\R DAIRY FARMING THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO DAIRY FARMING BY C. H. ECKLES, D.Sc. PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI AND G. F. WARREN, PH.D. PROFESSOR OF FARM MANAGEMENT, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY gorfc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved s-.fa.3q COPYBIGHT, 1916, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916. Norfoooti J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. INTRODUCTION AGRICULTURE now has a recognized place in both high S( nools and colleges. If this progress in scientific study is t( continue, it is necessary that the instruction be kept on an e< ual educational basis with all other subjects. The courses in agriculture must stand for good, solid work such as is typi- ci 1 of the entire farming industry. There is a need for text- b< oks that give the basic principles of the subject briefly \v thout being superficial. To help in meeting this need a series of books, to be known as the Farm Series, is being prepared. The aim of each book will be to discuss the phases oi its subject that are of most importance to the farmer ; that is. to answer the farmer's questions, and to make these answers in the form of underlying principles rather than as rules. The positive advice or rules that may work in one region may be absolutely wrong in another region, or at an- other time in the same region. If one understands the prin- ciples involved, he will be better able to change his practice to meet the ever-changing conditions. Statements are often made that a farmer should raise all his cows, that he should produce winter milk, that he should build a silo. Such rules have no educational value and usually have no practical value. The real problem depends on the factors involved in each case. For instance a few of the points that must be considered in deciding whether or not to build a silo are the adaptation of acj'jf 72 vi INTRODUCTION the farm to corn production, the price of hay, the size of the herd, the price of milk, whether winter or summer dairying is followed, the amount of money available. No rule can be made that will include all these points, for many of them may be changed next year. It is fitting that the first book of the series should deal with what is probably the most important source of income of American farmers, — dairy farming. As population increases we must of necessity depend more on dairy products and less on beef cattle. The best methods of producing beef are very different from the best methods of producing milk. Many farmers who once kept beef cattle are changing to dairying. For such farmers a study of dairying is of particular importance because it will bring to them in- formation that has been worked out by long experience in dairy regions. Even in the old established dairy regions the changes in prices of land, feed, labor, and dairy products and the increasing importance of manure for growing cash crops, make a study of the principles of dairy farming of prime importance. The success of the teacher will depend in large measure on the extent to which the conditions in the community are studied. Many suggestive questions are given after each chapter. Much time should be spent in finding answers to these. A number of laboratory exercises should be given on farms in the region. One should not too lightly condemn the practices of the farmers, but should rather try to learn what are the natural and economic conditions that led to the present practices. Many farmers in the community are in all proba- bility farming in a manner that is best for present conditions, but that may not be best a few years from now when condi- tions change. This book is adapted for use in schools and colleges that INTRODUCTION Vll wish to devote some time to the study of dairy farming. Three to five recitations per week and two laboratory periods per week will usually be desirable. At least a part of the laboratory exercises, and preferably all of them, should be given in periods that are two hours long. If this much time ca'inot be allowed, the laboratory period may be placed at the en 1 of the day so that when farms are visited, it will be pos- sible to take the longer time that is necessary. It is hoped that the book will also prove useful to farmers WIG wish a better understanding of the principles involved in the successful operation of a dairy farm. G. F. WARREN. [THACA, N.Y., April 1, 1916. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 PAGES IMPORTANCE or THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 1-11 Milk a universal food, 1 — Value of milk as food, 1 — Butter and cheese as food, 2 — One dairy cow per family, 3 — Amounts of dairy products used, 4 — Milk inspection, 5 — Dairy cattle as a source of meat, 5 — Dairy cattle in other countries, 6 — The dairy cow an efficient machine, 7 — Cows effective users of by-products, 7 — Dairying and main- tenance of soil fertility, 9 — Cows help to provide a full year's work, 9 — Receipts from dairy products, 10. Questions and problems 10 Collateral reading 11 CHAPTER 2 B SEEDS OF CATTLE 12-39 Origin of Breeds : Origin of domesticated cattle, 12 — Origin of breeds, 12 — Definition of terms, 13 — Classifica- tion of cattle, 14 — Value of breeds, 14 — Pedigrees, 15. Dairy Breeds: Number of animals registered, 16 — Hol- stein-Friesian, 17 — Jersey, 21 — Guernsey, 24 — Ayrshire, 27 — Brown Swiss, 30 — Dutch Belted, 30 — Kerry, 30. Dual Purpose : Dual Purpose, 31 — Shorthorn, 32 — Polled Durham, 34 — Red Polled, 34 — Devon, 36. Beef Breeds: Hereford, 37 — Aberdeen-Angus, 37 — Galloway, 38. Questions and problems ....... Laboratory exercises ....... 39 Collateral reading ........ 39 ix CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE . Selection of a Breed: Selection of a breed, 40. Individual Selection : Selection of individual cows, 42 — Extent of variation of individuals, 44 — High-producing cows more economical producers, 46. Selection by Type : How individual selection is made, 47 — The dairy type, 47 — The udder, 50 — The milk veins and milk wells, 51 —The barrel, 52 — The score card, 53. Selection by Performance Eecords : Selection by records, 56 — Overrating the importance of rich milk, 56 — Complete milk records, 68 — Taking samples for testing, 59 — Aver- aging tests, 61 — Permanent records, 61 — Cow testing asso- ciations, 61 — Advanced registry, 64 — Relation of age of cow to yield and richness of milk, 66. Selection of a Bull : Selection of the bull, 69 — Differ- ence in transmission of dairy qualities by different bulls, 71 — Methods of selecting a bull, 73 — Cross breeding, 74. Questions and problems Laboratory exercises Collateral reading PAGES 40-78 75 78 78 CHAPTER 4 MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE ..... . 79-93 Decline of milk production in summer, 79 — Protection from flies, 79 — Dehorning, 81 — Marking calves, 82 — Shelter, 82 — Milking the heifer, 83 — Methods of milking, 84 — Hard-milking cows, 85 — Effect of interval between milkings, 86 — Milking machines, 86 — Cow with leaky teats, 87 — Bloody milk, 87 — Chapped teats, 88 — Warts on teats, 88— Bitter milk, 88 — Kicking cows, 88— Self- sucking cows, 89 — How long should a cow be dry ? 89 — Drying up a cow, 89 — Milking the cow before calving, 90 — Care of cow after calving, 90 — Management of young stock, 91 — Care and management of the bull, 91. Questions and problems ....... 93 Laboratory exercises ....... 93 Collateral reading ........ 93 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER 5 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE .94-138 Composition of feeds and feeding stuffs : The uses of feed, 94 — Chemical analysis of feeds, 94 — Water, 95 — Ash, 95— Protein, 95 — Crude fiber, 95 — Nitrogen-free extract, 95 — Fat, or ether extract, 95 — Digestibility, 96 — Production values, 96 — Feeding standards, 97 — Calculat- ing a ration, 100 — The cost of the ration, 105. Discussion of common feed stuffs: Timothy hay, 106 — Corn stover, 106 — Hay from legumes, 106 — Silage, 107 — Corn, 107 — Wheat bran, 107 — Oats and oat products, 108 — Cottonseed meal, 108 — Linseed meal, 109 — Gluten feed, 109 — Beet pulp and molasses, 109 — Brewers' grains, 109 — Mixed feeds, 110 — Condimental stock foods, 111. Feeding young stock and dry cows: Calf raising, 112 — Raising the calf on skim-milk, 113 — Raising calves when whole milk is sold, 116 — The use of milk substitutes, 117 — Feeding for veal, 119 — Feeding the dairy heifer, 120 — Salt requirements, 123 — Feeding the cow when dry, 124. Feeding the cow in milk : Water for cows, 125 — Turn- ing on pasture, 126 — Feeding grain while on pasture, 127 — Providing for periods of short pasture, 128 — Amount to feed, 129 — The balanced ration, 131 — Succulent feed, 132 — Palatability of the ration, 132— Order of feeding, 133. Feeding cows for the maximum production in official tests : Obtaining the maximum production, 133. Questions and problems 135 Laboratory exercises , . . . . . . 137 Collateral reading 138 CHAPTER 6 THE DAIRY BARN 139-149 General arrangement of barns, 140 — Lighting, 140 — The floor, 141— The platform, 142 — The gutter, 144 — The stalls, 144 — Mangers, 144 — Ties, 145 — Ventilation, 146 —Cost of dairy barns, 147. Questions and problems ....... 148 Laboratory exercises ....... 148 Collateral reading 149 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER 7 PAGES COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 150-167 Normal conditions : The pulse, 150 — Temperature, 151 — Respiration, 151 — Excretions, 151. Instruments and medicines : Instruments and medicines, 151 — Drenching a cow, 152. Common ailments: Milk fever, 153 — Abortion, 155 — Tuberculosis, 156 — Inflammation of the udder, 158 — Scours in calves, 160 — Lice, 161— Bloat, 162 — Cowpox, 162 — Blackleg, 163— Sorghum and kafir poisoning, 164 — Corn-stalk disease, 165. Questions and problems 166 Laboratory exercises 166 Collateral reading 167 CHAPTER 8 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS ........ 168-201 Composition of milk: Average composition, 168 — Water, 168 — Fat, 169 — Protein, 170 — Sugar, 170 — Min- eral matter or ash, 171 — Color of milk, 171. Factors affecting composition : Kind of animal, 172 — Breed, 173 — Stage of lactation, 174 — Individuality of the animal, 175 — Interval between milkings, 175 — Fore milk and strippings, 176 — Effect of feed, 176. Market milk: Sanitary milk, 177 — Certified milk, 181. Butter making on the farm : Butter making on the farm, 182— Facilities needed, 183 — What is good butter ? 183 — Flavor, 184 — Body, color, arid salt, 184 — Separation of cream, 185 — Ripening of cream, 186 — Temperature for churning, 187 — Churns and churning, 188 — Salting and working, 189 — Package, 190. Factory products: Creameries, 191 — Cheese making, 192 _ Condensed milk, 193 — Milk flour, 194. Questions and problems 194 Laboratory exercises 195 Collateral reading 200 CONTENTS Xlll CHAPTER 9 CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING Cattle and grass, 202 — Topography and climate, 203 — ! jocation of beef and dairy cattle, 204 — Relation of trans- portation to dairying, 208 — Other adjustments due to ransportation, 213 — Marginal regions, 214 — Effect of dis- ance to railroad, 214 — Soil arid climate as determining the and of product, 215 — Kind of product and season of pro- luction, 215 — Animal unit defined,'218. Questions and problems ....... Collateral reading .... .... CHAPTER 10 SYS-I EMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS ..... Crops for feed: Corn silage, 221 — Soiling crops, 223 — iloots, 223 — Legumes, 224 — Pasture, 224 — Home-grown irain, 225. Cropping systems for dairy farms : Principles of a good Topping system, 225 — Examples of rotations, 226. Cash crops and feed raised : Feed and cash crops, 227 — \.ll feed purchased, 228 — Nothing but roughage raised, 228 — Roughage and grain raised, 229 — Roughage and cash '•rops raised, 229. Management of manure : Amount of manure produced, :!3Q — Fertility of feed returned by cows, 231 — Losses of manure and their prevention, 232 — Value of manure, 234 — Value of manure depends on the rate of application, 235 -Value of manure depends on the crop on which it is applied, 238. Questions and problems ....... Laboratory exercises PAGES 202-220 219 220 221-239 238 239 CHAPTER 11 METHODS OF RENTING DAIRY FARMS ..... 240-245 Cash rent, 2*40 — Share of crops, 240 — Share of receipts, 240 — Examples of rented farms, 242. Questions and problems 245 Collateral reading 245 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER 12 COST OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING Cost of production : Cost of producing milk, 246 — Cost of raising heifers, 250. Marketing dairy products : Ways of marketing, 253 — Value of skim-milk in cities, 254. Questions and problems . . . . . . Collateral reading CHAPTER 13 OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 258-288 Ways of measuring profit : The most important factors for success, 258 — Ways of measuring profit, 258. Size of business: Size of business, 259 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of labor, 260 — Relation of size of farm to work done, 262 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of horses, 264 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of machinery, 265 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of capital, 265 — Size of herd, 267 — Summary of size of dairy farms, 268. Returns per cow : Reason for poor returns, 269 — Costs and returns must both be considered, 271 — Poor producers promptly sold, 271 — Size of cows, 271. Crop yields: Soils for the dairy farm, 274 — The well- balanced farm, 274. Diversified and specialized dairy farms : Relation of cash crops to profits, 276 — Relation of capital to amount of stock to keep, 277 — Acres per animal unit, 278 — Reasons for large profits on diversified farms, 279. Some successful farms : A successful dairy and hog farm in Iowa, 281 — A successful diversified dairy farm in New York, 285. Questions and problems "-..' 287 Laboratory exercises 288 Collateral reading 288 CONTENTS XV PAGK8 APPINDIX 289-306 Addresses of cattle breeders associations, 289 — Scale of points for a Jersey cow, 290 — Scale of points for Ayrshire cow, 291 — Scale of points for Guernsey cow, 293 — Scale < >f points for Holstein-Friesian cow, 294 — Imports and ex- ports of dairy products, 296 — Legal standards for dairy >roducts. 297 — Average composition of milk and its oroducts, 298 — Average weights of milk and cream, 298 — The Haecker feeding standard, 298 — Wing's method of Balancing rations, 304 — Average weights of feeding-stuffs, S05 — Measuring grain, 305 — Measuring ear corn, 305 — Measuring straw, 306 — Measuring hay, 306 — Capacity of silos, 306. DAIRY FARMING CHAPTER 1 IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY G. F. WARREN 1. Milk a Universal Food. Milk is the one universal food of mankind. All civilized peoples use milk from farm animals. The more highly civilized and prosperous the population, the greater is the amount of milk consumed. In regions so far north that cows cannot be kept, reindeer milk is used. In regions like India and the Philippines, which are too hot for our common cattle, the water buffaloes are the dairy animals and beasts of burden. In the deserts the milk of mares and camels serves as food. In regions where the people are very poor, goats and sheep are used as milk animals. In parts of South America llamas are so used. Everywhere civilized man keeps some milk animal. 2. Value of Milk as Food. The value of milk as food is beginning to be better appreciated, but even now its full value is not always realized. Most liquids have very little food value; for this reason, all liquids are sometimes looked upon as luxuries. But average milk contains 12 to 13 per cent of dry matter. This dry matter is readily digestible and contains necessary foods in good proportions. B 1 DAISY FARMING The edible portion of an average beef animal is only 38 per cent dry matter. The remaining 62 per cent is water.1 A quart of milk weighs 2.15 pounds and contains two- thirds as much energy value, and nearly half as much protein as a pound of sirloin steak. It is particularly rich in ash, the bone-forming materials that are so essential for all young animals. It contains about twice as much of these as does beefsteak. A quart of skim-milk has over one-third of the energy value of a pound of sirloin steak. It is richer in ash and has almost half as much protein as the steak, as is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1. — COMPARISON OF SIRLOIN STEAK WITH MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE 2 WATER DRY MATTER PROTEIN ASH ENERGY VALUE Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Calories 1 pound sirloin steak . . .54 .46 .165 .009 985 1 quart 4 % milk .... 1.87 .28 .071 .015 699 1 quart skim-milk . . . 1.95 .20 .073 .015 366 1 pound butter .... .11 .89 .010 .030 3605 1 pound cheese (full cream) .34 .66 .259 .038 1950 As the value of milk as food becomes better known, it is more widely used by persons of all ages. If much that is spent for meat were spent for milk, we could be as well fed at less cost. If much of the money that is spent for tea, coffee, alcohol, and other stimulants, that have little or no food value, were spent for milk, our health and our wealth would both be improved. 3. Butter and Cheese as Food. Butter is often thought of as an expensive food, but it is the most concentrated of 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. ; Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28, pp. 27, 28. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY our ordinary foods. As shown in Table 1, a pound of b'ltter will furnish three and two-thirds times as much energy as a pound of sirloin steak. Usually it does not cost twice as much as the steak. It is one of the cheap animal foods, is highly concentrated and easy to digest. C heese is a cheap source of animal protein. We use over four times as much butter as cheese, but the amount of ciieese used is increasing. 4. One Dairy Cow per Family. In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number of steers and bulls in the United States decreased one-fifth, but the number of dairy cows increased \vith the population. In 1910 the average number of persons living together as one family was 4.5. Counting tne dairy cows on farms and those not on farms, there was one dairy cow for each 4.2 persons, or a little over one cow per family. For sixty years the United States has main- TABLE 2. — POPULATION AND NUMBER OF DAIRY Cows ON FARMS AND RANGES IN THE UNITED STATES EXCLUSIVE OF OUTLYING POSSESSIONS 1 YEAR POPULATION NUMBER OF DAIRY Cows NUMBER OF PERSONS PER Cow 1850 23,191,876 6,385,094 3.6 1860 31,443,321 8,585,735 3.7 1870 38,558,371 8,935,332 4.3 1880 50,155,783 12,443,120 4.0 1890 62,947,714 16,511,950 3.8 1900 75,994,575 17,135,633 4.4 1910 91,972,266 20,625,432 4.5 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. 704. Thirteenth Census, Vol. I, pp. 24, 1285, and Vol. V, p. 341. In addition to the above there were 973,033 dairy cows not on farms in 1900 and 1,170,338 in 1910. Most of these were kept by families in villages, Vol. V, p. 430. The census does not give the number of cows in cities for the earlier years. DAIRY FARMING tained an average of a little more than one dairy cow per family. Because meat is so expensive we are using less of it, but we are not decreasing the number of dairy cows. 5. Amounts of Dairy Products Used. The number of dairy cows just about keeps pace with population, but there have been changes in the use made of milk. The amount of condensed milk produced increased 165 per cent in the ten years 1899 to 1909. 1 The amount of fresh milk used as food has increased rapidly. In New York City the amount consumed per capita has increased one-third in twenty years. TABLE 3. — BUTTER AND CHEESE PRODUCED AND CONSUMED IN THE UNITED STATES, AND MILK SHIPPED TO NEW YORK CITY YEAH BUTTER CHEESE MILK AND CREAM SHIPPED TO NEW YORK CITY ^ Produced per Capita » Consumed per Capita 8 Produced per Capita * Consumed per Capita » Milk per Capita Condensed Milk and Cream 1870 Pounds 13.3 Pounds Pounds 4.2 Pounds Quarts Quarts 1880 16.1 4.8 1890 19.1 18.9 4.1 2.9 100 2 1900 19.6 19.4 3.9 3.6 109 5 1910 17.6 17.5 3.5 3.8 133 7 Approximately 288 quarts of milk per person are used per year in the farm family. In cities about 112 quarts per capita5 are consumed. It is possible that this differ- ence has something to do with the better development of 1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. X, p. 374. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, p. 7. 3 Amount produced plus imports less exports as given in reports of U. S. Dept. Agr. 4 Data for New York City furnished by The Milk Reporter. 6 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, ;,p. 17, 18. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 5 children on farms. But the amount consumed in cities is rapidly increasing. 6. Milk Inspection. In recent years great interest has b<>en taken in improving the milk supply. Physicians and boards of health have been agitating and inspecting. As iii most worthy publicity campaigns many statements are niade that are not true. The agitation has brought pressure f ( r better milk, but at the same time the extreme statements n ade have led many persons to use less milk than they other- \\ ise would. The writer believes that for every person who is injured by milk, many persons suffer from the lack of it. \Ye need education for better care of milk on the farm, in the city, and in the home, but we also need education as to the great food value of milk so that more milk will be used. L is unfortunate when one of these interferes with the other. Dairy inspection has done much good. It will do more good when more wisely performed. In the past it has too often been made by persons who do not understand farm- irjg or farmers. The emphasis is often placed on unessential things. An inexperienced youth with an arbitrary score card turned loose among dairy farmers usually does more harm than good. In this way unnecessary antagonism is often aroused. Recent investigations have shown that there is no relationship between the score of a dairy as shown by a score card and the quality of the milk produced.1 In a la,ter chapter the essentials for the production of whole- some milk are discussed. The vital points are that the milker and the cow both be in good health and that the milk be kept cold and as free from dirt as possible. 7. Dairy Cattle as a Source of Meat. Since there is one dairy cow per family there is approximately one veal calf 1 New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 398. 6 DAIRY FARMING or cow available for beef each year per family. About seventeen pounds of dressed veal per family is used annually in the United States.1 Nearly all of this is produced by dairy cows. From the comparative number of dairy cows and other cows, it appears that in addition to veal calves almost half of the beef animals slaughtered are produced by dairy cows. As population becomes more dense, we shall depend more and more on the dairyman for our meat supply. Beef from the beef breeds of animals will become too expensive for any but the wealthy, as it now is in densely populated countries. In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number of dairy cows increased. Butter production increased 9 per cent and cheese production 7 per cent. But the number of steers and bulls decreased one-fifth. 8. Dairy Cattle in Other Countries. The British Isles have one dairy cow to eleven persons. They import large quantities of cheese and butter. France and the Netherlands have one cow to five persons. Germany has one cow to six persons. Denmark has one cow to two persons. It furnishes large quantities of butter for England. Japan and China show a striking contrast with America and Europe. Their dense population makes any kind of animal food too expensive to be used freely except by the wealthy. Instead of one cow for a family, Japan has one head of cattle for thirty-seven persons. The number of dairy cows is not reported, but this probably means that there is not more than one cow for from seventy to one hundred persons.2 As the population in the United States is becoming denser, we are unfortunately forced to use less animal food, but we 1 Assuming that the calves slaughtered on farms were as heavy as those killed in slaughter houses. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, pp. 666-668. International Insti- tute of Agriculture, Vol. V, No. 10, p. 485. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 1 still use far more than any other nation. For each person we now produce over twenty-five times as much human food from animals as is produced for each person in Japan.1 9. The Dairy Cow an Efficient Machine. From a given qu; ntity of feed the dairy cow produces more human food thi'ii does any other animal. According to Armsby's stand- arcs, the amount of feed required to grow and fatten a 12( '0-pound steer would, if fed to dairy cows, produce about thi ee times as much human food. But the dairy cow must be raised, and the growing heifer is 10 more efficient than the growing beef animal. Both industries require that cows and bulls be kept. Figures showing the returns from the entire beef industry are not available, but results of the entire dairy industry in one county, including the feed for the entire dairy herds and im luding milk and meat returned for human food, are given in Table 4, as well as the results from an entire poultry in- dustry. As producers of protein, hens are the nearest com*- petitors of dairy cattle, but judged on an energy basis hogs arc second to cows. Both hens and hogs consume a higher class of foods so that when compared with cows they are not quite so productive as the figures would suggest. 10. Cows Effective Users of By-products. As population increases, less and less grain is fed to animals because it is all needed as human food. In Europe and other densely populated regions cows are fed less grain than in America. The dairy cow is the most efficient machine for changing grass, hay, straw, cornstalks, and the by-products from mills into human food. The cow will make a larger amount of human food out of these products than will any other 1 Calculated on the basis of animal units aside from horses. See page 218. DAIRY FARMING TABLE 4. — PROPORTION OF FOOD EATEN BY VARIOUS CLASSES OF LIVE STOCK THAT is RETURNED FOR HUMAN UsE1 PER CENT OP PRO- TEIN RETURNED PER CENT OP ENERGY RETURNED Of Total Food Of Digest- ible Protein Of Total Food Of Digest- ible Food Of Produc- tion Value of Food Cow2 .... 41.0 48.9 Cow3 . . . . 31.4 40.6 Dairy herds 4 . . 14.7 22.9 10.0 15.1 33.8 Steer 5 . . . . 8.9 17.0 Steer 6 . . . . 6.4 11.8 4.7 6.9 14.8 Hen ^ . . . . 16.1 20.9 7.1 8.3 14.1 Poultry flock 8 14.5 18.6 6.4 7.5 12.6 Hog9 . . . . 10.2 13.2 15.1 17.5 29.9 1 Values as human food from U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin (Revised) 28. 2 1000-pound cow giving 6000 pounds of 4 per cent milk based on Armsby's feeding standard. 3 Similar cow raised to 2 years on Armsby's standard, milked 5 years, then sold as lean beef. 4 Food eaten by 5191 cows, 1078 heifers, 874 calves, 158 bulls, in Dela- ware County, New York. Pasture assumed to be one-third of the food. Net product 24, 646,000 pounds milk, 100,000 pounds skim-milk, 260 pounds butter, and 559 cows, 235 heifers, 62 bulls, 9 calves for beef. Most of the calves were killed and thrown away at birth. 5 Steer grown to 1000 pounds in 2 years, then fattened 200 pounds in 100 days by Armsby's standard. Meat counted as fat beef. 6 All food eaten by a steer that grew to 1588 pounds in 3 years, assumed to be fat beef. Ontario Agricultural College, Report, 1893, p. 122. 7 Food and product of 1 hen, average of 1803 by the writer. 8 All feed except grass for an average of 1803 hens and 60 roosters kept one year, 2713 chickens raised. Net product 204,093 eggs above those used for incubation, 1080 fowls and 1404 cockrels and pullets sold for meat, 4395 pounds, records kept by the writer. 9 Hogs assumed to have eaten the same feed as 1 hen and to have made a gain of 1 pound for 5 pounds of grain. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 9 animal. Cows also make use of the grasses that grow on large areas of land that cannot be profitably tilled. 11. Dairying and Maintenance of Soil Fertility. From most pars of the United States large quantities of stock foods are shipped out for foreign use. In many sections roughage tha is good stock food is still destroyed. The introduction of < Dairying helps to keep a larger part of the fertility on the farm. Many farmers who make dairying a part of their farm business consider the maintenance of soil fertility, and the use of waste products, to be as important as the direct profits from the cows. ] Experiments for many years have shown that it is pos- sib'e to maintain the fertility of the soil by means of chemical fer1 ilizers, but as a matter of fact farmers who use farm ma nure are most likely to keep up the fertility. Cows Help to Provide a Full Year's Work. A farm is pri- marily a place to work. The carpenter who works only half the year is not likely to accumulate much property, nor is the farmer who works only half the year likely to pay for a farm. A limited number of cows on the farm give employment in the morning and evening when field work cannot be done. In the North where cows are most numerous, the days are so short during much of the year that a full day's work cannot be done, unless there are chores to do. Cattle also provide work for stormy days and for cold days in winter. They also provide work that children can do before and after school. Farm children are particularly fortunate in that they have to help their fathers in the farm work. In the cities laws are passed to prevent child labor, not because all labor is injurious but because of the conditions under which the work is done. Farm children learn much by working with 10 DAIRY FARMING their fathers. Perhaps the most important thing that they learn is to persist in necessary work even when they would rather not. While helping with the chores the children are learning and at the same time helping to increase the family income. 12. Receipts from Dairy Products. Corn is the most valuable product of American farms but most of it is fed on the farm. Dairy products are probably the largest single source of income of American farmers. The dairy products sold from farms in 1909 amounted to nearly $500,000,000. The value of both cotton and wheat sold exceeded this . But if the cattle and calves that are also a product of the dairy were combined with the milk, the receipts from these sales would probably exceed the sales of any other product. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Get the local retail prices of butter, cheese, milk, skim- milk, and sirloin steak. Make a table showing the amount of protein and energy value that $1 will buy in each product. 2. Define " per capita." Define " dry matter." 3. Find the amount of milk and butter used per person in 10 to 12 families in your region. Average these and compare with the averages given on page 4. Each student may report on one family, or more if there are not 10 students in the class. 4. From the census reports for your state find the population and the number of dairy cows for your county. How many per- sons are there for one cow? Compare with Table 2. What dairy products are shipped into your county? What products are shipped out of the county ? 5. Repeat question 4 for your state. 6. What was the total value of all dairy products sold in your county in 1909 ? In your state ? Which of the dairy products sold are most important? 7. What was the value of dairy products compared with other leading farm products in your state ? IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 11 8. Why is more cheese used in Europe than in America? Why are v,re using more cheese than formerly ? 9. Of what dairy products does the United States import more than it exports? Of which does it export more than it imports? Whi<-'.h are greater in value, the total imports or exports? To what proc act is this due? See page 296. • COLLATERAL READING The Production and Consumption of Dairy Products, U. S. Dei t. Agr., Bulletin 177. Tde Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363. 1 1 the lists of collateral reading no attempt is made to give a complete list of books and bulletins. A few of the more important references that are readily available are given. Bulletins of the diff< rent state experiment stations are not always available, for this reason they are not often given as collateral reading but are referred to in footnotes. At the beginning of the course the experiment stat ion in your state should be asked for all available bulletins. If af tt r examination it appears that certain ones of the publications are likely to be needed for special study, members of the class should sen< I postal cards requesting them. It is better to have the students do 1 his writing because instruction as to where to get information is a part of the course. Write to the Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., or to your congressman for the census report on agriculture for your state. Also ask for the report on animals and animal products for the United States. Many important laboratory exercises are given after Chapter 2, page 39, and for following chapters. These exercises should be begun while Chapters 1 and 2 are being studied. Because of the frequent use that is made of the Babcock milk test it is a good plan to begin the laboratory work with Exercise 20, page 196. CHAPTER 2 BREEDS OF CATTLE C. H. ECKLES ORIGIN OF BREEDS 13. Origin of Domesticated Cattle. No cattle are native to America. All those found in both North and South America are descended from cattle brought from Europe and are the descendants of wild cattle that formerly lived in Europe and Asia. It is not known where or by whom cattle were first domesticated as it occurred in prehistoric times. It is generally believed that there were two original forms of wild cattle, the one somewhat smaller than the Jersey, the other probably larger than any cattle that live to-day and in type something like the long-horned cattle formerly raised on the ranges of South America and in Texas. 14. Origin of Breeds. The differences between these two wild types account in part for the differences between breeds of cattle, such for instance as the extreme difference in type between the Jersey and the Holstein, or between the long-horned cattle found in Texas and the Angus or the Shorthorns. Other factors in the formation of breeds are climate, food, and nature of the surroundings. For example, the cattle of Holland as a result of living for generations in a rich level 12 BREEDS OF CATTLE 13 country have become adapted to these conditions and are not so well suited to rough scanty pastures as the Brown Swi^s, or the Ayrshires which have been produced on poor pastures. On the continent of Europe the breeds and sub- bm ds are almost innumerable. They have chiefly originated in the manner mentioned. In Great Britain alone ten or twc ve distinct breeds have developed. Up to about the middle of the eighteenth century these natural influences were the chief factors in the development of breeds. About tha time, largely as the result of the work of Robert Blake- well, a great interest was aroused in England in improving cati le. The beginning of modern breeds may be traced largely to this great movement. The methods used were careful selec- tior , more liberal feeding, and good management. In some case s, as with the Shorthorns and the Ayrshires, crossbreeding and inbreeding were at first practiced. At the present time most cattle breeders direct their efforts towards further improvement in the breeds already in existence and not towards the establishment of new breeds. 15. Definition of Terms. Scrub and native are terms used to indicate that an animal does not carry more than a small amount of the blood of an improved breed. Grade. This term, generally used with some breed name, as Grade-Hoist ein, means that the animal has one-half or usually more of the blood of the improved breed. When the proportion of improved blood is high, the animal is called a " high grade." Crossbred indicates that the animal is the offspring of pure- bred parents of distinct breeds. Pure-bred. This term is properly applied to cattle whose ancestors came from the native home of the breed and con- 14 DAIRY FARMING formed to the standards of the breed. Records must be available showing the breeding of these animals and tracing back in all lines to those coming from the original home of the breed. Pure-bred animals are sometimes called thorough- bred, but this term is also used to indicate a particular breed of horses and is usually restricted to that meaning. Registered. The breeders of each important breed of cattle have an organization for the purpose of keeping records and advancing the interests of the breed. Each of these organizations keeps record books. Any pure-bred animal that has the breed characteristics may be recorded, provided both parents are already on record. A pure-bred animal that is recorded is called a registered animal. 16. Classification of Cattle. The breeds common in America are generally classed as follows : Dairy Breeds. Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted. Dual Purpose. Shorthorn (Dairy Type), Red Polled, Polled Durham, Devon. Beef. Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway. 17. Value of Breeds. Animals of a distinct breed that is adapted to the region usually sell for more than animals of mixed or unimproved breeding even if the latter are equally good animals individually. The value of the pure-bred is due to the fact that it is possible to predict with reasonable certainty what characteristics will be inherited by the off- spring. Among dairy cattle it is not uncommon to find ani- mals of mixed breeding that rank with pure-breds as pro- ducers of dairy products. These animals of mixed breeding, however, cannot be depended upon to reproduce themselves in their offspring. Very high grades are more likely to produce young like themselves. Pure-breds have been BREEDS OF CATTLE 15 bred for generations with certain objects in view, and in time these characteristics become fixed and are transmitted with fair certainty. The breed should be looked upon as a means of retaining the characteristics that have been developed by the efforts of 'he breeders in the past. Certain breeds have for gen- era dons been selected and developed for the purpose of pro- du< ing the greatest possible amount of good beef from the least feed. It is reasonable to expect an animal belonging to one of these breeds to excel one whose ancestors have never been selected for any definite purpose. Other breeds have been developed as dairy breeds, or for dual-purpose use, and are the most efficient animals for these purposes. 18. Pedigrees. A pedigree is a record of the ancestry of an animal. Its value lies in the opportunity it affords to study the characteristics of the ancestors. Breed associa- tions l have been organized by those interested, primarily for the purpose of keeping authentic records of the ancestry of pure-bred animals. Upon payment of the registration fee an animal that has the required breed characteristics and both of whose parents are recorded, may be recorded and assigned a registration number. By this means it is possible to trace the; ancestry of any registered animal as far back as the ancestors that were imported. In ordinary use from three to six generations are recorded on the pedigree as studied by the breeder. While pedigrees are of great value in making it possible to select breeding animals to better advantage, it is a com- mon mistake to attach too much importance to them. An animal with a pedigree may not be any better than others that are high grades of the same breed. Pedigree alone is 1 See addresses on p. 289. 16 DAIRY FARMING no indication of the merit of the animal as an individual, since it is merely a record of parentage. Below is given the pedigree of the Jersey cow, Rosette's Gipsy Maid, including four generations. The name of the sire in each case appears at the top, and that of the dam at the bottom of the bracket. Rosette's Gipsy Maid 220623 Eminent Rosette 66050 My Jolly Girl 206038 Rosette's Golden Lad 57498 Financial Queen 155098 Guenon's Golden Lad 62168 Guenon's Mag V 189777 Orlando P. 2535 H. C. Rosette's 5th P. 2881 H. C. Reminder P. 2052 H. C. Financial Pride P. 6060 H. C. Guenon Lad P. 2571 H. C. Loraine 82951 f Guenon's Golden Lad 62168 Maceo's Mag V. 174758 DAIRY BREEDS 19. Number of Animals Registered. Some idea of the greatly increased interest in pure-bred cattle is shown by the rapid increase during recent years in the number of animals registered by the breed associations. Over five times as many Holsteins were recorded in the last ten years as were recorded in the previous ten years. Three times as many Guernseys, twice as many Ayrshires, and nearly twice as BREEDS OF CATTLE 17 many Jerseys were recorded as in the preceding ten years. Although the totals look large it should be taken into ac- count that the number of registrations for each breed in- cludes all since the herdbook was established. Probably not over one-third of the total -registered are now living. In proportion to the total number of dairy cattle in use in the United States the number registered is very small, prob- ably less than one in fifty. Table 5 gives the number of eacii breed registered, also a comparison of the numbers rec< >rded in the last ten years and in the previous ten years. TABLE 5. — NUMBERS OF ANIMALS REGISTERED LAST TEN BREED BEFORE 1895 1895-1904 1905-1914 TOTAL UP TO 1915 YEARS COM- PARED WITH PREVIOUS TEN YEARS Per Cent Jersey . . . 143,519 111,782 197,300 452,601 176 Hoi stein 56,141 49,296 267,374 372,811 542 Guernsey . . 11,029 15,661 52,450 79,140 335 Ayrshire 18,306 11,051 26,919 56,276 244 20. Holstein-Friesian. This well-known breed of cattle originated in Holland and is especially well developed in the province of Friesland. It is not native, as the name Holstein would indicate, to the duchy of Holstein, which is a province of North Germany. Some of the first cattle of this breed imported to America were incorrectly called Holstein, and a breed association was organized under this name. Later another was started called the Dutch-Friesian. These two were combined in 1885 under the name Holstein- Friesian, which is the official name of the breed in this coun- try. It is now generally called Holstein in America, c BREEDS OF CATTLE 19 This breed is probably one of the oldest among those in general use. Holland has been famous for its cattle since the time of the Romans. The best part of Holland is below th< level of the ocean, which is* kept back by great dikes. The land is level and very fertile and especially adapted to grt ss. The cattle kept in Holland are given the best care of an 7 cattle in the world. Attention is given to proper feed- ing, gentle handling of the animals, and to good sanitary con- dil ions. As a result Holland exceeds all other countries in the average yield of milk and butter-fat per cow. Nearly all of the Holsteins in the United States are descended from about 10,000 head which were imported between 1875 and 1835. This breed ranks first in the number of animals now being recorded. Holsteins are the largest of the dairy breeds, the cows reaching an average weight of 1200 pounds and the bulls 1800 to 2200 pounds as a rule. The color is always black and white in any proportion but never blended. Cows of this breed are gentle and quiet in disposition. The breed- ing qualities are excellent, as is indicated by the rapid in- crease in numbers of recorded animals. The calves average 95 pounds at birth, the largest of any breed except the Bi-own Swiss. Holsteins produce more milk on the average than any other breed. In percentage of fat they rank the lowest. The figures in Table 6 give the averages of cows in experiment station herds. It is quite certain that these cows, on the average, do not produce any more than well-kept private herds. On a farm where good conditions of management prevail, a herd should average at least 8000 pounds of milk per year. A high average would be 10,000 pounds per year. The milk 20 DAIRY FARMING or butter from this breed has considerably less yellow color than that of Jerseys, and in fact ranks the lowest in this respect. TABLE 6. — PRODUCTION OF HOLSTEIN Cows IN EXPERIMENT STATION HERDS. AVERAGE NUMBER OF Cows REPRESENTED Pounds milk per year Per cent fat 8699 345 83 83 Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 300 1229 83 9 The highest fat records for a year made by this breed up to April 1, 1916, were : POUNDS MILK POUNDS FAT Duchess Skylark Ormsby .... Finderne Pride Johanna Rue . . . Finderne Holingen Fayne 27,762 28,404 24,612 1205 1176 1116 The highest milk record was made by Tilly Alcartra, who produced 30,452 pounds of milk in a year, but she did not give as much fat as a number of other cows. In Holland, cattle of this breed are used for beef production as well as for dairy purposes. The calves are especially well adapted for veal as they are large at birth and gain rapidly during the first few weeks. When dry the cows fat- ten readily, and as is the case with other dairy breeds the gains are made as cheaply and rapidly as with animals of beef breeds. In the great cattle markets the price is always lower for animals of the dairy breeds than for those of beef breeds. There is some basis for this discrimination in the BREEDS OF CATTLE 21 fact that the dairy breeds during fattening deposit larger quantities of fat around the internal organs, and tallow is worth but little as compared with the edible meat. The be of -bred animals deposit more -of their fat in the muscular tissue giving the marbled condition so much prized. How- ever, the average meat consumer scarcely discriminates be- t\\ een the beef from a Holstein and that from a beef -bred animal if both be of the same age. It is safe to prophesy that, in the future, dairy cattle will supply a much larger proportion of the beef used in this country, as has long been the case on the continent of Europe. The strong points of the breed are the high milk yield, the marked vigor of constitution especially of the calves, the good breeding qualities, the quiet disposition, and the value for beef and veal. The weakest point is generally considered to be the low percentage of fat, but owing to the large yield of milk the total production of fat is high. 21. Jersey. The Jersey and the Guernsey breeds are often spoken of as the Channel Island breeds. They take their names from trie islands of Jersey and Guernsey, located in the English Channel. Jersey Island is only eleven miles long and nine wide. The climate is mild and even. The cattle are pastured by tethering. The system of agriculture followed is very intensive since the average rent of the land is about $50 per acre. The sale of pure-bred Jersey cattle for export is an important source of income. Since 1789 the laws of the island have prohibited the importation of cattle, so this breed has been kept pure since that time. Much attention is given to the type of the animal as well as to the butter production. This has resulted in the development of a breed of great symmetry and beauty. At the present time this breed is used to a limited extent 22 DAIRY FARMING in England, and has been taken to all English speaking coun- tries, although by far the greatest number is now in North America. Some were brought to the United States about 1850. From 1868 to 1890 large numbers were imported, and again since 1900 several importations have been made FIG. 2. — Imported Jersey cow, Lady Viola, many times champion in the show ring. A good representative of the Island type ; rather small, extreme dairy type, udder almost perfect, long level rump, very symmetrical outline. each year. This breed is most numerous in the Eastern and Southern States. The color may be any shade of yellow except orange — and ranges from light fawn to dark gray or black. The most common color is fawn shading to dark on the lower parts of the body. The tongue, and the switch of the tail are black in the majority of cases. White spots are not uncommon, especially on the lower part of the body. These were at one time strongly objected to, but now receive little atten- BREEDS OF CATTLE 23 HOD. The color bears no relation to the value of any par- ticular cow as a dairy animal. Mature Jersey cows usually weit$h from 750 to 900 pounds. Those found on Jersey Island and those recently imported are of smaller and more refined type and are known as the Island type in contrast to the larger, coarser type descended from the early im- portations, known as the American type. Cows of this breed are more sensitive than many others on account of a highly developed nervous temperament. When handled gently they become very docile, when care- les>ly handled or abused they are quite the reverse. They seem to thrive better than some other breeds in warm cli- ma tes. As meat producers they rank very low. The calves art small at birth, weighing 55 pounds on the average and th( y do not gain rapidly for the first few weeks. For these reasons they are not well adapted for veal. The published records of Jersey cows owned by the American experiment stations are given in Table 7. On a farm where fairly good conditions are maintained a Jersey herd should be expected to average about 5500 pounds of milk per year containing on the average 5 per cent of fat. A high average milk yield would be 7000 pounds per cow. TABLE 7. — PRODUCTION OF JERSEY Cows IN HERDS BELONGING TO EXPERIMENT STATIONS AVERAGE NUMBER OF Cows REPRESENTED Pounds milk per year Per cent fat Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 5508 5.14 283 14.9 153 154 153 29 24 DAIRY FARMING The highest records for a year up to April 1, 1916, were : POUNDS MILK POUNDS FAT Sophie 19th of Hood Farm . . . Spermfield Owl's Eva 17,558 16,457 999 993 Eminent's Bess 18,783 963 In quantity of milk the Jersey is surpassed by other dairy breeds. In use of food for the economical production of fat the Jersey and her close relative the Guernsey are un- surpassed. The best-known characteristics of this breed are the high percentage of fat and the yellow color of the prod- uct. The yellow color adds nothing to the flavor or the food value of milk or cream but makes the article more attractive to the consumer. The Jersey cow is also an un- usually persistent milker which contributes to her popularity as a family cow. This breed is best adapted for the produc- tion of cream or butter. The weakest points are a lack of vitality in the calves and lack of good breeding qualities in the cow. 22. Guernsey. This breed is a native of the island of the same name, which is the second in size of the Channel Islands. The ancestors of this breed and of the Jersey were undoubtedly the -same, and in fact a century ago the two breeds were essentially alike. The conditions under which the two breeds developed are almost identical, but type has been emphasized far less than on Jersey Island. As a result the Guernseys lack the symmetry and uniformity of type characteristic of the Jersey. The Guernsey cow weighs about 1000 pounds on the average, or at least 100 pounds more than the Jersey, and is also coarser boned. In BREEDS OF CATTLE 25 26 DAIRY FARMING general the colors resemble those of the Jersey, but include some colors not found in that breed. The common colors are reddish yellow, or lemon, or orange-fawn, with white markings. Guernseys are probably a little slower maturing than Jerseys, but are ready to freshen when about 24 months old. Like the Jerseys they have little adaptation for beef. TABLE 8. — PRODUCTION OF GUERNSEY Cows IN EXPERIMENT STATION HERDS AVERAGE NUMBER OF Cows REPRESENTED Pounds milk per year Per cent fat 5509 498 17 21 Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 274 14.2 17 6 Records for cows belonging to experiment stations are given in Table 8. A herd should average at least 5500 pounds of milk per year containing 5 per cent of fat. A high aver- age would be 7000 pounds per cow. The highest records for one year up to April 1, 1916, were : POUNDS MILK POUNDS FAT IVIurne Cowan ... 24,008 1098 IVtay Rilma • 19,673 1073 Spotswood Daisy Pearl .... 18,603 957 Guernsey milk and butter have a higher color than do the products of any other breed, and for this reason the Guernsey is especially favored where cream is sold in a critical market. The strong and weak points of this breed are practically the same as for the Jersey. They are best adapted for the BREEDS OF CATTLE 27 production of cream and butter. Their milk yield is not sufficient to warrant their use where milk is sold without reg;ird to its fat content. 