embarked.

Luther hinifelf was fenfible of defefts, which he patlie-
tically acknowledges in an addrcfs to the reader of his
works: " I intreat you," fays he. " to read my writings
with, cool confideration, and even with much pity. I wiih
you to know that when I began the affair of indulgences, I
was a monk, and a moll mad oapift. So intoxicated was I,
and dreiiclif-d in papal dogma'=, that I would have been moil
ready at ^t'.l times to murder, or afTill in murdering, any
perfon v\l,:. fhould utter a fyllable againll the pope. I was
always eanicll in defending doftrines I profeffed. I went
ferioufly to work, as one who had a horrible dread of the
day of judgmcn", and who from his iumofl foul was anxious
for falvation . You will find, therefore, in my earlier writings,
with how much humility, oji many occalions, I gave up
confiderable points to the pope, which I now detell as
blufphemous and abominable in the highell degree. This
error my flanderers may cail inconliilency ; but you, my
pious readers, will ha\>e the kindnels to make lome allow-
ance, on account of the time', and my own inexperience.
I flood ablolately alone a: tir'i, and certainly was very un-
learned, a d very unfit to undertake matter of fuch vail
importance. It was by accident, not willingly or by de-

fign, that I fell into thofe violent difputes. God is my
witnefs."

" Martin Luther, refenting an affront put on his order,
began to preach againll abufes in the fa'e of indulgences,
and being naturally of a fiery temper, and provoked by op-
polltion, he proceeded even to dcfcry i:idulgenccs themfelvcs,
and was thence carried, by the heat of difpute, to quellion
tlie authority of the pope. Still, as he enlarged his reading,
in ord'.T to fupport thefe tenets, he difcovered fome new
abufe or error in the church of Rome, and finding his opi-
nions greedily hearkened to, he promulgated thim by writ-
ing, difcourfe, fermnns, conference, and daily increafed the
number of his difciples. All Saxony, all Germany, all En- •
rope, were in a little time filled wilh the voice of this daring
innovator ; and men, roufed from that lethargy in which
they had fo long flept, began to call in qucdioii the moll an-
cient and received opinions. The elector of Saxony, lavour-
al le to Luther's dodtrine, prote£tcd him from the violence
of the papal jurildiftion : the republic of Zurich even re-
formed their church according to the new mcdcl : many
fovereigns of the empire, and the imperial edift ilfelf,
fiiewcd ?. favourable difpofition towards it : and Luther,
a man naturally inflexible, vehem.ent, and opiiiionative, was
become incapable, either from promifes of advancement or
terrors of feverity, to relinquifh a fect of which he himfelf
was the founder, and which brought him a glory fuperior to
all others, the glory of diftating the religious faith and prin-
ciples of multitudes."

Dr. Campbell, in his leAures on Ecclefiaftical Hi(lory,has
rendered our reformer his tellimony cf refpect and grati- -
tude ; but as this is conveyed in ftntimenti and language
but little different from the obfervations of Dr. Robertfon,
we fhall extraft the account from the latter rather than the
former : " As he was raifcd up by Providence to be the au-
thor of one of the greatell and moft intcreltmg revolutions
in hillory, there is not any perfon, perhaps, whofe chara£ter-
had been drawn with fucli oppofite colours. In his own
age, one party, ilruck with horror and inflamed with rage,
wlun they faw with wliat a daring hand he overturned
every thing which they held to be facred, or valued as bene-
ficial, imputed to him not only all the defefts and vices of
a man, but the qualities of a dxmon. The other, warmed
with admiration and gratitude, which they thought he me-
rited as the reftorer of light and liberty to the Chriflian •
church, afcribed to him perfections above the condition of
humanity, and viewed all his aftions with a veneraticn, bor-
dtring on that which (liould be paid only to thofe who are
guided by the immediate infpiration of heaven. It is his .
own conduct, not the undillinguifhing cenfure, or the exag-
gerated praife of his contemporarisSy that ought to regulate
the opinions of the preleut age concerHing hira. Zeal for
what he regarded as truth, undaunted intrepidity to main-
tain his own fy Item, abjlities, both natural and acquired,
to defend his principle,^, and unwearied indullry in pro-
pagating them, are virtues which Ihine confpicuouflv in
every part of his behaviour, that even hLs enemies mull
allow him to have poifelfed them in an eminei t degree.
To thele may be added, with equal julUce, fuch purity. .
and even aullerity of manners, as became one who affumed
the character of a reformer ; lu^h fanC^ity of life as fiiited
the doctrine which he delivered, and fuch pcrfec-l difin-
terettednefif as affords no Oight prefumption of his fmcerily.
Superior to all feltifh conliderations, a llranger to all the
elegancies of life, and defpillng its pleafures, he left the
honours and emoluments of the church to his difciples, re-
maining l^itisfied himft If in hts original Hate of profelFor of
the univerfity, and pallet of the town of Wittemburg,

With

LUTHER.

with the moderate appointments annexed to each. His ex-
traordinary qualities were allayed with no inconfiderable
mixture of human frailty, and human pafTions. Thefe,
however, were of a nature, that they cannot be imputed to
malev'olence or corruption of heart, but leem to have taken
their rife from the fame fource with many of his virtues.
Aceullomed himfelf to confidcr every thinor as fubordinate
to truth, he ex|)e£tcd tlie fame deference for it from other
men ; and, without making any allowances for their ti-
midity or prejudices, he poured forth againft fuch as difap-
pointed him in this particular, a torrent of inveftivc and
abufe. Regardlefs of any diftiiiftion of rank or charafter
when his doftrines were attacked, he challifed all his adver-
faries indifcriminately, with the fame rough hand ; neither
the royal dignity of Henry VHI. nor the eminent learn-
ing and abilities of Erafnius, fcreened them from the fame
grofs abufe with wliich lie treated Tetzel or Eckius. To
roufe mankind, when funk in ignorance and fuperftition,
and to encounter the rage of bigotry armed with power,
required the utmoll vehemence of zeal, as well as a tem-
per daring to excefs. A gentle call would neither have
reached, nor have excited thofe to whom it muft have been
addrcffed. A fpirit more amiable but lefs vigorous than
Luther's would have fhruiik back from dangers which he
braved and furmounted. Towards the clofe of Luther's
life, though without any perceptible diminution of his zeal
and abilities, the iniirmitiss of his temper increafed upon
him, fo that he grew daily m^e peevifh, more irafcible,
and more impatient of contradiftion. Having lived to be a
witnefs of his own amazing fucccfs ; to fee a great part of
Europe embrace his doftrines, and to fhake the foundation
of papal Rome, before which the mightiell monarchs had
trembled, he difcovered, on fome occafions, fymptoms of
vanity and felf-applaufe. He muft hiive been, indeed, more
than man, if, upon contemplating all that he attually ac-
compliflied, he had never felt any fentiment of this kind
rifing in his breaft." There is yet another teftimony to
the life and labours of this great man that we cannot
omit :

" Martin Luther's hfe," fays biihop Atterbury, " was
a continual warfare ; he was engaged againft the united
forces of the papal world, and he ftood the (hock of them
bravely, both with courage and fuccefs. He was a man
certainly of high endowments of mind and great virtues :
he had a vaft underftanding which raifed him up to a pitch
of learning unknown to the age in which he lived ; his
knowledge in fcripture was admirable, his elocution manly,
and his way of reafoning with all the fubtilty that thefe
plain truths he delivered would bear, his thoughts were
bent always on great defigns, and he had a refolution fitted
to go through with them, and the affurance of his mind
was not to be fliaken or furprifed, and that ■rrx.s^n^ix of his
(for I know not what elfe to call it) before the diet of
Worms, was fuch as might have become the days of the
apoftles. His life was holy, and, when he had leifure for
retirement, fevere ; his virtues aftive chiefly, and homiliti-
cal, and not thofe lazy fuUen ones of the eloifter. He had
no ambition but in the fervice of God : for other things,
neither his enjoyment nor wifhes ever went higher than the
bare conveniences of living. He was of a temper particu-
larly averfe to covetoufnefs, or any bafe fin, and charitable
even to a fault, without refpeft to his own occafions. If,
among this crowd of virtues, a failing crept in, we muft re-
member that an apoftle himfelf had not been irreproachable;
if, in the body of his doftiine, one flaw is to be feen, yet the
greateft lights of the church, and in the pureft times of
k, were, we know, not cxatt in all their opinions. Upon

the whole, we have certainly great reafon to break out in
the phrafe of the prophet and fay, " How beautiful, upon
the mountains, are the feet of him that briugeth glad
tidings.'' Gibbon, ipeaking of the effefts produced by the
exertions of Luther and his contemporaries, fays, " The
philofopher muft own his obligations to thefe fearlefs en-
thufialls. I. By their hands the lofty fabric of fuperftition,
from the abufe of indulgences to the interceffion of the
Virgin, has been levelled witli the groimd. Myriads of both
fexes of the monaftic profefilon wercrellored to liberty and
tlie lalioiirs of focial life. 2. The chain of authority was
broken which reftrains the bigot from thinking as he pleafes,
and the flave from fpeaking as he thinks. The popes,
fathers, and councils were no longer the fuprcme and infal-
lible judges of the world ; and each Chriftian was taught
to acknowledge no law but the fcriptures, no interpreter but
his own confcience.''

The works of Luther, in the Latin and German lan-
guages, were coUedted and publilhed in an uniform edition,
at Jena, in i)j6, in four volumes folio ; and in 1572 they
were printed at Wittemburg, in feven volumes folio. Luther
left behind him three fons and a widow. The latter furvived
him nearly feven years. When the war broke out Catharine
wandered about in exile with her children, in difficulties
and dangers : (he experienced the ingratitude of many,
from whom cxpedling kindnelfes, on account of her huf-
band's great merits towards the church, (lie was frequently
difappointed. At length, the plague raging at Wittem-
burg, and the infeftion having reached her own houfe, (he
removed to Torgau, that (lie might preferve her children
from the diforder. On her way thither the horfes in the
carriage took fright ; to avoid, what (he conceived, a
greater danger, file leaped into the road, and falling into a
pool of water, was dreadfully bruifed, and contraftcd an
illnefs, which in a few weeks terminated her life. Preface
to Luther's works: MS. tranflation of Melchior Adams
Life of Luther. Bayle. Robertfon. Hume. Gibbon.

Martin Luther, with refpedl to ecclefiaftical mufic, being
himfelf a lover and judge of the art, was fo far from banifli-
ing it from the church, that li.'" augmented the occafion for
its ufe. In 1^21 he procured the abolition of the ancient
niafs at Wittemburg. In 1523 Lutheranifm was eftabli(hed
in Denmark and Sweden ; and, in 1525, Saxony, Brunf-
wick, Hefle, Strafburg, and Frankfort. But though he
inlfituted a new liturgy, the ecclefiaftical tones ftill regu-
lated the mufic of his church at the time of the reforma-
tion, and moll of the old melodies to the evangelical hymns
are compofed in fome of them.

The tSantaLCn, or anthems and fervices of the reformed
church, in the German language, are, however, as elabo-
rate and florid as the motets to Latin words, ufed in Italy
during the celebration of the mafs. But in the hymnologia,
and metrical pfalmody of this, as well as all other Proteftant
churches, there feems to have been one common principle,
totally inimical to poetry, which is that of deftroying all
quantity and diftindlion of fyllables, by making them all
of the fame length.

" Thefe equal fyllables alone admire,

Though oft the ear the open vowels tire."

Pope.

The modern Methodifts, indeed, have introduced a light
and ballad-like kind of melody into their tabernacles, which
feems as much wanting in reverence and dignity, as the
pfalmody of other fedls iTi poetry and good taite.

Mufic, in itfelf an innocent art, is fo far from corrupt-
ing the mind, that, with its grave and decorous ftrains, it
II can

L U T

L U T

can calm the paflions, and render the heart more fit for
fpiritual and pious purpofes ; particularly when united with
language, and the precepts of religion. It has been faid,
not improperly, that " Mufic, confidered abftradledly, is in
itfelf a language;'' and we may add, that it is more uni-
verlaliy underltood by mankind in general, whofe nerves
vibrate in unifon with its feleflcd tones, than any other lan-
guage among all the dialedls of the earth. That articula-
tion mud be rough and violent indeed, which, without
finging, can eafily be comprehendt-d in buildings fo vail as
fome of the Chriftian churches; in fujh, it is the Jl>'irh,
not the letter of fupplication or thanlifgiving, which mull
employ the mind. St. Paul fays, " I will fing with the
/pint, and I will fing with the undirjlandh:g alfo.'' As
there never was a national religion without mufic of fome
kind or other, the difpute concerning that which is mod
fit for fuch foIeiTinities, is reduced to one fhort cjuedion.
If mufic be admitttd into the iervice of the church, is that
fpccies of it which the moll polifhcd part of mankind re-
gard as good, or that which they regard as bad, the moil de-
ferving of fuch an honom- ?

That metrical pfalmody, in flow notes of equal length,
had its origin in Germany, and was brought thence by re-
formers to other parts of Europe, is dem.jnflrable : for the
1 iS'Ji Pfalm, " Beati omnes qui timent Dominum," had been
tranflated into German verfe, in order to be fung in this
manner, by John Hufs, in the beginning of the fifteenth
century ; which tranfiation was afterwards modernized in
the fame meafure, and to the fame tune, by Luther. And
the fame melody which we fing to the loodth pfalm, is
not only given to the 134th, in all the Lutheran pfalm-
book?, but by Goudimel and Claude le Jeuue, in thofc of
the Calvinifts ; which nearly amounts to a proof that this
favourite melody was not produced in England. It is faid
to have been the opinion of Handel, that Luther himlelf
was its author ; but of this we have been able to procure no
authentic proof. Tradition, liowever, gives to this cele-
brated Hereliarch, as he is called by the Roman Catholics,
feveral of the ancient melodies which are ilill ufcd in Ger-
many.

LUTHERANISM, m Ecchfmfical Hlflory, the fenti-
ments of Dr. Martin Luther, and his followers, witii regard
to religion. See the biographical article Luther, under
which article we have given an account of the life and
labours of this eminent reformer ; and of the commenee-
ment and foundation of that memorable rupture andTevolu-
tion in the church, which humbled the grandeur of the lordly
pontiffs, and eclipied fo great a part of their glory. Sec Re-
formation'.

It has been faid indeed by F. Paul, in his Hillory of the
Council of Trent, p. 5, and after him by M''. Hume, in
his Hiftory of England, vol. i. p. 1 19, as well as by others,
that the Auilin fiiars had been ufually employed in preach-
ing indulgences in Saxony ; but that Arcemboldi, a Ge-
noefe merchant, who was employed by Magdalen, the
filler of Leo, to whom he had granted the profits arifing
from the fale of indulgences in Sa.'iony, to colletl the
money which fiiould be raifed, and his deputies, hoping
to gain more by committing this trufb to the Dominicans,
had bargained with Tetzcl ; and that Luther was prompted
at firll to oppofe Tetzel and his affociates, and to deny
indulgences, by a defire of taking revenge for tins injury
ofiered to his order. Such was the reprcfentation of
IjolTuet ; and other writers, mifled by his authority, have
circulated a fimilar opinion. It is proper, therefore, to
obferve, that the profits arifing from indulgences in Saxony
and he adjacent countries were granted, not to Magdalen,

Voi„ XXI.

the filler of Leo, but to Albert, archbilhop of ^^entv■,
who had the fole right of nominating thofc who publiflied
them : moreover, Arcemboldi never had any concern in the
publication of indulgences in Saxony ; becaufe his dillrift
was Flanders and the Upper and Lower Rhine. Bcfides,
the publication of indulgences in Germany was not ufually
committed to the Augullinians : froni the year 1229, that
lucrative conimiffion was principally intruiled with the Do-
minicans ; and tliey had been employed in the fame office a
(hort time before the prr^fent period : the promulgation
of them, at three different periods under Julius il. was
granted to the Francifcans, and the guardian of the Fran-
cifcans was joined in the trull with Albert on this occa-
fion, though he refufed to accept it : and it is remarkable,
that for half a century before Luther, u/z. from 1450 to
IJ17, the name of an Aullm friar employed in this (ervice
occurs but once. To ihefe fafts it nay be added, that it
is far from being probable, that Luther would have been
folicitous about obtaining for hirafelf or his order, a com-
mifiion of this kind, at a time when the preaching of in-
dulgences was become very unpopular ; infomuch that all
the princes of Europe, and many bilhops, as well as other
learned men, abhorred the traffic ; and even the Francifcans
and Dominicans, towards the conclufion of the fifteenth
century, oppoled it publicly, both in their difcourfes and
wriringb ; nor was this commiflion given to the Domini-
cans in general, but folely to Tef/.el. Finally, Luther
was never accufed of oppofing the publication of indul-
gences from refentment or envy, either in the edifts of
the pontiffs of his time, or in the reproaches of his con-
temporary writers, who defended the caufe of Rome from
the year 15 17 to 1546, and who were far from being fparing
of their inveClives and calumnies. The reader may find this
matter fully Hated by Dr. Maclean, the traallator of Mo-
(heim's Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in vol. iv. p. 31. note (p) Svo.
edit. 1790, and by Dr. Robertfon in- his Hift. of Ch. V.
vol. ii. p. 121;. note (*), 8v(j. edit.

Lutheranilm was formed in the manner ftated under the
article Luther ; the adherents to which were called Lu-
therans, from Lntherus, a name which has a Greek turn,
and which this great reformer alTumed in lieu of his family
name Loiter, or Lauther ; it being the cuftom of thofe days
for men of learning to give themfclves Greek names; fuch
were Erafmus, Melanfthon, Bacon, Sec.

For a full and accurate account of the rife and progrefs
of Lutheranifm, the reader may confult Molheim and Ro-
bertfon, ubi fupra. See Protestants and Reform.v-

TlON.

Lutheranifm has undergone fome alteration fince the time
of its founder. Luther rejefted the epiftle of St. Jam.es,
as inconliflent with the doitrine of St. Paul, in relation to
juftification ; he alfo fet afide the Apocalypfe ; both which
are now received as canonical in the Lutheran church.

Luther reduced the number of facraments to two, via.
baptifni, and the eucharift ; but he believed the impanation,
or confubftantiation : that is, that the matter of the bread
and wine remain with the body and blood of Chrift ; and it
is in this article, that the main difference between the Lu-
theran and Englifh churches confifts.

Luther maintained the mafs to be no facrifice ; he ex-
ploded the adoration of the hoft, auricular confefTion, meri-
torious works, indulgences, purgatories, the worfliip of
images, &c. which had been introduced in the corrupt times
of the Romilh church. He alfo oppofed the dodlrine of
free-will ; maintained predellination ; afferted that we are
neceffitated in all we do ; that all our adions done in a Itate
of fin, and even the virtues themfelves of heathens, are
4 P crimes j

L U T

crimes ; that wc are only juftified by the imputation of
the merits and fatisfaftion of Chrift. He alio oppofcJ
the faitings in the Romifli church, monaftical vows, the
celibacy of the clergy, &c. .

Some authors reckon thirty-nine different fecls, which at
different times have fprung up among the Lutherans.

LUTHERANS, a kA of Proteif ants who profefs Lu-
theranifm, or adhere to the doftrine and tenets of Luther.

The Lutherans, of r,ll Proteftants, are ihofe who differ
leafl from 1;he Romifn church ; as they affirm, that the body
and blood of Chrift are materially preient in the facrament of
the Lord's fupper, though in an incomprehenfible manner ;
and hkewife reprefcnt fome religious rites and inftitutions, as
the ufe of images in churches, the diflinguifhing veftments
of the clergy, the private confefTion of fins, the ufe of
wafers in the adminillration of the Lord's fupper, the form
of exorcifra in the celebration of baptifm, and other cere-
monies of the like nature, as tolerable, and fome of them
as ufeful. The Lutherans maintain, with regard to the
divine decrees, that they refpeft the falvation or mifery of
men, in confequence of a previous knowledge of their fenti-
ments and charafters, and not as free and unconditional, and
as founded on the mere will of God. Towards the clofe of
the lafl century, the Lutherans began to entertain a greater
liberality of fentiment than they had before adopted; though
in many places they perfevered longer in fevere and defpotic
principles than other Proteftant churches. Their public
teachers now enjoy an unbounded Jibcrty of diffenting from
the decifions of thofe fymbols or creeds, which were once
deemed almoft infallible rules of faith and practice, and of
declaring their diffeut in the manner tliey judge the moft ex-
pedient. Mofheim attributes this change in their fentiments
to the maxim, which they generally adopted, that Chriftians
were accountable to God alone for their religious opinions ;
and that no individual could be juftly punifhed by the magif-
trate for his erroneous opinions, while he condufted himfelf
like a virtuous and obedient fubjeft, and made no attempts
to difturb the peace and order of civil fociety. Eccl. Hift.
vol. iv. p. 440. Eng. ed. 8vo.

LUTHERN, from the French liicarne, of the Latin
htcerna, light, or lankrn, a kind of window over the cornice,
in the roof of a building ; ftandiHg perpendicularly over
the naked of the wall ; and ferving to illuminate the upper
ftory.

The French architefts diftinguifh thefe into varior.s kinds,
according to their various forms ; as fquare, femkircular,
bulls' eyes, Jlat arches, Flemi/l} luiherns, &c.

LUTHIER, Fr. implies not only a lute maker, but a
maker of all llringed and bowed inftruments.

LUTl, Benedetto, in Biography, a Florentine, was
the difciple of Gabbiani, and from him went to Rome, to
put himfelf under the direftion of Giro Ferri ; but being
difappointed by his death, formed a ftyle of his own, the
refult of various imitations ; feleft in defign, amene and
lucid in colour, well contralted by malfes of hght and (hade,
and harmonious to the eye.

He painted not without merit in frefco, and wi'h greater
merit in oil " Cain flying from his murdered Brother," has
fomething of the fublimity and the pathos that llrike in
the Pietro Martyre of Titian, and his Pfyche i!i the irallery
of the Capitol, breathing refinement of talle and elegance.
He died in 1724, at the age of 58. Fufeh's Pilkington.

LUTKENBORG, in Geography, a town 01 the duchy
of Holllein ; 30 nii'es N. of Lubeck.

LUTOMIRSK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 18
miles S.S.E. of Lcncicz.

LUTON, a conl'ideiable market-town and parifh in the

2

L U T

hundred of Fiitt, Bedfordfliire, England, is fituated among
fome hills on the banks of the river Lea, flu-ee miles from
Dunftable, and 3 1 from London. The town h long and
irregular, fliaped fomething like the Roman Y, the angles
branching of!" from the market-houfe, which is an extenfive
building. ' The population of the parifli, according to the
return in the year 1801, was 3095, inhabiting 612 honfes,
which are but indifferently built. The only ftrudlure in the
town deferving attention is the church, which conlifts of a
choir, a nave and two aifles, fupportetJ by ten pointed arches,
two tranfepts, and a handfome embattled tower at the weft:
end, checqucrcd with flint and free-ftone ; tx the corners are
hexangular turrets fimilar to that at Eiunftable. The arch
of the weff door is ornamented with rpouldings of various
flowers, &c. Within the church is a Angular piece of ancient
architedture, an ottagonal ftone font, inclofed in a lofty
wooden frame of pointed arches, terminated with elegant
tabernacle work. The confecrated water, during the preva-
lence of the Roman ceremonies, was kept in a large bafon
at the top, whence it was let down by the prieft, through a
pipe into the font. On the infide of the roof a vine is re-
prefented, guarded by a lamb from the adaulls of a dragon :
emblematical of the defence which baptiim affords to the
church from the attempts of the devil. On the north fide
of the choir is an .elegant chapel, founded by John lord
Wenlock, who bore a diftinguifhed part in the contell be-
tween the houfes of York and Lancafier. The principal
manufafture carried on in Luton is that of llraw hats : a
weekly market, noted for its abundant fupply of corn, is
held on Mondays ; it is of great antiquity, being mentioned
in the Domefday Survey, where the tolls are valued at loos.
per annum : and here are two annual fairs. .John Pomfret,
the poet, was a native of this cown : his father was firfl
curate and then vicar of the parifh.

About three miles from the town, on an elevated fituation
at the border of the Bedfordfliire downs, in the midfl of a
well wooded park, ftands Luton-Hoo houfe, the feat of the
marquis of Bute. The old park, which (onfifted of about
30oacres, inclofed by fir RobertNapier, was enlarged to 1200,
by the late earl of Bute, and now contauis about ij'oo acres.
The manfion was in a great meafure rebuilt by the late
earl, who employed Mr. Adam the architeft. The princi-
pal rooms, pai-tieularly the library, drawing-room, and fa-
loon, are on a magnificent fcale. The library, which is 146
feet in length, is efteemed but little inferior to that of Blen-
heim. The colledfion of piftures is very large and valuable,
chiefly of the Italian and Flemifli fchools. The chapel is
fitted up with carving in wood, wiiich was originally exe-
cuted for fir Thomas Pope at Tittenhangcr, Herts, in 1548,
and removed to Luton in perfect prefervation by fir Robert
Napier. In the adjoining w'ood is a portico, a beautiful
piece of brick building, defigned for a manfion intended to
have been built by lord Weniock, but which was never com-
pleted : and in the park is a ifone tower of great antiquity.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. Lyfons's Magna
Britannia, vol. i.

LUTRA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Mufhla. See Mus-
TEL-l Lutra, and OxTEK.

LU TRY, in Geography, a pleafant little town of Swit-
zerland, in a diHridl ot the Pays de Vaud, between Lau-
faiine and Vevay, called '■ La Vaux," on the N- coafl of the
lake of Geneva ; three miles E. of Laufanne.

LUTTENBERO, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on
the rl^er S'a.itz ; 12 mdes E. of Pettau. N. lat. 46 ^5'.
E. lo"g. 16° 8'.

LUTTER, a town of Weftphalia, in the duchy of
Brunfwick ; 1 1 miles N.W. of Gofs'ar.

LUTTER-

L U T

LUX

LUTTERBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
i; ality of Grubenhagen, formerly a county ; 15 miles S.
of Gofflar.

LUTTERHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Ho!-
ftoin ; eijht miles from Hamburgh.

LUTTERLOCK, a ti.uMifliip of America, in Orleans
countvi''Vermont, ■^''1-of Craft (borough.

LUTTER VVOHTH, the only market town in the hun-
dred of Guthlaxton, Leicefterrtiire, England, is fituated
on the bank of the river Swift ; about two miles from the
Watling-ftreet road, 13 miles from Lejceiler, and 83 from
London. Leland defcribes • this " towne as fcant half fo
bigge as Lughborow ; but in it there is an hofpital of the
foundation of two or three of the Verdounes, that were
lords of auncient tyme of the towne." This hofpita! was
founded, in the reign of king John, by Roife de Verdon and
Nicholas her fon, for a priefl and fix poor men, and to
" keep holpitality for poor men travelling that v.-ay." The
paridi church of Lutterworth is a fpacious itruciure, with
a nave, two aifles, a chancel, and a tower with four turrets.
The chancel, which is feparated from the nave by a beauti-
ful fcreen, is fuppofcd by Burton to have been built by lord
Ferrers of Groby, as his arms are cut on the outfide over
the great window. By a ftorm, in the year T703, the fpire,
which was jo feet higher than the prefent turrets, was
blown down, and, fallmg on the roof of the church, did
great damage to the body, pews, &c. About the year
1740, the whole was repaired, a pavement of checqucred
ftone Inid, and all the interior made new, except the pulpit,
which is of thick oak planks, of an hexagonal fliape, and
has a feam of carved work in the joints ; this pulpit is pre-
ferved with great veneration, in memory of the diltinguiflied
reformer, John Wickhffe, who was reftor of this parifli,
and died fuddenly while hearing mafs December 31ft, 1387-
The chair in which he breathed his lall is alfo preferved
with great care ; as is likewife another relic ufcd by him,
the communion cloth of purple velvet trimmed with gold.
His body was buried in this church ; but his doftrines hav-
in"g been condemned, his remains were taken up and burned,
by order of the council of Sienna, in 1428, and his aflies
call into the river. His portrait, by S. Fielding, hangs
over the gallery at the weft end of the cimrch. A meeting-
houfe for dilTenters was built here in 1777, and is numeroufly
attended. Here are alfo a ichooi-houfe and alms-houfe, built
by the bequeft of Mr. Edward Sherrier. Among other
benefaftions to this town, Mr. Richard Elkington, by his
will, dated May 2Qth, 1607, left in trult to the mayor,
bailiff, and burgeffes of Leicefter 50/. to be lent in funis of
10/. each to iivs tradefmen of Lutterworth for one year at
five per cent. ; the interefl to be dillributed among certain
poor perfons. In the return to the population aft in iSoi,
this town was ftated to contain 277 houfes and 1652 inha-
bitants. The cotton manufadture is carried on here to con-
fiderable extent ; and fome large buildings have been lately
eredled as faftories and work/hops. Many liands are alfo
employed in making Itockings. A weekly market is held
on Thurfdays, granted, with an annual fair, by king
Henry V. in the fecond year of his reign ; three other fairs
have iince been obtained.

About a mile to the ea(t of Lutterworth is Mifterton
Hall, the feat of Jacob Henry Franks, efq. who poffefres a
collection of pidlures. Nichols's Hiftory of Leiceiterfhire.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix.

LUTUM, in Botany, a name given by the ancient Ro-
man authors to a plant Iince called luteola, or dyer's-weed,
and by authors of later date carn'wla, and tymcne. It is
uGed at this time to dye things yellow, and was fo by the

ancient Greeks, wlio cxprefsly mention the dyeing woollen
cloth with it. The Roman coOrtezans had alfo a way of
dyeing their hair yellow with it. See Re.S£DA.
• Luti;m Sapicnlia is the hermctical feal ; made by melting
the end of a glafs veflel by a lamp, and twilling it up with
a pair of pliers.

LUTZELSTEIN, in Geography. See La Petitl

PlERKE.

LUTZEN, a town of Saxony, in the territory of Merfe-
burg, with a citadel. Near this town was fought a bloody
battle in 1632, birtween the Impcrialifts and Swedes, in
which the latter loft their king Guftavus Adolphus ; nine
miles E.S.E. of Merfeburg. N. lat. ^i' 16'. £. long.

12 o .

LUVINO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Verbano, on the E. bank of the lake Maggiore ; 20 miles
N.W. of Como.

LuviNO, Valley of, one of the five diftricls into which
the county of Bormio is divided. (See BoK.Mlo.) The in-
habitants pf the Luvino pofiefFed certain privileges, parti-
cularly the power of judging civil caufes within a certain
value ; but they did not appoint any of the magiftrates,
who were all chofcn from the other four diftriC'ts.

LUVIO, a tou n of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
nine miles S S.W. of Biorneborg.

LUXATION, or DisLOCVTiON, in Surgery, denotes any
cafe where the articular extremities of bones abandon their
natural relations, whether the head of a bone cfcapes from
a cavity deftined for its reception, or whether the furfaces
of the joint ceafe to corrtfpond properly one to the other.
A luxation is termed complete, when the furfaces of the
joint are totally feparated ; incomplete, when they remain par-
tially ill contaft, though in a itate of difplacement, with
refpeft to each other. Like fractures, didocations are alfo
divided mio Jimple and compound ; fimple, when there is no
external wound communicating with the joint ; compound,
when the cale is conjoined with fuch an accident.

Other general differences of luxations depend upon the
articulation in which they take place ; the direftion in
which the bone is difplaced ; the length of time the acci-
dent has continued ; and the caufe that has produced it.

The greater the extent and variety of motion of joints,
the more fubjcft they are in general to be diflocatcd. ' Thus,
the orbicular articulations, fuch a > that of the humerus with
the fcapula, arc thcfe in which luxations are moil frequent.
In the ginglimoidal articulations, on the contrary, which
admit only of motion in two oppofite direftions, the acci-
dent is far lefs common ; and in fuch joints as only allow
a flight yielding motion of the bones on each other, a dif-
location iHU more rarely occurs. The frequency of luxa-
tion, however, in the orbicular articulations, and the com-
parative unfrcquency of them in the ginghmoidal, as Boyer
rightly obferves, may be explained from many circumllances,
independent of the quantity and variety of motion which
fuch joints admit of. In the ginghmoidal, the bony furfaces,
which come into contaft, and are adapted to one another,
are of confiderable extent ; the ligaments which bind thtm
together are very numerous and ftrong ; and the mufcles are
fo arranged, as to have a iliare in ftrengthening fuch articu-
lations.

We have mentioned, that luxations are diftinguifhed into
complete and incomplete, the latter term being ufed, when the
furtaces of the joint are yet partially in contaft, though dif-
placed and not exaftly correfponding. Incomplete luxa-
tions only happen in the ginghmoidal articulations, as thofs
of the foot, the knee, and the elbow. In thefe joints, in-
deed, the diflocation is almod always incomplete ; as it could
4 P 2 ' ouljr

LUXATION.

only be made complete by the operation of a vaft force;
With refped to the orbicuhr joints, it is very different, as
few of them are fiibject to any diflocation, that is not com-
plete. If the head of the humerus, or thigh-bone, is forced
■on the cartilaginous brim, furroundinjr the cavity deftined for
its reception, the round flippery ball only touches the part
on which it telts by a few points, and, thei-efore, either re-
enters its natural foclcet again, or flips entirely from it ;
in the latter event, of courfe the luxation is complete.

But as M. Boyer has noticed, there are fomc articula-
tions which, though truly orbicular, are yet liable to in-
complete luxations. For iuftancc, the head of the aftra-
galus may be fo difplaced, as only to abandon, in a partial
manner, the cavity in the potterior furface of the os navi-
culare. However, in this example, the orbicular ligament
is tight, very ftrong, and the motion inconfiderable. I.aftly,
it may be obferved, with regard to the extent of difloca-
tions, that when the head of a bone is entirely thrown out
of the cavity, in which it is naturally placed, it may be forced
to a greater or lefs diftance between the intcrilices of the
imifcles.

On the fubjcft of the different direftions, in which a bone
may be difplaced, we have to fta^c, that, in the round ar-
ticulations, it may be luxated in the direftion of all the
radii, which pafs from the centre of the circle formed by
the circumference of the articular cavity. In faft, there is
not a point of the edge of the glenoid cavity where the
humerus may not efcape. However, owing to particular
circumftances of conforn-ation, a luxation moilly takes
place in certain direftions, well afcertained by experience,
lb that the varieties of diflocations, diftinguiihed by the
courfe of the difplaced bone, are, as Boyer well explains,
much lefs numerous than might at firft be fuppofed. The
ter.Tis upwards, downtuards, forivards, lachivards, inward!,
and outivards, are frequently applied to luxations, as de-
BOting the direftion in which the head of a bone is
difplaced. Ginglimoid joints are generally fufceptible
of being diflocated only in the dire&ion of two line?,
namely, a tranfverfe one, and one extending from the front
to the back of the articulation.

The length of time a diflocation has exifted makes a dif-
ference of the higheft importance, the difficulty of cure in-
creafing in proportion to the time the accident has been
left unreduced ; and, indeed, after a certain time, the re-
duftion becomes impradlicable.

The foft parts and the bone itfelf have acquired a certain
pofition, and the ligaments and mulcles furrounding the
difeafed joint become ftiff, and yield with difficulty to the
efforts made to reduce the bone. If a certain number of
days have elapfed, the laceration in the hgaments may have
becom.e fo far clofed as to render the redutlion impoffible.
Laftlv, the head of the bone mav have become firmly ad-
herent to the parts, amongll which it has been forced.

Luxations, in general, may be complicated with a greater
fcr lefs degree of contufion, with a wound or fracture, with
a rupture of a blood-veffel and confequent tffufion of blood
in the cellular fubftance, with contuCon of an important
ijerve, and a paralyfis of the organs to which it is diftributed,
&c.

The following general account of the caufes, fymptoms,
prognofis, and treatment of luxations, is chiefly from Boyer's
lectures on the difeafes of the bones.

The caufes are divided into external and internal ; "both are
predifpofmg or occafional.

The predifpofition. to luxation may depend on circum-
ftances natural or aecidental. The natural are, the joint
admitting of great latitude of motion, the fmall extent of

furfaces by which the bones are in contaft, the laxity and
fmall number of the ligaments uniting them, the weakiicfs
of one fide of an articulation arifmg, for inflance, from a
great notch on one fide, as is obferved at tlie interior and in-
ferior part of the acetabulum, difeafe, fuch as a paralyfis of
the mufcles, which furround an articulation, and a wcaknefs
and relaxation of its hgaments, may alfo occafion a pre-
difpofition to diilocations. In a paralyiis of the deltoid
mufcle, the weight of the arm alone has been known to pro-
duce an elongation and gradual relaxation of the capfular
litrament of the flioulder joint, and to remove the head of
the humerus two or three inches from the glenoid cavity of
the fcapula. Boyer has obferved in a child that laboured
under an atrophia of the mufcles of the arm, an empty
fpace of nearly an inch between the head of the bone and
the furface of the glenoid cavity, which could be dillinftly
felt through the emaciated deltoid mufcle.

Sometimes the relaxation ot the ligaments appears witli-
cut any evident caiife, and gives fuch a difpofuian to lux-
ations, that they take place from the llighteil caufes ; fuch
was the cafe of a woman who could not yawn even mode-
rately, without luxating the lower jaw. It may not be
amifs to obferve that thefe luxations, depending on exceffive
loofenefs of the hgaments, are, by reafon of fuch loolenefs,
in general very eafily reduced. A dileafed llatc of joints
may alfo difpofe to luxations, by dcllroying the ligaments
and articular furfaces. What furgeon of any experience at
all has not frequently feen examples in which the head of the
thigh-bone has been diflocated, in confequence of difeafe in
the hip? Even the knee, which is a ginglimoidal joint,
fometimes becomes partially luxated in cafes of white- fwel-
hng.

In order that external violence, a blow, a fall, or even
the aftion of the mufcles, produce luxation in a ball and
focket articulation, the axis of the bone muft be placed in a-
direction, more or lefs oblique, with refpeft to the furface
with which it is articulated. If, for example, the os humeri
hangs exadlly along the fide of the body, or perpendicu-
larly witli relpeft to the glenoid cavity of the fcapula,,Tlo
force can produce a luxation. If a perfon falls on the elbow,,
while the fore-arm is in this pofition, the head of the hu-
merus will be forced againll the cavity formed for its re-^
ception ; but if the arm is lifted more or lefs from the body,
the axis of the humerus will fall obliquely on the furface of
the glenuid cavity, and-the efcape of-the head of the bona
from fuch cavity will be facilitated. This tendency to a
diflocation will be increafed in proportion as the angle
formed by the axis of the bone v.ith tlie furface of the gle-
noid cavity deviates from a right angle. In the gingli-
moidal articulations luxations may be caufed by a fall, cr
other kinds of external violence, and they are moltly incom-
plete. In the orbicular joints the adlion of the mufcles has
conflantly a fhare in the produftion of the accident. Thus,
for inftance, if a perfon falls on the elbow, wOiilll the arm is
raifed from the body, and carried direftly outvi-ards, the
Hiock which this part receives will certainly tend very much
to force the head of the humerus out of the glenoid cavity
on the lower a:id internal fide ; but the adlion of the pedorahs
major, latiffimus dorfi, and teres major, contributes alfo very
much to throw the bone out of its place. In fact the elbow,
relling on the ground, becomes the fulcrum, or centre of
motion of the humerus ; in this flate, we obey a mechanical
inllinft, which leads us fuddenly to bring the arm cljfe to
the body, and as the refiflance made by the ground prevents
this, the violent and inllantaneous contraftion of the pedto-
ralis major, latiffimus dorfi, and teres major, draws down-
wards aud inwards the head of the humerus ; the luxation

being

LUXATION.

being thus partly the efFeift of the fall, and partly the efFeft
of fuch mufcular aftion. Whatever may be the manner in
which the caufes aft, luxations are always accompanied with
more or lefs laceration of the ligaments, and injury of the
other foft parts about the joint ; and in the orbicular articu-
lations, like thole of the ihouldcr and hip, the capfular liga-
ments are always torn.

With refpeit to tlic general fymptoms of luxations we
need not dwell much upon pain and iiiaViilily of moving the
limb, as, at moil, they are only equivocal, and common to
didocations, fraftures, and fimple bruifcs. They are not,
however, l<fhe entirely overlooked, but (till in forming a
diagnofis we fliould endeavour to found it on the exiftence of
fymptoms manifeft to the fenfes, fuch as an elongation or
(hortening of the limb ; a change in its (hape and direction ;
and lailly, the abfolute impoffibility of performing certain
motions.

A luxation cannot pofiibly exift, unlefs the affefted limb
is either lengthened, as happens in the lower extremity, when
the head of the femur palfes out of the acetabulura, in the
direction downwards and inwards, and rells on the foramen
ovale ; or fhortened, as takes place when the fame bone is
luxated upwards and backwards, and has its head thrown to-
wards the external depreflion in the ilium. But it is to be
remarked, that tJie fhortening and elongation are rarely pro-
duced, except by luxations of orbicular joints. However,
the abfence of thefe fymptoms in diflocations of the gingli-
moidal articulations is amply compenfated by the fuperficial
fituaiion of the bone ; a circumftance which renders it eafy
to afcertain their relative pofitions.

The direction of the bone is changed, for the luxated end
cannot leave its natural place, without the other being thrown
into a contrary diredlion. Thus, in the luxation of the
luitnerus downwards and inwards, the pofition of the arm is
obliquely downwards and outwards, inftead of being ftraight
along the fide. This mode of judging of the occurrence of
a dillocation by the change in the direftion of the limb, is
much eafier in recent cafes, than in thofe which have con-
tinued for a coniiderable time.

As ths fuuation and direction of a diflocated bone are
altered, it neceffarily follows that fome mufcles muft be pre-
ternaturally relaxed, while others are overftretched and
ftrained, as may be feen with refpedl to the deltoid mufcle,
in cafes of ],uxations of the humerus, which are the moft
frequent of all. This unequal tenfion and relaxation of muf-
cles may alfo afford lome alfiltance in forming the diagn »fis.
Time feems, however, fomething to remove, in a great
meafure, the alteration produced in the contour of a hmb,
by certain luxations ; and it is obferved that in old difloca-
tions of the humerus, the fulnefs of the Paoulder, juft below
the acromion, is in fome degree reftored.

In thefe alterations of the natural fiiape of tlie limbs, we
are te comprehend the changed relations of the eminences of
a joint with refpeCl to each other ; the exiftence of projections
ill places, where there ought to be depreffions ; and of de-
prcffions where there ought to be eminences. Thus, in the
I'jxatiujj of tlie humerus inwards and downwards, a hard tu-
mour caiifed by the head of the bone itfelf, may be diftinftly
felt in the hollow of the axilla, while an unnatural depreffion
May be perceived jull under the acromion.

Our hmbs, even when fraftured, as Boyer has obferved,
may be trade to perform feveral motions, and may be put
into various attitudes. In a cafe of a broken thigh, the
fur^con fnot, in truthr v.ithout caufing fcvere pain,) may,
by taking hold of the leg, move it round in a circular di-
se^lion, and, may point the foot inwards and outwards-

But in luxations of the thigh, fuch motionB are altogctW
impoflible, before the bone is reduced.

By a confideration of all thefe fymptoms, diflocations may
always be detefled. When the cafe is not afcertained within
a moderate tim.e, cither througli negligence or ignorance, it
is a ferious affair for the patient ; becaufe the inability of
ufing the limb is imputed to the contufvon, and the treatment
is regulated accordingly ; the bone, after a time, becomes
incapable of reduftion, and tlie lamenefs and deformity are
then irremediable. Such furgeons as are grofsly deficient in
anatomical knowledge, arc tlie moft liable to deliver wrong
opinions concerning diflocations ; for, not being able to judge
of the due relative diilanccs which ought to exift between
certain proceffes of the bones, they are not at all qualified to
decide whether many cafes are mere contulions, or whether
they are fraclures or diflocations.

On the fubjedt of prognofis in cafes of diflocation, it is
remarked that luxations of the orbicular joints are much lefs
dangerous than thofe of the ginglimoidal articulations. As
the attion of the mufcles has a great fhare in producing the
iirll defcription of cafes, there is lefs violence done to the
external parts, and the foft parts are lefs lacerated.

In all cafes the extent of the evil is in proportion to the
largenefs of the furfaces of the joint, the number and ftrength
of the furrounding mufcles, and the thicknefs and number
of the ligaments. Hence, luxations of the foot and knee are
more dangerous than thofe of the elbow and wrift ; the
former require a much greater degree of external violence
to produce them, and confcquently the foft parts are more
injured.

Luxations of the orbicular joints are more difficult of re-
duftion than thofe of the ginglimoidal articulations, and dif-
locations of the hip are more troublefome to reduce than
luxations of the flioulder. Thefe circumftances are exph—
cable by the power and aftion of the mufcles, in refilling
the endeavours of the furgeon to bring the head of the bone
into its place again.

But, perhaps, the thing which, of all others, tends mofl to
increafe the danger of a diflocation, is the accident being,
what is termed compound, that is, attended with an external
wound, communicating with the cavity of the luxated joint.
Many fuch cafes require immediate amputation. The pro-
priety of the operation depends, however, in a great mea-
fure on the extent of injury done to the foft parts. \^Tien
thefe have not been largely lacerated, torn, and contufed, the
furgeon fhould endeavour to fave the limb. Even the hazard
of a compound diflocation' very much depends on the kind of
joint affefted. Such injuries of the articidations of the
fingers or toes cannot be compared, in point of danger, with
fimilar accidents interefling the ankle, the knee, or the
elbow.

Luxations arifing from difeafe of a joint, cannot in ge-
neral be reduced and cured like diflocations from external
violence ; for the ligaments and art ciilar furfaces are, in fail,
always more or lefs deftroyed. 'i'liis obfervation, however,
is not to be extended to hixations, induced by a mere loofe-
nefs of the ligaments. Thefe cafes indeed are very fubjeft
to recur; but they can eafily be reduced. Many difloca-
tions of the jaw are connrdted with a lax ftate of the liga-
ments, and afford an illuflration of the preceding remark.

LalUy, the danger of diflocations in general is much in-
fluenced by the degree of contufion prefent, and by the in-
jury done to blood-veffels, or large nerves. The 'atter vio-
lence fometimes occafions a paralylis of tlie mufcles, to
which the injured nerves, fends its filaments. Boyer has feen
a paralyfis of the deltoid mufcle brought on by a violent con-
1\ tuHoa

LUXATION.

tufion of the circumflex nerve, in a luxation of the humerus
downwards and inwards.

We have now to confider the general treatment of lux-
ations.

To reduce the diflocated bone, keep it in its place, and
prevent or remove the fyniptoms with which the luxation
may be complicated, form the three indications which are to
be fulfilled in the treatment of luxations. The reduftion is
accomplifhed, as in cafes of frafture, by three means, op-
pofite in their aftion, but tending to the fame end, viz. ex-
tenfion, counter-extenfion, and coaptation.

In the article Fracture we have expatiated a good deal on
relaxing the mufcles connefted with the broken bone, in
order to facihtate the reduftion of the frafture. This great
principle, which was fo much and fo juftly urged by Mr.
Pott, holds equally good in cafes of diilocation. From the
adlion of the mufcles principally arife all the trouble and
difficulty which attend the reduflion of luxated joints.
The mere bones, compofing the articulations, or the mere
connefting ligaments, would in general afford very little op-
polition. It is the mufcles that chiefly oppofc the rcdudlion,
and their refiftance mull either be eluded or overcome ; terms,
fays Mr. Pott, of very different import, and which every
praftitioner ought to be well apprized of. We fcarcely
need add, that this eminent furgeon was a ftrong advocate
for relaxing the mufcles belonging to the difiocated joint, at
the time of attemptmg to reduce the bone. Now, although
this precept is, generally fpeaking, nioft excellent as far as
it is praflicable ; we are not to run away with the idea that
things are precifely as Mr. Pott has reprefented them to be,
in his general remarks on fraftures and diilocation. No fur-
geon, of the prefent time, is fo abfurd as to nnagine that
merely bending the elbow, or the knee, will relax all the
mufcles which have the power of refilling the redudlion of a
diflocated fhoulder or hip. Neither will the mott advan-
tageous pofition for extenfion always allow the poilure to be
entirely regulated with a view towards the relaxation of the
mufcles. While, however, we profefs thefe fentiments, wc
feel a thorough conviftion that attending to the relaxation of
fuch mufcles as have the greateft power of oppofing the re-
duftion of a diilocation, is an urobjeftionable maxim, as far
as it can be received in aftual praftice, confiflently with
fome other equally important objefts. When Mr. Pott
wrote fo flrenuoully in favour of relaxing the mufcles, or, as
we fhould rather fay, of bending joints, in cafes of difloca-
tion, it was alfo neceffary for him to lay much ftrefs on the
advantage of applying the extenfion to the end of the diflo-
cated bone itfelf ; becaufe, were it applied in a better fitua-
tion, the bent pofition would become inadmifTible. The
reafon which is affigned for this pradlice, however, is, as
might be expecied, moll weak. Mr. Pott talks a great deal
about the liilutability, or dtjlranile power of the ligaments,
and their capacity of giving way when flretched or pulled,
much more, we think, than faCts jutlify, fince it is the ge-
neral nature of ligaments, we mean fuch as aflualfy hold
the bones together, to be very ftrojig and unyielding. The
capfular ligaments, we think, are generally to be regarded
rather as bags for the fysovia, than asa means of flrengthen-
ing the articulations. The yielding nature of fuch liga-
ments, therefore, can have little to do with the fubjcft of diflo-
cations. Now it appears to lis that Mr. Pott was anxious
to make the ligaments appear more elallic than they really
are, in order that he might reprefent all the extending force
applied to the bone below the diflocated one, as being lofl
in the intervening unluxated articulation. Even were the
ligaments of the knee, for inftance, to yield in the manner

infinuated by Pott, when the extenfion is applied to the lower
part of the leg, the extending force would l>ill not be loll,
but would operate with full effeft on the thigh. Where is
it lofl ? The very circumflance of the ligaments being on the
flrctch, proves that the force operates on them, and they
being attached to the os femoris, thishone cannot fail to re-
ceive the extenfion in a degree precifely equal to that with
which the ligaments themfelves receive it. It is extraordinary
that reafoning fo abfurd fhould have impofed upon the gene-
rality of fuigcons in this country; cfpeciallyas on the conti-
nent, its faHliY has long fince been expofed in the writings
of Fabre, Dupony, Default, Boyer, and Rich^rand. The
doftrine of Pott is the mofl ancient ; but the antiquity of
any praftice fhould ceafe to be a reafon for a perfeverance in
it, the moment the principles, on which it is founded, are
proved to be erroneous.

We differ then from Pott, and believe with the moft
confummats furgeons on the continent, that the extending
force fliould be apphed, not on the luxated bone, but on
that with which it is articulated, and as far as poffible from
it.

All the ancient autliors, as Boyer remarks, advifed ap-
plying the extending force on the luxated bone, for inftance
applying it above the knee in luxations of the thigh-bone,
and above the elbow in thofe of the humerus. Many of the
moderns have followed their inflruftions ; and this mode is
found recommended by J. L. Petit and Duverney in their
treatifes on the difeafes of the bones. Two members of the
Academy of Surgery m France, Fabre and Dupony, faw
the inconver.ience of this praftice, and fubflituted for it a
mode of treatment now generally adopted on the continent.
Their praftice, which confills in applying the extending
force to the bone that articulates with the luxated one, has
two mofl important advantages ; firfl, the mufcles which
furround the luxated bone are not compreffed nor flimulated
to fpafmodic contraftions, which would prevent the re-
duftion, not only by oppofing a force fuperior to that em-
ployed for the purpofe of reduftlan, but alfo by retaining
the head of the bone engaged in the interllices of the con-
trafted mufcles. Secondly, the extending- force is much
more confiderab!e than it is in the other method, for, as Du-
pony hasobferved, by elongating thus the arm of the lever,
we acquire a degree of power which the difSculties prefented
in a great number of cafes force us to have recourfe to. It
is true, fays Boyer, an apprehenfion has prevailed that the
extending force applied at a diflance from the luxated bone,
would lofe in the articulations of the lim.b a part of its effeft.
Thus it has been alleged, that apart of the extending force
applied at the wrill, in a luxation of the humerus, is cm-
ployed in elongating the ligaments of the elbow joint. But
this objeftion is ill founded ; all the mufcles which go from
the humerus to the bones of the fore-arm, by ffrengthcning
the elbow, make it anfvveras a continued lever, along which
the force is communicated without any lofs.

Force, applied by the hands of intelligent and fhong
afTiflants, is generally confidered preferable to any mecha-
nical means in the reduction of diflocations. The number
of alTillants may be increafed at will, and force propor-
tioned to the refiftance that is experienced. Should there
not be room for a fufficient number to take hold of the
limb, they may make the extenfion by means of a napkin,
or fheet, folded longitudinally and tied on the limb. It is
faid that the force employed can be better judged of when
the extenfion is made by a certain number of afTiftants, than
when a midtiphed pulley is ufed, which may act v.ith fuch
force, without our being aware that the mufcles, ligaments,

and

L U X A T I O N.-

....,; even the fl<iii which covers the articulation, may be to be applied immediately above the luxated bone. Some-
lacerated, and the moll direful fufferings occafioned. times the countcr-extenfion is made by afliftar.ts, who take
Altliough the writer of this article fully afTcnts to the hold of tlie bandage neceffary for the purpofe ; fometimes it
general fiiperiority of making the extenfion by the affiilants, is executed by fallening the bandage to a fixed point. The
he cannot refrain from expreffing a favourable opinion of latter mode, when practicable, is to be preferred. The
the convenieuce and efficiency of a pulley, in cnles where counter-extenhoii fliould always be made in a perpendicular
inteUigent afTillants are not at hand, and where much force is direction with refpedl to the furface of the luxated joint,
required for the reduition, as, for inftance, when the thigh- In a luxation of the elbow, for iiiftunce, the counter-
bone, or humerus, has been out of its place fome time, or extenfion (hould be made in a line parallel to the os humeri ;
when the patient is very mufcular and llropg. At the fiune and in a diflocation of the thigh-bone, the counter-exienfion,
time, the dangerous confequences which may happen, when applied to the pelvic, (hould be made perpendicularly to the
a rough, unflcilful, or impatient practitioner dares to employ furface of the acetabul im. The fame rule is to be obferved
a pulley, cannot be too deeply imprcffed upon a furgeon's with regard to the fhoulder in luxations of the humerus,
mind. Whether extenfion is made in the ordinary way, or In general, when the extenfion is fuffi.ient, coaptation is
with a pulley, it fhould be made with moderation, as the eafily performed. In a luxation of the humerus, as the
miifcles are more fure of being fafely overcome by length of head of the bone is difengag^d, and the afliftants have
refiitance than by the exertion of violence. brought the bone into its natural direftion, the furgeon is
It is impoitible to affign the precife degree of force to be to feize the opportunity, and with one hand prefs on the
employed ; it is to be varied and proportioned, according fuperior and inner part of the arm, ivhilll, at the fame time,
to the ilrength of the patient, and the number atid force of he iupports the elbow with the other, and thus condufts the
the mufcles furrounding the articulation. Ic has been faid, head of the bone ii^to the glenoid cavity,
that, m reducing a luxation, there is occafion for more ad- It is an excellent maxim, whenever prafticable, to ufe a
dreis than force ; it would be true, obferves Boyer, to fay, diflocated bone as a fort of lever, in makino- the reduAion.
that the union of both is iieceffliry. Often fix afiillants Thus, after the head of the humerus has Ijeen difenga^ed
accomplifh that which three cannot do, and nine or tt-n per- by the extenfion, if, while prclTurc is made at the upper
form that which cannot be done by fix. and inner part of the arm, tlie elbow is deprefied, the head
With regard to the direction in wliich the extenfion fhould of the bone moves upwards in proportion towards the
be made, Boyer recommends it to be at firll the fame as that glenoid cavity of the feapula. The recoUeClion of this
which the luxation has given the diilocated bone. Suppofe principle will materially aid in reducing diflocations of the
the head of the humerus to be luxated inwardi>, and forced jaw, thigh bone, &c. Common fenfe pointf'out, in almoft
into the folia fubfcapularis, between the fubfcapulans mufcle every cafe, how and where the fu'crum fhould be made,
and the feapula : in this cafe, the elbow is not only moved Luxations of ginglimoidal articulations being feldom
out from the trunk, but even carried backward-. Now, if complete, the extenfion and counter-extenfioii are generally
we were to commence the reduction, by pulling in the na- made, in fuch inftances, only with a view of diminifhing the
tural direction of the humerus, that is, directly outwards, friCiion of the furfaces of the joint, ncceflarily occafioned by
the head of the bone would be prefTed againit the folTa the oppofite motions given them, with a view of -replacing
fubfcapularis, it would not eafily Hide along, the force woiiid themin their natural fituation.

be fpent in pufliing the feapula backwards, and the irrita- When extraordinary difficulty is encountered in reducing

tion would excite the contraction of the mufcles fituated a diflocation, the furgeon (hould endeavour to afccr'.ain the

near the luxated head of the bone. caufe. Sometimes want of fuccefs is owing to the infufE-

Extenfi jn, then, is generally to be made at firfl in the di- ciency of the means employed, in which circumftaucc, we

reftion which the luxated bone has taken ; but in propor-
tion as the mufcles become elonga'ed, and yield to the force
acting on them, the bone is to be gradually brought back
into Its natural pofition. In this manner the head of the
bone is difenga^ed from the parts m which it has been
placed, and is brought back to the cavity which it has left,
by making it defcribe the fame courfe that it took in making
its efcape.

We are now to confider what is termed counler-exlenfion.
As Boyer has juilly remarked, the belt directed exten-
fion will be ufelefs, if the bone with which the luxated one
has been articulated, is riot kept motionlefs by counter-
extenfion, a force equal to the other, but made in a con-
trary direction. The counter-extending power, applied to
the luxated bone itfelf, would be attended, in almolt every
cafe, with the double inconvenience of producing a fpaf-
mod"ic contraction of the mufcles, and preventing the elong-
ation of them neceffary for reduction. Let us fuppofe,
fays Boyer, that in a luxation of the thigh, the counter-
exteiidmjT banda^je were in the fold of the groin of the
afi'jCted fide, the confequence would oe, that the triceps and

mull either increafe the extending power, or diminifh the
mufcular force of th^ patient.

The latter object may be fulfilled in various ways.
Change of podure often produces the efleft. In Boyer's
work itillances are mentioned in which patients, while leated
on a chair, and fupporting themfeives with their feet agau.ft
the ground, could not have their luxations reduced with the
greatefl efl\)rts ; and yet afterwards had their dillocations
reduced witli iinexpeded facility, on being laid horizontally
on a long fixed table, where their mufcles were deprived of
a centre of motion. In general, however, the benefits of
polture may, with more reafon, be impiited to its relaxing
the mofl powerful mufcles oppofing the endeavours of the
furgeon.

When eivery attempt, conduced on the forcgoinsr prin-
ciples, proves mefiectuai, the patient is to be largely and
repeatedly bled, be put into the warm bath, and confined to
a very Ioa' diet. As focui as he appears to be confidjfrably
weakened by this plan, the diflocation, which was previoufly
irreducible, may freque.iily be reduced with" the utmofl eaie.
We do not coincide with Boyer, when he adviles us to lofe

gracilis, which are in a Hate of tenfion between the pelvis twenty-four hours in. lowering the patient, before renewing
and thigh, would be pufhed inwards, and, confequently, the attempts at reduction. On the contrary, fo fuliy are we
fhoitened, when their elougation is abfolutely neceiiary. Be- convinced of the difficulty of leduition, always proceeding
fides, the comprcifion made on them would alfo increale their from delay, that we earntlUy recommend the eflorts to re-
• v.traaion. The counter-extending force ought, therefore, duce the bone to be renewed immediately after the patient

hat

LUXATION.

has been weakened by tbe firfl copious bleeding, and to be by its having regained the power of performing certain mo-
tried again as foon as he has been a curtain time in the bath, tions impofTiblc during the didocatioii. For fome time af-
The faintntf^ and debiHty following fiich means, afTord the ter the reduction the limb (liould not be moved, except with
mod favourable opportunity for reducing a diOocation. the utnioll caution : a recurrence of a didocated (houldcr
The ftate of intoxication, induced by fpirits or opium, is has been known to arife from carrying the hand inadvert-
alfo well known to facilitate the reduflion of luxated bones, ently to the ff)rehead, by a fcmicircular motion,
by incapacitating the mufclcs to make nlillance, and put- The collation of pain has been confidered as a fign of the
ting ihem into a condition in which they yield and become reduction being clTefted ; but, as Boyer hasjuiUy remarked,
elongated by a very moderate force. Thus Boyer, by him- by cefTation, we are to underftand a conl'iderable diminution,
felf, and at the firll attempt, reduced a luxation of the arm rather than a total difcontinuance of pain.
of an intoxicated pollillion, while the affiftants were pre- Laflly ; one of the moll unequivocal and fatisfaftory in-

paring the^npparatus for the reduftion. The plaii of pur-
pofely intoxicating patients, whofe diflocations cannot be
reduced by ordinary means, has even received the rccom-
mcndationo of fome furgical authors.

dications of the reduction being accomplilhed, is the parti-
cular noife made by the head of the bone when it flips into
the articular cavity again. ',

Alter a diflocation has been reduced, the grand ob-

But, perhaps, of all the plans propofed for overcoming jeft that now prefents itfelf, is to keep the joint motionlefs,
the reliftance of the mufcles to the reduction of diflocations, fo as to hinder a relapfe, and give the torn ligaments an op-
fatiguing thofe organs by long continued unremitting ex- portunity of growing together again. All motion of the
tenlion is, when combined with due attention to the choice limb is, therefore, to be prevented. As the humerus can-
of fiich a pcfition as will relax the moll powerful ones, the not be luxated, except when it is at fotne diflance from the
moft effedtual that can be adopted. The ftrongefl mulclcs body, a return of its diflocation will be efFeclually prevented
may always be overcoiue by keeping up, tor a certain time, by tying the elbow to the fide of the body. The bandaj^e
even a very moderate degree of extenfion. The thing is employed for keeping the limb motionlefs, fhould always be
not to remit or difcontinue for a moment the operation of the made to operate principally on the end of the bone moft
extending power. This principle is faid to have been fird remote from the joint afTeCled. Thus, after a luxation of the
applied to praftice by Lebat, who, in a cafe where the leva- arm, when we apply to the elbow the means for keeping the
tores of the lower jaw were fpafmodically coiitrafited, in a bone in its place, we aft on that point cf the humerus the
diflocation of that bone, and would not allow the part to be moft diftant from its articulation with the fcapula, and the
brought down, introduced a fmall Hick between the teetli, force thus applied to the extremity of the lever, afts with
and making ufe of it as a lever, oppofed theaftion of the much moreeffefl. The fame rule fliould be obferved in the
mufcles^until they were incapable of further relillance, and application of a bandage to the chin, after a luxation of the
the reduftion was accompliflied. M. David is alfo dated jaw. Indeed, in this laft cafe, fuch praftice has been re-
to have derived fimilar advantages from the fame pradlice, in conimended by all furgical writers ; but in diflocations of
luxations of the thigh and arm. the fhoulder and hip, they-feem to have forgot the utility of
When luxations have been left unreduced feveral days, the principle, and have generally adviCcd that moft inert
the reduction frequently becomes exceedingly difficult, and bandage termed the fpica, which only adts on the centre of
fometimes quite imprafticable. The lacerated opening in motion, and, confequently, can have little or no effeft in
the capfular ligament, after a time, becomes clofed, ■and thus keeping the bone fixed.
a material impediment to the reduiSion is occafloned. When When a luxation arifes from an internal caufe, fuch as pa-

.a diflocation has exifted for weeks and months, many circum-
ftances take place !0 prevent the poflibility of reduftion :
the head of the bone acquires coi.nediions in its new and
unnatural fituation ; the mufcles become incapable of fuffi-

ralyfis of the mufcles, aloofenefs of the hgamcnts, or general
debility, the duty of the furgeon is to endeavour to obviate
the caufe by fuitable remedies, as well as replace the bone.
We confefs, however, that we know of no medicine nor

cient elon:;ation again; and, what is worfe, the articular application that feems to be calculated to remove a lax ftate

cavity iiifFers more or lefs obliteration. In the gingiimoidal of the ligaments.

joints, an anchvlolis is foon produced, and the reduftioii Luxations, in general, are particularly liable to be accom-

rendercd impradticable. We have feen many attempts made panicd by more or lefs contufion of the foft parts ; and

■with multiplied puilics to reduce old diflocations. . In a few they are lomctimcs cou'.plicated with inflamination, rupture

inftances, a degree of benefit was thought to have been the of blood- veiTels, injury of nerves, and even a frafture. The

refult ; but in no inllance «as the fuccefs complete. Thefe latter complication is not frequent, but when it does occur,

luxations, however, might have exifted an unreajfonable the bone has always been luxated firft, and afterwards broken

length of time. It is difficult to pronounce exactly how by the violence. The paralyfis arifing from a contufion of

long a diflocation of the arm or thigh muft have happened, the nervts is not an uncommon confequence of diflocation of

to juftify the abandonment of all attempts at reduction, the flioulder ; and when we confider the relation between

The celebrated French furgeon Default fucceeded by the thp.head of the hum.erus and the brachial plexus, the occur-

prudt-nt employment of force in reducing many cafes which rence is by no means furprifing.

had exilled for feveral months ; and fuch tafts call upon the Boyer obferves, that when a luxated bor.e is not reduced,

praftitioner not to give up at' once every old diflocation as fometimes it remains in the place into which it has been

paft relief. A patient's means of fubfillence, ior himfelf and forced; but much more frequently it changes its fituation,

his family, wfll often entirely depend upon his luxation being and is carried fiill further from the cavity of the joint by

reduced. In the gingiimoidal joints, as we have already ob- the aftion of the mufcles. Thus, in luxations of the thigh

ferved, luxations fooner become irreducible : according to upwards and outwards, the glutei mufclcs continue to draw

Boyer, after twenty, or four-and-tweniy days, they, in ge- the head of the thijili-bone up along the dorfum of the

neral, cannot be replaced, owing to an anchylofis having ilium, until the hmb is fliortened as much as the parts will

occurred. allow.

The furgecn knows, that a luxation is reduced by the limb But, as the fame furgeon has explained, whether the head of

having recovered its natural length, ihape, and dirtttion, and tlie luxated bone preferves its firil polllion, oi takes BHOther,

it

t^

LUXATION.

it becomes flattened on that furface, by which it is in coHtaft
with a fubjacent bone, while this lail has a kind of depreflion
gradually made in it. In fome inftances the original cavity of
the joint diminifhes in depth, efpecially when the head of the
bone remains near its circumference. The mufcles, impeded
in their adlion, lofe their confidence, alTume a ligamentous
appearance, and even become attached to the ligaments by
a depofition of olTeous matter, and, in this manner, a bony
cafe is formed, which conilitutes, with the difplaced bone,
a new articulation.

When a bone ij not reduced, the limb remains deformed,
and fcarccly any ufe can be made of it for fome months ; but
in time it approaches rather more to its natural direClion, and
when a new joint is formed, is yet capable of a confiderablc
latitude of motion. In general, however, in confequence
of the motion of the hmb being more or lefs obllrufted,
the mufcles fall away, and the limb has a weak and lefs
bulky appearance than that of its fellow. When a difloca-
tion in a child is left unreduced, this difference between the
fizeof the luxated limb and that of the found one, beconfes
very remarkable as the patient grows up to the adult
Hate.

We (hall now treat of particular diflocations, and after-
wards conclude with fome obfervations on compound lux-
ations.

Luxations of the lower Janv-hone, — When the mouth is
•widely opened, the condyles of the lower jaw advance for-
wards upon the enimentix articulares, and in this Hate may
be made to flip-under the zygomatic procefles by very flight
caufes. This bone is only liable to be luxated in this one
direction, whether one or both condyles efcape from the gle-
noid cavities of the temporal bones. Every luxation, except
that forwards, is rendered impofhble by the natural conforma-
tion of the parts. A diflocation backwards is oppoled by
the ofTeous portion of the auditory canal ; and luxations
laterally, to the right or left, are prevented by the i-efi fi-
ance arifing from the fpinous proceffes of the fphenoid
bone and the hgaments of the joint. But it muft be con-
feffed, that the principal flrength of the articulation of the
lower jaw does not depend upon thefe ligaments ; but rather
on the mufcles, and the pai-ticular conformation of the bones.
The very fhape of the lower jaw at once informs us, that
a blow on its fides muft be more likely to break it, by in-
creafing its curvature, than diflocate it.

According to Boyer, luxations of the lower jaw cannot
happen in very young infants, on account of tlie body
and rami of this bone meeting at an obtufc angle, and, con-
fequently, the condyles and necks having nearly the fame
direction as the reft of the bone, fo that a luxation cannot
be caufed by any pofllble depreflion of the chin. Difloca-
tions of the jaw are feldom caufed by external violence ;
almoft always by exceffive yawning, or laughing.

The condyles of the maxilla inferior, being thrown before
the tranfvcrfe roots of the zygomatic proceffes, comprefs the
deep-feated temporal nerves, and thofe going to the maffeters.
This faft affords a better explanation of the pains attending
a luxation of the jaw, than the tenlion and elongation of the
mafltter and other mufcles.

Befides great pain, a more inflruftive fymptom of this
accident is the mouth being much open, and incapable of
being (hut. Thefe circumftances are more evident in recent
than old luxations of the jaw. An empty Ipace may be
felt before the ears in the natural lituation of the condyles.
The coronoid proccfs forms under the cheek bone an emi-
nence, which IS perceptible through the cheek, or by intro-
ducing a finger into the mouth. The checks and temples
are flattened by the lengthening of the temporal, mafTettr,

Vol,. XXI.

and buccinator mufcles. The falira flows in large quanfittef
from the mouth, the fecretion being augm.ented in confe-
quence of the exifting irritation. The arch formed by the
teeth of the lower jSw is placed anteriorly to that made by
thofe of ti.,- upper jaw. Laftly ; during the firfl days of
the luxation, the patient can neither fpeak nor fwallow.

We have already adverted to one condyle being fome-
times diflocated, while the other remains in its proper
place. According to Mr. Hey, it is not always eafy to
know when this is the cafe. " One would expcft," fayj
this practical writer, " from a confideration of the flruftiire.
of the parts, and from the defcription given in fyftems
of furgcry, that the chin fhould be evidently turned towards
the oppolite fide ; but I have repeatedly feen the difeafe,
when I could difcern no alteration in the pofition of the chin.
The fymptom which I have found to be the beft guide in
this cafe, is a fmall hollow, which may be felt jult behind
the condyle that is diflocated, which does not fubfifl on
the found fide." Pract. Obferv. in Surgery, p. 32J,
edit. 2.

When the luxation is recent, the above fymptoms enable
us to afcertain the nature of the accident with fufficient
eafe ; but when the diflocation has exifted feveral days or
weeks, the cafe becomes lefs flrongly marked. The lower
jaw has infcnfibly approached the upper one ; and the pati-
ent gradually recovers the faculty of fpeech and degluti-
tion ; but he flill ftammers, and drivels.

Hippocrates pronounced luxations cf the jaw to be fatal,
unlefs reduced before the tenth day ; but furgeonshave no\r
found, that this fcntiment is not well founded, and it is
even fufpeiled, that Hippocrates might coiifound cafes of
locked jaw with thofe of diflocations.

When the jaw has once been diflocated, the accident is
more prone to be produced again by flight caufes. Mr. Hey
mentions his having known two perfons in whom this dift
location frequently happened. Not only yawning, but even
opening the mouth incautioufly in eating, would caufe the
accident. P. 326, edit. 2.

When a luxation of the jaw is to be reduced, the patient
fhould (it on a low ftool, with his head refling on the breafl
of an affillant. In this pofition of the patient, the furgeon's
hands are on a level with the mouth, which is advantageous,
becaufe he is not obliged to elevate them, and confequently
can act with greater force on the jaw. The furgeon, after
guarding his thumbs with hnen, or a thick pair of gloves,
is to introduce them into the mouth, and place them as far
back as poflible, on the great molares, at the fame time
bending under the chin the four fingers of each hand.
The jaw, being thus grafped, is to be moved in the manner
of a lever, the grinders being pnflied downwards and the
chin upwards. No fooner ace the condyles thus extricated
from under the zygomatic proceffes, than the mufcles dravr
them up into their proper places again, with con fiderable force
and fuddennefs. This takes place fo rapidly, that the
furgeon's thumbs would be in danger of injury, if he were
to negleft to move them quickly outwards, and place them
between the cheek and the jaws.

After the reduftion, the four-tailed bandage for the lower
jaw is to be applied, as in cafes in which this bone is
broken. (Sec Plate V.) In the plate jult referred to,
however, it is proper to mention, that the centre of the
bandage fhould have been placed exaftly on the chin, an
effential circumftancc, as this is the point farthcfl from the
centre of motion, and confequently that where the bandage
can operate with the moll power in keeping trlie bone motion-
lefs. During the firil days, the patient fhould only b»
allowed liquid food, or fuch as requires no maltication.

4 (^ Whw

LUXATION.

When unufual difficulty occurs in difengaging the condyles
from under the zygomatic procefres, owing to the refillance
of the mufcles, Le Cat's plan for overcoming and fatiguing
thefe powers may be purfued ; it confifted-'in introducing a
fmall Hick between the teeth, and ufing it as a lever for
combating the aftion of the mufcles, until they were quite
exhaulled. Here the furgeon is not required to ufe violence,
which might break the teeth, but only to keep up a mode-
rate and unremitting extenfion of the refilling mufcles.

According to Mr. Hey, if both fides of the lower jaw are
deprefled, while one fide only is diflocated, the reduftion of
the luxated condyle is ratiier prevented. The force (hould
be applied to the affefted fide alone. See Praft. Obferv, in
Surgery, p. 326, edit. 2.

JLii.valions of the Verlebfie — The large furfaces by which
thefe bones touch each other ; the number and thicknefs of
their ligaments ; the ftrength of the mufcles lying on the
column formed by them ; the fmall motion of which each
vertebra is capable ; and, lallly, the vertical direftion of
their articulating procefles (fays Boyer), render a luxation
of them in the dorfal and lumbar part of the column entirely
impoflible. A violence, though ever fo confiderable, cannot
difplace them, without firll frafturing them. But this is
not the cafe with the cervical vertebrae ; the extent of their
articulating furfaces is lefs ; the ligamento-cartilaginous fub-
llance which unites their bodies has more pliability ; the
motion of their articulations is greater ; and their articulat-
ing furfaces have an oblique direftion, which allows them to
have an obfcure rotatory motion. Hence luxations of the
cervical vertebrse fometimes prefent thcmfelves in praftice.
Boyer has feen a luxation of the middle cervical vertebrae
caufsd by a violent rotatory motion of thefe bones.

Luxations of the Head from the jirjl Vertebra. — The jomts
between the occipital bone and iirft: vertebra of the neck,
or atlas, are itr-'ngthened with numerous ligaments, and
only admit of very limited motion. We have.no inftance of
luxation of the head from the firft vertebra by an external
caufe, and fuch a diflocation, were it ever to happen, would
inftantly deftroy the patient, by comprefliiig and injuring
the fpinal marrow. But, as Boyer has remarked, nature,
which cannot bear fo fudden a change, is habituated to it,
when it takes place gradually, and the fpinal marrow which
would be fatally hurt by a fudden didocation of the head
from the atlas, is capable of bearing the fame kind of luxa-
tion that is infenllbly and flowly produced by difeafe.

Luxations of tlic Jirjl cervual Vertebra from the Second. —
The motion of the head to the right and left is principally
executed by the firll vertebra turning on the fccond. The
laxity and weaknefs of the ligaments between thefe bones,
and the direftion of their articular proceffes, tend to facili-
tate this kind of rotation, which motion, indeed, would fre-
quently be carried beyond due bounds, and a diflocation
happen every time that we turn our heads, were not the
motion confined by the very thick ligaments which go
from the fides and fummit of the procelTus denlatus of the
fecond vertebra to the edges of the great occipital hole.
As Boyer obferves, when this motion is forced beyond its
proper limits, the ligaments are torn, and the lateral parts
of the body of the firft vertebra glide along on the arti-
culating horizontal proceffes of the fecond. If the head is
turned from the left to the right, the left fide of the body
of the vertebra is carried before its correfponding articulat-
ing furface, whilft the right fide falls behind its correfpond-
ing furface. In this luxation, fometimes the proceflus den-
tatus, the ligaments of which are broken, leaves tlie ring,
formed for it by the tranfverfe ligament and the anterior
iurch of the firft vertebra, and prefles oa the fpinal marrovr.

In other examples, it doe« not quit the ring ; but the dia-
meter of the vertebral canal is always diminiflied at the place
of the diflocation, and the fpinal marrow injured or lacerated.
It is readily conceivable, that the patient cannot furvive an
accident of this nature, every wound of the fpinal marrow,
in fo high a fituation, being quickly fatal.

The celebrated M. Louis found, that the criminals who
were in his time hanged at Lyons, periflied by the luxation
of the firft vertebra from the fecond ; whilft tliofe hanged
at Paris were fuffocated by ftrangnlation. He difcovered
that the caufe of this difference was owing to a rotatory
motion which was given to the body of the culprit by the
executioner at Lyons, the moment it was fufpended. J. L.
Petit mentions an inftance in which a boy, between fix and
feven years of age, vi-as killed in an inftant by a luxation of
the firft from the fecond vertebra, brought on by the boy
ftruggling, whilft a perfon was raftily lifting him up by the
head. This laft trick cannot be too feverely condemned as
a moft dangerous experiment.

There are other luxations of the neck not followed by
death ; but in thefe cafes, the diflocation takes place in the
third, fourth, fifth, or fixth vertebra, and only one articu-
lating procefs is luxated. Some examples are quoted by
Boyer, which were confidered as cafes of this laft defcriptioPf
being attended with a diftortion of the head to the right or
left, without any fpafm or rigidity of the fterno-cleido-
maftoideus mufcle.

When luxations of the cervical vertebrs produce no
fymptoms indicating a dangerous degree of preflure on the
fpinal marrow, it is prudent not to attempt the reduftion,
as the patient may be killed in a moment by the endeavour,
in confequence of the fpinal marrow becoming fuddenly com-
preffed and injured. If the fymptoms, however, make it
probable that the patient's only chance of life depends on
altering the pofition of the luxated bones, the furgeon ought
cautioufly to attempt the reduftion. Fortunately, thefe
cafes are as unfrequent as they are perplexing, and we ftiall
omit, as uninterefting to the praftical furgeon, the ufual
direftions refpefting the mode of reducing fuch accidents.
It is enough for the furgeon to be duly aware of the peril
that accompanies the attempt.

Lu.vat'ions of the Bones of the Pihis. — Thefe bones are
fcarcely fufceptible of luxations. The os facrum, firmly
fixed between the two ofTa innominata, cannot poffibly be
diflocated. The os coccygis is more eafily fraftured than
luxated. The latter accident, however, has fometimes been
obferved. Boyer has feen it induced by floughing and
difeafe, which denuded the bone, and evinced that there was
a fpace of nearly two inches between the extremity of the
facrum and the bafe of the os coecygis. But, in the end,
the two bones grew together again. Much has been written
by authors concerning a relaxation and yielding of the fyro-
phyfis pubis and facro-iliac articulations in the advanced
ftages of pregnancy. We leave to the accoucheur the
determination of this matter, as it is only indireftly cannefted
with the fubjeft of luxations.

When we ftated that the bones of the pelvis were hardly
fufceptible of luxations, our meaning was of courfe confined
to the effeft of ordinary caufes. Great external violence,
afting diieftly on any part, will make every thing yield.
Thus, in tlie fourth volume of the Memoirs of the French
Academy of Surgery, an inftance is recorded, where the
right OS ilium was diflocated from the facrum, three inches
backwards, by a fack of wheat, weighing three hundred
and fifty pounds, falling on the back of a labourer. The
patient died on the twentieth day, and the luxation was
proved by difleftion. The pelvic vifccra were found in a

ilate

LUXATION.

ftate of inflammation, with matter in the lower region of
the abdomen.

Were a fimilar accident to prefent itfelf to the prafiitioner,
he ought to have recourfe to antiphlogiftic means ; for the
danger chiefly depends on the pelvic vifcera becoming in-
flamed. Copious and repeated bleedings, the warm-bath,
fomentations, and low diet, would be particularly indi-
cated.

Luxations of the Ribs. — The ancient writers on furgery
have furniflied us with no obfervations concerning difloca-
tions of the ribs, and obfervers, who have publifhed numerous
fatts relative to other cafes, make no mention of thefe ac-
cidents. Even J. L. Petit and Duverney, authors of more
recent date, are filent on the fubjeft ; and as Pare, long
before them, had diftinftly treated of luxations of the ribs,
we muit afcribe their lilence to their difbelief in the pofli-
bility of fucli cafes.

Whether the ribs are fufoeptible of diflocation or not,
is yet an unfettled queftion.

Ambrofe Pare, Barbette, Junker, Plainer, and Heifter,
defcribe the accident as poffible. Plainer has obferved :
" Coftx longe frequentius frangunUir, quam a fua fede
movenlur. Non poifunt in exleriorem partem excidere,
cum oppofiti proceffus tranfverfi vertebrarum fummam ilia-
rum partem contineant, nee facile furfum vel deorfum verfus
promoveri poffunt. Igilur fi moventur is inleriorem partem
propellunlur.." Inftit. Chir. § 1149. Plainer aftually
enters into a detail of the fymptoms to be apprehended
in fuch cafe : " ciim pleura prematur, gravis inflammatio
et fpirandi difficullas fequitur." In a memoir inferted
amongft thofe of the Royal Academy of Surgery in France,
M. Biittet is yet more pofitive than Plainer, in only admit-
ting the luxation forwards ; but he does not conceive that the
accident can happen to all the ribs with equal facility. The
upper ones are protefted by the fcapula, and the lower,
which are unfixed and very moveable, can only be luxated
with great difficulty. He thinks that diflocalions can
hardly occur to any of thefe bones, except the four or five
lower true ribs, and two or three of the upper falfe ones,
which lall are more fufceptible of difplacement, in confe-
quence of not being fupported by the fternum. On the
other hand, Boyer, a late writer on diflocalions, is very
pofitive thai the ribs are exempt from thefe accidents. He
tells us, that he fliould have obferved the fame filence on the
fubjeft as J. L. Petit, did not a cafe, pubhfhed in the Me-
moirs of the Academy of Surgery, after the death of that
celebrated praftitioner, feem to eftablifh the poflibility of
fuch cafes. But Boyer contends, that, in reading this ex-
ample, it is obvious the furgeon has miftaken a frafture of
the pofterior end of the ribs for a diflocation. If, fays
Boyer, we attend to the number and force of the Ugamenls,
which attach the ribs to the verlebrse and fternum, and alfo
to the manner in which the intercoftal mufcles confine them,
we (hall not eafily conceive how external violence, whether
it ads on their middle or extremities, can luxate them.
They are fo firmly attached to the furrounding parts, that
it is very difficult to feparate them from the body in the
dead fubjeft ; and, in preparing Ikeletons, we often break
thofe bones, if we are not careful to cut all their bonds of
union, before we attempt to detach them from the parts with
which they are articulated. All the fymptoms accompany-
ing M. Bullet's cafe indicate a frafture of the neck, or pof-
terior extremity of the rib, as the pain, crepitation, and
motion of the bone. No conclufion could be drawn from
the motion, in proof of a luxation, fince the frafture (if it
were fuch) was fituated very near the back end of the rib.

and, of courfe, the whole length of the bone would feem t«
move at once.

Boyer excludes from confideration cafes, called by Lieu-
taud and others diflocalions of the ribs, which, in faft, are
only feparations of the ribs and dorfal vertebra: from each
other, in confequence of the deftruftion of their ligaments,
&c. by difeafe.

Luxations of the Clavicle, or Collar-Bone. — Luxations of
the clavicle are much lefs frequent than fraftures ; and it
was ellimated by Default that the latter accidents are to the
former as fix to one. As far as our own experience enable*
us to judge, diflocalions are even more uncommon than thi«
calculation reprefents.

The clavicle, however, may be luxated either from the
fternum, or the acromion.

Luxations of the Jlernal Erfd. — The ftcrnal end of the
clavicle may be diflocaled forwards, backwards, or up-
wards, but never downwards, in which laft direftion a
luxation is prevented by the cartilage of the firft rib. The
diflocation forwards is by far the moft frequent, and may
be caufeJ by exctffive motion of the fcapulary end of the
clavicle backwards. Luxations upwards and backwards are
very rare. The former can only be occafioned by the
fhoulder being puflied violently forwards and downwards,
which fometimes happens in falls. The diflocation back-
wards is the moft unufual cafe of all.

If the ftioulder is pufhed violently backwards, the fternal
end of the clavicle is propelled forwards, tearing the cap-
fule of the articulation, the anterior ligament, and the
tendon of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus mufcle. Quitting
the furface with which it is articulated, it flips in front of
the upper part of the fternum, and produces under the fliin
in this fituation, a hard prominence, vihich follows the mo-
tion of the flioulder.

When the flioulder is fuddenly depreffed, the fternal end
of the clavicle is eafily luxated upwards, as there is nothing
to limit its motion in this direftion, except the inter-clavicu-
lar ligament, which, being relaxed by the greater conli.
guity of the two bones, is not capable of making effcftual
refiftance.

In the luxation backwards, the extremity of the clavicle ii
carried behind the fuperiorpart of the fternum.

The fuperficial fituation of the clavicle renders eafy the
diagnofis of all luxations of its fternal end. When the dif-
location happens forwards, a hard projeftion is felt, or even
feen on the anterior and fuperior part of the fternum. Such
projeftion may be made to difappear by carrying the ftioul-
der forwards and outwards. In the place which the head
of the clavicle ought to occupy, an empty fpace is per-
ceptible.

In the luxation upwards, the diftance between the fternal
ends of the two clavicles is leflened.

If the luxation is backwards, the head of the bone formj
a tumour at the interior and inferior part of the neck, and a
depreffion may be felt in the place which it ought to oc-
cupy. The head of the bone thus difplaced, may, ai
Monfieur .7. L. Petit has obferved, comprefs the trachea,
oefophagus, jugular vein, carotid artery, par ■I'^gum, i^c.
fo as to caufe dangerous fymptoms. It is alfo to be noticed,
that, in diflocalions of the fternal and of the clavicle back-
wards, the head is inchned towards the affefted ftioulder.

Luxations of the fternal extremity of the clavicle may
be reduced by making a lever of the arm, by means of
which the ftioulder is firft to be brought outwards, and then
puftied forwards, fuppoling the diflocation to have happened
in that direftion. But if the luxation is backwards, the
4 Q 2 (houldcr.

LUXATION.

fhoulder, after bcinp drawn outwards, muft be carried back-
wards ; or upwards, when the diflocation is in the fame
direftion. By obferving thefc rules, the head of the bone
mav be replaced, with the aid of a liltlc prclTure of the
thumb. But ihoujrh the reduction may be eafy, it is dif-
ficult to maintain it, all the ligaments being torn, and the
articular furfaces difpofcd to (lide away from each other, on
rtie flightelt motion of the fhoulder.

The apparatus ufcd by Default for fractures of the cla-
vicle is to be employed in luxations of the iternal end of the
bone. (See Fractures of the Clavicle, and Surgical Plate IV.)
The flioulder continues to be kept outwards by means of the
eufhion placed in the axilla ; but notwithftanding the ut-
moft attention ou the part of the furgeon, the head of the
clavicle cannot be prevented from being fomewhat nrore pro-
minent than that of the oppofite fide. Brafdon propoft-d
a tourniquet for making prefiiirc on the luxated extremity of
the bone, with a view of hindering fuch deformity, though,
according to Boyer, it will not anfwer the purpofe.

Luxations of the Scapulary End of the Clavicle. — Thefe
cafes are much Icfs frequent than the former, owing to the
very great ftrcngth of the ligaments binding the clavicle to
the fcaptila. The fcapulary end of the clavicle is feldom lux-
ated in any direftion except upwards. Boyer admits the pofli-
bility of the accident taking place downwards, and we think
■we have feen an inftance, in which it was caufed by a heavy
brick falling on the flioulder from a confiderable height.
There was no crepitus, and the end of the bone, which
was moveable, was obvioufly depreffed below the acro-
mion.

The diflocation upwards is that, which principally de-
mands the attention of tb.e praftitioner. It may be caufed
by falls, in which the violence operates on the extremity
of the fhoulder. The fcapulary end of the bone flips up-
vards over the acromion, which laft procefs is itfelf a little
drawn under the luxated pari of the clavicle, when the
fhoulder is pulled inwards by fuch mufclcs, as have the
effect of bringing the arm towards the trunk. The writer
of this article was lately ccnfnlted in a very manifeft cafe
of diflocation of thf fcap'jlary end of the clavicle. The
patient was a young gentleman out of Yorkfhire, where
the accident had happened, and, not being underitood, was"
left unreduced. When the cafe was brought to us, it was
too late for any affiftance to be rendered. Fortunately,
the inconveniences fuffered were nof very great. The pa-
tient generally inclined his head towards the affefted fhoul-
der, and experienced a degree of weaknefs in raifing his
arm to his head ; but even thefe infirmities viere gradually
becoming Ws.

Boyer conceives, that a violent action of the trapezius muf-
fle, which we know is attached to the outer half of the
clavicle, rfay have a fhare in producing this kind of difloca-
lion, efpecially if the mufcle fnould forcibly con'raftjuft at
the moment when the acromion is fixed on the ground or
body, againft which it falls.

The diagnofis of the accident cannot be very difGcult,
fmce the end of the clavicle may always be diflinflly felt,
forming a projedlion under the fliin that covers the acromion.
The head is inc'ined to the aflefted fide, and the pa-
tient avoids moving the arm, in confcnuence of fuJi adtion
occafioning pain.

The diflocation is to be reduced by drawing the arm
and fhoulder outwards, and pufhing- the difplaced end of
the clavicle downwards. Default's apparatus for broken
collar bones is then to be applied. (See FraSwe of tie
Clavicle, and Plate IV.) The eulhion in the arm-pit, when

the elbow is confined neaf the fide with the roller, here
acts very ufcfully in keeping the flioulder outwards. The
turns of the bandage, which go from the elbow to the
fhnulder, fliould alfo be made to aft efpecially on the outer
end of the clavicle, fo as to prefs it downwards.

Luxations of the Shoulder; or of the Humerus, or Os
Brachii, from the Scapula. — The flioulder joint allows the
arm to be moved in every poflible direftion, and as tht
ftrufture, cflential to fo great a latitude of motion, hinders
the articulation from being endued with the flrength and
ffabihty of other lefs moveable joints, it becomes, of courfe,
a very prc-difpoling caiife of diflocatious. In faft, no joint
is fo frequently luxated as the fhoulder. And it appears
from a comparative regifter, kept at the Hotel Dicu at
Paris, that, during feveral years diflocations of this articu-
lation equalled in number the lux.itions of all the other
juints together. QLuvres de Default par Bichat, tonr. i,

P- 341-

Every thing, fays tie author of the preceding work,

appears to facilita.e the efcape of the bone from its natural
cavity, i. In the articular furfaces, a fliallow oval cavity,
which receives a femi-fpherical head twice as cxtcnfive as
itfelf in the perpendicular direction and thrice 'as broad
from before backwards, 2. The only ligament, ftrengthen- '
ing this joint, is a mere capfule, which is thin below, the
very direftion in which there is nothing to oppofe a luxa-
tion, and thicker above, where the acromion and coracoid
proccfles, together with the triangular ligament, form an
almoft infurmountable obftacle to fuch an accident. 3. With
refpcft to the mufcles and motions of the flioulder, we have
to notice numerous and itrong fafciculi around the joint,
communicating to it movements eafily performed in every
direftion ; propelling the he&A of the humerus againfl: dif-
ferent points of the capfule ; and rupturing the latter part,
when their power is fuperior to its refiflance. 4. As for ex-
ternal force, what bone is more expofed to its effefts, par-
ticularly in the labouring claffes of fociety ?