23. Ayrshire. The home of this breed is the county, or shire, of Ayr in southwest Scotland. This is a rolling, moder- ate! y fertile region and is not subject to great extremes of temperature. The origin of the breed is somewhat uncertain, but it dates back to the latter part of the eighteenth century. It is generally believed that the breed was the result of cross- ing Holland, Durham, and Channel Island animals upon the native stock. It is at present the leading dairy breed in Scotland and in New Zealand, and is common in parts of England. Ayrshire cattle were brought into Canada at an early date, and were brought to Massachusetts as early as 1837. These importations stopped after twenty or thirty years, and were not resumed until about 1900. Until recent years the Ayrshires in America were the descendants of the early importations. The importations of the past few years have met with the greatest favor, and as a result the best Ayr- shires in America are now of the same type as those found in Scotland. At the present time this breed ranks fourth among the dairy breeds in numbers registered in the United States. They are most numerous in the dairy sections of the East and in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois. In portions of Canada they constitute the majority of the cattle in use. Many of their characteristics are between the Holstein and Jersey. This is true of the size, yield of milk, yield of fat, disposition of animals, size of calves, and breeding quali- ties. The common color is spotted, red and white, or brown and white in varying proportions. The two colors are dis- tinct and never blend to form a roan as with the Shorthorns. 28 DAIRY FARMING BREEDS OF CATTLE 29 The Ayrshire cows do not show the extreme angular dairy type exhibited by some other breeds. They are smoother over the shoulders and have fuller hind quarters. The udder development is the most perfect found in any breed. Special att( -ntion has been paid to this point by the Scotch breeders. The teats are placed uniformly on the udder and are of uniform size. The tendency to short teats has been the cause of much unfavorable criticism, but the care which has been taken within recent years to breed for longer teats has largely removed this objection. In beef production Ayr- shires rank high for a dairy breed. The calves weigh 65 to 70 pounds at birth and are strong and vigorous. TAJJLE 9. — PRODUCTION OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE IN EXPERIMENT STATION HERDS AVERAGE NUMBER OP Cows REPRESENTED Pounds milk per year Per cent fat 6533 385 24 24 Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 252 129 24 17 Results from experiment station herds are given in Table 9. An average yield of about 6000 pounds of milk contain- ing 3.80 per cent fat may be expected from a herd under farm conditions if given reasonably good treatment. The milk does not show much yellow color. The breed is well adapted for the production of market milk since it gives a large amount of milk of average composition. The best record up to April 1, 1916, is held by Lady of Willowmoor with a production of 956 pounds of fat in one year. 30 DAIRY FARMING 24. Brown Swiss. These cattle are native to the north- eastern part of Switzerland where they have been bred as far back as history records. During the winter season the cattle are kept in the valleys and in the summer they are pastured upon the mountain slopes. In America this breed is found in almost every state but as a rule only in isolated herds. The total number is small compared with the leading dairy breeds. In appearance these animals are plain, substantial, and well proportioned although inclined to be fleshy and often rather coarse in bone. The cows reach a weight of about 1200 pounds. They are called brown, but the color is really more of a mouse color and varies from a silver gray or light brown, to a dark brown or nearly black. They are noted for their vitality and good breeding qual- ities. They are quiet and gentle. The calves are the larg- est of any breed used in America and are easy to raise on ac- count of their strong vitality. As milk producers the cows rank about with the Ayrshires in both yield and richness of milk. A milk yield of from 6000 to 9000 pounds per year is often obtained, and an average of 6500 pounds per cow should be obtained under good conditions. The fat aver- ages a trifle under 4 per cent. Some excellent advanced registry records have been made by this breed. The best record up to April 1, 1916, is held by College Bravura 2d with a production of 19,461 pounds of milk and 798 pounds of fat in one year. 25. Dutch Belted. This breed has practically the same characteristics as the Holstein, except that it has a white band or belt extending around the body. It is used, to a limited extent only, in the Eastern States. 26. Kerry. These cattle are smaller than those of any other breed. They are natives of Ireland. The average BREEDS OF CATTLE 31 weight of the cows is 650 pounds. The color is black with a little white on the udder and underline. Another some- what larger type of this breed is known as the Dexter Kerry. A Jew small herds are to be found in the Eastern States. Th< - cows produce a large amount of milk for their size. The miliv averages about 4 per cent of fat. DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS 27. Dual-purpose. The term dual-purpose is used to describe those breeds of cattle kept for both milk and beef, in contrast with the more specialized breeds, which are kept primarily for either milk or beef alone. All dairy breeds ha\ e some value for beef, and all beef breeds are sometimes used for milk. The real dual-purpose cow stands about midway between the dairy type and the beef type. It must not be expected that a cow of this type will compare as a dairy animal with good individuals of the special dairy breeds in milk production, or that her calves can compete in beef pro- duction with those from the special beef breeds. A dual- purpose cow should be expected to produce about 200 pounds of butter-fat per year as against about 300 for an equally good specimen of a special dairy breed, and her calves should make fair beef. Dual-purpose breeds have been in favor in many sections of the United States especially in the corn belt. The dual- purpose breeds are less economical producers of dairy prod- ucts than the special dairy breeds and for this reason should not be chosen by the man who is making dairying an impor- tant part of his farming operations. If the dual-purpose cow is to be used at all, it should be on the general farm in the com belt where cream is sold and skim-milk is available for feeding calves and pigs, and where the abundance of roughage 32 DAIRY FARMING makes it .desirable to have more animals to consume it than the farmer is prepared to handle in the form of dairy cows. 28. Shorthorn. The Shorthorn is probably the best known and most widely distributed breed of cattle. Its native home is northeast England in the counties of York FIG. 5. — Doris Clay, a Shorthorn cow of the dairy type with a milk record of 10,270 pounds in one year. A dual-purpose cow but showing more dairy characteristics than is typical. and Durham. The name Durham, which was formerly ap- plied to this breed to some extent, is explained in this way. As with other breeds it is not possible to tell exactly how the breed was originated. It is probable that the cattle brought from the Continent were crossed with the native English stock. It is certain that Holland cattle were also a factor in the improvement. The first systematic breeding began BREEDS OF CATTLE 33 about 1780. The men best known in the early history of th( breed are Charles and Robert Colling, Thomas Bates, Thomas Booth, and, more recently, Amos Cruickshank. In developing this breed most attention was given to early muturity and good beef qualities. At the same time cer- tain breeders, especially Thomas Bates, were equally inter- ested in developing a dual-purpose, or general-purpose, ani- nic 1 in which the dairy qualities and the beef characteristics should be well balanced. As a beef animal the Shorthorn ranks in the first class. Within recent times the beef quali- ties have been best developed in animals descended from the he pd of Cruickshank. At the present time animals of this breed seen in the show ring in America are of the most pronounced beef type, and their popularity is based upon their beef qualities. Certain strains, however, have been developed by breeders who have maintained the milking characteristic of the early type, and as a result at the present time there is a fairly distinct milking type of pure-bred Shorthorns found in large numbers in England and to a limited extent in America. In recent years a number of milk and butter records have been made by cows of this breed that rank with the special dairy breeds. Herds selected and bred for dual-purpose should average about 5000 pounds of milk per year with a fat content of from 3.8 to 4 per cent. The highest record up to April 1, 1916, is held by Rose of Glenside, 18,075 pounds of milk and 625 pounds of fat in one year. The dual-purpose type does not have so good a beef .conformation as the strains developed for beef. The beef animals of this breed produce more milk than does the Here- ford, Angus, or Galloway. The Shorthorn is more widely distributed than any other breed, being widely used in D 34 DAIRY FARMING North and South America, South Africa, and Australia, as well as in its native home. The colors may be pure red, pure white, red and white, or roan. The color cannot be taken as in any way an indication of the quality of the animal. The mature cows usually weigh about 1400 pounds but may reach 1800 pounds or more. They are larger than the cows of any other breed. Importations to America began as early as 1790, al- though in small numbers until between 1830 and 1840 when a large number were brought into Ohio. The American Shorthorn Breeders' Association was established in 1882 and since that time has looked after the interests of the breed. More cattle of this breed have been registered than of any other. 29. Polled Durham. Polled Durham cattle are either pure-bred Shorthorns or nearly so. They are of American origin. The " Single Standard" Polled Durhams' were originated by crossing native mulley cows with pure-bred Shorthorns. After a certain number of crosses of Short- horn blood these animals were registered in the Polled Durham herdbook. The " Double Standard " Polled Dur- hams are so called since they are eligible to registry in the Shorthorn herdbookl They were originated from naturally mulley cows which appeared in pure-bred Shorthorns. At the present time the latter line of breeding has practically superseded the former. They are in every respect the same as Shorthorns except for the polled characteristics. They are found in considerable numbers in the Central States and have met with considerable favor on account of the polled characteristics. 30. Red Polled. Th's breed is classed as dual-purpose and comes nearest at the present time, as a breed, to meeting the BREEDS OF CATTLE 35 definition of this classification. It is native to the counties of Su'folk and Norfolk in the eastern part of England. It is believed by some who have studied the question that Red Polls are descended from cattle brought to England by the Dnnes and mixed with the native cattle. Until 1846 the cai tie of these two counties were known as independent breeds, but on account of their similarity, at this date they FIG. 6 — Jean Duluth Beauty, a Red Polled cow, with a record of 20,280 pounds of milk, and 892 pounds of fat in one year. A dual-purpose cow with a remarkable dairy record. were combined and have since been known as Red Polls. They are used in England as dual-purpose cattle. At the present time the breed is found mostly in the two counties where it originated, to some extent in Australia and New Zealand, and in considerable numbers in America. They were probably introduced into America during the colonial times, but it was not until after 1870 that animals were brought over the descendants of which have been kept 36 DAIRY FARMING pure. They are most numerous in the Middle States. They yield a medium amount of milk, take on flesh readily, and make a fair grade of beef. As beef animals they do not rank in the first class, nor can the cows compete in milk and fat production with the special dairy breeds. A herd kepi under good farm coin lil ions may be expected to average about ,r)()()() pounds of pajlk per year, containing close to 4 per cent of fat on (he average. A number of excellent milk records have been made, (hough none are comparable with those of the special dairy breeds. The cows usually weigh between 1200 and 1300 pounds, but occasionally more ; while the bulls reach a weight of about a ton. In color (hey are a deep cherry red; white may appear on the switch of the tail, on the udder, and a few white markings are allowed on the belly. White on any other part disqualifies the animal for registra- tion. American herds of this breed vary widely in type. Some breeders have given most attention (o beef production. Other breeders have given most attention to dairy qualities. The propel- type to maintain is a balance between these two extremes. The best record up to April 1, 1916, of 20,280 pounds of milk am} 892 pounds of fat is held by Jean Duluth Beauty. 31. Devon. Devon cattle are commonly classed as dual-purpose. They were bred and developed in Devon- shire1, England. They are thought to be one of the oldest of I he breeds that originated in (Jreat Britain. The Devons are smaller than the distinctive beef breeds, the cows weigh- ing from 1200 to 1300 pounds. The color is a bright red. The animal is bloeky and compact with a noticeable refine- ment in bone. They are fair milk producers, yielding milk rich in fat, comparing favorably in this respect with the Jerseys. The breed is not numerous in the United States B REEDS OF CATTLE 37 but is found to some extent in the Eastern States. Their popularity seems to be decreasing, judging from the number tli it are exhibited at fairs. BEEF BREEDS 32. Hereford. This breed has been developed strictly for beef purposes. The cows are milked to a very limited extent. A few cows in a herd kept primarily for beef may hi utilized to supply the family of the owner with milk, or at times may produce enough to make it possible to sell a small amount of dairy products. There are no records of in. Ik production available, although it is known that the milk of this breed ranks rather high in richness and has much the s;i;ue characteristics as that of the Dcvons. The Hereford probably ranks lowest in dairy qualities. As is the case with all beef breeds, occasionally a cow is found that is a fair mi Ik producer, but she cannot be depended upon to transmit tli is characteristic. This breed is a native of Hereford in the south central part of England, where it has been devel- oped for about 150 years. The cows reach a weight of about 1-4 IK) pounds and the bulls as high as 2200 pounds. The most distinctive characteristic of the breed is the white face, which is never absent. This is transmitted very strongly to practically all animals having even a small amount of Here- ford blood. Herefords arc used mostly for grazing on the plains of the West and Southwest. 33. Aberdeen-Angus. This excellent breed of beef cattle ranks about with the Hereford as a producer of milk. The cattle are always black in color and polled. Only rarely is a cow found that would be profitable in a dairy. These excep- tional cows cannot be counted upon to reproduce this charac- teristic in their offspring. They are bred primarily for beef, 38 DAIRY FARMING but are often used in a limited way for supplying milk for the use of the owners. Angus grades may even be found occasionally in mixed herds kept for milk. Practically no records of the amount or richness of milk are available. A limited number of fat tests made by the author indicate that the milk of this breed averages about 4.0 per cent of fat, or about the same as that of the Shorthorns. The Angus breed originated in northern Scotland. In America it is found chiefly in the corn-producing states. It has not been con- sidered the equal of the Hereford on the ranges. 34. Galloway. This breed is a native of southwestern Scotland. The cattle are black in color, always polled, and are especially known for their long, thick hair, seen to the best advantage during the winter season in northern regions. They are found chiefly in the Middle States and on the ranges. They are strictly a beef breed. No records are available regarding the yield of milk or its richness. As is the case with other beef breeds, occasionally a reasonably good milk producer is found. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Which means more, to say that an animal is pure-bred or to say that it is registered ? 2. Fill out a table like the following, including all breeds of cattle. BREED NATIVE HOME HORNED OR HORNLESS DAIRY, DUAL- PURPOSE OR BEEF COLORS USUAL WEIGHT POUNDS BREEDS OF CATTLE 39 3. Tell how each breed of cattle may be distinguished. 4. From Tables 6, 7, 8, 9, find the percentage of solids not fat for i;he milk of each breed. 5. How did Shorthorn cattle come to be called Durham ? 6. What is meant by Channel Islands? 7. On a map locate the region where each breed originated. Gh o the leading characteristics of the region as to climate, topog- rapliy, and food supply for cattle. Which one of the regions is most like the region where you live? 8. Make a list of all the known owners of pure-bred cattle in the school district or region, with the breeds owned and numbers of eacii breed. 9. Which breed of dairy cattle is most numerous in the region ? Wl i ich one is increasing most rapidly ? Why ? 10. Why did so many breeds originate in Europe, and why does the same thing not happen in America? LABORATORY EXERCISES 1. If different breeds of cattle are available, make comparisons of t hem, and write a description of the cattle of each breed that were studied. The score cards given on pages 290 to 296 may be of help in studying each breed. 2. Make an outline drawing of the head of a Jersey and of a Holstein cow as seen from the front. If possible measure the length and width and draw to scale. The difference in the shape of the head is supposed to be one indication that these breeds are descended from two distinct forms of wild cattle. COLLATERAL READING Breeds of Dairy Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 106. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 30 L-302 and 330-382. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb, pp. 169-332. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 27-106. CHAPTER 3 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE C. H. ECKLES SELECTION OF A BREED 35. Selection of a Breed. One of the first questions that arises in starting a herd is the choice of a breed. There is a tendency to attach too much importance to this decision. In choosing a breed the following points should be con- sidered. 1. Kind of cattle most common in the locality. 2. Form in which the products are to be marketed. 3. Topography, climate, and food supply. 4. Preference of the breeder. 5. Average production of milk. 6. Average production of butter-fat. 7. Economy of production of milk and fat. 8. Breeding qualities of the cows. 9. Vigor of the calves. 10. Adaptability of the calves for veal, and beef value of discarded cows and bulls. 1 1 . Original cost and probable demand for surplus animals. Most of the points have been discussed in the previous chapter. The advantages to the farmer of using the same kind of stock as his neighbors, should be given far greater prominence than his own preference or any small points of 40 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 41 difference between breeds. The advantages may be enu- me -ated as follows : J . May save expense in buykig males for breeding, and maKe it possible to make more use of a bull that is found to sin especially valuable animals. L'. It is a great advantage in selling stock, since buyers are atl racted by large numbers of the same breed in one locality. :;. May save expense in official testing of registered cows for advanced registration. •':. Makes possible a local breed organization and creates grc ater interest in good stock and proper management. if the pastures are steep and rocky, the more active breeds arc likely to be most successful. Where pastures are luxu- riant and where large quantities or roughage are used, the larger breeds are more at home. Between similar breeds the preference of the breeder mtiy decide the choice. For example, if location and market would suggest the Jersey or the Guernsey as the most suitable, the choice between the two might be easily deter- mined by preference. If the dairy farmer expects to sell milk for market, wholesale or retail, his choice would hardly fall on the Channel Island breeds, unless the market is the exceptional one that will pay enough more for rich milk to justify its production. For milk production the Holstein, Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss would be the natural choice. On the other hand, if the location is such that cream is to be sold, then the Jersey and Guernsey breeds would come in for strong consideration on account of their well-known economical use of feed for the production of butter-fat. Under these conditions the probable value of skim-milk for pigs and for calf feeding is still another consideration and in some cases is sufficient to cause the choice to fall 42 DAIRY FARMING upon the Holstein on account of the large production of this valuable by-product. When selling butter-fat, cream or butter, the total quan- tity of fat and not the percentage of fat is the important point. For cheese making and for market milk, the total solids, and not fat alone are what is wanted. It is impossible to give data that are entirely satisfactory regarding the relative production of the breeds. The best figures the author has been able to gather are brought to- gether in Table 10. These are yearly records of pure-bred animals as reported by experiment stations in the United States for animals owned by them. It is assumed that the conditions under which these records are made are fairly comparable with and certainly no more favorable than those found in good herds owned by individuals. TABLE 10. — PRODUCTION PER YEAR OF Cows OWNED BY EX- PERIMENT STATIONS AVERAGE POUNDS AVERAGE PER CENT MILK FAT FOR YEAR AVERAGE Number Pounds Number Per Cent FAT Cows Milk Cows Fat Holsteins . . . 83 8699 83 3.45 300 Jerseys . . . . 153 5508 154 5.14 283 Shorthorns 37 6017 40 3.63 218 Red Polls . . . 9 5906 9 4.03 238 Guernseys 17 5509 21 4.98 274 Ayrshires . . . 24 6533 24 3.85 252 INDIVIDUAL SELECTION 36. Selection of Individual Cows. The success of a dairy farmer depends more upon the selection of the individuals within the breed than it does upon the choice of a breed. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 43 Tho efforts of the breeder are constantly directed towards the1 development of the dairy breeds to the point where the characteristic of high milk production will be uniformly inherited. Even our poorest dairy cows give much more milk than was given under natural conditions. Although much progress has been made we must always expect many covv's to fall below our standards because these standards arc so far above nature. A certain number of the dairy cows with good parents will have inferior dairy qualities. No method of growing the heifer or of feeding the mature cow can make a naturally inferior cow into a good one. The cow must first of all have the tendency to use her feed for making milk. High production of milk results from selecting such a cow and then providing the proper amount an«l kind of feed. A cow of high dairy qualities will do little if uny better than one of inferior quality unless given suffi- cient and suitable feed. There is little evidence to support the common idea that an inferior cow is the result of wrong methods of raising as a calf. Recent experiments indicate that while the size of the animal and possibly the vigor may be influenced by the feeding when young, the tendency to produce milk is not much affected by the methods followed in raising the ani- mal.1 It should be clearly understood that this does not mean that it makes no difference how a calf is raised. It means that the efficiency of the cow as a milk producer is chiefly a matter of inheritance. Her yield of milk is the result of this inheritance plus the method of feeding and management. If a cow shows one year that she has inherited a tendency toward milk production, she can be expected to produce 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 44 DAIRY FARMING well for her entire lifetime. A cow that is a small pro- ducer by inheritance remains so year after year. The aver- age yearly records in Table 11, selected, f rom many kept by the writer for a number of cows for a term of years, indicate this fact. Some variation occurs, but Table 11 shows that TABLE 11. — YIELD OF BUTTER-FAT OF DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS BY YEARS IN POUNDS BREED FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR THIRD YEAR FOURTH YEAR FIFTH YEAR SIXTH YEAR SEVENTH YEAR Jersey 296 416 468 499 580 Jersey 44 115 169 159 Jersey 336 452 545 425 440 Jersey 62 171 123 Holstein .... Holstein .... 282 151 323 167 330 210 450 380 373 390 the good cows were good producers year after year, while the inferior ones remained poor just as regularly. Occasion- ally a cow has a poor year because she is out of condition, but normally the results will be uniform when the feed and care are the same. 37. Extent of Variation of Individuals. An abundance of data has been gathered within recent years to make it plain that the variation of individuals as milk producers is the greatest single factor in the success of the dairy. The Connecticut Experiment Station found the five most profitable in their herd were fed a year at a cost of $56.54 each, while the five poorest consumed feed worth $52.02. The best five averaged 304 pounds of fat for the year, and the poorest five 189 pounds. One group lacked $4.09 per cow of paying for their feed. The other group gave $26.91 per cow above the cost of feed. For $4.52 in additional feed SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 45 FIG. 7. — An example of wide variation in production. These cows are registered Jerseys and half sisters. The one above averaged 418 pounds of fat for the first three years in milk. With the same treatment the one below averaged 109 pounds of fat for the same three years. The variation in the production was due to inherited characteristics. 46 DAIRY FARMING the animals in the better group produced 115 pounds more fat each.1 Reports from the Southern States for 719 cows, covering in each case a full year, show that for each $1.00 invested in feed the best 10 cows gave returns of $2.20, while the poorest 10 cows barely returned the value of the feed. The best 30 cows produced three and a half times as much as the poorest animals.2 In the University of Missouri herd one pure-bred Jersey averaged 480 pounds of fat per year for three years, while her half sister averaged 114 pounds for the same period. A test of 18 Illinois herds, including 226 cows, showed the best herd to average 389 pounds of fat and the poorest 142. 3 38. The High-producing Cows More Economical Pro- ducers. A striking fact brought out by all such figures is that the high producers will give a greater return from the same amount of feed. It costs from $10 to $15 more per year to feed the cow that produces 350 pounds of fat than it costs to feed the cow that yields 200 pounds. It is a common mis- take to assume that it costs no more to feed a cow producing 10,000 pounds of milk per year than it does to feed one yielding 5000 pounds of milk of the same quality. The larger producer must use more feed, but not double that used by the smaller. The former will use about 25 per cent more feed than the latter, while the production of milk is 100 per cent more. In many herds that have not been carefully culled, a greater total profit might be realized by retaining one-half to two- thirds of the herd and disposing of the inferior cows, but a still better return may come from replacing the poor cows by good ones. 1 Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 29. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of .Vnimal Industry, 25th Annual Report, p. 67. 3 Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 102. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 47 SELECTION BY TYPE 39. How Individual Selection is Made. There are in general two methods of selecting dairy cows. The first is by type or conformation, and the second is by records of pr< 'duction. There is undoubtedly a certain conformation th; t generally goes with high milk production. This con- formation is generally distinct enough to enable experienced judges to select very good from very inferior cows. As a rule it is fairly easy to select cows that will yield 300 to 350 pounds of fat per year from those that will give half that an ount. It is not possible, however, to judge by this means alrne which one will produce 300 and which one 500 pounds per year. Often even experienced judges will make decided errors in selecting animals by thi's method, especially if the cow is not in the most favorable condition to be judged. Since records are available for very few cows offered for sale, it is necessary for most cattle buyers to depend largely upon type. If it were possible to select all cows when giving their largest yield of milk, judging by type would be reasonably accurate. Under practical conditions this is not possible, and cows have to be selected that vary from dry to the high- est milk flow. The appearance of a dry cow gives little indication of her merits. 40. The Dairy Type. The three striking points in the conformation of a highly developed dairy cow are : 1. The spare angular form, carrying no surplus flesh but showing evidence of liberal feeding in her vigorous condition. 2. The extraordinary size and development of the udder and milk veins. FIG. 8. — These pure-bred Jerseys illustrate a wide range in type and also the relation of type to production. The cow above shows good type. A large barrel with plenty of depth from hips to the udder, well-developed udder and milk veins. She produced 592 pounds of fat in a year. The animal below, although perfectly healthy, is very shallow in body, has a small barrel, and an extremely small udder ; she produced 122 pounds of fat in a year. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 49 ,';. The marked development of the barrel in proportion to the size of the animal. ^ high-class dairy cow rarely carries much flesh when in full flow of milk. At the same time her alert vigorous ap- Steer at middle of barrel. Steer at heart girth. Dairy cow at middle of barrel Dairy cow at heart girth. FIG. 9. — Cross section of a fat steer compared with that of a high-class dairy cow. Notice the large abdomen, bony back, and sharp withers of the cow. The skeleton of the steer is more fully covered with flesh. 50 DAIRY FARMING pearance, her soft pliable skin and soft hair show that she is not thin on account of a lack of feed. An animal thin in flesh on account of insufficient feed has a stupid appearance and shows a lack of vigor, while the hair generally is rough and stands on end. In either case the paunch may be large or small, depending on the bulkiness of the feed consumed. __^ So characteristic is the angular appearance of the dairy cow that an animal ^^k that does not show this form when in full flow of milk should not be selected. When the cow is near the end of the lactation period, or is dry, she should carry more flesh, and it is a mis- take to be too quick to con- demn a cow at this stage for being too beefy. The well-developed beef animal on the other hand is square and blocky. The general shape, leaving the legs and head out of consideration, is rectangular. The back is broad and level, the thighs full and straight. This difference in the shape of the body of a high-class dairy cow and of a fat steer ready for market is shown by the cross sections in Fig. 9. These were obtained by a device that made it possible to get the exact outlines. 41. The Udder. A well-developed udder is the most important characteristic to be considered in selecting a cow for milk production. Since this gland has the function of secreting the milk, its size and development are of the great- FIG. 10. — A well-formed udder. Note the length of attachment to the body, and the well-developed fore- quarters. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 51 est importance in judging the milk-producing ability of the co\\ . It is not alone size, but active secreting cells that con at. For this reason a meaty hard udder that remains nen fly as large after milking as before is of little value. The udoer should have a long attachment to the body, extending well up in the rear and well forward in front. The quarters should be even in size without dec p indentations between, and the teats should be of proper size for convenient milking and evenly pla 3ed. When the cow is dry, it is impossible to judge accurately of 'he development of the udder. However, a large amount of loose ski a showing an abundance of room for expansion when the FIG n __ A well.formed udder is filled may be taken udder. Figs. 10 and n are . ,. ,. both high-producing cows. as an indication that the udder will develop in a satisfactory manner. Little can be judged regarding the future size and shape of the udder in the calf or heifer until the time for calving approaches. 42. The Milk Veins and Milk Wells. Large milk veins an; one of the indications of high milk production that should be given careful attention. The blood after passing through the udder and supplying the cells with material for secreting milk starts back towards the heart through the milk veins. The name, of course, is a misnomer since they carry blood, not milk. One of these opens on either side near the front of the udder and passes forward just beneath the skin. These veins crook back and forth and sometimes separate into two or more divisions and finally pass upward through the wall of the abdomen into the body cavity. The por- DAIRY FARMING tions of the veins from the udder to the openings through which they pass into the abdomen are spoken of as the milk veins. The openings are known as the milk wells. The milk veins are one of the most reliable indications of dairy quality, since a large milk production calls for a large flow FIG. 12. — Udder of an inferior cow. This udder is large and well shaped but meaty, and is nearly as large after milking as before. FIG. 13. — A very pendulous udder, objectionable because it interferes with the cow when walking, and because it easily becomes soiled. of blood to the udder, and large milk veins indicate such a circulation. 43. The Barrel. The term barrel is applied in general to that portion of a cow's body between the hind and fore legs. The dairy cow to be a heavy producer must consume enormous quantities of feed. To do this requires large or- gans of digestion. A high-producing cow has wide-sprung ribs and a deep abdomen, giving great capacity for the di- gestive tract and other vital organs. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 53 An animal lacking in barrel cannot use sufficient feed to ma ke her a large producer. The age of the animal has some influence upon the size of the barrel. The apparent capacity is also influenced to some extent by the ration fed. Bulky feeds, such as hay and silage, when fed in large quantities gh e this effect. In considering the barrel development of a cow the depth as viewed from the side should be observed, th<>n the width as viewed from behind. Some animals show FIG. 14. — A typical weak FIG. 15. — Udder showing poor devel- fore udder, a very common opment behind, and short attachment to defect. the body. great depth but on account of being narrow really have a small capacity. In short a dairy cow should show great vigor, great capacity to use food, and should have a strong de- velopment of the milk-secreting organs, indicating that she is likely to use the food for milk production. 44. The Score Card. The score cards adopted by the vari- ous breed associations are shown on pages 290 to 296. These are designed to set forth the desirable characteristics of the breed and may be studied as a means of becoming familiar with breed types. The preceding discussion of the dairy type is general and applies to all breeds. It is based wholly upon the indications of milk production and does not take 54 DAIRY FARMING into account the many smaller points that go to make up a conformation that is symmetrical and pleasing to the eye. The breed associations in preparing their score cards, in FIG. 16. — Defective udders. The one on the left is that of a pure-bred dairy cow that produced only 10 pounds of milk daily. This udder is ex- tremely small, ill-shaped, weak in the forequarters, and the teats are too short. The one on the right has very small capacity with almost no de- velopment in the forequarters. certain cases, apparently emphasize points in which the breed is likely to be deficient. An example of this is the large number of points given to the fore udder in the Jersey score card. Before using the score card the student should FIG. 17. — A well-developed milk vein. On this cow the milk vein is over one inch in diameter ana extends forward nearly to the front legs, entering the body through three milk wells on each side. The veins on the udder are also very prominent. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 55 8 o •5 O -i 00 O5 <3 56 DAIRY FARMING be familiar with the points of the animal as illustrated in Fig. 18. The use of the score card is an advantage to the beginner as a means of impressing the points to be taken into account and their relative importance. It helps to make the examination systematic and prevents one from forgetting points that should be observed. The value of the score card decreases as experience is gained. Judging in the show ring is done entirely by comparison. The score card given on page 77 is in use by the Depart- ment of Dairy Husbandry, University of Missouri, and is an attempt to give the points that are important in teaching the selection of dairy cows for milk production. It gives comparatively little attention to the smaller details of con- formation or to breed type. SELECTION BY PERFORMANCE RECORDS 45. Selection by Records. While it is often necessary to select cows by appearances when buying, it is not neces- sary to follow this plan after the animals are in the herd. A more business-like plan is to keep a record of production for each individual in order that the unprofitable animals may be known and rejected. The records to be kept will depend to some extent upon the use made of the milk. If it is sold by quantity regardless of quality, then the total production is the important fact. If the price of milk is based upon the butter-fat, both the quantity and the quality need to be known. 46. Overrating the Importance of Rich Milk. A com- mon mistake in judging cows by records is attaching too much importance to the percentage of fat. The cow that produces the richest milk does not necessarily give the largest amount of fat, nor does it follow that she is the most economical pro- SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 57 dueer. It is the total amount of fat that counts where fat is the basis of market value. Figures selected from accurate rec< rds kept by the author show the relation between the yield of milk, the percentage of fat, and the total fat yield. TAT.LE 12. — RICH MILK vs. HIGH FAT PRODUCTION FOR THE YEAR BREED YIELD MILK AVERAGE PER CENT FAT TOTAL FAT YIELD Pounds Pounds ey 2,796 6.29 176 ey 3,188 5.31 169 13,895 4.90 681 ey 2,849 4.42 126 stein 18,405 3.36 618 stein 6 387 3 26 208 stein 26,861 2.76 741 Jen Jen Jen These figures show that the highest percentage of fat is often accompanied by a low total yield. On the other hand a low percentage of fat may go with either a high or a low milk yield. The figures given, which are some of the extremes taken from the records of a large herd, also indicated clearly that the amount of milk varies much more than the percentage of fat. For this reason it is far more important to know how much milk a cow gives than to know its richness. If all the animals in a herd belong to the same breed, it is about three times as important to know the quantity as it is to have records of the richness, even where milk is sold by the fat content. For this reason the keeping of individual records of cows should always begin with the use of the scales. The cow owner should keep the records by weight and not by measure, and become accustomed to thinking of milk yields in terms of weights. 58 DAIRY FARMING Three things should be known in order that the relative profits of each animal may be calculated. These are the amount of milk, the percentage of fat, and the cost of feed consumed. When comparing individual animals these factors rank in importance in the order given. While cows should be fed according to their production, it is not generally practical to keep an individual feed record of each. The best plan on the farm is to know the cost of feeding the entire herd and the total income above feed, and then make such calculations as may seem necessary to determine whether certain low-producing cows should be kept. 47. Complete Milk Records. The most satisfactory plan of keeping records is to weigh the 'milk of each cow daily. This does not require much extra time when proper arrangements are made. The experience of every one who has tried it is that no time spent on the farm good » pays better. A spring balance, graduated to pounds and tenths, should be provided and placed at a point convenient for the milkers with the milk sheet close at hand. The advantages of daily weighing may be summed up as follows : 1. It makes it possible to reject the unprofitable cows. 2. Makes possible economic feeding. Individual cows should be fed in proportion to the amount of milk they produce. FIG. 19. —A scale for weighing milk. The second pointer is set to read zero when the empty pail is at- tached. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 59 3. Enables the herdsman to detect sickness. Often the firsi indication that a cow is out of condition is seen on the milk sheet. - . 4 Makes it possible to judge of the work of different milicers. 5. Creates interest among the milkers that results in better woi k on their part. When milk records are kept in this form it is recommended tha; a sample covering two or three days be taken for a Babcock test. This sample is tested for fat, and the result considered the average for the month. Some dairymen weigh the milk on the first and fifteenth of each month or at other stated intervals. From these weights the yearly production may be estimated fairly ac- curately, but the other advantages of daily weighing are enough to make daily weighing preferable. In large herds there is no way for the manager to keep close track of the business except by daily weighing. 48. Taking Samples for Testing. Where many cows are in milk, the most convenient way of taking a sample is with a sampling tube. If a tube is not at hand, a satisfactory sample may be prepared by taking equal quantities of milk from each milking with a very small dipper or spoon, and placing them in a jar. The milk should be well stirred be- fore the sample is taken. Pint glass jars with tightly fitting covers are used to hold the samples. One is provided for each cow and is marked with her name or number. Ex- cept in very cold weather some preservative is used to keep the milk from souring before it is tested. For this purpose formalin, which may be purchased at any. drug store, is best. Tea drops is sufficient to keep a sample for several days. The sample when complete is tested with the Babcock test* 60 DAIRY FARMING j AJ1 o AH •- on i An 6 pn yt An 4Pn c An Q p.n 6 An p.n 7 An ' pn 6 An pn 9 Aif1 jQAn 11*" 12p.n i-rAJl '^ PT1 \A ^^ ^^p.n ._ A.D *^ p,n 1^5 ATI 10 pn 7 ATI pn .Q An ^^PJI lQAn ^p.n Q(-lAJ1 ^^p.n -p i A.H ^ ^p.n y^^An ^Hp.n « _^.n ^^^p.n ._ -AH ^ 'P.I 1 oprA.n ^^>.n o£^J"i ^^'.n pyAn ^ ' p n —-jAn ^^p.n _.-.An ^^^p.n -.--An *^^F.n -, -A/1 •*p.n TtlKLW nONTM rucon . FAT FIG. 20. — Form for daily milk record sheet. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 61 Th( reading gives the butter- fat per 100 pounds of milk. When butter is made, some curd, salt, and considerable water remain with the fat to meke up normal marketable butter. The amount of butter generally exceeds the fat by ibout one-sixth and may be estimated if desired by add- ing this amount to the fat. 49. Averaging Tests. A common mistake results from averaging tests. A direct average of the tests made for a certain cow each month during the year will not be a fair avc rage test of the total amount of milk produced during the year by this animal. This results from the fact that the amount of milk represented by each test is not the same. To find the true average test for the year the total fat yield for the period covered by the tests must be divided by the total yield of milk. The same method must be used in get- ting the average test for the herd. 50. Permanent Records. Many who begin keeping records do not make much of a success on account of not having a suitable form for a permanent record. Fig. 22 is a form that has been used with good satisfaction by the author for a number of years. Using a blank book, a page, may be ruled for each cow. Space sufficient for several years may be provided in this way in a concise form. In pure-bred herds the pedigree and records of offspring may be put on the page opposite the milk records. 51. Cow-testing Associations. Keeping records, es- pecially of a large herd, involves considerable attention to details. To provide for this, cooperative cow-testing associ- ations have been established in many places. This plan originated in Denmark in 1895, and the number of associ- ations has since increased with great rapidity. At present 62 DAIRY FARMING 3 0 CO 2 UJ X 6 Z 0 u o: 0 J 0 c Z o o I c Ul 5 I 12 111 cc tc 0 til cc ,_v_ '-^-> ^-' » .j CO O o ••^ UJ o T. CO 0 •z o Ul (t CO a. o Z « — -v ' x V ' 0 o: UJ 1 0 u Ul I I Z c HI 0. X w a S a t o S z I e y a u oc ffi di I 4 | < > • • • SF LECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 63 . d 2 1C K 0 hi (E e c a UJ I u r Z < 1 «, i < c Q c i > | a c 2 < j i i < i < ! Z V I t t 3 a > C C J 3 1 3 r C 1 k > : > > 0 Ji£ ^ 51 a Z 55 *i^ JE a Z en Jl? S^l£ •J C7>' 1 CO «,< *i2 51 0 Z 0 3ij R,J jf 5) JU Z a *•£ 5c o a G> 5i2 ^•S •| < 0> -1 U. 1- 31 Fen MONTH OF c (t z K < D or A L I 0 J D h D (J 1 K ! u h 0. y (0 OCTOBER I NOVEMBER 1 I a. D Z FEBRUARY HOVIWU j c & $ kl Z ~> J 0 -5 h 1 SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER K d) E ui u 0 YIELD wFtirioo i Ricofto365Dm II C rrt * I ^S I 64 DAIRY FARMING over 400 associations are in operation in that country and probably an equal number in other countries of Europe. These associations are formed by groups of farmers own- ing from 500 to 1000 cows. A man is employed who goes from farm to farm spending a day at each. He weighs the milk from each cow and tests it for fat content. He cal- culates the yield of each cow for the month, the cost of feed, and income above feed cost. He also advises the farmer as far as possible regarding methods of feeding and other details. The cost is usually from $1 to $1.50 per cow each year. In a few cases in the United States the man who does the testing also keeps a full set of cost accounts for the farm. 52. Advanced Registry. One of the important factors in the improvement of dairy cattle is the system of advanced registration as conducted by the associations representing the different dairy breeds. The ordinary registration of animals insures the purity of their breeding, but does not indicate their individual merits. Advanced registration gives an accurate record of the production. Cows must be registered in the herdbook before the tests are made. If the production reaches or exceeds a certain standard, they are registered again in another series. This is called advanced registration. The weighing of the milk and the testing for fat are done by representatives of the experiment station in the state where the cow is owned. This insures an ac- curate record made by a disinterested person. Many changes in the rules and requirements have been made for the various breeds since the system was begun in 1890. At present the standards set by the different breeds are not uniform, and occasional changes are made, so it is necessary for a breeder of pure-bred cattle to become familiar with the rules and practices governing his breed at the time. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 65 In general it may be said, that while formerly most of the tests made covered seven days only, now all the tests except for Hoi steins cover a full year. Where the year test is made, the owner weighs the milk each milking and the experiment stai ion man weighs and tests it for fat two days each month. Th< average percentage of fat for the two days is taken as the average for the month. The Holstein breeders still use the seven-day plan most extensively, although many year tests are als( made. Where a seven-day test is made, a two-year-old cow must produce 8 pounds of fat for advanced registration. The amount required increases with the age of the cow. A five-year-old must produce 12 pounds or more of fat to be entered. The minimum for a year varies from 214 to 250 pounds of fat with the several breeds for two-year-olds, and for mature cows varies from 322 to 360 pounds. The great value of the advanced registration system is the possibility it affords of putting the selection of breeding animals upon a sound basis. In selecting a male for breed- ing purposes, the pedigrees of its ancestors form about the only basis for judgment as to the probable character of its offspring. If the records show the production of each cow in the pedigree, it becomes possible to judge the value of the animal fairly accurately. Advanced registration is un- questionably the strongest factor now in operation for the rapid improvement of dairy cattle. The great mass of dairy cattle are not, and need not be, registered animals, and hence are not eligible to advanced registration. However, the system is equally valuable for grades, since improvement is transmitted to grade herds by the pure-bred sires. The addresses of the different breed associations are given on page 289. Further information can be obtained from them. 66 DAIRY FARMING The following list includes the cows having fat records of 950 pounds or more in a year up to April 1, 1916 : NAME OF Cow BREED MILK IN 1 YEAR FAT IN 1 YEAR STATE IN WHICH OWNED Duchess Skylark Ormsby Holstein 27,762 1205 Minn. Finderne Pride Johanna Rue Holstein 28,404 1176 N. J. Finderne Holingen Fayne Holstein 24,613 1116 N. J. Murne Cowan .... Guernsey 24,008 1098 Ohio Ona Button DeKol . . Holstein 26,761 1076 May Rilma G uernsey 19,673 1073 Penn. Banostine Belle DeKol Holstein 27,404 1058 Ohio ' Pontiac Clothilde DeKol 2d Holstein 25,318 1017 N. Y. Sophia 19th of Hood Farm . Jersey 17,558 999 Mass. High-Lawn Hartog De- Kol Holstein 25,592 998 Ohio Colantha 4th's Johanna Holstein 27,432 998 Wis. Spermfield Owl's Eva . Jersey 16,457 993 Mass. Lothian Maggie DeKol . Holstein 27,968 991 Ohio Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog . . . Holstein 25,106 986 Ohio Milanhurst America De- Kol Holstein 26,433 985 N. Y. Crown Pontiac Josey Holstein 28,752 982 N. Y. Maple Crest Pontiac Spotted Annie . Holstein 21,393 981 Ohio Pearl Longfield DeKol . Holstein 28,050 972 Wis. Caroline Paul Parthenea Holstein 25,073 967 Wis. Eminent's Bess . . . Jersey 18,783 963 Mich. Daisy Grace DeKol Holstein 21,718 963 Ohio Finderne Mutual Fayne Holstein 22,150 961 N. J. Spotswood Daisy Pearl Guernsey 18,603 957 Ohio Lily of Willowmoor . . Ayrshire 22,596 956 Wrash. Jacoba Irene .... Jersey 17,253 953 111. Tilly Alcartra .... Holstein 30,451 951 Cal. 53. Relation of Age of Cow to Yield and Richness of Milk. Under ordinary farm conditions the dairy cow fresh- ens the first time at from 24 to 30 months of age. On an SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 67 S 68 DAIRY FARMING average the production of milk for the lactation period in- creases each year until the cow is about five years old, after which the production remains fairly constant until the animal reaches at least 11 or 12 years. On the average a well-grown two-year-old may be expected to produce 70 per cent, a three-year-old 80 per cent, and a four- year-old 90 per cent of the milk and fat that she will pro- 5 7500 LU >- £ 7000 o_ M rd 6500 i >- 5500 5000 \ 3 11 12 5.00 £ t— 4.50 5 o 5 4.00 of 56789 LACTATION PERIOD FIG. 24. — Influence of age on yield of milk and percentage of fat, averages for six Jersey cows for twelve years. duce when mature. The highest production for a year may come anywhere between the 4th and llth year. Two-year- olds that are not well grown may not give over half as much as when mature. If a cow continues to breed, her milk flow usually shows little decline until she is 12 years old and sometimes even older. Probably the majority of dairy cattle are rejected from the herd on account of failure to breed, or from udder troubles before the effect of advancing years can be observed to have had any effect upon the milk production. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 69 The richness of milk is less affected by age than is the quan- tity. The average fat content remains practically constant from year to year except that after the cow is eight or nine years old the percentage of fat always declines slowly and gradually with advancing years. A Jersey cow, for example, thai averages 5.0 per cent fat when in her prime will decline to ii bout 4.5 per cent when 12 to 15 years of age. The fol- 5.00 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 DAYS IN MILK .00 FIG. 25. — Influence of the advance in lactation period upon the milk yield and fat content, averages for ten mature cows and ten two-year-old heifers. lowing gives the average percentages of fat by lactation periods for four Jerseys the records of which are complete for 9 years. Lactation period . 1 Per cent fat . 4.8 23456789 4.82 4.96 4.64 4.62 4.62 4.57 4.49 4.39 SELECTION OF A BULL 54. The Selection of the Bull. The successful develop- ment of a dairy herd depends more upon the selection of the bull than on any other one thing, unless it be the proper culling out of inferior cows. One-half the inheritance of each young animal in the herd comes from the bull, and for this reason his influence on the herd is far greater than is that of 70 DAIRY FARMING one cow who will have at most only a few daughters. This is the basis of the old but true saying, " the bull is half the herd." The main opportunity for improvement in a native or mediocre herd is by using a good sire. For example, one FIG. 26. — An excellent three-quarters-bred cow, showing what a pure- bred sire can do in two generations. The grandmother of this cow was a rather poor milker. She herself produced in nine years, beginning when she was two years old, 96,800 pounds of milk and 3814 pounds of butter.1 bull might be the sire of 20 daughters in a herd in one year. If the dams be capable of producing only 200 pounds of fat yearly, and if the sire represents a breed or strain the cows of which are capable of producing 350 pounds of fat per year, it is evident that, if the daughters averaged only half way between, there would be an increase of 75 pounds per cow 1 The Cornell Reading-courses, Vol. Ill, No. 54, p. 53. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 71 am i ually . It is not at all uncommon to find even greater .differences than this in actual practice. The first cross of improved blood makes the offspring one- hal ', the second, three-fourths, the third, seven-eighths of the same blood as the improved breed. The continued use of pure-bred sires of the same breed for 10 to 15 years will change a scrub herd until it will have essentially the same characteristics as the improved breed. The careful breeder gives a great deal of thought to the selection of the sire for his herd. The more skilled the breeder, the greater the care taken in this respect. Almost any pure-bred bull will im- prove a scrub herd, but only the bull of the best inheritance wi'l increase or even maintain the standard of a highly de- veloped herd. 55. Difference in Transmission of Dairy Qualities by Different Bulls. There is a wide variation in the way dii'ferent bulls transmit dairy qualities. This fact is illustrated by the data in Table 13, compiled by the author from the records of the Jersey herd owned by the University of Missouri. This herd is descended from three cows. Com- plete milk and butter-fat records for 21 years make these comparisons possible. The comparisons are made in each case between the production of the daughters of the various sires used and the dam of these daughters. The figure 4381, for example, given as the milk production of the daughters of Missouri Rioter is an average of the production of each daughter which is found in turn by taking the average of all the lactation periods of the particular animal. If in any case the daughter had only three or fewer lactation periods, the comparison is between those and the corresponding periods for the dam. DAIRY FARMING TABLE 13. — INFLUENCE OF THE SIRE SHOWN BY A COMPARISON OF THE RECORDS OF DAUGHTERS WITH DAMS AVERAGES FOR ALL LACTATION PERIODS Dams Daughters Missouri Rioter Milk Yield 5380 Per cent fat 4.35 Yield of fat 234 Hugorotus Milk yield 4969 Per cent fat 4.66 Yield of fat 231 Lome of Meridale Milk yield 4559 Per cent fat 4.85 Yield of fat 221 Missouri Rioter 3rd Milk yield 4775 Per cent fat 4.98 Yield of fat 238 Minette's Pedro Milk yield 5321 Per cent fat 5.03 Yield of fat 268 Daisy's Prince of St. Lambert Milk yield 5362 Per cent fat 5.07 Yield of fat 269 Brown Bessie's Registrar Milk yield ....... 6069 Per cent fat ...... 4.94 Yield of fat 300 Fairy's Lad Milk yield 6219 Per cent fat 4.80 Yield of fat . 299 4381 4.93 216 4576 5.35 245 6050 4.81 291 8005 4.80 384 5376 5.04 271 3932 5.03 198 4607 4.97 229 6169 5.24 323 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 73 M any interesting comparisons may be made of the com- pare tive values of these bulls. For example, the daughters of Lome of Meridale averaged 1491 pounds of milk more per year for their entire lifetime than did their dams. Eleven out of thirteen were superior to their dams. If thirty daughters of this bull had been milked in one herd, their pro- luction would have exceeded that of their dams by 44,730 pounds per year. At $1.50 per 100 pounds the income would be s671 per year more for the thirty daughters than for their mo1 hers. If the animals were daughters of Missouri Rioter, the 7 would have produced 999 pounds each less than their dams or a total of 29,970 pounds less milk than their mothers in i\ year. At $1.50 per 100 pounds this would be a decrease of S450. It would then make a difference of $1121 per year whother these thirty cows be daughters of Missouri Rioter or Lome of Meridale. If we make the comparison directly from the average yield of the daughters, the difference would be 50,070 pounds of milk per year worth $751 at $1.50 per 100 pounds. If the greatest extremes be taken for compar- ison, as Missouri Rioter 3d and Missouri Rioter, the dif- ference is far greater. 56. Methods of Selecting a Bull. There are two ways of selecting a bull : 1. On the basis of his pedigree and appearance. 2. From the records of his daughters. The pedigree is the most reliable means of judging the probable value of a young bull. The system of advanced registration now in use makes it possible to obtain reliable information concerning the dairy qualities of most of the registered animals. In selecting a young bull one should have these records before him. The points to be considered are especially the records of the cows that are the close an- 74 DAIRY FARMING cestors of the bull. It should also be observed to what extent the bulls have sired high-producing cows. A well- bred bull should have a large number of these records in his pedigree. Many persons overvalue an animal that carries a small fraction of the blood of one noted animal. A pedigree that shows moderately good parents and grandparents is better than one that has one or two unusually good ancestors and the rest mediocre. A noted animal farther back than grand- parents has no very great significance if the nearer relatives are not good. It is doubtful if the conformation or appearance of the bull in any way indicates his value as a sire of superior milk- ing cows. On the other hand it is possible to judge from his conformation to some extent as to the probable type of his daughters. The only really safe plan for the owner of a highly developed herd is to select a bull having daughters in milk so that he may know the characteristics that the bull transmits to his offspring. This, of course, can only be done in a few cases but is always advisable when possible. Care must be taken not to introduce disease by obtaining a bull from a diseased herd. 57. Cross-breeding. Crossing means the mixing of the blood of two distinct breeds. It is a practice that is com- mon among American farmers. The object sought is to combine the most desirable characteristics of the two breeds. The practice has nothing to recommend it. Breeds have been developed and are kept pure in order that certain char- acteristics may be transmitted regularly to the offspring. When two distinct breeds are crossed the chain of inheritance is broken and all possible combinations of the characteristics of the two breeds appear. For example, a farmer having SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 75 Jersey cattle may become dissatisfied with the milk yield and cross them with Holsteins, expecting to combine the Jersey quality of rich milk with tHe Holstein characteristic of a hirge milk yield. Some animals may show this combi- nation, while just as many may inherit a low yield from the Jersey parent and a low percentage of fat from the Holstein. Th< proper course is first to select the breed that best meets the requirements, and then to continue along this line unless it i.- found after sufficient trial that a serious error has been maran with warm water, is well adapted as a grain ration for the first day. If the udder is swollen and congested, the i^rain ration should be increased very slowly until this condition disappears. As a rule at least two weeks are re- quired to get the cow on a full ration. No alarm need be felt i f the udder remains hard and somewhat congested for a few lays provided milk can be drawn from each quarter. The cow should be watched closely for the first 48 hours for symptoms of milk fever. This is most likely to occur with the heaviest producers and never with heifers at their first freshening. Every manager of high-producing cows should become familiar with the symptoms of milk fever and have the apparatus on hand to treat it promptly. 79. Management of Young Stock. The cheapest way to raise young stock and the way that produces the most vig- orous animals, is to allow them to run loose in open sheds and tie them up only while they eat their grain feed. Some farmers also follow this system with milking cows with good results. The system is best adapted to regions that have an abundance of straw as large amounts of bedding are required. 80. Care and Management of the Bull. The bull calf should be fed in the same manner as a heifer of the same age. He should always be well fed during the entire period of growth as an undersized animal is not desirable. As a winter ration clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay is best adapted to his needs, while for grain a mixture of corn with oats, bran, or oilmeal is excellent. The same ration that is fed to cows in milk may be used. There is no advantage in having the young bull fat, but he should be kept at least in moderate flesh. When the roughage is of good quality the mature bull requires little or no grain to keep him in moderate flesh. 92 DAIRY FARMING • The bull should not be allowed to run loose with the herd. He should be kept in a paddock where plenty of exercise is possible. A ring should be put in his nose at the age of about one year. A bull should be handled carefully and firmly at all times. Teasing should never be allowed. He does not appreciate petting or unnecessary handling, and is best let alone except when it is necessary to handle him. He should be handled in a firm manner and made to respect his keeper but should never be abused. The bull of a dairy breed is more likely to be vicious than one of a beef breed since the former are much more active and nervous. It should always be taken for granted that the bull is dangerous and that he cannot safely be trusted. The animal should be thoroughly trained for tying and leading when a calf. He may then be tied or led at any time later even if handled only at long intervals. The main mistake made in handling aged bulls is in hous- ing them too closely without exercise. Plenty of exercise is the most important factor in preserving the vitality of a breeding animal. For any but the most severe climates the best housing for the bull during all seasons of the year is a shed protected from the cold winds but open on one side. Some exposure to the weather especially during the cooler part of the year helps to keep him in good physical condi- tion. Where it is necessary that the bull be kept in show condition all the time, as for example in high-class breeding establishments where buyers are present frequently, the bull is generally kept in a box stall where he may be groomed and where he is protected from the weather. Under these conditions some provision must be made to exercise him regularly or he is likely to become infertile. The ties, fences, and gates should always be strong and kept in good repair MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 93 so that the animal may not have a chance to learn his enor- mous strength. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. At what time of the year do most cows in your region freshen ? Froni this fact and from Fig. 25, about how much less milk should be giVen in August than in June? From the creamery or other buyer of milk find the total amount of milk received in April, May, June. July, and August. How does this compare with the natural drop ' 2. What proportion of the cattle in your region are dehorned? How is dehorning done? .3. What systems of marking cattle are used in your region? 4. Why do dairy cattle require warmer barns than beef cattle? 6. Are any advanced registry records made by breeders in this region? How many times a day do they milk? 6. How long are most of the cows dry in the best dairy herds of your region? LABORATORY EXERCISES 7. Removing the Horns from a Calf. Following the direction on page 81 remove the horns from a calf less than three weeks old. 8. Milking Contest. A milking contest may be held. Farmers should act as judges. Some of the points to consider should be : The effect of the manner of handling the cow on her composure ; how clean the milk is kept ; how completely the milk is removed from the udder ; and how fast the work is done. COLLATERAL READING Stable Fly, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 540. Dehorning Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 350. CHAPTER 5 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE C. H. ECKLES COMPOSITION OF FEEDS AND FEEDING STANDARDS 81. The Uses of Feed. A dairy cow uses feed for the following purposes : 1. For maintaining the body. 2. To supply the material for milk. 3. For development of the fetus. 4. For growth in case the animal is immature. 5. To produce gain in weight. Three general classes of food material are required. 1. Protein or nitrogenous material. 2. Carbohydrates and fat. 3. Ash or mineral matter. The main problem of feeding is to supply the proper amount of the food material of the three classes in the least expensive form. It is evident that the first step is to know what the animal requires for food and how to prepare a ration that will meet this demand. 82. Chemical Analysis of Feeds. When a chemist makes an analysis of any foodstuff, clover hay for example, he determines the amounts of water, protein, ash, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat that the substance contains. All feedstuffs contain these same constituents, but in widely varying quantities. 94 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 95 83. Water. All feeds, even those apparently dry, like con or hay, contain a portion of water varying from 10 to 15 per cent. Roots, such as beets and turnips, contain about 90 ]>er cent of water. The water in the feed eaten serves the same purpose as ordinary water consumed by the animals. 84. Ash. This is the mineral part of the plant substance remaining after the material is burned. It makes up the gm ter part of the bone, and is a necessary part of milk and of loan meat. The ash elements that are most likely to be deficient are common salt, phosphorus, and calcium. 85. Protein. All protein compounds contain nitrogen. They serve the purpose of building up tissue in the body, sucli as muscle and skin, and constitute the curd of milk. Lean meat and the white of an egg are familiar examples of nearly pure protein. All feeds contain more or less pro- tein. Among hays, clover, alfalfa, cowpea, and soybean contain the largest amounts. Among the common concen- trates linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and wheat bran con- tain relatively large quantities. A certain amount of protein is indispensable in a ration, as nothing else can be substituted for it by the animal. 86. Crude Fiber. This is the woody part of the plant, which is the least digestible. The amount of this constitu- ent increases with the age of the plant, and is large in feeds like hays and corn stover, and small in concentrates like corn and linseed meal. 87. Nitrogen-free Extract. This term includes the sugars, starches, and other carbohydrates that are much like crude fiber in composition, but are much more digestible. 88. Fat or Ether Extract. That part of the foodstuff that will dissolve in ether is called ether extract. It con- sists mostly of fats, and is usually so called although it 96 DAIRY FARMING includes sufficient other products to make it somewhat inaccurate to call it fat. The crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat all serve much the same purposes in the body. They supply heat to keep the body warm, and material to be built into fat and to be burned or oxidized in the body to furnish energy. 89. Digestibility. An animal is not able to digest all of the substances in any foodstuff. The proportion of the protein, for example, that may be used depends largely upon the nature of the feed. The grains are more thoroughly digested than the hays. The amounts of each of the sub- stances that can be digested from any feed are determined by what are called digestion trials. The chemist makes such a trial by analyzing the food consumed during a certain period, and at the same time collecting all the dung excreted and analyzing that to find out how much passes through the alimentary canal. The difference between the amount consumed and the amount voided is called digestible. Such tests have been made of all common feeding stuffs, so the practical feeder has data at hand regarding both the com- position of feeds and their digestibility to serve as a guide in preparing suitable rations. 90. Production Values. The values of different feeds are not always in proportion to the digestible nutrients. If a food is hard to digest, some of the energy derived from it is required to make up the loss due to the hard work of diges- tion. Corn and other grains are easily digested, and for this reason, energy from grains is worth more to the animal than is the same amount of energy from timothy hay or other coarse feeds. Timothy hay if burned gives off as much heat or energy as does corn meal, but, in one experiment, Armsby found the animal digested only 44 per cent of the timothy, while FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 97 77 per cent of the corn meal was digestible. On account of the energy required for digestion, still less was available for use in storing up fat, or for producing milk. On the basis of digestibility 168 pounds of timothy was equal to 100 pounds of corn, but for production purposes, that is, for sto -ing fat, producing milk, or making growth, 269 pounds of 1 imothy was necessary to equal 100 pounds of corn. Table 14 gives a comparison of the amounts of energy available fro in corn and from timothy hay. TA SLE 14. — ENERGY VALUES PER 100 POUNDS OF CORN MEAL AND TIMOTHY HAY, EACH CONTAINING FIFTEEN PER CENT WATER CORN MEAL TIMOTHY HAY He^t value wlien burned Therms 171 Therms 176 Heut value of material digested . . . Production value 131 70 78 26 It is not safe to compare roughage with grain on the basis of digestible nutrients, but such a comparison between dif- ferent classes of hay is fairly reliable, and grains may be compared with grains on the basis of digestible nutrients. The best way thus far found for comparing different feeds is on the basis of the energy values for ' production. The feeding standards given on pages 298 to 304 are based on digestible material. Armsby's standards given in this chapter are based on production values. 91. Feeding Standards. The many analyses that have been made enable us to know how much of each of the sev- eral constituents is contained in all common feeds on the average. It is also known that the cow needs all of these DAIRY FARMING FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 99 constituents. The next question is, how much of each constituent is needed to supply what the cow must have to enable her to produce a good flow of milk. This problem has been worked on for many years by able investigators, and a fairly accurate knowledge of the subject has resulted. A si atement of the food requirements of the animal is known as i\ feeding standard. The first feeding standard to come into use in a practical way was one prepared by Wolff, an eminent German in- vesiigator. A later revision by Lehmann, known as the Woiff-Lehmann standard, has been widely used. A standard prepared in this country by Hsecker has also met with much favor. The most recent feeding standard to come into use was prepared by Dr. Armsby of the Pennsylvania Exper- iment Station and is based upon his own extensive investi- gations and those of Kellner in Germany. He bases this standard upon the amount of digestible protein, and the production value, or energy value, of the feed. He uses the term " therm " to represent the energy or heat value re- quired to raise 1000 kilograms of water one degree centi- grade (1000 calories). He first estimates the protein and energy required for maintaining the animal, and to this adds the amount of each necessary to supply what is needed for the milk. The maintenance requirements for cattle are given as follows : LIVE WEIGHT DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN RE- QUIRED ENERGY VALUE REQUIRED Pounds Pounds Therms 500 .30 3.80 750 .40 4.95 1000 .50 6.00 1250 .60 7.00 1500 .65 7.90 100 DAIRY FARMING The maintenance requirement naturally increases with the size of the animal, but not in direct proportion. As 'a result of his investigations, Armsby suggested .05 pounds of digestible protein and .3 therms energy value for each pound of milk. This was based upon average milk containing 4 per cent of fat. The author ! has recently pro- posed the following modification of Armsby's standard to adapt it to the feeding of cows not producing average milk : PER CENT FAT DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN REQUIRED PER POUND MILK ENERGY REQUIRED PER POUND MILK Pounds Therms 3.00 .050 .26 3.50 .052 .28 4.00 .055 .30 . 4.50 .058 .33 5.00 .062 .36 5.50 .066 .40 6.00 .070 .45 6.50 .075 .50 Where it is not practicable to take the richness of the milk of each cow into account the following may be used and the requirement based upon breed average : BREED DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN PER POUND MILK ENERGY PER POUND MILK Pounds Therms Holstein .... .05 .26-.2S Shorthorn 1 Ayrshire > .. . Brown Swiss j .055 .28-.30 Jersey \ . . . Guernsey / .066 .40-.45 92. Calculating a Ration. Let it be assumed that the cow to be fed weighs 1150 pounds and produces daily 30 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 7. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 101 pou ads of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat. According to the preceding table the maintenance requirement would be as follows : Digestible protein .56 pounds Energy 6.60 therms 1 or the production of 30 pounds of 4.50 per cent milk the 'e would be needed : Digestible protein (30 X .058) 1.74 pounds Energy (30 X .33 ) 9.90 therms The total requirements then are as follows : DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN ENERGY VALUE For maintenance .... For milk production . . . .56 1.74 6.60 9.90 Total . . 2 30 pounds 16 50 therms The problem is to find a ration that contains this amount of digestible protein and has this energy value. Other problems also enter into the question, such as bulk and the comparative cost of the several feeds available. In cal- culating a ration we always begin with the roughage, since on most farms considerable roughage is on hand that should be used to the best advantage, and, as already pointed out, the cow is adapted for consuming coarse feeds and must have a certain bulk in her ration at all times. We will as- sume that on the farm where the foregoing ration is to be fed, corn silage, clover hay, and corn are on hand, and wheat bran and cottonseed meal may be purchased if necessary to provide the proper ration. 102 DAIRY FARMING TABLE 15. — DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY VALUES PER 100 POUNDS l FEEDING STUFF TOTAL DRY MATTER DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN Pounds Green fodder and silage : Alfalfa 28.2 Clover — crimson .... 19.1 Clover — red 29.2 Corn fodder — green . . . 20.7 Corn silage 2 25.6 Hungarian grass 28.9 Rape 14.3 Rye 23.4 Timothy 38.4 Hay and dry coarse fodders : Alfalfa hay 91.6 Clover hay — red .... 84.7 Corn forage — field cured . . 57.8 Corn stover 59.5 Cowpea hay 89.3 Hungarian hay 92.3 Oat hay 84.0 Soybean hay 88.7 Timothy hay 86.8 Straws : Oat straw 90.8 Rye straw 92.9 Wheat straw 90.4 Roots and tubers : Carrots 11.4 Mangels 9.1 Potatoes 21.1 Rutabagas 11.4 Turnips 9.4 Grains : Barley 89.1 Corn 89.1 Corn-and-cob meal .... 84.9 Oats 89.0 Pea meal 89.5 Pounds 2.50 2.19 2.21 .41 .88 1.33 2.16 1.44 1.04 6.93 5.41 2.13 1.80 8.57 3.00 2.59 7.68 2.05 1.09 .63 .37 .37 .14 .45 .88 .22 8.37 6.79 4.53 8.36 16.77 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmer^' Bulletin 346. 2 Owing to an error, the original publication gave the protein of corn silage as 1.21, but .88 is correct. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 103 T.ABLE 15. — DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY VALUES PER 100 POUNDS (Continued} FEEDING STUFF TOTAL DRY MATTER Pounc Gr. Ins (Continued) :• lye 88.4 Wheat j 89.5 By products : ] >rewers' grain — dried . . . 92.0 1 Jrewers' grain — wet . . . 24.3 Huckwheat middlings . . . 88.2 < /ottonseed meal 91.8 Distillers' grains — dried Principally corn .... 93.0 Principally rye 93.2 Gluten feed — dry .... 91.9 Gluten meal — Buffalo . . 91.8 ( lluten meal — Chicago . . 90.5 Linseed meal — old process . 90.8 Linseed meal — new process 90. 1 Malt sprouts 89.8 ftye bran 88.2 Sugar beet pulp — fresh . . 10.1 Sugar beet pulp — dried . . 93.6 Wheat bran 88.1 Wheat middlings 84.0 DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN Pounds 8.12 8.90 19.04 3.81 23.34 35.15 21.93 10.38 19.95 21.56 33.09 27.54 29.26 12.36 11.35 .63 6.80 10.21 12.79 ENERGY VALUES Therms 81.72 82.63 60.01 14.82 75.92 84.20 79.23 60.93 79.32 88.80 78.49 78.92 74.67 46.33 56.65 •7.77 60.10 48.23 77.65 A good ration of roughage would be corn silage 35 pounds and clover hay 10 pounds. Using the data given in Table 15, the following calcula- tions are made : DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN ENERGY VALUE 35 Ib. silage . 10 Ib. clover hay Total Pounds (.35 X .88) .31 (.10 X 5.41) .54 Therms (.35 X 16.56) 5.80 (.10 X 34.74) 3.47 .85 9.27 104 DAIRY FARMING This leaves 1.45 pounds of protein and 7.23 therms of energy to be supplied by the grain. If corn is grown on the farm, we will use it as far as possible in making up the grain ration. The amounts to be used can only be found by trial. We will start with the following : corn 6 pounds, bran 3 pounds, cottonseed meal 1.5 pounds. DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN ENERGY VALUE 35 pounds corn silage Pounds 31 Therms 5 80 10 pounds clover hay . .... .54 3.47 6 pounds corn 3 pounds bran .41 31 5.33 1 45 1 5 pounds cottonseed meal . . . .53 1.26 Total in ration .... 2.10 17.31 Required 2.30 16.50 This ration gives more energy than is necessary and is deficient in protein. Since cottonseed meal is the highest in protein we will omit 1 pound of corn and increase the cottonseed meal to 2 pounds. We then have : DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN ENERGY 35 pounds corn silage Pounds .31 Therms 5.80 10 pounds clover hay 54 3 47 5 pounds corn . ... 34 4.44 3 pounds bran .31 1.45 2 cottonseed meal .70 1.68 Total in ration 2.20 16.84 Required 230 16.50 This ration approaches the standard closely enough for practical purposes. It is not essential to have an exact FEEDING DAI&Y CATTLE 105 agreement with the standard, since the composition of the feed varies to some extent and the individual requirements of i he animals are also subject to some variations. 93. The Cost of the Ration. In the foregoing, no atten- tion has been given to the relative cost of the feeds used in mailing up the ration. This question is one of great impor- tance, and must always be taken into account. In pre- paring the ration the cost should be calculated at the same time, and trial made of various combinations that offer to reduce the cost. A careful study of the figures in Table 15 will be of great assistance in the selection of the most economical ration. If the ration at hand is short in protein, and the purchase of soi Me concentrate to supply this deficiency is contemplated, a study should be made of the amount of digestible protein in various feedstuff s, together with the price. A good plan is to calculate the cost per pound of digestible protein to ascertain in what feed it can be purchased most economically. For example, if cottonseed meal costs $32 per ton, one pound of digestible protein would cost 4.6 cents, if the value out- side the protein be ignored. With bran at $20 per ton a pound of digestible protein would cost 9.8 cents, and with oats at 50 cents per bushel, or $31.25 per ton, it would be worth 18.7 cents. Under these conditions it is readily seen which feedstuff would be the cheapest source of protein for the ration deficient in that constituent. If the question is that of providing the cheapest ration as a whole and not merely supplying a lack of protein, it is equally important to study the energy value of the several feeds as carefully as is done with the protein. It is readily seen, for example, that while bran has an energy value of 48.23 therms per 100 pounds, corn has a value of 88.84. If corn 106 DAIRY FARMING and bran are the same price per pound, corn is by far the cheaper feed. With bran at $20 per ton, a therm of energy costs 2.07 cents, while in corn at $26 per ton the same energy costs only 1.46 cents. When planning the ration to be pur- chased, or even the crop to be grown in some cases, it is well to make such calculations as suggested and determine which are the cheapest feedstuffs under the existing conditions. DISCUSSION OF COMMON FEEDSTUFFS No particular feed or combination of feeds is essential for the most economical production of milk. The first consider- ation is to grow the most suitable crops on the farm in order that the amount purchased may be as small as possible without reducing the efficiency of the ration. In the brief discussion which follows, only the most common feedstuffs are considered. 94. Timothy Hay. The value of this hay as a feed for dairy cows is often greatly overestimated. It is unpalatable except when cut early and therefore will not be consumed in sufficient quantities. The most serious objection is the low protein content. 95. Corn Stover. This is the name applied to dried corn stalks from which the ears have been removed. It may be utilized to a small extent. It has the same characteristics and objections as timothy hay, and cannot be depended upon for more than a part of the roughage. 96. Hay from Legumes. Hay of this class is especially valuable for the dairy cow. It includes the common clovers, alfalfa, the cowpea, soybean, field pea, and other less com- mon legumes, such as vetch and crimson clover. Forage from this class of plants when properly cured is highly palatable, and contains a relatively large amount of protein. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 107 For this reason a legume hay should by all means be grown by he dairy farmer. The ash content is also large, which is ( f importance, especially when fed with corn products tha' are low in ash. 97. Silage. It is very important that a succulent food be supplied to the cow at all times. In feeding corn silage it siiould be kept in mind that this of itself is not a complete ration for the cow in milk, since it is relatively high in car- bo hydrates and low in protein. It is usually not advisable to feed over about 35 pounds to a small cow and 40 to 45 to a large one. It is not advisable to feed it as the only roughage. Some hay should be given. For this purpose the legumes are best adapted, on account of their high protein and ash content. 98. Corn. Over the greater part of America, corn is the cheapest grain. In the corn belt this valuable grain is often fed to excess. On the other hand, some dairymen do not feed any of it, on account of the erroneous idea that it is not suited for milk production. Corn may be fed in reasonable quantities to any class of animals on the farm. It is es- pecially palatable for the cow in milk. However, it should not be the only grain feed. Corn is low in protein and ash content. If combined with corn stover, corn silage or timothy hay for roughage, the protein content is entirely too low for a dairy ration. Corn silage and ground corn combined with clover or alfalfa hay and bran, however, makes a good ration for general feeding. 99. Wheat Bran. Next to corn, wheat bran is the most important cow feed of this country. Its great value as a food for growing animals and cows in milk comes from the high ash and protein content. Its light, loose character also makes it a valuable addition to a heavy ration in the way 108 DAIRY FARMING of lightening up the mass so that it is easier for the digestive juices to act upon it. This is of special importance in con- nection with such feeds as cottonseed meal, that have a ten- dency to form a pasty mass in the stomach. Wheat middlings, or shorts, is a valuable feed for the cow, but it is more like corn meal in composition and prop- erties than like bran. As a rule it is better to make use of bran rather than shorts for the cow in milk. 100. Oats and Oat Products. Oats is an excellent feed for cows and growing animals when the cost is not pro- hibitive. Woll found oats to be about 10 per cent more valuable per pound than bran as feed for cows. In general, it may be said that oats are themselves an excellent feed. But if the balance of the ration is deficient in protein, oats do not contain enough protein to make up the shortage. The valuable by-products of oats are mainly from oatmeal mills, and consist of oat shorts and finely divided parts of the grain. Besides these, a much larger quantity of hulls must be disposed of by these mills. Hulls are mostly crude fiber and are about like oat straw in feeding value. The by-products of the oatmeal mills are therefore valuable, to the extent that they contain the parts of the grains. Oat hulls are used largely to form a portion of various mixed feeds. 101. Cottonseed Meal. This by-product is left after the oil is extracted from cottonseed. It contains a higher amount of protein than any other common feed. For this reason it is especially valuable for balancing rations deficient in protein, for instance those in which corn and corn products form a large proportion. It should not be fed to excess. As a rule from two to four. pounds per day is the maximum. However, in the South, where it is abundant, it is fed in much larger quantities with good results. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 109 102. Linseed Meal. This valuable feed is the residue aftei1 linseed oil is extracted from flaxseed. It ranks next to cottonseed meal in protein, and on the market usually sell? for a little more. It seems to exert a very favorable effei t upon animals of all kinds. Like cottonseed meal, it is especially valuable as a means of supplying the protein usually lacking in the farm-grown ration. 103. Gluten Feed. This is a by-product from starch and glucose factories. It consists of the corn grain after the starch is extracted. In protein content it ranks about midway between bran and oil meal, and is a palatable and valuable feed. 104. Beet Pulp and Molasses. Formerly beet pulp was fed to cattle in the neighborhood of beet-sugar factories, but now much of it is dried. The feeding value of dried beet pulp is a little less per pound than corn, which it resembles in the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates present. It swells greatly when moistened and cannot be pressed into a compact mass. For this reason it is easily digested and is valuable to lighten up a grain ration that otherwise would form a mass in the stomach not easily penetrated by the digestive juices. Low-grade molasses is another by-product of cane and beet-sugar factories. It is often sold in combination with other feeds, such as beet pulp and alfalfa hay, and sometimes with nearly worthless materials such as peanut hulls, weed seeds, cocoa waste, or peat moss. Molasses serves a useful purpose in making unpalatable feeds more readily consumed. Unfortunately it is too often used to disguise material of little or no feeding value. 105. Brewers' Grains. Fresh brewers' grains are fed in large quantities where they may be hauled directly from the 110 DAIRY FARMING brewery. Considerable objection has been raised by city health authorities to the use of this feed. If fed in moderate amounts under proper sanitary conditions, it is not ob- jectionable. However, the use of it is so often abused that officials in some localities have found it easier to prohibit the use than to regulate it. The objection comes from feeding these grains exclusively, from allowing decomposi- tion to begin before feeding, and from the very objection- able sanitary conditions that exist if special care is not taken to keep the feed boxes, feeding troughs, and, in fact, the entire stable, clean. This feed should not be used in excess of twenty pounds per day, and should be supplemented with hay and some other grain, such as corn. The greater part of the brewers' grains now produced are dried, and in this form may be transported long distances. This feed is rich in protein. Four or five pounds may be used in the ration to advantage. At present the larger part of this by-product finds a market in Europe. 106. Mixed Feeds. No small proportion of the grain supplied the dairy cows of the United States is in the form of mixed feeds. As a class, mixed feed is to be looked upon with suspicion. Where the unmixed grains and by-products may be bought on the market, it is always safer to purchase them and to make such mixtures as may be best to supple- ment the available farm feeds. The main purpose of the manufacturers or dealers in putting feed mixtures on the market is to dispose of material of inferior quality or of some by-product of little or no value. One of the most common ingredients of mixed feeds is oat hulls, from oatmeal factories. In many cases the hulls are ground fine to escape detection, and the claim is made that ground oats is a part of the mixture. A careful examination will usually disclose the fact FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 111 that oat hulls have been added. Ground corncobs and corn bra n are occasionally mixed with wheat bran. A cottonseed feed that is a mixture of cottonseed hulls and cottonseed me il is found on the market. The only object in making such a mixture is to sell cottonseed hulls at a good price. All alf a hay of doubtful quality is mixed with sugar refuse, and by liberal advertising sold at a price above its real value. Nearly all states where large quantities of feed are pur- chased by the farmers now have laws regarding the sale of feeding stuffs. These laws, however, do not take the place of intelligence on the part of feed users. Such a law generally requires the proper branding of each sack and labeling to inciicate the chemical composition. It should be remem- bered that the label gives the total amount of protein and other constituents, and not the amount of each that is digestible, which is decidedly lower. Feed buyers should patronize only reliable dealers, and buy feeds that are labeled and guaranteed. There are no mixtures better than the buyer can make himself, and there is no special feed or mixture having any remarkable properties not possessed by familiar feeds. The buyer of mill feeds should make a point of keep- ing in touch with the experiment station of his state, and if the feed control is vested in some other body or official, with them as well, and make use of the information they will be able to furnish regarding the feeds on the market. 107. Condimental Stock Foods. Numerous articles vari- ously known as " stock food " and " condition powders " are common on the market and are fed to a considerable extent by farmers who are not well informed regarding the feeding of live stock. They are guaranteed to make stock grow faster, cows to give more and richer milk, and some are recommended as cures for nearly all diseases of domestic 112 DAIRY FARMING animals. The best of these substances generally have for their base common feedstuffs, such as linseed meal or wheat middlings, while others contain low-grade mill refuse or even ground bark or clay. To the base is added various other substances, such as common salt, charcoal, sulphate of iron, gentian, pepper, and Epsom salts, and often tumeric or iron oxide for coloring. Some may have a small value as a tonic, but if such treatment is desirable, the necessary drugs should be purchased at a drug store, and may be had for a small part of the sum asked for the same in the form of stock food. Many experiment stations have made feeding tests which have shown that no value was derived from the use of the several brands of commercial stock foods. Money expended for this class of articles will give far greater returns if used for the purchase of ordinary feed. FEEDING YOUNG STOCK AND DRY Cows 108. Calf Raising. The careful dairyman sees in the best heifers the possibility of cows that will not only replace the discarded members of the herd but help to raise the aver- age, production. The question is often asked as to whether it pays to raise the calf. The answer is that only under exceptional conditions can the farmer afford not to raise the well-bred heifer calves. Some farmers near large cities where feed is high in price find it more profitable to buy all their cows, but as a general practice in most farming sections, the best heifers should be raised. The dairy-bred calf is almost always raised by hand. A discussion of the subject is naturally divided into two parts on account of the two common conditions : 1. Calf raising where skim-milk is on hand. 2. Raising the calf where whole milk is sold. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 113 109. Raising the Calf on Skim-milk. It is well known thai calves may be raised on skim-milk practically as well as when fed whole milk. A ^kim-milk calf is not quite so fat during the firsi few weeks but grows equally as well as the om receiving the un- sepirated milk and de- velops into an equally good animal. Skim-milk differs from whole milk Flf, 30. - A thrifty Holstem heifer six months old, raised on skim-milk after the Only in the much Smaller first two weeks with very little grain. It ,. , » , was fed 200 pounds of whole milk, and amount ot butter-tat that 26io pounds of skim-milk. it contains. The calf may be taken from the cow at birth or allowed to nurse two or three days. It should be given its mother's FIG. 31. — The same animal shown in Fig. 30 when four years old, a good type of cow and a good producer. 114 DAIRY FARMING milk for the first few days, later mixed milk is as good. Care must be taken not to overfeed at any time. For the first two weeks ten to twelve pounds per day is all that the largest calf will require. A small one needs even less. It may be fed in two feeds, but three feeds are better for the first two or three weeks. Each animal should be fed by itself so that it is cer- tain to get the proper amount of milk. As the calf gets older the amount of milk may be in- creas'e'd some- what, but it is not necessary to feed over 16 pounds a day at any time. A large calf can take up to 20 pounds without injury. The milk must always be fed fresh and sweet. Milk that has been standing some time, even if it does not taste sour, is not in the best condition for feeding. The milk should have a temperature of 90° F. or higher while the calf is young, but later it becomes less sensitive to a slight change in temperature. After about two weeks the feeder may begin to replace the whole milk with skim-milk. This should be done gradually, about a week being given to the change. The amount fed should not be greater because skim-milk is given in place of whole milk. By the time the calf is a month old it will begin to eat FIG. 32. — A Holstein heifer calf six months old, raised on whole milk. Total milk consumed 2960 pounds. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 115 grain. The grain is best fed dry after the milk is drunk. Cor i meal, linseed meal, oatmeal, or a mixture of all, serves alrrnst equally well for this purpose. Where corn is grown in abundance, corn meal is most commonly used as it alone FIG 33. — The same animal shown in Fig. 32, when six years old, a good milk producer but no better than the one raised on skim-milk. has been found equal to any other grain or any combination for this purpose. The total amount of feed required for a calf raised on skim-milk up to the age of six months is shown by the following, which is the average amount fed to seven calves. Whole milk 360 pounds Skim-milk 2804 pounds Hay . 270 pounds Grain 113 pounds Average weight of calves at birth .... 66 pounds Average weight at 180 days 303 pounds Average daily gain 1.3 pounds The skim-milk calf should have hay placed within reach as soon as it is old enough to eat it, or when it is about one 116 DAIRY FARMING month old. The calf does equally well for the first three or four months with hay or with pasture grass for roughage. Another exceedingly important point is the necessity for cleanliness of the pails and troughs used for calf feeding. A good rule is to have the calf pails as clean as the milk pails. The barn or stalls must also be clean and light. Dark, damp, or dirty stalls often result in serious sickness. The best part of the barn should be used for the calf pens. The raising of the calf on skim-milk may be summarized as follows : 1. Take the calf from its mother not later than the third day. 2. Feed mother's milk for two weeks, then change gradu- ally to skim-milk. 3. Especially avoid overfeeding. Keep the calf a little hungry, and make sure that each calf receives its proper amount. 4. Feed the skim-milk warm and fresh every time. 5. Feed dry grain, preferably com meal, as soon as the calf will take it. 6. Keep the utensils and stalls clean at all times. 110. Raising Calves when Whole Milk is Sold. The main difficulty in calf raising where whole milk is sold on the market is the matter of expense. • To raise a calf on whole milk means that the milk consumed may be greater in value than the calf raised. If the calf is fed whole milk as freely as skim-milk is given, it would consume 2000 to 2500 pounds before it is weaned. At SI. 50 per hun- dredweight, the feed up to six months would represent a value of $30 to $38. It is evident that this sum can be expended with profit only on very valuable calves. As a result of this situation the practice of not raising even FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 117 the best heifer calves is too common. This policy stands in ihe way of improvement of the herd. The Illinois Ex- periment Station found the average profit per cow to be $20.53 more each year in those herds in which a pure-bred bull was kept and calves raised. 111. The Use of Milk Substitutes. Several calf meals advertised. as milk substitutes are on the market. These are" sold under a trade name and the composition is not given. In general they are a mixture of linseed meal, oatmeal, wheat middlings, and corn meal. In some cases bean meal, ground flaxseed, or skim-milk powder is included. The Cornell University Experiment Station1 obtained good results by the use of a commercial calf meal composed of oatmeal, wheat meal, flaxseed, and dried skim-milk. The calves received in addition a grain mixture consisting of corn, oats, and wheat bran, three parts each. The calves were fed whole milk alone for the first week after which the calf meal was gradually introduced. The feeding of milk was gradually reduced until at the end of about one month the calves were receiving only the calf meal, grain mixture, and hay. Most of the calves were able to grow fairly well on this ration, and they developed into good cows. The average quantities of feed used up to five months of age were : Whole milk 226 pounds Calf meal 220 pounds Grain 109 pounds Hay 329 pounds Average gain per day 1.1 pounds Total cost of feed $14.69 1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 269 and 304. 118 DAIRY FARMING Excellent results were also obtained by the same station by the use of dried skim-milk powder. The quantities of feed required for each calf up to five months with this ration were : Whole milk 185 pounds Milk powder . 230 pounds Hay 370 pounds Grain 114 pounds Gain per day 1.25 pounds Total cost of feed $11.75 The Illinois Experiment Station conducted an experiment to determine the minimum amount of milk necessary to raise a calf. Milk feeding was continued to the age of from 42 to 56 days. Whole milk was fed the first three weeks followed by skim-milk up to the age of eight weeks. It was concluded that it is advisable to feed milk long enough to give the calves a good start. After the age of eight weeks the calves thrived on grain and hay. The grain ration was a mixture of corn, 4 parts ; oats, 4 parts ; and bran and lin- seed oil meal, 1 part each. The total amounts fed per animal were whole milk, 134 pounds ; skim-milk, 422 pounds. The total value of the milk used was $4.62 for each calf.1 These results show clearly that the milk can be reduced to an amount that does not make the cost of raising the calf excessive. When grain is substituted for milk under the conditions discussed, it must not be expected that the calf will appear as fat and thrifty as one receiving milk. How- ever, there is no reason for believing that the dairy qualities of the cow are injured in any way. If a good ration is fed as the calf grows older, it will make up any deficiency in size that may result from the lack of more milk in the ration when young. 1 Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 164. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 119 112. Feeding for Veal. To make a good veal requires liberal feeding of fresh whole milk. So far no substitute for whole milk has been found for this purpose. The best qur lity of veal is produced when the animal receives nothing but whole milk and is slaughtered at the age of two months. Th > regulation of the United States Government for inter- sta e commerce requires that the calf be at least three weeks old before being put on the market. Many cities also have regulations regarding either the age or the weight of veal cal /es. Where such regulations are not enforced the ten<- dei cy is to market the calves younger than this age, since wh m milk is high priced, the younger the calf is sold the greater the profit. The first question to be answered is whether the calf can be raised profitably for veal. It often ha] >pens, especially with the breeds having small calves, thft the milk fed is worth more than the market value of the calf when sold. For this reason some do not attempt to raise the calf for veal but destroy those not wanted for breeding purposes at birth. TABLE 16. — FEED CONSUMED AND GAIN FIRST 30 DAYS BREED No. CALVES AVERAGE BIRTH WEIGHT WEIGHT AT END OF 30 DAYS AVERAGE DAILY GAIN POUNDS OF MILK CON- SUMED POUNDS MILK PER POUND GAIN Jersey . . . 10 49 88.9 1.33 376 9.42 Holstein . . . 8 83 127.0 1.47 441 10.02 Ayrshire . . . 2 70 107.0 1.23 344 9.31 The average daily gain of a dairy-bred calf is from 1.2 to 2 pounds during the first few weeks. About 10 pounds of whole milk are required for each pound of gain. The data 120 DAIRY FARMING in Table 16 show the average gain and weight for calves of three breeds as found by the author. 113. Feeding the Dairy Heifer. No special difficulties are experienced in raising heifer calves from the time of weaning until they come into milk. If pasturing is practiced, no further attention or additional feed is necessary so long as the grass is abundant. The winter ration should consist of a good quality of roughage with a small amount of grain. A good ration is corn silage and clover or alfalfa hay, with a grain allowance of about 2 or 3 pounds daily per animal. A more liberal grain ration will cause a more rapid growth of the young animals and earlier maturity. It is possible by heavy grain feeding to have a heifer as mature at the age of 18 months as another fed entirely on roughage is at 24 months. Liberal feeding during the growing period and the better condition of the animal which follows result in a larger milk yield during the first year than is the case when less is fed. The size of the animal when mature is influenced to some extent by the manner of feeding during the growing period. In experiments by the author, heifers fed a liberal ration measured over an inch more in height when mature than did heifers fed a ration with less nutrients.1 At the age of 18 months the difference was nearly 3.5 inches, but the group receiving the lighter ration continued to grow for several months after the heavier fed group had ceased grow- ing. The lighter fed group, however, remained slightly smaller. Another factor that has some influence on the size of the cow when mature is the age at which she comes into milk. A heifer that freshens at an early age, for example, 20 to 22 months for a Jersey, and 22 to 24 for a Holstein, will not develop into so large an animal as she would if she 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 121 122 DAIRY FARMING were somewhat older. The difference will not be very marked unless the animal has also been fed a light ration up to this time and is therefore immature for the age. Heavy grain feeding when young, accompanied by late breeding, will develop a heifer to her maximum size. A ration that does not supply an abundance of food in an easily digestible form, as, for example, hay and silage alone, together with early calving will result in a slower growth of the animal and a somewhat smaller size at maturity. The best practice to follow is one between these two ex- tremes. A heifer fed exclusively on roughage is too slow in reaching maturity, while the heavy feeding of grain is too expensive. A good development can be had by feeding good roughage together with about 2 or 3 pounds of grain per day during the winter season. The figures in Table 17, as found by the writer, will be of assistance to the farmer who wishes to know whether his young animals are being fed so that their development is up to the average of the breed. TABLE 17. — AVEEAGE HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF DAIRY HEIFERS JERSEYS HOLSTEINS AGE Height at Withers Weight Height at Withers Weight Inches Pounds Inches Pounds 6 months 31.7 265 40.8 350 9 months 41.2 378 43.4 444 12 months 43.4 468 45.6 548 15 months 45.2 556 47.4 620 18 months 47.0 598 48.8 710 24 months 48.4 750 50.0 900 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 123 Sufficient data are not at hand for the Guernsey and Ayrshire breeds, but they fall between the two breeds given. It is well to breed the heifer sp that she will come into milk at 24 to 26 months of age if a Jersey or Guernsey, and at 28 to 30 months if a Holstein or an Ayrshire, the variations suggested being made to allow for the size of the animal. T le milking tendency of the cow when mature is not in- fluei iced to any appreciable extent by any ordinary variations in the ration fed during the growing period. The dairy cha] acteristic of a cow is a matter of inheritance and does not ,eem to be influenced to any great extent by over- or under- feed ng when a heifer. In experiments by the author with ovei 40 animals some of the best milk producers, as well as some of the worst, were in a group fed excessively from birth to first calving. Another group receiving a light ration up to calving time showed the same variation in quality.1 114. Salt Requirements. All animals that consume large quantities of vegetable food require salt. It is not merely an appetizer but a necessity. Animals that live upon meat do not have this craving. A cow kept without salt shows a strong craving for it during the first few weeks, then quiets down into an emaciated condition of low vitality, which will result in a complete breakdown after several months. The amount of salt needed varies with the amount of feed consumed. A dry cow needs about .75 ounce per day. The cow in milk needs the same amount for maintenance and in addition about .6 ounce per day for each 20 pounds of milk. The amount required therefore for cows yielding from 20 to 30 pounds of milk per day is about 1.5 ounces. Salt ma}- be supplied by mixing the proper amount regularly in the feed or it may be placed where the animal can have access 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 124 DAIRY FARMING to it. If the cattle run out every day, the best way to salt them is to keep a constant supply in a box in the yard. The plan of salting the cattle at intervals of one or two weeks is not to be recommended. 115. Feeding the Cow when Dry. The milk yield of a cow throughout her entire lactation period is influenced by her condition of flesh at calving time. For good results it is very important that she be in good flesh at this time. A high producer will yield fully 20 per cent more during the year if in good order at calving time. Less trouble is also experienced when the calf is born. All mammals naturally take on flesh before the young is born. This reserve store of food is needed to aid in the production of milk. We expect a dairy cow to give several times as much milk as the calf requires. The importance of her being fat is there- fore all the greater. The grain given to a dry cow is not lost. It is used to store up fat in the body for the purpose of milk production. If when a good cow is dry, she is fed sufficient grain to get her in good flesh, it is just as sure to be returned in milk as is the grain fed when the cow is giving milk. The astonishing records of milk and fat production obtained within recent years from cows under official test are due in no small measure to a realization of the importance of having the cow well fed before freshening and in a high state of flesh. The feeding of the cow when dry will depend upon her condition when milking ceases. If in good flesh, only a little more than a maintenance ration should be given. If not in good condition, a more liberal ration is advisable, suffi- cient to insure her being in good flesh when she freshens. The character of the ration fed at this time need not vary materially from that given to the cows in milk. Good pas- FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 125 ture, legume hay, and roots or silage are adapted for use as roughage. As the time for freshening approaches, the cow should by all means have a laxative ration if she has not been receiving it before ; if on pasture, no special atten- tion :s called for in this respect. The cow should have ex- ercise, and nothing is better than freedom in a smooth pas- ture or freedom in a barnyard in winter. FEEDING THE Cow IN MILK 116. Water for Cows. Large amounts of water are necessary for producing the milk itself and for the digestion and Assimilation of the larger quantities of feed required to mak( it. The author found by experiments that a cow producing 27 pounds of milk per day drank 77 pounds of water. The same cow when dry drank only 15 pounds per day. Another cow producing over 100 pounds of milk per day used an average of 250 pounds of water. These figures show that the water requirement is in proportion to the milk produced and the food consumed. They also show that the question of water supply is much more important for the cow in milk than for the dry cow. Dry cows need not be watered more than once daily in winter time and do not seem to want it oftener. During the summer the demand for water is greater on account of the greater evaporation from the skin. Cows on heavy feed, producing large quan- tities of milk, should always have access to water at least twice daily. For the best results, water of good quality should be supplied close at hand, since if the animals are required to walk long distances in cold weather, they may not drink a sufficient amount and the milk flow may be reduced for this reason. Water contaminated by drainage from barnyards or with sewage should be avoided for sanitary reasons, as 126 DAIRY FARMING well as for the additional reason that cows may not drink as much as,is needed for the best results. In very cold climates it is profitable to warm the water for dairy cows. It is cheaper to warm the water with a tank heater by burning coal or wood than to supply the necessary heat by allowing the animal to burn high-priced feed in its body for this purpose. A cow producing 25 pounds of milk daily requires about 1 pound of corn daily to warm the water used if it be given at the freezing point. Larger producers would require a correspondingly larger amount for this pur- pose. An even more important reason for warming water is that a heavy-milking cow will not drink enough water if it is near the freezing temperature. The activities of the organs of digestion and milk secretion are almost stopped for a while if a cow drinks 30 or 40 pounds of ice water. Where water is warmed it is generally brought to a tempera- ture of about 60° F. 117. Turning on Pasture. Cattle are pastured in summer over the greater part of this country and every owner of a cow welcomes the time when the cow may be turned out to pasture. In changing from dry to green feed it is best to go somewhat slowly, especially with heavy-milking cows. The young immature grasses are mostly water and it is almost impossible for a heavy-milking cow to eat enough to supply the necessary nutrients. Another reason for making the change slowly is the effect upon the taste of the milk. When a cow is changed suddenly from grain to grass, the milk may be given a strong taste ; while if this change is made gradually, little or no change in taste is noticed. A common mistake is to pasture too closely^ in the fall and to turn out too early in the spring. The cows should be FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 127 kepi off the pasture until the grass is well started. Grass can only grow by having leaves above the ground in contact with the air and sunshine. If the cattle are turned out to graze while the grass is very short, its growth is slow since it h;is no chance to get enough leaves to prepare its food. 118. Feeding Grain while on Pasture. The cow that produces a small quantity will give but little if any more if fed i^rain while on pasture. However, with the very heavy- producing cow the case is quite different, and it is necessary that she be fed some grain or she will not continue long on the high level of milk production. The high-producing cow cannot eat and digest a sufficient amount of grass to supply the necessary nutrients and must have some concentrated feed in order to continue to produce large quantities of milk. Experiments made by the Cornell University Experiment Station covering four years showed that while an increase of milk yield was obtained from grain feeding it was not economical to produce it in this way. Only about one addi- tional pound of milk was obtained for each pound of grain fed. In these experiments the pasture furnished an abun- dance of grasses. It was observed, however, that the cows that had grain during the summer gave better results after the grazing season was over than those that received no grain. This is also a matter of common observation by dairymen and should be taken into account in considering the question of summer feeding. The practice of the writer in regard to grain feeding on pasture is represented in the following statement : Jersey or Guernsey cow, producing : 20 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily 25 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily 30 pounds milk daily 6 pounds grain daily 35 pounds milk daily 8 pounds grain daily 128 DAIRY FARMING Holstein, Shorthorn, or Ayrshire, producing : 25 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily 30 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily 35 pounds milk daily 5 pounds grain daily 40 pounds milk daily 7 pounds grain daily It must be kept in mind that this applies only when pas- tures are abundant. When a small amount of grain is fed as a supplement to pasture, little attention is necessary as to the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates that it contains. When corn is the cheapest grain, it may be fed alone if desired. Any mixture of common concentrates serves the purpose, since it is total digestible nutrients that is needed and the protein is usually supplied in ample amounts by the grass. When larger amounts of grain are fed, more care must be taken to have enough protein. 119. Providing for Periods of Short Pasture. Unfortu- nately the season of abundant pastures is often short. In many localities a dry period of several weeks often occurs at times during the summer season. It is probable that as much loss occurs from improper feeding at such times as is caused by improper feeding during the winter. As long as the cows are on pasture, and other work is pressing, the farmer is inclined to let the cows get along the best they can. It is well known to all experienced dairymen that if a cow is once allowed to decline in her milk production, it is difficult to bring her back to normal. To make a large profit from the cow, a large yearly production must be had and to obtain this ordinarily requires that the flow of milk be kept up for 10 months out of the year. It is possible to supplement short pasture by the feeding of grain, but this is as a rule unnecessarily expensive. It will pay, however, if no other feed is available. Provision for short pasture is FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 129 best made either by having green crops on hand that may be cut for feed, or by feeding silage or alfalfa hay during this period. The use of green crops cut and taken to the animals is known as the soiling system. In recent years the use of corn silage for summer feeding is meeting with the greatest favor and promises to displace the practice of soiling to a large extent, because it is much less expensive. For summer feeding a silo of small diameter is recommended in order that the silage may be fed fast enough to prevent spoiling. If the silage is not needed it can be kept for winter use. 120. Amount to Feed. One of the most common mistakes made in feeding cows is in not feeding them enough. If a cow does not respond in milk yield when well fed, she should be ;-old. The cheapest production is obtained from a high- producing cow well fed. The cow may be looked upon as a milk-producing machine, which we supply with the raw material in the form of feed. This raw material is manu- factured into milk. The same rule holds as with any manu- facturing plant; it is run most economically near its full capacity. One should understand that, first of all, the animal must use a certain amount of its food to maintain the body. This is called the ration of maintenance and is practically the same whether the animal is being utilized for full capacity or merely being kept without producing any milk at all. About 50 per cent of all the feed she can consume is used by a medium dairy cow for this purpose. It is evident that after going to this expense it is the poorest economy to re- fuse; to give the other 50 per cent of a full ration, which would be used entirely for milk production. Since only half of a full ration is available for making milk, it is clear that if through mistaken ideas of economy the cow is fed 75 per cent of a full ration the amount she has available for producing 130 DAIRY FARMING milk is reduced 50 per cent. The heavy-milking cow is the one most commonly underfed. It is often observed that heavy-milking cows rapidly get thin in flesh after calving and may drop greatly in the amount of milk within a short time. This is the result of underfeeding. If a certain cow has a capacity to produce only 25 pounds of milk daily and is al- ready receiving enough feed for this amount, it is a waste of feed to increase her ration as she will not correspondingly increase in milk. If a cow of this type is given more feed than she needs, she uses part of it for laying on fat and soon commences to appear smooth and beefy. The practical question arises then as to what means may be employed to determine how much feed a certain cow needs. The most accurate plan is to calculate the ration according to the feed- ing standard as described in paragraph 92. There are in addition certain observations that may be made the basis of practical feeding operations. One is the condition of the animal in regard to flesh. The inclination to give milk is so strong in a good cow that when underfed she will continue for some time to give more than is provided for by her ration and will supply the remaining material that is required from her body. This results in a gradual loss in weight. When a cow in milk loses weight, it means that she is underfed and unless her ration is increased soon she will drop materially in milk yield. On the other hand if a cow in milk is gaining in weight, it is evident that she is getting more feed than she is using and her ration may be cut down. Another suggestion is to note carefully the amount of milk the cow produces at her best, which will be within a short time after calving. Then be sure to feed enough to sup- port this amount of milk production. Later, as she declines, FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 131 due to the advance in the lactation period, reduce the feed to correspond to the decline in milk. The following rules serve as a -general guide for practical feeding : 1 . Feed all the roughage the cows will eat up clean at all times. 2 . Feed 1 pound of grain per day for each pound of fat produced per week, or 1 pound of grain per day for each 3 pounds of milk produced by Jersey ; 3| by Ayrshire ; and 4 by Holstein. 3. Feed all that the cows will take without gaining in weight. Ic is best to become accustomed to thinking in terms of wei g;ht rather than in terms of measure in calculating rations and feeding dairy cows. It is often more convenient when feeding to measure than to weigh the feed. The most prac- tical plan generally is to feed with a measure and weigh the feed mixture used often enough to make it possible to esti- mate closely how much is required by measure to give the weight desired. 121. The Balanced Ration. The most common mistake made in feeding dairy cows, next to underfeeding, is giving too little protein. This mistake is especially common in the corn-belt on account of the wide use of corn and timothy hay, both very deficient in protein. Where alfalfa hay is fed the ration nearly always has enough protein. A milking cow must use a certain amount of protein, and no other material can take its place. A ration is said to be balanced when the protein and carbohydrates are in the right pro- portion. It is not possible to make a good ration by using corn and timothy hay unless large quantities of mill feeds rich in 132 DAIRY FARMING protein are fed. In formulating a ration the roughage is the first consideration, since the character of this portion largely determines the kind of grain to be fed. The cheapest source of protein is generally leguminous hay, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea. If an abundance of any one of these can be grown, the problem of making an economical ration is greatly simplified. If alfalfa hay is fed, it is not necessary to use concentrates that are rich in proteins. If mixed hay and corn silage are used, at least one-third of the grain should be rich in protein. 122. Succulent Feed. In order to obtain the best re- sults it is necessary to have a portion of the ration of a suc- culent character. This term is applied to feeds that contain much water, such as green grass, corn silage, roots, and cabbage. Such feeds seem to have a value outside of the actual nutrients they contain on account of the favorable effect upon the digestion of the animal. In the corn-belt, corn silage furnishes the cheapest and best succulent feed for winter. In other sections, especially north of the corn- belt, the growing of root crops is generally practicable. They supply this desirable element of the ration in an entirely satisfactory form. 123. Palatability of the Ration. An animal will give better results if it relishes its ration. Sometimes even if a feed containing enough nutrients is offered, a sufficient amount is not eaten on account of a lack of palatability. Hay and other coarse feeds show the most variation in this respect, depending upon time of cutting and manner of curing. It is advisable to have the grain composed of a mixture of two kinds or more as this increases palatability. A ration for very high-producing cows should be a mixture of five or six feedstuff s. Succulent feeds are always palatable and FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 133 they aid digestion by keeping the animal in good condition. When a good ration has been selected there is no reason for chi] nge for the sake of variety. If the animal craves a change in ration, it is an indication that the ration it has been receiv- ing is deficient in some particular. 124. Order of Feeding. Regularity in feeding is of greater importance than any special routine. The common pm ctice is to feed twice daily giving about one-half the grain and roughage at each feed. The grain is generally fed first ami the hay feeding reserved until the milking is done to avoid having dust in the barn. Silage should also be fed aft or milking to prevent possible odors in the milk. The co\\r readily becomes accustomed to a certain routine and this should not be varied any more than is absolutely neces- sary. She may be accustomed to receive grain either before or .after milking, or be easily taught to demand it while the milking is being done. FEEDING Cows FOR THE MAXIMUM PRODUCTION IN OFFICIAL TESTS 125. Obtaining the Maximum Production. The maxi- mum production is obtained from high-producing cows by a combination of expert handling and the best possible ration. Such cows cannot be fed entirely by any rule, nor can their ration be calculated by a formula. The individual animal and her characteristics must be taken into account. One of the essential things is having the animal in the proper condition of flesh at calving. She should be dry for two months or more for the best results, and be fed a liberal amount of grain during this period. Some form of suc- culence is absolutely necessary as a part of the ration. Roots, such as common beets, sugar beets, or mangels are 134 DAIRY FARMING even better than silage for this purpose, and may be fed up to 50 pounds or more per day. The cow must be brought up to the full ration carefully after calving, using about three weeks for this purpose. The grain ration should consist of a mixture of several concen- trates, all of which are palatable. So long as the animal re- mains in normal condition, no change in the grain ration is necessary. Special attention must be given to the physical condition of the cow. A careful herdsman always closely observes the character of the dung excreted, and learns to judge when the digestion is normal. At the first indication of lack of a keen appetite the ration is cut down until the animal is again in condition to utilize the full amount. If the digestion gives indication of even slight disorder, a purgative, such as Epsom salts, 1 to 1J pounds at a dose, should be administered at once. The grain should always be eaten with a relish, and the animal should show a disposition to want a little more than she receives. A ration for a heavy-milking cow must be rich in protein. Much more grain should be fed in proportion to the roughage than with an ordinary producer. In fact, for the maximum production of a great producer, the nutrients will need to be largely supplied by con- centrates. The following daily ration was fed by the writer to a Jersey cow that was producing daily 40 pounds of milk, containing 2 pounds of fat. The cow weighed about 900 pounds and produced during the year 13,895 pounds of milk and 680 pounds of fat. The same grain mixture was fed during the greater part of the milking period, including the pasture season. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 135 POUNDS Corn silage . . 15. Alfalfa hay . . 15. Corn meal 3.5 Bran 3.5 Oats 3.5 Oil meal 1.5 Total roughage per day 30., Total grain per day 12. A Holstein cow under charge of the author was fed the following amounts daily while producing an average of 100 pounds of milk daily. POUNDS Corn silage 15. Alfalfa hay 20. Dried beet pulp 4. Corn meal 6.1 Bran 6.1 Oats 6.1 Gluten feed 1.9 Linseed meal 1.9 Cottonseed meal 1.9 Total roughage 35. Total concentrates 28. The grain ration was prepared by mixing 100 pounds each of corn, bran, and oats, and 30 pounds each of the last three named above. One pound of dried beet pulp was added to six pounds of the grain mixture and the entire mass moistened with water some time before feeding. The cow was fed and milked four times each twenty-four hours. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Distinguish between composition of a feed, digestible nutri- ents, and production value. 2. Define concentrate, succulent, roughage, corn stover. 3. What succulent winter feeds are used in your region ? 4. What common feeds of your region are high in protein ? 136 DAIRY FARMING 5. Calculate the amounts of corn and clover hay required to maintain a cow weighing 1000 pounds. 6. Find the amount of protein and energy required for a 1250- pound cow producing 40 pounds of milk daily, containing 3.5 per cent -of fat. 7. From the feeds in Table 15, calculate a ration that will sat- isfy the conditions in problem 6. How does the ration agree with the standards on page 304 ? 8. Find the protein and energy in the following rations : Ration 1 Ration 2 Corn silage 30 Ib. Timothy hay . . . . 12 Ib, Alfalfa hay 10 Ib. Corn fodder 10 Ib. Corn 6 Ib. Corn 6 Ib. Cottonseed meal ... 1 Ib. Bran 1 Ib. What is the limiting factor in the second ration ? For how much 3.5 per cent milk does each ration supply protein in addition to maintaining a 1000-pound cow? 9. Calculate a ration for a 900-pound Jersey cow giving 23 pounds of milk daily, using the common feeds of the region. 10. When bran is worth $20, cottonseed meal $30, clover hay $10 per ton ; and corn 70 cents, and oats 50 cents per bushel, find which is the cheapest source of protein. Which is the cheapest source of energy ? 11. Obtain the local prices of purchased feeds in the regioa Which is the cheapest source of energy? Of protein? 12. With prices given in problem 11, calculate the cheapest possible satisfactory ration for a Shorthorn cow weighing 1200 pounds and giving 30 pounds of milk daily. 13. Is skim-milk usually available for calf feeding in this region? What are the common calf feeds used ? 14. Let each student find the approximate amounts of milk and other feeds used in raising a calf to six months of age for his own farm or some other farm. At normal prices, what is the feed worth? Have all these reports compared and averaged. Compare with results on pages 115, 250 and 252. 16. Proceed in a similar manner to find the usual method of feed- ing heifers in the region. 16. What is the usual date for turning cows to pasture in your region? About what times are they taken off of pasture in the FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 137 fall? At what time are the pastures not likely to furnish enough feed ? 17. What effect does the manner of feeding the heifer have on the amount of milk that she is likely to give as a heifer? As a ma- ture cow? 13. What conclusion would you draw from observing that a cow when giving milk was gradually getting thinner? What con- clus on if she were gaining in flesh? LABORATORY EXERCISES 9. Raising a Calf. Let each student who can arrange to do so, raiso a calf, following the directions that apply to the conditions. Ke< p track of all the feed used, and see if the calf can be raised at less than the usual cost. This is particularly important in regions where whole milk is sold. 10. Study of Feeding on a Dairy Farm. Obtain permission to visii, a dairy farm, preferably one where the farmer has scales that will weigh cattle ; or students may do this work for herds on their home farms. A spring balance and tape measure will be required. Make a list of the cows in the herd, and find out the following facts about each. Or if the herd is too large, use five or six cows thai, are giving different amounts of milk. Each student may do the work for one cow. Cow 1 Cow 2 Cow 3 Cow 4 Age Breed Weight Pounds milk Per cent fat Protein for maintenance .... Protein for milk Total Protein of food Energy for maintenance .... Energy for milk Total Energy of food . Gaining or losing flesh .... 138 DAIRY FARMING How much milk is each giving? If the farmer does not know, arrangements can be made to have one student or the farmer weigh the milk for one or two days. What mixture of grain is fed? How much grain is each getting? If the farmer does not know the weight of a day's feed, he can measure out what he is using and this can be weighed. What does the grain mixture weigh per quart? In the same way the amounts of silage and other feeds may be obtained. Weigh each cow. Ask the farmer's opinion as to which cows are gaining and which losing in flesh. Obtain samples of milk for each cow, and test for fat. Calculate the amount of energy and protein for maintenance of each cow, the amount necessary for milk production, and the amount in the feed. The results may be summarized in a table like the one shown on page 137. Does it seem probable that any one of the cows is not obtaining enough protein or enough energy? Are there practical ways in which the ration may be cheapened by using different feeds? It may be that the farmer will be willing to experiment with increasing or decreasing the feed or with using a different mixture. If he is willing to do so, the results should be followed carefully. 11. Raising Heifers. Obtain measurements of a number of heifers, and compare with the results on page 122. COLLATERAL READING Computing Rations for Farm Animals by Use of Energy Values, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 346. Handling and Feeding Silage, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 578. The Feeding of Farm Animals, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle- tin 22. Feeding Skim-milk Calves, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 233, pp. 22-25. Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 56-118, 308, 310, 313-317. The Feeding of Animals, W. H. Jordan. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 254-294. CHAPTER 6 THE DAIRY BARN C. H. ECKLES I' is only within recent years that the arrangement and construction of the dairy barn has been given the attention thai its importance justifies. It pays to have a comfortable "Him FIG. 35. — Interior of a well-arranged barn. barn on account of the larger production of milk which re- sults. The arrangement of the barn is also an important factor in efficient use of labor and in keeping the workers contented. There is a growing demand for better sanitary conditions surrounding the milk supply, and this means 139 140 DAIRY FARMING that barns must be constructed with more attention to those details that make it possible to keep milk clean. 126. General Arrangement of Barns. The style of barn construction will necessarily vary with the locality, climate, and many other factors. The interior arrangements of the cow barn, however, may be much the same in barns differ- ing widely in general plan of construction. The most com- mon arrangement of dairy cows in a barn is in two rows, 82-0- "A"G-£ FIG. 36. — Floor plan of a good barn in which the cows face the center. The calf pens and milk room are not shown. facing either towards the center or towards the wall. If a manure carrier is used, it is most convenient to have the heads together, as this saves time in feeding with no loss in cleaning. If a wagon is to be driven through the barn for cleaning, the cows should face the wall. More than two rows require that the barn be too wide for efficient lighting and for convenience in handling the cattle. The barn should be located where there is good drainage and where it is con- venient from the standpoint of labor. 127. Lighting. One of the most serious defects in many barns, especially in old ones, is lack of sufficient light. A light barn is more healthful for the animals, and it is the first step toward removing the objectionable features often THE DAIRY BARN 141 connected with dairy work. A dark barn is almost always a dii ty barn. By having plenty of sunlight, dirty conditions are easily seen and are usually corrected. There should be about four square feet of glass per cow. The best arrange- ment is to have the windows extend from the ceiling about FIG. 37. — Floor plan of a barn for 20 cows. halfway to the floor, as this makes it possible for the sunlight to reach farther into the barn. 128. The Floor. One of the most important considerations of all is the floor. A satisfactory floor is comfortable for the cows, sanitary, easily cleaned, durable, and not too ex- pensive. The floors most commonly used are wood, con- crete;, or dirt, with wood or concrete gutters. A floor of dirt, although comfortable for the cows, is only allowable under conditions where it is not possible to have a better 142 DAIRY FARMING one. The main objection, of course, is that it cannot be kept clean. A fairly good arrangement in a cheap barn is a dirt floor for the cows to stand upon with a cement gutter behind, provided with a strip extending forward about one foot to catch the urine. A tight wooden floor is comfortable for the cows and may be kept in good sanitary condition if FIG. 38. — A well-lighted barn. in good repair. The main objection to this material is its high first cost and lack of durability. Concrete is durable and sanitary, but not so comfortable for the cows as the others. It requires a liberal use of bedding. In putting in a con- crete floor care must be taken to have the surface given a rough finish, otherwise the animals will slip and sooner or later seriously injure themselves. It is not necessary to make the floor as thick as is sometimes recommended. On solid earth four inches is as good as more. 129. The Platform. The best arrangement for keeping cows clean is the platform and gutter. It is well to have the platform about 6 inches wider at one end than at the other THE DAIRY BARN 143 so that the cows may be arranged in order of size and fit the platform. The same result may be accomplished by havi tig the platform on one side of the barn wider than that Fi i. 39. — Cross section of a barn with cows facing the center. The style of ni mger may be varied as shown in Fig. 41. The length of the platform shou d be varied to suit the breed. • on 1 he other. The width of the platform from manger to guti er should vary to suit the breed. The length of platform needed for animals from 2 years old to the largest cows is give n in Table 18. TA3LE 18. — LENGTH OF PLATFORM REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT BREEDS BREED SHORTEST LONGEST AVERAGE Jersey .... 48 inches 56 inches 54 inches Guernsey 50 inches 58 inches 56 inches Ayrshire .... 50 inches 58 inches 56 inches Holstein .... 54 inches 62 inches 60 inches Shorthorn . . . 54 inches 62 inches 60 inches The platform should slope about one inch from the manger to the gutter. It is better to have it rise half the way back and then slope to the gutter. This helps to prevent the front feet from slipping and causing injury to the knees. A very good platform can be made by laying 2 inches of con- crete, then a layer of tar paper, and on this place 1J to 2 inches of concrete. The paper extends to within about 4 inches of the gutter. The tar paper prevents moisture from 144 DAIRY FARMING rising and, by stopping the loss of heat, also makes the con- crete warmer for the cow to lie on. One of the best floor arrangements is one in which the floor, manger, and passage- ways are of concrete with a wooden platform on top of the concrete under the cows. In this case two inches of concrete under the plank is sufficient if placed on solid ground. 130. The Gutter. The gutter is often made too shallow. It should be preferably about 8 or 9 inches deep and about FIG. 40. — Modern stalls and ties. Steel construction gives a neat appearance, is sanitary, strong, and durable. 16 inches wide and should be tight to prevent urine from getting under the floor. A common plan is to have the passageway behind the animals 2 to 4 inches lower than the platform. 131. The Stalls. When the cow is tied in a stanchion, the stall should be 42 to 44 inches wide for the large breeds, while 36 to 42 inches is sufficient for the smaller breeds. Partitions are used in many barns, but some dairymen pre- fer to dispense with them for the sake of facilitating the move- ment of the cows in getting in and out of the stalls, and for convenience in doing chores. 132. Mangers. Concrete is the best material for mangers from the standpoint of sanitation and durability. The most common type of concrete manger is the continuous, which is built in the form of a trough before the cows. By having the feed alley raised, feed can be swept into the manger with- out lifting. (See Fig. 36.) The main advantage of this THE DAIRY BARN 145 stylo is the ease of feeding and cleaning. It may also be used for .vatering in the barn. Some objections are made to this stylo of construction on account of the chance it affords for one cow to rob another of a portion of its feed. Partitions TYPES OF MANGERS FIG. 41. — Types of mangers. of sheet iron or concrete are sometimes used to overcome this difficulty. 133. Ties. The cow should be fastened so that she lies down exactly where she stands or a little forward if possible. The most objectionable way is to tie a cow to a manger so that she must back up to lie down. This results in covering the cow with filth. The most common ties in use are various forms of stanchions. There is no better way to keep the cow clean than to tie her with a stanchion, properly constructed, and stand her on a platform of the right dimensions pro- 146 DAIRY FARMING vided with a gutter of sufficient depth. The old style rigid stanchion is not a satisfactory tie, as the cow has no free- dom and cannot lie in a natural position. Many forms of stanchions are in use that are entirely satisfactory. These are generally hung on short chains at top and bottom and are constructed of either wood or steel. The double post slip chain tie is equally comfortable for the animals, but not so con- venient for use. Stanchion or chain ties may be attached to either iron or wooden frame- work as supports. 134. Ventilation. An abundance of fresh air is as essential as plenty of feed. The most simple form of ventilation is by windows. This works best when the sash is hinged in the mid- dle or at the bottom so that the air can be admitted by tipping the top of the window sash slightly into the room. This throws the air towards the ceiling and away from the animals. This form of ventilation can be used satisfac- torily in mild climates. In northern latitudes it is not satisfactory during severe weather on account of the difficulty of properly controlling the intake of air during rapid changes of wind and temperature. The best form of ventilation yet devised is the King system. This consists of a large flue, opening near the floor and extending above the roof, for taking out foul air. A number of smaller openings arranged at intervals of 10 to 12 feet along the walls allow for the intake of air. The intakes open to the outer air near the ground, pass upwards inside the wall and open into the barn near the ceiling. These open- FIG. 42. — A common tie for dairy cows. This stanchion is of steel with a wooden lin- ing and hangs on chains at the top and bottom to al- low freedom of movement. THE DAIRY BARN 147 ings should be provided with means for closing if the wind pressure causes too rapid movement of the air. IS 5. Cost of Barns. The price of milk, climate, cost of mm >er, and many other factors influence the cost of dairy ban s. Where milk is high in price and where a correspond- ing < quality is demanded, a very different barn will be required fron. the kind needed who.i milk goes to the crea tnery. If valuable pur< -bred stock is kept, a so ne what more expen- sive barn may be justified thai would be needed for ordi lary cows, because a goou barn may help one to soil the stock. Some very good dairy barns have, been built where «•«* ARC AT CNO OF BARN FIG. 43. — Cross section of a barn show- ing the King system of ventilation. The air enters near the ceiling on the sides and is drawn out through large flues opening near the floor. lumber is moderate in price at a cost of $50 per cow. Unless milk sells at a very high price, one should certainly hesitate to spend more than $100 per cow for the barn, including milk room, and silo, and storage place for the other dairy feeds. On the corn-belt farm, where few cows are kept and where there is an abundance of straw, the cows may run in an open shed. If there is a milking shed in which the cows are milked and fed grain, very clean milk may be obtained. No system is better for the health of the animals than running loose in a good shed, but where dairying is made the primary business a regular dairy barn is ordinarily desired. 148 DAIRY FARMING QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What materials are used for barn floors in your region? Describe the floor in some good barn, and tell how it was made. 2. What different kinds of stanchions are used ? 3. Are manure carriers used in any barns? If so, what kind is used, and what did it cost? 4. Does any barn in the region have the King system of ventila- tion? If so, describe it. 5. If any barn has been built in the region in the past few years, find the cost per cow. 6. Draw a floor plan for a barn to hold 6 horses, 15 cows, and young stock. Or change the numbers of stock to suit the condi- tions. Show dimensions of stalls, mangers, etc., and location of milk house. LABORATORY EXERCISES 12. Study of a Barn. Arrange with the owner to visit a good dairy barn in the region, and study its general arrangement. A tape measure and thermometer will be required. Some of the points to be determined are as follows : Length, width, height of posts, height of peak, height of ceiling in cow barn. Capacity for hay, silage, grain. See page 305. Make a diagram of a cross section of the floor similar to figure 39, indicating the dimensions of the feed alley, manger, platform, gutter, etc. How wide a place is allowed for each cow ? What kind of stanchions are used ? What did they cost ? How many cubic feet of air space is there per cow? What system of ventilation is used? Did the air appear to be good when you entered the barn ? What is the temperature in the barn? •How are the windows arranged? How many square feet of glass is there per cow? Is there a milk house ? How many feet must be traveled with the milk from each cow? Are the arrangements for feeding the cows and for cleaning the barn convenient? THE DAIRY BARN 149 COLLATERAL READING Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. I, pp. 245 260. Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm, U. S. Dept. Agr , Farmers' Bulletin 623. ^ Plan for a Small Dairy House, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle- tin < .89. 1 ightning and Lightning Conductors, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui etin367. ] fomemade Silos, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 589. ^ entilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools and Stables, F. H. King. ( ost of Fencing Farms in the North Central States, U. S. Dept. Agr , Bulletin 321. CHAPTER 7 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE C. H. ECKLES THE author makes no attempt at giving directions for the treatment of such diseases and accidents as call for the services of the competent veterinarian. The farmer should depend largely upon the qualified veterinarian as his adviser in matters concerning the health of his animals, but there are certain common troubles that every manager of dairy cows should know how to handle. The discussion which follows aims to present a few of the facts that every dairy- man should know. The discussions are in the nature of advice for the owner of dairy stock and are not expected to take the place of expert advice by the veterinarian. NORMAL CONDITIONS 136. The Pulse. The heart of the cow normally beats 50 to 60 times per minute. It is more rapid in young animals than in old, and is increased by excitement or exercise. The most convenient way to take the pulse of a cow is to stand on her left side and reach over the neck and feel the pulse on the lower side of the right jaw. A quick, bounding pulse indicates inflammation at some point in the body. The trained veterinarian becomes very skillful in diagnosing dis- ease by the feeling of the pulse. 150 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 151 137. Temperature. The normal temperature of a cow usually varies between 99° and 103° F. The temperature is tal en by means of a self-registering, or clinical, thermometer. Be 'ore using it the mercury is shaken down. The instrument is olaced in the rectum for at least three minutes before tb< reading is made. V rise in temperature indicates fever due to inflammation at some point in the body. A rise of 4 degrees is serious, wl ile as much as 6 degrees is dangerous. A sudden fall in temperature is also serious. The dairyman should provide himself with a good clinical thermometer and become fa- miliar with its use. 138. Respiration. A cow normally breathes from 10 to 25 times per minute. Rapid breathing may be caused by exercise, heat, or excitement, or by distention of the stomach with gaseous food to such an extent that the lung capacity is diminished. Rapid, short, or difficult breathing usually signifies trouble with the respiratory organs. 139. The Excretions. The excretions of an animal, the urine and feces, or dung, show the general condition of the digestive tract and kidneys. The stockman should be quick to observe any abnormality in this respect and determine the cause if possible. It is especially important to observe the feces of the cow when she is under conditions of high feeding as this is the best index of the state of her digestion. The knowledge necessary to interpret the various conditions that appear can only be had by experience and observation. INSTRUMENTS AND MEDICINES 140. Instruments and Medicine. Every manager of a herd of dairy cattle should be prepared for the ordinary emer- gencies. If a competent veterinarian is not readily accessi- 152 DAIRY FARMING ble, this is all the more important. The following instru- ments and medicines are most often needed, and it is advisable to have them on hand : Milk fever outfit, if high-producing cows are kept 2 milk tubes of different sizes 3 teat plugs of different sizes Trocar, if there is much trouble from bloating Syringe Drenching bottle Clinical thermometer A liberal amount of carbolic acid or some other good dis- infectant should always be on hand, as frequent use will be found for it. Crude carbolic acid can be used in a 2 per cent solution, when applied to the animal's body, or in a 5 per cent solution for disinfecting other objects, such as the floor of the barn, or instruments. An abundant supply of Epsom salts should also be provided, as occasion for using it will come often. In most herds entirely too little use is made of this important medicine. A dose of 1 to 1 1 pounds of salts for the grown animal should be the first treatment in nearly all cases of sickness. In every case where an animal shows loss of appetite or sickness the cause of which is not known, a physic should be given at once and the feed reduced. A second dose after three or four days is often beneficial. If the appetite of the animal has returned, the ration can again be increased to the normal. 141. Drenching a Cow. The common method of admin- istering medicine to a cow is to mix with water and give from a bottle. This is known as a " drench." When giving a FIG. 44.— Milking tubes, used when teats are in- jured or sore. COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 153 drc nch, the head of the animal should be elevated by tying, or it may be held by an assistant. The operator stands on th< left side, and grasps the nose- with the thumb and fingers in the nostrils. The bottle used should be adapted for the pu -pose, having a long, strong neck. The mouth of the bo tie should be inserted in front of the back teeth resting on the tongue as far back as the middle. If the animal coi tghs, the head should be at once lowered to allow the liquid to escape from the windpipe. If this is not done, the med- ici le may pass down into the lungs, and cause sickness. Ui less there is some special reason for doing so, it is not cu itomary to give over 1 to 2 quarts at a time. Unless the he -dsman is thoroughly informed regarding the treatment of cattle ailments, he will seldom have occasion to administer medicine other than Epsom or Glauber salts except under thger. Death will sometimes occur within half an hour after the food is eaten. As small a quantity as two pounds sometimes causes death. The Nebraska Experiment Station 1 records a case where 21 cows out of 32 died within an hour after being turned into a field of stunted kafir corn. When these crops are pin into the silo or made into hay for some reason the dan- ger disappears. Little can be done to treat an animal af- fec'ed. In fact, as a rule the animal is dead before the owner knows it is sick. Prevention, by excluding stock from such -fields during seasons when the presence of the poison is suspected, is the only safe course. 152. Corn-stalk Disease. In the states of the Middle West, where corn is grown in large quantities, the common practice is to husk the corn from the standing stalks and leave the stalks in the field. Later the cattle are turned into the field to gather as much of the stalks and leaves as they will utilize. Stalk fields are generally pastured during the early part of the winter. Frequent losses of cattle occur during the time they are given access to the stalk fields. The ailment is known as the corn-stalk disease. It most commonly occurs during periods of cold or wet weather and always after the stalks have become thoroughly dry. The trouble usually occurs during the first few days after the cattle are put into the stalk field. The disease appears suddenly. The animal afflicted is reluctant to move and when forced to do so shows an un- steady gait. Later there are indications of severe pain such as kicking towards the body, bellowing, and moaning. The animal may froth at the mouth and attempt to attack any one coming near. Death usually occurs within one or two 1 Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 77. 166 DAIRY FARMING days. All attempts to find the specific cause of the disease have so far failed. It has been proved that smut in corn is not the cause. Those who have given the subject most attention believe the trouble is the result of acute indiges- tion caused by eating too much coarse indigestible food. It is possible that under certain conditions some poisonous substance is developed in the stalks. No satisfactory medical treatment has been found. As with many other diseases, attention has to be directed to- wards prevention. Cattle should always be watered and well fed before being turned into a stalk field for the first time, and some laxative food, such as alfalfa or clover hay, should be given daily. Plenty of water should be readily accessible. The animals should be turned into the field for only a short time the first day, gradually lengthening the time each day as they become accustomed to the feed. Fortunately this trouble does not occur from feeding corn fodder cut and shocked in the field, or from corn put in the silo. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Let each student make a list of as many cases of deaths of cattle in the community as he can find, giving the cause of death and telling whether a calf, cow, steer, or bull. Combine these re- ports to find the comparative number of deaths from each disease. 2. What is the cause of each of the diseases found ? How may each be controlled ? 