Affeited by fo many different pre-difpofing caufcs, the
humerus would be inceffantly fnbjedted to diflocations, did
not the fcapula, which is equally moveable, follow <fll its
motions, and afford it a point of fupport differently dif-
pofed, according to the different pofition of its upper end;
In fhort, much of the ftrength of the joint depends upon the
double moveablenefs of the two articul.ir furfaces.

Of the different Kinds of Luxations of the Shoulder.^
Though this joint is generally much difpofed to luxations,
it is not equally fo at every point. There are fome points
at which the accident cannot happen at all ; while there are
others at which, though it feems pofilble, it has never
been obferved. Hence, before examining the mechanifm
of diflocations of the fhoulder, Default endeavours to de-
termine with precifion the direftions in which the accident
is poflible. He adverts to the confufion exifting among
writers on this fubjeft ; fome of whom employ different
terms to exprefs the fame thing ; while others have affixed
fimilar names to things which are eflentially diflerent and
diftinft from each other. With regard to fome kinds of
luxations they all coincide ; concerning others, they dif-
agree ! Default fiifl divides luxations of the humerus into
two kinds ; viz. primitive, wh.ioh are the fudden effect of
external violence, and confecutive, which fucceed the former
from caufcs hereafter to be explained.

The fame eminent fnrgeon then dircfts us to fuppofe the
oval furface of the glenoid cavity to have four ftraight
lines drawn at its fides, in the form of a parallelogram ;
one reprefenting the upper edge of that cavity ; another,

the

LUXATION.

tile inferior ; a third, -the intemal ; an3 a fourth, the ex-
ternal.

It is manifeft, that the head of t!ie humerus cannot be
difplaced towards the upper edge of the glenoid cavity. In
that direftion the acromion and coracoid proceffes, the
triangular hgament ftrctched between ihem, the tendons of
the biceps and fupra-fpinatus, and the fiefliy part of the
dehoid mufcle, form an effeSual refillance to any force pro-
peUing upwai-ds the head of the bone. Suppofing a luxa-
tion in this direftion were to happen, the head of the bone
mull alfo be pulhcd outwards, a thing which is impoffible,
becaufe the trunk hinders the elbow from being inchned far
enough inwards for that puipofe.

On the other hand, the three remaining edges prefent but
little refiftance. At the lower one, the long portion of the
triceps ; at the internal one, the tendon of the fubfcapu-
laris ; and at the external, the tendons of the infra-fpinatus
and teres minor; eafily yield to a force direfted againll
them, and admit of primitive luxations taking place, eitlier
downwards, inwards, or outwards ; downwards, between
the tendon of the fub-fcapularis and that of the long head
of the triceps; inwards, between the fub-fcapulary mufcle
and fofla ; and outwards, between the infra-fpinatus mufcle
and fubjaccnt part of the fcapiila. All thcfe modes of dif-
placement do not occur with equal frequency, as will be
prefently confidered.

After the head of the humerus has quitted the glenoid
cavity, and flipped in one of thefe three direftions, it often
clianges its iituation again ; and, in this event, a confecutive
luxation may follow a primitive one, either downwards, or
inwards; but never that outvvards, were fuch a cafe to oc-
cur, becaufe the fpine of the fcapula would prevent it.

According to Default, a confecutive kixation inwards may
fucceed a primitive one downwards, as there is nothing to
liinder the head of the bone from palling between the fub-
fcapulary mufcle and folfa. On the contrary, Ihould it
tend outwards, the tendon of the triceps refifts, and, not-
withftanding the flatement of Petit, a confecutive luxation
in this laft direftion never happens.

Sometimes, when the head of the humerus has efcaped at
the internal or inferior part of the capfule, it is carried be-
hind the clavicle, fo as to form a confecutive luxation up-
wards, a cafe which was noticed by Pare, perhaps by Galen,
and a fpecimen of which was preferved in Default's raufeum.
Here the feccondary difplacement only takes place Howly,
and after it has happened, art can feldom correft it, on ac-
count of the firm adhefions contradlcd by the furfaces of
the bone. Thus, in the example referred to, a new cavity
was formed behind the clavicle, and the humerus was con-
nected with the furrounding part by a kind of new liga-
ments.

From this ftatement, derived from Default, it follows
that the humerus is fubjedl to four forts of difplacement :
I, downwards; 2, outwards. In thefe directions the diflo-
cation is always primitive, c* Inwards, which may be either
primitive or confecutive. 4. Upwards, in which direftion
the accident can only happen confecutively. As Default
obfei-ves, the fecond and the fourth cafes are exceedingly
rare, compared with the reft.

Primitive Luxations. — Thefe are caufed by falls or blows
on the arm, and the kind of diflocation appears to be deter-
mined by the pofition in which the limb happens to be at
the moment of the accident.

If the arm is more or lefs raifed from the trunk, without
being inchned either forwards or backwards, and the patient
fills laterally, the weight of the body, being almoft entirely
fupported by the humerus, forces downwards its upper end.

which lacerates fhe capfular ligaments, and 19 diflocate^
downwards. The occurrence is alfo in part facilitated by
the united action of the latilTimus dorfi, peftoralia major,
and teres major mufclcs. Thefe are in a (late of involun-
tary aftion, and tend to draw downwards the head of the
hum.erus, while the elbow remains fixed on the ground or
furface againft which it has fallen. Some authors believe,
that a violent contraftion of the deltoid mufcle may alfo
liave a (liare in luxating the fhoulder downwards, as it may
tend to force the head of the humerus through the capfular
ligament towards the axilla. Defat;lt thinks the truth of
this itatement is confirmed by many obfervations, and quotes
the cafe of a no'ary whofe (houlder was diflocatcd down-
wards, in lifting up -a heavy regiilcr book.

The manner in which a primitive luxation inwards is pro-
duced, is little different from that of the foregoing cafe.
The elbow, at the moment of the fall or blow, is both fepa-
rated from the trunk and carrird hackivards. The weight
of the body acts upon the humerus, the anterior portion of
the capfular ligament gives way, and the head of the bone
is didocatcd forwards.

The luxation outwards oan only be ocrafioned when the
elbow is inclined forwards, towards the oppofite fhoulder.
If the force is fufhcieutly great, the outer part of the cap-
fular ligament is lacerated, and tlio head of the humerus
difplaced. But, fays Default, what can fuch power be ?
In a fall, when the arm is forced againft tlie fide, it cannot'
be moved far enougli to caufe a laceration of the capfule.
Hence this eminent lurgeon concluded, that luxations of the
head of the humerus outwards muft be ^ry uncommon
cafes. None are recorded by furgical writers, and Default
himfelf had never obferved fuch an accident. Befides, it is
worthy of attention, that when in falls, the arm feparated
from the fide is inclined either forwards or backwards, the
weight of the body only operates upon it obliquely, and
it is little ai?ted upon by the latiflimus dorfi, peftoralis ma-
jor, and teres major mufcles. Hence no difiocati.ms of the
flioulder are fo frequeiit as thofe downwards, in* the pro-
duftion of which cafes the infijence of the weight of the
body, and of the action of the mufcles is direft. However,
the luxation inwards is not uncommon, and many of De-
fault's cafes prove the poiliLiility of a primitive diflocation of
this kind, notwithftanding feveral modern authors hnv9
doubted it, by believing with Hippocrates, that originally all
luxations of the ftiouider happen downwards.

It fometimes happens, that the lacerated opening in the
capfular ligament fuffices for the pad'age of the head of the
bone from the glenoid cavity, but immediately afterwards
contracting, is not large enough to admit of its retuiti.
This practical faft was lirft noticed by Default, who lias
pubiiflied two examples of it in his journal. Such cafes
have ficce been very frequent at the Hotel Dieu, at Paris.

Confecutive Luxations. — When a confecutive luxation fuc-
ceeds a primitive one, many caufe? may concur in producing
this change. If a fecond fail ihoidd happen, the elbow
being feparated from the fide, the head of the bone may*
eafily be forced out of the place into which it was firll
thrown. A cafe illuftrating this obfervaiion is related in
Les CEuvres Chir. de Default par Bichat, torn. i. p. 350.

The adlion of the mufcles is a permanent caufe of a fre(h
difplacement. When the humerus is diflocated downward?,
the pectoralis major, and the inner portion of the deltoid,
pull its upper portion inwards and upwards.

Various movements communicated to the arm may alfo
produce a change in the pofition of the luxated head of the
bone, according to their direftion. Thus a liuation in-

LUXATION.

wards has frequently fucceeded one downwards, in confe-
quence of awkward efforts to reduce the bone.

Symptoms of Luxations of the Shoulder. — In general, the
diagnofis of luxations of the flioulder is not attended with
much difficulty. As Hippocrates has obferved, whatever
may be the mode and fituation of the difplacement, a mani-
feft deprefhon may always be perceived under the acromion,
which procefs feems to projcA more than in the natural Hate.
Moving the humerus is very painful, and indeed moll of its
motions are either impeded, or very much limited. The
arm cannot be moved without the (houlder being alfo moved,
becaufe, the funftions of the joint being prevented, both
thefe parts form as it were only one.

To fuch fymptoms, common to all diflocations of the
Ihoulder, are to be added thofe which belong to particular
cafes. If the luxation is downwards, the arm is fomewhat
longer than in the natural ftate ; it may be moved a little
way outwards ; but every attempt to carry it forwards or
backwards inevitably occafions acute pain. The elbow is
more or lefs raifed from the axis of the body by the aftion
of the deltoid, the long portion of the biceps, and the fupra-
fpinatus mufcles, which, being on the ftretch, contrad and
inchne the bone outwards. In order to avoid the pain
arifing from this pofition, the patient leans towards the
affefted fide, keeps his fore-arm half-bent, and reds his
elbow on his hip, fo that the arm may have a fixed point to
hinder all painful motions of the hmb. By tliis attitude
done. Default was accuftomed to recognize a luxation
downwards, and he was feldom deceived. Befides thefe
circumilances, v^ have to mention, that the diflocated head
of the bone always produces a hard and more or lefs evident
prominence in the hollow of the axilla.

In addition to the fymptoms common to all luxations of
the (houlder, the diflocation inwards prefents the following :
the elbow is feparated from the ilde, and carried a little
backwards ; the humerus appears to be direfted towards the
middle of the clavicle ; moving the limb backwards is not
•very painful, but carrying it forwards is exquifitely fo ; a ma-
nifefl: prominence may be noticed under the peftoral mufcle;
the arm is fcarcely longer than in the natural ftate ; and the
patient's attitude refembles that of the foregoing cafe.

Were a didocation outwards ever to happen, it would be
particularly chai-afterized by a hard tumour under the fpine
of the fcapula, by the inclination of the elbow forwards,
and its feparation from the fide ; and, laftly, by the length
of the limb appearing a httle increafed.

A luxation upwards would be announced by a projeftion
behind the clavicle, an obvious (hortening of the arm, and its
unnatural direction.

It is frequently much more eafy to afcertain the exiftence,
than the fpecies, of luxation of the (houlder. Indeed, fome-
times it is a moll difBcult matter to determine, whether a diflo-
cation inwards is primitive or confecutive, as the apparent
phenomena of each cafe are alike. The judicious and expe-
rienced Default taught, that this iiiterefting point is only
capable of being elucidated by attention to the hiftory of the
eafe, and the order in which the fymptoms prefented them-
felves. This excellent furgeon reprefents the diftindion as
of much practical importance, fince the proper mode of re-
ducing the two cafes is different, the head of the bone having
to defcribe a very (hort track in the primitive luxation, and
a more circuitous one in that which is conlecutive.

Diflocations of the flioulder do not commonly give rife to
any accidental bad or troublefome fymptoms. Sometimes,
immediately after the occuirence, the joint is affedted with a
great deal of iwelhng ; but this complaint generally fubfides
very quickly, under the ufe of the aqua vegeto-mineralis.
J2

In certain inllances, the prelTure of the head of the bone
on the axillary glands and veins produces an oedema of the
whole limb. Default feldom obferved this happen, except
where the reduftion had been delayed. The treatment he
recommends is to apply a roller to the limb, after reducing
the head of the bone.

Another .iccident, which was feveral times obferved by
this dillinguiiiied furgeon, is a paialyfis of the limb, occa-
fioned, in the luxation inwards, by the preflTure of the head
of the bone on the axillary plexus of nerves. In fome
inftances, this affeAion proved incurable ; in others, it yield-
ed to the employment of llrong ammoniacal liniments. A
few obllinate cafes were cured by making an iffue jull over the
clavicle by means of the moxa ; but this laft method was as
frequently unaviiliig as fuccefsful.

Rediid'ion of Luxations of the Shoulder. — The infinite variety
of modes propofed for rediif ingdiflocationsof thefliouldermay
be referred to two general claffes. Some confifl in replacing,
by a mechanical force, the head of the humerus in the cavity
from which it has efcaped, whether previous extenfion be
made or not. Others are reftrifted to difengaging the head
of the humerus from tin- fituation which it accidentally oc-
cupies, and the redutlion is left to be accompliflied entirely
by the aftion of the mufcles.

The hiftory of all the methods intended to operate on the
firft principle would be tedious and unprofitable. Suffics
it to (late, that almoft all of them atl in the following man-
ner. Something being placed under the axilla, ferves as a
fulcrum, on which the arm is moved in the \. ay of a lever,
the refiftance being the luxated head of the humerus, and
the power being applied either to the lower part of this bone
or to the wrift. It was in this manner that the ambi of
Hippocrates afted, that machine fo renowned even in modern
times, and of which numerous modifications have been de-
vifed by Paulus ./Egineta, Ambrofe Pare, Duverney, Freke,
&c. By fuch an apparatus, the head of the humerus was
at once direfted towards the glenoid cavity of the fcapula,
and difengaged from its unnatural fituation.

Extenfion of the arm ufually produces this fecond effeft,
and has been accomphlhed in a variety of ways. Some-
times the weight of the body on one fide, with the dragging
of the diflocated limb on the other, ferved to make the ex-
tenfion. It was on this principle that the ladder, the doof,
and the ftick operated, as defcribed by Hippocrates in hi»
, treatife on fraftures, and repeated by all fubfequent writers.
On other occafions, the trunk has been immuveably fixed,
while the arm was forcibly extended. This was the mode
purfued in employing the machines defcribed by Oribafius.

Sometimes no perceptible extenfion at all was made, and
the head of the humerus, being propelled outwards by
fomething put under the axilla, was pu(hed by the furgeon
at once into the glenoid cavity.

With Default, we fliall abftain from entering into a par-
ticular explanation of the objeftions to the preceding me-
thods. Petit and B. Bell have already detailed their difad-
vantages. Whoever confiders that the head of the bone has
efcaped through the ruptured and lacerated capfular liga-
ment, and that it is impofiible to know precifely the exaft
fituation of the opening, muft perceive how abfurd it is to
attempt to direft the head of the bone to it by any artificial
force.

However well covered with foft materials the body may
be, which is put under the axilla for the purpofe of ferving
as a fulcrum, an unpleafant chaffing, or even dangerous de.
grees of ftretchingand laceration, may arife from its applica-
tion, when the trunk is fufpended over it, as in the employ-
ment of the door, ftick, &c. Bv fuch praftice. Petit faw

thf

LUXATION.

ihe neck of the humerus frafturej, aiid the axillary artery-
ruptured, fo that an aneurifm was the confequciice.

A wife objection, alfo made by Default to the ufe of any
apparatus of the foregoing kinds, is, that few furgeons are
provided with the inftrument, and therefore much iifeful time
would be loft in procuring it, when the eafe is adtually wait-
ing for relief. Befides, fays he, when the luxation is
confecutive, how can any mechanical contrivances have the
efieil of drawing back the head of the bone through the
track by which the difplacement has taken place ? For in-
ftance, if a luxation inwards has fucceeded one downwards,
the head of the bone ought to be drawn downwards before
being replaced in its natural cavity. How can the dircftion
of the extenlton be varied accordingly ? It is likewife to be
obfcrved, that every apparatus alluded to refifts the aftion of
the raulcles, which, in fa£t, ought to be the principal agent
m the reduftion. Were a luxation ever to happen upwards,
no apparatus could anfwer, as muft be moft evident.

No doubt, however, when the head of the humerus is
luxated downward?, and is not Gtuated far from the glenoid
cavity, the machines to which we have alluded will often
ferve to effeft the reduftion with tolerable facility. But in
fuch cafes, there is no real occafion for artificial contrivances,
as natural means will be found quite fufficient. In (hort, the
reduftion may be executed with the hands, and with this
advantage, that the direftion of the movements may be re-
gulated aad varied with more precifion.

The follo)ving method was fiequently purfued by Default
with fuccefs : the patient fat on a chair of middling height :
Default placed the hand of the luxated hmb between his
knees, which he moved backwards, fo as to make extenfion,
and difengage the head of the bone, while an affiftant held
back the trunk, and made the requifite counter-extenfion.
Default now took hold of the upper part of the humerus
with both his hands, and pufhed its head upwards and a little
outwards into the glenoid cavity.

This mode is mentioned by Petit, though complicated
with the employment of a napkin, which was put under the
axilla, and over the furgeon's neck, who forced upwards the
head of the bone by drawing back his head.

In recent luxations of the fhoulder downwards. Default
fometimes often found even a more fimple plan anfwer : he
put his left hand in the axilla to ferve as a fulcrum, while,
with the right, which was applied to the lower and external
part of the arm, he moved the humerus towards the trunk,
at the fame time pufhing the bone upwards. By this
double movement, direfted upwards and outwards, the
head of the humerus is put into its natural fituation. See
CEuvres Chirurgicales de Default, par Bichat, torn. i.
p. 363, 364.

Mr. Hey notices, that if the head of the os humeri re-
mains in the axilla, and not far removed from the gle-
noid cavity, the redudlion may fometimes be executed
with a very fmall degree of extenfion. Thus, in the relation
of ©ne cafe, he obferves : " after I had put every thing in
proper order for the reduftion, I defired the alTiftants, who
were to make the extenfion, to keep the arm elevated at a
right angle with the body, till I rtiould direft them to begin
the extenfion. In doing this, they kept the arm a little
upon the ftretch, waiting for my orders. While tlie arm was
in this ftate, I placed my fingers below the head of the bone,
that I might be ready to co-operate with them ; and prelling
my fingers upwards into the axilla, that I might feel the
kead of the bone diftindlly, the reduftion was unexpeftedly
made by this gentle effort." Praft. Obferv. in Surgery,
p. 295 — 226, edit. 2.
The fame experienced furgeon once faw a luxated fhoulder

reduced by the mere efforts of the patient, who, whilt
preparation for the reduftion was making, walked about in
pain, and after placing his hand on the back of a chair, anil
moving his body in different direftions, cried out, as if hurl
more than ufual. He then fat down, and faid that he was eafy,
and could move his arm belter. In fhort, the bone wa»
aftually reduced. P. 297. op. cit.

Redudion of Luxations of the Shoulder by Meant of Extenfion,
at praSifed by Default. — There muft be an adequate nun»-
berof affiftants, in order to incrcafe, according to neceffity,
the force wliich is to overcome the refiftance experienced ;
but, in general, two are quite fufficient. A thick pad
ftiould be procured, for the purpofe of guarding the mar.
gins of the axilla from injury ; and the affiftants fhould be
furnifhed with a fheet, doubled into folds, about four inches
in breadth, and alfo with a towel folded in the fame manner.

The patient is to fit on a lowifh chair, or he may be laid
on a ftrong immoveable table. Default long followed the
firft of thefe modes, according to ordinary cuftom, though,
as Bichat remarks, it is not in every refpcft the moft ad-
vantageous. In the fitting polture, indeed, the arm may be
very well extended tranfverfely ; but if, as often happens, it
IS neceffary to direft the extenfion upwards or outwards, the
afllftant, being then obliged to raife or lower himfelf, does
not poffefs equal power in the new poftuie, and finds himfelf
embarraffed, and incapable of varying the diredion of the
extenfion, according as the furgeon may think beft.

As for the patient, he finds fuch pofture, in which the
trunk is only partly fupported, much more irkfome than that
in which the cheft lies equally upon an horizontal furface.
Motives of this kind induced Default, in the latter years of
his praftice, to renounce the fitting pofition.

The patient's pofture being arranged, the linen pad is t»
be put under the axilla of the afFefted fide, and the middle
of the folded fheet is to be placed on fuch comprefs, while
the two ends are tp be carried obliquely before and behind the
cheft to the oppofite fhoulder, where, being held by an affift-
ant, they ferve to fix the trunk, and to make the counter-
extenfion. The pad hinders the fheet from prefGng on the
margins of the peftoralis major and latiffimus dorfi. Were
it not fo, thefe mufcles, being pulled upwards, would draw
the humerus in the fame direftion, and defeat the extenfion,
which is performed as follows.

Default made two affiftants take hold of the fore-arm
above the wrift, or elfe he caufed the folded towel to be ap-
plied to this part, and confided to the care of one or two
affiftants, who were to begin the extenfion in the fame direc-
tion in which the diflocated bone lies. This firft movement,
intended to difengage the head of the humerus from the place
in which it happened to be lodged, was followed by another,
which varied according to the kind of luxation. When the
diflocation was downwards. Default gradually brought the
arm near the fide, at the fame'inftant that he pufhed it gently
upwards. By this artifice, the head of the bone was inclined
towards the glenoid cavity, into which it generally entered
without difficulty.

When the luxation was inwards, the humerus was brought
upwards and forwards, after the firft extenfion in the direction
of the bone : thus its head was directed backwards. Were
a luxation to occur outwards, it woidd be neceffary to move
the humerus, during the extenfion, exaftly in a direftion
oppofite to that recommended in the foregoing inftance.

As foon as the head of the humerus has been difengaged
by the firft extenfion, the movement communicated to the
bone by the fubfequent extenfion ought in general to be pre-
cifely in the contrary direftion to that in wliich the head of
the bone has efcaped.

Whem

LUXATION.

When any difficulty feems to oppofe the reduftion, the
bone fhould be moved in different diiedlions, after the requi-
fite cxtcnlion has been made, with due attention to the prin-
ciple juft laid down. This method will frequently anfwer
when iimplc extenfion will not, the head of the bone being
condufted by the movements towards the glenoid cavity.

When the luxation was confecutive. Default, by means
of the firil exlenfioii in the diretSlion of the diflocated bone,
brought its head into the fituation where it was originally
lodged, aiid Lc '.hen aftcdjuit as if the cafe were altogether
a primitive one. Very often, whether the accident is of one
kind or the other, can only be diftinguifhed at the time of
the reduftion. In faft, when the extenfion is well managed,
the reduftion moftly happens fpontaneoiifly, and if the head
of the bone is luxated inwards conreeutively, it may be ob-
ferved defcending a'.ong the infide of the fcapula, and then
pafTing over the inferior part, and afcending towards the la-
ceration in the capfule.

It has been ilnted that when the extenfion is properly ma-
naged, the reduction is effected almoll fpontaneoufly. What-
ever may be the kind of primitive luxation, it is evident that
the mufcles furrounding the articulation are on one fide
ftretched, and on the other relaxed. Hence a change in
their contratlions, and in the dirediion of thofecontraftions,
is neceffarily occafioned. This alteration is fuch, that if the
mufcles aft, inftead of pulling the head of the bone towards
the lacerated capfule, they drag it in quite a contrary direc-
tion, and thus produce a confecutive luxation.

But it is very different, when, by means of extenfion, the
diredlion of the aftion of the mufcles has been reftified.
They now tend to pull the head of the bone towards the
ruptured capfule, ai>d indeed they do fo with much more
certainty than the furgeon, who is always ignorant of the
precife fituation of the opening in the capfule. On the
other hand, ^vhen the extenfion is ill made, and the natural
direftion of the mufcles has not been reftored, the head of
the bone is forced againll another part of the capfule ; and
hence the difficulty of reduiSlion fo frequently experienced.

It follows from the preceding obfervations, firit ; that the
whole fliillin the treatment of luxations is to make the ex-
tenfion in an advantageous direftion. Secondly; that, in
general, what has been termed coaptation is almoft always
ufelefs. Thirdly ; that the redaftion of a luxation does not
confift in putting the head of the bone into its cavity again ;
but in placing the mufcles io a ftate in which they are enabled
to reduce the bone.

B .t it is not to be denied that there are cafes where the ac-
tion of the mufcles being p?rverted,in cunfequence of the long
exillence of the diflocation, and the formation of adhcfions
to the furrounding parts, it becomes neceilary to refort to
means for forcing, as it were, the paffage of the. head of
the bone into the glenoid cavity.

When the luxation has been reduced, the arm is to be
kept motionlefs for a few days, left the head of the bone
ftiould flip out of its place again. Surgeons have been ac-
cuftomed to apply the fpica bandage, though without theleaft
reafon, as it does no good whatfoever, becaufe it has no effeft
in confinmg the limb. The proper praftice is to keep the
arm quiet, and clofe to the fide with a roller and fling. De-
fault himfelf employed the bandage defcribed in the article
Fracture. See FraHure of the Clavicle.

Method adopted hy En^ltjh Surgeons. — In this country, fur-
gical praftitioners always reduce diflocations of the Ihoulder
while the patient is in a fitting polhire, and, initead of
imitating the French, they adhere to the ancient mode of ap-
plying the extending force to the hi-xated bone itfelf, jutl
above the elbow. No doubt, they have been more influenced

in fuch pradicc by the authority of Mr. Pott, than by any
real advantage attending the method. According to the no-
tions oS this latter gentleman, " all the force ufed in reducing
.the luxated head of a bone, be it more or lefs, be it by
hands, towels, ligatures, or machines, ought always to be
applied to the other extremity of the faid bone, and as much
as poffible to that only." Another maxim laid down by
Pott is, that in order to make ufe of an extending force with
all poflible advantage, and to excite thereby the lead pain
and inconvenience, it is neceffary that all parts, ferving to
the motion of the diflocated joint, or in any degree connefted
with it, be put into fuch a fiate as to give the fmallell pofli-
ble degree of refiftance.

" This (fays Mr. Pott) I take to be the firll and great
principle by which a furgeon ought to regulate his conduit
in reducing luxations. This will (hew us why a knowledge
of all the mufcular and tendinous parts, aiding upon or in con-
neftion with the articulations, is abfoluiely neceHary for him
who would do his bnfinefs fcientifically, wiih fatisfaAion to
himfelf, or with eafeto his patient. It will fliew us that the
mere pofition of the limb below the luxated joint, is what
mull either relax or make tenfe the parts in connexion with
tiiat joint, and, confequently, that poflure is more than half
the bufinefs. It will ftiew us why fomelimes the luxated os
humeri flips in, as it were of its own accord, by merely
changing the pofition of the arm, when very violent attempts,
previous to this, have proved fuccef'^lefs. It will fliew us
why extending the arm in a ftraight line, horizontally, or fo
as to make a right angle with the body, mufl in fome in-
ftances render all moderate attempts fruitlefs. Why the
method of attempting reduSion by the heel in the axilla is
fo often fuccefsful, notwithflanding two very confiderable
difadvantages under which it labours ; w'a;. part of the force
being lojl in theelloiv, and the tenfe ilate of one head of the
biccp5 cubiti. Why the tying down the fore-arm in tlie com-
mon ambi is wrong for the fame reafons. Why the fore-
arm fliould at all times (let the method of rcduftion be what
it muy) be bent ; wa. becaufe of the refillance of the long
head of the biceps in an extended poRurc. Why, when
the OS humeri is luxated forward, or fo that its head lies
under the great perioral mufcle, the carrying of the extended
arm backward, fo as to put that mufcle on the ilretch, ren-
ders the reduction very ditHcult ; and why, on the con-
trary, the bringing the arm forward, fo as to relax the faid
mufcle, removes that difiiculty, and renders reduftioii eafy,
&c."

In our opinion, fome of thefe obfervations do not fhew the
thing intended, quite as well as J.Ir. Pott feems to conceive.
We do not fee how all the parts, in connexion with a jointf
can be relaxed by pofture. We fee, it is true, how bending
the elbow relaxes the biceps, but then it puts the long head
of the triceps on the ftretch, wliich may alfo rcfiil the re-
duftion. As for the extending force being kjl in the elbow,
when applied bclow tlie diflocated bone, we have endeavoured
to prove the error of the fuppofition in our general remarks.
With refpeft to the lall part of the foregoing, we think the
explanation given by Bichat, in his edition of Default's
works, more corredt, namely, that when the luxated head of
the humerus lies forward under the pcftoral mufcle, carrying
the elbow forwards and inwards tends to throw the head of
the hone backwards and outwards, and then the mufcles are
enabled to aft with effeft in promoting the reduftion.

To the truth of the enfuing remarks, delivered by Mr.
Pott, we have pleafure in affenting. That in the reduftion
of fuch joints as conilll of a round head moving in an aceta-
bulum, or focket, no attempt ought to be made for replacing _
the faid head, until it has by extenfion been brought forth

from

LUXATION.

from the place where it is, and nearly to a level with the faij
focket. This will fliew us why the old method by the door,
or ladder, fometimes produced a fraClurc of tlie neck of the
fcapula, Mr. Pott himfelf has feen happen. Wliy, if a fuf-
ficient degree of extenfion be not made, the towel, over tlie
furgeon's fhoulder, and under the patient's axilla, muft
prove an iisipediment rather than aivaffiftance, by thriiiling
the head of the humerus under the neck of the icapula, in-
ftead of dircfting it into its focket. Why the gommon me-
thod of bending the arm, that is, the os humeri, downward,
before fufficient extenfion has been made, prevents the very
thing aimed at, by pufiiing the head of the bone under the
fcapula, which the continuation of the extenfion, for a few
feconds only, would have carried into its proper place.
When the head of the os humeri is drawn forth from the
axilla, and brought to a level with the cup of the fcapula, it
mull be a very great and very unneceffary addition of ex-
tendinij force, that will, or can keep it from going into it.
All that the furgeon has to do, is to bring it to fuch a level ;
the mufcles attached to the bone will do the reft.

A very juft and important maxim, inculcated by Mr. Pott,
a::d indeed by every judicious furgical writer of recent date,
is, that whatever kind or degree of force may be found ne-
cefTary for the reduttion ef a luxated joint, fuch force
be employed gradually ; that the leffer degree be always lirll
tried, and that it be incrczfed graiialim. See Pott's Remarks
on Fratturcs and Diflocations, vol. i. of his works.

After adverting to a kw impediments to the reduftion of
diflocated (houlders, we may here (not abruptly we hope)
take leave of the fubjecl, without expatiating on the methodi
purfued in this countr)', becaiife in faft the practice of De-
fault, as already related, differs from our's chicily in the ex-
tenfion being made at the wrift. If v.e fuppofe the elbow
bent, and the extending force applied juft above ihe joint, it
will be eafy to follow the diredlious already given, with re-
gard to the manner of making the extenfion, and the time
and mode of altering the polltion of the bone during the
procefs.

We fhall conclude our account of diflocations of the
fhoulder, with noticing fome circuinftances which may tend
to render the reduftion difficult.

The firft to which we ftiall requcft the reader's attention, is
the narrownefs of the lacerated opening in the capfular liga-
ment. The pradlice of Default, when he had reaion to
fufpeCl this kind of impediment, was to erideavour to di-
late the aperture by moving the humerus very freely and
forcibly in every direftion, and pufliing its head at the fame
time towards the glenoid cavity.

The luxation not being recent, maybe another caufe hin-
dering the reduflion, and is fometimes an iiifurmountable
obftacle to fuccefs. The luxated head of the bone, after a
time, contracts adhefions : and the furrounding cellular fub-
fta:ice becomes condei^fed, and converted as it were into a
new kind of capfular ligament, which confines the bone in
its unnatural fituation. Molt furgical authors recommend
ti5 in fuch a cafe to make no endeavour to put the bone into
its place again, as the attempt would, in all probability, fail,
and might bring on ferious confequences, by reafon of the
violence which muft be exerted. Default once profcfled the
fame doctrine, but in the latter part of his life experience
led him to a bolder praftice. After being completely fuc-
cefsful in reducing fome luxations, whicli had exilled from
fifteen to twenty days, he was encouraged to attempt the
reduftion of others, which had happened from thirty to five
and thirty days ; and during the two years before his death,
be had, in Bichat's prefence, replaced diflocations of the
Jlioulder after ten weeks, and even three months, when the
Vox. XXI.

head of the humerus had cfcaped cither at the inferior, or
internal part of the capfule. Notwithftanding the long con-
tinued cxtenfions which were employed, there were none of
the terrible confequences induced, with which authors have
intimidated the generality of sraflitioners. In two inftances,
a fudden and unaccountable emphyferaa of the fhoulder
took place, which yielded to the ufe of a bandage and the
falurnine lotion. See Qiuvres de Default par Bichat, torn. i.

P- 377- . . * .

In cafes of this kind, bef ire the extenfion is begun, the
hone fhould be freely moved about in every poflible direftion,
in order, in the firft inflance, to break the adhefions, lacerate
the condenfed cellular lubftance, that ferves as the accidental
capfule, and thus produce, as it were, a fccond luxation for
the purpofe of curing the firft. The means for extenfion
are then to be apphed as ufual, witli an increafed numbsr of
afliftants. In theie cafes we have feen the multiphed puljey
ufed with advantage, thougli it is certainly a dangerous ma-
chine, unlefs in careful hands.

Frequently the firft attempts are unavailing, and the luxated
head of the bone continues immoveable, in the niidft of the
moft powerful efforts. The extenfion is then to be flopped,
and the bone moved about again in all direftions ; every re-
filtance is to be broken ; let the arm defcribc a large fcgmcnc
of a cu'cle in the place which it occupies ; and let it be ro-
tated on its axis. Then let extenfion be repeated in every
direction.

For cafes proving the occafional efScacy of fuch practice,
we muft refer to Default's Oiuvres Chirurg. par Bichat,
torn. i. p. 375.

In this excellent work it is obferved that, fuppofing the
attempts to fail, they are not entirely ufelefs ; for, by moving
the head of the bone fomewhat towards the glenoid cavity,
or even juft before itj they give the limb a greater freedom
of motion.

A third obftacle to the reduftion of all luxations arifes
from the power of the mufcles, which power is exerted with
violence in confequence of the manner in which thefe organs
are ftretched. Sometimes the refiftance of the mufcles, in-
deed, abf'olutely hinders the head of the bone from being
at all moved, notwithftanding the extenfion is very confider-
able. In fuch a cafe, bleeding and the warm halli are to be
tried, in order to bring on a temporary weaknefs and re-
laxation, during which the attempts at reduftion may be
made with the beft profpeft of fuccefs. But a ftiU more
certain plan is long continued unremitting extenfion, which
is fure of fatiguing the refitting mufcles, and as foon as they
are worn out, the bone may eafily be replaced. Default in
certain cafes did not fucceed before the half, or even the
whole of the day had been fpent in keeping up the extenfion,
by means of his apparatiis for the broken clavicle, which
apparatus draws outward the fhoulder and alfothe muicies.
(See FuACTUKE of thi; Clavide.) The mufcles can only
fupport a violent contraftion a certain time. To pcrnnnent
extenfion, though moderate in degree, they cannot make
long reCflance, they become fatigued, they are incapable of
hindering the head of the bone from being moved in tiie
defired direftion, and the reduftion is accomplilhcd.

We have feen that Mr. Pott and Default have particularly
adverted to the difEculty of reduftion, arifing from the bone
being prefledagainft the neck of the fcapula, when the elbow
was deprelTed, before the extenfion liad fufHciently difen-
gaged the head. Mr. Hey has alfo noticed this cbiiacle to
reduftion, as follows : " the difficulty of reducing a diflo-
cated humerus, not only arifes from the refiftance or com-
prelTion of the mufcles ; but alfo from the refiftance which
is made by the preflure of the glenoid procefs againft the
4 R neck

LUXATION.

neck of the humerus, when the head of tlie bone lies deep in
the axilla beyond that procils. This liindrancc_to reduction
vill be increafed in proportion to the deprcihoii "of the acro-
mion ; if the extenfion is made in a horizontal direftion.
I'or in this cafe the edge of the jrlenoid cavity pitches againll
the neck of the humerus, .and, in fome degree, prevents the
head of the bone from advancing forward-. In order to re-
move this hindrance, ttie licad of the humerus mud be lowered
by elevating the arm, and the edge of the glenoid cavity
raifed from the neck of the humerus by reprcilinn- the acro-
mion." Mr. Hey then ftates that he has now, "for feveral
years, preferred the method rcconnnended by Mr. Broni-
iield, for repreffing the acromion during the extenfion, and lie
inlills on the propriety of bending the fore-;irm, before ap-
plying the means for extenfion, fo that the biceps may be re-
laxcil as iiiueh as iKifTibic, and not hinder the glenoid cavity
fio^being reprefled. See Practical Obfervations in Sur-
gery, p. 299, ^00. edit. 2. A defcription of Bromfield's
method may be found in this gentleman's Cliirurgical Ob-
ferv. and Cafes, vol. i. chap. 6. p. 269.

J.uxations of the Elbow-joint, or of the Fore-arm from the
Humerus — Here authors have generally defcribed four kinds
of diflocation ; r/s;. backwards, forwards, outwards, and
inwards ; but all thefe cafes do not occur with equal fre-
quency, as experience proves, and the llrudture of the joint
might enable us to anticipate.

The luxation of the bones of the fore -arm backwards are
by far the moll common ; the diflocation of them forwards
is very rare, was never obferved by Default or Petit, and
indeed cannot happen without a frafture of the olecranon.
I^uxations inwards or outwards are alfo not frequent, and
when they do happen they mult alnioll inevitably be incom-
plete, in confequence of the great extent of the articular
furfaces. The frequency of luxations backwards, compared
with that of lateral diflocations, is eftimated in Default's
vporks by Bichat as 10 to i. The luxation forward being
fo uncommon, no comparifon whatever is afligncd. The
coronoid procefs, forming only an inconhderable curvature,
cannot make any vaft relillance to the afcent of the olecra-
non and radius, up the poilerior part of the humerus. But
the kind of hook which the olecranon makes, effedually
hinders this procefs itfelf as well as the radius from flipping
forwards in front of the humerus. Indeed, as we have al-
ready oblerved, a luxation in this direction may be regarded
as impolhble, without a fradure of the olecranon. The
lateral ligaments, and the reciprocal manner in which the
irregular furfaiA-s of the articulation fit each other, are alfo
ftrong obftacles to lateral diflocations. Luxations back-
wards are, as we have faid, by far the moll frequent.

In the luxation backwards, the radius and ulna may af-
cend more or lefs behind the humerus ; but the coronoid
proceis of the ulna is always carried above the articular
pulley, and is found lodged in the cavity deilined to receive
the olecranon. The head of the radius is placed behind
and above the external condyle of the humerus. The an-
nular ligament, which confines the fuperior extremity of the
radius to the ulna, may be lacerated; in whi h cafe, even
when the bones are reduced, it is difficult to keep them in
their proper places, as the radius tends conllantly to fepa-
rate from the ulna.

I'his luxation always takes place from a fall on the hand ;
for, when we are falling, we are led by a mechanical in-
llincl to bring our hands forwards to protect the body. If
in this cafe tlie fuperior extremity, inllead of relling verti-
cally on the ground, be placed obliquely with the hand
nearly in a ftate of iupinatio;i, the repulfiou which it receives
from the ground will caufe the two bones of the fore- arm

to afccnd behind the humerus, whilft the weight of the
body prefllng on the humerus, directed obUquely down-
wards, forces its extremity to pafs down before the coronoid
procefs of the ulna.

The fore-arm, in this luxation, is in a ftate of half-flexion,
and every attempt to extend it occafions acute pain. The
fituation of the olecranon, with refpcct to the ccmdyles of
the humerus, is changed. The olecranon, which in the
natural Rate is placed on a level with the external condyle,
which is itfelf fituated lower than the internal, is even higher
than the latter.

This luxation may be millaken for a frafture of the ole-
cranon, of the head of the radius, or even of the inferior
extremity of the humerus. Such a millake is attended with
very bad confequences ; for it the reduttion be not effefted
before the end of fifteen or twenty days, it is often im-
poflible to accomplifh it afterwards. The fwelling, which
iupervenes in twenty-four hours after the accident, renders
a diagnofis more difficult ; but the olecranon and internal
condyle are never fo obfcured, that the dillance between
tliem cannot be found to be increafed,. though Boyer makes
a contrary affertion. It is true, that tiie rubbing of the
coronoid procefs and olecranon againil the humerus, may
caufe a grating nolle, fimilar to that of a fraiilure ; and fome
attention is certainly requilite to eftablifli a diagnofis be-
tween a frafture of the head of the radius, and a difloca-
tion of the fore-arm backwards..

The following method of reducing the cafe is advifed by
Boyer : — The patient being firmly feated, an affiftant is to
^ake hold of the middle part of the humerus, and make the
counter-extcnfion, while another affiftant makes extenfion at
the inferior part of the fore-arm. The furgeon, feated on
the outfide, grafps the elbow with his two hands, by apply-
ing the fore-fingers of each to the anterior part of the hu-
merus, and the thumbs to the poilerior, with wliich he
preiTes on the olecranon, in a diredtion downwards and for-
wards. This method will be in general fuccefsful. If the
ilrength of the patient, or the long continuance of the luxa-
tion, render it neceffary to employ a greater force, a fillet is
to be applied on the wriil, to make extenfion, and a cuffiion
is to be placed in the ax-illa, and the arm and trunk fixed, as
is done in cafes of luxation of the humerus.

A bandage may afterwards be applied, in the form of a
figure of 8, and the arm is to be kept in a fling. The lace-
ration which always takes place, is always followed by moi-e
or lefs fwelling, which is to be combated by antiphlogilUc
means.

At the end of fevcn or eight days, when the inflamma-
tory fym.ptoms are nearly gone, the articulation is to be
gently moved, and the motion is to be increafed every day,
in order to prevent an anchylofis, to which there is a great
tendency.

In this luxation, the annular ligament which confines the
head of the radius to the extremity of the ulna, is fome-
times torn, and the radius palles before the ulna. In fin h
cafes, pronation and fupination are difficult and painful,
though the principal luxation has been reduced. The head
of the radius may be eafily replaced, by preffing it from
before backwards, and it is to be kept in its place by a com-
prefs, applied to the fuperior and extei-nal part of the fore-
arm. The bandage and compreffes are to be taken off every
two or three days, and re-applied. This is neceffary, on
account of the neceffity of moving the articulation to pre-
vent an anchylofis.

If the luxation be not foon reduced, it becomes irreduci-
ble ; the heads of the radius and ulna grow to the back part
of the humerus, and the patient can neither bend nor ex-
tend

LUXATION.

tend his arm. HowcTer, in fome cafes, efpccially in young
perfons, fome motion is acquired in lime ; the hcado of tin;
radius and ulna making in the humeius cavitii :s, in which
they perform fome motionp, but always imperfectly.

The luxation forwards ftiould be treated as a frafture of
the olecranon, with whicli it would be inevitably accom-
panied. It may be neccfikry, on account of the great in-
jury done to the foft parts, to bleed the patient copioufly,
and put him on an ar,tipl,lngiltic regimen.

As to the lateral luxations, cither inwards or outwards,
they are always incomplete, and eafiiy difcovered. They
are reduced by drawiii^' the humerus and fore-arm in con-
trary directions, and at the fame time pudiing the extre-
mity of the humerus, and the two bones of the fore arm in
oppofite direAions.

Thefe luxations cannot be produced without confiderable
violence ; b':t when the bones are reduced, they are eafiiy
kept in their place. It will be fufficiert to pafs a roller
round the part, to put the fore-arm in a middle Rate, neither
inuch bent nor extended, and to fupport it in a Ihng. ■■ But
much inflammation is to be expefted from the injury done to
the foft part?. In order to prevent it, or at leuft mitigate
it, the patient is to be bled t\ro or three times, and put on
a low diet, and the articulation is to be covered with the
iotio aq. litharg. acet. It is fcarcely neceflary to repeat,
that the arm is to be moved as foou as the ftate of the foft
parts will admit of it.

The dillocation of the fore-arm backward, is faid to
occur ten times as frequently as lateral luxations; and thofe
forward are fo rare, that no comparifon whatever can be
drawn. Qiuvres Chir. de Default, tom. i.

Lateral luxations have been divided into complete, that is,
when the articular fnrfaces have entirely loft their ftate of
reciprocal crntacl ; and into incomplete, that is, when only
one bone, or a part of it, is thrown off the humerus. But
what caufe can operate with fufficient force to produce the
firft occurrence? The miichief would alfo be fo great,
were fuch a cafe to happen, that amputation would moft
likely be requilite.

The incomplete lateral luxation may be produced by a
blow, which drives the upper part of the fore-arm violently
outward, or inward. A footman, fays Petit, in falling
from a cnach, had his arm entangled in the fpokcs of a
wheel, and a dillocation outward was the confequence.
Another man luxated his fore-arm inward, by falhng from
his horfe and driving his arm againit an uneven place.

When the ulna is puflied into the fituation of the radius,
the fpace between the olecranon and internal condyle is
much greater than is natural. Thele points of bone are
always very diftinguiihable, let the joint be ever fo much
fwoUen ; and hence, the information to be derived from an
examination of thein, may be obtained in every cafe, with-
out exception. Alfo, when the ulna is pufhed into the
place of the radius, the latter bone cannot be eafiiy rotated,
nor can the fore -arm be bent and extended in a perfeft
manner.

The dillocation inward muft be very uncommon, as the
form of the bones is almoft an infurmountable obftacle to
fuch an accident. It may happen, however, as the autho-
rity of Petit confirms.

All recent diflocations of the elbow are very eafiiy re-
duced, and as eafiiy maintained fo ; for the reciprocal man-
ner in which fhe articular furfaces receive each other, and
tlieir mutual eminences and cavities, will not readily allow
the bones to become difplaced again.

The application of a bandage in the form of a figure of S,

and fupportlng the arm in a fling, are proper in ail thcfe
cafes.

huxallon Iff the Radius from the Ulna The majority of

authors, who have written on diflocations of the fore-arm,
have not feparately confidered thofe of the radius. Some
detached obfervationv, on luxations of its fuperior extre-
mity, arc to be found here and there ; a fub;ect which Du-
verney alone has fully treated of. The diflocations of its
lower and, which are more frequent, and eafy of occurrence,
have almoll efcaped the notice of French, and alfo Enghfh
writers. At prefent, cafes of this fort have been fo nu"
ineroufly coUedled, that a particular account of thtm may-
be oftered.

lYtffcrenee of Strudiire, l/ettveen the two Joints of the Radius
with the Ulna. — The radius, the moveable agent of prona-
tion and fupination, rolls round the ulna, which forms its
immoveable fupport, by means of two articular furfaces ;
one above, flightly convex, broad internally, narrow out-
wardly, and correfponding to the little figmoid cavity of
the ulna, in wiiith it is lodged ; the other below, concave,,
femi-circular, and adapted to receive the convex edge of the
ulna. Hence there are two joints, differing in their mo-
tions, articular furfaces, and ligaments. By afcertaining
fuch differences, w-e fliall be enabled to find out thofe
which exift between the luxations of the upper and lower
head of the radius.

Above, the radius, in pronation and fupination, only-
moves OH its own axis ; below, it rolls round the axis of the
ulna. Here, being more diilant from the centre, its mo-
tions muft be botli more extenfive and powerful than they
arc above. The head of the radius, turning on its own axis
in the annular ligament, cannot diftend it in any direction.
On the contrary, beloiv, the radius, in pcrforrring pronation,
ftretchcs the pofterior part of the capfule, and preffes it
again ll the immoveable head of the ulna, w-hich is apt to be
pulhed through, if the motion be forced. A fimilar event,
in a contrary fenle, takes place in fupination. The front
part of the caplule, being rendered tenfe, may now be
lacerated.

Add to this difpofition, the difference of ftrength between
the ligaments of the two joints. Delicate and yielding
below ; thick and firm above ; their difference is very great.
The upper head of the radius, fjpported on the fmaller im-
moveable articular furface of the ulna, it protefled from
dillocation in moft of its motions. On the contrary, its .
lower end, carrying along with it in its motions the bones
of the carpus which it lupports, cannot itfelf derive any
folid ftability from them.

Di'/trences of Luxiilions of the Radius. — From what has
been faid, the following conclulions may be drawn ; i, that
with more caufes of luxation, the lower articulation of the
radius has lefs means of refiftance ; and, that under the
triple confideration of motions, ligaments tying the articu-
lar furfaces togetlier, and the relations of thele furfaces to
each other, this joint mull be very fubjeCt to diflocation.
2. That, for oppofite reafons, the upper joint cannot be
very fubjeit to fuch an accideiit.

Indeed what could be the caufe producing it in this fitua-
tion ? Can it arifc from a violent pronatian, or fupination J
The lower joint being the weakeft -.vould give way the firft,
and however forcible any motion of this kind might be, the
upper head of the radius w-ould only be rotated on its own
axis. How then can this part be d.flocatcd without being
pufhed forward or backward? All the mufcular and liga-
mentous fupport ot the joint muft be br<'keii ; and the muf-
cles and ligaments are t( o ftrong to admit of this, and ths
motion iilclf too feeble. Can the accident originate from
4 R 2 any

LUXATION.

any impiilfe on the radius, from below upward ? The im-
moveable relilling end of the humenu would then prevent
the radiu-i from quitting tlie capfular ligamctit. C;'.n the
accident arife from a violent extenfion or flexion of the fore-
arm ? Here, the whole force operating on the ulna, the
radius fcarcely feels the impulfe.

Hence, accidental dlflocatious of the radius, f'uldonly pro-
duced by an external caufe, mu'.t, if they ever iiappen, be
exceedingly uncommon at its upper end. This is not the
cafe witli refpecl to fuch diflocations which occur flowly
lit this joint, efpecially in children, in whom the ligaments
become lax in confequence of repeated eiforts. With this
kind of cafe, we have here uothuig to do.

Experience fometimes feems to militate againfc the above
refletlions. Duverney quotes fome ir.llances of diflocations
of the radius, fuddenly produced by external caufes. Some
other praditioners mention fimilar examples. But, in their
examinations, have thefe men paid all due attention ? An
analogous cafe has been tranfmitted to the French Academy
of Surgery, by one of its fallows ; but doubts have arifcn
concerning its reality, and there arc too few fafts for, and
too much prcfumptive evidence agaiuii, the truth of fuch
cafes to believe their e/.iitence. Default himlelf rejefted thuir
reality.

Luxation of th: loivcr End cf the Radius. — The canfes are
the fame as tiiofe of all analogous cafes, i. Violent aflion
of the pronator and fnpinator mufclos. This is, donbtlefs,
a very unHfual caufe, for iJefault never knew an inilance of
it. 2. External force, moving the radius violently into a
Itate of pronation, and rupturing the back part of the cap-
fule ; or into a Hate of fupinalion, and breaking the front
part of the capfular ligament.

Kence, there are two kinds of diflocation ; one forward,
the other backward. The Hrll is very frequent ; the fecond
ii much lefs fo. The latter cafe never prefented itfclf to
Default but once, in the dead body of a man who had
both his arms diflocated, and no particulars could be learnt.
The other cafe Occurred very often in the prattice cf this
eminent furgeon. Five examples have been publifticd.
Doubtlefs, this difference i> owing to all the principal mo-
tions of the radius being in the prone direction.

This obfervation is" confirmed by the fact, that the lower
joint of the radius, in the dead fubjt.Cl;; may be diflociited as
eaiily by a fupine, as a prone motion of this bone.

Tiie fymptonis of the luxation forward are : l. Conftant
pronation of the fore-arm. 2. An inability to perform fupi-
nation, and great pain on this being attempted. 3. An
iriiufudl prcjeclion at the back of the joint, in confeqncnce
of the protrullon of the little head of the ulna through the
capfule. 4. The pofition of the radius i-; more forward
than natural. 5. Conitant adduction of the thumb, which
alfo is almoft alway.'i extended. 6. A half-bent Rate cf the
fore-arm, and very often of the fingers. This, iiHced, is the
pofition which the fore-arm ufually affumes in all afted\ions
of its bones, and, in the prcfont inltance, tlie pollure can-
not be changed without confiderable pain. 7. More or lefs
fwelling around the joint. This fometimes comes on imme-
diately after the accident, but always afterwards, if the
reducUon ihould remain unaceompliilied. The condition of
the joint may thus be obfcured, and the accident uiittaken
lor a fprain ; as Default often obferved to have occurred
with furgeons, who had been called to thefe accidents bcfoi'e
him. The ferious confcquence of this miftake i?, that no
attempt at reduflion is made, and the articular furfices
having time to contraft adhefions, the diforder is frequently
rendered irremediable.

A luxation cf the radius backward is charafterizcd by

fymptoms the reverfe of thofe above-mentioned. They
are a violent fupination of the limb ; inability to put
it prone ; pain on making the attempt ; a tumour in front
of the fore-arm formed by the head of the ulna ; a pro-
jefti')!! backward of the large head of the radius ; and ab-
duclion of the thumb.

RfduH'wii. — When the diflocation is forward, an afuttant is
to take hold of the elbow, railing the arm a little from the
body ; another is to take hold of the hand and fingers.

The furgeon is to take hold of the end of the fore-arm
with both hij hands ; one applied to the infide, the other to
the outfide, in fuch a manner, that the two thumbs meet
each otlier before, between the ulna and radius, wiiile the
fingers are applied behind. He is then to endeavour to
feparate the two bonts from each other, pufliin^ tlie radius-
backward and outward, while the idna is held in its proper
place. At the fame time the afliftant, holding the hand,
fhould try to bring it into a Hate of fupination, and confe-
quently the radius, which is its fupport. Thus puflied, in
the dirediou oppofite that of the diflocation, by two powers,
the radius is moved outward, and the ulna returns into the
opening of the capfule, and into the figmoid cavity.

If chance Ihould prefent a diflocation of the radius back-
ward, the fame kind of proceeding, executed in the oppofite
direction, would ferve to acccmpliih the reduftion.

Luxation! of the iVr'ift. — The carpal bones maybe luxated'
from the lower ends of the radius and uhia forwards, back-
wards, inwards, or outwards. The two lirll; cafes, cfpecially
the one backwards, are the moft frequent. The diflocation
backwards is rendered eafy by the diredtion of the convex arti-
cular furfaces of the fcaphoidjfeniilunar, and pyramidal bones,
which floping more backwards than forwards, muH make
them more difpofed to flip in this diredlioii than any other.
The accident may be caufed by a fall on the back of the
hand, while much bent ; in which event the firff row of the
carpal bones flide backwards into the oblong cavity of the
radius, lacerate the pollerior ligament, and form an emi-
nence behind the lower ends of^the bones of the fore-arm.
This promircnce, the depreflion in front of tlie wrill, and
the extraordinary flexion of the hand, which cannot be
extended, are the charadlerillic figns of ttiis kind of diflo-
cation.

The diflocation forwards generally arifes from a fall on
the palm, the fingers being extended, and more force ope-
rating on the lower than upper part of the palm. The
luxation is ieldom complete; and the hand remains pain-
fully extended. The great many tendons, which run before
the wrifl, and the annular ligament being puflied forward,
the prominence formed by the carpal banes, in front of the
ends of the radius and ulna, is not eafily deteded, and the
cafe may be miilaken for a fprain.

Diflocations inwards, or outwards, are never complete.
The projection of the carpal bones at the inner or or-ter
fide of the ioint, and the diitortion of the hand, make luch
cafes fuflici.'iitly evident.

All diflocations of the wrifl are very eafy of reduction.
For this purpofe, gentle extenfion n\ull be made, while the
two furfaces of the joint are made to flide on each other in
a direftion contrary to v/aat they took when the accident
occurred.

Diflocations of the wrifl are always attended with a great
deal of fpraining of numerous tendons and laceration of li-
gaments, and CG-nfequently coiif.derable fwelling generally
follows, and the patient is a long time in regaining the per-
fetl ufe of the joint. To relieve the fymptoirs as much as
poffible, the be!l olan is to keep the hand and wrifl conti-
nually covered witii linen wet with the faturniiie lotion, and

tc

LUXATION.

to put tlie fore-arm and hand in fplints, as in the cafe of a
fradiire. (See Fracture.) I'he arm mull alfo be kept
pt-rfiAly at reft in a fiing.

When the ruptured ligaments have ur.itcd, the ufc of lini-
ments will tend to remove the remaining ftiffnefs and wcak.-
nefs of the joint .

Liixa'ions of the Bones of the Carpus and Metacarpus. — A
didocat'on of the carpal bones from ca.h other feerns almofl
impofiible. The 03 magnum, however, has been known to
be luxated from the deep cavity formed for it by the fca-
phoides and femilvinare, in confequence of too great a
floxion of the bones of the fird phalanx on thofe of the
fecond, and it forms a tumour on the back of the hand..
Chopart. Boyer. Richerand.

The metacarpal bones are never luxated from each other.
The firll one is fometimes, though very rarely, pudied off
the trapezium.

Luxatious cf the Fiiig;rs. — Th? fir.1 phalanges may be
diflocated backwards off the heads of the metacarpal bones.
A luxation forwards would be very diiKcult, if not im-
poflible, becaufe the articular furfaces of the metacarpal
bones extend a good way forwards, and the palm of the
hand makes refiitance to fuch an accident. The firft pha-
langes of the thumb and lirtle finger can alone be diflocated
inwards; and tlie firft phalanx of the thnmb is ahme fub-
jeil; to be luxated outwards. This phalanx is alfo moft
liable to diflocations backwards, behind the head of the
firft metacarpal bone, in which cafe it remains extended,
while the fecond is bent.

Thefe diflocations flio'jld be fpeedily reduced ; for, after
eight or ten days, they become irreducible. In a Inxation
of the firft bone of the thnmb, which was too old to be
reduced, Default propafed cutting down to the head cf ihe
bone, and pufliing it into its place v.'ith a fpatula. Diflo-
cat/Ons of the thumb and little finger inwards, that of the
thumb outwards, and luxations of the firil phalanges of the
other fingers backwards, are all reduced by making exten-
fion on the lower end of the affected thumb, or finger.
The firft and fecond phalanges may alfo be diflocated back-
wards.

After the reduction, the thnmb or finger afTcfted fhonld
be rolled with tape, and incafed, and fupporred in palle-
board, til! the lacerated licranients have united ; taking cai'e
to keep the hand and fore-arm quietly in a fling.

LiUxations of the Femur, or Thigh-hone, at the Hip — Thefe
<liilocations may take place upwards and" outwards on the
excrnal fiirface of the os ilium ; upwards and forwards on
the body of the os pnbi; ; downwards and inv.'ards on the
foramen ovale; and downwards and outwards on the os
iUliium.

The luxation upwards and outwards, and that downwards
and inwards, are the moft frequent, and it ir, not eafy to fay
which of thefe two cafes happens molt often. It is to be
iriderliood, however, that diflocations of the hip are far
lefs common than thofe of the (hnulder. We have feen
onlv three cafes of the firfl defcription ; but, at leaft, from
fifteen to twenty diflocations of the fhouldcr. Mr. Hey in-
forms us. that feven inftances of the latter accident, and three
of the former, are all that liavo occurred in his praftice.
(Praft. Obf p. JT4. edit. 2.) The following account of
luxations of the thigh-bone at the hip is from Boyer's work
on the Difeafes of the Bones, tranfl. by Farrell.

No anatomical reafon can be given for the frequency of
the diflocation upwards and outv/ards ; the o Jge of the ace-
tabulum projects more at the fuperior and exterior parts than
at any other ; the orbicular ligament, v.hich is very thick
at this place, and the interior ligament of the articulation,

which muft be previoufly ruptured, oppofe the diflocation
in this diredlion. There is little, on the contrary, to oppofe
the luxation dov.'nwards on the foramen ovale. The inferior
and internal part of the circumference of the cavity, the
place by which the bone cfcapes in this fpcc'es of luxation,
prefents a deep notch formed into a hole by a ligan cnt,
under which the vcfftls of the articulation enter. The or-
bicular ligament is thinner here than at any other olace ;
the motion of abduttion, in which thiii Inxation t;:kes place,
is more cxtenfive than that of adduction ; and laflly, thi
round ligament within the articu'ation does not oppofe it, as
it may take place without its being ruptured.

Luxation upwards and forwards is very rare ; that down-
wards and backwards is flill more fo ; and, perhaps, as
fliall be cbferved farther on, never occurs but fecondarily.

When, by a fall from a place more or lefs elevated, on
the foles of the feet, or on the knee?, the thigh is puflied
forwards and inwards, the head of the femur, forced to-
wards the fuperior and external part of the acetabulum,
breaks the internal and orbicular ligaments, efcape^ through
the laceration in the latter, and afcends on the external face
of the OS ilium ; but as the part of the os ilium immediately
above and at the external fide of the cavity is very con-
vex, t!;e head of the femur foon abandons its firll pofition, .
and Aides backwards and upwards wXo the cxterr.al fofia
of the OS ilium, following the inclination of the plane to-
wards this foiTa, and obeyino' the :-.6tion of the gint'<£i rauf-
clcs, wliich draws it in this diredtion. The head of the fe-
mur, in afcending thus on ihe external face cf the os ilium,
pufnes upwards the gluteus minimus, which forms a fort of
cap for it ; and the gluta;us maximtis and m.edius are rclaxedby
the approximation of the points into which they are inferted.
The pyriformis is nearly in its natural I'ate, the gemini, ob-
turatores, and qifadratus fcmoris, are a little elongated.
The pfoas magnus and iliacus internus are relaxed, as are
alfo the other mufcles inferted into the trochanter minor.
If to this defcription it be added, that the orbicular liga-
ment, torn at its fuoerior part, is ftretched over the aceta-
bulum, and covers it, an exail idea may be formed of the
change occafioned in tiie furrounding parts by this luxation
of the femur.

The affefted thigh is fhorter than the found one ; it is a
little bent, and carried inwards. The k.ee inclines more
forwards and inwards than the oppofite one ; the leg and
tliigh are turned inwards, and the foot points in this direction.
The trochanter major is brought nearer the anterior and fu- -
pcrior fpinous procefs of the os ihum, and is at the fame
time elevated and carried a little forwards ; the latter cir-
cumllance m.ay be confidered as the neccfTary confequence
of the rotation inwards of the thigh. The natural length
of the limb cannot be rellored without reducing the lux-
ation ; the foot cannot be turned outwards, and any attempt
to do fo caufes pain ; but the inclination of the foot in- -
wards may be increafed. If the patient endeavours to
walk, he extends the foot to put tiie top of it on the
ground ; and though the heel is raifcd, he is flill lame ; for
thedifeafed limb remains always lliortcr than the other, and .
the pain occafioned by the attempt to walk renders progref-
fion flill more difficult.

Luxation of the femur upwards and outwards has nothing
in common with the frafture of the neck of this bone but
the fliortnefs of the limb. The eafy rotation of the member
outwards and inwards, &c. &c. preclude a 1 pojlibility of
confounding them, unlets 'ihe furgcon be remarkably inat-
tentive.

It in difficult to affign the caufe of the foot and remainder
of the limb being tuvQcd Liwards in this luxation. It may

be

LUXATION.

1)C cflabliflicd as a general rule, tliat luxated members al-
ways take a direSion determined by tlie elongation of the
mufcles of the fide oppoiite that to whieli the luxated bone
is carried ^ ilius, in luxation of tlie arm downwards and in-
wards, the deitoides and infrafpinatns mufcles, lengthened
by the feparation of tlieir points of infertion, move the elbow
out from the body, and give the arm an oblique direction. In
tliia cafe, the obluratoros, gemini, and cjuadra'iis femoris,
being elongated, the point of the foot ought to be turned
outwards. This phenomenon depends perhaps on the ex-
ternal portion of the orbicular ligament which comes from the
anterior and iiiftrior (pine of the os ihum ; this portion,
which is very thick, being elongated in tlie luxation out-
wards, draws the great trochanter forwards, and confequeiit-
ly t"rns i'uvards the entire limb.

Tlie difficulty of reducing luxations of the thigh, from
the llrenglh and number of its mufcles, renders every diflo-
cation of which it is fufceptible very dillrefiing. The
laceration and injury done to the foft parts are nearly as
coufiderahle as in diflocation of tlie ginglimoidal articu-
lations.

To effeiS: the redu£lion, the patient is extended on a table
firmly fixed, and covered with a niattivfs, which is to be
tied to it.; a (heet, folded longitudinally, is applied to the
groin of the found fide, in order to inake counter-extenfion.
The middle part is applied again'.l the fuperior and inter-
nal part of the thigh, and the two ends pafied before and
behind the pelvis, crofs on the hip, and are held by a frffici-
ent number of afflflants. By this means the trunk is fixed,
■but there is nothing to prevent the pelvis from yielding to the
.extending force. To anfwcr this purpofe, another tlieet^
folded in a fintilar manner, is placed tranfverfely on the
fpine of the os ihum, and its ends are brought liorizontally
before and behind the abdomen towards the hip of the oppo-
/ite llde, where they are held by airiftant.s. This apparatus,
fimihir to that placed on the point of the fhoulder in a lux-
ation of the arm, anfivers the fame purpofes, as it prefl'es
only on.the.luperiov part of the gluteus maximus and mtdius,
and does not IlimulKte them to contract. The extending
force is to be applied to tlie inferior part of the leg, in
order to have it as far as pollible from the parts which refill
the return of the head of the femur. The number of
aiTiftants for making extenfion and counter-extenfion is to be
propertioned to tUe exigencies of the circumftances and
the power of mufcles. The furgeon, placed at the
external fide of the limb, prefTes on the great trochanter,
and when the head of the bone has been brought on a
level with the acetabulum, he endeavours to force it
into it.

In this country, as we have previoufiy explained, fur-
gecns generally apply the extenfion to the difiocated bone
hfelf, jull above the knee. The difappearance of all the
fymptoms, and efpecialiy the noife made by the head of the
femur on re-entering its cavity, indicate the fuccefs of the
operation. This fuccels is fcldom obtained without having
previoufiy irnde ieveral fruitlefs endeavours, whether from
not employing lufiicient foi'ce to make extenfion and counter-
extenfion, or from a fpafmodic contradlion oPthe mufcles
obfti'.-ately rcfithng the reduction.

When the bone is reduced, it is prevented from leaving its
place by bringing the thighs together by means of a band-
age placed above th« knees. In the generality of cafe.f, it
Will be advil'ab'.c to lake fome blood from the patient, and
confine him for a few days aft«\- .the accident to a very low
.diet ; and in all cafes the hip is to be covered with emollient
and refolvent applij;;t:ons, which may be kept on by means
£>.i the fpica bandage for the groin. This bandage is well

adapted to this ufe, but is not at all fit for keeping the
luxated bone in its proper place, as its aflion is male too
near the centre of motion. Tlie patient fliould be parti-
cularly directed not to walk too foon, nor at any time to
fatigue too much the afieflcd joint.

Luxation of the thigh downwards and inwards, or into the
foramen ovale, is nearly as frequent as that iull defcribed ;
it is iavoured, as we have faid, by the great extent of the
motion of abduClioii of llie thigh ; by the notch at the
inferior ai.d internal part of the acetabulum ; by tlie weak-
nefs of the orbicular ligament at this fide ; and lallly, by
the fituation of the round ligament, tlie rupture of whic'i
is not a necetTary conlequence of it. It is occafinned by a
fail on the feet or knees confiderably feparalod from one
another. The head of the femur fiides from without in-
wards on the bv»ttom of the acetabulum, and corre.-v againii
the inferior and int- rnal portion of the orbicular ligament,
which it lacerates, and padi's on to the foramen ovale be-
tween the ligament and the obturator externuF.

In this fpecies of luxation of the femur, the (late of the
foft parts lurrounding the articulation is as follows : the
gluta:!, gemini, obturatores, quadratus femoris, pfoas ir.ag-
nus, and iliacus internus, are elongated by the feparation of
their points of infertion. The rotation of the limb out-
wards is produced by the elongation of thefe ir.ufc'es. The
adduftors, elongated, form at the interior part of the thigh
a tenfe cord, which is felt from the pubis to below the mid-
dle of the thigh.

The affected thigh is longer than the found one ; the
head of the femur being placed lower than the acetabulum,
the great trochanter is removed to a greater dillance from
the anterior and fuperior fpinous procefs of the os ollurn,
and the thigh is flattened in confequence of the elongation
of the mulcles. The adduflor.-J, extended obliquely from
the pubis to the femur, form a cord which elevates the ikin
of the internal part of the thigh. A hard round tumour i.<
felt at the inner and fuperior part of the thigh, formed by the
head of the femur, which elevates the foft parts filnated be-
fore the foramen ovale. The leg is flightly bent ; the knee
and foo', turned outwards, cannot be brought back to their
proper direclion. If the patient attempt to walk a few
fteps, he makes a femicircular motion with the foot, and
places at once the entire fole pn the ground ; and though
he keep the knee bent, flill the limb is too long, and occa-
fions lamenefs. The mode of progrelTion of perfons whofe
thigh is luxated in this direftion may be compared to that
of a mower : the elongated extremity, like the leg whicli
the mower keeps forwards, defcribes a femicircular motion
outwards.

Ail thefe fymptoms, taken together, form a combination
too llriking to admit of error in our diagnofis, or to allow
us to confound this luxation with any other, or even with
fracture of the neck of the femur.

The progiiofis is fomewhat lefs unfavourable in this than
in luxation upwards and outwards. The Jiiufclcs, which
might oppofe the reduClion, being all elongated by the very
circumftan^e of the luxation itlelf, render the redudioii
eafier ; befide.";, the contufion of the ioft parts is lefs conll-
derable, and the round ligament is ftretched, but not broken.
It is reduced in the fame manner as the other, except that
the extenfion is to be made at firll downwards and out-
wards, before bringing the li«i b to its natural direfticn.

Luxation upwards and forwards is much rarer than the
preceding, and more than one pradlitiojier has defcribed it
rather as poffible than as liaving abfolutely taken p'ace. It
has been alfo called luxation on f.he pubis, though it may
be reaConably prefumcd that the head of the femur is re-
moved

LUXATION.

moved fo far from the acetabulum but in very few cafes, and
thnt it only advances near tlie ilio-poClinsal eminence. De-
faiilt met with a luxation of lliis kind in a porter of the flour-
market ; his foot flipped, and the le^ and thigh were carried
backwards, whllft a heavy burden was placed on his fhould-
ers. His body was bent backwards, and the head of the
femur, direAed forwards and upwards, burft its capfule
and triangular ligament, and pafled under the crural arch
into the fold of the groin, where it was eafily felt through
the integ'ments.

The whole extremity is turned outwards in this luxation ;
it is alfo fliorcened. The great trochanter, brought nearer
the anterior and fuperior fpinous procefs of the os ilium, is
placed before that eminence ; that part into which the pfoas
and iliacus niufcles are inferted is railed up, and a tumour is
formed by the head of the femur in the fold of the groin,
which comprefles more or leis the crural nerves placed at
the external fide of the velTels of this name, and occafions
dull pains, with numbnefs and oven paralyfis, when the con-
tufion has been very great ; the knee, turned outwards, is
alfo ca-ried backwards. This fymptom is particularly re-
markable Ihortly after the accident has taken place ; for if
the diflocation has continued fome days, the thigh may re-
affume its natural direftion, and perform even gentle rotatory
motions inwards, the direflion outwards ftill continuing.
It is proper to remark, with refpeft to the tumour formed
by the head of the tcmur in the groin, that the pfoas and
iliacus mufcles may, in fraftures of the femur immediately
under the little trochanter, bring forwards the luperior por-
tion of this bone, caufe it to projedl in the groin, and form
an eminence there which might impofe on us, if we were not
apprized of the poffibihty of fuch an event taking phice.

This luxation is particularly dangerous, as it requires a
combination of violent efforts to produce it, and as it necef-
farily muft be accompanied with great contufion and lacera-
tions. Neverthelefs, in the cafe treated by Default, the
redaftion, though difficult, was not followed by any ferious
accident ; and the patient, at the end of fifteen days, had
almoft entirely recovered the flrength and ufe of his limb.

The procefs for reducing it does not differ from that
pointed out for the others.

Luxation of the femur downwards ar.d backwards may,
like that of the humerus inwards and forwards, be either
primary or fecondary. It is primary, when, in confequence
of fome effort, the head of the femur is forced from the
acetabulum at its inferior and pofterisr part, and is placed
at the junclion of the os ilium and ifchium ; it is fecondary,
when it fucceeds to the luxation upwards and outwards, the
head of the femur, which was placed at firll in the external
ihac fofTa Hiding downwards and backwards, its paffage in
this direftion being favoured by the bending of the thigh on
the pelvis.

In thefe two cafes, the head of the femur reds againfl;
that part of the ofia innominata where the os ihum and
ifchium join. The mufcles which cover the pofterior part
of the articulation, fuch as the pyriformis, gemilii, obtura-
tores, and quadratus femoris, are raifed up and llrctched ;
the pfoas magnus and iliacus internus -are in a great Hate of
tenlion, and this explains the turning of the limb outwards.
When this luxation is primary, the extremity is lengthened ;
a hard tumour is f^lt at the pollerior and inferior part of
the thigh s the great trochanter, by defcending, is removed
farther from the fpinc of the os ilium, and the knee and
fole of ihe foot are turned outwards; but if it be fecondary,
the thigh is much bent againfl the pelvis ; the knee and
fole of the foot are turned inwards, bccaufe the primary
luxation has been upwards and outwards. Secyndary lui-

ation in this direftion is much more frequent than the pri-
mary ; in reducing it the fame rules are to be obferved af in

other fpecies of luxations.

Whatever may be the fpecies of luxation, we fhould
always be certain that it is perfeftly reduced before leaving
the patient. To afcertain this, we ought to move the thigh
in various direftions, taking care at the fame time to omit
that motion which might reproduce the luxation.

When a luxation of the femur upwards and outwards has
not been reduced, the thigh remains fhort, and becomes
fliorter every day, until the head of the femur has made for
itlelf a kind of articular ca%nty in the fucfacc of the external
ihac fofla. The acetabulum leffens in fizc, or is entirely ob-
literated. The glut:£us minimus is emaciated, and ferves a».
an orbicular ligament to the new articulation. The head
of the femur lof'es its fpherical figure, is forced backwards,
and its neck becomes fhorter ; tlie perfon is lame, and walka
on the point of the foot. If the luxation ij downwards-
and inwards, the foramen ovale becomes the new articulating
cavity ; the obturator externus, raifed and pufhed inwards
by the head of the femur, becomes emaciated and ligament-
ous, and it and the glutsus minimus even fometimes offifv.
The lamenefs arifes in this cafe from the excefs of leno-th
of the difeafed Umb, which always diminifhes in fize, in con-
fequence of the mufcles not being fufficiently exercifed, oc
their aftion being impeded.

Luxations of the PaUlla, or Knee-pan It is impofTible fbr

the patella to be diflocated downwards without the tendoa
of the extenfor mufcles of the leg being firil ruptured ; nor
upwards, unlefs the hgament of the patella is broken. Iq
this laft cafe the extenfor mufcles may draw the bone more
or lefs upwards towards the groin.

Diflocatioi.s inwards, or outwards, may happen with-
out other mifchief. They occur when the patella is vio-
lently pulhed in one of thefe direftions. According to
Boyer, great relaxation of the inferior hgament of the pa-
tella may create a predifpofition to tlie accident. Such,
fays he, was the cafe of the young man, whofe patcllas were
luxated outwards by the flightefi motion of the knees, as-
related by Hard in the Journ. de, Med.

The diflocation outwards is the moil common. This-
may depend partly on the internal edge of the patella pro-
jefting more than the external one, and, therefore, being
more expofcd to violence? and partly, on the outer condyle
of the thigh-bone allowing the patella to flip over it with
facility.

Boyer obferves, that the external condyle of the femur,
which is naturally more eminent anteriorly than the inner
one, may be depreffed, and this depreflion, from whatever
caufe it may proceed, favours the diflocation outwards.
He tells us that he has feen, among the military confcripts,
three cafes of luxation of the left patella outwards from.
fuch a caufe. In tliefe three individuals the patella was
placed at the outfide of the condyle, though not altogether
away from it. The anterior furface of the bone was turned
outwards ; the poflerior one inwards ; the internal edge was
placed anteriorly, and projected under the fl<in, while the'
external edge was direfted backwards. In all thefe in-
ftances the luxation had taken place during infancy. Bt
relaiung the extenfors of the leg, and bending the thigh, the
patella could eafily be replaced ; but unlets confined in its,
proper fituation, it was foon diflocated again.

Another cafe is recorded by the fame writer, where a
luxation of the patcUa outwards followed a gunfliot-wound
in the vicinity of the knee.

Luxations outwards, produced by external violence, are
rarely complete, as luch an accident could only arife from a

degree

LUXATION.

degrte of force that is hardly ever exerted. The dlP.oca-
tion is much promoted by the knee being, at tlie time of
the blow, in a moderate ftate of flexion, as the extenfor muf-
cles of the leg and ligament of the patella are then relaxed,
and the inner edge of the patella very prominent, fo as to be
expoled to the action of external force.

In luxations of the patella outwards, the patient expe-
riences fevere pain, and cannotbcnd his knee. The latter
joint is deformed ; the pulley of the condyles of the femur
may be felt through the (Icin ; the patella forms a lumour in
front of the external condyle; the anterior furface of the
knee-pan is becoiae the external one, while the pollerior
ftn-face is now internal. The internal edge is turned more
forwards than inwards, and the external one is now turned
almoil quite backwards.

The fymptoms of a luxation inwards are very analogous
to thofe of the preceding cafe, allowance being made for
the difference of fituation and the relation of parts to each
other.

In every cafe of didocated patella, the redu£lion fliould
be effedod as foon as poffible. The patient is to Ije laid on
a bed, with his leg e:;tended and thigh bent. In this pofi-
tion the extcnfor -nufcles and their tendon, and the ligament
of the patella, are relaxed, and the latter bone may eafily
be put back into its proper fituation by prefTure.

The inflammatory fweliing. which ufually alTcfts after an
accident of this nature, is to be fubdued by general and
topical bleeding, reft, and the faturnine lotions. After
the fweliing and inflammation are diminilhed, the joint fliould
be gently bent and extended every day, and -rubbed with
the linimentum fapon. comp.

Lii :ation< of the Kn.-e. —The tibia, at its articulation with
the condyles of the femur, may be luxated either back-
wards, forwards, or to cither lide.

A com;)letc luxation of the knee is an exceedingly un-
common circumltance, and could not happen without a total
laceration of all the numerous ligaments and tcndi)iis which
ftrengthen the joint. For the produftion of fuch mifchief,
we mud fiippofe the operation of a degree of violence that
hardly ever takes place, putting out of the queftion the
tearing away of limbs by cannon-balls. Even incomplete
luxations, inwards or outward.^, are very rare, fo much are
thefe accidents oppofed by the extent of the articular fur-
faces, and the ftrength of the ligaments and tendons. Dif-
locations forwards or backwards are Hill more uncommon,
in confequcnce of the manner in which the patella a':d
crucial ligament refill their occurrence. However, when
the leg is fixed, and the body and thigh are forced onwards,
the tibia may be partly forced away from the lower end of
the femur to one fide or another. The accident implies the
operation of confiderable violence. The deformity makes
the nature of the cafe very maiifcft. The reduflion is
cafily accomplifhed by pulhing the heads of the' bones in
oppofi'e dr.-cilions, while the articular furfaces are ?. little
feparated by moderate extenfion of the limb. After the
reduftion, the main bufinefsof the furgeon is to avert and
diminilh inflammation of the joint by cold waflies, 1 cches,
venefefllon, opening medicines, low diet, perfeil rell, &c.

Luxations of the Anhh Joint.— The foot may be luxated
inwards, or outwards ; or forwards, or backwards ; and the
diflocation in any of thefe direftions may be complete or in-
complete. Luxations inwards or outwards, are the mod
fre.quent. The former, however, are more common than
the latter. As the internal malleolus docs not defccnd fo far
as the externa), the aftragalus has a lefs fpace to defcribe
from without inwards, than in the contrary diredtion. The
jdillccation inwards is occafioned by a violent abduftion of

the foot, and is cluraAerized by the fole being turned out-
wards, and the back of the foot inwards, by the pain and
inabi.ity of moving the foot ; and, laftly, by the projection
made. by the adragalns below the internal malleolus.

The luxation outwards is attended with an impoffibility
of moving the foot ; the fole is turned inwards and the back
of the foot outwards ; and the attragalus projetls below the
exteriuil malleolus.

All luxations of the foot (hould be reduced as quickly as
poflible. One afTiftant is to make the countcr-exjenfion by
fixing the leg, and, while another draws the foot, the fur-
geon is to pnlh the latter part in a direclion contrary to that
ill which it is luxated: Nothing facilitates the redu£lion of
diflocations of the ankle fo materially as relaxing the power-
ful mufcles of the calf of the leg, by bending the knee and
extending the foot.

When the redu£lion has been acconipliflied, the limb is to
be put in fplints, jull as if the cafe were a tradlure of the
log, (fee FuACTURE,) and the antiphlogifLic treatment is
indicated for the prevention of violent inflammation.

Theie cafes, in former days, generally ended fo badly,
that J. L. Petit recommends amputation never to be delayed
more than twenty-four hours after the accident. More
niadern experience, however, has proved the gcnerarpcffi-
bility of curing diflocations of the ankle, ar.d this even when
tlie cafe is compound, that is, attended with a wound com-
municating with the injured point.

A frafture of the fibula near its lower end is a frequent
complication of a luxation of the foot inwards. That bone,
therefore, fliould always be carefully examined in the latter
cafe.

Luxations forwards and backwards, lefs frequent than
thofe defcribed, are however fometimes met with. The firll
is occafioned by a fall backwards while the foot is fixed to
the ground ; the fecond by a fall on the feet, with the body
inclined forwards and the leg much bent. The luxation for-
wards is more difficultly produced than that backwards, on
account of the articular pulley of the aftragalus, which in-
clines towards the pollerior fide, being permitted to llide
much on the tibia without abandoning it in the extenfion of
the foot. When the extenfion is carried too far, luxation
forwards is produced.

In the luxation backwards, the external and pofterior liga-
ments and the pofterior part of the capfule are torn ; in that
forwards the anterior and external ligaments, the anterior
fibres of the internal lateral ligament, and the anterior part
of the capfule, are torn. The fymptoms of the firft fpecits
are, a diminution of length in that part of the foot between
the lower part of the leg and the anterior extremity of the
toes, elongation of the heel, tenfion of the tendo Achiili.i,
and relaxation of the extenfors of the toes. It is impcffible
either to bend or extend the foot ; this fymptom diliin-
guifhes luxation from iprain, in which the foot may be moved,
though not without pain, however high the inflammation
may be.

Contiary fymptoms accompany the luxation forwards:
the foot is lengthened, the heel is fhortened, and the foot,
much extended, cannot be bent, &c.

The reduction of both is eafily effefted, after which it
will be neceffary to put the limb in fplints, and lay it in the
bent poilure.

Tiie very thick and tliort ligamentous fubftance which
unites the aftragalus to the os calcis, binds them fo ftrongly
together, that they follovv one another in their motions and
form, as it were but one bone. Hence they are never com-
plett'ly feparated, even in the moft defperate cafes of luxa-
tion of the foot ; but one or both of them may be luxated

j^ troiu

LUX

rrom tlie fcapTioides andcuboides. The tranfverfe dirfftion
of the articulation formed by thefe four bones, fuggefted to
Chopart the ingenious idea of amputating only a part of
the foot. Bat thefe luxations, lefs dangerous than the
others, can be occafioned only by a violent eftort in which the
anterior part of the foot is lixed, as happened in the two
cafes related by J. L. Petit, the foot being fadencd in an iron
grate, wlii'.ft the body was drawn backwards. The aftra-
galus and os calcis may, under thefe cinuimftanccs, be luxa-
ted, but particularly the former, the head of which Aides
from below upwards, in the cavity of the potterior face of
the fcaphoides, and forms a tumour on tlie back of the
foot. The inflammatory fwelling renders it often difficult
to afcertain this luxation. It is not eafily reduced, even
fiwrtly after it has taken place. Boycr fniled in a cafe of
this kind in which the head of the aftragalus was luxated
upwards and inwards by a fall from a horfe ; but in fome
time the perfon felt no inconvenience from the aiTeiilion, he
could walk witliout pain or lamenefs, and nothing remained
bnt the deformity occafioned bv the tumour.

The other bones of the tarfus and metatarfus are too
flrongly tied together to admit of luxation. The phalanges
of the toes cannot be luxated by external violence, on ac-
count of their fhortnefs. However, the polTibility of luxa-
tion of the firft phalanx of the great toe from the firft bone
of the metatarfus may be eafily conceived. See Boyer on
the Bones, vol. ii.

Compound Luxations. — We (hall conclude the prefent ar-
ticle with a few remarks on the treatment of compound
diflocations. The luxation of a large joint, bein*^ conjoined
with an external wound, leading into the capfular ligament,
is a circumftance that has a particular tendency to increafe
the dinger of the accident. In many cafes we fee injuries
of this defcri])tion followed by violent and extenfive inflam-
mation, abfceffes and floughing, fever, delirium, and death.
When the patient is advanced in years, is much debilitated,
or of an unhealthy irritable conftitution, compound luxa-
tionsl efpccially if attended with much contufion and other
injury of the foft parts, and wrongly treated, very often
have a fatal termination. This, however, is not the general
event of thele cafes, and whatever may have happened in
former times, we now know, that in the prefent improved
Itate of furgerv fuch accidents moftly admit of cure. We
would not, however, by any means inlinuate cenfure againft
every inllance of amputation performed in thefe cafes : we
know that fuch operation is occalionally mdilpenfable imme-
diately when the accident is ieen, and we are equally aware,
that it may become neceflary in a future llage, when extenfive
abfceffes or (longhing, joined with threatening conftitutional
fvmptoms, have occurred. Our only delign is to recommend
the endeavour to cure the generality of compound luxations.
But if a cafe were to prefent itfelf, attended with very
great contufion and laceration of the foft parts, w'e Ihould
be as earnelt advocates for amputation as any praftitioners.

The treatment of a compound diflocation requires the re-
duction to be effefted without delay, and with as little vio-
lence and difturbance as poiTible. The limb is then to be
placed in fplints, with the requifite pads, eightecn-tailed
handage, &c. The wound is to be freed from any dirt or ex-
trane«us matter, and its lips accurately brought into contaft
with llrips of adhefive pialler. The joint is to be covered
■with linen w'et with the faturnine lotion, the bandage is to
. be loofeiy laid down, and the fphnts faflenod on with their
proper ftraps or pieces of tape, and the limb is to be kept
perfedtly at re!t in an eligible pollure. The patient, if
ftrong and young, is to be bkd. This laft praftice may be
more freelv adopted in the country than in London, or large

Voi.. XXI.

L U X

hofpitaN. Purging, however, mufl never be omitted, and
an anodyne, the firft night or two, will be highly proper.
Saline draughts, antimonials, and a low regimen, arc alfo
indicated during the firfl; few days of the fympto.matic fever
which commonly follows fo ferious an accident.

If the cafe takes a favourable courfe, theconditutional in-
difpofition will not be exceflive, nor will the pain and inflai^-
mation of the limb be immoderate. Sometimes the wound
even unites, more or lefs, without fuppuration, a circum-
ftance of the higheft importance, as tending more than any
thing to leden the danger, by changing the cafe, as it were,
from a compound into a fimple one. In other cafes, the
wound is not united, but the inflammation and fuppuration
are not violent or extenfive, and there is every reafon to ex-
pcA ultimate fuccefs. When the wound is difpofed to unite
favourably, lint and adhefive platter are the bcft drcflings.
In other inftanccs, while the fuppuration is at all copious, or
the inflammation high or extenfive, emollient poultices are
moft eligible.

■When the fymptomatic fever and firft inflammatory fymp-
toms are over, and there is much difcharge, attended with
marks of approaching weaking, the patient is to be allowed
more food, and be diredted to take bark, cordials, porter,
wine, &c. If his nights are reftleis, he muft have opiates ;
and, in Ihort, all fuch medicines as his particular complainU
may require, are to be prefcribed.

When the inflammation of a compound diflocation is
violent or extenfive, general bleeding, and the ufe of leeches,
are the moft eff'edual means of counterafting the mif-
chief.

In certain cafes, the moft Ikilful treatment is unavailing.
The joint and limb become affected with confiderable pain and
fwelling ; the fever runs high ; delirium comes on ; and the
patient may even perilh from the violence of the firft fymp-
toms, the limb being generally at the fame time attacked' with
gangrene. If thefe firft dangers are avoided, the wound may
not heal favourably; the inflammation may be extenfive ; large
abfcefles under the fafcix may be formed ; and the heftical
fymptoms and iinking ftate of the patient may make the
only chance of recovery depend upon amputation. But
even this operation is fometimes deferred till too late, and
the patient muft be left to his mifcrable fate.

Wiioever gives the fmallcft reflection to the nature of
compound fractures, will perceive, that it is often a matter
of the laft importance to make a right decifion at the very
beginning, whether amputation fliould be immediately done,
or whether an attempt to fave the limb ought to be made.
In fome inftanccs, the patient's fole chance depends upon
the operation being performed at once without the leall
delay, and the opportunity of doing it never returns.

Thus, when great inflammation and a rapid raortitlcatioii
of the limb follow the accident, the patient may die before
the floughing has fliewn the leaft inclination to ftop.

But, befides this firft critical period, the furgeoti often has
to exercife a nice degree of judgment in a future ftage of the
cafe ; we mean when the fuppuration is copious, and the
health much impaired. Here the praftitioner may err in
taking off a limb that might be laved ; or he may commit
a vv'orfe fault, and make the patient lofe his life in a fruitlefs
attempt to fave the member. No precepts can form the
right praditioner in this delicate part of furgery ; genius
alone cannot do it ; we would add, mere experience, how-
ever great, cannot do it : the opportunity oif making obfer-
vations, and the talent of profiting by them, are here the
things which make the confuniniate furgeon.

LUXEMBOURG, FRANClsHEN-RYBEMoNT-MOnENCY,

Duheof, \n Biogral'by, a celebrated rrench general, fon of the
4 S cou«t

LUX

LUX

count of Bouttevillo, who was beheaded under Lewis XIII.
for fighting a duel, was born in 1628. He was educated
for the military profcflion, and at tlie age of fifteen was,
at the battle of Rocroi, under the ilkilhious Conde, whole
various fortunes he followed. He refembled that hero in
feveral of his qualities, and was himfelf admitted a duke and
peer of France. In 1667, he was promoted to a lieutenant-
general(hip, and in that charadler he was, in the following
year, aftive in the conquell of Franchc-Comte. He had the
chief command, in 1672, in the invafion of Holland, where,
in one campaign, he took a number of towns, and gained
the battles of Bodcgrave and Woerden : after this, he made
a famous retreat with an army of 20,000 men, againll
70,000. In l'675, he was oppofed to the prince of Orange,
and by his fucctfs obtained the dignity of marlhal of France.
In 1690, he gained the battle of Fleurus, which was followed
by feveral other very important viftories. Previoudy to thefe
laft-named fucceffes he had been detained a prifoner in the
Baftile more than a year, on charges connedled with his
amours, to which, notvvithftanding the deformity of his
perfon«ind features, he was much addifted. He died in
1695, and with him, it has been faid, terminated the viftories
and grandeur of Lewis XIV. No general after him poflefled,
to fo high a degree, the attachment and confidence of the
foldiers. His uniform fuccefs, when contending with king
William, rendered him an objeil of jealoufy to that prince,
who once, in the bitternefs of his heart, called him a
" hump-back ;" " What does he know of my back," faid
the mar(hall, " he never faw it i" Moreri.

LUXEMBURG, in Geography, one of the ten Catholic
provinces of the Netherlands before the French revolution,
bounded on the north by the bilhopric of Liege, and duchies
of Limburgh and Juliers, on the E. by the eleftorate of
Treves, and on the S. and W. by France ; to which, by a
late treaty, it is now annexed, conftituting, in part, the
department of the Fonts ; which fee. It lies in the centre
of the forell of Ardennes. Its foil, though not fertile, pro-
duces fome corn ; but it furnilhes a good breed of cattle,
wine, all forts of game, iron-works, and founderies for
cannon, which are the chief lource of its wealth. It is
watered by many fmall rivers which run into the Meufc and
Mofelle. It contains, befides the city of Luxemburg, 23
other fmaller towns.