3. Similarly report on as many cases as possible of cows that were sold or slaughtered, giving the reason why they were discarded. LABORATORY EXERCISES 13. Miscellaneous Exercises. If possible make arrangements to do the following work with a cow that is not very valuable. A clini- cal thermometer, drenching bottle, carbolic acid, teat plugs, and milk tube will be required. COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 167 Each student should learn how to perform the following opei ations : Take the temperature. Take the pulse. ( 'ount the respiration. ( ive the cow a drench of pure water in order to learn the method. ] repare a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid. ] isert a teat plug after sterilizing it with the carbolic acid solu- tion 1 isert a milking tube after sterilizing it. 14-. Treatment for Lice. Prepare a kerosene emulsion by the direction given on page 161. If possible arrange to use this on a here that needs it. COLLATERAL READING Milk Fever, Its Simple and Successful Treatment, U. S. Dept. Agr. , Farmers' Bulletin 206. Anthrax with Special Reference to its Suppression, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 439. Tuberculosis, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletins 351 and 473. Practical Method of Disinfecting Stables, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farriers' Bulletin 480. Texas Fever, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletins 498, 569, and 603. Eradication of the Cattle Tick Necessary for Profitable Dairying in the South, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 639. Foot and Mouth Disease, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 666. Diseases of Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr. (A 550-page book, cost- ing $ 1.) Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 122-146, 321-330. The Diseases of Animals, N. S. Mayo. CHAPTER 8 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS C. H. ECKLES COMPOSITION OF MILK 153. Average Composition. Milk is composed of water, fat, protein, sugar, and ash or minerals. The milk of all species of animals and of every individual within the species contains these same constituents, but the proportions ar% subject to wide variations. Cow's milk weighs approximately 2.15 pounds per quart. (Density is 1.032.) It is not possible to give any single statement that will give more than a general idea of its composition on account of the wide variations due to the influence of breed and other factors. If a quantity of milk be taken as representative of the total amount sold for city trade or of that sold to butter or cheese factories, it would have approximately the following composition : PER CENT Water 87.3 Fat 3.7 Protein 3.5 Sugar 4.8 Ash 7 154. Water. Milk contains on an average about 87.3 per. cent of water; The extreme variations are from about 83 to 90 per cent. The water in milk serves the same 168 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 169 purpose as food as ordinary water. It should not be con rhided from the high water content that milk has a low food value. 155. Fat. The fat is commercially the most valuable pan of milk. It is also the most variable in amount. It ma> range from 2.5 to 7.5 per cent and occasionally even beyond these limits. The fat exists in the form of minute FIG. 47. — Photomicrograph showing fat globules in Shorthorn milk. Magnified 400 diameters. globules, too small to be seen by the naked eye but readily seen under a microscope. It is in a state of suspension, that is, the fat globules are floating in the milk. When milk stands undisturbed for some time, the fat rises to the top in the form of cream. Churning of cream is the uniting of these, fat globules by mechanical means until they form a lump of butter. The main factors influencing the amount of fat are : (1) breed, (2) stage of lactation, (3) individuality 170 DAIRY FARMING of the cow, (4) interval between milkings, (5) portion of the milking, fore milk or strippings. As food, fat serves as fuel to supply heat for the body, and energy to keep up the body functions. The surplus is stored as body fat, which serves as a storehouse of reserve material for future use. Fat does not make growth of bone or muscle. 156. Protein. The protein varies in amount from 2.5 to 4.2 per cent in extreme cases. Mixed milk usually varies between 3 and 3.5 per cent. Protein contains nitrogen combined with hydrogen, carbon, and small quantities of phosphorus and sulphur. The proteins in milk are a mix- ture of several kinds. Two only need to be mentioned since they make up nearly the entire amount. These are casein and albumin. The casein is that part of milk which curdles on souring. It also gives the white color to the milk. In cheese making rennet is added to the milk to coagulate the casein, which takes most of the fat with it in a mechanical way. The albumin is present to the amount of about 0.7 per cent. It is much like the albumin of an egg or that in blood. It is coagulated by heating and may be seen as a scum on the surface of boiled milk. It goes into the whey in cheese making. The protein may be said to be the most valuable food con- stituent of milk. It supplies material necessary for the growth of bone and muscle and to keep up the repair of the body. Part of the casein is in a semi-dissolved condition. A portion of the undissolved part, and insoluble impurities that were in the milk, make up the well-known separator slime. 157. Sugar. The form of sugar known as lactose is found only in milk. Its chemical composition is practically the same as that of cane sugar, although it is less sweet in taste. It has the same food value as ordinary sugar and like it fur- MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 nisl.es a source of heat and energy for the body. When acted upon by certain bacteria, a portion of it changes into lactic acic and makes the milk sour. The lactic acid unites with the iime in the casein. This results in precipitating the casein as 1 [ie curd of sour milk. When milk is used for butter making, the greater part of the sugar goes with the skim-milk, another part with the but ermilk, and only a very minute quantity into the but- ter. In cheese making a very small amount goes into the che< se and the remainder into the whey. 158. Mineral Matter or Ash. This is the portion remain- ing if milk solids are burned. It varies little in quantity or composition. It seldom falls below 0.6 or exceeds 0.85 per cent. It is composed largely of potassium, calcium, and phosphorus, with smaller quantities of several other ele- meri ts, including iron and sodium. When milk is used as food, the ash serves to furnish material for the bones and to supply other necessary demands for mineral matter in the body. 159. Color of Milk. The white color is due to some extent to the fat, but mostly to the casein. The yellowish color observed to some extent in milk is associated with the fat. This yellow coloring matter is carotin. Its source is the plants used by the cow for food.1 This pigment is found along with the green pigment in growing plants. It passes from the stomach through the circulation of the cow and into the milk-fat in an unchanged condition. When the feed is low in coloring matter, as for example dry hay and grain, the color of the milk-fat is reduced, and the butter may appear almost white as it often does in winter. The yellow coloring matter has no food value, neither does it give any taste to the milk or fat. The preference for yellow 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station,' Research Bulletins 9, 10, 11, 12. 172 DAIRY FARMING butter and for cream of a somewhat yellow color is based entirely upon looks. FACTORS INFLUENCING COMPOSITION 160. The Kind of Animal. As already stated, the milk of all species contains the same constituents but in different proportions. Table 19 gives the average composition of human milk and of that from several domestic animals. TABLE 19. — COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS SPECIES DRY MATTER FAT PROTEIN SUGAR ASH Human .... Cow . . 11.2 12 7 3.1 3 7 2.0 35 6.3 48 0.2 07 Goat 14.5 4.8 5.0 4.0 07 Sheep .... Mare 16.3 93 6.1 1 2 5.1 20 4.2 5 7 0.9 04 Sow 15.9 4.5 7.2 3.1 1.1 Camel . . . . Reindeer . . . Bitch .... Cat . . 11.8 28.8 23.0 184 2.5 14.5 9.3 39 3.6 9.8 9.7 9 1 5.0 3.0 3.1 49 0.7 1.5 0.9 05 The composition of human milk is of great importance in connection with the problem of infant feeding. Within recent years it has become more and more the practice to modify cow's milk when used for infant food so that it ap- proaches the normal milk of the human mother. The most marked difference in composition between human and cow's milk is the decidedly lower protein and higher sugar content in the former. The general plan followed in modifying cow's milk for infant feeding is to add sufficient water to reduce the pro- tein content to that found in human milk. Cream is then added to restore the fat content to from 2.5 to 3.5 per MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 173 ceni and sufficient sugar, usually milk sugar, to raise the consent of this constituent to that found in human milk. A knowledge of the composition of milk produced by the common domestic animals will be found of value at tim< s. For example, if it becomes necessary to raise a colt by 1 and, a study of the table giving the composition of mare's mill, will show clearly that even average cow's milk should be diluted with water before being used for this purpose. Cane sugar is often added. T!ie exceedingly rapid growth of small animals is ex- plained by the very rich milk that small species always produce. As a general rule the larger the species, the slower the growth of the young, and the smaller the amount of solids in tl ie milk. Animals living in arctic regions or in the ocean are exceptions. These conditions require a large amount of fat for fuel to keep the young animal warm. This interesting fact is illustrated by the composition of the reindeer's milk and also by that of certain marine animals such as the walrus and the porpoise which secrete the richest milk known. 161. Breed. The milk from different breeds of cows differs in composition. Table 20 gives a summary of all the published records of American Experiment Stations on this subject up to 1913 : TABLE 20. — COMPOSITION OF MILK BY BREEDS l BREED TOTAL SOLIDS FAT PROTEIN SUGAR Jersey .... 14 70 5 14 3 80 5 04 Guernsey .... 14.49 4.98 3.84 4.98 Ayrshire .... 12.72 3.85 3.34 5.02 Holstein .... 12.00 3.45 3.15 4.65 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 156. 174 DAIRY FARMING It will be noted that the main variation is in the fat, al- though the protein -shows sufficient variation to be of impor- tance. Sugar varies but slightly, and the ash practically none. The breed of the cow also has a marked influence upon the size of the fat globules. Those of the Jerseys and Guernseys are much larger than those of the Holsteins. The larger fat globules in Jersey milk result in quicker and more complete separation of the cream by gravity ; also in a slight difference in the ease of churning. The breed of the cow likewise has a marked influence upon the color of milk and especially upon the color of the butter. In amount of color the Guernsey ranks first, followed by the Jersey, Short- horn, Ayrshire, and Holstein in the order named. There is no basis for the common claim that certain breeds pro- duce milk or butter of a better flavor than others. Out- side the possible variation in color, the most expert judge cannot distinguish the product of one breed from that of another when other conditions are the same. 162. Stage of Lactation. The stage of lactation stands second only to the breed in importance as a factor influencing the composition of milk. The amount of the different con- stituents and also the nature of the fat itself is influenced in this way. The most marked effect is upon the amount of protein and fat. The figures in Table 21 obtained by the author show the average for eleven cows representing three breeds which were kept on a uniform ration for an entire lactation period to elim- inate changes due to feed. A decided increase in the amount of fat and protein is shown, but little change in the sugar content. The stage of lactation also has a marked effect upon the size of fat globules. After the cow has been in milk MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 175 ten or eleven months, the fat globules average about one- th rd the size of those in the milk when the cow is fresh. Tl is is one reason why difficulty is often experienced in churn- ing the cream from cows that have been in milk a long time. T, BLE 21. — EFFECT OF STAGE OF LACTATION ON COMPOSITION OF MILK FOUR WEEKS PERIODS PROTEIN FAT SUGAR Weeks Per Cent Per Cent PerCent 1-4 3.25 4.00 4.87 5-8 3.06 3.85 4.84 9-12 3.06 3.79 4.94 13-16 3.13 3.77 4.82 17-20 3.25 3.82 4.80 21-24 3.25 3.79 4.75 25-28 3.32 3.83 4.88 29-32 3.32 3.85 4.83 33-36 3.57 3.97 4.62 37-40 3.83 4.11 4.55 41-44 3.89 4.22 4.74 45-48 4.08 4.54 4.91 49-52 4.34 4.66 4.50 163. Individuality of the Animal. The writer has kept complete records for one year or more for 76 Jersey cows. The lowest average fat content for a year was 4.47 and the highest 7.00 per cent. Among 40 Holsteins the lowest was 2.6 and the highest 3.81. The records of 25 Shorthorns show a variation from 3.59 to 4.31 in the averages for one year. These give an idea of the extent of variation within a breed. The variation in the other constituents is always less than the variation in fat. 164. Interval between Milkings. If a cow is milked twice daily at equal intervals, the quantity and quality of milk 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 155. 176 DAIRY FARMING are usually about the same at each milking. If the intervals are not equal, the larger yield of milk and a lower percentage of fat follow the longer interval. When the milking is done three times or more daily, the variation in fat content is generally considerable, even though the intervals between milking are equal. As a rule, the milk drawn near the noon hour has the highest fat content. Where the composition is varied by unequal intervals, the variation is confined mostly to the fat. 165. Fore Milk and Strippings. The first milk drawn from the cow contains a low percentage of fat, while the last is sev- eral times richer in this constituent. The first milk as a rule contains from 1.5 to 2.5 per cent, while the strippings range from 5 to 10 per cent. The other constituents of the milk are practically the same in all parts of the milking. Numer- ous variations occur from day to day that cannot be ex- plained by any of the 'factors described. A single sample of milk from a cow may be entirely misleading. 166. Effect of Feed. The error is often made of assuming that the richness of milk varies with the feed. While it is possible under certain conditions to make a variation of possibly 0.2 to 0.4 per cent by giving certain feeds, it is only under conditions so abnormal that it is of scientific interest only and has no practical bearing. As far as the ordinary practice is concerned, the feed has no influence upon the richness of the milk. If a certain cow averages 3.4 per cent fat for a year, no one knows how to feed her to make her milk average 4.0 per cent for the following year. The richness of a cow's milk is fixed by heredity and cannot be permanently changed by any means. It is a well-known fact, however, that a cow in a high state of flesh at time of calving gives richer milk for a short time than does one thin in flesh. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 177 MARKET MILK 167. Sanitary Milk. Milk sometimes acts as the carrier of human disease germs. The danger that such germs will get into milk during handling is much greater than is the d; nger of the transmission of any disease directly from the cows. While the danger of carrying disease is great, it is FIG. 48. — A small top milk pail helps to prevent contamination during milking. Strainers and cloth over the opening are of little value. Some of the most sanitary dairies use the types illustrated. certain that dirty or partly spoiled milk is even more serious and is responsible for much sickness and many deaths among children. The production of market milk that is reasonably safe for food, is not difficult and need not involve heavy ex- pense, except that more intelligence is necessary for its production and greater intelligence demands higher wages. It is certain that if the public wants good clean milk the 178 DAIRY FARMING price must be somewhat higher than it has been in the past. The first requirement is that the cows must be healthy. The milk from a cow suffering from sickness of any kind, including garget in the udder, should not be used. The milkers should be in good health and should take special pains that no possible chance is given for the germs of typhoid fever to get into the milk. Care should be taken that contaminated water is not used for washing the utensils. Sanitary milk means primarily clean milk. In fact, the requirements for producing sanitary milk can be described in two words. The first is cleanliness, and the second is coldness. The source U\ / of most of the dirt that \ / finds its way into milk is \ / filth from the cow's body. V~ Q ~V A dirty cow invariably m6anS milk' The F.G. 49. - Milk pails and cans should have all seams filled with solder as in b. stable should be SO COn- Utensils with seams like a are very diffi- i xt A ix « -i i cult to keep clean. structed that it is possible to keep the cow clean. A cow should be brushed daily to keep the loose dirt off the body. The stable and yard should, of course, be kept in a good condition of cleanliness. The milker should wear clean clothes and should milk with dry hands. Next to cleanliness of the cow stands cleanliness of the pails, strainers, and other utensils. These should be first cleaned with a brush, using warm water and some washing powder. Special attention should be given to the seams. After being thoroughly cleaned, they should be scalded with boiling water or better heated in steam when this is avail- able. After being scalded, they should be placed where MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 179 they will dry quickly. It is well to set them in the sun dur- ing the day. Coldness is as important as cleanliness. Keeping milk cl jan keeps most of the bacteria out. Cooling it prevents tl e growth of those that d' get in. Effective cool- ing means bringing the tr nperature of the milk, n< t later than an hour af :er milking, and prefer- FIG. 50. — Brush for cleaning milk utensils. al ly sooner, to a temper- The brush & much better than a cloth. at ure of 50° F., or lower. In an experiment by the author a sample of fresh milk w is divided into two parts, one of which was cooled at once to 50° F., while the other was placed at 75° F., with the fol- io ving results : HELD AT 50° F. HELD AT 75° F. Bacteria per c.c. in fresh milk . . Bacteria per c.c. after 12 hours Bacteria per c.c. after 24 hours Age of milk at first souring . . . 21,000 20,000 32,000 3 days 21,000 110,000 10,450,000 28 hours Putting warm milk in an ordinary ice box is not an effec- tive method of cooling, as can be readily determined by testing it with a thermometer. The importance of the statement regarding the necessity for sudden cooling and the inefficiency of cold air as a means of cooling is illus- trated in a striking way by an experiment conducted by students under the supervision of the author. Sixteen gal- lons of fresh warm milk was received from the barn, mixed, and then placed in two cans. Plate cultures were made 180 DAIRY FARMING from the milk, according to the logical laboratories, to determine FIG. 51. — Influence of temperature on the growth of bacteria, a repre- sents one original bacterium ; 6, the de- scendants of one bacterium in milk kept 24 hours at 50° F. ; c represents the number of descendants when milk is not cooled. cooled with ice to a temperature temperature for a good ice box lated below : method used in bacterio- the number of bacteria present. There were found to be 13,000 bac- teria per cubic centimeter in the fresh milk. This is a low count, showing that the milk had been taken under excellent sanitary conditions. One can was cooled at once to 50° by placing it in ice water and stirring. The other can still showed a temperature of 90°. Both were now put in a room of 50°, which is a typical The results are tabu- COOLED MILK UNCOOLED MILK Number of bacteria at beginning . . 13,000 13,000 Temperature of room . . . 50° 50° Temperature of milk at beginning . 50° 90° Temperature after 12 hours .... 50° 70° Temperature after 24 hours .... 50° 58° Temperature after 36 hours .... 50° 51° Number of bacteria after. 36 hours 15,000 52,500,000 The bacteria counts were made in both samples at the end of 36 hours. The cooled sample contained 15,000 bac- teria per cubic centimeter, and the uncooled the enormous number of 52,500,000 in the same quantity. The sample MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181 co )led slowly soured within 40 hours, while the other re- mained perfectly sweet for five days. [f a large quantity of milk is handled, it should be cooled b\ means of a water cooler, many styles of which may be purchased at reasonable prices. The next best plan is to set th i cans in ice water and stir the milk frequently. The general subject of milk sanitation may be summarized in the following statements : . Use only healthy cows. :! Milk should not be handled by any one suffering from a c ontagious disease or associated with a person so affected. )J. The cow's body should be kept free from manure. 4. The milker should have clean clothes and should milk with dry hands. £>. The utensils must be properly washed and sterilized. C. The milk must be thoroughly cooled immediately and kept cold until consumed. 168. Certified Milk. This name is applied to milk pro- duced according to a set of rules prepared by a medical milk commission. Such organizations have no relation to either state or city inspection. Representatives of the association make chemical analyses and bacteria counts of the milk at frequent intervals. They also examine the sanitary condi- tions of the premises where the milk is produced and the health of the cattle and of the milkers at regular intervals. If all rules are complied with and the number of bacteria is below the maximum number fixed by the rules, the com- mission certifies to the condition of the milk and allows the dairyman to sell it with its approval. The rules are very strict, requiring great cleanliness in every detail. As a result certified milk means the highest possible quality from a sanitary standpoint. Such milk usually retails at about 182 DAIRY FARMING 15 cents per quart, and the producer receives possibly 8 cents at the farm. At present only a very small amount of milk is produced under these conditions, as the market is limited. FIG. 52. — Practical milk coolers for farm use. The one on the left is more efficient, but more expensive. Cold water, preferably ice water, is used for cooling. It is only practicable to conduct such a business where a large city market is easy of access and when suitable arrangements can be made to market the product. BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM 169. Butter Making on the Farm. Although the creamery has become a factor of great importance in the dairy develop- ment of the country, still according to the last census, 994 million pounds of butter per year, or 61 per cent of the total, was made on farms. The greater part of this was produced on farms where fewer than ten cows were kept. The quality of farm-made butter varies from the poorest to the best. The average quality, however, is far below that made in the creameries. This is duo largely to the fact that little at- tention is given to having proper utensils and facilities, on MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 183 account of the small amount of cream available on most farms. Lack of interest and of knowledge as to the proper me : hods also affects the quality of the product. When proper, facilities are provided and the right methods are followed, th( quality of butter made on the farm may easily be su- pei ior to that made in the average creamery. To do this it is i ecessary to have suffi- cient cream to make it po^ sible to churn at least twice and preferably th] ee times each week. 170. Facilities Needed. It is very desirable, but of course not absolutely necessary, to have a sep- arate room arranged for but ter making. Some- times a basement room, if it is well ventilated and lighted, can be utilized with advan- tage. A concrete floor provided with a drain saves a great deal of labor in cleaning apparatus. Some means of cooling, either ice or an abundance of very cold water, is indispensable. 171. What is Good Butter. Butter that has the qualities which make it satisfactory to the consumer always sells readily. While there is some variation in individual taste, the general market demands the same quality everywhere. The following is the common score card for judging butter. FIG. 53. — A good milk house, an important part of the equipment on a dairy farm. Flavor Body . Color . Salt Package 45 25 15 10 5 100 184 DAIRY FARMING 172. Flavor. The proper flavor is hard to describe, but may be said to be a pure butter taste and odor. It should be entirely free from any other taste, such as might be de- scribed as rancid, stale, or strong. The flavor of the butter, whether it be good or bad, in at least nine cases out of ten, is produced during the souring, or ripening, of the cream. There are a few exceptions to this rule. A few feeds, such as onions, turnips, or new rye pasture, will give a taste to butter. In a few cases, butter made from the milk of a cow near the end of her milking period, has a slightly objection- able taste. 173. Body, Color, and Salt. Body, color, salt, and pack- age may be said to depend upon mechanical conditions. They are entirely under the control of the butter maker, pro- vided suitable facilities are at hand. Faults in these quali- ties are not to be attributed to the feed, breed, or season of the year. The body should be. waxy and firm, but not brittle or salvy. It should not stick to the knife when cut, neither should it crumble. Proper body results from having the churning temperature right, stopping the churning at the right stage, and working the butter the proper amount. The color should be that of butter produced by cows on pasture. During the season when dry feed is used, a suffi- cient amount of vegetable coloring should be added to the cream to give the proper shade of yellow. The most com- mon defects in color are having it too high or too low, or having a streaky or uneven color known as mottles. The latter condition is due to uneven distribution of the salt, a result of insufficient working. The salt should be sufficient so that a person eating the butter does not notice either a deficiency or an excess. In MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 185 ad( iition to too heavy or too light salting, the most common fault is gritty or undissolved salt. Vhe amount of water left in butter is somewhat variable. Tho usual rule is to estimate that a given number of pounds of butter-fat will give one-sixth more pounds of butter. 174. Separation of Cream. In certain localities it is the practice to churn the whole milk, but this results in an unnecessary loss of butter-fat in the buttermilk. Until re< ent years cream has be< n secured entirely by all- >wing it to rise to the toj of the milk. Since th( introduction of the cream separator, about 1885, the separator method has become more and more general. The most efficient gravity method consists in using a narrow deep can set in ice water or very cold spring or well water, and skimming the cream at the end of 12 or 15 hours. A widely used but very inefficient way of securing cream is the shallow-pan system, which consists in placing the milk in pans and crocks not over four inches deep and keeping it at a moderate temper- ature. The cream is then skimmed from the surface at the end of 24 or 36 hours. By use of the deep-setting FIG. 54. — For butter making purposes four cows with a cream separator are equal to five when shallow pans are used to raise the cream. 186 DAIRY FARMING method it is possible to recover about 90 per cent of the cream. By the shallow-pan method from 75 to 80 per cent is recovered. The centrifugal cream separator is now practical where five or more cows are kept although it is often used for even a smaller number. The separator makes it possible to re- cover about 98 per cent of the butter-fat and to obtain the cream in a condition that makes it possible to produce the highest grade of butter. It also results in a considerable saving of labor, and the skim-milk is in the best possible con- dition for feeding to calves. 175. Ripening of Cream. This subject requires considerable attention since the mar- ket value of the butter is largely controlled by the cream ripening. Cream should not used for raising be held too long. When churned, it should cream by deep- nave a pure, sharp, sour taste with no ob- setting system. jectionable taste, such as bitter, rancid, or stale. Cream ripening is due to the development of bacteria. Butter factories use a starter to help control the souring, but this is not generally practical for the small farm, unless considerable cream is handled. The proper ripening of the cream is controlled by two things : first, by observing proper cleanliness in every detail of milking, separating, and hand- ling the cream ; second, by proper control of the temperature of the cream during the ripening process. The following statement is based upon the assumption that churning will be done two or three times weekly and not daily. The best procedure under these conditions is to keep the cream from the first milking at a temperature of 70° but not colder. This can be done by setting the can in MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 187 well water or standing it in a room at ordinary temperature. The cream from the next milking is added to this without coo ing. If by the time the cream from the third milking is added, the cream in the can tastes sour, the entire lot should be placed in cold water or a cold place where it will cool to a t« mperature of between 50° and 60°. It should be kept at his temperature until churned. The ^ fresii cream as separated is added to the sou • until within about twelve hours of chu rning, after which no more is added in ord'jr that the cream may be kept cool unt 1 churning time. 176. Temperature for Churning. No defi aite temperature can be given covering all conditions. The best rule is to use sucli temperature as is necessary to get the cream to churn within 30 to 45 min- uter . Quicker churning means soft butter , . , , ... FIG. 56. — Floating Or tOO much loSS in the buttermilk, dairy thermometers. Longer churning is of no advantage. A thermometer should always be at hand When cows are on pasture, a temperature where milk is cooled of from 52° to 56° F. is usually found best, °r cream churned' while under dry-feed conditions 58° to 64° F. is more suitable. A thermometer should always be used in bringing the cream to the proper churning temperature. Guessing at the temperature often means poor quality of butter and much waste of time. The churn should be not over one-third full, and the cream should have about 25 to 30 per cent of fat for the best results. Difficulty in churning is generally to be attributed to having the temperature too low, the cream too thin, or the churn too full. At times trouble that cannot be attributed to these causes is experienced. This occurs 188 DAIRY FARMING when the cream is from cows far advanced in the stage of lactation and generally during the season when dry feeds are fed exclusively. Under these itself fat fat the the conditions the is hard, the globules small, and amount of casein in milk large. All these con- ditions combine to make churning difficult. If a cream separator is in use, the trouble may be partly removed by mixing the cream while still sweet with three or four times its volume of warm water FIG. 57. — The most widely used, and and running this mixture most satisfactory churn for farm use. through the separator. This affects the flavor of the butter somewhat, but makes the churning easier by removing part of the casein. 177. Churns and Churning. For farm use nothing is better than the ordinary barrel churn without any inside fixtures. Large farm dairies can advanta- geously use a small-sized com- bined churn and worker. The cream should be strained into the churn through a wire or hair FlG. 58. _ combined churn strainer to remove particles of and butter worker» adapted for use on the farm where large CUrd, which if not removed Show amounts of butter are made. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 189 as white specks in the butter. If butter color is used, it should be added to the cream in the churn. The churn should be stopped when the butter granules are about the size of kernels of corn, or a little smaller in thin cream. The buttermilk is drained off through a strainer. The but er is next washed to remove the remainder of the but- ten dlk, by adding about as much water as there was FIG. 59. — Butter in proper condition to stop churning. buttermilk. This should be at a temperature of 50° to 56° F. 178. Salting and Working. After washing, the butter is placed on the worker and the salt distributed over it. The worker and the ladles used are previously put to soak in hot water, then thoroughly cooled in cold water before using, to prevent the butter from sticking to them. The amount of salt may vary some with the market, but usually one ounce per pound of butter is the amount preferred. The butter 190 DAIRY FARMING is next worked to distribute the salt and to make the butter into a compact mass. If there is trouble in getting the salt dissolved, the butter may be allowed to stand a few hours in a cool place after the working is partly done. A second working is then given. The working should be done slowly and mostly by pressure rather than by sliding the ladle or working utensil over the butter. The working should stop when the salt is all dissolved and the body of the butter compact and waxy. Observation of the condition of the butter and of the time required is the best way to learn the proper stage at which to stop working. Overworking makes the butter sticky and soft in texture, underworking results in mottled butter. 179. Package. When butter is placed on the market, the package is of great importance. It should be neat and attractive and of proper size. The rec- tangular one-pound prints meet with the most favor every- where. They should be wrapped in good parchment paper, which may be pur- chased in the proper size, 8X11 inches, at very low cost. When butter is shipped or handled in quan- tities, it is also well to use a paraffined paper box over the parchment paper, known as a carton, which protects the butter. To secure and retain a good retail trade requires a uniformly high quality of butter and a constant supply during the year. FIG. 60. — A hand butter worker that gives good results when butter is made on the farm. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 191 FACTORY PRODUCTS 180. Creameries. This name is commonly applied to fac ories manufacturing butter on a large scale and from mile supplied by several or many herds. The amount of butter made on farms decreased 7 per cent in the 10 years 1899-1909, but the amount made in factories increased 49 per cent. The great advantages of the fac- tor- system are the saving in labor and the higl ler price obtained for :he product. Ill Some places the milk is taken from the farm to the creamery for separation. This is known as a whole-milk creamery. In others the farmers separate the cream at home with fl small separators and deliver the cream to ^_J\,__ ^ ^-^ the factory. Some creameries are owned by the farmers and operated on a coop- erative basis, while others are owned by individuals or companies. Many centralizer creameries have re- FIG. 62. — Good butter ladles. Butter cently originated in the Central and JK^dT'hfld Weste™ States. Such creameries are located in cities where shipping facilities are good, instead of in a cream-producing neighborhood. Cream is purchased by local agents or shipped direct to the company by the producer. Shipments are at times made as FIG. 61. — A hand butter worker. Where butter is made in lots of five pounds or more a worker should be used. 192 DAIRY FARMING far as 400 miles, but generally within a 50-mile radius. Some of these factories have the capacity of forty average-sized local creameries. The cream received is usually sour and too old for the best results in butter making. However, by skillful methods of handling, in the way of pasteurizing and neu- tralizing the cream with lime water, it is possible to make a fair grade of butter. This type of creamery is most common where the producers of cream are widely scattered so that a local creamery cannot obtain sufficient raw ma- terial. Under these conditions the FIG. 63. — Butter print. The centralizer creamery serves a useful rectangular print sells best. purpose) but where the gupply of cream is sufficient a local factory is to be recommended. 181. Cheese Making. This important industry is carried on most extensively in Wisconsin and in New York. In 1909 these two states produced over 79 per cent of the total product in this country. The milk of about 850,000 cows is used for this purpose in the United States and the value of the product is nearly 50 million dollars annually. Only about 3 per cent of the cheese is made on farms. Milk for cheese making must be well cared for. This requires a fairly liberal supply of milk within a small area. On the average 10 pounds of milk are required for 1 pound of cheese. Common American Cheddar, which is the most common kind, contains about one-third water, one-third fat, and one-third casein. In the process of cheese making the milk is coagulated while it is in a perfectly sweet condition by the addition of rennet extract. Rennet is a substance obtained from the wall of MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 193 the stomach of calves that have been slaughtered for veal. It is secreted by glands in the lining of the stomach in all you ig animals that live on a milk diet. The casein as it is coagulated by the rennet incloses the fat with it and forms curt ,. This curd is cut into small pieces, and the water gradually expelled by careful stirring and heating. When the proper stage is reached, the curd is put into a press and suff cient pressure is applied to cause it to unite into a solid ma^ 3. When the pressing is completed, the cheese is put away for ripening. Newly made cheese is not good to eat. It lacks flavor as well as digestibility. It is kept for a period of f 'om six weeks to six months for curing and ripening. The temperature of the curing room must be carefully con- rolled, as too much heat will injure the quality of the che( se. The difficulty of proper control of the ripening is the most serious objection to making cheese on the farm, and the greatest difficulty to be overcome, in operating a factory in a climate subject to great extremes of heat. Dur- ing 1;he ripening, the protein largely changes from an insoluble to a soluble form and in this way becomes much more digesti- ble. The typical flavor is developed at the same time. 182. Condensed Milk. The process of condensing milk was invented by Borden in 1856. For the year 1909 the value of condensed milk in the United States was nearly 34 million dollars. The process consists in removing a portion of the water from the milk by heating it in a partial vacuum. The milk used must be fresh and in good condition. The milk is condensed until 2J parts of the fresh milk make 1 part of the condensed. Two classes of condensed, milk are commonly made. One is known as sweetened, since cane sugar is added until the finished product contains 40 per cent sugar. Condensed milk of this class is preserved 194 DAIRY FARMING chiefly by the large amount of sugar present. The other class is the unsweetened. Nothing is added to the milk. The preservation depends upon heating the product after it is in cans in a steam oven under pressure until it is completely sterilized. Several grades of this class are made. A condensed milk factory can only be operated where a large supply of perfectly fresh milk can be obtained. The con- densary is usually a good market for milk, but the farmer supplying the milk has the same trouble raising his calves as in the case where whole milk is sold in any other form. 183. Milk Flour. A few factories make powdered milk, or milk flour. For this a part of the fat is removed, and the milk is dried to make a fine white powder that keeps well. When water is added, the powder dissolves. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Which is heavier, cream or skim-milk? 2. What purpose does each of the constituents of milk serve when used as food? Which is the most important constituent? 3. Compare the amount of fat in Holstein milk with the amount in Jersey milk when the latter is considered as 100 per cent. Com- pare the protein in the same way. 4. Why is the percentage of fat not an accurate measure of the value of milk as food ? 5. Is it possible to increase the percentage of fat in milk by changing the feed ? 6. Is the color of milk a sure indication of the percentage of butter-fat contained ? 7. Where does each constituent of the milk go when milk is used for butter making ? For cheese making ? 8. What reasons are there for stripping a cow ? 9. What are the legal standards of your state for milk and butter ? Some of this information is given on page 297. What are the restrictions on the sale of oleomargarine ? 10. What principle of physics is the basis for the operation of the cream separator and of the Babcock milk test? MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 195 11. How many cows would be required where the shallow-pan syst om is used, to supply as much cream as would be secured from 6 cow s when the centrifugal separator is used ? 12. Why is butter yellow in summer, and much lighter in color in v inter ? 13. What is a farrow cow ? Why is cream from her milk likely to 1 e hard to churn? 1 4. What is the leading dairy product in your region ? 15. Is more or less of the butter in your region made in factories tha i formerly? 16. What butter or cheese factories are there in the region? 1 7. What dairy products are sold in your local stores ? Where do ' hey come from ? 1 8. The following table gives results for 1909. Using data given in t lis chapter, fill in the blanks. BUTTER CHEESE CONDENSED MILK Pounds Produced Butter- fat Re- quired Pounds of Milk Re- quired Pounds Produced Pounds Milk Re- quired Pounds Produced Pounds Milk Re- quired Mad? on farms Mad 3 in fac- tories . . . Tital . . . 994,650,610 624,764,653 9,405,864 311,126,317 494,796,544 1,619,415,263 320,532,181 494,796,544 LABORATORY EXERCISES COMPOSITION OF MILK 15. Butter-fat. Examine some milk under the microscope, using preferably a one-sixth objective, and make drawings of the fat globules showing the variations in size. 16. Casein of Milk. This part of milk is precipitated by dilute acids. Place 10 c.c. of skim-milk in a 200 c.c. beaker and add 90 c.c. of water at a temperature of 100° F. Immediately add 1.5 c.c. of a 10 per cent solution of acetic acid. Let it stand 20 minutes with occasional stirring. Filter, using ordinary filter paper, saving the filtrate in another beaker. The residue on the paper is the casein. The albumin, sugar, and ash are in the filtrate. 17. Albumin of Milk. Heat the filtrate from the above rapidly, and boil until the solution can be filtered with a clear filtrate. Filter 196 DAIRY FARMING while hot. The residue on the filter paper is the albumin. The sugar and the ash remain in the filtrate. 18. Milk Sugar. The milk sugar is not easily separated from the ash. Its presence may be demonstrated by using Fehling's solution as follows. To 10 c.c. of the filtrate add 5 c.c. of Fehling's solution and boil. The red precipitate shows the presence of sugar. 19. Ash of Milk. The presence of ash may be demonstrated as follows. Take 25 c.c. of milk in an evaporating dish. Add a few drops of acetic acid. Place evaporating dish and contents on a sand bath and evaporate to dryness. Allow to char slightly, then place on a wire gauze over a gas burner and heat until contents char. Re- move the gauze and heat over a full flame until all of the carbon is burned off. The gray residue is the ash, or mineral matter. THE BABCOCKTEST FOR MILK 20. Test of Whole Milk. Apparatus needed : a hand power cen- trifuge or testing machine, 4 to 6 milk test bottles, a pipette to measure the milk, an acid measure, ordinary commercial sulfurio acid, a small sample of milk, and some hot water. The apparatus may be purchased from any dealer in dairy supplies. Sulfuric acid may be obtained at any drug store. Sampling the Milk. The accuracy of the test depends largely on the sample taken. The milk to be tested should be thoroughly mixed, preferably by pouring several times from one jar to another. The milk should be at ordinary room temperature. The small end of the pipette is placed in the milk and the milk drawn in by suck- ing slowly at the upper end. The milk is drawn somewhat above the mark which indicates 17.6 c.c., and the first finger is then quickly slipped over the top of the pipette. The milk is then allowed to escape slowly until the surface is at the mark on the pipette. The small end of the pipette is now placed in the neck of the test bottle and the milk allowed to flow into the test bottle. The last drop remaining in the point of the pipette should be blown out into the test bottle. It is always well to make duplicate tests of each sample. Adding the Add. When all the samples are measured out, the acid should be added. The acid measure is filled to the 17.5 c.c. mark with acid that is at room temperature. The acid is now poured into the test bottle, holding the bottle in an inclined position so that it runs down the neck and side of the bottle and forms a clear layer at the bottom. Next take the bottle by the neck and MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197 giv< it a gentle rotary motion until the curd of the milk is entirely dissolved, and the mixture of acid and milk is of a uniform dark cof- fee ?olor and very hot. This change in appearance and in tempera- tun is the result of the action of the acid upon the constituents of the milk, all of which are dissolved except the fat, which is not affe ?ted. Whirling the Bottles. The bottles are now put in the centri- fug . They should be quite hot throughout the whirling. Test- ing should not be done in a cold room. It is generally necessary to pla« e some boiling water in the bottom of a hand centrifuge to keep up he heat during the whirling. The test bottles should be placed in 1 lie machine so that they balance each other. The machine is ope -ated for five minutes at the proper speed for the machine, 700 to 000 revolutions of the disk per minute, depending upon the size of ihe revolving parts. At the end of five minutes the machine is si opped, and hot water is added to each bottle by means of the pip< tte until the contents come up to the bottom of the neck. Tilt ti whirl the machine two minutes more and add hot water to bring the fat column near the top of the graduations on the neck. Whirl one minute and the tests are ready for reading. The fat should be clear and free from black sediment below, or f oai i on top. Reading the Test. The test bottles should be placed for a few minutes in a deep pail or pan of water, the temperature of which is regulated to 130° F. The fat should be in a fluid condition. In reading, the test bottle should be held in a perpendicular position on the level with the eye. I1 he reading on the graduated scale should be noted at the top and bottom of the fat column,, This reading is made from the ex- treme bottom of the fat column to the straight line which is seen across the top, and not to the curved line which appears just below. The difference between the two readings is the percentage of fat in the milk. The neck of the bottle is graduated into large divisions which represent per cent, and these again into smaller divisions, each of which may be 0.1 per cent, or 0.2 per cent, depending upon the style of the bottle. Suggestions on Making the Bdbcock Test. 1. Use the index finger, not the thumb, for closing the pipette. Keep the finger dry. 2. Draw the milk above the mark when measuring, and then hold the pipette on level with the eye as the milk is allowed to flow a drop at a time until the mark is reached. 198 DAIRY FARMING 3. Hold the bottle in a slanting position when adding acid, and do not allow the mouth of the bottle to point toward any one while the milk and acid are being mixed, as occasionally the contents may be forced out suddenly. 4. Wash the pipette thoroughly, and dip it in hot water after using. 5. The testing machine must be fastened securely to a heavy table or bench. Start and stop the machine slowly. 6. If black sediment appears in the fat column, the indications are that the acid was too strong. Use slightly less. If white specks are present, it is probable the action of the acid was too weak. Use a little more, or warm the milk 10 or 20 degrees before adding the acid. 7. Wash the test bottles at once after using by means of hot water and some washing powder. Rinse thoroughly in clean water to remove all traces of washing powder. 8. Remember the acid is poison and will burn the clothing or skin. If spilled on anything, pour on plenty of water and add some lime, soda, or washing powder to neutralize the acid. 21. Cream Testing. When cream is sold on the basis of the fat content, the samples for testing must be weighed rather than measured. A test may be made by the following method, but it must be kept in mind that the results are not entirely accurate and tend to be lower than the true reading. Mix the cream thoroughly and by the use of the milk-testing pipette, place 17.6 c.c. in a clean cup or beaker. Next fill the pipette to the mark with water and add to the cream. Add a second pi- pette full of water in the same manner. Mix thoroughly and test in the same manner as would be done for milk. Since the mixture tested is only one-third cream, the percentage of fat found must be multiplied by three to give the percentage of fat in the cream. VARIATIONS IN AMOUNT OF FAT IN MILK 22. Fat in Milk of Different Cows. Obtain samples of milk from several different cows and determine the percentage of fat in each with the Babcock tester. If the weight of milk can be taken at the same time, calculate the amount of butter-fat each cow produced. Samples for testing should be taken by thoroughly mixing all the milk produced by the cow before taking out the small portion from which the test is to be made. 23. Fat in Milk of Different Breeds. Take samples from cows of as many breeds as are available and test each for fat. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 199 24. Fat in First and Last Milk. Take a sample from a single co^ by milking the first few streams of milk from each teat into a jar or bottle. Take the last strippings from the same cow in the san:e manner, and test both for fat. 25. Fat in Milk Sold on the Local Market. Students from homes win re milk • is purchased should each bring a sample for testing, tak ng special care to get a fair sample in order that injustice may not be done the milk dealer. 26. Modified Milk. Using one of the samples of milk pre- vio isly tested, modify it by the addition of water and milk sugar to make it suitable for infant feeding. Modify another sample to maize it suitable for a colt. 27. Milk of Different Animals. Obtain milk from as many different kinds of animals as possible, mare, sheep, etc., and test for fat. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS 28. Total Solids. For this exercise a Quevenne lactometer and a glass cylinder are required. Bring the milk sample to a temperature of exactly 60° F., and place in the cylinder. Place the lactometer in the milk slowly and carefully. When it comes to rest, note the read- ing at the surface of the milk. By placing 1.0 before this reading we have the specific gravity of the milk. For example, if the reading is 32, ohe specific gravity of the milk is 1.032, or that of average milk. The solids not fat and the total solids may be estimated from this and the Babcock reading by using Babcock's formula as follows, in which I is the lactometer reading and / the per cent of fat. -r + .2 f . = solids not fat. Solids not fat + fat = total solids. Now add one-fourth water to the milk, and repeat the test as described. The results will illustrate one method of detecting water in milk. No attempt should be made to use this method for detecting water, except in an experimental way, unless the user is a trained chemist. KEEPING QUALITY OF MILK 29. Effect of Temperature. When practicable the following experiment can be made advantageously. Obtain a quantity of fresh milk, preferably not more than 3 hours after milking. Divide into two parts, cool one part to 50° F. at 200 DAIRY FARMING once and store in ice water or in an ice box. Adjust the tempera- ture of the other sample to between 70° and 80° and leave in a warm room. How long before each sours ? "CREAM SEPARATORS 30. Separation of Cream. The students should obtain samples of skim-milk from as many sources as possible, some from cream separators, and others from places where the cream is separated by gravity. Make the Babcock test, preferably using a special skim- milk test bottle. What was the loss of butter-fat by each method of separation ? BUTTER AND CHEESE 31. Study of a Factory. Visit a butter, cheese, or condensed milk factory, and learn as much as possible of the methods of manu- facture, also of the methods of buying, selling, and management. 32. Judging Butter. If the assistance of a creamery man or other competent judge of butter can be had, the class may gather a number of butter samples representing the local supply, and judge them with his assistance. CHEESE 33. Making Curd. Dissolve a rennet tablet according to the directions of the manufacturer, add it to milk and observe the effect. Compare the curd formed with that from sour milk in taste and con- dition. Curd made in this way is used in cheese making. 34. Fat in Cheese. Weigh out 5 grams of cheese, cut it into small pieces, and put in a milk test bottle. Add 10 cc. of warm water and acid as in testing milk. After the cheese is dissolved, complete the test as for milk. Since the test bottle is graduated for 18 grams, the percentage of fat for the cheese must be calculated for that amount by dividing the fat reading by the weight of cheese taken in grams and multi- plying the result by 18. COLLATERAL READING The Production of Clean Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle- tin 602. Bacteria in Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 490. The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 416. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201 The Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363. The Application of Refrigeration to the Handling of Milk, U. S. Dot. Agr., Bulletin 98. K'arm Butter Making, U. S. Dept Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 541. Cream Separators on Western Farms, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bu.letin 201. Household Tests for the Detection of Oleomargarine and Reno- va ed Butter, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 131. Cheese Making on the Farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 161 . Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 17.-246. Medical Milk Commission and Certified Milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 1. Condensed Milk and Milk Powder, O. F. Hunziker. Milk and Its Products, H. H. Wing. CHAPTER 9 CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING G. F. WARREN 184. Cattle and Grass. Cattle raising goes with the raising of hay and forage crops. How closely the growth of these crops limits the production of cattle is shown by Figs. FIG. 64. — Distribution of the hay and forage crops of the United States. Compare with Fig. 65. 64 and 65, taken from the United States Census reports. In the South and in the arid regions there are a few more cattle than the hay and forage crops would suggest, because some of the cattle in these regions are pastured all the year and therefore require little or no hay. 202 THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 203 TABLE 22. — CATTLE AND HAY AND FORAGE (CENSUS OF 1910) REGION CATTLE DAIRY Cows TONS HAY AND FORAGE Nev England 1 336 550 841 698 4 659,906 Middle Atlantic .... Eas North Central . . . Wes4 North Central . . . Pae fie 4,232,521 9,819,097 17,647,714 3 204,400 2,597,652 4,829,527 5,327,606 826,115 11,302,178 20,391,562 36,326,167 7,306,590 Moi.ntain Sou h Atlantic 6,060,725 4 839 321 514,466 1 810,754 8,600,736 2,917,870 Eas South Central . . . We.- fc South Central . . . 3,942,526 10,721,012 1,628,061 2,249,553 2,565,716 3,383,010 135. Topography and Climate. As has already been indi- cate d cool regions are more favorable than hot ones for the daii y cow as well as for the manufacture of dairy products. FIG. 65. — Distribution of cattle in' the United States. Most of the cattle of the world are grown on pastures on land that is too dry, too wet, too steep, too stony, or other- wise not adapted for the growth of crops. All regions that 204 DAIRY FARMING have such pastures keep cattle or sheep. In regions where all the land is well adapted to crops, cattle production is usually but not always a minor business. But cattle are often fattened in such regions. Very frequently the final factor in determining whether cattle shall be kept is the presence or absence of land that is good for pasture, but not good for crop production. For instance, in parts of the corn-belt there is so little rough pasture land that fewer FIG. 66. — Using the stony land for pasture. cows are kept than otherwise would be. Most of the milk supply for Chicago and for New York comes from north of these cities, partly because of the presence of pastures and partly because of the cooler climate. 186. Location of Beef and Dairy Cattle. It is apparent that the number of cattle in a region is directly dependent on the presence of hay and forage crops, or on ranges. Whether the cattle shall be of the beef or dairy type de- pends primarily on the distance to the centers of popu- lation. Beef animals can be shipped long distances. They are therefore grown farthest from the centers of population. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 205 Sev mty-four per cent of the steers and bulls in the United Stages are west of the Mississippi River, but only thirty per cent of the population is in that region. The relative weight and bulk of the feed and of the human foo< made from it, the perishability of the product, and the cost of feed are the primary factors that determine where different animal products shall be raised. When a liberal FIG. 07. — A dairy region where the level land is used for crops, the side hills for pasture and the poorest land is left in woods. use of corn silage and pasture is made, and if we include the feed for the young stock as well as for the mature ani- mals, a pound of butter represents approximately 100 pounds of feed. A pound of cheese or dressed beef represents about 50 pounds of feed, and a pound of milk 5 pounds of feed. If drier feeds are used, the quantities will be less, but approximately the same proportions will still hold. With hay and grain a cow sometimes gives a pound of milk for each pound of feed. A steer fed in a box stall for three years used 38 pounds of feed for each pound of dressed beef.1 * Ontario Agricultural College, Report, 1893, p. 122. 206 DAIRY FARMING Evidently cattle may be used to condense large quantities of roughage into beef and butter for shipment to distant markets. Another factor favoring the location of beef cattle in the regions of least population is the fact that beef animals can thrive on ranges that are too poor to support a good dairy cow. In the irrigated valleys of the Northwest that have FIG. 68. — Distribution of dairy cows in the United States. The largest numbers of dairy cows are kept in the cool regions that have good blue- grass pastures. excellent blue-grass pastures dairy cows have practically displaced beef cattle, but the dry range grasses that are just above the irrigation ditch are given over to beef cattle or sheep. Most of the beef animals are raised west of the Mississippi River, although many of them are fattened east of it. In 1910 the New England, Middle Atlantic and East North Central States had over 4 out of each 10 dairy cows in the United States, but had less than 1 out of each 10 other cows. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 207 Vhe adjustment that the farmers have made to meet the coi ditions is shown in Table 23. On April 1, 1910, Nebraska am Iowa had more than one-fourth as many yearling steers an< bulls (3 months to 15 months) as they had cows and hei 'ers (15 months old or older). Practically all the calves bom in these states are raised. Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio ha< less than one-sixth as many yearling steers or bulls as TABLE 23. — STEERS ON FARMS ON APRIL 1, 1910 STATE STEERS AND BULLS BORN IN 1909, PER 100 Cows1 STEERS AND BULLS BORN BEFORE 1909, PER 100 Cows Colorado 18 46 Nel raska .... 26 40 Iowa Illii ois .... 28 15 36 20 Indiana Ohio . 15 14 15 15 Nevr York .... 4 3 Massachusetts . . . 3 3 cows, and New York and Massachusetts had only one steer or bull for 15 to 16 cows. In these two states practically no steers are kept. The number reported represents practi- cally the number of bulls. Instead of raising steers, these two Eastern States sell practically all their bull calves as veal. Near the cities, both the heifer and bull calves are often killed at birth, as feed is too expensive to make it pay to keep them even up to the legal age for veal. The East Central States sell many of their calves for veal, but raise some steers. The West Central States raise nearly all their 1 Number of steers and bulls for each 100 cows and heifers born before Jan. 1, 1909. Since many heifers too young to have calves are included with cows, the figures are all low in terms of milch cows. 208 DAIRY FARMING calves. . The age at which the steers are sold also shows an adjustment to feed prices. The Western States keep their steers to two or three years of age, as is shown by the fact that they have twice as many of the older ones as of the yearlings. During the past few years there has been some discussion about introducing beef cattle in the Northeast, but there DAIRY PRODUCTS R.ECEIPTS FROM SALE. 19O9 FIG. 69. — Receipts from the sale of dairy products. This map shows the location of the centers of commercial dairying, as contrasted with those in which cows are kept to supply products for home use only.1 is little chance for such an enterprise to succeed. The sum- mer pastures are fairly cheap, but the cost of winter feed for a beef cow is more than the value of her calf. 187. Relation of Transportation to Dairying. Not only are the relative positions of beef and dairy cattle determined by the problem of transportation, but in dairy regions the kind of product that is to be produced is controlled by the dis- tance that the products must be shipped. Butter, cheese, 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 395. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 209 milk flour, and condensed milk are concentrated for their value and can be shipped long distances. Cream for direct use can be shipped farther than milk because it is more con- cei trated for its value. It is sometimes shipped from St. Percent Ol lOWoc orice 200 175 £ 150 / £ •f — " "" " H<#. .y*'" 125 jf •—.... / ^^x*" .X - Cc rC--"" / ^ 100 -» -ftv»| * ^^^^ 75 ^ — 1 • „ &u\\2- ^^ Iowa. lit. Ii\d Ohio N.Y Mass Fm. 70. — Average farm prices for five years, 1910-1914. As we go eastward the prices of hay and corn rise faster than does the price of butter. This- favors the production of butter where feed is cheap. Lawrence County, New York, to Washington, D. C., about 500 miles. Milk is the most bulky of the dairy products for its value and is also very perishable, so that it is produced nearest to the places where it is to be consumed. The city must reach out just far enough to obtain its necessary supply. Milk is now regularly shipped to New York City from points over 300 miles away. Farms that are favorably situated for the sale of milk cannot afford to produce butter for sale on the wholesale mar- ket. Hay and other feeds are too valuable nearer the cities, p 210 DAIRY FARMING One who under such conditions produces butter or cheese is using more expensive raw materials and gets little if any more for his product. In 1912 farmers who sold milk to cities in different parts of the United States received an average of 3.57 cents per quart above all shipping costs. The averages varied from 2.9 to 4.4 cents for different cities.1 In the same year the average farm price of butter was 26.1 cents per pound.2 The price received for the milk was probably equal to 36 cents per pound for butter. How difficult it is for farmers near cities to compete in butter production with those who have cheaper feed is shown by a comparison of prices in New York and Iowa. The average farm prices in 1914 are given in Table 24. TABLE 24. — AVERAGE FARM PRICES IN IOWA AND IN NEW YORK 3 IOWA NEW YORK Butter $ .26 $ .31 Per Cent of Iowa Price 119 Hay . . 10.10 14.60 145 Com .55 .83 151 Butter was only 19 per cent higher on New York farms than on Iowa farms, but hay was 45 per cent higher and corn 51 per cent higher than in Iowa. Other feeds are in about the same proportion. It is evident that butter and cheese production must shift to the regions of cheap feed. This shift is most strikingly shown by census figures. All 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Reporters, Sept. 24, 1913. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, p. 686. 3 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1914, pp. 516, 570, 626. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 211 of the northern states east of Indiana produced much less but er in 1909 than they did ten years before. The Chicago den and for milk was strong enough to cause a decrease in but er production in Illinois. Ii New York, butter production decreased 40 per cent and che ;se production decreased 19 per cent in ten years. At CREAMERIES EACH DOT REPRESENTS FIG. 71. — Location of creameries in the United States.1 the same time cheese production increased 88 per cent in Wisconsin, and butter production increased 50 per cent in Minnesota. The great center of butter production is west of Chicago. More butter is shipped from Chicago to the Eastern States than is produced in the nine North Atlantic States.2 Wis- consin, Iowa, and Minnesota are the leading butter states, in the order named. From the rapid rate of increase, it is probable that Minnesota will rank first at the next census 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 396. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177. 212 DAIRY FARMING period. There is no reason to suppose that any other state will be a close competitor with Wisconsin in cheese production. TABLE 25. — POUNDS BUTTER AND CHEESE MADE ON FARMS AND IN FACTORIES1 BUTTER CHEESE 1899 1909 Per Cent Increase 1899 1909 Per Cent Increase New York 115,408,222 69,358,918 -40 130,010,584 105,584,947 -19 Wisconsin 106,552,649 131,085,193 23 79,384,298 148,906,910 88 Minnesota 82,363,315 123,551,515 50 These declines in New York do not mean that the dairy business has declined. They merely show that the readily CHEESE FACTORIES 1914 FIG. 72. — Location of cheese factories in the United States.2 transportable dairy products are coming from regions of cheaper feed. At the same time that these decreases have 1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. V, p. 489. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 397. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 213 taken place in butter and cheese production, the amount of miik sold to be consumed as milk has more than doubled (in ?reased about 121 per cent). .There is still much butter and cheese produced in New York and other eastern states and will be for some time to come. The amount of land thi't is good for pasture but not good for crops is more than enough to supply all the milk needed in the cities. The FIG. 73. - — Distribution of cheese production in the United States. Most of the cheese is produced in regions that are cool, and that have good pastures on soils well supplied with lime.1 remaining land is used for the production of cheese and but- ter. As the populations of the cities increase, the production of both of these will decrease. Some butter will always be made because the milk supply cannot be just right for each day's demand. The excess is usually made into butter. 188. Other Adjustment due to Transportation. Because of differences in prices of feed and kinds of products sold, the 1 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231. 214 DAIRY FARMING methods of dairying are very different in different regions. Near cities the cost of feed is so high and the value of the protein in milk (skim-milk) is so great that the raising of calves is very expensive. Many farmers who are thus sit- uated regularly buy their cows. This is certain to continue to be the general practice. This provides a steady market for mature cows from regions where feed and milk are both cheaper. Such men can raise more calves than they need and can sell some of them as cows. Because of the expense of raising cows where feed is high priced, the tendency in such regions is to keep the cows longer. On New York farms, there were 7 cows for each yearling heifer in 1910, indicating that the average cow is probably kept until she is 8 or 9 years old. In Wisconsin there was one yearling heifer for each 4.7 cows. In Iowa there was one heifer for each 3.6 cows. In these states the cows are kept about half as long as they are in New York. 189. Marginal Regions. There are of course many regions where the conditions are about equally favorable for each class of dairy products. The region may be at the end of the milk-shipping region so that the freight charges on milk make the net price of milk about the same as that of butter. Such regions tend to prevent the price of milk from rising. If it rises much, farmers stop making cheese or butter and ship the milk ; and if the price drops, they go back to butter or cheese making. 190. Effect of Distance to Railroad. Back from the rail- roads on which milk or cream is shipped there are some- times communities or farms that find it better to make butter than to haul milk too far. In many of the milk-sell- ing regions there are such examples. Sometimes the farmers get calves from men living near the railroad, take them to THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 215 the distant farm to be raised, and then sell the cows back to 1 he dairymen nearer the railroad. It is often more profit- abl< for the farmers in such regions to cooperate and haul the milk to the railroad. 191. Soil and Climate as Determining the Kind of Prod- uct There are no important dairy regions that do not Pe Cen 16 t M / / I \ \J\ / / I f \\ IZ I / ^ ^ 10 I 1 1 V \ \ k- 1 \ A ^ X, sN, X Milk 6 "•-..^ B.»* st ^ */ \ Vx N\ \ Butter ~^* ^^ /s • \ 4 / / \ \ 2 , / •\ CKeese 0. Aa Feb. Mar Af>r. M&y June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Fco. 74. — Proportion of the year's product made in each month. Record for cheese made in Wisconsin, butter received in Chicago, and milk and cream received in New York. Most of the cheese and butter is made in summer and stored for winter use. have good pastures. Cheese production appears to have a further limitation. Nearly all the cheese is produced in cool regions that have a limestone soil or that have a soil fairly well supplied with lime. Butter is produced on all kinds of soils, but most of the commercial product is from regions where the soil and climate will grow good pastures. 192. Kind of Product and Season for Production. The demand for milk in the cities is practically constant. Fifty- two per cent of the total milk shipped to New York City is 216 DAIRY FARMING received during the six months beginning May 1. But almost two-thirds (64 per cent) of the cream is used during the summer months.1 Because pasture is so much cheaper than winter feed, the products that are readily stored, such as condensed milk, Butter per Ib. Milk per qt. 42< A->t 40 v ..«•• ..••*' 40 38. •. £; / ^38 36. \ ..• ' 3.6 34 \ y c* 34 32. \ >...« f** 3.2 30 .3.0 28 . 2.8 26 N ^ i ' ? 2.6 24 <- v. ^, * f 22 ^"^> ^ _22 Jm. Feb. Mar Apr May June July Au$ Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. FIG. 75. — Average farm prices of butter and of market milk at shipping stations for the five years 1910-1914. In order to secure a constant supply of milk the prices in the different months have to be in proportion to the costs of production in each month, but the amount of stored butter prevents the winter price of butter from rising as high as it otherwise would. butter, cheese, and milk flour, are most largely produced on grass. About 75 per cent of the cheese in Wisconsin is pro- duced in the six months beginning with May.2 Over three- fifths (63 per cent) of the butter received in Chicago is received during these six months.3 1 The Milk Reporter, Feb., 1915, p. 16. a Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231, p. 21. 3 Chicago Dairy Produce, Jan. 16, 1915, p. 5. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 217 Of course some butter and cheese is produced in all moiiths. The problem is whether to have the cows freshen in t lie spring, and thereby have most of the production made on } >asture ; or to have them freshen in the fall, and therefore havnt pastures are maintained, length of the pasture season, amo mt of pasture land that is not good for crop growing, amount of g« >od forage crops grown, cost of winter feed, and total cost of feed for the entire year. 2 Is the region relatively better for beef or for dairy cattle? Som .? of the points to consider are : cost of feed, coolness of the cli- mati , whether the pasture grass is luxuriant enough to maintain a gooc flow of milk, and the market for dairy products. 3. What form of dairy products are usually most profitable in this -egion? Why? 4. From the railroad agent find the amounts shipped in a car- load of cattle, of butter, of milk, of cream. What is the freight on a car-load of each to the nearest large city ? Use the same city in each case. 5. From farmers, find about how many pounds of feed are repre- sents d in a car-load of each of the above products. 6. From the census report for your state, fill in the following table : Number of farms in the state Number of dairy cows Number of dairy cows per farm Quantity of milk produced Quantity of milk produced per cow * Pounds of butter made on farms Pounds of butter made in factories Total pounds of butter Pounds of cheese made on farms Pounds of cheese made in factories Total pounds of cheese Amount of milk sold Amount of cream sold Amount of butter-fat sold 1 Notice that this is too low because some heifers that are too young to give milk are included with cows. 220 DAIRY FARMING Total value of all dairy products sold Average value of dairy products sold per farm 7. Compared with the preceding census, which of the following are increasing and which decreasing : number of cows ; butter made on farms ; butter made in factories ; cheese. In each case give the reasons for the change. 8. A similar study may be made for the county. 9. How may steers and bulls born before 1909, and born in 1909, are there in your state or county for each 100 dairy cows ? Compare with Table 23, page 207. What proportion do dairy cows represent of all cattle? Compare with Table 22, page 203. 10. How many beef and dairy cows were there in your state or county? How many heifers born in 1909? How many cows for each heifer? Compare with the figures on page 214. 11. Are the calves in your region raised, or sold for veal? If sold, at what age? 12. Does your region produce all its dairy cows? Does it pro- duce any to be shipped to other regions ? 13. About what proportion of the cows in the dairy herds of your region are replaced each year? 14. At what time of the year is most of the milk, butter, or cheese of your region produced ? Why ? COLLATERAL READING Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 43-103, 276-278. CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS G. F. WARREN D URY farms may be classified according to the cropping syst< m that they use, also according to whether they raise or buy their feed, and may be compared in many other way:-. A few of these problems of organization are here discussed. CROPS FOR FEED 194. Corn Silage. The most striking change in the dairy industry in the last century has come in connection with the use of the silo. This provides a succulent feed in the winter and makes it possible to obtain a better production of milk at that time of year. The silo is a means of saving corn- stalks in the best possible form for winter use. It does not increase the value of the grain. In fact, there is always some loss in the silo, and the cost of putting corn into the silo is more than the cost of husking from standing stalks. Aside from its value as a succulent feed, it is primarily a substitu- tion of corn-stalks for hay. In regions where the season is too short for maturing corn, it may still be grown for the silo. In arid regions corn and other crops that would not produce much grain are nevertheless of value for silage. Few crops except corn and similar plants are used gener- ally for the silo. Crops that make good hay are best stored 221 222 DAIRY FARMING as hay, because hay can be handled more cheaply and be- cause the hay crops pack so loosely in the silo that the losses are considerable. The higher the price of hay, the more important a silo becomes. The more general use of silos in the East is pri- marily due to the high price of hay. The average farm price of hay in New York is 86 per cent above that in Ne- braska, but in every region the price is rising so that interest in silos is general. Next to the price of hay the number of cattle is the pri- mary consideration in building a silo. A silo that holds much less than 75 to 100 tons is expensive for its capacity. But such a silo will furnish feed for 20 to 30 cattle during the winter months. It is usually not profitable to have a silo for less than 10 cattle. If one has over 20 cattle in a region where corn grows well, a silo is usually profitable. Between these limits the price of hay, the amount of money available, the machinery that must be purchased, and whether winter or summer dairying is followed, will deter- mine whether or not a silo will be profitable. In Livingston County, New York, only 7 per cent of the farmers who had fewer than 15 cattle units had silos, but 83 per cent of those who had 25 or more cattle units had silos. Silage costs more than the estimates often given. In the Eastern States it usually costs about $4 to $5 per ton. It is often considered to be worth one-third as much as hay. In the corn-belt a ton of silage often contains about five bushels of corn. To compare the cost of silage with the value of corn husked from the standing stalks, we must add to the value of the corn grain the extra cost of putting it in the silo, and interest on the money invested in the silo, and an- nual depreciation of the silo. These extra costs often amount SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 223 to SI per ton. On this basis silage usually costs $3 to $4 per ton. 195. Soiling Crops. Sometimes dairy cattle are kept in the barn, and green feed is brought to them* rat her than pro dde pasture for them. This system is practiced in some pla< es in Europe and occasionally in America. The system will keep more cows on a given area of land, and it is therefore frequently advocated by persons who do not un- deivtand American farming. When land is very high in price, or labor very cheap, it is a good system. On the edge of < ities it sometimes pays because land for pasture would be 1 oo expensive. The high price received for the milk may make it possible to follow this expensive method and yet make a profit. The large amount of labor involved is shown by results at the New Jersey Experiment Station. The equivalent of 50 cows was kept for 6 months on various soiling crops. During that time 278 tons of green crops were hauled to the barn. The cost of the labor to haul these crops to the barn, to say nothing of the cost of growing them, would be more than the entire cost of pasture in many dairy regions. It often pays to cut some corn-stalks or to give some other feed at times when the pasture is short, as discussed on page 128, but this is very different from fol- lowing a soiling system. Such feeding is supplementing pasture, not trying to do without it. Even when land be- comes high in price and labor cheap, it is not probable that a soiling system will be generally used in America, because corn silage is cheaper and is as good. Any system of barn feeding during the pasture season means that milk is being produced on the winter basis of cost, whereas the product must be sold at the summer price, which is much lower. 196. Roots. Mangels, sugar beets, or other root crops 224 DAIRY FARMING are much grown for stock food in Europe, but in regions where corn silage can be grown, such crops are not likely to be raised extensively, because corn silage is nearly as good and is cheaper. The cool moist climate of Europe and the cheap labor are favorable for growing roots. Our climate is better adapted to corn, and our labor is so costly that root crops are expensive feed. The farmer who keeps too small a herd to justify him in having a silo, sometimes finds that it pays to raise root crops to give a succulent feed in winter. Roots are a very expensive feed, but a few pounds a day will often increase the milk yield enough to pay. Per- sons who make advanced registry tests usually raise mangels or beets to feed to the cows while on test. Root crops also have a place in regions where the season is so short that corn silage cannot be raised. 197. Legumes. The importance of raising alfalfa, clover, or some other legume has already been emphasized. Many farms in the eastern half of the United States are better adapted to clover than to alfalfa, but where alfalfa grows without too much difficulty it is preferred. Cowpeas are the most common legume in the South. Soybeans, vetch, and many other legumes are grown by some farmers, but in most parts of the North, alfalfa or clover is more profitable. 198. Pasture. The common pasture plants in the north- eastern quarter of the United States are Kentucky blue-grass and white clover. On land that is deficient in lime, Canada blue-grass or redtop is often the chief pasture plant. Blue- grass requires several years to form a good sod. If the pas- ture land is well supplied with lime and is fairly fertile, the pasture usually requires little attention, but if it is not fertile, more care is necessary. In the South the common pasture plant is Bermuda grass. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 225 199. Home-grown Grain. In the corn-belt it nearly always to raise more corn than the cattle eat. Since there is an ibundance of corn, it should be fed as liberally as possible am yet have a good ration. In the Eastern States and nor:h of the corn-belt farm-grown oats are often ground for cov feed. Oats are nearly always too high in price to be a proitable feed to buy, but the costs of marketing the oats am hauling other feeds to take their place are often enough to ] aake it pay to feed the oats that one has. CROPPING SYSTEMS ON DAIRY FARMS 200. Principles of a Good Cropping System. The great majority of the dairy cows are in the northeastern quarter of ihe United States (see Fig. 68), east of central Nebraska am; north of Washington, B.C. Most of this region is adapted to timothy, blue-grass, and clover. Permanent pastures of blue-grass and white clover are common. The usual cropping system is : Corn or other tilled crops on sod land for one or more years. Small grain for one or two years with timothy and clover seeded in the last year. Hay for one or more years, or hay followed by pasture. This is an ideal cropping system for the dairy farm. The three different classes of crops supplement each other in the control of weeds. The corn furnishes silage or grain or both. The small grain gives its best yield and at least cost when grown after a tilled crop. The grasses and clover are started by seeding in the small grain at very low cost. If the land is adapted to clover, this helps to supply the protein that is not provided in sufficient quantity by the other feeds grown in the rotation. Q 226 DAIRY FARMING Everywhere a good rotation for a dairy farm should if possible provide clover, alfalfa, or some other legume for hay and should provide an abundance of roughage and pas- ture. It should if possible provide a cash crop, or a feeding crop for some other class of animals, such as corn for hog feed. 201. Examples of Rotations. There are many variations of this rotation plan that follow the general principles given FIG. 76. — A good basis for profitable dairying ; high-grade cows on a good blue-grass pasture ; corn for the silo in the background ; clover in an adjoining field ; timothy and oats also raised. above. In the southern part of the region described above, from southern Pennsylvania to Kansas, a common rotation is corn, winter wheat, clover. A little farther north, corn is removed too late for the planting of wheat, therefore oats are grown following corn. In the Northeastern States, corn, potatoes, cabbage, and other tilled crops are usually followed by oats in which grass is seeded. The hay is usually left for about three years. In this region hay does well and is high in price. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 227 I Q the best part of the corn-belt, corn is raised for several years in succession because this is the most important crop. A j.;ood rotation for much of this region is corn two years, followed by one year of oats in which clover and timothy are seeded. This may be cut for one or two years, or if there is i ot a permanent blue-grass pasture, it may be cut for hay om year and pastured one year. 1 n regions where alfalfa is grown, systems of cropping are not so definitely established. Perhaps the ideal dairy region is c ne that is naturally adapted to corn and alfalfa and that ha^ permanent pastures of blue-grass and white clover. 1 n the South, a good rotation is cotton one or two years, foil 3wed by corn. The corn is followed by one year of oats anc cowpeas, the oat crop being harvested in time to raise a c -op of cowpeas the same year. Cowpeas or some other croi3 is sometimes planted between the rows of corn. This system, together with Bermuda grass pastures, provides legumes, corn, pasture, and a cash crop. The legume and pasture are, however, more expensive to raise than are the grasses of the North. There is room for a great develop- ment of dairying in the South, but the greatest dairy centers will remain in the regions where grass grows more readily. These are but a few of the great variety of cropping sys- tems followed on different dairy farms. CASH CROPS AND FEED RAISED 202. Feed and Cash Crops. There are many ways in which the type of farming on dairy farms may be described. Some of the most important comparisons are based on the extent to which feed is purchased and the amount of other products sold. The following are some of the different methods : 228 DAIRY FARMING 1. All feed bought, no crops raised, nothing but milk and discarded cows sold. 2. Nothing but roughage raised. 3. Roughage and all or part of the grain raised. 4. Same as 2, but with some cash crop or other product sold. 5. Same as 3, with some cash crop or other product sold. 6. With any of the above methods, the cows may be raised or may be purchased. 7. The cows may be pure-bred so that there is a consid- erable income from the sale of stock. In general, each of the above types is more profitable than the preceding, provided the conditions are favorable for it. 203. All Feed Purchased. Some dairy cows are kept in cities. Most of these are kept to supply milk for home use, but some large dairies are maintained where all feed must be purchased. Usually the cows are fed largely on factory by- products that are not readily shipped. But sometimes or- dinary feeds are purchased. The high price received for the milk sometimes makes such an enterprise profitable. Calves are very rarely raised in cities, because feed is too expensive. Ordinarily it is cheaper to produce the milk in the country where pastures are available. It costs less to ship milk than it does to ship the hay and other feed required to make it. 204. Nothing but Roughage Raised. This system is very common in the hilly and mountainous parts of the Eastern States. A better system is not easy to devise for some regions where the land is not adapted to any crop ex- cept hay and pasture and where the fields are all so small and rough as to prevent the profitable growth of other crops. Because of the small amount of field work, it is not often SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 229 profitable tp employ much hired help. The farmer with the help of one member of the family at chore time can milk 20 >r 25 cows and, therefore, under this system, the women oft"n help with the milking. The farmer can do the re- ma nder of the day's work alone. In haying time he may nee d a little extra help. Such farmers usually find that it pa; s best to have the cows freshen in the spring so as to pro- du< e most of the milk in summer and thus reduce the grain bill. One of the important reasons for winter dairying is to lave the summer free for field work, but on farms where litt e field work is done this is no advantage. 1 fnder these conditions the milk production per cow is the most important problem because profits depend almost en- tin ly on the cow. It is sometimes possible to find some other prc duct besides milk that can be raised without much extra cost. Berries, eggs, honey, or hay will often add much to the income. Sometimes pure-bred stock is kept and a good profit made from the sale of the surplus animals. 205. Roughage and Grain Raised. Where the land is good enough to raise grain, this system pays much better than the preceding one because the grain feed can be raised wit hout having to hire much extra labor, and with practically the same number of horses that must be kept anyway. (See Farm Records on page 281.) 206. Roughage and Cash Crops Raised. One of the most profitable types of dairy farming is the combination of intensive cash crops with a dairy. The manure is used to grow potatoes, cabbages, apples, tobacco, hops, peas, or sweet corn for canning factories, or some other crop for sale. Where the soil and markets are favorable for one or two of these crops, this system usually pays much better than trying to raise the grain feed. It is, of course, much 230 DAIRY FARMING better to raise the grain feed than nothing. But if instead of raising the grain, one can raise cash crops that will pay the feed bill several times over, he should certainly choose the latter course. Hay is another good cash crop for dairy farms near large cities. Most of the highly successful dairy farms in New York and New England sell some crops, as do many of the farms in other sections. Some of these farms also raise all their grain feed, but most of them buy a consider- able part of it. (See Farm Records on pages 242 and 285.) Farther from the cities the cash crops are more likely to be grain or grain marketed through hogs. This is the most commonly profitable type of dairy farming in the corn-belt. It is certain to increase greatly in that region. All of the roughage and most of the grain is raised for, all of the farm stock. A little cottonseed meal, or other nitrogenous feed, is purchased to balance the ration. Much more corn is raised than can be fed to the cows. This is sold or is fed to hogs. If skim-milk is available for hog feed, the conditions are particularly favorable for hog production. (See Farm Records, page 281.) MANAGEMENT OF MANURE The success of the dairy farm is in no small measure de- pendent on the use that is made of the important by-product, manure. 207. Amount of Manure Produced. Under the direction of the writer, R. E. Deuel determined the amount of manure produced by a herd of 46 cows of different breeds and ages, averaging 1008 pounds in weight. He found that excrement was produced at the rate of 13f tons per year. Some years ago Roberts found the amount to be 13.5 tons per 1000- pound animal. In each case a little over one ton of bedding SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 231 was used, so that if the cows were kept in the barn all the time and if no manure were lost, there would have been nearly 15 tons of manure per 1000-pound cow. INluch of the year the cows are either at pasture or in the ban yard so that part of the manure is lost. About a ton of n anure per cow per month is ordinarily available when cow^ are kept in the barn and turned out in the barnyard for a pn rt of the day. In the Northern States 8 to 10 tons of man are a year, including bedding, are usually available for eacl cow or animal unit kept. 208. Fertility of Feed Returned by Cows. The propor- tions of the constituents of the feed that are returned in the excroment are somewhat variable. A fat animal that is not working or giving milk returns a very large proportion of the food materials. A good dairy cow from the very fact that she is an efficient machine returns a small propor- tion. TABI E 27. — PROPORTION OF CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD THAT ARE RETURNED IN THE EXCREMENT OF DAIRY Cows DEUEL WOLFF 1 Dry matter Per Cent 45.5 Per Cent 438 Organic matter 43 3 39 5 Nitrogen Ash 44.3 63 6 47.5 53 9 R. E. Deuel determined the average results for a herd of 46 dairy cows. These results as well as the results by Wolff are given in Table 27. Dairy cows return somewhat over 40 per cent of the organic matter and nitrogen of the food eaten, and more than half of the mineral matter. Dry 1 C. M. Aikman, Manures and Manuring, pp. 227, 281. 232 DAIRY FARMING cows, or cows that are giving little milk, often return a half more than these amounts. If one wishes organic matter to plow under to make humus, he can feed cows and still have 40 per cent of the humus- making material left. For this reason, it is usually more profitable to feed stock than to plow under green-manure crops. If one desires nitrogen as a fertilizer, he can feed cows, and still get back nearly half of the nitrogen of the feed. If he needs phosphorus and potassium, he can feed cows, and get back over half of these materials that are in the feed. In addition to the above all of the bedding may be recovered. Some of the manure may be lost, but for the time cows are in the barn, if the manure is reasonably well cared for/ it is safe to estimate that over a third of the fertilizing value of the feeds will actually be applied to the land. 209. Losses of Manure and their Prevention. On many farms the manure is allowed to lie around in the barnyard until a very large part of it is lost. Exposure for five months resulted in a loss of over half of the value of the manure.1 One of the important reasons for keeping cattle is to obtain manure, but there is no object in this if the manure is wasted. If manure is kept moist enough so that it will not heat, and yet if neither the liquid in it nor rain water that falls on it, is allowed to escape, it will keep with practically no loss. The safest place for manure is on the land. On some farms it is possible to haul it every day. This is the best possible way to save it. When this practice is followed, it is con- venient to have the barn so arranged that one can drive through between two rows of cows that have their heads toward the wall. In regions where little is done except to 1 Elements of Agriculture, G. F. Warren, p. 141. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 233 care for the cows and raise feed for them, the practice of daily hauling is often best. If many acres of crops are grown for sale or for use in feed! ig other animals, the field work is so important that durii g much of the year one cannot afford to take the time to hi ul manure every day. There are then three ways of keepi tig the manure. It may be left in piles until it can be haulc d, it may be kept in covered barnyards, or may be kept n a manure shed. A :heap shed with a concrete floor will keep off the rain and prevent the liquids from leaching away. A convenient way of using such a shed is to have the barn equipped with a ma Hire carrier so that the manure from the cows, horses, and c ther animals, can be put in the shed. The floor of the shed should be two to four feet below the floor of the barn to in< Tease its capacity. The writer has found that a shed 25 feet square will ordinarily hold the manure from about 20 animal units until the time when it can be hauled. The floor need not be expensive. Three inches of concrete on solid ground will answer all purposes. A better plan is to have the shed large so that cattle, hogs, or other stock, can run in it. This keeps the manure solid and makes a good covered shed. With either of the above plans, it is convenient to have the barn so arranged that the cows' heads are together. This saves time in feeding, and the barn can be cleaned with a manure carrier as quickly as if the cows faced the wall. The majority of farmers throw the manure in piles in the barnyard. The rains then wash away much of the best part of it. Even with this method, considerable saving can be made by having the eave troughs and yard drainage so arranged that a minimum amount of water will run through 234 DAIRY FARMING the manure. In arid regions even this precaution is not always necessary because there may be only enough rain to keep the manure wet without washing it away. With this method of handling, it should be hauled away frequently. If possible, all of it should be hauled out in the winter and spring so that as little as possible will be lost by summer rains. In August usually it can be cleaned up again. Bet- ter care of manure by using the covered shed method, or by some other method, is well worth consideration. 210. Value of Manure. Manure is sometimes valued according to its chemical analysis. If purchased in com- mercial fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium in a ton of manure would cost over $2. But what manure is worth to a farmer depends not on its chemical analysis but on what he is going to do with it. If it is to be left in the barnyard, it has no value. If used on some crops, it may have a very high value. 'On other crops its value is less. If applied in very large quan- tities, its value per ton is less than when used in moderate amounts. The good returns that often come from combining dairying with such intensive crops as potatoes, cabbages, hops, to- bacco, apples, and grapes are due partly to the high value of manure for growing such crops. It is just as easy by use of manure to increase the potato crop ten per cent as it is to increase a grain crop by the same proportion. But the po- tato crop has so much greater value per acre that the returns from such an increase are much more. Manure has a high value for growing corn and is chiefly used on that crop in regions where more intensive crops are not raised. For raising corn, small grain, and hay, manure is often credited to the cows at about $1 to $1.50 per ton at the barn, SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 235 The cost of hauling is usually about 50 cents so that these figures would make the manure cost the crops $1.50 to $2 per 1on. For some new regions these figures may be high, but i n the eastern half of the United States manure is always wort i at least $1 per ton at the barn. Where truck crops or other very intensive crops are raised, it may be worth much mor< . 211. The Value of Manure Depends on the Rate of Appli- cation. The Pennsylvania Experiment Station has con- duct od an extensive series of fertilizer and manure experi- meni s since 1882. A four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, hay s followed. On one plot 6 tons of manure is applied on the corn and on the wheat. On another plot 10 tons is used The check plots receive no treatment. The total value -s of the crops per acre for 32 years were as follows : l No treatment $474 Hx tons manure every other year (96 tons) ... 714 Ten tons manure every other year (160 tons) . . 747 When a total of 96 tons of manure was applied, the value of the increased crops amounted to $2.50 per ton of manure. An additional application of 64 more tons gave increased crops worth 51 cents for each additional ton. For the entire period of 32 years this extra manure would have been worth nearly five times as much per ton if applied at the lesser rate. If one kept 30 animal units and ob- tained 6 tons of manure from each one, or 180 tons per year, he would have 5760 tons of manure in 32 years. If this manure were applied at the lesser rate, the total value of the increased crops would be $14,400. If applied at the heavier rate, the same manure would have brought increased 1 Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 90. Later data furnished by F. D. Gardner. 236 DAIRY FARMING crops worth only $9,828. The manure would have been worth $4,572 more to the farmer if spread thinner. The land that received the heavier application is better for future crops but by no means is it better to the ex- tent of the cost of the heavier application. The best measure of how much better it is, is found in the results of the last few years. As an average for the last four years, the plots that had received 64 more tons of manure per acre gave crops worth only $8.63 more than the crops on the plots using the lighter application. This difference is not enough to give any promise of catching up. The same principle is shown by results at the Ohio Ex- periment Station. Many different experiments have been conducted for many years. In every case a given quantity of manure has given the greatest returns when spread thinly. One test in a three-year rotation of potatoes, wheat, clover, has been continued for 21 years. Manure was applied at the rate of 4, 8, and 16 tons on wheat. The total values of the crops per acre were as follows : 1 No treatment $782.49 4 tons manure every three years (28 tons) . . 900.04 8 tons manure every three years (56 tons) . . 963.17 16 tons manure every three years (112 tons) . . 1099.31 When a total of 28 tons of manure was applied, the in- creased crops were worth $4.20 per ton of manure. An ad- ditional application of 28 more tons of manure per acre gave additional crops worth $63.13, or $2.25 per ton for the additional manure. A still further addition of 56 more tons gave crops worth $2.43 per ton for the last additional manure. Of course the land that has received the heavier appli- 1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 144. Data for 1914 supplied by C. G. Williams. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 237 cation is in better condition, but this is not enough to make up f )r the past difference in returns. Even with the fer- tility left from all the previous years of treatment the plots that had the heaviest applications were still paying least per ton »f manure on the twenty-first year. 01 course if there is enough manure, the heavier applica- tion is very desirable, but with a limited amount it is better to sj read it thinly. These figures also indicate the high value that one can assign to manure if he is keeping a small amount of stock. If a farmer had 180 tons of manure a year to apply for 21 yean under conditions like those in the Ohio experiment, the manure would produce increased crops worth $15,869, if applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, but would give increased crops worth only $10,693 if applied at the rate of 16 tons every three years. If the manure is not wasted, this amount is usually available on a farm that keeps 15 cows in addition to the usual amount of young stock, horses, etc. If applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, it would provide for 135 acres of crops. These are about the condi- tions on many 160-acre farms. If the manure were applied at the rate of 16 tons every three years, it would provide for only 34 acres of crops. This would be a very small farm. Another way to provide for the larger application would be to keep four times as many cows on the larger area. But this would make a very heavily-stocked place. From the above, we see that one of the strong reasons for keeping a moderate number of cows is the high value that can be obtained from the intelligent use of small applications of manure. One of the reasons why it may not pay to stock the farm too heavily is the smaller value that manure then has. 238 DAIRY FARMING 212. The Value of Manure Depends on the Crops on which it is Applied. At the Ohio Experiment Station, 8 tons of manure was applied on wheat as compared with the same application on potatoes. The manure gave increased crops worth $3.45 per ton when applied on potatoes, but gave only $2.72 per ton when applied on the wheat crop. If one farmed 75 acres of this land with this three-year rotation and had 200 tons of manure to use each year, he would make $3066 more in twenty-one years if he applied it on the potatoes rather than on the wheat. With corn, wheat, and oats, each grown continuously on the same land at the Ohio Experiment Station, corn paid the best prices for manure, wheat next, and oats least. Such experiments indicate the great importance of applying the manure on the right crop in the rotation. They also indicate the great advantage of combining dairying with the production of such intensive crops as potatoes. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Make a list of all the farmers you know, with the number of cows that they keep, and state whether or not they have a silo. Lists by different members of the class can be combined to make a cow and silo census. What proportion of the farmers who have 10 cows or Jess have a silo ? What proportion of those who have 10 to 20 cows have a silo ? What proportion of those who have over 20 ? 2. Make a list of all the different kinds of silos of the region. Of as many as possible, find the cost (including labor by the farmer) and the cost for each ton of capacity. 