LuxEMBUUG, a city of France, principal place of a diftrift,
and capital of the department of the Fordts. From being
a caftle, built by the people of Treves, it was enlarged by
t\\s Romans, and called " Augufta Romanorum." When
Merovinus, king of France, conquered the country, it was
called the " city of the fun," becaufe the fun was anciently
adored there, aj the moon was at Arlon, Jupiter at Ivoy, now
called Carignan, and Mars at Marche en Famine. This city
is fmall, but ftrong, on account both of its fituation and forti-
fications, which vi'ei-e thought to be the Ifrongeft in Europe.
It is divided by the river Alfitz, which runs through it, into
the Upper and Lower Towns ; the former being fituated on
a rock, the latter in a plain. Its number of inhabitants is
eilimated at about 10,000, its two cantons contain 20,522,
on a territory of 247-'; kilioraetrcs, in 14 communes. Having
frequency changed matters, being at one time in the poflef-
fion of France, at another lime in that of Spain, again under
the dominion of the States General, to which it was ceded
by the barrier treaty in 170 1, and afterwards, vl-i. in 171 J,
poffefTed by the emperor ; it was blockaded by the French,
after they had acquired by arms the furrounding country,
and f'lrrendercd to them on the 7th of June, 1795, by capi-
tulation The furrendcr of Luxemburg put the French in
pofTelUon of the whole country on the left of the Rhine,

except Mcntz ; 50 miles S.S.E. of Liege. N. lat. 49' 40'.
E. long. 6- 13'.

LUXEUIL, ■& town of France, in the department of the
Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrifl of
Lnre ; 14 miles N.E. of Vefoul. The place contains 3080,
and the canton 13,261 inhabitants, on a territory of 190
kiliometres, in 27 communes. N. lat. 47'' 49'. E. long.
6 27'.

LUXOR, LuxoREiN, 01- jlkfor, a village of Egypt, on the
right fide of the Nile, the fcite of which is the ruins of the
celebrated city of Thebes, which fee. Of thefe ruins we (hall
now only mention from Mr. Browne's Travuls (p. 135.),
that they extend for about three leagues in length along the
Nile. Eaft and weft they reach to the mountains, a breadth
of about 2A leagues. The river is here about 300 yards
broad. The circumference of the ancient city muft, there-
fore, have been about 27 miles. This ingenious traveller is
of opinion that Luxor and Akfor are corruptions of El
Kuffur, the real term, which is Hill apphcd to the ruins by
the Arabs ; 18 miles S. of Kous.

LUXURIANT Plants, a term in Gardening, fignify-
ing fuch as become greatly augmented in growth beyond
their common natural ftate, and which rarely acquire that
degree of perfection which is the cafe with thofe of more
moderate growths. This fometimes happens from the cx-
cefs of nouridiment, and fometimes from the nature of the
plants.

But it is produced differently ; fometimes prevailing in
the whole plant, fometimes in particular parts, as in fome of
the (hoots, and frequently in the flowers.

The firit of thefe may be confidered fuch as (hoot much
ftronger than plants of the fame fpecies generally do, and
it happens both in herbaceous plants and trees, &c. which
never attain perfection fo foon as the more moderate growers ;
thus, many forts of efcnlent plants, which (hoot luxuriantly
to leaves and ftalks, &c. as cucumbers, melons, cabbages,
cauhflowers, turnips, radifhes, beans, peas, &c. never arrive
fo foon to perfeftion as thofe of moderate growth ; and fuch
plants as appear to be naturally of themfelves of a very luxu-
riant nature, are very improper to (land, from which to fave
feed for future increafe.

And ihii is alfo the cafe in fruit-trees ; as fuch as are very
luxuriant fliooters are much longer before they attain a
bearing ftate than thofe of middling growth, and they never
bear fo plentifully, or have the fruit attain fuch perfeftion.
This luxuriance is frequently acquired by unfltiiful pruning,
efpecially in wall-trees, &c. as it is often the practice, when
wal! or efpalier trees affume fuch a growth, to cut all the
(hoots (hort ; by which, inftead of reducing the tree to a
moderate ftate of (liooting, it has its vigour increafed, as too
confiderable fhortening of ftrong (hoots promotes their
throwing out ftill ftronger, and producing mori? abundant or
fiiperfluous wood. Therefore, in pruning very luxuriant
efpaher and wall-fruit trees, they fliould beaffilfed fomewhat
in their own way, as it were, by training in plenty of ftioots
annually for a year or two, to divide the redundancy of fap ;
or, in the fummer and winter prunings, always leaving them
rather thicker than in the common praftice, and mollly at
full length, unlefs it be neceffary to (horten fuch as are of
very confiderable length, or in fome particular part of the
tree, to force out a fupply of wood to fill a vacancy. Some
forts of fruit-trees fhould, indeed, never be generally fliortened
in the common courle of pruning, except in cafual, very
extended, irregular growths, or occafionally for procuring
a fupply of wood, as mentioned above. This is par-
ticularly neceffary in apples, pears, plums, cherries, and
fig-trees ; for, if generally (hortening was to be praftifed

io

LUX

in thefe forts, they would continae fliooting every year fo
luxuriantly to wood, that they would never form then.felvcs
into a proper bearing ftate : even in thofe trees where (horten-
inpr is necefTftrily prat^ifed in winter, in moll of the annual
fupplies of fhootP, as in peaches, neClannes, &c. in cafos of
luxuriant growth, it (hould be very fparingly performed,
the general (hoots not being cut very fhort, and fome of the
mod vigorous left almoft or quite at the full length. This
is the proper method to reduce luxuriant trees to a moderate
growth, and to a bearing Hate ; as by training the (hoots
thicker, and leaving them longer, and continuing it for a
year or two, the redundant fap, having greater fcopc to
divide itfelf, cannot break out with that luxuriance as when
it has not half the quantity of wood to fupply with nouri(h-
ment, as in the cafe of (hort pruning. See Espalier,
Wall-trees, and Phukisg.

This ftate feldom occurs with any continuance in ftandard-
trees, where permitted to take their natural growth, except
in cafual draggling (hoots, which (hould always be taken
out. Over-luxuriant (hoots are mollly met with in trees
and (lirubs ; but require more particularly to be attended
to in the culture of the fruit-tree kind, efpecially thofe of
the wall and efpalier fort, which undergo annual pruning.

They are fuch as (hoot fo vigoroufly in length and fub-
ftance, as greatly to exceed the general growth of thofe
ufually produced on the fame kind of plant or tree, and are
fometimes general, but in other cafes only happen to parti-
cular (hoots in different parts of a tree, &c. They are
difcoverabie by their extraordinary length and thicknefs,
and by their %'igour of growth, which always greatly im-
poveri(hes the other more moderate (hoots in their neigh-
bourhood, and likewife the fruit, &c. as well as often oc-
cafions a very irregular growth in the refpeclive trees. Such
{hoots frequently occur in wall and efpalier fruit-trees, and are
the effects of injudicious pruning. When they are in gene-
ral wholly fo, they (hould be managed as direfted above ; but
when only in particular (hoots here and there in a fruit tree,
or other tree or fhrub under training, fuch (hoots being of fuch
a very luxuriant nature as to draw away the nourilhment, at
the expence of the adjacent moderate (hoots, and which, by
their vigorous irregular growth, cannot be trained with
any degree of regularity ; they (hould for the moft part, as
foon as difcoverabie, in the fummer or winter prunings, be
cut out, taking them off as clofe as poffible to the part of the
branch whence they originate, that no eye may be left to
llioot again ; unlefs fuch a (hoot (hould rife in any part of a
tree or (hrub, where a further fupply of wood may be re-
quifite ; in which cafe it may be retained and (hortened as
convenient, to force out a fupply of more (hoots laterally to
fill the vacancy.

Where it prevails in other trees and (hrubs than thofe of
the fruit kind, they (hould have occafional attention, prun-
ing them in regular order in their younger advancing growth,
or afterwards occafionally in particular forts, ds may be ne-
ceffary : obferving, in either, when any draggling (hoots,
&c. affume a very luxuriant rambling growth, greatly exceed-
ing the other general branches, that they may be more or
lefs reduced or cut entirely away clofe to their origin, as may
be moft expedient, according to the nature of growth of
the trees or (lirubs, either in fummer or winter, &c,

Moft double flowers may be confidered as luxuriant, efpe-
cially fuch as have the cup or corolla multiplied, or fo aug-
mented in the number of their leaves or flower-petals inward,
as to exclude fome part of the fruftification, aS the fame
thing occurs in flowers as in efculent plants and fruit-trees,
from their over-lujturiant growth ; for, as the flower is de-
figned for perfefting the fruit and feed, when the petals are

LUX

multiplied to the diminution of the ftamina, &c. no impreg-
nation cnfues, and of courfe no fruit or feed is produced.

In tlie double varieties of moft kinds of flowers produced
on ornamental flowering plants, this luxuriance is generally
confidered as a fupcrior degree of perfeftion ; and has diffe-
rent modifications.

The higheft degree of this fort of luxuriance is met
with in carnations, anemones, ranunculufes, the poppy,
lychnis, peony, narcilTus, violet, and fome others.

LUXURY, fays Mr. Hume, (Efl". vol. i. p. 285.) is a
word of an uncertain fignification, and may be taken in a
good as well as a bad fenfe. In general, it means great re-
finement in the gratification of the fenfes ; and any degree of
it may be innocent or blameable, according to the age, or
country, or condition of the perfon. The bounds between
the virtue and the vice cannot here be exaftly fixed, more
than in other moral fubjeft s. To imagine, that the gratifying
of any fenle, or the indulging of any delicacy in meat, drink,
or apparel, is of itfelf a vice, can never enter into a head,
that IS not difordered by the frenzies of enthufiafm. " I
have, indeed," fays our author, " heard of a monk abroad,
who, becaufe the windows of his celiopencd upon a noble
profpeift, made a covenant with his eyes never to turn that way,
or receive fo fenlual a gratification," Such is the crime of
drinking Champagne or Burgundy, preferably to fmall beer
or porter. Thefe indulgences are only vices, when they are
purfued at the expence of fome virtue, as liberality or
charity ; in like manner as they are follies, when for them
a man ruins his fortune, and reduces himfelf to want and
beggary. When they entrench upon no virtue, but leave
ample fubjeft whence to provide for friends, family, and
every proper objeft of generofity or compalfion, they are
entirely innocent, and have in every age been acknowledged
fuch by almoft all moralifts. To be entirely occupied with
the luxury of the table, for inftance, without any relilh for
the pleafures of ambition, ftudy, or converfation, is a mark
of ftupidity, and is incompatible with any vigour of temper
or genius. To confine one's expence entirely to fuch a
gratification, without regard to friends or family, is an indi-
cation of a heart deftitute of humanity oV benevolence.
But if a man referve time fufiicient for all laudable purfuits,
and money fufiicient for all generous purpofes, he is free
from every (hadow of blame or reproach. Since luxury-
may be confidered either as innocent or blameable, one
may be furpriled, fays Mr. Hume, at thofe prepofterous
opinions which have been entertained concerning it ; while
men of libertine principles bellow praifes even on vicious
luxury, and reprefent it as highly advantageous to fociety ;
and on the other hand, men of pure morals blame even the
moft innocent luxury, and reprefent it as the fource of all
the corruption, diforders, and fadions incident to civil go-
vernment. This author endeavours to correft both thele
extremes, by proving, ift, that the ages of refinement are .
both the happieft and the moft virtuous; and zdly, that
wherever luxury ceafes to be innocent, it alfo ceafes to be
beneficial ; and when carried a degree too far, is a qua-
lity pernicious, though perhaps not the moil pernicious to
political fociety. In proof of the firft point ,._■ confiders
the effe£ls of refinement both on private and public life. For
his reafoning we muft refer to the Elfay, above cited. In-
duftry, knowledge, and humanity, fays our author, are
linked together by an indiffoluble chain, and are found,
from experience as well as reafon, to be peculiar to the
more polilhed, and, what are commonly denominated, the
more luxurious ages. He adds, that thefe advantages are
not attended with any difadvantages that bear any prppor-
tion to them. The more men refine upon pleafure, the
. 4S 2 lefs

L U X

L U Z

\ek will they indulge in~ cxcefTes of any kind ; bccaufo
nothing is more dcllniftive to true plcafure than fuclx ex-
ceffes. Belides, indiiftry, knowledge, and humanity dilTufe
their beneficial influence beyond the fphere of private life,
en the ptdblic, and render the government as great pnd flou-
rilhing as they nnakc individuals profporous and happy-
Our author concludes his Efiay on " Relincinent m the
Arts," with the following obfervations. " Luxury, wlien
exccfTive, is the fource of many ills ; but is in general pre-
ferable to floth and idlencfs, which would commonly fuc-
ceed in its place, and are more hur;ful both to private
pcrfons and to the public. When floth reigns, a mean un-
cultivated way of life prevails araongll individuals, without
fociety, without enjoyment. And if the fovereign, in fuch
a fituation, demands the fervice of his fiibjcCts, the labour
of the (late inffices only to furniih the neceffaries of life to
the labourers, and can afford nothing to ihofe who are em-
ployed in the public fervice."'

An excellent writer, to whom we fhall next refer, takes
occaiion, from a confideratioii of the mode of living wliich
aiStually obtains in any country, to illiiftrate the true evil and
proper dai]ger of luxury Luxury, as it fupplies employ-
inent and promotes induftry, afllits population. But it is
attended with a conftquence, whicli countcrafts and often
overbalances thcfe advantages. When, by introducing more
fuperfluities into general reception, hixury has rendered the
ufual accommodations of life more expenfive, artificial, and
elaborate ; the difficulty\of maintainnig a family, conform-
bly with tlie ellabliilied mode of lining, becomes greater,
and what each man has to fpare from his perfonal con-
fumption proportionably lefs : the clfeft of which is, that
marriages become lefs frequent, agreeably to the maxim,
ivhich lies at the foundation of this reafoning, that men will
not marry to frnk their place or condition in fociety, or to
forego tbofe indulgences, which their own habits, or what
they obferve amonglt their equals, liave rendered neceffary
to their fatisfaftioii. This principle is applicable to every
article of diet and drefs, to houfcs, furniture, and atten-
dance ; and this eifeft will be felt in every clafs of the
community. For inltance, the cndom of wearing broad
cloth and fine linen repays the fliepherd and flax-grower,
feeds the manufa6lurer, enriches the merchant, gives not
only fupport but exiftence to multitudes of famdies : hitherto,
therefore, the effects are beneficial : and were ihefe the
only effefts, fuch elegancies, or, if they may be fo called,
fuch luxuries, could not be too general. But here follows
the raifchief : when once fafliion hath annexed the ufe of
thefe articles of drefs to any certaiii claff, to the middling
ranks, for example, of the community, each individual of
that rank finds them to be neceffaries of life ; that is, finds
himfelf obliged to comply with tlie example of his equals,
and to maintain that appearance which the cuftom of fociety'
requires. This obligation creates fuch a demand upon his
income, and withal adds fo much to the coft and burthen of
' a family, as to put it out of his power to marry, with the
profpert of continuing his habits or of maintaining his
place and fituation in the world. We fee, in this defcrlp-
tion, fays our author, the caufe which induces men to wafte
their lives in a barren celibacy ; and this caufe, which im-
pairs the very fource of jiopulation, is jullly placed to the
account of luxury. It appears, upon the whole, to be the
tendency of luxury to diminilh man iages, and that in this
tendency the evil of it refides. Hence it maybe inferred,
. that of diflerent kinds of luxury, thofe are the moll inno-
cent which ailbrd employment to the greateft number of
p.rtifts and manufafturers ; as thofe, in other words, in which
the price of the work bears the greateft proportion to that

of the raw material. Thus, luxury in drefs, in furniture,
is univerfally preferable to luxury in eating, becaufe the ar-
ticles which contlitnte the one, arc more the produflion of
human art and induftry, than thofe which fupply the other.
We may alfo conclude, that it is the difference, rather than
the degree, of luxury, which is to be dreaded as a national
evil. The mifchief of luxury conllfts in the obllrudion
that it forms to marriage. But, as it is only a fmall part of
the people i.n any country that is compoled by thofe of
higher rank, the facility, or the difficulty, of lupporting
the expence of their llatlon, and the confequcnt increafe
or diminution of marriages among them, will have but
little influence on the ftate of population. As long as the
prevalence of luxury is confined to a few of elevated rank,
much of the benefit is felt, and little of the inconvenience.
But when the imitation of the fame manners defcend?, as it
always will do, into tlie mafs of the people ; when it ad-
vances the rcqulfites of living beyond what it add,s to men's
abilities to purchafe them, then it is that luxury check*
the formation of families, in a degree that ought to alarm
the public. To all which we may add, that the condition
moft favourable to population is that of a laborious, frugal
people, minillering to the demands of an opulent, hixurinus
nation ; becaufe this fituation, while it leavts thera every
advantage of luxury, exempts them from the evils wliich
naturally accompany Its admifiion into any country. Paley'B
I'riioc. of Mor and Pol. Philof. vol. i'.

In our country there was formerly a multitude of peral
laws intended for reftraining excels in apparel ; chiefly made
in the reigns of Edward III., Edward IV^., and Henry
VIII., againil piked flioes, (liort doublets, and long coats,
all of which were repealed by llatute i Jac. 1. c. 25. Excels
of diet, which is one fpecies of Inxury, is flill prohibited
by 10 Edward III. flat. 3, wdiich ordains that no man
fliall be ferved at dinner or fupper with more than two
courfes : except upon fome great holidays there fpecified,
in which he may be ferved with three. See Sumptuaky
Latvi.

LUYTS, John, in Biography, a philofopher and ailro-
nomer, was born in North Holland in 1665. He became
profelfor of philofophy and mathematics at Utrecht, where
he died innyai. He wrote I. An Allronomical Work,
in which he lejetled the Copernican fyftem, entitled " In-
ilitutio aftronomica in qua doftrina fplia;rica, atque theo-
rica, intermixto iifu fphsrae cceleftis, et varils chronologicis,
pertrattantur.'' 2. An IntroduAion to Modern and An-
cient Geography, with many plates. In all that he wrote
and taught he ihewed hiir.ieif a great partifan of the Arif-
totellan philolophy, in oppofition to that of Dcfcaites.
Moreri.

I..UZ, La, in Geegraphy, a fea-port town of the ifland
of Canary; five miles N. of Civdad de los Palmas. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Hilgfier Py-
renees^ and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Ar-
geles. The place contains 2135, and the canton 6222 inha-
bitants, on a territory of J52.', kiiiometres, in 17 communes.
LUZARA, a town ot Italy, m the department of Min-
cio ; 16 miles 8. of Mantua.

LUZ.ARCHES, a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrift of Pontoife; 5 leagues N. of Pari*. The place
contains 1696, and the canton 11,411 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 180 kiiiometres, in 22 communes. N. lat. 49° 7'.
E. long. 2° 30'.

LUZECH, a town of France, in the department of the

Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftricl of Cahors ;

2 i leagues from Cahors. The place contains 2049, and the

6 cantca

L U Z

L Y C

canton io,5'04 inhabitants, on a territory of 162^ kiliomctres,
in 12 communes. N. lat. 44^" 29'. E. long. 1° 23'.

LUZERATH, a town of France, in the department of
tlie Rhine and Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrict of Coblentz. The place contains 614, and the can-
ton 2J2J inhabitants, in 12 communes.

LUZERNE, a large county of Pennfylvania, bounded
north by Tioga county in New York, eaft and fouth-eall by
Nortiiampton, vveil by Lycoming and Northumberland
counties ; about yy miles in length ffom north to fouth, and
75 in breadth from eall to weft, divided into ig townihips,
and containing 2 churches, 33 faw-milL;, 24 grift-mills,
2 fuliing-mills, and i oil-mill. The number of inhabitants
is 12,839. Near the Sufquehannah river, which, with its
triMlitary ftreams, well waters it, the foil is very fertile, and
produces good crops of wheat, flax, and hemp. The
northern parts abound with pine, timber, and fugar-maple.
In the townfhips of Wilklbarre, Kingfton, Exeter, and

tain of his genus being precifely the fame wth that of lljc
Flora Peruviana. He defines two New Holland fpecies.

1. L. cymo/a. Cymes terminal, deeply dividpd. Branches
round. Young branches ftriat'cd, fmooth. Found near
Port Jacklon, as well as within the tropic.

2. L. mon/ari_a. Umbels axillary, ftalked. Branches
ftriated, rough. - Found near Port Jackfon.

LUZY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Nievrc, and thief place of a canton, in the diC.
tritt of Chateau-Chinon ; 5' leagues S.S.E. of Moulins-en-
Gilbert. The place contams 160-;, and the canton 8748
inhabitants, on a territory of 417I Itihomctres, in 9 com-
munes.

LUZZ ANA, a town of Ita'y ; 22 miles S. of Mantua.
• LUZZI, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; 4 miles
'Cr. of Bilignano. _

LUZZO Maiuno, in Ich hyohgy, a name given by the
the ancient Greek writers, and

Italians to the fiih called b\

Plymouth, are large beds of coal. Coal and bog-iron are many of t!ie modern Latin authors, _/^/^jr^na; and by Pliny,

found in feveral places, and two forges have been ereiilcd
In this county are many remains of ancient fortifications,
which are of an elliptical form, and covered with large white
oak-trees. Its chief town is Wilkfbarre.

LUZIOL.A, in Botany, JulT. 33. An annual Pcrnvian
grafs, which Dombey took for a Zizaiiia. It is defcribed
lay Juflieu as monoecious, without atiy calyx ; the corolla of
two valves, without awns. Male flowers in a loofe terminal
fpike. Stamens ufually eight, fometimes nine or ten ; an-
thers ftalked. Female flowers panicled, inferior, much
fmalier. Styles two. Seed ovate, naked.

IjUZULA, a genus eftabllftied by Decandolle in his
edition of Lamarck's Flore Fratifal/e, v. 3. Ij8; and
adopted by Mr. R. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Roll. v. i. 591.
It confifts of fuch Linnsan Jimci as have a capfule of a fingle
cell, with only three feeds, as is the cafe with J. campc/lris,
Linn. (Juncoides; Mich. Gen. 41. t. 3 i.) Whether the
fmall number of the feeds be a fuCficient charafter, feems to

Varro, and lome other of the old Roman authors, yi/^;/.
Gaza has called' it the malleolus, and the French, at this
time, cail it fpet. Salvian has given the figure of it, but
it is an imperieft one ; for he has omJltcd the firft fin of the
back.

LYBIA, in jinclcnt Geography. See Libya.

LYCiE.^, Ayy.xtz, in Antiquity, an Arcadian feftival re-
fembling the Roman lupcrcalia. in which the conqueror was
rewarded with a fuit of brazen armour.

LYCANTHROPIA, in Ancient Medicine, from \<jy.o;i a
ivnlf, and :ivSpiiot,-, many as it were man-wolf, a term applied
to that variety of inlanity or melancholy, which induced
the perfons afi"efted to wander out in the night, howling and
making other noifes, frcquentmg church -yards, or places of
burial ; in which circumilances they were fuppofed to imi-
tate or to rcfemble wolves. A e tins and Paul of iEgina have
defcribed fiich patients as pale, with dry and hollow eyes,
parched tongue and mouth, exccffivc thirlt, and perpetual

us at beft dovibtful, conudering ht)w various their number is fores on their legs, in confequcnce of the frequent accidents
in other Jimcl. The capfule having one cell or tliree is which they met with. The fame term was alto applied to

who fancied thcmfelves transformed into

certainly of no importance, in either the three-feeded or
many-feeded fpecies ; fome having perfeft partitions from
the centre of their valves, others more or lefs of a ridge
there in the place of them. The capfule of Juncia Forjleri,
Engl. Bot. t. 1293, for inftance, which by the number of
its feeds fiiould be a Liizithi, has a capfule of three cells.
It is indeed much to be wifiied, that plants fo unlike the
habit of moft Junci could, by any found charafter, be fe-
parated from them ; but wiihout fuch they are beft as they
are.

LUZURIAGA, fo called by the authors of the Flora
Peruviana, in honour of a Spaniftt botanift, or patron of the
fcience, of the fame name. Ruiz' et Pavon Fl. Peruv.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 281.— Ciafs and order,
Hcxandrii Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sarmentacens, Linn. Af-
pboJdi, .fulT. Afphedeledi, Brown.

Efl". Ch. Calyx none. Corolla in fix deep, equal,
fpreading, beardlefs fegments, deciduous. Filaments in-
ferted into thcbafe of each fegmcnt, thread-fliaped, fmooth,
curved at the point; anthers arrow-fliaped, cohering, longer
than the filaments. Style thread-fliaped, with three far-
rpws ; iligma fimple. Berry with a few, nearly globofe,
feeds. -

This ""enus confifts of climbing weak fhrubs, with fimple
ribbed leaves. Flowers cymofe or umbellate, terminal "and
axillary ; their footftalks as it were articulated with the

thofe maniacs,

wolves. The appellation of cynnnthropla was alfo given to
the difeafe, when the patients imitated the manners oi dogs,
or imagined themfelves to be changed into thefe animals.
LYCAON, in Zoology. See Black Fox.
LYCAONIA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Afia
Minor, fouth of Galatia. According to Strabo, Ifauria
made a part of it. It was fituated between mountains, and
is fuppofed to have derived its name from Xvao:, a '■juolf, be-
caufe the country, from its fituation, formed a proper re-
treat for thofe animals. The principal places of Lycaonia,
according to Ptolemy, were AdopifTus Canna, Iconium,
Paralais Corna, Cafbia, and Baratta. The apolties of this,
country are faid to have been St. Paul and St. Barnabas.
The notitia of Hierocles reckons in this province 18 cpif-
copal towns.

LYCEUM, Xw.'Ao:; in Antiquity, the name of a cele-
brated ichool, or academy at Athens, where Arillotle ex-
plained his philofophy.

The place was a grove in the fuburbs of Athens, which
had previoudv been ufed for military excrcifes. It was com-
poied of porticoes, and trees planted in tile quincunx form,
wheiethe philofophers difputcd walking. Yisnce philofophi
of the Lyceum is ufed to fignify the philofophy of Ariliotle,
or the Peripatetic philofophy. Suidas obferves, tllat the
Lyceum took its name from its having been originally ?.
rather tapering bafe of the flower. Berry black, fometimes temple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a porticQ or gallery ,
enclofiug o.nJy a fingle feed. Mr. Brown is not quite cer- built by Lyceus, fon of Apollo ; but others mention it to

have

L Y C

L Y C

have been built by Pififtratiis, or Pericles. Here he de-
livered his leftures to a promifcuous auditory in the evening,
when the Lyceum was open to all young men without dil-
tinftion ; but in the morning his difciplcs were more feleft,
and fuch as had been previoufly inllruftcd in the elements of
learning, and difcovered abilities and difpoiitions fuitcd to
the (ludy of philofophy. The latter he called his morning
walk, and the former his evening walk. Ariftotle continued
his fchool in the Lyceum twelve years.

LYCHNANTHUS, in Botany, a name given by Gmelin
to the Cucubalus baccifer of Linnaeus, which is fuperfluous,
this plant being perhaps the only true Cucubalus ; fee that
article.

LYCHNIDEA. See Phlox and Selago.
LYCHNIS, Xuxvi," of the Greeks, which word alfo
fignilies a lamp. Hence fome have fuppofed that its bv,-
tanical application arofe from the down of the plant having
been ufed to make wicks for lamps. This, however, by no
means'appears to have been the faft. The moft probable
and apparent explanation of the name is from the rcfem-
blance of the calyx to a lanthorn, its fides being femi-tranf-
parent between the ribs or veins, or the whole, in fome
inftances, quite membranous, round, and inflated, like the
Iiorn lanthorns ilill ufcd by the Chinefe. Poflibly the ap-
pearance of the ftigmas, ilamens, or crown of the corolla,
in feveral fpecies, might favour the idea of a lamp with its
flame. We mu!i recolletl that this name of Lychnis has
been always ufed, with great latitude, for all the Campion
tribe, by the old botaniils ; though now reftrifted, by Lin-
naeus and his followers, to one particular genus of that
family. The (hart mention in Diofcorides, of his \vx'^i, is
quite infufficient to determine either the wild or garden plant
of which he fpeaks. Linn. Gen. 231. Schreb. 312
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 807. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 493. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3.'i32. Jufl".
302. Lamarck lUuftr t. 391. Gaertn. t. 130. — Clafs
and order, Dccandria Paitagynia. Nat. Ord. CaryophyUei,
Linn. JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, oblong,
tubular, membranous, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. Pe-
tals five ; their claws the length of the calyx, flat, each
crowned with a double ereCl fcale ; border flat, wedge-
fliaped, often divided. Stam. Filaments ten, longer, than
the calyx, fixed to the claws of the petals, five alternate
ones later than the reft ; anther^ incumbent. P'lfl. Germen
fuperior, nearly ovate ; ftyles five, awl-fhaped, longer than
the ftamens ; ftigmas downy, reflexed contrary to the mo-
tion of the fun. Perk. Capfule more or lefs ovate^^ clothed
with the calyx, of from one to five cells, opening by five
rigid reflexed teeth at the top. Seeds numerous, roughifti,
fomewhat kidney-fliaped.

Obf. L. dio'tca has the ftamens and piftile in feparate
flowers and on different plants. L. V'tfcaria has undivided
petals, and a capfule of five cells. Some other fpecies are
efteemed to vary in the number of their ftyles from five to
four, or even three. L. apelala has the corolla concealed
within the calyx.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one lejtf, oblong. Petals five, with
claws ; the border ufually divided. Capfule fuperior, with
five teeth at its orifice, of from one to five cells.

Ten fpecies of Lychnis occur in the fourteenth edition of
Syjl. Veg., of which one, alpejlris of the Supplementum, is
made by Jacquin, Alton, and Willdenow, a Silcne, furely
with great propriety. But there can be no doubt that
quadridentata ought to be referred to the fame genus, as
having naturally only three ftyles, or at moft but four.
Thefe two fpecies being removed hence, the above-men-

tioned anomaly in the number of the ftyles in the prefent
genus is done away ; for alpitui, reputed to have four ftyk-s,
is now known to have naturally, if not invariably, five; fee
Engl. Bot. t. 2254. We therefore retain but eight of the
fpecies of Linnieus, or rather of Murray, for Linnxus was
originally correft refpefling the above. To theie eight
two are added by Willdenow, from Aiton and Lamarck.

1. L. chaLedonica. Scarlet Lychnis. Linn. Sp. PI. 625'.
Curt. Mag. t. 257. Ger. em. 466. — Tufts terminal, level-
topped, many-flowered. Leaves ovate, rough, fomewhat
undulated. — This is faid by Gmelin to grow wild in all parts
of Ruftia and Siberia. It is one of the oldeft ornaments of
our flower-gardens, being a hardy perennial, very ftiowy,
and remarkable for the rich deep fcarlet of its blofl\)ms,
efpecially when double. Thefe appear in June and July,
forming a large, denfe, convex, terminal tuft, two or three
inches wide. The Jiem is three or four feet high, round,
hairy, leafy, but little branched. Leai>es feflile, oppofite,
poinfed, wavy, rough, dark green, clafping the Item with
iheir broad, ovate, often combined, bafes. We have never
feen the pale red, nor the white varieties, mentioned by
authors.

2. L. Flos cuculi. Meadow Lychnis, or Ragged Robin.
Linn. Sp. PI. 625. Curt. Lond. fafc. i. t. 33. Engl-
Bot. t. 573. (Armoraria pratenfis ; Ger. em. 600.) — Pe-
tals in four deep, linear fcgments. Leaves lanceolate, fmooth.
Fruit rounc'ifli, of one cell. — Frequent in moill meadows
throughout Europe, flowering in June. The roo/ is peren-
nial. Siem twelve or eighteen inches high, with rough an-
gles, vifcid above. Leaves narrow. Panicle forked, PetaU
pink, very delicate, with a brown, angular, fmooth calyx.
There is a double variety, and fome mention a white one.

3. L. Vifcaria. Red German Catchfly. Linn. Sp. PI. 625.
Fl. Dan. t. 1032. Engl. Bot. t. 788. (Mufcipula anguf-
tifolia ; Ger. em. 601.) — Petals undivided. Leaves hnear-
lanceolate, fmooth. Fruit of five cells.i — Native of dry or
rocky paftures in the north of Europe. We have gathered
it in the fiffiires of rocks, a mile fouth of Edinburgh, and
have it alfo from Perthfliire. It flowers in May and June.
A double variety is common in gardens, and a pure white
one is fometimes feen. The roots are woody, tufted, and pe-
rennial. Herb fmooth. Stem a foot high, angular, brown
and very clammy under each joint. Leaves narrow. Floiuers
in a denfe, forked, oblong bunch or fpike. Petals crimfon,
only nightly emarginale, not cut or cloven. Capfule ovate,
of five cells, though this fpecies is fo nearly allied in habit
to the foregoing, whofe capfule has but one cell.

4. L alpha. Red Alpine Campion. Linn. Sp. PI. 626-
Tour in Lapland, v. 2. 19. Curt. Mag. t. 394. Fl. Dan
t. 6^. Engl. Bot. t. 2254. — Smooth. Petals cloven.
Flowers corymbofe. Leaves linear-lanceolate. ^ — Native ef
the Lapland, Siberian, Swifs and Pyrenean mountains ; dif-
covered on the Clova meuntains of Angusftiire, by Mr. G.
Don, in 1795. It is much fmaller than the laft, and not at
all vifcid. The petals are divided at leaft half way down,
and their crown is but fmall. See Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
v. 10. 342, for the coufufion and contrariety of defcription
which has attended this fpecies.

5. L. magellanica. Magellanic Campion. Lamarck
Diet. v. 3. 641. Willd. n. 7. — Somewhat hairy. Leaves
linear. Petals cloven, (carcely longer than the calyx. — Fruit
of one cell. — Gathered by Commerfon in the Straits of Ma-
gellan. We know this fpecies folely by Lamarck's account.
He compares its habit and foliage to that of Thrift, Statice
Armeria, but obferves that it is next akin to L. a^ina, differing
in having narrower, and fomewhat downy leaves, fewer and

larger

LYCHNIS.

\ivgeT jlowin, whole petals fcarcely exceed the length of
their bell-fhaped calyx.

6. \^.fibir'ua. Siberian Campion. Linn. Sp. PI. 626.
— Hairy. Leaves lanceolate. Stem forked, many-flowered.
Petals cloven, twice as long as the calyx. Fruit of one cell.
— Gathered in Siberia by Gmelin, who font it to Linnsus,
but it does not find a place in the Flora Siblr'ica. This has
greatly the habit of Silens alpejlrit above-mentioned, but is
all over hairy ; the petals more obtufe, and lefs deeply cloven ;
xhejlyks five. The root is very long and fimpic, tufted at
the crown, bearing numerous Jlems a fpan high, which are
about t«nce forked. Calyx bell-fhaped, tapering at the bafe.
Petals apparently reddiih. Capfule ovate, of one cell, with
recurved irregular teeth.

7. L. lata. Small Portugal Campion. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. 1. V. 2. 118. — " Petals cloven. Flowers folitary.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth. Calyx with ten ribs." —
Brought from Portugal, by llie late Dr. Edward Whittaker
Gray, in 1778, to Kew garden, where it is faid to be a hardy
annual, flowering in July. If this fpecies IHU exifts, it
ought to be figured in fonie periodical work ; it. being greatly
to be wifhed that the authors of luch would prefer unpublifh-
ed plants to thofe already often delineated. We know of
no plate of this or the laft-mentioned.

8. L. coronata. Cliinefe Lychnis. Thunb. Jap. 187.
Linn Syfl. Veg. ed. 14. 43J. Curt. Mag t. 223. (L. gran-
diflora ; Jacq. Col v. i. 149. Ic. Rir. t. 84. Hedoiia finen-
fis ; Lour. Cochinch. 286 ; feeHEDONA.) — Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, fmooth. Flowers axillary or terminal, folitary.
Petals jagged — Native of China and Japan, from whence
Dr. Fothergill procured the plant in 1774. It flowers in
June or July, or later, and muft be kept in the greenhoufe
in winter, or at lead proteftedby extraordinary covering, if
left in the border. The root is perennial. Stem weak,
round, fmooth, two feet high. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
pointed, fmooth, pale beneath. Floixiers remarkable for
their great fize, fharply jagged petals, and red-lead, very
vivid, colour.

9. L. dmca. Red or White Field Campion. Linn. Sp.
PI. 626.— X (red) Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 32. Engl Bot.
t. 1579. 'B (white) Fl. Dan. t. 792. Engl. Bot. t 1580.
Leaves hairy. Flowers dioecious. Fruit of one cell. Crown
of each petal four-cleft. — A very common plant throughout
Europe ; the red-flo-.vered kind in hedges and fhady biifliy
places in fpring ; the white more ufually in fields or open
fituations in fummer. The letter is a llronger plant, and
from its evening fragrance has been called L. ve/pert'ma by
Dr. Sibthorp, while the former is his ^urna ; fee Fl Oxon.
145, 146 Both are ufually dioecious, but not invariably
fo. There is a blufh-coloured variety, other«-ife moil like
the white ; but we have found it in cultivation foon evancfcent.
The roots of both are perennial. Plant hairy and fomewKat
vifcid, two or three feet high. Stem forked. Leaves ovate
or lanceolate. Limb of each petal cloven half way down,
generally with two fmail acute lateral lobes, its crown more-
over confiding of two obtufe central teeth, and two r.cute
lateral ones.

10. L.. apetala. Apetalous Mountain Campion Linn.
Sp. PI. 626. Fl. I-app. ed. 2. 150. t. 12. f. I. — Calyx in-
flated, longer than the petals. Stem nearly fingle-flowered.
— Native of the mountains of Lapland and Siberia. The
root is perennial. Stem, in the Lapland fpecimens, a
fpan high, ar.d quite fimple, fingle-flowered ; in fome of
Gmelin's, from Siberia, taller, v.ith from three to five
flowers. The whole herb is flightly downy. Leaves lanceo-
late, rather narrow. Flower drooping. Calyx ovale, clofed,
with ten rough, purplifh-brown ribs. Petals fmall and nar-

row, with an obfolete brownifh border, entirely included,
along with the ftamens and piflil, in the hoUow of the calyx.
Capfule obtufe, of one cell.

Lychnis, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, flowery, perennial kind, of which the fpecies
cultivated are th(<Tcarlet lychnis (L. chalcedonica) ; the
red-flowered lychnis, meadow pink, or ragged robbin, ( L. flos
cuculi; ; the Chinefe lychnis (L. coronata) ; the vifcous lych-
nis, orcatchfly, (L. vifcaria) ; the rofe-flowered lychnis, wild
red campion, or red bachelor's buttons (L diurna) ; and the
white-flowered lychnis, wild white campion, or white bache-
lor's buttons, (L. vefpertina.)

In the firft fort there is a variety with very double flowers,
of a beautiful fcarlet colour, they are produced in clofecluf-
ters, fitting upon the top of the Ualk ; when the roots are
ftrong, the clufters of flowers are very large, and make a
fine appearance, coming out the latter end of June, and in
moderate feafons continue nearly a month in beauty.

Of the fifth fort there is a variety with double flowers,
cultivated in gardens by the name of red bachelor's but-
tons, which is an ornamental plant, and continues long in
flovi'er. ^

And the fixth fort has varieties with purple, or blufh-co-
loured flowers ; with quadntid petals ; with hermaphrodite
flowers ; with double flowers, cultivated in gardens bv the
name of double white bachelor's buttons.

Method of Culture. — They may be increafed with facility
in the lingle forts by feed, and parting the roots ; and in the
double ones by dividing or flipping the roots ; and fome-
times by cuttings of their Ititlks.

The feed fhould be fown in the early fpring, as in March,
in a bed or border of light earth, in an eailern afpect, each
fort feparate, raking them in hghtly, or they may be fown in
fmall drills. The plants come up in two or three weeks,
when they fhould have nccaiional waterings and hand-weed-
irigs : and when the plants are two or three inches high, be
planteu Out in beds or borders, in rows fix inches alunder,
watering them till frefli-iooted, letting them remain rill the
autumn or following fpring, when they fliould be tranfplanted
Nvherethey are to remain.

Both the fingle and double may be increafed by flipping
the roots, but it is more particularly applicable to the double
fort, as they cannot with certain'y be obtained from feed :
tiie feafon for performing this work is the autumn after the
flalks decay, when the whole root may either be taken up
and divided into as many flips as are furnifhed with proper
root-fibres, or the main root Hard, and as many of the outer
offsets as feem convenient to be flijiped off : thefe flips, when
llroiig, flioidd be planted at once where they are to remain ;
but when rather fmall and weak, it is better to plant them
in nurfery rows, half a foot afunder, to remai;i a year,
and then tranfpiant them for good where they are to
Hand.

The planting of cuttings of the ftalks is moftly praftifed
for.the double fcarlet fort, when it increafes but fparingly by
offsets of the root. It is perfoi-med in fummer, when the
ftalks are well advanced in growth, but before they flower,
or have become hard and woody. .Some of them fhould be
cut off clofe to the bottom, a-d divided into lengths ot four
or five joints, planting them in an eailerly border of rich,
moill. loamy earth, two thirds of their lengtli into the ground,
leaving only one joint or eye out, watering them direttly, and
repeating it occaiionally with neceflary fhade in hot weather.
They Will be well rooted, and form proper plants for tranf-
planting in the autumn. If the cuttings, as loon as planted,
are covered down clofe with hand-glatTes, it will greatly pro-

mote

L Y C

mote their rooting, fo as to form ftronger plants before the
winter fcafon comes on.

The only culture they require afterwards is clearing them
from weeds in fummer, and fupporting with ftakes thole
whidi need it, cutting down and clearing away the decayed
ftalks in the autumn.

Of the third fort, as being rather more tender, fome
plants (hould be planted in pots, for moving under the pro-
teftion of a frame or gvtcnhoufe in the winter feafon.

All thcfe plants are very ornamental for the pleafure-
groi'nd, particularly the doubles, and profper in any com-
mon foil, remaining in all weathers unhurt, being of many
vears duration in root ; and, when of feme ftaiiding, fend
up many llalks every fpring, terminated by numerous flowers,
making a fine appearance in fummer. The fcarlet double
lychnis claims the preference, though the fingle fcar'et^ fort
is alfo very fhovvy. And all the other fpecies in their re-
fpeftive double-flowered Hates are ornamental. They arc
all kept in the nurferies for I'ale. In planting out, the tailed
growers ihonld be placed the moft backward, and the others
more townrds the front.

LYCHNITIS Marmor. See Marble.

LYCI A,in v-/.»;afn/Gfo^r«/)/j_>r, acouiitryof AfiaMinor,on-
ginally called Mylias, from the Myllix, a people of Crete, who
fettled there, and afterwards Lycia, from Lycus, the fon of
Pandion, king of Athens ; fituated upon the Mediterranean,
and forming a kind of peninfula, on the weft of which was the
Glaucus Siims, and on the eaft another gulf, in the lower
part of whicii was Attalea. To the fouth was the Medi-
terranean. The adjacent countries were on the weft, Caria,
to the north a fmall part of Phrygia Pacatiana, and to the
north-ead Pamphylia. Its boundaries were various at dif-
ferent times. Ptolemy places in Lycia the countries called
Mylias and Carbalia, or Cabalia. Plmy fays that the
Lycians had thirty-fix towns; Strabo alcribes to them
twenty-tliree, of which fix were very toufiderable. Lycia
was interfodcd by federal chains of mountains, paiTing from
the north and north-ealt, and extending towards the fea-.
The moil con fiderable rivers were the Xanthus and Limyrus.
Its principal towns were Telmiffus, Pinara, Xanthus, Pa-
tara, Myra, Lirayra, Olympus, and Phafelis. The fix
towns, particularly noticed' by Strabo, after Aitemidorus,
were Xanthus, Palara, Pinara', Olympus, Myra, and Tlos.
The chief mountains of Lycia were Taurus and Chimjera.
In the firft ages of Chrillianity, Hierocles reckons as epif-
copal thirty towns, and Leon le Sage thirty-eight. The in-
habitants of Lycia were originally from the ifland of Crete :
and they were for a long time additted to piracy. Diodorus
liiciilus, and Plato before him, reckon the Lycians among
the Greek natio-s of Afia, as being defcended from the Ar-
gians. Although they were governed by kings, it does not
appear that the government was completely monarchical ; a
confederacy having been formed by twenty-three cities, which
fent deputies to a general affembly, by which the affairs of
the liation were managed. The foil of this country was
fruitful, and the air reckoned very wholefomc. The Ly-
cians are highly commended by the ancients for their fo-
brietv, and manner of adminillering judice. They continued
to be' governed by their own kings after they were fubdued
bv the Perfians, paying them tribute. They afterwards fell
with the Perfians under the power of the Macedonians, and
after the death of Alexander, were governed by the Seleu-
cida:. When Antiochus the Great was confined by the
Romans beyond mount Taurus, Lycia was granted to the
Rhodians ; but thefe difobliging the Romans in the war
with Perfeus, Lycia was declared a free country, and con-
tinued in this date till the reign of Clfudius, who, pro-

L Y C

voked at their intedine didentions, reduced llieir country
into the form of a province.

LYCIUM, ill Botany, Xvy.mi, of the Greeks, fo called, as
is generally fuppolVd, from Lycia, its native country ; but
what was the precife plant intended, has never been fettled by
commentators. Dioicoridcs defcnbes it as a " fpinous tree,
with twigs thi'ee cubits or more in length, bearing thick-fet
leaves, like box. The fruit is like pepper, black, thick-fet,
bitter, and fmooth. Bark pale. Roots woody." This
defcription accords in many points with fomc fpecies of the
received Lycium, but with none, that we are acquainted
with, in every point. Box-thorn. Linn. Gen. 103. Sclireb.
ij6. WiUd.'Sp. PL V. I. 10)7. Mart. Mill. Didt. v. 3. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2, 3. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i.
Ijy. Jud. 126. Lamarck Illtiftr. t. I12. Gxrtn. t. 132.
(Jafminoides ; Mich. Gen. 224. t. 105. Diihamcl Arb. v. i.
305.) — Clafs and order, Pottandrla xVIoiiogyma. Nat. Ord.
LiUt'idx, Linn. Solanete, Jud.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fmall, fiightly five-
cleft, obtufe, ereft, permanent. Cor. of one petal, fuiinel-
fliaped ; lube cylindrical, fpreading, incurved ; limb fmall,
in five deep, obtufe, fpreading fcgments. Stam. FilaniL-nts
five, awl-fliaped, inferted into the middle of the tube, and
clofing its orifice with their beard-like hairinefs, fliorter than
the limb ; anthers erect. P'ifl. Germen fuperior, roundifli ;'
dyle fimple, projefting beyond the ftamens ; digma cloven,
thickifli. Per'tc. Berry roundidi, of two cells. Seeds fe-
veral, kidney-diaped. Receptacles convex, fixed on each fide
of the partition.

Ed. Ch. Corolla tubular ; its orifice clofed by the
beards of the filaments. Berry of two cells, with many-
feeds.

The fpecies of this genus have been very imperfcflly
explained in many of tlie works of Linnaeus. The four-
teenth edition of Syjl. Veg.y edited by Murray, contains
eleven, of which the llrrt and fifth are one and the lama
plant, no Lycium at all, but the Serljfa of Juflieu ; fee
Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 1 06 1 ; fee alfo our article Dysoda.
The feventh and eighth alfo are but one fpecies, huerhaetv'i-
folium of Linn. Suppl. and the eleventh, capfulare of Sp. PI.
27S, appears, by tlie Linnxaii herbarium, to be a uoiide-
fcript fpecies of Hydroka ; called glabra in the Bankfiaa
culleftion, where is the other half of the very fame fpecimen,
of which a part was fent to LiiniEus by Miller, who re-
ceived it from New Spain. Seven, therefore, only of the
above number remain, to which three are added from Thun-
berg, in WiUdenovv. The latter, therefore, is corredl in
his enumeration, except with refpect to the cerffu /are. But
Thunberg has given more recent illuftration of his own new
fpecies in the ninth volume of the Linnsean Society's Tranf-
actions, with plates. We fliall briefly defcribe the whole,
with an additional fpecies from Michaux.

I. L. afrum. African Box-thorn. Linn. Sp. PI. 277.
(L. foliis linearibus ; Trew. Ehret. 4. t. 24. Jafminoides _
acultatum humile, halimi minoris folio, dore majori vioiaceo,
fruftu crafiiore, per maturitatem flavcfcente ; Mich. Gen.
224. t. 105. f. 2.) — Leaves clullered, linear, tapering at the
bafe. Branches draight, ending in a fpine. — Native of the
north of Africa, and fome parts of Spain. It has been
long cultivated in the greenhoufes of the curious, but has
little to attract general admiration. The^yZtOT is ihrubby,
rigid, much branched ; each branch ending m a did draight
fpine. Lcai'es linear, bluntifh, entire, various in length and
breadth, many together in lateral cinders, fmooth, rather
glaucous and flcfliy. Flowers foLtary, purple, about an
inch long, drooping ; on fimple llalks, ulually twice or
thrice as long as the calyx. 'Linna'us cites Micheli very

erroneoufly.

L Y C

L Y C

erroneouny, whicli Willdenow, not turning to the book, has
omitted to correft.

2. L. rtgidum. Rigid Box-thorH. Tliunb. Prodr. 37.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 153. t. 14. — Leaves cluflered, li-
near. Branches flraight, ending in a fpine. Flowers nearly
fcffile. — Gathered by Thunberg near Cape Town, flowering
in July and Augult. It differs from the former chiefly in
having the Jtoivers nearly feffile, with a much fhorter and
broader corolla. The leaves alfo are narrower.

5. L. rutheii'uum. Tartarian Box-thorn. Murr. Comm.
Gott. for 1779, p. 2. t. 2. Ehrh. Exiicc. n. 4. (L. tata-
ricum; Pall. RolT. v. i. fafc. i. 78. t.49.) — Leaves linear,
clufteredj from fpinous buds. Branches elongated, pen-
dulous.— Native of Siberia and Tartary. The braiich'ts are
long, (lender, pendulous, compound, with a pale fmooth
bark, and a folitary prominent fpine from each bud. Leaves
linear, bluntifh, tapering at the bafe, fcarcely more than three
or four in each duller. Flo'wers drooping. Corolla funnel-
fliaped, about half an inch long, pale purple. Calyx fome-
-what two-lipped. This is fmaller hi all its parts than the
following.

4. L. barbarvm. Willow-leaved Box-thorn, or Blue
Jafmine. Linn. Sp. PI. 277. Schkuhr. Handb. v. i. 147.
t. 46 Leaves lanceolate, folitary or cluttered, very un-
equal. Spines axillary. Branches elongated, pendulous. —
Native of Europe, Alia, and Africa, very hardy with us,
and long cultivated for bowers and trelhfes, being a rambling
fhrub of very luxuriant growth, though no great beauty. Its
/?OTUf« are purple. JSfrnVj of an orange-red. The Chincfe
variety, diftinguilhed by gardeners, and figured by Duhamel,
differs fcarcely in any thing. The calyx is occafionally three
or five-cleft, and fomewhat two-lipped, in that as well as the
ordinary kind. This plant blofFoms from May to the very
end of autumn, bearing flowers and fruit together in abun-
dance.

5. L. tetratuhum. Four-cleft Box-thoni. Thunb.
Prodr. 37. Tr; of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 154. t. I J. Linn.
Suppl. I5O. — Leaves obovate, cluflered. Branches flraight,
angular, ending in a fpine. Flowers four-cleft. — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope, towards the fea, flowering in
June. Thunb. A rigid, branched, fmooth^iru^, with the
habit of the firll two fpecies, but very fmall, flefhy, obovate
leaves, and fmall, funnel-fhaped, fliort, white Jlotuers, whofe
corella is four-cleft, andjlamens four only.

6. L. ctnereum. Grey-barked Box-thorn. Thunb.
Prodr. 37. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 1J4. t. 16. — Leaves
lanceolate, cluflered, nearly equal. Branches ending in a
fpine. Flowers on very fliort flalks. — Found at the Cape
of Good Hope by Thunberg. He defcribcs t\\e Jlem as
round, llriated, fmooth, grey, much branched, zigzag, and
ereft ; the branches alternate, flender, elongated, each ter-
minating in a fliarp fpine. Leaves fmooth, acute. Flonuers
axillary, folitary, on flalks fcarcely longer than the calyx,
and not half the length of any of the leaves.

7. L. horrldum. Succulent-leaved Box-thorn. Thunb.
Prodr. 37. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 154. t. 17. — Leaves
obovate, flefhy, fmooth. Branches numerous, ending in a
fpine. Flowers on very fhort ftalks. — Grows in maritime
fituations at the Cape, flowering from September to No-
vember. Thunb. The Jlem is three feet high, rigid, aboimd-
ing with fhort fpinous branches in every direftion. Leaves
from threfe to feven in a duller, not half an inch long,
feflile, thick, fmooth ; flattifli and green above ; convex,
white, and marked with a green line, benc'uth. Flowers
folitary, fmall, on fliort flalks. They are rcprefcnted in
the figure with four fegmcnts only, though of this nothing

Vol. XXI.

is faid in the charafter or defcription. If it be correft,
the prefent fpecies comes very near the fifth.

8. L. europxum. European Box-thorn. Linn. Sp. PI.
ed. I. 192. Mant. 47. (Jafminoides aculeatum, falicis folio,
florc parvo, ex albo purpurafcente ; Mich. Gen. 224. t. lOJ.
f. I.) — Leaves obovate, oblique, cluflered. Spines lateral
and terminal. Stem ereft. — Native of the fouth of Europe ;
hardy in our gardens, flowering all fummer long. Linnaeul
confounded this, in the fecond edition of Sp. PL, with hi»
barbarum, from which it is very diflinft. The Jlem and
branches are firm and upright. Leaves obovate, oblique or
twilled, femetimes minutely downy. Corolla paler, longer,
and more flender. There is no prominent green hne, run-
ning down the branches from each bud, as in the barbarum,
— The prefent is Rhamnus primus of Clufius and Dodonxus ;
fee Ger. em. 1334. fig. i.

9. L. boerhaavtfoUum. Glancous-leaved Box -thorn. Linn.
Suppl. 150. (L. heterophyllum ; Murr. Comm. Gott. for
1783. p. 6.t. 2. Ehretia halimifolia ; I'Herit. Stirp. fafc. I.
45. t. 23.) — Leaves ovate, oblique, acute, glaucous. Spinet
lateral. Flowers in terminal chillers. — Native of Peru.
This is a very pretty Jl:rub, with fpines accompanying the
buds on the ftem and older branches ; the young fhoots are
unarmed, flender, fpreading horizontally. Leaves fcattered,
flalked, about an inch long, ovate, entire, glaucous, fmooth.
Flowers feveral together, in a cltifter, or fliort panicle, at
the end of each branch, purplifli, very fragrant. Caly»
hemifpherical, with five fliarp equal teeth. Corolla rather
fliort and funnel-fhaped, with long proiofting ftamens and
ftyle ; the former hairy at the bafe. The Jligma, according
to I'Heritier, is fometimes capitate, fometimes cloven, or
of two valves, which rnuft furely be owing to the different
periods of its age.

10. L. barbatum. Fringed Box-thorn. Murr. in Syft.
Veg. cd. 14. 228. Thunb. Prodt. 37. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
v. g. 15^;. (L.inerme; Linn, Suppl. 150.) — Leavesovate,
fmooth. Branches zigzag, without fpines. Panicles axil-
lary.— Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope,
on little hills about Cape-town and elfewhere, flowering in
Augufl and the following months. " The Jlem is flirubby,
quite fmooth, two feet high or more, with alternate, fpread-
ing, zigzag, rugged, grey branches. Leaves oppofite,
ftalked, ovale, pointed or bluntifli, entire, fmooth, green
above, pale beneath, an inch or more in length. Foot-

Jlalls three quarters of an inch long. Flowers axillaiT, pa-
nicled, on capillary flalks. Stipulas or bra3eas fringed with
white. Berry two-lobcd, comprelTed, abrupt, with two fur-
rows and two cells." Thunb. — Of this we have jieither feen
a fpecimen nor figure, nor has it yet appeared in any Enghfh
garden.

11. L. carolinlanum. CaroHna Box-thorn. Mich. Bo-
real-Amer. v. 1. 9J. Donn Cant. cd. 5. 47. — Leaves fpa-
tulate-oblong. Branches without fpines. Flowers four-deft.
— Native of the rufhy falt-marfhes of Carohna, Georgia,
and Florida. Said to have been brought to England in
1806. The Jlim is flirubby. Leaves narrow. Flowers
blueifli, four-cleft, with four ilamens.

Lycium, in Gardening, contains plants of the (hrubby
exotic kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are the African
boxthorn (L. afrum) ; the willow-leaved boxthorn (L.
barbarum); the European boxthorn (L. curopa:um) ; and
the Tartarian boxthorn (L. tartaricum).

The fecond fort affords feveral varieties. The firft has a.
flirubby flalk feven or eight feet high, fending out feveral
irregular branches, armed with ilrong fpines, and furnifhed
with fhort thick leaves : the flowers which come out from
the fide of the branches are fmall and purple. They appear
4T in

L Y C

L Y C

in "July and Augufl, but do not produce feeds in this

climate.

The fecond has the (lalk four or five feet high, fending
out many iriesrular branches, covered with a very white bark,
and armed widi a few fliort fpiiies ; tlie leaves are about
three inclies long, and one iijch broad in the middle, alternate,
pale green. I'he flowers appear in May, and are fucceed-
cd by fmall round berries tliat ripen in the autumn, when
they become as red a;- c<'Tal.

The third rifes with weak irregul-ir diff'.:fed branches to a
great height, requiring iupport ; fome of thefe branches
have in one year been upwards of twelve feet h)ng ; the
lower leaves are more than four inches long, and three broad
in the middle ; they are of a light green and a thin confif-
. tence, placed witliout order on every fide of the branches. As
the fhoots advance in length, the leaves diminifli in fizc, and
towards the upper part are not more than an i::chlong and a
quarter of an inch broad ; fitting clofe to the ilalks on every
fide. The flowers come out fingly at every joint towards
the upper part of the branches, on Ihort tender peduncles,
and are of a pale colour with (hort tubes ; the brims
are fpread open, broader than either of the former forts,
and the ftyle is confiderably longer than the lube of llie
corolla.

Method of dihui-c. — All thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, cuttings, or layers.

The feeds (liould be fown in the autumn foon after they
are ripe, in pots, being plunged into an old tan-bed m winter,
and covered with the glaffes in froily weather ; but in mild
weather be open to receive moiihire ; in the following fpring
the pots (hould be plunged into a moderate hot-bed, to bring
up the plants, which mull be inured to bear the open sir as
foon as the danger of froft is over, and when they are three
inches high, be fhidien out of the pots, and each planted in
a fmall feparate pot iiiled with loamy earth, being placed in
the fliade till they have taken new root, when they may be
removed to a fheltered fituation, to remain till the autumn,
when they fliould be either removed into the greenhoufe, or
placed under a hot-bed frame, to flicker them from hard froft.
They muil at fu'll be kept in pots, and treated in the fame
way as myrtles, and lither hardy greenhoufe plants ; but
when they are grown ftrong, a few of them may be planted
out in the open ground in warm fituations, where they ftand
moderate winters, but are cominonly dellroyed by hard
frofts.

The cuttings fhould be made from the young fhoots, and
be planted in a Ihady border in July, being, duly watered ;
and wlien they have taken root, be treated in the fame man-
ner as the feedling plants. This is the ufual mode of in-
creafing them, as fome forts never -produce feeds in this
climate.

In the third fort the cuttings fhould be planted in the
fpring, in an eaftern border ; and tlie plants fhould not be
removed till the autumn, when they may be planted to
cover walls, as the branches are too v.euk to fupport them-
felves.

The third variety may alfo be increafed by dividing and
planting its creeping roots.

The layers muft. be made from the young branches, and
be laid down in tlie fpring ; and when rooted in the autumn,
taken off, and managed as in the other methods.

The hardy forts afford variety in warm fituations in
the open ground, and the other forts among greenhoufe
colkftions.

Lycium, in the Malena Mc-d'ica, the name of a fruit
called by the French hay; iV A-vl^non, the Avignon berry,
and by many authors the pyracantha. The ihrub which

produces It is the lycium five nyracantha of Gerrard. (See
I^vciUM,y«/'ra) The fruit is about the fize of a grain of wheat,
and is not rotind, but of an angular form when dried, fome-
tiines of three, fomctimcs of four angles, and fometimcs
dented in at one end like a heart. It is of ayellowilh-grcen
colour, and of a bitter and aftringent talte. It fliould
be chofen frefn dried, and large. There was formei-ly
a rob, or inlpiflated juice made from thefe berries, much
in ufe in medicine ; but this was generally adulterated
with a rob made of the berries of the woodbine, privet, flue,
or other fhrub, and is now quite out of ufe. The dyers in
France and Holland ufe it for a yellow ; and the Dutch have
another ufe for it, which is, that they boil it in alum-water,
and mixing it in whiting, form it into twilled (licks, whicli
they fell to the painters in water-colours, under the name of
Jill lie v/o'in,

lA'COCTONON. See Acosite.

LYCODONTES. See Bufonit^.

LYCOGALA, in Bo/any, fo named by Micheli, from
Xuxo;, a lunlf, and ■) x>ia, milh, a genus of the fungus tribe,
whofe internal appearance and fubflance, in an early (late,
are like a mafs of thick crsam. It is included under Mncor
by Linnxus, Schreber, and others. Perf. Syn. 157. Mich.
Gen. 21.5. t. 9J. Albert, and Schwein. Sj;. (RL-ticularia ;
Bulliard Fung. v. I. t.476.f. I — 3.) — Clafsand order, Cryy-
ioganua Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi.

Eff. Ch. Cafe roundi(h, membranous, fmooth, lodging a
mafs, originally pulpy and deliqueiccnr, Jinaily powdery in-
termixed with diltant internal fibres.

1. 1... argenteum. (L. grifeum majus ; Mich. Gen. 2 1 6.
t. 9J. f. I. Reticularia Lycoperdon, var. 2 ; Bull. Fung.
V. I. 95. t. 476. f. I. Mucor lycogalus ; Bolt. Fung. v. ^.
133.1. 133. f.2 ) — ^Cufliion-fhaped^ fomewhat hemifphcrical,
naked, even ofafllvery white. — Found hpon rotten wood in
autumn. — About an inch or more in diameter, brown and
pulpy when young, of a brilliant white when arrived at ma-
turity, diicharging, by one or more irregular accidental
openings, a mais of rich dark fnuff-coloured powder.

2. L. ttirbinatitm. (Reticularia Lycoperdon, var. 3 ;
Bull. V. I. f)j'. t. 476. f.2.) — Top-fhaped, naked, even,
pale brown. Found in fimilar fituations, though rarelv,
But half the fize.of the former, at moft, and furnilhed with
a kind of fhort ftalk, which gives it a pcar-fhaped figure.
Hence Perfoon was induced to make this a dillmtl
fpecies, though lie appears to have known it merely by
the account ot Bulliard. The latter fays it is pellucid when
yoiyig.

3. L,. pundii.'um. (Reticularia Lyeopcrdon, var. 4 i Bull,
v. I. 95. t. 476. f. 3.) — Aggregate, globofe, dotted, greyifli.
— Found on rotten wood. Nearly as big as the firll, but
more globofe, and of an afliy-grey ; its furface dotted all
over with minute points.

4. L. atnim. Albert, and Schwein. n. 233. t. 3. f. 3. —
CuQiion-fliaped, black. Its powder is intermingled with
branched, tree-like, radiating fixed tlircads. This, not
mentioned by Perfoon, is defcribed by the above authors of
the ConfpcHus of Fungi, growing near Niflie in Upper Lu-
fatia, as found upon fir trees from April to June, and more
fparingly in Otlober and November^ It is the fize and fliape
of the firR fpecies ^ white in the bcgirjjiing, then of a dirty
yellow, afterwards reddi/li-brovvn, and finally black. This
fundus is remarkable for leavinsj, as it were, a flvcleton of
blanched black fibres, radiating from a centre, \\ nen the coat
and powder are gone.

J. I.,, min.'t/um. Perf. n. 4. (L. miniata ; Perf. Obf.
M)col. fate. 2. 26. L. globofum, grani pifi ir.agnitudine,
ssric recodf i colore j' Mich. Geu. 216. t. 95. f. 2. Lycoper-
don

L Y C

don epidcndnim ; Linn. Sp. PI. i6j^. Hvidf. 645'. With.
V. 4. ;5Sj'. Sowerb. Fung. t. 52. Uolt. Fung. v. ^. iirj.
t. 119. f. I. Mucor ; SclisefF. Fung. t. 195.) — Aggregate,
globofe ; at firll fcarlet ; then brown, with rofe-colouroJ
powder. — Common on the trunks of trees, after rain, in
fummer and autumn. Its vivid vermihon or fcarlet hue,
■when young, is very ftriking. In decay it turns brown or
black. Mr. Sowerby has exhibited, in his t. 400. f. 2, g,
w!i,it he elleems a luxuriant variety of this, but which feems
to us a dillinft fpecies, being much larger, confluent, pale
pink and veiny, foon turning quite black. In an early ftate
it looked like the inteftines of a fowl. — Lycoperdon pififorms
of LinnsTvis is judged by Perfoon to be only a roughilli-coated
variety of this Lycogala mtiuatum.

'6. L. conktim. Perf. n. 5. — Scattered, conical ; at firft
red ; then purplifli-violet. — Found, very rarely, on the rot-
ten trunks of trees. About one or two lines high, exaftly
conical, but obtufe, clothed with little fcatterej fibrous
granulations. Powder of a violet red. Perfoon.

LYCOIDES, a term ufed by medical writers to exprefs
tlie diforders which arifo in the human body by a long re-
tention of the feed. Tliefe are fometimes madnefs, and
very often dangerous quinlies and fwellings, and inflamma-
tions about the neck and throat. If we confider the natural
tendency of the diforders of this kind to affecl the neck,
and the remarkable fwelling of the necks of bucks, and fome
other animals at rutting time, it may give fome rational hints
toward:', underftanding the alteration of the voice in boys who
arrive at puberty.

Blancard derives the word lycoides, from Ai/y.o--, lupus, and
£1^0;-, forma, from a fuppofitioa that wolves are fubjecl to
this diforder.

LYCOMING, in Geography, a county of America, in
the N.W. part of Pennfylvania, bounded N. by the Itate
of New York, and W. by Alleghany county ; 150 miles
long and 86 broad, being the largell in the ftate. The
north and weft parts are unfettled. It is divided into 10
townfhips, and contains 5414 inhabitants. — Alfo, a creek,
which runs fouth, and difcharges itfelf into the W. branch
of Shfquehanna, a few miles W. of Loyalfock creek.

LYCOPERDASTRUM, in Botany, Balbrd Puff-ball,
Mich. Gen. 219. t. 99. See Scleroderm.v.

LYCOPERDOIDES, Mich. Gen. 219. t. 98, a genus
conlifling of three fpeeies of fungi, very unlike each other.
The firft has a (tout thick many-rooted item, four inches
high, and is the Scleroderma tlnSorium of Perfoon, Syn. 152.
The others are fubterraneous produftions, akin to the Lyco-
p:rdon cer-vhunn of Linnsus.

LYCOPERDON, fo called by Tourncfort, from \mo:,
a luolf, and ^sfJv, to explode bach-jiards, this author having
certainly improved the old foolifh name. Crepitus lupi, by
making ft lefs generally intelligible. We do not prefume to
account for this curious appellation. The French caU the
fungus to which it is applied Veje-loup, or Wolf-bladder ;
the Englifh Puff-ball; and the Germans ^o/^? ; from which
lall Dil!:-:iius contrived the barbarous name Bovijla. Linn.
Gen. 569. Schreb. 770. Mir:. Mill. Did. v. 3. Perf. Syn.
140. Juif. 5. Tourn. t. 331. Lamarck Illullr. t. 887. —
Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi.

Eff. Ch. Cafe caulefcent, b-rtting irregularly at the top,
clothed Willi fcaly or pointed warts. — (The powder or feed
is greenifh.) Perfoon.

The author lad mentioned defines 14 fpccics of this
genus, very properly rellnc^ing it to fuch fungi as aiihvcr
to the above charafter, and excluding the Harry puff-balls,
(fee Geastru-m) ; as well as the Tuber, the Scleroderma, and

L Y C

fome other? which Linnaeus comprehended under his LycO'
perdon. Examples are

L. giganteum. Perf. n. I. Batfch Fung. t. 165. (L. max-
imum ; Scha;fr. Fung. v. 4. 130. v. 2. t. 191. L. Bovifta ;
Bulliard t. 447. L. Proteus; Sowerb. Fung. t. 332, two
upper figures.) — This is often found as big as a man's head,
in dry upland paftures, in various parts of England and the
fcuth of Europe. Vv'hcn the upper part, and the whole
povvdery contents, are blown away, the fpongy bafe, witli
a ihin torn edge, remains for a confiderable ti-Tie. The
root is fmall, but tough.

L. pyriforme. Peri. n. I 2. Schxff. Fung, v, 4. ijS. v. 2.
t. 185. (L.ovoideum; Bulliard t. 435. f. 3-) — Found on
rotten Ihimps in beech woods in autumn. It is an inch and
a half high, and an incfi broad, tapering at the bafe, and
pointed at the top, of a dirty brownifh-wliite.

'L,- gnffypinum. Perf. n. 14. Bulliard t. 435. f. r. — Found
on roltcii wocd ia France. A pretty fpecies, about one-
fourth of an inch in diameter, globofe with a (hort taper bafe,
all over white or pale grey, and covered as it were with a
fine down or cottony uibllance.

LYCOPERSICON, from Xu/.o;, a wolf, and fjir.Xr,
^ffs-r-.OT, a peach, the Tomato, or Love-apple, Solanum
I^ycopeificum of Linnxus. This- fruit is valued for its grate-
ful acidity in Italy, Spain and Portugal, where it makes a
principal ingredient in many foups and other difhes, Ueing
moreover fiippofed to polTcfs a ilimulating, or aphrodifiac
property. Railed in England, its flavour is more infipid,
and its qualities not in any refpecl, as far as we have heard,
remarkable ; except that tew llomachs can bear it in any
great quantity. The fruit is bell fried in dices, peppered
and falted, as a fauce for game or any roaft meat.

LYCOPHRON, in Biography, foil of Periander, king
of Corinth, fiourifhed about five hundred and fifty yeari
before the Chrifliaii era. The murder of his mother Me-
liffa, by his father, had fuch an effect upon him, that he
refolved never more to fpeak to him. This rcfolution was
ilrengthencd by their uncle Proclus, king of Epidaurus,
who took Lycophron and his brother under his proteftion.
When the infirmities of Periander obliged him to look for a
fuccefTor, Lycophron, who was then in the illand of Cor-
cyra, refuted to come to Corinth while his father was
there, and he was induced to promife to fettle in that city,
only on condition that his father would come and dwell on
the ifland which he left. So fearful, however, were the
Corcyrians of the tjTanny of Periander, that they killed the
fon to prevent the meditated exchange from taking place.

LYCornrtos, a famous Greek poet and grammarian, was
born at Chalcis, in Eubosa, and flmirifhed about three
hundred years before the Ciirillian era. He was one of
thofc poets who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
and who from their number obtained the name of Pleiades.
According to Ovid he was (lain by an arrow. He was
author of feveral tragedies, of which the titles of twenty
have been preferved ; but the only work that has come down
to us, is a very fingular poem, entitled " Alexandra," or
CafTandra, the fubjecl of which is a feries.of prediAions
feigned by him to have beui uttered by that daughter of
Priam. This poem contains 1474 verles, the obfcurity of
which has procured the epithet of " Tenebrofus" to its
author. It is a mixture of prophetical efTufions, fuppofcd
to have been delivered by Calfandra during the Trojan war.
The bed editions are that of Bafil, 15'46, enriched with a
commentary by Tzetzcs; that of Canter, 1596; and thai
or our countrvman, archbifhop Potter, in 1702.

LYCOPH'THALMUS, the ivclfs eye-Jhne, a name

given by fome authors to fuch pieces of agate, or any other

4 T 2 femi-

L Y C

1. Y C

{emi-pellucid (lone, as happen to have circular fpots in them,
refembliiig iti colour the eye of that animal.

LYCOPODIOIDES, in Botany. See the following
article.

LYCOPODIUM, from Xvxo.;, a ivolf, and -za-, the foot,
from the incurved, and often finger-like, ftiape of the fpikes
or extreme branches. Chib-mofs, or Wolf's-claw. — Linn.
Gen. 561. Schreb. 753. Mart. Mill. Did. v. ;;. Sm. FI.
Brit. 1 108. Swartz. Fil. 174. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl.
V. 1. 165. Jufl". 12. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 872. Michaux Bo-
real-Amer. v. 2. 282. Dill. Mufc. 441. (Lycopodioides ;
Dill. Miifc. 462. Selago ; ibid. 43J. Selaginoidcs ; ibid.
460.) — Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Mufc't, Linn. Crypt.
jUifcellanen, Schreb. Crypt. Filices, Smith. Crypt. Lycopo-
Jinfx, Swartz. — Nat. Ord. Mujci, Linn. Dill. Mufcifpurii,
JufT. Lycopodinett, Brown.

EfT. Ch. Capfules axillary, feflile, naked, moftly foli-
tary, of one cell ; fome kidney-fhaped, of two elaftic valves,
and full of fine powder ; others two or three-lobed, of two
or three valves, lodging from one to fix globofe bodies.

This beautiful and ample genus, one of the mod elegant,
ivith refpeft to habit, in the whole vegetable kingdom, holds
as it were an intermediate place between the ferns and
mofles. Some botanifts have therefore been mod inclined
to refer it to the one tribe, others to the other. Its habit,
moft like the mofles, does yet by no means flriftly accord
with that order ; and their fruftification, being now well
underllood, feparates them diftinftly from LycopoSum,
whofe nature in that refpeft is almoft totally in the dark,
agreeing fo far with ferns. The feeds of the latter, how-
ever produced, agree as nearly as can be with the powder
found in the comprefled or kidney-lhaped capfules of the
genus in queftion, which powder moreover has been like-
v/ife proved, by experiment, to be real feed. But the glo-
bular bodies found in peculiar capfules upon L . dent'iculatum
and other fpecies, proved themfelves feeds by germinating,
according to Brotero, Tr. of L. Soc. v. 5. 162, yet fuch
fpecies are furnifhed befides with what feems to be the
genuine fruit of the genus. In this difficulty Profeflbr
Swartz and Mr, Brown have prudently contented them-
felves, in the generic character, with mentioning thefe two
kinds of apparent capfules and feeds, without pofitively
afferting either to be fuch.

Jofeph Fox, a poor journeyman weaver of Norwich, is
the firil perion upon record who ever raifed plants of Lyco-
pod'tum Selago from the duft of the kidney-fhaped capfules ;
fee Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 314, whers Mr. Lindfay's ac-
count of having fucceeded equally well with the duft of Z.
lemuum in Jamaica, is alfo to be found. Sprengei cites the
authority of ProfefTor Willdenow in confirmation of this.
We cannot but admit therefore that this duft, fo exaftly
refembling the known feed of ferns, is real feed. This is
the Pulv'ts Lycopodii, formerly kept in the apothecaries
fhops, on account of fome reputed qualities long fince dif-
believed. It is ftill ufed in'^ermany to produce the appear-
ance of lightning upon the ftage ; for being very light and
highly infrdmmable, it takes fire inftantaneoufly, with a fort
cf hifGng explofion, while floating in the air. The duft of
L. clavatum is coUefted and fold on the continent, for this
purpofe. With refpeft to the globular bodies, whofe bulk
is beyond all meafure greater than that of thefe minute
feeds, it is impofiiblc to doubt the affertion of ProfefTor
Brotero, who in the fifth volume of the Tranfa£lions of the
L. Soc. deferibes their germination, radicle, cotyledons,
&c. ; fo that we rauft allow the exiftence of two kinds of
feed on the fame plant. The fame phenomenon ha; been
fufpetted in the genera Fuciis and Conferva, though bota-

nifts have been fo juftly cautious of admitting it, that they
have not dared lo trull their own eyes. Perhaps the aftual
exiftence of the fact in Lycopodium, may fanftion our belief
of it in thefe other inllances. The difference however be-
tween thefe two kinds of feeds in Lycopodium is far more
efTentTHl than Profeffor Sprengei feems to infinuate, when he
fays it " only proves that the capfules of fcveral fpecies of
this genus are of two different fliapes." (Crypt. 195,
Englifh tranflation.) Nothing can be greater than the ap-
parent difference betwixt the two kinds of feeds themfelves,
which is fuch as to overfct all analogy hitherto known.
An idea advanced in Engl. Bot. v. 16. p. IJ48, that the
kidney-ftiaped capfules may be abortive ones, can hardly be
admitted ; for although we hear of no experiment made with
the contents of the two different kinds of capfules from the
fame individual plant, (which if plants could be raifed from
both, would be truly an expenmentum crucls ;) yet the kid-
ney-fliaped capfules of the fpecies in queftion, L. Selag't-
tioidis, are too precifely like thofe from which vegetating
feeds have been obtained, to allow of a doubt concerning
them. We ought not to omit that Dillenius firft obferved
thefe different kinds of feeds in Lycopodium, and has founded
upon them the different genera into which he has divided it,
as quoted among the fynonyms above.

The 14th edition of Sy/]. Veg. contains 29 fpecies oi Ly-
copodium, fix of which are Britifti. Profeffor Swartz define*
65 ; exclufivc of the Linnsan nudum, which he eftablifhes
as a diftinil genus, by the name of Pfdotum ; as well as of
feveral others, which he finds mentioned in books, but could
not fatisfaftorily afcertain. — Fifteen fpecies have axillary
feffile capfules, all uniform, of two valves, containing the
above-defcribed powdery kind of feeds. The remaining 50
bear their capfules in terminal fpikes, each capfule being ac-
companied by a peculiai' fcale or bradea, generally toothed
or fringed, totally unhke the leaves, and moftly of a paler
or more tawny colour. Of thefe Jo, 26 have the fame kind
of capfules and feeds as the above 15, and no other; one,
(/>. Selaginoidcs, Engl. Bot. t. 1148.) has, befides fuch cap-
fules, very remarkable four-lobed ones, of two three-lobed
valves, and containing four globofe white feeds. The re-
mainder have kidney-fhaped as well as roundifh, rarely three-
lobed, capfules, either intermixed in the fame fpike, or the
former are in the upper part, the latter in the lower. By
this llatement it appears, that no known fpecies is without
the kidney-fhaped compreffed capfule, bearing the minute
duft-like feed, analogous to that of ferns ; the larger glo-
bofe feed being, as it feems, more of an adventitious nature.

Examples of the axillary fpecies are,

L. Unifolium. Linn. Sp. PI. 1563. Sw. n. i. (Selago
linarias foliis ; Dill. Mufc. 440. t. 57. f. 5.) — Leaves alter-
nate, remote, lanceolate. — Native of South America and
the Weft Indies. Taken up by Dillenius from Plumier,
who in his Filices, t. 166. f. C, C, gives an original plate of
this fpecies, which no other botanift appears to have fecn.
The root is fibrous. Stems feemingly pendulous, above two
feet long, flendcr, flightly branched, leafy throughout.
Leaves fcattercd, half an inch at leail diftant from each
other, often near two inches long, entire, taper-pointed,
fomewhat ovate and twifted at the bafe. Capfules axillary,
folitary, kidney-fliaped. No other known fpecies can vie
with this in the fize and dillance of its leaves.

L. gnidiuides. Linn. Suppl. 448. Sw. n. 4. — Leaves
three in a whorl, imbricated, ovato-lanceolate, obtufe, entire.
Branches elongated. — Gathered in the illand of Mauritius
by Sonnerat or Commerfon, and given by Thouin to the
younger Linnxus. No other botanift feems to have fecn
the plant. It appears to be very tall, with the habit of the

former.

L Y C

L Y C

former, but differs cffcntially in its much clofed and « horled
haves, not half an inch long, bhnit and concave, without
rib or vein ; the upper ones very gradually (horter and more
ovate, with folitary, palifh, axillary, roundifli, flightly reni-
forme, capfuks.

L. Selago. Fir Club-mofs. Linn. Sp. PI. 1565. Engl.
Bot. t. 233. S'.v. n. 12. Fl. Dan. t. 104. — Leaves fcattered,
in eight rows, fomewhat imbricated, lanceolate, acute, rather
eoncave. Stem forked, erect, level-topped. — Native of
rather moill mountainous heaths ; the only Britilh fpecies of
this tirfl fection. The Jlifms are about a fpan high, befet
with dark, ihining, fir-like leaves. Capfuks fmall, brownifh-
yellow.

The fpiked fpecies are not only numerous, but, in many
inftances, remarkable for fize and beauty. The Britifh ones
are inumiatum, Linn. Sp. PI. 1565. Engl. Bot. t. 239 ; aljii-
fium, ib. 1567. E. Bot. t. 334; — annotinum, ib. 1566. E.
Bot. t. 1727 ; — and the common clavafitm, ib. 1564, E.
Bot. t. 324. — This lad grows abundantly on dry mountain-
ous heaths, creeping on the ground to the extent of feveral
feet ; the fruit-bearing branches only being erecl. Thefe
bear one, two or three, finger-like denfe fpikes of ovate,
taper-pointed, membranous-edged, imbricated bradeas, each
with an axillary folitary brown capfuh.

Of the foreign ones none is more ftriking than L. Phkg-
maria. Linn Sp. PI. 1564. (L. ereftum dichotomum, fohis
cruciatis, fpicis gracilibus ; Dill. Mufc. 450. t. 61. f. j.] —
Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, entire ; the lower ones four

in a whorl. Spikes thread-fhaped, forked This grows in

various parts of the Eaft Indies, as well as in the ifle of
Bourbon. Mr. Menzies gathered our fpecimen in Otaheite.
It is 18 inches or more in height, flightly forked or
branched, clothed with numerous Ihining leaves, not fo regu-
larly whorled, at lead the upper ones, as Dillenius found
them. The long, terminal, flender, forked Jpiies, with
their little roundilh braSeas, fcarcely broader than the ac-
companying capfuks, are very fingular.

Among the fpecies with two forts of capfules is
Y,. Jlalellatum. Linn. Sp. PI. 1568. (Lycopodioides den-
tatum ereclum fiUcinum, caule tereti ramofiffimo ; Dill.
Mufc. 468. t. 65. f 5. Mufcus fquamofus ereftus ; Plum.
Fil. t. 43 Amer. t. 24.) — Leaves two-ranked, ovate, ob-
lique, fringed at the bafe, accompanied by a double row of
fmaller imbricated ones in front. Stem round, repeatedly
branched, flattened above. — The figures of this fpecies,
which is found in the Weft Indies, give but an inadequate
idea of its beauty. Its flat fan-hke fhape, and the exqui-
. litely neat arrangement of the innumerable little fliining
leaves, give it a peculiar and ftriking afpe<ft. The fpikes
are fmall, and fparingly produced. Root fibrous. Whole
plant from one to two feet high.

LYCOPOLIS, m Ancient Geography, viz. tk' city of the
Wolves, an ancient town of Upper Egypt, in the The-
bais, fituated on the weftern fide of the Nile ; fo called,
becaufe extraordinary worftiip was paid here to wolves,
which, according to Diodorus Siculus, drove back the
Ethiopians when they invaded Egypt, and purfued them
to Elephantina,on the borders of Ethiopia. This city is
luppofed to have ftood where the prefent town of Monfalut
now ftands.

LYCOPSIS, in Betany, fo called by Pliny, being alfo
the ^uxoj.1.; of Diofcorides, owes its derivation to /,i//.o.:, a
wolf, and cj-i;, a face, or countenance, from the circum-
ftance of the flowers being ringent, and having the appear-
ance of a grinning mouth ; the herbage is alfo furnifhed,
fays Ambrofinus, with a fort of rigid hairinefs fimilar to
the coat of a wolf. Linn. Gen. 78. Scbveb. 103. Willd.

12

Sp. PI. V. I. 770. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit.
2 20. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 297. Juft". 131. La-
marck lUuftr. t. 92. G^rtn. t. 67 Clafs and order,

Pentanclria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Afperifolix, Linn. Bor-
raginee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five, oblong, acute>
fpreading, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-
fliaped; tube cylindrical, bent in a curve; limb five-cleft
half way down, obtufc ; mouth clofed, with five convex,
prominent, uniting fcales. Stam. Filaments five, very fmall,
placed at the curve of the tube of the corolla ; anthers
fmall, covered. Pi/l. Germens four, fuperior ; ftyle thread-
fliaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma obtufe, cloven.
Peric. none, except the very large, inflated calyx. Seeds
four, 'rather long.

Eft". Ch. Corolla with a curved tube, its mouth clofed
with convex fcales.

Linnxus was acquainted with feven fpecies of Lyeopfis, to
which Willdenow has added two more, L. ciliata, and oblu-
Jtfolia. This genus is particularly marked by the tube of
the flowers beiiig curved ; indeed this circumftance is con-
fidered by Linnaeus and Willdenow as a fufficient effential
character. The following fpecies will ferve to illuftrate the
genus.

L. puUa. Dark-flowered Buglofs. Linn. Sp. PI. 198.
Jacq. Auftr. t. 188. — Leaves entire. Stem ereft. Calyx,
when in fruit, inflated, pendulous. — Found in fields and
by road-fides in Tartary and Germany, where it flowers
from the beginning of May to July. — Root perennial, of
nearly a finger's thicknefs, long, blackifli. Stem about a
foot high, roundifli ; fimple below ; dividing upwards into
flowering branches. Leaves alternate, feffile, foft, thickifti,
pale green. Flowers folitary ; petals fmooth, dark purple
or nearly black, the tube reddifli at its bafe, the limb
marked with five funk dots at the bottom. Seeds roundifli,
I'omewhat rugofe, flicking to the pendulous and fwelling
calyx.

L. arvenfs. Small Buglofs. Linn. Sp. PI. 199. Engl
Bot. t. 938. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 17. Fl. Dan. t. 435. —
Leaves lanceolate, briftlv. Calyx, when in flower, ereft. —
Very common in fields and wafte places all over England.
It flowers in June and July — The whole plant is hifpid.
Stem round, angulated, eredl, branched. Leaves oblong
heart-fliaped, embracing the ftem. Clujlcrs in pairs, termi-
nal, leafy. Flowers fmall, of a lively blue colour, with a
white eye. Seeds angular, rugofe, tuberculated. The juices
of this plant are mucilaginous, hke thofe of Borage.

LYCOPUS is faid to be derived^ from Kvy.of, a wolf,
and rroi;-, a foot, though we are perfedlly incompetent to
trace the origin of fuch a derivation. Linn. Gen. 15.
Schreb. 20. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1. 120. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 29. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed 2. v. I. 47.
Brown. Prod. Fl. Nov. HoU. 500. Tournef. t. 89. Jufr.
III. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 18. — Clafs and order, Dtandr\<t
Monogyr.ia. Nat. Ord. I'irticillat.r, Linn. Labiate, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
cloven half way down into five, narrow, acute, fegments.
Cor. of one petal, rather unequal ; tube cylindrical, the
length of the calyx ; hmb obtufe,- fpreading in four, nearly
equal divifions ; the upper one broader, emargisate ; the
4ower fmaller. Stam. Filaments two, generally longer than
the corolla, inclining to the upper fegment ; anthers fmall.
Pijl. Germen fuperior, four-cleft ; ftyle thread-fliaped,
ftraight, as long as the ftamens ; ftigma cloven, reflexed.
Peric. none, except the calyx containing the feeds in its
bottom. Seeds four, roundifli, bluntifli.

Efl-.

L Y C

L Y C

EfT, Cli. Corolla four-eleft ; one of its lobes notclied.
Stamens dillant. Seeds fmir, naked, blunt.

■I. L. eurrfteus. Water Horelumnd. Gypfywort. Linn.
■Sp. PI. 30. Engl. Bot. t. Iioj. Curt. Lend. fafc. 3. t. 2.
— Leaves very deeply fcrratcd. — Found abundantly on the
tanks of pooh and ditclies, in a Tandy foil, Iknvering in
July and Auguft. — Rot perennial. Skm fquarc. Leaves
oppoiite. Floiucrs white, many in a whorl. Seeds four,

obovate, blunt, fquarc, fiuTowed The whole herbage is

inodorous, though the flowers are foraetimes fvveet-fcci-ted.
It vanes occafionally in having deeply pinnacifid leaves, more
or le«i hairy ; indeed they arc fcarcely ever quite fmooth.
Dr. Sniitli reir:arks that " the glandular dots, form of the
corolla, and whole habit fhcw the afiinity of this plant ,to
Mentha ;" but he thinks tint the feeds would ferve fufli-
ciently to dillinguilh it without adverting to the number
of its (lamens.

2. l^. e.valtiilus. Italian Water Horehouad. Linn. Suppl.
87. Willd. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Gra;c. Sibth. v. i. 9. t. 12. —
Leaves pinnatifid, toothed. Calyx four or five-cleft — A
native of Italy, and alfo of Greece in Lupadia and Bi-
thynia, flowering in the fummer. — Root perennial, creep-
ing. Stem eredl, from four to fix feet high, leafy, hairy,
often tinged with red. Leaves oppoGte, crofTnig each
other in pairs, deeply pinnatifid, hairy on both fides. IVhorls
axillary, fefiile, denfe, many-flowered. Bralieas fmall, linear,
lanceolate, acute. Corolla tubular, white, a little longer than
the calyx, mouth hairy. Seeds obovate, blunt, covered
with refinous dots, aromatic.

The pinnatifid variety of L. etiropnus has by fome au-
thors been confounded with the prefent plant ; but on ac-
count of that fpccies having a more h\imble (leni, the
fegments of its leaves never toothed, and the calyx inva-
riably five-clefr, Dr. Smith thinks they are fufficiently
diftmft.

3. L. virgiiiicus. Linn. Sp. PI. 30. Michaux. Boreal-
Amer. V. i. 14. — Leaves ftalked, elliptical, tapering at
each end, equally ferrated. — A native of America, from
'New England to Carolina. It flowers in the autumn. —
The Linnsan fpecimcn of this fpecies has leaves above an
inch in breadth, with llrong, though not deep ferratures.
It therefore very ill agrees with the definition in Flora Fir-
gin'icii, " Leaves lanceolate, very finely ferrated," or with
Clayton's account, " Leaves long, narrow, and graffy.'' It
anfwers, however, exaftly to Michaux's definition, " Leaves
broadly lanceolate, ferrated, contrafted, and entire at the
bafe." — The flowers are numerous, in denfe whorls. Seeds
angular, each crowned with feveral blunt teeth.

Befides the three fpecies above defcribcd, Mr. Brown, in
his Prodronuis to the Flora of New Holland, mentions
another, which he calls aujlralts, with the foDowing cha-
racter, " Leaves lanceolate, pointed, ferrated, downy,
roughith above, glandular beneath, entire, and attenuated
at the bafe : ferratuies remote, equal, very acute. Stems
ilriated." - This is found all over New Holland, and in
Mr. Brown's opinion is very nearly allied to L. europecus.
Michaux has another fpecies under the name of uniflorus,
which is thus chnraderized. " Plant very fmall. Root tu-
berous. Stems fimple. Lea'oes oval, obtufe, obiolettly
toothed. Flowers axillary, foliiary." This is a native of
North Am-rica.

LYCOSTAPHYLjE, tvolf's grapes, a name given by.
fome of the Greek writers to the poinum amoris, a kind of
efculent night ftiade, which we have much more properly
catted lyeoper/ieon, ihe iuolj''speacL (See SoLANUM.) JEm'i-
Jius Macer tells, that the nightlhades, in general, were called
by the name morella ia his time : his words are, " herbara

quam Grxci ilrychnum dixcrc, Latini morellam dicunt.''
The name mbrelli leems to be fornicd upon the word morioiif
a name given both by the Greeks and Latins to one of the
fleepy night (liades, and to the male mandrake of Diof-
corides, vviuch the fliepherds were fond of eating ; but
which brought on fleepy diforders, if taken too largely. -

LYCOS rOMUS, in Ichthyology, the name given by
vElian, and many other of the Greek authors, to the an-
chovy, called by others the eticraulus and encraujuholus, and
by the late writers f«f;-(7y7ro/«/. See CL\}l')i.\ Encrafi col us,
and Anchovy.

LYCTOS, in yliicient Geography, a town fituatcd in
the interior of the ifle of Crete, and not far from Gnof-
fus to the fouth-eall. Of this town Polybius lays, that it
was a colony, originally of Lacedsemonians, and the moll
ancient of the Cretan towns, which produced ir.en who were,
without contradiction, the bravell and moll virtuous in the
whole iflaid. The priority of its exiftence to Gnon"us and
Cortyna, however, has been doubted.

LYCURGIA, Xi/wugyHia, in Jnt'iquhy, a fettival cele-
brated by the Spartans in menjory of Lycurgus, wiiom they
honoured witli a temple, and an anriverfary lacrilice.

LYCURGUS, m Biography, the celebrated legiflator of
Sparta, fuppofed to have been born about the year 926,
was fon of Eunomud, king of that country, and brother to
Polydeftes. He might have fucceeded to the throne liini-
I'elf on the death of PolydeCles, but knowing that the de-
ceafed .king's widow was pregnant, he publicly declared that
he would only hold the crov. n m trull for the clii d, provided
it fltould prove a fon. The queen, ambiiious ofretaining her
place and dignity, propofed to marry I^ycurgus, and dellroy
the infant before its birth. Lycurgus took mealures to
prevent the completion of her wicked propolals : flie was,
in due time, delivered of a boy, which being brought to
him, as he was fitting at the table with the magillratcs,
he took it in his arms, placed it in tiie chair of Hate, and
exclaimed, " Here Spartans is your king." Lycurgus
faithfully difchargcd the duty of regent and guardian
during the minority of his nephew Charilaus, and as loon
as the young prince came to years of maturity, he readily
refigned all authority into his hands, left Sparta, and tra-
velled into feveral foreign countries, with the view of ob-
ferving their laws and cuftoms. He lirll vifited Crete, at
that time governed by the laws of Minos : thefe laws he
ftudied moll carefully, and contradied a friendlhip with
Thales, whom he perfuaded to fettle at Sparta. He thence
paffed over to Afia, making obfcrvatio::s on the principal
Ionian cities, which were overwhelmed in luxury and efte-
ininacy. Here he met with the works of Homer, which
he tranfcribed and brought into Greece. The coiilufion
which followed his departure from Sparta, made his pre-
fence again ncceffary, and he returned home at the ear-
ned folicitations of his countrymen. Perceiving tiiat the
diforders of the Hate admitted no other cffcftual remedy
than a total change of the laws and conftitution, he pre-
pared to give a new iegiflative fyflem to Sparta. He took
care to fortify his authority with the faniiions of religion,
and obtained from the oracle of Delphi a declaration, that
the :onllitutiun he was about to eftablifh, would be ihc moll
excellent in the world. [For an account of his inllitu-
tions fee the article LacyTLDemonians. ] His principal oh-
jedl, as a patriot, was to render his country great and re-
fpeftable among furroundiiig nations ; this he attained, and
Sparta, under the laws of Lycurgus, became a nation of
invincible warriors, who, for a feries of years, bore the
greatell fway in the affairs of Greece, and were the bulwark of
their friends, and the dread of their foes. Lycurgus has

been

L Y C

L Y D

b'-pn compared to Solon, the legidator of Athens, and it I.YDD, in Geography, a fmall market-town in the hun-

has been faid that the former gave his citizens morals con- dred of Langport, in the lathe of Sliepway, and county of

forniable to the laws which he had eftablilhed, and that the Kent, England, occupies a low fcite near the fouth-weftem

latter had given the Athenians laws which coincided with extremity of the county, where a point of land running out

their cuftonis and manners. The office of Lycurgus de- into the fea forms Dengenefs bay, which, tho\igh very open,

nianded refalution, and he (hewed himfclf inexorable and is of great fervice for veflels when the wind fets violently

fevere. The Lacedemonians (hewed their relpedl for this from particular quarters. Leland fays, " Lvdde is counted

great legidatur by ar.njally celebrating a feftival in liis ho- as a part of Rumeney, is iii mylcs beyond Rumeney town,

nour, al which his praifes were recited, and which wa^ ob- and is a market. The town is of a prety quantite, and the

ferved during feverai ages. It is not agreed in wliat mafiner, townefch men ufe botes to the fe, the which at this tyme is a

or when he died ; according to Plutarch he voluntarily put myle of. The hole town is conteyned in one paroche, but

an end to his life by abllinence, whilj he was yet of an age that is very large. Ther is a place beyond Lydde, wher

to enjoy it. Lucian fays he died at the age of eighty-five, at a great numbre of holme trees grouelh upon a banke of

The laws uf Lycurgui v/ere abrogated by Philcpccmen in baches throwcn up by the fe : and ther they bat fowle, and

th- year B C. i8S, but the Romans very foon rc-cllabli(hed kill many birdes." The church, which is a (pacious edifice,

them. Plutarch. Univer. Hift. confill of a nave, chancel, and aifles, with a maffive tower,

LvcuRGU.s, an Athenian orator, fon of Lycophron, ornamented with pinnacles at the weft end. The monuments

floi-.rirncd in the time of Phihp of Macedon, and is fuppofcd are numerous^ and among them are many brafles, chiefly for

to have died about j;he year 328 before Cliriih He ftudied baiHffs and jurats of the town. Lydd is a corporate town

ttriiftell integrity. He was appointed one of the magif-
trates, and in exercii'ing the duties of his fituation, he ba-
nillied all perfons of a dilToUite character, and made a num-
ber ot very ufeful regulations. As he thought the higher
kinds of poetry pofleiied luperior advantages, he patronized
dramatic exhibitioi'S, and caufed ftatues to be erected in
honour of the principal tragedians. He was the friend of
Demolthene^,- and a zealous advocate for liberty : when
Xeiiocrates was dragged to prifon becaufe he had not paid

ants 1303. The latter are chiefly engaged in fiihing, and
other maritime employments, of which fmuggling is cod-
fidered as forming a material bra.ich. Lydd is 71 miles
diftant from London ; has a fmall market on Thurfdays, and
an annual fair. The holm trees, or fea hollies, mentioned
by Leland, dill grow on the beach near the town.

On the point of land called Dengenefs, is a light-houfe,
1 1 o ieet high, creeled a; few years ago, in place of a more
ancient one, under iT-e direftion of Mr. Jame.s Wyatt, and

the tribute exacted from ftrangers, he liberated him and partly oa the model of the Eddyftone light-houfe. This
confined the farmer of the tax in his (lead. Lycurgus was point is alfo defended by a fort, and feverai ranges of bar-
one of the thirty orators whom the Athenians refufed to racks have been erefted in the vicinity. Beauties of Eno.
deliver up to .Alexander. Some of his orations are preferved, land and Wales, vol. viii. °

and have been printed in Colledions of the Greek Orators. LYDDA, in ^ndtrnl Gfofra/^v, a townxif Jud^a, in the

Piutarch. Lempriere. tribe of Ephraim ; which was oiTe of the three towns that

LYCUS, in jinciait Geography, a river of Sarmatia, Demetrius, king of Syria,, compelled the Samaritans to fur-
S-W. of Rhodus, which d'.lcharged i?felf into the Enxine render to the Jews ;^ it was alTo called Dio.fpol's.
fea. It is mentioned by Ovi-. — Alfo, a river, which, ac-
cording to Herodotus, took its ri!e in the country inha-
bited by the ThyfTsgetas, and traverfuig that of ihe Mre-
otK, ran into the Pahis Msotis. Ptolemy mentions this
river, which is fuppofed to be the fa !ie with the preceding.
— Alfo, a river of Afia7 in Phrygia. — Alfo, a nver of
Afui Mmor, in Caria, the fource of which was in mount

Cadmus, and it formed a lake in Latmicus Sinus. — Alfo,
a river in Sicily, the fame with Halycus. — Alfo, a river of

LYDGATE, .Tohk, in Biography, an early Englifh
verfilier, and a monk of the Bcuedidtine abbey at St. Ed-
mund's Bury, in the reign of Henry VI. He was edu-
cated partly at Oxford, and then travelled into foreign coun-
tries to acquire the learning of the times. He was the dif-
ciple and friend of Chaucer, and was rogardtjd as a prodigy
of learning at the period in which he floiirifhcd, and is faid
to have been a good poet and rhetorici.w, geometrician, aflro-
nomer, and theologian. He opened a fchool in his monaflerj"

Macedonia, mentioned by.Plurarch. — .'.Ifo, a river of Afia for teaching the fons of the nobility the arts of vcrflfication

Minor, in Myfia, in the canton of Pergamus.- Alfo, a and compofition. He was an imitator of his mailer Chaucer,

river of Alia, which proceeding from Armenia, watered but is reckoned among thofe who contributed to the ira-

the plain near the town of Heraclea, and difcharged. itfclf provement of the Enfflifn lr.ngu.ige. His principal pieces

into the Iris. — Alio, a river of Alia, in Bitlivnia, the fame are "The Fall of Princes," from the French of Boccaccio;

with Rhyndacus, accordin,^ to Fhny Alio, a nver of «' The Story of Thebes," chiefly from Guido Colonna ; and

Alia, in Pontus, which mixed its waters with thofe of the "The Troy Boke," or " Deftrudtion of Troy." Bcfidcs

Iris. — Alfo, a river of Afia, in Cappadocia, according to thefe, a lift has been given of his other pieces, amounting to

Ptolemy, who fays that it was one of the branches of the 25.1, exifting in MS. in different hbraiies.

Abforrus which fell into the Euxine fea. — Alfo, a river of LYDIA, in Aiuieni Geography, firll called M^eonia, from

Alia, in AfTyria, according to Polybius and Ptolemy. — Meon, king of Phrygia ai.d Lydi.i, and afterwards Lydia,

Aifo, a river of Afia, in Syria, near the gulf of Iffus, ac- from Lydus, the fon of Atyp, one of its kin<'S. Bochart,

cording to Plin)-. — Alfo, a fmall river of the ifle of Cyprus, who denies the exitlence of fi;ch perfons as Meon and Lydus,

which had its fource in the interior of the ifland at mount derives the name Lydia from the Phcenitian word /us, to

Olympus, and difcharged itfelf into the fea to the weft of wind, becaufe it lay on the banks of the I^arandcr, a river

Amathus.— Alfo, a river of Phccnicia, which ran between famousfor its windings, and Mseonia, from a Greek tranflatioD

Byblos and Boryta, according to the Itinerary of An- of the Piiocnician word luJ. Lydia and Msonia are fome-

tomne. times ditlinguiilKd ; that part where mount Tmolus ilood,

watc: ei

L Y D

L Y D

watered by the Paftolus, being; properly called M«oiiia,
and the other lying on the coaft of Lydia. Lydia, according
to Pliny, Ptolemy, and other ancient geographers, was
bounded by the Myfia major on the north, by Caria on the
fouth, by Phrygia major on the eail, and Ionia on the well.
But the kingdom of Lydia, as tiic ancients underllood it,
extended from the river Halys to the iEgean fea. The chief
cities of Lydia were Sardis, the feat of king Croefus, Phi-
ladelphia, formerly the fecond city of Lydia, Thyatira, a
colony of the Macedonians, and Magnefia, feated on the
Mxander. The only mountain of any note in Lydia is Si-
pylus. Mount Tmolus was once very famous for its wine
and faffron. The rivers of this country, moft. worthy of
notice, are the Paftolus and the Cayller.

As to the origin of the Lydians, Jofephus, and almoft all
fCclefialUcal writers after him, derive them from Lud, the
fourth fon of Shem, an opinion founded merely on the fimi-
larity of names. Some of the ancients fuppofe them to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Myfians, and Carians. Others,
finding fome conformity in religion between the Egyptians
and Tufcans, who were a Lydian colony, conclude that they
were originally Egyptians. Their fables, however, fliew
that they were a very ancient nation, and of their high anti-
quity there is ample evidence.

The Lydians began, at a very early period, to be governed
by kings, whofe fovereignty feems to have been defpotic, and
the crown hereditary.

Of their kings there are three diftinft races on record,
viz. the Atyadas, fo called from Atys, the fon of Cotys and
grandfon of Manes ; the Heraclidoe, or defcendants of
Hercules, who began to reign about the time of the Trojan
war ; and the Mermnadas, who began to reign not long be-
fore the Medes (hook off" the Affyrian yoke, of which race
the firft king was Gyges, and the laft Croefus. As to the
charafter of the Lydians, they were under Croefus, and
fome of his predecefTors, a very warhke people ; but when
fubdued by the Perfians, and enjoined by Cyrus, according to
the advice given him by Crcefus, to wear long vefts, and to
apply themfelves to fuch arts only as had a natural tendency
to debauch their manners, and enervate their courage, they
became voluptuous and effeminate, unfit for aftion, and
wholly given up to idlenefs, pleafure, and diverfions. The
foil of this country, watered by many rivers, was very fruit-
ful ; abounding with all forts of graii>, and celebrated for
its exquifite wines. It was alfo enriched with feveral mines,
whence Croefus is faid to have drawn his immenfe wealth.

As to the religion of the Lydians, it feems to have
been much the fame with that of the Phrygians. They
worfhipped Diana, Jupiter, and Cybele at Magncfra.
The cuftoras of the Lydians were fimilar to thofc of
the Greeks, except that they ufed to proifitute their
daughters, who had no other fortune except what they
earned in this way. They puniflied idlenefs as a crime, and
inured their children from their infancy to hardfhips. Their
4rms were not bows and arrows, but long fpears anciently
ufed by the cavalry ; and if we may believe Herodotus, the
Lydians far excelled all other nations in horfeinanfliip. They
were the fivll that introduced the art of coining gold and
fdver, for facilitating trade ; the firft that fold by retail, that
kept eating-houfes and taverns, and that invented public
fports and fhows, which were therefore called luJi by the
Romans, who borrowed them of the Tufcans, the defcend-
ants of the Lydians. To thefe diverfions they recurred for
relief at a time, during the reign of Atys, when a great
fcarcity of provifions prevailed through the whole king-
dom of Lydia. Having contrived various kinds of diver-
sions, as Herodotus informs us, they ufed to play one

whole day without intermiffion, eating and drinking the next
day without other amufement. After they had continued
thus alternately fafting and feafting, and finding that their
calamities increafed rather than abated, the king divided the
whole nation into two bodies, commanding them to determine
by lot, which of the two fhould remain at home, and which
fliould go abroad in quell of new habitations, lince their na-
tive country coidd not afford them fufficient maintenance.
Thofe who by lot were conftrained to abandon their country,
after many adventures, arrived in that part of Italy, which
was then called Umbria, and is now named Tufcany. Thus
they changed their name, being no longer called Lydians,
but Tyrrhenians, from their leader Tyrrhenus.

Although the trade of the Lydians is no where particu-
larly mentioned, we may well imagine that it was confider.
able, efpecially under their latter kings, when Lydia was in
the meridian of its glory ; on account of the fplendour of
this monarchy and the advantageous fituation of the country.
The fame inference is jultified by adverting to the immenfe
riches, not only of the Lydian princes, but of feveral pri-
vate perfons. Herodotus (hb. vii. c. 2_^.) mentions one,
named Pythius,' who not only entertained Xerxes and his
whole army, while he was marching with innumerable forces
to invade Greece, but made him an offer of 2000 talents of
filver, and 3,993,000 pieces of gold, bearing the ftamp of Da-
rius. This fame Pythius was reckoned the richeft man in the
then known world. The lall king of Lydia was Crceius (fee his
article), with whofe capture by Cyrus at the fiege of Sardis
(B.C. 548.) the ancient kingdom of Lydia terminated ; and
from this time it continued fubjeft to the Perfians, till they
alfo were conquered by the Macedonians. Anc. Un. Hift,
vol. iv.

LYDIAN, the name of one of the modes in Greek
mufic, which occupied the middle place between the JEoliza
and Hypodorian. It was alfo foraetimcs called the Barbarian
mode, from its being invented by a people of Afia. See
Mode.

Euclid diftinguifhes two Lydian modes ; that of which
we have been fpeaking, and another called a low Lydian, and
which is the fame as the jEohan mode, at leaft as to its fun-
damental. The charafter of the Lydian mode was animated
and interefling, yet melancholy, pathetic, and proper for
voluptuous occafions ; on which account Plato banifhed it
his republic. It was faid that by this mode Orpheus tamed
wild beafts, and that Amphion built the walls of Thebes.
Some fay that it. was invented by Amphion, the fon of Ju-
piter and Anthiope ; others by Olympus the mulician, and
difciple of Marfyas ; while there are ftill others who affign
it to Melampides. Pindar fays, that it was firil ufed at the
nuptials of Niobe.

Lydian Games, was a name given to the exercifes and
amufements invented by the Lydians : they are faid to have
invented the quoit and games of chance, played with dice.
Thefe Afiatics, after they had lo'l their city, emigrated into
Etruria, whither they carried their ceremonies and games.
Some Romans, having a paffion for foreign play, adopted the
Lydian method of gaming, which in the time of the empe-
rors was purfued with fuch exccfs, that Juvenal is very
fevere on the great number of thofe who were battening to
ruin by that means.

The Lydian games were at firft called Lyili by the
Romans, but afterwards, by corruption, Luiii.

LvDiAN Lyre, in the JruUnt Mujic. The Trigon inftru-
ment or harp of the Afiatics or Barbarians was ufually fo
called. *

Julius Pollux, c. 10 of 1. iv. Onomaft. fpeaks of a L)-»
dian harmony, mode or tunc, proper for the flute, of which

he

L Y D

L Y G

he afcribed tlie invention to Anthippus ; and a little further,
he lays, that the Lydian nortic proper for the flute was in-
vented by Olympus or Marfyas.

For the fca'c and names or tharaftcrs of the notes in the
Lydian mode, fee Music of the Greeks, and Notation.
The Lydian mode correfponded with our key of E.

Lydian Stone ; Lydifcher fidn, Wern. ; Bafanlte, Kirw. ;
rifrre corncenne of feme French mineralogifts ; vulgarly
Touch Jlone, Black jafper, &c.

Its colour is commonly greyifh-black, which fometimes
approaches to blucifh and velvet black.

It is found maffive and in irregular blunt-edged rolled
pieces, fomctimes traverfed by veins of quartz, which are
however more frequently feen in the common flint-diite, of
which the Lydian llone is confidered to be a fubfpecics.

Externally fmoolh and glillening ; internally it is mpre or
lefs glimmering. Its frafture is even, approaching to flat
conchoidal, and alfo fometimes to uneven and fplintery ; in
the large it pafTes into flaty. Fragments indeterminately
angular, moftly (harp-edged ; they are opaque, felJom
tranflucent at the edges.

It is hard, but lefs fo than quartz ; brittle ; not very
eafdy frangible. Specific gravity 2. ^y6, Kirwan ; 2.880,
Grofs ; 2.SS7, Gerhard.

The Lydian ftone is, like the common flint-flatc, infufible
per fe ; and it generally retains its black colour in a very in-
tenfe heat.

With regard to its geognoftic fituation it differs confidera-
bly from the common Filnt-jlate (wiiich fee) ; for it does not,
like this, form entire mountains, but only fingle ftrata.
Thus it occurs alternating in uniform flrata with primitive
day flate, in Saxony, Davreuth, &c. To Mohs, however,
it appears to be only the newer clay-date formation which
contains fuch ftrata ; lince the older clay (late of the lofty
ridges of mountains in the Saxon Erzijebirge appears to
be entirely dellitute of Lydian ftone. In fecondary forma-
tions, fuch as the greywacke mountains, it occurs partly
as rolled pieces (being the produfts of a deftroyed older
formation), partly in beds in uniform ftrata alternating with
greywacke and greywacke flate : of this latter numerous ex-
amples occur in the Hartz mountains. Of the older forma-
tion of this rock, it is worth remarking that it occurs with
traces of carbone.

The beds of Lydian ftone, where they ballc out, appear
very much rent, and divided into cubic maffes ; and, indeed,
this cubic form is ftill more or lefs difciVnible in the boul-
ders and rolled pieces of this fubftance found in brooks and
rivers. Mohs.

LYDIAT, Thomas, in Biography, an Englilh matlie-
matician, was born at Okerton, in. Oxfordfliirc, in 1572, and
was educated at Winchefter-fchool, from whence he removed
to New college, Oxford, where he obtained a fellowfliip.
He applied himfelf with great afiiduity to the ftudy of the
languages, philofophy, aftronomy, the mathematics, &c.
In the year 1603 he refigned his fellowfliip, and contented
himfeif with living on his patrimonial eftatc. The next
feven years he fpent in publifliing feveral books which he had
begun in the college, particularly his " Einendatio Tempo-
rum a^ initio mundi hue uf(jue compendio fafta, contra Sca-
ligerum." This work was dedicated to Henry, prince of
Wales, who appointed him his chronrgrapber and cofmogra-
pher. In 1609 he became acquainted with archbifliop Ulher,
who gave him a lituation in the colhjge at Dublin, which he
held about two years. In 1612 he xvas prt-laulcd to the
rectory of Okerton. He was a great futicrer for liis loyalty
in the civij wars : at one time he was lo completely ftnpped
«f all his property, that for jbree muuths logetUer. he >vas

Vol. XXL

under the ncccdity of borrowiitg a (hirf, to be able to
change his linen. He was twice forced away from his own
houfc, and once made a prifoner in ^^''ap^vick caftle. He-
died extremely poor in 1^46, when he was about 74 years of
age. In 1669 a Itone, with an infcription, was placed over
his grave, at the expence of the fellows and wardens of hii
college: an honorary monument was liken ife ercfled to his
memory. He was a perfon of fmall ftature, but of great
parts, and of a public foul : he was a man of confiderable
and various erudition, and held in high cftiination by learned
men both at home and abroad. He wrote a great number
of books, befides that already referred to, as i. " De v^riis
annorum fonnisi," and a defence of the fame in reply to
Clavius and Scaliger. 2. " On the Origin of Fountains."
3. Several treatifes on Philofophy and Aftronomy, &c. He
left behind him a number of MSS.

LYDOWIARY, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ;
eight miles N.W. of Rofienne.

LYE, in Agriculture, any watery fluid much impregnated
with faline matter. In hufljandry the term is generally ap-
plied to fuch fluids as are employed for the purpofe of fteep-
ing grain ; in which cales the ^)eft critericn of their ftrength
is that of the fwimming of an egg. See Steep.

LvE, Edwvhd, in Biography, a learned antiquarian, and
great mailer of the Gothic and Saxon tongues, to whofe
labours we have had frequent occafion to refer, was bom at
Totiiefs, in Devon fhire, about the year 1694, where his
father kept a fchool. He was educated at home till he was
about nineteen years of a^e, when he was admitted at Hert-
ford college, Oxford : here he took his degrees, and in 1719
was ordained prieft, and prefented to the livmg of Haughton-
parva, in Northaniptonfliirc. In this fituation he emploved
himfeif in the profound ftudy of the Anglo-Saxon language.
His firft publication was an edition of the " Etymologicum
Anglicanum'' of F.'ancis Junius, from the author's MS. in
the Bodleian library. To this he prefixed an Anglo-Saxon
grammar. In 1750 he was prefented to the vicarage of
Yardley-Haftings. After this lie publifhed the Gothic gof-
pels, with a Gothic grammar prefixed to them : but the great
labour of the latter part of his life was his Anglo-Saxon and
Gothic diftionary, which he had juft finiflied and put to
prcfs, when death lernilnaled his labours in 1767. It was
publiflied under the direction of the Rev. O. Manning in
1772.

LYEMMER. See Leviner.

LYGDINUM Mahmoh. See Madbtk.

LYGDUS Lai'Is, in Nnlural Hijlory, a name given by
fome of the ancients to the fpecies ot alahafter, which others
of them called marmor lygHinum, by whicli name there is only^
one fpecies.

LYGE, in Geography, -a. town of Norway, near a lake
of the fame nainc ; l6jiiiles N.W. of Chriftianfand.

LYCEUM, in Botany, one of Loefling's genera, and
fo called from /(.(■>o , a rod or ttvig, in aliuiion to the tough
pliant rulhy nature of the plant. I.,oefl. It. 284. t. 2.
Linn. Gen. 3!. Schreb. 45. Willd 8p. PI. v. i. 316.
Mart. Mill. Ditt. V. 3 Ait. Horr. Kew. ed. i v. j. 133.
.liifl". 33. Lamarck llluflr. t. 39. Richard in Sims and
Kon. Ann. of liot. v. 2. 548. t IJ — Clafs and order, Tri-
aiidria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. ^Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Giume of one o\-atc, coiivolirted, pointed,
permanent valve, at length inflexcd, feparating at the lower
fide, and containing two equal, oppofiie, parallel, level .be-
rets. Cor. of two valves, very hairy at the b.ifc, permanent ;
the ou'ermoft t.vdto, poin'ed, convex, awnlel's; ii:ner twice
as long, linear, narrow, acute, cloven at the lurnmit, aw::-
lefs. Stam. FilameiUs (in eacli fioiet^ tiirivc.. equal, longer
X U ihaa

L Y G

L Y G

than the C'lroUa, flattidi, very narrow, anthers vertical, linear,
cloven at each end. /"///• Germen fuperior, oblong, convex
at the outl'ide, flat at the inner; llyle finiple, compreded,
the length of the llarncns ; ftigma finiple, taper-poinied, in-
curved. Peric. mne> except the iiardened hairy bale of the
corolla of each floret, united longitudinally to tlie other.
Seeds folitiry, linear-oblong, convex at the otitlide, flattidi,
with a longitndinal fn row, at the infide.

EfT. Ch. Glume of one valve, convjlulcd, two-flowered.
Corolla of two valves, the innernioft. twice as lonj;; as tli2
outer, awnlcfs. Seed folitary, enclofed in the hardened
combined b.ife of each floret.

I. L. Sparliim- Ballard Mat-weed. Linn. Sp. PI. 7S.
(Sparta hcrba alternm ; Chif. Hill. v. 2 220. Spartnm al-
teriim Phnii ; Ger. em. 41 ) — Tke only known fpecies ob-
ferved by Loefling to be very abundant in the fouth of Spain,
always growing in low place.<i, on h cUy foil, where the
■water Hands after much rain. The Spaniards call it ylibar-
din, or /Ihardin, a name probably retained from tlie Moors.
The root is creeping and perennial. Stems about a fpan high,
ereft, rufliy, round, llender, imooth, nearly naked, with one
joint, above which they are much extended after flowering.
Leaves feveral, flieathing tl\e lower part of the ileni, and
about equal to it in height, narrow, convoluted, taper-
pointed, rufhy, fniooth ; the upper or floral one fliorter,
with a longer fliealh. Slipula tliin, membranous, oblong,
cloven, decurrent. Fluwer large, terminal, fclitary, at tirll
ereft, inclining as the feeds ripen, with a knot at the bafe.
Calyx fmi.oth, delicately ilriped with gieen, at length open-
ing and expofing the long denfe hairs which clothe the bafe
of the permanent coroila, inverting the feed.

The error of Linnoens and Loefling, who fuppofed the
germen to be inferior, and common to two florets, is pro-
perly corrected by Richard, who fliews the fuppofed two-
celled nut to be formed merely of the hardened combined
bafes of the corollas of the two florets. This is analogous
to many other true grafles, (as this is,) vihofe hardened
corolla becomes a huflc or fliell to the feed. In other points
the defcription of Richard is Icarcely, if at all, fuperior to
that of Loeflmg.

This plant, being far inferior in tenacity, as well as length,
to the true Sparlum or Mai -weed, St'ij>a tenac'ilfima of Lin-
risus, ferves chiefly in Spain for lUifFiag mattrafles. It
flowers in May and .Tune, ripening feed in autumn, and often
retaining its empty flieath or calyx till the following fummer.
The parts of fruftificati n are, oi: the whole, perhaps larger
than thofe of any uther grafs.

LYGINI.A, from AD)ivo.-, tiviggy, alluding to its hard
tough rulhy habit. Br.nvn Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. 1. 248.
(Sclioenodum ; Labiliard. Nov. Holl. v. 2. 79.) — Clafs and
order, Dioecla R.'onadelphia. Nat. Ord. Trlpeialoidea, Linn.
JuHci, .lull. Rcfiiaceit, Brown.

EfT. Ch. Male, Spatha of one valve. Petals fix. Fila-
ments united lengthwiic. Anthers three, didymous, cloven
at each end.

Female, Spatha of one valve. Petals fix. Style in three
deep divifions. Capfule three-lobed, tiiree-celled, bnrfling
at the prominent angles. Seeds folitary.

The root is fcaly, creeping, with thick downy fibres.
Stems fimple, rour.d, leaflefs, with feveral fhcathing fcales,
eafily breaking at the joints. Spike terminal, of feveral
crowded tufts of flowers, each accompanied by a common
Ihcathing braflca, the female flowers fometimes folitary.

1. L. imbcrh'ts. Braiteas and fpathas beardlefs. Male
nnd female tufts many-flowered.— Native of the fouth part
of New Holland. — This is Schoenodum tenax, the male plant,
of LabiUardiere, t. 229. f. i. Mr. Brown obfcrves, that

this fuppofed fpecies of the French author is msde up of
two diiferent. genera ; he therefore thinks it fafer to rejeft
the generic name entirely, than to retain it for either the '
male or female plant, which might lead to error. To this
deter.Tiinatuin we gladly afi'cnt, efpecially as the faid name,
being compofed of another eftabliflied one, Schocr.us, is ablo-
lutely inadmidiblc, and its termination bejng altered for the
worfe from Scbcnwides, (which ti;e author gives as his mean-
ing) nnf in any manner removing the objection.

2. L. harbata. Bra&eas and fpath.ts bearded. Male
tnft^ of few flowers ; female ones flngle-flowercd, nearly
folitary. From the fame country. Thefe plants have
much of the habit of /\'f/7/». Eleg'ia, &c. See Lepyuodia. t

LYGISMOS, from /.-j-ji^M, to dijlort, in Surgery, a dillor-
tion of the limbs ; fometimes a luxation.

LYGMOS. See Hkkup.

LYGODIUM, in Botany, from XijyaJ=.:, pliat\t, tough,
and Jlendvr, expreflive of the habit of this elegant genus,
which confills of ferns with twining Hems. Swartz Syii.
Fil. 152. Sim's and Konig'a Annals, v. 2 305. t. 10. f. 2.
Sprengel Crypt. 176. t. 5. f. 39. Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. I. 162. Bernhardi in Schrad. New Journ. v. i.
fafc. 2 39 t. 3. (Ugena; Cavan. I.,eccioii. 551. Hy-
droglofl'uin ; Wilid. Abhandl. 20. t. i, 2. Odontopteris ;
Berhardi in Schrad. .lourn. for iHco. 127. t. 2. f. 4. Gi-
fopteris ; ibid. 129. t. 2. f. I. Ramondia ; Mirbel Bull,
des Sciences an 9. 179.') — Clafs and order, Cryplogamia
Filkes. Nat. Ord. Fi/ices, Linn. .Tufi. Filues Ofmundaceg,
Brov.'n.

Gen. Ch. Capfules without a ring, ovate, reticulated
with veins, pellucid, radiated >vith furrows at the top, burll-
ing lengthwife, feffile, reverfed, attached by their middle,
in two rows, on narrow procefles of the frond at its back,
forming little, fimple or forked, fpikes. Jtivolucruin con-
filling of feparate fcales, alternate with tjie capiules, ori-
ginating from the veins of the frond, unconnedled at their
upper part.

Efl". Ch. Capfules feffile, ovate, attached by their middle,
reverfed, radiated at the top, in two rows on the back of
narrow proeelfes of the frond. Involucrum of folitary
fcales, feparating the capfules.

Obf. Mr. Brown has firfl; remarked the great peculiarity
of til.' infertion of the capfules, they being attached by their
middle, not by their bafe. The Hem is long, twining, and
climbing. Leaves in pairs, on one common cloven foot-
ftalk, each of them either divided or compound. Fruftiff-
cation either fringing their lobes in the form of minute, pale,
chain-like fpikes, or rarely compofing the whole of certain
leaves, transformed as it were into a compound forked af-
femblage of fpikes. See Willd. t. I. f. 2.

Swartz defines eleven fpecies, to which Mr. Brown adds
a twelfth, found in the tropica! region of New Holland,
which he calls ],. Jht:ikipimiatum.

Beautiful fpecimens are

L,.famdiiis. Sw. n.i. (OphioglolTum fcandens ; I.,inn.
Sp. Pi. 151S. Ugena femibaltata; Cav. Ic. v. 6. 74. t. 594.
f. T. Adiantum volubile minus ; Rumph. Amb. v. 6. 75.
t. 32. f. 2, 3. Filix ; Petiv. Gazopii. t. 64. f. II.) — Stem
round. Fronds pinnate. Leaflets fl:alked, oblong; heart-
{haped or lobed at the bafe : the barren on. s finely ferrated. —
Native of the Eaft Indies, and of Brazil. This rifes to the
height of feveral feet. — The fronds or branches fpring in
pairs from a woolly-topped knob, and are each a ipan lorfg,.
of about eight or ten alternate, flalhed, oblong leaflets, with
an odd terminal one of larger fize. Each is frii:ged with
numerous (hort, rather hairy, fpikes.

h. cirdnnaium. Sw. n. 6. (OphioglolTum circinnatum ;
i Burm^

L Y M

L Y M

Burm. Ind. 22S. O. flexuofum ; Linn. Suppl. 443, not Saxons, e^ranted, in a charter to the church of Sherborne,

Sp. n. I'JIO- Adiantu:n volubile polypoidcs, live majus ; " the land of a inanlion near the weft bar.k of the Litr., lo

Rumph. Amb. v. 6. 7,. t. 33.) — Stem round. Fronds that fait for t lie faid church (hould be boiled there." In

palmate, in three or four lanceolate entire taper-pointed the Domcfday Survey we lind th^ manor of Lyme as bein^

lobes; the fertile ones much contracted. — Native of the in three divifions or parcel". £dward I. granted Lyme

Eall Indies. We have it from Tranqucbar. — Tlie /caves the liberiies of an haven and borough ; and from that period

are deeply palmate, fmooth, 'entire, pale green. 5/>/7f j' it increafed in buildings, and became fo profperous, that it

marginal, very fliort, almoll round. was able to fnrnifh Edward III. with four fhips, and lixtv-

Linnaeus confounded this with the Falli-parma, Hort. two mariners, for the fiege of Calais. In the reigns of

Malab. V. 12. 63. t. 32, which fcems to be his real 0-
Jlcxuofum, and is Lygodlum Jlexuofum of Swartz, n. j.

LYGON and Lygus, are uled for agniis callus.

lA'GUM, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in
duchy of Slcfwick ; 14 miles W. of Apcnrade.

LYING-IN Hosi-iT.vL. See Ho.spit.^l.

Lying-iv Women., Diforders of. See Labour, Lochia,
Fever, Aftkk-p.mns, &c.

Lyi.NG-lN Women, l'reatm:nt of. See Labour.

Lying umkr the Sea, in Sea Lnngunge, is when, in a

Henry IV. and V., the fouthern coall of Englt.nd was much
annoyed by the incurlions of the French : this town feverely
experienced their ell'eCts ; and being alfo afflicted by other
the calualties, its trade declined confiderably. It has fince been
occalionally retrieved and reduced ; but is now recovering its
importance through the relidence of merchants, who have
recently eredted fome handfome llonc-houfes ; ai.d as ihe
liarbour is confideied one of the bell in England, the
town \t capable of groat improvement. During the citfil
war in the reign cf Charles 1., Lyme was a place of great

ftorni, the fhip is a-hull, and the helm fo taltened a lee, that confequence to the contending parties, efpecially to the

the fea breaks upon her bow, or broadllde. royahlls ; great part of their dependence on the well of Eng-

Lyi.sg fl/ort^, denote.; the ftate of a fliip, when prclTed land ariling from being in poflelFion of this town. The fieo-e

down Tideways by a weight of iail in a frefli wmd that crofTes of Lyme was one of the moil remarkable that occurred

the lliip's courfe either direClly or obliquely. during that eventful period. In the reign of James II.,

Lyiko-/o, or Lyi::g-ly, denotes the fifuation of a fliip Lyme was dillingiiilhed by the landing of the duke of Mon-

when Ihe is retarded in her courfe, by arranging the fails in mouth here on his unfortunate contention for the kingdom,

fuch a manner, as to counteraft each other with nearly an and by the fanguinary executions which took place on his

equal effort, and render the (liip almoll immoveable, with defeat,

refpcci to her progreifive motion or head-way. The privileges granted by Edward I. to this town have

A fliip is ufually Irought-to by the main or fore-top-fails, been confirmed and increafed ky feveral fucceeding fove-

one of which is laid a-back, whiltl the other is full ; fo that reigns. The corporation confills of a mayor, who acls as

the latter puflies the lliip forwaiji, whilll the former refiils a jullice in the years before and after his mayoralty, a re-

tlie impulfe, by forcing her a-(lern. This is particularly corder, town-clerk, and fifteen capital burgcd'es, of whom

pradlifed in a general engagement, when the hoftile fleets two with the mayor are jultices. The royalty of the manor

are drawn up in two lines of battle oppolite to each other: is veiled in the corporation. Lyme has been reprefented in

it is alfo ufed to wait for fome other Ihip, either approaching parliament ever fince the twenty-third year of Edward I.

or expected ; or to avoid purfuing a dangerous courfe. The right of election is in the mayor, burgelTes, and free-

efpecially in dark or foggy weather, &c. Falconer. men ; tiie voters being between thirty and forty. The

Lyixg-Zo in n Storm. See Trying church is a neat, though ancient edifice, but is not parti-

LYKSBORG, or Luxburg, in Geography, a town of cularly worthy of notice. The cullom-houfe is a modern

Denmark, in the duchy of Slcfwick, on a promontory near brick building, fupported on pillars, for the cenvenience of

the Baltic ; 7 miles N.E. of Flenfljorg. the corn -market, which is held beneath. The quay is c&m ■

LYKSALE, a tov.n of Sweden, in the Lapmark of modious, though not fpacious ; and round the harbour are

Uniea ; So miles S.S.W. of U:nea. leveral fmall forts mounted with cannon for its defence.

LYIVIAN, a town fliip of America, in Grafton county. The principal public work, however, is the cobb, or pier.

New Hamplhire, fituated at the foot of a mountain on the which, in its ancient llate, was coinpofed of vail j>iecci oi

eall fide of Connecticut river, between Littleton and Bath, rocks rudely piled on each other; but is now formed of

7 miles W. by N. of New Concord ; incorporated in 1761, ilone. This is a fabric of the greateil utility on this coalt,

and containing 533 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town in the county there being no other flicker for ftiipping between the Start

i>t New York, Maine', north of Wells and call of Aitred, to point and the Portland road ; and although at this place the

each of winch it adjoins. fouth-weil wind blows with extreme violence, veifels ride in

LYME, a town of Grafton county, New Hampfliire. — the harbour in perfeCl fccurity. The cobb has fufl'enxl

Alfo, a po'l-town in New London county, Connecticut, very mucli by thcfe winds : it was totally dedroyed in the

the " Nchan'.ick" of the Indians, at the mouth of the Con- reign of Richard II.; and in the lall century it fullained

ne>:ticut river, on its eal^ fide ; fettled about the year 1664, great injury by three ftorms, but was repaired by govern-

and incorporated in 1667 ; and containing, in three pariflies, ment at the expence of 6000/. Charles II. granted 100/.

43!io iiih ibitants.

LYME REGIS, a fea-port, borough, and market-town,
in the liundred of Whitchurch, in Briiport divilion of Dor-
tctfhire, England, is fituated 23 miles dillant from Dor-
chefter, and 143 from London, on the little river Lyme,
Dear the fea. Its fituition, in a cavity between two rocky

per annum towards its repair, out of the culloms of the port,
which is Hill continued ; and the inhabitants anp.ually chufe
two cobb ward*ens to fuperintend the improvement. The
population of this town, in the year 1801, was Hated to be
145 1 ; the number of houfes, which are chiefly conllrufted
of blue rag-done, and covered with flate, was 276. A mar-

hills, on a dechvity, makes it difficult of accefs ; and that ket is held on Saturdays, and two fairs annualh
part of the town nearell to the fea is fo very low, that at Lyme was the birth-piace of Thomas Coram, the bene-
Iprmg-tides the under-rooms and cellars are overflowed to the volent patron and contriver of the Foundling hofpital in
depth of ten or t.velve feet. Lyme is mentioned in hiilory London. He died March 19, 1751, in his eighty-fourth
in the eighth ceiitHry, when Cenwulf, king of the Weil year, and was buried in the vault under the chapel of the

4 U 3 hofpital.

LT M

L Y M

liofpi-al, wlipre an infcription perpetuates liis memory.
Beaiitk'S of England and Wales, vol. iv. Hutcliins" Hif-
tory and Antiquities of Doffetlhire, 2 vols, folio.

LYMFIOKD. or Lymfuut, a gulf of Dennnark, near
the welt coall of North Jutland, comoiunicating with the
Cattegat, and run'ing 8o miles inland, gradually widening,
and feparated from the North lea Oidy by a narrow llrip of
land. * N. lat^ 56' 39'.

LYMINGl'ON, a borough acd market-town in the
parifh of Boldrc, in the New Foreil of Hamplhire, Eng-
land, is fitualed on the declivity of a rifing ground, on the
caftern bank of the Lymington river, about a mile from its
confluence with the foa ; at the diilance of 16 miles from
Southampton, and 95 from London. It is of remote, though
unknown orifrin : from a confideration of local circumftances,
Mr. WarnerYuppofos that a town or village was formed near
this fpot by the Britons. That the Romans were acquainted
■withii, is evinced bv the contiguity oi an encampment called
Bucklar.d Rings, or Caillc Field, and by the evidence of Ro-
ir.an coins, nearly 20olbs. weight of whicii, of the Lower
Empire, were difcovered here in two urns in the year 1 744.
Lymin<^ton occurs in Domefday bnok under the name of
Lentune : but it does not feem to have attained any confi-
derable importance till it became the property of baron de
Redvers, in the time of Henry 1. ; when, a port being ella-
blifhed, the wines of France, and other foreign commodi-
ties, were unfliipped at its quays. It then alio became fa-
mous fur its falt-works ; though this manufaciure is, with
great probabihty, fuppofcd to have been eftablilhed at a
much earlier period. A very extenlive manufaciure of ma-
rine fait is now carried on here : the works are lituated on
the borders of the fea-lhore, and reach nearly three miles in a
fouth-well direftion. The town confifts principally of one
long ilreet, and is divided into the ne^u and oIJ town by the
church, which, though originally a regular pile, confiiiing
of a nave, chancel, andailles, with a fpire in the centre, is
now, through lucccfiiveidterations, become extremely infor-
mal. The town hall is a neat building : and here are two
fets of baths, which are rendered very convenient^, and are
much frequented. Lymington was fummoned as a borough
to fend reorefentatives to parliament in the reign of Ed-
ward III. : but it dees not appear to have complied with
this preccDt till the 27th cf Elizabeth. In the reign of
.Tames I. it was incorporated by charter, and from that pe-
riod the returns have been regular. The right of election is
veiled in the mayor and burgefi'es, in number about eighty.
The population was ilated, under the act of the year iSco,
to be 2378 ; the houfes 492. A market is held on Satur-
days ; and two fairs annually. The fituation of Lyming-
ton, on the banks of a navigable river, and fo contiguous
to the fea, is extremely favourable for trade ; but this ad-
vanta'3'e was formerly mucli greater than at pre'.ent, as, by
the injjdicious conllrudtion of a caufeway, the depth of the
river has been confiderably lefTened, and its channel contraft-
ed. Previous to the making of this caufeway, which was about
the year 1730, velTeis of upwards cf 500 tons burthen could
be brought up to the quay ; though now one of 500 tons
can fcarcely be navigated. Beauties of England and W.iles,
vol. vi. Warner's Account of Lymington, i2mo.

LYMPHA, Ltmph, m Anatomy, a term given to the
tranfparent fluid conveyed in the abforbing veilcls of the
body ; alfo to a part of the bloud. tSee Absorption and
Blood. I It is often appLed alfo to other animal fluids,
chiefly when clear and nearly tianlpareat.

LYMPHjE Ductus, a name given fometimes to the

lymphatic velfcls.

LviiPH.'E, among the Romans, a kind of grottoes, or
artificial caves, fo called from lympha, water ; becaufe they
were fnrnifhed with a great many tubes, canals, and fe.ret
paflages, through which the water fuddenly gulhedupon the
IpeCtators, while bufy in admiring the great variety and
beautiful arrangement of fliells, with which the grotto was
adorned.

LYMPMATI, or LyMPn.A.T!Ci, in ^nuqmiy, a name
given by the Latins to polTeded or mad perfons, becaufe
they were thought to be gifted with divination. Plin. Nat.
Hilt. lib. XKv. cap. 5. p. 36S. edit. Hard. Sec Lau-

VATI.

Thefe anfwer to the -.xiin^riXn-'toi of the Greeks : the an-
cient Greeks ca'led water hjw^Ai?, which the Latins changed
into lyinphj. The term omfhi, fays Mr. Bryant, is of great
antiquity, .uid denotes an oracular influence, by which peo-
ple obtained an infight into the fecrets of futurity : it was
written onphi or mnphi; and ligiiified the oracle of Ham, who,
according to the Egyptian theology, was the fame as the fun,
or Ofiris : and as fountains were deemed lacrcd, thele were
llylcd by the Amonians Aln omphc, or the fountains of the
oracle, from the divine influence with which 'hey were fup-
pofcd to abound, wliich terms were afterwards contracted by
the Greeks into -.•jij.lr,, a nymph, who fuppolt-i- luch a perfon
t() be an inferior goddefs who prefided over waters. In the
fame manner from al omphia was derived lympha, which dif-
fered from aqua or common water, becaufe it u as of a fa-
cred or prophetic nature. Analylis of Ant. Myth. vol. i.
p. 280.

LYMPHATICS, in Anatomy, are the abforbing vefll'is.
This fyllem is an aliemblage of numerous fmall'veffels, arifing
from all parts of the body, carrying from them various fluids,
vshich they pour into the venous iyltem, after making thein
pafs through certain fmall bodies called lymphatic glands,
and forming part of the fame lyileni with them. The term
lymphatics was applied to thefe tubes in confequence of their
containing, in general, a tranfparent fluid or lymph ; and it
delignatcs, therefore, properly fpeaking, only thole abforb.
cuts, of which the contents relemble lymph. The veflels,
which take up the chyle from the intellines, are called
laCteals, from the appearance of the^r contents. As the
ftructure and offices of the organs are the fame in all parts,
thefe dillinftions might lead to erroneous views of the fubjeft;
and the term abforbents, which denotes their general funftioR, .
feems the moll appropriate. Names derived from the nature
of the fluid ablurbed are more particularly objectionable,
becaufe that is very imperfectly known to us We cannot
fuppofe that one and the fame fluid is abforbed from ferous
cavities, from the adipoiis cells, Irom mufcles, glands, bones,
&c. ; yet in all thele cafes it goes under the common and
very indefinite term lymph.

Like the termination of the exhalants, the origin of the
abforbents cannot be demonflrated. They are fo extremely
delicate, that the eye, affiiledeven by tke belt optical inilru-
ments, cannot difcern them : we mull therefore infer their
exiftencc from phenomena, and conclude that abforbing vef-
fels arife wherever abforption takes place. An attentive ex-
arajsation of abforptious ihews us that they occur wherever
there is exhalati'/n ; fo that tlie fame table may ferve both
for exhalants and ablorbents. The following one reprefenis
the latter.

Abforbing

L Y N

L Y N

Abfojbing veffels.

I. External, arifing on

1. Tlic mucous furfaces.

2. Theildn.

1. The ferous furfaces.

2. The cfllu'ar fyllem; and

2. Internal, ariung on

deriving from it

3. The medullary fyftem

C I. Scrum.
( 2. I'"at.

' I . Of (hov'. and broad
bones ; and the ex-
tremities of long
bones.
2. Of the middle of
long bones.

<;

4. The fynovial fvllem i ' ^^

^ ' ■ ^2. Of tei

i_ 3. Of nutrition, taking up the refidHal nutriti"e matter of each organ

I; Of thejoints.

" " )dinous flieatis.

The ftruiJ^ure, properties, funftions, and diftribution of
the ablorbing lyikms, both the veffcls and glands, are con-
ildered in detail in the articles Absokbexts and Absokp-

TIO.V.

Lymphatics of Birds and Fifhes. See Anatomy of Birds
and Fishes,

LYNCHBURG, in Geography, a pod-town of Virgi-
nia, in Bedtord ctiunty, on the S.lideof Jarr.es river, nearly
oppofue to Maddifon, and one mile diftant. It contains
about 100 houfes, and a large warehoufe for the inf^eftion
of tobacco ; i 2 miles from London.

LYNCH ET, among Farmers, a line of green fward,
ferving as a boundary to feparate ploughed land, in common
fields. See Balk.s.

LYNCHVILLE, in Geography, a pod-town of Marion
county. South Carolina, 450 miles from Wafliir.gton.

LYNCIS L.\Pi.s, in Natural Hiflory, the name given by
fome of the writer,*; of the middle age to the helemnkes.

LYNCURIUM, or Lyscurius, in Mimralogical Anti-
quities, a mineral fubdance, refpecling the nature of which
ieveral conj^ftures have been broached, from the time of '
Pliny down to the prefent day. The opinions of the pre-
fent mineri'.logi:ls appear to be divided between- amher and
hyacinth ; but it is mod 'probable that both thefe fubftances
have been confounded under the name of ivncunum. Pluiy,
in fpeaking" of the mineral in quedion, isinclined to deny its
very exiilence : " De lyncurio," he fays " maxime dfcl co-
git auCtorum pertinacia. Qaippe etiamfi eleclrum id effet,
lyjjcurium tamen gemmam ede contendunt. Fieri auteni ex
urina qmdem lyncis,. fed congeda terra protinusbedia ape-
riente earn, quoniam invideat hominum ufui. Efle autcm
qualem in igneis fuccinis, co^orem, fcalpique. Nee folia
tantum aut llramenta ad fe raperc, fed xris etiam ac ferri lami-
nas, , quod Diodes quidem et Theophralius credidit. . F.go
falfum id latum arbitror, nee vifam in sevo nodro gemmam
uliam ea appeUatione." (Hid. Nat. xxxvii. 3.) It is re-
markable that Pliny, whofe incredulity upon other occa-
fions was certainly not over great, {hould have treated the
whde of what has been faid of the lyncurium as a mere
fable, whin his fcepticifm might have more properly been
confined to that part of the llory which relates to the origin
of the fubdance in queftion. Indead of this,- in fpoakmg
r£ the lynx^ he a&ually gives credit to what has been faid of
the extraordinary quality of its urine. " Lyncunn Immor
(he fays) ita redditus ubi gignuntur glsciatur, arcfcitve in
gemaias, carbunculis fitniles,et igneo colore fulgentes, lyncu-

rium vacata', atque ob id fuccino a plerifque ita generari pra-
dito." lb. viii. j;S

Theophradjs, from whom Pliny has principally derived
his information refpefting lyncurium, me.ilions among its
qualities that of attrafting, Lke amber, particles of draw, -
and even thin laminre of copper or iron. Our hyacinth does
not pofTefs the quality of becoming cleClric by friCrion ; a -
circumdance to whi.-h fir John Hill does not advert in his
obfervations on this done, which he c-mfiders as the only
one that can be faid to anfwer the defcription given of the
lyncurium by Theophraftus. On the other hand, it mud be
confeded that its remaining quahties, as mentioned by the
Erefian philofopher, -uic. the confiderable liardnefs attributed
to it, and the confequent ufe made of it for engraving feals
on, do not exaftly fquare with the well known charafters cf
. amber, which is moreover feparately defcribed in his work as •
a Jubdance perfefily didincl: from lyncurium.

It is more than probable, that in this cafe, as in many,
others, the qualities of two didinft fubdances have been er- -
roneoufly combined by tlie ancients, who, in their attempt .
' to identify natural bodies, were but too often drangely mifled -
by a fancied fimilarity of charafters, where the eve of a .
modern naturalid would fcarccly difcover traces of the moft .'
didant refemblance.

It would appear that the fined amber, and a particular
deep-coloured variety of it, was formerly obtained from Li-
guria, where, indeed, it dill occurs, though not in the fame
quantity in which it is found on the fea-coad of Pruflia. If.
we may fuppofe the word lieurium to have beeh derived from .
that part of Italy, it is certainly equally probable that ig- -
noranceand the love of the marvellous may afterwards have -
fubdituterl that of lyneurium, implying the fabulous origin
of this fubdance from the urine of the lynx. Similarity of .
colour appears to have been fufiicient afterwards to affix the ■•
fame appellation to the hyacinth ; and it is proliahly this -;
confuCon which- produced the defcription of Theophraftus .-
above alluded to, and which is partly applicable to amber, and 1
partly to the V.yacinth, or any other hard done of fimilar .-
colour and tranfparency, fuch as yellow garnets, yellow cal- -
cedony, &c.

Among the authors who have confidered amber to be the ■
lyncurium of the ancients, are Geoffroy, Gefner, Beckcin, ,
and Napione ; mod of the. other modern writers on' minera-
logy follow St. Epiphanius, LetTer, and Hili, who are de-
cidedly of opinion that the hyacinth alone could have been
meant by it. Sir William Watfon fuppofes that Theophraf-"-

tua'a J

L Y N

L Y N

his's dcfcription is applicable to the tourmalin, the electrical
phenomena of which are however of a peculiar nature ; not
to mention other objections that may be urged againft the
identity of the two fubllanccs.

Of other opinions on this fubjcft none deferve to be men-
tioned, except, perhaps, on account of its fmgularity, that
of Woodward, and fome writers before and after him, who
fuppofed the lyncurium to be the calcareous petrifaftion
known by the name of bekmnhes. Indeed it is difficult to
guefs what can have given origin to this Itrange fiippofition,
unlefs it be tie circumllance that thefe belemnites, when
burnt, are faid to give out an unpieafant urinous odour.

In the Vulgate, mention is made of the ligurius, as one of
the twelve precious ftoncs in the breail plate of the high
pried. In the verfion of the Stpiiiagiiit, it is called
Avyy-tu^io'i. St Epiphanius, enumeratin;;; the fame twelve
gems, gives the follo'.ving account of the (lone in qnelHon :
" I.,igurius vel lynrurius gemma ; de hvijus inveiitione vel
apud naturae: indagiitores, vel apud alios vcteres qui harura
rerum memincrunt, nihil cognovimus. Invcnimus tamen lan-
guriamgemmam vocatam, quam vulgari lingua iajurium ap-
pellant. Et forte puto hunc effe lygnriiim." (St Epiph.
Opp. latine.) The fame writer and Hieroiiymus fufpedl
the lyncurium to be the hyacinth ; but how uiifettled the
ideas of St. Epiphanius were refpedling the latter gem, ap-
pears from the following account he gives of it : " Hyacin-
thus igitur diverfas hahet formas ; quo enim reperitur colors
profundior, eo cseteris prallantior eft. ' Similis ell lans
qua; fiibpurpurafcit a'.iquatcnus." (1. c. pag. i lo.)

LYNDEBOROUGH, in Geography, a townfhip of
America, in HilHborough county, New Hampfhire, about
70 miles from Portfinouth ; incorporated in 1764, and con-
taining 976 inhabitants.

LYNDHURST, a village in the parifh of Minfted,
in the New Forell of Hampllure, England, is fituated pine
miles from Southampton and ^ 6 from London, nearly in
the centre of the New Forell, of which it has been, from
the formation of the forell, confidered as a fort of capital :
and here was exercifed the jurifdidtion of the chief juflice
in eyre for this forell, fo long as he continued to exercife
it, of which there are no traces fubfequent to the reign of
•dharles II. All the Foreft courts under the verderors are
ftill held here ; as well as thofe of attachment, &c.
as the fwaniT.ote : the former are held on fuch days as the
prefiding judges appoint, three times in a year ; the latter
on the 14th of September annually. The king's houle,
in this village, though but an indifferent refidence, is oc-
cupied by the lord warden whenever he vifits the Forell.
An ancient ftirrup is preferved here, faid to have been worn
by William Rufus at the time he was fhot by fir Walter
Tyrrell. The king's ftabies are very large, and were pro-
bably confidered as magnificent when tiril erefted, which
anoears to have been about the time of Charles II. From
the hotel at Lyndhurll, which is entirely new built, and
fitted up with every convenience, is a fine view of the fea,
and of the Needle rocks at the weft end of the Ifle of
Wight. Under the population atl of 1800, Lyndhurll
v/as returned as containing 181 houfes, inhabited by 882
perfons.

About one mile weft of Lvndhurft is Cuffnells, the feat
of the right honourable George Rofe, who has been here
honoured willi two vifils from their majcllies and the royal
family in the years iSoi and 1804. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. vi. Gilpin's Obfervations on the New
Foreft, &c. 2 vols. 8vo.

LYNDON, a towuHup in Caledonia county, Vermont,

N. of St. Jolmfliurg, and S. of Burke and Billymcad ; con-
taining 632 inhabitants.

Lynn, Sagi;s oF the Indians, a maritime poft-tovvn
of America, in Effex county, Mallachufetts, on a bay,
N.E. of I'ofton bay, and about nine miles N. by E. from
the town of Bollon. The towulhip was incorporated in
j6j;7, and contains 2^'}~ inhabitants. In this towulhip
are two paridies, bcfides a fociety of Methodifts, and a
large number of Friends. The principal manufaclure is
that of women's filk and cloth fliocs, which are fold for
home ufe, and ihipped to the fouthern ftates and to the
Wed Indies. Lynn beach, which is a mile in lergth,
connefls the peninfula, called " Nahant" with the main
land. In the lummer feafon it is a place of great refort
from neighbouring towns, and ufed as a race-ground.

Lynn River, a river of Norfolk county, in Upper Ca-
nada, which nfes in Windham townfliip, and dilcharges
itfelf into lake Eric, BlTording a good harbour for bat-
tea ux.

Lynn Canal, an inlet on the W. coaft of North America,
and upper arm of Crof^ found ; extending about 60 miles
N. from the N. extremity of Chatham Sound ; fo named
by Capt. Vancouver, from Lynn, the place of his nativity.
The entrance to the S. is in N. lat. 5b ^ 12'. E. long.
225' 12'.

LYNNFIELD, a townftiip of America, in Eftex
county, Mallachufetts, N.E. of Salem, and 15 miles N.
by E. from Bollon; incorporated in 1782, and containing
46S inhabitants

LYNNHAVEN L.\ke, a bay at the S. end of Chefa-
peak bay, into which Lynnhaven river difcharges its
waters ; lying between the mouth of James's river and cape
Henry.

LYNN-REGIS, or King's Lvnn, a large refpedlable
fea-port, borough, and market town, in the hundred of
Freebridge Lynn, in the county of Norfolk, England, is
fituated ten miles from the Britifti ocean, on the eallcrn
bank of the Great Oufe river, which at this place is nearly
the breadth of the Thames above London bridge. Lynn
is diftant from Norwich 44 miles, and from London 96.
It is written Lun and Lena in Domcfday book ; a;;d ap-
pears to have been, at the time of that furvey, a place of
fome confequence and trade. Previous to the reign of
Henry VIII. it was called Bilhop's Lynn, but falling into
th? poffeflion of that monarch he changed its name to Lynn
Regis. The town is nearly one mile and a quarter in
length ; its greatcll breadth being half a mile. Four fmall
rivers, called Fleets, divide it into feveral parts, which are
connedlcd by eleven bridges. The whole is encompaffed on
the land fide by a deep wet fofs, flanked by a wail, which
was formerly defended by nine baftions, but is now in a
dilapidated date. .-\t the north end is a platform battery, '
called St Anne's port, mounted with ten eighteen pounders,
which were planted here in 1627. Great improvements
have been recently made in the Itrects and avenues of the
town.

Lynn has had fifteen charters granted to it by various
fovereigns of England. It was firll incorporated by king
John ; and has fent two burgelTeS to parliament ever fin^e
the tA-enty-fixth year of Edward 1. The right of election
is veiled in the freemen and free burgelTes, in number about
330. The corporation conlifts of a mayor, recorder, twelv*
aldermen, and eighteen common council-men. By the po-
pulation furvey, made in the year iSco, the number of
houfes was 2012, < coupled by 10,096 perfons.

The town contains feveral public buildings, fome of which
exhibit curious fpccimens of architectural antiquity. The

principal

L Y N

L y o

principal is tlie d^urch of St. Margaret, which, with a the water is conveyed by fmall canals, to the conduiis in

priory, was founded by Herbert, billiop of Norwich, in the 'the town.

time of William Rufiis. It was a very fuacioiis Urufture,
and thoupfh now curtailed of its orisrinal dimenlion is Hill a
large and nobis pile. It conf;lh of a nave with aides, a
chancel or choir with aides, a tranfept, and two towers at
the well end ; the roof is fnpported by twenty-two columns,
which feparat? the bidy from the aides. At the eallern
extremity of the to An is an ancient edifice, called the Lady's
or the Red Mount chapel ; which confifls of an oi^agonal
wall of red brick, and is conilrucled on a very fingiilar plan.
Within this is a handfome crnoiform chapel, feventccn feet
in length, fourteen in breadth, and thirteen in height ; tiie
roof is formed of (lone, with numerous groins, &c. exadtly
refembling the ceiling of Ki:ig's college chapel, Cambridge.
This curious (Irufture is vergincj to decay. St. Nicii.ilas's
chapel, built abgut tlie time of Edward III., is 200 feet in
length, 78 in breadth, and 170 feet from the foundation to
the top of the tower. The body confills of a nave feparated
from the aides bv ten fleuder columns on each lide, fupport-
ing an equal number of acutely pointed arches : tlie roof is
groined, and the entrance doors are finely carved. A large
monument of white marble commemorates fir Benjamin
Keene, K.B. a native of this town, and many years am-
badador to the court of Madrid, in which city he died,
Dec. 15, 17)7; hi^remains were brought here for inter-
ment. The ealt and weft windows of this chapel are large,
and are both adorned with numerous muliions and tracery.
The fouthern porch is profufely ornamented with tracery,
niches, &c. A view and plan of this porch, with plan,
views, feftion, ckc. of the Red Mount chapel, alfo hiftorical
and defcriptive accounts of the two buildings, are pubhrtied
in Britten's Architeftural Antiquities of Great Britain,
vol. iii.

Lynn harbour is deep, but the anchorage is bad, from
the oozy bed of the river. It is capable of receiving three
hundred fail of (hipping. At what time it was firft ufed
as a haven is not afcertaincd : but fubfeqiunt to the reign
of Henry III. Lynn afpired to commercial confequtnce,
gradually rofe from its primitive obfcurity, :tr.d progreffively
became a confiderablc port. Its fit'.iation, f > mar the North
fea, and the inland navigation connc(ftcd with it, gives the
town great commercial advantages. It is open to a com-
munication with all tlie north of Europe ; and, by means of
tlie Oufe and its collateral rivers, can extend its navigation
into eight counties, exclufive of other conveyances by land
carriage and canals. It imports annually about ioo,coo
chaldrons of coals, and above 20:0 pipes of wine ; in
which two articles it exceeds all other ports in England,
except London, Biiftol, and Newcaftle. In return forthcfe,
and other heavy artic'es, with which it fiipplies the interior.
It receives back for exportation corn and various manufac-
tured articles. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi.
Richards's Hiftory, S:c. of King's Lynn, 8vo. j3l I. Par-
kin's Hiilory of I.ynn, folio.

LYNX, in Ajlronomy, is a conftellation of the northern
hcmifphere, made by Hevelius out of unfonned ftars : the
number of liars in Heveiius's catalogue is nineteen, and in
the Britannic is forty-four. See Constellation.

Lynx, in Mythology, was a fabulous animal confecrated
to Bacchus. See Felis Lynx.

Lynx, Ih Zoology. See Felis Lynx.
Ly'Nx, Perfian. See Felis Caracul.
LYOE, in Geography, a fmall idand of Denmark, near
the S. coaft of Funen. N. lat. 55 3'. E. long. lo*^ to'. '
LYOENA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers,

The chapel of St. .Tames, after the didolution, being where the independent Arabs lodge their riches as in a place
in a ruinous condition, was rebuilt in 1682, and converted of fafety ; as it is defended by a v^-arlike tribe, who have

into an hofpital for fifty poor people. Great additions have
fince been made to the building, and it is now' the general
workhoufe for the town. The Exchange, or Cuftom houfe,
which was erected in 16S3 by fir John Turner, knt. is a
neat frceftone building, with two tiers of pilafters, the lower
in the Doric, and the upper in the Ionic order ; it occupies
the fcice of an old religions lio;ife, which was appropriated
to the Trinity guild. Several other religious ellabhfhnients
were founded here, of which few veftiges remain, except
an hexagonal Reeple, belonging to the monaftery of the
Grey friars, which ferves as a good land-mark to veffels
entering the harbour. Two markets are held on Tnefdays
and Saturdays, in different places : the Tuefday market-
place comprifes an area of three acres, furrounded by fome
good houfes ; near the centre, on an afcent of four Heps,
ftands a building, called the Market-crofs,of freeftone, erefted
IT the year 1710; the lower part is encompaded by a peri-
llyle formed by fixteen Ionic columns ; the upper part is
finidied with a cupola, and the whole is feventy feet in height.
The Saturday market is kept in a convenient area recently
opened near St. Margaret's church-yard. The Guildhall
is an ancient flruclure of ftone and flint ; it contains a large
llbne hall, courts for the adminiilratiou of juilice, and tliree

withftood the power of the Turks ; 106 miles S. of Conftan-
tira.

LY'ON, a river of Scotland, which rifes in Loch Lyon»
on the S.W. part of the county of Perth, and runs into the
Tay ; 2 miles E.N.E. of Kenmore.

LYONNET, Peter, in Biography, an eminent naturalift,
was born at Maellricht in 1 707. He acquired a good
knowledge of modern and ancient languages, underltood
mufic, and was a good engraver and fculptor. He had
been originally bred to the law, and became fecretarj- to the
Hates of Holland. In the latter years of his life he applied
the whole force of his mind to the ilndy of natural hillorv,
particularly to the fcience of entomologv, on which he
wrote feveral books. He died at the Hague in 1 789 : he
had been eletf ed a member of the Royal Society of London,.
and of feveral foreign academies.

LY'ONNOI.S, in Geography, Pagus Lugdunenf.s, was,,
tefore the revolution, a province of Francr;, bounded on the
N. by Bourgogne and Alaconnois, on the E. by tlie Saone-
and the Rhone, on the S. by L.^nguedoc, and on the W. by
Auvergne ; lying between 45- 15' and a/y 15' N. lat. and
between 3- 4,' and 4 50' E. long ; being 24 leagues from
N. to S. and 16 from W. to E. This province is watered

fpacious affembly rooms. On the firlt Monday in every by the Rhone, the Saone, and the Loire, and is moderately

month, the mayor, aldermen, magiftratcs and clergymen
meet, to hear and determine all controverlles between the
inhabitants, in an a^nicable manner, for the prevention of
liw-fuits. This laudable praftice originated in the year 1 558,
andiscalled the Feafl of Reconciliation. This town, not having
any fredi fprings, 'was formerly much dillrefled tor water ;

fertile, producing grain, wine, and fruits. It was annexed,
to the crown of France in 1563 ; and confiftcd of three
fmall provinces, i;;'z I^yonnois Proper, Forez, and Beaujo-
laii. The former, being thirteen leagues m length, and
eight in breadth, is diverfified with hills, gentle eminences,
and plains. It yields Httle grain ; but fome diltricls fumidi

but it is now fupplied from a river near Gaywood, vvlience good wine, and excellent pallurage.

It has a copper mine,,
and

L Y O

L Y O

and a mineral fpring. Forez confills principally of an «- vents, thiee public fchools, a college of pliyfic, two general

tenfive and fruitful valley, yielding grain, wine, hemp, and hofpitals, &c. ; and, befides tliefe, an acadi-my of fciences,

cliefnuts, and is watered by the Loire and other ftrcams. inditntcd A. D. 1700, and an academy of fine arts, eila-

Beaujolais is a fertile dillricl, twelve leagues in length, and bliflicd in 1724, both which were united in 175S, a fociety

feven in breadth. Lyonnois and Beaujolais are nov/ in- of agriculture, a veterinary fchool, a theatre, a public li-

eluded in the department of the Rhone and Forez m that

■of the Loire.

LYONS, in Geography, a fmall idandinthe Eaft Indian
fca, near the E. coall of Oby. S. lat. i'' 35'. E. long.

"^28 14'.

Lvoxs, Lugi'untm, a city of France, and capital of the

■ department ot the Rhone ;' but, brfore the revolution, the
ci'.pital of the province called Lvonnois, above defcribed,
liiua'ed at the conflux of the Rhone and the Saone ; over
the former there arc two bridges, and over the latter three.

brary, feventy companies of tradcfmen and artifts, three
forts, an arfenal well fupplied and carefully arranged, an in-
firmary, five hundred feet in Icngtli, &c. to all which we may
add magnificent quays. At an early period of the revolu-
tion, an union was formed between the towns of Lyons,
Marfeilles and Toulon, under the title of " Federal Repub-
licanifm," contrary to the fenfe of tlie nation, which inclined
to favour a republic one and indivifible. Lyons contained
a great number of difaffefted perfons, both Royalifts and
Girondiftp, and was declared to be in a Hate of rebellion,
•rhis city was cue of the places concjuered by Csefar ; but a After a fiege of two months, during which it is fuppofed to

" ...-.-.• ^ > <■ • T^.1 have loll 20CO men, and a great part of the city was reduced

to adies, Lyons furrendered, and many of the rebels who
were not able to efcape were taken and executed. By a

little after the death of this dictator, Munatius Plancus re
ceived orders from the Roman fenate to re-alTemblc at
Lugdunum the inhabitants of Vienne, who had been driven
from this city by the AUobroges. In a little time this
. colony became very powerful, fo that Strabo fays it was
not inferior to Narbonne, with reflect to number of inha-
bitants. In the fifth century this city was taken by the
B'.ir^undians, whofe king became feudatory to Clovis. The
fonsof Clovis, however, fubdued the Burgundians, and took
pofleinor. of Lyons. When the dominions of Lewis De-
bonnaire were divided, Lyons, with the grcateft part of
Buro-undy, was transferred to Lothaire. Before the re-
volution, it was the fee of an archbifhop, who was primate
of France, and was reckoned the fecond city of the kingdom
in trade, manufaftures, and commerce ; and was fuppofed
to contain 150,000 inhabitants. Thefe were, in all periods,
diftinguiflied for indullry, arts, and love of freedom. Under
the Romans, as a municipium, it poirefled valuable immunities :
and when it became a colony, it was cherilhed and protefted.
Under the fovereigns of France, it has enioyed peculiar pri-
vileges, being governed by its own magilliates, and guarded
by its own militia. Four annual fairs, each of fifleen days,
inllituted in the reign of Lewis XL, have much contributed
to the advancement of its traffic. Its good government
naturally attracted citizens, whilll the troubles excited at
various periods in the nt-iglibouring dates, more efpecially
about the year 1290, between the contending factions of the
Guelphs and Ghibeilines, occaf oned many from Italy and
Florence to take refuge in a city where they could live in
fecurity and peace. The principal dependence of Lynn

decree of the convention, the walls and public buildings of
Lyons were ordered to be del*royed, and the name of the
city itfelf to be changed into that of " Ville Affranchie ;"
but this decree was afterwards repealed. It is Hated to
contain 109, jco inhabitants, and the fix cantons, into which
it is divided, to inch:de 123,510, on a territory of 55 kilio-
metres, in four comnuines. N. lat. 45'' 46'. E. long. 4- 50'.
Lyons, a village of America, in Ontario county, and
townfiiip of Phelps, in New York, at the iuniflion of Mud
and Canandarque creeks ; 16 miles N. of Geneva, and about
20 S. of Sodus ; fituated in a fine country, and accom-
modated with excellent advantages for water-conveyance.

LYONSIA, in Botany, ferves to commemorate Mr. Ifrael
Lyons, born at Cambridge in 1739, being the fon of a
Polilb Jew, fettled there as a filverimith ; who publifhed
" A Hebrew Grammar,'' and '• Obfervations and Enquiries
relating to various Parts of Scripture Hillory." He was
dillinguifhed as a mathematician and botanill, and had the
honotir of inftrutling in the latter fcience the celebrated
fir Jofcph Banks, by whofe recommendation he read a courfe
of letturcs on Botany at Oxford, where fuch a courfe was
then much wanted. He died in London of the meafies,
about two years after he had accompanied Captain Phipps,
afterwards lord Mulgrave, towards the north pole, in 1773.
For lome time he was employed as one of the calculators
of the Nautical Almanac, for which he received an annual
falary of an hu"dred pounds : and at the time of his death

and the fource of its wealth, have been its manufafture of he was preparincr for the prefs a complete edition of all the

filk in all its branches. The trade of Lyons has been im
mcnfe with Spain, Italy, Switzerla"d, Germany, Holland,
England, &c. From Spain, the inhabitants received wool,
filks, drugs, piaftres, and ingots cf gold and filver, in return
for cloth, hnen, fuftian, coffee, paper, &c. To Italy they
fent cloth, linen, filk ftuff?, lace, books, mercery, and mil-
linery, receiving in return filk, velvet, damad., fatin, tatfeties,
and rice. To Switzerland they fent coarfe cloth, hats, • Ccntortit, Linn
faffron, wine, oil, foap, and mercery, and received from
thence cheefe, linen, and, in time of war, horfes. The great

#1

works of Dr. Halley. Befides feveral mathematical werks,
among which we may reckon his " Fluxions," publilhed in
1758; he had in contemplation a Flora Cantalr'igenfis ;
but publifhed only a '■'■ Fafc'iculus" of plants difcovered in
that neighbourhood fince the time of Ray, in 1763, in 8vo.
Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. I. 466. ^Vern. Tranf. v. 1.
6.'5. — Clafs and order, Pentandfia Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
yipocineit, .Tuff Brown.
Elf. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped ; its mouth and tube
without fcales ; limb in five deep, recurved, equilateral feg-

..,....._... — . — , , ,... ~ , — — - ^^ — 7 ~ ^ J, , i (-,

towns of Germany purchafe from Lyons, befides the fame mentP. Stamens prominent ; filaments thread-fhaped, in-

merchandize as the Swifs, fluffs of gold and filver. From
Holland, Lyons took more merchandize than that which it
fent in return. With the other parts of France it carried
on a very confiderable trade. Lyons reckoned eleven parifhes,
fix gates, four fatixbourgs, and was divided into thirty-five
diltricts, named " Panonages." The cathedral church was
a magnificent Gothic building ; the town-houfe is efteemed
one of the ifioft bea'.itiful in Europe ; and its other public
iuildings, before the revolution, were four abbies, fifty coii-

fcrted into the middle of the tube ; anthers arrow-fhaped,
cohering with the lUgma by the middle, their hind lobes
void of pollen. Genr.en of two cells ; Ityie one, thread-
fhaped, dilated at the top ; fligma foinewhat conical.
Scales at the bafe of the germen combined. Capfule
cylindrical, of tv. o cells, its valves like follicles, with a
parallel dilliniSt partition, bearing the feeds on each fide
upon fixed receptacles.

J. L,.Jlramiriea, the only fpecies, gathered by Mr, Brown
4 at

L Y R

L Y R

at Port Jackfon, and hi Van Diemen's land. A climbing
/tirub, with oppofito haves. Cymes terminal, three forked.
Flowers among the fmalleft of this tribe, their limbs bearded.

LYPERANTHUS, from Av-., fadnefs, and a.9o5, a
Jlawer, becaufe of the very dark-red gloomy hue of the
blvjIToms, which is unufual in this tribe. — Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. V. I. 325. — Clafs and order, Gynandrla Monan-
dria. Nat. Ord. Orch'idea.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, ringent, of three leaves,
the upper one vaulted, the reft flattifli. Cor. Petals two,
nearly equal and fimilar to the flatter calyx-leayes. Neclary
fliorter, its edges afcending, hood-hke, with a taper point,
the didv glandular or papillary. Slam. Anther terminal,
permanent, its cells clofe together ; mafles of pollen two in
each cell, powdery. Pift- Germen inferior ; ilyle columnar,
linear. Peric. Capfule. Seeds numerous.

Efl". Ch. Calyx ringent ; its upper leaf vaulted. Lip
(horter, hooded, glandular, with a taper point. Style li-
near. Anther vertical, permanent.

A genus of fmooth Orchide<e, growing on the ground.
Bulbs naked, undivided, tarminating the defcending caudex,
which throws out roots above them. Stem bearing a fingle
leaf clofe to the root, and two brafteas above, befides what
accompany each flower. Flowers racemofe, very dark red,
moftly reverfed.

1. 'Li.fuaveohns. Leaf linear, elongated. Petals afcend-
ing. Difli of the nedlary bearing rows of feffile glands ;
its margin naked. — Found near Port Jackfon, New South
Wales.

2. L. elUpltcus. Leaf lanceolate-elliptical. Diflc of the
neftary papillary ; its margin naked. -- Gathered by Mr.
G. Caley in the fame neighbourhood.

- 3. L. nigrkans. Leaf ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped.
Petals divided. Lip fringed; its dilk papillary. — Found
by Mr. Brown near Port Jackfon, as well as in the fouthern
part of New Holland.

LYRA, in yinafcmy, a name applied to a certain part of
the brain. See Braix.

Lyr.\, in AJlronomy, a conftellation in the northern hc-
mifphere.

The number of its ftars, in Ptelemy's catalogue, is ten ;
in Tycho's, eleven ; in Hevelius's, feventeen ; artd in the
Britannic catalogue, twenty-one. See Constellation.

Lyr.a, Nicholas de, in Biography, a learned French
monk and commentator on the fcriptures in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, was born in a fmall town in the
diocefe of Evreux, in Normandy. He was defcended from
Jewifh parents, but becoming a Chriilian, he embraced a
religious life in a monaftery at Verneuil, in 1291. Having
remained there forae time, he was fent to Paris, where he
applied with the greateft diligence to his ftudies, and was
admitted to the degree of doftor. He died in this city in
the year 1340. He was author of " Poftills," or a com-
pendium of the whole bible, which he began in 1293, and
iinilhed in the year J330. The firft edition of this work
was publifhed at Rome in 1472, in feven volumes folio, and
is now become rare ; but it has fince undergone various im-
preflions at Bafil, Lyons, Doway, Antwerp, &c. of which
the bed is faid to be that of Antwerp in 1634, in fix vo-
lumes folio. De Lyra was alfo the author of " Moral
Commentaries upon the Scriptures ;" " A Difputation
againft the Jews ;" and other pieces. Moreri.

Lyk.\, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifh of the trigla
kind, of which there are two varieties, reckoned by Artedi
and Linnaeus two different fpecies. The one is the plpir
(fee Trigl.a Lyra), the other, the lyra ccrnuta, or horned
Iiarp-fifh. This lail is a filh of an octangular form, covered

Vol. XXL

all over with bony fcales ; thefe are of a rhomboidal figure ,
and each has in its middle a rtiarp and ftrong prickle bending
backwards : it is of a red colour, and its head is very large ;
its fnout divides towards the extremity into two long horns,
on which are placed two perpendicular fpines, and a third
above makes an acute angle with thefe ; it has one very long
fin on the back, and another anfwering to it behind the anus :
alfo two large ones at the gills, and two fmaller on the belly 5
it has only two filaments, called fingers, behind its gill-fins ;
its mouth is large, but has no teeth, and there are feveral
beards on its under jaw ; two of which are longer than the
reft, and are branched : it is caught in the Mediterranean,
and brought to market at Rome ; it is a fcarce fifti in other
places, and at Montpellier was once (hewn to Mr. Ray for
the remora. See Triola Catapbrada.

Lyra is alfo a fpecies of CalUonymus ; which fee. See
Dragonet, under which article the other fpecies of the
callionymus are defcribed.

Lyra is alfo the name of a beautiful fea-fliell of the
genus of the concha globofa, or dohum. There are three
fpecies of the lyra, or harp-fliell. i. The common lyra,
which has thirteen rofe-coloured ribs running along its body.
2. The eleven-ribbed lyra ; and 3. The noble harp, or /jra
noiilis. This is a moil elegantly variegated {hell ; its ground
colour is a deep brown, and its variegations very elegant and
black. See Coxchology'.

Lytije Lucida. See Lucida.

LYRATUM Folium, in Botany. See Leaf.

LYRE, Avp, Lyra, in the Ancient Mujic, a mufical in-
ftrument of the ftring kind, fo dear to the Greek-, that they
have by turns attributed it« invention to Mercury, Apollo,
Linus, Orpheus, and Amphion ; making it the fymbol of
all excellence in poetry and mufic. The poets and hifto-
rians of fabulous times, however, feem moft to agree in
afcribing the invention to Mercury. And among the ac-
counts of the feveral writers of antiquity v. ho have men-
tioned this circumftance, and confiised the inventio.T to the
Egyptian Mercury, that of Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, hb.ii.)
feems the moft intelligible and probable. " The Nile,"
fays this writer, " after having overflowed the whole coun-
try of Eg^-pt, when it returned within its natural bounds,
left on the (hore a great number of dead animals of various
kinds, and, among the reft, a tortoife, the flelh of which
being dried and wafted by the fun, nothing was left within
the (hell but nerves and cartilages, and thefe being braced
and contradled by deficc^tion, were rendered fonorous ; Mer-
cury, in walking along the barks of the Nile, happening to
ftrike his fqct againft the (hell of this tortoife, was fo
pleafed with the found it produced, that it fuggefted to him
the firft idea of a lyre, which he afterwards conftrudled in .
the form of a tortoife, and llrung it with the dried finews of
dead animals."

Cenforinus, however (De Die Nat. cap. 22.), attributes to
Apollo the firft idea of producing i'ound from a ftring, which
was fuggefted to him by the twang of his fifler Diana's
bow. faXXsiv is ftriclly K.A twang a Itring, and 'ixX^c; the
found which the bow-ftring produces at the cmiflion of the
arrow. Euripides in Bacch. v. 782. ufes it in that fenfe.

i'aAAasu vEi/ja-r."

" Who twang the nerve of each elaftic bow."

Father Montfaucon fays it is very difficult to dctermin?

in what the lyre, cithara, chelys, plaltery, and harp differed

from each other ; as he had examined the reprefentations of

fix hundred lyres and citharas in ancient fculpture, all which

4 X h-

LYRE.

lie found without a neck, and the ftiiiigr, open as in the
modern h.irj), played hy the fingers. ( Amiq. Expl. torn. iii.
lib. 5. cap. 3.) But though ancient and modern authors
uluailv contound thcfe inftrunnents, yet a maniRft diftinflion
is made by Arift. Ouintil. in the following pafTagc, p. lot.
After difcuffing^ the characters of wind-ii ftruments, he fays,
" Among the ilringed inftruinruts, you will find the lyre of
a charaAer analogous to mafculiue, from the great depth or
gravity, and roughuefs of its tones ; the fanibuca of a fe-
minine charafler, iveak and delicate, and from its great acute-
nefs, and the fmallrefs of its firings, tending to diffblve and
enervate. Of the intermediate inftrumcnts, the polypthon-
^\\m parishes moft of \he feminine ; but the cithara differs
not much from the mnfctiline charaR:r of the lyre." Here is
a fcale of (Iringed inllruments ; the lyre and fanibuca at the
extrtmcs ; the polyptliongum and cithara between ; the one
next to the fambuca, the other next to the lyre. He after-
wards jult mentions that there were others between thefe.
Now it is natural to infer, that as he conllantly attributes
the manly charadcrto gravity of tone, tlie cithara was pro-
bably the more acute inftrument of the two ; lefs loud and
rough, and ftrung with fmaller firings. Concerning what
difference there might be in the form and itrufture of the
inftruments, he is wholly filent. The paffage, however, is
curious as far as it goes, and decifive. The cithara may,
perhaps, have been as different from the lyre, as a fingle
harp from one that is double ; and it feems to be clearly
pointed out by this multiplicity of names that the Greeks
had two principal fpecies of flringed inftruments ; one, like
our harp, of hill compafs, that relied on its bafe ; the other
more portable, and flung over the fhoulder, like our fmaller
harp or guitar, or like the ancfent lyres reprefented in fculp-
ture.

Tacitus, Annal. xvi. 4. among the rules of decorum ob-
ferved by public performers, to which Nero, he fays, ttridlly
fubmitted, mi^ntions, " That he was not to fit down when
tired." Ne feffus refideret. It is remarkable that he calls
thefe rules, Cithane Leges, « The Laws of the Cithar.i ;"
which feems to afford a pretty fair proof of its being of
fuch a fize and form as to admit of being played on Jlnnd-
ing.

The ufe of the phorminx in Homer, leads rather to the
rough, manly, harp-like character. But a paffage in Or-
pheus, Argon. 380, feems to make phorminx. the fame as
clielys, the lutiform inftrument of Mercury. It is there
faid of Chiron, that he " fometimes llrikes the cithara of
Apollo ; fometimes the fhell-refounding phorminx of Mer-
c«i-y,

HXr/Ufnz ^c^jjLf/ya ^i^vKKotaf Efpaiivo;. "

This paffage is curiotis ; for though the Argonautics were
not written by Orpheus himfelf, they have all the appear-
ance of great antiquity. *

The belly of a theorbo, or arch-lute, is nfually made in
the (hell-form, as if the idea of its origin had never been
loft ; and the etymology of the word guitar feems naturally
dcducible from cithara ; it is fuppofcd that the Roman C
was hard, hke the modern K, and the Italian word chilarra
is manifeftly derived from KiGaoa, cithara.

In the hymn to Mercury, aforibed to Homer, Mercury
and Apollo are faid to play with the ckhd.ri under tk-ir
arms, ver. 507. 0 I' tr.-A'viov Ki,-M;i^i:,ful> uhiacitharA-ludebat,
" played with the cithara under his arm." So in ver. 4^,2.
;ir«X:»i«, at his arm, fiiould, according to the critics, be
in-aXr.iov, as it is afterwards. This feems to point out a
guitar more than a harp ; but the ancients liad lyres, citharae,

and teftudos of as different fliapcs from each other, as oilr
harp, fpinnet, virginal, and pianoforte.

Thcfe paffages in old authors are a kind of antique draw,
ings, far more fatisfaftory than thofe of ancient feulpturc ;
for we have fcen the fyrinx, which had a regular ferics of
notes afccnding or dcfccnduig, reprefented with feven pipes,
four of one le!:g;h, and three of another, which of courfe
would furnifh no more tiian two different founds. The
cymbals too, which were to be ftrnck againil each other,
arc placed in the hands of fome antique figures in fuch a
manner, that it is impofTible to bring them in coutaft with
the neceffary degree of force, without amputating, or at
leaft violently briiifing the thumbs of the pcrform.er. And it is
certain that artifts continued to figure inllruments in the moft
fimple and convenient forni for their defigns, long after they
had been enl.irged, improved, and rendered more compli-
cated. An inllance of this in our OA'n country will confirm
the aflertion. In the reign of George II. a marble flatue
was erefted to Handel, in Vauxhall gardens. The muli-
cian is reprefented playing upon a lyre. Now if this ftatuc
(hould be preferred from the ravages of time and accident
12 or 1400 years, the antiquaries will naturally c^include
that the inllrument upon which Handel acquired his repu-
tation was the lyre ; though we are at prolent certain that
he never played on, or even faw a lyre, except in wood or
Hone.

In one of the ancient paintings at Portici, we faw a lyre
with a pipe or flute for the crofs bar, or bridge at the top.
Whether this tube was ufed as a flute to accompany the lyre,
or only a pitch-pipe, we know not ; nor in the courfe of our
enquiries has any fimilar example of fuch a junftion occurred
ellewhere.

Broffard feems to have abridged the hiftory and progrefs
of the lyre chronologically in the moil fhort and clear m.an-
ner, which Graffineau has fpun out to great length by jump-
ing from one century to another, and crowding together-all
the wild and incoherent ftories relative to the lyre, its in-
ventors and performers, that he cpuld find. All that the
diligent and generally accurate Broffard fays on the fubjcdl
is, that the lyre was a ilringed inftrument, upon which the
whole mufical fyftem of the ancients has been built. It is
pretended that Mercury firit invented it by chance, and that
it had only then three ftrings, wliich couiifted of B C D ;
that Apoho added a fourtii, Curcbus, a fifth, Hyagnis, a
fixth, and Terpander, a feventh. It remjined in this ftate
till the time of Pythagoras, or, according to others, Lycaon
added to it an eighth firing, to render the extremities con-
fonant. Timotheus afterwards added a ninth, tenth, and
eleventh ftring. Others after him increafed the number to
fixteen, that is, fifteen principals, and one added^ which will
be explained in the articles Proslambanomincs and Sys-
tem ; which fee.

Ml". Barnes, in the prolegomena to his edition of Ana-
creon, has an inquirv into the antiquity and ftruiture of the
lyre ; of which he makes Jubal the firft inventor. For the
feveral changes this inllrument underwent, by the addiyon
of new ftrings, he obferves, that, according to Diodorus, it
had originally only three, referring to the three feafons of the
year, as the Greeks counted tliem, ii/z. fpring, fummer, and
autumn ; whence it was called T^i;^;pJof. Afterwards it had
feven firings ; as appears from Homer, Pindar, Horace,
Virgil, SiC. Feftus Avienus gives the lyre of Orpheus
nine ftrings. David mentions an inftrument of that fort
ftrung with ten, in pfilterio decachoido. Timotheus of Mi-
letus added four to the old feven, which made eleven. Jo-
fephus, in his Jewifh Antiquities, makes mention of one with
twelve ftrings ; to which were afterwards added fix others,
6 which

L y R

L T S

which made eighteen in all. Anacreon himfclf faj-s, p. 2J3,
of Mr. Barnes's edition, canto vigmti totis chorcl'u. As for
the modern lyre, or Wel(h harp, it is fufficiently known.
(See Harp.) From the lyre, wliich all agree to be the
firft inllnmient of the IWinged kind in Greece, there arofe
an infinite number of others, different in (hape and number
of firings ; as the pfalteriuni, trigon, fambucus, peflis, ma-
gadis, barbiton, teihido (the two kit ufed promifcuouily,
by Horace, with the lyre and cithara), epigonium, (immi-
cium, and pandura ; which were all llruck with the hand,
or a pleftrum. See Psalteky, Sambuca, Mag.vdis,
Baubiton", and Cithara.

Lyue, Lydian See Lydian Lyre.

Lyre of the Mufco'uUes. This is a rude and coarfc in-
ftrument, in the form of the ancient lyre of fix ihings, as
thick as packthread, which are thrummed with the naked
fingers after the manner of the lute.

Lyee, among painters, ftatuaries, &c. is an attribute of
Apollo and the Mufcs.

IvYRIC, fomething fung or played on the lyre or harp.

L\RIC is more particularly applied to the ancient odes
and ftanzas ; which anfwer to our airs or fongs, and may be
played on inftruments. See the next article.

Lyric Poetry, verfes written for mufic ; which, with
the ancients, implied verfes to be fung to the accompani-
inent of the lyre. In the fupplcment to the firft edition of
the folio Encyelopedie, there is a very long article on the
fubjeft. We have often admired the ingenuity, refinement,
and apparent feeUng, with which the French treat the fub-
jeft of dramatic mufic. Even in the feuds and difcuf-
fions of the Gluckifts and Piccinifts, many of the trafts and
pamphlets feem to breathe the pureft t.'.fte and moft pro-
found reafoning of which the theme is capable. The Ita-
lians, who have fo long furniflied models of perfeftion to the
reft of Europe in compofition and performance, have not
half fo much to fay in defence of their talents as the French
in attacking them.

The article Lyric Poetry in the fupplement to the firft
edition of the Encyclopedic, written long before the firm
adherents to Lulli and Rameau were extinft, is of great
length, and fecms to flow from a writer who had read,
meditated, and felt, with enthufiafm, all the infpirations
of the lyric bards of Greece. He has taken a wide range
in treating the fubjeft, and confidered the union of poetry
and mufic, not only with more eidarged views than any
other modern, but perhaps than the ancients themielves.
He begins in the following manner : " The lyric poetry of
the Grecians was not only lung, but compofed to tiie churds
of the lyre. This was at firit the charafteriftic dillinc\ion
of all that was called lyric poetry by the Romans, and '
their defcendants and imitators in later times. The poet
was a mufician, he called upon the god of verfe, and ani-
mated himfelf with a prelude. He fixed upon the time, the
movement, and the n.ufical period ; the melody gave birth
to the verfe ; and thence was derived the unity of rhythm,
charafter, and expTeffion, between the mufic and the poem
that was fung. Thus the poetry became naturally fubier-
vient to number and cadence, and thus each lyric poet in-
vented not oidy the proper kind of verfe, but alfo the ftrophe
analogous to tlie melody which he himfelf had created, and
to which he compofed it.

" In this rcfpeft, the lyric poem or ode with the Latins
and with modern nations, has been nothing more than a
frivolous imitation of the lyric poem of the Greeks : they
fay, I fing, but never do fing; they fpeak of the chords of
the lyre, but have never leen a lyre. No poet, fincc
Horace inclufively, appears to have modelled his odes upon

a melody. Ht^race adopting, by turns, the different for-
mnlae of the Greek poets, feems fo much to have forgotten
that an ode ought to be fung, that he has often fufpended
the fenfe at the end of the ftrophe, where the air ou 'ht
to repofe, to the beginning of the next ftanxa.''

This fptcies of poetry was originally employed in cele-
brating the praifes of gods and heroes ; though it was af-
terwards introduced into feails and public diverfions : it is
a miftake to imagine Anacreon, as the Greeks do, the au-
thor of it ; fincc it appears from fcripture to have been
in life above a thoufand years before that poet. Mr.
Barnes (hews how unjuft it is to exclude heroic fubjeftj
and aftions from this fort of verfe, lyric poetry beir^g ca-
pable of all the elevation and fublimity fuch fubjecls re-
quire ; which he confirms by the examples of Alcaeuj,
Stefichorus. Anacreon, and Horace, and by his own elTuv,
a triumphal cde infcribed to the duke of Marlborough,
at the head of this edition ; he coiicludes with the hiftory of
lyric poetry, and of thofe ancients v.'ho excelled in it.

The charafteriftic of lyric poetry, which diftinguifties it
from all others, is di'^nity and f-weetnefs. As gravity rules
in heroic verle ; Jimpficlty, in paltoral ; tendcrnejs and foftnefs,
in elegy ; Jharpnefs and poignancy, in fatire ; mirth, in co-
medy ; the pathetic, in tragedy ; and the point, in epigram ;
fo in the lyric, the poet applies himfelf wholly to foothe the
minds of men, by the fweetnefs and variety of the verfe, and
the delicacy and elevation of the svords and thoughts ; the
agreeablenefs of the numbers, and the defcription of things
moft pleafing in their own nature. See Ode and Poetky.

LYRODI, among the Ancients, a kind of muficians who
played on the lyre, and fung at the fame time.

Lyrodi was alfo an appellation given to fuch as made it
their employment to fing lyric poems, compofed by others.

LYS, in Geography, oneof the 13 departments of tlie region
of France, called the Reunited Country, formed of a part of
Auftrian Flanders ; bounded on the N. by the fea, and on
the E. by the department of the Efcaut, in N. lat. 51-.
It contains 36625 kiliometres, or 159 fquare leagues, and
470,707 inhabitants. It is divided into four circles or dif-
trifts, 36 cantons, and 250 communes. Its circles are
Bruges, containing 149,421 inhabitants, Furnes, 49,808,
Ypres, 107,103, and Courtray, 164,375. The annual
contributions amount to 4,915,251 tr. and the annual ex-
pences for government, the adminiftration of juftice, and
public inftruftion, amount annually to 358,916 fr. 66 cents.
The capital of this department is Bruges. I'he foil, in
general, is fertile, and produces all forts of grain, flax, to-
bacco, and excellent paftures.

Lys, St., a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Muret ; 7 miles Vv . of Muret. The place contains
1 140, and the canton 5249 inhabitants, on a territory of
190 kiliometres, in 1 1 communes.

LYSANDER, a townllnp of America, in Onondago
county. New York, incorporated in 1794, and compre-
hendjng the mihtary towns of Hannibal and Cicero. The
number of inhabitants is 121. It is dillant i6 miles S.E.
of lake Ontario.

Lys.vnder, in Biography, an eminent Spartan com-
mander in the laft years of the Peloponnefian war, was
the fon of Arilloclitus, a defcendant af the Herachds, but
not of the royal line. About the year 406 B.C. Ly lander
was made the naval commander of the Laceda;monian?.
His firft mealure was to draw off Ephefus from the interell
of Athens, which he accomplifhed, and at the fame time
gained the friendfhip of Cyrus the younger. He gave^
battle to the Athenian fleet, conQfting of 120 fhips, at
4X2 ^Igos-

L Y S

L Y S

JEgos-Potamos, in the Thracian Chcrfonefus, and wholly de-
ftroyed it except three fhips, with which the enemy's general
fled to Evagoras, king of Cyprus. In this celebrated
battle, which happened 405 years before the Chriltian era,
the Athenians loll 3000 men, and with them their empire
and influence among the neighbouring ftates. Lyfander
knew how to take advantage of this viftory, and in the
following year Athens, worn out by a long war of 27
years, gave itfelf up to the power of the enemy, and fub-
mitted, in every rcfpcft, to the power of Lacedrnmon. The
government of Athens was totally changed, and 30 tyrants
were fet over it by Lyfander. This fuccefs, and the ho-
nour of ha\'ing put an end to the Peloponnefian war, ren-
dered the conqueror extremely proud, and ambitious of
higher diftinftions than the conftitutionof his country would
allow. He aimed at univerfal power, by eflablifhing arif-
tocracy in the Grecian cities of Aiia, and he attempted to
make the crown of Sparta eleftive, in order that he might
feize it for himfelf, but was, in this refpeft, unfuccefsful,
and he was accufcd of grofs corruption in endeavouring to
accomplifli his purpofes. The fudden declaration of war
againft the Thebans faved him from the accufations of his
adverfaries, and he was fcnt with Paufanias againft the
enemy. The Spartan troops were defeated, and their ge-
neral Lyfander killed in the year B.C. 394. His body was
recovered by his colleague Paufanias, and honoured with a
magnificent funeral. Lyfander was a brave man, but his
ambition merited the fevereft cenfure He was arrogant
and vain in his public, as well as in his private conduft,
and he received and heard with the greateft avidity the
hymns which his coiTrtiers and flatterers fung to his ho-
nour. But in the midil of all his pomp, his ambition, and
his intrigues, he died extremely poor, and on account of his
poverty his daughters were rejedled by two opulent citizens
of Sparta, to whom they had been betrothed during the
hfe of their father. Plutarch. Cornelius Nepos. Anc.
Univer. Hift.

LYSANDRIA, Avs-m^^ix, in Jntiquhy, a Samian fefti-
val, celebrated with facrifices and games in honour of
Lyfander, the Lacedamonian admiral. It was anciently
called herea, which name was aboliftied by a decree of the
Saniians.

LYSANO, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pa-
latinate of Culm ; I '; miles S. of Culm.

LYSE, a town of Norway ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Berg-en.
LYSEKIL, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the province
of Weft Gothland ; 16 miles W. of Uddevalla.

LYSERUSj PoLYCARP, in Biography, a learned Lu-
theran divine, was born at Winendeen, in Germany, in
1552. He was educated at the expence of the prince of
Wittemburg, and was diftinguifhed as •^'ell for great in-
duftry as confiderable talents. He became diftinguiflied
as a preacher, and received frequent applications to preach,
on particular occafions, at Vienna, and in other parts of
Auftria. In 1576 he took his degree of doftor of di-
vinity, and in the following year, Auguftus, eleftor of
Saxony, was induced, by the fa-ne of his pulpit talents,
to appoint hiai a minifter of the church of Wittemburg.
He was foon raifed to the profeiTorfhip of divinity in the
univerfity, pnd attained to other high honours. In the year
1594, he was appointed minifter of the court of Drefden,
■where he fpent the remainder of his life, occupied r.ot only
in literary labours, and in minifterial duties, but in the edu-
cation of young princes. He died in 1601, in the forty-
ninth year of his age. He was a very voluminous writer,
particularly as i commentator on the fcriptureS. He wrote
ikewife feveral coutroverfial treatifes.

LvsEnu.s, JoHK, a Lutheran divine of the fame family,
diftinguidied for his vaft zeal as a writer in defence of po*
lygamy. The moft confiderable of his publications is en-
titled " Polygamia Triumphatrix," &c. He fpent his fortu ic
and his life in endeavours to maintain and propagate his
favourite doftrine, and with incredible pains travelled t hrough
almoft every country on the European continent, exami' i.ig
libraries for materials to confirm his fyftem. At length,
having fpent all his property, and being reduced to great
diftrefs, he died in the neighbourhood of Paris in 1684.,
Moreri.

LYSIANTHUS, in Botany. (See Li.si.vnthus.) The
latter is, no doubt, the original reading in Browne's Ja-
maica. Lamarck adopts the former, apparently from At/:i;,
a diffolvcr, alluding to the deobftruent or purgative qualities
of fome of the fpecies dcfcribed by Aublet.

LYSIARCHA, an ancient kind of magillrate, being
the pontiff" of Lycia, or fuperintendant of the facred games
of that province.

Strabo obferves, that the lyfiarcha was created in a fcwn-
cil confifting of the deputies of twenty-three cities ; that is,
of all the cities in the province ; fome of which cities had
three voices, others two, and others but one.

Cardinal Norris fays, that the lyfiarcha prefided in matters
of religion ; in effefl, the lyfiarcha was nearly the fame
with the ajiarcha, and fyriarcha ; who, though they were
all the heads of the councils, or ftates of thofe provinces,
yet were they eftabliftied principally to take care of the
games and feafts celebrated in honour of the gods, whofe
priefts they were inaugurated, at the fame time that they
were created lyfiarcha, fyriarcha, or tfiarcha.

LYSIAS, in Biography, an eminent Greek orator, born
at Svracufe about the year 459- B.C. He accompanied
his father to Athens while he was very young, and was edu-
cated with great care in that city. In procefs of time he
became himfelf a teacher of rhetoric, and compofcd orations
for others, but does not appear to have been a pleader. He
diftinguiftied himfelf by the eloquence and purity of his
orations, of which it is laid by Plutarch, he wrote no lefs
than 425, though the number may with more probability
be reduced to 230 ; and of thefe only 34 remain, which are
to be found in the coUeftions of the Greek orators. He
died in the 81 ft year of his age, and in the 378th year B.C.
Lyfias attained great reputation in his time, which his
works afterwards fupported, and he is mentioned with ap-
plaufe by Cicero and Quintilian. Lyfias lived at a fome-
what earlier period than Ifocrates ; and exhibits a model of
that manner which the ancients call the " tenuis vel fub-
tiUs " He has none of the pomp of Ifocrates. He ia
every where pure and attic in the higheft degree ; fimple
and unaffefted ; but wants force, and is fometimcs frigid in
his compofitions. In the judicious compariion which Dio-
nyfius of Halicarnaftus makes of the merits of Lyfias and
Ifocrates, iie afcribes to Lyfias, as the diftinguiftiing cha-
ratter of his manner, a certain grace or elegance arifing
from fimplicity : " irs^'iKs 72^ -n A- iria Xsjic iyjti to x^-?'-"' '' ^'
Is-oxjzld;-, (3a\=TCii : i. e. the ityle of Lyfias has gracefulncfs
for its nature ; that of Ifocrates feems to have it." In the
art of narration, as diftinft, probable, and perfuafive, he
holds Lyfias to be fuperior to all orators ; at the fame time
he admits, that his compofition is more adapted to private
litigation than to great fubjetls. He convinces, but he
does not elevate nor animate. The magnificence and fplen-
dour of Ifocrates are more fuited to great occafions. He is
more agreeable than Lyiias ; and in dignity of fentiment,
far excds him. Blair's Ledl. vol. ii. The beft editions of

Lyfiaa's

L Y S

Lyfias's orations is that by Taylor, London, in 1739, and
Cambridge 1 740.

Lysia, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Syria,
feated on the river Marfyas, W. of the river Orontes, and
N.W. of the town of Apamea. — Alfo, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria, placed by Ptolemy in Phrygia Major.—
Alfo, a tow-n of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, called alfo
Liiftas.

LYSIMACHIA, in Botany, a very ancient generic
name, and fo called, according to Pliny and Ambrofinus,
from Lyfimachus. a favourite general of Alexander the
Great, who was afterwards king of Thrace. The Englidi
name of this plant, Loofejlnfe, is evidently taken from Xva,-
^■j,yji,:, a dijfolui'ion of Jlrife^ or a peacemaler, but how this
title could apply to the king on whom it was bellowed,
and who appears to have beeu of a cruel and ferocious tem-
per, we are at a lofs to imagine, unlefs it were like the ludi-
crous derivation of Incus, a non lucendo. Linn, Gen. 8:?.
Schreb 109. Willd. Sp. PI. V. i. 816. Mart. Mill. Didt.
V. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 227. Ail. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. i. 314.
Brown. Prod. Nov. HoU. v. i. 428. Tournef. t. 59.
Juff. 95. Lamarck lUuftr. t. loi. Gaertn. t. jo. — Clafs
and order, PentanJria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rotacee, Linn.
Lyfimach'ia:, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal Perianth inferior, five-cleft, acute, crcif)',
permanent. Cor. of one petal, wheel-fliaped ; tube none ;
lin-.b in five, ovate-oblong, deeply cloven fegments. Stam.
' Filaments five, awl-fhaped, oppofite ta the fegments of the
corolla, mollly united at the bafe ; anthers acuminated.
P'ljl Gt^rmen fuperior, rotmdilh ; ftyle thread-diaped, the
length of the ftameiis ; iHgma obtufe. Per'ic. Capfule glo-
bofe, mucronatcd, of one cell and ten valves. ^Jfc;^ nume-
rous, angular. Recept. globofe, very large, dotted.

E(r. Ch Coroila wheel-fhaped. Capfule globofe, pointed,
with ten valves.

Obf. L. Linum-JlAlatum has fruit with only five valves.
Nearly the whole of this genus is pretty well known in
our gardens, wliilll fome of its fpecies are found to grow
fponta".ooufly in our hedges and fields. It is divided into
two feftions, the Jirjl of thefe having many fiower.s on a
ftalk, they?t-o/!(/compofed of fnch as are fingle-flowcred. —
Of the firit feftion are the following.

L 'vulgaris- Yellow Loofeftrife. Linn. Sp. PI. 209.
Engl. Bot. t. 761. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 19. — Panicled.
Clutters terminal. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute. — A na-
tive of fhady, watery places on the banks of rivers, flower-
ing in July. — -Root perennial, creeping. Stems ereft, three
feet high, leafy, many-flowered. Leaves oppofite, often
three or four together, fpreading, veiny, fmooth, fometimes
downy. Clufters ered, each partial flower-ftalk with an
awl-fliaped braftea at its bafe. Flowers yellow and hand-
fome.

L. thfrfijlora. Tufted Loofeftrife. Linn. Sp. PI. 2og.
Engl. Bot. t. 176.— Flowers in lateral, pedunculated -cluf-
ters.— This extremely rare plant, wlien it does occur, may
be found in damp, watery fituations, in particular parts of
Yorkfliire and Scotland. It flowers in July.- Root p'eren-
nial, creeping, i'/cmj ereft, a foot and half high, perfeftly
fimple, round, leafy, fmooth, now and then woolly. Leaves
oppofite, feffile, acute, entire, fmooth. Floivers in axil-
lary, denfe clufters, fniall, of a lefs brilliant colour than the
laft. Many parts of the herbage and inflorefcence are pret-
tily fpotted with red.

Of the remaining fpecies be'onging to this feflion, as
-they are detailed in Willdenow, none are natives of Britain.
They are called L. decurrcns, Ephemerum, atropurpurea, dubla,
and JlriQa.

L Y g

The fecond fe£lion comprifes, amongft others, the fol-
lowing :

L. nemorum. Yellow Pimpernel, or Wood Loofe-
ftrife. Ltnn. Sp. PI. 21 1. Engl. Bot. t. 527. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 5. t. 18. — Leaves ovate, acute. Flowers folitary.
Stem procumbent. Stamens fmooth. — Found not unfre-
quently in groves and moift fhady places, flowering from
May to September. — Roots perennial. Stems procumbent,
creeping, branched, fquare, reddifh, fhining, leafy. Leaves
oppofite, on footftalks, ovate, entire, fmooth. Stalks axil-
lary, folitary, fingle-flowered, flender. Floivers delicate,
yellow.— This and tiie following fpecies may be regarded as
two of our moft ornamental common plants, more efpcciaUy
as their myrtle-like herbage, when intermixed or entangled
with ferns or mols, gives a pleafing variety to the verdure
of rocks, and the banks of rivulets, or fliady ponds.

L. Nummularia. Moneywort, or Herb Twopence.
Creeping Loofeftrife. Linn. Sp. PI. 211. Engl. Bot.
t. 528. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 14.— Leaves fomewhat heart-
fliapcd. Flowers folitary. Stem creeping. Stamens glan-
dular. -A native of tiie banks of ditches and very moift
meadows. It flowers copioufly during the fummer. Root
perennial. Stems proftrate, fquare, comprefled, generally
finiple. Leaves oppofite, on footftalks, heart-fhapcd or
roundifli, waved, palilTi green. Corolla pale lemon-coloured,
and, when magnified, clothed with fmall glands ftanding on
footftalks, as are alfo the ftamens. — The qualities both of this
and the preceding are to the beft of our knowledge perfeftly
unimportant either for medicinal or agricultural purpofes.

The remaining fpecies of Lyfimachia are noiie of them
natives. We therefore feleft two or three of the more in-
terefting exotic ones.

1... punSata. Four-leaved Loofeftrife. Linn. Sp. PI. 210.
Jacq. Auftr. t. 366. — Leaves generally four together, al-
nioft feilile. Stalks verticiliate, fingle-flowered. — Found
amongft reeds in Holland, Auftria, and other parts of
Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. Root perennial,
fomewhat creeping and fibrous. Stems two or three feet
high, upright, downy, leafy, generally i:mplc. Leaves
ovate-lanceolate, entire, freqttently fpotted with black on
the lower fide. Flo-wcrs rather fmall, yellow. The feg-
ments of the corolla pointed, with tawny dots at their
bafe.

L. quadriflora. Four-flowered Loofeftrife. Ait. Hort.
Kew. n. 7. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 660. — Leaves oppofite,
feflile, linear, very long. Stalks four together, terminal,
fingle-flowered — .Sent from North America to Kew gar-
den by Mr. Francis MafTon in 1798. It flowers like the laft
in July and Auguft. — Root perennial. Stems quadrangular,
much branched. " Leaves oppofite, linear, quite' entire,
fmooth, feffile, longer than the branches. Branches axil-
lary to the leaves, fimilar, terminated with four leaves
crofted, ferving the office of brafteas ; from the a.-iils of
each of thefe there rifes a flower-ftalk, bearing a folitary
flower, nodding." The fegments of the corolla are crenate
and very ftiarply pointed, of a beautiful bright yellow
colour ; whilft the whole herbage is of a dark, blackifh-
green. It is a hardy perennial, requiring no particular treat-
ment, even bearing the fmoke of London without much
injury.

L. ciViata. Ciliated or Fringed Loofeftrife. Linn. Sp.
PI. 210. (Lyfimachia canadenfis lutea, folio Jalapx; Walth.
Hort. t. 12.) — Leaf-ftalks fringed. Flowers drooping. —
A native of North America, whence it was introduced by
Mr. Philip Miller into tins country in 1732. It flowers in
July and Auguft. — i?o»/ p -rennial, creeping. Stems about
two feet high, ereft. Leaves oblong, fmooth, acuminate,

veined

L Y S

L Y S

veined underneath. Flowers axillary, yellow, each on a
lonrr, (lender, naked ilalk. Linnaeus in his Syjlema Frgeta-
bilium reckons L. ciliata as a variety only of his quadrifolia ,
and in this he is followed by ^\'ilIdeno^v, but on the autho-
rity of the Sptc'ics Planlanim and Hortus Kewenjh, we are
inclined to conhder them a^; dillinft.

L. Litittm-JIeil/i/iim. Small Loofefi rife. Linn. Sp. PI. 211.
(Linum minimum ikllatum ; Magnol. Bot. Monfp. t. 162.)
— Calyx longer than the corolla. Stem ereft, very much
branclied. — Not uncommon in France and Italy, where it
flowers in the fpring. Jieot annual, capillary, whitilh. Stem
about two or three inches high, very flender, much branched.
Leahies feffde lanceolate, pointed, entire. Floivers fmall,
of a pale green colour.

Mr. R. Brown, Prod. Nov. HoU. v. i. 428, fuggcfts that
this genus ought certainly to be divided. He deicribes one
fpecies as found near Port Jackfon, !.■. maculala, downy,
with ovate leaves, and axillary flowers, whofe ftalks are
fliorter than the fooiftalks. There is no abfolute certainty
of this being diftinft from L. japonica of Thunberg.

Lysimachia, in GiirJen'mg, comprehends plants of the
hardy, herbaceous, biennial, and perennial forts, of which the
fpecies molliv cultivated are, the willow-leaved loofellrife
(I.,, ephemeram) ; the purple flowered loofellrife (L. du-
bia) ; and the upright loofefl;rife (L. ilrifta. )

Method of Ciihuir. — All thefe plants may be readily in-
creafed, either by fowing the feeds in the autumnal feafon,
as fooji as they become fully ripe, on a moid border which
has an caftern afpett ; or by parting the roots, and planting
them out at the fame feafon in fimllar fituations. The plants
fhouid afterwards be kept perfettly clean, and where tlie
firll mode is ufed, removed into the places where they are
to remain during the autumn.

But in the fecond kind the feeds fliould be fown upon a
hot-bed.

The third fort is beft increafed by planting the bulbs
thrown out from the axils of the leaves.

Each of thefe different plants may be employed by way
of ornament and variety in the clumps, borders, and other
parts of gardens and pleafure grounds.

Ly.simachia, in ylncient Geography, a town of Thrace,
called in the time of Ptulemy Xuwllium.

Lysimachia Worm, in NaUiral HiJIory, a name given to
an infect found very frequently feeding on the leaves of the
/v/imac^/a, or willow-herb. It has nlualiy been efteemed a
caterpillar, but is properly ene of the fauffe chenilles, having
a rounded head, and twenty-two legs ; this creatni-e changes
its fl<in feveral times, and finally changes its colour with it ;
it is at firil of a bluelfn-grey, but on its laft change in the
worm-ftate it becomes of a yellowifli-green ; when it has
lived a week, or tiiercabout, after this laft change, it becomes
a chiyfalis, from wliich there afterwards comes out a four-
winged fly.

LYSIMACHIiE, in Botany, an elegant Natural Order
of plants, named from the LvfimncJAa, which is one of
them ; fee that article. Tliis order is the firll in .lullieu's
eighth clafs. See LABr.\T;E and Gi;stian'a:.

Tiie Lyfitnachiiz are thus defined.

Calyx divided. Corolla generally regular, its limb di-
vided, moftly into five lobes. Stjmens define, mollly five,
rarely either more or fewer, being equal in number to, and
placed againft, the fegments of the corolla. Style fohtary ;
llyle fimple, or rarely cloven. Fruit of one cell with many
feeds, often capUilar, the receptacle of the feeds central,
.tmconnefted with the valves. Stem herbaceous. Leaves
either oppofite or alternate.

Seftion i, confillin^ of plants whofe flowers are Lome on

a leafy ftefn, contains Centunculus, yiimgaUis, Lyjimachia,
Uottoma, Coris, Shrjfieldia, LimoJ'ella, Trienlulis, and ^Inl'ia.

Section 2, comprehends plants whofe flowcr-ftalks fpring
direflly from the root, as well as the leaves, and are gene-
rally umbellate, with a many-leaved involucrum ; fometimes
however they are fimple and fingle-flowered. The genera
are yjndrojace. Primula, Cortufa, Soldanella, Dodecatheon,
and Cydamem

.Juffieu fubjoins a 3d Seftion, of plants akin to the Lyfi-
machia. Thefe are Globularia, furely mifplaced here ; Co-
nobea of Aublct ; Toz.z.iai which two la!l we fhould rather
have referred to the order of Prdicu'ares ; Samohts, Utri-
cularia, Pinguicula, and Menyanfhes.

M. Ventenat has chofen to call this order Primidacc-c, and
he is followed by Mr. Brown. The latter name is perhaps
preferable, and there feems to be nothing fixed as yet
aiflongll the ftudents of natural orders, as to names or their
terminations. The fcience is new and experimental at prc-
fent, and rigid laws (liould not prevent improvements. It
is far otherwil'e with names of genera and fpecies, which are
the current coin, not the paper currency, of the botanical
realm.

LYSIMACHUS, in Biography, king of Thrace, one
of the captains of Alexander the Great, rofe from a very
mean condition to the favour of that prince. At the parti-
tion of the empire of Alexander, in the year 323 B.C.,
Thrace, the Ciierfonefe, and the countries adjacent to the
Euxine, were allotted to Lyfin.achus. When Antigonus
had rendered himfelf formidable to all the other (liarers,
Lyfimachus joined in the league againll him, with Seleucus,
Ptolemy, and Callander. By a lubfcquent treaty, Thrace
was confirmed to liim ; and m imitation of other captains,
he took the title of king. He founded the city of Lyfi-
machia in 309 B.C., and made it his capital. In co:ijunc-
tion with Seleucus, he gained the great battle of Ipfuj. He
afterwards feized upon ^lacedonia, having firll expelled
Pyrrhus from the throne ; but his cruelty rendered him truly
odious, and the murder of his fon Agythocles fo offended
his fiibjefts, that the moll opulent and powerful revolted
from him, and abandoned the kingdom. He purfued them
into Alia, and declared war againll Seleucus, who had given
them a kind reception. He was killed in a bloody battle,
in the 28 ill year B.C., and in the Soth of his age. His
body was found in the heaps of flain by, the fidelity of his
dog, which had carefuily watched near it. With great
courage and abilities, he was characterized by a cruel and
ferocious difpofition, which rendered him unworthy of his
high fortune. Juftin mentions a curious fatt concerning
him, w's, that having offended Alexander, he was, as a
punifliment, thrown into the den of a furious lion ; and
when the ravenous animal darted upon him, he wrapped his-
hand in his mantle, and boldly tliruft it into the lion's
month, and by twilling his tongue, killed an adverfary
ready to devour him. This aft T)t cMurage in felf-defence
recommended him to the monarch, who pardoned and took
him into his favour. Univer. Hill.

LYSINE, in ylncient Geography, a tov.-n of Afia, in
P.imphyha, between Comana and Cormafa, according to
Ptolemy.

LYSINEMA, in Botany, from X\j3-i:, a feparation, and
nfj-y., a thread or Jlamen, becauie the llamens are uncon-
nedled with tlie corolla, proceeding from the receptacle, be-
low the germcn, by which character alone the genus is dif-
tinguiflied from Eparris, their habit being esatlly the fame.
The tube of the ci rolla however is generally divided, more
- or Icfs deeply, into five parts in Lyjiuema. Brown Prodr.

No\,

L Y S

Nov. Holl. V. I. J52. — Clafs and order, P^ntanJr'ta Moite-
gyni/i. Nat. Ord. Epacride^, Brown.

Gen. Cli. Cul. Perianth inferior, of many ereft, imbri-
cated,' coloured, permanent leaves ; the inner nnev jiradually
largell. Crjr. of one petal, falver-fiiaped ; its tube gene-
rally fplittinjT into five parts ; limb in five fmootli beardlefs
fegments, obliquely twilled to the right. Neflary of five
glands, furrounding the bafe of the germen. Slam. Fila-
ments five, thread-fliaped, equal, inferted into the recep-
tacle ; anthers incumbent, oblong, burfting Icngthwife,
rifing iuft above the lube. Pi/f Germen fuperior, roundifh,
with five furrows ; ftyle thread-fhaped ; fligma obtufe.
Perk. Capfuk of five cells and five valves. Sefds numerous,
minute. ReceptacLs five, attached to the central column.

E(T. Ch. Calyx of many imbricated coloured leaves.
Corolla falver-iliaped ; its limb five-cleft, beardlefs. Sta-
mens inferted into the receptacle, the length of the lube.
Capfule of five cells, with many feeds.

1. Li. penltipetalum. Corolla divided to the bottom ; its
claws unconnected, longer than the calyx, externally
fmooth. — Found by Mr. Drown in the fouthcrn part of
New Holland.

2. L. c'-liatum. Corolla divided to the bottom ; its clavjs
cohering at the top, externally fmooth, the length of tlie
calyx. — Native of the fame country. Vv'e have feen neither
of thefe.

3. L. laftaiithmn. Corolla divided to the bottom ; its
claws externally woolly, rather longer than the calyx. —
Gathered by Mr. Menzics at King George's Sound, on the
foHth-weft coall of New Holland. The Jltm is (hrubby, as
in all the reft, its branches very flcnder, fmooth, round,
leafy. Lea-ues Icattered, about a quarter of an inch long,
elliptic-oblong, narrow, obtufe, entire, fmooth ; flat above ;
convex beneath. Footjlnlh (hort, fmooth. Flonvers few,
in a terminal fimple fpike, leaning one way, apparently
tawny or blufn-coloured, each near half an inch long. Ca-
lyx-lca'ues blunt, with a membranous edge; the inner ones
fringed. Petals obtufe.

4. L. conjptcuum. Tube of the corolla five-cleft above,
longer than the calyx. Leaves lanceolate-awl-fhaped, clofe-
prelfed. — Found by Mr. Brown in the fouth of New Hol-
land.

j'. \i. pun^ens. (Epacris pungens ; Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 26.
t. 546.) — Tube of the corolla undivided, the length of the
calyx. Leaves fpreading, ovate, fiiarp-pointed. — Native of
the country about Port Jackfon, New South Wales, from
whence fpecimens were fent in 1791 by Dr. White. The
Jlem is woody, with many ilraight rigid branches, thickly
befet with feffile, rigid, fmooth, entire, ribbed, fpinous, and
taper-pointed leaves ; their bafe ovate or heart-fhaped, clofe-
preficd, and partly clafping the ftem ; the reft fpreading
iieai-ly horizontally, very pungent. Flowers white and
fragrant, very elegant, in denfe, leafy, terminal fpikes.
Segments of the corolla pointed, fomewhat plaited when
dry. Style prominent, hairy. We have already fpoken of
th.\s ([wah a^ Epacris pungens. (See Epacris.) Mr. Brown
fubjoins Dr. Sims's red-flowered plant. Curt. Mag. t. 1 199,
as a variety, and he adds that this L. pungens is an inter-
mediate fpecies, as it were, between Lyfinema and Epacris.
It agrees with the latter in its corolla, but has the infertion
of the (lamens proper to the former.

LYSIFPUS, in Biography, a celebrated fclilptor and
ftatuary, was born at Sicyon, and flourifiied in the time of
Alexander the Great. He v.-as originally a worker in brafs,
and then applied himfelf to painting, till his talents and in-
chnation led him to fix on the profcfTion of a fculptor. He
worked with fuch extraordinary diligence and facility, that

L Y S

he is faid to have left J500 performances, all of fuch exeel-
ler.ce, that any one of them fingly might have coiiferred
celebrity on him as an artill. He attained to fo high a re-
putation, that A'exander forbad any ftulptor but Lyfippus
to make his ftatues. Lyfippus improved tlie art of ftatuary
by a better imitation of the hair, and by an attentive ftudy
of fymmetry, in which he confidered how the human figure
appeared to the eye, not what were its exaft proportions.
The mod admirable of his works were the ftatues of Alex-
ander, of which he executed a fcrics, beginning from his
childhood : one of a man coming out of a bath, placed by
Marcus Agrippa before his public batlis ; and being re-
moved by Tiberius into his own chamber, the Roman people
were fo clamorous for its reftitution, that the enperor
thought it prudent to comply with their wifhes. A chariot
of the fun at Rhodes was one of his great works, which
was, however, furpafled by a coloffus at Tarentum 40 cubits
high. His ftatue of Socrates, and thofe of th'- twnty-five
horlen-.en who were drowned in the Granii us, were fo highly
valued, tint, in the age of Auguftus, they were fold for
their weight in gold.

LYSIS, a Pythagorean philofopher, who flouriflied in
the fifth century before Chrift, was a native of Tarentum,
who, according to Jamblichus, was inftrufted in his philc-
fophy by Pythagoras himfclf. Being well initiated and ex-
celling in the doctrines of his mafler, he opened a fchool for
the purpofe of inlhufting others, but would never admit
perfons of bad character among his auditors. He even re-
fufed, on that account, entrance to Cylon, one of the
wealthieft people of the city. Cylon was exafperated at the
neglcit, as he thought it, and refolved on revenge. He
caufed the houfe of Milo, in which Lyfis and forty other
Pythagoreans were afl!einbled, to be fet on fire ; meaning
by the violence of a hired mob to afiliirinale thofe, by
bludgeons or mifiile weapons, whn ftiould efcape burning.
Excepting Lyfis and Archippus, they were every one burnt
or iloned to dca'h. The philofopher now retired, firft into
Achaia, and afcerwardj, to Thebes, where he opened a
fchool, and remained an ufeful inftruftor to the Grecian
youth till he died. Among othqr famous difciples he could,
it has been faid, mention Epammondas ; though others feem
to doubt the fact, and to be defirous of referring that ho-
nour to another perfon ef the fame name. Lyfis is cele-
brated for having been a moft exadt and punftual performer
of his promifes, even on the moft trivial occafions. He
compofed Commentaries on the philofophy of Pythagoras,
which have not come down to our times. Some writers
have attributed to him the " Golden Verfes ;" while others
have given them to Philolaus, or Empedocles. There is
ftill extant, under the name of Lyfis, a letter addrefled to
Hipparcluis, in which the latter is reproached for having
divulged the fecrets of the Pythagorean philofophy. It
may be found in the " Opufcula Mythologica et Philofo-
phica" of Dr. Tiiomas Gale.

LYSKO, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Novogrodck ; 52 miles S.W. of Novogrodek,

LYSOBYKI, a town of Pidand, in the palatirjQte of
Lublin ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Lublin.

LY^)SA, Auc-Tx, a word ufed by medical authors to ex-
prels that fpecies of raadnefs which is peculiar to do^s and
wolves, but is communicated by their bite to man and other
animals. Hence pcrlons labouring under the difmal effects
of fuch a bite, are called alfo lyjfodedi.

LYSSENDORF, in Ceogruphy, a town of France, in
the department of the Sarre, and chief ])lace of a canton, in
the diiirict of Pruni. The place contains 117, and the
canton 1962 inhabitants, ia 2^ coaununee.

LYSTRA,

L Y T

L T T

LYSTRA, a fmall town of America, in Nelfon county,
Kentucky, fituated on a weft water of Rolling Fork, a
fouth branch of Salt river. N. lat. 37' 25'.

LYSWIK, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Warmeland ; 54 miles N. of Carlftadt.

LYTHRUM, in Bolaiiy, theXuSfov of Diofcorides, moft
probably received its name from the purple tinge of its
flowers ; \v9fov fignifying dolled, or gon blood, to which fub-
ftance this plant is fimilar in colour. Linn. Gen. 240. Schreb.
323. WiUd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 865. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 3. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 509. Alt. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 149. Jufl". 332.
Lamarck Ilhiftr. t. 40S. Oasrtn. t. 62. (Salicaria ; Tournef.
t. 129.) — The Ciiphea of Brown, in his hiftory of Ja-
maica, united to Lythrum by Linnaeus, is now by general
confent feparated, on account of its irregular flower, and
capfule with a fjngle cell. — Ciafs and order, Oodecandria
Monogynm. Nat. OrJ. Calycanthemx, Linn. Salicaria,

jutr.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cylindri-
cal, ftriated, with twelve teeth, the alternate ones lefs. Cor.
Petals fix, oblong, rather obtufe, fpreading, inferted into
the bafe of the fegments of the calyx. Slam. Filaments
twelve, thread-fliapcd, the length of the calyx ; the upper
ones fhorter than the lower ; anthers fimple, fomewliat
afcending. Pi/l. Qcrmen fuperior, oblong ; ftyle awl-
fhaped, the length of the ftamens, dechning ; fUgma orbicu-
lar, afcending. Peric. Capfule oblong, pointed, covered by
the calyx, of two cells. Seeds numerous, fmall.

Etr. Ch. Calyx inferior, with twelve teeth. Petals fix,
inferted into the calyx. Capfule with two cells and many
feeds.

Obf. In fome fpecies oi^Lythrum, one-lixth of the parts
of fructification is found to be deficient ; in others only
fix llamens are to be feen. — We defcribe the following
principal fpecies as a fiifficient illuftration of the genus.

L. Salicaria. Purple Lythrum. Linn. Sp. PI. 640.
Engl. Hot. t. 1061. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 28. — Leaves
oppofite, lanceolate, heart-fliaped at the bafe. Flowers
fpiked. Stamens twelve. A native of marfties and the
banks of rivers, flowering in July and Auguft. — Rool peren-
nial, woody, throwing up many ftems. Slems three feet
high, ereft, vvand-hke, quadrangular (occafionally hexangu-
lar) leafy. Leaves oppofite, fometimes, though rarely,
three or four together, ftill more rarely alternate, feflile,
fmooth above, downy at the margin and underneath. Flotvtrs
in a whorled fpikc, purple. — One of our moft fliowy wild
plants, and extremely ornamental to the banks of ditches,
ponds, and rivers, though occafionally to be met with in
drier fituations.

L. virgalum. Fine-branched Lythrum. Linn. Sp. PI.
642. Jacq. Auftr. t. 7. Curt. Mag. t. 10C3. — Leaves op-
pofite, lanceolate. Panicle ftraight. Flowers three toge-
ther.— Originally found by Clufius in Auftria, and in the
ides of the Danube. It was introduced by Jacquin into the
gardens at Kew in 1776, where it flowers from June to
September. — i?oo? perennial, thick, i'/cmj upright ; at the
bottom, round, pale-brown mixed with green, generally
leaflefs ; towards the top fquare, leafy and branched. Leaves
oppofite, thickifh, nearly feflile. Flotuers fix in a whorl,
the lower ones more remote, all axillary, of a deep purple
colour. — Linnsus notices a variety of L. virgatum which
has fewer flowers in the whorl, and whofe leaves are
alternate.

L. hyjfopifolium. Hyffop-Ieaved Lythrum, or Grafs-poly.
Srn. Fl. Brit. 510. Engl. Bot. t. 292. (L. Hyflbpifoha ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 642. Jacq. Auftr. t. 133.)— Leaves alter-
nate, linear-lanceolate. Stamens fix.— A rare Engliih plant.

to be met with occafionally in moift places where water has
ftagnated through the winter. Common in many other parts
of Europe, flowering in Auguft. — Root annual, fimple, at-
tenuated. Stem a fpan high, branched at the bafe, ere£t.
Leaves fmooth, varying in breadth ; the lower ones only,
oppofite. Floivers axillary, almoft feflile, folitary, fmall,
purple, hexandrous, though occafionally five-cleft .ind
pentandrous.

Lythru.m, in Gardening, contains a plant of the hardy,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
is the common or purple willo.v-herb (L. Salicaria.)

Method of Culture. — This fort and varieties may be readily
increafed by parting the roots in autumn, and planting them
out in the fituations where they are tjo remain. They may
likewife be raifed Si'om feed fown at the fame time, but the
firll is the readicft method. They deliaht in rather moift
foil. ^ °

All of them are highly ornamental in the larger borders,
clumps, and other parts of pleafure-grounds, being placed
towards the back parts, from their full growth.

LYTTA, or Lytt.\ Veficatoria, in the Materia Medica,
the name given to the Blitttring Fly.

The Cfrahim Lytt.c, or Ccratum Caiilharidis of P. L. 1787,
is compoled of fperinaceti cerate, and blillcring flies, in a
very fine powder, in the proportion of fix drachms of the
former to a drachm of tlie latter, and is prepared by foftcn-
ing the cerate by heat, adding the flies, a'.;d mixing them
together.

Lytt.e, Emplajlrum. Sec Empi,.\stru.m.

Lytt.'C, TinSura, Tw£lura Canlharidis, P. L. 1787,
tiufture of blifteriiig fly, is prepared by macerating for 14
days three drachms of bliftering flies bruifed, in two pints of
proof fpirit. In order that this preparation may be certain
in its effecls, it is necefl'ary that the infefts fhould be frefh
and perfeft : for want of attention to this circumftance,
large dofcs have been given without any fenfible efi"e(S. See
Blister and Canth.IlRides.

Lytt.\, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of infefts, of which
there are thirty-two fpecies enumerated in Gmelin's edition
of tiic Syft. Nat. The generic charafter is antennse filiform ;
fo'ir unequal feelers, the hind ones clavate ; thorax roundifli ;
head inflected gibbous ; fticlls foft, flexile, as long as the
abdomen. All the fpecies of this genus are exotics, and fcat-
tered through the globe, as will be feen in the following
enumeration : many of them reduced to powder are capable
of veficcating the fliin on application to the furface of the
body.

Species.

Ve.sicatoria ; Blifter-fiy. Green; antennas black. This
is the common Cantharis veficatoria, or Spanifh-fly of the
fliops : though the infeft has been ufually ranked under the
genus Meloe, and has, indeed, been fo referred to from
the article Blister in our own work : it is found to have no
claim as belonging to that genus, and we have accordingly
reftored it to its proper place. It in^labits many parts of
Europe, on afti and elder trees. It is ufed for various pur-
pofes in pharmacy, but chiefly for raifing blitters ; it multi-
plies greatly, and has a naufeous fmell. The odorous par-
ticles are extremely corrofive. The female infeft, after im-
pregnation, depofits her eggs in the ground, where they
remain till they have undergone the various changes that are
to bring forth the winged infects.

Segetum. Golden ; fliells green. This is a lefs fpecies
than the Veficatoria ; is found in Barbary among corn. The
antenns are black ; head and thorax fometimes golden,

J I fojnetimes

L Y T

L Y T

fometiraes green with a glofs of gold ; body golden ; legs
dufky.

NiTiDULA. Green bronzed; (hells teftaceoiis; anten-
j)x black. This iViecics has been fometimes defcribed as he-
longing to the Enjrlifli infefls ; but GmeUn defcribcs it as
inhabiting the Cape only.

CoLLARi.s. Black; crown, thorax, and legs ferrugi-
nnus i the fhells are of an azure colour. This is a large in-
fe£l, and is found in the fouthern parts of Ruffia. The
aiUennae are ferruginous ; edge of the thorax a little black.
The male is as fmall again as the female.

GiGAS. Azure; bread ferruginous ; it inhabits Guinea.
The fizi of this infeft is about the fame as that of the L.
Tcficatoria ; one fcx has the fiiells (triatCj but in the other
they are fmooth.

Syriaca. Villous, green-bh.ie ; thorax rounded and
ferruginous. It inhabits the fouthern parts of Europe.

RuFicoLLis. An inhabitant of the Eaft Indies. Glabrous,
green-gold ; thorax rufous, tapering before.

Testace.v. Above teltaceous; flieils with a large oblong
blaek fpot near the tip. It inhabits Tranquebar. The
head is teftaceous ; mouth and antennae black ; thorax punc-
tured and tellaceous ; fhdls fmooth ; body black.

Festiva. Shining bratfy-green ; fliells tellaceous with
fpots of bralfy-green. The body is entirely green bronze ;
fpot on the fhe'ls varying. Inhabits Siberia.

Margixata. Black ; margins of the (hells pale cine-
reous ; inhabits the Cape of Good Hope ; above opaque,
beneath cinereous.

VlTTATA. Shells black, with a yellow margin ; an in-
habitant of America. By fome entymologi.ls this is de-
icribed as the Cantharis vittata. Head yellovvilh ; crown
with two black fpots ; thorax black, with three yellow lines ;
abdomen and legs black.

Atrata. Body black, immaculate ; inhabits Barbary,
and is the Meloe pennfylvanica of fome writers. About
half t+ie fize of the Vittata, and entirely of a deep black.

Erytiiroceph.'^la. Bhck ; head tellaceous ; thorax
and (hells wiih cinereous lines. This fpecies is found in
feveral parts of Auftria ; the head is tellaceous, with a
black hue "down the middle ; mouth black ; thorax \ chan-
nelled.

OtULATA. Bhick, with a yellow callous dot behind the
eyes ; inhabits Guinea. Body entirely black immaculate ;
behind the eyes on each lide is a large raifed yellow dot.
Female apterous, (hells abbreviated.

DuBlA. Black ; crown fulvous; thorax and (liells imma-
culate. Inhabits Siberia ; and is the Meloe algiricus of
fome entomologills.

Afha. Black; thorax rufous ; this fpecies is found in
Africa ; and is the Cantharis afraof Olivier.

H.SMORKHOiDAl-is. Biackifli blue ; end of the abdomen
rufous ; the antennai are black ; head and thorax villous ;
body blueifh.

QuAniUM.vcUL.\TA. Black, glabrous; bread downy;
flieil? yellowilh-grey, with two black and ;Jnioll fquare fpots.
A native of the northern parts of Aii.i ; is found among
flowers ; and it exudes a very pieaiant Imelling oil from its
legs. This is a circumllance attaching likewile to the

Fen E'iT RATA, which is glabrous, pale tellaceous; thorax
dopreffed ; Ihells giey tipt with black, have two Iquanlh
livahne fpots ; found alfo in the Afiatic parts of Siberia,
chiefly amon>; floivers.

Clematidis. Black, with a fteel-blue g'ofs ; (hell pale
tetlaceous.immaculate ; found on the clematis in Siberia.

UnAf-ESsis. Black, opaque, glabrous; this is often con-
\OL. XXI,

founded with the Atrata above defcribed, and is not
fufTiciently diftinft from it. An inhabitant of Siberia.

SiEluicA. Black, opaque, glabrous ; (hells edged with
white ; head red ; eyes, mouth, and antenna black. Is
found on the lotus in divers parts of Siberia. Middle joints
of the antennse, ia the male, coraprcfled and armed with a
tooth.

LuTEA. Black, woolly ; (hells ventricofe, fubcom-
prelTcd, pale yellow with fix black dots. Inhabits Siberia.

OctLLATA. Black, woolly ; legs teftaceous ; head, tho-
rax, and fiiells yeHowi(h, the latter with fix ocellate black
fpots in tjie middle. Inhabits the Cafpian fea, and has
been defcribed particularly by Pallas. Like the " Four-
fpotted'" and " Feneilrata" it exudes an agreeable oil from
its legs.

Pectinata. Antennx peiftinate ; body black; front
red. It inhabits Siberia.

ClNNAB.\RlNA. Black ; thorax above, (hells, and head
on each fide red. Inhabits Carnioia.

Rui'A. Black ; head rufous. Inhabits Carnioia.

SuBViLLOSA. Yellowifh fubvillous ; antennje tapering.
Is found in many parts of France.

BicoLou. Tellaceous ; (hells tipt with black. Inhabit*
France.

FoR.MicARiA. Brown; the fore-part of the elytra, and
the thorax, which is elongated, are red. This is found in
France and other parts of Europe.

PuBEscEXS. Black ; head and thorax pubefcent ; (hells
yellow, with a ferruginous fpot on each fide behind ; this
infeft has been found only in mufeums by modern natu-
ralills.

Ferrugikea. Ferruginous ; head and thorax rufous ;
(liells brown teltaceous at the bafe. Inhabits various parts of
Europe.

LYTTELTON, George, Lord, in Biography, was>the
eldelt fon of fir Thomas Ly ttelton, hart, of Hagley, in Wor-
cefterfhire.where he was born in .Tanuary i / 08-9. He was edu-
cated at Eton, from which place he was removed to Chrift-
churchcollegc, Oxford. He was froman early age diilinguilheJ
for his proficiency in clalTical learning, and fome of his poems
WL-i-e the fruit of his youthful lludies. Wt^en he had com-
pleted his courfe at Oxford, he fat out upon a tour to the
continent, and his letters to his father during his abfence arc
replete with remarks dilplaying folid judgment and found
principles, while, at the fame time, they afford a moil plea-
fing example of filial affeiflion and duty, joined with the un-
referved CO! Sdence of intimate friendlliip. During his refi-
dence abroad, he wrote a poetical epiille to Dr. Ayfcough,
which is thought to be one of the belt of his works, and
another to Pope, elegantly complimentary of that great
poet. Upon his return from the continent, he was chofcn
reprefentative, in parliament, for the borough of Oakhamp-
ton. At this time his father was a iupporter of the exilling
miniflry under Walpole. The fon, animated with that pa-
triotic ardour, which fcarcely ever fails to infpire the bolom
of virtuous and liberal youth, and which it is alrroil difcre-
ditable tor a young man not to feel, took a contrary i>art,
and diilinguiflied himlelf among the oppofers of adniiniltra-
tlon. His name is to be found among ihofe of the minority
in almod every important debate, and he zealoully con-
curred in every meafure adopted by Pulteney, Pitr, and other
leaders of that party. In 1735 he publidied his " Perfian
I^otters," of which it appears, by the teilimony of Dr.
Warton, he was ratlier aihamed at the clofe of life. Mr.
Lvttclton obtained the notice and friendOiip of Frederic
prince of Wales, and was appointed fecretary to his royal
highnefs ; by his inlligation it is imagined the prince alfumed

4 Y the

LYTTELTON.

the patronage of letters, the beneficial effeft of which Mallet,
Thomfon, and others experienced. It was probably on this
account that Pope gave him the praife of pure patriotifm,
rather than from any regard to his political principles :

" Free as young Lyttelton her caufe purfue ;
Still true to virtue, and as warm as true."

On the death of Thomfon, who left his affairs in a very
embarralfed condition, Mr. Lyttelton took that poet's filler
under his protedlion. He revifed the tragedy of Coriolanus,
and bro\ight it out at the theatre-royal Covent-garden, with
a prologue of his own writing, in which he fo affeftingly
lamented the lofs of that bard, that not only Quiii, who fpoke
the lines, but the whole audience, fpontaneoufly burft into
tears. He had married, in 1^-42, Lucy, daughter of Hugh
Fortefcue, efq. and enjoyed in her fociety the moft unalloyed
happinefs, which was raiferably interrupted by her death in
1746, leaving him one fon, Thomas, the late lord, and a
daughter, Lucy, who married lord Valentia. On the monu-
-Hient of his beloved lady, heinfcribed the following lines.

" Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes :
Tho' meek, magnanimous ; tho' witty, wife ;
Polite, as all her life in courts had been ;
Yet good, as (he the world had never feen :
The noble fire of an e.Kalted mind,
With gentled female tendernefs combin'd.
Her fpeech was the melodious voice of love
Her fong the warbling of the vernal grove.
Her eloquence v?as fweeter than her fong,
Soft as her heart, and as her reafon llrong.
Her form each beauty of her mind expretf'd
Her mind was virtue by the Graces drefl 'd."

Befides thefe lines, her affeftionate hulband wrote a monody
t)n her death, which difplays much natural feeling amidft
the more elaborate ftrains of a poet's imagination.

On the expulfion of Walpole from the miniftry, Lyttelton,
in 1744, was appointed one of the lords of the treafury.
He was always affiduous in his parliamentary attendance,
and a vigorous fupporter of the meafures in which he par-
took, but never attained the ftation of leader. He fpoke
with eafe and fluency, but was not eloquent in the ufunl
fenfe of the word. In early life, he feems to have enter-
tained ftrong doubts of the truth of revelation, probably
from the corruptions of it, which he had witnefled on the
continent, but upon ferious and impartial inquiry he became
a firm behever in Chriftianity, and wrote in its defence,
" A Differtation on the Converfion of St. Paul," which
has ever been regarded as a mafterly performance. This
piece was written at the defire of Gilbert Weft, efq. in
confequence of Mr. Lyttelton's afferting, that, befides all
proofs of the Chriflian religion, which might be drawn from
the prophecies of the Old Teftament, from the ncceffary con-
ne6kion it has with the whole fyftem of the Jewifli religion,
from the miracles of Chrill, and from the evidence of his
refurreftion by all the other apoftles, he thought the con-
verfion of St. Paul alone, was of itfelf a demonftration fuf-
ficient to prove Chriftianity to be a divine revelation.

In 1749 he married again, but the conduft of his fecond

wife proved fo little to his fatisfaAion, that a feparation by
mutual confent enfued in a very (hort time. By the death of
his father in 1751, he fucceeded to the title and eftate. His
tafte for rural ornament he difplaycd at Hagley, which he
rendered one of the moft deliglitful places in the kingdom.
He occupied feveral pofts under government, but at the dif-
folution of the miniftry in 1759 he went out of office, and
was, as a reward for his ferviccs, raifed to the honour of a
peerage, under the ftyle and title of baron Lyttelton, of
Frankley, in the county of Worceftcr.

From this period he chiefly devoted himfelf to the pur-
fuits of literature, and to an extenfive correfpondence with
the pious and learned. In 1760 he publiflied " Dialogii»
of the Dead," a work abounding in good fenfe and found
morality, and which was well received by the public. In
1767 and 1 77 I he gave the world his " Hiftory of Henry II ,
in three vols. 410." a valuable work, which had occupied a
great portion of the latter part of his life, and on which
he probably placed his chief expeftations for future fame.
He has given an accurate and comprehenfive view of the
Enghfti conftitution, as it cxiftcd at the early period of our
hiftory with which his book is concerned, and of the changes
fubfequent to the Norman conqueft. The ftyle of the hif-
tory is good ; its fentiments are judicious and liberal, fa-
vourab'eto the beft interefts of mankind. The poems of this
nobleman preferve a place among the feledl produftions of
the Britifti mufe, rather on account of the corrednefs of
their verfification, the elegance of their diftion, and the de-
licacy of their fentiments, than as exhibiting any uncommon
poetical powers. As a politician, his fpeechi-s on the Scotch
and mutiny bills, in 1747 ; on the naturalization of the
Jews in 1753 ; and on the privilege of parhament in 1763,
hold him out to public eftimation. Hedied in Auguft 1773,
in the 64th year of his age. His mifcellaneous works were
publiflied after his death in one volume 4to. His lordfiiip,
among other qualities, had a remarkable facility of ftriking
out an extemporary compliment, which obtained for him a
confiderable fliare of reputation ; an inftance is recorded,
when lord Cobham, in a large company, mentioned his defign
of putting up a buft of lady Suffolk in his beautiful gardens
at Stowe, he turned to his friend Lyttelton and faid " George,
you mull furnifti me with a motto for it." I will, faid he,
and inftantly produced the couplet ;

" Her wit and beauty for a court were made.
But truth' and goodnefs fit her for a fiiade."

Johnfon's Lives of the Poets.

Lytteltojj, Charles, an Englifh prelate, brother
of the above, was educated at Eton in grammar learn-
ing, from whence he entered himfelf at Univerfity col-
lege, .Oxford, and afterwards ftudied the law in the
Temple and was called to the bar. He, however, foon
quitted the profeffion, entered into holy orders, and in 1747
was appointed chaplain to the king. The year following he
was made dean of Exeter, and in 1762 promoted to the
bifliopric of Carlifle. He was feveral years prefident of the
Society of Antiquaries, and contributed feveral articles t®
their Tranfadltons. Hedied in 1768.

M.

M A A

MA liquid confonant, and the twelfth letter in the al-
9 phabet.

It has one unvaried found, and is pronounced by ftriking
the upper lip againft the lower ; in which the pronunciation
of this letter agrees with that of b ; the only difference
between the two confiftingin a httle motion made in the nofe
in pronouncing M, and not in b : whence it happens, that
tliofe who have taken cold, for M ordinarily pronounce b ;
the nofe, in that cafe, being difabled from making the nccef-
fary motion.

All confonants are formed with the aid of vowels ; ,in em
the vowel precedes, in be it follows : and M is never mute.

Quintihan obferves, that the M fometimes ends Latin
words, but never Greek ones; the Greeks always changing
it in that cafe into n, for the fake of the better found.

M is alfo a numeral letter, and among the ancients was
ufed for a thoufand ; according to the verfe,

" M caput eft Humeri, quern fcimus mille teneri."

When a da(h is added at the top of it, as m ; it Cgnifies
a thpufand times a thoufand.

M, as an abbreviature, ftands for Manlius, Marcus, Mar-
tius, and Mucius : M. A. iigm?m magi/ler artium, or mailer
of arts; MS. manufcript, andMSS. manufcripts.

M, in AJlronomical Tables, and other things of that kind,
is ufed for Meridional, or fouthern ; and fometimes for Meri-
dian, or mid-day.

M, in Medicinal Prefcription, is frequently ufed to fignify
a maniple, or handful : and it is fometimes alfo put at the end
of a recipe, for mifce, mingle ; or for mixtura, a mixture.
Thus, m. f. julapium, fignilies m/'.r, 2.Tii make a julep.

M, in Law, the brand or ftigmaof a perfon convifted of
man-flaughter, and admittW to the benefit of his clergy.

It is to be burnt on the brawn of his left thumb.

M, in Mujic. This letter in old pialm-tunes, harmonized,
ftands for mean, or middle part, the fecond treble, and fome-
times the counter-tenor. In Scarlatti's leflbns compofed in
Spain, it implie'; mano manca, or left hand.

MA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of Parvati, the con-
fort of Siva, as noticed under thofe articles.

MA A, in Geography, a town of HindooftaR, in Dowla-
tabad ; five miles N.E. of Beder.

MAAB, a fettlemenl of Weft Greenland. N. lat. 62 6'.
W. long. 4S 30'.

MAACAH, Macaati, or Beth-Maacha, in Ancient
Geography, a little province of Syria, E. and N. of the
foiirces of Jordan, toward Damafcus. We learn from
Jolhua (xiii. 15.) that the Ifraelites would not dcftroy the
Maachathites, but permitted them to dwell in the land ; and
from Deut. iii. i^.. and Jo(h. xii. j, that the lot of the half
tribe of Manafleh beyond Jordan extended to tb couatry.

M A A

Hence the fmall canton, near the head of Jordan, on the
E. fide of it, in the way to Damafcus, was called Maa-
chonitis, or Machonitis.

MA.ADEN AL NocRA, in Geography, a town of
Arabia Felix, in the province of Hedjas ; 140 miles E.
of Hagiaz.

Maaden UzKumurud, the Mine of Emeralds, a mountain
of Egypt, on the coaft of the Red fea ; 90 miles S. of
Cofleir.

MAADIE', denoting Parage, is the name of a village
confifting of two or three houfes, upon the E. bank of the
Nile, fo called becaufe they ftand at the place facing the
ufual pajfage to the Delta. Dr. Shaw conceived this to be
the fcite of the ancient Heraclea, but Sonnini made diligent
examination on this fpot, and could perceive no veftiges of
buildings of a remote time, but half a league further, he
remarked upon the coaft old walls and ruins, which may be
traced a long way into the fea, and which are probably the
remains of Heraclea or Heracleum. Maadie is diftant about
fix leagues from Alexandria, on a lake of the fame name,
which is the extremity of the Canopic branch of the Nile.
The lake communicates with the Mediterranean by a nar-
row opening, at which the French raifed a block-houfe, from
which they were driven by the Britidi, under lieut. Brown.
Maadie is five miles E. of Aboukir,

MAAGRUNNI, two idands on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65 25'. E. long. 24" 56'.

MAALMORIE, a cape of Scotland, on the S.E. part
of the ifland of lla.

MAALUM, a town of Bengal ; eight miles E. of
Toree.

MA AN, JoHN', in Biography, a French ecclefiaftical
hitlorian, v.-as born at Tours, where he probably received the
elements of a learned educatipn, being defigned for the ec-
clefiaftical profeflion : in due time he was admitted doftor
by the faculty of the Sorbonne, and became canon and pre-
centor of the church of Tours. He zealoufiy devoted his
talents and learning to the fervice of that religion in which
he had been brought up. In 1667 he printed at his own
houfe a work entitled " Sanfta ct Metropolitana Ecclefia
Turonenfis, Sacrorum Pontificum fuorum ornata virtutibus,
et fanftiffimis Concihorum Inftitutis decorata." This work
is highly efteemed by the Fi-cnch, who rcprcfent it as replete
with erudition and curious refcarches, and as refleAiiig high
honour on the church of Tours and its author. Moreri.

MA.\N.A, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Kajaaga, the refidence of the king, bordering on a
branch of the river Senegal, and within a Ihort diftance of
the ruins of Fort St. Jofeph.

MAANINGA, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Kuopio ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Kuopio

4Y 2 MAAR,

M A B

M A B

MAAR, a fmtill ifland in the Eaft Indian fca, near the
South coall of the idand of Coram. S. lat. 3 30'. E.
long. T3 25'.

MAARABAI, aharbour on the W. coaft of the ifland
of Ulietea, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 16 53'.
W. long. I ji^ 27'.

MAARRA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment of Aleppo; the refidence of an aga ; 45 miles
S.S E. of Aleppo

MAAS DiHK, in Bigraphy, a painter, born at Haerlem
in 16)6. He at firll painted Hill life, after that he iludied
with and i.Tiitated Berchcm, but is bell known by pifturcs
of battles, proceffions, and cavalcades of horfes, fomewhat
in the Ilyle of Vandcr Meulcn, though not wrought fo free
as the works of tiiat art id.

There were two other painters of this nam-, Arnold van
Maas, a difciple of Teniers, who died young, and Nicholas
Maas, who was born at Dort in !6?2, and was educated in
the fchool of Rembrandt. He pratlil'ed portrait painting
with confiderable fuccefs. He lived to the age of 61, and
died in 1693.

MAASEYCK, ir. Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Meui'e, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrift of Ruren-.onde. The place contains
2205, and the canton 14,704 inhabitants, on a territory cf
2)7-i kiiiometres, in iS communes.

Maas IN, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Leyta. N. lat. 10° 1 2'. E. long. 1 24^ 49'.

MAASS, in Commerce. See Mass.

MAAT, a fuperficial meafure of land in Holland, con-
taining 500 fquare ruthes, of which 6co are equal to a mor-
gen or acre. A fingle fquare ruthe contains 169 fquare
feet, each foot being =121 fquare inches ;= 124; Englilh
inches.

MAATTAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 34 miles N.N.E. of Durbunga.

M.AATZ, Nicholas, in Biography, an eminent German
organ-builder in the iixteentli century, celebrated by Prsto-
rias, ^nd in Werckmeifter's organ-gruning. rediv. In 1543
he erefted an organ at Stralfund with 43 ftops, and after-
wards was engaged in the fervice of the king of Denmark.

MAB. See" Mo A B.

MAB.A, in Botany, is the vernacular name of this genus
amongft the iflanders of the South Seas. It was firft de-
fcribed by Forller, and afterwards taken up by Linnaeus,
Schreber, and other authors. Forft. Gen. 61. Linn.
Suppl. 6j-. Schreb. 678. Mart. Mill. Diet. V. 3., Jiiff. 418.
Lamarck Ilhiftr. t. §03. — Ciafs and order, Diccc'm Triari-
dr'ta. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth inferior, cloven half way
down into three actite, villofe fegments. Cor. of one petal,
tubular, hairy on the outfide ; tube cylindrical, longer than
the calyx ; iimb in three, ovate, thickifli, ereft divifions.
Slam. Filaments three, thread-fiiapod, (horter than the calyx;
anthers ereft, ovate. Pjjl. Rudiment globofe, nearly fefllle
in the midft of the flower. — Female, Cal. Perianth inferior,
permanent, as in the male. Cor. and Pijl. unknown. Perk.
Drupa fuperior, ovate-oblong, of tifro cells, each containing
two oblong, triangular feeds or nuts, fomev/hat convex at
their back, flat on both lides.

EfT. Ch. Male, Calyx three- cleft. Corolla externally
hairy ; its limb three-cleft. Female, Calyx as in the male.
Drupa fuperior, of tv^o cells.

\.M. eUipt'ica. Forll. Gen. t. 61. L!nn. Syft. Veg.
rd. 14. 881. Suppl. 426.— A native of the Frieiidly
Iflaiids, more particularly of Tonga Tabu and Namoka. —
This is a jlrub v;hofe general herbage is estreme'y fmooth,

its young (hoots and early leaves alone being hairy. Leavet
alternate, on fliort footlhilks, elliptical, veined, very finooth.
Stalks axillary, fliort, mollly three-flowered. Flo-Mcrs fmal',
and curious as Linnxus remarks for having the outlide of
the calyx and corolla extremely hairy.

Forilcr, in his work on efculent plants, p. 54, mentions
another fpecics, or variety, of this genus, which he calls
Maba major ; the fruit of which is three times as big as that
of elliptica, the kernels tough and infipid. The fame author
fays that the natives eat the nuts of it, and that they were
offered for falc to our people

M.ABANOWKA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Volhynia ; 12 miles S. of Berdiczow.

^LABBY, a kind of wine made from potatoes. It is
faid to be ufed in Barbadoe?.

MABEA, in Boljnw is derived from the Caribee name
of this plant, Ph'ir'i Male. Aublet firll defrrihcd the genu3
in his Plantx Gui'incnfes, and fays it is called Bo'is a Calumet
by the French, bccaufe the negroes ufc its fmaller branches
as pipes for fmoaking. Aubl. Gviian. 867. Schreb. 641.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 404. Mart. Mill. Di£t. v. 3. Jufl". 388.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 773. — Ciafs and order, Aloncceia Poly-
atidr'ia. Nat. Ord. Tricocc^, Linn. Euphorbia, Juff.

Gen. Oi. Male, Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf,
fivc-toothcd, acute. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments from
nine to twelve, inferted into the bottom of the calyx ;
anthers roundiili. — Female, Cal. Perianth of one leaf,
ereft, five-toothed, acute. Cor. none. PiJl. Germen fu-
perior, oblong, fomewhat t'riafigular, longer than the calyx j
ilyle long ; flig r.as three, thread-fliaped, revolute. Perk.
Capfule enclofed in a thick coat, roundifli, of three lobes
and three cells, each cell two-valved, burlling with ehlti-
city. Seeds fulitary, roundifli, reddifli, variegated with
grey fpots.

lifl'. Ch. Male, Calyx five-toothed. Corolla none.-
Stamens from nine to twelve inferted into the calyx.— Fe-
male, Calyx five-toothed. Corolla none. Stigmas three.
Capfule three-lobed, of three cells. Seeds folitary.

Obf, Jufliii remarks that in the d('fcription of the fem.ale
flowers of 71/rt/'M inllead of "a fingte Ilyle," it fliould rather
be " ftyles three, clofely united or glued into one."

1. M. Piriri. Aubl. Gijian. t. 334. f. i. — Leaves
ovate-oblong, attenuated at the bafe, pointed.— Found in
Guiana and Cayenne, where it flowered and bore fruit in
May. — The trunk of this plant rifes to about five feet in
height, and puts forth numerous, twiggy branches very long,
Ipreading and entangling themfelves among the neighbouring
trees, covered with an a!h-coloured bark. Leaves alternate,,
on fliort footftalks, entire, green above, whitifli beneath.
Stipulas two, long, narrow, deciduous. Floiuers copioiis,
in long panicles ; the males three on a common ftal.k, wtth
two glands and a bractca at the bafe: female flowers beneath
the male, folitary. Every part of the plant when wounded
abounds with a mdky fecretion.

2. M. Taquart. Aubl. Guian, t. 334. f. -i. — Leaves
oblong, roimded at each end, pointed, fomewhat heart-
fhaped at the bafe. — Native of Gui?.na, flowering with the
la!l. — This_yZi;oi diffeps from the lall in having the harh of
its trunk and branches of a reddifli colour. The leaves are
larger, lets elongated, and terminated by a fliort point,-
curioufly veined with red tmderneath. The fruit is alio
larger, but in other refpedls it entirely accords with the
p.'^cceding.

MABER, in Geography, a towm of Perfia, in Chufiftan ;.
48 miles S.S.W. of Sutler.

MABERIA, a lake of Africa, in the country of Jin~
ba!a, which fee ; the fame wiih the lake of Dibbic; formed

by

I^I A B

M A B

by tlie river Joliba, wliich runs to the tajl, but miftaken

by d Anville and Delifle for thi; head of the river Senegal,

which runs to the 'u.'j}.

MABEUSE. or MabeuGE, Joiis- dl, in Biography,

one of the cnrly hiboiious praftitioncrs in the art of painting

after the ufe of oil became known in Flanders, He was
born at Maubcuge, in Hainaiilt, in 1499.

He was invited by Henry VIH. to England, and cm-
ployed by him to pai:it the portraits of his children. By
his neat mode of fini/hing, a-d the fmoothnefs and high polifh

of his works, he gained in this country, where the art of mortal reputation. The manners and ufages of thofe dark
painting was then almoil unknown, a very confiderable rcpu- agei are examined with great care, and an hundred import
tation, and in confequence his paintings are not unfrequent ant queftions are dilcuflVd by an exact and folid critique.'

collefting and die:eftir.g materials. The fird voluoje was
p^iblifhed in 1668, under the title of •' Afta Sandoruai
Ordinis S. Bcaedidi, &c. ;" this was followed at difTerent
periods by eight others, of which the lail was publifhed in
1702. The work was regarded by the journalifts of the
day, " not as a fimple colk-ftion of n:emoirs relating to
monadic liiftory, but as a valuable compilation of ancient
monuments, which bein;; lUuftrated by learned notes, throw
much light on the mod obfcure part of eccleliaftical hidory.
The prefaces tliemfelves would fecure to the author an im-

among us.

They are known by their dry,. ItifF, and formal manner ;
both of atticn in the figfures and in the folding-s of their
draperies, by a total lack of chiaro-fcuro, and yet podefl-
iiig much ingenious tade in colour ; great care i:i the face.";,
which al.says appear to have been portraits; and an almod
boundlels labour in the finidiing ; particularly of all the
ornamental parts, fuch as gems, pearls, 5:c. &c. which he
was fond of bedowing laviHily.

He is faid to have been immoderately addifted to drink-
ing, though he lived to the age of 63.

MABILLON, John, a very learned French BenediAine
monk, was born at Pierre-mont, a village belonging to the

The prefaces were reckoned lo valuable, that they were
publidied feparately in 1732, in quarto. In 1674 he pub-
lished " De Pane Eucharillico azimo et fermentaro Difler-
tatio," intcndwl to prove that the Latin church made ufe
of leavened bread iii the con 'ecration of the Eucharid for
many ages, and that the ufe of unleavened bread was not
introduced till after Pholiui's fchifm. In the following
year he publifhed " Veterum AnaletStorum, &c. ;" but the
work wliich has done mod honour to the memory of
Mahilloii appeared in i68i, entitled " De Re diplomatica
Libri fe.x, 5cc." So high was the opin.on generall) enter-
tained of his extraordinary merit, that the celebrated Col-
bert was deiirous of bedowing on liini a penfion of two thou-

diocefe of Rheims, in the year 1632. He was indrufted fand livres, but his unambitious and dilintereded fpirit led him

in grammar learning by one of his uncles, who afterwards
fent him to the college of Rheims, where he foou didin-
guidied himfelf by the vivacity of his genius, and an uncom-
mon application to dudy. Hence he was taken into the
feminary of the cathedral, in which the young perfons de-
figtied for the fervice of the diocefe were educated. He
continued here three j'ears, and took the habit in an abbey
belonging to the Beaediftines of the congregation of St.
Maur in 1653, "^'"^ '" '^^ following year he made his pro-
fefTion. The highed expeftations were formed of him ;
but an incedant and almoil perpetual head-ache renderedhim
incapable of application, and he was fent to different places
in the country for the recovery of his health. In the year
1660 he was ordained pried at Amiens, and as he dill la-
boured under fo much indifpofition, as to render it unfit for
him to apply to his dudies, he was accordingly employed
in fuch temporal affairs of the congregation as were more
adapted to his enfeebled conditulion. In 1663, in order to

to decline that generous offvr In 1682, Colbert engaged him
to take a journeyinto Burgundy,for the purpofe of exainining
fome ancient titles' relating to the royal family ; after which
he fent him into Germany, to fearch into the archives and libra-
ries of the ancient abbies in that country, for fuch documents
as might contribute to illudrate the hidory of France, and
that of tiie church in general, and of the church of France
in pariicuLir. The refu ts of his enquiries into thefe fub-
jedls were given in the fourth volume of his " Analecia."
In 1685, he pilblidied " De Liturgia Gallicana Libri tre?,
in quibus veteris n;iffae, quK ante annos mille apud Gallos
in ufu erat, forma ritufque eruntur ex antiquis monumenti.'!,.
&c." In the fame year Mabillon was fent at the king's
expence into Italy, with the fame view as he hadbeen formerly
fent into Germany, and was received at Rome with great
relpeft ; he had free accefs graited him to all the archives,
and to all the libraries, from which he collefted a vaft num-
ber of interefting and important papers, adapted to the de-

redrain him from clofe dudies, he was feut to St. Dennis, fign of his journey. On his return to France he carried

and was employed in the low office of exhibiting to drangers
the various treafures and ancient monuments of the abbey.
The duties of this fervile pod were ill adapted to his mind,
and an accident which occurred diortly relieved him from the
burden which was become almod intolerable. He broke a
mirror, which it was pretended belonged to the pcjet Virgil ;
this fo enraged !us fuperiors, that they gladly allowed hi:n
to make his retreat. His vacant hours he employed in ■read-
ing the fathers, and in laying up la'ge dores of theological,
ecclefiadical, and critical learning, la 1 764 he wcut to
Paris to afTi't d'Achery in compiling his " Splcilegiuni,"
and took a large thare in the buiinefs. The zeal and talents
which- he'manifeded in this work caufed him to be ap-

with him a fine coUeftion of books and rare MSS. which
he placed in his majedy's library ; and in 1C87 he publidied
an account of his journey, and of the pieces which he had
difcovered, under the title of " Mulxum Italicum, feu
Colleftlo veterum Scriptorum ex Bibliochtcis Ilalicis eruta,.
&c.'' in two volumes 410, In 1688, father Mabillon en-
gaiied in a difpute between the Benedi£lines of Burgundy,
and the canons regular, on the fubjecl of the precedence of
thofe orders in the dates, and, in 169T, he entered into a
controverfy with father Ranee, abbot of La Trappe, who
maintained, that learning and the fcieiices were foreign to
the monadic profefiion, and who had prohibited the monks
almod all forts of reading, excepting that of the fcripf.ires

pointed to fuperintend the publication of a complete edi- and certain moral treatiies. In 169S he publiihcd a work,

tion of the works of S'. Bernard, which he executed with which involved him in much controverfy and many ferious

miic!i correAnefs, judgment, and learning- This wor.^ was difficulties, entitled " Eufebii Romaui ad Theophilum

publidied, in 1667, in two folio volumes, and alio ia nine Galium Epillola de Cultu fandtorum ignotorum." It was

volumes oclavo. Immediately after the pubhcalion of this- received by the fuperditious and interelled, particularly at

great work, he was employed in completing the lives of Rome, in a moll unfavourable manner. For fome time ir

the faints, for which d'Achery and Chantelou had- beeii was attacked only by complaints,, murmurs, and criiicifms

publiihcd

M A B

puWifhed ill Germany, France, and Italy; but in 1 701
It was brought before the congregation of tlie Index, by
whom the author would unqucftionably have been ceiifured,
if he had not agreed to reprint it with fuch alterations,
emendations, and omilTions :is fhould be fuggelled to hini.
In the fame year Mabillon was chofen honorary member
of the Academy of Infcriptions, and pubhihed the firft
volume of the lull great work to which he devoted his
labours, entitled " Annates Ordinis S. Benedifti in quibus
non modo res Monaftica:, fed etiam Ecclefiaflicx HiiloricK
non minima pars continctur." The fecond, third, and
fourth volumes fuccecded, and the fifth was compofcd by
Mabillon, but not publilhed till after his deceafe. Mabillon
died in beccmber 1707, foon after he had completed his
feventy-fifth year. In fpeaking of his great merit, Dupin
fays, " The voice of the public, and the general e(leem
of all the learned, are a much better commendation of him ,
than any thing which we can fay. His profound learning
appears from his works ; his modefty, humility, meeknefs,
and piety, are no lefs known to thofe who .have had the
leaft converfation with him. His ftyle is mafculinc, pure,
clear, and methodical, without affectation or fuperfluous or-
naments, and 'fuitable to the fubjeds of wliich he has
treated." In 1724 the poftliumous works of our author
were published in three volumes 4to. by ThuiUier. Moreri.
Dupin.

MA ELY, Bhnnet de, abbe, an eminent political
writer, was born at Grenoble in 1709. He was brother
of the abbe Condillac, whom he refembled in acutenefs and
penetration. He devoted himfelf to the ftudy of literature,
and died at Paris in 1785. His principal works are " Ob-
fervationson the Greeks;" " Obfcrvations on the Romans;"
" Parallel of the Romans and French ;" " Obfervations on
the Hiftory of France ;" " Difcourfes on Hiftory." All
the writings of this author difplay deep thinking, found
moral principles, and a great regard for the good of man-
kind. He is, hov/ever, thought to be too much of a panc-
gyrift of the ancients, and too fond of applying their po-
litical maxims to the very different circumftances of modern
ftates. The work of his old age, entitled " Sur lea Con-
flitutions des Etats Unis de I'Amerique," gave offence by
fome fentiments adverfe to civil liberty and rehgious tole-
ration.

MABOUJAS, the Dfvil-lizard, in Zoology, a fpecies of
American lizard, fo called from its uglinefs and difagreeable
afpeft. It grows to fix or feven inches long, and to the
thicknefs of a thumb, and is found in the trunks of rotten
trees, and in marfhy places, where the fun-beams feldom
reach ; it is all over of a glofTy black colour, and looks as
if fmeared over with oil.

MABOUL, James, in Biography, an eminent French
prelate, diflinguifiied for his pulpit eloquence, and particu-
larly for his orations dehvered in praife of deceafed perfons
of merit, was defcended from a family of high rank. He ob-
tained confiderable emmence in the church, and was employed
by the duke of Orleans, the regent, in a fruitlefs attempt to
reconcile the hoftile parties who were contending about the
bull Unigenitus. His funeral difcourfes were pubUfhed in
one volume i2mo. in 1749: they are faid to be diftingui(hed
by that fweetnefs of ityle, that noblenefs of fentiment,
that elevation, that unftion, and that touching fimplicity,
which are the charafterillics of a good mind, and of true
genius. Moreri.

MABRA, in Geography, a town of Algiers, in the gulf
of Bona; 10 miles W. of Bona,

MAC

MAC, an Irifh word fignifyingyon ; frequently prefixed
to furnames ; as jlfacdonald, for Donald's ion ; Mac\ci\im,
for Laurence's fon, &c.

MACA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Hoval ; 20
miles from the moulii of the Senegal.

MACABALAR Bay, h bay on the N.W. coall of the
ifland of Mindanao.

MACABRA, a town of Africa, in Scnnaar; 40 miles
S.S.W. <,f Meroe.

MACACO, in Zoology. See Lemuu Macaco.

MACADRA, ill Geography, a town of Arabia, in Ye-
men ; 32 miles S. of Chamir.

MAC^, in ./Indent Geography, a people of Africa, E.
of the Nafamones and near the fea. Some have fuppofed
they are the fame with thofe called Syrtites by Ptolemy, be-
caufe they inhabited towards the Great Syrtib. The Cinyps
watered their country, and hence Silius Italicus denominates
them Cinyphii Macoe.

MACAENS de Cam'mho, in Geography, a town of Portu-
gal, in Elhemadura ; 33 miles S.S.E. of Coimbra.

MACAIRE, St., a town of France, in the department
of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of La Reole. The place contains 1483, and the canton 9980
inhabitants, on a territory of 1025 kiliometres, in 15 com-
munes.

MACALLESTER's Bay, a bay on the E. coall of
the ifland of Mull. N. lat. 56 30'. W. long, f 45'.

MACALUNGO, a town of Africa, in Mozambique.
S. lat.- 17 . E. long. 39'.

MACAM, Indian apple, in Natural Hi/lory, tlic name of
a common Eaft Indian fruit : it is of a round (liape, and
about the fize of our common wild crabs which grow in
the hedges : inftead of the feveral fmall feeds, which our
crabs and apples contain, this fruit has only one hard ker-
nel ; it is of an acid tafte, and of a raw and not very agree-
able fmell ; the tree which produces this fruit does not
grow to any height : it refembles the quince tree in its
leaves, except that they have a yellovvifli call. Mem. Acad.
Par. 1699.

MAC AN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Khorafan ;
60 miles W. of Meru-Shahigian.

MACANAO,.a fmall ifland in the Caribbean fea, near
the W. coaft of Margarita. N. lat. 11. W. long. 64"^
40'.

MACANEA, in Botany, is a name adopted by Juffieu
for the Macahanea of Aublet deforibed in the fupplement
of his Plants of Guiana, and figured in t. 371 of that
work. Neither of thofe authors had feen any of the parts
of fruftification except the berry and feeds which are thus
defcribed. Perk. Berry large, pear-lhaped, of one cell,
pulpy withinfide ; its outfide leathery, fprinkltd with red
fpots. Seeds from four to fix, ovate, leathery, covered
with a membrane and lying in a white pulp. Aublet, who
found this plant in fruit in June, calls it by the fpecific name
oi gtiianenfis, with the following defcription. — Sln-ub putting
. forth numerous branches, twilling themfelves about the neigh-
bouring trees. Leaves oppofite, on fcotflalks, toothed,
ovate, acute, fmooth. Fruk axillary, in cluilers. — From
the imperfect ftate in which Macanea is known, we cannot
pronounce to what clafs it belongs. Juflieu ranks it amongll
the Natural Order of Gultlfer^, and fays that it is nearly al-
lied to Mammea and Singana.

MACANNA, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, S.
of Bambouk.

MACAO, a town of Portugal, in Ellreraadura; 12 miles
N.E. of Abantcs.

9 Macao,

MACAO.

Macao, a fea-port town of China, in the province of
Quang-tong, fituated at the mouth of the Tigris, in the en-
trance of the bay of Canton, and built ©n a peninfula, or
rather a fmall iiland, becaufe it is feparated from the land
by a river, where the ebbing and flowing of the fca are fenfi-
biy felt. This tongue of land is joined to the reft of the
idand only by a fmall neck, about loo yards acrofs. The
Portuguefe obtained this port from the emperor Camhy,
as a reward for the afTiftance they gave to the Chinefe in
deftroying the pirates, who from the iflands in the vicinity
of Canton infefled the feas and ravaged all the coafts of
China. Some writers pretend, that this city had no inhabit-
ants but pirates when the Portuguefe formed an eftablifli-
ment in it ; and that they were only permitted to build huts
covered with ftraw. However this be, their whole extent of
territory, bounded by a wall, is not more than eight miles
in circumference. In this fmall fpot, the Portuguefe car-
ried on, for a long time, almoft exclufively, a confiderable
traffic with the Chinefe empire, and with other countries
in Afia, particularly Japan, Tonquin, Cochinchina, and
Siam. But by the luxury occafionedby increafe of wealth and
the injurious oppreffion of the Chinefe, the entcrprifing
fpirit of the Portuguefe declmed, and the inhabitants of
Macao became enervated' by a tropical climate. Their
trade to Japan failed ; their other fpeculations became pre-
carious ; and this once profperous fettlement is now very
much reduced. The houfes at Macao are built after the
European maimer, but they are low, and make little (how.
Here are 13 churches and chapels, and 50 priefts, to mi-
nifter to the devotion of between four and five thoufand
laity. Of the two pagan temples at Macao, belonging to
the Chinefe, one is curioufly fituated among a confuted heap
of iramenfe mafles of granite. This temple is comprifed
of three feparate buildings one over the other ; the only ap-
proach to which is by a winding flight of fteps hewn out of
the folid rock. The cave of Camoens, fituated a little
above the loftieft eminence in the town, was confl:ru(fted,
probably, in the fame manner as the temple above defcribed,
by bringing together a vaft number of rocks. This cave,
from a tradition current in the fettlement, belonged to Ca-
moens, a Portuguefe poet, who refided a confiderable time
at Macao, and in which cave, it is faid, he wrote the cele-
brated poem of the Lufiad. The whole population of Ma-
cao, according to the ftatement of La Peroufe, may be
computed at 20,000, of whom 100 are Portuguefe by birth,
2000 metis, or half Indians and half Portuguefe, with as
many Caffre flaves, their domellics. The reft are Chinefe,
who employ themfelves in commerce and difl'ereHt trades, by
which they lay the Portuguefe under contribution to their
induftry. Thefe laft, though almoft all Mulaltoes, w-ould
think themfelves difgraced, if they fupported their families
by exercifing any mechanic art, thougli their pride is not
above continually foliciting charity, with importunity, froin
every one that pafles by them.

The road-ftead of Macao is fufficicntly fpacious to con-
tain 60 gun-ftiips at the entrance of Typa ; and in its har-
bour, which is below the town, and communicates with the
river up to the eaftward,- ftiips of fevcn or eight hundred
tons, with half their lading. The mouth of this harbour is
defended by a foi-trefs of two batteries, which muft be kept
within piftol-fliot in entering. Three fmall forts, two of
which are mounted with twelve guns, and the third with fix,
protedt the fouth fide of the town from every attempt of the
Chinefe. Thefe fortifications, which are in the worft pof-
fible ftate, would be far from formidable to Europeacis, but
tlicy may eafily overawe all the maritime forces of the

Chinefe. A mountain alfo commands the road, where i
detachment of troops could hold out a very long fic-ge.
The Portuguefe of Macao, more devout than warlike, have
built a church on the ruins of a fort, which covered this
mountain, forming, at that time, an impregnable poft. The
fide next the land is defended by two fortreffcs, one of
which is mounted with 40 guns, and capable of containing
a garrifon of 1000 men. It is provided with a ciftern, two
fprings of running water, and cafemates for laying up wer.
hke ammunition and provifions. The other, which mounts
30 guns, cannot receive above 300 men, and has a very
abundant fpring that never fails. Thefe two citadels com-
mand the whole country. The Portuguefe frontiers extend
nearly a league from the town, and are bounded by a wall
guarded by a mandarin and a few foldiers. This mandarin
is the true governor of Macao, whom all the Chinefe obey,
though he is not allowed to flcep within thefe limits. But
he may examine all the fortifications, infpeft the cuftora-
houfes, &c. ; and on thefe occafions the Portuguefe are
obliged to give him a falute of five guns : but no European
can make a fingle ftep on the Chinefe territory, beyond the
wall, which v/ould fubjeft him either to imprifonment or a
heavy contribution. The palace of the Chinefe mandarin is
in the middle of the city ; and the Portuguefe are conftrained
to pay a tribute of ioo,coo ducats for the liberty of choofing
their own magillrates, exercifing their rehgiop, and liying
according to their own laws. The viceroy of Goa nomi-
nates to all civil and mihtary offices at Macao, and appoints
the governor and all the fenalors, who participate in the civil
authority. He has lately fixed the garrifon at I So Indian
feapoys, and 120 mihtia-men, whofe fervice confifts in
patroles at night. The foldiers are armed with fticks, and
the officer alone has the privilege of wearing a fword ;
though he can on no occafion employ it again It a Chinefe.
The fenate of Macao is compofed of the governor, who is
prefident, and three " verendores," who are the auditors of
the city finances. The revenue confifts of the duty laid on
merchandize, which can only be imported in Portuguefe
veflels. If Macao were made a free port, and had a gar-
rifon capable of defending commercial property, when de-
pofited there, the revenue of their cuftom-houfe would be
doubled, and would be adequate to all the expences of the
government. But a trifling intcreft pertaining to the vice-
roy of Goa, from felhng Portuguefe commiffions to mer-
chants of various nations who carry on a coafting trade in
the Eaft Indies, and prefents from fhip-owners to the fenate
of Macao, raife an infurmountable obftacle to the eftabhfh-
ment of a free trade ; though this would render Macao one
of the moft flourifliing cities of Afia, and inconceivably fu-
perior to Goa, whofe utility to its mother-country will
never be confiderable. Befides the "verendores," there are
two judges of orphans, whofe department includes the ad-
miniftration of the property of minors, the execution of
wills, the nomination of tutors and guardians, and every
thing relating to fucceffions. From their decifion an appeal
lies to that of Goa. Other civil or criminal caufcs are alfo
cognizable, in the firft inftance, by two fenators, who arc
nominated as judges. A treafurer receives the produce of
the cuftoms ; and his diftiurfements, above a certain amount,
muft be fandlioned by an order of the viceroy of Goa.
The moft important magiilracy is that of the procurator of
the city, which is an intermediate office between the Portu-
guefe government and that of China. This office is for life ;
that of the governor is triennial ; and the other magiftrates
are replaced every year. An appeal lies to Goa from all the
decifions of the fenate, which their notorious incapacity

renders

M A C

f^ndets inJifpenfiblo. This city is rendered pleafant in ap-
pearance by llie fine houfes occupied by ibe fupcrcargoes of
the difierent companies, obhged to winter here ; and their
fociety enh!vens the place. N. lat. 22^ 12' 40". E. long,
log'. Grofier. De la Peroufe.

In the foho volume annexed to fir George Staunton's
" Authentic Account of an Embaffy from the King of
Great Britain to tlie Emperor of China," there is a plan of
the city and harbour of Macao ; containing references to all
the forts, colleges, convents, and other public buildings,
aid places of note ; and alfo the depth of water, and nature
of the ground, in every part of the inner liarbour, as well as
in the ipace between ihepeninfnla and the northern entrance
into the Typa ; taken from an accurate furvey made by a
gentlen.an long refident on the fpot.

Maoao, New, a fea-port town of Tonquin, at the bot-
tom of a large bay, full of iflands. N. lat. 31° 30'. E.
long. 107'. '

Macao, Macn'w, in Onuthology. See Psittacus Macao,

^lACAPA, in Geography, a town of South America, in
th.e government of Pern, on the north bank of the river of
t!ie Amazons, nearly on the equinoflial line. \V. long. J2 '.

MACAQUO, in Zoology, the name of a large fpecies of
.monkey called by Mr. Ray cercopithecus ^ti^o/enjis major, the
■great Angola monkey. S?c Si.mia Cynomnlgtis.

They have another fpecies of this kind alfo about An-
gola, whicli may be called the black macaquo. Its only
colour is black ; but on many parts of the back and fides,
there is a greyifh caft an-ong it : this has a tail of remarkable
Jength, being more than- two feet long. See Simia.

MACAR.-\GUA, in V.cography, a town of the !fi?nd of
Cuba ; .1)5 miles N.W. of Havar.na.
" MACARAUX, in Ornhhology. See Alca Jrclica.

MACARIA, in Geography, a town on the weft coaft of
the iflaiid of Metelin ; 10 miles W. of Metelin.

MACARIANS, in Ecck/laJIical Hi/lory, the followers
of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who was diftinguifhed, to-
wards the cloie of the fourth century, for his fanctity and
virtue. . In his writings there are fonie fuperlHtious tenets,
and alfo certain opinions that feem tainted with Origenifm.
The name ha'i been alfo apphed to thofe who adopted the
fentiments of Macarius, a native of Ireland, who, about the
clofe of the ninth century, propaj>ated in France the error
afterwards maintained by A*-errhoe«, that one individual in-
telligence or foul performed the fpiritual and ratioi'.al func-
tions in all the human race. *

MACARltJS, St., in Biography, a famous anchoret of
the fourth century, was a native o.* Alexandria. He ipent
fixty years in a nionaltery, and is faid to have been a diiciple
-of St. Anthony, the firil inllitutor of a monaftic hfe. He
died in the year 391, when he v.-as about ninety years of
age. Fifty homilies have been attributed to him : thefe
were firll publidied in Greek, at Paris, in 1559. He is
fuppofed to have been the author of many Imaller trails,
" On Prayer," «' Watching the Heart," " Perfeftion of
the Mind," &c. The bell edition of \\u pieces is that pub-
lifhed at Leipfic in 1698. Moreri.

Macarius, St., tht Toimger, a celebrated Tnonk, like-
wife a native of Alexandria, who had 5000 monks under
his direftion. Of his fanflity, virtues, and abHinence, won-
decs are related by Palhdius. He was baniftied by the
Arians to an iflaiid inhabited by heathens, whom he con-
■vcrted to, what was called at that period, Chriitianity.
He died about the year 404, when he was nearly 100 years
of age. To him have been aUributed " Rules forMoi;ks,"

M A C

in 30 chapters, fii ft. publirtied in Latin by Peter Roverius
the .Tcfuit. Moreri.

Macarius, St., Defert of, in Geography, a defert 011
the well part of Egypt, denominated in honour of a fa nt,
to whofe honour a convent of monks has been founded, an-
ciently called " Nitria." The convent is about 50 miles
N.N.W. of Cairo.

MACARON, the name of a fort of vermicelli, a pafie
made of flour and water, and formed in the Ihapc of the
barrel of a large quill', or the guts of fmall fouls.

MACARONIC, or MA.CARONIAN*, a kind of burlefque
poetry ; confifling of a jumble of words of different lan-
guages, with words of the vulgar tongue latinized, and
Eatin words modernized.

Micaronc, among the Italians, as has been obferved bv
Citlius Rhodiginus, fignifies a coarfe clownifli u>an ; and
becaufe this kind o£ poetry, being patched out of feveral
languages, and full'roi extravagant words, is not fo polite
and fniooth as thofe of Virgil, &c. the Italians, among
whom it had its rife, gave it the name of Macaronian or
Macaronic poetry. Others chiofe to derive it a Maca-
ronlbus, from Macaroons, a kind of confeiSlion made of meal
not bolted, fweet almonds, fugar, and the whites of eggs;
accounted a great dainty among the country people in
Italy ; whiiMi, from their being compofcd of various ingre-
dients, occafioned this kind of poetry, which confifts of
Latin, Italian, Spanifii, French, Englilh, &c. to be called
by their name.

Theoph. Folingius, a Benedicline monk of Mantua, was
the firll who invented, or at lead cultivated, this kind of
verfe : for though we have a Macaronea Ariminenlis in a
v^ry old letter, beginning, " Eft author Typhis Leonicus
atqne Paranfus;" yet it feems to Iwve been the work of
Guariiius Capellus Sarfinas, who, in the year 1256, printed
fix books of Macaronic poetry, in Cabrinum Gagamonae
Rcgcm ; but as both thofe came out after the firll edition
of Folingius, which was publifhed under the name of Mer-
linus Coccajus iu 1520, fo they were likewife much inferior
to his in the ftyle, invention, and epifodes, wherewith
•he has enriched the hiftory of Baldns ; which makes the fub-
iedl of his poem. The tamous Rabelais firft transferred the
Macaronic llyle out ot the Itahy.n vcfe into French profe,
and on the model thereof formed fome of the bell things in
his Paniagrue!.

We have Icarce any thing in Englilli in the Macaronian
way, except fome little loofe pieces collected in Camden's
Remains ; which is no difcredit to our authors : fur one
may lay of fuch pieces in genera),

" Turpe eft difficiles habere nugas,
Et llultus labor eft ineptiarun-i."

iJut the Germans and Netherlanders have had thtir Ma-
caronic poets ; witnefs the " Certamen Cathohcum cum Cal-
viniftis" of cue Martinius Han conius Frifius, which contains
about twelve hundred vtrfes, all the words whereof begin
with the letter C.

MACAROON. See Macaronic.

MACAROW.*^, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Kiev ; 24 miles N.W. of Kiev.

MACARSCA, a town of Dalmatia, and fee of a bifhop,
futTragan of Spalatro ; fituated in a territory, formeily
pleafant and fertile, and convenient for commerce, but more
lately deteriorated, and fuppofed to have arifen out of the
ruins of the ancient Ratanaum or Retinum ; 36 miles E.S.E.
of Spalatro.

J MACARTNEY,

MAC

MACARTNEY, George, Earl of, in Blogniphy, tlie
ton of George Macartney, efq. of Aucliinleck in Scotland,
was born in Ireland in 1737, and was educated as a fellow-
commoner in Trinity-college, Dublin, where he took his
degrees in 1759. Shortly after this, he travelled with the
fons of the late lord Holland. This, perhaps, was his
introduction to court. His education had been liberal, and
he had improved the advantages which he poileflcd from a
fortunate train of circumftances. He had an afpiring mind,
and excellent talents, and, was ambitious of fome public em-
ployment. His own wilhes were feconded by the zeal of
his friends, and he was, in 1764, appointed envoy extra-
ordinary to the emprefs of Ruffia. The objeft of this mif-
fion, and of the appointment of this young man, was the
great importance of the commercial and political relations
between Great Britain and the empire of Rufiia ; and
it was neccflary, at that period, tg. counteraft the in-
fluence of France at the Ruffian court?* The charafter and
policy of that court required to be particularly ftndied ; and
hence the embafTy from this country included an office that
required much penetration, vijiilance, and difcretion, as well
as inlinuating manners, and an agreeable addrefs. Thefe
quahfications were thought, by the moft difcerning judges,
to be united in Mr. Macartney. The principal bufuiefs of
his miflion was to negociate a commercial treaty, for the
benefit of the Ruflia merchants trading to Ruffia. Of the
interefts of the Ruffian trade he was well informed. His
addrefs furmounied every difficulty of accefs to the emprefs
and her minifters : he knew how to feizc the proper moment
for negociation ; and he had coolnefs and patience to con-
quer every obftacle which might be oppofed to his views by
the artifices of others. He in a fliort time procured the
Ruffian court to agree to a treaty fatisfatlory to the wiihes
of the Britifh merchants at Peterfburgh, and fuitable to the
inttrudlions which he had received at home. An addrefs
from the merchants of the Britifh faftory at St. Peterfbui'gh ;
the honour of the knighthood of the Pohih order of the
White Eagle, conferred by a monarch who was himfelf at
once a man of falhion, tal1:e, and pleafure, and a man of
pohtical talents ; and tlie elevation to the charafter ot am-
balTador extraordinary and plenipotentiary from the Britilh
court, in which he finally concluded the treaty of commerce,
■were, among the teftimonies of approbation and relpeft
which fir George Macartney obtained by his conduft in this
diplomatic miffion to the north. Thus fuccefsful and dif-
tinguilhed, he returned to the Britifti court about the clofe
of the year 1767. Early in the following year he married
lady Jane Stuart, fccond daughter of the earl of^ Bute. By
this marriage he had contradted a relationffiip to fir James
Lowther, afterwards the earl of Lonfdale ; and by that
gentleman's interell with, or influence over, the eleftors, he
was chofen, in the fame year, one of the reprefentatives of
the borough of Cockermouth ; after which we find him
chofen a reprefentative in the Iridi parliament for the bo-
rough of Armagh. In 1769 fir George was nominated
principal fecretary to the late marquis Townlhend, in the
high office which he then filled of lord lieutenant of Ireland.
In 1772 he was nominated by his fovcivign knight of the Bath,
and in 1775 went out as governor of Grenada and Tobago.
He continued there till J 779, when, on the capture of tliofe
iflands by the French, he was taken prifoner, and fent to
France. In 1776 he had been made an Irilh peer by the
title r.f lord Macartney, baron LiiTanoure, in the county of
Antrim. As the lofs of Grenada had not occurred from
any mifconduft in him, but the defence of it had indeed
been fignahzed by the mod iliullrious difplay of all his great
qualities, he met with a very gracious reception from his
Vox.. XXI.

MAC

fovi-reign on his return. In 1780 he was chofen to rejire-
fent BeeraUlone in the Britifli parliament ; and in the fol-
lowing winter he was appointed governor and refident of
Fort St. George at Madras, in the Eaft Indies: and he
went without delay to difcharge the funftions of his ap-
pointment, where his conducl obtained fuch univerfal appro-
bation, that, in 1785, he was appointed to the high office
of governor-general of Bengal ; which honour, however,
after due confideration, he chofe to decline, and returned to
England. In 1786 he received a flattering tetlimony of
refpcft from the court of direftors of the Eafl: India com-
pany, who granted him an annuity for his life of 1 500/. pir
annum, which was bellowed as a leward for the important
lerviccs which this iliullrious nobleman had rendered to the
company. The fame year he fought a duel with general
Stuart, whom he had fuperfeded in India. In 1788 he
took his feat for the firft time in the Irilh houfe of peers ;
and about the fame time was appointed one of the tniftees
of the linen manufafture for the province of Ulller, and alfo
cuftos rotulorum for the county of Antrim. He was pro-
moted likewife to the command of a regiment of dragoon*
in the Irifh militia. In 1792 he was felecled as the fitted
perfon for atnbafl'ador from the king of Great Britain to the
emperor of China. He was on the fame day nominated a
privy-counfellor ; and in a few weeks he was raifed to the
rank of an Iridi vifcount, under the title of vifcount Der-
vock, in the county of Antrim. He now proceeded, with-
outdelay, on his enibafi"y, attended by fir George .Staunton
as his fecretary, and a great train of followers and fervants.
A diip of war, under the command of fir Erafmus Gower,
was, with fmaller veflels, affigned for his voyage. Many
rich prefents were fent from the Britidi to the Chinefe fove-
reign. He arrived in fafety in the Indian feas ; and when
his approach was announced at the Chinefe court, the em-
peror and his ininider agreed, though not without fome
hefitation, to receive the ambadadors and prefents. In his
approach to Pekin, the northern capital of the empire, his
lordfhip was obliged to diredl his voyage round the South
Tea coad of China, by a traft hitherto almod unknown to
European navigators. The opportunity of exploring that
tradl was regarded as almod fufficient to compenfate for all
the difficulties and cxpence of the embady. As foon as he
landed, mandarins of the highed rank were appointed to
conduft him to the imperial court. His prefents were ac-
cepted, and he, with all his train, were treated in a hof-
pitable, and even fumptuous manner : but the main objeft
of the miffion was completely frudrated, tiiz. to obtain per-
miffion for the permanent refidence of a Britidi ambafiador
at the court ot China. This was abfolutely refufed, and
lord Macartney and his train returned o%'er land. His lord-
diip entered Canton in December 1793; and from thence
he proceeded to Macao ; and in March 1 794, he failed from
that port to Europe. He arrived in England in the fol-
lowing September, after an abfence of almod two years.
On his return he was created an Iridi earl ; and in 1796 he
was farther advanced to the dignity of a Britidi peer, by
the title of baron Macartney of Parkhurll, in Sudex.
After this, he was called to the adminidration. In this
high dation, as in the other offices which he filled, lord
Macartney difplaycd qualities which are honourable to his
talents as a llatefman, and his feelings as a man. His lord-
fliip died on the gid of March 1806. Monthly and
European Magazines. Britifli and Irifli Peerages.

MACAS, in Geography, a province of the viceroyalty of

New Granada, in South America, bounded on theeall by the

government of Maynas, fouth by that of Bracanioros and Ya-

guarfongo, and on the weit the eaft Cordillera of the Andes

4 Z diTides

MAC

MAC

divides it from the jurifdiilion of Rio Bamba and Cuenija. Its
chief town bears the fplcndid title of the city of Macas ; and
this is better known tlian its proper ancient name of Sevilla
del Ore. It lies in S. lat. 2 '30', 40' E. of Quito. Its houfes,
which do not exceed 130, are built of timber, and thatched.
Its inhabitants are reckoned at about 12,000, who, as well
as thofe of the whole dill rid, are generally Mellizos with
Spaniards. The other towns belonging to this jurifdiftion
are San Miguel dc Narbaes, Barahonas, Yuquipa, Juan
Lopez, Zuna, Payra, Copueno, and Aguayos. The fpi-
ritual government of all thefe towns is lodged with two
priclls ; one of whom, refiding in the city, has the care of
the four firft ; and to the latter, who lives at Zuna, belongs
that town and the three others. At the conqueft, and for
fome time after, this coimtry was very populous, and, in
honour of the great riches drawn from its capital, was dif-
tinguifhed by the name ot Sevilla del Oro ; but at prefent
only the memory of its former opalence remains. The
proximity of Macas to the Cordillera of the Andes occa-
fions a fenliblc difference betwixt its temperature and that of
Quixos adjoining to it. The winter here begins in April,
and la.ls till September, which is the time of fiimmer be-
twixt the Cordilleras ; and at Macas the fine feafon is in
September, and is the more delightful on account of the
winds, which are then mollly northward. In grains and
other products, which require a hot and moid temperature,
the country is very fruitful ; but one of the chief occupa-
tions of the country people here is the culture of tobacco,
which, being of an excellent kind, is exported in rolls all
over Peru. Sugar-canes alfo thrive well, and likewife cot-
ton. Among the infinite variety of trees, which crowd the
woods of this country, one of the moil remarkable is the
ftorax, diftinguiflicd by the cxquifite fragrancy of its gum.
The territory belonging to Macas alfo produces cinnamon
trees of an excellent quality. Great quantities of copal are
brought from Macas, and alfo wild wax of little value, be-
caufe it never indurates, and the fmell of it, wlien made into
candles, and thefe are lighted, is very ftrong and difagree-
able. Juan and de UUoa's Voyage to South America,
vol. i.

Macas, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Hoval,
near the mouth of the Senegal. — Alfo, a river of Portugal,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 38 51'. W. long.

9 25:'-

MACASIN, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Midnanao. N. lat 7 45'. E. long. 124' 16'.

MACASSAR, or Macasser, a fea-port town of the
ifland of Celebes, and the principal fettlement of the Dutch
in this ifland. It gives name to one of the two great
kingdoms into which the ifland is divided, and the ifland
itfelf is fometimes diHinguifhed by this appellation. Under
the article Celebes, the reader will find a particular ac-
count of it. Of the town captain Carteret, who vifited
it in 1768, gives the following account. (See Hawkef-
worth's Voyages, vol. i.) It is built upon a kind of
point or neck of land, and is watered by a river or two,
which either run through or very near it. It feems to be
large, and there is water for a fhip to come within half
Gannon-fhot of the walls : the country about it is level,
and has a moft beautiful appearance : it abounds with plan-
tations and groves of cocoa-nut trees, with a great number
of houfes interfperfed, by which it appears to abound with
people. At a diftauce inland, the country rifes into hills of
a great height, and becomes rnde and mountainous. The
town lies in S. lat. 5 1', or 5 ' 12'. E. long, by account,
ilf 28'.

Macassar, Straij^ht of, a paffage between the iflands

of Borneo and Celebes; There is in this pafTage a re-
markable point, called by captain Carteret " Hummock
Point," but in the French charts denominated " Stroomen
Point." N. lat. I*" 20'. E. long. 121 '39'. This point
is a good mark for thofe to know the pafTage that fall
in with the land coming from the eaftward, who, if pofiible,
fhould always make this fide of the paffage. To the fouth-
ward of this point there is a deep bay, full of iflands and
rocks, which appeared to Carteret to be very dangerous.
Juft off the point there are two rocks, which, though they
are above water, cannot be feen from a fliip till fhe is clofe
to the land. To the eaftward of this point, clofe to the
fhore, are two iflands, one of them very flat, long, and even,
and the other fwelling into a hill, but both were covered
with trees. Hawkf. Voy. vol. i.

Maca.SSAR Poifon, in Natural Hljlory, called ippo, or
upas, in the MacaffaLand Maliyan tongue, is the gum of a
certain tree, fhiningjSsrittle, black, and every way like llone-
pitch, growing in the ifland of Celebes, in the South Seas;
with which all the natives arm themfelves in travel, having
a long hollow trunk of a hard red-wood like Brazil, accu-
rately bored, and at one end is fixed a large lance-blade of
iron. Then they make a fmall arrow very llraight, and
fomewhat bigger than a large wheaten ftravv : at one end
they fix it into a round piece of white, light, foft wood,
like cork, about the length of the little finger, juft fit for
the bore of the trunk, to pafs clear by the force of one's
breath, and to fill it fo exaftly, that the air may not pafs
by, but againft it, in order to carry it with the greater
force. At the other end they fix it either in a fmall fifli-
tooth for that purpofe, or make a blade of wood of the
bignefs of the point of a lancet, about three-quarters of an
inch long, and making a little notch at the end of the ar-
row, they ftrike it firm therein, which they anoint with
poifon. The poifonous gum, when gathered, is put into
hollow bamboos or canes, llopped up very clofe, and thus
brought to MacafTar. When they fit it for wk-, they take
a piece of fmooth turtle fhell, and a ftick cut fiat and (mooth
at the end : then they take green galangal root, grate it,
and with the addition of a little fair water, prcls the juice
into a clean china difh : then with a knife, fcraping a little
of the poifon upon the fhell, dip the end of the ftick in
the fore -mentioned hquor, and with this diflblvethe poifon,
to the confiftence of a fyrup : when this is done, they
anoint the fifh-tooth or wooden blade with the fame ilick
and lay them in the fun, fo that it may be baked hard.
The pointed arrows thus prepared are put in hollow bam-
boos, clofe fhut, and in this ftate they retain their virtue
for a month. Birch's Hift. of the Royal Society, vol. ii.
p. 44.

Rumphius, a refpeftable author in Natural Hiftory, of
the 17th century, mentions a tree growing at Macaffar, to
which he gives the name of Toxicaria ; and relates, that not
only the red refin contained a deadly poifon, but that the
drops falling from the leaves upon the men employed in
colletking this refin from the trunk, produced, unlefs they
took particular care in covering their bodies, fwellings and
much lUnefs ; and that the exhalations from the tree were
fatal to fome fmall birds attempting to perch upon its
branches. But many of the particulars of this account,
though far removed from that of the fuppofcd Upas, or
poifon-tree of Java by Foerfch, who had been for fome
time a furgcon in Java, anti who had travelled into fome
parts of the interior of the country, are given not upon
the author's own obfervation, and may have been exagger-
ated. Foerfch's relation of a tree fo venomous as to be de-
fljruiSive, by its exhalations, at the diftance of fome miles, is

compared

MAC

MAC

aompared at .Tata to the fiflions of Baron Muncliaufen, or as
a bold attempt to impofe upon the credulity of perfons at a
diltance. Foerfch's account, however, was admitted in a note
to Darwin's celebrated poem of the Botanic Garden, and this
circumftance led Dr. Gillan, and others belonging to Ma-
cartney's Embafly to China, to make inquiries into the
faift : and the refult was as we have above ftatcd it. It is,
indeed, a common opinion at Batavia, that there exills, in
that country, a vegetable poifon, which, rubbed on the dag-
gers of the Javanefe, renders the flighteil wounds incurable ;
though fome European practitioners have of late afTertcd
that they had cured perfons ilabbed by thofe weapons ; but
not without the precaution of keeping ths wound long
open, and procuring a fuppuration. One of the keepers of
the medical garden at Batavia, afTured Dr. Gillan, that a
tree diflilling a poifonou? juice was in that coUeftion ; but
that its quahties were kept fecret from mod people in the
fettlement, left the knowledge of them fliould find its way
to the flaves, who might be tempted to make an ill ufe of
it. Staunton's EmbafTy, vol. i. p. 273. See Poisox.

MACATES, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Carthagena ; 25 miles S.E. of Car-
thagcna.

MACAUEAY, Catharine, in Biography, a diftin-
guifhed writer in hiftory and politics, the youngeft daugh-
ter of John Sawbridge, efq. of Ollantigh, in the county of
Kent, was born in the year 1733. She appears to have
imbibed, from a very early period, a zealous attachment
to the pi'inciples of liberty, which the hillorians of Greece
and Rome had infufed into her heart. The imprefTions made
upon her mind in her youth were never obliterated. In
1760 (he married Dr. George Macaulay, a phyfician of
London. Soon after this, fhe commenced her career in
literature, and in 1763 publilhed the firft volume, in quarto,
of her " Hiftory of England, from the acceffion of James I.
to that of the Brunfwick Line." This work was com-
pleted in eight volumes in 1783: it was read with great
avidity at the period of its publication, but has fuice fallen
into fo much difrepute, as fcarcely ever to be enquired
after. It was written in the pure fpirit of republicanifm,
but it unqueilionably had too much of party fpirit in it ro
admit of that partiahty which ought to be the charafter-
iftic of true hiftory. While in the height of her fame, Mrs.
Macaulay excited the admiration of Dr. Wilfon, redlor of
St. Stephen's, Wallbrook, who conferred on her the un-
precedented honour ef placing her ftatue, while living, in
the chancel of his church, which his fucceflbr thought him-
felf juftified in removing. Having been left a widow,
Mrs. Macaulay, in 1778, married Mr. Graham, a ftep, in
which the great difpai-ity of years e.xpofed her to fome ri-
dicule. In 178J file went to America, for the purpofe of
vifiting the illuftrious Waftiington, with whom ftie had before
maintained a correfpondence. She died in the year 1791.
Her works, befides the hiftory already referred to, which
may be regarded as the principal, are " Remarks on
Hobbes's Rudiments of Government and Society ;" "Loofe
Remarks on' fome of Mr. Hobbes's Pofitions ;'' the latter
being an enlarged edition of the former : the objeft of thefe
is to {hew the fuperiority of a republican to a monarchical
form of government. In 1770, Mrs. Macaulay wrote a re-
ply to Mr. Burke's celebrated pamphlet entitled "Thoughts
on the Caufes of the Prefent Difcontents :" and in 1775
{he pubhftied " An Addrefs to the People of England,
Scotland, and Ireland, on the prefent important Crilis of
Affairs." She wrote alfo " A Treatife on the Immuta-
biUty of Moral Truth :" which fhe afterwards re-pubhfhed,
with much other original matter, under the title of " Letters

on Education." This work was publifhed in 1790, at a
period when men's minds were ready to admit bold theories
on almoft any fubjed, and it obtained much attention
from the public. The author fhewed herfelf an animated
writer, and a (hrewd and acute reafoner. It will unquef-
tionably repay any one, interefted in the fubjefl, the labour
of a careful pertifal.

MACAW, Maccaw, or Macao, in Ornithology, the
name of a larg:e fpecies of parrot, diftinguiftied alfo by the
length of its tail. See Psittacus.

Macaw Tree, in Botany. See Coccs.

MACAY, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Daniel. N. lat. 15' 10'. W. long, ic" cr'.

MACBETH. This admir&ble tragedy of our matchlefs
dramatift, Shakfpearc, from the fongs of the witches, as
fet by Matthew Lock in the time of Charles II., was re-
garded as a kind of opera. See Duamatic Mufic.

Macbeth, in Biography, an ufurper and tyrant, whom
the immortal Shakfpeare has configncd to cverlafting in-
famy, flourifhed in Scotland about the middle of the nth
century. At this period Duncan was king, a mild and
humane prince, but not at all poftcffcd of the genius and
dlfpolition for governing a country fo turbulent, and fo
infefted by the intrigues and auimofitici of the great.
Macbeth, a powerful nobleman, and nearly allied to the
crown, not contented with curbing the king's authority,
carried ftill farther his mad ambition : he murdered Duncan
at Invernefs, and then feized upon the throne. Fearing left
his ill-gotten power (hould be ftripped from him, he chafed
Malcolm Kenmore, the fon and heir, into England, and put
to death Mac Gill and Banquo, the two moil powerful men
in his dominions. Macduft' next becoming the objeft of his
fufpicions, heefcaped into England, but the inhuman ufurper
wreaked his vengeance on his wife and children, whom he
caufed to be cruelly butchered. Si ward, whofe daughter
was married to Duncan, embraced, by Edward's orders, the
proteftion of this diftrefled family. He marched an army
into Scotland, and having defeated and killed Macbeth in
battle he reftored Malcolm to the throne of his anceftors.
The tragedy founded upon the hiftory of Macbeth, though
contrary to the rules of the drama, contains an inlinity of
beauties with refpecl to language, character, pailion, and in-
cident, and is thought to be one of the beft pieces, of the
very beft mafter in this kind of writing, that the world
ever produced. " The danger of ambition," fays Dr.
Johnfon, " is well defcribed ; and the paffions are directed
to their true ends." And the author of the Philofophic Ar-
rangements fays, *' it is not only admirable as a poem, but
one of the moft moral pieces exifting." Hume's Hift.
Biog. Dramatica : Shakfpeare Illuftrated.

MACBRIDE, David, M.D. a diftinguiftied phy-
fician, was born at Ballymony, in the county of Antrim,
on the 26th -of April, 1726. He was defcendcd
from an ancient family of his name in the ftiire of Gal-
loway, in Scotland ; but his grandfather, who was bred to
the church, was called to officiate at Belfaft to a congrega-
tion of Prcfbyterians, and his father became the miniiter of
Ballymony, where David was born. Having received the
firft elements of his education at the public fchool of this
place, and ferved his apprenticeftiip to a furgeon, he went
into the navy, firft in the capacity of mate to an hofpital-
ftiip, and fubfequently in the rank of furgeon, in which fta-
tion he remained for fome years preceding the peace of Aix-
la-Chapelle. At this period he was led, from the frequent
opportunities of witncfling the attacks of fcurvy, which a fca-
faring life afforded him, jto inveftigate the beft method of
cure for that difeafe, upon which he afterwards publilhed a
4 Z 2 treatife.

M A C

tieatife. After the peace of Aix, Mr. Macbride went to
Edinburgh and London, where he ftudied anatomy under
thofe celebrated teachers Doftors Monro and Hunter, and
midwitery under Smellie. About the end of 1749, he fettled
in Dublin as a furgeon and accoucheur ; but his youth and
remarkable bathfulnefs occalioned him to remain a number
of years in obfcurity, little employed ; although he was en-
deared to a fmall circle of friends by his great abilities,
amiable difpofitions, and his general knowledge in all the
branches of polite literature and the arts. In 1764, he
publiihed his " Experimental EITays," which were every
where received with great applaufe, and were foon tranf-
latcd into different languages; and the lingular merit of
this performance induced thS-univerfity ofGlafgow to con-
fer the degree of doftor of phyfic on its author. The
improvement introduced by Dr. Macbride in the art of tan-
ning, by fubllitnting lime-water for common water in pre-
paring ooze, procured him the honour of a filver medal from
the Dublin Society, in the year 1768, and of a gold medal
of confiderable value from the Society of Arts and Com-
merce in London.

For feveral years after Dr. Macbride obtained his degree,
he employed part of his time in the duties of a medical
teacher, and delivered, at his own houfe, a courfe of lec-
tures on the theory and praAice of phyfic. Thefe leftures
were publifhed, in 1772, in one vol. 4to., under the title
of " An Introduction to the Theory and Praftice of Medi-
cine," and a fecond edition appeared in 1 777. It was tranf-
lated into Latin, and publilhtd at Utrecht, in 2 vols. 8vo.
in 1774. Tiiis work difplayed great acatenefs of oblerva-
tion, and very philofophical views of pathology, and con-
tained a new arrangement of difeafes, which was deemed of
fo much merit by Dr. CuUen, that an outline of it was given
by that celebrated profefTor, in his Compendium of Nofology.
Of the five clafles, however, into which Dr. Macbride dif-
tributed difeafes, the genera and fpecies of the firft only were
detailed.

The talents of Dr. Macbride were now univerfa'Iy
known, his charafler was duly appreciated, and his pro-
iefllonal emoluments increafed rapidly ; for the pubhc, as
if to make amends for former ncgleft, threw more occupa-
tion into his hands, tlian he could accomplifli either with eafe
or fafety. Although much haraffed both in body and mind,
fo as to have fuffered, for fome time, an almoft total inca-
pacity for fleep, he continued in aftivity and good fpirits
until the end of December 1778, when an accidental cold
brought on a fever and delirium, which terminated his life
on the ijlh of that month, in the 53d year of his age :
his death was fincerely lamented by perfons of all ranks.
See Edin. Med. Commentaries, vol. vii. p. 105. CuUen,
Synops. Nofoi. Method, vol. i.

MACCABiEUS, Judas, a valiant leader of the Jews,
was the third fon of Mattathias of the Afmonaean family,
whom he fuccecded as general of his nation in the year
166 B.C. At this period the Jews were in a Hate of
revolt againft Antiochus Epiphanes, and Judas, with a fmall
body of men, haraffed the Syrians, Samaritans, and apoftate
Jews, and filled the country with the terror of his name.
After fome important fuccetTes, and being left mafter of
the fi.ld, Judas marched to Jerufalem, where he purified the
city and' temple, the latter of which wa.'v again dedicated,
and a commemiratory feilival, on this occafion, was inlli-
tuted, which was oidcred to be perpetual. The death of
Anti 'chus gave t'ae Jews fome refpite, but hoftilities were
foon renewed, and Judas difplayed his ufual vigour and mi-
litary prowefs. Lyfias, the commander of the Syrians, was
now his chief antagonill ; him lie defeated and obliged to

M A C

feek terms of peace. After this the Syrian general in-
vaded Judea a fecond time, and obliged Judas to take refuge
in Jerufalem. He befieged the city, which would, pro-
bably, notwithllaiiding the valour of its defender, have been
obliged to furrcnder for want of provifions, had not the
holtile army been liaftily recalled by a rebellion in their own
country. After Demetrius Soter had obtained th.e crown
of Syria, the war with the Jews was renewed : Bacchides,
marching with the flower of his army, furprifed Judas at
the head of a fmall body of men, of whom, all but eiu-ht
hundred, deferted at the approach of the enemy. With
thefe he made a defperate rcliflance, till he fell upon a heap
of flaughteied enemies. This was in the year 161 B.C. :
the news of his death caufed the utmoft grief and confterna-
tion at .Terufalem, where a general mourning was made for
him, and he was celebrated in fongs, as one of the greatelt
heroes of the nation. His body was recovered, and interred
in the fepulchre of his father at Modin. Books of Macca-
bees. Jofephus.

MACCaBEES, two apocryphal books of Scripture,
containing the hillory of Judas and his brothers, and their
wars againft the Syrian kings in defence of their religion
and liberties, fo called from Judas, the fon of Mattalhias,
(lee Mattatiuas,) furnamed Maccabeus, as fome fay from
the word '''2'!^':ji formed of the initials of niH^ "','Vj^!3
n"''.3D 'C' ■ 1- ^- ^^^° " ^'^- ""'" ^^"^'^■> 0 Lord, among the
Gods (Exod XV. II.) ; which was the motto of his iland-
ard : whence thofe who fought under his ftandard were
called Maccabees, and the name was generally applied to all
who fuffered in the caufe of the true religion, under the
Egyptian or Syrian kings. This name, formed by abbre-
viation according to the common praftice of the Jews, dif-
tinguifhed Judas Maccabxus by way of eminence, as he
fucceeded his father B.C. 166 in the comm;;nd of thole
forces, which he had with him at his death, and being joined
by his brothers, and all others that were zealous for the law,
he eredVed his ilandard, on which he infcribed the above-
mentioned motto. Thofe alfo who fuffered under Ptolemy
Pliilopater of Alexandria, fifty years before this period,
were afterwards called Maccabees; and fo were Eleazar,
and the mother and her feven fons, though they fuffered
before Judas eredled his ftandard with the motto, from which
the appellation originated. And therefore, as thefe books
which contain the hiftory of Judas and his brothers, and their
wars againft the Syrian kings, in defence of their religion
and liberties, are called the Jirji and fecond books of the
Maccabees ; fo that book which gives us the hiftory of
thofe, who, in the like caufe, under Ptolemy Philopater,
were expofed to his elephants at Alexandria, is called the
third book of the Maccabees, and that which is written by
Jolephus of the martyrdom of Eleazar, and the feven bro-
thers and their mother, is called the fourth book of the
Maccabees.

The ^/r/? book of the Maccabees is an excellent hiftory,
and comes nearelt to the ttyle and manner of the facred
hiftorians of any extant. It was written originally in the
Chnldee language, of the Jerufalem dialed, and was extant
in this lant;uage in the time of Jerom, who had feen it.
From the Chaldee it was tranfla'ed into Greek, from the
Greek into Latin, and <iKo iino Englifh. Theodotion is
conjeftured to have tranflated it into Greek ; but it was
probably more ancient, as we may ir.fer trom its ufe by
ancient authors, as Tertuiliar, Origen, and others. It is
fiippofed to have been written by Juhii Hyrcanus, the fon
of Simon, who was prince and high prieft of the Jews near
thirty years, and began his government at the time where
this hiftory ends. It contains the hiftory of forty years,

frora

MACCABEES.

from the reign of Antiochus Epiphancs, to the deatli of
Simon the high prielt ; that is, from the year of the world
3S29, to the year ,^869 ; 131 years before Chrift. The
fecor.d book of the Maccabees begins with two epiftles fent
from the Jews of Jerufalem to the .lews of Egypt and
Alexandria ; to exhort them to obferve the feaft of the dedi-
cation of the new altar ereiSed by Judas, on his purifying
the temple. The firll was written in the 169th year of the
era of the Seleucidx, i e. before Chrill 144 ; and the fecond
in the 1 88th year of the fame era, or i 25 before Chrift ; and
both appear to be fpurious. After thefe epililes follows
the preface of the author to his hiftory, which is an abridg-
ment of a larger work, compofcd by one Jafon, a Jew of
Cyrene, who wrote in Greek the hillory of Judas Macca-
biEUS, and his brethren, and the wars againll Antiochus
Epiphanes, and Eupator his fon. The two laft chapters
contain events under the reign of Demetrius Soter, the fuc-
ceflbr of Antiochus Eupator, and contain fuch varieties in
their ftyle, as render it doubtful whether they had the fame
author as the reft of the work. This fecond book does not,
by any means, equal the accuracy and excellency of the firlt.
It contains an hiitory of about fifteen years, from the exe-
cution of Heliodorus's commiffion, who was fent by Scleucus
to fetch away the treafures of the Temple, to the victory
obtained by Judas Maccabsus over Nicanor ; that is.. from
the year of the world 3 8 28, to the year 3843, 157 years
before Chrift. Cahnet.

There are in the Polyglot bibles, both of Paris and Lon-
don, Syriac verfions of both thefe books ; but they, as well
as the Englifh verfions which we have among the apocryphal
writers in our bibles, are derived from the Greek. For a
further account of Judas MaccabiEUS, and of his brothers,
whofe hiftory is recorded in the tirll and fecond books of
the Miccabees, and alfo by Jofephus in his Antiquities ;
we refer to the article Jews, and alfo to the biographica' ar-
ticle Judas Maccab^eus. The third book of the Mac-
cabees contains the hiftory of the perfecution of Ptolemy
Philopater againft the Jews ni Egypt, and their futferings
under it ; and feems to have been written by fome Alexan-
drian Jew in the Greek language, not long after the time
of Siracides. This book, with regard to its fubjeA, ought
to be called the firft, as the things which are related in it
occurred before the Maccabees, whofe hiftory is recorded in
the firft and fecond books ; but as it is of lefs authority and
repute than the other two, it is reckoned after them. It is
extant m Syriac, though the trandator did not feem to have
well underftood the Greek language. It is in moft of the
ancient manufcript copies of the Greek Septuagint, particu-
larly in the Alexandnan and Vatican, but was never inferted
into the vulgar Latin verfion of the bible, nor confe-
quently into any of our EnglilTi copies. The firft authentic
mention we have of this book is in Eufjbius's Chronicon.
It is alfo named with two other books of the Maccabees
in the Sjth of the apoftolic canons. But it is ui.certaiii
when that canon was added. Grotius thinks that this
book was written after the two firft bonk'^, and (hortly after
the book of Ecclefiafticus, from which -.rcumftance it was
called tiie third boo.k of Maccabees. M reover, Jofephus's
hiftory of the martyrs that fuffered under Antiochus Epi-
phanes, is found in (ome manufcripf G.eek bibles, under
the name of ihs fourth book of the Maccabees. This book,
afcribed to Jofephus, occurs under the title " Concerning
the Empire or Government of Reafon ;" but learned men
have exprefled a doubt whether this was the book known
to the ancients as xhs fourth book of the Maccabees. Phi-
loftratus, Eufebius, and St. Jerom, knew the book " Con-
cerning the Governmeut of P..eafo:i,'' and afcribed it to

2

.lofephus, by the name of the book of the Maccabees. St.
Gregory Nazian/.en, St. Ambrofe, and St. Chryfoftora,
in the charadtcrs they have given of the feven Maccabees,
and of old Eleazar, have plainly followed what we find in
this book. The author has enlarged and adorned the hif-
tory of Eleazar, and of the feven brothers tha Maccabees,
who are faid to have fuffered martyrdom with their mother,
as it has been faid, chiefly on the authority of Rufinus,
who has given the names of the feven brothers, and of their
mother, at .Xntioch. (2 Mac. vi. vii.) Others, however,
have fuppofed, that the fcene of the martyrdom of the feven
brethren was at Jerufalem. As it was defigned for an
example of terror to the Jews of Judaea, it would hnve lolt
its force, if it had been executed any where elfe befides
that country. Thofe who maintain that they fuffered at
Antioch, allege, that their tombs were (hewn there in the
time of St. Jerom, and that a church, dedicated under their
name, was found there in the time of St. Auftin. The
firft of the feven brethren, as the ftory is related, having
declared to the king that he would die fooner than violate
the laws of God, was feized by the executioners, who cut
out his tongue, and the extremities of his hands and feet,
and tore off the flvin of his hand. While ftill alive, after
being thus mangled, he was thrown into a burning pan,
heated over a fierie fire. Such is the account in 2 Mac.
vii. 2. -. The " Government of Reafon" declares, that
the executioner, having ftripped off his clothes, tied his
hands behind his back, and whipped him with fcourges,
without his indicating the leaft fign of pain. Afterwards
they fixed him upon a wheel, where, after having had his
limbs (liattered to pieces, heexpoftulated with Antiochus, re-
proached him for his barbarity, and infulted him on account
of all his unfuccefsful attempts. Then the executioner,
raifing the wheel upon which he was extended, and lighting
a fire under it, thus confumed him bv a new torture. He
died, exhorting his brethren to manifeft a fimilar conftancy.
The other brothers alfo fuffered by the moft cruel tortures
which the king could inflift ; but it is needlefs to recount
them. The motiier of thefe martyrs alfo fuffered death, ae
fome fay, by throwing herfelf into the fire, to evade the
cruelty pratlifed on her fons, and threatened to herfelf.
The church of Rome has celebrated a feaft, Auguft i, in
honour of thefe martyrs ; who were the firft, and for a long
time the only martyrs of the O d Teftament, in honour of
whom altars and temples were erefted ; and they are the
only faints of that kind, for whom there remains an office
or breviary commemorative in the Roman Breviary. The
fufferiiigs of thefe feven brethren, and hkewife of Eleazar,
related 2 Mac. c. vi. are entirely omitted in the firft book
of Maccabees ; although tlie author of it there writes of
the Jewifh affairs, and ot the fnfferings of the Jews in the
time of Antiochus. We add that there is not any notice
taken of this Eleazar, or thefe feven brethren, or their
mother, by Jofephus, in any of his authentic writings ;
though he had twice a fair occafion of mentioning them,
once in his " Hiftory of the Jewifh War," I. i. and again
in his " Antiquities," 1. xii. cap. 5'. It is prefiimed that he
would have mentioned a fad fo remarkable, if it had really
occurred. As to the work above-mentioned, " Of the
Empire of Reafon," which has been afcribed to him, many
learned men, as Cave fays, deny it to be his; and Mr.
Whi ton, in his Englifli tr.anllation of all the genuine writings
of Jofeptius, has omitted this. Dr. Lardner thinks that it
was the worn of fome Chriili 'n. This hiftory wants certain
internal charafters of credibility. The faft itfelf is very-
extraordinary, infomuch that it is very iraprcbable, and
almoft incredible. The whole ftory has the appearance of

a contrived

MAC

MAC

1 contrived fiftioti. The fufFerers are not defcribed fo par-
ticularly as they ought to be, and the relations generally are
incredible. Befides, it is improbable that thefe feven brothers
Ihould have been examined, tortured, and (lain, one after
another, in the prefence of king Antiochus ; for fuch exami-
nations and executions are generally delegated to officers :
nor is it faid, or even hinted, where thefe perfons fuffered.
It has been faid, however, that the writer of the epiftle to
the Hebrews refers to this hidory, and thus affures us of its
truth. (Heb. xi. jj.) But it is very far from being clear
or certain, that there is a reference to this hiftory in that
text. Hallet, Lardner, and others, deny it. See Lardner's
Works, vol. xi. p. 269, &c.

MACCHERINI, L.i Sigxora, in Biography, a female
Italian finger, engaged as firft woman at the Opera-houfe
in 1780, on a falfe report of her great abilities by her coun-
trymen in London, difappointed every hearer.

MACCHIAVELLI, Nicholas, a celebrated political
writer and hiftorian, was born of a good family, at Florence,
in 1469. He firft diftinguifhed himfelf as a dramatic writer,
and produced plays that were afted with great applaufe at
Rome. Soon after he h^d entered public life, he was fup-
pofed to have participated in a confpiracy againll the houfe
and family of Medici ; bat being " put to the queftion" on
the fubjecl, he Imd the fo-.titude to endure tl\e torture with-
out uttering the flighteft confeffion, and was fet at liberty.
He was afterwards raifed to high honours in the ftate, and be-
came fecretary to the republic of Florence, the duties of
which high office he performed with great fideUty. He
was likewife employed in embaffies to king Lewis XH. of
France ; to the emperor Maximilian ; to the college of
cardinals ; to the pope, Julius H., and to other Italian
princes.. Notwiihltanding the revenues which mull have
accrued to him in theie important fituations, he left a large
family at his death in a (late of indigence, a circumftance
that proves he had afted with integrity, and that the love of
, money had no influence on his mind. He died in 1530.
Befides his plays, his chief works are, I. " The Golden
Afs," in imitation of Lucian and Apuleius ; 2. " Dif-
courfes on the firft Decade of Livy ;" 3. " A Hiftory of
Florence ;" 4.. " The Life of Caftruccio Caftracani ;"
5. " A Treatife on the Military Art ;" 6. " A Treatife
on the Emigration of the Northern Nations ;" 7. A Trea-
tife, entitled " Del Principe," the Prince. This famous
treatife was firft publiftied in 151 J, and was intended as a
fequel to his difcourif s on the tirft decade of Livy, which
difcourfes are replete with juft and profound reflections on
the principles of popular government, and exhibit him as a
warm friend of liberty ; but " The Prince" has been gene-
; rally regarded as the manual of a tyrant ; all its maxims
and counfels being direfted to the maintenance of power,
however acquired, and by any means. It was dedicated
to a nephew of pope Leo X., was printed at Rome, re-
publiftied in other Italian cities, and was long read with
attention, and even applaufe, without cenfure or reply.
The practice of politicians at that time was fo much m
unifon with its maxims, that neither furprife nor detefta-
tion feems to have been excited by an open expofure of the
ufual arts of government. The writer's intention in this
work has been a matter of much controverfy ; fome have
held him up as an abandoned promoter of tyranny, and
others have maintained that he was its concealed but decided
enemy, v.ho meant to put " the people" on their guard
againft iti machinations. A modern critic, however, thinks
it probable, from the charafter of the man, that he wrote it
without any moral purpofe whatever ; and merely, hke a
mathematician demonftrating a problem, inveftigated the
12

principles by which ufurped power might be maintained,
leaving the application to princes or fubjcdts, as chance
fliould direft. It has, neverthelefs, affixed to his name a
lafting iligma, and Machiavelifm is become a received ap-
pellation for perfidious and infamous pohtics. When once
the fyftem was cxpofed, a multitude of opponents to it
llarted up, in almoft every enlightened country on the globe ;
among whom, and one of the lateft, was Frederic the Great,
king of Pruffia, before he commenced thofe plans of aggran-
dizement, that he purfued very much in the fpirit of the
work which he had ably anfwered. Of the hiftorical writ-
ings of Machiavel, the " Life of Caftrucio Caftracani" is
confidered as partaking too much of the character of a
romance ; but his " Hiftory of Florence," comprifing the
events of that republic, between the years 1205 and 1494,
is a very valuable performance, and one of the earlieft of the
good Italian hiftories. It was written while the author
fuftained the office of hiftoriographer of the republic. He
has been charjjed with mifreprefentation ; but his cha-
rafter, as an hiftorian, has been ably vindicated, and his ftyle
and compofition, as a profe writer, are held in high eftima-
tion. His verfes do not rank among the firft, or even the
fecond rate produdtions of Italian poetry ; and his comedies,
however they might appear in pubHc rcprcfentation, are not
formod on the pureft models. The works of this writer
were collefted in two volumes 4to. in 1550, and they have
been repubhfhed in Amfterdam, London, and Paris. Gen.
Biog. See Machiavelism.

MACCLESFIELD, called in ancient records Maxfield,
in Geography, a populous, corporate, and borough-town of
Cheftiirc, England, is built on the fide of a fteep hill, at the
diftance of 18 miles from Manchefter, and 166 from. London.
It is part of the parifli of Preftbrng, in the hundred of Mac-
clesfield. Radal, earlc; Chefter, firft conftituted it a borough;
and in or near the year 1 261, the prince of Wales, afterwards
king Edward I., made it a free borough, and granted the
burgeffes a mercatorial guild, and other privileges. By the
conditions of the charter thus obtained, the burgeffes were
required to grind only at the earl's mill, and to bake at
his oven. This oven, or bakehoufe, is ftill vefted in the
crown, and a leafe of it was granted, in 1791, for twenty-
four years and a half. By a charter of queen Elizabeth's,
the corporate body was to confift of 24 capital burgeffes ;
but a later charter, from king Charles II., names a town-
clerk, a coroner, two ferjeants at mace, &c. as part of the
corporation. Among other articles delivered into the
cuftody of the ferjeants at mace, in the year 1620, was " a
bridle for a curft queane." The market, which is held on
Mondays, was formerly very confiderable for corn, but has
declined. The annual fairs are five, principally for cloth,
cutlery, toys, and pedlars' ware. The filk and cotton trade
is carried on in this town to a confiderable extent; there being
nearly thirty filk mills, fome of them on a large fcale, and
about ten cotton faftories : a great quantity of goods
of both forts is alfo manufaftured in private houfes ; there
ai-e feveral muflin, filk-weaving, and twift faftories. The
weaving of filk handkerchiefs, and the making of ferret
and calico, are increafing manufaftures : here are five
or fix dye-houfes, principally for filk, a tape manufac-
tory, and a bleaching ground. According to the re-
turns made to parliament under the population act of
1800, the number of houfes was then 1527, the number of
inhabitants was ftated to be 8743, of whom 8509 were faid
to be employed chiefly in trade, manufactures, or in handi-
craft. The population has fince that period been confider-
ably increafed. In the year 1 791 , an aft was pafl'ed for inclof-
ing the commons and wafte grounds within the borough and

manor

MAC

manor of Macclesfield. By this aft, all encroachments within
the manor (except fuch as had occurred within fixty years,
and had no buildings), were fecured on certain terms to
their refpeftive poflefFors ; the manorial rights of the crown,
with refpeft to the foil, mines, and minerals of the feveral
walle-grounds within the manor and borough were extin-
guirtied, with the rcferve of coal-mines : as a compenfation
for which concellions, an allotment of n8^ acres was
made to his majefty, which allotment, and the right of
digging coal, were fold in 1803, under the land-tax re-
demption aft to Charles Cooke of this town. Tlie corpo-
ration are entitled to ail fprings and water-courfes for {ap-
plying the town with water, from which fources, with the
tolls of the market and fairs, a confiderable emolument is
derived. A court of record is held once a month for the
liberty of the hundred, and another for the manor and foreft ;
a court leet is alfo held for thefe jurifdiftions. In former
times the juftices of Chefter fat as jullices in eyre at Mac-
clesfield, and prifoners for felony and other crimes were
tried there, and fuffered the fentence ot the law. After this
praftice was difcontinued, courts were held by the king's
ileward or his deputy. Two feffions are now held in May
and November, befides the monthly courts before-mentioned.
In a ftreet, called Backwall-Gate, are fome remains of a
manfion of the dukes of Buckingham. Smith, in his de-
fcription of Chelhire ( 1585 ), defcribes it as " a huge place,
all of Hone, in manner of a caftle, which belonged to the
duke of Buckingham, but now gone to decay." Webb,
writing in 1622, fays, " in this towne are yet feen fome
ruines of the ancient manor-houfe of the renowned duke of
Buckingham, who (as yet report goeth) kept there his
princely refidence, about the time of king Edward IV.,
of whofe great hofpitality there, much by tradition is re-
ported."

Other ancient manfions of this town were formerly oc-
cupied by families of diflinftion : among thefe was Staple-
ton-hall, belonging to the Stapletons of Upton : Beate-hall.
inhabited by the earl of Courtown, is now a public-houfe ;
Worth-hall was the town refidence of the family of Worths :
and is traditionally faid to have been the bu-th-place of arch-
bifhop Savage.

The parochial chapel of this town was originally built by
king Edward I. in the year 1278; it was almoft rebuilt,
and greatly enlarged, in 1740. On the fouth fide of this
chapel is an oratory, or burial chapel, which belongs to the
Savage family ; feveral of whom were interred here. It
now belongs to the earl of Cholmondeley. In the Legli
chapel are fome iepulchral memorials of the family of Legh
of Lyme.

A new chapel was erefted at Macclesfield in the year
1775, by Charles Roe, efq. and an aft of parliament was
obtained in 1779, when it was called Chrift's-church, or
chapel, and the living was made a perpetual cure, or bene-
fice, to be fubjeft to the bifhop of Cheller. In the chancel
is a handfome marble monument by Bacon, for the founder,
who died in 1781.

In this town are two meeting-houfes for Melhodifts, and
one for each of the following fefts : Prelbyterians, Quakers,
and Independents. A grammar-fchool was founded here by
fir John Percival, knt., and not by king Edward VI., as
commonly ilated. This monarch increafed its revenues, by
giving lands and houfes in and near the city of Chefter.
An aft of parliament was obtained, in 1768, to i-egulate the
management, and define the conftitution of this noted femi-
nary. Four miles S.S.E. of the town is the townlhip of
Macclesfield foreft. Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
part 2. 4to. 181C.

M A C

\

MACDONALD, Andrew, in B'lography, was bom
at Leith, where he was educated, chiefly by the affiftance of
bifhop Forbes. For fome time he had the charge of a chapel
at Glafgow, in which city he publifhed a novel, entitled
" The Independent." He afterwards came to London,
and wrote for the newfpapers. His works were lively,
fatirical, and humorous, and were publifhed under the fig-
nature of Matthew Bramble. He naturally poffeffed a fine
genius, and had improved his underllanding with claiTical
and fcientific knowledge ; but for want of conneftions in
this fouthern part of the united kingdom, and a proper op-
portunity to bring his talents into notice, he was always
embarraffed, and had occafionally to ftruggle with great
and accumulated dillrefs. He died in llie 33d year of his
age, at Kentifh Town, in Aug. 1790, leaving a wife and
infant daughter in a (late of extreme indigence. A volume
of iiis " Mifcellaneous Works" was publifhed in 1791, in
which were iromprifed ; " The fair Apoflate," a tragedy;
" Love and Loyalty," an opera ; " Princefs of Tarento,"
a comedy ; and " Vimonda," a tragedy. Biog. Drama-
tica.

MACDOWAL's Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W.
coaft of the ifland of .lava.

MACDUFF, a confiderable fea-poic town Ctuated on
the banks of the Moray frith, in the parifh of Gamvie,
and fhire of Banff, Scotland, at the diftance of two miles
from the county-town. Previous to the year 1732, it was
merely a trifling village, compofed of a few fifliemxen's
huts, with no other harbour for their boats but a faady
creek. It is now, through the exertions of the earl of Fife,
on whofe property it ftands, a very thriving place. The
houfes, which are eftimated at about 300 in number, are
generally built with much neatnefs, and arranged into re-
gular ftreets of a commodious width. The population ex-
ceeds twelve hundred perfons, a great proportion of whom
is engaged in the extenfive iifheries which have been elta-
blifhed on this part of the coafl. There are feveral Ihips
belonging to this town employed in the Baltic and London
trade. Many veffels from other ports likewife refort hither ;
the harbour, formed at the expence of the nobleman already
mentioned, being confidered one of the fafeft and moff com-
modious in the Moray frith. As this place lies at fome
diftance from the parifh church, the fame noble individual
has alfo erefted a chapel of eafe here, and pays a fuitable
falary to the clergyman fettled in it. A great variety of
little fifhing villages lie along the fhore on both fides, and
on the oppofite bank of the river Doveran.

MACE, in ylnciciit Armoury, a weapon formerly much
ufed by the cavalry of all nations, and hkewife by eccle-
fiaftics, who, in confequence of their tenures, frequently
took the field, but were, by a canon, forbidden to wield the
fword. The mace is commonly of iron ; its figure much
refembles a chocolate-mill. Many fpecimens may be feen
in the Tower of London, and other armouries. It was not
out of ufe long after the invention of hand-guns ; for we
read of its having been ufed by moft nations more than 100
years ago ; and in a medley, it is faid, they may be more
ferviceable than fwords ; for when tliey are guided by a
ftrong arm, we find that the party ilruck with them was
either felled from his horfe, or, having his head-piece beat
clofe to his head, was made to reel on his faddle, with the
blood nmning plentifully from his nofe. This kind of mace,
which is the fame as that ufed by the Turks, is im.properly
called by fome military writers the club of Hercules ; the
club given to that demi-god by the Grecian ilatuarics,
being a huge knotty hmb of a tree. Father Daniel has
engraved two weapons, fhewn In the abbey of Roncevaux,

as

MAC

MAC

as the maces of thofe famous heroes of romance, Roland
and Oliver, who ai'c faid to have lived in the time of Char-
lemagne. One is a large ball of iron, fallened with three
chains to a ftrong truncheon, or ftaff, about two feet long ;
the other is of mixed metal, in the form of a channelled
melon, faftened alfo to a llafT by a triple chain : thefe balls
weigh eight pounds. At the end of both the Haves are
rings for holding ends or leathers to faften them to the
hand. Contrivances like thefe, except that the balls were
armed with fpikes, were long carried by the pioneers of the
trained bands, or city militia : they are generally called
♦' Morning Stars." The morning ilar, or Morgan ftern,
was a weapon formerly ufed for the defence of trenches.
It was a large llafF, banded about with iron, hke the fliaft
of a halbert, having an iron ball at the end, with crofs iron
fpikes.

At prefent the mace is generally made of the precious
metals, and highly ornamented and ufed as an emblem of
the authority of the officers of ftate before whom it is
carried.

Mace, Thomas, in Biography, one of the clerks of Tri-
nity college, Cambridge, in the feventeenth century, of
quaint and lingular memory, publifhed in folio, 1676, a
treatife, entitled " Mufick's Monument ; or, a Remem-
brance of the bell praftical Mufick, both Divine and Civil,
that has ever been known in the World ;" a work that mull
not be forgotten among the curiofities of this period. It is
impoflible to defcribe the ftyle of this original book by any
choice or arrangement of words, but the author's own.
The work is divided into three parts ; the firft. treats of
pfalm-fmging and cathedral mufic ; the fecond, of the no-
ble lute, " now made eafy, and all its occult, locked-up-
fecrets, plainly laid open ; (hewing a genera! ivay of pro-
curing invention and playing voluntarily upon the lute, viol,
or any other inftrument, with two pretty devices, &c.
In the third part the generous viol, in its rightejl ufe, is treated
upon ; with fome curious obfervations, never before handled,
■ concerning it, and muiic in general."

In pfalm-finging the author re commends Jhort-/quare-even
and uniform ayres, and is " bold to fay that many of our old
pfalm-tunes are fo excellently good, that art cannot mend them
or make them better." In fpeaking of the difficulty of
finging in tune, even with a good voice, he obferves, that
" with an unjkilful-inharmonious-coarje-grained-harjh-voice, it is
impoflible. 'Tis fad to hear what whining, toling, yelling,
or fcreeking there is in our country congregations, where, if
there be no organ to compel them to harmonical unity, the
people feem affrighted or dillradted."

The liberal ufe of compounds by the ingenious mailer
Mace gives his language a very Grecian appearance. He
doubts not but that there are " many rational-ingenious-ivell-
compofed-'willing-good-ChriJlians, who would gladly y^rw God
aright, if poffibly they knew tut how;" and therefore he
advifes the purchafe of an organ of thirty, forty, fifty, or
fixty pounds ; and then, " the clerk to learn to pulfe or
Jlriie the pfalm-tunes, which he offers hiinfelf to teach for
thirty or forty fhillings ; and the clerk afterwards may in-
flruft all the boys in the parifh for a (hiUing or two a-piece
to perform the bufuiefs as well as himfelf. And thus by
little and little, the parilh will fiuarm or abound with or-
ganifts."

The lute and viol are mailer Mace's favourite inftruments,
concerning the effefis of which, and, indeed, of mufic in
general, he is a great rapturift. On the lute, though " he
had occafion to break both his arms, by reafon of which he
could not make the nerve fhake well, nor ftrong ; yet, by a
certain motion of his arm, he had gained fuch a contentive-

Jhaie, that his fcholars aflced him frequently how they Ihould
do to get the like ?"

We fliall not attempt to recreate our readers with more
extrafts from this matchlefs, though not fcarce, book ; but
recommend its pcrufal to all who have taile for exceffive
fimplicity and quaintnefs, and can extraCl pleafure from the
fincere and undifTembled happinefs of an author, who, with
exalted notions of his fubjeft and abihtics, difclofes to his
reader every inward working of felf-approbation in as un-
difguifed a manner, as if he were communing with himfelf
in all the plenitude of mental comfurt and privacy. We
fliall, however, prefent fuch readers with an advertifement
from good mailer Mace, that was written on Iiis arrival in
London, 1690, fourteen years after the publication of his
book. We found it in the Britidi Mufeum, N"' 5'936, in a
coUedlion of title-pages, devices, and advertifements.

yin Advertifement.

" To all Lovers of the beft Sort of MuficV

" Men fay the times are (Irange 'tis true :

'Caufe many flrange things hap to be.
Let it not then feem llrange to you

That here one llrange thing more you fee."

" That is, in Devereux-court, next the Grecian coS^se-
houfe, at the Temple back-gate, there is a deaf perfon
tcacheth mufic to perfedlion ; who, by reafon of his great
age, v. 77, is come to town, with his whole (lock of rich
mufical furniture, v. inftruments and books to put o(f, to
whomfoever delights in luch choice things ; for he has no-
thing light or vain, but all fubfiantial and folid music.
Some particulars do here follow :

" I. There is a late invented organ, which (for private
ufe) excels all other fafhioned organs whatever ; and for
which, fubftaatial-artificial reafons will be given ; and (for
its beauty) it may become a nobleman's dining-room.

" 2. There belongs to it a pair of fair, large-fi^ed confort-
viols, chiefly fitted and fuited for That, or confort ufe ; and
'tis great pity theyflould be parted.

" :;. i'here is a pedal harp/icon (the abfolute beft fort of
confort harpficons that has been invented) ; there being in it
more than twenty varieties, moft of them to come in with
the foot of the player, without the leaft hindrance of play
(exceedingly pleafant). And

" 4. Is a fingle harpficon.

" 5. A new invented inftrument, called a dyphone, v. a
double lute ; it is both theorbo -a-ud French-lute i:om^\e\.e ; and
as ealy to play upon as any other lute.

" 6. Several other theorbos, lutes, and viols, very good.

" 7. Great ftore of choice coUeclions of the works of
the mofl famous compofers, that have lived in thefe laft hundred
years, as Latin, Englifli, Italian, and fome French.

" 8. There is the publiflier's own Mufick's Monument;
fome few copies thereof he has ftill by him to put off ; it
being a fubfcribed book, and not expofed to common fale.
All thefe will be fold at very eafy rates, for the reafons
aforefaid ; and becaufe (indeed) he cannot ftay in town
longer than four months (exaftly)."

He farther adds, " if any be defirous to partake of his
^experimental flvill in this high-nobk-art, during his ftay in
town, he is ready to afGll them; and (hapiy) they may
obtain that from him, which they may not meet withal clfe-
where. He teacheth thefe five things, v. the theorbo, the
French-lute, and the viol, in all their excellent ways arid
ufes ; as alfo compofttion, together with the knack of pro-
curing invention to young compofers (the general and greateft
difficulty they meet withal), this laft thing not being at-
tempted

MAC

tempted by any author (as he knows of), yet maybe ianf ;
though fome ha9 been fo wife (or othervvife) to contradict
it:

" Sed experientia docult."

" Any of thefe five things may be learned fo underftand-
ingly, in this little time he (lays (by fiich general rules as
he gives, together with Mufick's Moinniunt, written princi-
pally to yi; .-A /ar/iq/J/), as that any aptly inclined, may (for
the future) teach themfelves without any other help."

Mace,'Fran"cis, a teamed French prieft, was born at
Paris about the year 1 640, and being deligned for the church,
he purhicd his lludies with that view at the univerlity of
his native city, where he took his degrees. His firft public
employment was that of focretary to the council for manag-
ing the domains and finances of the queen, confort to Lewis
XiV. It was not till the year 1685 that he took holy
orders, when he was immediately appointed canon, veftry-
keeper, and retlor of the roval collegiate and parochial
church of St. Opportune, at Paris. He was a very dih-
gent iludent as well in profane as in facred literature, and
was celebrated for his popular talents as a preacher. He
died in 17?!, leaving behind him a great number of works
that do honour to hia memory, of which we fiiall mention " A
Chrgnological, Hiftorical, and Moral Abridgment of the
Old and New Teftament," in 2 vols. 410. ; '■ Scriptural
Knowledge, reduced into Four Tables ;" a French verlion
of the apjcryphal "Teilaments of theTwelve Patriarchs ;"
of which Groffetefte, bifhop of Lincoln, gave the firll Latin
tranflation, Grabe the firft Greek edition, from MSS. in the
Enghfh Qiiiverfitiss, and Whillon an Engliih verfion ; " The
Hillory of the Four Ciceros," which abound in learned and
curious enquiries, and intended to prove, from the teftimony
of Greek rnd Irttin hiltorians, that the fons of Cicero were
as illullrious as their father Moreri.

Mace, in Commerce, a fmall gold coin, current in Su-
matra, and fome other Eaft India iflands. It weighs nine
grains, and is worth about 14J. ilerling. Sixteen mace are
eaual 64 copangs =; 4 pardovvs = a tale : and 2J00 fmall
pieces of tin or lead, called calhes, ufually pafs for a
mace.

Mace, Mach, is a pretty thick, tough, undluous mem-
brane, reticular or varioully chapt, of a lively reddiili-yel-
low colour, approaching to that of fafFron, enveloprng the
(hell of the fruit, whofe kernel is the nutmeg. The mace,
when frefli, is of a blood-red colour, and acquires its yellow
hue in drying. It is dried in the fun, upon hurdles fixed
above one another, and then, as it is faid, fprinkled with fea-
water, to prevent its crumbling in carriage.

Mace has a pleafant aromatic fmell, and a warm, hit-
terilh, moderately pungent tafte ; it is a thhi and flat mem-
branaceous lubftance, of an oleaginous nature, and of a
yellowifh colour. We meet with it in flakes of an inch or
more in length, which are divided into a multitude of irre-
gular ramifications ; it is of an extremely fmooth furface,
-and of a tolerably clofe texture, yet friable, and ver)- eafily
cut to pieces. It is of an extremely fragrant, aromatic, and
agreeable fmell, and of a pleafant, but acrid and oleaginous
tafle ; it is to be chofen new, not dry, and of a fragrant
fmell, tough, oleaginous, and of a good yellow. The peo-
ple who colle£l the nutmeg fruit cut it open, and throw
away the pulpy fubftance, or external coat ; they then fee
the mace covering the nutmeg, wrapping itfelf every where
round its outer woody (hell. The mace is at this time of a
red colour ; they take it carefully off from the nutmeg, and
lay it in the fun for the whole day. In this time its colour,
from a llrong blood-red, becomes dufky ; it is after this

Vol. XXI.

MAC

earried to another place, where the fun lias lefs power, and
there expofed again to its rays, the few hours they reach
thither. By thii, means it dries gently, and remains tough,
and retains its fragrancy and colour in a great degree : if it
were dried more hallily, it would he whi;i(h, brirtle, and
would lofe much of its fmell ; after this it is (lightly
fprinkled over with fea-water, and then put up into bales
in which it is preflcd down firm and dole, by way of pre.
ferving its fragrance and confillence.

It is of an aftringent and dr^'ing nature, and is ufcd as a
corrector in cardiac and cathartic coinpolitions. In its ge-
neral quality it is nearly fimilar to the nutmeg, which lee ;
the principal difference confiits in the mace- being much
warmer, more bitterifh, lefs uiiftuous, and fitting eafier on
weak ftomachs ; in its yielding by exprcflion a more fluid
oil, and in diftillation with water a more fnbtile volatile one.
Lewis's Mat. Med.

Mace, Oil rj", is a kind of febaceous matter, faid to be
expreffed from the nutmt-g, and appearing to be a mixture
of the grofs febaceous matter of the nutmeg, with a little
of the efiential or aromatic oil ; both which may be per-
feflly feparated from one another by maceration or digeftion
in rectified fpirit, or by diftillation with water. The beft
fort of this oil is brought from the Eaft Indies in ftonejars,
and is fomewhat foft, of a yellow colour, and of a ftrong
agreeable fmell, much refembling that of the nutmeg itfelf.
There is another fort brought from Holland in lolid mafies,
generally flat, and of a fquare figure of a paler colour, and
much weaker fmell. Lewis.

Mace, Reed, in Botany. See Typha.

MACEDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Galicia ; five miles S.E. of Santiago.

MACEDO, Fr. Franxisco DE Santo Agostikiio, in
Biography, a learned Portuguefe, was born at Coimbra in
1 ,9^, and at a very early age difcovercd premature and extra-
ordinary proofs of memory and imitation. At the age of
eleven he could repeat the whole of the JEncid, and compofe
good Latin verfes. He joined the company of the Jefuits,
which he quitted, and entered the Francifcan order in the
reformed province of St. Antonio. When the Braganzaii
revolution broke out, Maeedo efpoufed the patriotic fide,
was called to political exertions, and vifited Rome, Paris,
and London with ambaffadors of Joam IV. As he ad-
vanced in years he retired to Rome, where he obtained the
profefforfhip of ecclefiaftical hiftorv, and other offices in the
college De Propaganda Fide ; for fome time he performed
all the high duties attached to his feveral ftations with credit,
and to the entire fatisfaftion of the pope, whofe favour he
forfeited for refufing to expunge a word in an epitaph writ-
ten upon a fervant of his holinefs. . At Rome, and alfo at
Venice, he engaged in many learned difputes with charafters
of the firll literary reputation. To all his opponents Ma-
eedo replied moft readily and without the fmalleft embarralT-
ment, corretling their falfe quotations, and confuting their
arguments ; and he is faid to have crowned the whole by
reciting a thoufand extempore verfes, and an epigram in
praife of the city of Venice, which epigram was by order
of the republic written under his picture, and placed in the
library of St. Mark. From the wonderful powers of his
memory he obtained the title of the walking Cyclopxdia.
He died in 1681, at the great age of eighty-five. H«.
left a vaft multitude of works either in maiiufcript or it
print ; he eftimated the number of verfes which he LaJ
made at a million and a half. Of this prodigious number,
lays Mr, Soutliey, nobody now reidj a fingle hne. Gen.
Biog.

5 A MACEDONI-\,

MACEDONIA.

MACEDONIA, in Anclait Gtogrcphy, a country of
Europe, dilUngiiifhed by various appellations, belonuing to
one or other of its diftrifts, according as the people who
inhabited thofe diftricls happened to prevail. In the moll
ancient times it took its name from iEmathia, a denomi-
n.ition derived from ^mathius, a prince of great antiquity ;
but aft^;rwards the Greeks called it Macedonia, either from
king Macedo, a dcfcendaut, as fome pretend, from Deuca-
lion, or, as others fay, by au cafy change of Mygdonia, the
name of one of its provinces, into Macedonia. . Its bound-
aries have been very various, fometimes more extended and
fomelimes more confined, according to the good or bad for-
tune of its reigning princes. It was bounded originally on
the E. by theiEgean fea, on the S. by Thelfaly and Epirus,
on the W. by the Adriatic, or the Ionian fea, and on the N.
by the' river Strymon and the Searuian mountains, after-
wards by the river Nelfus, or Nc'.lus. Pliny fays, that no
Icfs than 150 different nations were featcd within its terri-
tory, and Mela tells us, that it had as many nations as
cities ; but in the time of Ptolemy, it appears from his
geography, that this number was very confiderable. Livy
(c. XXX.) comprehends the feveral divifious of Macedonia
under four principal parts, which he dcfwibes as follows :
«' Pars prim.i, Bifahas habet fortiffimos viros : trans Neflum
amnem incohmt et circa Strymoncm, &c." This part was
fertile, contained mines, and had for its principal town Am-
phipolis, which guarded the entrance into Macedonia, to-
wards the eall. " Secunda pars, celeberrimas urbes ThefTa-
lonicam et CafTandriam habet." To this part was joined
Pallcna, a country very fertile, and abundant in grain, and
having good ports. " Tertia regio, nobiles urbes EdefTam
et Beru;am, et Pellam et Vettiorum bellicofam gentem : in-
colas quoque permultos Gallos et Illyrios impigros culto-
res." " Quartam regionem Eord;ei, et Lynceftse, el Pilago-
nes incoUint. .Juncta his Atintania et Styinphaliset Eliniio-
tis." Cellarius didirr^'uidies " Macedonia propria," from Ma.
cedonia adjunfta." Macedonia propria, or Macedon proper,
contains the following parts. I . In this part were the yflonipll
in tlie north, where the mountains Hxmusandthe Scardus
join. This country is called Almopia by Thucydidcs ; and
Livy places here mount Boreas. Pdiigonia, ca'led by
Strabo TfiTroXili,-. becaufe it contained three towns, though
Ptolemy afilgns to it only two, is the fourth region of
Livy, fuppofed to be the . fame with Piemua. Lycejlh or
l.yncellis, ini-.abited by the Lynceftx, lay to the S.VV". of
P?eonia. The chief town v;as Heraclea. Eordsa, i;iha-
bited by the Eord^-i, was fituated W. of the Lyncella;, or'
between the country of the Taulantii and Oreftes. North
of thefe was the territory of the DalfarctK, whofe chief
towns were Lychnides and Evia. The former was called
Lychnidia by Polybius, and was pleafantly fituated near a
lake of the fame name. It is now called Ochrida. To this
part belonged alio a portion of Elymlotis ; the reft was in
Illyria, as v.-ell as Candavia. 3. The fecond'part was com-
prifed between the rivers Erigon and Axius. Here are
found the famous tov.'ns of Edeffa, Bercea, and Pella.
Livy places in this part the famous nation of Vettii. To-
wards the north lies a portion of Pasonia, called Deurhpus,
•W-hich, according t© Strabo, had three towns, ws. Brya-
iiium, Alalconenx, and Stybsra. In the part of Pxonia,
which was on this tide of the Axius, was Armiffa, which,
according to Thucydides, was the firft town of the king-
dom of Pcrdiceas. JEmaih'ia was the mod confiderable part
of Macedonia, io as formerly to have given it its name ; in
U'hicb country we find Tyritfa, Scydra, Meyza ; and fince
among the Cyrrhtjla, Cyrrlius, Idomene, Gortynia or Gor-
fiynia, -£ge, and Pella. Towards the fea waa the fmall

country, called Bolu,ea, or Bollirlu. As Herodotus attri-
butes to this fmall country the towns of IcUni and Peila»
Cluvier conjedlures that VEmathia was enlarged by its en-
croachments on this province. P'terla lay to the fouth
of this fmall country, and in procefs of time comprehended
Bottiasa. In Pieria were the towns of Aloru;', Methone,
Pidna, called Citron, Dium, and others lefs confiderable.
The river Enipeus, flowing from the vallies of mount
Olympus, difcharged itfelf into the fea, fouth of Dium,
and at its mouth was Phyla, a ftrong town, built by De-
metrius Gonatas. 3. The third part of Macedonia, ac-
cording to Cellarius, was comprehended between the rivers
Axius and Strymon ; and this is the fecond according to
the didribution of I..ivy. In this part are fou:id jlwphax'ilts,
E. of the mouth of the Axius, on the Thermaic gulf. The
moil confiderable town was Thcrma, which afterwards took
the name of Theifaloniea, and is now called Saloniclii.
Mygdonia lay to the N. of the Therm.aic gulf, but did not
extend to the fea. Here were the to\'-i;Sof Antigonea and
StobijPhyfca, Terpillas, Aflbrus, and Xvlopolis ; and by ex-
tending this part towards the fouth, it will be made to
comprehend the towns of ApoUonia and Arethufa. Thu-
cydides places immediately after Mygdonia, Grcjlon'ia, An-
ihcinus, and R'lfali'ta. Anthcmus probably derived its name
from the town of Anthemus, placed by M. d'Anville to-
wards the E. of Amphaxitis, near the fource of the Re-
chius. Grejlonia or Crejloiiia, was fituated N.E. of Am-
phaxitis, and liad a town of the fame name. The Eche-
dorus had its fource in this country, and ran from hence
into Mygdonia. S'tntke and Bljaltia lay towards the N.
and N.E. of Crellonia, upon the Pontus, between the
mountains, and had a town named Heraclea Siritica. Bi-
fah'ia was a country inhabited by the Bifaltte, who occupied
a territory near the river Strymon. Another confiderable
part of Macedonia was comprehended in a peninfula, which
projected between the Thermaic gulf to the weft, and ll.e
Strymonic gulf to the call. Towards the N.W. was, the
fmall country called Grejfca ; fouthwards from the fea to
the E. was Chaleidica, terminated by three long perinfulas,
paffing in a direiti'-.n from N.W. to S.E. The moll weft-
erly was called Pallcna, which had formerly borne the name
of Phlegra ; the next wm Sithonia ; and the third was a
peninfiUa joined to the continent by a tongue of land, in
which was fituated mount Athos. On the wellern coaif is
Crojlia, with its towns jEnia or ^nea, Gigonus, Smyla,
Antigonea, Combrea, and Lipaxos or Lipaxus. Upon
the illhmus which connects Pallcna with the continent, was
the town called Potidsa, and afterwards Caffandra ; to the
W. were the towns Sana, Menda, Scione, and Thrambus-
or Theramhus. At the extremit)'' of the S.E. was Ca-
najlmeum PromoiUoriiim, together with a place of the fame
name. Upon the eaftern coall were iEga and Aphitis.
Between the eallern coall of Pallcna and the weftern coalt
of Sithon'ia, the fea formed a gulf, cvWeiToroiMictis Sinus }
at the bottom of this gulf, on an eminence, was the town
of Olynthus, feparated from the gulf by the Bolyca palus^
a marih into which were difcharged the two fmall rivers
Olynthius and Atnnias. Upon the wellern coall oi SUIio-
tiia were the towns of Mecyberna, Senr.yla, Galepfus, and
Torone, whence the Toronaic gulf derived its name. At
the weftern. extremity of this peninfula was the Promcntorium
Deiris, and at the S.E. point was the Promonlor'uim Am-
pelos. On the eaftern fide were Sarga, Singus, Pidaurus,
and Alfa, at the mouth of the Chabrius. The gulf, whieli
bathed this coall, haJ taken its name from Singus, fituated
at the entrance of a very large bay. • Thff peninfula, iii
which ftood mount Athos, had fevewl places fituated along
I. the

MACEDONIA.

tlie fea conft. On the coafl towards the N. were Sana,
Cleonx, ThyfTum, near the Protnotitorium Nymphsmn. Upon
the coall towards the S.E. at tlie foot of the niounlain,
was ApolJonia, and the promontory tliat bore the name of
Acro-Alhos Promoiitonum. Towards the N. W. were tlie
towxs of Olophyxus, Dium, and Acanthus, fitiiatcd in a
bay in which Xerxes would have brought his (hips into tiie
Singitic ^ulf when he meant to cut through Athos, in or-
der to prevent the necefTity and danger of doubling the two
promontories, Acro-Athos and Nymphit-um. I'o the N.,
on the fame coaft, are Stagyra, Arna, Arethufa, Bro-
mifcus, Argilus, and Eion at the mouth of the Strymon,
where alfo was Amphipolis.

The Maccd'jma adjcSa of Cclhrins, was that which wa»
taken from Thrace in the time of Philip, and extended from
the river Strymon on the W. to the Nyflus on the E. Am-
phipolis, the port of which was Eion, belonged to this part.
Cluverius places ajfo in this part the town of Berga, but it
really lav W. of the river. From Berga was derived the
proverbial expreflion Esj-, ki Jhv atli ra i/.nJfv aAiiSs X^ym, Bcrgai-
zare, id ell, nihil veri dicere, for exaggeration, or faying
any thing tliat was fcarcely credible. To the E. of Stry-
mon was Gazolus ; on the fca-coall, beyond Eion, were
Phagres, Gapfelus, jEfyma, and Neapolis. In the inland
territory \yas Philippi, formerly called Crenides and Datus,
and which under its latter name became a Roman colony ;
and towards the W. Drabefcus, Triuiluni, Domenis, &c.

Macedonia was interlected by many Roman ways, the moll
ancient of which was called J'ia Egtml'ia. It was thought
to have been a continuation of this Roman way, that termi-
nated at Brundufium ; it commenced at Dyrrachium, v.hence
it palled by Hydrantuni to Anion, on the coaft of Epirus.
From each of thefe towns it branched off to Claudiana.
From this place it paifed to Lichnidus, belonging to the
Daflaretii, and thence turning to the S., it paffed by Hera-
clea, belonging to the Lvncells, by Edefl'a, Fella, Theffalo-
iiica, ApoUonia, Amphipohs, Philippi, Neapolis, and the
reft of Thrace, as far as Cypfelus or Cyplela on the Hebrus.
Some authors have continued it as far as Conftantinople.

Ptolemy extends Macedonia as far as the Ionian fea, and
afligns as its boundaries on the N. Dalmatia and Mceiia, and
on the weft Thrace. On the coaft he places the Taulantii, then
the Elymioti, Oreftis, Edonis and Odomanlice on the Stry-
monic gulf, and on the fame gulf Aniphaxitis, then Chal-
cidica, Paraxiae on the coaft, Pierix on the Thermaic
gulf, the Pelalgioti on the coaft, Phthiotis on the Pelafgic
gulf; and northwards, towards the W., &c. the Albani, the
Almopi, Orbellx, the Eordati, the Eftrasi, Joranum, Sintices,
the Daflaretii, Lyceftis, Pelagonia, Bifaltix, Mygdonia,
Etnathia, the Parthyxi, Stymphalis, the Eftioti, and the
Theffalii. The iflands which he afligns to Macedonia were
Safo in the Ionian fea, and in the jEgean fea, Lemnos with
its two towns Myrina and Hephafftia, Scixthos with a town
of the fame name, Scopelos, and Scyros with a town of
the fame name.

According to M. dcl'Ifle's map of Greece, the extent of
Macedonia from N. to S. was about i6o miles, and from
W. to E. about 220. Its form was very irregular ; but its
fituation was excellent, its flioresbemg waftied on the E. by
the .^gean, and on the W. by the Ionian feas : but thefe
advantages with regard to navigation and commerce, v.'ere
never well improved ; as the Mivcedonians were never power-
ful at fea, notwithftanding the many noble bays and excellent
harbours which their coaft aftorded.

Among the moft confiderable mountains of this country,
we may reckon the great ridge, which traverfed the northern
part, called the Scardiau mountains. In this part alfo was

fituated mount Pangreus, which was lofty and well covered witk
wood, and which was more valuable on account of its mines
of gold and hirer. From Thrace it was divided by mount
Hxmus, which towards the W. joined the Scardian hills.
Athos, in the Chalcidian region, was one of the moft cele-
brated mountains in the world. (See Athos.) Olympus
was alfo another mountain, that was fo lofty as to reach
almoft the conlines of heaven, whence the poets took the
liberty of making it tlie feat of the gods. ( See Oly.mpu.s.)
The Scardian hilis and mount .Xthos were well covered with
woods ; and, indeed, the whole kingdom of Macedonia,
benig every where intermixed with mountains and riling
grounds, abounded with all forts of trees, that were valua-
ble on account either of timber, fruit, or (hade. The feaa
that adjoined it were the Adriatic, which afforded feveral
(ale ports, beiides the great haven of Epidamnus, now
Duraz/.o ; and the iEgean fea, v.'hich opened to this country
not only the trade of Greece, but that of Afia. Its bays
were fpacious, a'nd four of them were efpecially remarkable ;
viz. Sinus Strymonicus, which enclofed in its bofom the
ifland of Thafus, and is now called Golfo di ContefTa : — Si-
nus Singiticus, having on one fide mount Athos, and on the
other a long flip of land, once full of rich and populous
towns, now fty led Golfo di Monte Santo : — SinusToronaicus,
having the ridge of land jutt mentioned on one fide, and part
of the region Paraxia on the other, now called, Golfo di
Aiomama :--and Sinus Thermasus, 60 mfles in length, now
called the gulf of Saloniehi. Of the rivers of Macedonia, thofe
that fell nito the Adriatic were the Panyafus, the Apfus,
the I^aous, called alfo jEas and Aous, and Celydnus or
Pepylichus, which is conflJered as the boundary between
Macedon and Epirus. The nvers that difcharged themfelves
into the iEgean fea were the Aliacmon, the Erigon, the
Axius (fee Axius), and the Strymon, the ancient boundary
between Macedon and Thrace, but fince the time of Philip
this boundary has been the NefFus. As to the lakes of Ma-
cedonia, befides thofe formed by the overflowing of the
river Strymon, and the junftion of the rivers Axius and
Erigon, there is almofl in the centre of the country, not
far from the Candavian mountains, a large and famous lake,
called the lake of Lychnidus, or the lake of Prefpa. There
is alfo another lake in the province of Mygdonia ; and a
third near the ancient city of Sintia, called afterwards He-
raclea Sintica.

The climate of Macedonia was falubrious and favourable
to longevity ; the foil was generally fertile, efpecially on the
fea-coaft, producing in abundance corn, wine, and oil ; but
the principal riches of Macedonia conilited in its mines of
almoft all kinds of metals, but more particularly of gold.
The Romans, when they reduced Macedonia into a province,
reftrained the inhabitants from digging or refiiiing gold or
filver, but left them at liberty with regard to any other metal.
In ancient times Macedonia abounded with horfes above all
the other countries of Greece. Three lumdred ftallious,
and 30,000 mares, were kept in the royal llud near Pella.

Macedoxi.V, ITiJlory of. This country was originally in-
habited by many nations. Thofe from wjiom the race fprang,
which from fmall beginnings became lords of Greece,
were Arglves. Under the condudl of Caranus, who was
defcended from Hercules by his fon Temenus, they came
into this country about 81 4 years B.C., and eftabliflied them-
felves by their arms. Their dominion was afterwards conll-
derably enlarged by their prudence as much as by tlieir va-
lour ; for erecting no trophies after their victories, and treat-
ing thole whom they had fubdued with the tendernefs of
brethren, they engaged the aflFcftions of the conquered, with
whom they aifociated as one people, and thus various tribes
5 A 2 were

MACEDONIA.

were reduced into one nation. Although the Macedonians
were always gtiverned by kings, they prcfervcd as great or
even greater hbcrty than mod of the Grecian common-
wealths : their munarchs always ruling them according to
the maxims of natural etiuity. This was the original
conftitution, and it may be faid, very much to their
honour, that it was not fubvertcd but with the kingdom. In
Cdlos where the p\inilhment was capital, the caufe was heard
by tiie army or by the people ; and till they condemned
the party, the king did not pretend to put him to death.
Alexander in many inllanccs adiiercd to this cnttom ; A-
though a rigid regard to the conlUtntion of his country was
not always the ruling principle in a Macedonian monarch, as
we are informed by I'olybius. The throne was iiereditary ;
and continued in tlie race of Caranns, till the (laughter of
Alexander's family ; and in general the cldefl fon fucceed-
ed. The ancient kings of Macedon made no ollentatious
difplay of regal dignity. Alexander the Great was the fir ft who
wore a diadem and rich robes of ftate, which were transferred
to his fuccelTors. The people were loyal and attached to
their prince. With regard to marriage, the Macedonian
kings were not very fcrupulous ; as they had frequently le-
vcral wives and a number of concubines. In the education
of their children they were very exemplary, their fons being
placed under the tuition of the bell mafters, who inculcated
the love and praflice of great and glorious aftions ; and their
daughters were initiated m the praftice of every virtue. In
the conduft of their own affairs they were moderate and pru-
dent, affefting no magnificent entertainments, condefcending
to their fubjects, and habituated to bufinefs. Their chief
djverfion was hunting-. Thefe princes wck generally learned,
or at lead patrons of learned men. In the mo!l folemii ads
of their aduiiniflration, they maintained fuch a xlecorum as
rather endeared them to than awed their fubjefts. They
heard caufes in perfon, and fuffered thofe who pleaded be-
fore them to fpeak with the greatell freedom. After their
deaths, the Macedonian kings were interred in the royal fepul-
chre ; and as they were beloved whilll they lived, the people
mourned for them when they died as for their common parents.

The Macedonians, with refpeft to religion, followed the
opinions embraced by the rell of the Greeks, worlTiipping
many gods, and indulging a great variety of ridiculous rites.
Jupiter, Hercules, and Diana, were the objefts of their
fpecial reverence. They were flrict in their morals, and
temperate in their ordinary mode of living, but magnificent
and felf-indulgent in their feafts. At thefe feafts no women
were admitted ; and it was an inviolable rule that nothing
fhould be divulged, that palled at their convivial meetings.
They ufed their captives as concubines, but held it dif-
honourable to marry them. In capital cafes, judgment was
given by the voice of the army ; in cafes of doubt torture
was allowed ; and their punilhments were various. Some-
times, but chiefly on extraordinary occafions, and in con-
formity to foreign cuiloms, the criminal was thrufc through
with darts, or crucified with his head downwards, or thrown
chained into rivers ; however, the moll frequent punifliment,
and that which feems to have been legal, was Honing to death,
in which the army, as they had been coiulituted judges,
were executioners.

As there were feveral mines in Macedonia, there was un-
der its feveral kings a variety of lilver and gold coins ; of
the latter fort were the Philippics, fo cal'ed from bearing
the bull of Philip, the father of Alexander. Thefe were
for a long time the mod current coin-s in Greece.

The language of the Macedonians differed very much
from the feveral dialcfls of the Greek ; infomuch that
the natives of Greece, who ferved in Alexander's army,

were not able to underdand a difcotirle delivered in tlie
Macedonian tongue.

Their military difcipline deferves particular notice, as it
ferved to raife them from being a mean and obfciire people
to be lords of Greece. At fird they were brave and war-
like, and bv degrees they became invincible from the union
of fuperior courage with military flcill. Their army con-
fided of their natural born fubjefts, their allies, and mer-
cenaries. The natives ferved at their own expence, and con-
tented themfelves with the fpoil of their enemies. The
allies were compofed of the refpedlive quotas ol ThefTaly,
P^EOnia, and other dependent provinces, and of auxihary
troops furnillicd by Greece. The raei-cenaries were foldiers
of fortune, who lerved only for pay. The Theffalians fnr-
nilhcd liorl'e, and there were alfo many troops of Macedo-
nian cavalry ; the difcipline of which was fo drift, that if
any of the private men lod their horles, either by fickntfs or
in aftion, their officers were obhged to furnidi others out of
their own dables. I'he infantry were compofed of three
bodies, viz. the light-armed, the peltada;, who were
better armed, and the heavy-armed foldiers, of whom the
phalanx was compofed. Thefe troops were adapted to all
forts of enterprifes. The heavy-armed foot were generally
drawn up in the centre of the army, in a fquare body, called
the phalanx. This confided, according to Polybius, of i6
in flank, and 500 in front, all pikemen, the foldiers llanding
fo clofe, that the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points
beyond the front of the battle. As to the arms of the
Macedonians, they were offenfive and defenfive. At firll
their targeteers had only wooden bucklers, or fuch as were
made of a kind of wicker ; but in procefs of time, they had
them of leather and brafs. Their fwords, like thofe of
other Greeks, were made both for pufliing and cutting ;
and they alfo made-ufe of dagijers. Their fpears were both
long and fhort ; they had alio bread-plates made of linen
quilted to a proper thicknefs, and a particular kind of mili-
tary flioe. When the army was in the field, the phalanx
was drawn up generally in the centre. The horfe and light-
armed troops in two lines on the right and left. Imme-
diately before battle, the king or general ufually made an
oration, of which the foldiers expreflcd their approbation
by cladiing their arms ; but if it did not afieft them, they
remained lilent. When they charged, they exclaimed, Alala !
Alala ! and when they defired quarter, they held their fpears
aloft in the air. All authors agree in reprefenting the hardi-
nefs, frugality, and good order of the jilacedoniau troops.
Their camp was always fortified with a good ditch and en-
trenchment. Their tents were fmall, made of ikins, and
when folded up, they made ufe of them in paffing rivers.
The king's tent was pitched in the centre, and confided of
two rooms, one in which he fiept and the other in which he
law company ; and before the door of it, his guards did
duty. I'lie military fignals of the Macedonians were either
trumpets or fires. On a march the cavalry and light-armed
troops took pod in the van, the phalanx in the centre, and
the baggage in the rear, unlefs they apprehended a fudden
engagement ; in which cafe they marched in order of battle.
Every foldier had a kind of knapfack, and the army was at-
tended with a certain number of carts and waggons; but the
Macedonians did not allow either women or ufelefs fervants
to follow the camp. The plunder was fometimes didributed
among the foldiers, at other times colledted and fold for the
ufe of the king, or for the army. In quarters, the army
was preferved from corruption, and its difcipline maintained
by military games, in which rewards, both honorary and
lucrative, were bedowed. After vicloiies, the kings were
accuftoraed to reward all who diftinguilhed themfelves.

Thofe

MAC

M A C

Thofe who died in the fervice were honoured with public
monuments, and their children and relations were freed from
tribute. In all other rcfpcfts, they were treated with the
greateft humanity and condefcenlion ; and when the time
limited for their fervice expired, or their wounds rendered
them incapable of forving, they were difmilTcd, with ample
provifion for themfelves and families, that they might enjoy
the fruits of their labour, and by living in eafe and peace,
excite younger and more robuft men to come cheerfully in
their room.

The kingdom of Macedon commenced with Caranus in
the year 814 B.C. and continued 646 years, till the battle of
Pydna.

A Table of the kings of Macedon from its ettablilhment
to its difTolution.

Carunus.

Csnus.

Thurimas.

P>;rdicca3 I.

Argacus 1.

Philip I.

• ^ropas.

Aleclus or Alcetas.

Amyiitas 1.

Alexander I.

Perdiccas II.

Archelaus, laid to be the patron
of learning.

Amyntas II.

Paufanias.

Amyntas II.

Argaius II the Tyrant.

Amyntas II. reftored.

Alexander II.

Ptolemy Alontss.

Perdiccas III.

Philip II. fon of Amyntas.

Ale.sander II I. -called thg Great.

Philip III. Ar'idauu

Caffander.

Antipater.

Alexander.

Demetrius PolkcerteS'

Pyrrhus.

Lyfimachus

Ptolemy Ccraunus.

Melcager.

Antipater the Ele/ian.

Antigonus, called Conatas,

Demetrius II.

Antigonus Do/on.

Philip V.

Perfeus.

Perfeus defeated at the battle of
Pydna, and taken prifoner by
the Romans, which properly
hnilhes the kingdom of Mace-
don.
152 - Andrifcus, pretending to be the
fon of Perfeus, affumcd ■ the
tyranny of Macedon, but died
ill the year 148 B.C.

In the preceding reigns no very interefting event occurred,
till that of Amyntas, to whom Megabyzus, the Perflau

J?.C.
8t4

7S6

774
729
678
640
602
576
547
497
454
4'3

399
39S
397
392
390
371
370
366
360
336
S^i
316
298
297
294
287
286
280
279
278
277

243
232
221
179
J OS

general, fent feven of the principal comnianders of Ins army
to require him to acknowledge king Darius. Amyntaj
complied, and gave them a magnificent fcaft. Being in-
toxicated with wine, they defired that the women might be
produced according to the cullom of P.-rfvi. In this par-
ticular they were alfo gratified ; but as tlieir intoxication
increafed, they began to behave in a brutal manner, and
were all flain by the contrivance of Alexander, the fon of
Amyntas. Upon this B baris was fent by Megabyzus,
with a confiderablc body of troop.s, to reycnge their deaths ;
but Alexander contrived to pacity Bubaris, by introducing
to him Gyg^a his filler, who was a very beautiful woman ;
and who fo far captivated the officer, that for the fake of ob-
taining her for a wife, he adjulled all things to the fatis-
faSion of Amyntas. From this time the kings of Macedon
became tributary to the Perfi:n emperors; but tiicy were
always regarded as faithful allies, and treated with kindnefs
and rcfpeft. From this reign the hillory of the kmtrs of
Macedonia begins to be blended with that of the other
powers ef Greece. The Maced mian fovereigns infenfibly
extended their potfenions and authority both to the eall and
weft of their country ; -and the prudence of Perdiccas I.
paved the way for the profperous reign of Philip II., and
for the fucceeding conqueits of his f^n Alexander. (See
the biographical articles of Philip and Alexander ibc
Great.) After a reign of about r2 years, the extenfive
dominions of Alexander were divided among his generals ;
Philip Arida^us was recognifed as his fuccelTor ; but the
ambition of the oiher princes deprived him of a great part
of his father's pod'effions. His fuccelTors, after many de-
llrudtive wars with the princes who reigned in Afia, termi-
nated their career by a war with the Romans, which proved
diiaftrous to them ; fo that Perfeus, after his defeat, was
carried captive to Rome ; and in a {hort time Macedonia
became a part of the Roman empire. See the next article.
Macedonia Saluturis. When Paulus jEmilius had
finifhed the conquell of Macedonia, by his viclory over
Perfeus its lall king, he divided this kingdom into four
diftinft regions, which became fubjeft to different forts of
government, fometimes at the will of the emperor, and at
other times under the authority of the fenate. At length,
after the reign of Conliantine, Macedonia became fubjedt
to the government of the prsetorian prefecl of the Eafteru
Illyria, and was divided into two provinces. The fecond
of thefe provinces was named Salutaris, on account of its
mineral waters ; it extended itfelf to the upper part of
Macedonia, in the vicinity of the mountains which fepa-
rated this province from ISIcefia Superior or Dardania. It
was under the metropohs of Sobi, and comprifed eight
towns. Pliny.

Macedonia, in Modern Geography, a province of Euro-
pean Turkey, bounded on the N. by Servia, on the E. by
Romania, on the S. by Theffaly and the Archipelago, and
on the W. by Albania. Its figure is irregular; its fituation ad-
vantageous ; and the air clear, iharp, and falubrious. The
foil is, in general, fertile ; and the maritime coalts particu-
larly abound with corn, wine, and oil. In the inland parts
are ieveral uninhabited walles. It had formerly mines and
plenty of timber. Its numerons line bays render it conve-
nient for trade. Its capical is Salonichi. See the article
Macedonia.

MACEDONIAN Kingdo.m, in Ancient Hijlory, one of
the four kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander was
divided after his death. This kingdom, under Perfeus,
who was overcome and taken by ./Erailius, and carried ia
triumph to Rome, where he died in prifon, was reduced ta

the

MAC

MAC

the form of a Roman province. The other three, viz. the
Afiatic, Syrian, and Egyptian kingdoms, flouriflied for a
confiderable time under their own kings, but were at laft
compelled to receive the Roman yoke.

Macedonia?; PaiyJcy, in Gardening. See Bubon.

Macedonian Tear. See Year.

MACEDONIANS, in Ecrkfnjical Hiflory, the fol-
lowers of Macedonius, bilhop of Conltantinople, who, through
the influence of the E'.inomians, was depofed by the council
of Conllantinople in 360, and fent into exile. He confi-
dered the Holy Ghoib as a divine energy diffufed -throughout
the univerfe, and not as a perfan diltin.ft from the Father
and the Son. The feft of Macedonians was crudicd before
it had arrived at its full maturity, by the council af-
femblcd by Theodolius in jSi, at Conftantinoplc. See
Semi-auians.

MACEIRA, or MiDJ.VHi!, in G;-;gro.phy, an idand in
the Arabian fea, near the coatt, about JO miles long, and
from three to eight broad. It is barren and uninhabited, and
on the N.W. coaft are dangerous (lioals, extending 90 miles
along the fhorc, and far into the fea, io that the land cannot
be feen till the unflvilful pilot touches the rocks. N. lat. 26'
48'. E. long. 57^ 3 J'.

Maceira, Lhik, an ifland in the Arabian fea, i6 miles
lontj and three broid ; 10 miles W. of Maceira.

M.A.CER, ./E.Mii.iLK. in Biography, a Roman poet, who
flourifhed in the age and reign of Augullus, and is men-
tioned as a writer in natural hiftery. His works are referred
to by Ovid, particularly a poem on the events of the Trojan
war, after the period at which Homer concludes. A poem,
*' De Herbarnm Virtutibus,'' extant under the name of
Jilacer, is now given up as fuppufititious.

Mac-eu, in GiOgraphy, a river of Africa, in the country
of Tripoli, which runs mto the Mediterranean.

Macer, in the Materia Mcdka. The Grecian niacer is
brought from Barbary ; and the part in ufe is the thick yel-
low bark, which has a very allringeut talle, and is faid by
Diofcorides to be good againft fpitting of blood, the dy-
feiitery, and fluxes. See Sim.\rouba.

MACE RATA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavo-
ra, about three miles from Capua. — Aifo, a town in the mar-
quifate of Ancona, on the Chienta, the fee of a birtiop, fuffra-
gan of Fermo; containing feveral churches, 13 convents, an
univerfity, two academies, and about lOjOO inhabitants ; 20
miles S. of Ancona. N. lat. 43 i j'. E. long. 13- 31'. —
Alfo, a town in the duchy of Urbino ; 10 miles N.W. of
Urbino. N. lat. 43 "' 48'. E. long. 12 3^'.

MACERATION, in Pharmacy, the' operation of dif-
folvintr a folid body bj means of w-at^r, or fome other
liquor.

■ In this fenfe, the word amounts to much the fame with
liquefaction, or liquation.

Maceration is alfo ufed for the infufing of a body in any
meniiruous fluid, or in order to a folution of its principles,
whether with or without lire.

In which fenfe maceration amounts to much the fame with
digeftion.

Others reftrain maceration to that particular kind of di-
geftion which is performed in thiek fubllances, as when
having mixed rofes with fat to make unguent, rofatum,
tlie mixture is expofed for fome days to the fun, that the
virtue of the rofes may be the better communicated to the
fat.

MACHA Mona, a kind of African calaballi. " It is the
fruit of a very large tree which grows in Africa, ar.d the
American illands. Wh.n this fruit is ripe, the pulp has a

fourifii tafte, with a little aftringency : it is delicious in hot
countries ; and they prepare a liquor of it, which they ufe
inftead of lemonade, to cool and refrefh themfclves, and give it
to lick perfons under a loofenefs. The pulp, dried, taltes as
well as the fpiced bread of Rheims. The fiavcs make a kind of
thick gruel with this pulp and water ; it is of an abiorbcnt
quality. The African v. omen ufe the pulp inllead of rennet,
for curdling their milk.

Tlie feeds of this fruit are as big as fmall pine-apple
kernels, kidney-lhaped, of a chefnut-colour, and enclofing
an almond far more delicious than our fweet almonds.

MACHACA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the dio-
cefe of La Paz ; 80 miles S.W. of La Paz. S. lat. 17"
40'. W. long. 69 ' 14'.

M.ACH^RIN.V, in Botany, Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 238.
See 8cuo,;;nu.s.

MACHtERION, a word ufed by chirurgical writers, a.s
the name of an inllrument of the nature of the incilion
knife. It is alfo fomecimes ufed to exprel's an incifion ;
and by the arufpices of old it was applied to fome parti-
cular part of the liver of animals, from which they prcfaged
events.

M.ACHjERUS, orM.\CIlERONTE, in Ancient Geography,
a city and fort beyond Jordan, in the tribe of Reuben, N.
and E. of the lake Afphaltites, tsvo or three leagues from
Jordan, and not far from its mouth in the Dead fea. This
calllehad been fortified by the Afmoneans. Gabinius demo-
lidied it, and Arillobulus fortified it anew ; and Herod the
Great made great additions to its llrength. At or near it
was a fpring of very falutary hot waters. John the Baptill
was put in prifon, and beheaded at Machasrus, by the order
of licroJ Antipas. Jofephus Ant.

MACHALA, in Geography, ■d. lawn ol South America,
in the audience of Quito, and iurifdidlion of Guayaquil ;
annexed to the lieutenancy of Puna. It lies on the coalt of
Tunibez, together with that of Naranjol, the landing-place
of the river of the fame name, called alfo the Suya, near
which is a road leading to the jurifdictions of Cuenca and
Alaufi. The jurifdittions of Machala and Manaranjol pro-
duce great quantities of cacao, and that of the former is ef-
teemed the bell in Guayaquil. In its neighbourhood, as well
as in the ifland of Puna, are great numbers of mangrove-
trees ; in the wood of which the Indians pay their annual
tribute. This wood is ufed in (hips, &c. and is very durable,
as it is fubjeft neither to fplit nor i-ot ; j'j miles N.N.W. of
Loxa. S.lat. 3'i^'. W. long. 79.

MACHAON, in Biography, an ilhiflrious hero and phy-
fician, who, with his brother Podahrius, accompanied the
Grecian army in the expedition againfl Troy, and performed
great fervices among the troops. Thefe two perfons were
deemed the fons of Efculapius ; and Machaon appears to
have been the e'der brother, according to the poet Quintus
Calaber, who introduces Podalirius as faying, on the occa-
fioii of his death, that " his dear brother had brought him
up like a fon, after their father was taken into heaven, and
had taught him to cure difeafes." (Lib. vii. v. 60.) Homer,
indacd, mentions Podalirius firll, when he names both toge-
ther ; but that feems to have arifen only from the conveni-
ence of the verfe.' IIoJK^!l'pws ^Js May-iVv. For Machaon
appears to have been moif highly efteemed by the great offi-
cers of the army. It was he who admi[ii!lered to Menelaus,
when wounded by Tmdarus, firil wiping tlie blood from the
wound, and then applying emolhent remedies, after the
manner of his father. It was Machaon, alio, who cured the
lamcnefs of Philottetes, occafioned by dropping an arrow,
dipped in chcgall of the Leniean Hydra, bequeathed him by-
Hercules,

MAC

M A C

Hercules, on lus foot. " Tarda Philoftetoe fanavit crura
Machaon.'' Prop. lib. ii.

It appears, too, from the \vridn<TS of the poets, that
Machaon was a brave and aftive foldicr ; for he is men-
tioned as engaged in fome of the mod: dangerous enterprifes,
with the other celebrated leaders. Homer tells of a wound
which he received in the flioulder, in one of the failies of the
Trojans : and Virgil and Hyginus inform us, that he was
one of the brave warriors who entered the wooden horfc,
from which, according to the former, he was the firll to de-
fcend. (jlineid. lib. ii. v. 263. Hygin. Fabul. lib. i. cap. 81.
&c.) He is faidto have loll his life in lingle combat with
Nereus, or, aV others itate, with Eurypilus, the fon of Tc-
lephus, during the fiege of Troy ; whicli, however, is in-
conliitent with the afTertion juft mentioned, Cnce the fiege was
terminated by the introdu<ftion of the troops in the wooden
horfe. (See Paufanias in Laconic. 2. Calaber, Ub. vi. 5c
vii.) Paufanias adds, that the remains of Machaon were
prelerved by Neftor, and conveyed to MefTenia, where they
were buried.

Macliaon married Anticlea, daughter of Diodes, king of
Meffenia, by whom he had two fon 5, Nichoniachus and Gor-
gafus, who reilded at Pherae, and poffefred the territory of
their grandfather, until the Heraclidce, on their return
from Troy, made themfelves mailers of MefTenia, and tlie
reft of the Peloponnefus. Machaon is fuppofed to have been
a king, either in his own right, or that of his wife, fince
Homer, in two or three places, calls him " Pa!lor of the
people," (^rAjx.ivx. Xc.ij), a title which he gives to Agamemnon
a']d the other kings. Paufanias mentions three other fons
ot Machaon, namely, Sphyrus, Alexanor, and Polemocrate?,
who are fuppofed to have Ijeen the fruit of another marriage.
M. Goulin, in his literary and critical memoirs, ftates his
opinion, that the birth of Machaon may be fixed about the
year of the world 3765. See Le Clerc. Hift. de la Me-
decine. Schultzius Hill. Medicinre.

MACHAU, GciLLAUME, a French poet and<Tnufician,
born about 1282. He was at firll in the fervice of the con-
fort of Philippe-le-Bel, and, in 1307, was appointed valet-
de-chambre to the king, and continued to occupy this office
to the end of that prince's reign, who died in 13 14.

As the works of this author are the mod ancient lyric com-
pofitions that have been preferved in France, with the ori-
ginal muficy great pains have,bepn taken in commenting them,
and rendering both words and mulic intelligible.

The abbe Leboeuf, in the year 1 746, gave a Very ample
and fatisfaclory account to the Academy of Infcriptions
at Paris ot two volumes of French and Latin poems,
preferved in the hbrary of the Carm.elites of that.city, " with
a defcription of the kind of mulic to which iomc of thefe
poems were fet."

In 1747, the count dc Caylus, leaving found in the king of
France's library, N'7609 — 2, a duplicate of thefe poems,
gave likewife an account of them to the fame Academy, in
two memoirs. The author, Guillaume dfe Machau, is
ftyled by the count, J:ot't end mufician; and both thefe excel-
lent critics agree, that he flourilhed about the middle of the
fourteenth century, and died in 1:570. Among the poems,
which are written upon various fubjefls, there is an infinite
number of lai?, virelais, ballads, and rondeaux, chiefly in
old French, with a few in Latin, and fet to mufic : fome for
a fingle voice, and others in four parts, tripliun, tenor, con-
tratenor, and a fourth part, without a name. In thefe full
pieces, as the words are placed only under the tenor part, it
is natural to conclude that this was the principal melody. In
the mufic, which is written with great care and neatnefs,
notes in a lozenge form, with tails to them, frequently oc-
cur ; thefe, whether the heads were full or open, were at

firft called minims ; but when a dill quicker note was thought
necelfary, the white or open notes only had that title, and
the black were by the French called noir, and by Englifli
crotchets : a name give by the French with more propriety,
from the hook or curvature of the tail, to the llill more ra-
pid note, which we call a quaver.

The Latin poems are chiefly motets, and for a fingle
voice ; fome of which are written in black and red notes,
with this inilruftisn to the fingers : " nigras funt perfeftx,
& rubra: impcrfcftx." An admonition worth remembering
by thofe who wifli to decipher mufic of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, in which red notes frequently occur. It
was an eafy expedient of diminution, till the invention of
printing, when the ufe of ink of different colours, on the
fame page, occafioned the expence and trouble of double
printing. The abbe Leboeuf obferve?, that the dilTedlion and
accelerated motion of notes, during thefe ages, gave great
offence and fcandal to pious and' fober Cliriftians. In a
kyrie eleifon to the Gregorian chant, wriich is called ten-ir,
the three parts that are added to it are called triplum, mote-
tus, and contratenor. In the fecond volume of thefe poems the
common chants of the whole mafs, and even the credo, are
written in four parts. This mafs is fuppofed to have been
fung at the coronation of Charles V. king of France,

I3''4-

There are in the French MS. many ballads and rondeaux
in three parts, tenor, triplum, and contratenor. The four-
teenth century feems the era when mufic in parts, moving
in different melodies, came firll into general favour ; for of
the preceding age no mufic can be found of more th^n two
parts in llrict cinmterpoint of note againfl note.

Machau calls his coUeftion of fongs fet to mufic, Remedes
de fortune, regarding mufic as a fpecific, or at leaft an opiate,
againll: the ills of life. In the illuminations to tliefe lyric
compofitions an affembly of minllrels is reprefented with
thirty or forty mufical inflruments, of which he gives the
names. His poem called " Le Dit de la Harpe," is a mo-
ral and allegorical piece in the ftyle of the famous " Romaiv
de la Rofe," by Guillaume de Loris, and Jean de Meun.

The abbe Rive has likewife given an hillorical and criti-
cal account of another MS. copy of thofe poems in the
coUeClion of the duke de le Valhere ; but none of thefe
gentlemen have produced fpecimens of Machau's mufical
compofitions ; indeed the count de Caylus frankly confelTes,
that though he has Rudied this n:ufic with the utmofl atten-
tion, and confulted tiie moll learned muficians, he has been
utteri) unable to latisfy his curiofity concerning their intrinfic
worth.

Maciiau, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Konigingratz ; eight miles S.W. of Branaw.

MACHAVANA, a river of Africa, which runs into
the Indian k?., S. lat. 26 4J'.

MACHAULT, James de, in Biography, a French
Jefuit, was a native of Paris, and born in 1599. He en-
tered on liis noviciate in his eighteenth year, and after Tiavin^
finidied the ufual courfe of academic lludies, he was fe-
lefted to teach, firll polite literature, then philofophy, and
for feveral years divinity, in different feminaries belonging to
the order. He was elcdtcd fucceffively rcclor of the colleges
at Alenjon, Orleans, and Caen, and died in his native city
in 1680. He was author of many con fidcrable works, as
" Tiie Account of the MifTions in Paraguay and ot'-.er Parts
of South America," 8vo. 1636 ; " A Relation of the State
of Affairs in Japan," 1646 ; " Account of the Provinces of
Goa," &c. ; " A Relation of the Travels of twenty-five
Members of the .Society on the Indian Miflion," 1659 j
•' Account cf tbcMifiioiiof the Society in Perfia," &c.

MAC

Macmault, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the ArdouK-s, und chief place of a canton, in
the diftriti of Vouzicrs ; nine miles S.W. of Vou/.iers.
The place cont.',!"s 69.5, and the canton 4000 inhabitants,
on a territory ol 2425 kiliomet.rcs, in 14 commimes.

MACHECOl,'^, a town of Trance, in the department
of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftria of Nantes , :8 miles S.W. of Nantes. The place
contains 1899, and th- canton 5152 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of I j5 kiliomelres, in lix communes. N. lat. 47 '.
W'long. i°44'.

MACHERA Lapis, in Natural H'ljloty, the name of a
flone of a ferruginous colour, frequent on mount Berccyn-
thus in Phrygia. Plutarch, and many other grave writers,
relate, that if any perfon found this Itone, and took it up at
the time of the celebration of Cybele, he inftantly wasfeized
with niadnefs.

MACHERIA, in Geography, atownof Hindooflan, in
Palnaud ; fix mile S.W. of Timerycotta. N. lat. 27^ 35'.
E. long. 77° 15'.

MACHERN, a town of Pruffia, in Natangcn ; 2; miles
S. of Rallenburg

MACHERRY, atownof Hindooftan, in the country
of Mewat ; 70 miles S.S.W. of Delhi.

MACHES IN, or Machisin, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Diarbekir ; 105 miles S.E. of Raca.

MACHIA, a town of Naples, in the country of Mo-
life; 12 miles S W. of Molife. — Alfo, a town of Naples,
ia the Capitanata ; 10 miles N.N.W. of Volturara — Alfo,
a towii of Naplef, in Calabria Citra ; five nnles N. of Bi-
Ignano.- Alfo, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra, on
the coaft ; 15 miles S. of Capaccio.

MACHIAN, one of the Molucca idands, near the W.
coaft of Gilolo ; about 18 miles in circumference, and po-
pulous. The Datch have three forts garrifoned with
foldiers. lis principal articles of commerce are cloves and
fago : a 'ittle N. of the line. E. long. 127 ' 21'.

MACllLANA, an ifland at the mouth of the river of
the Amazons, about 15 miles long and three broad; ahttle
S. of the line. W.long. 57 2'.

MACHIAS, a port of entry, pod-town, and feat of
juftice m Wadiington county, and ftate of Maine, Ame-
rica, fitiiated on a bay of the fame name ; 20 mi es S.W. of
Paflamaquoddy, in N. lat. 47" 37'. This town carries on a
confiderable trade to Boflon and the Weft Indies, in fifli,
lumber, &c. It was permanently fettled in 1 763, and in-
corporated in 1784. The chief fettlements are at the E. and
W. Falls, and at Middle river. At, W. Falls, there is a
f;aol, and the eoui'y courts are held there. The entrance
of Mdchias river is in N. lat. 44 ' 3^'. W. long 66 56'.
The town is divded into four dillrirts for the fupport of
fchools, and into ^ ivo for the convenience of public worlhip.
In 1792 Vv'afhington academy was eftabli(hed here, which has
for its fupport a townfhip of land. In 1800 the town con-
tained i< 14 inhabitants. The exports confill principally
of lumber, vh- boards, (hingles, clap-boards, laths, and
various kinds of liewed timber. The cod-filliery, which
might be profecuted to advantage, has been neglected. The
faw-mills are 1 7 in number, and much employed. The total
amount of exports annually exceeds 15,000 dollars. From
Machias bay to the mouth of St. Croix tliere are many fine
iflands. Morfe.

MACHIAVELISM, in Literary H'tflory, is a. fpecies of
deti liable poliiics, which may be defined m few words, the
an of reicjning tyrannically, the principles of which are in-
culcated in the works of Machiavel, a native of Florence,
iindpaiticularly in his treatife, entitled " Tiie Prince." M. dc
6

MAC

Wicquefort obferves. concerningthechara£lerof this writer*
Machiavel fays almoll every where what princes do, and not
what they ought to do. To the fame purpofe the chancellor
Bacon remarks : " Eft quod gratias agamus Macchiavello
et hujus modi fcriptoribus qui aperte & indidimulanter profe-
runt quid homines facere foleant non quid debeant." Machi-
avel was feci etary, and afterwards hilloriograplier to the re-
public at Florence. He was put to the rack upon the fuf-
picion of being concerned in a confederacy againft the houfe
of Medicis ; but he endured the torments of it, without
making any confelfion. Fle was as much an enemy to reli-
gion as to found po'itics ; and is faid to have died in tlie year
I J30, uttering profane jefts and blafphemies. Bayle. Sec
Macchiavelli.

MACHIAWARA, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Sirhind ; 28 miles N. of Sirhind.

MACHICOLATION, from mccbe, a match or wick
to preferve fire, and couhr, to flow, in Fortification, perpcn-
dicular apertures in the upper part of the gate of an ancient
caftle, for the purpofe of pouring down various burning fub-
ilances on the afiailants, when they were battering them, or
otherwife trying to force them open. In various ancient
charters, permiffion was granted to the owners of calUes,
emhattelandi, k/rnellandi, and machicolandi.

MACHICORA, in Geography, a river of Madagafcar,
which gives name to a province, and runs into the fea on the
S. coalt. S. lat. 25'' 3'. E. long. 41' 12'.

MACHIGASTA, a town of South America, in the
province of Tucuman ; 50 miles W.S.W. of St. Fer-
nand.

MACHINE, in a general fcnfe, fignifies any thing that
is ufed to augment or to regulate moving force3"or powers ;
or, it is any inftrument employed to pnjduce motion, fo as
to fave either time or force. The word is derivcd^from
uK^ayr, machine. Invention, art; and is therefore properly
aoplicd to any agent in which thefe are combined, whatever
may be the ftrength or folidity of the materials of which it is
compofed. The term machine, however, is by common
ufage generally rellriflcd to a certain clafs of agents, whicli
feem to hold a middle place between the moll fimple organn,
commonly called tools or inftruments, and the more compli-
cated and powerful, termed engines. This diftinftion, however,
does not enter into the pretent article ; we fhall coufider
machines under two he&ds,Jii>!p/e and conipounJ. To the firft
clafs belong the k-ver, the Inclined plane, the fcreiv, the ivejge,
the ivheel and axle, and the pulley, commonly called the fix
mechanical powers ; though fome authors will only allow the
lever, and the inclined plane, to be fimple machines, the
ethers being compounded of thofe two.

Compound machines are all fuch as confifl of a combina-
tion of the feveral fimple machines or mechanical powers
above-mentioned, the number of which in the prefent ad-
vanced Hate of the fciences is almoft infinite. Thefe are
again clafled ujider difFer;.'nt denominations, according to the
agents bv which they are put in motion, the purpoles they
are intended to effetl, or the art in which they are employed,
as hydraulic, pneumatic, inilitai'y, architeQural, &c. machines.
The ancients excelled in the two latter fpecies of engines,
but in thofe which relate to civil arts and inanufaftory, the
moderns have doubtlefs far exceeded their mailers. With
regard to military machines, the invention of gunpowder has
completelv changed their nature, and all thofe of the an-
cients are become ufelefs and forgotten ; thefe were princi-
pally of three dillinct fpecies, -viz. thofe employed for
tlirowing deltruflive u-eapons ; as the fiorplon, which was
for cafting arrows ; the catapulla for (lones and javehns ; the
pyrolgle for flaming darts ; the ballijla for bullets, &c. &c.

Others

MACHINE.

Cthcrs were foi- razing the walls of fortified places, of which
the principal was the aries, or batttr'mg ram ; and thofe of tiic
llurd kind were for covering the approaches of the bcfiegers,
as tile wooden tower,&c. ; for a defcription of which fee the
rcfpective articles. The warlike machines employed by
Archimedes in the defence of Syracnfc have been much ap-
plauded by the ancients, and though many of the circum-
ilances related on this head are doubtlefs falfe or exaggerated,
yet it is fuificient to know the genius of their author to be
convinced that they were powerful and effedlive, probably
much exceeding any of thofe of which the conitrudion has
been afcertained.

Of the architectural machines of the ancients we are totally
ur.acquainted, and one is at a lofs to conceive what means
they employed for trarifporting and railing thofe enormous
Itones which are found in the walls of I'ome ancient buildings,
though It is not unlikely that they owed as much to their
patient perleverance and manual labour, as to the power of
their machines. The Spaniards, when tliey made the con-
quell of Peru, were llruck with allonifhment to hnd the na-
tives, whom they confidered as favages and barbarians, raifing
enormous mafles of Hone of ten feet fquare for building walls
and other purpofes, without the airiilauce of any mftruments
than thofe which nature had fupplied them with : unac-
quainted with any other fcalTolding but that of banks of earth
raifed againll their buildings, they contrived by ilrength of
hand to raife thefe mally U)ads up the inclined planes thus
formed ; and many of the Druidical remains in this country
were probably erected in a fimilar manner. The ancient Greek
and Roman architedts, however, were no doubt acquainted
with, and employed very powerful machines in the conftruc-
tion of their noble edifices, with the nature of which we
have not been informed ; even Vitruvius, who writes cx-
prefsly on the fubjeA, has left us nothing that can throw
any light on the conllru£tion of thefe engines, yet that they
were in pclTeiuon ot immer.fe and wonderful machinery,
appears in the moll convincing manner to any peVfon who
relietts on the magnificent llruttures which they ereiltd,
and which excite to this day the wonder and admiration
of the world, not only on account of their grandeur and
incomparable elei^ance, but alfo on account of the mechani-
cal knowledge that feems indifpenfably iiecefTary for their
eredlion.

The hydraulic machines of the ancients were indeed much
inferior to thofe of modern invention. 'T\k fcreiu of Archi-
medes, and the pumps of Ctefibius, were the principal en-
gines of this delcripuon ; for which fee the refpeCtive articles.
As to the modern machines tliey are too numerous to admit
even of a (light enumeration in this place ; moll of them, how-
ever, of any importance, will be found under the feveral heads
in this work. See Ckanes, Wind and Water Mills,
iJTEAM En^Jne, &c. &c.

Montucla, at the conclufion of the third volume of his
" Hiltoire des Mathematiques," has given a catalogue of
feveral intereltiiig works, which have been compiled in order
to defcribe and exhibit the moll important and curious ma-
chines, both ancient and modern, of which we have feleftcd
a few for the information of thofe who may not pofTefs the
above-mentioned work.

I. The firft and niofl interefting modern work of this
defcription is entitled " Le diverfe et artificiofe machine del
<;apitano Agollino Ramelli dal ponte dellaTrelia, 6i:c. &c.
■compolte in lingua Italiana et Francefe ; a Parigi 1^88,"
.in folio, (in Germany,) in 1620. This is a very tcarcc
.work, leldom to be met with but in choice libraries.

2. " Machinas navx Faulli Vcrantii cum declarationc, La-
WoL. XXL

tina, Italica, Hifpanica, Gallica, et Germanica," Venetii*
1591, 162J, in folio, with figures.

3. " Recueil de plufieurs Machines militaires, &c. pour
la Guerre et Recreations," par Frangois Thypourelet Jeaa
Appus, 1620, 4to.

4. " Heinrich Zeizings, Theatrum machirarum," Leipfic
1621.

5. "A Century of Inventions, &c." by Edward So-
merfet, marquis of Worcefler, London 166^?, in i2mo.

6. '' Les dix Livres d'Architefture' de Vitruve, &c."
tranflated into French by Claude Perrault, 167J, fo'io.

7. " Vtterum mathematicorum, Athenaci, Apollodori,
&c." 1G93, folio. This learned ar.d curious edition of the
ancient Greek machinicians was begun by Tlievenol, and
finilhed by La Hire ; but it relates principally to military
engines.

8. " Theatrum machinarum univerfale, &c." by Jacob
Leupold, Leipfic, feven volumes folio, 1724, 1727, 1774.
This is thegreatell and moll complete work of the kind that
ever was pubhfhed. The fird volume is little more thaa
an introduftion to the work ; the fecond and third volumes
containdefcriptions of hydraulic machines ; the next two vo-
lumes relate to machines for railing weights, the theory of
levelling, and other fubjefts ; and the fixth treats principally
on machines conneiiled with the conftruction of bridges ; the
feventh volume is entitled "Theatre arithmetico geome-
trique," where the author treats of all inllruments emoloved
in thefe two fcienccs. This work would have been much
more conliderable, if its author had lived to complete the
immenfe tallc he had undertaken.

9. "A Ihort Account of the Methods made ufe of in laying
of the Foundation of the Piers of Weilminfter Bridge," by
Charles Labelye, 1 739.

10. "TheAdvancementof Arts, Manufaftures, and Com-
merce; or, A Defcription of ufeful Machines and Models," by
A. M. Bailly, London 1778, 1779, folio.

Befides the above-meationed works, many ufeful parti-
culars may be gathered from Strada, BelTon, Beroaldus,
Bockles, Beyer, Lempergli, Van Zyl, Behdor's Archi-
tefture hydraulique, Delagulieri's Courfe of experimental
Philofophy, Emcrfon's Mechanics. The Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris have alfo given a collection of machines and
inventions approved of by them. This work, publiihed by
M. Gallon, confills of fix volumes in quarto, containing en-
graved reprefentations of the machines, with their defcrip.
tions annexed.

We might has-e carried the enumeration of works of this
kind to a much greater length, but the above are the mod
interefting, and the reader who wifhes for farther information
on this fubjecl may confult the hiilory of Montucla above-
mentioned. But we ought not to omit to mention in this
place, the fecond volume of the " Architefture Hydrau-
lique" of Prony, and the fecond volume of Gregory's Me-
chanics ; the firil of thefe relates principally to lieam engines,
but the latter contains a defcription of the moil ufeful mo-
dern machines for various purpofes.

In the conllruclion of machinery, as alfo in eftimating its
effeft.s, feveral important conlideralions naturally arife in the
mindofaflcilfulartifl.fuch asthe efFeClof FiucriON.RioiDlTr
ot /•o/>«, the Strength and SruE-s.sofmaterials; theproper mea-
fure, comparifon, and equilibrium of Forces, the law.s of Rota-
tory and AccELEUATED motion, &c. Sec. Thefe are all treated
of under tiie refpeCtive articles in the Cyc!op3:d>a, and it
therefore only remains for us in this place to offer a few re-
marks on the nature of machines in general, and the belt
means of determining their maximum cfrects.

Machines are introduced for three purpofes, t/s. to ac-
j' B commodate

I\I A C H I N E.

commodate tlio direction of the moving force to that of the
re liihince to be overcome : to incrcafc the cfled of a given
fmite power, fo as to overcome a refiilance which is greater,
and would olherwifc ever remain unchanged : and lallly, to
regulate and modify a variable force, fo as to produce a con-
ftant and uniform elTec^. Thefe are the principal endsto te
accomplifhed by machines, and tha experienced engineer
will always endeavour to execute them in the fimplell man-
ner poffible; for complicated machinery is not only mod
liable to inaccurate adjudment, and frequent difanangement,
but is likewife more cumberfome and cxpeufivc, at tlie fame
time that the retardation arifmg from fridion, adhefion, and
inertia, is more confiderable, and conftquently a greater
power becomes neceil'ary," in order to produce the fame
effeft. Another important point to be attended to, is the
molt advantageous ajiplication of the firll mover, whether
this agent be air, water, Ream, or animal ftrength. To
enter upon this qiiellion in all its generality, would far ex-
ceed our limits; bifides, with regard to the three former, they
\vill be better invelligated under the articles Wind and Water
Mills, ^t-exm Engine, &c.; what few remarks, therefore,
we have to make on this head, will be confined to the appli-
cation of animal exeriion to the motion of machines, and for
the other agents we mult refer the reader to the articles
above-mentioned.

We have aftriking inllancc of the injudicious application
of the exertion of men, in the old crane worked by means ot
an internal walking wheel, which, from its nature, mult be
very heavy, while the action of the man is exerted at a very
trifling diftar.ce from the axle, and confequently at a great
mechanical difadvantage ; whereas in Hardie's crane, the
ir.an acting externally at the greatefl; diltance from the ful-
crum, produces a much greater effedl with lefs expence of
labour ; the other advantages which this machine poffefTes
over the one above-mentioned, not arifmg lolely from this
caufe, are not conneAed with our preient enquiry.

The above remark applies principally to the mechanical
advantage to be obtnined in the application of a firil mover ;
but there is alfo another confideration of a phyfical nature,
which is equally important, and ought therefore to be par-
ticularly attended to. No animal can exert more than a de-
terminate and limited force; and, confequently, if it re-
quires all this force merely to produce an equilibrium, no
effeft will refult from the aftion : and, on the other hand,
if all the ftrength of a man or horfe is employed in giving
motion to himfelf, or to external objcfts before the applica-
tion reaches the refiilance, there is Hill the fame unproduc-
tive eP.ed. A man, for exam;;lc, pnfliing at a capltan bar,
muft fird of all walk as faft as the bar moves round, which
evidently requires an expenditure of his mufcular power ;
but this alone will not render his exertion effective : tie muil
alfo prefs the bar forward, with as much force as he has re-
maining above that which he expended in walking at that
ra'e. The proportion of thefe two expenditures may be
very different under diflerent circumllances ; and on the
judicious feleftion of fuch circumftanees as make the firll of
thefe aS fmall as poffible, lies much of the IkiU of the en-
gineer.. In the common operation of thrafhing corn, much
more than half the man's power is expended in giving the
necefTary motion to his own body ; and only the rfcmaindcr
is employed in urging forward the fwiple with a momentum
fufficient for fhakmg out the ripe grains from the ilalk. ' Dr.
Robifon mentions an experiment, made in order to afccrtam
the quantity of power thus loll. In order to which, the
fwiple was taken off the flail, and the fame weight of lead
put on the end of the ftaff ; then by caufing the labourer to
perform tlie ufual motions of thrafhing, with all the rapidity

that he could continue during the ordinary hours of work ;
it was found that the number of iiK^tions thus made was
to thofe made in the actual operation of thrafhing, in about
the ratio of j toa : whence we may inter, tlmt at leall half
the tliraflier's power is expended in merely moving his own
body. We may alfo bring another very fimplo cafe, by way
of further illullration. 8uppofe a quantity of earth is to be
removed from one place to another by barrows. It is ob-
vious tliat the loads may be fo great, that a man mull exert
his whole ftrength barely to lift up the fliafts, and confe-
quently will have none left to pufh the barrow forward : if
part of the load be taken off, he can go forward, and fu
much the failer as tlie quantity of the load is reduced ; but
if even the whole be taken away, he can -dill only move at a
certain rate, and, confequently, in neither of the extreme
cafes isfany effeit produced. It becomes then an intereding
quedion to determine what load he ought to carry, in order
to produce the greated pofiible efTedt in a given time. We
fliall not, in this place, enter any, farther upon this fubjeft,
truding that what has been already advanced will be lufTi-
cient to point out the ncceffity of attending to fuch circum-
llances ; and in the fubfequent part of the preient article,
we will endeavour to explain in what manner the proper ad-
judment of power and effett may be computed.

The nature of the lirfl movement being determined, the
next object is to communicate it_ to the dtllined point, where
the refinance is to be overcome ; and much of an artid's ikill
depends upon performing this in the fimplefl and mod cf-
fedual manner pofnble. In ord.er to this, it frequently be-
comes necefTary to convert one fpecies of motion into an-
other fpecies : as, for exatnp'e, a rotatory into a recipro-
cating motion, or a reciprocating into a rotatory motion,
Sec. &c. The methods of forming this communication are
extremely numerous, and it will not therefore be expeded
that we fhould attempt an enumeration of them. In fome
indauces, a fimple Jever or tinbent cord will anfwer better
than any combination ; in others, it is highly advantageous
to ufe a combination of levers ading upon each tilher by
means of fo many fulcra, and by which the diredion of the
motion may be changed at pleafure ; in others, as when mo-
tion is communicated to a feries of wheels and axles, in iuc-
cefiion, it may be cffeded by a rope running in grooves
round one wheel and the fucceeding axle, or by means of
tooth and pinion work, by a barrel and endlefs fcrew, and
various other contrivances which will naturally fugged them-
felves, according to the circumitances under which they
arife.

This part of the condrudion being fettled, other im-
portant circumdances require particular attention, iiix,. to
adjud the feveral parts of the machine fo, that its motion
may be eafy, free, and uniform. One of the mod obvious
methods of rendering a motion uniform is by means of a
J pendulum zn& fcapcment (fee thefe two articles) ; and where
thefe cannot conveniently apply, a fly is fon.etimes em-
ployed ; for a particu'ar defcription of which, fee Fly.
The uniformity of a machine is not, however, wholly de-
pendent upon the application of fuch regulators : there are
other points conneited with this fubjed, that mull not be
overlooked, and on which we intend to offer a few remarks ;
■availing ourfelves, for this purpofe, of the obfervations of
Dr. Robifon. When heavy dampers are to be ratfcd, in
order to drop on the matters to be pounded, the wipers by
which they are lifted fhouid be made of fuch a form, that
the damper may be raifed by a uniform preffure, or with a
motion almoft perfedly uniform : if this is not attended to,
and the wiper is merely a pin dieking out from the axi?, the
damper is forced into adion at once, which occafions violcHt

jolts

M A C H I N E.

jolts to the machine, and great flrains on its moving parts,
and their points of fupport ; whereas, when they are gra-
dually lifted, the inequality of the motion is never felt at
tiiat point of the machine where the power is applied. We
have fcen, fays the profeffor, pi (Ions moved by means of a
double rack on the' pifton rod, where a half wheel takes
hold of one rack, and raifes it to the required height ; and
the moment the half wheel has quitted that fide of the rack,
it lays hold of the other fide, and forces the pifton down
again. This was cotilidcred as an improvement of the com-
mon method of the crank, by correctin^^ the uiieqiiable mo-
lion of the pifton. But in fail it is far inferior to the latter,
as it occafions fuch abrupt chani^es of motion, that the ma-
chine is ftiaken and torn to pieces with the jolts it occafions ;
a circumftance which will always be avoided as much as
pofTible by a judicious engineer.

When feveral ftampers, pifton?, or other reciprocal
movers, are to be raifed and deprefted, their times of ac-
tion ought to be diftributed in a uniform manner, fo that
the machine may sal ways be equally loaded with work.
When this is done, and the obfervations in the preceding
paragraph attended to, the machine may be made to move
almoft as fmoothly as if there were no reciprocations on it.
Nothing {hews the ingenuity of the conftruftor more than
the artful, yet fimple, contrivances for obviating thofe dif-
ficulties-that unavoidably arile from the very nature of the
work that muft be performed by the machine, and of the
power employed. We mentioned, above, the converfion of
the continued rotation of an axis into the reciprocating mo-
tion cf a pillon, and the improvement that was thought ..to
have been made in the common and obvious contrivance of
the crank, but which, as was obferved, occafioned fuch
jolts as would in a fhorl time have dellroyed the machine.
In order to avoid this, in a large forge where a great fledge
hammer of feven hundred weight was to be railed, the en-
gineer formed the wipers into fpirals, which communicated
motion to the hammer almoft; without any jolt whatever :
and under fome circumftances, this contrivance would have
been highly beneficial ; but in the machine to which we al-
lude, it would not apply, as it did not communicate a fuf-
ficient momentum to the hammer in its defcent : yet it is
deferving of notice, as it might in fome cafes become ex-
tremely advantageous.

In employing a power, which of neceffitv reciprocates, to
drive machinery, in which a rotatory motion is required, as
in applying the ftcam-engine to a cotton or grirt-mill, C9n-
fiderable difficulties alfo arife, which muft be attended to
with particular care. The neceftlty'of reciprocation on the
firft mover wattes much power, becaufe the iullruincnt that
communicates fuch immenfe force muft be extremely ftrong,
and well fupported. The impelling power is wafted in im-
parting, and afterwards deftroying, a great quantity of
motion in the working beam. The fkilfiil engineer will at-
tend to this, and do his utmoft to procure the neceftary
ftrength of the firft mover, without miking it a vail load of
inert matter : he will alfo ren:iark that all the ftrains on it,
and on its fupports, are changing their direction on every
llroke ; which therefore requires particular attention in the
manner of fupporting it. It we obfcrve ftcam-engines that
have been long erected, we ftiall find that they have uni-
formly fhaken the building to pieces, which is principally
to be attributed to the inattention of the engineer to this cir-
cumftance ; and experience has now taught us, that no
building can long vvithftand the defukory and oppofite jolts
of Inch immenfe maifes ; and, cenfequently, that the great
movements ought to be lupported by a frame-work, inde-
pendent of the building which coniains it. Another cir-

cumftance, on which the uniformity of the motion dep'cndf,
is the form given to the teeth of the wheel : this is of great
importance, and has excited great attention amongft both
theoretical and praftical machinicians. Two forms have
been propofed : of thefe the firft was given by La Hire,
who affirmed that the preffiire would be uniform, if the
teeth were formed into epicycloids ; and M. Camus, in his
" Cours de Mathematique," has' adopted and purfucd La
Hire's principle, and applied it to the various cafes that are
likely to arife in practice. This conftrudlion, however,^ is
liable to a limitation ; on which account, a fecond method
has been propofed, which fecures the perfect uniformity of
motion, without any fuch limitation. This confifts of mak-
ing both teeth portions of involutes of circles; but as wc
Ihall confider this fubjeft under the articles Tooth and
Pinion Work, it will be ufelefs to infift any farther upon it
in this place ; and we will therefore proceed to the theo-
retical inveftigation of the power of machines, and their
maxiiiium cffefts ; limiting our obfervation to thofe prin-
cipally whofe motion is uniform, thefe forming by far the
moft; numerous clafs, and the knowledge of which is, there-
fore, of the greatell importance.

Ofthi mcix-imiim EJecls of Machines When forces afting

in contrary directions, or in any fuch diredlio;is as produce
contrary effefts, there is with refpeft to every fimple ma-
chine, and confequently with refpeiit to every compound
one, a certain relation between the powers and the diftances
at which tliey aft, which, if fubfifting in any fuch machine
when at reft, will prcferve it in that ftate of ftatical equi-
hbriunv; becaufe the efforts of thefe powers, when thus
related with regard to magnitude and diftance, being equal
and oppofite, deftroy each other, and have no tendency to
change the ftate of the fyftem to which they are applied.
So alfo, if the fame machine have been put into a ftate of
uniform motion, whether reililinear or rotatory, by the
action of any power diftinft fi-om thofe we are now confi-
dering, and thefe two powers be made to act upon the ma-
chine in fuch motion, in a fimilar manner to that in which
they aCt upon it when at reft, their fimultancous aftion
will preferve it in that ftate of uniform motion, or dynamical
equilibrium, and this for the fame reafon as before ; becaufe
thfir contrary effefts deftroy each other, and have, there- "
fore, no tendency to change the ftate of the machine. But
if at the time a machi.e is in a ftate of balanced reft, anvv
one of the oppofite forces be increafed, while it continues
to aft at the lame diftance, this excefs of force will difturb
the ftatical equilibrium, and produce motion in the machine;
and if the fume excefs of force continues to act in the fame
manner, it will, like every conftant force, produce an ac-
celerated motion ; or if it fhould undergo particular modi-
fications, whea the machine is in ditTerent pofitions, it may
occafion fuch variations as will render it alternately acce-
lerated and retarded. Or, the different fpecies of reiiftancc
to which a moving machine is fubjefted, as the rigidity of
cords, friction, refiftance of the an-, &c. may fo modify it,
as to change a regular or irregular variable motion into
one which is uniform. Hence, then, the motion of machines
m^y be confidered as of three kinds, as that which is gra-
dually accelerated, which obtains commonly in the firll in-
ftants of the communication. i. That which is entirely
uniform. 3. That which is alternately accelerated and re-
tarded. Pendulum clocks and machines that are moved bv a
balance are related to the third clafs. Moft other machines
are of the iecond clafs, at leaft a fhort time after their mo-
tion is commenced.

Nov.-, although trie motion of a machine be alternately

accelerated and retarded, it may, notwithllanding, be mea-

j B 2 furej

MACHINE.

furcd by an uniform motion, in confcqiicnce of the period-
ical and regular repetition which may exill in the accele-
ration and retardation. Thus, the motion of a fecond pen-
dulum, confidered in relation to a fingle ofcillation, is ac-
celerated during the firll half fecond, and retarded during
the fecond ; but the fame motion taken for many ofcilla-
tions may be confidered as uniform. Suppofc, for example,
that the extent of each ofcillation is five inches, and that
the pendulum has made ten ofciUalions ; its total cfl'eft will
be to have run over 50 inclies in 10 feconds, and as the
fpace defcribed in ejch fecond is the fame, we may compare
the effects to a moveable, which moves for 1 o feconds at
the rate of five inches per fecond. We fee, therefore, that
the theory of machines, whofe motions are uniform, con-
duces naturally to the eftimation of the efFedts of ihofe
whofe motion is alternately accelerated and retarded, fo
that what follows wi'l be directed to thofe machines only,
whofe motion falls under the fecond head, fuch problems
bcinij of far the greatell utility in practice.

We have had already frequent occafion to make ufe of
the terms mover, or moving force and rcjijlancc ; and in wliat
follows, they will be uled in the fame general fcnfe. By
the lirft is always to be underllood any caufe of motion
whatever, and by the latter, any thing that is oppofed to
the adion of the former. The impelled point of a machine,
is that to which the aAion of the moving power may be con-
fidered as immediately applied ; and the •working point is that
where the reliilance arifing from the work to be performed
immediately afts, or to which it ought all to be reduced.
Thus in the wheel and axle, Plate ^-JJg- 6. Mechanics, where
the moving power P is to overcome the weight or refillance
W, by the application of the cord to the wheel and to the .
axle, A is the impelled point, and E the working point.
The velocity of the moving power is the fame as the velocity
of the impelled point ; and the veLcity of the refijlance, the
fame as that of the working point. The perjormunce or
rJjeLl of a machine, or the '■^vork done, is mealured by the
product of the refiftance into the velocity of the working
point; and the momentum of impulfe h mcafured by the pro-
duct of the moving force into the velocity of the impelled
point.

Thefe definitions being cdabliflied, we may exhibit a
few of the moft ufeful problems relative to the effect of
machines, and with which we mull conclude this article.

Let A B {P late 'KX.y^ll. Mechanics, fg. 1.) reprefent the
velocity of a ftream, A C the velocity of the part of the
engine which it llrikes, when the motion of the machine
becomes uniform, and C B will reprefent their relative
velocity, upon which the effeft of the engine depemis. It
is known that the aftion of a fluid upon a given plane,'
is as the fquare of this relative velocity ; confequently the
•weight raifed by the engine, wheii its motion becomes uni-
form, being equal to this aftion, it is lik'jwife as the fquare
of C B. Let this be multiplied by A C, the velocity of
the part of the engine, impelled by the fluid ; arid the ef-
ft'fi of the engine in a given time will be proportional to
AC X C B- = (fuppofing C B to be bifi-fted in D)
ACx2CDx2DR-4ACxCDxDB; coniV-
<juently, the cffeft of the engine is greateil when the produdt
of A C, C D, and D B is greatelL But it is cafy to fee,
that this product is greatell when the parts AC, C U, ai;d '
D B, are equal ; for if you defcribc a femicircle upon
A D, and the perpendicular C E meet the circle in E,
then ACxCb=CE, and is greatell when C is the
centre of the. circle ; fo that in order that AD x C D
X D B may be the greatell poffibie, A D mult be bifotled
in C ; and C B having beea bifcdcd in P, it follows
1

that A C, C D, D B, mud be equal ; or that A C. t!tt
velocity of the part of the engine impelled by the ftream,
ought to be but one-third of A B, the velocity of the
dream. Iji this cafe, when, (abftrafting from friction)
the engine aCls with the utmoll advantage ; the weight
raifed by it is to the weight that would jiilt fullain the
force of the dream, as the fquare of C B, t!ie relative
velocity of the engine and llream, to the fquare of A B,
which would be the relative velocity, if the engine wa&
quiefcent ; that is, as 2 x 2 to 3 x 3, or 4 to 9. There-
fore, that the engine may have the greatell cfiVct pofiible,
it ought to be loaded with no more than ^ths of the weight,
which is juft able to fullain the efforts of the llream. See
Maclaurin's Account of fir Ifaac Newton's Difcoveries,
p. iji, and Fluxions, art. 908.

Again, fuppo'ethat a given weight P. (Jig. 2.) defcend-
ing by its gravity in the vertical line, raifts a greater weight
W, likewife given, by the rope P M W, (that pafles over
the fixed pul'ey M) along the inclined plane B D, the height
ot which B A is given ; and let it be required to find
the pofition of thi.s plane, along which W will be raifed
in the lead time, from the horizontal line A D to B.
Let B C be the- plane upon which, if W was placed, it
would be exactly fudained by P ; in which cafe, P is to
W as A B to B C. But W is to the force with which
it tends to defcend along the plane B D, as B D to A B ;
confequently the weight P is to that force, as B D to B C.
Therefore the excels of P above that force (which excefs
is the power that accelerates the motion of P and W) is to
P, as B D - B C to B D ; or taking B H upon B C equal
to B D, as C H to B D. But it is known that the fpaces
defcribed by motions uniformly accelerated, are in the com-
pound ratio of the forces which produce tliem and the
fquaros of the times ; or, that the fquare of the time is di-
rectly as the fpace defcribed in that time, and invcrfely
as the force ; confequently, the fquare of the time in which
B D is defcribed by W, will be direflly as B D, and

inverfely as

that

.ind will be lead when

BD^
CH'

when

BC^
C H

-f C H + 2 B C, or (becaufe

B C-
2 B C is invariable) when ~— rj + C H, is a minimum.

Now as when the fum of two quantities is given, their pro-
duct is a maximum when they are equal to each oiIkt ; fo
it is manifed, that, when their product is given, their fum
mull be a minimum when they are equal. Thus it is evi-
dent, that as in Jig. i, the redtangle or produdt of the
equal parts A C and C D was equal to C E' ; fo the reiftan-
gle of any two unequal parts, into which A D may be di-
vided, is lefs than C E , and A D is the leall fum of any
two quantities, the produdt of which is equal to C E'. But

B C"

the produdt of and C H is B C, and confequently.

given : therefore the fum of and C H is lead when

thefe parts are equal, that is, wJien C H Ls equal to B C,
or B D equal to 2 B C. It appears, therefore, that wlien
the power P and weight W are given, and W is. to be riiifed
by an inclined plai.e, from the level of a given point A to
the given point B in the lead time poflible ; we are fird
to find the plane B C, upon which W would be fudained by
P, and to take the plane B D double in length of the plane,
B C ; or wc arc to make ufe of the plane B D, upon which

a weight

MACHINE.

a weif'ht tliat is double of W couM be fuflained bv the
power P.

l-'or another example ; fuppofe a fluid, moving with the
velocity and direction A C, [Jig- ,>•) ftrike the plane
C E ; and fuppofe that this plane moves parallel to itfclf
in the direction C B, perpendicular to C A, or that it
cannot move in any other direction. Tiien let it be re-
quired to find the mod advantageous pofition of the plane
C E, that it may receive the greatefl impulfe from the
aftion of the fluid. Let A P be perpendicular to C E in
P, draw A K pa-allel to^ B, and let P K be perpendicu-
lar upon it in K, and A K -A-ill mcafure the force with "which
any particle of the fluid impels the plane E C, in the direc-
tion C B. For the force of any fuch particle being re-
prefented by A C, let this force be refolved into A Q,
parallel to E C, and A P perpendic ilar to it ; and it is
manifeft, that tlie latter A P only has any effeft upon the
plane C E. Let this force A P be refolved into tlie
force A L perpendicular to C B, and the force A K pa-
rallel to it ; then it is manifeft, that the former, A L,
has no effect in prom.oting the motion of the plane in the
direction C B ; fo that the latter A K, only, meafures the
effort hy which the particle promotes the motion of the
plane C E in the direction C B. Let E M and E N be
perpendicular to C A and C B, in M and N ; and the
number of particles, moving with direftions parallel to
A C, incident upon the plane C E, v.-ill be as E M.
Therefore the effort of the fluid upon C E being as the
force of each particle, and the number of particles to-
gether, it will be as A K X E M ; or, becaufe A K

M F= y FN
is to A P (= E M) as E N to C E, as cE"^'

fo that C E being given, the problem is reduced to this, to
find wiien E M' x E N is the greateft poffible, or a maxi-
mum. Bntbecaufe the fumtif E M-and of E N' (= C M')
is given, being always equal to C E', it follows that E N'
X E M- is greateft when E N" = j C E ; in the fame
manner as it was demonllrated above, that when the fum of
AC and CB (;%• I-) was given, AC x C B' was
greateft, when AC = i A B. But when E N' X E M' is
greateft, its fquare root EN x E M' isof neceflity at the
fame time greateft. Tiierefore the aftion of the fluid upon
the plane C E, in the direflion C Bj is greateft when E N"
= i C ES and confequently E M '=; * C E ; ihat is, when
E M, the fine of the angle ACE, in which the ft;ream
ftrikes the plane, is to the radius, as the ./ 2 to ,/ 3 ; in
which cafe it eaiiiy appears, from the trigonometrical tables,
that this angle is of j'4° 44'.

Several ufeful problems in mechanics may be refolved by
■what was ftiewn in the preceding paragraph. If we re-
prefent the velocity of the wind by A C, a feftion of the
fail of a windmill, perpendicular to its length by C E,
as it follows from the nati>re of the engine, that its axis
ought to be turned dircftly towards the wind, and the
fail can only move in a direftion perpendicular to the axis,
it appears, that when the motion begins, the wind will have
the greattlt effect to produce this motion, when the
angle A C E, in which the wind ftrikes the fail, is of
54 44'. Ib the fame manner, if C B reprefent the di-
rection of the motion of a fnip, or the pofition of her keel,
abftracting from her lee-way, aad A C be the direftion of
the wind, perpendicular to her way, then the moil ad-
vantageous petition of the fail C E, to promote her motion
in the direftion C B, is when the angle ACE, in which
the wind ftrikes the fail, is of i^^' 44'. The belt pofition of
the ladder, where it may have the greatell effeft in turning.

round the ftiip, is determined in like tnanner, and the fame
angle enters likewife into the determination of the figure of
the rhombufes tjiat form the bafes of the cells in which
the bees depofit their honey in the moll frugal manner.
(See HoxEY-Comi ) But it is to be carefully obferved, that
when the fine of the angle A C E is to the radius as ^/ 2 to
^/ 3 ; or, which is the fame thing, when its tangent is to
the radius as the diagonal of afquarc to its fide ; this is the
moft advantageous angle only at the beginning of the
motion of the engine ; fo that the fails of a common
windmill osight to be fo iiiuated, that the wind may in-
deed ftrike tliem in a greater angle than that of 54' 44'.
For it IS demonftrablc, that when any part of the engine
has acquired the velocity c, the effort of the wind upon
that part will be greatell, when the tangent of the angle
in which the wind ftrikes it, is to the radius, not as the

V 2 to I, but ^/ 2 x -- — X — to I, the velocity of the

4 a' 2 a

wind being reprefented by a. If, for example, c ■= iaf
then the tangent of the angle ACE ought to be double
of the radius ; that is, the angle ACE ought to be of
63^26'. If c = a; then ACE ought to be of 74^ 19'^
This obfervation is of the more importance, becaufe, in
this engine, the velocity of the parts of the fail remote
from the axis bears a confiderable proportion to the ve-
locity of the wind, and perhaps fometimes is equal to-
it ; and becaufe a learned author, Daniel Bernouilli, has
drawn an oppofite conclufion from his computations in
his hydrodynamics, by miftaking a minimum for a maxi-
mum ; where he infers, that the angle in which the wind
ftrikes the fail, ought to decreafe as the diftance from

the axis of motion increafes
ought to ftrike

thal^ if ;: = a, the wind
in an angle of 4^'' ; and that if the fail
be in one p'ane, it ought to be inclined to the wind, at
a medium, in an angle of 50". How he fell into thefe
mi'lakcs, is fhewn by Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, 5 914.

In like mann.r, though the angle -\ C E of 54 44'
be the moit advantageous at the beginning of the motion,
when a ihip fails with a fide wind ; yet it ought to be
enlarged afiervvards as the motion increafes. In general,
let A a (Jig. 3 ) parallel to C B, be to A C, as the ve-
locity whicti tire engine has already acquired in the direc-
tion C B, to that of the ftream ; upon A C produced,,
take A D to A C as 4 to 5, draw D G parallel to C B,
and let a circle delcribed from the centre C with the ra-
dius C a, meet D G in ^ ; and the plane C E fhall be in
the moft advantageous fituation for promoting the motion,
of die engine, when it bifefts the angle a C g.

It is generally fuppofed, that a direft wind always pro-
motes the motion of a fliip, the fail being perpendicular to
the wind, more than any fide-wir.d ; and this has been af-
firmed in feveral late ingenious treatifes ; but, to prevent
miftakes, we are obliged to obfcri-e, that Maclaurin has
demon ftrated the contrary in his Trealife of Fluxions^
J 919 ; where other inftances of this fecond general problem
in mechanics are given, to which we refer. See Maclau-
rin's Account of fir Ifaac Newton's Philofophical Difcove-
ries, book ii. chap. 3. p. 1 73.

Let <? denote the abfolute effort of any movijig force>,
when it has no velocity, and fuppofe it not capable o£
any effort when the velocity is W ; let F be the effort an-.-
fwering to the velocity V, then if the force be uniform, w&;
ftiali have

MACHINE.

Tor it is tVie diiTerence between ttie velocities W an'l V
which is efficient, and theaftion, being conllant, will vary as
tlie fqiiare of the efficient velocity. Hence we (hall have
this analogy,

0 : F :: (W-o)'-; (W - V)',

and, confeqaently,

¥ = <p

velocity of the force, in order that the work done may be S

maximum.

Akhotigh the prolTure of an animal is not a£lually uniform
during the whole time of its aftion, yet it is nearly fo, and
therefore in geweral we may adopt this hypotbelis, in or-
der to approximate to the true nature of animal adion. On
which fuppofition the preceding propofition, as well as the
following one, will apply to animal exertion. By retaining
the fame notation^ we have alfo

Or the 'oiorh done hy an animal Is the greatejl when the 'vg'
locity with which it moites, is ene-third of the grentejl •vetocitj
ivith which it is capable of moving ivhen not impeded.

Agaui, lince we have

T = <p

W =

V a/(P

,/ 0 - ^/ F

Avhich formula, applied to the motion of animals, gives the
following theorem.

The ulnic/l velocity with which an animal, unimpeded, can move,
is to the velocity ivith tvhich it m.ves when impeded with a given
rejijlance ; as the fquare root of its abfolute force to the dif-
Jercnce of the fquare roots of its abfolute and efficient forces.

Again, to inveftigate expreffions by means of which the
maximum effeft.. in machines whofe motion is uniform, may
be determined.

1. it follows from the obfervations made in the preceding
-part of this article, that when a machine, whether limple or
compound, is put into motion, the veloc;t es of the impelled
and working points are inverfely as the fwrces which are in
equilibrio when applied to thofe points in the direftion of
their motion. Confequently, if /" denotes the refillance
when reduced to tlie working point, and v its velocity ;
while F denotes the force acting at the impelled point, and V
its velocity, we (hall have F V :=; _/"■!), or introducing t, the
time, F V ^ zi: y "u / Hence

In all working machines which have acquired an uniform mo-
tion/the performance of the machine is equal to the momentum of
.the impulfe.

2. Let F be the effort of a force upon the impelled point
of a macTiine, when it moves with a velocity V, the velocity
being W, when F = o, and let the relative velocity W —
V ^ u.

Then, fince F =

/W -
W

^)-, b,

the foregoing pro-

pofition, the momentum of impulfe F V becomes

becaufe, fince W — V = «, we have V = W — //.

Now making this expreffion for F V a maximum, or fup-
preffing the conftant quantities, and making

,a' (W — a) ^ a maximum,
we have, by throwing it into fluxions,

a a « W — 3 a' a = O, or 2 W = 3 M, or a = I W ;

whence, again, V = W- a =: W - JW = 4 W.

•Confequently, when the ratio of V to ii is given by the
condruftion of the machine ; and the refillance is fiifceptible
of variation, we ought to load the machine more or lefs, till
the velocity of the impelled point is one-third of the greateH

u

W' " '' W
in the cafe of the maximum, we have alfo '

• FV=|?)V=$^.i W=/^<pAV,

for the momentum of impulfe, or for the work done when
the machine is in the bed (late.

Confequently, when the refiftance is a given quantity, we
mud make

V : •u : : 9/ : 4. ?:,
•which ftnidlure of the machine will give the maximum effedl
= ,V ^ W. .

If we enquire the greateft effect on the fuppofition
that 1^ only is variable, we mud make it infinite in the
above expreffion for the work done, which would then be-
come

WF, orW -/, or W-//,

V V

including the time in the formula.

Whence we come to this important conclufion, viz.

Thai the fum of the agents employed to movea machine may le
infinite, <whHe the -effed is finite.

For the variations of I, Avhich are proportional to this
fum, do not influence the above expreffion for the effeft.
The lad theorem may be applied to the aftion of men and
of horfes, with more accuracy than might at fird be fuppofed.
Obfervations have been made on men and horfes drawing a
lighter along a canal, and working feveral days together.
The force exerted was mealiired by tlie curvature and weight
of the track rope, and afterwards by a fpring ileelyard.
The produil of the force thus afcertained into the velocity
perhowt, was confidered as the momentum ; and in this way
the adlion of the men was found to be very nearly as
(VV — V)'. The aftion of the horfes, loaded fo as not to
be able to trot, was nearly as (W — V) •", or as (W — V^|^
Hence the hypothefis above adopted may, in many cafes, be
fafely alTumed. According to the bed obfervations, the
force of a man at red is on an average about feventy pounds,
and the utmod velocity with which he can walk is about fix
feet per fecond, taken at a medium. Hence in the above
theorems ^ = 70, and W = 6 ; confequently F =: ^ 9
= ji^lbs., the greated force a man can exert when in mo-
tion, and he will then move at the rate of i W, or two feet
per fecond, or rather lefs than 1 4 mile per hour.

The drength of a horfe is generally reckoned about fix
times that of a man, that is, about 42olbs. at a dead pull.
His utmod walking velocity is about ten feet per fecond ;
and therefore his maximum aflion will be i x 420=3 iS6fibs.
and he will then move at the rate of \ of 10, or 3^ ieet per
fecond, or nearly 2^ mi es per hour. In both thefe initances
we fiippofe the force to be exerted in drawing a weight,
by a cord running over a puUey, which makes its direction
horizontal.

The theorem above given may ferve to fhew under what

points of view machines ought to be coiifid-ered by thofe

who would labour beneficially for tlieir improvement. The

ikft objeCil of utihty is in furiiilhing the means of giving

4 to

M A C H I N E.

^ tVe mbving force the mod commodious diredion, and
whc; it can be done of caufing its aclion to be applied im.'ne-
dia;ely to the body to be rtiovcd. Thefe, it is true, can
rarelv be united, but the former may, in moll inllances, be ac-
complifiied ; of which the ufe of the fintple lever, pulley
and wheel and axle, furnifh many examples. The fecond
objeft gained by the ufe of machines, is an accommodation
of the velocity of the work to be performed, to the velocity
with which alone a natural power can a<S. Thus, whenever
the working pov/er acls with a certain velocity, which cannot
be changed, and the work mull be performed with a greater
velocity, a machine is interpofid round a fixed fupport, and
the diliance of the impelled and working points are taken
ia the proportion of the two given velocities. But the ef-
fen'^ial advantage of machines, and that in faft which proper-
ly ^pertains to the theory of mechanics, confiifs in augment-
iog, or rather modifying the energy of the moving power,
in fuch a manner that it may produce effeds, of which it
would otherwife have been ir.capable. Thus a man might
carry up a flight of ileps twenty pieces of ftone, each weigh-
ing fay 3olbs. one by one, i.. as fmall a time as he could, with
the fame labour, raife them all together with a piece of ma-
chinery, that would have tlit! velocities of the impelled and
working points as twenty to one, and in this cafe the inftru-
ment would furnifli no real advantage except in laving his
fteps. B !t if a large block of 20 times 30, or 6colbs , were
to be raifed to the fame height, it would far exceed his ut-
raolt eiForts to accompli{h it, without the intervention of
feme machine. Or the fame purpofe mav be illwflrated
fomewhat differently, confining the attention ItiU to thofe ma-
chines whofe motion ia uniform. The produciy-u reprefen's,
during the unit of time, the effeil which refults from the
motion of therefiftance ; this motion being produced in any
manner whatever. If it be produced by applying the moving
force immediately to the rcfiilance, ic is neceffary, not only
that the produft F V :=■ f'd,hut alfo at the fame time F =f
and V = ^> ;' if, therefore, as mod frequently happens, f be
greater than F, it will be abfo'.utely impoffible to put the re-
finance in motion, by applying the ra''vjng power mmiediate-
Jy to it. Now, machines furnifh the means of difpofing of the
product F V in fuch a manner, that it may always be equal to
jf-v, however m.uch the faclorsf F V rr.ay differ from the analo-
gous factors iny * ; and confequently of putting the fyltem in
motion, whatever may be the excefs ofy" above F. Or, gene-
rally, as Prony remarks, (Arch. Hydiaul. art. 501.) ma-
chines enable us to difpofe of the factors F V / in fuch a
manner, that while that .product conti^iues the fame, its fac-
tors may have to each other any ratio at pleafure. Thus, to
give another example : fuppofe that a man, exerting his
llrenglh immediately upon a mafs of 25lbs. can raife it ver-
tically, with the velocity of four feet^cr fecond ; the fame
man afting upon a mafs of iooo!i>s. cannot give it any ver-
tical motion, though he exerts his utmoll ftrength, unlefs he
has rt'courfe to lome machine. Now he is capable of producing
an efFett equal to 3, x 4 x / ; the letter t being introduced,
becaufe, if the labour be continued, the vaiue of t will not
be indefinite, but comprifed wilhm aifignable limits. Thus
we have 25 X 4 x / ^ 1000 x ^< x / ; and, confequently,
1) := -r'cth of a foot. This man may, therefore, with a machine
as a lever, or axis in peritrichlo, caufea mafs oT icoolbs.
to rife ,'j,th of a foot m the fame timS that he could raife
iclbs. 4 feet without a machine ; or he may raife the
crreater weight as far as the lefs, by employing forty times
as much time. From what has now been fajd on the extent
of the effefts which may be attained by machines, it will be
fetn, that fo long as a moving force «xercifes a detertninate

effort with a velocity hkewife determinate, or fo long as the
produft of thcfe is conftant, the effects of the machine will
remain the fame : fo that under this point of view, fuppofing
the preponderance of the effort of the moving power, and ab-
llrafting from inertia and friction of materials, the conve-
nience of application, &c., all machir.es are equally perfect.
But from what has been (hewn in the preceding part of this
article, a moving force may, by diminifhing its velocity, aug-
ment its effort, and reciprocally. There is, therefore, a cer-
tain effort of the moving force, fuch that its product bv the
velocity, which comports to that effort, is the greateft polfi-
ble. Now admitting of the truth of the refults in the pre-
ceding propofitions V = ^ W, or F = 5 ^, and thefe two ■
values obtaining together their produdl, -^\ i W expreffes
the value of the greatelt effect with refpeft to the unit of
tm;e ; and in prattice it will always be advifable to approach
as nearly to thefe values as circumftances will admit, for it
cannot be expected that it can al.va) s be exactly attained. -
But a fmall variation will not be of much confequence ; for
by a well known property of thofe quantities, which admit;'
ot a proper maximum or minimum, a value affumed at a mo-
derate diliance from either of thefe e.\tremes, will produce-
no fenfible change in the etfeft.

If the relation of F to V followed any other law than that'
which we have affumed, we Hioiild find from • the expreffion
of that law, values of Fand V,,&c. different from the pre-
ceding, but the general method would be Hill nearly the
famv.

Wi*h refpeft to praftice, the grand ohjeft- in all cafes^-
Ihould be to procure an uniform motion, becaufe it is fronv-
that which, ceteris paribus, the greatelt eftett, always refults.
Every irregularity in the motion wattes fome of the impelling;^
power, and it is the greatelt only of the varying velocities
which is equal to that, which it would acquire if it moved ■
uniformly tliroughout ; for while the motion accelerates, the
impelling power is greater than what balances the refiftance-
at that timeoppofed to it, and the velocity is lefs than what
the machine would acquire, if moving uniformlv ] and when •
the machine attains its greateft velocity, it attains it becaufe
the power is not then acting againit tiie whole reCftance. In
both thefe cafes, tlierefore, the performance of the machine
is lefs than if the power and the refiftance were exactly ba--
lanced, ia which cafe it would move uniformly. Befides -
this, when the motion of a machine, and particularly a-
vc-ry ponderous one, is irregtilar, there are, as we have al-
ready remarked in the preceding part of this article, conti-
nual repetition'; of fti-ains and joits", which foon derange, ands
ultid'.afely dellroy the whole liructure.

In the preceding remarks and propofitions, relative to the ■
maximum eff-i5t of machines, we have availed ourfelves of an '
interefting chapter on this iubject in Gregory's Mechanics, .
in which the theory is purfued to a much greater length than •
our limits will admit of, botli with regard to machines whofe
motions are uniform and accelerated ; and to which we would ;
refer the reader for further information. See al.'o Prony'g -
" Architedture Hydraulique," from art. 487 to 507 ; and
the lall cd tion of Fcrgufon's Mechanics by Brewller, in ■
which an interefting paper on this fubjedt is given by pro-
feffor Lcflie.

Machine for taking down extemporaneous pieces of mu-
fic, commonly called •uolunlaries. Such a contrivance h^s ■
been long among mufical defidir:i\i ai the moil important
kind. To fix fuch floating founds as are generated in
the extatic moments of enthufiafm, while " bnght-eyed .
fancy

«• Scatters ■

MACHINE.

« Scatters from her piclured urn.

Thoughts that breathe, and nolcs that burn,"

•would be giving permanence to ideas which refleAion can
never find, nor memory retain.

The firfl idea of fuvh a contrivance being prafticable was
fug^efted to the Royal Society of London, in a paper writ-
ten by the late Rtv, Mr. Creed, and fent to the prcfident,
1747, under the foUowinij title :

"A demonflration of the poffibility i>i making a machine
that fliall write exlnnpore vjhintarks, or other pieces of mulic,
as fall as any mailer Ihal! he able to play them, upon a:i or-
gan, harpfichord, &c. and that in a cl arjcter more natural
and intelligib'e, and more expreffive of all the varieties tliofe
inllrnments are capable of exhibiting, than the charafter now
in ufe."

This paper was publiflied the fame year in the Philofo-
phical Tranfaflions, N" 183, and, afterwards, in Martyn's
Abridgment, vol. x. p. 266 ; and the author's idea always
appeared to us fo feafible, that we have long wondered at its
not having been executed by fome ingenious Eiigiilh ree-
■chanic.

The firft mention that we can find to have been made at
Berlin, of fuch a contrivance, was in 1752, in a printed
"Weekly Account of the mod remarkable Difcoveries in
Nature and Science." In 175.5, an ample defcription of
fuch a machine appeared in the fame weekly publication :
and here, in an elaborate preface, the author point.s out the
great want of fuch a piece of mechanilm, its utility, and
properties ; and concludes with faying, that this mnchii.e,
io big with advantages to mufic aati mui'cians, is the particu-
lar in-vcntiou, BcfouTiCce CrIiiiTiune, of M. Uiiger.

The defcription preceded the execution fome time. The
invention was here only recommended to the public, and of-
fered to be completed, and applied to a keyed inftrument, at
a fmall expence. It was M. Hohlfeld who afterwards con-
llrufted the machine, and rendered it fo perfeft, that we were
alTured by a great performer, who tried it upon a clavichord,
that there was no rellnement in mufic which it could notex-
prefs, except tempo rubato.

The defcription of the Berlin machine fo much refemblcs
that pj-opofed'by Mr. Creed, that we (hall not infert it here,
but refer our readers to the Philofophical Tranfaftions, where
he w.U find that the machine was to confill of two cylinders,
■which were to be moved by clockwork, at the rare of an inch
in a fecond of time ; one of thefe was to furmlli paper, and
the other was to receive it when marked by pins or pencils,
fixed at ths ends of the feveral keys of die inllrument to
which the machi'.e was applied. The paper was to be pre-
vioufly prepared with red lines, which were to fall under their
refpeftive pencils.

The chief difficulties in the execution, wliich have oc-
curred to Englifh mechanics, with whom we have converfed
on the fubjcft, were, the preparation of the paper for re-
ceiving the marks made by the keys ; and the kind of inftru-
ment which was to ferve as a pencil, and which, if hard and
pointed, would, in the forte part", tear the paper ; and if
foft, would not only be liable to break when ufed with vio-
lence, but would be worn unequally, and want frequent cut-
ting. •

In the Berlin machine the pencils were approximated ac-
cording to Mr. Creed's idea, and made to terminate m a very
narrow compafs, fo that 'paper of an uncommon fize was
not requifite ; but it was not found necefl'ary to prepare the
paper, as propofed in the Philofophical Tranlaftions ; for
the degree of gravity or aculeiicfs of each found was afcer-

tained by a ruler applied to the marked paper, when lake?!
off the cylinder.

About the year 1780, the late ingenious and marvellous
mechanic Merlin, ftimulated by the reports ot this machine
having been '"ucccfsfully conllrufted in Germany, and by
our earned recommendation of the undertaking, went to
work, and apparently vanquiflicd all the difficulties of con-
ftruclion, except the time inevitably necdlary for its com-
pletion ; as he was never able to fimplity the mechanifm fo
much as to render its appropriation within the reach of
great compofers and voluntary players in general, to whof;
ufe only it feems to belong ; he difpoled of his model to a
foreign nobleman, who had it conveyed to Germany, and
we believe never fabricated another machine of the fame
kind. See Mkblin.

/ Machine, in Dramatic Poetry, is when the poet brings
fome divinity or fiiperr.atural being upon the llage ; to per-
form fome exploit, or folve fome difficulty, out ot the reach
of human povver.

The machines of the drama arc gods, angels, ghofls, &:c.
They arc fo called from the machines or contrivances by
which they are reprcfenled upon the Ihigc, and afterwards
removed again.

PIciice the ufe of the word machine has alfo paffcd into the
epic poem ; though the reafon of its name be there want-
ing. It denotes, in both cafes, the intervention or miniltry
of fome divinity ; but as the occafion of machines in the one
and the other is I'ome what different, the rules and laws of
managing them are different likewife.

The ancient dramatic poets never brought any machine
on the ftage, but where there was an abfolute lu-cellity for
the prefence of a god ; and they were generally laughed at
for fufft-ring themfelves to be reduced to iuch a neccffity.
Accordingly, Arillotle lays it down as an exprefs law, that
the unravelling of the piece fhould arife from the fable it-
felf, and not from any foreign machine, as in the Medea.
Horace is iomewhat lefs fcvere, and contents himlelr with
faying, that the gods fiiould never appear, unlefs where the
nodus, or knot, is worthy of their prefence ; " Nee deus
interlit, nili dignus vindice nodus — inciderit." But it is
quite otherwife with the epopea ; in that there muft be ma-
chines every where, and in every part. Homer and Virgil
do nothing without them. Petronius, with his ufual fire,
maintains, that the poet (hould deal more with the gods
than with men ; that he (liould every where leave marks of
his prophetic raptures, and of the divine fury that poffeffes
him ; that his thoughts (hould be all full of fables, that is,
of ahciiorics and figures ; in fine, he will have a poem dif-
tinguiilied from a hillory in all its parts; not fo much by
the verfes, as by that poetical fury, which expreffes itfelf
wholly by allegories ; and does nothing but by machines,
or the minillry of the gods. A poet, therefore, mull leave
it to the hiftorian to fay, that a fleet was difperfed by a
tt(n-m, and driven to foreign (bores ; and mult himfelf lay,
with Virgil, that Jnno went to feek ^olus ; and that this
god, at her requell, turned the winds loofe againll the Tro-
jans : he muft leave the hiilorian to write, that a young
prince behaved with a great deal of prudence and difcretion
on all occafions ; and muft fay, with Homer, that Minerva
led him by the hand in all his enterprizes : let' an liifto-
rian fay, that Agamemnon, quarrelling with Achilles, hath
a mind to Ihew him, though railtakenly, that he can take
Troy without his affiilance ; the poet mull fay, that Thetis,
piqued at the affront her fon had received, flies up to heaven,
thire to demand veni;eauce of Jupiter; and that this god, to
fatisfy her, lisnds the god Ssmirjs, or Sleep, to Agamemnon,

to

MACHINE.

to deceive Wm, and make him believe that he (hall take Troy
that day.

It is thus that the epic poets ufed machines in all parts of
their works ; in the Iliad, OdyiTey, and TEneid, the pro-
pofition mentions them ; the invocation isaddrefTed to them;
and the narration is full of them : they are tiie caufes of
actions ; they make the knots, and at laft they unravel them.
This laft circiimftance is what Ariftotle forbids in the
drama ; but it is what Homer and Virgil have both prac-
tifed in the epopea. Thus- Minerva fights for Ulyffes
againft Penelope's lovers ; helps him to detlroy them ; and,
the next day, herfelf makes the peace between Ulyfles and
the Ithacans ; which clofes the OdyiTey. The ufe of ma-
chines in the epic poem is, on fome accounts, entirely op-
pofite to what Horace prefcribes for the theatre. In tra-
gedy, that critic will never have them ufed without an ab-
iolute neccffity ; whereas, in the epopea, they (honld never
be ufed, but where they may be as well let alone ; and
■where the action appears as if it did not neceffarily re-
quire them. How many gods and machines does Virgil im-
plore to raife the ftorm that drives ^neas into Carthage ;
which yet might eafily have happened in the ordinary courfe
©f nature.

In Milton's Paradife Loft, moft of the aftors are fuper-
natural perfonages ; and in Voltaire's Henriade, the poet has
made excellent ufe of St. Louis.

Machines, in the epic poem, therefore, are not contri-
vances of the poet, to recover him felf after he has made a
falfe ftep, nor to folve any difficulty peculiar to fome part
of the poem ; but it is the prefence of a divinity, and fome
fupematural and extraordinary adlion, which the poet inferts
in moft of the incidents of his work, to render it more
majeftic and admirable, and to train up his readers to piety
and virtue. This mixture ftiould always be fo managed, as
that the machines may be retrenched, without retrenching
any thing from the aftion. As to the manner in which the
machines are to aft ; it may be obferved, that in the old my-
thology, there are gods both good, bad, and indifferent ; and
that our pafQons may be converted into fo many allego-
rical divinities : fo that every thing, both good and bad in a
poem, may be attributed to thefe machines, and may be
tranfafted by them. They do not, however, always aft
in the fame manner ; fometimes they aft without appearing,
and by fimple infpirations, vv-hich have nothing in them ex-
traordinary or miraculous ; as when we fay, the devil fng-
gefted fuch a thought, &c. The fecond manner of afting
is entirely miraculous ; as when a divinity preients itfelf vi-
fible before men, fo as to be known by them ; or when they
difguife themfelves under fome human form without dif-
covering themfelves. The third manner partakes of each
of the two, and confifts in oracles, dreams, and extraordi-
nary infpira'ions : all which Bofl-i calls dcniimacljims.

All thefe msn ers ought to be fo managed as to carry a
verifimilitude : and though verifimiluude be of a vail extent
in machines, as being founded on the divine power, yet it has
its bounds. See farther, on the importance and ufe of ma-
chinery, the article Epic Poem.

Machine, in yijricu/lure, a term applied to inftriiments
of various kinds which are contrived either for jhe pnr-
pofe of leftcning labour or performing rhff different opera-
tions and procefles of the art with greater accuracy and
correftnefs, fuch as thofe of fowing, drilling, reaping,
threlhing, winnowing, and a great many others. The term
is moft commonly employed when the nature of the tool
is of the more complex kirid. It may, however, be em-
ployed with propriety in many other circumftances. See
THnESHING Alaehine.

Vol. XXI.

Machine, /IrchiteSonical, is an afTcmblage of pieces of
wood fo' difpofed, as that, by means of ropes and pullies,
a fmall number of men may raife vaft loads, and lav them
in their places. Such are cranes, &c.

It is hard to conceive what fort of machines the ancients
mnft have ufed to raife thofe immenfe ftones found in feme
of the antique buildings. See Machine, yi/^ra.

Machine, Blowing. See Bellows, and Blowing Ma-
chine.

Machine, Bruifmg, a contrivance for the purpofe of
cruftiing and reducing grain, pulfe, malt, and othcf arti-
cles, fome of which are employed as team fo')d. Machines
of this kind are made in London by Rowntree and others.

Machine, Chajf-cutttng, a tool contrived for the purpofe
of cutting ftraw, hay, and other fimiiar materials into chaff
for the purpofe of food for tcam-horfes, and other animals.
There are various dcfcriptions of this kind of machinery
which aft on very different principles, and fome of them
have lately undergone very much improvement. See Chafp-

CUTTER.

Machine, Draught, a fimple contrivance formed for the
purpofe of afcertaining the force or power of draught, in
drawing ploughs, and various other implements where
draught is required. A machine of this fort, invented by
Mr. More, late fecretary to the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, &c. in London, is thus defcribed by Mr.
Young in the firft volume of the Annals of Agriculture. It
is a fpring coiled within a cylindrical cafe, havijig a dial-
plate, marked with numbers like that of a clock, and fo
contrived that a hand moves with the motion of the fpring,
and points to the numbers in proportion as the force is
exerted : for inftancc, when the draught equals i cwt.
over a pulley, the hand points to Jig. i ; when the draught
is equal to 2 cwt. it points to Jig. i ; and fo on. Till
this, very ufeful machine was invented, Mr. Young fays,
it was exceedingly difficult to compare the draught of dif-
ferent ploughs, as there was no rule to judge but by the
exertions of the horfes as apparent to the eye ; a very in-
decifive mode of afcertaini;]g their force.

Machine, DrilU that fort of tool which is employed in
fov.'ing and depoliting various kinds of grain, pulfe, and
fnrall feeds, in drills or rows. They are very differently
formed, according to the purpofes for which they are in-
tended, and the manner of drilKng which is intended to be
praclifed.

They require to be conftrufted with great corrcftnefs,
and in as fimple a manner as poffible, in^rder that they may-
perform their work with accuracy, both in refpeft to the
drills, the quantity of feed, and the depth of depofitiiig it
in the foil.

Iij the choice of this fort of machinery, the farmer (hould
be p; incipally directed by the nature and extent of his land,
the fituation which it poffeffes, and the kinds of crops which
he intends to cultivate. They have lately been fo con-
trived, as, by flight alterations in the fowing parts, to be
capable of not only fowing grain as well as Imali feeds, but
of executing the v.-ork at diflerent diftances, and in a greater
or lefs number of rows at once, as circumftances may re-
quire.

There are fcveral machines of this nature, which perform
the bufinefs in a very exaft and regular manner; among
which arc Cook's, Bailey's, Amofe's, M'Dougal's, and
many others ; each of which fow fe-.-eral rows at the fame
time, and fome of them are likewife capable of forming
horfe-hoes.

BcfiJes thefe. there are alfo drills conftrufted for parti.
% C cuiar

M A C H I N E.

eular forts of crops, as tliofe of peas, beans, turnips, Sec.
See Plough Drill, and TuRNir Drill.

A drill machine, invented by Mr. Robert Salmon of
Woburn, Btdfordfhire, which obtained the premium given
by the duke of Bedford, at Wnluirn fliccp-flicaring, a few
years ago, for the bed newly-invented aejricultural imple-
ment, is defcribed below. This machine drills and fows at
the fame time ; and tlie principal improvement in it, as in
Cook's drill, and others, coiifills in conilrnfting it in fuch a
manner, that the workman who holds the drill has a perfcft
command upon it, w'ith rcfpeft to the direflion in which it
fhall move, ev^-n though the horie which draws it flionld de-
viate from the line the drill is intended to follow. In Plate
{Machines) /tgricullurc, is given a defcriptive reprefcntation
of the machine, in which yTi;-. i is a feftion of a part, fig. 2
an elevation of the fame, fig. 4 is a pcrfpeftive view of the
whole, dcndifigs. 3 and 5 detached parts.

The great wheels, A, A, fig. 4, have their axle-trees at-
tached to the bed B, to which are framed the long handles,
D, D, forming a frame independent of the remainder of the
machine, and having no connexion with it, except in the
middle of the bed B, where a fiiort beam, E, is jointed to
it, as is well explained in fg. 1 ; the other end of this beam
is mortifed into a crofs beam F, to which the three drills,
G, G, G, are fixed ; a frame formed of two horizontal
pieces, H, H, fgs. 2 and 4, and four vertical pieces,
I, I, I, I, is erefted upon F ; the handles, D, D, pafs ber
tween H, H, but are not fixed thereto ; the hook a, by
which the machine is drawn, is fixed to the two middle up-
rights, I, I, and a llrong chain leads to the harnefs of the
horfe employed ; K is the feed-box fiipported from H, H,
by two uprights for the purpofe ; the box is a fruftum of a
■pyramid, and joins at the bottom to a prifmatic box, con-
taining the feed-roller b, fg. I, which is exaftly the fame
length as the box, and comes through its ends, its pivots
being fupported by a piece of iron-plate fixed at the end of
the box, as feen in fg. 4 ; a brufh, d, prelTes upon the
roller, and is adjuftable by a fcrcw that it may always bear
upon it with an equal degree of force ; a number of notches
is cut in the circumference of the roller, and as the box K
is full of feed, it always refts upon the roller ; when it turns
round, it takes one of the notches full of feed, and pafRng
it by that means under the end of the brudi d, delivers it
into a tin-plate tube r, which conveys it down into the fur-
row made by the drill ; the Toller has three feries of notches
anfvvering to the thrpe drills G, G, G ; at e, a piece of
leather prelTes againft the roller, to prevent any feed getting
down, except that which palTes under the brufli ^; y" is a
Aider, which ftops the feed from coming down to the roller,
when {liovcd in, and is ufed when the machine is required to
advance without fov.'ing, or when a lefTer number of rows
is required to be fown. The roller is turned hy means of
an endlefs chain, q q, palling round a groove made in the
middle of the roller, from thence it proceeds tlirough a
block of pullies at /, fhewn feparate in fg. 5, to a frnall
wheel h ; the block, /, is made of cad-iron, and Aides freely
up and down between the two innermoft uprights, T, I, of
the frame; its weight keeps the chain always tight, and
prevents it from /lipping without turning the roller ; the
wheel, h, is fixed upon an axle^, on the end of which is a
cog-wheel, turned by anotlicr cog-wheel on the nave of the
great wheel A ; ihefe wheels are enclofed in a box /-, which
likewife contains a contrivance for difengaging the wheels,
fliewn on a Urger fcale in fg. 3, where /i is a feftion of the
axle /I, pafTing through a loHg ftaple fixed to the bed B ; it
can Aide up and down in this ftaple, except when confined
by a catch 0, preffed againft it by a fpring. In the prefent
8

pofition, the cog-wheels are engaged to work together : but
by pulling the cords m and /, the former draws back tfie
catch 0 ; and the other, by means of the crooked lever n n,
raifcs up the axle p, and difengages the cog-wheels ; the re-
turn of the catch, 0, prevents its defccnt ; the cords, / and
in, are coi}dudtcd to the end of the handles, D, D where
they are both attached to one handle, in reach of the work-
man who guides the machine.

The operation of the drill is exceedingly fimple. As the
horfe draws it along by means of the chain, the drills,
G, G, G, make the furrows, and the feed-roller delivers
the "feed in fmall quantities, and at regular intervals into
them. As the hook a, from which the chain draws, is
placed nearly in the centre of the machine, it will ealiiy be
made to follow any other line than that in which the horfe
draws, by turning the handles, D, I), to one Or other fide.
This alters the direftion of the wheels. A, A, which im-
mediately proceed in that line, and the drill follows them.
This quality is of the greatell conCequence in making
ftraight work. L is a crofs piece fixed to the handles,
D, 1), and fupporting a handle M, by which, and one of
D, the workman holds when he guides the drill, as he is
then in a pofition to fee the drills made lall, and adapt the
prefent ones to them ; the wheel always going in the laft
made drill. Another handle, fimilar to M, is hxed to the
other end of L, to be ufed when the machine is on the other
fide of tlie work ^ done laft. The drills arc fixed to the
piece F by fcrew?, and their dillanee from one another can
be altered at plealure. The feed-box containing the roller
is Blade in two halves, connefted by hooks, fo that it can
be taken apart, and the roller removed for a frefli one to be
put in with different fized ootches, for fowing a different
kind of grain.

The drawing Was taken from a machine made by Mr.
Shepherd, Woburn, and exhibited at Woburn fhcep-fhcaring,
June 1808. Mr. Salmon has made a great number of the
fame pattern, which are now in ufe, and are found to anfwer
well. Several of them have five drills inftead of three, and
are in that cafe worked by one horfe.

In this drill, at whatever diftance the fliares are placed to
go from each other, the diftance from the wheels to the
two outfide rows is alway equal thereto ; confcquently, when
at work, one or the other of the wheels always runs in the
laft fhade drill, thereby guaging accurately the interval be-
tween esch bout the drill goes ; and as the holder always
goes in the line of the wheel, he can diftindly fee and cor-
rect the fmalleft error that may have been made in any
previous bout.

In all cafes, one horfe is fnfficient to draw this drill either
for three or more rows, as little depends on the liorfe's
inclination ; and a driver can be dilpenled with, where
tradlable horfes are ufed. As in all machines of this fort,
in proportion to the number and diftance of rows made, fo
will be the quantity of work performed.

M.AcmxE, Elellrlcal. See Electrical Machine.

MAriiiN'E, Fan, in Agrhiilliire, a tommon name applied
to that fort of tool which is employed in removuig the chaff
from the grain. See Windowing Machine.

Maciune, Land'I .tvelling, the name of an ufefiil ma-
chine, invented by Mr. David Charles, for the purpofe of
rendering high ridges and other inequalities, in fuch lands
as are in a ftate more level and even in their lurface.'.
It would feem probable that no effeftive implement of
this fort has hitherto been introduced. But fuch a ma-
chine is faid, in " Tranfaftions of the Society of Arts," to
be ufeful and neceffary even in the mod fertile parts of the
country, where the improved fyftem of drill-hufbandry has

been

MACHINE.

been introduced, or CTen where there is any attention to the
wafle of time, or to the eafe of cattle iri the aft of plough-
ing ; in order to get rid of crooked or unequal ridges, with-
out either a fummer fallow by crofs ploughing, or elfe by
frequent repetitions of ploughing in the winter and fpring,
which the humidity of this climate will not allow in every
kind of foil. " Fourteen acres of land were redaced with
this tool by the inventor to a perfeft level, where the crowns
of the ndges were about two feet higher than the furrows,
and where they were crooked and of unequal breadths.
Bat the chief fuccefs has been upon a field of c'ght acres,
which lay in an unprofitable flate, and which is a deep clay,
that had produced a crop of wheat from an old lay fod
the former year, without any manure, which was winter
ploughed, and lay in that flate until the machine was intro-
duced the firll dry weather in April. It was preceded by

the upper frame work of the machine, extending from the axl^'
to the extremity of the handle^', f,f, and fecured lirmly by
the crofs pieces, g, g, the curved iron (lidtrs of the machirif,
which may be raifed or depreifed a little by means of the
pins, /), h, which pafs through holes in the wood-work, and
alfo in the iron Oidcrs. Thefe llidcrs form one piece with
thf back iron fcraper /', in the manner more fully explained
m Jig. 3, k, the wooden back of the machine, which Ihould
be made ftrong, to refill the weight of the eartii when col-
ledled therein. The iron fcraper (hould be firmly lecured
to this by fcrews and iron work ; /, /, the wooden fides of
the machine, firmly connedted with the back and frami:
work, in order to alFiil in coUecling the eartli to be removed ;
m, a ttrong crofs piece, into which the ribs which fupport
the back are well mortifed.

The interior part of the back of the machine is fnev.n

two horfe plougho, taking perhaps a fquare of an acre at at k, m Jig. 3 : i, the iron fcraper, lli;irp at the bottom,

once: thele loofened the foil the depth of a common fur-
row, and twice the breadth acrofs the ridges. The levelling

machine followed, drawn by two oxen and two horfes, with

a man at each handle, to prefs it down where the height was

to be removed, and to lift up the body by the handles where

it was to be dilcharged. Thus, four men, one driver, and

eight head of cattle, will more effertually level from haif an

acre to three roods in one day, according as the earth is

light or heavy, than fixty or eighty men would accompli Ih

with harrows and (hovels, Sec. even with the alTidance of a

plough. In fandy ground, where the depth of one furrow
will bring a'l to a level, as much, of courie, will be done in
one day as two ploughs can cover ;" but in this cafe, the
ground required to be gone over feveral times. It is further
ftated, that " after this field was levelled, the backs of the
ridges, as they are termed, which were dripped of their
vegetable mould, were ploughed up, the turrows not re-
quiring it. They were alio harrowed, and the field copioufly
manured with lime-compofl, harrowed in, and broke into
nine feet ridges, perfedily itraight, in order to introduce
Duckit's drill. It was (own under furrow, broad-caft, the
lafl: of it not until the ijth of May, and was cut down a
reafonable crop the 4th of September." And " the field
now lies in proper form, well manured, with the advantage
of a fair crop from heavy tenacious ground, without lofing
a feufon, and in a year by no means favourable." The

firmly fcrewed to the back of the machine; g, g, parts of
the fide irons or fiiuer?, fhcwlng the mode in which they
are united with the fcraper /'; m, tlie crofs piece already
defcribcd.

Machines, Military, among the Ancients, were of three
kinds : the firil ferving to launch arrows, as the fcorpion j
or javelins, as the catapulta ; or ftones, as the balifla ; or
fiery darts, as the pyrabolns : the fecond ferving to beat
down walls, as the battering ram and terebra : and the third
to flie!ter thole who approach the enemies wall, as the tor-
toife or tefludo, the vinea, phiteus, and the towers of wood.
Thefe machines, together with their proportions and pro-
perties, are deicribed in the works of Vitruvius, Am.mianus
i^.IarceUinus, and other writers. Mr. Grofe has given de-
fcriptions and drawings of tliefe in ihe Jir/l volume of his
" Military Antiquities," chap. xii.

Machine, Stone-UJting, in Agriculture, an implement of the
triangle kind, fimilar to that uicd by vood-cuiters for weigh-
ing bark, conllrufted for the purpofe of raifing large flones
of fome tons weight ufed in the northern parts of Scotland,
and many other places. It is fuppok-d to fave much es-
pence in powder and boring, as well as labour, three men
being fufRcient to work it. It is defcribcd in the Agricul-
tural Survey of Perthihire in this manner.

" The three legs, ad, b d, and c d, which are ffjewn at
Jig. 4, are beams of any hard wood, four inches thick* {\-^

writer is " well aware tliere are many fliallow foils, where niches broad, and about fourteen feet long. Their thin-
it may be hazardous to remove the enriched furface, and nell fide points inwards, which gives them more ilrength.
trull perhaps one half of the land for a crop that had never Tlieir feet form on the ground an equilateral triangle die,
before been expofed to the atmofphere ; but where the foil and their three tops at d are fixed together by an iron rod,
is fufRcieiitly deep, or there is a good under-flratum, with which paffes through each. The two legs j </ and i if are

manure at hand to correct what is four for want of expofure
and tillage, it is evident, from this experiment, that no ritk
is run." And in order " to avoid the ejfpence of a fallow,
and to lay out ground in ftraight and even ridges, even
where drill hufb.indry is not pratlifed, fhould be objeAs to
every rational farmer ; but where the new fyilem is intended
to be adopted, it becomes indifpenfibly neccflary. In-
laying down lawns, parks, &c. v.here furrows are an eye-
fore, or places inacceflible to wheel-carriages from their de-
clivity, and from which earth is to be removed, it will alfo
be found equally ufetul." BeUdes thefe, there are many
other cafes in which the old rounded ridges may be levelled
down with great advantage, either by this or fome other
means.

A reprefentation of this machine is given at^^'. i. in Plate
(Mackinei) Agriculture, in which a. Jig. 2. is a part of the pole,
to wliichthe oxen or horfes which draw the machine are fall-
ened, and a hich is attached to the machine by a pm at b ; c,c,
the two wheels, fhod with iron, which run upon the axle d'l et,

fixed to one another by the wiiidlafs h, and by the crofs-bar
0 p q. There are two puUiea ^ and y", with an iron hook
two inches in circumference to each ; gg g may be (more
than one, but rather) one iron chain winch goes round the
ftoiie n, while lying in the ground at in, below its greatefl
diameter, or where it begins to become narrow. This chain
confills of rounded links, which are about three inches long,
and about the thicknefs of a man's little finger. It has a
hook at one end, that may be put into any link towards the
other end, which will make it embrace the Hone exaclly,
and be of the fame circumference, where the Itoiie touches
the earth ; h g, h g, h g, are (horter chains oFthe fame v,ork.
manfhip, whufe hosks are fixed into hnks of the furround-
ing chain at ^^^'■, and to on round the ftone, having thi
correfpunding link of each fixed on the hook of the lower
pulley at /;. Tlie whole rope mull be of the fune thicknefi
with the two great liooks, two ir.i;hes in circumference.

"All things being thus prepared, two men turn roar.d
the handles of the cylinder, and the wagjoner alliihn^ them.
SCz by

M A C

MAC

by applyinjr a lever to any fide of the ftone that feems to be
firmed, tliey force it aloft, and hold it up at the proper
height, until the driver put his carriage backward between
i and c, which carriage ought to have a i^rong frame upon
four low llout wheels ; then the ftone is let gently down
and carried away."

By this fort of machine large ftones or other bodies can
be raifed and removed without any great difficulty.

Machine, Thre/hing, a contrivance made ufe of inftead
of the flail for threfliing corn and other feed crops. See
Threshing Mnchhf,

Machine, WaUr, or Hydraulic, is either ufed to fignify
a fimple machine, ferving to conduft or raifc water ; as a
fluice, pump, &;c. or feveral of thefe afting together, to
produce fome extraordinary effeft ; as the

Machine r/yl/dW;. SeeMAHU. See alfo YiRv^-engme,
STK\M-enaine, and WATER-'ztioris.

Maciiinl:, IValfr-raipn^, a fort of machine contrived for
the purpofe of raifmg water a few feet high by the po A-cr
of the luinJ, for the purpofe of draining moraflTes, or of
watering lands on a higher level, and other finiilar ufes.
A feftion of it is given at fig. j, and it is defcribed by the
author of the Philofuphy of Agriculture and Gardening to
"confift of a windmill fail placed horizontally, like that cf
a fmoke-jack, furroundcd by an oclagpn tower ; the divcrg--
ing rays of this tower, a h, a i, may confift of two-inch djals
only, if on a fmall fcale, or of brick-work if on a larger one.
Thefe upright pillars are connefled together by oblique
horizontal boards at A B, by which boards placed horizon-
tally from pillar to pillar in refpeft to their length, but at
an angle of alxjut 45 degrees in refpeft to their breadth, f >
as to form a complote oftagon, including the horizontal
windmill fail near the top of it ; the wind, as it ftrikes againft
any of them, from whatever quarter it comes, is bent up-
wards, and then ftrikes againft the horizontal wind-fail.
Thefe horizontal boards, which form the fides of the pfla-
gon, may either be fixed in their fituations, or be made to
turn upon an axis a little below their centres of gravity, fo
as to clofe thcmfelves on that fide of the oftagon tower moft
didant from the wind. It may be fuppofed that the wind
thus reflefted, would lofe confiderably of its power before it
ftrikes on the wind-fail; on -fixing a model of fuch a ma-
chine, however, on the arm of a long whirling lever, with
proper machinery to count the revolutions of the wind-fail,
when thus included in a tower, and moving horizontally ;
and then when moved vertically, as it was whirled on the
arm of the lever with the fame velocity, it was found on
many trials by Mr. Edgeworth, in Ireland, and Dr. Dar-
win, at Derby, that the wind, by being thus reverted up-
wards by a fixed planed board, did not feem to lofe any of
its power. And as the height of the tower may be made
twice as great as the diameter of the fail, there is reafon to
conclude, the doftor thinks, that the power of the horizontal
wind-fail mjy be confiderably greater, than if the fail was
placed nearly vertically oppofed to the wind in the ufiial
manner. At the bottom of the ftiaft of the wind-fail is
placed a centrifugal pump with two arms at D, C, which
confills fimply of an upright bored trunk, or cylinder of
lead, with two oppofite arms with an adapted valve at the
bottom to prevent the return of the water, and a valve at
the extremity of each arm to prevent any ingrefs of air
above the current of the water as it flows out ; cccc is a
circular trough to receive the ftreams of water from C and
D, to convey them where required in any particular opera-
tion or proceft.

And at fy. 6 is another machine, invented by Mr. Ser-
geant, of Whitehaven, calculated for raifing or farcing

water in particular cafes, as for domeftic or other ufes. ft
is extremely fimple and cheap in its conftruftion, the wdiole,
exclufive of the pump pipes, &c. not colling more than five
pounds. The objedt for which it was particularly contrived
was that of raifing water for the fupjjly of a gentleman's
houfe from a ftream running at the dillance of about 140
yards. In which intention a dam was made a little diftance
above, fo as to eaufc a fall of about four feet, the water
being brought by a wooden trough, into which was inferted
a piece of twg-inch leaden pipe, a part of which is feen at
a, in the figure; the llream of this pipe is fo directed as to
run into the bucket be, when the bucket is elevated ; but as
foon as it begins to defcend, the ftream flows over it, and
goes to fupply the wooden trough, or well, in which the
foot of the forcing pump, c, ftands, of three inches bore ;
d is an iron cjlinder attached to the pump rod, which pafles
through it, which is filled with lead, and is in weij/ht about
240 pounds. This is the power which works the pump,
forci.ig the water through 240 feet of inch pipe from the
pump up to the houle. At e a cord is fixed, which, when
the bucket comes to within four or five inches of its loweft
projeftion, becomes ftretched, and opens a valve at the
bottom of it, through which the water difcharges itfelf.
This fort of pump may be found very beneficial in a variety
of inftances where its application can be admitted.

Machine, tFiiid. See Anemometeh, and Wind Ma^
chine.

MACHINERY, in the Lyric theatre, or Opera-houfe.
In the early operas of Italy, during the 17th century, it
feldom happened that the names of the poets, compofers,
or fingers, were recorded in printed copies of the words ;
though that of the machinift was feldom omitted; and much
greater care feems to have been taken to am ufe the eye than
the ear or intelleft of thofe who attended thefe fpeiSacles.

In 1675, we are told, in the Theatrical Annals of Venice,
that a mufical drama, called La Divifione del Mondo, writ-
ten by Giulio Cefare Corradi, and fet by Legrenzi, excited
univerfal admiration, by the ftupendous machinery and de-
corations with which it was exhibited. And in 1680, the
opera of Berenice, fet by Domenico Frefchi, was performed
at Padua in a manner fo fplcndid, that fome of the decora-
tions recorded in the printed copy of the piece feem worthy
of notice in this article. The mufical drama coi'.fifted of
poetry, mufic, dancing, machinery, and decorations ; and
it wotild be curious to point out the encroachments which
any one of thefe conftitucnt parts at different periods has
made upon the reft. In the beginninef it was certainly the
intention of opera legiflators to favour Poetry, and make her
miftrefs of the feaft ; and it was a long while before Mufic
abfohitely took the lead. Dancing only ftept into import-
ance during the laft century; but very early in the 17th
century, machinery and decorations vis^e fo important, that
little thought or expence was bellowed on poetry, mufic, or
dancing, provided fome means could be devifed of exciting
aftonifhment in the fpeftators, by fplendid fcenes and in-
gei.ious mechanical contrivances.

In the opera of Berenice juft mentioned, there were
chorufes of one hundred virgins, one hundred foldiers, one
hundred horfemen in iron armour, forty cornets of horfe,
fix trumpeters on horfeback, fix drummers, fix enfigns, fix
facbuts, fix great flutes, fix minftrels playing on Turkiih
inftruments, fix others on o£lave flutes, fix pages, three
ferjeants, fix c^'mbahils, twelve huiufmen, twelve grooms,
fix coachmen for the triumph, fix others for the procefijon,
two lions led by two Turks, tv/o elephants by two others,
Berenice's triumphal car drawn by four horieS, fix other
cars with piifouers and fpoils drawn by twelve horfes, fix

coachea

MACHINERY.

Coaches for the proccffion. Among the fccnes and rcprc-
fentations in the firfl aft, was a vafl plain, with two trium-
phal arches ; another, with pavilions and tents ; a fqiiare
prepared for the entrance of the triumph ; and aTorcIl for
the chace. Aft II. the royal apartments of Berenice's
temple of vengeance ; a fpacious court, with a view of the
prilon ; and a covered way for tlie coaches to move in pro-
ceflion. Aft III, the royal drefTina^ room, completely fur-
nifhed ; ftables with one hundred live horfcs ; portico
adorned with ta;'eftry ; a delicious palace in pcrfpeftive.
And belidcs a!l thefe attendants and decorations, at the end
of the firit aft, there were reprefentations of every fpccies
of chace : as of the wild boar, the ftag, deer, and bears ;
and at the end of the third act, an enormous globe defcends
from the fl:y, which opening divider itfelf into other globes
that are fufpended in the air, upon one of which is the
figure of Time, on a fecond that of Fame, on others.
Honour, Nobility, Virtue, and Glory. Had the falaries
of fingers been at this time equal to the prefent, the fupport
of fuch expenfive and puerile toys, Would have inclined the
managers to enquire, not after the bed, but the cheapeft
vocal performers they could iind ; as fplendid ballets often
oblige them to do now ; and it is certain, that during the
17th century, the diflinftive charafteri'.lic charm of an opera
was rot the mufic, but machinery. Tlie French eftabliihed
mufical dramas in their court and capital during the rage for
mythological reprefentation.s, to which they have conllantly
adhered ever fince ; and when they are obliged to allow the
mufical compofition and finging to be inferior to that of
Italy, they comfort themfelves and humble their adverfaries
by obferving, that their opera is, at leaft, a fine thing to
fee : " c'efl au moins un beau fpeftacle, qu'un opera en
France.'"

Machinery, in Mechanics, may be confidered as the ope-
rative and movingparts of machines; it is, however, very gene-
rally, though perhaps improperly, applied to include all the
parts of maclimes, fixed as well as moving, and in this view
may be confidered as the inllruments or parts by which the
principles of mechanics are carried-into execution, and ren-
dered applicable to all the purpofe&of arts and manufiftures.

The denomination machine is now vulgarly given to a
great variety of fiibjefts that have very little anal'^gy by
which they can be clafed with propriety under one name :
we fay a travelling machine, a bathing machine, a copying
machine, a threfhing machine, an eleftrical machine, &c.
&c. The only circumdances in which all thefe agree, feem
to be, that thtir conftruHion is more complex and artificial
than the utenfils, tools, or inftruments which ofi'er themfelves
to the firft thoughts of uncultivated people ; they are more
artificial than the common cart, the bathing tub, the flai',
or the glafs tube which firft difcovercd the phenomena of
eleftricity. In the language of ancient A"hens and Rome,
the term was applied to every tool by which hard labour of
any kind was performed ; but in the language of modern
Europe, it feen-is reftrifted either to fuch tools or inllruments
as are employed for executing fome philofophical purpofe,
or of which the conftruftion employs the fimple mechanical
powers in a confpicuous maniier, fo that their operation
and energy engage the attention. It is nearly fynonimous,
in our language, with engine ; a term altogether modern,
and in fome meafure honourable, being beftowed only, or
chiefly, on contrivances for executing work in which in-
genuity and mcehanical Hiill are manifeft. Either of thefe
terms, machine or engine, is applied with impropriety to
contrivances in which fome piece of work, is not executing
on materials^ which are then faid to be manufaftured. A
travelling or lathing machine is furely a vulgarifm.

A machine or engine is, thtrefore, a tool, but of compli-
cated conllruftion, peculiarly fitted for expediting labour»
or for performing it according to certain invariable prin-
ciples : and we (hould add, that the dependence of its effi-
cacy or mechanical principles muil be apparent, and even
confpicuous.

The contrivance and ereftion of fuch works conftitirte
the profelTion of the engineer ; a profeffion which ought by
no means to be confounded with that of the mechanic, the
artifan, or mannfafturer. It is one of the ^rtes Ulerales ;
as dcferving of the title as medicine, furgery, architefture,
painting, or fculpture. Nay, whether we confider the im-
portance of it to this flo\iri(hing nation, or the fcience that
is neceffary for giving eminence to the profeflor, it is very
doub'ful whether it fliould not take place of the three lall
named, and go ^a/v'/^«^/ with furgery and medicine.

In the language of our praftical mechanics, the terms
machine, engine, and mill, are ufed without a proper dif-
tinftion of the clafies of machinery to which they fhoidd
in ftriftnefs be applied. All thefe denominations are alike
the praftical applications of the fcience of mechanics, and
confill only of different combi ations of the mechanical pow-
ers. Though the combinations and modifications which the
ingenuity of mankind is conllantly producing are cndlels,
ftill it is pofTible, by a proper claffification, to arrange tiiemr
under their proper terms, to avoid the confufion which at
prefent prevails amongfl. thofe of our ingenious countrymen;
who have laboured to imi)rove the arts dependent en me-
chanics, without troubliiig themfelves to fix upon the moll
precife language in which to exprcfs their ideas. If we
might prefume to decide upon a proper definition of thefe ■
words, which has not hitherto been done, we (hould advife
that the term machine be ufed as generic, and applied to any
m.ill, engine, inilrument, or apparatus having moving parts.
That machinery (hould^lfo be ufed as a general term, figni-
fying the m.oving and operative parts of any machine or en-
gine whatever, and its fynonimous term mechanifm be ap-
plied to the moil delicate machmery, fuch as the parts of
watches and mathematical inllruments, or to the mo!l de-
licate parts of any other machine, as the machinery of a
flour-mill, or fawing-mill ; the mechanifm ~0t a clock,
watch, orrery, &c.

Let the term engine be reftrifted to fiich machines as
have fome relation to hydraulics or pneumatics, on in flicrt,
where their operations depend upon, or aftuate fluids ; as a
fleam ensjine, a water engine, pumping engine, blowing en-
gine, prefi'urc engine, and fire extinguiftiing engine.

Jlfl/l ihould be applied to large and ■powerfi)! compound
machines, or fyllcms of machines ; including their firft
mover in the term ; as a cotton mi!l, which ci>Btains a vaff"
number of different machines, and alfi the water v.heel, or ■
lleam engine, which aftuates them all ; fo likewife, an
iron mill, copper mil', rolling mill, grinding mill, log\vocd»
mill, worded mill, &c. &c.

Corn mill, or Jlour mill, is, in fome degree, an exception-
to our definition, becaule in the early ilages of fociety if
was the only mill in ufe, and hence the term became pr-r—
ticularly attached to it ; and any machine for grinding-
or reducing to powder is called, a mill, as a coffee mill,- .
bark rp.ill, colour mill, malt mill, &c. though^ in llrictnefo,-
thefe fliould be called machines.

In this claflification, we have ftudied to infringe as little'
as poflible upon the diftinftions which have been made by
culloiTi, and confirmed by the uiage of mechanics them-: -
felves, though not invariably, for they have dividing en-
gines, cutting engines, and many others which ftiould be
machines.

The,

MACHINERY.

The pracllcal application of mechanics to t!ic conllrudlion
of machinery, is a liibjoft of the utmoll impiirtance to the
welfare of our country, depending fo materially a3 it does
upon commerce, wliich is derived chiefly from our manu-
factures ; and thefe owe the pre-eminence they have over
other nations to the general introduftion of machinery,
which has taken place within thele forty years, to abridge
manual labour in every department, and in every trifling ope-
ration : it is to this foiirce we mud look for the increafe
of property of every defcription, as the introduftion of
every machine is a real creation of all the work it will per-
form, without the addition of farther increafe of human la-
bour. An idea is very generally entertained, that machinery
is prejudicial to the interefl: of mankind, as far as it tend? to
diminidi the value of that labour by which the lower clalfes
of focicty can alone purchafe the means of fubfutcnce :
this idea is, however, founded on error, as applied to any
fuppcfcd injury fociet)' in general can fullain, though indi-
viduals whole labours are fuperfeded by machines, will
fuffer inconvenience for a time, yet it is only for a time, and
fo long as they, or others more intelligent, fliall difcover a
new channel for the exertion of their induftry. As ma-
chines tend to increafe the quantities of thoie luxuries and
neceflaries of life which mankind are fo anxious to obtain, it
only requires that an equitable divifion of thefe benefits
fhould be made to obviate every objeflion, and really im-
prove the condition of all c'afles ; a retiofpecl of the lail
forty years fliews the truth of this obfervation, for though
fo many machines have been employed in all trades and ma-
r.ufaclures as probably to do more vvork than the whole po-
pulation could do previous to that period, yet the value of
Tiuman labour has, notwithllanding, increafed in the fame
proportion as other articles have advanced in price.

We fliall, in this article, enter into fome general obfer-
vations upon the conllruction of machinery, and particu-
larly point out fuch contrivances as feem applicable to
other purpofes than thofe for which tht-ir inventors have
employed them ; and we fliall give, as examples of praftical
machinery, a defcription of the famous block machines at
Portfmouth, which contain many new contrivances. We
were unable to introduce thefe under the article Block,
as the machines were not erected at the time that article was
printed.

The grand objeft of all mechanifm, or machinery, is to
convey and modify the motion of the firlt mover of the ma-
chine, and communicate it in a proper manner to tlie fubjeft
to be operated upon : thus, the flow rotative motion of a
water-wheel is, by the machinery of cranks, levers, and
toothed wheels, converted into a rapid reciprocating mo-
tion for working fawing machines, and the velocity of the
motion is increafed or diminiflied, as ihe occafian requires
either great power or great fpeed. In like manner, the reCli-
iinear motion of the piftoii rod of a tteam engiiie is, by the
machinery of parallel levers, working-beam, connefting-rod,
crank and fly-wheel, converted into a rotative motion ; and
this motion can ajain, by the machinery of wheel-work, be
adapted, either in velocityor power, to work grinding-llones,
circular faws, threfhing-mills, and other fimilar machines
which require great velocity ; or fl.itting mills, boring ma-
chines, rafping machines f^r logwood, lead-pipe drawing
machines, &c. which require great power to give them mo-
tion, and are, therefore, performed with a lefs vel city.
Machinery is, therefore, the organs by which motion is
altered in its velocity, its period, and direflion, and thus
adapted to any purpofe. All machinery will be found,
upon minute invefligation, to be only modifications of the
fix mechanical powers : the greateft number will be found to

conflll chiefly of parts wliicK have a tttotion of rotatiot
round fixed axes, and derive all their energy from levers
virtually contained in them : thus the pulhes, wheel and
axle, are only modifications of the lever, and the fcrew
is compounded of the lever with a variety of the inclined
plane or wedge, fo that the number of mechanical powers
may be reduced to two, which alFume an infinite variety of
forms and motions. The theory and manner of calculating
their effefts will be found under Mechanics.

In contriving any machinery, the engineer fhould always
remember that nothing contributes more to the perfection
of a machine, efpecially if it is maffive and ponderous, thafi
great uniformity of motion. Every irregularity of motion
waftes fome of the impelling power ; and it is only the
greatefliof the varying velocity which is equal to that which
the machine would acquire if moving uniformly throughout ;
for while the motion accelerates, the impi.liing force is
greater than what balances the reflftance then aftually op.
pcfed to it, and the velocity is lefs than wliat the machine
would acquire if moving uniformly ; and when the machine
attains its greatefl velocity, it attains it becaufe the power
is then not aiting againfl the whole reflllance. In both of
thefe fituations, therefore, the performance of the machine is
lefs than if the power and reflftance conflantly bore the fame
relation to each other, in which cafe it would move uni-
formly.

Every attention fhould, therefore, be given to this, and
we fliould endeavour to remove all caufe of irregularity
through the whole machine. There are continual returns of
ftrains and jolts from the inertia of the different parts adding
in oppoflte dircttion. Although the whole mome!ita may
always balance each other, yet the general motion is hob-
bling, and the points of fupport are ilrained. A great
engine, lo conflruCied, commonly caufes the building to
tremble ; but when uniform motion pervades the whole
machine, the inertia of eaeh part tends to preferve this
uniformity, and all goes fmoolhiy. It is alfo defervmg of
remark, that when the communications are fo contrived, that
the uniform motion of one part produces uniform motion to
the next, the preffi'res at the communicating points remain
eonllant or invariable. Now the accomplifhing of this is
generally within the reach of n echanics, and the engineer
fhould adapt his machinery to the particular cafe before
him.

In the machinery for modifying and adapting a rotatory
motion, the tirll which prefents itfVlf is the communication
by means of toothed wheels acting on each other. This is
tlie moif general method in machinery, becaufe it tranfmits
the motion with certainty and accuracy, and if the teeth
are properly formed, wheels, perhaps, coufume lefs force in
fri"'.ion than any other method ; but this is a fubject un-
derflood by few mechanics. Jn the treatifes on the con-
ftruftion of mills, and other works of this kind, are many
inllrucllons for the formation of the teeth of wheels, and
almoil every noted millwright has his own noitrums ; but
they are mofl of them defective in principle, or at Icaft they
are only corrett in certain cafes, which have by experiment
or theory been determined, and are extremely fallacious
when applied indifferently for all cafes, as is the millwright's
cullom. An inveltigation of this fnbjeft, as applied to
delicate mechanifm, where accuracy rath<T than 'Irergth is
the objeft, will be found in our article Clock IFori, and
we pr 'pofe to give fome further applications ot tfiole prin-
ciples to wheels of large dimenflons under Mill Il'ori.

In the formation of the teeth of wheels, a fmall de-
viation from the perfect form is not, perhaps, of very
great importance, except in cafes where a very iarge wheel

drives

MACHINERY.

drives a rery fmall one, a cafe the judicious engineer fliould
always avoiti : the grand point to be attended to, is to adopt
fiich a contlriiSion as will infure all the teeth of a wheel
being precifely equal, and to make as great a number of
them as the ftrength will admit. This will caufe feveral teeth
to be in aftion at once, and make the communication of the
motion extremely fmooth and uniform. To obtain Itrength
in the cogs when they are made fine, the width or thicknefs
ef the wheel muft be increafed ; and this is one of the greatefl
praiSical improvements which has been made in machinery
for thefe hd twenty years. Formerly the bed engineers,
fuch as Smeaton, direfted the teeth of large cog-wheels to
be four and five inches diftant from each other, or pilch, as
the millwright? term it. Such wheels always aft unequally
tipon each other in confequence of the point of contaft
of the large cogs conftantly altering its pofition, becoming
alternately nearer or farther from the centre of one or other
of the wheels ; and this, tending to increafe the aning ra-
dius of one, whilft it diminiihes the other, caufes their
velocity and powers to vary at every cog that pafles by,
and the machine works by ftarts and jerks. The wheel-
work of modern machinery is conftruded with fine cogs,
feldom mora than one and a half or two inches pitch, and
as much length of cog, or breadth of the wheel, as will
make them uifficiently Itrong. We have feen fome wheels
in a large cotton mill which bore a ftrain equal to thirty
horfes' power, in which they were nine and twelve inches
broad upon the face. Cog-wheels are found to work mod
fmoothly when the teeth of the large wheel are m«de
of hard wood, and the teeth of the fmall one made of cad
iron, the afting furfaces being dreffed or filed fmooth and to
the true figiire. A mechanic, in contriving any machinery,
(hould always bear in mind, that where he introduces cog-
wheels, they (hould be as large in their diameters as is con-
liftent with other circumftances, becaufe this allows the
teeth to be made finer in proportion to the power they are
to bear, than if they were of fmaller radii ; and the teeth,
therefore, nearer the centre : it alfo occafions lefs prefTure
or drift upon the centre, and the wear of the whole will be
equable. Another circumflance is worth notice, and fhould
always be attended to, where it will not interfere with more
important confiderations ; this is, the direftion in which any
force is given to, and taken from, any piece of wheel-work :
fuppofe, for inftance, a water-wheel turning its axis, upon
vhich ii fixed a cog-wheel to give motion to a fecond wheel,
for the purpofe of driving any machinery ; now if this fe-
cond cog-wheel is applied on that fide of the firft cog-
wheel which is afcending, it will be oppofite to that fide of
the wheel which is loaded with water, and is confequently
defcending. In this ftate the gudgeons of the water-wheel
will have to bear (in fome cafes) double the ftrain of the
power of the machine ; becaufe the power, wliich is the
weight of the v>'ater, is applied on one fide the centre of
the wheel, and is taken off by turning the fecond cog-
v.'heel on the other fide : the centre, or fulcrum, therefore,
bears the whole power, and alfo the re-a£lion to that power,
in addition to the weight of its own parts ; in the fame man-
ner as the fulcrum of a fleelyard or balance beam bears the
whole of the weight fufpended from cither end, and its own
weight alfo. On the other hand, fuppofe the fecond wheel
applied on the defcending fide of the water whtel, this
being on the fame fide of the centre, the prefTure thereon
will be far lefs than the power of the machine. In fome
cafes (but not in a water-wheel), by the proper arrangement
of the wheel work, the power may be m.ade to operate to
lift the centres, and thus in part relieve them from the
weight of the wheil, fo as aftually to dimi:iifli the prefTure of

friftion of the pivots, when, by a contrary application, k
would have increafed it in the fame degree. Similar ad-
vantages will attend the precaution of adapting the pofitiong
<»f different wheels upon their ftiafts to the different weights
or drains they have to bear, fo that the gudgeons at the two
ends of any fhaft may have an equal drift or prefTure upon
them. This will caufe them to wear equally, and to have lefs
friftion, becaufe they may be made fmaller than where no
fuch care is taken, dill having fuflicient drength. It is ac-
complifhed by confidering the drift or prefl'ure upon the
centre of every wheel upon any axis, and placing the two-
gudgeons or pivots of the axis at a didance from each of
tile wheels, proportionate to the drift upon its centre. Thus,
fuppofe a diaft has a cog-wheel fixed upon it, and a fmall
wheel or pinion alio fixed upon it at fome didance from the
wheel, the power is given to the axis by wheel-work ope-
rating upon the teeth of the pinion, and the re-action to this
power is given by fome machinery which the teeth of the
large wheel actuates. In this cafe the drift on the centre of
the pinion will be very confiderable, becaufe the power is
applied near the centre of the axis ; but the wheel tranf-
mitting the power at a greater radius, will, perhaps, have
much lefs drift on its centre (the proportion depending in
fome degree upon the direction in which the power and re-
ailion are applied, as dated in our lait obfervation) : if this
is the cafe, the gudgeon at that end of the fhaft, where the
pinion is placed, fhould be lengthened out, fo as to give the
bearing point at a greater didance from it than the wheel,
which fhould have its gudgeon placed much nearer to it,
becaufe lefs drain is to be borne. By this means the drift
upon the two ends of the fhaft will be equally divided be-
tween them : and though this proportion of the centre can-
not be always accomplifhed without inconvenience, the en-
gineer diould always have it in view ; and then, where it is not
praiElicable, he fhould attain the fame end, by apportioning
the ftrength or diameter of the gudgeons to the relative
drains they have to bear.

An endlefs belt or drap is a very general method of
tranfmitting rotatory motion : it is ufually employed in cafes
where a very quick motion is to be created, and the re-aftioa
to be overcome is nearly equable. In fuch cafes it has the
advantage of wheel-work from its fimplicity and the eafe of
its motion. Some curious properties belong to the ecdiefs
ftrap, I'iz. that the pulley or rigger it works t-pon muft be
larged in the middle, that is, the diameter mull be greater
in the middle of the pulley than at the edges, becaufe the
ftrap always rides on to the largeit diameter of the pulley,
and if this is not in the centre it will flip off at one fide.
It is not eafy to give any fatisfadlory explanation of this
faft, nor of another, that if, by accident, one of the puUies
is ftopped while the ftrap is urged round by the motion of
the other, it inftantly flies off its pulley, unlefs the edge of
the pulley fhould be much wider than tbe drap. This pro-
perty is a great recommendation of it for fome purpofes,
fuch as threfhing mills, fiour-dreffing machines, lathes, cot-
ton machines, &.c. where any thing accidentally dopping the
machines would dedroy them if driven by wheel-work, but
the drap flips round, and very foon comes off, fo as to
avoid all further danger. Belts of girt-'unb, fuch as are ufed
for faddle girts, are fometimes uied inftead of leather ftraps,
though thele are undoubtedly preferable. The ftrsp Jliould
be dreffed to an eqii.il thicknefs and breadth throughout, and
the ends very neatly joined ; that i?, of the fame thicknefs
there as at every other part. It is fometimes done by few-
ing, but the bell method is by gluing them together, with a
glue compounded of Irifh glue, ifinglafs, ale grounds, and
boiled linfeed oil. The two ends being tapered away and.

overlapped

MACHINERY.

everlapped are united witVi this cement, and will be as flexible forcing themfclves into fpaces not exaftly fituated to receive

as any other part, but fo (Ironij that it will fear to pieces them. The bed way is to make the links in the manner of

in any part rather than at the joint. A tool for equalizing watch or clock chains, with iron plates, and holes drilled

the thicknefs and breadth of the (Iraps for belts is described through them at equal diflances, to receive crofs pins upon

in the Tranfaflions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxviii. which the cogs are to aft. By this means the lengths may

p. 102, invented by Mr. Aubrey. They will by this means be niade far mure accurately than by bending the iron in the

■ be rendered very correft, for nothing can be more unpleafant manner of common chain links.

in machinery than the joint and tiiick places in the endk-fs Mr. Nicholfon has dcfcribed a fpinning-wheel for children,

ftraps jerking over the riggers, and caufing a violent drift at a charity-fchool, in which a large horizontal wheel, with

upon the centres every time by the increafed tenfion of the a flip of buff leather glued on its upper furface near the

•[Jfgp_ outer edge, drove twelve fpindles, at which the lame number

A mechanic, in calculating any cxtenfive piece of ma- of children fat.
chinery which is to depend upon ilraps for the communi- The fpindles had each a fmall roller, likewife faced with
cation of its motions, particularly if they are of great leather, and were capable, by an eafy and inilantaneous mo-
length to convey their motion ti a coullderable diftance, and tion, of being thrown in contaft wiih the large wheel at
have much drain upon them, (liould always confider that pleafure ; each child, therefore, could throw her own part

fuch machinery will lofe fome of its velocity ; that the of the apparatus into work, or caufe it to flop as often or

wheels, which are turned by fl raps, will never make quite as long as fhe pleafed.

To many revolutions as they ought to do from a calculation of The winding bobbins for yarn at the cotton mills operate

their diameters. This is generally fuppofed to arife from the on the. fame fimp'e and elegant principles, which pofTeffes

fti-ap flipping, in fome degree, upon the furface of the the advantages of drawing the thread with an equal velocity,

wheels it paffes over, but we are inclined to fufpeft that it whatever may be the quantity of the bobbins, and cannot

:.arifes from another caufe which has not been inveltiga'ed, break it. The fame mode of cummunication has been adopted

- I'iz. the elafticity of the ftrap : for inftance, fuppofe that in large work by Mr. Taylor, of Southampton, in his faw

the diftance between two wheels conneftcd by a ftrap is

ten feet, and that the drain upon the drap is fuch as to

ftre'ch or extend it two inches in that length on the fide

which bears the drain (called by mechanics the leading fide),

on the other, or returning fide, there will be no drain, and to make the wheels bear firm agaiiid each other, either by .

mills. In this the wheels afted upon each other by the con-
taft of the end grain of wood indead of cogs. The whole
made very little noife and wore very well : it was in ufe
nearly twenty years. There is of coufequencea contrivance

therefore the ftrap will return to its original length. In fuch
a cafe the wheel which is driven will lofe in its motion tvro
inches in every ten feet, becaufe the ftrap gives out that
quantity in leading to the wheel, but takes it up again in
.returning, as foon as the drain is removed from it.

wedges at the focket or by levers. This principle and
method of tranfmilting n echanic power certainly deferve
attention; particularly as the cudomary mode by means of
teeth requii'es much ficill and care in the execution ; and
after all wants frequent ivp;iir. We have feen it applied to

Small machines are fometimes turned by a catgut band, a threfliing machine, a fmall wheel on the threfliing drum

the ends of which are united by a fmall dcel hook and eye, being applied in contact with the large wheel which gave

the hook being faftened at one end and the eyes at the other, motion to it, and a preft"ure fufficient to make it turn the

They are made with tubes, for the reception of the ends of machine was given by loading the focket for the fpindle of

the band, which are tapped with a fcrew withinfide, and the the drum with a confideiable weight. The fame principle

band being tapered and fere wed into the tube holds very is capable of communicating motion with great accuracy

fad. But to prevent it drawing out, a fmall quantity of rofin when no force is required, as will be feen on a pernfal of

ihould be applied to the end of the band which projefts Mr. Troughton's ingenious method of dividing aftronomical

throuf'h the tube, and a hot wire being touched to it indruments. See Graduation.

fmges and hardens the end, that it will never draw out of The conftruftiou of bearings, pivots, gudgeons, or

the tube. This method is coudantly ufed in fmall lathes, centres, of fpindles, as they are indifferently termed, is a

and works very neatly. The pullies for a catgut-band diould moft important point; thefe parts being the principal feats

always be cut with a ftiarp angular groove, for the nception of that friftion which is the dedrudtion of all machinery.

' of the band, and it fliould not touch the bottom of it, or it Pivots are always made of iron or dcel, both becaufe thefe

will be liable to flip. For the fame reafon, the pullies are fubftarces are better adapted for rubbing furfaces, and that

bed made of wood, becaufe metals foon acquire a polifh, their ftrength admits ths pivot being as fmall as pofiibic ;

which prevent the band holding firmly upon it. The wood the bearing, or bed to receive the gudgeons or pivots, fhould

fhould be cut with its grain acrofs the direction of the band, be of a fofter metal, as brafs, tin, or zii c, and kept well

that every part of the circumference may be of a fimilar fuppUed with nil when at Vork. Hirdened detl is a moft

texture. adir.itjble fubilance for pivots, which have a great drain to

Endlefs chains are fometimes ufed to communicate mo- bear, and a rapid motion. The bearing cr bed may alfo be

tion of wheels, and frequently cogs are formed nn the wheels made of the iame material, and is the only inftance where

to be received into the links of the chains. This method is two bodies, having friftion againll each other, can v.ith

very prafticable on particular occafions, and tliough it has propriety be made of the fame fubftance : for it is found,

not advantages to put it in competition with cog-wheels that where iron or foft fteel furfaces are worked with a fric-

actiiig upon each other when they can be applied, it is in tion againll parts of the fame fubdances, the fridtion and

many inftances a valuable refource to the engineer to convey abrafion are far greater than when a fofter matenal, ks brals,

motion to fome didance when it requires to be accurate, and tin, hard wood, ivory, horn, &c. is ufed. The great dif-

where it would injure the operation of the machine if any ficulty of making hard dtel pivots to fpindles is the only

motion was loll by the flipping of bands. In making fuch reafon they are nut generally ufed ; but there are fome cafes,

chains the greated care is neceflary to have all the links in which nothing elfe can be employed; where iteadinels

precifL-Iy of one length, and the cogs very accurately fitted and accuracy of motion are required, and great velocity at the

■to them, or a great friftion will be caufed by the cogs fame time. To obtain this accuracy, it it neceflary that tlie

4 pivot

MACHINERY.

pivot (Rould be fitted, and kept in accurate contaft with the
interior furface of its focket or pivot-hole, and this will
prefent a fufficicnt accefsof oil, to prevent any other fpindlc,
than one of hardened (leel, from burning or heating by
the friftion, when in rapid motion ; and the expanfion oc-
cafior:ed by this heat increafes the prefTure and the friftion,
till the pivot becomes fixed in its focket, and will rather
twift off than turn round in it. The fpindle for a turning
lathe mull always he of hard fteel ; and even then, a failure
of the fupply of oil for a moment, will caufe it to burn into
the collar. Circular faw-fpindles are frequently burnt in
tht- fame manner ; their motion being very quick.

The bell form of a gudgeon or pivot for a fpindle, is that
of a cylinder, with a flat fhoulder, to prevent it from fliift-
ing i'.s pofition endways. This form will bear mofl fairly
and lleadily ; but it is neceffary that the focket, or brafs
•which contains the pivot, fhould be made in two halves, and
put together with fcrevs, that the halves may be fcrewcd
clofcr as the focket enlarges by wearing : but as this is only
an imperfect method, becaufe the pivot can never fit accu-
rately after having been worn, a conical form is ufed for the
pivots of axles requiring great accuracv, as thefe may be
always made to fill their focktt.i, by prefTing the cone farther
into ks fncket. The cone is ufed in many turning lathes,
whil'l others are made very nearly cylindrical, with a
fhoulder ; and as the collar is of hard fteel, they do not
wear in any fenfible degree. Their advantage over the cone
is, that they have no drift endways upon the oppofite
centre, as the cone has; though tliis is fo (light in an acute
cone, as to be of no importance in fnall machinery. In
heavy work-", fuch as the gudgeons of water-wheels, a
■cinical figure would be highly improper, and has no advan-
tage to. recommend it ; a=: fuch gudgeons feldom have a:iy
brafs fcrewed down over them, their own weight being fuf-
ficicnt to keep them down, and they always fi' true as they
wear away. The mod accurate and fimple of a!l piwors is
(hat which is fimilar to a piece of wo'k, while turning in a
lathe ; the axis having a fmall luile made in each end of it,
and the fupports formed by'fharp conical points, received
into the ho'es ; and one of them muft be adjuftable by a
ferew, to make it aKvavs fit the length of the fpindle. It is
ufual to make the conical points on the ends of two fcrews,
either of which may then be adjulled. The fame thing may
be accompliflv d by making conical points at the ends of the
fpindle, and forming the holes for its reception in ends of
the two fixed fcrews, which can at all times be fcrewed up
as the parts wear. It is the mod perfeft of all methods, but
is not adapted to bear any great flrain, becaufe the fcrews
will get loofe, and all the objetlions to the conical fpindle
apply to it.

Tlie pivot at the lo.ve'r end of a vertical (haft, which has
a great weight to fuftain, as in a heavy horle-wlieel, is v^-ry
properly made of a hemifpherieal figure, and received in'o a
proper cavity. A cylindrical pivot, having a flat end, is
frequently ufed for large and heavy upright axes ; but it is
difficult to keep oil fupplied to tliem, as the great weight
prefles it out from between the afting furfaces, and the
gudgeon burns. To avoid this, fome mechanics make a
cleft acrofs the lower face of the gudgeon, exadlly in the
manner of a fcrew-head. This getting full of oil, is con-
ftantly fupplied to the afting furfaces.

We have feen an horizontal windmil, having a vertical
axis loo feet high, with fails and wheels of immenfe weight,
all bearing upon one pivot. This was with the greatefl dif-
ficulty kept in order; and it was neceffary to keep a fmall
ftream of cold water always running into a pan, which fur-
rounded the gudgeon, to keep it cold. This method of

Vol.. XXI.

watering, inftead of oiling, a gudgeon is alfo ufed in paper*
mills ; but it cannot be recommended as a good method.

Friftion-rollers are frequently ufed for fupporting gud«
geons, and, if made with great care, have the leaft friction
which can be conceived ; but they are liable to get out of
order, if not made with extreme accuracy. See Mill-

A great number of machines depend upon reciprocating
motions, fuch as pump-milh, faw-mill.<i, &c. Where the
fird mover has a circular motion, as a water-wheel, the re-
ciprocating movement will be moft conveniently produced
by means of a crank ; becaufe it commences the change of
motion by degrees, and does not fuddenly urge the parts
into motion in a contrary diredlion ; nor fuddenly check the
movement again, but effedts both changes without violence.
It is proper, in fuch cafes, to regulate the motion of the
firft mover by a fly-wheel, ocherwife the refiftance of the
work, at the inllant of the change of motion, it fo fmall,
that the machine would accelerate in that period, and then
be checked agam. The fame may be accomplifhsd by-
having feveral of the reciproca'ing movements and thefe a^
alternately, that v.hen one requires the moft power, the
others take the lead, fo as to equalize the refidance to the
fird mover, and make the motion uniform. All recipro-
cating machines labour under great difad vantages, from the
circumftance that a great mafs of matter mud be put in
motion, and this motion deltroyed again. Thus, in a fingle
pump forcing water through a great height of pipes, the
column of water is, at every ftroke the pump makes, put in
rapid moti in, which is wholly loft during the return of the
pump-bucket for another ilrake, when fre(h impetus mnft be
given to the water: now by applying a double atling
pump, or two or three pumps afiting at intervals, and tlie
water regulated by an air-velfel, the m.otion wih b\; very
eafy, becaufe the column of water will be in conftant mo-
tion throu;h the pipes, and the momentum once giveK to it
will continue as long as the machine is at work, inilead of
requiring a repetition of it at every ftroke.

In every machine, the aClion of the moving power ic
tran^ferred to the working point, through the parts of the
machinery, which are ma'erial, inert, and heavy ; or, to de—
fcribe it more accuratelv, before the necefl'ary force can be
excited at the working point of the niacliine, the various
connefting forces mnft be exerted in the different parts of the
machine: and in order that the working point may follow-
out the imprefllon already made, all the connecting parts or
limbs of the machine mult be moved in difl^erent diredtions,
and with different velocities. Force is neceffary for thus
changing the ilate of all this matter, and frequently a very
confiderab'e force. Time muft alfo elaple before all this
can be accomplifhed. This often confumes, and really
wades, a great part of the impelHng power. Thus, in a
crane worked by men walking in a wheel, it acquires motion
by flow degrees ; becaufe, in order to give fiitficient roonx
for the adlion of the number of men or cattle that are necef-
fary, a very capacious wheel mud be employed, containintr
a great quantity of inert matter. Ail of this muft be put \a
raoti,)n by a very moderate preponderance of the men: it
accelerates flowly, and the load is railed. When it has at-
tained the required height, all this matter, now in coufider-
able mot:on, mull be dopped. This cann.ot be done in aa
inftant, with a jolt, which would be very inconvenient, and
even hurtful : it is therefore brought to reft gradually.
This alfi) confumes time. Xay, the wiicel mud get a mo-
tion in the contrary direction, that tlie load may be lowered
into the cart or lighter; and this can onlv be aceompiilhed.
by degrees. Then the tackle mift be lowered down agaiii

S.D for.

MACHINERY.

for another load, which alfo muft be done gradually. All
this waftcs a great deal both of time and force, and renders
a walking-wheel a very improper form for the firll mover of
a crane, or any machine whofe ufe requires fuch frequent
changes of motion. The fame thing obtains, although in a
lower degree, in the (team-engine, where the great beam
and pump-rods, fometimes weighing many tons, mufl be
made to acquire a vorv bviflc motion in oppofite diredlions,
twice in every working ttrokc. It operates in a greater or
a Icfs degree, in all engines which have a reciprocating mo-
tion in any of their parts. Pump-milb are of neceffity fiib-
jefted to this inconvenience. In the famous engine at
Marly, about i-ths of the whole moving power of fomc
of the water-wheels ia employed in giving a reciprocating
motion to a fet of rods and chains, which extend from the
wheels to a ciftern about three-fourths of a mile diftant,
where they work a fet of pumps : thus the engine is, by
fuch injudicious conftruflion, a monument of magnificence,
&nd the druggie of ignorance with the unchangeable laws of
nature. In machines, all the parts of which continue the
diredlion of their motion unchanged, the iner'.ia of a great
mafs of matter does no harm ; but, on the contrary, con-
tributes to pfeferve the fleadincfs of the motion, in fpite of
fmall inequalities of power or refiftance, or unavoidable ir-
regularities of force in the interior part. But in all recipro-
cations, it is highly prejudicial to the performance ; and,
therefore, conftrudtions which admit fuch reciprocation
without neceffity, are avoided by all the intelligent en-
gineers.

In many machines, but generally in fmall works, what
are called hearts, camms, fnails, excentric wheels, &c. are
a very excellent method of producing flight reciprocating
movements to levers. From the rotatory motion of an axis,
they have the great advantage of admitting any modification
of the motion, to aft fuddenly or gradually, in either direftion,
at the pleafurp of the maker. This is done, by wheels of a
particular form, fattened upon an axis, and levers applied in
contaft with their circumferences, which receive a motion in
proportion as the different radii of the wheels alter their
lengths ; and if, at any point of the motion, the lever is to
be in a ftate of reft, the periphery of the wheel is, during
that period, made a circular arc, and concentric with the
axis. From the facility of producing any motion whatever
by carams, it is an univerfal method, and applicable to all
fubjefts ; but ftill has objeftions, which will induce the en-
gineer to negleft it in thofe mftances, where any other move-
ment will anfwer the fame purpofe. Thefe objeftions are
the great friftio;i, and wear of the camms, which foon unfits
them for accurate motion ; this may in i'ome meafure be ob-
viated by applying rollers in the ends of the levers, to re-
. ceive the contaft of the camm. Another objeftion is, that
the camm is unfit for producing a double motion, becauie a
fpring or weight muft be introduced to return the lever, and
always keep it in contaft with the camm. Now if this
fpring is only ufed to return the lever, it will operate very
well ; bu' if it is made fo ftrong as to effeft any operation of
the machine, the friftion will be grea', and be a ferious ob-
jeftion to the ufe of camms.

The principles of thefe movements, and praftical direc-
tions for conftrufting camms for any kind of movement, is
fully explained in our article Diagonal Motion, which
renders it unneceflfary to enlarge upon the fubjeft in this
place. Camm.s are ufed on a large fcale in rolling-mills, for
working the flicars with which large iron bars are clipped
into lengths. They are alfo employed in the machine for
punching holes through the iron plates for boilers, weaving
Tnachmes, &c. ; and are in common ufe in the blowing ma-

chine ufed in iron forges ; but it is a very injudicious ap-
plication, and a common crank would be much better.

We once with great plcafure contemplated a very com-
plicated machine, m which were many reciprocating parts
necefiarily operating only whilil moving in one direftion ; in
the other, they had merely to return to repeat their opera-
tions. To produce this reciprocation, the inventor applied
a crank, which was caufed to revolve by theaftion of a pair
of elliptical cog-wheels, each balanced on an axis pafiing
through one of its foci. In this conllruftion, the motion
of the driven wheel and the crank it carried, was exceedingly
variable, but by equal increments of alternate acceleraion
and retardation. Thus when the long radius of the lirft
wheel was operating, it met the (hortell radius of the other,
therelore giving it and alfo the crank a rapid motion : in
this ftate, the crank was returning to repeat its ftroke, and
with a quick ftroke ; but by the time it had completed half
a revolution, the aftion was reverfed, the ftiort radius of the
firft wheel afting upon the long radius of the fecond, which
was therefore with its crank at the flovvcft point of its move-
ment : but the decreafe of the motion, from the quickeft to
the floweft point of its revolution, being effefted by equal
increments, gave no fhock to the machinery. The crank
was of courie, during the flow half of its movement, pec-
forming its work ; and in the quick period, returning to
fetch its ftroke. By this judicious arrangement, the refift-
ance to the firft movement was very nearly equable : for
when it had work to perform, the wheel-work gained a
power upon the working point ; but ii,i returning, it caufed
it to urge the working point with fuch an increafed velocity,
as in fome degree counterbalanced the diminiftied refiftance :
but in this, no lofs was occafioned, becaufe this increafed
velocity ftiortened the period of inaftioB haftening the re^
turn to a fituation for repeating its operation.

Thefe elliptical wheels are, in the hands of an able me-
chanic, a very ufeful contrivance, but they have not been
much ufed in machinery, from the difBculties of forming
their teeth with precifion. In the Cometarium, (fee that
article,) they are introduced toreprefent the elliptic motions
of comets, and we have feen two inftances of their being
ufed in large mac hines, where they operated with as mucSi
facility as circular wheels. It is to be obferved, that a fmall
excentricity of the ellipfe, confequently a flight deviation
from the circular figure, will produce a great inequality of
their motion, becaufe the mcreafe of the afting radius of
one wheel, is attended with a correlpondent decreale of
the other, fo that to produce almoft any differences of mo-
tion which can be required in praftice, the excentricity of
the wheels will be luch as can eafily be accomphftied, and
as will work with each other fmoothly and accurately.
When heavy ftampers are to be raifed in order to drop on
the matter to be pounded, the wiper^, by which they are
lifted, fiiould be made 6f fuch a form that the ftamper
may be raifed by an uniform prefigure, or with a motio'n al-
moft imperceptible at firft. If this is not attended to, and the
wiper is only a pin fticking out from the axis, the ftamper
is forced into motion at once. This occafions a violent '
jolt to the machine, and great ftrains on its moving parts
and their points of fupport ; whereas, when they are gra-
dually lifted at firft, the inequality of defultory motion is
never felt at the impelled point of the machine.

We have feen pillons of pumps moved by means of a dou-
ble rack on the pifton rod : a half wheel takes hold of one
rack and raifes it to the required height. The moment
the half wheel has quitted that fide of tiie rack, it lays hold
of the other fide and forces the pifton down again. This
has been propofed as a great improvement, by correfting

the

MACHINERY.

the unequable motion ot the pitloii, moved in tlie common
way bv a crank motion ; but it occalions fuch abrupt
changes of motion, that the machine is fhakeu by jolts. In-
deed, if the movements were accurately executed, the ma-
chine would be foon tbnken to pieces, if the parts did not
^ive way by bending and yielding. Accordingly we have
always obferved that this motion foon failed, and was changed
for one that was more fmooth : a judicious engineer will
avoid all fuch fndden changes of motion, efpecially in any
ponderous part of a machine.

When feveral rtampcrs, piftons, or other reciprocal movers
are to be raifed and deprelTed, common fcnfe teaches ns to
diftribute their times of adlion in an uniform manner, fo
that the machine may always be equally loaded with work.
When this is done, and the obfcrvations in the preceding
paragraph attended to, the machine may be made to move,
almoll as fmoothly as if there were no reciprocations in it.
Nothing (hews the ingenuity of the engineer more, than the
artful, yet fimple and effectual contrivances, for obviating
thofe difficulties that unavoidably ariie from the very nature
of tire work to be performed by the machine, or in the
power employed to actuate it.

In the contrivance of machinery, an engineer mull not be
tied down by too many inviolable maxims, bccaufe thofe
contrivances which are the mod improper in iome fituations
will be the beft of all in other cafes. There is great room
for ingenuity and good judgment in the management of the
moving power, when it is fuch as cannot immediately pro-
duce the kind of motion required for efFefting the purpofe.
We mentioned tlie converfion of the continued rotation of
an axis into the reciprocating motion of a piibw, and the
improvement which was thought to have been made on
the common and obvious contrivance of a crank, by lub-
fiituting a double rack on the piifon rod, and the incon-
venience arifing from tlie jolts occafioned by this change.
We have been informed of a great forge, where the engi-
neer, in order to avoid the fame inconvenience arillng from
the abrupt motion given to the gn-at lledge hammer of feven
hundred weight refilling with a five-fold momentum, f )rmed
the wipers for lifting it into fpirals, which communicated
motion to the 'hammer with fcarcely any jolf; whatever :
but the refult was, that the hammer rofe no higher than it
had been raifed in contaft with the wiper, and then fell
on the iron bloom, with very little effeil. The caufe of its
inefficiency was not gueffed at ; but it was removed, and
wipers of the common form were put i:i place of the fpirals.
In this operation the rapid motion of the hammer is abfo-
lutely necell'ary ; it is not enough to lift it up, it muft be
raifed up fo as to fly higher than the wiper lifts it, and to
ilrike with great force the ftrong oaken fpring v/hich is
placed in its way. It comprefl'es this fpring, and is re-
flected by it with a confiderable velocit) , fo aS to hit the
iron as if it had fallen from a great height : had it been
allowed to fly to that height it would have fallen upon the
iron with fomcwhat more force (becaufe no oaken fcring
is perfeftly elaftic) ; but this would have required more
than twice the time.

In employing a power which of necefHty reciprocates, to
drive machinery which requires a continuous motion (as in
applyintr the Ream engine to a cotton or corn grinding mill),
there alfo occur great difficulties. The necedi'y of reci-
procation in the firlt mover walles much pfiwer, becaufe
the inftrument which communicates fuch an enormous force
mull be extremely ftrong, and be well fiippsirted. The im-
pelling power is waited in imparting, and afterwards dc-
flroying a vail quantity of motion in the working beam.
The ikilfu! engineei' will attend to this, and dsi his utmoll

to procure the neceflary ftrength of this lever, without
making it a vail Joad of inert matter. He will alfo remark,
that all the Ilrains on it, and on its fupports, are changing
their direftions in every ftrokc. This requires particular at-
tention to the manner of fupportingit : ifweobferve the old
fteam engines which have been long erefted, we fee that
they have uniformly fhaken the building to pieces. This
has been owing to the ignorance or inattention of the engi-
ncei' in this particular ; they are much more judicioufly
creftcd now, experience having taught the moft ignorant
that no building can withfiand their defultorv and oppofite
jolts, and that the great movements mull be fupported by
a frame work of wood or iron, independent of the build-
ing of mafonry which contains it. The gudgeons of a
water wheel ftiould never reft on the wall of the building ;
it fliakes it, and if fct to work foon after the building
has been ercdled, it prevents the mortar from taking firm
bond, perhaps by ftiattering the calcareous cr^-ftals as they
form.

When the engineer is obliged to reft the gudgeons in
this way, they fhould be fupported by a block of oak laid a
little hollow : this foftens all tremor,'--, like the fprings of
a wheel carriage. This practice would be very ferviceable
in many other parts of the conltruclion. It will frequently
conduce to the good performance of an engme, to make
the action of the felilling work, unequable, and accommo-
dated to the inequalities of the impelling power. This will
produce a more uniform motion in machines, in which the
momentum of inertia is inconfiderable. There are fome
beautiful fpecimens of this kind of adjuftment in the me-
chanifm of animal bodies.

In many compound machines it is of confequence to be
able to detach part of the movements while the others con-
tinue in motion. Thus in cotton-fpinning machines, it is ne-
celary to be able to call off or ftop any fpind e at pleafure,
without dilturbing the reft ; and in a large mill containing
many machines, it is effeiitial that any one may be reieafed
without interruption to the tirlt mover. Such contrivances
are called coupling or clutch-boxes : they are effected in
various ways, Iome of which are detailed under Coupling-
BOX. But we wifti here to defcribe a recent improvement,
very generally adopted in cotton and woollen mil s ; the
object of which is to avoid a jerk being given to any m.achine
when it is put in a£tion, from its being fuddenly urged from
a Hate of reft to a ftate of motion : for if the movement is
to be rapid, nothing can be more dellructive to the machine
than the violence ot the (hock it receives from the common
clutch-box. To avoid this, the arm which gives motion to
'he machine when the clutch of the running fpindle is en-
gaged wi'h it, is not fixed fall upon the fpindle, but is
made in two halves Icre.ved together upon a circular part
of the- fpindle, and pinched upon it lo fail by the fcrews, that
it will have fufiicieut friction to turn the machii e round in
the ordinary courfe of its work, but (lips round upon the
(pindle, if the reliltance is greater than this friction, which
thus becomes the mealure of the power dealt out to the
machine.

Suppole a machine of this kind at reft, the clutch is turned
by the tirlt mover with a confiderable velocity, and is fud-
denly connedled wi;h the arm above defcribed : now it re-
quires fome time (independent of any refiltance or work of
the machine) to put its parts in motion. In this time the
arm (lips round upon the Ipindle, but the friction acts con-
Itantiy, and with an equable force upon the machine to turn
it round. It commences its motion, which gradua'lv acce-
lerates, until it arrives at the fame velocity as the driving
fpindle, and then the flipping of the box ceafes, and the
5 D 2 machine

MACHINERY.

machine proceeds in an uniform manner : flill the box is a
very ufeful provilioii in cafe of any accident happening to
the machine to flop it, by anv thin;^ gettinj^ into its move-
ments : the box then Hips round uitiiout breaiiinjj the works.
All machinery, whicli is expofed to th<» chance of great vio-
-lence, fliou'd be provided with fomc ecjuivalent contrivance,
Avhich permits the movement to (lip when the machine is over-
loaded and would otherwife be broken. An inllance of this
will be I'een in the Dueuging Eir^inc j fee that article. The
fame efTett may be produced by conical wheels fitting into
each other, in the manner of a valve and its feat. One of
them being fixed to each fpindle, will, when they are jambed
into each other, comnmnicatc the motion, b'lt perniits it to
flip if overloaded. A very ingenious application of this
will be found, in the mortifnig machine of the block machines
at Portfmonth (fee MAClllXtRy fir manufailuring Skips'
i?/or/-j), and another jndicions application oi it under Lot--
-WOOD Mill.

Many other contrivances are in ufe for detaching or uniting
motions' at pleafure. In cog-wheclr, the fitpports for the
gudgeons are fometimes fitted up fo as to be moveable, that
the wheels can be feparated to fuch a diitance as to relieve
each other's teeth. At other times one of the wheels is fitted
on a round part of its axis, and united with it at pleafure
by a clutch-box. Thus the wheels are always in motion, but
one of them can be detached at pleafure from its axis, on which
it flips freely. Bevelled cog-wheels are cafiiy difengaged,
•by fuffering the axis of one to move a little endways, and
then their teeth are feparated.

Wheels turned by (traps are readily connected, or call off,
by removing the llrap, but this is not cafily done while the
wheels are in motion ; though fome dextrous workmen are
.able to put on the ftraps when the wheels arc going ; but
it is attended with much difficulty, and great danger, if the
motion is quick, of catching the fingers in the ftrap. We
have known an inllance of a man's arm being torn away at
the flioulder, by careleffnefs in perfornnng this operation.

For difengaging the motion of a Urap, the contrivance
called the live and dead pulley is very ingenious : it confitls
of two pullies placed clofe together upon any axis which is
to receive a circular motion. The endlefs llrap or band, by
encompaffing one of ihefe pullies, gives it a conllant rotatory
motion. Now one of them being fixed fall upon the fpindle,
and the other flipping freely round upon it, gives the means
of turning or difconlinuing the motion of the fpindle at
pleafure, by flfifting the llrap either upon the live or dead
pulley, which, as they are exadly of the fame fize, and
clofe to each oiher upon the fpindle, iseafily done. 'I'helive
pulley IS that which is fixed to its axis, fo called from its
caufing life or motion' to the fpindle, and the machinery
appended to it. The dead or idle pulley is that which flips
upon its fpindle ; therefore, when the llrap is caufed to run
upon it, it turns round without giving any motion to the
fpin Jle. This contrivance is extremely well adapted to give
motion to fmall machinery, from the fimplicity of its cou-
ilruftion, and the facility with which it is put in motion or
at reil. It polfefies alfo another great advantage, w'z. it
occafions no fudden fhock to the machinery at firll Ibuting,
as it does not inllantly communicate to it the lull velocity.
To lUullrate this, fuppofethe llrap running lipoii the dead
pulley, and the machine therefore at rc!l, the leading fide of
the llrap is in general conduced through a notch in a piece
of board wliich is fitted in a groove, fo as to have liberty of
Hiding in fuch a manner that it may condudl the llrap to
work upon either of the pullies ; but this is not necellary
nor always attended to, for the perfon who attends the ma-
chine may, by the flighteil preflure un the leading iide llrap

by his hand, caufe it to fliift upon the other pulley ; but as
this is not done inllantly, it communicates the motion to the
live pulley by degrees ; for at firll fiiifting, it be^'ins upon a
very narrow furface of the pulley, which is, therefore, urged
into motion, but without violence to the machine, as the llrap
at firll flips partially upon the furface of the live pulley, and
this, as we have before ilated, caufcs the llrap to endeavour
to efcape from the pulley ; but the attendant continues to
prcfs the ftrap on the leading fide, and force it to adt upon
the live pulley, which having attained its full velocity, and
the ftrap no longer (lipping upon it, has no tendency to get
olF, uulefs the machine is overloaded, and then it will get
off to the dead pulley. The live and dead pulley is very
cxtenfively ufed in cotton machinery, and is a very excellent
contrivance; the only objedion to it being that the bndi in
the centre of the idle pulley is liable to wear Very loofe m
a (hort time. It is fcarcely necefiary to add, that the driving
wheel for the (Irap of the live and dead pulley mull be as
broad on its edge as both the live and dead pulley toge-
ther ; indeed, it is generally a lonir cylindrical drum, which
receives many llraps for turning different machines.

A motion is frequently required in machinery, by which
a wheel or axis is made to revolve in one diretlion for any
required time, and then at plealurc changed, fo as to re-
volve in the other diredlion. Various means may be ufcd
for efietting this purpofe. The molt common is by means
of two equal and fimilar bevelled orcontrate wheels, fituated
on the fame axis, and their teeth towards each other. A
third bevelled wheel is applied with its axis perpendicular
to tli£ former, and its teeth engaging at pleafure with either
of the two wheels, which, as they turn the fame way round,
and can be made to act at one or other of the fides of the
third wheel, fo as to turn it in either diredlion, as it is engaged
with either of the two wheels. This movement was applied
by Mr. Smeaton to a machine he invented for drawing coals
from coal-pits. In this the third wheel was a trundle, and
could be, by a lever, made to work in the teeth of either of
the cog-wheels which were mounted upon the axis of a
water-wheel, and thus turned the trundle either way. at plea-
fure, to draw up or let down the balkcts or corves, which
were fufpended from a drum upon the axis of the trundle.
Some mechanics have conllrudled the contrivance in a dif-
ferent manner, by fitting the two wheels upim a circular
part of their fpindle, and fuffering them tu turn round freely
upon it. Their teeth are a' ways engaged with the teeth of
the third wheel, and, therefore, they are always revolving
in oppofite dired^ions, and either can at plcalure be con-
nedted with the axis by a fliding clutch-box, but which is not
long enough to engage both at once. The axis can, by this
means, be made to revolve in the direction of either wheel
at pleafure, by Hiding the clutch-box towards that whee'.

We have feen a very ingenious application of the live and
dead pulley to this purpole, for a crane in a cotton mill, to
take up and down the goods, work-people, &c. It was in-
vented by Mr. Henry Strutt, and has been applied in his
cotton mills at Belper, Dcrbylhire. In this machine it was
necefl'ary to have a motion which could be turned eitlier way
at pleafure, to draw up or let down .the ba(l<et ; but the
double wheel-work above defcribed was evidently improper,
from the fudden jerk it would liave given at the mltant of
changing the motion. It was effedled in this manner ; an axis
which gave motion to the crane barrel, has two pair of live
and dead pullies upon it, and alio a brake wheel to llop the
motion, which is fituated between the two pair: an endlefs
llrap is condudled to each pair, being turned by a long drum
placed parallel to the axis of the pullies, and kept in conllant
motion by the mill. One of thefe endlefs llraps is crolied

between

MACHINERY.

between the drum and it? piillies, but the other is not,
therefore one pair cf the live or dead pullies are always re-
volving in one direftion, and the others are turning in an op-
poiite way. Both ftraps are cond'ifted through guides fixed
to afiidiiig rail, by which the ftraps can be (hiited both at
once, lldewavs. When this rail is in a pofition that the ftraps
are both upon their dead pullies, the axis and brake wheel
are at rell, and in this pofition the rail has a tendency to re-
main, unlefs forced by hand. On moving the rail one way
from the quiefcent point, one of the ftraps is thrown on its
live piillev, and the fpindle tuims with it, winding up the
baflcet. By moving the rail in the other direction beyond its
quiefcent point, this ftrap is Ihifted on to its dead pulley,
and becomes inactive ; but the other ftrap operates on its live
pulley, to turn the fpindle in the oppollte direftion, and lets
down the ballvet. We ftiall defcribe this very ufefuland curious
machine in its place among the cotton machinery. See Ma-
nufacture of Cotton.

Logwood rafping engines, fcrew prefTes, and fome other
machines, require a motion to work, them forwards to a cer-
tain extent, and then the direftion is to be reverftd to draw
them back, which requires but very little power to efteft it.
In this cafe the motion may be effefted by a pair of cog-
wheels turning each other, and thus communicating the mo-
tion for one direilion in which it is to perform the work. A
couple of pullies are fixed on the refpettive axes near the cog-
wheels, and an endlefs ftrap connefts them, but the ftrsp is
fo long, that when the cog-wheels are in gear, the ftrap hangs
flack, and does not operate : but to reverie the movement, the
fockets for one of the gudgeons of the driving fpindle or
axis is made to fhift, that the diftance between tlic centre of
the two wheels may be increafed, fo as to difengage the teeth
of the wheels, and the ftrap becomes tight, and turns the
wheels back ; but on bringing the wheels together again,
the ftrap becomes flack, and the wheels refume their original
courfe.

Screws are, of all the mechanical powers, the moft fre-
quently ufed iw machines, though not always as moving
pans, being chiefly introduced for uniting and retaining the
parts. They are not fo conftantly employed as acting move-
ments, on account of their friflion, and the trouble of making
them ; they are, neverthelefs, a very ufeful agent on many oc-
cafions, and poflefs the advantage of accurately retaining
any movement they make, and producing an extremely flow
motion with eafe, and, when it is required, with the moft per-
fect accuracy. No engineer will employ fcrews for a rapid
motion, as their friftion and great wear renders them unfit
for fuch filuations. To the endlefs fcrew afting on the teeth
of cog-wheels, this objection does not apply fo forcibly, be-
caufe the great number of teeth on which the fcrew operates
fucceflively, do not wear fo faft as the nut of a female fcrew
would under the fame circuinftances, and the frittion is far
lefs, becaufe the fcrew is not enclofed all round its thread.
The endlefs fcrew or worm is ufeful on many occafions to ob-
tain a flow motion, which it does in a very fimple manner ;
but, for the purpofe of obtaining a quick motion, it ftiould
never be ufed, on account of the friftion and confequent
wear. This is leen in the common roaliing jack.

In many fituations in which movn'g fcrews are ufed, the
fameeffetts maybe produced in the moft fimple and convenient
manner by Mr. Braniah's method of producing and applying
a more confiderable degrte of power to all kinds of machinery
requiring motion and force, than by any means at prefent
practifed for the purpofe This method, for which, on the
3 I ft of March 1796, he obtained a patent, conlills in tlie
application of water, or other denfe fluids, to various engines,
fo as, in lome inftanccs, to caufe them to ECt with immenfe

force ; in others, to communicate the motion and powers of
one part of a machine to fome other part of the fame ma<
chine ; and laftly, to communicate the motion and force of oce
machine to another, though removed to a great diftance from
each other, and where their local fituations preclude the ap-
plication of all other methods of connection. The principle
of this invention is the fame with the hydroftalic paradox, but
its various applications to uleful purpoles is due to Mr.
Bramali. The liinplell form is for a pix-fo, or machine, to raifc
an enormous weight to a fmall height : a metallic c)linder
fufficiently ftrong, and bored perfectly imooth and cylin-
drical, IsiS a fi'lid pifton f.tted into it, v iiich is made per-
fectly watertight, by leather packing round its edge, or other
means ufed in hydraulic engines. The bottom of the cylinder
mull be made fufficiently ftrong, with the otiier parts of the
iurface, to refift the greateft (train which can ev>;r be applied
to it. In the bottom of the cylinder is ii.ferted the cud of a
fmall tube, the aperture of which communicates with vUit
infide of the cylinder, and introduces water or other fluids
into it : the other end of the pipe communicates with a fmall
forcing pump, by which the water can be injefted into the
cylinder under its pifton : the pump has of courfe valves to
prevent the return of the water. Now fuppofe the diameter
of the cylinder to be twelve inches, and the diameter of the
pifton of the fmall pump or injeiftor only one quarter of an
inch, the proportion between the two furfaces or ends of the
faid piftons will be as 1 to 2504 ; and fuppofing the inter-
mediate fpace between them to he filled with water, or other
denfe and incompreffible Huids, any force applied to the fmall
pifton will operate upon the otiicr in the above proportion,
^•/^;. as I to 2304. Suppofe the fmall pifton or injector to
be forced down when in the a£t of forcing or injecting with
a weight of 20 cwt. wliich can eafily be done by means of a
long lever, the piftcn of ihe great cylinder would then be
moved up, with a force equal to zocwt. multiplied by 2^04.
Thus is conftruiited a hydro-mechanical engine, whereby a
Vv'eight amounting to 2304 tons can be railed by a fimple
lever, in much lefs time through equal fpace, than could be
done by any apparatus conftructed on the known principles
of mechanics, and it may be proper to obfcrve, that the effect
of all other mechanical combinations is counteracted by an
accumulated complication of parts, which renders tliein in-
capable of being uletully extended beyond a certain degree,
.but in machines adted uj.oii, or conftrudted on this principle,
every difficulty of this kind is obviated, and their power
fubjett to no finite reftraint. To prove this, it will be only ne-
ceflary to remark, that the force of any machine ading upon
this principle can be iwcieafed, ad infinitum, either by ex-
tending the proportion between the diameter of the injeilor
and the great cylinder, or by applying greater power to the
lever actuating the fmall pump. On this principle very won-
derful eiFefts may be produced inttantaneoufly, by means of
comprefted air. Suppofe a large cyhnder, furnilhed with a
pifton in the fame manner as before defcribed, a globular
vefFel is ufed, made of copper, iron, or other ftrong material,
capable of refifting immenfe force, fimilar to thofe ufed for
air guns : it has a ftrong tube of fmall bore, in which is a
ftop-cock : one of the ends of this tube communicates with
the great cylinder beneath its pifton, and the other end with
the globe. Now fuppofe the great cylinder to be of the fame
diameter as that before defcribed, and the fmaU tube equal
to one quarter of an inch diameter, wlijch is the fame as the
injedting pump before-mentioned fur the prefs : then fup-
pofe that air is injedted into the globe (bv the cornmoD me-
thods) till it prclles agalnll the co^k with a force equal
to 20 cwt. which can be done ; the confequcnce will be,
that when the cock is opened, the pifton will be inftantiy
b iriGvtd

MACHINERY.

moved in the great cylinder, with a power or force equal to by cocks admitting it into various cylinders, many power.

2304 tons, and it is obvious, as in 'he cafe before-n-.en'ioned, ful operations arc performed: it works an immenfe prefs

that any other unlimited degree of f-rce may be acquired by for bending ftrong iron bars, or breaking cait iron for the

machines or engines th'.is conftrufted. By the hydroftatic foundery. It moves the carriage of the planlng-cngine ;

principle, the power and motion of any machine may be and he has brought the methods of packing the cylinders

transferred or communii-ated to another, let their dillai.ce and to f';ch perfeftion, that they are employed to make the

local titualion be what they may. Suppofe two fmall tubes or mod delicate adjudments in the parts of the machine. (See

cylinders, m the iniide of each of which is a pifton made a fidl defcription of this in Planing Engine, and alfo Press,

water and air-tight, a tube may be conveyed under ground Hydrojlatic.) In another part of the tattory, it works u

or otherwife, from the bottom of one cylinder to the o:her, crane for lifting the heavieft goods, by merely opening a

to form a communication between them, notwithftanding their cock, and lowers them down, by opening another, with the

dillance be ever fo great. Let tliis tube be filled with water, utmoft fafety. A very large Floodgate is alfo raifed up by

or other fluid, until it touches the bottom of the two pidons ; two cylinders. (See that article.) It may be ufed for

then, by deprefling the pifton of one cylinder, the pillon of turning the bridges of canals. (Sec Canal.) On the

the other will be railed. The fame effeft will be produced, whole, we cannot conclude this article, without recommeild-

■vice verfd ; thus bells may be rung, wheels turned, or other ing the hydroltatic principle very Itrongly to engineers, as

machinery put invifibly in motion by a power being applied a method the moll perfeft of all others of communicating

to cither cylinder.

By ihefe mean", it is obvious, that moft commodious ma-
chines of prodigious power, and fiifceptible of the greatefl
tlrength, may readily be formed. If the fame multiplication
of power be attempted by toothed- wheel pinions and rackh.

notion, which is to aft only for fhort extents, or with great
power, as it can fo ealily be condufted through any cir-
cuitous rout, and lofcs fo little power by friiHion. The
eafe with which it is relieved from the aftion, or caufed to
operate in a contrary direftion, is not its finallell advantage ;

it is fcarcely polTible to give ftrength enough to the teeth of and by means of the air-vcflel the power may be accumu-
the racks, and the machines become very cumberfume, and lated while the machine is preparing tor aftion, and then an

of (Treat expence. But Mr. Bramah's machine may be
made abundantly ftrong in very fniall compafs. It only
req"ires very accurate execution. The hjdroltatic prin-
ciple on which it depends has been well known for near'y
two centuries, and it is a matter of furpnie that it has
never before been applied to any ufcfui practical piirpofe.

The application v.hich Mr. Brauiah has made of this
truly valuable principle is very general : it was firll applied
for preffes inftead of large fcrews, for which purpofe it is
greatly fuperior in every refpeft. PrelFes being generally
moved by the ftrength of men alone, the faving of power
becomes a great objeft ; and tins it accompliihes, having

immenfe pouer fuddenly given. We have little doubt the
hydroftatic-prefs would anfwer the bell of any method for
expreffi' g oil. The prefent oil-prefs is defcribed under
QlL-MUl, a.d operates by a wedge, driven by repeated
blovvs ot a heavy Hamper. The method is ingenious ; but
great part of the power is expended in triftion, as is evident
from the wedge requiring nothing to retain it, as it is driven,
the friftion over-balancing all the re-adion of the fubllances
prelTed.

A motion is very frequently required in machinery for
giving to any piece of wheel-work an increafed or diminillied
velocity at pleafure. The molt complete of thefe are the Ex-

no proportion of the friftion of the fcrew, and immenfely panding Riggers (fee that article); but many other means

greater power. In a fcrew-pref?, it requires nearly as may be employed. Thus, on two parallel fpindles, which are

much labour to unfcrew as lo fcrew it up, an evidence of to turn each other, place a number of wheels, increafing in

the enormous friftion of a fcrew, when afting againll a great fize by regular fteps, the fmalleft wheel of one fpindlc being

prefTure : but the hydroftatic-prefs only requires a cock to oppofite to the largcll of the other. The fame cndhfs ftrap

be opened to let out the water from beneath the pifton, wiil fit any pair of them, and give a great variety of powers

which then defcends quickly, by its own gravity, or the
elafticity of the fwbttaices under the prcHurc. But the
greatell convenience of the hydroilatic priiciple is, that
its power can fo eafily be tranf itted to any diftance, and in

and velocities : the fame may be effefted by having a number
of cog-wheels ; and, inftead of a llrap, ufing an intermediate
cog-wheel, which can be applied to connedf any pair of the
wheels at pleafure. A very ingenious application of double

any dirv.-v.'^ion, by means of pipes condufted along in fitua- cones is ufed in a cotton-niachine, called the double fpceder.

tions wh' re all other means of conveying the motion would See Manufacture o/'C««on, alfo Mr. Braithwate's Chane.

be complicated, and expenfive in the extreme. Thus, in a It is very cuftomary to add what is called a fly to ;: a-

large paper-mill, an injetling-pump may be kept in conftant chines. This is a heavy did': or hoop, or other mafs of

action by -he water-mill, or fteam-engiiie, and injeft water matter, balanced on its axis, and fo connedted with the

into an air-vel'el, from which pipes are coiidufted to preflTes machinery, as to turn briflcly round with it. This may be

in all par's of the mill, and by fimply opening a cock at any done with the view of rendering the motion of the v,-hole

prefs, any required prefTure will be inilantly given by the more regular, iiotwithftanding unavoidable inequa'ities of the

elafticity of the confined air operating on the ealargcd fur- accelerating forces, or of the relillanccs occalioncd by the

face of the pifton cf any prefs. The air-veffel has, of courfe, work: it then becomes a regulator. Suppofe the refiltance

a fafety-valve, to allow the efcape of the water when the to a machine extremely unequal, and the impelling

preffiire becomes fo great as to endangei the rupture of any power perfeftly conftant ; as when a bucket-wheel is em-

of the vetfels ; for it is to be obferved, that the power of ployed to work one pump ; when the pillon has ended its

this principle is irrefiftitle, when the pump is worked by a working-ftroke, and while it is going down the barrel, the

mill, and will burft any velTels, without the Icaft appearance power of the wheel being fcarcely oppoled, it accelerates

of rtrain on the movino- parts of the pump.' the whole machine, and the pifton arrives at the bottom of

In Mr. Bramah's extenfive vvork-fliops at Pimlico, and the barrel with confiderab'e velocity ; but in the rifing

anotler at Mill-Bank, London, the ftejm-engines which again, the wheel is oppofed by the column of water now

turn the laih. s, boring-machines, planing-machines, &c. preffing on the pilton : this immediately retards the wheel ;

work 3 fmall injefting-pump, as above-mentioned, and and when the pifton has reached the top of the barrc, all the

fmall coppsr pipes are laid to every part of the works, and acceleration is undone, and is to begin again. The motion of

2 fuch

M A C H I N E R Y.

(uch a machine is very hobbling ; but the furplus of acce-
lerating fjrce, at the beginning ot a returning rtroKe, will not
make fuch a change in the motion of the machme, if we
conneil the fir with it ; for the accelerating momentum is
a determinate- qiantity : ttierefbre, if the radius of the fly
be great, this momentum will be attained by communicating
a fmil! angular m-xion to the machine. The momentum
of the fly IS as the fi;|uare of its radius, therefore it refifl:s ac-
celeration in this proportion ; and although the overplus of
power generates the fame momentum of rotation in the
whole machine as before, it makes but a fmaU and imper-
ceptible addition to its velocity. If the diameter of the
fly be doubled, the augmentation of rotation will be reduced
to one-fourth. Thus, by giving a rapid motion to a fmall
quantity of matter, the great acceleration during thfe return-
(troke of the pillon is prevented. This acceleration con-
tinues, however, during the whole of the returning ftroke,
and at the end of it the machine has acquired its greatell
velocity. Now, the working Ih-oke begins, and the over-
plus of power is at an end. The machine accelerates no
more ; but if the power is juft in equilibrium with the re-
liftance, it keeps the velocity which it has acquired, and is
ftill more accelerated during the next returning ftroke.
But now, at the beginning of the fubfequent working-ftroke,
there is an overplus of refillance, and a retardation begins
and continues during the whole rife of the piilon ; but it is
inconliderable in comparifon of what it would have been
without the fly : for the fly, retaining its acquired momen-
tum, drags forwards the relt of the machine, aiding the im-
pelling power of the water-wheel. It does this by all the
communications takin^r into each other in the oppofite direc-
tion ; the teeth of the intervening wheels are heard to
drop from their former contaft on one fide, to a contaft on
the other. By coniidering this procefs with attention, we
eafily perceive that in a few (Irokes the overplus of power,
during the returning ftroke, comes to be fo adjulled to the
efficiency, during the working ftroke, that the accelerations
and retardations exatlly deftroy each other, and every fuc-
ceeding ftroke is made with the fame velocity, and an equal
number of ftrokes is made in every fucceeding minute.
Thus the machine acquires a general uniformity with tri-
fling periodical inequalities. It is plain, that by fufficiently
enlarging either the diameter, or the weight of the fly, the
irregularity of the motion may be rendered as fmall as we
pleafe. It is much better to enlarge the diameter : this
preferves the friition more moderate, and the pivots wear
lefs. For thefe reafons, a fly is, in general, a coiifiderable
improvement in machinery, by equalling many exertions
that are naturally very irregular. Thus a man, working at
a common wmdlafs, exerts a very irregular prefTure on the
winch. In two of his pofitions in each turn, he can exert
a force of near feventy pounds without fatigue, but in others
he cannot exert above twenty-five ; nor muft he be loaded
with much above this in general. But if a large fly be con-
nedled properly with the %vindlafs, he will aft with equal
eafe and fpeed againft thirty or even forty pounds.

If any permanent change fliould happen in the impelling
power, or in the refiftance, the fly makes no obftacle to its
produftion in its full effeft on the machine, and it will be
obferved to accelerate or retard uniformly, till a new ge-
neral fpeed is acquired, exaftly correfponding with this
new power and refiftance. Many machines include in their
conftruclioti movements which are equivalent with this in-
tentional regulation, a flour-mill for example. There is
another kind of regulating fly, confifting of wings whirled
briflcly round till the refiftance of the air prevents any great
acceleration. This is a very bad one for a working machine,

for it produces its effeft by really wafting a part of the
moving power. Frequently it employs a very great and
unknown part of it, and robs the proprietor of much work
It fliould never be introduced into any machine employed in
manufaftures, except in the inftance of letting down heavy
weights, where a wafte or re-a6tion to povcr is the objeft.

Some rare cafes occur where a very diflFerent regulator is
required, when a certain determined velocity is found ne-
ceflary : in this cafe, the machine is furniflicd at its extreme
mover with a conical pendulum, confifting of two heavy
balls hanging by rods, which move in very nice and fteady
joint at the top of a vertical axis. It is well known, that
when tliis axis turns round, with an angular velocity fuited
to the length of thofe pendulums, the time of a revolution
is determined.

Thus, if the length of each pendulum be 39^ inches, the
axis will make a revolution in two feconds very nearly.
It we attempt to force it more fwiftly round, the balls
will recede a little from the axis, but it employs as long
time for a revolution as before ; and we cannot make it turn
fwifter, unlels the impelling power be increafed beyond all
probability: inwhichcaie, the pendulum will fly out from
the centre till the rods are horizontal, after which every
increafe of power will accelerate the machine very fcnfibly, a«
it tlien becomes a fimple fly. Watt and Boullon have applied
this contrivance with great ingenuity to their fteam engines
when they are employed for driving machinery for manu-
factures which have a very changeable refiftance, and where
a certain fpeed cannot be much departed from without great
inconvenience. They have connefted this recefs of the balls
from the axis (which gives immediate indication of an in-
creafe of power, or a diminution, or refiftance,) with a
cock, which admits the fteam to the working cylinder.
The balls flying out caufe the cock to clofe a little, and
diminifli the fupply of fteam, if the impelling power di-
minifties the next moment, and the balls again approach the
axis, and the rotation goes on as before, although ihera
may have occurred a very great excefs or deficiency of
power. The fame contrivance may be employed to raife
or lower the feeding fluice of a water-mill employed to
drive machniery. (See Mill.) Suppofe all refiftance re-
nioved from the working point of a machine furniflied with
a very large or heavy fly, immediately connetlcd with the
working point ; when a fmall force is ap}>lied to the im-
pelled point of this machine, motion will begin in the
machine, and the fly begin to turn, continue to prefs uni-
formly, and the machine will accelerate. This may be con-
tinued till the fly has required a very rapid motion. If, at
this moment, a refilling body be applied to the working
point, it will be afted on with very great force ; for the fly
has now accumulated, in its circumference, a very great mo-
mentum.

If a body were expofed immediately to the a£lion of this
circumference it would be violently ftruck, much more will
it be lo, if the body be expofed to the aclion of the work-
ing point, which perhaps makes one turn while the fly makes
a hundred. It will exert a hundred times more force (very
nearly) than at its own circumference. All the motion wh.ch
has been accumulated in the fly, during the whole progrefs
of its acceleration, is exerted in an inftant at the working
point, multiplied by the momentum, which depends on the
jjroportion of the parts of the machine. It is thus that the
coining prefs performs its office ; nay, it is thus that the
blacklmith forges a bar of iron. Swinging the great fledge
hammer round his head, and urging it with force the whole
way, this accumulated motion is at once cxtmguiflicd by
impafl on the iron. It is thus vre drive a nail ; and it is

tlius,

44406*^

(•W

MACHINERY.

thu5, that by accumulating a very moderate force exerted
during four or five turns of a fly, the wiiolc of it is exerted
on a punch, fet on a thick plate of iron, fuch as is em-
ployed for the boilers of tfeam engines, and the plate is
pierced as if it w?re a piece of chtefc. This accumulating
power of a fly has occafioned many, who think thcmlclvcs
engineers, to imagine, that a fir really adds power or mecha-
nical force to an engine ; and, net underftanding on what
its efficacy depends, they oi ten place the fly in a fuuation
where it only added a ufelefs burden to the machine. If
intended for a mere regulator, it fliould be rear tlie firll
mover : if it is intended to accumulate forcK in the working
point, it (hould not be far feparated from it.- In a ccrtain-
I'enfe, a fly may be faid to add power to a machine, be-
caufe by accumulating into the exertion of oue moment
the exertions of many, we can fometimes overcome an ob-
llacle that we nevirr could have balanced by the fame ma»
chine unaided by the fly. See I'Yy-wueel.

It is this accumulaiion of force which gives fuch an ap-
pearance of power to fome of our firll: movers. When a
man i"; unfortunately catched by the teeth of a paltry coun-
try mill; he if crufhed almoil to mummy. The power of
■%he llreaia is conceived to be prodigious, and yet we are

certain, \ipou examination, that it amounts to the prefTure
of no more than fifty or fixty pounds ; but this force has
been atliiig for foTC time, and there is a mill (lone of a ton
weight whirling twice round in a fecond. This is the force
that crufiied the unfortunate man ; and it required it all to
do it, for the mill Hopped. We have been informed of a
mill in the neighbourhood of Elbingroda, in Hanover,
where there was a contrivance which difengaged the mill-
ftone when any thing got entangled in the teeth of the wheels.
On being tried witli a head of cabbage, it crnlhed it, but not
violently, and would, by no means, have broken a man's
arm.

It is hardly neceffary to recommend fimplicity in the con-
ftru£\ion of machines. This feems now lufficicntly under-
ftood. Multiplicity of motions and communications increafe
friftion ; augment the unavoidable lofies by bending and
yielding in every part ; expofe all the imperfections of
workmanthip ; and have a great chance of being indiflintlly
conceived; and are therefore conlirut^ions wiihout fcience.
We fnall confider this objeft as applied to large machinery
under MiLL IVori.

M.\cHiXEiiY /or manufaPurlng Cotton: See M.v*VFAC-
TURE of Cotton.

IND OF VOL. XXL

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