3. If any farmers have cut part of a field for silage and have husked part of the same field, find the yield of silage and of grain. How many bushels of corn in a ton of silage ? If the use of the silo and machinery and extra work amount to $1.00 per ton, what would a ton of the silage cost at the present price of corn ? 4. Does any one in the region follow a soiling system ? 6. Are roots raised for stock food by any farmers in this region ? 6. What are the best legumes for the dairy farm in this region ? SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 239 7 What are the common pasture plants of the region? 8 What are the usual crops grown on the dairy farms of this regioi ? 9 What feeds do dairy farmers in this region buy ? What cash crops or other products are sold from dairy farms ? 10 What crop rotations are used in the region? Do they in- clude the types of crops that make a good cropping system? 11 What are the usual methods of handling manure in this re- gion ? Is it taken out of the barns with a carrier, loaded on a wagon drive i through the barn, or is it thrown out into the barnyard? Do a ly farmers in the region haul manure every day? Do any have a shed in which manure is kept? What proportion of the f armt rs clean up and haul all the manure at least twice a year ? On \v lat crops is the manure usually applied, and at what rate per acre ? 12 How many months are animals usually kept in the barn here ? About how many tons of manure are available for each ani- mal u lit kept ? If possible find the tons of manure hauled by some farme- and number of animals kept. How many tons were there per ai imal unit ? 13. For some farm in the region find the area, acres of crops grown, number of each kind of animals, and crop rotation. Calcu- late tl le number of animal units and probable tons of manure avail- able. On which crops, how often, and at what rate would you use this iranure? LABORATORY EXERCISES 35. Field Trip to a Farm. Visit one or more dairy farms. Make sketches of the farms, showing location of different fields. What crops *rere grown on each field last year ? What was done with the crops ? What areas will probably be grown this year ? On which field is the manure applied? How is the manure cared for? Is the pasture permanent or rotated? What are the chief plants in the pasture ? Is the pasture land good land for use in raising grain? What disposition was made of the crops last year? Are the fields and pasture conveniently arranged as to size and nearness to the barn? What is the kind and amount of fencing? How many months in the year are the stock kept on pasture? For how many months does the pasture furnish all the feed ? How many animal units are kept in the pasture ? How many acres of pasture per ani- mal unit ? CHAPTER 11 RENTING DAIRY FARMS G. F. WARREN 213. Cash Rent. When cash rent is paid, the tenant usu- ally furnishes everything but the land. The landlord then has little to do with the farm. In some regions the land- lord furnishes the cows and rents the farm and cows. 214. Share of Crops. In regions where grain or cotton is the major product, the landlord usually receives a share of the crop. If cows are kept, the landlord has no share in them. Only rarely does a good dairy farm develop under these conditions. The landlord is not likely to provide suitable buildings. The tenant justly feels that the manure produced by the cows he feeds increases the yield of the landlord's land with no expense to the landlord. 215. Share of Receipts. In the older states the almost universal system of sharing the products on rented dairy farms is for each party to receive half of the receipts from all products of the farm. The landlord furnishes the land and does any extensive repairing of buildings. For small repairs to buildings and fences he usually furnishes materials, and the tenant does the work. He usually pays the taxes, pays half the seed, feed, fertilizer, threshing, silo filling, hay pressing, and similar bills ; and furnishes half or more of the cattle and other stock from which he shares the in- come. 240 RENTING DAIRY FARMS 241 The tenant furnishes the human labor, machinery, and hors 3S, and half of the other stock, and- pays half of the bills men ioned above. He pays such bills as horseshoeing and mac n'nery repairs. Each party has half of the receipts and own ; half of the young stock raised. Ii regions where little but milk is sold, the landlord usually f urn shes all cows (see page 244) . When profitable cash crop 3 are raised in addition to dairying, the tenant usually f urn shes some of the cows (see farm, page 242) . In either case the calves raised are usually a part of the product, to be Divided equally. 1V1 any variations occur. If the chances of making a profit are )oor, the tenant obtains concessions from the landlord. If tie chances are good, the tenant may make concessions to get i he place. The landlord often furnishes some machinery or he rses, usually what he happens to own. The tenant often owns all the hens and receives all the product from them. Usually he is then required to furnish all the feed for them. A hog or two is often kept in the same way. If hogs are an important enterprise, the feed and returns are divided. Sometimes the landlord pays all the fertilizer bill and often furnishes all the grass seed. Sometimes the tenant furnishes all the grain for horses, and sometimes this cost is shared. Colts usually belong to the tenant but are sometimes shared. The fertility of the land, character of the buildings, quality of the cows, distance to market, price of milk, size of the farm, and many other factors must be considered before one can say what the exact terms of the lease should be. For the tenant the quality of the cows kept, the fertility of the land, and amount of good crop land available are more important than minor details in the lease. It seems probable that this general system of rental will 242 DAIRY FARMING come to be used in most regions where dairying becomes the most important industry. One advantage of the system is that it stimulates the keeping of animals. In several counties where this has been studied the results show that the rented farms keep more live-stock per acre than do the farms oper- ated by owners. 216. Examples of Rented Farms. The results on farms will show the method better than it can be described. SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM IN WESTERN NEW YORK — 193 ACRES. A VARIETY OF PRODUCTS SOLD. Cows SHARED EQUALLY CAPITAL TENANT LANDLORD Farm $14,000 Machinery and tools 6 horses $ 500 750 1 brood sow 8 8 Poultry 21 21 20 cows ... 400 400 Calves and bull 75 75 $1754 $14,504 CROPS ACRES TOTAL CROP Corn 4 200 bushels Wheat 32 800 bushels Oats 16 560 bushels Timothy and clover 33 50 tons Potatoes 4 350 bushels Field beans 14 252 bushels Apples . 1 50 bushels Peas for canning factory Sweet corn for canning factory .... Sweet corn stalks and pea vines put in silo 14 8 14 tons 24 tons RENTING DAIRY FARMS 243 A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM IN WESTERN NEW YORK — Continued . TENANT LANDLORD Rect ipts Milk $1000 $1000 C; ttle sales and increased inventory . P< ul try and eggs 30 60 30 60 H >gs 116 116 "Wheat 343 343 Oj.ts 168 P( tatoes 49 49 252 252 Auples 30 P( as 175 175 Sveet corn 84 84 Exp< nses Libor $2139 $ 200 $2277 Grass seed 40 $ 40 Feed 150 150 Fertilizer . 60 60 IVI ichinery Tip-keep 20 Bi ilding up-keep . 120 Harvesting 20 Tv-dne 10 Tb resting and coal 24 24 Insurance 8 9 Taxes 36 36 Receipts less expenses $ 568 $1571 $ 439 $1838 Interest on tenant's capital @ 5% . . $ 88 Tenant's labor income $1483 Landlord's per cent on investment . 12.7 This farm is a large diversified business with good cows. Most of the feed raised and nearly half of the income is derived from the sale of crops. The provisions of the lease are the usual ones for a farm of this type. With a farm of this size and with good cows both parties are doing well. 244 DAIRY FARMING A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM OF 190 ACRES THAT is HIGHLY SPECIALIZED. THE LANDLORD FURNISHES ALL THE Cows CAPITAL TENANT LANDLORD Farm $13,300 Machinery and tools .... $ 425 375 Feed and supplies 300 300 Cows ... 1,725 Heifers and calves . . • . 210 Bull 200 5 horses 350 175 Colt . 75 Hog . 8 Hens 31 80 Turkeys 6 $1195 $16,365 CROPS ACRES TOTAL CROP Silage corn 24 188 tons Timothy and clover hay Oats 60 30 78 tons 1200 bushels IVlangels A 250 bushels Potatoes 1 120 bushels Orchard and garden 2 TENANT LANDLORD Receipts Hay . . $ 178 $ 178 Milk 1239 1239 Cattle sales and increased inventory . Hides . . 40 1 165 1 Colt increased inventory Outside work 15 207 Hogs 33 33 Eggs . 6 25 Poultry 40 $1759 $1641 RENTING DAIRY FARMS 245 TENANT LANDLORD Expi rises $ 400 1M ichinery up-keep 30 Biilding up-keep $ 50 F< od ..... 76 76 Si o filling 45 If-' .... 4 4 15 Si illion service 10 G ass seed 38 T vine 8 8 T' reshing 10 10 Fi el for threshing and silo filling . . In Durance 5 10 5 10 T;,xes 66 66 Rect ipts less expenses $ 634 $1125 $ 312 $1329 Interest on tenant's capital at 5% . . . Ten; nt's labor income $ 60 $1065 Lam lord's per cent on investment . . 8.1 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region? 2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock? Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners? 3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re- cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how many years did they spend as hired men? 4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how many years have they been tenants? 6. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility of the land. COLLATERAL READING Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329. Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185. Farm Leases in Iowa, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 159. 244 DAIRY FARMING A SUCCESSFUL TENANT FARM OF 190 ACRES THAT is HIGHLY SPECIALIZED. THE LANDLORD FURNISHES ALL THE Cows CAPITAL TENANT LANDLORD Farm • . $13,300 Machinery and tools Feed and supplies $ 425 300 375 300 Cows . 1,725 Heifers and calves . • . Bull 210 200 5 horses 350 175 Colt . . . 75 Hoe- 8 Hens . 31 80 Turkeys 6 $1195 $16,365 CROPS ACRES TOTAL CROP Silage corn 24 188 tons Timothy and clover hay 60 78 tons Oats . . • 30 1200 bushels Mangels « 250 bushels Potatoes . ... 1 120 bushels Orchard and garden 2 TENANT LANDLORD Receipts Hay $ 178 $ 178 Milk 1239 1239 Cattle sales and increased inventory . Hides 40 1 165 1 Colt increased inventory Outside work 15 207 Hogs 33 33 EP-O-S 6 25 Poultry . . . . . 40 $1759 $1641 RENTING DAIRY FARMS 245 TENANT LANDLORD Exp< uses L; bor . . . f . $ 400 1V1 xchinery up-k66p 30 Bi ilding up-keep $ 50 F( (3d ...... 76 76 Si o filling 45 le •} .... 4 4 H >rseshoeing 15 St illion service 10 G ass seed 38 Twine 8 8 Tl reshing 10 10 Fi el for threshing and silo filling In surance 5 10 5 10 T; xes 66 66 Rect ipts less expenses $ 634 $1125 $ 312 $1329 Interest on tenant's capital at 5% . . . Tenj nt's labor income $ 60 $1065 Lane lord's per cent on investment . . 8.1 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region? 2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock? Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners ? 3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re- cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how many years did they spend as hired men? 4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how many years have they been tenants ? 5. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility of the land. COLLATERAL READING Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329. Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185. Farm Leases in Iowa, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 159. CHAPTER 12 COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING G. F. WARREN COST OF PRODUCTION 217. Cost of Producing Milk. Reliable figures on the cost of keeping cows are available for two regions that repre- sent decidedly different dairy conditions. Delaware County, near New York City, is a hilly region where the pasture season is short. Practically all grain is purchased. Because of the nearness to large cities, hay is very high in price. In this county the average cost per cattle unit for over six thousand cows was $99. The year whose records are here quoted was one of unusually high feed prices even for the region. In the following year the cost was $88. All the costs of keeping the cows and of the calves raised were charged directly to the cows, raising calves being one means of offsetting depreciation on cows. How near these two balance in this region is shown by the fact that the re- turns from cattle and hides sold were only $1 per cow above the amounts spent for cattle purchased. This region is fairly typical for New England and for hilly regions in other states near the large eastern cities. Rice County, Minnesota, represents a region of very low- priced feed. The figures were obtained several years ago when feed was cheaper than it is to-day. Hay is worth less 246 COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 247 than one-third as much as in regions like Delaware County, near New York City. Because of the very low price of feed, the average cost of keeping a cow was only $60. TABLE 28. — COST OF PRODUCING MILK DELAWARE Co.1 N. Y.( 6422 Cows RICE Co.2 MINN. Qm ntities Pounds grain f6d Per Cattle Unit 1662 Per Cow 864 I' ours human labor 130 133 Pounds milk produced per cow . . . Pounds butter-fat per cow .... Cos :s F9ed 4514 208 $66.60 5252 188 $27.50 B odding 75 4 Buildings 4.41 2.46 Dairy equipment 41 .58 Interest . 2.94 2.35 Human labor 1826 ] Horse labor .... ... .20 \ 18.66 Hauling milk 501 Bull cost 3 1.98 D epreciation 3 3.19 Miscellaneous .91 3.28 Less cattle increase and net sales . . .92 Total cost $9857 $60.00 It will be observed that the costs other than feed are al- most exactly the same in the two regions. The average costs other than feed for keeping cows under farm conditions vary widely on different farms, but in the great majority of cases for grade herds are between $30 and $40 per cow. In 1 Report of the Proceedings of the American Farm Management Asso- ciation, November, 1913. 2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 124. 3 This item included elsewhere. 4 Charge for this item not given. 248 DAIRY FARMING pure-bred herds the costs are usually much more. Next to feed, labor is the most important cost. The importance of having the farm and buildings so arranged as to facilitate work is at once apparent. TABLE 29. — COST OF PRODUCING MILK ON NEW YORK FARMS 1 GRADE 3ERD8 PURE-BRE D HERDS 1913 1914 1913 1914 Quantities Number herds .... Number cows .... Number cows per herd . Number cattle units per iierd 17 297.5 17.5 239 8 189.6 23.7 309 5 110.5 22.1 328 4 85.5 21.4 363 Average value of cows Pounds milk per cow Value milk per cow . . Pounds grain per cattle unit Pounds dry forage per cattle unit . . . Pounds silage per cattle unit . • $71.10 6185 $99.46 1551 3028 6554 $70.31 5584 $86.42 1479 . 2480 5540 $215.90 7000 $107.70 2339 3216 6791 $268.89 7388 $105.10 2295 3200 8980 Hours man labor per cattle unit .... Costs per cattle unit Grain 116 $22 71 100 $1899 161 $34 18 183 $34.24 Dry forage 17.76 12.90 23.00 16.88 Silage etc 1290 11 74 1433 17.47 Pasture ...... 496 4.43 4.52 4.15 Bedding 222 1 33 255 2 70 Man labor .... 1926 16.63 27.86 30.78 Horse labor 2 64 3 77 3 22 231 Equipment labor . . . Interest .91 3.55 .76 2.95 .97 11.21 .79 15.90 Buildings 2 81 204 2.34 3.27 Breeding fees .... • Veterinary and medicine Miscellaneous .... .003 .20 2.13 .36 .09 1.95 8.21 .55 6.92 1.76 .59 10.16 1 New York State Department of Agriculture, Circular 130, p. 82. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 249 TABLE 29. — COST OF PRODUCING MILK ON NEW YORK FARMS — Continued GRADE HERDS PURE-BRE D HERDS 1913 1914 1913 1914 Suv mary F -ed $58.33 $4806 $76.03 $72.74 ]\ tan labor . A 1 else 19.26 1446 16.63 13 25 27.86 35 97 30.78 37.48 Total Returns per cattle unit Milk1 $92.05 $7281 $77.94 $6624 $139.86 $72 61 $141.00 $61 73 1 1 crease and net sales . Manure ]V1 iscellaneous .... 18.02 10.59 .39 13.37 7.87 .06 87.01 10.11 1.79 90.47 10.12 1.95 Total Proj t per cattle unit . . . $101.81 $9.76 $87.54 $9.60 $171.52 $31.66 $164.27 $23.27 From these costs the value of the manure should be de- ducted to find the returns that the average farmer would have to get in order to make a profit on cows. For Rice County the value of the calf would also have to be deducted. This value is included in the Delaware County figures. Accurate results of cost accounts on a number of New York farms including 673 cows are given in Table 29. These farms were not especially selected but are somewhat larger and better managed than the average farm. Most of them were located in parts of the state where feed is somewhat cheaper than in Delaware County. The accounts are with the entire dairy herd considered as a unit. For the grade herds there is a surprisingly close agree- ment with Table 28 as to costs other than feed. The pure- bred herds cost more in every way, but the returns are more 1 Notice that this is total milk divided by the number of cattle units. The value of the milk per cow is given above. 250 DAIRY FARMING than enough to cover the greater cost. The pure-bred herds on the average pay best. 218. Cost of Raising Heifers. The cost of raising heifers on a Wisconsin farm that raised about twenty a year was kept for five years. The food costs to raise a heifer to two years of age varied from $39 to $42. The total costs varied from $60 to $65 in different years. The average cost of raising one group of about twenty heifers is given in Table 30. To these costs the value of the heifer at birth should be added and the value of the manure produced in the barn subtracted. Of course, the exact figures should not be expected to apply to another farm, but the comparative costs are worth studying. TABLE 30. — AVERAGE COST OF RAISING JERSEY HEIFERS TO Two YEARS OLD ON A WISCONSIN FARM l RAISING TO 1 YEAR OLD SECOND YEAR TOTAL 2 YEARS Quantities used Whole milk, Ib. .... Skim-milk, Ib Grain, Ib 342 3165 547 342 3165 547 Silage Ib . ... 353 3250 3603 Mixed hay, Ib 857 1120 1977 Corn stover, Ib Days pasture .... Hours man labor . . . Costs Feed . . . 123 40 $2458 672 171 23 $16 11 672 294 63 $40 69 Bedding Labor 1.00 5 14 2.00 286 3.00 800 Interest 1 12 2 53 3.65 Buildings 1 57 81 2 38 Equipment 55 .55 Loss by discarding . . Miscellaneous .... 1.99 .42 1.38 .42 3.37 Total $35.95 $26.11 $62.06 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 251 Tiie quantities of feed used in growing heifers at the Ohio Experiment Station and estimated costs are given in Tables FIG. 77. — The heifers for which the costs of production are here given in Table 30. 31 and 32. These heifers were fed a little more whole milk and were fed over twice as much grain as the ones men- tioned above. The costs were therefore higher.1 The costs other than feed vary from $21 to $28 in the dif- ferent results here quoted. The feed costs vary from $41 to $ 58. In the States east of Ohio feed is higher in price, so that this cost is likely to be more. In some irrigated regions where alfalfa hay is very cheap, the feed cost may be lower. Where skim-milk is not available the feed cost is somewhat higher, but need not be prohibitive, as is shown on pages 116 to 118. 1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 289. 252 DAIRY FARMING TABLE 31. — COST OF RAISING 29 JERSEY HEIFERS AT THE OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION. Average weights ; at birth 55 Ib. ; at one year 472 Ib. ; at 2 years 758 Ib. RAISING TO 1 YEAR OLD SECOND YEAR TOTAL 2 YEARS Quantities used Whole milk, Ib 469 469 Skim-milk, Ib 2918 87 3005 Grain, Ib 564 785 1349 Silage, Ib 444 2426 2870 Hay, Ib . 767 1038 1805 Stover, Ib . . . . 37 254 291 Days pasture .... 118 159 277 Costs Feed $27.39 $27.12 $54.51 Other costs estimated 12.79 14.89 27.68 Total $40.18 $42.01 $82.10' TABLE 32. — COST OF RAISING 22 HOLSTEIN HEIFERS AT THE OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION. Average weights ; at birth 82 ib. ; at 1 year 571 Ib. ; at 2 years 962 Ib. RAISING TO 1 YEAR OLD SECOND YEAR TOTAL 2 YEARS Quantities used Whole milk, Ib Skim-milk, Ib 445 2661 174 445 2835 Grain, Ib Silage, Ib Hay, Ib Stover Ib 647 656 796 11 870 2247 1419 232 1517 2903 2215 243 Days pasture .... Costs Feed . . . 121 $28.57 151 $29.55 272 $58.12 Other costs estimated 12.79 14.89 27.68 Total $41.36 $44.44 $85.80 COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 253 MARKETING DAIRY PRODUCTS 219. Ways of Marketing. The milk supply in many small towns and cities is retailed by dairymen who produce part or ill of the milk that they sell. There are some oppor- tunities for retailing milk in regions where dairying is not a general industry. Such regions are likely to have beef or du; 1-purpose cattle, and the farmers are not likely to know hov • to care for a dairy animal. One who has good cows and wh- > knows how to care for them often has a good opportu- nity in such a town. Every town that is near to farm land off( rs an opportunity for some retail dairyman. Some- times there are too many in the business so that the business wil) not pay for the time spent, but retailing frequently offers a g )od chance for an energetic man. Many farmers make butter to retail in a near-by town or to l)e shipped by parcel post. The prices received are some- times enough to make this a good method of selling. The great majority of dairymen have to sell on a general market at prices fixed by the purchaser. Sometimes the conditions are such that the selling part of the business calls for little thought, but often there are some points to study. Cooperation in hauling milk is often a great saving of time. If the price of milk varies with the fat content, the farmer should be able to estimate which is the best kind of milk to produce. If he has more than one market, he should be able to make similar estimates. In regions where market milk sells for so much that one cannot afford to sell the product in any other way, one often sees farmers who persist in selling butter-fat or butter long after this has ceased to be the best practice. 254 DAIRY FARMING 220. Value of Skim-milk in Cities. When milk is sold to the creamery, the fat basis is, of course, the proper basis of payment. Argument is often made that payment for market milk should be on the same basis. The public is often ac- cused of ignorance because it refuses to pay for milk in pro- portion to the fat contained. For human food, protein is probably the most important constituent of milk. How much the cities are willing to pay for skim-milk is shown by the high price that they are willing to pay for milk when they could get the same butter- fat in cream at much less cost. If the other constituents were in proportion to the fat, then the percentage of fat would be in proportion to the value as human food, but the richness in protein does not increase so rapidly as the fat. Common retail prices in New York City are 9 cents for milk, 40 cents per quart for 23 per cent cream, and 38 cents per pound for butter.1 On the average, milk contains about 3.7 per cent fat. At these prices the butter-fat costs about $1. 13 per pound in milk, 82 cents in cream, and 44 cents in butter. Evidently, milk is not purchased merely for its butter-fat, else butter-fat in cream would sell at the same price that it does in milk. The value that the public places on fat, as measured by the price of cream, shows that about 27 per cent of the amount paid for milk is paid for food that is contained in the skim-milk. Stated in another way, if the value of the fat is measured by the price of cream, then the fat in a quart of milk is worth 6.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 2.5 cents. Or, if the fat in milk is considered to have the same 1 Prices furnished by the Borden Company and verified from several other sources. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 255 value as the fat in butter, then the fat in a quart of milk is worth 3.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 5.5 cents. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS } . For each of the regions given in Tables 28 and 29 find the feed cost ind all other costs and the per cent that the feed cost is of the total cost. Compare the feed costs in the different regiojis. 2. At the prices of feeds in this region, find the approximate valu< of the feed required to feed a cow, as given in Table 28. £. What per cent is the feed of the total cost of raising heifers, as gi -en in Table 30. 4. At prices of feed and milk in this region, find the approxi- mat( value of the feed used to raise a heifer, as given in Table 30. 6. Using the weights given on page 298, how many pounds are thert in one gallon of milk? In one gallon of 35 per cent cream? How many quarts in 100 pounds of milk ? In 100 pounds of 20 per cent Team? 6. In what proportion should milk testing 3.2 per cent fat and milk testing 4.5 per cent fat be mixed to make milk testing 4 per cent ? 7 Using figures from page 298, how much dry matter is there in 40 quarts of skim-milk? In 100 pounds? 8 Some animal food is necessary for good success with hens. Meat scrap is often purchased for this purpose at about $3 per hundred pounds. It is also fed to hogs. It contains about 90 per cent dry matter, but the dry matter is not so valuable as that in skim-tnilk. If the dry matter in skim-milk is worth the same as that in meat scrap, what would 100 pounds of skim-milk be worth? What would it be worth per quart? 9. A farmer is offered 30 cents a pound for butter-fat, or $1.30 per hundred for whole milk. His average test is 3.8 per cent. Which is the higher price ? Would the skim-milk be worth the dif- ference as feed for hogs or poultry? 10. What would be received for 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk when sold at each of the following prices : a. 3 cents per quart? 6. $1.50 per 100 pounds? c. 35 cents per pound for butter-fat ? d. 30 cents per pound for butter ? 256 DAIRY FARMING Considering the value of skim-milk and the labor of making butter, which would be the best way to sell? 11. The prices paid for milk by the Borden Company from April, 1915, to March, 1916, were as follows, in the region where the freight to New York is 26 cents per 40-quart can. BUTTER-FAT 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 April May 1.31 1 06 1.46 1 21 1.61 1 36 1.76 1 51 1.91 1 66 June 1 00 15 1 30 1 45 1 60 July . 1.16 .31 1 46 1 61 1 76 August 32 47 1 62 1 77 1 92 September 41 56 1 71 1 86 201 October November .70 80 .85 95 2.00 2 10 2.15 225 2.30 240 December .80 95 2 10 225 2.40 January 70 85 200 2 15 230 February 65 80 1 95 2 10 225 March .60 .75 1.90 2.05 2.20 The above prices will be paid to dairymen where they maintain, during this contract, conditions scoring not less than 25 per cent on equipment and 43 per cent on methods, according to the New York Department of Health Score Card, as scored by the Company's rep- resentatives. Dairymen scoring less than 25 per cent on equip- ment and 43 per cent on methods, will receive ten cents per 100 pounds less than the above schedule. Milk of intermediate com- position was paid for at corresponding prices. Calculate the average price for the year for milk with each per cent of fat. What is the average price for fat in 3 per cent milk ? What is paid per pound for the additional fat in 4 per cent milk ? In 5 per cent milk? What is the price for the additional fat above 3 per cent in all cases ? 12. If skim-milk is worth as much as found in problem 8, at what price would butter have to be sold to bring as much as the average price paid by the Borden Company for 3 per cent milk ? For 5 per cent milk? 13. Using the average production given on page 42, what would be the value of the milk for one year for a cow of each breed ? COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 257 14. Find the average price paid at retail in a near-by city for butt* r, cream with known fat content, and milk. What price is paid for fat in each form? COLLATERAL READING F irm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 440-493. U S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49. CHAPTER 13 OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING G. F. WARREN WAYS OF MEASURING PROFITS 221. The Most Important Factors for Success. In a dairy region the most important factors have been shown to be the size of the business, the returns per cow, the crop yields, and the diversity of the business.1 Many other factors have to do with financial success, but on careful examination it will be found that most of them are covered by the above. For instance, nothing is said about the effective use of labor, but the most important single factor controlling such use is the size of the business. The following are some of the many other factors that cause minor variations in profit on many farms and that sometimes become the most important factors. Too much or too little capital may be invested in buildings or stock. Too many or too few men or horses may be kept. The region or farm may not be adapted to dairying. The wrong kind of product for the region may be sold. The barns and fields may be so arranged as to aid in the work, or they may cause a loss of time. Other things being equal, large cows pay better than small ones. 222. Ways of Measuring Profit. Two things are at work on a farm — money and men. To be called a financial suc- 1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 349. 258 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 259 cess any business should pay a reasonable rate of interest on the capital invested and, in addition, pay fair wages for the labor used. The best way to measure profits on a farm is first to fi (id the difference between the receipts and the business exp< nses for a year, including in expenses all labor except the owner's. This difference represents the pay for the use of ihe capital and for the owner's time. The interest on the noney invested in the business calculated at 5 per cent, or i\ :, the current rate of interest, should be subtracted from the ncome from capital and owner's labor to get the amount left ;o pay for his time. This is called his labor income. The folk wing averages from 73 farms in Illinois show the method of figuring : l Average capital $51,091 Average receipts 5,042 Average farm expenses 1,866 Income from capital and owner's labor 3,176 Interest on capital at 5 per cent . . 2,555 Owner's labor income 621 SIZE OF BUSINESS 223. Size of Business. In order to be most economically manpged, a dairy farm should be large enough to provide full use for a reasonable equipment of modern machinery. This does not mean that it should be one of the great costly and money -losing establishments that are often maintained by wealthy men. But it does mean that a farm is working at a disadvantage if it is not large enough to provide work for two or three persons. Just how many acres this will require depends on the richness of the land and on what is done with the milk. A small area of land that will naturally grow two tons of hay and fifty bushels of corn per acre will represent 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 41, p. 9. 260 DAIRY FARMING as large a business as many more acres of poor soil. If milk is sold at retail, a smaller area and smaller number of cows may represent an equally large business. But even when milk is sold at retail, it is very desirable to have 15 to 30 cows. How important a reasonable area of land is to a dairy farmer is shown by the results from 1988 farms in New York as given in Table 33. TABLE 33. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO LABOR INCOME. 1988 FARMS, TOMPKINS, LIVINGSTON, AND JEFFERSON COUNTIES, NEW YORK ACRES NUMBER OF FARMS AVERAGE NUMBER OF ACRES PER FARM AVERAGE ACRES OF CROPS AVERAGE LABOR INCOME 30 or less .... 74 22 14 $121 31- 50 ..... 141 44 25 252 . 51-100 616 79 40 402 101-150 572 126 66 568 151-200 304 177 89 776 Over 200 .... 281 281 134 995 These farms are fairly typical of many of the dairy farms from Dakota to New England. About half the farm is devoted to hay, corn, small grain, and other farm crops. The other half is pasture, or woods and waste land. The farms of less than 100 acres are on the average not paying the owner more than interest and hired man's wages. There are of course some small farms that pay well, but, as a rule, the larger farms pay better. Similar results have been ob- tained in many other states. 224. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Labor. In every region where such studies have been made the small farms accomplish much less per man than do the FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 261 fair-sized farms. Table 34 gives results for one county. Thi average number of men per farm as given in the table incl ides all human labor. Work of women and children is expressed in terms of the number of men that would have bee;i required to do the same work. On the smallest farms, very little work was done by any one except the operator. On the farms of over 200 acres, the hired labor and labor by mei ibers of the family amounted to the time of one and one- thir-i men, or, counting the time of the farmer, these farms had the equivalent of 2.35 men. The farms of less than 30 acres had an average of 3.5 animal unii s per farm besides work horses. Those of over 200 acres had an average of 34.2 animal units besides work horses. The producing enterprises on most farms are the acres of crops grown and the animals other than horses. TABLE 34. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE USE OF LABOR. 670 FARMS, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE NUMBER OP ANIMAL ACRES OF ANIMAL UNITS ACRES EQUIVA- ACRES OP CROPS UNITS EXCEPT CROPS PER MAN EXCEPT HORSES WORK PER MAN HORSES 30 or less . 1.04 14 3.5 13 3 31-50 . . . 1.18 25 7.9 21 7 51-100 . . . 1.34 40 13.2 30 10 101-150 . . . 1.61 66 19.4 41 12 151-200 . . . 1.98 89 25.1 45 13 Over 200 ... 2.35 134 34.2 57 15 The acres of crops grown, the yields of these crops, the number of producing animals, and the production of these animals are a measure of the amount that is being accom- plished on a farm. The crop yields and the production of 264 DAIRY FARMING Much other work may be done, such as repairing machinery and buildings, taking care of work horses, mowing the lawn, and the like, but it is the productive work that limits the income. On farms in Jefferson County, New York, the average amount of productive work per man varied from 102 work units on the small farms to 294 on the largest farms. Each man on the largest farms is accomplishing nearly three times as much work as a man on the small farms. It must be remembered also that the crop yields and the returns per cow are as good on the larger farms. Each horse on the large farms is accomplishing twice as much as each horse on the small farms. The farms of less than 100 acres are very waste- ful of both man and horse labor. TABLE 37. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE USE OF HORSES. 1248 FARMS, JEFFERSON AND LIVINGSTON COUNTIES, NEW YORK ACRES NUMBER OF FARMS ACRES OP CROPS NUMBER OF HORSES ACRES OF CROPS PER HORSE 30 or less 31- 50 42 64 14.2 284 1.5 23 9.5 123 51-100 315 46.8 3.1 15 1 101-150 364 73 5 42 17 5 151-200 . 226 987 50 19 7 Over 200 237 152.8 7.2 21.2 226. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Horses. The discussion given above is the best way of com- paring horse labor. Another comparison is shown in Table 37. On the large farms, twice as many acres of crops are raised per horse as on the small farms. The average cost of keeping a horse, as shown by cost accounts, is about $100 to FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 265 $175 a year in different parts of the. United States. This includes feed, labor, depreciation, and all other costs. From tlnV the importance of the efficient use of horses is apparent. 227. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Machinery. The small farms are very inadequately equipped wit! i machinery, as is shown in Table 38. Even the TAI LE 38. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE USE OF MACHINERY. 1248 FARMS, LIVINGSTON AND JEFFER- SON COUNTIES, NEW YORK ACRES ACRES OF CROPS VALUE OP MACHINERY VALUE OP MACHINERY PER ACRE OP CROPS 30 or less 14.2 $141 $9.93 31 50 28.4 207 7.29 51 100 .... 46.8 426 9.10 101 150 73 5 497 6.76 151 200 . . . 98.7 613 6.21 Over 200 152 8 833 5.45 farms of over 200 acres have an investment in machinery of only $833. This represents machinery of all ages. Prob- ably the cost when new would be over twice as much, but even this sum will not provide all the well-established ma- chines, such as a grain-binder and manure-spreader for each farm. But, while the small farms are not well equipped, their machinery cost per acre of crops is almost double that on the larger farms. 228. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Capital. The small farm has relatively much more of its capital invested in unproductive ways than does the large farm. No matter how small the farm may be, the owner desires a respectable house. Table 39 shows that the small- 266 DAIRY FARMING est farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses ; the largest farms have somewhat better houses, but have only 9 per cent of their capital thus invested. TABLE 39. — AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BUILDINGS. FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK 578 ACRES VALUE OF HOUSES PER CENT OP TOTAL CAPITAL IN HOUSES VALUE OP OTHER BUILDINGS PER CENT OP TOTAL CAPITAL IN OTHER BUILDINGS VALUE OP OTHER BUILDINGS PER ANI- MAL UNIT 30 or less . . . $1494 43 $ 655 19 $164 31- 50 ... 1000 23 681 15 95 51-100 . . . 1236 18 1091 16 87 101-150 . . . 1477 14 1408 13 74 151-200 . . . 1810 13 1900 13 73 Over 200 . . . 2113 9 2552 11 50 The barns on the small farms also take a much larger proportion of the capital. The smallest farms have 19 per cent of their capital thus invested, the largest farms have only 11 per cent thus tied up. A barn for ten head of stock costs much more than half as much as an equally good barn for twenty head of stock. The smallest farms have an investment in barns of $164 per animal unit. The largest farms have only $50 per animal unit. Yet observations lead to the conclusion that the stock on the larger places is better housed. If interest, repairs, depreciation, and insurance on a building amount to 8 per cent of the value, then the housing cost per animal unit will vary .from $13 per year on the small- est farms to $4 per year on the largest. Similar results for the United States are shown in Table 40. These indicate, as for other points in this work, that the results are of general rather than local application. The FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 267 farms of less than 20 acres have 36 per cent of their capital invested in buildings and machinery. Those of 100 to 174 acr< s have only 17 per cent of the money thus invested, yet they have much better buildings and more machinery. Money thus employed not only is unproductive, but it is a soiree of constant cost for repairs. If a farmer had all his money invested in buildings and machinery, his income would, of course, be zero. In fact, he would not be a farmer at nil. TAILE 40. — AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BUILDINGS AND MACHINERY,. FOR UNITED STATES, 1909, FROM THE CENSUS REPORT ACRES VALUE OF BUILDINGS PER FARM PER CENT OF CAPI- TAL IN BUILDINGS VALUE OF MACHIN- ERY PER CENT OF CAPI- TAL IN MACHIN- ERY Umier 20 $ 605 34 $ 56 2.5 L!0- 49 .r»0- 99 474 848 21 19 76 156 2.8 3.1 100-174 175-499 500-999 1182 1734 2174 14 10 8 241 390 639 2.7 2.4 2.4 100(1 or over 3330 5 1196 1 0 229. Size of the Herd. In regions where very little ex- cept dairy products is sold, the number of cows kept is the best measure of the size of the business. Table 41 gives results from such a region in Jefferson County, New York, and shows that farmers who have herds of 20 or more cows are doing very much better than those who have smaller herds. In fact, the size of the herd is as important as the quality of the cows. The usual advice to sell the poorest cows and keep only the best ones should be changed to the more practical advice to replace the poorest cows by good 268 DAIRY FARMING ones, rather than leave half of the barn empty. A cow that is much too poor to keep may yet pay as well as an empty stanchion. Of course, if the farm has too many cows for its area, it will pay to sell the poorest ones and decrease the number. In regions like Jefferson County that are well adapted to dairying and not adapted to many other things, herds of 20 to 30 cows when kept on farms that are large enough for the herd, are usually more profitable than small herds. Of course the number of cows should not be increased out of proportion to the farm. On the other hand extremely large herds are a disadvantage because the farm family is ordinarily not able to do the work and too much labor must be hired. TABLE 41. — RELATION OF NUMBER OF Cows AND MILK SOLD PER Cow TO LABOR INCOME. 585 FARMS, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK MILK SOLD PER Cow NUMBER OF Cows 6-10 11-20 Over 20 Less than $50 . . . • . . $51-75 Labor Income $632 447 599 760 Labor Income $ 481 704 836 1054 Labor Income $1046 1093 1249 1959 76-100 ' . Over 100 230. Summary of Size of Dairy Farms. Unless a dairy farm keeps four or five horses, it cannot take advantage of the great economy in human labor that comes from the use of four-horse machinery. But each horse ought to raise 20 to 30 acres of crops so that this calls for 80 or more acres of crops. If 25 cows and young stock are kept, there will usually need to be 60 to 100 acres of pasture. This calls for 140 to 200 acres of land, a very common size FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 269 in most of the dairy regions of the United States. The aver- age size of farms among subscribers to Hoard's Dairyman was reported to be 167 acres. In some of the rich irrigated valLys the pastures and alfalfa 'are so productive that a considerably smaller area provides an equally large business. In some very fertile regions like Lancaster County, Pennsyl- vania, where very intensive crops are combined with dairying, a fai m of 60 to 80 acres represents as large a business as two or tiiree times this area in some regions. Kot every dairyman has money enough to buy a farm of the best size, but there are other ways of obtaining land. The usual steps in becoming a farm owner are : first, to work as a hired man ; then to become a tenant ; then own a mort- gag< d farm ; and finally pay off the mortgage. Only 36 per cent of the farmers in the United States own free from mort- gage all the land that they operate. If one who has too small .a farm knows how to farm and how to live economically, he will often find it profitable to go in debt to buy more land. A mortgage is not necessarily a bad thing. The im- portant point to consider is the use to which the borrowed money is put. It may not be wise to mortgage a farm for the purpose of buying an automobile, but it may be good business to mortgage it to buy additional cows or land that is needed. Another way of enlarging the farm is to rent additional land. There are half a million farmers in the United States who own part of the land that they operate, and who rent additional land. RETURNS PER Cow 231. Reasons for Poor Returns. No single factor is more important than the returns per cow (see Table 41). Low returns may be due to not having a good market for 270 DAIRY FARMING dairy products, or may be due to selling the wrong kind of product ; for instance, making butter in a region where there is a good demand for market milk at much better prices. Low returns may be due to keeping the wrong kind of cattle for the region or for the kind of product sold, or to poor production because of poor care or feed, or to having cows that are naturally not good ones. Before one can intelligently change his practice, he must find out to which of these causes his poor returns are due. The preceding chapters have given attention to feeding and to determining which are the cows that are naturally poor, so that nothing more need be said on these most vital points. Even in regions unfavorable for dairying there are usually some persons who make more money by combining dairying with their other farm work than they would make if they did not keep cows. Everywhere there must be cows enough to supply the fresh milk even if butter is shipped in. But in some regions the prices of products are low com- pared with feed prices and other costs. In such regions, a farmer who is only a fair dairyman may find that it pays best to keep only a few cows or possibly to keep only enough to supply products for home use. In some regions milk is sold by the quart at the same price regardless of the percentage of butter-fat. In such a region, herds that give a high test are at so great a disad- vantage that they cannot often be made to pay. Those who keep pure-bred cattle sometimes fail to make a profit because they select a breed that is not desired in the region. The best market for the surplus stock of the small breeder is nearly always in his neighborhood. He should raise the kind that is wanted. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 271 232. Costs and Returns must Both be Considered. No set standard can be given for the receipts that are necessary in 01 der to make a profit, because the costs of feed and labor are ^o variable in different regions- and on different farms in the ;• ame region. But many studies of this question have indicated that it is a fairly easy matter to obtain receipts per cow of a half more than the average for the region. Usually the :nost profitable farms in a region are doing as well as this. But increased costs must also be considered. It is not he return per cow, nor the cost, that is of most impor- tance, but the relation between the two. Sometimes the bett< r returns are obtained at too great cost. On the other hami, a dairy herd that produces less than the average some- times pays, because the farmer has reduced the cost of feed and labor to a still lower point. 233. For Good Returns the Poor Producers should be Promptly Sold. In one county in New York the farmers who obtained the best production per cow were doing the most buying and selling of cows. Those who obtained poor to fair returns were on the average replacing 1 cow in 23 by purchase, but those who obtained the best returns replaced one-seventh of the herd each year by purchase. Those who got the lowest production per cow replaced one- seventh of the herd each year by cows purchased or raised. Those who obtained good production replaced one-fifth, and those who got the best production replaced one-fourth each year. They disposed of poor cows and milked good cows whether they were home-raised or purchased. The essential point is not who raised the cow, but how much her milk is worth. 234. Size of Cows. As machines for changing feed into milk, large cows and small cows seem to be about equally 272 DAIRY FARMING effective. But the milk produced for a given amount of barn room and labor is also important. Of two animals that are equally efficient users of food, the larger animal is usually much more profitable. Table 42 gives the value of the milk and value of the feed for 355 cows in Wisconsin. TABLE 42. — RELATION OF SIZE OF Cows TO VALUE OF PRODUCT ABOVE FOOD CosT1 WEIGHT OF Cows AVERAGE WEIGHT NUMBER OP Cows POUNDS OP BUTTER- PAT VALUE OP PRODUCT VALUE OP FEED VALUE OF PRODUCT FOR $1 IN FEED VALUE OF PRODUCT ABOVE FOOD COST 900 and under 847 87 366.2 $114.52 $60.32 $1.90 $54.20 901-1000 952 82 417.8 131.22 69.86 1.88 61.36 1001-1 1DO 1071 53 447.8 142.56 76.28 1.87 66.28 1101-1200 1175 60 477.7 155.02 82.81 1.87 72.21 1201-1300 1276 31 506.2 163.52 91.51 1.79 72.01 1301-1400 1379 26 525.8 171.79 92.15 1.86 79.64 Over 1400 1556 16 566.6 184.61 96.60 1.91 88.01 It takes very little more barn room and very little more labor to care for large cows than it does for small ones. Medicine, veterinary fees, and many other expenses cost about the same for large as for small cows. These costs were found to be $25 per year in Minnesota, and $29 in New York (page 247). According to the figures in Table 42 a herd of 15 cows av- eraging 1276 pounds in weight would make more butter than 20 cows averaging 847 pounds. The saving on labor, barn room, and other fixed costs, would be about $125 per year 1 Data furnished by F. W. Woll, for cows whose records are reported in Wisconsin, Bulletin 226. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 273 by keeping the smaller number of large cows. Where the land is level, and particularly if hay or other roughage is abimdant, large cows are usually more profitable. Even if nnall ones are introduced the farmers usually change to large ones in time. Where the pastures are on steep, rocky hillsides small cows are better able to hold their pla< e. If pastures are very poor, the large cow is at a dis; id vantage. She needs more feed, but she is not able to valk so far as the small one. In the South where hea and insects are both serious enemies of the dairy business, nearly all of the cows kept are of the small active bre< ds. Records of 110 cows kept by the University of Nebraska showed that cows averaging 801 pounds in weight gave an average of 263 pounds of butter-fat, those weighing 1002 pouads gave 278 pounds of fat, and those averaging 1211 pounds produced 346 pounds of butter-fat. The production was in proportion to the size.1 Of course the vital point is production per cow. If one is buying a cow with a known record, it is the record that should be considered. A large cow that is a failure is a bigger failure than a small one that is a failure. The best success comes from keeping large cows that are also good for their size. When large numbers are considered, the production and feed consumption seem to be about in proportion to the size. The advantage of having large animals is in the saving of barn room and labor, just as there is an advantage in using a six-foot mower rather than a four-foot one. 1 Records of cows reported in Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 139. Cows sorted by average weights for the years reported, into three groups, 900 pounds or less, 901-1100 pounds, and over 1100 pounds. 274 DAIRY FARMING CROP YIELDS The returns from crops and costs of these crops have as much to do with the success of the farm as a whole as do the returns from the cows. It is not enough that the farmer be a good dairyman, he should be a good dairy farmer. Sometimes the farmer raises crops that are good for feed but cost too much to raise. More frequently the yields are not good enough to be profitable. 235. Soils for the Dairy Farm. Only under exceptional conditions does it pay to choose land that is not naturally productive. The farmer ordinarily raises all the hay and part of the grain for the cows. If he buys grain, he ought to have for sale some product other than milk that will more than pay the feed bill. It is usually difficult for a farmer who has poor land to succeed in competition with those who have good land. Occasionally, but not usually, the poor land is enough cheaper to make up for the difference in quality. The best dairy soils are loams and clay loams that grow grass well. The great dairy sections of the North are on soils that grow Kentucky blue-grass and white clover for pasture, clover or alfalfa hay, and corn. Dairy farms do not as a rule buy much chemical fertilizer. The farmers who get better crops than their neighbors are as a rule receiving greater profits than the average, but as in the case of good returns per cow, the returns are sometimes obtained by methods that are too costly. Sometimes poor crops are grown by such economical methods that they pay well. Many successful farmers have crops a fifth better than their neighbors grow. 236. The Well-balanced Farm. If a good-sized business, good cows, and good crops are three of the most important FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 275 fadors for success, then a farmer who excels in all three ought to do very well indeed. With rare exceptions this is the case. Table 43 gives the labor incomes on 585 farms. TAI LE 43. — RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM, RECEIPTS PER Cow, AND CROP YIELDS, TO LABOR INCOME ON 585 FARMS WITH Six OR MORE Cows, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES 100 or less 101-150 Over 150 Labor Income Labor Income Labor Income Receipts per cow $50 or less ( rop index 85 per cent or less $308 $ 273 $ 331 ( rop index 86—115 per cent 381 482 424 (rop index over 115 per cent 158 415 413 Receipts per cow $51-$75 (rop index 85 per cent or less 304 590 669 Crop index 86-115 per cent 437 653 1017 (rop index over 115 per cent - 537 636 1161 Receipts per cow over $75 Crop index 85 per cent or less 594 935 1233 Crop index 86-115 per cent 641 1038 1148 Crop index over 115 per cent 659 1124 1291 They are grouped as small, medium, and good-sized farms ; small, medium, and good returns per cow ; and small, medium, and good crop yields ; so that there are 27 different com- binations (crop index compares the crops with average crops as 100 per cent). A study of this table indicates that if the crops are wasted by being fed to cows that give very poor returns, the final result is poor, even with a good-sized farm and good crops. Medium cows and medium crops with a good-sized farm pay very much better than the best cows and crops on a small farm. Improvement in any one of the three points helps, but well-balanced improvement in all is best. A fourth important factor for success in dairy 276 DAIRY FARMING farming is the diversity of the business. It usually pays better to have cash crops or other products combined with the dairy. DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED" DAIRY FARMS 237. Relation of Cash Crops to Profits. As has previously been mentioned (page 229), farmers who combine cash crops or some other product with dairying, usually make more than do those who sell nothing but dairy products. The poorer the cows, or the lower the price of dairy products, the more important it is that crops be sold. But even with extra good returns per cow, those who sell some crops are usually doing better than those who sell no crops, as is shown in Table 44. The results here given are for a typical region in New York. In the corn-belt the most generally profitable type of dairy farming is to raise corn for sale or for hog feed in addition to raising feed for the cows. TABLE 44. — RELATION OF RECEIPTS PER Cow AND CASH CROPS TO PROFITS ON 585 FARMS WITH Six OR MORE Cows. JEF- FERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK PER CENT OF RECEIPTS PROM CROPS RECEIPTS P ER COW PROW ITS PRODUCTS MILK AND $50 or less $51-$75 Over $75 Labor Income $ 56 Labor Income $ 571 Labor Income $ 926 1—20 per cent 311 589 962 21-40 426 947 1183 41-60 .... 554 1366 i Over 60 ....... 599 i 2 Only two farms in this group. 2 No farms in this group. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 277 238. Relation of Capital to Amount of Stock Kept. The amount of capital must also be considered in determining how many cows to keep. Farmers who are short of capital usually keep less stock than do those who have more capital. TAHLE 45. — RELATION OF CAPITAL AND CASH CROPS TO PROFITS. 578 FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK Pi it CENT OF RECEIPTS FROM CROPS CAPITAL $5000 or less $5001- $15,000 Over $15,000 20 • >r less Labor Income $253 181 256 424 231 Labor Income $399 411 624 623 497 Labor Income $1000 1399 1038 1194 473 21- tO 41-70 71-90 . . Ov.r 90 Table 45 shows that with small capital those who depend largely on cash crops make the most, while with larger capital those who derive more of their money from live- stock are doing best. The exact capital groups will vary with different land values, but the principle is universal, that one who is short of capital should keep less stock than one who has more money. This is as one would expect. Live- stock represents added capital after one has bought and equipped his farm. If one is short of money, the absolutely essential things are land, machinery, and horses. One may get along without live-stock, but one cannot farm without land and equipment. The majority of farmers understand this principle. When they get more money, they increase the amount and improve the quality of their live-stock. For the young man with small capital it often pays to gradually work into pure-bred cattle. One can begin with 278 DAIRY FARMING a few moderate-priced pure-breds and, with a good bull, can gradually develop a good herd. Ordinary pure-breds can be improved just as grade cows can be improved. The advantage of the pure-breds is that after one has them im- proved, they are in greater demand for breeding purposes because they are recorded. 239. Acres per Animal Unit. Another way of comparing farms is on the basis of the number of acres of crops grown per animal unit kept. Results for one dairy region in New York are given in Table 46. The amount of stock that it pays to keep, of course, depends on the returns that one gets from it. With very poor returns, very little stock should be kept. The better the returns, the more heavily the place should be stocked. With good stock in the region here mentioned, it pays best to have an animal unit other than horses for each 3 to 4 acres of crops. The exact amount that it pays to keep will of course vary with different regions and on different farms, but nearly always it is best to have the place moderately well stocked rather than go to either extreme. TABLE 46. — RELATION OF ACRES OF CROPS PER ANIMAL AND RECEIPTS PER ANIMAL UNIT TO LABOR INCOME. 670 FARMS, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES OP CROPS PER ANIMAL UNIT RECEIPTS FOR EACH ANIMAL. UNIT EX- CEPT HORSES $50 or less $51-$75 Over $75 1 0-2 0 Labor Income $210 264 314 378 Labor Income $649 680 763 824 Labor Income $ 895 971 1053 914 2 1-3.0 3 1-40 Over 4 0 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 279 240. Reasons for Larger Profits on Diversified Farms. There are many reasons why it does not pay to go to the extreme either way. Ordinarily a man can raise feed for more cows than he can milk. If each man milks 10 to 15 Hcurs Distribution Man labor 800 400 Cattle Horses Manure Potatoes, 1912 Potatoes, 1913 Alfalfa, 1914 Cabbage 'Poultry Farm Personal Equipment FCG. 78. — Distribution of man labor on a highly successful diversified dairy farm, that kept 42 cows, 1 bull, 10 heifers, and 9 horses. The crops raised were potatoes 11 acres, corn for silo 19 acres, oats 44 acres, hay 102 acres, and cabbage 7 acres, besides starting crops for the next year. The cabbages, potatoes, and some of the hay were sold for more than enough to pay the entire feed and labor bills. cows, he can raise the hay and silage for these cows and part of the grain, and in addition will have time to raise hay, grain, potatoes, cabbage, or other crops for sale. If the cows are so poor, or prices of the product so low, that the cows do not pay a good price for their feed, it is of vital importance that 280 DAIRY FARMING cash crops be raised. Even if the cows are highly profitable, it may still pay to raise crops for sale, because these crops can be raised at very little additional cost. It might be suggested that more cows be kept to eat the additional crops, but this calls for more men, who in turn can raise additional crops. In regions where cash crops are not raised, the women usually help with the milking because the farmer can raise feed for more cows than he can milk, and it does not pay to keep a hired man unless there is full work for him. Women can milk and do housework between milkings. If the region is well adapted to crops, it pays better to employ men and have them do farm work between milkings. Figure 78, page 279, shows the distribution of labor on a very success- ful diversified dairy farm. The owners of this farm have followed the same system for three generations and have always been successful. If a farm is too heavily stocked, much feed will have to be purchased in a poor year or some of the stock must be sold. In such years feed is likely to be very high and stock cheap, so that whatever one does he is likely to lose. If a farm is too heavily stocked, the returns per ton of manure used will be low. The value of manure depends on how heavily it is applied. A light application usually gives better returns per ton of manure than does a heavy applica- tion, as shown on page 235. If one goes to the other extreme and keeps no animals or too few animals, he will not have a full year's work. Animals help to provide winter work, they provide work night and morning when the days are too short to allow a full day of field work. Notice how little winter work there would be for the farm shown in figure 78 if there were no cows and no manure hauling. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 281 ]\ lost farms have a considerable amount of low-grade hay mixed hay, and other products that do not have much market value or that are too bulky to pay to sell. At least enough stock should be kept to make use of these low-grade products. On many farms there is some land that will not pay for farming, but that will bring some income as pasture. Fanners who find cash crops very profitable often tend to keep too little live-stock. The more money one has and the more profitable his animals are, the nearer he should come to exclusive stock f an i ling, but it usually pays to sell at least one cash crop. In he corn-belt, corn marketed through the hog takes the pla( e of a cash crop. When little money is available and when stock pays poorly, one should keep fewer animals, but it usually pays to produce at least one kind of animal or animal product. It is desirable that a farm have two to foui important products for sale, and usually at least one should be an animal product, and at least one a cash crop. SOME SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARMS 241. A Successful Dairy and Hog Farm in Iowa. One can learn much by a study of successful farms, provided he is sure that the farm he is studying is really successful. A farm is a financial success when it pays interest on the capital invested and pays good wages to the operator. Some- times unimportant peculiarities of the farm are erroneously considered the cause of success. A systematic study of a number of farms will help to avoid this error. The record here given for an Iowa farm shows one of the best types of dairy farming for the corn-belt. (Data furnished by Professor H. B. Hunger, Iowa State College.) 282 DAIRY FARMING CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS 160 acres land . . April 1, 1913 $32,000 April 1, 1914 $32000 Machinery and tools 715 764 18 cows 4 heifers 2 calves 2000 1 bull 175 175 17 cows, 2 heifers, 11 calves .... 8 horses 2 colts . 1340 2440 7 horses, 3 colts 1360 5 ewes 35 18 brood sows, 26 other hogs and pigs . 19 brood sows, 40 other hogs and pigs . 100 chickens . 630 50 715 50 Feed and supplies 1079 1047 Cash to run farm 100 100 $38,124 $38,651 CROPS GROWN 1913 CROP ACRES TOTAL YIELD AMOUNT SOLD AMOUNT RECEIVED Corn 44 1990 bu. 150 $95 Corn for silo .... Oats .... 11 28 128 tons 1540 bu 600 198 Hay 15 19 tons In addition, there were 45 acres of rotated pasture and 17 acres of farmstead roads and waste land. Corn is raised for two years, followed by oats in which grass is seeded. The hay is left down two years, part for hay and part for pasture. RECEIPTS 3939 Ib. butter-fat @ 33^, skim-milk returned . . 12 cattle sold and 6 increase of inventory . . . Eggs 85 hogs sold and 15 increase of inventory . . . Horses sold and increase of inventory 150 bushels corn 600 bushels oats Outside labor Machine work $1300 755 30 1645 138 95 198 9 30 $4200 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 283 • FARM EXPENSES 1 man 12 months $ 344 1 man 1 month 40 Machinery and repairs cost above increase value . . 81 G rain feed 69 Horseshoeing 10 Breeding fees 20 Veterinary 20 Sfeds * 47 Twine 11 Tureshing 31 ft! achine work hired 13 F'lel for farm use 5 Insurance 25 Taxes 110 Si leep sold for less than inventory value 7 Decrease in feed on hand 32 $ 865 SUM MARY Receipts $4200 Expenses 865 Ircome from capital and operator's labor .... $ 3335 Ir terest on average capital $38,388 at 5% . . . . 1919 L;ibor income $ 1416 EFFICIENCY FACTORS Size Acres 160 Acres crops 98 Number cows 17| Number brood sows 18| Number men 2T1Z Number work horses 7| Number of productive man work units 620 Number of productive horse work units 435 Production Corn 45 bushels per acre Oats 55 bushels per acre Hay 1-J tons per acre Receipts per cow from butter-fat $74 Receipts per cattle unit $88 Pigs raised per sow 5.4 Diversity Three main sources of income — milk, cattle, and hogs 284 DAIRY FARMING Efficiency in use of labor Crop acres per man 47 Crop acres per horse 13 Work units per man 298 Work units per horse 58 Fertility Acres of crops, including rotated pasture per animal unit 3.6 The farm represents a good-sized business. It provides full work for two men (one besides the owner) and has enough crops to justify the use of four-horse teams and good machinery. The crop yields are excellent. The returns per cow are very good for milk sold to a creamery. The $74 per cow represents a production of 225 pounds of butter-fat per cow in addition to new milk for home use and for calves. The number of pigs per sow is good. The farm has three important products, — milk, cattle, and hogs. The corn raised for hog feed takes the place of the cash crops that are raised by the farm described on page 285 . The farmer has for five years used a pure-bred bull and now has ten pure-bred cows, so that cattle are a third im- portant source of income. The acres of crops raised per man and work units per man are very good. The efficiency in the use of horses is only fair. It is possible that the farm might pay a little better if fewer horses were kept. In short, the farm is a good-sized business, has good crops, good cows, good diversity, and uses man labor efficiently, and the place is carrying enough stock so that there is a good supply of manure. The farmer had a common school education. He worked as a hired man five years, then as tenant five years, after which he bought this farm and has been operating it four years. The efficiency factors given above when compared FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 285 with the averages for farms given in preceding tables, show how well the farm is managed. 242. A Successful Diversified Dairy Farm in New York. Thi,- farm is typical of the best general type of dairy farming for those portions of the Eastern States where intensive casl crops combine well with dairying. CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS BEGINNING OF YEAR END OP YEAR 211 icres of land ... ... $14000 $14000 Ma< hinery and tools 31 <• >ws 400 2480 400 2480 2 caives . 3 calves ... Ibull 20 45 30 80 5 horses 25 sieep 38 lambs 500 365 500 28 sieep, 43 lambs 411 75 dickens 50 50 Feer and supplies . ... 350 350 Cash to run farm 200 200 $18410 $18501 CROPS GROWN CROP ACRES TOTAL YIELD AMOUNT SOLD AMOUNT RECEIVED Corn for silo .... Wheat 10 11 120 tons 330 bu 310 bu $264 Oats 26 1006 bu. Timothy and clover hay Potatoes 55 12 83 tons 2400 bu. 2 tons 2025 bu. 25 1050 Apples Cabbage 2 1 40000 Ib. 36000 Ib. 145 In addition to the above there were 85 acres of permanent pasture and 9 acres of woods, farmstead, waste land, etc. 286 DAIRY FARMING RECEIPTS 264,837 Ib. milk $3449 Calves sold and increase inventory 290 Sheep, lambs, and wool 204 Eggs 106 310 bu. wheat 264 2 tons hay 25 2025 bu. potatoes 1050 Apples 145 $5533 FARM EXPENSES Labor $1100 Feed 511 Fertilizer 100 Seeds 53 Other expenses 260 $2024 SUMMARY Receipts $5533 Expenses 2024 Income from capital and operator's labor .... 3509 Interest on average capital $18,455 @ 5% . . . . 923 Labor income 2586 EFFICIENCY FACTORS Size Acres 211 Acres of crops 117 Number of cows 31 Number of men 3f Number of work horses 5 Number units productive man work 835 Number units productive horse work 431 Production Corn 12 tons Potatoes 200 bu. Oats 41 bu. Wheat 30 bu. Milk sold per cow 8543 Ib. Receipt per cow from milk $111 Receipt per cattle unit $112 Lambs raised per ewe 1.5 Receipts per ewe $8.16 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 287 • Diversity Two main sources of income — milk and potatoes — several other important things. Efficiency in use of labor Crop acres per man 32 Crop acres per horse 23 Work units per man 228 Work units per horse 86 Futility Acres of crops per animal unit 2.6 Fertilizers produced per acre of crops . . . $.85 Although this farm is a long distance from the preceding one its success has been due to the same factors. The farm is a good-sized business, the cows and crops are good, the farm combines dairying with cash crops. The only differ- ence is that the Iowa farm marketed its corn crop through hogs, while the New York farm raised a human food crop for direct sale. Instead of keeping hogs to eat up extra grain, the New York farm depends to a large extent on purchased grain. Each farm followed the best type of farming for its conditions. Because of the size and diversity of the business each man is accomplishing a large amount. The production per cow on this farm is unusually good. The farmer has been in the dairy business for many years and now has a herd of high grade and pure-bred Holsteins. The farmer began as a tenant and worked this farm many years on shares. Be- cause of his good-sized diversified business, with good pro- duction, he was able to save money and buy the farm. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What is the labor income for a farm on which the expenses amounted to $1028, the receipts $2524, and on which the capital was $20,247 ? 2. For a dairy farm in your region find the total area, area in each crop, number of each kind of animals, and number of men em- 288 DAIRY FARMING ployed. Calculate the units of productive man and horse work. Calculate the area of crops and units of productive work per man and per horse. Compare with farms of the same area in Tables 33-40. If each student bases his report on 'a different farm, the results may be compared. 3. To how many animal units is the stock on the above farm equal? (See p. 218.) How many acres of crops per animal unit? About what proportion of the manure is produced in the barn. How many tons would this probably make per year if it is all saved ? If the manure is well cared for, and if eight tons are applied per acre, how many years would it take to cover the entire farm? 4. What is the value of the barns on the above farm? How much is this per animal unit? Compare with Table 39. 5. Are conditions in your region naturally favorable for large or for small breeds of dairy cattle? 6. What things aside from dairy products are commonly sold from dairy farms in your region ? 7. As an average for the beginning and end of the year, how many animal units are there on the farm described on page 281 ? How many on the farm on page 285? 8. Compare the farms on pages 242 and 244 as to size of business, crop yields, returns per cow, work units per man and horse, and in other ways. 9. Compare each of the above farms as to efficiency in the use of men and horses with farms of the same area in Table 36. LABORATORY EXERCISES 36. Record of a Year's Business on a Farm. Arrange with some dairy farmer to allow the class to go to his farm and study his methods and obtain a record of his business for the past year, using Farmer's Bulletin 661 for taking the record. Later calculate the labor income and work, the efficiency factors, and compare with the farms described on pages 281 and 285. What are the strong points and what are the weak points of the farm? Each student should make a similar record and study of the farm on which he lives. COLLATERAL READING A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 661. Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 535-565. APPENDIX AI 'DRESSES OF CATTLE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS A nerican Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association, Charles Gray, Sec., Chicago, 111. A -rshire Breeders' Association, C. M. Winslow, Sec., Brandon, Vt. B -own Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, Ira Inman, Sec., Belo I, Wis. Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, E. J. Kir by, Sec., Covt rt, Mich. A nerican Galloway Breeders' Association, R. W. Brown, Sec., Carrollton, Mo. T'le American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Sec., Peteiboro, N.H. A nerican Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, R. J. Kinzer Sec., Kansas City, Mo. The Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, Sec., Brattleboro, Vt. The American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Sec., 324 West 23d St., New York City. Rod Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Sec., Gotham, Wis. American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, F. W. Harding, Sec., Chicago, 111. The Polled Durham Breeders' Association, J. H. Martz, Sec., Greenville, O. 289 290 APPENDIX SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1913 DAIRY TEMPERAMENT AND CONSTITUTION Head, 7. A. Medium size, lean ; face dished ; broad between eyes ; horns medium size, incurving 3 B. Eyes full and placid ; ears medium size, fine, carried alert ; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and muscular lips, jaw strong ..... Y . . ? * 4 Neck, 4. Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to head and shoulders 4 Body, 37. A. Shoulders light, good distance through from point to point, but thin at withers ; chest deep and full be- tween and just back of fore legs ...... 5 B. Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, with strong muscular development 10 C. Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal pro- cesses ; loins broad and strong 5 D. Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip bones to rump bones 6 E. Hip-bones high and wide apart , . . : . . . . , 3 F. Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for udder . .^ . . . 3 G. Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross in walking 2 H. Hide loose and mellow 2 7. Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting- on * .... 1 Udder, 26. A. Large size, flexible, and not fleshy 6 B. Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between teats 4 C. Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for- ward of front teats 10 Carry forward 68 APPENDIX 291 » Brought forward 68 D. Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up be- hind 6 Teat*, 8. Of good and uniform length and size, regularly placed . 8 MiU- Veins, 4. Large, long, tortuous, and elastic, entering large and numerous orifices ...... 4 Size. 4. Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4 Gen\ rat Appearance, 10. A. symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor- tioning of parts to each other, depending on size of animal, with the general appearance of a high-class animal, with capacity for food and productiveness at pail . . . 10 100 SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW Adopted by Ayrshire Breeders' Association, 1906 Head, 10. Forehead — Broad and clearly defined 1 Horns — Wide set on and inclining upward 1 Pace — Of medium length, slightly dished, clean-cut, showing veins 2 Muzzle — Broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils large 1 Jaws — Wide at the base and strong 1 Eyes — Full and bright with placid expression ... 3 Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert .... 1 Neck, 3. Pine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3 Fore Quarters, 10. Shoulders — Light, good distance through from point to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body 2 Chest — Low, deep, and full between and back of fore- legs _6 Carry forward 21 292 APPENDIX Brought forward 21 Brisket — Light 1 Legs and Feet — Legs straight and short, well apart, shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size, round, solid, and deep 1 Body, 13. Back — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open jointed 4 Loin — Broad, strong, and level . 2 Ribs — Long, broad, wide apart, and well sprung . . 3 Abdomen — Capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong muscular development '. 3 Flank — Thin and arching 1 Hind Quarters, 11. Rump — Wide, level, and long from hooks to pin bones, a reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3 Hooks — Wide apart and not projecting above back nor unduly overlaid with fat 2 Pin Bones — High and wide apart 1 Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart 2 Tail — Long, fine, set on a level with the back .... 1 Legs and Feet — Legs strong, short, straight when viewed from behind and set well apart ; shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size, round, solid, and deep 2 Udder, 22. Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy ; . firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind and far forward ; quarters even ; sole nearly level and not indented between teats, udder veins well developed and plainly visible 22 Teats, 8. Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to one-third the length ; length 1\ to 3| inches, thickness in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular, and not tapering 8 Mammary Veins, 5. Large, long, tortuous, branching, and entering large orifices 5 Carry forward 82 APPENDIX 293 Brought forward 82 Escutcheon, 2. ] )istinctly defined, spreading over thighs and extending well upward 2 Color 2. I ted of any shade, brown, or these with white ; mahog- any and white, or white ; each color distinctly denned. (Brindle markings allowed, but not desirable) .... 2 Cover '.rig, 6. !• kin — Of medium thickness, mellow, and elastic ... 3 I [air — Soft and fine 2 Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color ... 1 Style. 4. Alert, vigorous, showing strong character, temperament inclined to nervousness, but still docile 4 Weignt, 4. A /eight at maturity not less than one thousand pounds 4 Total 100 SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COW Adopted by Guernsey Cattle Club Dairy Temperament Constitution, 38. ( 'lean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ; wide muzzle with wide-open nostrils ; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle expression ; forehead long and broad: . . 5 Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head ; clean throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ; large rugged spinal processes, indicating good devel- opment of the spinal cord 5 Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, strong struc- ture of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with good switch. Thin, incurving thighs 5 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open, relaxed conformation ; thin arching flanks . . 5 A.bdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel development, indicative of capacity and vitality . . 15 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but not thick • 3 Carry forward 38 294 APPENDIX Brought forward 38 Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow, 10. Escutcheon wide on thighs ; high and broad, with thighs oval 2 Milk veins long, crooked, branching, and prominent, with large or deep wells 8 Udder Formation, 26. Udder full in front 8 Udder full and well up behind 8 Udder of large size and capacity 4 Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and even size . . . 6 Indicating Color of Milk, 15. Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of horns, on udder, teats, and body generally. Hoof, amber-colored . . . . 15 Milking Marks Denoting Quality of Flow, 6. Udder showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty 6 Symmetry and Size, 5. Color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white markings. Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved, and not coarse 3 Size for the breed : mature cows, four years old or over about 1050 pounds 2 100 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine in contour 2 Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing ...... 2 Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under the eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2 Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1 Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and soft ; the secretion oily and abundant ...... i 1 Eyes — Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2 Horns — Small ; tapering finely towards the tips ; set modera- ately narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent inward ; of fine texture ; in appearance waxy . . . . 1 Carry forward 11 APPENDIX 295 Brought forward 11 Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free from dewlap ; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4 Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips; fine and even over oops ; moderately broad and full at sides 3 Ches: — Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth and moder- ately full in the brisket, full in the fore flanks (or through fche heart) 6 Croi-s — Moderately full 2 Chit e — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open vertebrae 6 Barrel — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age must be considered) 7 Loif and Hips — Broad ; level or nearly level between the hook bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from chine broadly and nearly level ; hook bones fairly promi- nent 6 Run p — Long ; high ; broad with roomy pelvis ; nearly level laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of tail 6 Thu -I — High, broad 3 Quarters — Deep ; straight behind ; twist filled with develop- ment of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4 Fla?< ks — Deep ; comparatively full 2 Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly straight ; wide apart ; firmly and squarely set under the body ; feet of medium size, round, solid, and deep 4 Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely to switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ; the switch full 2 Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance ; fine, soft, and furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow under the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant, and of a rich brown or yellow color 8 Mammary Veins — Very large ; very crooked (age must be taken into consideration in judging of size and crooked- ness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices ; double extension ; with special developments, such as branches, connections, etc 10 Carry forward 84 296 APPENDIX Brought forward Udder and Teats — Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters even ; nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, extending well forward in front ; broad and well held up Teats — Well formed ; wide apart, plump, and of convenient size Escutcheon — Largest ; finest . . . TABLE 47. — IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 84 12 2 2 100 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1912 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1913 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1914 Amount Value Amount Value Amount Value Imports Butter, pounds . Cheese, pounds Cream, gallons . Milk .... Total . . . Exports Butter, pounds . Cheese, pounds Condensed milk, pounds . . . Other milk and cream . . . Total . . . 1,025,668 46,542,007 1,120,427 $237,154 8,807,249 923,779 61,671 1,162,253 49,387,944 1,247,083 $304,094 9,185,184 1,068,109 135,724 7,842,022 63,784,313 1,773,152 $1,753,461 11,010,693 1,549,549 1,089,440 6,092,235 6,337,560 20,642,738 10,029,853 1,468,432 898,035 1,651,879 244,913 3,585,600 2,599,058 16,525,918 10,693,107 872,804 441,186 1,432,848 474,055 3,693,597 2,427,577 16,209,082 15,403,143 877,453 414,124 1,341,140 333,217 4,263,259 3,220,893 2,965,934 NOTES FOR TABLE 48, ON PAGE 297 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1913, p. 487. No state standards. Federal rulings adopted. Percentage of fat based on total solids. Fat, 7.8 per cent ; total solids plus fat, 34.3 per cent. For butter making, 25 per cent fat. This standard for sweetened condensed milk: "Evaporated milk," solids, 24 per cent ; fat, 7.8 per cent. 8 No report ; 1910 standard given. 9 By weight. 10 Not more than 0.2 per cent " filler." 11 Must correspond to 11.5 per cent solids in crude milk. 12 If artifically colored. 13 Must correspond to 12 per cent solids in crude milk. • 14 23-24 per cent solids, 7.9 per cent fat ; 24-25 per cent solids, 7.8 per cent fat ; 25-26 per cent solids, 7.7 per cent fat ; 26 per cent solids, 7.6 per cent fat. 16 In May and June, solids 12 per cent. 16 Fat, 27.5 per cent of total solids. APPENDIX 297 TABLE 48. — LEGAL STANDARDS FOB DAIRY PRODUCTS1 f § •fc MILK W X CONDENSED MILK K ^ li % s a P§ ^ X £r X H STATE a i u o 1 < U £ 3 p """ D3 a J B « to o ffl P^U hnCi- k^fe- » ! 33 il _ 03 3| £1 o o 02 a 03 si £ 1 03 P&l H£ 1 03 1 Per Per Per 1 Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Alal ama 2 . . . . Ariz ma 2 . . . . Ark: nsas 3 . Call ornia .... 11.5 8.5 3.0 8.8 18.0 80.0 504 (5) (5) 12 Coli rado .... 3.0 16.06 80.0 504 14 12 Co iccticut . 11.75 8.5 3.25 16.0 Del: ware 2 . . . . Dis 'ict of Columbia 12.5 9.0 3.5 9.3 20.0 83.0 Flo. da .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50 4 28.0 7 7.77 12 Geo gia .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 504 28.0 27.66 4 14 12 Havaii* .... 11.5 8.5 3.0 !28.0 7.7 Ida! o 11.2 8.0 3.2 9.3 18.0 82.5 30 (5) 14 12 Illii )is . . . . . 11.5 8.5 3.0 9.25 18.0 82.5 504 (5) (5) >8 In 1 ma 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 SO4 28.0 27.54 8 low , 12 0 3.0 16.0 on O 9 12 1L75 $.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 6 80.0 504 (5) (5) 14 12 Kei ucky '.'.'] 12.5 8.5 3.25 9 25 18.0 82.5' SO* 28.0 27.66 4 14 12 Lou siana .... 8.5 3.5 8.0 18.0 (i>) fo\ Maiie 11.75 8.5 3.25 18.0 Ma \'Iand 12.5 3.5 9.25 18.0 (5) (&) 4 6 Ma.-sachusetts 12.15 3.35 9.3 15.0 Mic ligan .... 12.5 3.0 12 Min lesota . . 13.0 9.75 3.25 20.0 454 fb\ fb\ 12 Mis- issippi 2 . Mis-ouri .... 12.0 8.75 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 SO4 28.0 7.76 14 Moi tana .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 20.0 82.5 SO4 14 Nebraska .... 3.0 18.0 14 12 New Hampshire 12.0 8.5 18.0 80.0 14 10 New Jersey . . 11.5 3.0 16.0 New Mexico - Ne York . . . 11.5 3.0 18.0 (ii) 25.04 Ne ada . . . . i 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50 4 26.5 7.8 14 No ch Carolina . . 11.5 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 504 28.0 27.54 14 12 No Gh Dakota . . j 12.0 9.0 3.0 15.0 14 Oh , 12.0 3.0 180.012 (13) 25.04 Oklahoma . . . 12.51 9.5 3.0 18.0 181.5 14 Oregon .... 9.0 3.2 20.0 30 (14) (14) 12 Pennsylvania 12.0 3.25 18.0 32 8 6 Por ,o Rico . . . 12.0 9.0 3.0 Rhode Island . . . 12.0 2.5 Souih Carolina 2 . South Dakota . . 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 80.0 504 28.0 27.54 14 ]2 Tennessee 8.5 3.50 Texas . . 8.5 3.25 Utah ..... 12.0 9.0 3.2 9.0 18.0 80.0 SO4 (5) (5) 14 12 Vermont .... 12.5 » 9.25 Virginia . . . . i 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 (5) (5) 8 Washington . . . i 12.0 8.75 3.25 9.3 18.0 30 West Virginia 2 . . Wisconsin ... 8.5 3.0 9.0 18.0 82.5 SO4 28.0 8.0 14 Wyoming .... 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 SO4 28.0 (16) 14 12 298 APPENDIX TABLE 49. — AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS WATER ASH PROTEIN SUGAR FAT Skim-milk, gravity . . Skim-milk, separator . Buttermilk .... Whey . 89.88 90.60 91.24 9304 .77 .78 .70 42 3.54 3.57 3.50 084 4.91 4.95 4.00 534 0.90 0.10 0.56 036 TABLE 50. — AVERAGE WEIGHTS PRODUCT WEIGHT IN POUNDS PER QUART Average milk 20 per cent cream 25 per cent cream 30 per cent cream 40 per cent cream 50 per cent cream 2.15 2.10 2.09 2.08 2.01 1.97 THE HAECKER FEEDING STANDARD The feeding standard formulated by Prof. T. L. Haecker of the Minnesota Experiment Station 2 has found consider- able favor especially in the Middle West. This standard is based upon a long series of investigations concerning the requirements for maintenance and for the production of milk of varying richness. This standard has recently been modified by Savage in the direction of simplicity in form and some increase in the nutrients. This standard makes use of the total digestible nutrients and does not exclude the amide nitrogen as is done by Armsby. 1 Calculated from the specific gravity of cream as given by Farrington and Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, 20th edition, p. 77. 2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 79, 130, 140. APPENDIX 299 This accounts mostly for the difference in protein require- ment and the larger amount of protein in the various feed- stuffs as shown in the table. This standard as modified by Savage is expressed in terms of digestible protein and total nutriment. The term " total nut < inien t " is applied to the sum of the digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, arid the fat. The latter is multiplied by 2.25 to convert into its carbohydrate equiva- lent . The maintenance requirement is stated for each 100 pounds live weight, and the amount necessary for the animal in ( uestion is then found by calculation, taking the weight of 1 he animal into account. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN POUNDS TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIMENT, POUNDS Per 100 Ib. live weight .070 .79 For One Pound of Milk PER CENT FAT DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN POUNDS TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIMENT, POUNDS 3.0 .057 .29 3.5 .061 .32 4.0 .065 .35 4.5 .069 .38 5.0 .073 .41 5.5 .077 .43 6.0 .081 .46 6.5 .085 .49 In using this standard the same plan of calculation is followed as explained for the Armsby standard. The main- 300 APPENDIX tenance requirement is first calculated, taking into account the size of the animal. To this is added the amount neces- sary to produce the milk, taking into account the amount and richness. For example, let it be assumed the problem is to calculate the ration for a 1150-pound cow producing 30 pounds of 4.5 per cent milk daily. According to the pre- ceding statements the requirements would be as follows : DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN POUNDS TOTAL NUTRIMENT Maintenance 1150 Ib. 30 Ib. 4.5% milk . . (.070 X 11.5) .81 (30 x .069) 2.07 (.79 X 11.5) 9.09 (30 X 38) 11.40 Total 2.88 2049 The ration to be fed will then be selected and calculated using the average composition of feeds as given in Table 51, making such changes and modifications as are seen to be necessary in order to bring the composition of the ration reasonably close to the standard. TABLE 51. — DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN AND TOTAL NUTRIMENT PER 100 POUNDS l TOTAL DRY MATTER DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TOTAL NUTRIMENT Concentrates. Corn 89.4 7.8 84.3 Swggt Corn 91 2 8.8 88.3 Corn-and-cob Meal . . 84.9 4.4 70.9 Gluten Feed .... 90.8 21.3 80.6 Gluten Meal . . 90.5 29.7 85.9 Hominy Feed (chops) 90.4 6.8 83.9 Germ Oil Meal .... 91.4 15.8 78.8 1 This table is adapted from Henry's " Feeds and Feeding," 10th edition, p. 582, APPENDIX 301 TOTAL DRY MATTER DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TOTAL NUTRIMENT C< >rn Bran 90.6 Wheat 89.5 R. 'd-dog Flour .... 90.1 W heat Middlings . . . 88.8 Wheat Bran ..... 88.1, Re ....'... 91.3 R ^e Middlings .... 88.2 R -e Bran 88.4 Barley 89.2 O.-.ts 89.6 Oatmeal 92.1 O. ,t Middlings .... 91.2 O.-.t Hulls 92.6 B ickwheat 86.6 B ickwheat Middlings . 87.2 B ickwheat Hulls . . . 86.8 Rice. 87.6 C; ,nada Field Pea . . . 85.0 C'wpea 85.4 Srybean 88.3 Kafir Corn 90.1 Linseed Meal .... 90.2 Cottonseed . ... . . 89.7 Cottonseed Meal . . . 93.0 Cottonseed Hulls . 88.9 Factory By-products. Dried Brewers' Grains Wet Brewers' Grains . Malt Sprouts . . . Dried Distillers' Grain Wet Beet Pulp . . . Dried Beet Pulp . . Sugar-beet Molasses . Silag;e. Corn Sorghum Red Clover . . . . Soybean Cowpea Vine . . . 91.3 23. 90.5 92.4 10.2 91.6 79.2 26.4 23.9 28.0 25.8 20.7 6. 8.8 16.2 13. 11.9 9.5 11. 11.2 8.4 10.7 11.9 13.1 1.3 8.1 22.7 1.2 6.4 19.7 16.8 29.1 5.2 30.2 12.5 37.6 .3 20.0 4.9 20.3 22.8 .5 4.1 4.7 1.4 0.1 1.5 2.7 1.5 69.2 79.7 80.8 68.8 59.5 81.6 69.7 62.0 77.3 69.5 92.0 85.4 41.2 61.7 73.7 30.9 86.5 69.9 74.2 85.2 52.6 77.7 81.4 80.6 37.3 65.7 16.3 69.4 88.6 8.2 69.0 58.8 17.2 14.1 11.8 15.2 12.1 302 APPENDIX TOTAL DRY MATTER DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TOTAL NUTRIMENT Dried Roughage. Fodder Corn with Ears . Corn Stover, Ears removed Timothy 57.8 59.5 86.8 2.5 1.4 28 39.8 34.2 48 1 Orchard Grass .... Redtop 90.1 91 1 4.9 '48 50.4 539 Kentucky Bluegrass . . Bermuda Grass . . . Johnson Grass .... Barley 86.0 92.9 89.8 850 4.4 6.4 2.9 57 46.2 54.9 50.3 51 6 Oat .... 860 47 452 Hungarian Grass . . . Prairie Grass .... Buffalo Grass .... Hay from Legumes and Mixed Legumes and Grasses. Red Clover 86.0 90.8 85.0 847 5.0 3.0 3.0 7 1 54.4 49.5 48.6 48 9 Alsike Clover .... Crimson Clover . . . Sweet Clover .... Soybean 90.3 90.4 92.1 88.2 8.4 10.5 11.9 106 50.6 48.1 49.7 542 Cowpea 895 13 1 49 1 Alfalfa (western U. S.) . Hairy (winter) Vetch Peanut Vine .... Oat and Pea .... Mixed Grasses and Clover Straw and Chaff. Wheat 93.2 88.7 92.4 89.5 87.1 904 11.1 11.9 6.7 7.6 5.8 8 51.5 56.2 55.6 52.4 50.5 369 Rye 92.9 .7 41 2 Oat 908 1 3 426 Barley 85.8 9 423 Buckwheat 90 1 1 2 397 Fresh Green Roughage. Green Corn and Sorghum- forage. APPENDIX 303 TOTAL DRY MATTER DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TOTAL NUTRIMENT Fo< Ider, Corn, all Varieties 20.7 1.0 13.8 S\v ^et Varieties .... 20.9 1.2 14.7 Fr< sh Green Grasses . Pa ;ture Grass .... 20. • 2.5 13.7 K< itucky Blue-grass . 34.9 2.8 24.2 Tii lothy 38.4 1.5 22.7 Or hard Grass .... 27.0 1.2 15.7 R( Itop in bloom 34.7 1.9 24.3 W! eat Forage .... 22.7 1.7 14.6 R\ •-': Forage 23.4 2.1 17.1 Oa Forage, in Milk . . 37.8 2.5 22.9 Ba -ley Forage .... 21.0 1.9 12.9 Jol nson Grass .... 25.0 .6 14.7 Be muda Grass . . . 28.3 1.3 15.6 Co nmon Millet . . . 20.0 0.8 12.3 Fresl Green Legumes, Grasses and .Legumes ( Combined. Re. 1 Clover 29.2 2.9 19.3 Als ke Clover .... 25.2 2.6 15.1 Cri nson Clover . . . 19.1 2.4 12.6 Sweet Clover .... 20.0 2.5 11.8 Alf.ilfa 28.2 3.6 16.6 Cowpea 16.4 1.8 11.0 803 bean 24.9 3.1 15.2 Canada Field-pea . . . 15.3 1.8 9.4 Roots and Tubers. Potatoes 20.9 1.1 17.0 Common Beet .... 11.5 1.2 9.3 Mangel 9.1 1.0 7.0 Sugar Beet .... 13.5 1.3 11.3 Flat Turnip 9.9 .9 7.5 Carrot . . 11.4 .8 9.2 Ru abao'a 11.4 1.0 9.5 Miscellaneous. Dwarf Essex Rape . . 14.3 2.0 10.6 Cabbage < 10.0 2.3 8.4 Field Pumpkins . . . 9.1 1.0 7.3 304 APPENDIX WING'S METHOD OF BALANCING RATIONS A short method of balancing rations devised by H. H. Wing is practical and convenient. He divides the ordniary grains into three groups : low pro- tein (less than 12 per cent) ; medium protein (12 to 25 per cent) ; high protein (over 25 per cent). The figures given in the table are for the total and not the digestible protein. TABLE 52. — WING'S METHOD OF BALANCING RATIONS Low PROTEIN GROUP Total Protein 12% or less MEDIUM PROTEIN GROUP Total Protein 12% to 25% HIGH PROTEIN GROUP Total Protein 25% or more Corn 10.3 Oats 11 4 Wheat bran . . . 15.4 Mixed wheat feed 16 3 Malt sprouts .... 26.3 Linseed oil meal 33 9 Wheat 11.9 Rye . 11 3 Wheat middlings . 16.9 Cottonseed feed . 20.0 Cottonseed meal . . . 45.3 Gluten feed 25 0 Barley 12.0 Buckwheat . . . 10.8 Buckwheat feed . 18.3 Pea meal .... 20.2 Brewers' dried grains . 25.0 Distillers' dried grains (corn) 31 2 Hominy chop . . 10.5 Dried beet pulp . 8.1 Corn-and-cob meal 8.5 Cull beans . . .21.6 Buckwheat middlings . 26.7 Mixed hay, corn silage, and corn fodder are very similar in composition as far as the relation between the protein and carbohydrates is concerned. When roughage of this class is used, a grain mixture made by mixing equal parts by weight of one from each of the three groups will make a well- balanced ration. A dairy cow in full flow of milk should receive all the hay and silage she will eat and the grain mix- ture at the rate of one pound for each 3 or 3£ pounds of milk that she produces, if this milk be about the average composition of 4, percent. If the milk contains 3 to 3.5 percent fat, 1 pound grain to 4 pounds of milk is sufficient. If alfalfa hay is used the high protein feed is not necessary. APPENDIX 305 TAI.LE 53. — AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT FEEDING-STUFFS FEEDING STUFF Pounds Barley meal 1.1 Barley, whole 1.5 Bre\vers' dried grains • 0.6 Coru-and-cob meal 1.4 Coi n-and-oat feed 0.7 Coi n bran 0.5 Corn, meal 1.5 Corn, whole 1.7 Col tonseed meal 1.5 Distillers' grains, dried .... 0.5-0.7 Germ, oil meal 1.4 Glu ten feed 1.3 Gluten meal 1.7 Hoi liny meal 1.1 Linseed meal, new process . . . 0.9 Lin eed meal, old process ... 1.1 Malt sprouts 0.6 Oat ^ ground 0.7 Oat;, whole 1.0 Rye bran 0.6 Rye meal 1.5 Rye, whole 1.7 Wh( at bran . - 0.5 Wheat, ground 1.7 Wheat middlings (flour) .... 1.2 Wht at middlings (standard) ... 0.8 Wheat, whole 2.0 ONE QUART WEIGHS ONE POUND MEASURES Quarts 0.9 0.7 1.7 0.7 1.4 2.0 0.7 0.6 0.7 1.0-1.4 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.7 1.4 1.0 1.8 0.7 0.6 2.0 0.6 0.8 1.3 0.5 RULES FOR MEASURING FEED Measuring Grain. A bushel of grain contains approxi- mately f cubic feet. To find the capacity of a bin, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by -f, or multiply by 8 and divide by 10. Measuring Ear Corn. Two bushels of ears are ordinarily required to make one bushel of grain. To find the capacity 1 U. S. 'Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 222. 306 APPENDIX of a crib, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by f, or multiply by 4 and divide by 10. Seventy pounds of ear corn is ordinarily called a bushel. Measuring Straw. Few weights of straw have been re- ported. The writer measured and weighed two barns full of settled wheat straw. The mows were 14 feet deep, 1200 cubic feet were required for one ton. Measuring Hay. Some kinds of hay are heavier than others. The deeper the mow or stack and the longer it has stood, the heavier the hay is per cubic foot. Of course the bottom of a mow is much heavier than the top. Usually about 500 cubic feet of settled hay are counted as one ton. A barn 30 X 60 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of the plate, and having the peak 9 feet above the plate, was filled as full as possible with timothy hay and refilled after a few days. This hay was baled by the writer about five months later. It weighed 51^ tons. On another year it weighed 51 tons. A barn 30 X 42 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of plate, with peak 9 feet above the plate, was similarly filled, and baled out 32.75 tons. Capacity of Silos. King gives the weight of a cubic foot of silage at different depths two days after filling, as follows : 1 DEPTH WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT AVERAGE WEIGHT TO THIS DEPTH Feet 1 Pounds 19 Pounds 19 10 33 26 20 46 33 30 56 40 36 61 43 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 59. INDEX Abi rdeen-Angus, 37. Ab< rtion, 155. Ad anced registry, 64, 133. A£< and production, 66. Alf.-.lfa, 106, 224. Aii;:nal unit, defined, 218. ;i >res per, 278. Asl , 95. As.- >ciations, breeders, 289. c >w-testing, 61. Ay,' shire, 27. no. registered, 17. Ba! cock milk test, 58, 196. Bal meed rations, 97, 131, 298, Bai as, 82, 139. c< ,sts of, 147, 266. Bee', breeds, 37. fiom dairy cattle, 5, 20. Bee; pulp and molasses, 109. Biti er milk, 88. Blarkleg, 163. Bloot, 162. Blo( .dy milk, 87. Breeders' associations, 289. Breeds, beef, 14, 37. classification of, 14. dairy, 14. dual purpose, 14, 31. milk of various, 173. origin of, 12. production of various, 42, 66. selection of, 40. Brewers' grains, 109. Brown Swiss, 30. Bull, management of, 91. selection of, 69. Butter, ash in, 2. compared with beef, 2. energy in, 2. imports and exports, 296. legal standards, 297. making, 182. 304. .prices by months, 217. production per capita, 4. protein in, 2. regions of production, 209. season of production, 215. Butter-fat, 59, 196. factors affecting amount of, 172. Buttermilk, composition of, 298. Calf raising, 112. scours, 160. Calving, care at, 90. Canada pea, 106. Capital and amount of stock, 277. Cattle, origin of, 12. Centralizer, 192. Certified milk, 181. Cheese, ash in, 2. compared with beef, 2. energy in, 2. imports and exports, 296. legal standards, 297. making, 192. production per capita, 4. protein in, 2. regions of production, 209, 211. season of production, 215, 216. Churning, 187. Climate, 203, 215. Clover, 106, 224. Condensed milk, 193. imports and exports, 296. Condimental feeds, 111. Corn, 107. silage, 107, 221. stover, 106. Corn-stalk disease, 165. Costs of production, 246. Cottonseed meal, 108. Cows, compared with other animals, 7. numbers of, 6. size of, 271. 307 308 INDEX Cowpea, 106, 224. Cowpox, 162. cow-testing associations, 61. Cream, imports and exports, 296. legal standards, 297. separation, 185. weight of, 298. Creameries, 191. Crimson clover, 106. Crop rotations, 225. yields, 274. acres per horse, 264. acres per man, 261. cash, 227, 276. Cropping systems, 225. Crossbreeding, 13, 74. Crude fiber, 95. Dairy products, receipts from, 10. Dehorning, 81. Devon, 36. Diversified farming, 227, 276, 279. Drenching a cow, 152. Drying up a cow, 89, 124. Dual purpose, 14, 31. Dutch Belted, 30. Ether extract, 95. Feeding standards, 97, 298, 304. Feeds, 104, 300, 304, 305. condimental, 111. costs of, 246. digestibility, 96. effect on milk, 176. energy in, 104. mixed, 110. production values of, 96. returned in manure, 231. uses of, 94. weights of, 305. Fertility of feed in manure, 231. Flies, 79. Floors of barns, 141. Galloway, 38. Garget, 158. Gluten, 109. Grade, defined, 13. Guernsey, 24. no. registered, 17. Gutters, 144. Haecker feeding standard, 298. Hay, weight of, 306. Heifers, feeding, 120. cost of raising, 250. Hereford, 37. Holstein, 17. Ice cream, legal standards, 297. Inflammation of the udder, 158. Jersey, 21. number registered, 17. Kaffir poisoning, 164. Kerry, 30. Kicking cows, 88. Labor costs, 246, 248. Labor income, 259. Legal standards, 297. Legumes, 106, 224. Lice, 161. Light for barns, 140. Linseed meal, 109. Maintenance requirements, 299. Mangers, 144. Manure, 9, 230. amount produced, 230. application of, 235. losses of, 232. value of, 231, 234. Marketing, 253. Marking cattle, 82. Meat from dairy cattle, 5, 20. Milk, ash in, 2. bitter, 88. certified, 181. color of, 171. compared with beef, 2. composition of, 168. condensed, 193. consumed per capita, 4. cost of, 246. energy in, 2. fever, 153. flour, 194. from different animals, 172. inspection, 5. INDEX 309 lejral standards, 297. prices by months, 217. rec ords, 58. sanitary, 177. substitutes, 117. su-ar, 170. te-ting, 59, 196. va ue as food, 1. ve;ns, 51. w( ight of, 298. wells, 51. Mill- ing, methods of, 83, 84. rn ichines, 86. Mix. d feeds, 110. Mol sses, 109. Niti >gen-free extract, 95. Oat>. 108. Oil i leal, 109. Pasi are, 126, 224. feeding grain on, 127. Pedigrees, 15. Poll d Durham, 34. Population of the United States, 3. Pro( Auction values of feeds, 96. Prof ts, factors affecting, 258. Prolein, 95. Pul-o, normal, 150. Pun bred, defined, 13. Rations, calculating, 100. Red Polled, 34. Registry, advanced, 64. number of animals in, 17. Renting dairy farms, 240. Respiration, normal, 151. Rotations, crop, 225. Salt, 123. Sanitary milk, 177. Score cards, 53, 77, 290. Scours, 160. Selection, individual, 42. of a breed, 40. of a bull, 69. Shelter, 82. Shorthorn, 32. Silage, 107, 221. Silo, capacity of, 306. Skim-milk, composition of, 298. for calves, 112. value as food, 2, 254. Soiling crops, 223. Soils for dairying, 274. Sorghum poisoning, 164. Stalls, 144. Stanchions, 145. Straw, weight of, 306. Strippings, 176. Successful farms, 242, 281. Succulent feed, 132. Teats, chapped, 88. leaky, 87. Temperature, normal, 151. Tenure of dairy farms, 240. Ties, 145. Timothy hay, 106. Topography, 203. Transportation and dairying, 208. Tuberculosis, 156. Udder, 50. inflammation of, 158. Variations, extent of, 44. Veal production, 119. Ventilation, 146. Vetch, 106, 224. Water for cows, 125. in feed, 95. Weights of feeds, 305. Wheat bran, 107. middlings, 108. Whey, 298. Wing's feeding standard, 304. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard, 99. Work units, 263. Printed in the United States of America. JHE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects Animal Husbandry for Schools BY MERRITT W. HARPER A isociate Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University Cloth, i2mo, ill. 409 pages. $1.40 To meet the demand for a book on Animal Husbandry suitable for use by students of high school age this book has 1 een written, and in content, style, and arrangement it is admirably adapted to the purpose. It belongs to the Rural Textbook Series prepared under the editorial supervision of ] 'rofessor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University. 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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Field Crop Production BY GEORGE LIVINGSTON Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Ohio State University Cloth, i2tno, ilhistrated, xix -f 424 pages, $1.40 This is one of the excellent? books of the Rural Text- book Series, edited by Professor Liberty Hyde Bailey. r\fter an introductory view of the whole field of plant lifj and crop rotation, there are twenty chapters on dif- feient crops, for example, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, buckwheat, perennial grasses, annual grasses, clovers, alialfa, root crops, fibre crops, etc. There is a chapter abo on marketing grain. The book is simple and non-technical in style and in- tensely practical, the topics treated being those of immedi- ate interest and profit to students who expect to become ac.ual farmers. It points out the " better way" of raising farm crops, of selecting the field, of preparing the soil, of sowing the seed, of cultivating the plant, of harvesting the crop. 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The appendix contains ref- erence material, tables, rules, glossary, etc. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork DEC 14 1932 DEC 15 1932 1934 28 1938 SEP 8 ISApr AUG 1936 MAR 16 1938 1838 / REC'D LD APR1319S8 •32 362172 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY