'ffll^flfftftl

LIBRARY

OF THE

^

DATE DUE

UNIV. OF MASSACHUSETTS/AMHERST

LIBRARY

S
73

M31
no. 1-25

V

Circulars 1-25.

li>18, 111: , l^EO, likl

/

Circulars.

1. Back yard poultry keeping.

J . C . Graham .
S. Food, feeding and drin>;in{f appliances
and nosting material to attract birds.

E. li. Forbusli.
7.. Report of the entoniolop-ist for 1V18.

H. T. Fernald.

4. The English cparrov; and some means of
controlling it. E. H. Forhurh.

5. Turkey raising. Llargaret liahaney.

6. Factors affecting hardiness in fruits.

U. P. Kedrick.

7. Fruit market possihilities in the ex-
port trade. A. Xi . Otis.

6. The efficient management of labor on
the farm. F. 0. Sears.

i: . Control of the principal insects in-
jurious to the apx^le above ground.

T. J. iieadlee.

10. Bird houses and nesting boxes.

E. H. Forbush.

11. Orchard, berry, and vegetable fertili-
zers. H. J. V/heeler.

1£. Outdoor bird stud;. E. K. Forbusli.
13. Plants that attract and shelter birds

and some that protect cultivated fruit.

E. H. Forbush.

15. Practical suggestions for raising tur-
ju.q^ *. » ij»jLi.j.yzser.

llarslial Fabyan.

16. Taking the risks out of farming.

E. S. Brigham.

17. The small agricultural fair.

0. E. Hemey.

18. Easpberry and blackberry grovang in
Massachusetts. S. L. Davenport.

IV. Llariieting apples. D. T. Dodd.

f5 20. Spraying. K. h. V/hetsel.

S5 £1. Fruit grov;ing for profit.
cNi C. v: . i:ann .

""" ZZ, Modern development in peach growing.
^ II. ix. Blake.

-> 23. iipple grading laws. B. D. Van Buren.

24. 'A'inter in:ury to fruit trees.

^". H. Chandler.

25. The farmers* interest in game protection.

E. H. Forbush.

2r()c tfommontciealtl) oi i5la00acl}usiett0.

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner.

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 1.

September, 1918.

BACK YARD POULTRY KEEPING.

J. C. GRAHAM.

BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

32 DERNE STREET.
1918.

^''

Publication of this Document

appbovbd by the
Supervisor op Administration.

9-18-10,000

BACK YAED POULTEY KEEPING.

J. C. GRAHAM, PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY, MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.

Introduction.

"Necessity is the incentive to production" may be very well
substituted, during this period of dire need for the necessities
of life, for the old adage, "Necessity is the mother of inven-
tion." The large decrease in the number of poultry kept on
farms in New England, and the going out of business of many
of our commercial poultry keepers, will cause a material de-
crease in the amount of poultry and eggs produced in this
section of the country, and at the same time greatly increase
prices. Again, the prices of other meats — beef, lamb, pork
and mutton — are still soaring, and have reached a point that
almost precludes their use by people of moderate means. It
seems, therefore, that if meat of any kind is to be within the
reach of the great mass of people we must resort to poultry.
It is well known to every household that eggs are a splendid
substitute for meats, and that large numbers have been used
from times immemorial during the spring or flush season of the
year when the price was low in comparison with meats. If
the consumption of red meats is almost prohibitive on account
of high prices, and poultrymen and farmers cut down pro-
duction of poultry and eggs, consumers will be obliged to
become producers as well; therefore the necessity for the back
yard flock on the part of those who have facilities to take up
this work. People should not allow their vacation period to
interfere with keeping a back yard flock, as arrangements can
easily be made for their care during the absence of the owner.
If the vacation is a long one the hens can be disposed of before
leaving, or, if it is spent in the country, the hens can and
should be sent there for economic production. Again, a neigh-

4

bor might be very glad to care for them for the eggs, or for a
slight remuneration.

With the exception of the farm flock, back yard poultry
keeping is considered by economists to be the most profitable
source of eggs, due to the following reasons: — ■

1. The cost of feed is low on account of the utilization of
waste, not only from the owner's table, but from that of
neighbors; garden refuse of all kinds, together with lawn clip-
pings, is usually fed abundantly.

2. The labor cost in back yard poultry keeping is low or nil;
in fact, such work is considered by most people more of a
recreation or health renewer than actual work.

3. Usually the flock is small and receives exceptional care,
which results in an extremely high annual egg production.

4. Generally a splendid retail price is obtained for all surplus
eggs.

5. The cost of house and equipment is low, and the land
used is sometimes unproductive or not needed for crops.

There are a number of reasons why back yard flocks should
be kept wherever possible : —

1. It reduces the high cost of living.

2. In homes where eggs are produced the tendency is to eat
more eggs and less meat.

3. The poultry manure can be put to splendid use on the
garden plot.

4. It saves labor in the disposal of refuse, or expense in
having it carried away.

5. It increases the total amount of eggs produced, thus
adding one's bit to the nation's food supply.

6. It keeps the boys and girls busy, and furnishes them with
profitable labor.

7. It introduces the boy and girl to the commercial or busi-
ness world.

8. In many instances it is the only way the wife or children
can add to the family income or assist in production.

That from 90 to 97 per cent, of the people in Boston,
for example, should be compelled to use only western or
storage eggs is a lamentable condition, everything considered.
In talking with a professional man of considerable prominence a

few weeks ago, he told me that he did not know the flavor of
strictly fresh eggs until he had kept a back yard flock; that he
had always supposed he was getting a fresh product, but evi-
dently had been eating western or storage stuff; that, after
becoming accustomed to near-by hennery eggs, he prefers to go
without if he cannot obtain them. This instance is a good
illustration of how readily the difference between fresh eggs and
the western or storage products can be distinguished by the
ordinary consumer when given an opportunity for comparison.
There are thousands of people in the State who have never
enjoyed the taste of a fresh egg. Again, the serving of in-
valids or very small children with eggs that are not strictly
fresh may prove a serious matter.

Profit or Labor Income.

The profit or labor income from a back yard flock varies as
much as that from any other line of work, and possibly more.
The experience and capability of the owner, the construction
and efiiciency of the house and yard, the vigor and egg-produc-
ing qualities of the birds, amount of waste utilized, and method
of care and management are all variable factors, and preclude a
definite estimate that would serve as a reliable criterion. No
doubt there are many back yard poultry keepers who do little
more than break even, or may sustain a loss, but such cases are
due primarily to lack of experience or interest, poor stock, in-
adequate equipment or poor management; in fact, we believe
in most cases of this kind that the main factor is carelessness
and neglect. Hens are not machines in the true sense of the
word, but living beings, and need some attention. The follow-
ing data have been sent us by successful back yard poultry
keepers, and we are presenting these merely as samples of
possibilities in this work, and caution the reader not to be
discouraged if he falls far short of these results: —

A. On Sept. 23, 1916, purchased 12 pullets at $1.50 each, or $18;
cost of feed, $28.60; produced 150| dozen eggs, averaging 154.3 eggs
per bird, valued at $69.67; 10 birds sold July 21, 1917, at 25 cents per
pound, or $18.75 (2 birds died, 1 from disease, 1 from injury). Profit or
labor income for ten months, $41.82, or $3.58 per bird, no allowance
being made for the value of the poultry manure.

B. On Sept. 12, 1917, purchased 12 pullets, hatched in May, 1917,
averaging 3 pounds 7§ ounces each, at $1.25 per bird, or S15. Cost of
feed for eight months or until May 12, 1918, $42.30; began laying in
December, and on May 12 had laid 1,133 eggs, or 94.4 eggs each, valued at
$71.46. On May 12 the hens averaged 7 pounds 5^ ounces each in weight,
valued at $26.40, market price. Profit or labor income for the eight
months, $40.56, or $3.38 each. A splendid record, considering the date
of hatch and time the birds began laying.

C. Poultry account for 1917: Fowls on hand Jan. 1, 1917, 31; increase
in flock, 3; eggs laid in 1917, 3,912, value $167.65; fowls killed for table,
$18.85; sold 6 Leghorn hens, $9; 3 pullets, $6; poultry manure, $9.30;
total income, $210.80; expenses, $104.46; profit or labor income, $106.34;
profit per hen, $3.43.

D. Poultry account for 1917: Equipment, 1 house 8 by 25 feet; 1
house 10 by 20 feet; also 3 colony coops 3 by 6 feet. Used about 1,600
square feet of land for permanent yard, and at times part of garden.
Cost of grain, $319.28; sundries, $12.36; total, $331.64. Income: 19
fowls for home use, $23.81; fowls and broilers sold, $96.17; dressing, $3;
eggs sold and for home use, $409.82; total, $532.80, leaving profit or
labor income of $201.16, besides dressing and litter from hen house for
garden.

E. I bought 100 eggs of in April, 1916; had them incubated,

and got 60 chicks on May 3. These chicks stood me 21 cents apiece the
day they were hatched; that paid for the eggs and incubating. From
the chicks I raised 21 pullets that started laying Oct. 30, 1916. Following
is the monthly production: November, 34; December, 287; January,
420; February, 349; March, 395; April, 428; May, 443; June, 365;
July, 344; August, 220; September, 283; October, 117; total, 3,685.
Total for each of the pullets for the year, 175, and I received from the
sale of these eggs, broilers, cockerels, culled pullets, hens I sold for poultry,
$199.69. I kept 9 hens to breed from which I valued at $18, making my
total receipts from the 100 eggs $217.69. The total cost for all their
feed of every kind for the year, cost of the eggs (the original 100) and
incubation was $108.81, which left a balance of $108.88. As you see, I
have made no reckoning of labor in the cost, for my wife did most of it,
that is, the feeding; all the building and heavy work I did in spare time.
During the year we paid as high as $4.40 per bag for corn, $1.85 per bag
of oats, and all the other grains in proportion. We sold our eggs from
30 to 65 cents per dozen; guess it would average somewhere around 50
cents per dozen.

Back yard poultry house, 6 by 6 feet, of moderate cost,
for 6 to 8 hens.

Model poultry house, 8 by 10 feet, designed for locations where appearance must be

considered.

7

Three Years with Small Back Yard Flock {Pre-war Conditions).

Number of
Females.

Year.

Eggs.

EgKS per
Hen.

Value of

Eggs and

Poultry

Sold.

Cost.

Profit.

Profit
per Hen.

25

23

20

1912
1913
1914

4,303
3,996
4,159

172

173M
208

$234 25
194 36
165 27

$115 72
87 00
85 07

$118 53

107 36

80 20

$4 03
4 29
4 01

Equipment.

The House.

The poultry house should be located on a well-drained plot.
If necessary, fill in or grade so the ground will slope away from
the house. This will throw the drainage water from the yard
on the garden plot, enrich the soil and at the same time have a
cleansing effect on the yard itself. Convenience for the at-
tendant should not be forgotten, as the hens must be cared for
every day, and the garden plot is used only a portion of the
year. The attendant should, therefore, have a direct route
from the dwelling to the hen coop, and not be compelled to
take a circuitous route to avoid flower beds or other small plots.
Economy of space and utilization of the ground adjacent to the
fence should also be kept in mind. If the land is dry and well
drained, no floor is needed unless a movable house is desired,
in which case a floor is necessary to keep the house in shape
while transferring it. A wood floor can be made by using
2 by 4's on edge for joists, covering them with matched stuff;
or a more durable floor can be made by removing the loam
where the house is to rest, filling in with cinders or gravel for
good drainage, and on this place a cement slab 4 or 5 inches
thick. A floor built in this way is not expensive, and will be
found very satisfactory.

K small poultry house should have at least 5 square feet of
floor space per hen; should be well lighted, dry, well venti-
lated, convenient, inexpensive and sightly. Warmth should be
considered, but not at the expense of dampness and poor
ventilation.

8

The small poultry house illustrated is very sightly and
well built. It may be considered expensive by some, but
cannot be built for less money during present abnormal condi-
tions. It is designed particularly for the well-to-do suburbanite,
whose poultry house must conform with the other buildings on
his place or meet the requirements of his neighbors; in fact, it
is just the house to give tone to poultry keeping in residential
districts where appearance must be considered.

The plan here presented fulfills the requirements of a good
house. The double pitched roof with sides 4| feet high gives
plenty of head room, which is needed in a back yard house
because the owner in most cases is a professional or business
man who wears clothes that show dust and dirt readily. No
casings are necessary. The door should project over the outside
of each stud 1 inch, said stud performing the office of a stop as
well as a support. The openings in the upper portion of the
door and above it should be covered with inch mesh wire, but
no cloth screens are necessary. In extremely cold weather
white cloth can be tacked over these openings, removing same
in mild weather. Inch mesh wire should be tacked over the
openings each side of the door and cloth screens made for
winter use. During the spring, summer and fall they should be
fastened to the ceiling of the house or stored safely somewhere.
When cold weather sets in the comfort of the hens can be some-
what increased by laying two or three boards or poles across
the plates over the roosting quarters and throwing over these
straw, cornstalks or other waste material. It will take very
little time to do this, but it will lessen drafts and keep the
hens warmer. This is especially recommended for Leghorns.
Novelty siding is recommended for sides and ends, as it sheds
water better than common matched stuff, and is neat and
dressy in appearance. Matched boards are recommended for
the roof, as they keep the wind from getting through and
blowing off or cracking the roofing. A good grade of com-
mercial roofing should be used.

The illustration facing page 7 is a shed-roofed house to
accommodate six to eight birds. It is the plainest, simplest
and most inexpensive house we can construct of matched stuff,
there being no frame whatever. It was made in knocked-down

9

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condition in order to ship and assemble quickly, but can be
made stationary more cheaply. The boards on the front, rear
and ends are nailed to 5-inch cleats at the bottom and top;
the upper cleats being about 1| inches from the ends of the
boards to make room for the cleats on the roof. The roof
boards are held in place by three cleats, and a 2-inch strip is
nailed around the edge of the roof for a cornice. A simple
door of matched boards and a frame for cloth, hinged at the
top and wire-nailed over the opening, completes the building.
A droppings board 20 inches wide and one roost 2 by 2 inches,
each supported by cleats nailed to the ends; two dry-goods
boxes about 14 inches square for nests; tomato cans, with one
end removed, tacked to the wall for shell, grit and charcoal;
and a small box for mash, equip the house. This particular
house was made of native pine because we were fortunately
able to get this as cheaply as any other matched material.
The bill of lumber is self-explanatory.

Bill of Lumber for Poultry House 6 by 6 Feet, Amherst Retail Prices.

Lumber : —

142 feet matched pine (sides), at $60 per M, . . . . S8 52

18 feet North Carolina roofers (droppings boards), at $45 per M, 81

40 feet 1-inch square edge pine, at $50 per M, . . . . 2 00

60 feet matched spruce, at $50 per M, . . . . . 3 00

5 5 feet 2x4 inch spruce, at $50 per M 28

.05,

Hardware : —
14 3-inch gate hooks and eyes, at $0.05,
1 pair 4-inch strap hinges, at $0.15,
1 dozen J-inch No. 8 F. H. B. screws, at
1 4^-inch safety hasp, at $0.30,

^'2 dozen ^-inch No. 7 F. H. B. screws, at $(
1 pair Ij-inch backflap hinges, at $0.10, .
1 dozen l-inch No. 6 F. H. B. screws, $0.05,

1 2-inch gate hooks and eyes, at $0.05,

8 square feet 2-inch mesh hen v.nre, at $0.01^,

2 pounds 6-penny nails, at $0.07,

Miscellaneous : —

f yard cotton cloth, at $0.09,
50 feet roofing paper, at $0.02^,

Labor, . . . . . .

Paint and painting, . . . .

05,

70
15
05
30
03
10
05
05
12
14

$14 61

$0 08
1 13

1 69

1 21
7 22
3 00

.

Total,

$27 73

11

Bill of Lumber for Poultry

House 8 by 10 Feet, Amherst Retail Prices

Lumber: —

2 2x3 inch 10-foot sills,

10 feet

2 2x3 inch 8-foot sills, .

8 feet

2 2x3 inch 10-foot plates,

10 feet

14 2 X 3 inch 4 foot 6 inch studs,

31 feet 6 inches

2 2x3 inch 6-foot studs.

6 feet

12x3 inch 7-foot studs.

3 feet 6 inches

2 2x3 inch 6 foot 7 inch studs.

6 feet 7 inches

12x3 inch 8-foot door header

and girts,

4 feet

12 2 X 3 inch 5-foot rafters.

30 feet

12x3 inch 8-foot roost,

4 feet

11x4 inch 10-foot ridge board

, 3 feet 4 inches

A total of . . 116 feet 11 inches, at $50 per M, .

24 feet 1x2 inch for cloth frames, 4 feet, at $50 per M,

175 feet matched roofers, roof and droppings boards, at $45 per M,

210 feet novelty siding, at $60 per M, .....

1 batten door 2 feet 2 inches x 6 feet 4 inches, 16 feet, at $50 per M,

4 I x 5 inch 5 foot 6 inch 1 , , , «.^^ ,,

., .. , ~ t . c ■ u } corner boards, at $50 per M, .
4 t X 4 inch 5 foot 6 inch J

4 J X 2 inch, 12-inch eave strips, ......

16 feet in length, 1 x 2J inch braces and cleats under brooder coop

and feed box, at $50 per M, .

Hardware : —

1 pair 4-inch T hinges and screws, .
1 pair 4-inch safety hasp and screws,
1 padlock, ......

1 pair l|-inch backflap hinges,
12 2-inch black iron door buttons, at $0.02,

6 pounds large head roofing nails, at $0.07,

2 3-inch gate hooks and eyes, at $0.05,
1 dozen 1^-inch No. 10 F. H. B. screws, .

27 square feet 1-inch mesh chicken wire, at $0.01|,

Miscellaneous : —

li M asphalt shingles, at $7.60,

If yard cotton cloth for screens, at $0.09,

Labor, ........

Paint and painting, ......

Total, .........

Yard: —

2 yards cotton cloth frames, at $0.09, . . . .
1 pair 4-inch strap hinges, yard gate, . . . .

160 square feet 2-inch hen wire yard, at $0.01 i, .

3 2x4 inch 10-foot braces, ......

5 4x4 inch 8-foot posts, chestnut, 53 J feet, at $35 per M,

Labor, ..........

$5

85

20

7

88

12

60

80

73

25

17

$0

15

25

1

10

10

24

42

10

05

47

$9 40

15

. $0

18

15

. 2

40

. 1

00

. 1

87

. 1

00

$28 48

2 88

9 55

21 80

7 00

$69 71

$6 60

12

Feed bin: —
15 feet square edge pine, at S50 per M, .
38 feet matched pine, at $50 per M,

i pound 8-penny common wire nails, at $0.07,
I5 dozen IHnch No. 10 F. H. B. screws, at $0.05,
1 pair 4-inch heavy strap hinges.
Labor, ........

Nests: —
22^feet 5-inch'square edge pine, at $50 per M, .
I pound 8-penny common wire nails, at $0.07,
2i dozen l|-inch No. 12 F. H. B. screws, at $0.05,
f dozen 2Hnch No. 12 F. H. B. screws, at $0.05,
1 dozen l|-inch No. 10 F. H. B. screws, at $0.05,
Labor, ........

Broody coop : —

5 I X 1^ inch 12 foot (slats), at $50 per M,

1 dozen 1-inch No. 6 F. H. B. screws, at $0.05,
^^2 dozen 1-inch No. 10 F. H. B. screws, at $0.05,
1 2-inch backflap hinge, at $0.15, .

J pound 4-penny nails, at $0.07,
1 2-inch iron door button, at $0.02
Labor, .....

$0

75

1

90

04

08

15

1

55

$1

10

04

13

04

05

1

33

$0 24

05

01

15

02

02

1

33

4 47

2 69

1 82

$15 58

A very cheap coop can be constructed of piano boxes, remov-
ing the backs and placing them back to back, the slanting
sides continued until they come to a peak, and the whole covered
with commercial roofing.

A frame of any style desired can be erected and covered with
boards from dry goods boxes and then with commercial roofing.
Construction of this kind does not make a sightly house, but
such coops can often be obscured from view by trees, bushes or
buildings. Where these conditions exist, and one's vanity will
allow, such houses can and should be used. However, one
should think twice before placing an unsightly coop and yard
where it will be an eyesore to a neighbor. This has had much
to do with attempts to legislate poultry out of cities and
villages.

Nest Boxes. — Nest boxes are a very essential part of poultry
house equipment, and in constructing them the following points
should be considered: seclusion, accessibility for both the hens
and the attendant, sanitation and size. For general use the
boxes should be about 14 inches square, and, if the birds enter

Frame of house shown below.

Back j-ard house, s l>y 8 leet, designed tor locations where expense must be considered and
appearance is not an important factor. Note shrubbery to improve appearance.

13

at the side, 12 or 13 inches deep. A set of nest boxes can be
made in the form of a drawer and placed under the droppings
board, as shown in the illustration, or a box with three com-
partments and a slanting roof like that of the feed box can be
used, the front edges being 13 or 14 inches high, and the rear
18 to 20 inches. A strip 4 inches wide is nailed along the
lower edge of the front to keep in the nesting material and
eggs. This will allow plenty of space for the hens to enter.
Two cleats nailed to the ends close to the bottom and project-
ing 6 inches in front will serve as a support for a strip for the
hens to fly to when entering the nests. A more inexpensive
nest box can be made from a dry goods box. For small hens
an egg case or an orange box will make a satisfactory nest.
However, in using boxes of any kind, arrange to have the hens
enter at the side rather than at the top, as they should not be
compelled to jump down into a deep box or case and thus cause
a loss from unnecessary breakage. The nests should be well
supplied with straw or other nesting material. Thousands of
eggs are lost annually through breakage because hens are com-
pelled to lay on bare or rough boards.

Broody Coop. — A coop is necessary for breaking up the
broody hens unless a non-broody race, such as Leghorns or
Minorcas, is kept. A slatted coop, similar to the one in the
illustration on page 9, Fig. 2, approximately 18 by 24 inches, is
ideal. It is made of slats If inches wide, placed 1 inch apart
except on the end where the feed trough is located. There the
slats are placed 2j inches apart to allow the hens to reach
through for feed. A more inexpensive coop can be made by
securing a box 15 to 18 inches deep and 1^ to 2 feet square,
removing the top and bottom, and from the boards thus removed
making slats similar to those described above. It can be placed
in the poultry house or hung under a tree. Provision must be
made for feeding and watering.

Feed Bin. — A feed bin for holding suflBcient mash and
scratch feed to last the flock for three or four weeks is very
convenient. Where grain is left in a barn or other outbuildings,
or even in a basement, there is usually more or less waste by
rats and mice, and having feed in the poultry house saves time
and labor. The bin in the illustration is 15 inches wide, 3 feet

14

3 inches long and 20 inches high in front and 30 inches in the
rear, and has a partition in the middle. Each section holds
one bag of grain or mash which allows the grainman to empty
the feed, thus avoiding unnecessary handling by the owner.
The slanting cover prevents the birds from roosting on it,
which is conducive to cleanliness. For cheaper construction,
a suitable dry goods box may often be obtained, but the cover
should be made to fit securely enough to keep out rats and
mice, and constructed with a slanting top if possible.

Yard and Fence.
It is much more humane and sanitary to have a small yard
for a back yard flock, and most people with extensive observa-
tion along this line feel that birds do better than if kept housed,
and their general health is improved by sunshine, fresh air and
exercise out of doors. It is possible to keep hens, if excep-
tionally good stock, confined to the house throughout the year,
but we do not advise doing so. The size of the poultry yard
will depend upon the size of the back yard plot, nature of soil
and amount of space needed for the garden. A place 8 or 10
feet wide and 15 to 20 feet long will answer. A 5-foot fence
made of 2-inch mesh wire will do for practically all breeds.
Leghorns will fly over a 6-foot fence when kept in close con-
finement, but by clipping the flight feathers from one wing
they will not "go over the top." Posts 4 by 4 inches, and
braces 2 by 4 inches, with a gate similar to the one shown in
the cut facing page 7, make a neat, durable fence. It saves fenc-
ing to have the poultry house in a corner of the yard, but it is
more desirable to have the rear fence two or three feet from the
house so that the hens can get on the north side of it during hot
days in summer and on the south side in winter. Berry bushes
and grapevines can be placed along the fence just outside of the
yard. Some of the roots from these bushes make their way
under the fence and thus, underlying the poultry yard, get all
the nitrogenous fertilizer they need, but not an excess. Splendid
crops can be obtained each year without much additional fer-
tilizer, except a slight amount of phosphoric acid and some
potash. The hens will reach through the fence as far as they
can and help keep down the weeds and grass.

15

Utensils.

For Feeding, — A dry mash hopper should be provided. It
may be home-made or one of the many patented ones on the
market, as most of them are quite satisfactory. The essential
characteristics of a good dry mash hopper are its ejQBciency in
preventing the hens from wasting the mash, and its size and
cost. A hopper for a dozen hens should hold half a peck at
least. A box about 1 foot square and 10 inches deep makes a
good hopper. A piece of 1-inch mesh wire stapled to a light
frame that fits inside the box and laid on the mash after the
box is about two-thirds full allows the hens to eat it through
the meshes, but they are unable to scratch it out. A small
trough, worn-out basin or something of that kind can be used
for w^et mash feeding.

Water Fountain. — A water fountain for twelve hens should
hold at least 2 quarts, and one holding 3 quarts is preferable.
A small pail or deep basin 8 or 10 inches across makes a very
good drinking fountain. A half-gallon stone jar can be used
by adults who handle equipment more carefully than children,
but it is easily broken. Water should not be allowed to remain
in it over night in freezing weather. There are a large number
of water fountains on the market, most of which are satisfactory.
Care must be taken to keep the water dish clean. It should
be scalded or disinfected regularly.

Shell and Grit Boxes. — Almost any kind of tin can or box
can be used for grit, shell and charcoal; the only objection to
the patented devices is the price. The writer has found that
the 1-quart tomato cans will answer for this purpose by remov-
ing the top and driving a nail through the upper edge of the
can for support.

Receptacle for Droppings. — A container for poultry manure
should be provided; a box or barrel with rain-proof cover, put
in a convenient place, will answer very well. The cover should
fit tightly in order to keep down the breeding of flies and pre-
vent odors from escaping.

Litter.
The value of exercise for hens kept in close confinement can-
not be overemphasized, and one of the best ways of inducing
it is to throw their scratch grain into litter. There are a num-

16

ber of materials available for this purpose. Use something that
is a good absorbent, easily scratched about by the hens, fairly
cheap, and the more valuable it is as a fertilizer the better. Two
or three inches of sand spread over the floor, and over this a
few inches of straw, make an ideal litter. Loam is fine and
dusty and packs too easily. Baled shavings are often used
with good results, but they are easily broken and mixed with
the sand. Leaves are satisfactory for a time, but soon become
fine and lose their value as litter, but should be used when
possible.

Feeds and Feeding.

Grains and Scratch Feeds.

A scratch feed, so called because the hens are obliged to
scratch in the litter for this portion of the ration, may be com-
posed of a single grain or a mixture of several grains. Those
most commonly used for this purpose are corn, wheat, barley,
oats and buckwheat, and are given in the order of their im-
portance as poultry feeds. At the present time corn is one of
the most expensive grains we have, but in normal times the
cheapest. It is usually cracked before feeding in order to give
the hens more exercise in finding it. If cracked corn is not
sifted before feeding, the mealy portion will be lost in the litter.
Before the war we recommended a scratch feed containing 2
quarts cracked corn, 1 quart wheat and 1 quart oats, but wheat
became so high in price and so scarce that the Food Adminis-
tration prohibited its use in poultry feeds in amounts greater
than one-tenth of the mixture. This resulted in a meeting of
representatives from the eastern colleges, who adopted a war
scratch feed composed of 5 pounds cracked corn, 1 pound wheat,
2 pounds oats, 2 pounds barley. This was in December, 1917.
Since that time some grains have become very scarce and others
are unobtainable, so that at the present writing the poultrymen
are compelled to use almost any combination of grains, and the
proportion of each depends entirely upon price and availability.
We must not be too particular about proportions these days.
Due to the fact that mash is cheaper than scratch feeds, a

17

larger proportion should be fed than formerly. In many sec-
tions of the State back yard poultry keepers will probably be
unable to buy in small quantities the various grains mentioned,
and may have to resort to commercial scratch feeds. However,
in buying, it is well to examine them very closely and see
that they are made up of sound, sweet grains. A splendid way
to test a scratch feed is to smell and taste of the various grains.
This will enable the purchaser to determine whether or not
they are musty or moldy. If a scratch feed is composed largely
of chaffy oats or barley it will contain a large amount of fiber,
and consequently be low in feeding value.

Mashes.

A mash is a mixture of ground grains and by-products, such as
ground oats, corn meal, bran, middlings and meat scraps. A
dry mash, as the term signifies, is one that is fed in a dry state,
and a wet mash is one that is moistened with water or milk
before feeding. Mashes are fed in order to make use of the by-
products, and, being quickly digested and rich in animal pro-
tein, are very forcing. Some feeds or materials that cannot
very well be used alone can be incorporated into mashes. For
these reasons we have adopted the system of feeding our hens
a ration consisting of part mash and part scratch feed. The
following mash is recommended to those who can buy the vari-
ous ingredients and wish to do their own mixing: equal parts
by weight of wheat bran, wheat middlings, corn meal, ground
oats, gluten feed and meat scraps. It is not necessary to add
salt, but if one desires to do so use about as much as put in
human food. As in case of scratch feeds, many back yard
poultry keepers will probably be unable to buy the various in-
gredients, and will be compelled to depend upon commercial
mashes. In buying these it is well to study the analyses and
select one that is fresh, sweet, palatable and fairly low in fiber,
as hens cannot easily digest it.

Green and Succulent Feeds.
It is natural for hens to eat green feed, and it is surprising
how much they will consume if tender and palatable. Most
green stuffs grown in the garden — lettuce, cabbages, radish

18

tops, spinach, beet tops, etc. — are relished by them. Lawn
clippings are also good. For winter use, mangels, beets, turnips
and carrots can be split open and fed. Beet pulp has about the
same feeding value as fresh beets or mangels, and can be
soaked and fed in about the same quantity. These materials are
not great egg makers in themselves, but they keep the hens in
good condition and act as appetizers.

Animal Feed.

Hens need some kind of animal feed, and it is given to them
by nature in the form of bugs, insects and worms. Hens yarded
are unable to secure these, so that meat scraps, green cut bone
or milk is fed instead. Meat scraps are mixed with the mash;
green cut bone is usually fed in a trough or on the litter, and
milk can be mixed with the mash or fed in a trough, jar or pan.
All these should not be fed at the same time. An ounce per
bird of green cut bone every second day is sufficient. The hens
can be given all the milk they will drink, and it is usually
soured before feeding, although this is not necessary. In many
places green cut bone can be secured at the butcher shop from
fall until spring, or during the cold season. It would hardly
pay to buy a feed cutter to do the grinding for a back yard
flock, as it is too expensive.

Grit.

Grit is usually given to the hens to assist in grinding the
coarse feed. Some people think this is not necessary, but most
poultrymen feed it.

Oyster Shell.

Oyster shell is fed because the hens need more lime for egg
shells than they get in other feeds.

Charcoal.

Charcoal is fed to poultry in a granular form in hoppers, or
mixed with the mash in either a granular or powdered form.
Its us^ is not absolutely essential for healthy stock. If hens
appear dumpish or get off their feed a little charcoal may be
used.

19

Table Scraps.

Table scraps are very palatable and therefore forcing.
Almost all kinds of scraps can be fed except pickles, orange and
banana peeling, coffee grounds and things that are very salty.
They should not be allowed to accumulate but fed daily if
possible, especially in warm weather. One should not forget
that his neighbors are generally glad to have their waste used
for production. It is particularly true during this period of
stress, when feeds are so high and we are being urged to con-
serve in every way. Wasting food these days for either man or
beast is unpardonable.

Method of Feeding.
Most back yard flocks consist of about twelve hens, so the
amounts mentioned will be sufiicient for that number. Those
having a larger or smaller flock can feed a proportional amount.
It must be kept in mind that the back yard flock is kept for
egg production, and the method recommended is very forcing.
The following is for general use: The dry mash is kept before
the hens in a hopper at all times, and, if a very forcing method
is desired, some of the same mash can be moistened with water
or milk and fed once a day. The table scraps may be added to
the wet mash or fed separately at the discretion of the owner.
It makes very little difference when the wet mash is fed, but it
should be given at a regular time each day. The writer feeds
his wet mash as early in the morning as possible, because it is
more convenient to do it at that time. If fed in the morning
table scraps can be fed at noon, which gives the hens two
palatable feeds of forcing material daily. If one has milk to
incorporate in the wet mash some of the meat scraps can be
left out. A mash should not be thin and sloppy, but only
enough milk or water added to make it crumbly. A dozen
hens will eat from 1 to 2 pints of wet mash at a time, depending
upon how well they like the dry mash and the palatability
of the wet mash. They should not be given more than they
will consume in a few minutes; the feeder can soon determine
the exact amount. If table scraps are very abundant the
amount of wet mash can be reduced considerably unless table

20

scraps are incorporated in it. The grain mixture or scratch

feed should be fed in the litter morning and night, the latter

feeding to be given early enough so that the hens will have

time to fill their crops before going to roost. Usually 2 to

3 pints of scratch feed will be sufficient for tw^elve hens per

day, about one-third of which should be fed in the morning and

the balance in the afternoon. Cutting down the amount of

scratch grain will compel them to eat more mash, and, as the

latter is less expensive than the former, it is wise to encourage

the hens to eat a large proportion of the cheaper feed. It is

impossible to give the exact amount of feed for a flock of hens,

as the quantity depends upon several variable factors. If hens

were all of the same size and activity, laid the same number of

eggs of the same size and weight, and all had the same power

of digestion, the amount could easily be determined; but as

these are variable factors it is impossible to specify a definite

amount of grain. The amount of feed given is governed by

quantity of grain found in the litter and hoppers at feeding

time; this is a good gauge for the amateur. The feeding should

not become too mechanical. The attendant should take plenty

of time to do this important chore, and before scattering the

grain in the litter should examine it to see if any grain is left

from the previous feeding, and also if the wet mash has been

eaten. After throwing out one or two handful s of grain he

should step back and see how the birds take to their feed. A

good feeder will occasionally feel of the birds' crops while they

are on the roost at night. The judgment of the attendant is an

important factor in feeding hens. Fresh water, oyster shell and

grit are kept before the hens at all times. Mangels, beets and

cabbages are fed during the winter months, supplemented with

sprouted oats, but during the summer rape, spinach, Swiss

chard, turnip tops and other green stuff are given in abundance.

The green stuff is simply thrown into the yard, but the beets,

mangels or cabbages can be hung from the ceiling with a string,

high enough for the hens to pick, or they can be split open and

placed in a trough or in a corner of the building, or jammed on

to a spike driven into the wall. It is very important that the

hens have plenty of water. I have visited poultry houses and

found the water fountain empty and dry. There is no surer

21

method of cutting down egg production than an insufficient
supply of water. During hot weather the hens drink more than
at other times. By noon in the coldest weather the water may
be frozen so that more should be given early enough for the
hens to drink all they want before going to roost.

Production and Conservation of Poultry Feeds.

Production.
Unless the garden plot is very small a portion can be set
aside for raising poultry feeds, or a near-by vacant lot or plot
can be rented or its use may be donated. The use of two large
lots was offered the writer by a patriotic fellow townsman, free
of charge, for the sake of increased production. Even a small
plot of Flint or Dent corn will help out considerably, and sweet
corn that becomes too hard for family use can be fed to advantage.
A patch of rape for summer use, and a few rows of beets or
mangels for winter, will reduce the feed bill appreciably and
add to the health of the fowls. In case one has two yards the
hens should be confined to one, and the other used for crops.
This is no time to say we have not land enough to make it pay.
Every available foot of ground should be used. I am told that
in England if a plot of ground the size of a handkerchief is
available good use is made of it. Why not here?

Conservation.
Because of the low cost of feed during the pre-war period
many poultry keepers acquired wasteful habits in feeding, and
with the price of poultry and eggs comparatively high they were
able to get along without loss. But the time has come when
every effort must be made to save and make every pound of
feed go as far as possible. Avoid buying commercial scratch
feed containing a large amount of weed seeds or fine materials
that may be lost in the litter or that may be composed of poor
or chaffy grains. A little practice will enable the purchaser to
distinguish between good and poor quality. One way to test
a scratch feed, in addition to close examination, is to sweep the
litter and dust from a portion of the chicken yard or floor and
throw a handful of grain down for the hens to eat, or some may

22

be placed in a trough or other receptacle, and after the hens
have helped themselves examine what remains. If the birds
are hungry at the time and fed less than they need, only refuse
will be left. In purchasing cracked corn see that it is free
from meal, as it will be lost in the litter if fed in the usual
way. However, if the cracked corn contains a large amount
of meal, providing it cannot be sifted, it should be fed in a
trough or hopper in order to save the meal. Occasionally one
is offered oats or barley at a special price, but it may be
composed largely of hulls. Most wheat on the market is suit-
able for feed, but wheat screenings should be examined very
carefully before purchasing. If composed of 25 or 30 per cent
weed seeds they are very expensive at any price. The feeding
of large quantities of green and succulent feed, such as men-
tioned in another paragraph, will greatly decrease the feed bill.
It is a very common practice to feed such materials as these
once, twice or three times a week, but they should be fed daily.
It is well known to poultrymen that hens on a large range re-
quire much less concentrated feeds than when confined. The
back yard flock cannot be given a wide range, but if the garden
is large or not adjacent to the yard and the lawn near by, the
hens can be let out occasionally for a half hour or an hour near
roosting time. The more feed the hens gather for themselves
the more the feed bill is cut. The hens will not get too fat if
they eat an abundance of mash, as this is not so fattening as
grain. Do not let the hens waste the mash. It should be fed
in what may be termed a "no waste" hopper. If the hens
scratch it into the litter, adjust the hopper. Do not feed rats
and mice on the high-priced grains; better catch the rats and
mice and feed them to the hens. No unprofitable stock should
be kept during a period of high grain prices and intense con-
servation. (See paragraph on "Culling," page 29.)

Poultry Management.

Selection of Breed or Variety.
The points to be considered in selecting a breed or variety
are size, shape and color of both the fowls and eggs, as well as
the use to which they are put. As far as vigor, or hardiness.

23

and egg production are concerned, very little can be said in
favor of any one breed. The records of both private individuals
and experimentations bear testimony to this statement. Some
writers make the following classifications: egg breeds, general
purpose breeds and meat breeds. This scheme works out
better on paper than it does in either practice or theory. In
the first class they place the Leghorns, Minorcas, Anconas,
Campines, etc.; in the second, such breeds as the Rhode
Island Reds, Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks and Orpingtons;
and in the third class, the Brahmas, Langshans, Cochins,
Dorkings, etc. This classification is objectionable if it leads
people to believe that the first class will produce more- eggs
than either of the other two, or that the third class is used for
the production of meat more than either of the others, because
in many sections of the country those in the second class are
used primarily for eggs, and in other sections they are used
wholly for meat. Those in the first class are small, except the
Minorcas, non-broody, lay white eggs and can fly higher than
the others. Those in the second class lay brown or tinted eggs,
are of medium size, prone to broodiness, have clean shanks and
make excellent mothers. Those in the third class are large, lay
richly colored brown eggs, have feathered shanks and have the
broody instinct well developed. Black or dark-colored vari-
eties show pin feathers if plucked when young or not in full
plumage, but when they have a full coat their bodies are
clean and present a fine appearance. White chicken feathers
bring 10 cents more per pound on the market than colored ones.
On the other hand, white fowls when kept in close confine-
ment do not appear as clean as colored ones on account of the
ease with which their feathers are soiled. There is as much
variation in age of maturity in different strains of the same
variety as there is in different breeds. For instance, I have
•had Light Brahmas laying at six months and Leghorns at
seven to eight months of age, but this, of course, is not usual.
As a rule, those in the first class will mature in five to six
months, and under good conditions those in the second class,
from six to seven months; those in the third, from seven to
nine months. It is important to remember that the breed is
determined by the shape or type, variety by color, and that

24

the family or strain depends wholly upon the breeder. It is
evident, therefore, that the characteristics that have to do with
egg production, such as vigor, broodiness, inheritance, etc., are
controlled by the breeder, and are not fixed breed or variety
characteristics. Many of the faults that are being laid at the
door of certain breeds are due to imagination, bad management
or lack of skill on the part of the breeder. Other things being
equal, one should select the breed or variety he likes best, as
he is more likely to succeed if he is interested in his birds.

Size of the Flock.
The size of the back yard flock is usually determined by the
size of the family, the amount of space and capital available,
the size of the garden, demand for eggs on the part of neigh-
bors, and the amount of table scraps and other waste. A flock
of eight to ten will supply a small family with table and cook-
ing eggs, and some to spare during the spring months. The
surplus eggs can be sold to neighbors or put down in water
glass. An average of one and one-half to two hens per indi-
vidual in the family is a good guide. However, much depends
upon how freely eggs are used for breakfast and substituted
for meat.

Hens versus Pullets.
The question is very often asked, "Shall I buy hens or pul-
lets?" This depends very largely upon the period under con-
sideration. In the spring of the year I would advise buying
hens, keeping them through the summer, and disposing of them
in the fall; but in September, October or later buy early
hatched pullets that w^ill begin laying by the last of October
at least, if you expect to make a very profitable venture of
your poultry work. There are some who will do well with late
hatched pullets of a good laying strain, but with prices of eggs
extremely high in the fall it is very desirable to secure pullets
that will give a good production during this period. Perhaps
all back yard poultry keepers do not know that hens — that is,
females a year old the preceding spring — will molt some time
between the 1st of July and the 1st of January, and that it
requires from two to three months or more for them to shed

25

their feathers, grow a new coat and begin to lay. Exceptional
birds will not require as much time as specified, but they are
not very common. Considering, then, that hens require a long
resting period during the molt, it is easily understood that
pullets will be much more profitable.

Males in the Back Yard Flock.
A male is not necessary for egg production, and should be
kept only when eggs are being saved for hatching. Compara-
tively few back yard poultry keepers raise their chicks, and
those who do will find it more profitable to buy hatching eggs
or baby chicks from a well-known breeder keeping good stock
than to purchase a male and feed him for a year. A good male
will cost not less than $5, and cannot be fed for less than $4
per year. When killed or sold for meat he will bring $2 or less.
Moreover, he is likely to injure some of the females, and his
crowing is considered a nuisance by most neighbors; in fact,
this very thing has done more than anything else to legislate
poultry out of cities and towns. Therefore if a male is kept
for breeding purposes dispose of him as soon as the breeding
season is over.

Purchasing Stock.

In purchasing stock or hatching eggs it is advisable to apply
to reputable poultry breeders or consult a neighbor who is
interested in poultry and widely acquainted with poultrymen.
Too often people buy from a distance and ignore their neigh-
'bors. We believe this to be a great mistake in many instances,
as there is plenty of stock in almost every community, and the
home people should be patronized when possible. In Boston
there are two or three firms who buy and sell pullets, hens and
baby chicks, and there may be such firms in other cities. These
should be patronized, and they may be able to put you in
touch with some one who has exactly what you want in the
way of stock. Because of the comparatively small number of
chicks raised this year there may be a scarcity of pullets in the
fall. It is advisable, therefore, for back yard poultry keepers
to place their orders for pullets as early as possible. As a matter
of fact, this condition may prevail throughout the entire war

26

period, and it will be nothing uncommon for orders to be placed
six months or even a year in advance. Delay in ordering may
prevent many from keeping a back yard flock.

Laying Indications.

The laying hen has a well-developed comb and w^attles, red
in color, but not necessarily bright, as many suppose. The eye
is bright and the head has a healthy appearance. She is alert,
very active and always ready for food, — one of the first to
come down from the roost in the morning and the last to re-
tire. If the hens are observed for a short time before going to
roost, those that are laying w^ill be seen visiting the shell box,
occasionally several times during a period of fifteen minutes.
The abdomen is well filled out; this does not mean that it
must be over large or baggy in appearance. The pelvic bones
near the vent are well separated; usually three fingers, side by
side, can be placed between these. However, this is not an
absolute criterion on account of the varying size of hens or
pullets, even of the same breed. The edges or lips of the vent
appear somewhat enlarged. By comparing the vents of laying
hens with those of the male birds or undeveloped pullets the
amateur will have a thorough understanding of what is meant.
The above does not refer to the number of eggs that a hen has
laid or will lay, but is merely an indication of a laying hen at
any given period.

Characteristics of Layers.
Much study has been given recently to the disappearance of
the yellow pigment from the shanks, beak, skin and other parts
of the bird during the laying period. This applies, of course,
only to those varieties that have yellow shanks and skin. When
the pullet begins to lay in the fall or early winter, or the hen after
the molting period, she has a fairly good supply of yellow pig-
ment in the parts mentioned, but as the laying period advances,
the pigment gradually disappears so that the comparative
amount at any given period is a fair indication of the laying
quality of the bird. I wish to emphasize the term comparative
because hens and pullets vary considerably in the amount of
pigment at the beginning of a laying period. This fact must

27

not be lost sight of, or one may misjudge his birds. If I ex-
amine a pullet in March and find the shanks, beak, skin, lips of
vent and edge of the eyelid well supplied with yellow pigment
or an orange color, I at once assume that she has not been lay-
ing well. If a hen, I assume that she did not recover from her
molt until fairly late in the winter. If I find these parts pale,
I assume that the bird has been laying heavily, provided she
had the normal amount of yellow pigment in the various parts
mentioned at the beginning of the laying period. Again, the
general condition of the laying hen is a fair indication of her
laying qualities. The hen, during the summer months, that has
kept her coat in fine condition, no feathers broken or faded to
any extent, is one that has probably not climbed in and out of
the nest box very often, or has not busied herself working for
egg-producing materials. The good layer is likely to have a
"ragged" appearance during the summer, — broken, dirty
feathers, and her comb may not be extremely bright red, due
to the heavy drain upon her for eggs.

Getting acquainted with the Individuals.

Hens differ in appearance, disposition and actions as much as
human beings do, but because of the large numbers kept to-
gether, and the little attention given each, they look alike to
the casual observer. The same thing would be true with cows
if each was not stalled, cared for and milked separately. Get-
ting acquainted with the individual hen is desirable from the
standpoint of both pleasure and economy. The man with hun-
dreds of hens to care for, together with a multiplicity of other
duties, finds it impossible to know the individual, her numerous
qualities and characteristics, merely through observation and
contact in making his daily rounds; he resorts, therefore, to the
trap nest or other means. But the man with ten or twelve hens,
if he has the inclination, can soon learn to distinguish the vari-
ous hens in his flock and determine quite accurately the number
of eggs laid by each, together with other interesting and im-
portant characteristics.

One who has had little experience with poultry should, by
all means, leg band his pullets. There are various kinds of
bands for this purpose, but the colored ones, easily distin-

28

guished, are recommended. These can be purchased in any
quantity desired, or in sets of a dozen or more different colors.
By the use of colored bands, a separate color for each indi-
vidual, one can easily distinguish the different birds without
handling, or when at a distance. This is quite advantageous,
as it gives one a much greater opportunity to study the indi-
viduals than if it were necessary to catch the bird and examine
the leg-band number in order to distinguish her from the others.
When one is able to recognize each hen, either by leg bands or
certain physical differences, there are several important charac-
teristics that he is able to study. For example, he will notice
the hustlers, the time each hen begins to lay and when she
stops, or, in other words, the length of the laying period; the
general physical condition of each bird; the length of the molt-
ing period; immunity from disease, or the ease with which they
are affected; the degree of broodiness; the nature of the eggs,
that is, size, shape and color. All these points have an eco-
nomic value. The hustling or hard-working hen is usually a
heavy layer. There is enough difference between the eggs of
hens in the same flock to make those from one worth 10 cents
per dozen more than those from another. Again, it is very
important that the degree of broodiness of the various hens in
a flock be known. By the use of leg bands or any other method
of studying the individual the owner is able to determine how
long it takes to break up each hen; also how often she becomes
broody. In making a study of our college flocks we have found
hens that become broody ten to twelve times per year, losing
one hundred and fifty or more days from broodiness, whereas
some were not broody at all, and others not more than once or
twice. Armed with these facts concerning the various hens the
owner will not hesitate in selecting a hen for the Sunday dinner
or the butcher. It is, therefore, easily seen that a thorough
knowledge of a back yard flock may be the cause of one's suc-
cess, as the "boarders" or non-productive birds can easily be
eliminated. Much interest in the birds themselves usually re-
sults from a careful study of the individual, — a factor of great
importance.

29

Culling.

During this period of high cost of feed the question of elimi-
nating the non-producers is receiving more attention than ever
before. It is very hard, indeed, to give specific directions for
culling a flock of pullets in the fall of the year. For example,
if you purchase a flock of twelve pullets, how can the inferior
ones be culled? In buying them you hope to get all high-
producing birds, but usually in a flock of twelve to fifteen there
may be one or two that are unprofitable. We have given the
characteristics of a high-producing bird and also of one that is
laying. These should enable you to detect the layers, and
therefore distinguish those that are slow in maturing. If a
pullet does not increase in weight, show comb development or
other signs of laying, and this condition continues for a few
weeks, I certainly would use her for a Sunday dinner; but
if she is increasing in weight and growing she is merely late in
maturing, rather than a bird whose tendency to lay eggs is
below normal. Under the study of the individual I have men-
tioned the subject of broodiness; birds that have this tendency
developed to such an extent that production does not pay for
the feed consumed should surely be disposed of. Again, if birds
stop laying and begin molting in July or August, and the owner
does not intend to dispose of the flock until September or
October, such birds should be disposed of at once because they
will probably not begin laying during the remainder of the year.
Any birds that appear anaemic, or are "going light," as most
poultrymen express it, should be removed from the flock, and
if there is no improvement, killed and buried deeply, or burned.
By close observation and study the practical back yard poultry-
man or woman can cull the flock to such an extent as to
change a possible failure into a profitable venture.

Breaking up the Broody Hen.
Those who have not kept data on broody hens do not know
the tremendous loss that may be sustained by not breaking
them up as soon as detected. When one realizes that in an
ordinary flock there may be 25 per cent broody at one time,
even when broken up as soon as noticed, it is easily understood

30

that egg production will be greatly reduced if these hens are
not looked after carefully. Many poultrymen make a great
mistake by allowing the hens to sit on the nests two or three
nights before placing them in the broody coop. By visiting
the poultry house every evening at dusk, those found on the
nests can be placed in the broody coop and kept there for three
or four days. It is a good plan to let the hens out of the coop
when the flock is fed in the afternoon or evening. Those that
go back to the nest should be again placed in the broody coop
for about three days more. About 85 per cent will be broken
up in three days, but there are some in which broodiness is so
strongly developed that it requires from six to eight days, and
occasionally longer. If, when the hens are released, they go on
to the roosts at roosting time, instead of the nests, their broody
spell is broken. Many people think it is necessary to starve
broody hens in order to break them up quickly, but this is an
erroneous idea. The aim of the poultryman is to bring them
back to laying as soon as possible; therefore give them plenty
of water, mash, grain, green feed, and if there are any feeds
that are especially palatable or tempting, give them to the
broody hen. The sooner they are broken up and begin laying
the sooner they become a source of revenue.

Responsibility.

In order to have hens do well it is necessary that they be fed
and watered regularly, and that the house be kept in a sanitary
condition. I am sure that in a family of four or five, no one of
which has a definite responsibility in regard to the care of the
flock, the hens will suffer, with a consequent decrease in egg
production. Therefore we highly recommend that the re-
sponsibility of the care and management of the flock be defi-
nitely placed. It does not mean that any one member of the
family must assume this all the time, but if the work is to be
divided, it should be definitely understood just what portion each
must do. Of course it is better to place the management of the
flock in the hands of one person, but if this cannot be done, the
work can be divided so that one member of the family can do
the work in the morning and another in the evening, etc.
Division of responsibility usually means neglect or trouble of
some kind.

31

Gentleness.

No other animals on the farm respond to kind treatment as
readily as hens. It is advisable, therefore, to be gentle with
them; in fact, make pets of them if possible. If they are
frightened by catching, or by dogs or cats, egg production is
likely to drop, and some may be injured by jumping against
the sides of the building or equipment, such as mash boxes,
hoppers, etc. They may be hurt internally as well as externally.
A broken egg within a hen sometimes results from fright. The
majority of poultry keepers are very proud of their birds, and
like to show them to their friends and neighbors, but if they
are scary, when visiting the poultry house the owner should
precede his guests, as the hens will not be so badly frightened
as though a stranger entered first. As a rule, it is better to
make observation from outside the yard rather than to go into
the house. Of course, if the hens are tame, it will make very
little difference.

House Management.

It is very difficult indeed to give general directions for regu-
lation of the openings of a poultry house, because so much
depends upon the location, the nature of the openings, the time
of year, the temperature and the hens themselves. The house
should be free from draughts and moisture. If the latter
gathers on the ceiling in drops or in the form of frost on the
glass, if any, the house is too close and should be opened or
ventilated. Dry and draughtless houses will do much to insure
healthy birds, and therefore good production. The following
directions have reference to the house illustrated in the pre-
ceding pages. Unless Leghorns, or some other Mediterranean
breed, are kept, the opening in the door and the one just above
it need not be covered with cloth, but if one of the above is
kept it may be necessary on the coldest nights to cover these
two openings w'ith some kind of cotton cloth or burlap.
During the coldest nights the other two openings should be
closed wath cloth screens provided for this purpose. If the
weather is fairly moderate only one is necessary, and if very
mild both screens should be left out. During the summer
months both screens should be removed and the door left open

32

nights unless you are in a thieving district, in which case it
is advisable to lock it. However, thieves who are very anxious
to get hens may carry shears and cut the wire. The droppings
board can be cleaned daily, every other day, twice a week or
once a week, but during the fly season it should be cleaned at
least twice a week in order to keep the flies from breeding.
The ventilator in the rear of the building should be opened only
during the warmest weather, at other times it should be kept
closed to avoid draughts. Be sure during the winter months
that this opening is closed tightly. If necessary, a small piece
of paper can be tacked over it on the inside. It is well to keep
the dust brushed off the various pieces of equipment in the
house.

Care of Poultry Manure.

As poultry droppings are very valuable fertilizer, special pains
should be taken to preserve them. For best results the drop-
pings should be removed daily and placed in a barrel or box, at
which time a little loam, road dust, sawdust or acid phosphate,
or any combination of these, can be sprinkled over them. The
main thing is to use something that will absorb the moisture
and prevent the escape of nitrogen. Do not use wood ashes or
lime for this purpose, as a chemical combination will be formed
which will result in the loss of most of the nitrogen. Some
"poultrymen sprinkle chemicals or loam over the droppings
board after the droppings have been removed, but this method
is not desirable because hens do a great deal of "wing flapping
in the morning before coming from the roosts, which blow^s
most of the chemicals and loam from the droppings board and
they are lost in the litter. Again, this literally covers the inside
of the poultry house with dust. If well preserved, the drop-
pings are worth 30 to 40 cents per hen annually, so it pays to
take care of them. If you have a garden the droppings can be
spread on it during the entire year when taken from the drop-
pings board, or they can be spread during the summer months
and stored in winter.

Yard Management.

About the only attention that is given the poultry yard
during the winter months is to keep the snow shoveled away
from the south side. Enough should be removed to allow the

33

door to open and shut freely, and to keep the ground exposed
if possible, so that on warm days, when the door is left open,
the hens can come out for sunshine and fresh air. Some people
believe that hens are badly injured by walking on the snow,
but this is erroneous. During the summer months, especially
if the yard is small, much attention should be given it, or the
surface of the ground will become badly contaminated and
odors will be sent forth throughout the neighborhood after a
warm rain and hot sun. Frequent cultivations are therefore
necessary. One of the best methods of handling a poultry
yard is to spade it once in two or three weeks and sow oats,
covering them as well as possible with a rake. The hens can be
turned out of the house immediately after the oats are sown.
For the first few days they will be scratching out dry oats, and
for the next few days sprouted oats, and later will be eating
the green shoots as they come up. After a period of two weeks
the ground will have been worked over thoroughly by the hens,
and the process of spading and sowing can be repeated. A
larger yard can be divided into sections by a movable gate or
gates, and while the hens are working over one part of it, oats
or rye can be started in the other portion, and an alternating
system throughout the summer used. This method of yard
management makes the hens work for their food out in the
open air, — a very good health renewer. If grapevines, trees,
berry bushes or other vines are not planted around the outside
of the yard it is well to sow sunflower seed early in the spring.
The seed should be planted a foot or more from the fence, so
that the hens cannot reach through and eat off the small plants
as they come up. These will furnish splendid shade during the
hot summer months, and the seed will make valuable fall or
winter feed.

Poultry Hygiene.

As most back yard poultry keepers purchase pullets each fall
and keep them until the following summer, there should be
a thorough housecleaning after the hens are sold, so that the
new flock may find their quarters absolutely free from disease
germs. The old adage "Cleanliness is next to Godliness" is
very applicable to poultry work, due to the fact that hens are
kept in flocks and handled collectively rather than individually,

34

as is the case with most other farm animals. General health of
fowls depends very largely upon the number of disease germs
they carry. They, like human beings, can withstand and ward
off disease when only carrying a limited number, but when the
system becomes overloaded the germs get the upper hand and
disease follows. Isolate sick birds as soon as detected, no mat-
ter what the symptoms are, and as long as they remain in the
detention coop always care for the flock before tending the sick
ones, and thus avoid the possibility of further contamination.

Disinfectants and Medicines.

There are very few things of this kind that the average back
yard poultry keeper needs. It is necessary to have a good dis-
infectant; most of the coal tar products on the market are
suitable, and if used according to directions will prove satis-
factory. Standard disinfectant is one of the cheapest and
most reliable. It should be used in a 3 per cent solution. A
great many people make a mistake by throwing only a light
spray of disinfectants. They should be used freely or until
the materials sprayed are well soaked or the disinfectant stands
in drops. The above is recommended for spraying at the annual
housecleaning time, or disinfecting equipment and utensils gen-
erally. For painting the roosts and adjacent parts for mites use
8 parts kerosene and 1 part crude carbolic acid, or any of the
coal tar disinfectants such as the Standard. This should be
applied freely with a brush. About the only medicines that one
should keep are epsom salts, sweet oil and possibly carbolated
vaseline.

Annual Housecleaning.

Remove all utensils and movable equipment such as roosts,
droppings board, nest boxes, broody coops, etc.; sweep the
walls and ceiling of the house very carefully, removing all dust
and cobwebs. The litter and sand should be spread on the
garden, as it is valuable for fertilizer. Then give the walls
another sweeping after which spray thoroughly with disinfect-
ant. The utensils should be washed, disinfected and dried
thoroughly before putting back. Two or three pails of scalding
water and a broom will do wonders in destroying germs, lice,

35

mites, etc.; use this freely. Whitewash iricay be used instead
of disinfectants, but it should not be allowed to stand more
than thirty-six hours after mixing, as it loses its disinfecting
powers very rapidly. Whitewash is not entirely satisfactory for
a small poultry house because it is very difficult to make a
whitewash that will not rub off freely, and the professional man
is continually soiling his clothes. Whitewash, if used, can be
spread with a brush or thinned and put on with a spray
pump.

Colds and Roup.

These two diseases are treated under the same head because
they are so much alike in the initial stages. At times the
poultryman will not know whether the hens are affected with
roup or merely colds. The symptoms are running at the nose,
coughing, sneezing, a rattle in the throat, and, after the initial
stage, inactivity and standing about with ruffled feathers. In
the latter stages of roup the head may be swollen and eye
bulged out; oftentimes an abscess forms below the eye. In the
worst stages of roup, that is, the diphtheritic type, yellow
patches are seen in the throat. This disease may appear any
time during the year, but is more prevalent in the fall and late
spring immediately foUow^ing the heavy laying season, which
evidently lowers the vitality of the birds and allows these germs
to get a foothold. The flock should be kept under close ob-
servation at all times, and all affected birds, as soon as detected,
placed in a coop or box until they have recovered. If they
grow worse the best treatment is to use an axe or hatchet and
burn or bury the carcass. By isolating, changing the drinking
water often, and keeping the utensils clean much can be done
to keep down this disease. Roup is probably one of the most
serious diseases with which poultrymen have to contend. It
seems almost impossible at times to eradicate it without dis-
posing of the entire flock, cleaning and disinfecting and starting
with new stock. Every year a large number of birds die of it,
and the egg production of others is lowered at times from 25 to
50 per cent; therefore any one keeping hens should not allow
this disease to get beyond his control.

36

Indigestion.

Fowls closely confined and fed mostly on rich, concentrated
feeds are very likely to have indigestion. A glance at the drop-
pings board in the morning will reveal the presence of any
trouble of this kind. Normal droppings are quite firm and keep
their shape. Thin or watery droppings indicate diarrhoea. If
such are noticed, endeavor to find the affected bird. A badly
soiled fiuff may assist in finding her. Such birds should be
given a dose of epsom salts or sweet oil. If left until they mope
about, the majority cannot be saved. From one-half to one
teaspoonful of epsom salts or 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls of sweet
oil are sufficient for a dose. The latter is best administered by
turning down the throat of the bird. The former can be dis-
solved in a little water and given in the same way, or, if the
entire flock is treated, dissolve in water and mix with soft feed.
Have the birds hungry so that each will get a share. It is
advisable to treat a flock once in six or seven weeks with
epsom salts, even if no symptoms manifest themselves. Some
poultrymen who feed a definite amount of dry mash daily oc-
casionally add a little epsom salts. Neighbors often throw
scraps and waste material into the yard, but this plan is to be
condemned, as in many instances they do not understand the
objectionable qualities of certain feeds, and therefore may give
things that will cause indigestion.

Rheumatism.

This is a disease that will not trouble back yard poultrymen
if the house is kept dry and in sanitary condition, but if it does
there is not much help for it. This disease is mentioned because
it is sometimes confused with what is known as leg weakness.

Leg Weakness.
This disease must not be confused with gout or rheumatism.
It usually comes on suddenly, and in many instances the birds
are found in the morning on the floor unable to stand or walk,
lying on their sides with feet and legs projecting, or, in other
words, there is partial paralysis. In some cases only one leg is
affected at first; in other respects the bird appears normal.

37

It flops about and tries to reach food, but when left alone,
being unable to get water and sufficient feed, gradually weak-
ens until death overtakes it. By placing affected birds in a
dry coop and giving good food, especially plenty of green stuff,
occasionally they will recover. If the birds do not recover in a
short time they should be killed. Very little is known about
the cause of this trouble.

Scaly Legs.

This is caused by a mite burrowing under the scales of the
shank. The roughened surface, a whitish powdery crustation
covering the shanks, is a by-product of these mites. It spreads
through a flock, injuring its appearance, and if not given atten-
tion will eat into the shanks, making the bird lame or even
causing blood poisoning. The shanks may become twice their
normal size. If this trouble makes its appearance fill a 2 or
3 quart pail nearly full of water and pour over the top a little
kerosene. Dip the shanks of the birds in this, immersing them
for a moment, then withdrawing slowly. By so doing the scales
will become somewhat softened and a portion of the kerosene
will adhere to the shanks. Do not dip them in pure kerosene,
as such treatment is too severe and may result in the loss of
the birds. Another method of treatment is to soak the shanks
in strong soapsuds, after which smear on a paste made of sul-
phur and lard. Continue treatment about twice a week until
the scales disappear. By painting the roosts with disinfectant
these mites will soon be destroyed.

Lice.
Lice live on the hens and do not leave their bodies during
life. They breathe through little pores in their sides so are very
easily destroyed by the use of dust, which smothers them by
stopping up these openings. The best way to keep down lice
is to have a good place for the hens to roll and dust. They fill
their feathers and cover their body with dust, and on shaking
themselves vigorously the lice are thrown from the body with
the dust and dirt. Healthy hens delight in dusting themselves,
and if the floor is covered with a few inches of sand or loam,
do so freely. Many people keep hens on a bare board or cement

38

floor, and furnish no dusting material. If sand or loam cannot
be used for the entire floor, a box 2 or 3 feet square placed in
a corner of the house and filled with wood ashes, a little sand or
loam will be very inviting to the hens. However, if the hens
are badly infested with body lice they should be dusted with
some reliable commercial powder. In applying this the hens
should be held with head down, the feathers spread open and
every part of the body covered with the dusting material. The
feathers should be fairly well filled with it.

Mites.

Mites are very troublesome in the poultry house. They are
small, and, when filled with blood, red in appearance, but when
kept away from hens for some time are gray, due to the lack
of blood in their bodies. They live in the cracks about the
droppings board, in and under roosts, and, in many instances,
get into the nest boxes. By examining closely the cracks or
hiding places about the roosts they can easily be seen with the
naked eye if present. A whitish powder, offal from the mites,
is evidence of their presence. They do not live upon the bodies
of the hens, but are nocturnal in habit and crawl from their
hiding places when the hens are on the roost, and after sucking
themselves full of blood return to their hiding places and wait
until the next evening. They multiply very rapidly in warm
w^eather, so weekly observations should be made. They can
easily be eradicated by painting the roosts and adjacent parts
with the mixture mentioned above. It should be applied
freely.

Rearing Chicks.

Most back yard poultry keepers prefer to buy pullets in the
fall rather than raise them. In congested districts, where the
amount of space available for poultry is small and cats and dogs
numerous, I am sure the people are justified in not attempting
to raise chicks. This is especially true if they are compelled to
be away from home a large part of the time, as chicks need
considerable attention the first few weeks. On the other hand,
there are sections in towns and cities more thinly populated
and back yards comparatively large where chicks can and

39

should be raised. It is much better for most people to secure
hatching eggs or baby chicks from a reliable poultryman than
to keep a male for breeding purposes. (See page 25.) As
early hatched chicks are the fall egg producers, it is advisable
to secure those hatched from about the middle of March to the
middle of April. Very early maturing stock, hatched late, may
prove satisfactory. At the age of ten weeks the males will be
ready for use as broilers, or can be kept for medium or large
roasters. The females should be retained for egg production,
except those that are stunted or undeveloped. These should be
eaten. People who have adequate facilities for raising chicks
find it a profitable way to secure their pullets, and the cockerels
will reduce the meat bill appreciably. Space will not permit a
full discussion of hatching and rearing, but the poultry depart-
ment of the college will be glad to forward a bulletin on this
subject upon application.

Preserving Eggs.

Various methods of preserving eggs have been tried from time
to time by experiment stations as well as the United States
government, and in practically every instance it was found that
water glass (sodium silicate) gave the best results. Eggs pre-
served in this were found to be in excellent condition after six
or eight months, so it is now coming into general use as an egg
preservative.

As a rule stone jars are used for this purpose, but where
large quantities are preserved, wooden receptacles, kegs with
one head removed, or barrels sawed in two in the middle can
be used. For ordinary family use the stone jars are recom-
mended, and the size will vary to suit the convenience of the
users. A 5-gallon jar will hold 15 dozen eggs, and will require
from 10 to 10| quarts of the liquid to cover them. The base-
ment of an ordinary dwelling is a suitable place for storage.
A cool room above ground may be used, provided the recepta-
cle is tightly covered to prevent rapid evaporation.

The method of preserving is as follows: clean the jars or
receptacles before using. A thorough rinsing with boiling water
will aid materially in destroying molds and bacteria. Either
hard or soft water may be used, and if it is not contaminated

40

in any way boiling is unnecessary. As a safeguard, however, it
is well to boil it. Fill the jars with eggs, being careful not to
break or crack them. See that ail have perfect shells and are
free from dirt. If it is absolutely necessary to use soiled eggs,
wash them thoroughly before preserving. Fill the jars within
2 inches of the top with eggs. "When the water is cool make the
preserving mixture by using 1 quart of commercial water glass,
which can be purchased at any drug store, to 12 quarts of
water, or in that proportion. The number of quarts of water
to use with 1 quart of water glass, as recommended by investi-
gators, varies from 9 to 14, and the weaker solution is ap-
parently as good a preservative as the stronger. The stronger
the solution the fewer the chances for bacterial growth, but
the greater will be the precipitate (the white, mushy material
that forms) and the greater the cost also. One is perfectly safe,
therefore, in using a solution of 1 to 12 or even 14.

Pour the mixture over the eggs until they are entirely covered.
Those not fully immersed will spoil. Cover the receptacle as
tightly as possible by placing over it a few thicknesses of paper,
and over these a weighted board, unless a well-fitting cover is at
hand. There are times when enough eggs are not at hand to
fill the jar. In such cases the mixture can be placed in the jar
and the eggs immersed day by day, or as they are gathered.
The only caution in regard to this method is to have the hands
perfectly clean. At times a pinkish tinge is noticed in whites of
the eggs that have been preserved for some time. As this is not
seen in those kept in a weak solution, it is probably due to an
excess of silicate of sodium. It is perfectly harmless and should
cause no alarm. Use a new solution each year.

Department Bulletin No. 2

January, 1921

all|p (Eommntimpaltli of M<xBiantl\ixBtttB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Dr, ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner
136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON 9

FOOD, FEEDING AND DRINKING APPLIANCES

AND NESTING MATERIAL TO

ATTRACT BIRDS

Revised from Department Circular No. 2. Third Edition

EDWARD HOWE FORBU5H

Chickadee feeding from the hand.

Fig. 1. — Cat-proof fence and other devices for protecting birds from cats. (From
Economic Biology Bulletin No. 2, Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, 1916.)

CONTENTS.

Introduction, ....
Location of Feeding Stations,
Food Supplies for Feeding Stations:

Grain,

Seeds,

Nuts,

Fruit, .

Animal Food,

Vegetable Substitutes,

Mixed Foods,

]\Iiscellaneous Foods,

Grit,

Water,

Bird Baths and Drinking Fountains
Appliances for Feeding Birds: —

Placing Suet,

Suet Baskets. A Warning!,

Ground Feeding, .

A Great Attraction,

The Feeding Shelf,

The Window Box.

The Weathervane Food House,

Anti-Squirrel and Anti-Sparrow Devices,
Methods of attracting Certain Desirable or Beautiful Birds

Wild Fowl, '. . . .

Game Birds, ....

Mourning Dove, .

Northern Flicker,

Downy Woodpecker, .

'\\niippoorwill,

Kingbird, ....

Ruby-throated Humming Bird,

Horned Lark,

Blue Jay, ....

Red-winged Blackbird.

Meadowlark.

PAGE

5
6

7

7

8

8

8

9

9

10

11

11

12

14
14
15
15
16
17
18
19

21
22
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
25
25

Methods of attracting, etc. — Concluded
Baltimore Oriole, .
Evening Grosbeak,
Pine Grosbeak,
Purple Finch,
Crossbills,
Redpolls,
Pine Siskin, .
Goldfinch,
Snow Bunting,
Wliite-throated Sparrow,
Wliite-crowned Sparrow,
Fox Sparrow,
Towhee, .

Rose-breasted Grosbeak,
Indigo Bunting, .
Scarlet Tanager, .
Swallows,
Purple Martin,
Vireos, .
Cedar Waxwing. .
Yellow Warbler,
Myrtle Warbler, .
Pine Warbler,
Mocldngbird,
Catbird, .
Brown Thrasher, .■
House Wren,
Brown Creeper,
Nuthatches, .
Chickadee,
Hermit Thrush,
Olive-backed Thrush,
Robin,
Bluebird,

PAGE

. 25
. 26
. 26
. 27
. 27
. 28
. 28
. 28
. 29
. 29
. 29
. 29
. 29
. 29
. 30
. 30
. 30
. 31
. 31
. 31
. 31
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. 33
. 33
. 33
. 34
. 34
. 34
. 34
. 34
. 35
. 36

Food, Feeding and Drinking Appliances, and
Nesting Material to Attract Birds.

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH.

Introduction.

"Safety first" should be the motto of all who wish to attract
birds about the home. Those who succeed in increasing the
numbers of birds will also attract birds' enemies. House cats
should be eliminated or confined. Mr. Hamilton Gibson of
Sheffield was eminently successful in colonizing birds about his
place, and he places the extirpation of house cats first among
the measures that insure success, and says that certain "acres
of melody," formerly his bird preserve, "have been converted
into a barren hunting ground" by new tenants who brought
cats. Dogs and cats may be kept out of any enclosure by a
cat-proof fence. The only one I have known to be always
successful is that shown in Fig. 1, which should be built of
fine-meshed wire netting, 6 feet high, with a fish net suspended
from slim poles at the top. Squirrels, particularly the red,
certain hawks, crows and often jays, large snakes and all other
creatures that destroy birds must be controlled. Tangles of
vines and dense, thorny shrubbery should be cultivated as
places of shelter and retreat for small birds when pursued by
their enemies.

The first and greatest need of birds is food, of which they
require great quantities. Feeding the birds is not so much a
duty as a pleasure. The highest form of enjoyment lies in car-
ing for our fellow creatures. If we feed birds we may have the
pleasure of their lively company during the cold monotony of
winter on the farm. IVIany people have so won the confidence
and trust of certain winter birds that they will eat from the
hand. The cut on the title page, reproduced from a photograph
kindly furnished by j\Ir. Alexander Henderson, illustrates such

6

an incident. In normal seasons birds can find food somewhere,
except in the stress of winter, when deep snow covers the
ground and ice encases the trees; then they face starvation.
Also there are exceptional times in spring and autumn when the
lives of birds may be endangered in unusually cold or wet,
sleety weather, when they become chilled and cannot find suf-
ficient food. Food provided for them then may save many from
starvation. When a feeding place has been established and
accepted by the birds, a supply of food should be kept there
throughout the year, that they may know where to find it at
all times in case of a sudden scarcity. Birds will breed faster
if fed well, and extra food is often a great assistance to parent
birds who may come to depend on it at times while feeding
their young on insects.

Location of Feeding Stations.

A feeding station for winter use should be located, if possible,
in a sunny spot, on the south side of a hill, bluff, building,
thicket or belt of coniferous trees, where the birds will be pro-
tected from cold winds. Food at an established feeding place
will supply the birds of the neighborhood during any time of
want. It will assure their presence and they will attract many
others. For every minute a bird spends in eating such substi-
tutes for its natural food as we may provide, it spends many
minutes destroying insects, among them some of the greatest
pests of farm and garden.

In my boyhood I observed that the skinned carcasses of

small animals hung up in the shelter of the woods by trappers

V- . |k_ were utilized as food in winter by

"~^ crows, jays, chickadees, nuthatches

- '■^'^ ^- __,,3j^ and woodpeckers, and that juncos.

tree sparrows, snow buntings and
-■■ "^fcl^- '-' ' other seed eaters sought food

. ~^^i-. ::%.;- • * among the chaff scattered about

' ''''i - ' barnyards or in farm sheds when

Fig. 2. - Hayseed scattered on the gllOW lay deep OU the grOUud.
snow.

Such materials are all that are nec-
essary to attract most winter birds, but possibly a larger number
of species may be lured by using a greater variety of food, and

as many people are now feeding birds it is probable that those
who provide the greatest diversity of favorite foods will attract
the largest number and variety of birds.

Food Supplies for Feeding Stations.

Graiji.

Whole grain, which can be used for human food, for farm ani-
mals or poultry, is unnecessary for feeding small birds. Little
birds prefer smaller seeds, but grain may be used for feeding
game birds. Broken or boiled rice, popcorn, cracked corn, hom-
iny, rolled oats, or whole oats, rye, barley, wheat and buck-
wheat sometimes are used in feeding game birds or song birds.
Where there are many rank weeds carrying their seeds above
the level of the snow, the smaller seed-eating birds require
little else. But where weeds are not allowed to grow, or where
they are covered with snow, other food should be provided.
Chick feed sold by poultry supply houses contains weed seeds
and small or broken grains, and therefore is relished by seed-
eating birds.

Seeds.

Most small seeds are eaten by birds. Weed seeds and grass
seeds are favorites. Broken squash and pumpkin seeds are
taken by a few species. Such seeds as those of the sunflower
and hemp may be recommended for winter feeding because of
the bodily warmth that they produce. Millet seed, particularly
that of the Japanese, Hungarian and Golden millets, and
mixed bird seed have been utilized as food for small birds.
The millets can be raised in Massachusetts and a supply of
seed threshed out for the birds each autumn. Mrs. Arthur
Caswell says that all the sparrows like the seed of the golden
millet. Mr. V\\ L. McAtee of the Biological Survey recom-
mends prince's-feather, love-lies-bleeding, asters, Calandrinias,
blessed thistle, tarweed, portulaca and California poppies as
cultivated annual plants the seeds of which are attractive to
seed-eating birds. ^ The cones of coniferous trees, such as the
pine, larch and spruce, if containing seeds, may attract some
species.

1 United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers Bulletin No. 621.

8

Nuts.

Chickadees, nuthatches and many other birds are fond of
nut meats. Robert Ridgway, the eminent ornithologist of the
Smithsonian Institution, writing of conditions about his home
in southern Illinois, where 38 species of birds winter, said that
the favorite food was native nuts, including black walnuts,
hickory, pecan and butternuts, in the order named, and that so
long as these were provided and cracked, the birds would eat
nothing else put out for them, even English walnuts and pea-
nuts being discarded when they could get native nuts.^ In
New England the kernel of the butternut is a favorite food;
unroasted peanuts' are eaten by several species, and even the
cocoanut is not disdained by some. Walnuts, chestnuts, beech-
nuts or native nuts of any kind are useful. Nuts are rather
expensive food for birds, and certain acorns might be gathered
in autumn, cracked, ground and substituted for nuts.

Fruit.

Dried currants, blueberries, raspberries, raisins and figs have
been used to attract fruit-eating birds. Many birds eat frosted
apples or crab apples in winter. Any of the wdld summer fruits
attractive to birds may be saved and dried for winter use, or
w^ild fruits that remain on the stem in winter may be gathered
for the food tables. (See Circular No. 13, published by the
Massachusetts State Department of Agriculture.)

Animal Food.

Boiled eggs or their shells, refuse bones from the table, mar-
rowbones cracked open so that the birds may get at the marrow,
the bony framework of a cooked fowl, or the bones of a fish
offer good pickings for insectivorous birds in winter. The fatty
trimmings of beef, pork or mutton, pork rind, suet, lard or por-
tions of the carcasses of animals rarely or never used for human
food, such as skunks, muskrats, weasels, cats, etc., may be
utilized in providing animal food in winter, when birds most
need it. Cottage cheese is an excellent food that is relished
more than meat or fat by some insectivorous birds. Mrs.
E. O. Marshall writes that many birds show a marked pref-
erence for cheese curds.

I "Bird-Lore," Vol. XVII., No. 2, March-April, 1915, p. 102.

9

Vegetable Substitutes.

Vegetarians and those who object to hanging np pieces of
slaughtered carcasses in view of their windows may substitute
nuts, sunflower seeds, halved cocoanuts, peanut butter, mashed
potato or vegetable fats for meat, bones or suet in winter.

Mixed Foods.

]\Iixed foods may not be necessary, but they have been used
in winter with great success both in Europe and America. The
idea seems to have originated with the Baron von Berlepsch of
Thuringia,^ and the formula that he uses follows: —

Ounces.

White bread (dried and ground),

441

Meat,

3

Hempseed, .

6

Crushed hempseed,

3

Maw, .

■ ■■■'>^ ■

3

Poppy flour.

21

Millet (white), .

■■■., ,$>i

3

Oats,

U

Dried elderberries,

,

n

Sunflower seeds, .

-'■-

n

Ants' eggs, .

.

. u

To this total quantity of ingredients about one and one-half
times as much of beef or mutton fat or suet is added, and the
whole heated to the boiling point. Dr. Eleanor Mellen says that
Hamburg steak that is easily obtained may be dried and used
as one ingredient, and that if some of the others are not ob-
tainable they may be omitted. Ground doughnuts and dog
bread may be added. The mess being in a fluid state must be
carried in a suitable receptacle to some dead coniferous tree.
A small spruce Christmas tree is excellent for the purpose. The
mixture is then ladled on the branches, care being taken to
keep it stirred that the heavier ingredients may not settle to the
bottom. A covered pan like a baking pan with a bale attached
is useful for carrying the hot mixture. In pouring it on the

I Heismann, Martin: How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds. Translated into English by
Emma Buchheim, 1912, p. 74.

10

branches one person ladles the mixture while another holds the
cover underneath to catch the drippings. In cold weather the
suet hardens quickly and thus both insect-eating and seed-
eating birds find food provided for them in abundance in a
natural situation where they must inevitably find it.

Fig. 3. — Wellesley food bell. An inexpensive and effective appliance
for feeding birds with small seeds, made from a bottle, some wire,
some sheet zinc and the saucer of a flower pot. (Photographed by
John C. Lee.)

MisceUaneous Foods.
Crumbs and scraps from the table may be used, such as
squash rinds and the skins of baked potatoes. White bread
crumbs are eaten by some birds, but white bread is not a
complete food and many birds will eat cake or doughnut
crumbs in preference. Pumpkin pie is a favorite. Crumbs of
dog biscuit form a more complete food than white bread, but
some birds will not eat these crumbs. Most birds do not
require salt, and too much is believed to be fatal. Few birds,
except sea fowl, can drink salt water, but crossbills and certain
doves and pigeons are fond of it.

11

Grit.
Grit of some kind to aid in digestion is as essential as food to
seed-eating birds. In winter, when deep-crnsted snow covers the

Fig. 4. — • VVellesley receptacle for feeding birds on table scraps. This
was invented by John C. Lee of VVellesley. The cover is removed at
first to attract the birds, and is then replaced to keep out rain and
snow; the birds then enter at openings. (Photograph by Mr. Lee.)

earth, such birds not being able to find grit may suffer much for
want of it, and then we should supply it. Brands of chick-feed
containing sharp grit are
popular with birds in winter.
Sharp sand, pounded crock-
ery or earthenware, broken
plaster, or even coal ashes
may be used.

Water.

Water is a great attrac-
tion. Ridgway asserts tlint

at his home, where the summers are warm and dry, the provision
of water for bathing and drinking has far more to do with attract-

FlG.

A natural hollow stone serves as a
bird bath.

12

ing birds than anything else. Water will attract birds not only
in summer but also in winter, and some people even go so far
as to heat water for the birds in inclement weather, an atten-
tion which their feathered friends seem to appreciate. If a
generous supply of water can be provided in summer it may be
the means of saving much juicy fruit that otherwise would be
eaten by birds.

Bird Baths and Drinking Fountains.

No one who has not maintained a bird bath can have any
realization of its attractiveness. Drinking and bathing places
for the birds are used mainly in summer. The difficulties
of maintaining them in winter are manifest. The covers
of earthenware jars, inverted and filled, will make excellent
bird baths, as each has a low rim for a perch and the depth

of the water is graduated. A

milk pan set on a post high

enough to be out of reach of

cats, and filled with fresh

water daily, or oftener if nec-
essary, will make an excellent

bird bath if a shelving stone

be placed in it so that the depth

of water over it will vary from

one-half inch to 3 inches. A

hollow in a bowlder will answer

the same purpose, if the water

be swept out often and the

hollow refilled. Where running

water is available a pipe may
be carried from the house down through the cellar and under-
ground to a standard in a flower bed on which a shallow pan
(Fig. 7) may be used as a receptacle for the water. Water may
be turned into the pan at any time from the tap or faucet in
the house, and the water running over the rim will serve to
water the plants below. There should be a vent on the pipe in
the cellar through which the water may be drained off in
autumn before the ground freezes. In some cases a hose is
used for filling the pan. Sometimes where there is no running

<##?■'

Fig. 6. — A pan
of water, and
one of mud for
the use of birds
in nest build-
ing.

Fig. 7. — Bird
baths. Upper of
concrete or pot-
tery; lower of
metal. (After
Biological Sur-
vey.)

13

water the water pipe from the refrigerator or iee chest is
carried to a pan sunk in the turf, but baths set up on high

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Sketches of successful bird fountains designed by Dr. C. F. Hodge.

standards where cats cannot reach them are safer. A small
bird bath for little birds should be so made that, when filled,
the water will not be
more than 2^ inches deep,
with a gradual lessening
in depth to one-half inch
near the edge, and a
roughened bottom to give
good foothold. This will
safely accommodate all
little birds, but if larger
birds, such as grackles
and flickers, come to
bathe they will wade into
water at least 5 inches
deep. Therefore a large
bath or a pool several
feet in diameter is a great
attraction. This may be
5 inches deep at the
center, gradually shoal-
ing to the sides. Orna-
mental bird baths and fountains made of rocks and cement
and surrounded by wild flowers, ferns, etc., add to the beauty

Fig. 10.

- Dr. Fr.aiik M. Chapriuiiis bird pool.
(Courtesy of "Bird-Lore.")

14

of the home environment. Water at all drinking places should
be renewed once each day in hot weather. If the receptacles
are small the birds themselves may empty them oftener than

Fig. 11. — Bird bath of rocks and concrete. (Photograph by Albert C.

Anderson.)

this. All containers of water should be emptied as often as
once in three days in summer, to avoid establishing breeding
places for mosquitoes. Place bird baths where they will be in
the shade during the heat of the day, and allow no cover im-
mediately about them to hide the approach of
cats. Cats soon learn where birds come to bathe.

Appliances for Feeding Birds.
Placing Suet.
Suet, fresh beef trimmings or meat may be tied
to a limb of a tree with string. The string is
wound about it in such a way as to bind it on and
prevent crows or jays from carrying off the whole
piece or securing any large part of it at one time.

Fig. 12. — Suet
lashed to a
branch.

Suet Baskets. A Warning !

Suet is commonly put out for birds in wire or iron receptacles

fastened to the trees. These baskets may endanger the eyes of

the birds in very cold weather when the iron is full of frost. INIr.

Harry J. Ladue of St. Pet.er, Wisconsin, found a brown creeper

15

Fig. 13. — Co-
coanut lunch
basket. The
cavity is
filled with
some food
mixture.

caught on a wire basket. In thrusting its head in between the
wires for suet one of its moist eyes accidentally came in contact
with the frosty wire. Any one who has ever
touched his tongue to an iron bar full of frost
will appreciate what happened. The
eye froze to the wire and in its
struggles the bird tore out the
eyeball.^ This may be a very rare
occurrence, but where it has been
observed and published but once it
may have occurred many times un-
noted. The best suet receptacle is
a crocheted bag made of twine, such fig.h. — Asoap

rack used for

as is made by Mrs. E. O. Marshall suet.

(see Fig. 15), and tacked to a
small, thin piece of board, or hung from a branch by a long
cord. Fine twine netting such as is used for shrimp nets or
crab nets might be utilized for this purpose.

Ground Feeding.
Sparrows and other ground-frequenting birds
may be fed on the ground or on the snow, their
normal feeding place in winter, and such feeding
often becomes necessary at first to accustom
them to come to food receptacles; but food
thrown upon the ground is likely to be wasted,
spoiled by rain or covered b}^ snow and ice,
unless under cover. Also, birds feeding on the ground are
often endangered bv the attacks of cats or hawks.

Fig. 15.— Cro-
cheted suet
ba;;.

A Great Attraction.
There is no more popular refuge for ground birds than a
heap of brush. Bushes or tree limbs may be cut and piled on
the ground near the feeding places. Seed-bearing weeds may
be pulled up and mixed with the brush, or the pile may be
thatched with them, hayseed may be thrown into the pile, and
in winter it may be roofed over with branches of pine or other

1 Fias, Feathers and Fur. Official Bulletin of the Minnesota Game and Fish Department,
No. 12, December, 1917, p. 5.

16

conifers, if necessary, to keep out the snow. Birds will seek it
as a refuge and shelter from their enemies, and it may save the
lives of many. A tight dry-goods box placed on one side so as

Fiei. l(i. — The simplest food house. A dry-goods box, with chaff
and hayseed.

to open toward the south, or a scratching shed for poultry, is
an ideal place for feeding such birds, for it furnishes shelter
from w4nd and rain, and the birds can go in easily through the
wire netting in front, and are then protected from cats and

other enemies, which cannot pass through

the netting.

The Feeding Shelf.
The feeding shelf or table is useful if
set at a window high enough so that dogs
and cats cannot reach it. Such a shelf
may be placed on the south side of a
house. It may be kept clear of snow
and supplied with food from inside by
raising the window, and the birds may
be watched at close range through a sash
curtain, which conceals the watcher. If
the birds do not come readily to this con-

FiG. 17. — Window feeding
shelf and feed hopper.
(After Biological Sur-
vey.)

17

Fig. 18. — Trolley food
shelf. (After Ladd.)

trivance, a moving food shelf may be hung from a wire reach-
ing to some near-by tree where the birds may be fed at first,
and when they have become accustomed to this, the "trolley"
shelf may be moved nearer and nearer the
window shelf day by day, until they have
learned to feed there, when the use of the
trolley may be discontinued. If the ground
birds do not come to the shelf at first, they
may be fed on the ground near by, and
then tolled nearer and nearer the shelf
until they follow the tree birds to it. A
little bush or tree set upon the shelf and supplied with food
attached to the branches will give the arboreal species a chance
to display their natural feeding habits, while the ground birds
will feed mainly on the shelf. A food hopper may be provided,
as shown in Fig. 17. Such a hopper filled with seed will feed
it down as the birds want it, so long as it is kept clear of snow
and ice.

The Windoiv Box.

In some respects the covered shelf or window box is an im-
provement on the outdoor shelf. In it the food and the birds
are protected from storm and
wind, and it brings the birds
practically into the room.
Birds soon become accustomed
to it and frequent it in con-
siderable numbers.

The Weathervane Food House.

The weathervane food house
is the most perfect device yet
invented for outdoor feeding,
but it should have a hopper
built into the top that can be

filled with seed. This hopper should be large enough to hold
a month's supply of seed, and should be made to "feed down"
as fast as the birds eat the food at the bottom. The weather-
vane food house swings with the wind and always keeps the
opening away from wind and storm. The food house shown in

Fig. 19. — Window box.

(From " How to Attract Wild Birds about the

Home." By Niel Morrow Ladd.)

18

Fig. 20 is the best that I have tried. It is made of seven-
eighths-inch cypress boards mounted on an iron rod, and revolves
on an iron socket. The lower box is 18| inches long and 22
inches wide, with a narrow pane of glass extending across the
closed front to let in light. The whole contrivance including
the vanes is 36| inches in length at the bottom. The vanes
which are bolted to the box extend 24f inches beyond it at
the bottom and about 2| inches more at the top, as they are
cut at an angle. They are 9 inches wide at the end. The vane
and the side of the lower box might well be made in one con-

Fig. 20. — An excellent weathervane food house. The upper
part contains a hopper, to be filled with seeds. (Original
photograph.)

tinuous piece. The upper box is a little larger than the lower
box, is nailed upon it, and the cover which overlaps it all
around is covered with the best roofing felt to keep out all
moisture. The floor of the upper box or hopper is covered
with zinc to facilitate the sliding down of the seed which goes
into two conductors, one on either side at the back. The glass
extending across these enables one to see if there is food in
the hopper without raising the cover, which is hinged and may
be readily opened by pressing a bolt on the right side. The
hopper will hold seed enough to last for weeks, and a suet rack

19

or bag may be suspended from one side near the open front.
It may be necessary to attract the birds to it at first by putting
out chaff on the ground beneath and suet on some near-by
tree. A little observation will teach one how to lure the birds
to it, and when they have once learned to come they will prefer
it in winter to the unsheltered ground. The seed cannot blow
out, snow and rain cannot blow in, and if it is so mounted
that cats and squirrels cannot get in, it is as nearly perfect a
feeding appliance as can be made.

Fig. 21. — Food house used in the sanctuary of the Charlestown
Bird Club, Charlestown, New Hampshire. Suet is placed in
the lower tray to attract the birds until thej' find the upper
tray, which is protected from storm. (Photograph by courtesy
of Walter M. Buswell.)

Anti-Squirrel and Anti-Sparroiv Devices.
Gray squirrels are so greedy that often they are not satis-
fied to take the food as it comes from the hopper, but gnaw away

20

the boards in order to get all of it at once, thus ruining the
hopper. A good device to prevent squirrels from climbing to
the food house would be an iron rod as a support for the house,
6 feet in height. Now and then some agile squirrel will sur-
mount almost any contrivance that may be invented to block
its passage. Then there is nothing to be done but to trap or
shoot the squirrel, or to surround the supporting post with
several rows of large fish-hooks, closely set, nailed, stapled or
wired on with the points downward. This is said to be effective
but may not be so in all cases.

Those who do not care to feed English sparrows or: squirrels
may try any of the" following devices: two pieces of suet may
be tied up with twine and connected by a piece of string about
a foot long. This may be thrown over a limb or
a wire, as boys throw horse-chestnuts, and if
thrown with sufficient force the string will wind
about its support, leaving the balls of suet
hanging. Native birds will readily cling on and
feed, but the sparrows
find it difficult. This
method is used success-
fullv bv Miss Cordelia
Stanwood of Ellsworth,
Maine. Miss Agnes M. Learned lashes suet to light sticks and
suspends them by string, puts food in small suspended baskets
that sway in the wind, and stuffs suet into cracks in the bark on
the under side of willow limbs. Another successful plan is the
use of the so-called food stick. (See Fig. 23.) Suet or tallow is
melted, mixed with bird seed, and poured into inch auger holes
made in a stick or section of a branch. When the contents of
the holes have been hardened by the frost the stick is nailed or
tied under the branch of a tree, with the filled holes upside down.
Dr. E. W. Victor publishes a cut of a food stick used in Prospect
Park. Brooklyn, New York.^ This stick is grooved deeply along
its length, the grooves filled with fat and seeds, the stick bound
around with a netting of half-inch mesh, and then wired paral-
lel to a slender upright limb, or underneath a horizontal one.
English sparrows and squirrels cannot feed readily from these

Fig. 22. — Suet
hung by string.

Fig. 23. — Food stick showing
holes for seeds and fat.

1 The Brooklyn Museum Quarterly, July, 1916, p. 105.

WmdoW

21

food sticks so placed. The hinged shelf for feeding birds at the
window, supported at its outer edge by a light steel or brass
wire rolled into the shape of
a spring in the center, is said |

to be sparrow-proof. (See
Fig. 24.) This shelf is ap-
parently unstable and shakes
when the birds alight on it.
The sparrows appear to fear
the motion, while native
birds do not. Mr. Wm. E.
Saunders of London, On-
tario, pours melted tallow^
or fat mixed with sunflower
seeds upon a flat board with
a perch to w'hich the native
birds can cling, and then
when the mixture has hard-
ened fastens up the board in an inverted position. (Fig.
25.)

Hi

nqe

.-fo°

Board io"lonq by 6'hiqK

Fig. 24. — Diagram of food shelf designed
to repel the English sparrow. (Courtesy
of "Bird-Lore.")

E

Jb. --

! li- -v- ''

Fig. 25. — Feeding device to checkmate English sparrows.
(Invented by Mr. Wm. E. Saunders.)

INIethods of attracting Certain Desirable or BEAUTirrL

Birds.

Wild Fold.
If wild fowl are to be attracted there must be a pool, lake,
stream or river, or an arm of the sea. A small pond made by
damming a brook will suffice. Here a few call ducks, or mal-
lards, should be kept to decoy the wild birds. The pond may
be surrounded with a fine-meshed wire fence, turned flat on the
ground outside for at least 6 inches, to keep out natural ene-
mies, and grain may be thrown into a foot or two of water
where ducks or geese will readily find it and where land birds
cannot get at it. It is important to use fine wire netting and
cement at inlet and outlet so that large fish, turtles or minks

22

cannot get in. The attractiveness of the pond may be increased
by propagating wild water plants, such as are described in
Bulletin No. 205 of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, entitled "Eleven Important Wild Duck Foods," and in
Bulletin No. 465 of the same department, entitled "Propaga-
tion of Wild Duck Foods." These bulletins may be obtained by
writing to the Division of Publications, Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington, District of Columbia.

Gavie Birds.
The chief means of attracting game birds such as ruffed
grouse, bobwhites or" pheasants is to feed them in winter and

Fig. 26. — • A very successful box for
feeding bobwhites in winter.

Fig. 27. — Method of camouflaging the
box with brush.

(Cuts by courtesy of the Massachusetts Fish and Game Protective Association.)

protect them against their enemies. Grain is the chief food
used for winter feeding, and a good supply of grit is essential
when the snow lies deep on the ground. The bobwhite is very
fond of buckwheat. Shelters suitable for feeding most game
birds are shown in Figs. ^6, 27 and 30. It is well to provide
food plants such as these birds prefer in summer. A list of the
fruits and seeds eaten by the bobwhite is given in "Game Birds,
Wild Fowl and Shore Birds," on pages 582 to 585, published
by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. In the same
volume is given a list of the food plants of the ruffed grouse.
Circular No. 13, published by the Massachusetts State Depart-
ment of Agriculture, gives on page 15 some material on the

23

same subject. The bobwhite is fond of briar patches, weed
patches, grain and buckwheat fields, mowing fields and potato
fields. It likes potato beetles. It may be fed small grain or
chaft' in winter under brush shelters, and will generally nest
where it is well treated.

Mourning Dove.
Nothing succeeds in attracting this bird like weedy grain
fields and buckwheat fields.^ About sunset the dove goes to
some pool to drink and bathe, therefore a drinking place is an
added attraction.

Northern Flicker.
Flickers may be attracted in summer by nesting boxes. (See
Circular No. 10, Massachusetts State Department of Agriculture,
entitled "Bird Houses and Nesting Boxes.") The flicker is
fond of the fruit of the chokecherry or rumcherry, and the tupelo,
or sour gum, as it grows on the tree. It may alw^ays be found
in August and September eating the fruit of these trees. It
turns to the fruit of the mountain ash, poison ivy, Virginia
juniper and bayberry, or wax myrtle, in winter. In severe
winter weather it sometimes comes to suet and ground raw or
roasted peanuts put out for other winter birds.

Downy Woodpecker. .
Suet, pork fat or meat almost always attracts this species
and the hairy woodpecker. Both species sometimes eat crumbs.
The downy rarely if ever nests in a nesting box, but will often
sleep in one placed near a feeding station in winter.

Whippoorwill.
The whippoorwill is a very useful bird — a great destroyer of
mosquitoes and other noxious nocturnal insects. It likes to sit
and call on a large stone, which accounts for its propensity to
alight on the door stones of farmhouses. Mr. Stanley H. Brom-
ley tells of a farmer who provided a large tray filled with fine
dry wood ashes to which the whippoorwills came at evening
to dust their feathers. This suggests an interesting experiment.

1 Buckwheat also attracts many other birds.

24

Kingbird.

This bird is desirable, as it drives hawks and crows awav in
the nesting season. It often nests in apple orchards, and is
sometimes attracted by putting out nesting material, such as
cotton batting, cotton waste, and cotton strings and yarn about
a foot long hung on the branches. Kingbirds eat bees, but
catch principally drones, also robber flies which are detrimental
to bees. Mrs. Olivia G. Carroll found a kingbird's nest almost
completely made of yarn, which she had put out for the accom-
modation of the birds.

Ruby-throated Hummingbird.

The hummingbirds come readily to deep flowers, columbine,
bee balm, gladioli, nasturtiums, etc. They delight in the blooms
of the apple and cherry trees. Miss Grace C. White asserts
that these birds are extremely fond of tiger lilies. They appear
to be fond of red or orange blossoms. Mrs. Doubleday recom-
mends painted cup or Indian paintbrush, jewelweed, Oswego
tea, scarlet salvia, trumpet creeper, cardinal flower, cannas,
scarlet runner, fuchsias and pelargoniums; others recommend
the ragged sailor, catnip and caragana. A judicious selection
of the plants named above is quite sure to attract hummers.
Hummingbirds have fed often from large artificial flowers with
small vials of sugar and w^ater concealed in the base of each
flower.

Horned Lark.
An interesting handsome winter species, sometimes attracted
by millet seed, oats or cracked corn thrown on the ground or
snow.

Blue Jay.
The blue jay is quite omnivorous, and will eat meat and
suet. Possibly such food provided during the spring would
supply the place of the eggs and young of other birds that it is
known to take. Acorns, chestnuts and corn are all acceptable,
and will attract it, particularly in autumn and winter. Frozen
milk is preferred to snow.

25

Red-icinged Blackbird.

Nothing seems so attractive to this bird as oats thrown on
the ground. It will find such food at any season.

Meadoivlark.
This bird prefers insects to all other food, but in winter will
eat small whole grain or cracked corn. When snow lies deep
on the ground it comes readily to a patch of chaff thrown on
the snow or even on a burlap sack, and feeds about poultry
houses, picking up the scattered grain. Dr. N. Chandler Foot
recommends mixed hempseed and cracked corn. Miss Evie W.
Drew writes that the larks "just stuffed themselves with buck-
wheat and chick-feed " during the winter of 1917-18. This species
is wintering more and more in New England. In summer it is
fond of old fields where the grass is never cut, and nests by
preference in such places.

tial.

Baltimore Oriole.
The Baltimore oriole nests in elms, but these are not essen-
Worsted, w^ool and cotton waste for nesting material uill
attract it. Cotton twine, strings, yarn
and horsehair cut to lengths of about
14 inches and hung out on tree branches
may decide it to build its nest anywhere.
Dr. N. Chandler Foot recommends
worsted and wool, or cotton waste.
JNIrs. Olivia G. Carroll hangs in con-
spicuous positions a number of crocheted
bags or balls, which she fills with pieces
of string and cotton batting, and then
draws through the interstices twine,
yarn, silk floss, thread and horsehair cut
in lengths of 12 to 15 inches, and left
with both ends hanging out. (See Figs.
28 and 29.) Orioles and vireos seek such
material often for their nests, and will build where
thev find it easilv accessible, but Mrs. Carroll savs
that she has seen kingbirds, chipping sparrows, song sparrows,
barn swallows, vireos, robins, goldfinches, cedar waxwings and

Fig. 2S.— Cro-
cheted ball
filled with cot-
ton batting for
nest builders.

Fig. 29. — The
same ball with
yarn, string
and horsehair
added.

26

hummingbirds pulling the material from the bags. The use of
bright-colored yarns seems to attract the birds, although the
red yarn apparently is not so much sought after as that of other
colors, and sometimes white seems to be preferred to all others;
but I have seen an oriole's nest constructed of black horsehair.
Nevertheless such experiments as have been recorded seem to
indicate that white is preferable. The oriole loves cherries and
mulberries, and sometimes when insect food is scarce will come
to crumbs of bread, cake and suet. Males of this species, like
those of some others, sometimes are attracted to a neighbor-
hood where some one who can imitate their notes will take
the trouble to answer their calls.

Evening Grosbeak.
This handsome bird is seen here mainly in winter and spring.
In Massachusetts it seems to prefer the fruit of the ash-leaved
maple, or box elder, so called, to all other food, and the sug-
gestion has been made that the planting of these trees across
the prairie States to New England has had much to do Avith its
movement to this region in winter during recent years. Dr.
A. A. Allen writes that at Ithaca, New York, the species
seemed to prefer the seeds of the chokecherry. They fed on
the dried cherries hanging to the trees. When the snow melted
they took the cherry stones from the ground. Berries of the
buckthorn, mountain ash, Virginia juniper and sumac, seeds of
lilacs, maples, locusts and flowering dogwood, frosted apples,
the fruit of the Japanese crab apple, and even suet crumbs and
scraps thrown out are sought by this bird when the box elder
seeds are gone. This species is fond of sunflower seeds, and
flocks have been known to come daily to feed on this seed and
to call for it until they were supplied. x4.s spring comes buds
of the red maple and other trees are eaten. A pan of water
or a bird bath often attracts a flock.

Pi7ie Grosbeak,

This fine winter species eats tree buds, also seeds, especially

those of the white pine, fir, spruce, larch, ash and maple. The

maple seed is a favorite, and may be gathered before snow flies

for winter food. It is fond of hempseed and the fruit of the

27

mountain ash and honeysuckle, and eats Japanese barberries.
It will also eat frozen apples. Mrs. E. O. Marshall noted that
it fed on frosted apples, and she attracted several birds to the
house and even to the hand by using unfrozen apples cut up
so that the bird could get at the fruit from inside, as it could
not readily break the skin. These unpared pieces of apple were
placed on the snow near a window, but Mrs. Marshall writes
that she tamed the birds and lured them into an upper window
by using hemp and sunflower seeds. Hempseed seemed to be
the greatest attraction, as it brought the birds to her hands.
Mr. Walter P. Eaton found that they were fond of barberries
which grew on a hedge, and would eat ripe apples split open
so that they could get at the seed. Miss Bertha L. Brown
found that both this and the evening grosbeak were attracted
by the fruit of a crab apple tree that grew in her garden. Mrs.
Nathan C. Squires of Fredericton, New Brunswick, noted that
the pine grosbeak ate the seeds from small crab apples. The
Hon. Herbert Parker notes that this bird in captivity prefers
sunflower seeds beyond all else. Several observers report that
in winter this species seems fond of the fruit of the high bush
cranberry. Miss Eva L. Powers believes that this is eaten
mainly for the seeds.

Purple Finch.
This common finch will eat dried currants, hempseed and
millet seed in winter, but nothing succeeds with it like a plenti-
ful supply of sunflower seeds. The purple finch winters even in
Maine when it can get these. In winter and early spring it
seeks the seeds of the white ash which still hang on the trees.
Miss Evie W. Drew writes that the finches have a " perfect con-
cert " on the ash trees in spring. Apple trees and other fruit trees
are favorites, for it feeds to some extent on the blossoms. It
prefers thick evergreen trees like the Virginia juniper or the
spruces in which to build its nest.

Crossbills.

These handsome, curious, but erratic and irregular winter

visitors eat quantities of sand whenever they can get it. Mr.

Ernest Harold Baynes tells how he saw a flock of white-winged

crossbills nibbling at the mortar on a ruined building in winter,

28

and attracted them to his yard by securing a quantity of the
mortar and pulverizing it. They became so fearless as to
allow one to pick them up.^ A little salt mixed with the sand
might be useful. This species sometimes feeds on weed seeds.
Salt pork, pork rind, and even salt water, have been used to
attract crossbills. Thev feed on the seeds of larches and other
coniferous trees bearing rather small cones. Crossbills like the
fruit of the sweet gum and Virginia juniper or red cedar, and
the seeds of the Ailanthus and sunflowers.

Redpolls.
Redpolls feed much on the seeds of the gray birch during
their stay with us in winter, but they are sometimes attracted
by the seeds of the millet, and will come to the dooryard to
get them. They will take rolled oats, hayseed and most small
bird seed from any kind of a feeding box or shelf in winter, as
they are quite unsuspicious.

Pine Siskin.
The pine siskin sometimes comes to chaff and hayseed thrown
on the snow. Miss Eliza F. Miller tells of both siskins and
redpolls eating millet seed at Bethel, Vermont, and says that
this species and other birds preferred cracked butternuts to all
other food.^ In winter they seek water eagerly.

Goldfinch.

This beautiful bird is won by sunflower seeds. Winter and
summer, nothing equals them as an attraction. Mr. Edward L.
Parker says that goldfinches frequent the flower known as
bachelor's button, and Dr. Mellen notes that chicory will call
them. Dr. Anne E. Perkins asserts that the goldfinch always
finds the seed of cosmos, and Miss Mabel T. Tilton places the
seed of the hollyhock and that of the sweet pepper bush among
its preferences. Tliis bird is fond of the seeds of Hungarian
millet, dandelions, thistles, hawkweed, goldenrod, evening
primrose, hollyhock, honeysuckles, burdock, catnip, birch,
locust, and the seeds of several cpniferous trees.

1 Baynes, Ernest Harold: Wild Bird Guests, 1915, p. 141.

2 "Bird-Lore," Vol. XIV., November-December, 1912, p. 335;

29

Snoiv Bunting.
INIillet seeds and chaff attract the lovely snow bunting, but
oats and weed seeds are favorite foods.

White-throated Sparrow.
This handsome fall and spring visitor rarely winters here, but
while here it is fond of crumbs and millet seed, especially that
of the Japanese millet. Dr. N. Chandler Foot recommends
"scratch-feed," sold by poultry supply houses. This bird
feeds mainly on the ground, and will not go to food shelters
on posts unless driven by extreme necessity. Mrs. N. C.
Squires finds this species very fond of turnip seed, as it grows
in the pod.

White-crowned Sparrow.

This striking bird is a rather uncommon visitant in spring
and fall. It has been known to come to feeding stations for
nuts, crumbs and seeds.

Fo.x SparroiD.
In times of stress the handsome fox sparrow comes to the food
shelf for hayseed and Japanese millet, and two of them fed at
one of my windows all winter.

Toichee.
The brush heap with surrounding shrubbery, and with chaff
and seeds thrown under it, should attract all native sparrows
and towhees. The towhees will take grain scattered on the
ground, also crumbs and hempseed. This bird winters here
very rarely, and must have thick shrubbery for cover.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak.
This beautiful bird, a singer of pure songs, follows the Col-
orado potato beetle, which it destroys. It loves water and a
fertile potato patch, also gardens and the buds and blossoms
of apple, cherry and other trees. Sometimes it may be at-
tracted by corn or oats; berries, such as mulberries, juneber-
ries, elderberries and wild cherries, are a great attraction; rarely
it eats a little suet. Miss Harriet Abbott of Fryeburg, Maine,
notes that on the occasion of a snowstorm there on ^Nlay 11,

30

1919, a male of this species came often to suet at her window,
and continued to come for about five days, during which time
he ate much of the suet. It has been attracted to feeding
stations by sunflower seeds in spring and autumn, and is fond
of green peas, but where there are potato beetles these seem
to be the chief attraction.

Indigo Biinting.

The sprightly indigo bird lives in the sprout patch and the
bush pasture and nests among low bushes. It sometimes nests in
brambles near the kitchen garden. It visits old apple trees in
spring and feeds among the blossoms, and when the sweet corn
tassels it feeds amid the corn. Dr. Foot has attracted it to
feeding boxes and weathervane food houses by keeping small
seeds there late in the spring. Mrs. E. O. Marshall says that
it came to millet that was planted for the birds.

Scarlet Tanager.

The tanager loves apple trees and white oaks. Strings for
its nest attract it if exposed near the oak trees. Miss Henrietta
Greenlaw writes that a female tanager waited morning after
morning until a supply of strings was put out, which it then
used for nest building. In cold or wet weather in May, 1917,
when insects w^ere scarce, tanagers were fed on crumbs of cake
by Hon. Edgar S. Hill. Several pairs came to the dooryard
many times each day for the cake, and would eat no other
food put out for them. Mrs. W. H. Herrick saw some tanagers
eating a decaying apple on May 14, 1920. She put other soft
apples on a leaning tree trunk and tanagers came to them.

SlDolloiDS.

Directions for attracting swallows are given on pages 13, 15
and 16 of Circular No. 10, on "Bird Houses and Nesting
Boxes," published by the Massachusetts State Department of
Agriculture. Mr. H. C. Denslow says that eggshells thrown
out in the garden attracted swallows all summer. Mr. S.
Knowlton writes that he spread over about 3 acres ashes and
plaster from a house that had been burned. Numerous swal-
lows came all summer to eat pieces of the plaster.

31

Purple Martin.
So far as I know no one has ever succeeded in attracting
purple martins by means of food. They feed mainly on flying
insects. Martin houses, such as are made by J. Warren Jacobs
of Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, have been successful in Mas-
sachusetts.

Vireos.

Most vireos, especially the red-eyed and the blue-headed,
may be attracted by exposing suitable nesting materials. (See
under Baltimore Oriole, page 25.)

Cedar Waxwiiig.
Cherry, wild cherry and mulberry trees are almost certain to
attract this silky-plumaged bird. Old orchards where canker-
worms breed call it in May and June, and it nests in the apple
trees. Like the rose-breasted grosbeak it feeds on potato
beetles. Cedar waxwings have been attracted to feeding places
in September by using fresh elderberries. Mr. Guy C. Allen
reports that a large flock of this species fed on dried crab apples
on the tree in winter. Waxwings are sometimes attracted by a
plentiful supply of nesting material. Mr. H. C. Denslow^ speaks
of bean poles, with the old vines hanging to them, as attracting
birds, especially this species. From June 10 to 20, 1918, from
4 to 12 birds were busy daily in pairs, shredding off bark from
the bean vines and flying direct to their nests. When cedar
poles are used the bark of the poles also may be utilized by
birds.

Yelloiv Warbler.

Several people have reported that when cotton batting has
been hung upon the limbs of trees or on shrubbery, about
]\Iay 15, yellow warblers have used it in building their nests.
Dr. Anne E. Perkins of Collins, New York, writes that three
nests of this species were built mainly of cotton that she pro-
vided for them in May, 1919.

Myrtle Warbler.
The fruit of the bayberry, or wax myrtle, is a powerful at-
traction for this graceful bird in winter. It has been known to
eat a little suet.

32

Pine Warbler.

Bayberries and suet have been known to attract this yellow-
breasted species, which winters rarely in southeastern Massa-
chusetts. It is found there chiefly in pitch pines.

Mockinghird.
From the sea to the valley of the Connecticut, and more
rarely in the western counties, the mockingbird appears to be
a local resident in Massachusetts. The recent severe winter
(1917-18) has much reduced its numbers, but if it is well fed
and cared for by its "many friends it should increase. So far as
my investigations go, there is no evidence that mockingbirds
in Massachusetts eat seeds for food purposes. They swallow
many seeds in fresh or dried fruits, but digest only the outer,
covering or pulp, or a part of it, and regurgitate the seeds and
the tougher skins. Therefore they may be fed in winter by
using dried wild fruits or fruits remaining on the stem. Mr. H.
H. Henderson of Wilmington, Ohio, noted that a mockingbird
at the feeding table in winter ate walnuts, crumbs and suet.^
Hard-boiled eggs, omelette and boiled rice mixed with egg are
sometimes taken by this bird, and it is very fond of chopped
figs. Dried elderberries, raspberries, blackberries and mul-
berries probably would attract it, as it is fond of these fruits.
If nothing else is at hand chopped apple may be used in winter.
Probably a variety of wild fruits that remain on the stem all
winter would act as a strong lure to this bird, as one has win-
tered for several seasons at the Arnold Arboretum at Boston,
where there is a diversity of fruiting shrubs and trees. The
berries of the different species of holly and cornel, smilax,
Virginia creeper, the black alder, juniper, sumac, buckthorn,
the poison ivy, bittersweet and bayberry, and also rose hips,
are sought by it in winter. In Massachusetts it has developed
a great liking for the Japanese barberry, which in some locali-
ties it seems to prefer in winter to native wild fruits. IVIrs.
Wm. F. Eldredge says that a mockingbird seemed to prefer
frosted decaying apples to any food offered. In 1918 Mr.
Sidney Chase at Nantucket fed a mockingbird on figs, cut in

I "Bird-Lore," Vol. XIX.. September-October, 1917, p. 270.

33

small strips, and seeded raisins. This bird also ate the fruit
of the spindle tree {Evonymus enroycea) Mrs. Arthur Caswell
reports that a mockingbird in Montague ate, in addition to
raisins and figs, dried raspberries and blueberries. At the
Arnold Arboretum the mockingbird feeds on small fruited
Chinese, or Siberian, crab apples and privet berries.

Catbird.

The catbird winters more rarely than the mockingbird in
JNIassachusetts, but it sometimes comes in summer to pick up
crumbs of suet. INIiss Mabel R. Wiggins feeds a pair of cat-
birds, by placing various edibles in the arbor at a back door.
She has seen them eat fried and boiled fish, bread, cold mush,
and boiled potato. At that season a brush heap, some tall,
dense shrubbery, plenty of water to drink, and a large straw-
berry bed are almost sure to bring the birds. Catbirds, robins,
vireos and a few other species will use strips of paper in nest
building.

Brown Thrasher.

This fine songster is naturally rather shy, and prefers the
back pasture to the neighborhood of the farmhouse, but a few
brush heaps, some thick, thorny shrubbery, and some oats scat-
tered about the dooryard or garden in early spring may induce
him to leave his retirement and take up a residence near the
house. This bird winters verv rarelv. Colonel John E. Thaver
fed a brown thrasher during the hard winter of 1917-18, and it
lived through the winter, on hempseed chiefly; sometimes it ate
suet. Dr. Foot has seen the thrasher feed on bread crumbs
placed in boxes on posts at Dublin, New Hampshire, where it
fed crumbs to its young. INIiss Wiggins saw one eat dried
apple at a feeding table.

House Wren.

This vivacious little bird is attracted by nesting places in
hollow apple trees or by wren boxes put up for it. A plethora
of boxes is needed, as sometimes a single pair will build three
or more nests. House wrens have increased much in numbers
in the past few years, since the number of nesting boxes has
been increased in New York and New England.

34

Brown Creeper.
Several observers report that in winter the creepers will eat
suet, Mrs. Mary R. Stanley says that after woodpeckers and
nuthatches have reduced suet to mere specks adhering to the
membrane the creeper partakes of it greedily.

Nuthatches.

Winter and summer feeding of suet and sunflower seeds,
squash and pumpkin seed cut or broken in halves, and the
provision of nesting boxes, serve to attract both the common
species. They use the boxes for sleeping places on winter
nights, and as a refuge to which they flee from enemies. Some
few may remain and nest in them during the summer. Peanut
butter is said to be a very attractive food for nuthatches.
Those who wish to experiment might try it.

Chickadee.
What is true of the nuthatches is true of the chickadee, as
their habits are similar. The chickadee, like the goldfinch,
takes sunflower seeds from heads left on the stalk, and some-
times finds insects in these heads after all the seeds are gone.
Dr. Anne E. Perkins asserts that chickadees prefer to all else
black walnuts and butternuts. Some like to pick over the
skins of baked potatoes.

Hermit Thrush.
This exquisite songster is a forest bird, and lives in summer
in or near the shade of pines, spruces or hemlocks. In autumn
or early winter, and sometimes in early spring, it may be seen
about dwellings, where it seeks the berries of the Virginia
creeper or woodbine, and those of viburnum, bush honeysuckle
and Japanese barberry. It sometimes takes suet or crumbs
from the feeding shelf. In inclement weather it often resorts
to sumac berries.

Olive-bached Thrush.

Mr. Hamilton Gibson says that many birds of this species
came to feed on Ampelopsis berries at his porch in October,
1919, and to get these berries they came within 6 or S feet of
the observers.

35

Rob 171.

Ill early spring robins often will take cheese curds from the
ground or a flat rock, and they are fond of "smearcase," or
cottage cheese. Miss Mabel Tilton says that barberries and
privet berries are eaten on first arrival, and that later crumbs
of suet are taken.

Mr. F. P. Shumway says that robins fairly fought one
snowy morning in early spring for some elderberries that he had
saved during the winter. Dr. Eleanor jNIellen writes that the
first robins may be brought to the house in the very early

Fig. 30. — Feeding booth for bobwliites. (Photograph by courtesy of Allen A.

David.)

spring by throwing out sumac heads that have been gathered
in autumn and kept in water through the winter.^

Robins take nesting material, even cotton batting, with
avidity, and a pan of mud or clay often will attract them. Mrs.
]Mary R. Stanley writes that one pair of robins took more than
fifty little strips of old soft cloth laid out on the grass for them.
But a good garden, an old orchard, a fertile lawn and some
fruiting cherry trees are all that are necessary to bring the
robins flocking, especially if cats are absent.

I Mellen, Dr. Eleanor: Practical Methods for attracting Wild Birds, 1915, p. 11.

36

Bluebird.
A few nesting boxes and a row of stakes about 5 feet high
and 3 rods apart, driven across an open grass field or meadow,
make homes and watch towers for the warbling bluebird, from
which it makes short sallies into the grass for insect pests.
Professor C. F. Hodge taught bluebirds to come into his study
by feeding them meal worms. In autumn they are attracted
to dwellings by berries of the Virginia creeper, or woodbine,
and those of the matrimony vine. Bluebirds are learning to eat
Japanese barberries in early spring. ]\Jrs. ]\Jary R. Stanley
reports that some at that season ate very small crumbs of
suet from an old rug spread on the ground, and readily found
such crumbs when placed in a box similar to a nesting box
fastened on a tree. They would not eat larger crumbs, such as
robins swallow.

Publication of this Document approvkd by the Supervisor of Administration.

®l]c (Eommoniocaltl) of iMas6acl)U6ctts

STATE DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 3

November, 1918

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST

FOR 1918

H. T. FERNALD

From the First Annual Report of the Massachusetts
State Department of Agriculture

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
SuPEBvisoR OF Administration.

1-19-200

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST.

H. T. FERNALD, PH.D.

But three official reports on entomology in Massachusetts
appear to have been published in the history of the Common-
wealth. Dr. T. W. Harris, as a member of a scientific com-
mission appointed by the State for a geological and botanical
survey, prepared a "Report on Insects Injurious to Vegeta-
tion," which was published in 1841, in a revised form in
1852, and as a third edition, revised by Secretary Charles
L. Flint, in 1862. Though this work by the father of economic
entomology will always remain a monument to the memory
of its author and an honor to the State which authorized it,
it cannot be placed in the class of reports.

In the seventeenth annual report of the secretary of the
Board of Agriculture for 1869 is an essay by Dr. A. S. Packard
on "New or Little Known Injurious Insects," followed in the
eighteenth report of the secretary by a "First Report on the
Injurious and Beneficial Insects of the State of Massachusetts,"
Dr. Packard having been elected entomologist to the Board in
August, 1870. A second and third of these reports followed,
but for some reason they were discontinued. There have been
later entomologists to the Board, but for the most part the
position has been regarded as merely an honorary one and no
reports have been published.

Massachusetts accordingly has nothing to show in the way
of a series of reports on the insects of the State from year
to 3'ear, — nothing to correspond to the long series coming
from Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and many
other States, — a condition much to be regretted, as such a
series would now be almost invaluable if it were in existence.
Even a record of insect conditions each vear, carefullv worked
up, would be of great use, and such a record for the year
1918 is therefore presented here.

Insects of the Year 1918.

Insect conditions appear to be closely correlated with weather
conditions in man}- cases. The severe winter of 1917-18
apparently had considerable effect on the San Jose scale
(Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.), destroying more than the usual
number of these insects and so checking them that few com-
plaints of their injury were received last summer. The parasite
of this insect (ProspaHella perniciosi Tower), first discovered
at Amherst, and which for a time killed up to 90 per cent
of the scales in some places, has become less effective, and as
the other parasites do not appear to have increased in abun-
dance, the decreased importance of the scale this past season
can in all probability be considered as due at least largely to
the winter.

The most serious feature of the insect situation in Massa-
chusetts during 1918 is probably the continued activity and
spread of the European corn borer {Pyrausta nuhilalis Hbn.).
This insect was discovered in the fall of 1917 in many places
near Boston, tunneling in corn and other plants. It is widely
distributed in Europe, where it feeds on corn, hops, hemp,
millet and several kinds of grasses, and if it should spread to
the "corn belt" in the United States would undoubtedly
cause enormous loss.

The European corn borer is now present over more than 135
square miles of territory, mainly west and north of Boston.
Numerous reports of its presence elsewhere in the State have
been investigated, but the trouble in every case thus far has
been due to the common stalk borer (Papaipema nitela Guen.).
Sweet corn is practically the only kind of corn grown within
the area thus far infested, but this is seriously injured. The early
crop in one field in 1917 was damaged fully 20 per cent, while
with the late crop the loss in at least one case that year ran
as high as 80 per cent.

The insect bores in the stem of the corn, and some beginning
at the internode bearing the tassel weaken this so that it
breaks over. Often the stalk bearing the ear is bored into
and many of the caterpillars enter the ear directly from outside,
ruining it for food.

Treatment for this pest must be by a destruction of the
stalks, either by burning, burying deeply or by feeding to
stock. Ensilage should prove effectual. Unfortunately the
insect bores in barnyard grass, pigweed and other weeds also,
so that destruction of the corn stalks will fail as an entire
protection.

The Federal Horticultural Board has placed a quarantine
on all shipments of corn, except shelled corn, from within the
present known infested area to other States. A similar action
preventing shipping from within the infested area to all other
parts of Massachusetts is extremely desirable in order to
prevent the establishment of colonies of this pest elsewhere in
the State.

During the spring and early summer the plum curculio
(Conotrachelus nenuyhar Herbst.) caused considerable injury
to plums and also to apples, and in several places the work of
the red bugs {Heterocordylus maliniis Rent, and Lygidea mendax
Reut.) was quite serious. These last-named insects as pests
are rather new in Massachusetts, but have appeared in gradu-
ally increasing numbers during the last five years.

In southeastern Massachusetts, particularly in the more
sandy localities, the rose bug or rose chafer (Macrodadylus
suhsinnosus Fab.) was unusually abundant on grapes, roses
and other plants, and everywhere it was quite in evidence.
On the Contrary, the elm-leaf beetle {Gallerucella hdeola Mull.),
which has been almost entirely lacking in the State for several
years now, was again so nearly absent as to render spraying
for it unnecessary.

The apple tree tent-caterpillar (Malacosoma americana Fab.)
is another insect from which the State was practically free
in 1918, except to a slight extent in southeastern Massachu-
setts. This pest for a number of years was extremely
abundant, reaching its climax in the western part of the State
in 1913 and 1914, and in the eastern part about a year later.

The European war has led to a great increase in the number
of gardens in Massachusetts, and with an unusual amount of
food supply insects injurious to vegetables have been much
in evidence. In June flea beetles {Haltica spp.) caused con-
siderable injury to potatoes, tomatoes and beans, and early

6

in August they resumed their work to some extent. Cucumber
beetles (Diahrotica vittata Fab.) were also plenty and did much
damage. The Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decimlin-
eata Say), though abundant in some parts of the State, was
not serious in general, but the three-lined potato beetle (Lema
trilineata Oliv.), which is rarely noticed in most years, was
unusually plentiful.

In 1917 the potato plant louse (Macrosiphum solanifolii
Ashm.) was extremely abundant, and in many parts of the
State caused much loss. This year it reappeared about ten
days earlier than last year, and its work was practically at
an end early in- August. It was very abundant in many
places, though frequently of two fields quite near, one would
be nearly destroyed while the other was practically untouched.
Parasites were generally numerous and rendered good service.

About the first of August reports began to arrive of the
defoliation of beech, maple and other trees in western Massa-
chusetts, and an investigation was made. The insect con-
cerned proved to be the Saddled Prominent (Ileterocampa
gnttivitta Walker), which had been very abundant over much
of the same territory the previous year. From reports re-
ceived and visits made, the work of this insect appears to have
extended about as far north as Brattleboro, Vermont, and
to have extended southward through the hill towns of Franklin
and Hamp.^iire counties west of the Connecticut River about
as far as Chester and Becket, and was also in evidence in a
few of the towns in the eastern part of Berkshire County.
It was very noticeable that the defoliation was almost exclu-
sively on the hilltops, the valleys being practically untouched,
while thousands of acres of woodland on the higher elevations
were entirely stripped.

Beech and maple appeared to be the preferred food plants,,
but others were eaten where these species failed to furnish
sufficient food for the caterpillars, and in many places only
evergreens and the moosewood {Acer pennsyhanicmn L.)
retained any foliage. These, however, were absolutely un-
touched, no matter how famished the caterpillars were. In
several cases apple orchards near woodlots where the cater-
pillars were abundant were also attacked and stripped.

By the 6th of August the work of these insects had reached
its climax, and many had left the trees and were entering
the ground to pupate. On the base of one tree where the
caterpillars were rather more abundant than usual, 81 were
counted in a space a foot square; and while this was more than
the average for such locations, it was by no means the densest
congregation of the caterpillars which was observed.

Enemies of the insect were abundant and actively attacked
the caterpillars. The predaceous beetle {Calosoma frigidum
Kirby) and the bug (Podistis modestus Dall.) were both seen
feeding on the larvae, and numerous parasitic flies were actively
buzzing around them, but were not observed in the process of
actual attack.

Many trees appeared to be dead, and while it is probable
that some will recover, others are probably lost. Where trees
were stripped in 1917 they were undoubtedly in a weakened
condition when the severe winter followed, and these two
factors together may have left them unable to live longer.
Others which survived and were stripped again this year may
now find this to be more than they can resist and may die
also. Certainly in some of the "sugar bushes," the loss of
trees will be quite heavy, particularly with those which have
passed their prime, but, as a whole, the loss of a large part
of the beeches and maples in the infested territory is not
probable.

Whether the Saddled Prominent will reappear in 1919
cannot now be foretold. In Maine a somewhat similar out-
break lasted three years, though it was less serious the third
summer, and the fourth year hardly a specimen of the insect
could be found. From the abundance of enemies of the
Prominent observed this year, the prospect for at least a
reduction in its numbers next summer would appear probable.

The striped maple worm (Anisota nibicunda Fab.) was quite
abundant along with the Saddled Prominent in many places,
but hardly ranked as a serious pest.

About the last of July the cabbage butterfly (Poniia rapes
L.) was extremely abundant, and in September its caterpillars
— the green cabbage worms — were more numerous than the
writer has ever before observed them in Massachusetts. If

winter conditions are successfully met by these insects, we
may expect them to be a serious pest next year, as few of them
this fall appeared to be parasitized.

Another unusually abundant insect this year was the squash-
vine borer {Melittia satyriniformis Hbn.), whose work became
evident early in August. In one field seen by the writer, only
4 plants out of about 400 survived, and half a dozen or more
larvae were often found in a single plant.

During August in western Massachusetts the fall web-worm
{Hyyhantria cunea Drury) was unusually abundant, its webs
being noticeable everywhere. This insect has not been much
in evidence before this year for some time.

The house fly (Musca domestica L.), always abundant by
September, became so early in August this year, and has ap-
peared to be present in larger numbers than usual.

Insecticides, following other war conditions, have increased
in price, and in many cases have been difficult to obtain when
needed. It would seem wise to watch the markets during the
present winter and take advantage of any marked reduction, in
order to lay in a supply for next season.

'>?

^

(^

®l)e Commoutoealtl) of iHassacljusctt

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Wilfrid Wheeler, Commissioner

0

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 4

February, 1919

THE ENGLISH SPARROW AND SOME
MEANS OF CONTROLLING IT

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

The house spairow, or English sparrow {Parser domesticus), male and female

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document
approved by the

Supervisor of Administration.

2 18-2000

THE ENGLISH SPARROW AND SOME MEANS OF
CONTROLLING IT.^ ^

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, STATE ORNITHOLOGIST.

Introduction.

All our native sparrows are beneficial birds and should be
protected. Care should be used not to disturb, molest or de-
stroy any native sparrow or to confuse any with the imported
sparrow w^hich is the subject of this paper. The name English
sparrow is a misnomer, as the bird referred to is the "house
sparrow" (Passer domesticus) of Europe, where it is native to
nearly the entire continent, but the former name has been
adopted in the United States and will be perpetuated. The
so-called English sparrow, regarded by most competent au-
thorities as a pest in the United States, is more injurious and
less beneficial than most native American birds, but neverthe-
less has many friends in this country. It has beneficial habits,
for practically all land birds destroy pests of some kind. Few
people may now remember that this sparrow on its introduction
to America was recommended for the special purpose of ridding
park trees of geometrid caterpillars, a service which it un-
doubtedly performs. Native birds, however, might have done
as well or better had the sparrow been left in its original home,
and had they been encouraged to nest in the parks, for practi-
cally all small birds eat such insects.

Is THE Sparrow a Pest?

Many people have complained to me that the sparrow has
driven other birds from nesting boxes and has dragged the
young of other birds out of nests and killed them. Where
there are English sparrows it is useless to put up nesting boxes
or bird houses for native birds unless some effort is made to

• This circular is substantially identical with Circular No. 48 of the Massachusetts State Board
of Agriculture, which is now out of print. In its present form it has been revised and brought
up to date.

control this foreign enemy; otherwise the boxes eventually will
be occupied by sparrows, other birds will be driven out and
the net result will be an increased sparrow population. A
great manufacturing firm writes: —

The sparrows have become so numerous about our buildings as to be
almost unbearable so far as noise is concerned. Also they are extremely
dirty, and we are very desirous of keeping them away. It has occurred
to us that poisoned food of some sort could be used with safety. May
we not hear a word from you? If poison is proper, how shall we proceed?

Many inquiries similar to the above have been received.
Most of these inquirers have been referred to Farmers' Bulletin
383, by Ned Dearborn, published by the Bureau of Biological
Survey, United States Department of Agriculture, on "How to
destroy English Sparrows," and Farmers' Bulletin 493, issued
by the same Bureau, entitled, "The English Sparrow as a
Pest," by the same author; but so many complaints continually
come in and so many requests for methods of destroying the
sparrow have been received, that at last it has become necessary
in self-defense to publish a circular in reply to these complaints,
giving the desired information.

The old-time question as to whether the sparrow is a pest or
not continually comes up. The sparrow rears many young,
and as the young are fed to some extent on insects they con-
sume quantities of insects in a summer. Were the sparrows in
our city parks destroyed, probably we should have serious
trouble with certain leaf-eating insects before native birds could
be attracted to these parks in any numbers, but few native
birds can nest in the parks while the sparrow remains. The
sparrow consumes quantities of army worms, and becomes a
useful bird whenever an invasion of these insects occurs. Some
people believe that since the replacement of the horse by the
motor the sparrow has given more attention to insect pests
because of a lack of its common food in the streets, and that
it is especially beneficial now in the cities.

The greatest injury resulting from the introduction of the
sparrow is the displacement of native birds and the consequent
increase of injurious insects which the sparrow does not eat.
The leopard moth, for example, which was introduced into this
country in the latter part of the last century, has become very

destructive where sparrows are most numerous. The control
of this insect is difficult and expensive, as it is a borer, remain-
ing most of the time within the wood. Apparently the sparrows
do not disturb it, and where they are numerous and native
birds are, therefore, scarce, this moth is very injurious, par-
ticularly in and around Boston, New York and other large
cities. When the moth spreads out into the country, where
woodpeckers and other native birds are numerous, it has, thus
far, made no headway. Woodpeckers dig into the burrows
where the larva hides, and other birds catch it when it leaves
its burrow and crawls about on the bark. Had we kept out
the sparrow and instead encouraged and attracted other birds
into our cities we might have been spared the destruction of
many shade trees by the leopard moth.

The sparrow, however, has many friends who seem to believe
that it does only good and no harm whatever. To those who
see only one side of the case the various publications on the
sparrow are recommended, several volumes of which have been
published. Chief among these is Bulletin No. 1 of the Division
of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy of the United States
Department of Agriculture, by Walter B. Barrows, entitled the
"English Sparrow in North America," a report of more than
400 pages. In this bulletin, which was regarded at the time
as "the most important treatise ever published upon the
economic relations of any bird," evidence regarding the habits
and destructiveness of the sparrow was brought together from
all parts of the United States and from Europe, Australia and
New Zealand. The testimony against the sparrow from all
these countries is overwhelming. Two other works devoted
entirely to this species had been published previously in the
United States, one in 1878 by T. G. Gentry, entitled "The
House .Sparrow at Home and Abroad," the other in 1879 by
Dr. Elliot Coues, on "The Present Status of Passer domesticus
in America, with Special Reference to the Western States and
Territories." Since Bulletin No. 1, referred to above, was
published other investigations of the sparrow have been made
by scientists, and all have resulted unfavorably to the bird,
notwithstanding the fact that it devours cotton boll weevils,
brown-tail moths and other pests. Baron von Berlepsch, who
has established the most successful European experiment sta-

6

tion for the protection of birds, conserves practically all small
land birds, but finds it necessary to destroy this sparrow in
order to give the other birds a chance. The tremendous de-
struction to grain in the fields caused by this sparrow in grain-
growing regions, its cost to poultrymen, its injuries to fruit
and garden crops are well known. Where it has become
too numerous it has destroyed quantites of fruit, including
grapes, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants, blackberries,
peaches, apples, pears, plums, tomatoes, apricots and figs.
Young plants, including peas, beans, cabbage, lettuce, radishes,
corn and other vegetables, are torn to pieces or eaten to
the ground. Garden seeds, including those of many vegetables
and flowers, are dug up when planted or eaten from the
stalk. There are few garden fruits or vegetables that do
not suffer more or less from the attacks of this bird. Buds
and blossoms of numerous plants are destroyed by it. Its
filthy habits, which injure buildings, vegetation and clothing,
constitute a minor annoyance, but its chief fault, as indicated
above, is the molestation and destruction in the breeding season
of harmless native birds of far more value to agriculture than
itself. It is not necessary to repeat here the overwhelming
testimony in regard to this that may be found in any of the
three volumes hereinbefore cited. My own experience is con-
vincing. During the last forty years I have seen it drive out
the great flocks of snow buntings that once fed freely in city
streets, and evict all species that nest in bird houses. Where
it once gets a foothold in the bird houses it drives out all
other bird tenants in the end. It destroys their nests, eggs
and young, and it has been known to destroy wantonly the
eggs, nests and young of many birds that do not nest in boxes.
It appropriates the nests of swallows, robins, warblers and other
birds, and has driven out swallows, martins and wrens from
large areas. The cliff swallows or eaves swallows and house
wrens formerly common in many parts of Massachusetts are
rare now in a large part of the State, and this can be attributed
directly to persecution by the sparrow. What has happened
in Massachusetts has occurred over large sections in other
States. In warmer regions than this, where the winters are not
so severe as here, and the sparrows increase rapidly' in numbers,
the effect of their presence on native species is even more

marked. Mr. Robert Ridgway, the eminent ornithologist of
the Smithsonian Institution, has this to say of the sparrow in
southern Illinois : — •

The amazing increase of the so-called English sparrow has profoundly
disturbed the "balance" of bird life. Although introduced less than
fort}' years ago this species is now, without question, by far the most
numerous bird in the region of which I write, even if it does not exceed
in numbers all the native small passerine birds combined, not onlj'- in
the towns but on the farms as well. The effect on native birds is ex-
ceedingly well marked, for the foreign pest has literally crowded out,
or by its aggre.?sive meddlesomeness driven away, from the abodes of
man those charming and useful native birds, the bluebird, purple martin,
barn swallow and cliff swallow. None of the native species likes its com-
pany, and, in winter, when one wishes to feed the cardinals, Juncos and
other native birds, it is necessary to feed manjr times as many of those
pernicious pests, thus vastly increasing both the trouble and the expense.

He gives details regarding the following species: —

Cliff Swallow {Petrochelidon lunifrons) . — Formerly abundant, large
colonies attaching their retort-shaped nests underneath overhanging
eaves of barns, warehouses and other large buildings, but apparently has
wholh' disappeared.

Barn Swallow {Hirundo erythrogastra) .— Almost totally expelled by
the sparrow, great numbers of which have appropriated every nesting
site in the barns and other outbuildings.

Purple Martin (Progne subis). — Mostly driven from towns and farms
by the sparrow, the large trees containing cavities that are left being too
few in number to accommodate more than a small percentage of the
number that formerly occurred.

Bluebird (Sialia sialis). — This also has been mainly displaced by the
sparrow, which has appropriated nearly all cavities suitable for nesting
places.

After due consideration the question, is the sparrow a pest,
may be answered as follows: Yes; but in the cities, and under
exceptional circumstances in the country, it may be more
benejQcial than harmful.

Means of drivixg out Sparrows.
For the benefit of those who wish to control sparrows about
their own homes some of the more common devices for ousting
these birds are given below, some of which have been published
in the excellent bulletins of the Biological Survey.

8

Many people wish to rid their premises of sparrows or to
drive them out of bird houses, but not to kill them. It is
practically impossible to drive them from any premises without
continuous persecution, but they may be evicted from bird
houses by systematic work without killing any. Various plans
have been recommended, such as putting up nesting boxes
without perches or with entrance holes in the bottom, providing
a great plethora of nesting boxes, or suspending them by wires.
None of these expedients is of any permanent value except
possibly the last, and that has not been uniformly successful.

Fig. 1. — Perspective and sectional drawings of an
improvised nest box for the interior of build-
ings. (After Biological Survey.)

Fig. 2. — Nest box opening at
the top. (After Biological
Survey.)

Where this happens the boxes intended for native birds may
be so arranged that the sparrows may be kept out, entrapped
or driven out. A box having an entrance not over seven-
eighths of an inch in diameter will admit house wrens and keep
out sparrows; chickadees have been known very rarely to
nest in a box with a round entrance one inch in diameter, and
this usually keeps out sparrows, but if the entrance is large
enough for any bird larger than the house wren the sparrow
may get in. As sparrows begin nesting earlier in the spring
than most other birds they may be driven from a nesting box

9

early in the year by removing the nesting material from the box
several times a week. For this purpose a plethora of boxes
must be used and each box must be easily accessible and must
have an opening by means of which the nest may be taken out
with little trouble. Fig. 1 shows how such a box may be at-
tached to the inner wall of a barn or other building, where it
may be quickly opened from within the building and the nest-
ing material removed; or boxes having hinged projecting covers
which will shut out rain may be put up on poles or trees.
(Fig. 2.) In my own experience success has followed the prac-
tice of removing the eggs from the nests after the full set has
been deposited in each case, and continuing this at intervals of
fifteen days. When the nest is removed the sparrows usually
begin to rebuild immediately, but when the eggs are taken,
after incubation begins, the birds soon become discouraged, and
when they leave the nest should be removed, after which na-
tive birds may occupy the box.. A stream of water from the
garden hose is very effective in evicting sparrows under some
circumstances. If used on cold or frosty nights, after the spar-
rows have retired, it will drive them from their nests or roosting
places in bird houses, or on vine-clad walls, where they consti-
tute a nuisance. If one application is not enough it may be
repeated at intervals of a few days. In wet weather, when fire-
works can be used with safety, small Roman candles are rec-
ommended as an effective form of night bombardment. Spar-
rows do not appreciate fireworks. If some of the sparrows are
killed or captured when they are disturbed this persecution will
have a more permanent effect.

Trapping Sparrows.
There are many contrivances for catching sparrows on the
nest, some of which are given in the bulletins of the Biological
Survey hereinbefore cited, but a deep hoop net on the end of a
pole may be used to catch them by placing it over the entrance
of the nesting box and driving the sparrow into it. Mr. Ernest
Thompson Seton fastens a flat lever on the outside of a nesting
box by fixing a nail or screw in the center, so that when a
string attached to its outer end is pulled the inner end rises
and closes the entrance hole, thus entrapping the nesting

10

sparrow. He asserts that after a few have been caught in
such a box others will not go in, but native birds will use it.
There are successful devices for trapping sparrows also, which
are illustrated in Farmers' Bulletins 383 and 493. One of the
simplest of these is the wire funnel trap perfected by Dr. A. K.
Fisher of the Biological Survey. Fig. 3 shows the trap and

iimwfi^mww'^wmmwwmmw.

Fig. 3. — Funnel trap. Side raised to show interior. (After Biological Survey.)

Fig. 4. — Outline of funnel trap. (After Biological Survey.)

Figs. 4, 5 and 6 give details of construction. This trap is easy
to make and the cost of material is small. It has been tested
on the agricultural grounds at Washington and also in the
Missouri Botanical Gardens at St. Louis, and has caught
hundreds of sparrows in a few weeks.

The following directions for making this trap are taken from
Farmers' Bulletin 493: —

The essential parts of this trap are: (1) a half funnel leading into
(2) an antechamber, which ends in (3) a complete funnel leading into
(4) a final chamber. It is made of woven wire poultrj^ netting of three-
fourths inch mesh, and is re-enforced around the open end and along

11

the sides at the bottom by No. 8 or No. 10 wire, which is used also around
the aperture for the door and around the door itself. The angles between
the first funnel and the walls of the antechamber are floored with netting
and the final chamber is floored with the same material. The accompany-
ing drawings will enable anybody hand}' with tools to construct one of
these traps in a few hours. These plans are for a trap 3 feet long, a foot
and a half wide, and a foot high. At ordinary retail prices the cost of
material will be about 70 cents. ^ Paper patterns for the two funnels
can be made by first drawing the concentric circles, as shown in Figs.
5 and 6, and then laying off the straight lines, beginning with the longest.
The wa\y outlines indicate that the pattern is to be cut half an inch

Fig. 5. — Pattern for first funnel of a trap to be 36 by 18 by 12 inches.
(After Biological Survey.)

outside of the straight lines to allow extra wire for fastening the cones to
the top and sides of the trap. Fig. 7 shows how all the parts of a trap
ha\dng the above dimensions may be cut from a piece of netting 4 feet
wide and 6 feet long. The full lines in this figure indicate where the
netting is to be cut and the broken lines where it is to be bent. The
numbers at the angles in Figs. 5, 6 and 7 correspond with those in Fig. 4,
which shows in outline the relation of the different parts as the}' appear
when assembled. A trap of the above dimensions is as small as can be
used satisfactoril}'. Where sparrows are very numerous a larger size is
recommended. Fig. 8 shows how a trap 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and
15 inches high may be made from a piece of netting 4 by 10 feet. This
is a very good size for parks and large private grounds.

* The cost of material is now (1919) much increased.

12

In setting a funnel trap a place should be selected where sparrows are
accustomed to assemble. Often there are several such places m a neighbor-
hood, in which case it is advisable to move the trap daily from one of
them to another, because the birds appear to associate the locality rather
than the trap with the distress of their imprisoned comrades. Canary
seed, hemp seed, wheat, oats and bread crumbs are excellent baits. The
bait should be scattered in the antechamber and first funnel, and also,
sparingly, outside about the entrance. A live sparrow kept in the trap
as a decoy will facilitate a catch. In case native birds enter a trap they
may be released without harm. Trapping may begin at any time after

Fig. 6. — Pattern for second funnel of a trap to be 36 by 18 by 12 inches.
(After Biological Survey.)

young sparrows are able to take care of themselves, which is usually by
July 1. Each day's catch should be removed from the trap at nightfall,
and if a decoy is used it should be comfortably housed and otherwise
cared for when off duty.

In removing sparrows from either a funnel or a sieve trap the receiving
box shown (Fig. 9) will be found useful. It should be about 6 inches
square and 18 inches long, inside measurement. The door, hinged at
the bottom and turning inward, is controlled by the part of its wire frame
extending through the side of the box to form a handle. The box as it
appears in the figure is ready to be placed before the open door of a trap
from which birds are to be driven.^

> Dearborn, Ned, The English Sparrow as a Pest, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 493
1912, pp. 17-20.

[3

Mr. Charles W. Miller, formerly director of the Worthington
Society for the Study of Bird Life, has perfected an excellent
trap for sparrows which has been very successful, but as its
construction is more complicated and its manufacture more
expensive than that of the funnel trap, those who desire to try
it are referred to Farmers' Bulletin 493, in which it is illustrated
and described.

A Warning. — All traps set for English sparrows are likely
to catch native sparrows. Therefore baited traps should not

r
i

L

Fig. 7. — Diagram for cutting out the parts of a funnel trap 36 by 18 by 12 inches.

(After Biological Survey.)

be used in the nesting season, and their use should not be dele-
gated to servants or others who cannot distinguish native from
introduced sparrows. All traps should be examined often, as
native birds left long encaged will injure themselves in trying
to escape.

English sparrows are so wary that it may be difficult to en-
trap them. Traps have given best results in Massachusetts in
winter, after storms^ when snow covers much of the natural food
of the sparrow. It is not to be expected that trapping will suc-
ceed if the sparrows can get all the food they need in some
near-by poultry house or stable yard. Some poultry men who

14

keep grain constantly before the fowls probably feed nearly as
much to rats'and sparrows as to fowls. Poultry should be fed
indoors; every poultry house should be rat proof, and all open-
ings should be covered with cellar wire netting which will keep
out rats, mice and sparrows and save the poultryman more than
its cost in a single year. Where poultry foods are thus pro-

%^/0£-

TOfi'

•^/0£

/S

Zf

/S

Fig. 8. — Diagram for cutting out the parts of a funnel trap 48 by 24 by 15 inches.

(After Biological Survey.)

Fig. 9. — Receiving box for removing sparrows from trap,
(After Biological Survey.)

tected sparrows may be caught with ease. Any poultryman
may catch large numbers of sparrows in winter by closing all
but one opening in a henhouse and enticing the birds in by
means of grain. After they have been well fed in this building
for a week or two, and have become accustomed to feed there

15

in numbers, the opening may be closed from a distance by
means of a cord attached to a shutter or sash or to its support,
and the sparrows may be imprisoned and killed. Another plan
is to imprison them in the afternoon and let them out in the
morning until they have become accustomed to roost in the build -
ing in large numbers, when they may be readily despatched at
night. Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler, commissioner of the Massachusetts
State Department of Agriculture, reports success with this plan.

Poisoning.

The use of poison generally cannot be recommended, but
when used with great care it has given excellent results.
Successful methods are given below.

The following formula and directions for poisoning English
sparrows are given by Ned Dearborn of the Biological Survey,
United States Department of Agriculture : —

Where the use of poison is not prohibited by law it may be emploj'ed
effectively to reduce the number of sparrows. Of the different poisons
tested the most satisfactory is strychnine, which is easy to prepare and
acts quickly. Wheat has proved to be a good bait as well as an excellent
vehicle for administering the drug. A convenient method of preparing
poisoned bait is as follows : put one-eighth ounce of pulverized str3^chnine
into three-fourths of a gill of hot water, add 1| teaspoonfuls of starch
or wheat flour moistened with a few drops of cold water, and heat, stirring
constantly till the mixture thickens. Pour the hot poisoned starch over
1 quart of wheat and stir until every kernel is coated. Small-kerneled
wheat sold as poultry food, if reasonably' clean, is preferable to first-
quality grain, being cheaper and more easilj'^ eaten bj^ the sparrows. A
2-quart glass fruit jar is a good vessel to mix in, as it is easily shaken
and allows the condition of the contents to be seen. If the coated wheat
be spread thinly on a hard, flat surface it will be dry enough for use in
a short time.' It should be dried thoroughly if it is to be put into jars
and kept for future use. Dishes employed in preparing poison may be
safely cleansed bj^ washing.

Other seeds, as oats, hemp or canary seed, may be used instead of
wheat in the above formula, but they are less economical because much
of the poison is lost when they are hulled, though enough of it usually
sticks to the mouths of the sparrows to produce fatal effects. As wheat
has no hull that a sparrow can remove, it is ordinarily preferable to other
seeds. Bread, in thin sHces, spread with the strj'chnine-starch mixture
may be used to advantage alternately with seeds.

In case it is impracticable to poison sparrows at their regular feeding
grounds they may be attracted to a suitable place by preliminary baiting.

16

In northern latitudes the best time to put out poison is just after a snow-
storm, when other food is covered. The feeding place should be cleared
of snow and the poison laid early in the morning. The poison should be
well scattered, so that many birds may be able to partake at the same
time, since after a few are affected their actions excite the suspicion of
their comrades. Usually a few sparrows get only enough strychnine to
paralyze them for a few hours, after which they recover. It is important,
therefore, to visit the feeding places a short time after distributing poison
to prevent such birds from escaping. It is well, also, to remove dead
birds promptly to avoid exciting the suspicions of those that are un-
affected. In deciding the amount of poisoned wheat to put out at one
time, it is well to estimate the number of sparrows frequenting a feeding
place, and to allow about 20 kernels for each sparrow. Although 2
kernels of wheat cdated with the solution described below have been
known to kill a sparrow, 6 or 7 kernels are required to insure fatal re-
sults, and much more than a fatal dose is frequently taken. The sparrows
that recover after taking poison or that become frightened by the death
of comrades, will forsake a feeding place if poison is kept there constantly.
If, therefore, one wishes merely to keep them off his land he can do so
by maintaining a supply of poisoned bait for them. On the other hand,
if extermination is the object sought, unpoisoned bait should be put
out after each killing until the birds have recovered confidence. There
is an advantage in having several feeding grounds that may be used in
rotation with different kinds of bait. Under these circumstances the
sparrows forget their fear of each feeding ground while the others in
turn are baited. Only as much poison should be put out as is likeh^ to
be eaten in one day, since exposure to moisture reduces its virulence.
Any grain coated by the above process and left on the ground will become
harmless after a few rains. ^

During several years Dr. C. F. Hodge, formerly of Clark
University, Worcester, organized a very effective campaign in
Worcester for destroying English sparrows. His poison formula
is as follows: Dissolve one-eighth of an ounce of powdered
strychnine sulphate in one-half pint of boiling water. He gives
the following directions for using his formula : —

Pour this, while hot, over two quarts of wheat (or cracked corn), stir
well, and continue stirring from time to time, until all the liquid is ab-
sorbed. Dry thoroughly, without scorching, and put away in some safe
receptacle, labeled "Poisoned Grain. Strj^chnine". . . . Expose the
grain where poultry and tame pigeons cannot get it, and by operating
only during the winter there will be no danger of poisoning seed-eating

1 Dearborn, Ned, The English Sparrow as a Pest, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 493,
1912, pp. 20-23.

17

wild birds, at least for all northern towns and cities. By taking ad-
vantage of the sparrows' gregarious habits, and the fact that they drive
off other birds from localities where they are numerous, much might be
done even in the south.

Sparrows are such suspicious and cunning birds that, if the strychnized
grain be exposed at first, they will probably roll each kernel in their bills,
taste it, reject it, and possibly refuse to touch it again that winter. The
best way is to select a safe place, where the wind is not likely to scatter
it, — a walk, driveway or porch roof with a smooth surface, — so that
the grain may be swept up after each trial. Accustom them to feeding
there daily with grain exactly like that which is medicated (I often do
this for a week or even a month, until all the sparrows in the neighbor-
hood are wont to come regularly), study the times when they come for
their meals, and then on a cold, dry morning after a heavy snowstorm,
having swept up all the good grain the night before, wait until they have
gathered, and then put down enough strychnized grain to feed the entire
flock. You have about ten minutes before any begin to drop, and those
that have not partaken of the grain by this time wUl probably be frightened
off; but, by timing it properly, I have repeatedly caught every sparrow
in the flock. I have found morning the best time, as they all come then;
and it is essential to success to select a dry day, since in wet weather
they taste the strychnine too quicklj'-; I have seen them actually throw
it out of the crop.^

Shooting.

For ten years my farm was kept clear of sparrows by the
practice of shooting promptly the first one that appeared.
They never got a foothold, never nested there, and did practi-
cally no harm, although they were domiciled on the premises of
my neighbors where they drove out a large colony of cliff
swallow^s and all the bluebirds, tree swallows and martins.
Shooting is very effective if the sparrows are greeted with a
charge of shot or a bullet every time they appear, and they
soon learn to fly high where they get such a greeting. A
skillful rifleman may pick off individual sparrows wdth a good
air gun or a Flobert or other small 22 caliber rifle as they come
to feed or to the nesting box, but most people have better
success with a small shotgun and number 12 shot. If smokeless
powder and small-bore weapons are used the noise of an
occasional shot will not disturb native birds, and in some cases
they seem to be gratified by the destruction of their garrulous,

I Hodge, Clifton F., Nature Study and Life, 1902, pp. 315, 316.

18

pugnacious enemy. Where sparrows are numerous a good plan
is to scatter grain in a long line at a certain hour each day, and
when the sparrows of the neighborhood have learned to gather
promptly at the appointed hour the shooter who has concealed
himself for the purpose shoots down the line. Thus nearly
every bird may be killed at one discharge of the gun. If the
sparrows frequent poultry houses where there is danger of
shooting fowls the bait may be placed on a long narrow board
above the fowls' heads. Persistence in the use of such methods
as those detailed above will tend to make any premises so
unsafe for sparrows that they will prefer to reside elsewhere.

Co-operation in Sparrow Killing.

In many parts of Europe, where a constant warfare is waged
against this bird, clubs are formed for the purpose of killing
sparrows. In some cases each member of such a club is bound
to present to the secretary the heads of a certain number of
sparrows each year or to pay a fine. The fines thus collected
are used as prizes for the members killing the most sparrows.
The honorary secretary of the Stratford-upon-Avon Sparrow
Club reported that during the year 1887 over 19,000 birds had
been killed. About 20,000 a year is the average number de-
stroyed in the neighborhood of Stratford-upon-Avon.

Similar clubs have been formed in some parts of the United
States. In one sparrow hunt in Woodworth, Ohio, 26 men
killed 980 sparrows.^

Bounties..

The theory that a bounty should be offered .to encourage the
extermination of the English sparrow has had many friends,
but where this plan has been tried it has not given satisfactory
results.

Dr. Barrows, in his report on the English sparrow, makes an
estimate of the cost of exterminating sparrows by bounty in the
State of Ohio. The sum required exceeds $11,000,000. Michi-
gan and some other States have tried the plan of exterminating
sparrows by bounty, with very unsatisfactory results. Not-

> Barrows, Walter B., Bull. 1, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Division of Economic Ornithology and
Mammalogy, The English Sparrow in North America, p. 166.

19

withstanding the payment of considerable sums of money, the
number of sparrows did not seem to decrease; also, it was found
that birds of many species, most of them useful native birds,
were killed as sparrows by hunters for the bounty, and in very
many cases bounties were paid on their heads. A reward offered
for the destruction of English sparrows would be certain to
bring about the death "of numberless native birds.

Peotecting Grain, Fruit and Vegetables.
\A'Tiere sparrows are numerous and become destructive to
growing grain, shooting in spring, summer and autumn, and
poisoning in winter are the only remedies knowui. When the
grain is ripening the crop may be protected by boys armed
with guns and kept constantly in the field from dawn to dark.
Powder may be used mainly to frighten the birds, and a charge
of shot may be sent after them occasionally when they cease
to fear blank cartridges. Large clappers made of boards to
imitate the sound of a gun are used in England and might be
utilized here a part of the time to drive away the birds and
save powder. Similar means may be used to save fruit, but
English sparrows are not now generally destructive to fruit in
]\Iassachusetts, as their numbers have been much decreased by
a severe winter. If the fruit plot is small it may be covered
during the ripening season with a fine-meshed fish net. A few
cherry trees are sometimes protected in this manner. Young
plants, such as peas, cabbages, etc., have been saved from the
sparrow by covering the rows with small branches.

To PREVENT Sparrows taking Food designed for Native

Birds.
Many people have complained that where seed, suet and
other food have been put out for winter birds on feeding tables
or shelves sparrows have taken all or nearly all the food.
Sparrows do not like swinging shelves which may be hung by
wire, or better yet by spiral springs, which make them still
more unstable. Native birds use such shelves. Where spar-
rows eat suet it may be crowded into auger holes bored in
sticks, and the sticks may be fastened to the under side of a

20

limb where woodpeckers, nuthatches and chickadees will easily
get at the suet. Sparrows seldom will take the trouble to cling-
to the underside of a limb. This subject is treated more fully
in Circular No. 2 of the Massachusetts State Department of
Agriculture, entitled "Food, Feeding and Drinking Appliances,
and Nesting Material to attract Birds."

^

^

®l)e ^ommontoealtl) oi itla5sacl)U5ctt0

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 5

March, 1919

TURKEY RAISING

Miss MARGARET MAHANEY

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-19-1,000

TURKEY RAISING.

MISS MARGARET MAHANEY, CONCORD, MASS.

To those who are thinking of undertaking to raise turkeys,
the proper time to begin is in the fall. For stock, select heavy-
bodied hens with good round breast, broad back, round eye,
feet far apart and head well set up. You want an intelligent
looking bird. For show, the wings must be well barred and the
feathers all over the breast must be white tipped. She must
be a good bronze.

It should be fully understood that size and constitutional
vigor come largely from the female, and to have this developed
to the fullest extent, well proportioned, vigorous females must
be selected as breeders. A strong, healthy torn weighing from
25 to 40 pounds is generally what I have in my flock; a good
bronze, well barred wings, broad neck and deep chest, and
when he stands straight up his tail must touch the ground.
This is the most profitable stock to breed from.

I have warm, sanitary houses with board floors which are
cleaned off every day in cold weather and furnished with dry
straw. The dropping boards are watched very carefully for
yellow droppings, as they are the first sign of "blackhead."
It is a very easy matter to single out the affected bird, as the
whettle under the neck will be drawn up and the head will
be a grayish color. That bird should be taken away, and an
examination made to see if she has any undigested food in her
crop. It is almost impossible to do anything with a bird
which has undigested food in her crop. To overcome this,
take 1 tablespoonful of ginger, one-half teaspoonful of common
baking soda, 1 teaspoonful of charcoal and moisten with castor
oil; make into pills the size of a small bean, and give one pill
to the turkey three times a day, with 1 tablespoonful of warm
milk and a little stimulant; massage the crop gently. In a
few hours the gas will begin to come into the crop, the food

will digest, and you will find that your bird is on the road
to recovery. A great many birds have been saved this way.

To prepare my birds for the breeding season I keep before
them charcoal, grit and oyster shells; and in the drinking
water once a week, in the morning, I put one-half teaspoonful
of common baking soda to a gallon of water for eight turkeys.
This will sweeten the crop and help to tone up the bowels.
If you feed corn to your grown turkeys in the winter, feed it
at night, and on cold nights it is well to warm it, as it is not
so apt to cause diarrhoea. If impossible to get turkey feed,
try to keep before them ground wheat, oats and barley, 5
pounds of beef scraps to 100 pounds of mixed feed, with 1 pint
of air-slacked lime mixed well into the feed. In the laying
season, if you have any sour milk to spare you will find it a
great benefit.

To one pen of eight hens I keep one tom. To persons
going into the turkey-raising business on a large scale I should
advise the keeping of three or four extra toms so that if any-
thing happened to one tom, they would have good, clean
breeding stock to fall back on. Try to win the confidence of
your stock, and have them trust you. Speak low and gently,
and you will find your success with them will be much better.

I would suggest having four good nests to each pen, these
to be deep, containing a plentiful amount of straw. The nest
may be built in a small packing case, the only opening being
towards the wall, and a china egg placed in the nest about
the 1st of March. The turkey hen likes a dark, secluded nest,
and will set for a short time daily, even before she is ready to
lay.

A strong turkey hen should lay about 30 eggs in her first
litter. These may be hatched out under common hens. I use
a bushel box, filled with good coarse hay, and make a round
nest, stuffing the four corners well so that the eggs will not roll,
and filling the box so the nest will not be too deep. The hen
should be able to get on to the nest without jumping.

When the hen shows signs of setting I take her away to an-
other pen, and in a very short time she will be ready for the
second litter of eggs, at which time I generally set her.

When a turkey hen is setting she has to have very good care.

She is a very close setter, and will set for days without getting
off her nest, which is the reason so many hens die on the nest,
as they weaken from want of food, water and exercise. On
going out in the morning to feed my stock, the first thing I
do is to gently lift the setting hens from their nests and shut
them out of the hatching house until I am through feeding all
the other stock. This sometimes takes three-quarters of an
hour, gives the eggs a chance to cool, and allows the bird to
have fresh water, green grass and exercise, A turkey hen
treated in this way generally improves by the rest obtained in
the hatching season, and, when she leaves the nest with her
brood, her head is red and she is in good condition. I have a
nice clean coop all ready for her.

The first feed given the little poults is hard-boiled eggs
chopped up fine, and sting nettle, with a shake of red pepper
or ginger. If you cannot get the sting nettle cut up dandelions.
I plant a good field of lettuce during the summer, and give
them all they can eat three times a day during the hot weather,
as there is a considerable quantity of iron in the lettuce, and
the little poults thrive on it.

When they are about two days old I soak bread in milk,
squeezing it dry, and add it to the chopped dandelions. As
stated previously, if you cannot get turkey feed you will have
to grind up wheat, oats and barley, with a shake of lime.
Charcoal and baby grit should be kept before the poults all the
time, and all the sour milk they can drink should be given
them. When they are about three weeks old give them a mash
made as follows: for 12 poults take 1 pint of cornmeal and 1
quart of mixed feed, and if you have plenty of milk make it
with that, but it must be as well cooked as cereal for the table.
It is also well to give the little poults broth made from bones.
This will help them "shoot the red." They should be yarded
up in runs 5 feet each way, and 23 inches high, until they are
good and strong. After they are a week or ten days old they
may be let run about half a day while the dew is off the grass.
When poults "shoot the red" they may be allowed to run all
day in good dry weather. As cold and wet weather are con-
sidered the chief causes of "blackhead," young turkeys should
not be allowed to get wet the first year.

6

The little turkeys are housed in common portable houses
which are found very good, having open fronts with wire net-
tings. The tops are raised on hot nights, admitting plenty of
pure air. My improved turkey houses are 6 feet long, 7 feet
deep and 5 feet wide, and will each hold 8 full-grown turkeys.

After turkeys are four months old they may be turned into
larger sheds, thus necessitating less work. About twice a week
on hot days the little poults should be given a teaspoonful of
epsom salts to a gallon of milk or water, to cool the blood and
clean the bowels. A few drops of tincture of iron once or twice
a week in the drinking water is a great benefit.

When the cold rains come on during the fall, if people would
only keep their stock dry and warm and well housed their
losses would be a great deal less.

If, on cleaning out the young poults' coops in the morning,
any yellow or white droppings are discovered the affected bird
should be found and removed from the house, which must
afterwards be disinfected. If there is any undigested food in
the bird's crop she should be given the same pill recommended
for similarly affected grown turkeys. After the food has been
digested the treatment for "blackhead" should be admin-
istered.

\^

b-

STATE DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 6

March, 1919

FAOTOES AFFECTING HARDINESS

IN FRUITS

U. P. HEDRICK

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-19-2,000

FACTORS AFFECTING HARDINESS IN FRUITS.

PKOFESSOR U. P. HEDRICK, HORTICULTURIST, NEW YORK STATE
EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, NEW YORK.

The chief hindrances to fruit growing in North America are
winter freezes and spring frosts. No part of the Continent
where fruits are grown, excepting favored portions of Cali-
fornia, is free from the danger of a freeze that will kill the
trees, or a spring frost that will destroy the blossoms. The
losses suffered during the winter and spring of 1917 and 1918
threaten the existence of some fruits in many parts of the
United States and Canada. One of the problems which
growers of fruit now face is how best to avoid or check injury
from freezes and frosts.

The problem is not an insurmountable one, for one finds
here and there varieties of orchards almost or wholly unin-
jured, and possibly adjoining others with trees or buds partly
or wholly killed. What conditiotis of the trees, of the soil,
or of the care make the difference? There must be reasons
for the injury of the one and not of the other. If we could
intelligently explain the eccentricities and anomalies of winter-
killing and spring frosts we might do something to avoid
injuries from unseasonable weather.

The writer has made two efforts to find some explanation
of the varying behavior of peach trees during freezes and
frosts. In the spring of 1905 he addressed letters to about
100 of the best peach growers in Michigan, asking for their
experience as to the hardiness of the peach in tree and bud.
In the spring of 1907 about the same number of letters were
addressed to peach growers in New York.

This paper is a brief review of the answers obtained. The
great importance of the subject seems to have been obvious
to the peach growers, for almost without exception answers
were given by those addressed, and in such manner as to show

their ii^terest. The experiences given and the theories ad-
vanced are many and conflicting, but out of the great mass
of material obtained there is much that is suggestive.

1. Influence of Soil on Hardiness.

It is usually held that trees are hardiest on sandy, gravelly
or stony soils. In the orchards of Michigan the growers
consulted held this to be the case almost without exception.
But in New York the kind of soil seems to make but little
difference, providing it is warm and dry. If these two factors
be favorable, even the tender peach seems to thrive in any
of the soils of New York.

In the investigations made, then, this point is clear; the
peach must have a warm, dry soil to secure the greatest
possible hardiness inherent in the species. This holds with
all fruits. Only in such a soil can trees make a strong, firm,
well-matured growth that seems to be conducive to hardiness.
A warm soil is especially necessary to secure a growth that
will withstand cold. Plants in a warm soil, so physiological
botanists tell us, have more and smaller cells in their tissues,
and therefore a more condensed sap, both of which conditions
seem most favorable to hardiness.

Many growers in both States speak of the desirability of a
gravelly subsoil to secure a hardy tree. Such a subsoil seems
to be conducive to the warmth and dryness of roots, and it is
probable that, so far as hardiness is concerned, it matters
little whether this subsoil be overlaid with sand, gravel, loam,
clay or combinations of these.

2. Does the Amount of Moisture in the Soil in Winter
AFFECT Hardiness of Trees?

The evidence as regards this point is clear. Either extreme
of moisture — excessive wetness or excessive dryness — gives
favorable conditions for winterkilling. A wet soil is conducive
to sappiness in the tree and also freezes deeply.

On the other hand, severe cold, especially cold alternating
with warm weather or accompanied with dry winds, causes
evaporation of water from trees, and if the soil be so dry as
not to furnish moisture to replace the evaporated water,

harmful results ensue. Several experiences were given in
Michigan in which trees were injured far more from the
winter freeze in a dry than in a wet soil in the same orchard.
It is a matter of common observation among fruit growers
that twigs and buds which are more or less shriveled in winter
from lack of water or lack of maturity are almost invariably
winterkilled in cold winters.

3. What Effects do Fertilizers have on Tree Growth,
AND hence on Susceptibility to Cold?

It has long been thought that fertilizers with any considerable
amount of nitrogen, as barnyard manure, cause trees to make
a heavy, rank, soft growth susceptible to freezing. This
theory finds expression in such statements as: "Hardy under
neglect;" "Tender under high culture." The majority of
the growers consulted in this investigation still hold that such
is the case, but a very considerable number of them, and
among them some of the best fruit growers in the two States,
say that trees are more likelv to suffer from cold if underfed
than if overfed.

Their experiences indicate that vigorous vegetable growth
in early summer can be made of great service in counteracting
cold, and that half-starved trees, or those which have been
allowed to bear too heavily, are apt to suffer most from
freezing. The influence of the preceding crop was strongly
shown in orchards of all fruits last winter, 1917-18. In all
orchards where the trees bore a light crop the preceding
summer there was less injury than with trees that bore a full
crop. By using properly balanced fertilizers, by stopping culti-
vation at the right time, and by judicious pruning, so that the
growth can be kept firm, the top of the tree compact and the
branches well set with buds, conditions favorable to hardiness
can be obtained. It is common knowledge that late fall growths
are susceptible to winter injury of both wood and bud.

4. Do Cover Crops protect Trees from Cold? '
There were no conflicting opinions on this point. Growers
who had planted cover crops were agreed as to the value of
this method of protecting trees from winter freezing. Many

6

individual cases were cited of orchards having cover crops
surviving the cold winter when near-by orchards without the
covering crop, holding a muffler of leaves and snow, were
killed. Fruit growers in the two regions consider the cover
crop the most effective treatment of their orchards to avoid
winterkilling, holding that they protect the roots from cold,
cause the trees to ripen their wood quickly and thoroughly,
and that they assist in regulating the supply of moisture.

5. Is THERE Any Difference in Hardiness between

Low-headed and High-headed Trees?

All growers in both States prefer low-headed trees, claiming
that both trunks and branches are more often injured in high-
headed trees. If this be true the reasons probably are: winds
dry out the wood of high-headed trees, making them more
susceptible to cold; low-headed trees are usually more vigorous
and therefore less susceptible to cold; and' lastly, low-headed
trees have better protection to the trunk from the sun and
hence from sunscald, one of the effects of freezing and thawing.
Attention is called by several growers to the fact that buds
on high-headed trees usually suffer less from spring frosts.

6. Are Windbreaks a Protection to Trees or to Buds?
There was much difference of opinion. From the experiences

given it seems that the value of a windbreak depends largely
upon the topography of the land. A windbreak so situated
as to form still air can only be detrimental so far as cold is
concerned. So planted as to deflect or to cause air currents
they become of value in keeping off frosts. More often than
not, however, windbreaks seriously check atmospheric drainage,
and the damage by frost is increased. Another disadvantage
is, should the windbreak be to the north, the buds on the
trees thus sheltered are forced and are therefore more liable
to injury by late frosts. The testimony was, for the most
part, unfavorable to windbreaks.

7. What Degree of Cold will kill Trees?

There was a most surprising uniformity in the answers to
this question. Nearly all of the correspondents set 20° below
zero as the temperature that will kill the peach tree under
normal conditions, though some had known them to withstand
temperatures of from 20° to 30°, depending upon the condition
in which the trees went into winter.

During the almost unprecedented cold of last winter- in New
York sweet cherries were quite as tender as peaches; pears
were a little but not much hardier than peaches; apples were,
of course, hardier than pears, but some leading varieties of
apples and pears, as Baldwin and Bartlett, are not much hardier
than the hardiest peaches. Sour cherries were the hardiest of
the tree fruits.

8. What Degree of Cold will kill Peach Buds?

From the answers to this question we are forced to conclude
that much more depends upon the condition of the buds than
on the temperature, assuming, of course, a temperature below
zero and not greater than 25°, which seems to be the limit that
peach buds can stand, even under most favorable conditions.
The chief factors influencing tenderness of buds are maturity
of buds; variety, and the time at which the buds of a variety
finish their resting period and become ready to grow. Some
of the factors influencing temperature are lay of the land,
proximity to water, stresses of changeable weather, altitude,
latitude and currents of air. Fruit buds of other fruits, sweet
cherry excepted, are seldom injured.

9. Are Trees from Northern Nurseries Hardier than

those from the south?
Many opinions were expressed, but few men had grown
trees from different latitudes under such conditions as to
answer the question fairly. The answers were in no way
decisive, and the question is still an open one to be settled
only by direct experimentation with trees of the same varieties
from North and South, grown under identical conditions.

8

10. Does the Character of Individual Trees have

Anything to do with Hardiness?

Answers to this question were very indefinite and often
conflicting. It was held by some, and with a fair show of
experience to confirm the contention, that trees naturally
high-headed, with few branches, long, spindling trunks,
branches and twigs, have soft wood and are therefore more
susceptible to freezing; on the other hand, that individuals
having naturally short bodies, a goodly number of branches
starting low, with short-jointed wood bright and clear when cut,
and thickly set with buds, were the least easily injured by cold.

The individuality in these two classes of trees is given them
by treatment and environment, as pruning, cultivation, soil
and distance apart. One tree of a variety can hardly be
supposed to be more hardy to cold than another through
inherent variation. Whether greater inherent hardiness exists
in some trees in a variety can be determined only by carefully
conducted experiments.

11. Are Small-growing Varieties of Peaches with
Compact Heads Hardier than the Free-growing
Sorts with Large Heads?

Practically all growers say that the compact growing sorts
are the hardiest. As would be expected, the small-headed
varieties are those with the least succulent wood. The follow-
ing varieties are named as being the most compact growers,
and hence hardier than the average: Hill's Chili, Crosby,
Gold Drop, Barnard, Kalamazoo, Triumph, Wager and Fitz-
gerald.

12. Is the Wood of Some Varieties More Succulent than
that of Others making Such Sorts susceptible to Cold?

Every experienced orchardist or nurseryman knows that
there is a great variation in the texture of wood. Some
varieties have a much more succulent growth than others
grown under the same conditions. Succulency of growth
is in some cases a well-marked varietal character, and one
that can be avoided in se^cting sorts to plant where hardiness
is a requisite. Summarizing the answers from New York

9

and Michigan the following are the peaches most often named
as having the softest and sappiest wood: Early Crawford
and Late Crawford are named by practically all correspondents
as being most succulent in growth, following which, named
in order of degree of succulency, come Chair's Choice, St.
John, Niagara and Surprise.

13. Are Young or Old Trees Hardiest?

Beyond all question young trees suffer most in severe winter
freezes. Practically all fruit growlers agree to this, and as
proof, growers give their experience in the several severe
freezes that have occurred during the past few years in which
young trees universally suffered most. It is probable that
young trees are injured most because they make a much
greater and much ranker growth than the older ones, and
hence more sap remains in them during the winter. The
formation of buds in the older trees is helpful, too, in maturing
the wood. There are, however, many exceptions to the state-
ment that young trees are less hardy to cold than old ones.

Old trees can be forced to produce large quantities of new
wood susceptible to winterkilling, while, on the other hand,
the superabundant growth of young trees can be kept down
by orchard treatment. It is fair to assume, too, that old
trees possessing very low vitality are less hardy than vigorous
voung trees. Thus it is often to be noted that old trees which
have suffered from the ravages of insects and fungi are easily
killed by cold.

While young trees are more susceptible to freezing than old
ones, yet they are much more likely to recover, if recovery is
possible, and their return to a normal condition is more rapid.
This is probably true because of the greater vigor of the
younger plants, and because of the possibility of an entirely
new covering of bark foi; small trees often impossible with
larger ones.

■ 14. Name the Varieties Most Hardy in Wood.

There was, as would be expected, great difference of opinion
as to the sorts most hardy. The following peaches, in order
named, are possibly most hardy: Crosby, Hill's Chili, Gold
Drop and Wager. Carman, Belle of Georgia, Elberta, Cham-

10

pion and Greensboro, none of them in the lists of hardiest,
are hardier than the average.

The Russian apples seem to be perfectly hardy in the apple
regions of the United States, the most prominent of these
being Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Oldenburg and
Wealthy. Mcintosh and Fameuse follow the Russians in
hardiness. Seckel and Kieffer stand out as the hardiest
pears, while Windsor is probably the hardiest sweet cherry.

15. Name the Varieties Most Tender in Wood.

Here, too, opinion differs, but not so much as in naming
the lists of hardy sorts. The list of peaches runs: Early
Crawford, Late Crawford, Chair's Choice, St. John, Niagara.

In the last terribly cold winter in New York Baldwins
proved most tender to cold, followed, among standard sorts,
by Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy and Ben Davis.

Recommendations.
What lessons are to be learned from the data set forth?
It is plain enough that some varieties of every fruit are in-
herently hardier than other varieties, and that selections of
hardy sorts can be made for doubtful situations. Again, all
can agree that hardiness is in great measure dependent on
maturity of the plant, not only of the whole tree, but of
parts of the tree, those parts with the poorest sap flow being
least hardy. It is well established, also, that soils may be
either too wet or too dry for the hardiest condition possible.
It is probable that cover crops and snow offer the best pro-
tection against winterkilling of the roots. It seems certain,
from the data in hand, that overbearing in the season pre-
ceding a cold winter weakens trees so that they are susceptible
to cold, as also do the attacks of insects and fungi. Lastly,
and possibly most important, the notion that trees are hardier
under neglect than under high culture seems false; the more
vigorous the tree, provided it matures its wood, the hardier.

\a

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®l)e ^ommonroealtl) of illassacljusetta

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 7

March, 1919

FRUIT MARKET POSSIBILITIES
IN THE EXPORT TRADE

A. W. OTIS

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

pobucation of this document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-'19-l,600

Fruit Market Possibilities in the
Export Trade.

A. W. OTIS,

The subject assigned to me — " Fruit Market Possibilities in
the Export Trade " ; — is a very broad one, and is open to
consideration in many different ways.

The first word, "Fruit," is a general term, and the word,
"Export," has to do with the marketing field anywhere outside
the United States. We know the United States is a very
large and important part of the world at the present time,
at least, but when it comes to consideration of fruit market
possibilities there are some very important markets outside
our own country.

Apple Exports.

Apples have been shipped from the United States to Europe
for approximately sixty years. My own experience dates
back to 1880, and while considerable quantities had been
shipped prior to that time, the season of 1880-81 was the
beginning of a very important branch of the apple business.
The exports that season were, in round numbers, 1,300,000
barrels. The quantities have varied from season to season
according to conditions, — some seasons being about the same
as 1880, and others much lighter, — but the next really im-
portant season was that of 1896-97, when nearly 3,000,000
barrels were shipped. I say "important," not because of the
really satisfactory financial results for those in the business,
— as for many it was disastrous, — but for what it did for
the apple growers in opening up new markets.

The crop was enormous in growing districts. Growers
hardly knew what to do with their fruit, and some wished
they had let it rot on the ground.

Thousands and thousands of barrels were sold for 75 cents
per barrel, packed and delivered on board cars, or less than
barrels cost now. Even at this, buyers lost 75 cents, and
more if they had money to make good the deficits on their
sales.

The season had its bright side, for by January the bad
returns had caused very many shippers to stop entirely, and
the low prices in England had been the cause of opening up
new markets, and after January 1 there was a general im-
provement and a very good business. The benefit, however,
came in later years, as the low prices had created an increased
demand for Anierican apples which has continued up to the
present time.

In the summer of 1897 we had many new concerns from
the other side represented here, looking for business, and they
have been looking for American apples ever since.

In early years shipments were almost entirely sent to Great
Britain, a very large percentage going to Liverpool, the balance
being divided between London, Glasgow, Hull, Bristol and
occasionally a few to other places.

Liverpool was the principal distributing market, — the
others being more distinctly consuming markets, — depending
on their own and near-by populations. Liverpool, being a
great shipping port, handled immense quantities weekly,
finding an outlet, not only in other places in Great Britain,
but also on the Continent.

After a few years Germany became quite an important
factor in the business, and was distinctly so just before the
war. Hamburg had its free port established by the German
government, which enabled it to build up a large business with
Russia, Norway, Sweden and other places. Some of us, at
least, hope this business will continue, but that it will be
supplied either directly or through more friendly channels.

Other markets have developed in South America, Africa,
Australia and other trans-Pacific ports.

The demand has grown steadily, and it is no exaggeration
to say we have the world for a market. At the present time
I have inquiries from Holland, France and the Scandinavian
countries. Some of these places are not likely to be large

customers, but will doubtless want some of our apples every
year.

In this connection I will refer to a personal trip taken in
1913 for the purpose of looking up new outlets, calling upon
dealers in many places, from Naples in the South to Stock-
holm in the North. I found them interested in and ready
to handle the American apple, but generally in a limited way,
particularly in the South, I do not believe it advisable to
ship to too many small places, but think it better to let them
get their supplies from the distributing centres wuth which
we have better steamer connections.

It is for the fruit growers to consider this export outlet,
not as a sure thing, that will take whatever is sent and want
more, but from a safe and sane standpoint, and do everything
possible to increase the demand. A long step in this direction
has been the standardization of packages and grades.

I believe the western grower did much to establish a good
demand for his fruit by his methods of grading and packing.
Within the past seven or eight years grading laws have been
enacted in most, if not all, of the important apple-growing States
in the East. It is gratifying to a fruit dealer, and certainly
to an exporter, handling apples from all States to note the
tendency to uniformity in these laws, so far as may be possible,
considering the difference in fruit grown in the different States.
A uniform grading law is, I believe, ready to be submitted,
if not already acted upon, in the six New England States.
I would urge you all to do what you can to have the law
established. It probably is not perfect as drafted, but it will
do much to establish the apple business on a more solid
foundation.

Varieties handled in the export trade are worth considering.
For years the Baldwin was very largely the apple of commerce.
The Ben Davis, a variety not very popular in our markets,
follows the Baldwin in the export trade late in the season,
giving very good results frequently to shippers. A recent
letter even mentioned the Ben Davis as being more desirable
under the present abnormal market conditions, than some
larger and very handsome apples. The Baldwin to-day is a
standard variety, but other apples from other parts of the

country than New England are sought for by many foreign
dealers. The Newtown Pippin, from the Hudson River
district, was considered for years as the highest-priced apple
in the English markets. It was available in very limited
supplies, and I recall some years ago that sales were made
at 70 shillings, or, in our money, about $16.70, and it seemed
an extravagant price. At the present time the English govern-
ment has established a maximum price for the receiver to
sell barrel apples at 67 shillings and 8 pence, — equal to
$16.06. All varieties and grades have sold at this price,
except some apples arriving in very poor condition. We
should, however; remember that the present conditions are
very unusual; the country is bare of fruit and the people
almost famished for apples. In the same family with the
Hudson River Newtown, but quite a different apple, is the
California Newtown and the Hood River Newtown. Both are
very popular, especially in London. What surprises a New
England fruit man is why a California Newtown sells in such
quantities, as from our viewpoint it is not attractive, and
still London buys them by hundreds of thousands of boxes
every year.

In 1880 the exports from Boston were almost entirely from
the dealers in and around Quincy Market, and, at the most,
there were not over fifty different shippers from Boston. From
that time the business has grown by leaps and bounds, and
it is safe to say there is not a grower or apple dealer of any
importance in this couiitry who has not 'some knowledge
of the foreign markets and their bearing upon market con-
ditions here.

Districts which may be named as very much interested
in the export business are the following: Maine, New Hamp-
shire, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, West Virginia,
California, Oregon and Washington.

Transportation is a very important point to consider. From
the beginning the steamship companies have been interested
in apple shipments, and looked upon the business with favor.
When building new steamers the requirements of the apple
shippers were considered with regard to proper ventilation.
At the time the war broke out we had many popular steamers

in our Boston trade, some of them capable of carrying 20,000
to 30,000 barrels in good condition. I regret to say most
of the favorite steamers have been lost, and we are now glad
to take what the steamship companies offer, and I doubt if
an exporter would seriously object to anything that would float.

The methods of handling apples in the different foreign
markets vary, though the auction is a more general and
usually satisfactory way for distribution. It means a quick
sale and prompt returns, as well as fair dealing for seller as
well as buyer.

Packages for export business should have consideration.
The standard barrel has always been recognized as a proper
package, but should be well made, and properly coopered.
Boxes, such as are used in the West, are not, in my opinion,
to be recommended for New England export business, at
least.

The Boston bushel box has been growing in favor for several
years, and it probably has come to stay in the export business.
It should, however, have special attention when being made
to have it strong, or otherwise losses will be heavy.

To sum up the question as to the export marketing possi-
bilities for American apples, I would say the business has
grown from a very small beginning; the apples are now known
in nearly every country in the world, and, with normal times
in the shipping business, we shall have a demand for our fruit
every year in such quantities and on such terms as to have a
very important bearing on the apple-growing business of the
United States.

Besides apples, pears have been shipped in increasing quanti-
ties for many years prior to the war. The pear is so tender
it has been considered necessary to have refrigeration on the
steamers. We have no records as to the quantities shipped,
but do not think any considerable shipments from New Eng-
land have been sent. Our pears are almost too tender and
will not keep, and Pacific Coast pears. New York State
Bartletts and Kieffers have been exported in considerable
amounts; also some plums, prunes and other summer fruits.
Cranberries from New England and oranges and grapefruit
from Florida and California have been exported in limited
quantities.

[r> ^ S

.^"

®t)e QLommontocaltb of iHaasachuseto

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 8

AprU, 1919

The Efficient Management of
Labor on the Farm

F. C. SEARS

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

4-19-1500

THE EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT OF LABOR ON THE

FARM.

FRED C. SEARS, BAY ROAD FRUIT FARM, AMHERST, MASS.

I suppose I should apologize "to the farm management experts
for presuming to talk on the subject assigned to me, and I do
so apologize at once. But as a matter of fact, I shall not at-
tempt to give a scientific discussion of the subject as they would
do. I shall merely offer a few practical and more or less de-
tached suggestions that have grown out of my experience in
helping to manage the Bay Road Fruit Farm at Amherst, and
out of my earlier experiences on my father's farm in Kansas.

Very few classes of people have had as many jokes per-
petrated at their expense as the hired man. He is usually
represented as inefficient, frequently as lazy, sometimes as dis-
honest, and occasionally as all three. And he is blamed for a
large part of the failures in operating farms. "The thing
would have gone all right if we could only have had efficient
help."

Does he deserve this characterization? In nine cases out of
ten he does not, if we consider the real, typical, rural hired
man, and not the I. W. W. hobo who sometimes drifts out on
to the farm merely with the expectation of passing some of his
time there, and not with an honest intention of doing any
work.

The hired man is pretty largely what his employer makes
him. If he is well and efficiently managed he accomplishes a
deal of work in the course of the year; if his employer has not
any executive ability, does not know how to manage himself
efficiently, let alone his hired man, then not much of anything
is accomplished by the two combined. No one can study, even

casually, the work accomplished under two different foremen or
owners without being impressed at once with the difference.

One man keeps all the loose ends gathered up, has something
timely for his men to do every moment in the day, keeps his
men happy and yet going at a high rate of speed, — in fact,
drives his work instead of letting the work drive him. The
other man plants his corn three weeks late so that it does not
mature in the autumn; does not dig his potatoes in the fall till
the ground has frozen enough to spoil a lot of them; puts up
his ice in March, and says that farming does not pay. And he
can prove it, too !

The writer holds no brief to defend the hired man. Doubt-
less there are many inefficient men among the class. But so
there are among preachers and doctors. Probably as a class
hired men are not as progressive as employers, else they would
be employers themselves. But doubtless, also, if the tables
were turned, and the employers were working for some one
else, many of them would loose a trifle of their enthusiasm.
Self-interest is a big help in keeping up one's interest in the task
in hand. In any case, efficient, modern business management
would accomplish wonders if it could be tried out on the
average farm. So let us employers shoulder our share of the
responsibility and try to improve our methods. If this is
sound doctrine, if management can "cut the cost in two," it
is certainly worth studying, and the following are some princi-
ples which have appealed to the writer in his experience in
helping to manage a 400-acEe farm during the past ten years.

1. Know exactly how much work is done each day by each
man, and if it is not enough, find out why he did not do more.
This is, of course, especially important with new men, because
in this way one soon locates the man who, for one reason or
another, is not accomplishing as much as he should. But it is
a mighty useful practice, even with men who have been on the
job for years. There are very few of us who are not helped in
our work by knowing that somebody else is keeping an in-
terested eye on what we are doing. This is not saying that we
are loafers, — most of us are not, — but we take a pride in
doing well, and that pride is increased and our effort stimulated
if we know that what we accomplish is known by the boss.

2. Get the men interested in their rate of accompHshment, —
so many acres plowed in a day; so many trees pruned in a day.
This grows naturally out of the first suggestion, and is even
more important than the first. If Mike is pruning apple trees
ask him, when he comes in at noon, how many trees he finished
that forenoon; do the same thing at night; and then, in the
evening or Saturday afternoon, sit down with him and figure
out how much it is cpsting the farm per tree to get the pruning
done. Do the same thing with the boys who are thinning
apples, and go around occasionally to talk the job over with
them. Keep them posted as to how the cost of this week
compares with that of last week or last year. It is much better
to let the men keep their own records, even if the boss keeps
them also as a check, because this very thing stimulates their
interest in the matter. Another great advantage in interesting
the men and boys in what they are doing, and in the rate at
which they are doing it, is that it gives them something to
think about. Some operations are more monotonous than
others, and the more monotonous the operation the more im-
portant it is that the operator's interest should be stimulated.
Take the job just mentioned, — thinning fruit. Few opera-
tions of the orchard are more important, and yet few^, indeed,
are more deadly monotonous. There is no change, no let-up.
Hour after hour, day after day, week after w^eek, just pulling
off those tiresome little apples and letting them fall to the
ground. One does not even have the satisfaction of filling up
baskets wuth them, and thus feeling that he is accomplishing
something.

Moreover, we must remember that the hired man or boy
does not derive the same satisfaction that the owner does from
the thought of how much good he is doing to the crop by his
thinning or other operation. That one factor might be enough
to keep the owner in high spirits right through the job, but we
cannot expect it to stimulate the hired help in the same degree.
Personal accomplishment, even in so uninteresting an operation
as thinning apples, is something to take a pride in, especially if
the boss knows about it and expresses his interest in it.

3. Supervise the beginning and quitting of the men each day.
See that they get on the job promptly in the morning and at

noon, and that they do not come drifting in ten or fifteen or
twenty minutes before quitting time. This is a rather difficult
matter to handle, particularly on the smaller farms, but is a
great deal more important than is generally recognized. If
the time lost in beginning late and quitting early were accu-
rately kept track of it would be an eye opener to most farm
employers, and the aggregate of it in the United States in any
one year would be enough to build the Panama Canal several
times over.

4. Do not get too many men on any one job, and no matter
how many men there are on the job, see that the work is so
arranged that each man can be held responsible for w^hat he
does or does not do. If the job is picking apples do not put a
half dozen men on a tree. They will get in one another's way,
and nobody can be found to shoulder the responsibility for the
apples in the barrels that had the stems pulled out, or the
fruit spurs that were harvested along with the apples. More-
over, there is no way of keeping any reasonable track of the
amount of work that each man is doing. If each man is work-
ing on a separate tree he gets the credit for the good work he
does; he finds it difficult to dodge the responsibility for any
poor work he may do, and the boss knows just how much work
each man accomplishes. Here, again, the element of pride in
one's accomplishment plays an important part, and very few
men will be found who will be content to lag behind on their
row of apple trees, or have the boss find more fruit spurs and
fewer apple stems in their barrels than he does in the other
fellow's.

5. Study your men and put each one on the job he is best
fitted to do. There is a wide difference in the capabilities of
different men for different work; one is a star with a team,
another is a star on pruning, a third can do better spraying
than anybody else, while a fourth cannot do anything par-
ticularly well. In this connection do not take it for granted
that because a particular man has 'become expert on one job,
and another on another job, that therefore both have found
their proper niche in the scheme of farm work. To give a per-
sonal illustration, on the farm in which the writer is interested
we had two men, one of whom ran the tractor and the other

was the salesman. Each was considered an excellent man for
his particular job, but the huckster was considered a wonder.
He could sell more fruit at better prices than any man who had
ever undertaken the work. But he finally became indispensable
(in his own opinion), and it was necessary to get rid of him,
greatly to the regret of the management. The tractor chauffeur
was the only available man to take his place. He was put on
the job with fear and trembling. There was not one chance in
a hundred that he would get away with it, nor one chance in a
thousand that he would be equal to the indispensable Mike.
His administration started just as the last of -the Yellow Trans-
parent apples were being marketed. They were not quite as
good a grade as those that had gone before, yet this inexperi-
enced tractor driver sold them for somewhat better prices than
his expert and experienced predecessor had been able to get. It
developed that he was not quite as inexperienced as we had
thought him, for he had sold apples for an employer down in
Connecticut, and onions and garden truck in a small way on
his own hook. He has gone on improving until now he could
give the expert Mike many pointers. He is less picturesque
and profane, but more polite and persevering. He can see a
dollar just as far as Mike did, and is even more certain of
getting it.

6. Do not let the men be too fussy about what kind of
weather they get out in. Of course this can be pushed too far
till the men get ugly and won't work satisfactorily, but if they
have been handled so that they are interested in what is going
on they will be quite willing to take an occasional light shower
of rain or some snow without thinking that they must run to
cover.

Turning next to the questions of the management of team
labor on the farm we find almost as fertile a field here for
reforms. One of the first and most important of these reforms
is to change the mental attitude of the owner on the subject of
the use of teams. Ninety-nine men out of a hundred regard
the team just as they do the ice pond or the well, — as some-
thing useful and necessary to the most successful carrying on of
the farming operations, but as something which may be used or
not, just as may be found convenient. They would no more

8

feel that it was a reflection on their farming that they did not
keep their teams busy, than they would that they did not keep
somebody constantly at work pumping water out of the well.

Of course this attitude is dead wrong, but most men do not
see it or, if they do, they do not "let on." If they could be
made to realize that the cost of their team labor would be just
half as much per day if they would use the teams twice as
many hours it would be not merely a change but a revolution.
The team ought not to stand idle an hour, if this can possibly
be avoided. If it cannot be used at home it ought to be hired
out. It cannot, of course, on most farms, be kept at work
ten hours a day for six days a week for fifty-two weeks in the
year, but that ought to be the ideal. One thing which will
help to realize this ideal is to do every piece of work possible
on the farm with teams instead of men. Few farmers realize
how much more costly man labor is than horse labor, else we
would see more corn fields that were check-rowed so as to be
cultivated both ways, and fewer that had to be hoed by
hand.

Another great saving in cost might be made if our teams
were made to carry a full-sized load. How often one sees a
fine team and one or more apparently able-bodied men coming
in from the field with a mere handful of hay on the wagon, or
going out to the field with a wheelbarrow load of manure. And
yet this method practically doubles the cost of the labor item.
If possible have the teams go loaded both ways. This is per-
haps not very often possible, but it could be done much more
frequently than it ife if a little thought were put on the matter.

Lastly, on this matter of teams, do not put but one man on
the job, unless it is such work as hauling hay or loading barrels
of apples, where two men are absolutely indispensable for the
man labor involved. The sight of two husky men and one team
running a cultivator or a plow is enough to shake one's faith in
the evolution of man, at least those particular men. There is
something wrong with the man who cannot hold a plow and
drive a team at the same time. He is a cripple, either mentally
or physically or both, although he may not know it. The old
saying ought to be amended to read, "He that by the plow
would thrive, must always hold the plow and drive."

Another great field for reform which is frequently entirely
overlooked is the adequate and careful preparation beforehand
for each particular job, and the longer beforehand the better.
Too many of us do not discover that there is a broken casting
on the mowing machine until we drive out into the hay field
with it in July and start to mowing. This ought to have been
discovered way back in February or March, and the repairs
ordered then. We order our apple barrels in September, when
they are harder to get and cost us more than they would have
in May or June. We discover in March that the power sprayer
is out of order, when we ought to have found that out in
November, and have had the engine expert give it a thorough
overhauling. Another phase of the same question is preparing
one day for the work of the following day. If planting corn is
the job, we must not only see to it that the corn-planter is in
working order, but we must be sure that there is a neck yoke
and set of whiffletrees on it; that the oil can has not been
borrowed from it and not returned; that there is a monkey-
wrench in the tool box, and that the seed corn is ready.
Unless some thought is put on just such details as these we are
pretty sure to get out in the field and find something missing
and have to return to the house for it. An old neighbor of the
writer's out in Kansas used to remark, when he had to go
back to the house after a clevis or a wrench, " Well, he who has
not brains has legs;" and more than one of us has to depend a
good deal on our legs. It makes a vast deal of difference in
the work accomplished during the day whether we get on the
job in the morning at the drop of the hat, or whether it takes
us till 9 o'clock before things are really in running order.

One ought also to have a special list of work for rainy days
and parts of days posted up somewhere or carried in the hip
pocket, so that it is ready at a moment's notice. A good many
days' work is lost on the average farm in the average climate
because the boss does not know what to put the men at when
a sudden shower stops haying or spraying. Some loss is in-
evitable, but most of it could be avoided by a little fore-
thought.

Another point worth considering, though of less importance
than the last, is the shifting of men and teams from a job that

10

is finished to a new one. Do not move them any further than
is absolutely necessary in any one half day, but try to hold
them in one part of the farm until quitting time, even though
they do have to be put for a time on to work which is not
quite so pressing as some job on the other side of the farm.

Then just a personal word to the boss himself. It is a big
undertaking to run a farm competently, even if it is a small
farm. In fact, in some ways it is a bigger job to run a small
farm than a big one. But in any case it is a job to take pride
in and to put one's best thought into. If things are to be
made to go right one must get over the farm frequently, — if
possible every day, certainly every week. It does not take
long for the red-humped caterpillars to ruin an apple tree, or
for the blight to get a start in the potato field, or for the
peaches to get too ripe to handle well. In these inspection
trips do not be too much of an optimist. Be critical. It is all
right to see that the corn has grown a lot, and to be pleased by
that fact, but at the same time see that the weeds are getting
a start and that the field needs to be cultivated again.

Above and beyond all else keep the work moving. Keep
the quality of the work high, too, but do not let the speed
slacken. Hustle things.

^. H-

®l)c ^ommonwealtt) of iHaseactiusetts

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 9

April, 1919

CONTROL OF THE PRINCIPAL INSECTS

INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE

ABOVE GROUND

THOMAS J. HEADLEE

LI3RAR V of tY\l

Nlasiseicl-ua^ottc-

JUN2-1919 ;

•A^rictalttartil

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this DocuMErrr

approved bt the
Supervisor of Administration.

CONTROL OF THE PRINCIPAL INSECTS INJURIOUS TO
THE APPLE ABOVE GROUND.

THOMAS J. HEADLEE, PH.D., ENTOMOLOGIST, NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL

EXPERIMENT STATION,

Introduction.

In the discussion which follows, an effort will be made to
treat of the species concerned and the operations for their con-
trol in the order in which they occur during the growing season.
Throughout this discussion it is assumed that we are dealing
with a bearing apple orchard. It must be remembered, in
considering the recommendations set forth, that they are based
on the writer's experience in New Hampshire and New Jersey,
and that while they probably apply pretty well to Massa-
chusetts conditions there is a possibility that some of them
may not fit entirely the local conditions.

First Treatment.

It is possible, with our present knowledge, to say that the
first spraying which the apple orchard should receive should
control San Jose, oyster-shell and scurfy scales, and the rosy,
the green and the oat aphis. In the past it has been custom-
ary to recommend a dormant treatment for the scale insects,
and a growing season treatment for the plant lice.

About four years ago the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station at Geneva came out with a recommendation that an
effort should be made to kill the plant lice just as the buds
are opening, and to combine this treatment with the ordinary
dormant spray. The past three years' experience in New
Jersey has confirmed this idea, and shown that it is possible to
combine this treatment for plant lice with the ordinary dormant

treatment for scale insects, and with a single spraying opera-
tion to bring all of them under satisfactory control.

The treatment for controlling the scales and plant lice
should be made between the time that the development of the
buds show silvery and the time that the small leaves stick
out from them like squirrels' ears. This description refers to
the fruit buds and not to ordinary leaf buds. In the studies
at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station it has been
shown repeatedly that not all lice have hatched by the time
this stage has arrived, but it has also been shown that the eggs
which are still unhatched have split their outer covers and have
become very susceptible to destruction by spraying mixtures.

When the number of aphis eggs is extremely large, such as is
the case this year (1919) in New Jersey, so many of the eggs
may be tucked in under the buds out of reach of the spray
that a considerable number of aphids may appear after this
treatment has befen completed. The orchardist should keep a
close watch. If this happens he should immediately re-treat
his orchard with a mixture of 40 per cent nicotine, water and
soap, using 1 part of the nicotine to 500 parts of water (three-
fourths of a pint to 50 gallons), and adding soap (whale oil or
laundry) at the rate of 2 pounds when water is soft, or 3 to 5
pounds when water is hard, to each 50 gallons.

Standard liquid lime-sulphur concentrate (testing 32°
Beaume) combined with water at the rate of 1 gallon to 8 or 9
gallons of water, plus 40 per cent nicotine at the rate of 1 part
of the nicotine to 500 parts of the lime-sulphur and water, all
things considered, has proven the most satisfactory mixture.

The writer realizes that there are on the market to-day a
number of substitutes for the standard liquid lime-sulphur con-
centrate, such as dry lime-sulphur, soluble sulphur (sodium
sulphur), B. T. S. (barium sulphur), etc., but, assuming that
the efficiency of these substitutes is measured by their total
sulphur content, believes that any one of them will cost at
least twice as much as the standard liquid lime-sulphur con-
centrate, and will be no more efficient. It should be recognized
that up to date none of them have had anything like the test
which has been accorded to the standard liquid lime-sulphur
concentrate.

The writer is also aware that the recommendation of 40 per
cent nicotine at the rate of 1 to 500 (three-fourths of a pint
to 50 gallons) is much stronger than that which has been
recommended by many experiment stations and other agencies.
His experience, covering at least the last three years in New
Jersey, has, however, unmistakably shown that far better
results follow the use of 1 to 500 (three-fourths of a pint to
50 gallons) than those which follow the use of the weaker
mixtures.

In applying these mixtures for the control of scales and plant
lice it is necessary that the coating of the trees be made as
nearly absolutely complete as is practicable, for all are sucking
insects, and must be hit in order to be killed.

The machinery advisable depends upon the labor factor.
With high-pressure pumps and large delivery nozzles the coat-
ing may be obtained with a much shorter expenditure of time
and labor, but an equally good coating can be obtained with
lower pressures if time enough is taken to do the work.

It should also be said that this first treatment, containing as
it does lime-sulphur, should have a destructive effect upon
fungous diseases.

Second Treatment.

Between the time the small leaves project from the flower
buds like squirrels' ears, and the time the trees come into
bloom, apple scab infection is likely to take place, red bugs,
canker worms and other leaf feeders to appear, and the fore-
runners of the plum curculio to make their appearance in the
orchard. This period is therefore one during which something
should be done to prevent injury bv fungous diseases and insect
enemies. When the buds begin to show pink the trees should
be thoroughly treated with a mixture composed of 1 gallon of
standard liquid lime-sulphur concentrate to 40 gallons of
water, to which arsenate of lead has been added at the rate of
1^ pounds of the powder or 3 pounds of the paste to 50 gallons.
The whole tree should be well coated, but an especial effort
should be made to see that the young flower buds and expand-
ing leaves are well covered. The best coating is likely to be
obtained by delivering the spray as a fine mist under high

pressure. A coarse spray is likely to run off the tree and to
leave the critical parts of leaves and flower buds without the
necessary protection, and may possibly do more or less harm
through burning.

If red bugs are present 40 per cent nicotine should be added
to this spray at the rate of 1 to 500 (three-fourths of a pint to
each 50 gallons).

The question of machinery in this application is the same as
that discussed in connection with the first treatment.

Third Treatment.

Beginning when the blossoms are three-fourths or more off
the trees, and before the blossom ends of the apples have closed,
there is a period of from five to seven days in which mixtures
may be applied which will tend to protect the trees from codling
moth, plum curciilio, red bug, general leaf feeders, apple sCab
and other fungous diseases. At this period the arsenical poison
may be placed in the blossom end of the apple, where it will
remain throughout the season ready for the apple worm when
it tries to enter the fruit through this door. The young fruit
may be so thoroughly coated as to protect it from the attacks
of the plum curculio, which will normally come a few days
later. If the red bugs have not previously been destroyed they
may be killed by adding to the ordinary mixture 40 per cent
nicotine. At this time that coating which will protect the fruit
and foliage from canker worms and other leaf feeders and fun-
gous diseases for the next week or ten days may be made.

The mixture which is probably best is composed of 1 gallon
of standard liquid lime-sulphur concentrate to 40 gallons of
water, plus 1^ pounds of powdered arsenate of lead or 3 pounds
of the paste to each 50 gallons of the mixture. If red bug is to
be fought, 40 per cent nicotine should be added to the mixture
at the rate of three-fourths of a pint to 50 gallons.

The material should be applied as a fine mist. Effort should
be made to give to the fruit and foliage a thorough coating,
and especial attention must be given to coating thoroughly the
spreading lips of the blossom end of the apple. Again, the
question of machinery for applying is one which depends upon

the labor available. High pressures and large nozzles mean
much saving in labor, but cannot be said in other respects to
produce better results than relatively low pressures and small
nozzles.

Fourth Treatment.

This fourth treatment is necessary only where the plum cur-
culio normally stings a sufficient number of the apples to seri-
ously damage the crop. It is based on the fact that the
writer has never observed an instance in which the plum cur-
culio has stung the fruit through a good spray coating. It is
his observation that this insect hunts up the spots which the
spray coating does not cover, and there does its work. In his
experience the principal damage by the plum curculio occurs
within a space of five or six days, and that in the past this
damage has taken place in the period between the blossom
fall and the next recommended spray. At this time the growth
of the apple is exceedingly rapid, and the spray coating ad-
ministered to it at the fall of the petals is quickly broken,
giving the plum curculio every opportunity to find spots that
are free from the spraying mixtures.

It is therefore recommended that this treatment be begun
not more than one week after the blossoms fall. The material
should be the same, with the exception of the nicotine, as that
recommended for the blossom fall spray, provided, of course,
that the varieties are not especially subject to russet. This
question of damage by russeting will be discussed later in this
paper.

The material should be applied as a fine mist, and both
fruit and foliage should be very thoroughly coated. The ma-
chinery question here is the same as in preceding treatments,
and needs no especial consideration.

Fifth Treatment.

Ten days after the fourth treatment, or approximately three
weeks after the blossoms drop, the first brood of codling moth
worms will begin to enter the apples. Inasmuch *as many of
the eggs of this insect are laid upon leaves at a considerable
distance from the apples, with the result that the young worms

8

feed more or less on the underside of the foHage as they make
their way toward the apple, and inasmuch as nearly 20 per
cent of the worms which reach the apple will attempt to enter
through the sides, it is necessary that both fruit and foliage be
thoroughly coated at this time with a poisonous mixture. In
view of the further fact that fungous diseases of one sort or
another are always with us, it seems advisable to use a fungi-
cide as well.

The mixture should in this case be the same as that recom-
mended for the fourth treatment, and a special effort should be
made to coat the under and upper sides of the leaves and all
portions of the fruit with the material. The mixture should be
applied as a fine mist, because in this way the most complete
coating possible can be obtained. The machinery here is the
same as in preceding treatments, and needs no especial con-
sideration.

Sixth Treatment.

Eight or nine weeks after the blossoms fall the second brood
of codling moth worms begin to enter the apples, and the
coating given the trees five or six weeks before has almost
entirely disappeared. Furthermore, the protection against
fungous diseases has likewise gone with the disappearance of
this coating. It is therefore necessary at this time that the fruit
and foliage be recoated, the foliage primarily from the stand-
point of protection from leaf feeders and fungous diseases, and
the fruit from the standpoint of protection from the apple
worm. The material used in this treatment should be the same
as that recommended in the previous treatment, and it should
be applied as a fine mist, with an especial effort to give to the
foliage (particularly the upper side) and the fruit (all sides) a
complete coating consisting of fine specks of the spray material.
The machinery question is here the same as in the preceding
treatments, and does not require especial consideration.

Special Treatments.

The apple maggot, or railroad worm, will probably in most
cases, at least where clean orcharding is practiced, be taken
care of by the above-outlined treatments, the flies being poi-

9

soiled from lickino; up the globules of spray between the time
they emerge and the time they lay their eggs. There may,
however, be some cases in which, because of non-cultivation of
orchards, and because of no effort to destroy the dropped
apples, this insect may not be thus brought under control.
Where such difficulty is anticipated the orchardist should take
some of the infested apples of last year's crop, place them upon
medium, moist soil in a box, and cover the open end of the box
with wire mosquito netting. He should maintain the moisture
of this soil by adding a little water from time to time. In due
time the adult flies will appear in the box. Shortly thereafter,
assuming that the box has been kept out of doors under out-
door conditions, he should apply to his trees a spray consisting
of 4 pounds of powdered arsenate of lead to 100 gallons of
water. In view of the fact that it is expected the flies will be
killed by consuming the droplets of the spray liquid, it is prob-
able that a spray slightly coarser than the one recommended
in the regular treatments would be best. Ordinarily these
flies appear in early July, almost coincident with the sixth
spray of the schedule, but of course may not always do so.
However, it is advisable that the orchardist practice, wherever
possible, clean orchard culture, and depend upon the regular
sprayings to take care of this insect.

The apple leaf hopper is an insect which may or may not
appear in the orchard in any given year. It is therefore neces-
sary for the orchardist to detect it after it has hatched and
before it has reached the winged stage. This can be done by
examining the under sides of the foliage from time to time,
keeping a sharp watch for a small, slender, greenish white insect
which is able to move rapidly over the leaves, but which cannot
at this stage fly. When these insects are discovered the orchard
should be promptly sprayed. If a regular spraying is due,
simply add to the regular spray material 40 per cent nicotine
at the rate of three-fourths of a pint to 50 gallons. If no
regular spray is due, treat the trees thoroughly with a mixture
composed of three-fourths of a pint of 40 per cent nicotine to
50 gallons of water, to which soap has been added at the rate
of 2 pounds where the water is soft, or 3 to 5 pounds where
the water is hard. In making these treatments especial pains

10

must be taken to coat the under sides of the leaves, for that is
where the leaf hopper is usually found.

The bud moth, which is a small reddish brown worm that
bores into the swollen buds, eats out their contents and later
attacks the foliage, is usually not troublesome when the regular
spraying schedule outlined in this paper is practiced year
after year. In orchards where it is especially troublesome it
may be necessary to make a special application of arsenate of
lead just as the buds begin to expand. In that case about 2f
pounds of the powdered arsenate of lead should be used to each
50 gallons of water, and an especial effort made to coat the buds
with a fine misty spray. Possibly something could be done by
adding lead arsenate to the first treatment at the rate of 2§
pounds to 50 gallons.

Russetting and burning Apples with Spraying Mixtures.

Some varieties of apples, such as Williams, Ben Davis and
Grimes, are easily russeted with lime-sulphur at summer
strength. In our experience apples may be russeted by material
applied when the buds show pink, and when the petals fall or
later. It is suggested that growers who have varieties espe-
cially susceptible to russeting and that are rarely troubled with
scab use self-boiled lime-sulphur as a substitute for the appli-
cations recommended in treatments 2 to 6 inclusive. Further-
more, self-boiled lime-sulphur has been found to be very effective
in stopping the ravages of the rose bug.

When lime-sulphur, summer strength, is applied to apples
under high temperatures, especially if applied very heavily, it
is likely to produce a most serious burning of the apple fruit.
This type of burning is one which the apple does not readily
outgrow. The WTiter has seen enormous damage done in this
way. It is the writer's experience that Bordeaux mixture,
which is sometimes used in place of lime-sulphur in sprays
recommended in treatments 2 to 6 inclusive, is very likely to
russet and burn in wet weather, while lime-sulphur is very likely
to russet and burn in hot dry weather.

11

JjU/uid V. Dmi.

We now have data bearing on the question of the use of
(lust mixtures for eontrol of fungous diseases and insects which
are derived from a period of about six years. Dust has not
been abk^, apparently, to control plant lice, red bug, leaf
hoppers, scab or other fungous diseases in a way to compare
at all favorably with liquid applications. Dust can, therefore,
not be recommended as a substitute for liquid applications on
apples.

Substitutes for Arsenate of Lead.

Calcium arsenate and other recent combinations of arsenic
with minerals, other than lead, have been placed on the
market at figures which make them, on the basis of equivalent
amounts of arsenic, much cheaper than arsenate of lead. Cal-
cium arsenate and such others as the writer has examined
apparently break down much more quickly than lead arsenate,
and are therefore less safe for use on the foliage and fruit of
apple trees, which are not tolerant of arsenic as are potatoes
and tomatoes.

®I)C iHommonrucaltl) of ittassachusctts

DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 10

Second Edition, Revised
August, 1920

BIRD HOUSES AND NESTING BOXES

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

8-20-4,500

PLATE I

Fig. 1. — Martin box, made by Mr. J. Warren Jacobs of Waynesburg, Pennsyl-
vania. This forms part of a nesting colony on the estate of Mr. Edward L.
Parker at Concord, Massachusetts. (Original photograph.)

Wellesley BiUD Box.
Fig. 2. — This is both inexpensive and effective. Note entrance guard of galvanized iron. Tlie
roofing felt overhangs and turns down, making a tight roof. (Photograph by John C. Lee.
See page 7. )

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction, 5

General Considerations, 6

Important Specific Directions, 7

Hollow Limb Nesting Box, 8

Log Nesting Box, 9

Bark Nesting Boxes, 9

Conductor Nesting Box, 11

Berlepsch Nesting Box, 11

Shingle Nesting Box, 12

Tin Cans, Flowerpots, etc., 13

Dimensions of Nesting Boxes, 13

Supporting Shelves and Other Conveniences for Nesting Birds, 18

Put Nesting Boxes on Poles, 20

How to attract Birds to Nest Boxes, 22

Martin Houses, 23

How to get Martins, 27

The English Sparrow, 27

Remove All Dead Birds, 28

BIRD HOUSES AND NESTING BOXES.

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY.

Introduction.

Many people fail to put up bird houses or nesting boxes
because of the trouble and expense entailed, or because they do
not know how to prepare and erect them in such a way as to
get the birds. Much that has been written on this subject has
been theoretical. Fatal errors in the dimensions of entrances
have been disseminated. For want of specific instructions,
nesting boxes have been put wrong side up or in places where
no bird would use them.

This circular has been written to encourage people to con-
struct easily made, inexpensive nesting boxes, and to tell when,
where and how to put them up so that the birds will be sure
to take them. Making and putting up such boxes should be
looked upon as a pastime. They need cost little or nothing, and
he who makes them should feel well rewarded by the joy of
seeing the little tenants choose, settle down, build their nests
and rear their young, singing their cheery songs meanwhile,
and feeding on the insect enemies of crops and trees. We must
provide homes for the birds that nest in hollow trees, as there
are no longer holes enough for all, while destructive insects have
so increased in numbers that the food supply is abundant.

Numerous nesting boxes properly put up will increase rapidly
the number of birds in a locality by multiplying the bird fam-
ilies reared. I have known more than 100 young birds of four
species to be reared in a single season in nesting boxes on about
3 acres, where no birds of these species were raised in previous
years, and where none could have been reared previously as
they then had no suitable nesting places. Boxes rightly made
and situated give much better protection to the young than
do most tree cavities. A bird box is serviceable if it furnishes
a suitable nesting apartment, shelters nest, eggs and young
from sun, wind and storm, and provides security against the

6

birds' enemies; also it may serve in winter as a night shelter
or sleeping place for a woodpecker or a party of nuthatches or
chickadees. We must allow the birds to be the judges of what
they want, as they and not we are to be suited. Therefore in
building a nesting box it is well to inquire first what kind of a
home the bird naturally chooses.

General Considerations.

Many people write me anxiously asking of what size nesting
boxes should be made and begging for exact dimensions; some
are unhappy lest the entrance holes face the wrong way; others
are anxious about ventilation; others feel sure that the smell of
paint on the nesting boxes or bird houses will drive the birds
away, while still others fear that they may get the box too high
or too low; but all these things make very little difference.
The situation and environment, and the size of the entrances,

however, are important. I have known
tree swallows to nest in a round box 3|
inches in interior diameter, in a flowerpot
even smaller at the bottom, and in a
one-apartment bird house, nearly a foot
square and about 18 inches high from
floor to ridgepole (Fig. 1). This is one of
the most popular houses with tree swal-
FiG. 1.- Swallow house. l^^^'S. But why wastc enough lumber on

one bird house to make three nesting
boxes? I have tried facing the entrance hole to all points of the
compass. The birds used them all.^ Painted or unpainted,
weathered or unweathered, wood, bark, cement, tin, clay,
pai)ier-mache and roofing felt, — all have been chosen in-
discriminately by feathered house hunters. Boxes placed 6
feet from the ground and others set on poles on the roofs
of tall city buildings have been taken. I have seen chickadees
nesting in a hole in a birch stump 2 feet from the ground
and in the hollow branch of an elm 65 feet high. One
wood duck settled in a hollow apple tree 3 feet from the
ground, and another 40 feet up in a hollow elm. Such ex-

1 I am now convinced, however, that in New England it is best to have the entrance holes face
generally in a westerly direction. Only warm rains drive in from the south, but occasionally the
southern storms are very severe.

periences lead us to revise our opinions regarding the exact size
of the tenement each bird requires and how high or low it
should be situated. I am not so positive as I once was regard-
ing what is best for certain species or what kind of a box or
situation will please each one best. It seems that the birds
have some individuality, or that they need nesting places so
badly that they will take almost anything if it is so situated that
it offers peace and safety. Nevertheless, there are a few rules
that should be followed in making and erecting bird houses to
secure the best results.

Important Specific Directions.

1. Let the roof be made tight and overhang the entrance far
enough to carry rain clear and keep the sun from shining in on
the young.

2. Do not make the bottom of the box too tight. If any rain
drives in, it should run out.

3. If the box tips forward a little on the side of the entrance
hole when set in place it will shed rain well. It should never
lean backward.

4. Provide a way of opening the box quickly, even if you
intend to burn it and replace it after the first season, as is done
sometimes with gourds and shingle or bark boxes. It will be
necessary from time to time to open the box for cleaning or for
evicting gypsy moths and other pests or vermin.

5. Make the entrance hole and the box itself just large
enough for the bird you want — no larger. This will tend to
keep out larger birds, as well as the birds' enemies, will give the
bird a better chance to defend its home, and will save material.

6. Entrances to nesting boxes should be protected against en-
largement by squirrels or woodpeckers by tacking on the outside
a ring of sheet zinc, cut to fit around each hole. (See Plate I,
Fig. 2.)

7. Make nesting boxes of weathered wood, or paint or stain
them with colored linseed oil of a neutral tint resembling dead
wood or bark, or put them up in the fall that they may become
weather-stained before spring. Apparently birds are less sus-
picious of such boxes than of those made of new, bright lumber,
but they have been known to use the newest of the new.

8

8. Fix nesting boxes on buildings or on poles rather than on
trees, and make them inaccessible to cats, squirrels, mice, rats
and snakes.

9. Where it seems best to put them in trees, choose isolated
trees which can be protected against cats, squirrels, weasels, etc.

10. Ordinarily ventilation is unnecessary if the entrance is
near the top of the box as it should be, but in very hot sum-
mers young birds are believed to have died of heat in unshaded
boxes mounted on poles. Ventilation may be provided by bor-
ing 4 half-inch holes in the sides of the box near the top and
filling them with corks which may be removed in extremely hot
weather.

11. It is best to clean out the boxes each autumn, burning
the old nesting material to destroy dirt and vermin, and putting
in a little chaff, dry grass or coarse sawdust as a foundation for
a new nest.

A few practical details in regard to carrying out some of the
above rules should be noted.

If the roof of a nesting box, made of wood, is horizontal, the
water will stand on it, and even if painted it will warp some-
what in drying unless heavily coated with good roof paint, or
covered with zinc, some good roofing felt or other waterproof
material. It is well to have a crosspiece nailed (with clinch
nails) across the grain on the under side to prevent warping and
splitting. If the top slopes downward at an angle of 45° or less
and is well painted, the water will run off so fast that the roof
will not warp much.

Top, side or front of the box may be hinged to open as a
door, or fixed to fasten by means of nails, easily removed, slid
loosely into sockets bored for them. White pine from | to | of
an inch thick is the best lumber. Cedar and cypress are dur-
able. Grocery or drygoods boxes may be used.

Hollow Limb Nesting Box.
As the hollow trunk or limb, or the abandoned woodpecker's
nest, is the usual domicile chosen by the hole-nesting birds, it
is natural to conclude that they will prefer something closely
resembling nature's accommodations. For this purpose a sec-
tion of a tree, containing an old nest of a woodpecker may be

taken, or hollow limbs, pruned from apple or other trees, may

be sawed into sections about a foot in length, the lower end of

each plugged, and the upper end covered with an overhanging

piece of board sloping to the front. A hole may be bored in the

front of this contrivance for an entrance, and a

piece of board may be nailed on the back (Fig. 2),

so that the box when finished may be screwed or

nailed to a post or pole. Nesting boxes should not

he nailed to trees, as after the birds have left them

they serve as hiding places for gypsy moths and

receptacles for moths' eggs; also if nails are driven

into a tree they may in time be overgrown by the

wood and become dangerous obstacles for axe or

saw when the tree is cut up. The hollow of the limb fio- 2- — HoUow

should not be less than 3j to 4 inches in diameter

at the bottom, and 6 to 8 inches in depth below the entrance.

The deeper the box, the longer the overhang of the roof, and

the higher the hole the less chance there will be for cats and

the other large enemies of birds to reach the eggs or young.

Perches are not necessary. Some birds like them, but they give

the enemies of the birds the advantage of a better foothold.

Log Nesting Box.

Ernest Thompson Seton recommends the following plan: —
A nesting box may be made of a stick of
wood or a section of a small log by first splitting
off four slabs with an axe and then nailing in
at each end a section sawed from the core that
is left after the slabs are split off. A hole may
be bored for an entrance for the birds. (See
diagram. Fig. 3.) This box may be quickly
made of wdiite pine, chestnut or cedar. A sec-

Fia. 3. — Seton
box.

tion without knots should be chosen.

Bark Nesting Boxes.
Neat boxes may be made of slabs with the bark on (Fig. 4),
or a rough box may be covered with bark in place of paint, but
all bark left on bird houses should be firmly nailed on, as other-
wise it will come of? sooner or later. In "Bird-Lore" for

10

Fig. 4 — Slab box.

January-February, 1905, I described the method of making
bark boxes, but at that time they were untried. They have
been used since with satisfactory results. The
credit of their invention belongs to Mr. William
Brewster, and I have made a considerable num-
ber after his design. Canoe birch and chestnut
were used, as it was believed that the bark of
these trees would be most durable, but Mr.
Brewster suggests that elm bark is probably
best of all.^ Those portions of the trunks used
were from 4 to 8 inches in diameter. The boxes were made in
summer, as the bark will not usually peel freely much earlier
than June 20, and then only for a short time.
When the tree had been cut down, the trunk was
sawed into sections each from 10 to 18 inches
long, according to the size of the boxes desired.
Only straight sections, free from knots or branches,
were used. A limb of the right size, however, may,
when cut off, leave a hole in the bark that can be
utilized as an entrance for the birds.

These domiciles may be made as follows: an
incision, through both outer and inner bark, is fig. 5. — Chestnut

bark box.

made on the side intended for the back of the
box, from the top to the bottom of each section; then, on the
opposite side, 2 inches from the top, there is bored through the
bark, with an auger or extension bit, a hole of the
size desired for the entrance. If such tools are not
at hand the aperture may be cut with a gouge, a
chisel or even a knife. Next, a wedge-shaped stick
is inserted into the incision at the back and under
the inner bark, to start it off, and with this im-
plement it is peeled very carefully. In peeling
birch one should be careful not to separate the
inner and outer layers of the bark. Caution should
Birch- be used when working about knots or rough places.
The bark will make the sides of the box, and
two sections, each an inch thick, sawed from the ends of the
barked log, will make the top and bottom. Now the bark is

Fig. 6.

bark box.

1 The bark of the common gray or so-called " white " birch is not very durable, but that of the
northern white or canoe birch is more satisfactory.

PLATE 11.

^^^■■■>-'^''

-«

1^1

■HP'-' '.^na^^^^^^U

K^ -

^

%

■ Ijyiep^ ■

1/ ]■

HHMW

> -■ *V if.:

1 ^1

firt.'-- •■■

Fig. 1. — -A nesting box maile froni rooting felt by Mr. Uihiiikpi.
Packard of Canton, Massachusetts. (Original photograph taken
on farm of Mr. William P. Wharton, Groton, Massachusetts.)

Fni. 2. — ^ Berlepseh nesting box, made of birch after the plans of
Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes of Meriden, New Hampshire. Thi&
style has proved acceptable to woodpeckers and nuthatches.
(Original photograph taken on the farm of Mr. William P.
Wharton at Groton, Massachusetts.)

11

tacked to the bottom and top. The bark will draw apart
somewhat at the back in drying, but this aperture may be cov-
ered, when the box is put up, by nailing or screwing a short
stick or pole over the oi)ening on the back, which stick in turn
may be nailed or screwed to the supporting building or pole.
To make the roof watertight, a piece of cotton cloth, duck or
denim may be put on, tacked down over the edge and painted,
or a piece of roofing paper may be used. A more permanent
covering may be made by using a piece of tin or zinc, as shown
in the figure of the chestnut bark box (Fig. 5). To make the
expected nest accessible to examination, the top of the bark
sides might be fastened to a hoop, and the whole capped by a
tin or wooden cover, like that of a lard pail or a berry box.
Mr. Winthrop Packard makes a very pretty box of roofing felt.
(See Plate II, Fig. 1.) The best support is a slim pole.

Conductor Nesting Box.

Large wooden conductors, used to carry water down from the
eaves of large buildings, may be obtained from some dealers in
lumber or moldings, sawed into sections, and utilized precisely
as in the case of hollow limbs.

Berlepsch Nesting Box.

Baron Hans von Berlepsch of Thuringia has invented a device
for making nesting boxes similar in shape to the nesting holes
of woodpeckers, and he has
been wonderfully successfid in
attracting all hole-nesting lairds
of that region to these boxes.
(Fig. 7 and Plate II, Fig. 2.)
The theory on which they are
built is admirable, but after
ten years' trial of them in this
country I am convinced that
most Massachusetts birds do
not prefer them to the hollow

limb or even to the rectangular box (Fig. 8) that many people
have used with great success. The Berlepsch style of box may

Fig. 7. — Berlepsch box and flicker hole.

12

be better for typical woodpeckers, such as the hairy and downy
woodpeckers. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes reports two cases

where downy woodpeckers have nested in
these domiciles; but flickers and red-headed
woodpeckers nest in rectangular boxes. This
latter type of box is excellent for bluebirds,
chickadees, wrens, flickers and tree swallows.
If made 18 inches deep for bluebirds it will
be very nearly cat proof.
The smaller sizes of the
Berlepsch type have been
made and sold in Germany
for about 25 cents each, but
here they cost much more.
Fig. 8. - A useful box. ^ ^^^.y f^j^. temporary sub-
stitute may be made by growing gourds which, when the contents
have been removed, are acceptable to many birds if tied upon
poles or trees (Fig. 9), but they are not so durable as well-
made wooden boxes, and I have not had much success with
them.

Fig. 9. — Gourd.

S)

■Jiingle Nesting Box.

My first nesting boxes, all of which were successful, were
made of old shingles, picked up from the ground when the barn
was reshingled, and some pieces of old weathered
boards removed from the ridgepole at that time.
A square section about 3| inches in diameter was
sawed from the ridgeboard for the top of the box,
and another 4 inches wide w^as used for the bottom,
the shingles being nailed to them (Fig. 10). A saw,
hammer and jacknife and a few nails were the only
tools and materials required. I have made such a
box in twelve minutes. These boxes were nailed up
in elm, cherry and apple trees, and some happy fig. lo.
families of bluebirds were raised, until at last the
cats discovered them. A large number of shingles may be saved
when a building is reshingled, and every year at the end of the
season the old boxes may be taken down and burned, to do
away with vermin, gypsy moths, etc., that may be concealed
within. It takes but a short time to make more.

Shingle
nesting box.

PLATE III.

Worn-out cans and utensils for nesting boxes. They may be nailed
topostsor wired to trees, and should be so placed as to be shaded
from the sun in the hottest part of the day.

13

^' . "

Tin Cans, Flowerpots, etc.

Till cans and flowerpots are not quite so suitable for nest-
ing boxes as are wooden receptacles, because pottery and
metal are good conductors of heat, and unless put up in the
shade are likely, in v^ery hot weather, to overheat the young
birds. Nevertheless, if such
utensils are placed where they
will be in the shade during
the hotter part of the day they
may be used with success (Plate
III). Cheap, thin boxes, such
as the larger cigar boxes, may
be fastened up inside a barn
under the eaves and a hole bored
through the wall of the building
into each box, or a box may be
made for this purpose (Fig. 11).

Dimensions of Nesting Boxes.

The following dimensions will
do for flat-roofed dwellings for fio. ii.
the birds named. These dimen-
sions are not absolute, but are such as seem to be popular with
the birds. The boxes may be made larger if desired, but not
very much smaller. The size of the entrance, however, should
not be changed. If the roof is not level but slopes forward the
back may be two or three inches higher.

House Wren. — Interior dimensions, 6 by 3^ by 3^ inches.

t' ■'..:,:

• Box inside a building.
Biological Survey.)

(From

Entrance hole, | inch in diameter. Of course a wren will use a

box with a larger entrance, and some people
prefer 1| inches, as they believe that the
wren can more easily carry the sticks of
which its nest is largely made through this
larger opening, but if the small entrance is
used English sparrows and other birds can-
not get in and molest the wrens. The long

axis may be either horizontal or vertical and the entrance hole

near the top. A miniature bird house (Fig. 12) will do as well,

but takes more time to make.

Fig. 12. — Wren house.

14

White-breasted Nuthatch. — A box actually occupied by this
bird in 1914 measured 5 by 5 inches (inside dimensions). Height
12 inches front; 13| inches back. Entrance front, near top, 1^
inches in diameter (Fig. 13). Mr. J. T. Melius of Wellesley
writes that this species has nested there in a bird house with
double-pitched roof, and the long axis horizontal. The dimen-
sions were 8 inches long, 6 inches wide, and 7 inches high. The
entrance was 1| inches in diameter and about 4 inches above
the bottom. A small platform was made just below the en-
trance, and the house was fastened to an electric-light pole
about 18 feet from the ground, facing the east and 8 feet from
a brick building. Probably a box made of bark, or slabs with
bark on, would attract this bird.

Fig. 13. — Box used by white-breasted nuthatch.

Red-breasted Nuthatch. — This bird has nested in a No. 2
Berlepsch nesting box made of yellow birch by the Meriden
Bird House Company, Meriden, New Hampshire, and placed in
a gray birch tree, in rather open land, with the entrance slightly
more than 7 feet above the ground. The entrance hole is If
inches in diameter.

This is reported by Mr. H. S. Shaw, Jr.; of Dover, Massa-
chusetts, and is the only case, so far as my records show, where
a red-breasted nuthatch has nested in a bird box.

Chickadee. — A box like Fig. 8 or Fig. 14 may be used, 10 by
4 by 3| inches inside dimensions. Long axis vertical. Entrance
hole Ij inches diameter, placed near top of box. Others recom-
mend an entrance 1| inches in diameter, or less, but my ex-
perience goes to show that our chickadee, like the European
titmice, prefers an opening a little larger than it needs, which

PLATE IV.

A nesting box occupied by the crested flycatcher. This is not tlie box referred to on
page 16, but another, used later by the same birds. fPhotograph by Mrs. J.
W. Elliott, Needham, Massachusetts.)

15

makes the chances of success better with the larger entrance.
Many boxes for this bird have been made with the entrance
too small. They are rarely if ever iised.^

5'/z"

8"

4"

15"

r

4'/

Fio. H. — Chickadee box and details of construction.

Bluebird. — Interior dimensions, 4j by 4j by 9j inches. En-
trance, 1^ inches or an eighth less — never Ij inches, as most
bluebirds will not enter a hole of this size. Long axis vertical
(Fig. 15). Tree swallows will use this.

(, gJ/g ^ <.-.5?'8.

1

1 «

T

1

1

10

1

1

1

<r --S -^

3

1

Fig. 15. — Bluebird box and details.

Tree Swalloic. — Interior dimensions, 4j by 4j by 8 inches.
Entrance hole about, not over, 1§ inches. Long axis vertical.
Bluebirds also use this box.

This is the most popular box (with the birds) that I have
seen.

• In May, 1915, 1 saw in Lenox a pair of chickadees feeding young in a nesting box with a round
entrance hole 1 inch in diameter. In 1916 another pair nested at Wareham, in a box with a 1-inch
entrance, but did not rear young.

16

Starling. — This European bird will soon be common and
may become a pest. It requires an entrance hole about 1|
inches in diameter, and cannot enter boxes properly made for
bluebirds or smaller birds. It will use any tenement suitable for
martins, flickers, crested flycatchers or sparrow hawks, such as
are described and figured hereafter.

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24 K

6"

V. . .

^MJi^

Fig. 16. — Flicker box and details of construction.

Crested Flycatcher. — Measurement of box actually occupied,
interior diameter, 6 by 6 by 8 inches. Long axis horizontal.
Entrance, 2 inches in diameter. (See Plate IV.) Mr. Henry
W. Stillings of Berea, Kentucky, gives the following dimen-
sions of two boxes in which this bird has nested there: No. 1,
8| inches long, 6| inches wide, 6 inches high; entrance diam-
eter, 2 inches; entrance, 4 inches above floor. No. 2, 10 inches
long, 4§ inches wide, 4 inches high; entrance diameter, 2|
inches; entrance, 1^ inches above floor. This bird has nested
in small bird houses, in boxes made of roofing felt, and also in
hollow log nesting boxes with the long axis vertical.

Flicker. — Interior dimensions about 22 by about 6 by 4|
inches. (Boxes 12 to 18 inches deep have been used by flickers
in some cases.) Long axis vertical. Entrance hole at least 2^
inches in diameter, near top. Several inches of ground cork or

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coarse sawdust and dry earth mixed must be placed in the bot-
tom, as woodpeckers make no nest but rely on decaying wood
or chips which they strike oft' the tree
to make a bed for their eggs. (See
Figs. 16 and 17 and Plate V.)

A Warning. — It is best to have
all deep nesting boxes roughened in-
side. They should be either rough-
sawed or scored in some way so that
small birds like tree swallows may get
out if they once get
in. If a box is planed
inside and is not large
enough in diameter
for them to fly out
freely they cannot
climb out. This is
why many have been
found dead in such
boxes, and why blue-
birds cannot escape
from water conduc-
tors when they get
inside and are some-
times found drowned
in cisterns.

Sparrow Hawk. —
Flicker boxes have been used occasionally by sparrow hawks, but

a more roomy box, at least 8 inches in

diameter, would be better.

Screech Old. — Inside dimensions of box

actually occupied on my place in which

young were raised, 7 by 11 by 15 inches.

Long axis vertical. Size of entrance hole,

3 inches wide by 4 inches high (Fig.

18).

Wood Duck. — Inside measurements,
Fig. 18. -Owl box. ^^^^^^ jq ^^ ^^ ^^ 24 inchcs. Entrance,

4 inches in diameter and 18 inches from the bottom. Long
axis vertical.

&

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Fig. 17. — Flicker box and details.
Survey.)

(After Biological

18

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^:^faJ^y^^£^.

Supporting Shelves and Other Conveniences for Nesting Birds.

Some birds which will not enter bird houses or ordinary
nesting boxes may take advantage of other simple facilities for
nesting.

Robin. — The robin uses mud as a framework for its nest,
and as this makes the nest heavy it requires a good foundation
and a roof over it to render it weatherproof. Robins' nests often
are dislodged or blown down in storms, and sometimes the birds,
warned perhaps by experience, learn to place their nests on
some projection under the eaves of a house porch or summer
house; on the end of a projecting log under the eaves of a log
house; on a beam under the roof of a shed or railway station;

under a bridge; under the over-
hanging sod on the edge of a
bank; in a hollow trunk; in a
barn cellar; or even in a bird
house. Mrs. Mabel Osgood
Wright experimented years ago
with shallow wooden trays
about 6 inches square, bracket-
ing each one to a post, grape
arbor or building, always with a
branch, eaves, arbor or other
screen or protection overhead.
The robins did not use them
the first year. The second year
two were used, and another year five more. These trays should be
made so that they will not hold water. Mr. Clayton E. Stone
of Lunenburg. Massachusetts, whose boxes for robins are used
by the birds, constructs a roofed receptacle of thin box boards,
with four corner posts of two pieces each, to support the roof.
Dimensions, 7 inches wide, 9 long and 7| high, with a flat roof
overhanging an inch or more all round. In my experience a
steep slant to the roof has been most satisfactory^, as otherwise
the birds sometimes nest on top of the box. A small grape
basket hung or nailed up under projecting eaves or a shed roof
may be used by robins, swallows or phoebes, particularly if a
little hay is placed in it. A pair of Carolina wrens at Fair-

FiQ. 19. — ; Robins' nest on log cabin.

PLATE VI.

A plan for attracting swallows. Barn swallow on nest on projecting end of a board
in barn three feet above the back of a stalled cow. The bird chose the situa-
tion because of the resting place offered for the nest. (Original photograph
taken by reflected light.)

19

haven nested in such a basket partly filled with dynamite hung
under the ridgepole of a barn.

Phoobe. — Any little open box or shelf, put up under the
eaves of a building or under the roof of any open shed or porch,
may be used by phoebes (Fig.
20). This makes a safe sup-
port for their nests which often
is appreciated by the birds
Pha^bes rarely nest far from
water.

Barn Sivallow. — Boxes or
shelves similar to those used bv
phoebes may be placed in barns
for the barn swallows, but a

little block nailed on a rafter is all they need, or a lath nailed
across two rafters so that the ends project. (See Plate VI.)
Even two nails driven into a beam or rafter about 2 inches
apart, the heads projecting about 2 inches, may be utilized, and
will furnish support enough to keep the nests from falling.

Fig. 20. — Phsbes' nest in box.

Fig. 2i. — Metallic devices to keep cats, squirrels, etc., from climbing to bird houses.
That at the left lias given best results so far.

When rafters were made of knotty logs or mere poles with the
bark removed no such supports were needed, but sawed timbers
do not present safe points of attachment for mud-built nests.
There should be an opening in every barn for swallows to enter.
Cliff or Eaves Swallows. — These require wide eaves, and on

20

painted buildings a strip of board or small timber nailed a foot
below the junction of the side and roof of the building. Mud
does not stick well to paint, hence the. need of a supporting
ledge.

A Dorothy Perkins rose bush. Grown on a bird-house pole for
protection against cats. (After Our Dumb Animals.)

Put Nesting Boxes on Poles.

Experience with nesting boxes on trees, particularly in woods,
has proved that they are occupied mainly by squirrels and
mice or remain unused. These animals, as well as cats and

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. — a colony. Three nesting boxes on one tree, all occupied by birds, on the
reservation of the Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game at Marthas
Vineyard. (Original photograph.)

Fig. 2. — a row of nesting boxes on a pasture fence on the farm of Mr. William P.
Wharton, Groton, Massachusetts. This plan is succos.sful. A largo iiroportion of
these boxes on all the fences were occupied. (Original photograph.)

21

sometimes rats, drive the birds out and sometimes destroy their
eggs and young. (See Plate V.) Nests on poles are not so often
visited by the foregoing enemies of birds, and such nests may

IZ

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8

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Fig. 22. — Swallow box, supposed to be cat proof, and details of construction.

Fig. 23. — To puzzle cats.

be protected against them by any one of the devices shown

(Fig. 21), or the pole may be ringed about with three rows of

large fishhooks nailed or stapled on 2 or 3

feet below the box, points down. Nests on

isolated trees may be safeguarded, but in the

woods protection is hopeless, and hole-nesting

birds, with the exception of chickadees, will

rarely nest there. Nesting boxes hung by

wires from outer branches of trees on the

edge of the woods have given good results in

some cases. Cats cannot reach these and

squirrels seem not to trouble them often.

(See Fig. 23.) Boxes placed ob poles set up in a pond or on a

small island bring good results.

Poles set on posts need not be over 6 or 8 feet in
length, except for martins, and may be slim, made
from young pines, cedars or other saplings. They may
be screwed to fence posts with lag screws (large screws
with square heads; see Fig. 24 and Plate VII, Fig. 2)
so that they may be taken down in the fall and
stored away until spring. (The barbed wire fence
is best for this purpose as it is not used as a high-
way by squirrels and cats.) Where there are no

fences, posts may be set in the ground and the poles fastened

to them. Boxes put up on the walls or ridgepoles of build-

•E

FiQ. 24.

22

ings often attract birds if the trees are not near enough to allow
squirrels to reach them, and if cats cannot get at them. (See
Plate VIII.)

How TO ATTRACT BlRDS TO NeST BoXES.

If nesting boxes are set up in accordance with the foregoing
directions, English sparrows disposed of, and nests safeguarded
against cats and squirrels, some of the boxes are sure to be
occupied by birds, provided there is a sufficient diversity of
vegetation in the neighborhood to furnish them with a variety
of insect food and wild fruit, and unless thev are too much
disturbed by the noisy activity of their human, feline or canine
neighbors. We cannot expect many birds to be attracted to
a city yard where there is neither grass, trees, water nor shrub-
bery. They always appreciate a near supply of water. If
nesting material such as hay, straw, twine, cotton, hair, string,
etc., be hung on a fence or placed on a bushy branch near the
nesting box, that alone may decide some bird to nest there.
If twine is put out it should be cut in short pieces not over a
foot in length, else birds may be ensnared by it. Wherever a
pair of tree swallows nest, many other boxes, similar to the one
chosen by them, should be put up on poles, for they are sociable
birds and one pair will attract others.

Experiments sometimes have demonstrated that certain in-
dividual birds are grateful for nesting material placed in the
box. A pair of chickadees made their nest by digging a hollow
in cotton batting that I had placed in the bottom of the box
for their use. It is well always to keep a few nesting boxes out
all winter with some cotton or other nesting material in the
bottom of each, to furnish winter lodging for chickadees, nut-
hatches and woodpeckers, as these birds like to sleep in such
snug quarters. Chickadees and nuthatches may be attracted
to nesting boxes by first destroj'ing all the decayed trees and
stumps near by, and then feeding the birds all winter on bits
of suet, meat, fat or sunflower seeds placed near the boxes.
If this supply is kept up during the spring, and if English
sparrows are controlled, some of the birds are likely to nest in
the boxes and their young seek similar domiciles until a little
colony becomes established. Nuthatches may be attracted to
nesting boxes in the same way.

PLATE VIII.

An example of a bird colony on a building. Nesting boxes on one of the farm buildings
of Mr. Geo. E. Hoxsie of Canonchet, Rhode Island. Every building on his place
has nesting boxes. In 1912 forty-three nesting boxes were taken by tree swallows
and bluebirds. There were thirty-two nests of eaves swallows and eighteen of barn
swallows.

23

Wrens are rather local in Massachusetts, but when once a
colony is started they are almost perfectly protected in nesting
boxes and are likely to increase. There should he at least
three boxes to each pair of wrens, as they are so industrious
that a pair often will build two additional nests beside the one
in use, and such building activity may keep them out of mis-
chief. Otherwise they may attack the eggs of other birds.

Many writers express the belief that it is a mistake to put
up nesting boxes too near together, as jealousy and fighting will
ensue and none of them will be occupied, I have held this
view and published it, but have discarded it since I have seen
five pairs of bluebirds nesting in the trees around one farm
house; three pairs of tree swallows nesting in boxes on one
small tree; several pairs of bluebirds in boxes on one barn,
and a pair of bluebirds and one of tree swallows on the same
pole. (See Plate VII, Fig. 1, and Plate VIII.)

Other things being equal, the more boxes the more birds.
But the house wren may be an exception to this rule, as it
sometimes is exceedingly quarrelsome. My later experience
seems to show that a plethora
of boxes makes less trouble
than is the case where few
are available. In 1915 I had
25 boxes mounted on poles in
a field of about two acres,
and 24 were occupied by na-
tive birds. Ordinarily, boxes
set up 100 to 200 feet apart
are more likely to be occupied
the first year than those situ-
ated closer. Later, if these
are successful, the number
may be increased.

Martin Houses.

The purple martin is the
only bird that needs a bird
house. It is a waste of lum-
ber to build houses with many rooms for any other bird, as a
single pair of bluebirds, swalloMS or wrens often will hold a large,

Fig. 25. — Martin house, after Trafton.
(Courtesy Houghton Mifflin.)

24

Fig. 26. — Martin house.

expensive house against all comers except the English sparrow or
the starling. The martin is a large, handsome swallow with

pleasant, cheerful notes,
and is very destructive
to insect pests. Martins
formerly were abundant
locally in Massachusetts,
but after the introduction
of the English sparrow
the number of martins
and the localities fre-
quented by them dimin-
ished rapidly until 1904,
when cold June storms
nearly exterminated the
species in Massachusetts.
Since then their numbers have increased very slowly, as few
people now put up martin houses, and English sparrows or
other birds keep the martins from settling in some
of those that have been erected. Martins, unlike
most native hole-nesting birds, prefer to nest in
large colonies. Hence martin houses usually are
made with many compartments. The Indians
hung many hollowed gourds for the martins on
the poles of their wigwams or on some dead tree
near by. Some of the southern people still use
gourds to attract martins. Often several gourds
are hung from a crosspiece on a tall pole (Fig. 27),
and these collections of gourds are popular with
the martins. Only the larger gourds should be
used for them. If a round entrance hole is made
it should be about 2| inches in diameter, as the
martin likes to have the entrance large enough to
admit the light as he enters.

Poles for martins should be at least 10 or 12 feet
high. Such poles are sufficient if placed in quiet
places, not too near trees or dwellings, or where
noisy, quick-moving children or dogs are at play; but if there
is much noise and disturbance, a pole 20 feet or more in height

/i^

iu

Fig. 27. — Gourds
for martins.

25

Fig. 28. — Martin barrel.

may be necessary. No pole is likely to be too high for martins.
They seem to prefer a height of 20 or 30 feet. These birds fre-
quently have nested in quiet places among trees and quite near
houses, even in nesting boxes on poles on the roofs of wooden
buildings or high city blocks, but they will not accept hidden
nesting places where they have to fly in among the branches of
leafy trees, and they seem to come most
readily to a bird house situated in an open
yard or on a wide lawn. They seem to
prefer low ground to high ground, and al-
ways like the neighborhood of water. There-
fore an open river valley suits them, but
people not having these advantages need
not despair, as martins often have nested
on high ground, but rarely, I believe, far
from water. A drinking and bathing foun-
tain for the birds with running water might
help to induce them to settle where other
water is absent. A martin house may be
made of any strong barrel (Fig. 28), and
I have seen such boxes occupied for many years by these birds.
The bottom of each entrance hole may be made level with the
floor of its compartment, to facilitate cleaning out and to allow
any water that may drive in to run out again, but it is well to
have a gallery or veranda under the upper openings and over-
hanging the lower. This and the projecting eaves should shed
most of the rain.

The entrance holes may be made 2| inches in diameter if
square, or 2^ inches if round.

Mr. J. Warren Jacobs of Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, who
probably has had more experience in building martin houses
than any one else now living, recommends making each apart-
ment 6 inches square and 7 inches high. Any box about this
size may be used for the apartments, and all may be backed by
a square box running up the center of the barrel into which a
square pole will fit. The barrel may be attached to the pole by
two angle irons and roofed with zinc. Every martin house
should be well painted outside but not inside, with two or three
coats of good white or light-colored paint. Dark-colored houses

2G

are very hot in sunny weather. Care is taken not to let the
paint run into the entrances, and to paint only up to the edge
of each.

Mr. Arthur W. Brockway of Hadlyme, Connecticut, has es-
tablished a large colony of martins by building small cottages
out of grocery boxes. (See Fig. 29.)

Mr. Jacobs asserts that a martin house should have only en-
trance ventilation, but Mr. Dodson of Chicago makes the attic
of his martin house so that it may be entered from either end,
but not so that any draft can blow through the nesting apart-

•

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i

t

Fia. 29. 7— Successful soap box martin colony of
three houses.

ments, and claims that the martins invariably occupy these
upper rooms first. I have noted that when cold storms destroy
young martins, those on the sides of the house most exposed to
cold winds and rain die first.

Poles may be made of wood or metal. A two-inch galvanized
or painted iron pipe will hold a small martin house and will be
cat proof and snake proof, but rats or squirrels might climb it.
Nevertheless, if the house is large enough they cannot go be-
yond the floor unless wooden brackets, which should never be
used, are provided for them to climb. Sometimes martin
houses are mounted on dead trees. Smooth poles are believed
to be snake proof. Trees with bark on are not. Cats some-

27

times quickly climb wooden poles and catch martins by reach-
ing past the lower edge of the house.

Mr. Jacobs uses a hinged pole for mounting his larger bird
houses, so that they may be taken down easily and cleaned out
and housed during winter.

It would facilitate the handling and cleaning out of martin
houses if a door opening to the full width of each compartment
could be provided, and then, if bluebirds or tree swallows
persisted in occupying it, their nests and young could be re-
moved to single boxes, which should be in readiness in the
vicinity.

How TO GET Martins.

The bird house must be erected in a conspicuous place and
the English sparrows and starlings kept out. This may be
accomplished by the use of a shotgun,^ or the entrances may
be kept closed until the martins come, when a few may be
opened and the martins may be able to beat off the sparrows,
but if even one pair of sparrows becomes established in the
house, and is allowed to breed, the martins are doomed to
eviction sooner or later. They may hold on for a few years,
but the sparrows will possess the house in the end. I have
never known them to fail. If the martins persist, the sparrows
break the eggs or kill the young.

Screech owls and cats must be watched. Cats catch the
male martins when, in fighting, they come to the ground, take
both parents when they alight on the ground for nesting ma-
terial, and kill many young ones before they are able to fly
well. The owls sometimes get the habit of reaching in at night
and pulling out young birds. Martins will drive hawks away.

The English Sparrow.

The European house sparrow is the greatest and most
ubiquitous enemy of all native birds that nest in bird houses
and nesting boxes. Investigators of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, after a long and patient study that covered
a great part of North America, decided that it was "a, curse of

' A long-barreled 22 caliber rifle, with extra long shells, smokeless powder and dust shot, is not
noisy and ought to be effective at 40 feet.

28

such virulence that it ought to be systematically attacked and
destroyed." ^ "

Von Berlepsch rates it as one of the few birds which must be
destroyed at his Ornithological Experiment Station.^

Although the sparrow, like most birds that live near man, is
beneficial at times, most expert testimony is against it. In
view of a multitude of requests for information regarding the

means for destroying it, a paper on the sub-
ject has been issued by the Massachusetts
State Department of Agriculture as Circular
No. 4.

Mr. William F. DeMerrit, of Dover, has
shown me a box that will be useful where
sparrows are very troublesome. The front
is a door hinged by two nails driven in on
either side near the bottom. It is provided
with a hasp and catch such as are used to fasten the doors of book-
cases,, and can be opened in a moment and closed as quickly.
This is a time-saving device for the use of those who have to
inspect many boxes frequently to evict gypsy moths, sparrows
or squirrels, but it cannot be used on flicker boxes, as the flicker is
likely to unlock and open it with a stroke of the bill (Fig. 30).

Fia. 30. — Plan for
quick opening.

Remove All Dead Bikds.

Sometimes disease, extreme heat or severe storms result in
the death of many young or even adult birds in the nests. In
such cases all dead birds sJiould be removed at once or the living
will desert the nesting boxes. At such times these boxes (Fig. 30)
will prove a great help, and they are indispensable to any one
who has to inspect a large number often.

' Barrows, W. B.: "The English Sparrow in North America," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ec.
Ornith., and Mam. Bull. No. 1. 1889.

' Hiesmann, Martin: " How to attract and protect wild birds," translated by Emma S. Buch-
heim, 1912, p. 92.

•S

■A

®l]e Commontocaltl) of ittaosacliuectts

STATE DEPAKTMENT OF AGWCULTUKE

WILFRID WHEELER, Coxmmissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 11

May, 1919

ORCHARD, BERRY, AND VEGETABLE

FERTILIZERS

Dr. H. J. WHEELER

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE^PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approvkd by the
Supervisor of Administration.

5 — '19— 1,700.

ORCHAKD, BERRY, AND VEGETABLE FERTILIZERS.

BY DR. H. J. WHEELER.

The Massachusetts fruit and vegetable grower who was
formerly able to secure an abundant supply of horse manure
from the cities and towns is finding to his sorrow that the
automobile and truck are so rapidly driving horses from our
cities that the supply of manure is not keeping pace with the
demand. Furthermore, the city ordinances in some cases re-
quire that the liquid manure shall be conducted into the
sewers; consequently the manure which the grower is able to
purchase often represents merely the "dry bones" from which
the real "spirit" has departed.

To illustrate what I mean I will merely call your attention to
the average analyses of the solid and liquid portions of horse
manure. The solid manure contains about the following: —

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . . . . . 30

Potash, . . .40

It must be borne in mind, however, that the nitrogen in the
solid manure is in a very unavailable form, probably not having
more than one-third to one-half the efficiency of the nitrogen
in the best organic and mineral ammoniates. The percentage
of phosphoric acid is not only low, but the phosphoric acid is
also slowdy available.

The average composition of liquid manure is about as
follows : —

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, . . . . . . . . . .1.35

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . . . . trace

Potash, 1.25

When the liquid manure is absorbed by the solid, so that the
mixture represents the normal proportions of the two, the
average analysis is about as follows: —

Per Cent.

Nitrogen, . . . . . . . . . . .70

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . . . . .25

Potash, ........... .55

It will be seen from the foregoing analyses that horse manure,
like most other animal manures, is very deficient in phosphoric
acid. If manure is to be used in the most economical manner
where an abundance of it is available, one should apply enough
to supply all of the nitrogen that is required, and supplement it
with phosphoric acid, and, if necessary, with additional potash.
Unfortunately, the cases are rare where enough manure is avail-
able or where ita cost is so low that one can follow this proce-
dure; hence the usual practice, and the more rational and
economical one ordinarily, is to make smaller applications and
then supplement the manure with a fertilizer containing a
suitable, moderate percentage of nitrogen, a high percentage of
phosphoric acid, and a moderate percentage of potash.

Before proceeding w'ith a discussion of fertilizers in detail, a
word should be said about liming. Not long ago, upon looking
up some of the experiments wdth lime in recent years, I found
it frequently happened, in cases w^here lime and fertilizer were
used on the same acre of land, that this single acre gave a
larger crop than 2 acres, one of which was fertilized and the
other limed. In other words, 1 acre, if treated properly, often
produces a larger crop than 2 acres when liming is neglected on
one and fertilizing on the other. I shall speak further of
liming in connection with the discussion of various crops.

It is important in using fertilizers to understand the effect of
the individual ingredients on both the soil and the plant. For
example, where nitrate of soda is applied to the soil, plants re-
move the nitric acid faster than they do the soda; hence the
residue of soda combines w^ith carbonic acid, forming sodium
carbonates. If nitrate of soda is applied year after year in
large amounts on a heavy clay soil which has a tendency to
bake, the sodium carbonates formed will finally deflocculate the

soil seriously. In other words, they will break up the large
aggregations of soil particles of considerable size into such an
increased nunjber of smaller ones, that the soil will bake worse
than before and become exceedingly difficult to till.

I recall having seen an instance of this kind in connection
with experiments conducted by Professor Wohltmann at
Poppelsdorf near Bonn, Germany, in 1898. Land which had
been fertilized with nitrate of soda year after, year finally
became so compact and baked so hard that it was almost
impossible to work it. If nitrate of soda is used on a sandy
or gravelly soil which does not contain much clay or silt, this
danger is, of course, not to be feared.

In semiarid regions where alkaline soils prevail the results
from using nitrate of soda year after year as the sole source of
nitrogen ma}' prove detrimental, not only because the soil is
deflocculated, but also because it is rendered too alkaline for
the best growth of many plants.

It must be borne in mind in connection with the use of
nitrate of soda that it moves freely up and down in the soil.
If, therefore, nitrate of soda is used in considerable quantities
on open sandy and gravelly loams, such as abound in many
parts of New England and particularly in eastern Massachu-
setts, there is danger that heavy rains may wash considerable
of it out through the subsoil. On soils of a heavy clay or silt
type, however, the danger of loss by leaching would not be so
great.

Sulfate of ammonia has certain distinct advantages over
nitrate of soda as a source of nitrogen, for the reason that the
ammonia enters into chemical combination with the silicates of
the soil in the same manner as lime, magnesia, soda, and
potash are known to do. When the ammonia is thus com-
bined, it is not readily subject to loss by leaching. Neverthe-
less, it gradually becomes available and is taken up by the
crops either as ammonia or as nitric acid after its nitrification.
In the meantime, it is held in a safe combination in the soil.

In one particular, sulfate of ammonia acts differently from
nitrate of soda. For example, if sulfate of ammonia is used
year after year on land which is slightly acid or considerably
acid at the outset, the acidity gradually increases. This is

6

obvious when you recall that sulfate of ammonia consists of
ammonia combined with the strong mineral acid, — sulfuric
acid. When the ammonia has been nitrified or changed to
nitric acid in the soil, still another mineral acid is produced;
and when this nitric acid has been finally removed and utilized
by the plants, most of the sulfuric acid remains behind as a
residual product, just as soda is left as a residual product when
nitrate of soda is used repeatedly.

In connection with my early experiments in Rhode Island I
found that reasonable quantities of sulfate of ammonia proved
poisonous in one instance the first year instead of acting as an
efficient fertilizer; in another part of the State, it did not
become injurious until the second year; and in still another
locality, not until the third year. The injury was due to the
fact that the soils were fairly to strongly acid at the outset,
and their acidity w^as increased by the sulfate of ammonia to
such an extent as to interfere with the proper growth of the
plants.

I recall with much interest having visited Professor Storer
in 1891 or 1892 for the purpose of consulting his library at the
Bussey Institution. My object was to make a careful study of
all trials of nitrate of soda and sulfate of ammonia w^hich had
been made anywhere in the world up to that time, I told
Professor Storer of this experience with sulfate of ammonia at
the Rhode Island Experiment Station, adding that I appre-
hended the difficulty was due to the existing acidity of the
soil and that I proposed to apply lime in the effort to correct
the condition, in the hope that the sulfate of ammonia would
then become an effective fertilizer. In response he warned me
that some German investigator had applied lime under some-
what similar conditions and that ammonia was liberated. I
believed, however, that if 'proper quantities of lime were used
in the right way, there was nothing to be feared in this respect.
Upon making the experiment the lime was actually found to
work Avonders, causing the sulfate of ammonia to become a
highly effective fertilizer, better even for some crops than
nitrate of soda.

"When organic ammoniates, such as dried blood, fish, or meat,
are used, ammonia is first formed from them in the soil, and

subsequently this ammonia is changed to nitric acid. These
substances all have a tendency, therefore, to lessen the basicity
of the soil, or, in other words, they tend to make acid soils
slightly more acid than before, and alkaline soils less alkaline.

It is possible for one who is thoroughly familiar with the
chemistry of these compounds and of these reactions to pre-
pare mixed fertilizers in such a way that they will not change
the chemical reaction of the soil, or they may be mixed so that
they will make the soil slightly more acid or slightly less acid,
as desired. You may ask if this has any practical significance.
In reply, I will merely mention the fact that in experiments
with cranberries I found that 350 pounds of a properly com-
pounded fertilizer gave $35 to $40 more profit to the acre than
the same quantity of a fertilizer which was not suitably
compounded.

In regard to organic ammoniates, probably the best and most
effective is dried blood, but the quantity produced in the
entire country is so small that it is but a ''drop in the bucket'^
by way of furnishing organic nitrogen for the 7,000,000 to
8,000,000 tons of fertilizer used per annum in the United
States. Another excellent source of organic nitrogen is fish
waste, but the supply of it is relatively small. The chief
sources of organic nitrogen are tankage, cottonseed meal, and
certain other waste materials.

Did it ever occur to you that the fertilizer industry, by
treating waste wool, feathers, hair, and other materials so as
to make the nitrogen highly available, is helping to keep down
the price of nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia, blood, fish,
and tankage, and is thus performing a very distinct service to
users of fertilizers everywhere in the country? I refer to the
possibilities connected with the wet mixing of fertilizer. I
could, with your permission, take the hair from your heads,
your felt hat from beside you, the wool from the backs of your
sheep or waste wool from the industries, as well as many other
materials rich in nitrogen, and transform them by chemical
treatment into compounds which are completely or almost
completely soluble in water. Materials prepared by the wet
mixing process have been referred to in a bulletin published by
the United States Department of Agriculture as "processed

8

fertilizers," and in this publication it is stated that "It has
been shown that by the process used in the case of this fer-
tilizer the nonavailable nitrogenous materials have been made
highly available, not only because the nitrogen compounds can
be ammonified quickly in the soil, but also because these com-
pounds are directly utilizable by plants."

It is fortunate, indeed, that such materials, which have a
relatively low value as fertilizer if applied in their natural or
untreated state, can ♦be transformed into entirely different
chemical combinations which have an exceedingly high availa-
bility and value for fertilizing purposes. This not only aids in
keeping down the price of other organic ammoniates, but it
also insures a larger supply of highly available ammoniates.

According to the tests of availability which have been made
by various experimenters, the important organic ammoniates
stand in about the following order as concerns their availa-
bility:—

1. Dried blood.

2. Fish.

2 to 3. Tankage.

3 to 4. Cottonseed meal.

5. Solid horse or cow manure.

Other organic ammoniates, such as roasted or untreated
leather, rank so low in availability that they are unfit for use
in fertilizers. The agricultural experiment stations are now
making tests of the availability of the organic nitrogen in
fertilizers in order that the purchaser may be protected against
any unscrupulous manufacturer who would be so unwise as to
use such materials in their untreated and unavailable state.

What has been said illustrates some of the advantages of
the proper compounding, preparation, and mixing of fertilizers.
Something should also be added about the importance of having
fertilizers in such mechanical condition that they can be stored
with the assurance that when the time comes to apply them
they will be in good mechanical condition for distribution by
machinery or by hand. The fertilizer manufacturer knows
that if certain fertilizer ingredients are mixed a short time
before their application, they very promptly set or become

hard and lumpy, and therefore unfit for satisfactory or even
distribution. One of the important features of manufacturing
is to combine and treat these materials in such a way that
they will remain in good mechanical condition even if stored
for many weeks.

In regard to the fertilization of the orchard, I should empha-
size the fact that every orchardist ought to watch the growth
and fruiting of his trees as carefully as the breeder of cattle
watches the growth and feeding of the individual animals.

Fertilizing Fruit Trees.

Apple Trees. — If apple trees are not properly fertilized they
seldom bear every year, fruit spurs and buds do not develop
as they should, the trees tend to deteriorate, and the orchard is
not likely to yield its maximum profit. On the other hand,
it is important to avoid overfertilizing an orchard, particularly
with nitrogen. If too much nitrogen is used, it will lead to the
abnormal growth of leaves and branches, so that the fruit will
be overshaded, poorly colored, and of inferior keeping quality.
Where a soil is naturally deficient in phosphoric acid and
potash, these fertilizer ingredients are needed in addition to
nitrogen.

No man can tell another just how much fertilizer or what
grade of fertilizer he should use; but by bearing the preceding
suggestions in mind, the intelligent grower should be able to
gauge the amount and select the kind of fertilizer suited to the
requirements of his whole orchard or individual trees. For
very young apple trees, from 1 to 2 pounds of fertilizer to a
tree should be sufficient. The quantity should be increased
each year, and when the bearing stage is reached 5 to 10
pounds or more may be needed. Large, old trees may require
from 25 to 50 pounds.

Peach Trees. — Peach trees in bearing require heavier fer-
tilization per acre than apple trees. As soon as they begin to
bear they may need from 10 to 30 pounds or more of fertilizer
per tree, depending upon the natural fertility of the soil.

Apricots and Quinces. — Apricots and quinces are probably
not grown extensively enough in Massachusetts to require par-
ticular mention. They should be properly fertilized, and
quinces, at least, require much lime.

10

Liming Fruit Trees.

It is highly important to consider the effect of lime upon the
different kinds of fruits. Apple trees will thrive fairly well even
on quite acid soils without liming, yet lime may help their
growth to a slight extent If, however, some cover crop which
is very dependent upon lime is to be grown in the orchard,
liming may be advisable. Great caution should be exercised
in liming 2^eac/i trees. If lime is used at all, it should be ap-
plied in small quantities and at not too frequent intervals.
Plums, cherries, and quinces, on the contrary, all need lime
on acid soils. In fact, in many cases financial success with a
plum or cherry orchard, and also with quinces, may hinge
upon whether the land is properly limed at the outset and at
occasional intervals thereafter.

In this conned'tion I am reminded of a visit which I re-
ceived some years ago at the Rhode Island Agricultural Ex-
periment Station from Mr. J. W. Powell, the well-known horti-
culturist of New York. He told me about his plum or cherry
orchard in which the trees were not growing properly. I
thereupon showed him an experiment, which I was then con-
ducting on acid soil, which showed the wonderful effect of
lime upon the growth of these trees. Many years elapsed
before I met Mr. Powell again, but when I did he wrung my
hand in grateful fashion and told me that my suggestion about
liming his orchard resulted in its salvation.

Fertilizing Small Fruits.

In fertilizing straivherries, great care must be taken to use a
sufficient amount of nitrogen to insure strong, vigorous vines.
A fair amount of phosphoric acid in available forni should be
used, and the fertilizer should usually contain a moderately high
percentage of potash This is for the reason that the straw-
berry has a shallow root system and requires a large amount
of potash in the formation of the fruit. Many years ago I
made a number of analyses of strawberries, and, if my memory
serves me correctly, nearly half of the ash of the fruit con-
sisted of potash.

If strawberries are overfertilized with nitrogen, the tendency

11

is to produce so much foliage that the fruit fails to ripen
properly, and the berries are likely to be soft and unfit for
shipment. One can use a fertilizer containing a moderate per-
centage of ammonia and a good percentage of phosphoric acid
and potash in the spring as a top or side dressing, just as the
plants begin to fruit. After picking has ceased, if it is neces-
sary to promote the growth of vines still further, a fertilizer
containing a higher percentage of ammonia may be applied,
but no more should be used than is necessary to insure an
adequate growth of vine during the remainder of the season.
By restricting the amount of ammonia to what is really neces-
sary and by fertilizing liberally with phosphoric acid, and par-
ticularly with potash, the best quality of fruit is likely to be
produced.

Raspberries. — The red raspberry, like the strawberry, re-
quires extreme care in fertilization. If an excess of nitrogen
is used the canes will grow too large, and the fruit will be
unduly shaded, poorly formed, and will not stand shipment.
The careful grower will use just enough fertilizer early in May,
or possibly some of it a little later, to supply sufficient am-
monia to insure a reasonable growth of cane for the following
year.

It is a good plan to start the plantation in a field which was
plowed in the autumn or which was planted to some hoed
crop the previous year.

In the case of blackcap raspberries, there is less danger of
overfertilizing with nitrogen, although they will not need high
fertilization.

Blackberries must also be fertilized with a reasonable amount
of ammonia if one would insure sufficient growth, but the
amount of nitrogen applied should be so limited as not to cause
an excessive growth of cane.

Gooseberries and currants, as well as raspberries, should
receive a fertilizer containing adequate nitrogen, a fair per-
centage of phosphoric acid, and a fairly good supply of potash,
if the best sort of fruit is sought. Overfertilization of goose-
berries and currants with nitrogen should be avoided, yet a
reasonable amount of new growth should be promoted each
year.

12

Liming Small Fruits.

Lime should seldom be applied for strawberries, as it may
injure the plants, and it may, particularly if used in large
quantities, encourage the growth of common white clover to
such an extent as to cause it to become a pest in the straw-
berry bed.

The blackcajy raspberry will thrive well on quite acid soils,
even if no lime is used. Nevertheless, there are possibly some
soils on which a light application of lime may be helpful.

Blackberries seem to be very indifferent to lime. While they
may not be injured by liming, they usually seem to thrive
perfectly without it on soils which are exceedingly acid.

Bed raspberries seem to respond well to liming on soils where
the blackcap raspberry may not respond at all. On very acid
soils, therefore, lime should be used for the red raspberry.

Gooseberries and currants usually do not thrive well on ex-
ceedingly acid soil. Liming is therefore necessary for the best
growth of these plants.

Fertilizing Vegetables.

In regard to potatoes, good crops have been grown during the
past two or three years on old grass land and on old pastures
by the use of a fertilizer containing no potash, provided it
contained 4 to 5 per cent of ammonia and 8 to 10 per cent of
available phosphoric acid. There are, nevertheless, many in-
dications that the potash supply in many places in New
England and farther south is running short. When a marked
deficiency occurs, the potato leaves tend to curl under at the
edges, the tissue between the ribs tends to puff up, and later
the upper side of the leaves often takes on a bronzed ap-
pearance, due to the death of some of the cells. Wherever such
conditions have been observed, it is of the utmost importance
that the fertilizer used should contain not less than 4 to 6 per
cent of potash.

, In Aroostook County, Maine, fertilizers are usually applied
for potatoes at the rate of from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds to the
acre; but here in Massachusetts, where the production of such

13

large crops is practically impossible, the application should
generally be limited to from 1,200 to 1,700 pounds to the acre.
If, however, stable manure is turned under or the land is par-
ticularly rich, an application of even as little as 1,000 pounds
to the acre in the drill may be sufficient.

I cannot sufficiently emphasize the importance, wherever
fertilizer is applied in the drill by hand instead of with the fer-
tilizer planter, of its being thoroughly worked into the soil
before the seed is dropped. I once had 2 or 3 acres ruined
because the man who applied the fertilizer thought it was
sufficient to drag a chain along the furrow after the fertilizer
had been strewn in it. This might have answered very well
if the potatoes had been planted early in the season while
the land was moist, but the planting was done late, when the
ground was somewhat dry and warm. When the latter con-
dition prevails, the greatest care must be taken to have the
fertilizer mixed most thoroughly with the soil or applied with
a potato planter having a fertilizer attachment of such a
character that it will not permit the seed and fertilizer to
come into direct contact.

Beets, Carrots, Turnips, and Radishes. — All of these plants
need a fertilizer containing a high percentage of ammonia and
quite a high percentage of potash. A liberal percentage of
available phosphoric acid is also desirable. Turnips and rad-
ishes are especially responsive to phosphoric acid, while beets
need less than either turnips or cabbages.

It is interesting to note how some of these crops affect the
soil for the crops which follow. In 1917 I grew with the
assistance of Mr. Herbert Reiner, at Portsmouth, New Hamp-
shire, beets, carrots, and cabbages on one uniform field and
fertilized all of them alike. Sweet corn followed the next year,
and it grew far better where the carrots had been grown than
where either beets or cabbage had preceded.

Several years ago I had a similar experience at the Rhode
Island Station with onions on a series of plots. One plot of
land had been devoted to potatoes for two years, another to
onions for two years, and still others to buckwheat, mangels,
and various other crops for the same length of time. In all
there were about fifteen different plots of land, each of which

14

had been devoted to the growing of a particular crop for two
years in succession. All had been fertilized and treated alike
in every respect and all had been tested in advance as to the
uniformity of the soil by growing the same crops in rows
across all of the plots. When onions were grown the third
year, the yields ranged from 12 bushels to 412 bushels, ac-
cording to the crop which had preceded. The poorest onions
follow^ed mangels, cabbages, buckwheat, and turnips; they
were better following onions than they were following potatoes;
but the best crop of all was secured on the area which had
been devoted to redtop the previous two years. The other
grasses, clovers, corn, and cereals seemed to be better crops to
precede the onions than buckwheat or some of the root crops.
This is merely suggestive of the fact that we ought to study
carefully the effect of crops upon those which follow, so that
we may plant in the best order of rotation.

Beets cannot b6 grown successfully on very acid soils unless
lime is used, yet liming the same soil might prove injurious to
radishes. Carrots and all types of turnips respond well to
liming on acid soils.

Peppers and eggplants are both greatly helped by lime if
they are grown on very acid soil. The fertilizer used for these
plants should be rich in nitrogen, moderately rich in phosphoric
acid, and should contain a considerable quantity of potash.

Cabbage, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, and similar plants
are all greatly helped by liming on very acid soils. On account
of their extensive leaf growth, they require fertilizers not only
containing high percentages of nitrogen but also of potash.
Some of these plants have a particularly low feeding power
for phosphoric acid; hence the fertilizer should contain a high
percentage of this ingredient in available form.

Lettuce, spinach, and upland cress are among those crops
which are most sensitive to acidity; consequently on very acid
soils it is of the utmost importance that the land be limed
heavily before one attempts to grow them. In this respect
they are like onions and beets.

These crops require a fertilizer with a high percentage of
nitrogen, a fair percentage of available phosphoric acid, and a
moderate to high percentage of potash. In the case of spinach

15

sufficient nitrogen in suitable forms should be present in the
fertilizer to produce plants having thick, dark green leaves. A
properly compounded and highly available fertilizer is needed
in order to get the best results with all of these crops.

Onions are likely to fail or partially fail if the soil is exceed-
ingly acid, and even on soils which are only moderately to
slightly acid applications of lime are likely to be helpful. If
the soil is deficient in lime, in nitrogen, in phosphoric acid, or
in potash, even though all of the other fertilizer ingredients
mentioned are present, onions tend to lag behind in growth.
In such cases they have thick necks, and do not ripen as they
should. If onions are grown on soils which are properly sup-
plied wdth lime, and if they receive sufficient nitrogen, an
abundant supply of available phosphoric acid, and a liberal
supply of potash, the tops of the onions should fall over and
ripening should proceed in a normal manner.

Several instances have been brought to my attention within
the last tw^o or three years where growers were not able to
succeed with onions, and generally it was found to be due to
the fact that the land needed lime or that the grower had not
used enough available phosphoric acid, although in some cases
it was due to a deficiency of either potash or nitrogen.

Cucumbers, Cantalou'pes, Watermelons, and Squashes. — All of
these crops, except watermelons, respond in a high degree to
liming on very acid soils. In fact, cucumbers and cantaloupes
especiallj^ cannot be grown successfully on exceedingly acid
soils until they are limed. The watermelon furnishes a marked
contrast to these plants, for good crops can be grown on soils
which are so acid that beets, spinach, lettuce, onions, and
cantaloupes utterly fail. Nevertheless, I have known instances
where a small application of lime containing considerable
quantities of magnesia seemed to be slightly beneficial, or at
least not noticeably injurious. Whether this was due to the
fact that watermelons need more magnesia than is required
by some other plants, I am not prepared to say. It has been
asserted that this is true of some of the flowering Ericaceae.

Cucumbers, squashes, and melons should all receive heavy
fertilization with nitrogen, a fair to liberal amount of phos-
phoric acid, and a liberal quantity of potash.

SV4

©l)c iHommouwcaltl) oi iHassacl)U5ctt0

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 12

May, 1919

OUTDOOR BIRD STUDY

HINTS FOR BEGINNERS

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

®l}e CcmmontDcaltl) of iitassacbusete

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 12

May, 1919

OUTDOOR BIRD STUDY

HINTS FOR BEGINNERS

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

6-19-3,000

CONTENTS.

Introduction,
How to find bir^s:

Where to look,

When to look.

The spring migration,

The nesting time,

The autumnal migration.

Winter birds, .

Hawks and owls.

Bird ventriloqviists, .

How to know birds:

Bird names, .....
Field glasses and other helps.
Points to be noted, ....
Bird notes as a means of identification,
Trying out the plan of identification.

How to approach birds:
The approach on foot,
The use of canoes or boats.
Watching birds' nests,

How to attract birds:

Luring birds by food,

Imitating birds' notes,

Utilizing the curiosity of birds, .

The watcher's protection from insects,

"Hides" and "blinds," .

A word to the wise, ....

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OUTDOOR BIRD STUDY.

HINTS FOR BEGINNERS.

INTRODUCTION.

The beginning of interest in bird study is gradual in some
cases. In others, especially in the young, it is almost instantly
awakened by the unexpected sight of some beautiful bird, or
even by a book with colored plates.

All beginners have before them in this study a source of
unimagined enjoyment, wonder and delight. Bradford Torrey,
whose interest in birds came with mature years, once said that
when a man began to be ornithologically inclined, it was very
much as if all the birds had just been created, or at least as if
they had just been let out of the Ark. "Like the Lord's
mercies," he said, "they were new every morning and fresh
every evening." John Burroughs asserts that if "you take the
first step in ornithology you are ticketed for the whole voyage."
This is true of enthusiastic and industrious beginners, some of
whom may become ornithologists in the fullness of time, but
these hints for outdoor bird study were not written for ex-
perienced ornithologists, who do not need them, but for that
larger class of people who, having taken the first step, find
pleasurable recreation in spending a part of their leisure time
in the observation and study of living birds in the field. The
first step in this study is to learn how, when and where to
find birds. ^

1 Four Nature Leaflets published by the writer when Ornithologist to the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture, under the general title "Hints for Outdoor Bird Study," form the basis of
the present circular. The demand for these leaflets became so great that by the year 1918 seven
editions had been issued. Also most of the material contained in these leaflets had been copied
in other public prints, and had been utilized notably as an introductory chapter in the second
volume of the "Birds of America," published by the University Society of New York. In 1918
the Great and General Court of Massachusetts abolished the Board of Agriculture, and replaced
it with a State Department of Agriculture. The Department has discontinued the publication of
Nature Leaflets, but as the demand for the "Hints" continues, the entire matter contained in
them has been revised, more or less rewritten, and, with some additions, adapted and prepared
as a circular under the above title.

()

HOW TO FIND BIRDS.

River valleys harbor birds.

There are birds everywhere, but not always. In winter there
are practically no birds above the timber line on high mountain
peaks or near the north pole. Mr. Donald McMillan, the
Arctic explorer, tells me that the raven is almost the only bird
that commonly winters at Etah, the northernmost Eskimo
settlement in Greenland. During periods of migration, and in
the depth of winter, there are always times and places in the
temperate zone where there are few, if any, birds. In the
breeding season birds may be found, even in the desert, but
they prefer some localities to others, and are most numerous
in those that suit them best.

Where to Look.

The bird student soon finds that some localities are better
supplied with bird life than others. Many species, while
migrating, follow or visit such coasts or river valleys as lie
along or across their natural lines of migration. The seaboard
near Boston and northward, and the valley of the Connecticut
River, are much frequented by birds migrating through Massa-
chusetts. Cape Cod and the coast region of southeastern
Massachusetts are not visited in spring and summer by so

many land birds. Some water birds, however, are found on or
near Cape Cod that are not often seen elsewhere in the State.
City dwellers may find many birds in city parks during migra-
tions. Apparently there is something about the lights of a
large city, especially on misty nights, that attracts birds when
migrating. If a city park with trees, shrubbery and water be
visited^early each morning in spring and autumn many species
may be noted. Birds there, being protected and seeing people
continually, are unsuspicious, and may be readily approached.
Mr. Horace W. Wright records 120 species in the Boston Pub-
lic Garden, and Dr. and Mrs. E. W. Victor have noted 162
species in* Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York.

Birds seek city parks .

Water birds may be found usually in spring and fall in the
ponds of large park systems, such as the Middlesex Fells
Reservation or the Lynn woods. Many waterfowl now come
to the Back Bay Fens, the Charles River Basin and the ponds
in Boston. In such places these birds, being less shy than
elsewhere, may be watched and studied.

Birds require food, water, shelter, nesting places and pro-
tection from their enemies. In localities furnishing all these
essentials birds always may be found in their seasons. Water
always attracts birds. Therefore the bird watcher seeks the
neighborhood of lakes or streams. A broad river valle}', with
fresh-water meadows, containing small, marshy ponds, if dotted

8

with trees and bordered by farming lands, orchards and wooded
hills, should be an ideal place for birds.

When migrating they appear to stop by preference where
there is an abundance of suitable food with which they may
replenish the waste of tissues worn by flight. At such times
birds that have found food attract by their calls others flying
by or overhead; these also are heard or seen by others still,
and so they come from far and near. To find a good place for
migrating warblers in fall and spring, look for plant lice on the
birches in some sheltered locality, — an old neglected pasture
overgrown by young birches is an excellent place. Where
these insects are numerous it is impossible to pass among the
trees without collecting numbers of the little green creatures
upon your clothing. Often I have found many migrating
warblers in such places, when elsewhere in the woods there
were very few to be seen. Sparrows, blackbirds, orioles and
other birds of the orchards, swamps and fields are attracted to
the woods by these plant lice.

In early spring you may watch the birds when they are
feeding on the tiny young tent caterpillars or other leaf-eating
larvae. Both species of cuckoo, the vireos, orioles, chipping
sparrows, goldfinches, and several warblers come to the cater-
pillars' webs either to get food or to procure web to use in the
construction of their nests. In May and June an old neglected
orchard is a good hunting ground. The apple tree has count-
less insect enemies, and birds seek them in a neglected orchard
where the trees are neither scraped, pruned nor sprayed. To
see the birds that come to the orchard, one should find a few
trees attacked by cankerworms or other inchworms, then sit
down quietly, and watch the birds that come to feed on them.
In this way one may see, in an hour or two, nearly all the
birds of a locality, for most birds feed on these insects and
carry them to their young. In July and August birds may be
found in swamps where berries grow. They fly to the wild
cherry trees in August and September. Wherever we go we
shall find some birds, but if one is in search of a particular
species, he may not find it unless he knows where to look.

The common birds that nest here in summer are much in-
fluenced by the character of their food in choosing their nesting

sites. Our northern yellow-throat commonly prefers to live
near the low, wet border of some running stream, while the
chestnut-sided warbler is quite as likely to be found anywhere
in sprout land, shrubbery or by the roadside., The pine warbler
prefers pitch pines, but the black-throated green warbler is
found more among white pines, where the crows and jays
breed. The prairie warbler usually is seen on hot or dry, sandy
or gravelly lands, among low shrubbery or scattering trees.
The redstart seems to like a coppice along a brook, while the
oven-bird may be found quite generally distributed among
deciduous woods. Scarlet tanagers feed largely on insects
infesting white oaks, and, together with rose-breasted grosbeaks,
usually may be found in or near large white oaks, but the
grosbeaks are not at all confined to the oaks, and usuall}^ breed
along running streams, in localities frequented by redstarts.
Both tanagers and grosbeaks often are common in mixed oak
and chestnut woods.

Different species of sparrows also seek diverse localities.
The indigo buntings live much among the new sprout growths,
where woods recently have been cut off, or in bushy hillside
pastures. In the fall they go often to cornfields and gardens.
The towhees, or chewinks, usually inhabit, with the thrashers,
a slightly larger growth. Grasshopper sparrows, vesper spar-
rows and field sparrows are largely birds of the open upland
fields and pastures, while Henslow's sparrow seeks small patches
of low, wet grassland, or large meadows. The song sparrow
nests along the shores of rivers and ponds, near swamps or
springs, or on the banks of brooks or ditches, while the swamp
sparrow seems to prefer bushy swamps bordering on rivers or
ponds, and is seen often near the haunts of bitterns, herons,
and rails, which frequent marshes, meadows, and low grassy
shores.

When to Look.

Early mornings and late afternoons are the best times for
observation, partly because most birds are then active 'and
vociferous, and partly because there often is little wind move-
ment then. The least motion of a bird is noticed when the
branches and leaves are still, but when the wind blows, birds

10

are more likely to be overlooked; also they are wilder on windy
days, when they can spread their wings and be borne away with
little effort. Cool days, with strong northwest winds, are un-
favorable for bird study. Warm, still days are best. Small
land birds usually seek shelter during heavy rains, but are
active during light, warm showers.

The Spring Migration.

Beginners in bird study usually choose the spring as the best
time for making the acquaintance of the birds; but it is well
to begin early in the year, when birds are few, and learn to
recognize each species as it comes. Gulls, wild ducks, and
geese begin to go up the rivers in March as soon as the ice
breaks up, and mergansers seek open places on the lakes. In
March and early April we may find birds on warm days or in
sheltered places.

A partly wooded river valley will attract birds in April, when
the nights and many of the days are cold. Insects fly on warm
•days very early in April, in the sunny reaches of such a river.
In such spots the rusty blackbird appears. Pine warblers,
yellow palm warblers, and ruby-crowned kinglets may be
found near the w^ater catching flying insects after the manner
of flycatchers. On such rivers herons and bitterns sometimes
may be seen very early. The early sparrows feed in April on
the sheltered sides of wooded hills, in bushy lands, or on sunny
slopes of adjoining fields or pastures. In cold, windy weather
birds always prefer the sheltered spots where there is food. By
bearing this in mind you may find flickers, meadowlarks, fox
sparrows, grackles, blackbirds, cowbirds, robins, and blue-
birds in March.

It is well to remember that the old males usually come first,
and the females and young birds later.

May is the favorite month for the student of birds, for then
most of the migrating birds pass through New England on their
w^ay'to their northern breeding grounds. Then, also, most of
the resident summer birds appear and begin building. Most
.birds are then at their best in plumage and song.

From the 3d to the 30th of May it is well to be continually

11

on the watch for new birds. A warm south wind following a
long spell of cold weather early in May will sometimes bring a
great wave of bird life from the south. At such times the calls
and cries of flying birds may be heard all through the first part
of the night as they pass at different heights overhead, and a
visitor to the woods early next morning may find a host of
warblers there. Cold mornings, which occasionally follow such
a flight, bring the tired birds to the ground and low shrubbery,
in search of benumbed insects hiding there. Such a condition
greatly favors the observer. A cold storm coming after a warm
wave may have a similar effect by driving the birds from the
hills into the valleys. Such storms may also drive sea birds
and shore birds to shelter along the beaches, or to ponds and
marshes. Ordinarily, more land birds, both species and in-
dividuals, may be seen to advantage on still, warm days from
the 5th to the 20th of May, or before the leaves become large
enough to hide them from view, than at any other season.

May is the best time to find small land birds not often seen
by beginners. When warblers are in tall trees they may be
seen to the best advantage while the leaves are still small, by
climbing a steep, wooded hillside where one can see them on a
level with the eye, or below it. The yellow-bellied flycatcher
may be found during the latter part of the month in quiet
swampy woods. The alder flycatcher may be seen almost any-
where in migration, but usually it flits about alder runs, ponds,
and swampy shores. Sometimes the song of the Lincoln's
sparrow may be heard along bush-bordered walls or on bushy
river shores. Often it is difficult to see this bird unless its
song is fpllowed for a time, as its tendency is to keep well
within the cover.

The Cape May warbler and the Tennessee warbler are now to
be looked for in shrubbery in moist places, or along woodsy
river-bottom lands. Sometimes they come into the orchard or
the village street. The olive-sided flycatcher is seen in swampy
woods about some pond or stream, or in a near-by hill pasture
or orchard, while the crested flycatcher flits and loudly calls
in old neglected orchards near the. woods. »

The great spring migration of the shore birds along our coast
comes in the last half of May and in early June. Black-

12

bellied plovers sometimes are abundant about May 30 in
suitable localities on Cape Cod. Where the water of a pond
is drawn off late in May, sandpipers and plovers of several
species are likely to gather.

Migrating shore birds seek ponds where the water is low.

The Nesting Time.

The species of birds to be found in the nesting season at
a given place depend largely on the temperature of the locality.
''The southward distribution," says Dr. C. Hart Merriam, "is
governed by the mean temperature of a brief period during the
hottest part of the year." The temperature at this time de-
pends largely on four factors, — the latitude, the altitude, the
amount of moisture, and the character of the forests. Latitude
and altitude have the same effect. Other conditions being
equal, the mean temperature lowers as we go higher up or
farther north. Dr. Merriam has been able, after lotig study
and as the result of many exploring expeditions, to divide
North America into boreal, austral, and tropical "regions."
Massachusetts, largely because of its variations in altitude, has
animals and plants of both boreal and austral regions. Dr.
Merriam has divided these regions into life zones, — the boreal
into the Arctic, Hudsonian and Canadian zones, and "the
austral into the transition, upper austral and lower austral
zones. The zones of the austral region are again divided. The
eastern subdivision of the transition zone is called the Alle-
ghanian faunal area, and the eastern division of the upper

13

austral zone, the Carolinian faiinal area,^ These terms are now
generally employed in discussing the distribution of birds.
Each region, zone and area has animals and plants which are
peculiar to it, or which thrive best .within its limits. Certain
Carolinian, Alleghanian and Canadian birds breed in Massa-
chusetts, while there is a slight trace of the Hudsonian fauna
on Mount Greylock, the highest land in the State. If one
wished to find straggling Carolinian birds in Massachusetts in
the breeding season, he would naturally seek for them near sea
level in the southeastern parts along the coast, or in the valley
of the Connecticut River. Here he might find casually the
fish CTOW, the yellow-breasted chat or the Carolina wren. If he
were looking for Canadian birds he would go to the higher lands
of the northern and western part of the State, where he might
find the olive-sided flycatcher, yellow-bellied sapsucker, crossbill,
white-throated sparrow, slate-colored junco, pine siskin, blue-
headed vireo and several Canadian warblers. In southern Con-
necticut he might expect to find the sweet gum and the tulip
tree, the Louisiana water-thrush and the hooded warbler, but
on the hills of northern Berkshire County, Massachusetts,
where in both higher latitude and altitude, he would find spruce
woods, he might look with confidence for nests of the myrtle
warbler and the magnolia warbler.

While the boundaries of the regions, zones and areas are, in
general, well marked, the altitude and vegetation of Massa-
chusetts lands are so varied that it might be possible to find
Carolinian, Alleghanian and Canadian birds breeding within
a short distance of one another. Occasionally, also, we may
find the usual conditions reversed. A moist forest lowers the
summer temperature. A swamp, with a dense growth of
coniferous trees, may be so cool in summer that Canadian
birds will breed there, while on near-by hills that have been
denuded of their native, coniferous forests and turned into farms,
with deciduous woodlots, Alleghanian birds will be found nest-
ing. A deep, cool, wooded, watered ravine in a farming country
may serve as a breeding place for Canadian forms which do not
nest in the surrounding uplands. Again, in the coastal region,

1 See the Geographic DistribuJ;ion of Life in North America. Smithsonian Inst. Report, 1891,
pp. 365-415; see also United States Department Agriculture Biological Survey Bulletin No. 10,
1898, pp. 18-31.

14

the blue-headed vireo, for example, may summer in a lowland
grove of tall dense white pines, in the moist interior of which
the summer temperature is comparatively low, while in ad-
jacent, open, warm, dry, upland pitch pine woods, with an
undergrowth of shrub oaks, the prairie warbler may breed.
Some species seem to overflow from their normal breeding
grounds. The olive-sided flycatcher and the hermit thrush
summer on Cape Cod, and the slate-colored junco has been
known to breed in eastern Massachusetts. I have recently
seen an occupied nest of the myrtle warbler in the lower lands
of southern Worcester County near the Connecticut line.

Changes caused by woodcutting and farming bring about
changes in the bird life of a region. The draining of a great
swamp may drive out species that previously bred there, and
their places may then be taken by others. The draining of a
marsh or the cutting of a large tract of timber may have a
similar effect. The cutting away of the spruce forest may
drive out some Canadian warblers, and at the same time may
bring in white-throated sparrows and towhees, which breed in
the ''slash" and sprout growth. The foregoing considerations
may indicate that while a study of the faunal areas and breed-
ing zones is useful to determine where certain species may be
nesting, nevertheless breeding birds may be sought and some-
times found quite outside of the areas where one would expect
to find them. Therefore every locality should be searched
during the nesting season.

July is one of the most interesting months in the bird calen-
dar, for then there are many young birds about, and some of
the birds which have reared their young begin to slip away
toward the south, and shore birds begin to come from the north.

The Autumnal Migration.

In August many land birds are inactive, shy, and retiring
because of their moult. Many others are then leaving for the
south, and many which breed to the northward have not yet
reached us, but shore birds and a few ducks are then migrat-
ing southward, and some shore birds are visiting the shoal
spots of lakes and rivers, where the water is low. These birds
may be studied to advantage in August and early September.

15

In August, September, and through October warblers, thrushes,
sparrows, and other small land birds arrive from the north.
They are followed by birds of prey. Water birds also are con-
tinually passing, so that from August until the ponds and rivers
freeze, the vast and changing concourse moves on. Look for
land birds in the fall, on the fair, warm days, or ''weather-
breeders," just before storms. In clear nights they may be
heard passing overhead. They are then fleeing from the "wrath
to come." Easterly storms now bring wading and swimming
birds.

Thrushes may be found in sheltered swamps and in woods
where late maturing berries grow. Birch plant lice sometimes
furnish food for warblers, blackbirds and sparrows in autumn
until heavy frosts come.

Sparrows now depend mainly on weed seeds, and may be
found in sheltered, weedy cornfields and gardens, along road-
sides, or in bushes on sunny hillsides where they can find
shelter from strong winds. Weedy places are also frequented
by bobwhites. The ruffed grouse or partridge now seeks wild
apple trees, and feeds also upon barberries or wild grapes.

There are associations of birds in spring, autumn and winter
that the watcher should examine and study carefully. Red-
winged or rusty blackbirds, starlings, cowbirds or even meadow-
larks may mix with a flock of grackles or with each other.
Flocks of common warblers or sparrows should be looked over
carefully, as there may be some rare species among them.
Never neglect the notes of the black-capped chickadee in the
seasons of migration. Then and also in winter other birds
may be with or near the chickadees. All companies of chick-
adees should be examined in winter to see if there are any
brown-capped Acadian or Labrador chickadees with them.
Flocks of slate-colored juncos may contain one or more of the
rarer western forms. In winter goldfinches, redpolls and siskins
sometimes accompany each other in feeding, and even flock
together.

16

Winter Birds.

-'^~ -.-rTvW.

Birds may be found in sheltered places all through the winter.
The snow bunting, however, habitually seeks open, grassy fields,
far from all cover. Many birds find winter shelter in pine
thickets, or roost in cedar swamps. A farmyard with a dense
growth of coniferous trees close at hand, with thickets or bushy
roadsides nearby, should be good hunting ground. In winter
birds often seek a thicket in some valley or ravine along a
stream in preference to high open woods. A long thicket at
the foot of a southern slope of a wooded hill next to a meadow
makes a good winter refuge. Sheltered, tangled patches of
goldenrod and other weeds, old gardens, sheltered low pastures
overgrown with bushes, alders and birches, and all places where
people feed birds should be examined in winter. One who
knows the natural food of winter birds and where to find it has
a great advantage. For example, crossbills frequent larch,
pitch pine, spruce and other coniferous trees when these trees
bear seed. Goldfinches and redpolls feed on the seed of the
common birch. Many birds feed largely on berries produced
by shrubs, vines, or trees that retain their fruit in winter.

In winter the greatest number of species and individuals may
be found near the seashore in Massachusetts, particularly near
the southeastern coast, which lies not far from the Gulf Stream
and has a milder winter climate and less snow than the rest of
the State. The coast region of Bristol, Plymouth and Barn-
stable counties, Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard and the Eliza-

17

beth Islands, and the waters about them, deserve much more
attention from bird lovers in winter than they have received
as yet. Rare sea fowl may be seen along the coast in winter
after easterly storms. ,

Haw^ks and Owls.

Great horned owls may be found where hares or rabbits are
abundant, or about crow roosts. Crows will often tell you where
a great owl is hiding. At such times the owl may be seen, if
the observer can approach very skilfully under cover, moving
only while the assembled crows caw, and stopping as they cease.
Horned owls, snowy owls and barred owls are most often seen
in winter. These birds may be observed at times in sparsely
wooded country, in open fields, or, rarely, in villages. The
snowy owl is most commonly seen along the coast or in open
fields or pastures.

Birds of prey return j'ear after year to the same spot to nest
Having once found a nesting place of eagles, hawks or owls
you may look for them with confidence year after year on the
same cliff or tree, or in the same patch of woodland. The
horned owl nests in February, or early March, usually in an old
hawk's nest, or in a hollow tree near a swamp; often the nest is
not hard to find. The barred owl nests in March and April.
Red-shouldered hawks and red-tails nest in April, and most
hawks build their nests before the leaves are fully out. Groves
of tall white pines are favorite nesting places for hawks.
Hawks rarely if ever use dead leaves in nest building, although
some use a few green leaves, so the numerous nests seen filled
with dead leaves may be attributed to squirrels. Sometimes,
however, a hawk or an owl will build upon the foundation of an
old squirrel's nest or a crow's nest. Some observing farmers
can point out to inquirers a locality where hawks nest. Often
the nest is not far from the edge of the woods, and an ob-
server watching from a distant hillside may see the bird fly
directly to it. Usually with a good glass one can distinguish a
newly occupied nest by its fresh appearance and bits of fluffy,
light-colored down clinging somewhere about its edges. Some
hawks and owls sit very closely, and can hardly be driven from
the nest by pounding on the tree. Others leave at the first

18

alarm. The long-eared owl commonly is a close sitter. When
one has discovered an occupied nest, the chances of watching
the occupant from a blind depend on conditions, but while the
young are growing the parents are continually^ going and com-
ing. At such times owls may be seen on the afternoons of
cloudy or stormy days.

In severe winter weather screech owls sometimes enter barns,
where they kill mice or doves. They nest in April, often in an
old, hollow orchard tree. You may sometimes find a screech
owl sitting on a limb in daylight or at dusk. If the jays or the
smaller birds find it, they will tell you where to look. Jays
* seem to delight in mobbing a screech owl, and telling every-
bodv all about it.

The busy jays.

The best time to observe the hawks in flight is in September,
when they are on their southward migration. A great flight
usually goes over near the middle of the month; then one
must watch the sky.

Bird Ventriloquists.

The bird seeker must learn to notice every sound 'and move-
ment in the woods and fields. He must try to follow every
strange note to its source. The expert usually hears a bird
before he sees it. Some birds are ventriloquists; when the
bird is hidden by the leaves, the song seems to come first from
one tree and then from another. For this reason the scarlet

19

tanager may sometimes be found in summer by going around
the place from which the sound of its voice seems to come, or
by passing by it, and then returning to it.

Many birds have the power of singing so softly that they
seem to be far away when really just at hand. The catbird
does this quite commonly, and many other species occasionally
sing their full songs in the fall as in the spring, except that they
are audible only a few yards away. In mild autumns, or on
warm days, some birds sometimes sing almost as well as in the
spring. To find birds one must cultivate the senses of sight
and hearing to the utmost.

20

HOW TO KNOW BIRDS.

^^^^

'S^^N (<?o5m\K. cR(ft5BiiL. cMiKii. Kiimm,

Note the shape of the bill (see page 26).

Naturally he who begins to study birds, having found one
new to him, desires first to know its name and to be able to
recof nize it at sight. This is the A B C of bird study, — the
mere beginning, -7- but nevertheless important.

Bird Names.

Whoever travels much will find that the names by which
certain birds are known to the people change as he passes from
place to place. The flicker has more than forty common
names in difl^erent localities. Some of the shore birds are
known by one name on one side of a sound or river, and by
another on the opposite shore. Bird names may change as
one goes from one township to another. Certain individuals
in a town may have one name for a bird, while other townsmen
know it by a different name. Uniformity of names is so
obviously a practical convenience that ornithologists try to
stabilize and simplify the study by giving to each species a
fixed cognomen derived from the Latin or Greek, by which it
may be known to all ornithologists in any country. Also in
the United States ornithologists have adopted a common name
for each American bird, by w^hich both ornithologists and the
people generally may know it in its native country. The
American Ornithologists' Union has established rules of no-
menclature for the purpose of fixing the technical names of
birds, and these rules have proved so efficacious that they have
been largely adopted by zoologists everywhere. If these tenets

21

be followed faithfully eack species eventually will have a fixed
name by which it will be known everywhere. Unfortunately
synonyms have multiplied until they have become the despair
of the beginner, who prefers, instead, such vernacular names as
robin and bluebird, which have become* stable and widely used
and recognized. The American Ornithologists' Union has
turned its attention, also, to stabilizing the common names of
birds, and both common and technical names for each species
are published in the Check List of the Union, which is the
recognized authority for names of North American species;
but even now changes not infrequently occur. Fixity in the
names of species might have been reached before now, as it is
some years since a new species of bird has been observed in
North America, but an increased acquaintance with the classi-
jBcation of the birds of the world, also with the early literature
of ornithology, and the names in use in other departments of
zoology, have necessitated many changes in order to conform
with the rules. Also the specimens of birds in public and pri-
vate collections have never been sufficient in number or rep-
resentative enough geographically to give the systematic
ornithologists the material necessary for final and accurate
determination. The continual discovery of new subspecies, as
material in ornithological collections has increased, has called
for new names, and has required continual changes.

Species and subspecies of the same genus differ in appearance
from each other mainly in color and size. In the early history
of ornithology the species was the unit, but more recently the
comparison of many individuals of a species from different
parts of its range has led to a recognition of minor differences
in size or color, or both. For example, individuals from the
northern part of the breeding range of a species may be larger
and lighter or darker in color than those in the southern part,
while those at mid-range may show size and color intermediate
between the two. The two or more geographic forms of a
species exhibiting fixed differences are therefore described as
races or subspecies, — as Caucasians, Mongolians, and Negroes
are characterized as races of man. Ornithologists in naming
these races now use the trinomial, or three-name, system.
The generic and specific names together denote the species.

22

The name of the genus comes first, and is capitaHzed, the name
of the species second, and that of the subspecies third. As,
for example, the robin: Planesticns migratorius, There is but
one species of robin in North America. There is a recognized
western race of the robin known as Planesticns migratorius
propinquvs. Consequently, we apply to the eastern robin the
nomenclatural equivalent: Planesticus migratorius migratorius.
Then, again, there is a small pale southern robin now known as
Planesticus migratorius achrusterus} Here is but one robin
represented by three subspecies. The differences in size and
color are not very great. Why, then, recognize races at all
and dignify them by names? To this it may be answered that
as we advance in the study of ornithology we are driven to
trinomials by the fact that some species are now known to have
many geographic races, some one of which may differ far more
from some other . in size and color than do certain distinct
species, and yet there are connecting links between all of these
races.

If we take another common and widelv distributed bird, the
song sparrow, we jfind that at least twenty-three races of this
species are now recognized, and if we compare the small, pallid,
desert song sparrow with the large, dark, Aleutian song sparrow
we find that these two races of one species dift'er in size, shape,
and color more widely than do such distinct species as the song
sparrow and Lincoln's sparrow. There is even more apparent
difference in appearance between these two races than the
novice will see between the eastern song sparrow and the fox
sparrow, — birds not only of different species, but also assigned
to different genera. Nevertheless, the pallid or desert song
sparrow and the Aleutian song sparrow are connected by a
chain of subspecies.

Genera and species are not immutable. Many of the dis-
tinctions of the past represented mainly the gropings of the
human intellect in a new field. Now minute differences are
more carefully noted. Some of the former genera are now
regarded as species, and some of the former species are con-
sidered as mere races. There is perhaps no fixed and uni-
versally accepted definition of just what constitutes a sub-

1 A fuller discussion of this subject will be found in the revised edition of the Handbook of
Birds of Eastern North America, by Frank M. Chapman, 1914, pp. 5-9.

23

species, and in the finer points of classification ornithologists
do not always agree; also there is a constant evolution going
on in nature. Manv of the races now recognized mav be
species in the making. If for any reason the connecting links
in the chain of subspecies between the pallid or desert song
sparrow and the Aleutian song sparrow had disappeared, these
two birds would probably be recognized as well-marked species.

Two races of the same species — the pallid song sparrow and the Aleutian song sparrow.

Years ago the heath hen (now extinct except on the island of
Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts) and the prairie chicken were
considered by Audubon as one species, and described as the
pinnated grouse. Since that time all connecting links betw^een
the eastern bird and the western bird have been extirpated, and
now we have tw^o distinct species. On the other hand, the
western meadowlark, Sturnella negleda of Audubon, is now
considered by some ornithologists to be no more than a race
of Sturnella magna, of which we may perhaps have to record
three principal North American forms :^ Sturnella magna magna ^

' other races have been described, but they are mainly birds of the southwest or of Mexico
and Central America.

24

the eastern meadowlark; Sturnella magna negleda, the western
race; and Sturnella magna argutula, the southern form. This is
a possibility, not a prediction. Who can say what systematists
may do? Already several additional forms of the meadowlark
have been described. By describing and recording each geo-
graphic race we may some day throw more light on the evo-
lution of species.

What names, then, must the novice choose, who does not
care to collect birds and preserve their skins, but wishes only
to name the birds without a gun? He should use the ver-
nacular names given in the last edition of the Check List of
North American Birds, published by the American Ornitholo-
gists' Union. These names are now utilized by practically all
publishers of bird books in the United States, but only the most
recent editions are up to date.

The student of .birds in the field will do well, at first, if he
is able to recognize the species, leaving the subspecific deter-
minations to a later period, when he will have the advantage
of longer study and experience.

Field Glasses and Other Helps.

To learn to identify birds readily the student needs keen eyes
and ears, an opera glass or field glass, a notebook and pencil,
a pocket key or a handbook with colored illustrations,^ and
some training in careful observation. It will be a great ad-
vantage if there is a museum accessible, where he can see
mounted specimens; or a library where he can find the more
pretentious works on ornithology that contain colored plates of
birds. A small, light-weight opera glass is all that is necessary
for viewing the smaller birds at close range. The expensive
prism binoculars, magnifying many times, are excellent for the
adept, but the beginner with them will have difficulty in finding
the bird at all. The 8-power binoculars are excellent to use in
the open, and on rather long-distance work, especially at the
seashore, and they have an arrangement for adjusting the eye-
pieces to all eyes; but where a bird is skipping about among the

1 The novice should understand at the outset that most colored illustrations of birds are made
by the three-color process, and that the colors not only are inaccurate, but that the colors of the
same bird on individual plates may vary considerably; also that in many cases only the spring
plumages of the adult birds are shown, and that immature and autumn plumages are sometimes
very unlike those of the adults in spring.

25

branches of trees in the woods, it will often disappear while the
novice is trying to follow it with such a glass. A common
opera glass of good quality, with a larger field of vision and
magnifying about three times, will do very well for ordinary
use. Each glass should be tested before purchasing, and the
purchaser should, if possible, select a glass with the eyepieces so
adjusted that in using it he can see but one field. If he sees
"double" the glass is "out of line." For waterfowl or sea birds
a marine glass is useful.

To learn the proper use of the opera glass, select some bird
in the open that is sitting still, if possible. Have your back to
the sun, so that it will shine directly on the bird. Focus the
glass on the tree, and then find the bird by noting the position
of the branch and sighting the glass as you w^ould a gun.

Points to be Noted.

Note the size of the bird. It will be difficult at first to judge-
this size in inches, but you may compare it with certain com-

CHlPKHCSPARftCW. sens SPAR ROW. 3t.UEBI1?U. CATBIRD ■ KOBIN.

Scale of sizes.

OOVt.

mon and w^ell-known birds. You may have a scale of sizes,
beginning with the yellow warbler or chipping sparrow, and
reading like this: chipping sparrow, song sparrow, bluebird,
catbird, robin, dove, crow. Observe these birds well, and note
the size of each. Turn to your book and get it in inches.
Write it down; commit it to memory; have it always in mind.
By making good use of such a scale, you may become expert in
judging size by comparison.

26

Next, the shape of the bird is important. Note whether the
bird as a whole is slim or stout. Some allowance may be made
regarding how the feathers are carried at the time. All birds
can raise or lower the feathers of the body at will. They are
likely to appear plumper on cold days than on warm ones.
The bill is an important diagnostic feature. Few people who
describe birds to me in the hope of having them identified ever
mention the bill. If you can see the shape of the beak, you
may be able to refer the bird at once to the family to which it
belongs. If it is not much larger or smaller than a song spar-
row, and has a short conical bill, it is a seed-eater, probably
a sparrow. If it is a little smaller than a song sparrow, or
about the size of a chippy, and has a rather short but slender
bill, nearly straight or a trifle curved, probably it is a warbler,
or belongs to some other insect-eating family. Flickers,
cuckoos, thrashers, and creepers all have rather slender curved
bills. The bills of most woodpeckers are stout and straight;
those of most sandpipers are slim and straight, while the bills
of plovers resemble those of pigeons and doves.

OLfiCK-eiUED CUCKOO . REO-T«ILtO HflWK .

Note the shape of the tail.

The length and shape of the tail are important. Try to see
whether the tail is long or short, and whether the end is
rounded, square, or forked. If the bird is large, with a hooked
beak and long tail, probably it is a hawk. If the beak is long
and straight, or nearly so, the tail short and the legs long, it
must be a heron, or some other wading bird.

The color of the bird is very important; indeed, it is about

27

the only feature ordinarily observed. First, if possible, note
the color of the upper parts, i.e., the top and sides of head,
back and sides of neck, back, wings, and tail; next that of the
under parts, — throat, front of neck, breast, and belly. Re-
member that the breast and belly often will seem darker than
they really are, on account of being in shade. Thus a pure
white will seem gray. Many birds have some prominent mark
or color by which they may be identified in the field. Be care-
ful to note just where each color actually is; then note any
conspicuous mark, and exactly where it is placed, for such a
mark alone, taken with its situation and the size of the bird,
often is enough to establish its identity. The vesper sparrow,
for example, is known from all the other common summer

Tree sparrow.

sparrows by the white webs of the two outer pairs of tail
feathers, which show in flight; while the junco may be known
from other winter sparrows by a somewhat similar marking.
The song sparrow shows a cluster of spots which form a blotch
on its spotted breast just below the throat, while the tree
sparrow has a single spot on a plain gray breast, and two
whitish wing bars. The flicker and the meadowlark each
have a black crescent on the upper part of the breast, but the
flicker's breast is dotted, while the meadowlark's is a clear
yellow. The color of the bill or feet may sometimes aid in
identifying.

In this work the notebook and pencil are indispensable.
The effect of noting down details on the spot is to sharpen the
powers of observation and strengthen the memory. Then,
also, you have something permanent to refresh your recoUee-

28

tion. Note down on the spot, size, shape, color, and markings,
also shape and appearance of beak and tail (when you can see
them), for future reference. This will help you to identify the
bird, and to fix its identity in your memory, or, if you carry a
handbook with colored illustrations, look up the bird at once,
so as to settle the matter by further examination of the bird, if
possible. Remember, however, that no handbook gives color
plates of all plumages of all the birds.

The expert can determine many birds at a distance by their
characteristic flight. An ornithologist, constantly in the field,
can identify many a bird by its flight alone at a distance
greater than that at which most people can recognize a friend
by some peculiarity of his gait; and the beginner, by making
good use of his opportunities, will soon learn to recognize a
buzzard hawk such as the red-tail by its wheeling flight, or a
flying green heron by the downward bend of its wing tips. All
woodpeckers bound forward in flight, as they travel by rising
for a few wing beats, and then sliding downward with the wings
partly closed. The goldfinch also has an up-and-down flight.
The gait of the bird on the ground may determine the species
or at least the family. Crows, grackles, blackbirds, ovenbirds,
and some others walk, while most birds progress by hopping,
although now and then a hopping bird may surprise you by
walking a few steps on clear, open ground. The titlark, the
yellow palm warbler and the water thrushes all wag the tail up
and down while moving about, — something not habitual with
most other birds.

Bird Notes as a Means of Identification.

The notes of birds serve as an excellent means of identifica-
tion, although there are a few birds which can imitate well the
notes of others. Among these are the crow, blue jay, catbird,
brown thrasher, starling, and the famous mockingbird. The
note furnishes a clue to the presence of the bird, and assists
the searcher in his quest, but if he relies on the note alone he
may be mistaken. No rare bird should ever be identified and
recorded by its note alone. I have seen a black-throated green
warbler in the act of singing continually the full song of a

29

warbling vireo, a blue jay singing exactly the song of a Balti-
more oriole, another reproducing the whisper-song of the cat-
bird in October, and a catbird giving the note of the crested
flycatcher. The blue jay often utters a cry like that of the
red-shouldered hawk.

I have heard from the marshy border of a river notes exactly
like some produced by the flicker and the bobwhite, which I
was forced to attribute to a sora rail. Mr. Henry Oldys of
Silver Spring, Maryland, informs me that he has heard the
note of the towhee given by a Bewick's wren and a song spar-
row; those of the cardinal grosbeak, wood thrush and red-
winged blackbird by the catbird; those of the phoebe by a

Two imitators — the starling and the catbird.

shrike and a chickadee (not the so-called phoebe song of the
chickadee, but a much closer imitation that so deceived him
that he recorded the phoebe's arrival prematurely for four
successive years). He asserts that he has seen the black and
white warbler utter the note of the chipping sparrow, the red-
eyed vireo imitate the wood thrush, and the yellow-breasted
chat mimic the bobwhite. The mockingbird, which imitates
many species, is rare in Massachusetts, but the European star-
ling is fast becoming abundant. It mocks the meadowlark
and other birds, and there are starlings with powers of mimicry
second only to those of the mockingbird.

INIr. Adrian P. Whiting of Plymouth records that on March 2,
1919, he watched some starlings, one or more of which imitated
the English sparrow, red-winged blackbird, blue jay, barn
swallow, red-shouldered hawk, bobwhite, purple martin, wood

30

pewee, wood thrush, goldfinch and grackle; also they gave
many queer sounds resembling those produced by parrots. Mr.
Bromley of Southbridge, Massachusetts, reports that he has
heard the starling successfully imitate several of these notes,
and also that of the phoebe, and that he saw one starling
apparently attempting the notes of the whippoorwill.

As a novice will see colors in the wrong places, or fail to see
colors in the right places, so he will hear birds wrongly, or fail
to hear them at all.

Day by day people canoeing on the river pass my window,
while the note of the bittern booms over the river meadows.
It may be heard a mile, yet they never hear it; or rather, they
are not conscious of hearing it, or they mistake it for the sound
of a wooden pump. As evening falls, night herons call and
croak along the river, but these people do not hear the raucous
cries, or rather, .they do not notice them, or perhaps they
ascribe them to dogs. The student of birds soon learns to dis-
tinguish such sounds as these, but he cannot realize immediately
that the song of the grasshopper sparrow is not that of one of
the insects of the field, nor does he learn at once to hear the
faint chirps of the migrating host of wood warblers which pass
over or through the country twice each year nearly unnoticed.

An ornithologist if stricken blind, but endowed with perfect
hearing, might still get an approximate idea of the number of
birds of most species resident in a locality, for most birds are
vociferous at times, and some much of the time.

Many people, however, have great difficulty in recognizing
or remembering bird notes. Others are affected with tone
deafness, and are unable to differentiate between tones and
calls of an entirely different quality. Many persons of middle
age who can hear ordinary conversation cannot distinguish the
notes of warblers and other small birds at a distance, as all
such notes, pitched higher than the upper octaves of the
piano, are of such fine quality that they make little impression
on the eardrums of those whose hearing is at all impaired.

In studying bird songs the notebook is indispensable. Write
down in syllables what the bird seems to say as you hear it at
the time. Accent it as the bird accents it, and if you are
musical you may even get an approximation of it by note.

31

These notes may refresh your memory, and help fix the call or
song in your mind.

Birds do not really articulate, or if they do, the sounds are
mostly vowels:^ yet we may imagine that they enunciate
words. In learning the songs of birds one may take the notes
of some common loud singer, like the robin, as a standard, and
by comparison determine how those of other species differ from
it. This is good training for the ear. Some people cannot see
any difference at first between the songs of the robin and the
wood thrush, but to the initiated they have nothing in com-
mon. In quality of tone beginners usually see little difference
between the songs of the Baltimore oriole, the robin, the
scarlet tanager, and the rose-breasted grosbeak. Nevertheless,
the oriole's lay is almost a pure whistle, the tune varying much
with different individuals; the robin's song is a bold warble, a
little strident in places; the tanager sings a weaker, finer note,
like an undeveloped, hoarse robin; and the grosbeak has a
beautiful clear warble, rather loud at times, but perfectly
pure and mellow.

Unfortunately for the novice, a bird may have two or more
distinct songs. Some commonly have many, while rarely do
two individual birds of a species sing precisely the same tune;
but this disparity only makes the study of their vocal powers
more interesting. Occasionally a very gifted individual will
eclipse the performance of all rivals. The caw of the com-
mon crow is well known, but its love notes and its conversa-
tional abilities when ministering to its young are seldom recog-
nized. In early spring or late winter the crow often gives
forth quite musical sounds, and I have heard one closely imitate
other birds and animals, though this is probably exceptional.
Many singers not ordinarily gifted have beautiful flight songs.
It is not generally known that individual meadowlarks are
fine singers when in flight.

1 Mr. Francis H. Allen, who kindly consented to read the manuscript of this paper, makes the
following comments: " Doubtless consonants sometimes seem to be present in bird notes when a
vocal sound is repeated rapidly, but often the effect of a consonant sound is very striking, — r's
and I's, and even p's and k's, etc., — but where two consonants appear to be present in a single
syllable, I am convinced that they are often uttered almost or quite simultaneously, in a way that
is impossible in human speech; that is, a note may have an r and an s in it, and you cannot
possibly say which comes first. In syllabifying bird notes we can only approximate them."

32

Trying out the Plan of Identification.

Now to put our plan of identification to the proof. We are
boating some cloudy afternoon along the margin of a river
meadow. We enter an opening crowded with lily pads, where
a small slough opens into the stream. A bird larger than a
crow flies up from among the reeds; its long, nearly straight
beak, its short tail, its long legs, hanging down at the start,
and its manner of flight, with neck extended at first and then
drawn in, proclaims to the world that it is a heron. It ap-

Night heron.

pears to be ash gray above, whitish below, but looks blackish
on the crown and back. As it flaps heavily away it sends back
a loud quock. We have seen enough to learn from our key
that the bird is an adult night heron. Soon another flies.
It appears like the first in size, but it is rich brown in color
above and lighter below, streaked and mottled. Its note is a
croak, not nearly so explosive as that of the first bird, and it
flies a little slower. Our book tells us at once that we have
seen the American bittern, even if we have failed to observe
the black streak on the side of the neck. As we drift on down
the river, a startling scowoo comes from the trees on shore,
followed later by a few dry cacklings. Then a smaller heron,

33

that appears hardly as large as a crow, flies out over the river,
with a harsh squawk or qnak, and down along the shore. Its

m,

Ill

\MMmm4 — ^

mm mmi

Bittern.

wing strokes are rather quick, but there seems to be almost a
pause between strokes when the wing is held with downward-
bending tips. In color the bird seems dark, with a greenish
back and bluish-green wings. Its size, flight, note, and color
proclaim it an adult green heron. Soon another bird, resem-
bling the night heron somewhat in size and color, is seen flying
low over the meadow, coming upstream. As it comes abreast

Green heron.

of our position we can see with the glass that there is no long
bill, neither are there any long legs dangling behind, nor is

34

there any bjackish tone on the back, but the bird has a long
tail and black wing tips. It moves in silence, and now it
hovers over a tussock, dives into it and goes on. The scream-
ing blackbirds chase it across the meadow. This is no heron,
but a hawk; its size, larger than a crow, its color, light ashy
above and nearly white below, its black wing tips, — all show
it to be an adult male marsh hawk. Thus we see how a few
well-marked characters may enable us to identify our birds.

Marsh hawk.

As one advances in the study, the manner in which birds
feed, the character of the locality in which they are found, the
location and construction of the nests,' the size and color of the
eggs, — all tend toward fixing the identity of the birds.

It is well, before going to a marsh or lake, the seacoast, or a
dense forest, to "read up" on the birds to be found in such
localities. A kev to the birds, with a svstem based on the
colors and markings, will be serviceable, particularly to those
who are not intending to study ornithology scientifically, and
have* no opportunity to handle and examine specimens. The

35

work of identification will be difficult at first, — far more
difficult than it would be in the study of botany or geology,
for the birds will not always stay to be studied. But in time
one learns to recognize many species at the first glance, until,
almost unconsciously, he comes to a time when most of the
birds he sees or hears are old friends. With me the day has
long since passed when new bil-ds could be seen or heard almost
daily. I have traveled thousands of miles and have endured
many hardships to see and hear new birds. But you who are
just beginning this study may meet a new bird any spring day
merely by walking out into the pleasant fields and green woods.
For you the keen delight of search, discovery, and pursuit are
close at hand. Surprises await you at every turn. Delay not,
then, but turn at once to the woods and fields.

36

HOW TO APPROACH BIRDS.

Watching the wild fowl.

Even the novice need not be taught how to approach the
more common and familiar birds, which seem to court, rather
than shun, human companionship; but there are times when
it becomes necessary to get close to a rare bird, to examine it
carefully or observe its habits, while a near approach to a shy
bird may tax the powers of the most skilful observer.

The Approach on Foot.

To be successful in this the beginner must imitate in some
respects the behavior of the fox or the lynx, which are able
occasionally to get near enough to wild birds to capture some
that the human animal finds difficult to get within range of his
field glass. How are the wild animals enabled to do this?
(1) They are inconspicuously or protectively colored. (2) Their
feet are softly padded and their movements noiseless. (3) They
go on all fours, creeping close to the ground, and, taking ad-
vantage of the slightest cover, keep concealed as much as pos-
sible. (4) Their movements are so slow, at need, as to be
imperceptible. In all these things we may imitate them.

Bird students often are dressed conspicuously, and shod with
hard leather. Their tread, as it jars on the delicate senses of
the lower animals, seems to shake the ground. The dead

37

wood is broken underfoot. They talk, laugh, and even shout
with a loud voice. Standing erect, they are exposed to the
view of birds for a mile or more around. Some of them wear
large headgear, adorned with long feathers, and turn their
heads about quickly. They swing their arms, and move about,
pointing, gesticulating, and assuming attitudes all of which
seem menacing and fearsome to the shyer birds.

Even such students will see birds, for many of our feathered
friends have become accustomed to strange sounds and antics.
But the expert who sees all the birds has taken lessons from
the fox; he hunts alone. When one is in the company of
others, nature never completely enthralls him. His attention
is more or less distracted by his companions, he fails to see
and hear all.

The bird student should attend entirely to the birds, and then
they will requite his singleness of purpose. When alone, he has
no one to converse with and no interruptions. The human
voice warns all creatures from afar of the approach of their
arch enemy, man; let it be stilled, and nature is at peace. ^

There are many women interested in the study of birds who
may be too timid to go out alone. In such cases much may be
gained at first by employing an experienced teacher; but a
party of women having some knowledge of birds can go out
together and then separate, remaining within call. They will
then be safer in the woods than in the city.

We may muffle the tread by wearing rubbers, or, better,
shoes with rubber heels and rubber or fiber soles. Those having
merely an outer lift and tap of rubber on heel and toe are best.
The rubber will prevent the feet from slipping on rocks and
pine-clad hillsides. The light canvas "sneakers" commonly
used are not sufficient protection to the feet on rough, stony
ground. Leather footgear should not be stift' or squeaky. We
may avoid the rustling of dry leaves by choosing for our
tramps the early morning, when the dew is on, or the hour
succeeding a light shower. Care should be taken not to tread
on dry sticks so as to break them, as sharp sounds alarm all
wild creatures.

In dressing avoid black, white, and all striking colors and

1 It should be understood that the more familiar birds are not likely to be much alarmed by
common conversation.

38

contrasts. A dull dead-leaf color, like that of the shooting
coats ordinarily sold to sportsmen, is good at any time. In
spring and summer green is very good. Certain grays and
browns harmonize with natural objects.

The vision of most birds is far superior to our own, or that of
mammals; it is nearly, if not absolutely, perfect. Therefore,
it is necessary in approaching shy birds, such as waterfowl or
hawks, to use as cover, trees, shrubs, or grasses. Often one can
advance only on hands and knees, or crawl prone like a serpent.

Frequently I have approached wild fowl by creeping in the
paths made by raccoons, hares, opossums and other animals
under grasses and low shrubbery. At other times I have been
obliged to creep or wriggle through short grass, in mud and
water, to reach some desired point of observation. In such
cases, when within sight of the birds, a screen of vegetation
must be kept always before the face, or the birds will take
alarm and be off at once. Birds so wild that they will not
allow a man on foot to come within half a mile may be ap-
proached noiselessly in this way within twenty or thirty yards,
but the labor and discomfort are great.

The approach a la serpent.

When nearing shy birds in this manner, keep under cover and
do not raise the head. If it becomes necessary to take an ob-
servation, the head must be raised but little, and both raised
and lowered so slowly that the motion will be imperceptible.
Always approach against the wind if possible, for the birds are
then less likely to hear you. Do not allow the sun to strike on
any metallic or glass object, for the reflection or flash will give
the alarm.

Many people will not take such pains in approaching birds.
Others cannot, but must either decoy the birds within reach,
watch them with long-range glasses from wooded shores, or get

39

up to them in less difficult and more conventional ways. Such
people may see shy birds sometimes at rather close quarters by
driving slowly along the country roads. The extra elevation
given the observer by the vehicle increases his visual pos-
sibilities, and the birds have learned not to be suspicious of
an equipage on the road. Birds sometimes may be approached
on horseback better than on foot. Gunners sometimes employ
grazing cattle as moving shields behind which they near the
game unnoticed.

• When approaching shy birds on foot in the open, a zigzag,
circular or sidelong course may bring you much nearer than
will a direct forward movement. It is well to avoid the
appearance of stealth, and seem not to notice your bird. Make
no quick movements, and do not hurry. Most birds meet vio-
lent deaths, and they must be constantly on the watch for their
enemies. They are accustomed to flee for their lives from
quick-moving creatures. Quick movements with the raised
arms should be avoided, and the glass should be raised slowly.

The Use of Canoes or Boats.

Shy water birds and marsh birds sometimes may be ap-
proached by the skilful use of a canoe. Let the canoe drift
slowly along the marshy margin of a river, and watch the reeds
and rushes closely. In this way rails, coots, gallinules, and sand-

The silent canoe.

pipers are seen at close range. I have approached very near
to resting jflocks of shore birds by sitting or lying motionless in
an Indian canoe, and drifting down upon them. The canoe
may be used to advantage on a river, not only in watching

40

bitterns, rails, and other marsh birds, but also in going close to
the smaller land birds in trees and bushes on the bank. For
this purpose the canoe is much superior to the rowboat. It is
noiseless and the paddler faces the bow. Many birds may be
seen at close range by working a sailboat up or down a river
before a light, fair breeze. A small boat covered with bushes,
and sculled or allowed to drift down on birds, sometimes is
useful. A fast-sailing boat is one of the best devices for ap-
proaching swimming birds on a windy day. Such a boat
maneuvered skilfully will be upon the birds before they are
aware of its nearness. During a squall I once drove a sloop
so near a sheldrake that the bird rose on. the next sea as we
swept past. There is an advantage in sailing down wind, as
the bird must rise toward you against the wind, and may come
quite near, giving a good view, first of the breast and then of
the back as it turns away. The noisy motor boat is the
abomination of the bird student. It has driven most of the
waterfowl from our eastern rivers.

Watching Birds' Nests.

When birds have young in the nest they usually are less
shy than at other times, forgetting their regard for their own
safety in their solicitude for the welfare of their offspring.
Therefore they are then comparatively easy to approach.
For this reason, if for no other, the bird student should strive
to find the nesting sites. He should hunt for the nests of
birds in winter, or very early in spring, while the trees are still
leafless. Some birds use the old nest, others build again on the
same bush or tree, or near it. A record of the old nests found
will tell the searcher w^here to look for new ones in nesting
time. By visiting such situations when birds are nesting one
may see the birds carrying building material to their new nests.

A word of caution is necessary here, however. Those who
have found and watched birds' nests often complain that some-
thing usually happens to the eggs or the young birds. I have
learned by sad experience that a close and frequent examination
of a bird's nest in the woods only serves to call the attention of
the bird's enemies. There are creatures always on the watch
for an opportunity to rob birds' nests. The fox sometimes fol-

41

lows a man-track. Perhaps he has learned that the path of man
in the woods may lead to food. Too often the man-trail leads
to wounded or dead birds and animals, — a lunch that may re-
ward the fox. Fish heads and other offal are thrown out around
a camping place. So Reynard cunningly follows. Those who
watch or photograph birds' nests on the ground run the risk
of leading both fox and skunk to them, A friend who was
photographing birds' nests found that they were being robbed
by a fox which was actually seen following the trail. Those
who closely examine the nests of birds in trees or shrubbery
are likely to be watched unawares by the astute and cautious
crow, the thieving jay, the mischievous squirrel, or the blood-
thirsty weasel. I have seen both jay and squirrel following a
man through the woods, keeping well hidden from his sight.
If you approach a nest containing young, the cries of the
parent birds may apprise all the wood folk of its location.
Therefore, watch the birds with a glass, and do not go to the
nest. Those who approach the nests of herons or water birds
that breed in colonies drive the old birds away, and thus
expose the eggs and young to the attacks of crows, for crows
are quick to seize such opportunities. When watching a nest,
approach it with caution, and observe it from such a distance
that neither young nor old will be much disturbed by your
presence. Many interesting habits may be seen in this way if
a good glass be used.

42

HOW TO ATTRACT BIRDS.

'"^ '7.;' n.^-'t ' -^'v

Decoying wild fowl.

He, who, unable to go far afield, waits and watches for
birds in some secluded spot, or imitates their notes and so
calls them to him, may learn more of their ways than will the
most active pedestrian.

Suet.

Luring Birds by Food.

The country dweller may entice birds to
the homestead by planting fruit-bearing trees,
shrubs, vines, and other plants that will sup-
ply them with food. . Even the urbanite possi-
bly may attract a few chickadees or nuthatches
in winter by putting out suet on trees; but
other means are required to bring birds about
the student in the field. You may facilitate
your winter bird study by scattering millet
seed or hayseed in suitable spots along your
walks, or by hanging ]bones and suet in favor-

43

ably situated trees, that you can visit now and then. In spring
and fall small grain will attract thrashers^ blackbirds, bob-
whites, and crows. Chestnut and corn scattered about in the
late fall or early winter will gather all the blue jays in the
countryside.

Imitating Birds' Notes.

In summer, if the person be carefully concealed, some of the
shyest birds may be brought near by mimicking their notes.
Many bird notes may be imitated by the voice. Crows, owls,
some herons, and some ducks may be deceived in this manner.
The bobwhite, whippoorwill, red-shouldered hawk, Baltimore
oriole, bluebird, and others may be called by skilful whistling.
The hunter has a call for plovers and sandpipers. He lures
the wild turkey to its death by^a call made of a wing-bone of
one of its kind.

Calling them up.

A sound which often is quite successful with the smaller birds
is made by moistening the lips and sucking in the breath, with
the back or side of the hand placed over the mouth. A certain
call thus made will deceive the blue jay in summer or winter.
When a ruffed grouse or partridge with little chicks is dis-
covered, you may keep the bird near you for some time by

44

crouching and imitating her squeal or the thin whistle of her
young chicks. In the breeding season most birds are deceived
by an imitation (made on the back of the hand) of the scream
of a young bird. By making this sound in a thicket near a
catbird's or robin's nest, it is easy to alarm these birds so that
their cries will bring within view most of the other birds in the
neighborhood. This "screeping" sound will sometimes entice
birds out of a thicket at other seasons of the year. A yellow-
breasted chat, thus called, almost alighted on my head. The
crested flycatcher may be called in this way, even in the fall.
Catbirds, thrashers, vireos, thrushes, and warblers all may be
enticed by this call. If the observer is alone and well hidden,
they will sometimes come within reach of his hand.

Utilizing the Curiosity of Birds.

A captive screech owl in a tree will cause a gathering of
most of the small birds of the neighborhood, whether in wood
or orchard. Even a tame crow, or tethered cat, may attract
some birds in nesting time. Many birds evince an acute
curiosity. When collecting birds in my boyhood I stalked
my first sandhill crane nearly a mile on an open prairie. We
were out of provisions, and living on the country. Meat
was a necessity; so when venison or wild turkey w^ere wanting
we perforce must descend to roast crane, or baked owl. The bird
was first seen from the timber feeding in the slough. Waiting
until it had lowered its head after glancing around, I made
a short run through the prairie grass and dropped, to give the
bird another chance to reconnoiter. Advancing thus ''by
rushes," I gained the edge of the slough unseen, being then
within two hundred yards of the bird. I waded in. Just
then the bird raised its head. I fell flat in the two or three
inches of water, and the crane flew off; but soon it swung
its head to one side and looked back. Then, apparently, it
began to wonder about the half-concealed thing lying there in
the water. Slowly it swung round in a wide arc and came
back, flying low, directly overhead. The thing in the water
never moved until the crane had passed. Soon afterward the
crane's skin changed owners, and a large slice off the bird's
breast helped to fill a void that had held only two crackers that.

45

day. It was but another illustration of a theory of Darwin and
Wallace, — the survival of the fittest. Necessity knows no
law but that of self-preservation. Still, if the ethics of the case
are considered, no doubt the bird had the prior right to occupy
that slough. Since then I have seen the great white heron,
the great blue heron, the great white egret, the bald eagle,
and several species of wild fowl manifest their curiosity in a
similar way.

It is difficult for most birds to understand the meaning of a
silent human figure lying prone and half concealed. While so
reclining I have been closely approached by eagles and vultures.
It is said that the fox sometimes will attract wild ducks within
leaping distance by allowing its tail and back to show a little as
it plays about in the long grass on the shore. A concealed
hunter sometimes will attract wild fowl toward the shore by
waving a red rag on the end of a stick, or by using a small dog
trained to gambol in the grass.

Birds come to the silent sitter.

There are easier and pleasanter ways, however, of attracting
the shy birds of the woods. "Nessmuk" says that there is an
art which outflanks all wild animals, — the art of sitting on a
log. This sylvan necromancy consists of sitting absolutely

46

still, and keeping both eyes and ears open. This will not
generally succeed with wild fowl, except perhaps with the
mergansers, the wood duck, the harlequin, and possibly a few
others.

I once sat on a stone on the shore of the diminutive harbor
of an island off the coast of British Columbia, and watched a
flock of harlequin ducks swim around a little headland and
come almost to my feet. Here the ''lords and ladies," the
handsomest of all sea ducks, played about for some time,
showing off their plumage, throwing the sparkling drops from
crest and wing; but at my first movement they beat the water
into foam, sweeping away in a frenzy of affright.

Most river ducks cannot be deceived in this way. They will
fly at first sight of man, so the observer must be well concealed.
But all wood birds, both shy and rare, may be outgeneraled by
the quiet sitter. They seem to wonder what, manner of thing
this is that looks so like a man, but neither smokes nor swears,
talks, laughs, nor tramps about. Slowly they draw near and
peer at the curiosity, and finally they apparently conclude it to
be harmless, and go about their usual avocations.

While I have been writing this in the Concord woods a bright
scarlet tanager has sung and hopped about for ten minutes on
some branches about fifteen feet away, on a level with my face.
A red-shouldered hawk has alighted on a limb five feet from the
ground and seven paces away; two jays have chased a pair of
red squirrels through the nearest tree; a black-throated green
warbler has come to a branch just above my head and peered
into my face; a black-billed cuckoo has surveyed me from all
sides. The other day a sharp-shinned hawk swept up the hill
and alighted on a limb before my cabin. He scanned the
ground, the trees, the bushes by the river shore; but every
little terror-stricken songster crouched concealed. Then the
hawk caught the movement of my eyelid, sprang upon the air
and swiftly glided downward and away, as noiselessly as he had
come. Even the astute and wary crow will forget in time his
characteristic caution, and indulge his curiosity enough to alight
near by and scan the intruder nervously.

47

The Watcher's Protection from Insects.

There is one great drawback, however, to this method. In
summer our woods are infested with mosquitoes, as w^ell as with
gnats and flies. A pair of light leather gloves, a net or veil of
a mesh smaller than ordinary mosquito netting, to wear over
the hat and head, and a light blanket or wrap that can be
carried in a shawl strap, will enable one to keep quiet and yet
defy the troublesome insects. A light camp stool also is
useful.

A screech owl visits the screen tent.

One who desires to camp in the summer woods will need a
different outfit. For more than twenty years I have used a;
small ^'A" tent, made of olive-brown duck, with a flap to tuck
under the blankets. It is seven feet long, four feet wide and
three feet high. A small line is sewed along the top, which may
be tied at each end to a tree or a stake to support the tent.
Eight loops of heavy twine are staked down with forked sticks to
hold out the sides. The ends are made of coarse cheesecloth, or
fine netting, and the lower edges are provided with flaps to tuck
under the blankets. A rubber blanket and a single light woolen
one, with a cotton bag to be filled nightly with moss or grass
for a pillow, complete the outfit, which may be rolled up and
carried by a strap handle or "packed" above a knapsack. The

48

birds soon become accustomed to this tent, and even will alight
upon it. For several evenings it was the favorite perch of a
screech owL From it I have watched the shore birds and seals
on barren islands. In it I narrowly escaped being run over by
two deer. The puma has circled around it, and once a wildcat
actually walked on it, stepping on my breast.

Umbrella and cover cloth.

The blind in position.

"Hides" and "Blinds."

From such a tent, or from a screen of netting, you may
watch the ruffed grouse, or partridge, and her callow brood.
You may camp by a heronry and see the old birds come
and go and feed their young. I have camped on a small dry
mud bank in a great swamp, with no other dry land for miles
around, being entertained by the nightly concerts of mos-
quitoes, ducks, herons, frogs and alligators, without the least
discomfort or inconvenience.

There are shelters in which one may remain concealed,
varying in construction from the log camp of the sportsman to
the bough camp of the Indian or the "hide" or "blind" of the
gunner. The umbrella blind used by bird photographers is an
excellent device for watching birds if set up in the shade. In
full sunlight on a hot day it is about as comfortable as a
Turkish bath. If the birds to be watched are very wary, it is

49

best to set up the blind and leave it for several hours, or
even a day, that they may become accustomed to it. The
observer should be accompanied by one or more persons when
he goes to conceal himself within it. When his companions
leave, the birds' suspicions are allayed, and curiosity may
impel them to a close approach. Wooden decoys used in con-
nection with "blinds," and bird calls will enable an expert to
lure most shore birds as near to him as they will come to the

Decoying shore birds.

gunner. A skilfully constructed blind placed on or near a
long sandbar or point of the shore, and a few lumps of mud or
turf judiciously distributed on the point, may enable one to
get a good view of the several species of wild fowl. Apparently
the flying birds at a distance mistake the clods for some of
their own number, and come on, intending to alight. The
best decoys are living birds anchored so that they can swim
about. Sometimes a single grebe or duck in a small pond will
attract a flock of several species. Many game birds and water-
fowl may be baited with grain; but this is a method for those
owning estates where birds can be protected, and should not be
attempted by any bird student who would assemble the birds
thus only to leave them to the tender mercies of the pothunter.
Those who wish to lure the sea birds may have some success
with gulls by putting out fish or offal upon some beach or bar,
near a blind; but gulls may be seen anywhere about the
harbors of cities where they are not molested. They frequent
all places where fish, offal, or garbage are thrown into the
water. To attract the birds of the ocean, however, one must
go several miles to sea, where, by throwing overboard cod
livers, or some similar food, several species may be lured near
the boat.

50

A Word to the Wise.

The two maxims at the close of this paper may be termed
"A word to the wise." The foolish will not heed them.

Science is truth. Its records must be based on facts. There-
fore if you report your findings, you should be sure, first, that
they are authentic. A fertile imagination is a great gift, useful
for the writer of fiction, but it has no place in bird study. A
"creative memory" is not an asset for the bird student. Many
people make mistakes in the identity of birds seen in the field.
The rose-breasted grosbeak and the scarlet tanager have been
reported here in winter. There are no other North American
birds that resemble either of them. It would seem impossible
to mistake these birds. But it is well known that the scarlet
tanager winters in South America, and that the rose-breasted
grosbeak winters from southern Mexico southward into South
America. Therefore it is highly improbable that any report of
these birds wintering in this region is correct. Somebody must
have been mistaken.

Mistakes in field identification are made not only by novices,
but by experienced ornithologists. Years ago, when the pas-
senger pigeon had disappeared from New England, three of
America's eminent ornithologists visited one of the last locali-
ties frequented by this bird in Connecticut. Two of these
gentlemen have filled the position of president of the American
Ornithologists' Union; the other was a well-known local
ornithologist. Immediately upon arriving on the ground the
first two gentlemen identified some birds seen as passenger
pigeons. The local ornithologist asserted that they were
mourning doves. Some one was mistaken. Finally the birds
flew away, and to this day no one absolutely knows whether
these birds were mourning doves or passenger pigeons. For
several years rewards aggregating |3,000 were offered for the
undisturbed nest and eggs of the passenger pigeon. Although
many people claimed the reward, no one actually found the
nest. The American continent was searched, but no one was
able to produce even so much as a feather of the passenger
pigeon. Nevertheless, every few weeks some one reports having
seen passenger pigeons. While there may be still some pas-
senger pigeons on earth, it does not seem probable.

51

Owing to the general interest in birds, ornitliologists receive
communications from many people stating that they have seen
rare birds, or asking that birds be identified from their de-
scriptions. Often these descriptions are so incomplete that it
is impossible for any one to identify birds from them, and many
times they describe no bird living on this earth. Some of the
descriptions may be derived from escaped cage birds, others
from freaks, such as hybrids or partially melanistic or albinistic
specimens. In any case, the description should be complete,
otherwise the time of both describer and expert is wasted. I
•realize the difficulties under which beginners labor. There are
no adequate illustrations of all plumages of all North American
birds, nor are there any adequate descriptions of all. The best
that we have are those in Ridgway's "Birds of North and
Middle America," and that is not yet complete (1919). The
collections of birds in both public and private museums in this
country also are inadequate, and few men have a knowledge of
ornithology sufficient to enable them to recognize at sight the
different plumages of most North American birds, to say
nothing of those of other countries, some of which may find
their way here, while others may escape from confinement and
be found at large. It is evident, then, that in asking an
ornithologist to identify by description, a bird that you do not
know, you may be presenting a problem indeed. Therefore,

(1) when seeking light on the identification of a bird, never
trouble an ornithologist with an inadequate description; also,

(2) be sure of the identity of a bird before you report its
occurrence as a fact.

®l)e ^otnmoniutaltl) of iila06acl)U0ett0

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

WILFRID WHEELER, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 13

SUPERSEDING CIRCULAR No. 49
August, 1919

Plants that Attract and Shelter Birds

AND

Some that Protect Cultivated Fruit

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1919

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration

ORNAMENTAL AND OTHER PLANTS USED

TO ATTRACT BIRDS AND PROTECT

CULTIVATED FRUIT.

Introduction.

The Arnold Arboretum at Boston has become noted as a
resort for birds. Probably the number and variety found there
are not exceeded in any upland locaHty in New England. Any
observing person frequenting the Arboretum can see for himself
that birds are attracted there by the diversity of plants, which
support a great variety of insects and produce quantities of
fruit and seeds, thus affording birds an unusual abundance and
variety of animal and vegetal food. Notwithstanding the
advantages that birds find at the Arboretum, it would be pos-
sible for any one owning a large estate to attract to it many
more than are found there. This could be accomplished in
part by selecting certain plants, and planting them in such a
way as to provide both food and protection.

It would be well for the farmer and the orchardist to make
their home grounds especially attractive to useful birds. And
all who live in the country or in the suburbs, and even some
who reside in cities, may, if they will, utilize plants to attract
birds. Landscape architects and gardeners who lay out the
grounds of large estates often plant quantities of shrubs and
trees A\'ithout considering the needs of birds. While there are
ornamental flowering plants that birds frequent, there are
many also that bear highly colored and decorative fruit on
which birds feed. Nearly all such plants may be utilized in
beautifying country estates. There should be fruit-bearing
shrubbery and vines and dense hedges or tangles of ornamental
fruiting plants. Coniferous trees may be planted to best ad-
vantage in small patches or rows as windbreaks, for large
groves of such trees are likely to shelter hawks, crows, squirrels
and other enemies of birds.

The up-to-date fruit grower should never plant an orchard or
attempt to cultivate small fruit without first providing rows of
early wild fruit to attract birds away from his cultivated
varieties. Otherwise, unless there is a quantity of wild fruit
growing in the neighborhood, birds are likely to reduce his
profits. The problem of attracting native birds in New Eng-
land has been complicated by the introduction from Europe of
the starling This species is now locally common or even
abundant, and its flocks devour quantities of wild fruit which
otherwise might serve as food for native birds, which are thus
deprived of much fruit intended for them, especially during the
inclement days of winter. Therefore, it is imperative now to
provide much more food for them than ever before.

Plants Attractive to Fruit-eating Birds.

Farmers know that certain birds are fond of the earliest
cherries and strawberries, and that some will feed voraciously
on raspberries and blackberries unless there is other more at-
tractive food near. Therefore, if fruit is wanted only for home

use it is well to plant enough
for the family and the birds.
If cultivated small fruits are
planted in quantity, all the
fruit-eating birds of the neigh-
borhood will be there when the
fruit is ripening. But there
are other fruits even more
attractive to birds. First
among these for early sum-
mer are the wild strawberry
(Fragaria americana) , the June-
berry or service-berry (Amelanchier canadensis), the red-berried
elder (Sambucus racemosa) and the white mulberry (morus alba).
The wild strawberry fruits as early as the cultivated varieties,
and it lasts longer. The Juneberry is earlier than the earliest
cherries, and is supposed to hang later, but in my experience the
birds get all the Juneberries before July 4, and if gray squir-
rels are very numerous they are likely to take the fruit even
before it becomes ripe enough for the birds. This is a fine

Tupelo or sour gum.

fruit to cultivate for human food could the birds and squirrels
be kept away from it. The red-berried elder begins to fruit
early in June, bears fruit well through July, and like the com-
mon elder (Savibucus canadensis), which fruits in Massachu-
setts in August and Se])tember, is one of the chief attractions
for summer birds More than one hundred species are known
to feed upon elderberries. Close to the elders in attractiveness
come the cornels or dogwoods. These are summer fruiting
plants. All the mulberry trees are extremely inviting to birds.
The native red mulberry (Morus rubra) is useful but does not
fruit quite so early in June as the introduced white mulberry
(Morus alba). The Russian mulberry has been widely recom-
mended, attracts birds remarkably, and in some cases has been
established in Massachusetts, but it appears not to be hardy
on the higher lands of the State, and seems to require special
treatment to establish it here. The Downing (or the New
American, which appears to be identical) is a cultivated variety
with a fruit that is much more palatable than the common
kinds, and has been successfully grown here. The dwarf white
mulberry also seems hardy and gives a crop of fruit a few
years after planting.

The mulberries make fine shade and ornamental trees, but
should not be planted where they will overhang walks or
buildings, as the decaying juicy fruit, if not all eaten by birds,
drops to the ground in
summer, where it is
crushed by the feet of
passers-by and disfig-
ures walks or stains
clothing. Wild black-
berries, raspberries,
blueberries and huckle-
berries all are eaten
by birds in summer and
all attract them. All
wild cherries tempt the birds in July, August or September.
There is a prejudice against these trees because they harbor tent
caterpillars, which, however, may be killed by early spraying,
but if wild cherries are not present on our grounds many

Smilax, greenbrier, bull brier.

birds will be likely in August and September to go where they
can be found or to attack cultivated fruit. Any crusade for
the extermination of wild cherry trees will fail, as they may
be found not only in yards, fields, pastures and along the
roadsides, but almost everywhere in the woods.

In September or October practically all the later wild fruits
ripen, and, as many of them remain on the stems all winter,
and some until spring, it is only necessary to have them in
sufficient variety to provide food for fruit-eating birds through-
out the winter. A few of these fruits, however, are particu-
larly important as well as ornamental. Some are not eaten
much by birds while the softer and more desirable fruits are
at their best, but later they remain intact during the inclement
months, when frost and storms have destroyed or covered other
fruit, and then they offer nutriment to the birds in time of
need. Such are the fruits of the American and Em"opean
mountain ash, the various sumacs, the junipers, the smilax,
holly, hawthorn, bayberry, snowberry, barberry, and the black
alder. The fruit of the mountain ash is very rich and orna-
mental in color, and rarely is cleaned up by birds until the
dead of winter, when they seek it eagerly. The foliage of the
sumacs is brilliant in autumn, while the fruit, as well as that
of the black alder, is handsome and remains on the stem for
the winter birds. The catkins of the birches and of the com-
mon alder are sought
!^;f^^ for their seeds by winter

birds. It is essential
to provide berries and
seeds on shrubs and
trees well above the
snow for winter food.

All trees that are at-
tacked by many insects
are favorites with birds.
Manyhundreds of species
of insets infest the apple,
oak, poplar, willow, birch
and alder. Hence these trees are visited by many birds. The
coniferous trees are not subject to the attacks of such a variety

Virginia juniper or red cedar.

of insects, nevertheless certain species sometimes become nu-
merous upon them. The white pine is a favorite with titmice
and kinglets in winter, as they often find the eggs of aphides
on these trees in enormous numbers. The seeds of coniferous
trees are eaten by a few species of birds. Larches and spruces
attract crossbills while the former are favorites of goldfinches.
Elms ripen their seeds early, thus providing food for birds in
early summer, while the spanworms that infest elms and apple
trees are sought by nearly all birds.

Mr. W. L, McAtee of the Biological Survey, who has made
a special study of fruits attractive to birds, has published in
Farmers' Bulletin 912 the following table to show the relative
attractiveness to birds of certain genera of fruits. Following
Table 1 we reproduce another table from Farmers' Bulletin 621,
entitled "How to attract Birds in Northeastern United States,"
showing the seasons in which certain fruits are available for
birds. These and the succeeding lists of plants have been
slightly changed and adapted to the present publication, but
mainly by bringing the botanical names more nearly to date.

Table 1. — Preferences of Birds among Genera of Fleshy Fruits.

Common Name.

Scientific Name.

Number
of Species of
Birds known

to eat the
Fruit. 1

Juniper; red cedar,
Greenbrier, .
Bayberry,
Hackberry, .
Mulberry,

Pokeberry, .

Barberry,

Spicebush, .

Sassafras,

Currant; gooseberry, .

Strawberry, .
Raspberry; blackberry,
Rose, . . . .
Mountain ash,
Chokeberry,

Red haw,
Juneberry, .
Cherry; plum.
Sumac, 2
Holly

Supple-jack,
Buckthorn, .
Grape, . . . .
Virginia creeper, .
Buffalo berry.

Juniperus,
Smilax,

Myrica, .
Celtis, .
Morus, .

Phytolacca,

Berberis,

Benzoin,

Sassafras,

Ribes,

Fragaria,
Rubus, .
Rosa,
Sorbus, .
Aronia, .

CratcBgus,
Anielanchier ,
Prunus,
Rhus,
Ilex,

Berchemia,
Rhamnus,
Vitis,
Parthenocissus,
Shepherdia, .

36
38
64
38
52

48
10
17
15
30

42
114
17
14
13

30
38
66
76
38

12
16
71
39
13

' When tea or more.

2 Nonpoisonous species.

8

Table 1. — Preferences of Birds among Genera of Fleshy Fruits — Con.

Common Name.

Scientific Name.

Number

of Species of

Birds known

to eat the

Fruit.

Wild sarsaparilla

Dogwood,

Sour gum

Bearberry,

Huckleberry,

Blueberry,

Mexican mulberry

Partridge berry,

Elder

Snowberry,

Black haw,

Honeysuckle,

Aralia

Cornus,

Nyssa, ......

Arctoslaphylos, ....

Gaylussacia,

Vaccinium,

CalHcarpa

Mitchella,

Sambucus, .....
Symphoricarpos

Viburnum,

Lonicera,

14
79
36
12
30

62

10

10

101

22

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12

The plants given in the above list are selected from a much
larger number, all of which are known to be favorites with
birds, and are such as are likely to be secured through the
ordinary channels of trade. The fruiting seasons include the
earliest and latest dates recorded for New York and New Eng-
land, and it cannot be expected that fruit will be available at
any one locality throughout the entire season given, unless a
large number of plants are set in a variety of situations. Mr.
McAtee also gives the following valuable notes on the foregoing
list: —

Bayberry. Usual trade name is Myrica cerifera. Now known to bota-
nists as M. carolinensis.
Hackberry. Fruit scarce in late May and June. Celtis sefrata, C. hun-

geana or C. mississippiensis may be substituted.
Mulberry. Morus tatarica may be used.
Poke weed. Let it grow through shrubs or a trellis which will support it

in winter. • ■

Barberry. Berberis amurensis, B. aristata, B. regeliana and B. rehderiana

are good substitutes. The universally planted B. thunbergii seems to

be of very little value as bird food.^
Sassafras. Appears in most catalogues as S. officinale or S. sassafras.
Flowering apple. The following may be substituted: P. baccata, P. halli-

ana, P. parkmanii, P. sargentii and P. toringo.
Chokeberry. Often called Pyrus or Aronia nigra. P. arbutijolia, another

native species, retains its fruit just as long, but the fruit becomes very

dry toward the end of the season.
Cherry. Prunus cerasijera, P. fruticosus, P. japonica pendula, P. sargentii

and P. tomentosa, all introduced, are worth adding.
Sumac. Rhus copallina or R. hirta (typhina) may be substituted for R.

glabra.
Juneberry. Amelanchier canadensis, sold by nurserymen, is a composite

species. Several species are now recognized, among which A. Icevis is a

notably early fruiter and A. sanguinea a late one. Some fruit of June

berries occasionally hangs much later than the season indicated, but in

very dry condition.
Thorns. The species recommended are those usual in the trade. So far

as desirability is concerned many native species could be substituted.

Cotoneasters, such as C. coccinea, C. horizontalis, C. microphylla, C.

rotundijolia and C. tomentosa, may also be used.
Strawberry. Often called Fragaria vesca var. americana. F. virginiana is

a fair substitute. Little dealt in; must usually be transplanted from

woods and fields.

1 Although this sentence probably was true when first written, many birds turned to these
berries in the hard winter of 1917-18. Mockingbirds seek them and bluebirds feed on them dur-
ing the cold waves of early spring. E. H. F.

13

Blackberry. Ruhus trijiorus is frequently called R. americanus.

Rose. All native species have persistent fruit. The small-fruited ones

are best for birds. Rosa Carolina and R. nitida are suitable for low

grounds, and R. humilis (sometimes called virginiana) and R. setigera

may be planted in drier places. R. micrantha and R. multi flora are

among the best introduced roses.
Black alder. Ilex kcvigata may be used instead of /. verticillata. I.

serrata is a good introduced species.
Mountain holly. Drops most of its berries in the fall; only a few persist

throughout the season indicated.
Bittersweet. Celastrns orbiadatus, introduced, may be used.
Buckthorn. Rhamnus dahurica is equally good.
Virginia creeper. Often sold under the names Ampelopsis and Partheno-

cissus. A. heterophylla and P. vitacea may be substituted.
Wild pepper. Hippophae rhamnoides may replace it, especially along

coast.
Oleaster. Ela:agnus longipes, E. tmdtiflora, E. parviflora and E. umhel-

lata also are good.
Buffalo berry. Shepherdia (Lepargyrea) argentea, the true buffalo berry,

furnishes good bird food.
Dogwood. Cornus racemosa, native, and C. alba and C. sanguinea, in-
troduced, are worthy substitutes.
Huckleberry. Gaylussacia baccata is often sold as G. resinosa.
Blueberry. Any species may be substituted.
Cranberry. Generic name often given as Oxycoccus.
Privet. Ligustrum acuminatum, L. amurense, L. ciliatum, L. ibota and L.

microcarpum, all introduced, are equally good. Must not be chpped;

berries borne on outer twigs.
Purple berry. Variety japonica is the hardy form.
Honeysuckle. Lonicera glauca, L. canadensis, L. oblongifolia and L. sem-

pervirens, native, and L. maackii, introduced, may be substituted.
Snowberry. Symphoricarp^is occidentalis is just as good.
Viburnum. V. dentatum, native, and V. sieboldii, introduced, are worth

adding.
Elder. Sambucus nigra, introduced, also is valuable.

It will be noted that the list given by Mr. McAtee includes
both native and introduced species, but for those who prefer
to raise their own plants, or to encourage such native plants
enticing to birds as already grow on their land, the following
list, first published by Mr. F. H. Kennard in "Bird-Lore" for
July-August, 1912, is recommended as showing the compara-
tive attractiveness of the various species in Massachusetts.

Those plants that are particularly tempting to birds are
shown with three asterisks, while those with more than ordi-

14

nary attractiveness are shown by one or two asterisks, in the
order of their attractiveness; and those species of which the
fruits seem to be eaten so seldom as to make their planting
barely worth while are marked with a dagger.

Decidu

*Acer negundo, ash-leaved maple,

box elder.
**Acer saccharum, sugar maple; and
doubtless other maples.
Beiula populifolia, American gray

birch.
Betula lutea, yellow birch; and prob-
ably other birches.
Celtis occidentalis, hackberry.
Cercis canadensis, red-bud.
***Cornus florida, flowering dogwood.
^Corylus aniericana, American hazel.
**Crat(vgus coccinea, white thorn.
**Crat(vgus crus-galli, cockspur thorn;
and others of this genus.
'\Fagus grandifolia, American beech.
*Fraxinus americana, American white

ash; and probably other species.
"fHicoria sp. Several kinds of hickory.

ous Trees.

Ilex opaca, American holly.
■fLiquidanibar styracijlua, sweet gum,
'\Liriodendron tulipifera, tulip tree.
***Morus rubra, native red mulberry.
**Nyssa sylvatica, tupelo.

Oslrya virginiana, hornbeam.
fPlatanus occidentalis, sycamore.
fPopulus sp. Various species of
poplars are sometimes fed upon.
***Prunus pennsylvanica, bird cherry.
***Prunus pumila, sand cherry.
***Prunus serotina, black cherry.
***Prunus virginiana, choke cherry.
**Sorbus americana, mountain ash.
fQuercus sp. Several species of oaks.
Sassafras variifolium, sassafras.
Ulmus americana, American elm.
And other species.

Evergreen Trees.

**Juniperus virginiana, red cedar.

**Juniperus communis, prostrate juni-
per.

**Picea canadensis, white spruce.

**Picea rubra, red spruce; and un-
doubtedly other species.

*Pinus rigida, pitch pine.
*Pinus strobtis, white pine.
*Tsuga canadensis, hemlock.

Shrubs.

**Amelanchier canadensis, Juneberry.
**Benzoin oestivale, spicebush.
*Berberis vulgaris, barberry.
Comptonia asplenijolia, sweet fern.
Corema conradii, broom crowberry.
***Cornus alternifolia, blue cornel.
***Cornus candidissima , gray cornel.
***Cornus sericea, silky cornel.
***Cornus stolonifera, red osier cornel.
**Gaylussacia frondosa, dangleberry.
**Gaylussacia baccata, huckleberry.
**Ilex glabra, inkberry.
**Ilex verticillata, black alder; and
probably I. licvigata, winterberry,
black ilex.
Ligustrum vulgare, privet.
**Myrica cerifera, bayberry.
Prunus maritima, beach plum.

*Aronia arbutifolia, chokeberry.
Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn.
***Rhus copallina, shining sumac.
***Rhus glabra, smooth sumac.
***Rhus toxicodendron, poison ivy.
***Rhus typhina, staghorn sumac.
***Rhus vernix, poison sumac.
**Ribes americanum, large-flowering

currant.
**Ribes lacustre, swamp gooseberry;

and other species.
**Rosa, sp. It is probable that the
fruits of all the native wild roses
are eaten largely by birds.
***Rubus occidentalis, thimbleberry.
***Rubus strigosus, red raspberry.
***Rubus canadensis, low blackberry.
***Rubus villosus, high blackberry.

-15

***Sambucus canadensis, common elder.

***Sambums pzihcns, paniclcd elder.

Shepherdia canadensis, shepherdia.
**Syinphoricarpos racemosus, snow-
berrj'.

***Vaccininm ccespitosum, dwarf bil-
berry.

***Vaccinium. corymbosum, high-l)usli
blueberry.

***Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, low-bush
blueberry; and doubtless other

species, including V. vitisidoea, cow-
berry.

**Viburnum alnifolium, hobble bush.

**Viburnum dentatum, arrow- wood.

**Viburnu7n lentago, sheepberry.

**Viburnum nudum, withe-rod.

**Viburnum opulus, high-bush cran-
berry.

**Vihurnum prunifolium, black haw;
and doubtless V. acerifolium, V.
cassinoides, and other species.

Vines.

**Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Virginia
creeper.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, bearberry.
Celastrus scandens, false bittersweet.
Menispermum canadcnse, moonseed.
Mitchella repens, partridge berry.
Vaccinium macrocarpon, cranberry.

Vaccinium oxy coccus, dwarf cran-
berry.
*Smilax rotundifolia, bull brier.
**Vitis cordifolia, frost grape.
**Vitis labrusca, fox grape.
**Vitis vulpina, frost grape.

Herbaceous Plants.

**AraIia nudicaulis, sarsaparilla.

Fagopyrum esculentum, buckwheat.
**Fragaria virginiana, strawberry.

Gaultheria procumbens, checkerberry.

Helianthus annuus, sunflower.
** Phytolacca decandra, poke berry.
Smilacina racemosa, false spikenard.
Solanum nigrum, nightshade.

It should be noted that the poison ivy and the poison sumac
are undesirable for indiscriminate planting, and that the bar-
berry', although generally regarded as a native, is, as Mr. Ken-
nard remarks, an introduced species.

The first deciduous tree on the above list, the ash-leaved
maple or box elder, is noteworthy as a favorite of the evening
grosbeak while wintering here, and it seems probable that since
this beautiful bird has become a winter resident here in recent
years it might be induced to come and remain in larger num-
bers if many of these trees were planted.

The American beech, while not very attractive to small birds,
furnishes in its fruit a supply of food in autumn for ducks and
grouse. The oaks, which supply much insect food for many
birds, also furnish food in the form of acorns for ducks, grouse,
jays and crows. The hornbeam probably is more important
than Mr. Kennard's marking indicates. Among the birds that
feed on its seeds are the cardinal grosbeak and the ruffed
grouse. My own experience goes to show that Cornus alterni-
folia is most important among the cornels. The Virginia

16

creeper or woodbine is useful, as its fruit is sought by thrushes.
Among the herbaceous plants the pokeweed and the sunflower
may be mentioned as favorites with birds. When raising sun-
flowers the giant Russian variety is best. If well fertilized it
produces gigantic flowers and a large quantity of huge seeds
which are much sought after by the brilliant goldfinch, the
purple finch, the nuthatches and the chickadee. Buckwheat
always attracts the mourning dove and is likely to lure bob-
white.

Food Plants for Native Sparrows and Ground Birds.

All native sparrows are fond of weed seeds. Doves, grouse,
bob-whites and pheasants eat them also and wild fowl resort
to them more or less. Hence weedy cultivated fields and gar-
dens are favorite haunts for seed-eating birds in autumn.

I have found nothing better for attracting native sparrows
than the Japanese millet {Panicum crus-galli), a cultivated weed
or barnyard grass. A small patch of this sowed on land that
has first been plowed, harrowed well and manured will attract
all the native sparrows in the neighborhood when the seed
ripens, as well as the migratory species from the north. If
several patches be sown from early May to late June in differ-
ent localities they will ripen their seed at different times and
provide food from late August until winter. Mr. McAtee
recommends also the following for sparrows : —

"Love-lies-bleeding {Amaranthus cavdatus), prince's feather (both
Amaranthus hypochondriacus and Polygonum orientale) , yellow chamomile
{Anthemis tinctoria), chamomile {Anthemis nobilis), Calandrinia umbel-
lata, bachelors button {Centaur ea cyanus), African millet (Eleusine cora-
cmia), California poppy {Eschscholzia calif ornica) , tarweed {Madia elegans),
miners httnce {Montiaperfoliata), miWet {Panicum miliaceum), . . , Ger-
man millet or Hungarian grass {Setaria italica), and sunflower. Several
of the species of sunflower wiU serve, the common sunflower {Helianthus
annuus) being one of the best, having named varieties especially prized
for the abundance and large size of the seed. No seeds are more reUshed
by graminivorous birds than the millets; in fact, they are so much pre-
ferred that they have been used with good effect for drawing the attention
of birds from more valuable grain crops." ^

1 McAtee, W. L., Plants Useful to attract Birds and protect Fruit. Year book, United States
Department of Agriculture 1909, p. 193.

17

III my "Useful Birds and their Protection," fourth edition,
1913, published by the Massachusetts State Board of Agricul-
ture, two lists of plants attractive to birds are given, pages
374 to 376 and pages 430 to 432. For lack of space and be-
cause they would largely duplicate the two lists above they
cannot be repeated here, nor can the long lists of food plants
of the ruffed grouse and bob-white, printed in my "Game
Birds, Wild Fowl and Shore Birds," be included in this cir-
cular, but for the convenience of those who wish to attract
game birds the following by Mr. McAtee from the Yearbook
of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1909 is
appended : —

While the establishment of preserves for land game birds is yet a new
movement in this country, it is certain to become of great importance.
Hence it is desirable to disseminate information as to the food and covert
plants that are favored by the grouse and quail. Bob-whites frequently
use covers of rose, alder and blackberry bushes, and thickly set barbeny,
bay berry and dense banks of honeysuckle are suitable. These plants also
furnish food for the birds, but they should be supplemented by others
more exclusively adapted for this purpose. Sumac, Japanese clover, buck-
wheat, sorghum, millet, vetches, cowpeas, and any plants of the pea family
producing small seeds are valuable, and should be sown in large quantities.
The seeds of milk pea (Galactia), partridge pea (Chamcechrista), hog pea-
nut (Falcata), wild bean (Strophostyles) , and smartweeds (Polygonum)
are important natural foods of the eastern quail, but should be encouraged
only where they cannot become weed pests. The western quail are fond
of the seeds of sumac, bur clover, alfilaria, lupines, napa thistle and turkey
mullein plants; but where these plants are Uable to become nuisances the
food plants recommended for the eastern quail will serve.

Coverts for grouse, as the sharptail, should abound in such plants as
rose, sumac, blueberry, bearberry, buffalo berry, dwarf birch and alder.
The ruffed grouse thrives among scrub oak, bayberry, ros^ sumac, dwarf
birch, alder, poplar, willow and such fruit-bearing plants as partridge
berry, hawthorn, viburnum, wild grapes, mountain ash, blueberry, black-
berry and cranberry. Cover of this nature is suited to the heath hen also,
and to the imported pheasants and the Hungarian partridge, but in all
cases it is well to supplement the food supply furnished by these shrubs
and trees by planting small grains and legumes, as recommended for
quail.

Some of the plants named in the above list are not native to
New England, and probably the cowpea and the milk pea will
not mature in Massachusetts, but most of them may be utilized
here.

18

It is impossible within the limits of this circular to give
even a list of the important plants which attract wild ducks
and geese, but information regarding some of the most useful
of such plants may be found in the following publications of the
United States Department of Agriculture: Bureau of Biological
Survey, Circular 81, and Department of Agriculture Bulletins
58 and 205. All may be obtained of the Superintendent of
Documents, United States Department of Agritjulture, Wash-
ington, District of Columbia.

Plants for Protecting Cultivated Fruits.

The chief fruit-eating birds in Massachusetts are the robin,
the catbird and the cedar waxwing. The flicker, English spar-
row, Baltimore oriole and a few other species occasionally are
mischievous, and the starling, a recent introduction from the
Old World, seems likely to become most destructive of all.
Cherries are most often attacked by fruit-eating birds, but all
small fruits are eaten by them. It is not good biology to
shoot birds for taking fruit. It is better to provide fruit
enough for ourselves and the birds, and thus retain their serv-
ices as insect destroyers. It will pay the fruit grower to lure
them away from his cultivated cherries and berries, if possible,
by setting out plants that bear earlier and more attractive
fruit. M}^ experiments with the native red mulberry were
successful in protecting cherries, and I have watched a garden
where a single tree of the Downing mulberry entirely protected
several trees of cultivated cherries of the harder varieties. No
native bird troubled the cherries although the English sparrows
occasionally pecked one. I have learned from fruit growers in
New Jersey that mulberry trees protected their cherry crops
from robins even in a very dry season, when robins elsewhere
had been destructive to the fruit. The Russian mulberry is
very early and will grow in southeastern Massachusetts. Else-
where in the State, as hereinbefore stated, the white mulberry,
the red or the Downing or New American would serve. The
advantages of the Downing or New American are that it is a
quick grower and fruiter, bears very early in the season and
appears to be perfectly hardy, at least in eastern Massachu-
setts.

19

Mr. G. T. Powell tried the experiment of planting a row of
soft early cherries known as the Governor Wood. The birds
took them, leaving untouched choice varieties, such as Mont-
morency and Richmond. Another fruit grower, having a row
of soft cherries and finding that the birds took most of them,
cut down the trees. The birds then attacked the main orchard.

Mr. McAtee in Farmers' Bulletin 621 gives the following
table, showing the seasons of fruits useful in protecting culti-
vated varieties : —

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21

Other Means of Protecting Fruit.

Birds eat fruit not only for food but for the juices, which
often serve to take the place of water in dry weather, A
drinking fountain or a brook close at hand may serve to take
some of their attention from the fruit. Newly turned sod also
may attract robins and some other birds away from fruit, as
they seem to prefer worms and grubs. A fertile, well-watered
lawn sometimes answers the same purpose, as it keeps the
earthworms near the surface where the robins can find them.

As a last resort, where one has but one or two cherry trees
and no room for experiments, the trees may be covered with a
fine-meshed fish net, but birds may become entangled in the
net.

Plants for the Seashore.

Mr. McAtee in his excellent bulletin (621) gives the follow-
ing hints regarding plants for attracting birds at the seaside: —

Where the coast is rocky and the soil of ordinary character, conditions
are little different from those inland, and except in relation to exposure
there need be no especial preference given in the choice of plants. It is
worth mentioning, however, that several trees and shrubs are better
adapted to withstand the winds so prevalent on the coast. These include
three species of juniper (Juniperus communis, J. horizontalis and /. vir-
giniana), common barberry, English thorn, hybrid crab apple, European
and American mountain ashes, smooth and staghorn sumacs, privets,
buckthorn and red-berried elder. Where the soil is chiefly sand, and that
often shifting, conditions are not suited to many plants. Selection may
be made, however, from the following, all of which are known to thrive
in such surroundings : —

For Seed Eaters. — Beach grass (Ammophila arenaria and Calamovilfa
longijolia), Polygonum sachalinense and sunflower.

For Fruit Eaters. — Bayberry (Myrica carolinensis) , sea buckthorn
{Hippophae rhamnoides), sand cherry {Prunus pumila or P. cuneata),
beach plum {Prunus maritima), cranberries and bearberry (Ardostaphylos
uva-tirsi).

Shelter Plants and Shelter Woods.

One great defect in parks and private estates is that there
are few safeguarded thickets in which birds of the open can
nest, and to which they can fly for protection from their winged

22

enemies. Closely clipped lawns and open fields with well-kept
trees and flower beds seem to be about all that are included in
the usual plan, and if shrubbery and vines are present, birds
nesting in them are left undefended against the visitations of
dogs, cats and other carnivorous or rapacious creatures.

In planting shrubs and vines to attract birds there are other
purposes to be served than that of merely providing food.
Thickets and hedges should be planted not only to feed birds,
but also (1) to provide protection from their enemies, (2)
shelter from storms, and (3) safe, convenient nesting places.
All these purposes may be served by planting luxuriant shrubs
and vines with thorny stems and dense foliage, together with
dense coniferous trees. Plants of the genus Cratcegus and those
of other thorny genera should be grown in profusion, for in
trimming such plants thorny branches may be provided by
means of which- the nesting place of birds may be protected
from climbing enemies. Baron von Berlepsch of Thuringia, an
authority on bird protection, plants in his estate at Seebach
thickets and "shelter woods," which are surrounded by hedges
of thorny plants. Hundreds of birds breed in his home park
of only thirteen acres. He has selected by experiment for his
shelter woods shrubs that will grow well in the shade, and
both trees and shrubs that will stand close pruning. Such
pruning tends to increase the number of branches and shoots,
make the hedge denser, and provide safe nesting places. The
plants used include the white thorn, Cratcegus oxyacantha and
Cratcegus monogyna; hornbeam, Carpinu^ hetulus; beech, Fagus
sylvatica; dog rose, Rosa canina; wild gooseberry, Ribes gros-
sularia; the American wild gooseberries and wild currants;
several species of Lonicera; and for conifers, the red cedar,
Juniperus virginiana and the Norway spruce, Picea abies.

The plantation may be of any size desired. The whole
interior is planted with thorns three years old, from two and
one-half to three feet apart each way, according to the fer-
tility of the soil. Every twelfth plant, however, is a beech
or hornbeam. Here and there a mountain ash or an oak are
planted, and these are allowed to grow into tall trees. The
whole plantation is surrounded by a hedge of dog roses. It
is best to have at least three rows with plants two feet apart

23

each way. This plantation should be kept cultivated and
weeded at first, and even watered, if necessary, and if rabbits
are abundant it may be well to surround it at first with a
fence of wire netting. Later a few pollarded firs or some
Norway spruces, currants and gooseberries are planted, and
once in three or four years, until nine years have elapsed,
the woods and other bushes, except the outer hedge, are closely
pruned in such a way as to make them send out a dense
growth of many whorls which offer excellent nesting places
for birds.

The entire plan of the plantation is fully described and
illustrated in the English translation of a small volume en-
titled "How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds," by Martin
Heismann, translated by Emma Buchheim, and sold at cost
by the National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974 Broad-
way, New York City.

The currants and gooseberries should not be used in Massa-
chusetts, as plants of the genus Ribes are hosts of the destruc-
tive pine blister-rust, which cannot propagate itself without
them. In Massachusetts the Japanese barberry, Berberis
thunbergii, might be used instead. It is a thorny plant, will
bear pruning, has a dense foliage, and will grow to a large
size. Experimental planting of such shelter woods should be
tried in this country. There are many native plants and trees
and some garden shrubs that might be used for these planta-
tions. Some of them might be selected from the lists herein-
before given. Those who have large estates and the means
for unlimited planting may thus provide shelter for thrushes,
catbirds, towhees, sparrows and bush-nesting warblers.

Every small home garden should have a wild hedge next
the fence which should be allowed to grow into a veritable
jungle. Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright describes such a hedge in
"Bird-Lore." ^ She recommends for the taller shrubs and trees
•to be placed next the fence, or for the backbone of the hedge
early sweet cherries, flowering dogwood, staghorn sumac, moun-
tain ash, Russian mulberry, sheepberry, wild black cherry,
spicebush and shadbush or Juneberry. Next, elderberries,
wild plums, flowering raspberry, barberries and currants.^ For

1 Bird-Lore, Vol. VII, No. 2, March-April, 1905, p. 149.

2 Currants should be omitted, as hereinbefore stated, on account of the blister-rust.

24

vines she recommends small fruited varieties of wild grapes,
that may be readily grown in pots from seeds and set out
when six months old, Virginia creeper, waxwork, the yellow
Chinese honeysuckle and the bush honeysuckle. She would
surround this hedge with a border of rich earth at least a foot
wide, wherein to plant wild strawberries, and every six feet
also a plant of the Lucretia dewberry. Then she would keep
hands off and let nature take her course, letting the leaves
lie where they fall. If strong canes of wild blackberries and
thorny greenbrier are used to form a fence about the hedge,
so much the better. Mrs. Wright also described, as follows,
in "Bird-Lore" how she made a successful resort for thrashers
in her garden, which they found, and in which they nested
the second year.^

It was late autumn, the time when, the garden being put in order,
there is a little breathing space for cutting old wood from the shrubberies,
and shortening long shoots that are sure to be weighed down and broken
by snow and wind. One rather shabby-looking group of shrubs had been
selected for a special attack, a straggling flock of the prune-leaved spirea,
with double white flowers like tiny roses ("Bridal- wreath" was, I think,
the name given it in the old garden from which mine came). This spirea,
by means of tap-roots, walks along, and, if the soil be good, sticks out
its elbows and quickly appropriates the surrounding country. Every
third year this particular tangle had to be thinned out and this was its
third year. Before ordering wholesale slaughter, I drew near, to see
what other plant wanderers had joined the gypsy band, and helped make
an almost impenetrable thicket between the flower-corner and the house
itself. Amid the sharp, straight shoots of spirea were raspberry canes,
lilac suckers, several wands of sweetbrier, young tartarian honeysuckle,
cornels, and black cherries — all telling that the thicket was a favorite
perch for birds. Around this, stretched like long arms, long vines of
wistaria were clasped, and when I tried to pull them away a sharp bar-
bsrry thorn plucked me by the sleeve. As I stopped to free myself,
something whispered in my ear: "Here is what you are looking for, a
perfect Thrashery, all ready made and waiting. All you have to do is to
protect this place near the ground from cats, for they will not be able to
force themselves through higher up." Instead of cutting and pruning, I'
called the man-of-all-garden-work to help me build, and some lengths of
fence netting with a barbed wire top and bottom were pushed between
the bushes close to the ground and wired together, until a space of some
twenty feet was enclosed. The meshes of the wire were sufficiently wide
to admit a large bird, but nothing more.

1 Bird-Lore, Vol. XV, No. 6, November-December, 1913, pp. 362, 363.

25

There are many native plants that may be utilized in the
shelter and protection of birds. The greenbrier, Smilax ro-
tundifolia, growing over shrubbery will help to form a thorny,
almost impenetrable thicket. Native thorns of the genus
Craicogus are quite as useful as the foreign species. There are
garden shrubs also that may be utilized in thick clumps or
hedges to make retreats for birds. The syringa bush is a
favorite with catbirds and thrashers. The ornamental For-
sythia is another favorite of the birds. Caragana arborescens,
or any of the hardy species of varieties of Caragana are useful.
The blossoms of these shrubs are said to attract humming-
birds. The spireas are dense. Physocarpiis opulifolius, the
ninebark, is easily grown in almost any soil. Some of the
varieties of PhiladelpJms are excellent. Lonicera tatarica grows
into a high, dense bush, bearing very ornamental flowers, and
a fruit that is sought by birds. Shrubs, such as the common
lilac and the spireas, are likely to throw off suckers from the
roots, thus making their cover and defence still denser. The
birds which frequent such thickets will leave there the seeds
of blackberries and other plants the growth of which will add
to the tangle. Honeysuckles and privets grow well in the
shade, Most barberries, cherries, mulberries, sumacs, roses,
viburnums and grapes also grow well on ground partially
shaded. Dr. Eleanor Mellen, in a booklet published by the
New England Nurseries Company of Bedford, Massachusetts,^
gives lists of species and varieties for attracting birds, among
them those that will grow among rocks and in thin soil, and
those that will do well in moist soil.

The following list is adapted to our purpose : —

For planting ani<nig Rocks and in Thin Soil.
Celastrus (bittersweet) .

Celastnis orbiculatus.

Celastrus scandens.
Gaylussacia baccata (black huckleberry).
Juniperus (juniper or cedar).

Juniperus comrmmis.

Junipenis virginiana.
Lycixim (boxthorn or matrimony vine).

Lycium halimifolium.

1 Mellen, Eleanor, Practical Methods of Attracting Wild Birds.

26

Myrica carolinensis (bayberry) and Myrica cerifera.
Parihenocissus (woodbine) .

Parthenocissus quitiquefolia and varieties.

Parihenocissus vitacea.

Parthenocissus tricuspidata.
Rhus (sumac).

Rhus glabra.

Rhus typhina.
Rosa (rose).

Rosa Uanda.

Rosa Carolina.

Rosa lucida.

Rosa multiflora.

Rosa nitida.

Rosa rtihiginosa.

Rosa rubrifolia.

Rosa rugosa.

Rosa setigera.

Rosa spi7iosissiina.

Rosa wichuraiana.
Vaccinum pennsylvanicum (low blueberry) .

For planting in Moist Soil

Avielanchier botryapium (shadbush).)
Benzoin oestivale (spicebush).
■ Cephalanthus occidentalis (buttonbush) .
Cornus (cornel or dogwood) .

Cornus alba.

Cornus alternifolia.

Cornus florida.

Cornus racemosa.

Cornus sanguinea.

Cornus sericea.

Cormis stolonifera.
Crataegus (hawthorn).

Cratcegus rotundijolia.

Crataegus phcenopyrum.

Crataegus crus-galli (and other American species) .

Crataegus Oxyacantha.
Ilex (holly).

Ilex opaca.

Ilex verticillata and 7, laevigata.
Nyssa sylvatica (sour gimi or tupelo).
Rhamnus (buckthorn).

Rhamnus cathertica.

Rhamnus dahurica.

Rhamnus frangula and others.

■ 27

Sambucus (elder).

Saynbuais canadensis.

Sambucus nigra.

Sambucus racemosa or pubens.
Vaccinium (high-bush bhiebcrry).

Vaccinium corymbosum.

Among other devices for sheltering birds on the estate of
Count von Berlepsch at Seebach is a broad hedge of fir trees
about five hundred and forty-seven yards in length, growing
beside a ditch. Such a ditch and hedge make an excellent
fence as well as a bird shelter. The hedge is used to connect
the shelter woods with one another and with the park. Here
and there along the hedge on one side or the other are moun-
tain ash trees and pollards (trees that have been lopped or
cut back). The fir hedge, now about thirty-five years old,
was planted in three rows with a space of three feet between
the rows and the same space between the trees of each row.
It was kept low by lopping oft' the tops. As the branches
spread and interlocked, the center row was removed and every
other tree taken out of the outer rows. All the branches were
kept alive by this method. The tops of the trees are cut off
every four or six years, and for this purpose the hedge is di-
vided into six parts, so that in some parts the tops are always
growing. While birds nest in the hedge, its great value lies
in the shelter between the trees and beneath the wide-spreading
branches, where birds and game find a safe retreat and feeding
place in winter. The hedge when thirty years old was some-
what over twenty feet in width.

How TO Plant.

Inexperienced planters are likely to fail even if provided
with excellent plants or seeds. The common plan of sticking
seeds into little holes in the sod or leaf mold is foredoomed to
failure, as only a very small percentage of the seeds ever suc-
ceed. The resulting young plants are exposed to many enemies
and must compete with grasses, weeds or other well-established
plants which surround them. If seeds are to be used they
should be planted in rows about nine inches apart, near the
surface, in a box of good loam, where they can be watched.

28

weeded and cared for, or in a well-prepared bed surrounded
with boards and covered with "cellar wire" netting to keep
out mice, rabbits, squirrels and other enemies. If planted in
the fall they should be mulched the first winter. When they
have outgrown this little nursery they may be replanted in
nursery rows or set in the ground where they are to remain.

Plants from the nurseryman, if well cared for and properly
packed, should be moist about the roots when received. The
bundles should be unpacked as soon as possible, the bunches
loosened enough so that all the roots may come in contact
with the earth that is to receive them and they should be
"heeled in" or covered at once in a trench in moist earth on
the north side of a building or in a cool cellar. A brief ex-
posure to sun and wind is enough to destroy both root hairs
and rootlets. If at all dry when received the roots should
be immersed in water before heeling in. Plants thus treated
may be left with safety while the ground is being prepared to
receive them. Young trees arriving with the roots dried out
will sometimes recover if the top be cut back severely and the
entire tree immersed for a few days in moist earth before
planting.

The worst possible way to set out a tree is to dig a little
hole in old sod and set the tree in it.

The best way is to set all trees in land that has been well
cultivated and manured for at least two or three years previous
to the setting. Vigorous young trees from one to three feet
high will make a better growth when transplanted than those
that are older. There is no advantage for our purpose in
bringing larger trees from the nursery. Trees may be started
well in poor gravelly land by digging out a hole about two
feet deep and large enough to hold a cartload of loam, in
which the tree is set.

When setting out trees it is well to plow or trench the soil
deeply and fine it well. I have had excellent success on poor
soil by digging holes about eighteen inches deep and five feet
in diameter and putting in with the loam some ground bone
and chip dirt.

Before setting a tree its roots should be examined, and if any
have been mangled or broken they should be trimmed back

29

with a sharp knife. The top should be cut back in proportion
to the injury to the roots. It is better, as a rule, to have the
tree more nearly resemble a bean pole in shape than a tree
when set out. The soil should not be wet nor dry at planting
time, but moist and crumbly, so that it may be readily worked
in among the roots. While planting, the roots should not be
exposed to sun and air but should be kept covered in moist
earth or with wet burlap until wanted. Some nurserymen be-
fore planting puddle the roots in mud made of rich, fine loam.
The tree is then set in the hole prepared for it, the roots spread
in their natural positions and the earth packed firmly among
and around them. In this work both hands and feet should be
used and no cavities among the roots should be left unfilled.
It is important that the soil about the roots be very fine and
well packed, and the surface should be left light, to prevent
evaporation. In light soil the tree should be set a little deeper
than in the nursery row, and it may be necessary to water
it or to mulch it deeply the first year.

When large trees are to be transplanted it should be done
by an expert, as the novice is likely to make an expensive
failure. The directions given for planting trees may be ob-
served to advantage in setting out vines and shrubs, modifying
the operation to suit the various sizes and conditions. Any
capable nurseryman should be able to furnish information
regarding plants suitable for dry or wet soil or for planting in
sunny or shady places.

Note. — The author will be glad to receive any information on any of
the subjects treated in this paper. Address Edward Howe Forbush,
136 State House, Boston, Mass.

a.N.

^•*.

^^-J^^

August 5, 1920

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Vol. 85, No. 6

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Department Bulletin No. 15 March, 1921

®I|f (Eommonmpaltli of iHaflsarljuHtttB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner
136 STATE HOUSE. BOSTON

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR
RAISING TURKEYS

ERNEST EDWARD TYZZER

Professor of Comparative Pathology

and

MARSHAL FABYAN

Assistant Professor of Comparative Pathology
Harvard University Medical School

BOSTON

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET

• 1921

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

Introduction.

The Department of Agriculture has the privilege of pre-
senting in this bulletin what it believes to be an unusually
valuable statement of practical results obtained in raising
turkeys in Massachusetts. It is well known that in recent
years the production of turkeys, not only in this but in almost
all the other States where turkeys have been raised, has fallen
off so that in most of these States turkey raising is, or soon
will be, a lost industry. The facts stated in this bulletin in-
dicate that the principal factors which have been preventing
the successful raising of turkeys can be combated and that
there is hope for a re-establishment of this important industry
in many, if not in all, the localities where it has been abandoned.

The question of publishing the material presented in this
bulletin was first taken up with the Poultry Department of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College, and was referred by that
department to this office. The kindness of the authors and of
the trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agri-
culture is hereby gratefully acknowledged, and makes possible
the publication of this bulletin without expense to this De-
partment other than the cost of printing.

A. W. GILBERT,

Commissioner.

PMCTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR RAISING TURKEYS.

BY ERNEST EDWARD TYZZER, PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PATHOLOGY,
AND MARSHAL FABYAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PA-
THOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSA-
CHUSETTS.

As compared with other hues of poultry, turkey raising has
lost ground, at least in many parts of the country. Here in
New England, where turkeys were formerly raised very ex-
tensively, we hear the statement made over and over again by
farmers and poultry raisers that they are through with turkeys.
That the turkey has disappeared from many localities where it
was formerly raised in large numbers is noted, therefore, with
more or less apprehension. The common experience is to have
a fine flock of growing turkeys sicken and die after some weeks
of careful attention and bother. Frequently an entire flock
is wiped out or only one or two somewhat damaged specimens
are left. From year to year results vary from comparative
success to utter failure on account of various unknown factors
which may or may not be present from season to season, and
a lack of real knowledge of the difficulties involved.

The study of the turkey and of the disease which appears to
be the chief obstacle to turkey raising has established certain
facts which, although published in scientific journals, have not
become generally known to those interested in raising turkeys,
and numerous inquiries since we have undertaken our investi-
gations have emphasized this lack of knowledge. It is there-
fore with the view of pointing out those facts which may be
of importance to those engaged in raising turkeys that we
present a popular article on the subject.

The rapid growth of the turkey, together with the relatively
small amount of grain required for its diet, makes it one of our
most economical meat-producing animals, and the popularity
of this meat at a time when young turkeys are approaching
maturity will undoubtedly continue to insure a ready market.
Furthermore, there is little expense in wintering stock, as it is
only necessary to keep a sufficient number for breeding purposes.

6

One has only to attend a conference of turkey fanciers to
witness the confused state of the present knowledge. Many
pet theories are propounded, and numerous preventives and
cures for any and all symptoms are advocated, but there is an
obvious dearth of real information on the fundamental prin-
ciples underlying the problem. This is not to be wondered at
when it is appreciated that the most important difficulty in
turkey raising results from a disease which in many respects is
quite unlike any other known disease of man or animals. In
fact, it has baffled scientific investigation for many years, and
while it is now fairly well understood, there are still certain
points which have yet to be satisfactorily explained. Not-
withstanding the variety of views and conflicting opinions,
there is general agreement that this very fatal disease, com-
monly known as blackhead, is a most important obstacle to
turkey raising.

Undoubtedly this disease often exists without being recog-
nized. Without careful observation there is nothing very dis-
tinctive in the symptoms of the infection, and although the
appearance of the liver and certain portions of the gut are
quite characteristic, there is often no time or inclination to
open a dead turkey and examine the internal organs. Of
course turkeys may die from other causes, especially when
very young, but it is usually found that when they die under
apparently good conditions blackhead is present. That this
disease causes 90 per cent of the losses in growing turkeys is
probably not an overestimation.

This being the case, w^e wull first outline what is at present
known of this disease, and then discuss those conditions which
favor successful turkey raising.

Blackhead.
This name is not especially appropriate for the disease in
question, but has been retained for want of a more satisfactory
term. It was doubtless applied on account of the change in
color from the normal red of the head in health to a bluish or
dusky color which usually occurs in sickness. This, however,
varies with the degree of pallor, so that no great reliance should
be placed upon head color alone as evidence of disease. To

Fig. 1. — Liver of turkey, showing diseased spots characteristic of blackhead.

(slit open
lengthwise)

Horinal glandular
Structures

Small intestine

i — Normal
cascum

identify the condition positively as blackhead a dead turkey
should be opened.

Organs diseased. — In examining the organs of a turkey which
has died of blackhead the most prominent feature is usually the
occurrence of gray or yellowish spots on the surface of the liver.

These are readily seen and measure from a very small fraction
to three-fourths of an inch across, (See Fig. 1.) The disease does
not start in the liver, however, but in a certain portion of the
gut (intestine) . If the course of the latter is followed throughout
its length it will be found that in the lower portion two blind
tubes are given off, one on each side, which extend along the
intestine to which they are attached (see diagram, Fig. 2).
These blind pouches, or
cffica, as they are called,
are of considerable size,
being about a foot long in
an 8 to 10 pound turkey.
While they, like the human
appendix, are prone to dis-
ease, nevertheless, they are
doubtless of greater impor-
tance in the processes of
digestion. It is in these
caeca, towards their blind
ends, that blackhead always
starts, and an examination
of these organs will always
show in this disease a thick-
ening of the wall, together
with a change of color and
opacity suggesting an ab-
scess. Either one or both
caeca may show disease af-
fecting a spot, at times the
size of a dime, or again,
involving the greater por-
tion of the wall. The cavity
of the diseased caecum is in some cases filled with a tough
yellowish colored "core," or with soft, reddish gray, foul-smelling
material.

Membranous attach-
ment of

Diseased
portion

Diseased

csecum

Large intestine

Fig. 2. — Diagramatic sketch, showing the two
caeca attached throughout their length to the
small intestine by a thin membrane. The
caecum on the left is represented as slit open to
show its inner surface and a diseased spot; the
caecum on the right is normal and unopened.

8

The Disease-yroducing Germ associated with Blaclxhcad. — The
germ or parasite found in this disease is a low form of animal
life, consisting of but a single cell and known as a protozoon.
This was discovered by Dr. Theobald Smith in 1895, who
named it Amwba meleagridis. Our studies have convinced us
that it is not a true amoeba but a protozoon of another type
making necessary a change in the first or generic name so that
it is now called Histomonas meleagridis; but this is unimpor-
tant in the present discussion. These parasites are somewhat
rounded organisms varying in size but usually slightly larger
than blood corpuscles. They occur in great numbers, and the
diseased tissues are literally packed with them, like a honey-
comb with young bees. That they multiply very rapidly is
shown by the myriads produced in the relatively brief period
of the disease. Apparently the parasite enters the turkey by
way of the gut with the food or water, and under favorable
conditions invades the wall of the caecum and proceeds to mul-
tiply. Many of the organisms penetrate the veins of the
csecum and are then swept in the blood current to the liver.
As the vein divides in the liver into numerous small branches
or capillaries these organisms lodge here, as they are too large
to pass through the smallest capillaries. They then begin to
multiply, invade the liver tissue, and produce the spots already
mentioned which are so characteristic of the disease.

We have been careful not to speak of this parasite as the
cause of the disease, for although it is always found in the
diseased tissue, the conditions which accomplish its introduc-
tion into the tissue are just as important from the standpoint
of causing the spread of the disease as the parasite itself.
Since it is always a portion of the gut that is first attacked, it
has been generally assumed that this parasite is taken in with
food or water. It might also be assumed that we should be
able to produce the disease by feeding these germs to a young
turkey, but this is not the case. We may repeatedly stuff
young turkeys with large quantities of the diseased tissues con-
taining myriads of the parasites without producing any disease.
On the contrary, turkeys treated in this manner may grow
somewhat faster than others, owing to the rich diet which they
receive. Thinking that this germ might in most cases be
destroyed by the digestive juice as it traverses the length of

9

the intestine, we have introduced it directly into the cavity of
the civcum. Here, again, no disease results. If, however, a
small number of the parasites are introduced directly into the
tissues themselves, blackhead invariably follows.

We thus have a very good acquaintance with the parasite in
the tissue. Of its distribution in nature outside of the tissue
practically nothing is known. Although resembling certain
other organisms that live in the intestinal, or, more properly,
the csecal contents, and although it appears plausible to believe
that it lives here as a harmless parasite, as suggested by Had-
ley, we cannot definitely demonstrate its presence. Whether it
exists in any form free in soil or water, or whether it is confined
to the turkey or other birds or animals, we have as yet no
reliable information. Certain factors which bring about the in-
vasion of the body by this parasite will be discussed presently.

Signs and Symjitoms. — For the most part, there are no
special signs or symptoms to show with certainty that a sick
turkey is suffer-
ing from black-
head. There is
a tendency to
lag behind the
flock. The bird
walks with a
slow, careful
gait. Loss of
appetite soon
becomes appar-
ent. The body
weight suffers,
as will be seen
in curves shown
in Fig. 3. Fur-
ther manifesta-
tions of weak-
ness appear.
The back is
hunched up

both when walking or standing, and the turkey stands for long
periods in one place with head under wing.

Weight

30 Weeki

Fig. 3. — Curves illustrating normal growth of turkeys as contrasted
with loss of weight in blackhead. Weight is plotted vertically
against time horizontally. Turkey No. 16, whose growth is shown
in the uppermost curve, grew rapidly until blackhead was con-
tracted, when there was loss of weight followed by death. The
lower curve (turkey No. 17) illustrates the constant increase in
weight of a normal young turkey.

10

A suggestive sign of blackhead usually occurs after a few
days in the appearance of opaque yellow or sulphur colored
material in the droppings. No importance is to be attached
to loose foamy or creamy droppings, varying in color from
amber to greenish. These are often mistaken for evidence of
diarrhoea, but represent material which is discharged normally
at intervals, possibly once or twice a day, from the caeca, and
appear quite different from more frequently passed, formed
droppings from the intestine proper.

Incubation Period of the Disease. — ■ From ten days to two
weeks elapse from the actual invasion of the tissues by the
parasite until the appearance of symptoms. Nothing is at
present knowai of how long the parasite may live in the caeca
without penetrating the tissues.

Course of the Disease. — Blackhead kills such a large pro-
portion of turkeys which it attacks that any instance of recov-
ery is questioned by some authorities. Such cases, however,
do occur which show typical symptoms and later apparently
return to normal health without any special treatment. On
killing such birds one finds scars where healing has taken
place in the caecum and liver. It is also quite probable that
mild unrecognized cases occur in birds that are approaching
maturity.

Age of Birds attacked. — The opinion is frequently expressed
that blackhead affects only young turkeys, and that after they
have reached a certain age, popularly known as "throwing the
red," they are quite safe. This is not true. While resistance
to the infection evidently increases with age so that fewer birds
are affected, and often in a less acute form, the disease may
appear at any time during the growth of the turkey. We have
noted blackliead in December, during the last three seasons,
in turkeys which weighed from 5 to 12 pounds.

Death appears to be due to the involvement of a vital organ,
usually the liver, to such an extent as to prevent it function-
ing. Apparently no definite poison is produced in this disease.
The temperature of a considerable number of infected birds
showed no fever or variation from the normal.

11

Transmission of Blackhead.

The opinion is sometimes expressed by turkey raisers that
"the disease is not contagious," implying that it is not readily
transmitted from sick to healthy turkeys. There is consider-
able evidence to support this view. Experimental attempts
to produce blackliead by exposing healthy young turkeys to
those suffering from blackhead rarely give positive results.
The irregularity of the results of such experimental exposures
suggests that the transmission of the disease depends on some
other condition or conditions than on the mere transference
of the parasite of blackliead to healthy birds. It has already
been pointed out that young turkeys may be fed great quan-
tities of this germ without producing the disease. This failure
to contract the disease, however, is not due to any lack of
susceptibility, for it is known that all turkeys, apparently with-
out exception, develop the disease when the parasites are
inoculated directly into the tissues.

An attempt has been made to lower the natural resistance
by cold and wetting. A turkey chick was chilled by sitting in
cool water a few minutes daily for several days, and at the
same time was fed large amounts of diseased tissue containing
living blackliead germs. The only difference shown in the
subsequent development of this turkey was that he became
the largest and smartest one of the lot in which he w^as hatched.

Intestinal IJ^orms as a Factor in Transviission. — ■ Experiments
carried out quite recently by Graybill and Smith have resulted
in a very interesting discovery. They found that by feeding
young turkeys the eggs of a small worm which is commonly
found in the cseca of both common fowls and turkeys, they
always produce blackhead. This worm, called Heterakis yap-
illosa, about one-half an inch in length, is very widespread,
and is probably to be found in almost all flocks of fowls, and
especialh' in yards where fowls have been kept for some time.
The microscopic eggs of these worms are discharged in the
droppings of fowls, but have to develop on the ground for
from two to three weeks with a favorable amount of warmth
and moisture before they are ready to hatch. When such
"ripe" eggs are eaten by other fowls or turkeys they hatch out
and the young worms grow to maturity in the caeca. These

12

worm eggs are evidently quite resistant'. It is not known
exactly how long they remain alive in soil or water, but they
have been kept for several months in moist material without
deteriorating.

This discovery raises several important questions: (1) Is the
disease, following the ingestion of worm eggs, true blackhead?
(2) Is the worm another host for this parasite, playing a role
similar to that of the mosquito for the parasite of malaria in
man? (3) Is the blackhead parasite present in all turkeys,
lying in wait until some friendly worms come along to give it a
start in life? The first of these questions is readily answered.
The disease which appears in young turkeys following the
ingestion of ripe worm eggs is true blackhead, for the diseased
tissues always show the characteristic appearances and great
numbers of the specific organism. Whether the worm serves
as a host is not yet definitely determined, but it is difficult to
see how a germ as large as the parasite of blackhead could
be included in the eggs of the worm. The question of the
distribution of the blackhead parasite in nature also requires
further investigation. The results of the experimental feeding
of worm eggs to turkeys indicate that either the blackhead
parasite is very prevalent in healthy young turkeys, or that
it is associated in some way with the worm in question.

The part played by worms in the production of blackhead
may throw new light on the prevalence of blackhead in young
turkeys which are allowed to run with old turkeys and common
hens, or on ground that has been frequented by them. We
have repeatedly produced blackhead by placing young turkeys,
previously isolated, either with a flock of hens or on ground
that had been worked over by them.

The question may be asked w^hether the development of
worms in young turkeys is always associated with blackliead.
While this disease has always followed the experimental feeding
of a quantity of ripe worm eggs, we find in nature worms in
greater or smaller numbers in the majority of turkeys. They
may even become very numerous without having produced
blackhead. Strange to say, we also find some cases of black-
head which show very few worms, and others in which no
worms are found. It is difficult to explain these discrepancies.

It is possible that the introduction of a large number of

13

worm eggs on a single occasion, which rapidly produce a
quantity of young worms, causes an injury which allows the
blackliead parasite to penetrate the tissues. It is also possible
that such conditions may occur in nature when young turkeys
rather suddenly acquire a large number of parasitic worm eggs.
On the other hand, the cases of natural blackhead associated
with few or no worms suggest that there may be conditions,
other than those resulting from the presence of worms, which
favor blackliead. The point to be emphasized is that we know
that the ingestion of an excess of worm eggs will probably
produce blackliead.

Before continuing to the practical application of the estab-
lished facts concerning blackhead to the problems of turkey
raising, it may be well to summarize the results of investiga-
tions to date : —

1. The exposure of healthy young turkeys to those having
blacldiead does not regularly produce the disease in the former.
It is possible that sick turkeys are no more of a menace than a
flock of common fowls or old turkeys.

2. Practically all turkeys are susceptible to blackhead, as
may be demonstrated by experimental inoculation.

3. The feeding of large numbers of the ripe eggs of the in-
testinal worm, Heterakis papillosa, is followed by blackhead.

4. Turkeys may acquire naturally a considerable number of
worms without developing blackhead.

5. Under natural conditions, while blackhead is commonly
associated with a large number of worms, cases sometimes
occur in which there are few or no worms.

What is the practical bearing of these experimental findings?
Everything points to one basic principle, and that is isolation
for young turkeys. To what extent isolation will be effective
with respect to the acquisition of the parasite of blackhead we
do not not know, but this is certain, that isolation will be
effective in keeping down the worm population in young turkeys.
By isolation we do not mean nominal isolation with an old
turkey or with an old hen, or isolation for a month and then
allowing the brood to mingle with the other inhabitants of the
farmyard. We do not deny that it is sometimes possible to
"get by" with such makeshift isolation; in fact, probably the
great majority of present-day turkeys are raised under just

14

such conditions. Elimination of losses, however, is going to
be a big factor when it comes to reckoning the profits. The
method of raising turkeys in the past has so frequently met
with disaster that it is now time to look for an improvement
of method if we are to continue to have turkey for Thanks-
giving and Christmas. That turkeys may on occasion be
raised with a turkey or common hen for a mother is quite true,
and the usual remark that "It saves a lot of bother" is also
true; but the point is not one of bother but results.

The question now arises whether the method of isolation
which we propose will not yield greater profits, notwithstand-
ing an extra initial cost for an incubator, brooders and fencing.
That the reader may judge for himself (or herself), the follow-
ing resume is given of our experience in raising turkeys for
experiments during the last three summers, and also of an ex-
periment on a somewhat larger scale carried out on the estate
of Mr. Richard M. Saltonstall, at Sherborn, Massachusetts.

Raising Turkeys at the Laboeatory.

Summer of 1918.

Two lots of turkeys were hatched during this season from
eggs incubated by hens. One hen was kept in each instance to
mother the turkeys hatched.

Lot 1. — ^ Seventeen turkeys hatched June 12 from twenty-
four eggs. These were placed with the hen on grass between
buildings of the Medical School. On September 6 and 7,
when eighty-six days old, they were removed to a field where
hens had wandered to a slight extent. Two were used for
experimental purposes, and the fifteen remaining were sold on
September 21. On October 8 two of the latter were brought
back dead and showed blackhead. Whether they contracted
this from the exposure to hens prior to their sale, or subse-
quently, is impossible to determine.

Lot 2. — From twenty-five eggs incubated under hens six-
teen tm-keys were hatched on July 14. Two of these were
weaklings. Three were taken by a cat, leaving eleven for ex-
perimental purposes. When this lot was sixty days old two
turkeys sick with blackhead were placed with them. Fifteen
days later one sickened and later died of blacldiead. The ten

15

remaining were subsequently fed diseased tissue from black-
head cases without result. On November 8 they were taken to
the country where they roamed freely, occasionally visiting hen
yards. On November 30 two of these turkeys became sick, and
when killed showed characteristic blackliead.

From the above season's experience it may be concluded:
(1) that it is sometimes possible to raise young turkeys with a
common hen for mother; and (2) that exposure to hens and
henneries may result in blackhead, even after the turkeys have
grown to considerable size, — 7 and 8 pounds.

Summer of 1010.

Only one lot of turkeys were hatched during this season, and
all were used for inoculation purposes. Eggs were incubated
under common hens until the day before hatching, when they
were transferred to an incubator. Instead of placing the
newly hatched turkeys in the care of a hen they were placed
in a brooder to which they adapted themselves as readily as
young chickens. Nineteen normal young turkeys were hatched
from twenty-four eggs. When about six weeks old two were
suffocated from "crowding" in a poorly devised shelter during
a cold night, and soon after this two were killed by a cat,
leaving a flock of fifteen. Seven were inoculated when forty-
eight days old, and the others were used at ages from two to
three and a half months. One of the fifteen turkeys acquired
blackhead naturally. This was attributed at the time to ex-
posure to the seven inoculated birds, but, from what has since
been learned, may possibly have been due to the acquisition of
worms.

The only practical bearing of this year's experience was the
demonstration of the ease with which young turkeys could be
hatched in an incubator and reared with a brooder in place of a
hen for a mother. The advantage of having a stock of turkeys
absolutely free from lice and other vermin is obvious.

Summer of 1020.

The data obtained from turkeys raised during this season at
the Medical School will be published in detail elsewhere. The
turkeys were raised as described for the previous summer. A

16

considerable number of cases of blackliead appeared among
the turkeys reared in the yard used for blackhead experiments
during the two previous seasons, but none among those raised
in a newly constructed yard. It is evident that the disease is
less likely to appear in turkeys raised on new ground than in
those kept on ground where hens or turkeys have previously
been kept.

Field Experiment at the Saltonstall Farm.

This experiment was undertaken with the object of deter-
mining what measure of success would follow the maintenance
of somewhat different conditions for different lots of turkeys.
Mr. Saltonstall, in undertaking this co-operative work, fur-
nished the stock, land, fencing, labor, and all other details,
staking the success of the experiment on the efficacy of the pro-
cedures followed. The arrangements for the experiment were
made by the superintendent of the farm, and it was through
his interest and supervision that the conditions desired for the
experiment were maintained throughout the season. Certain
breaks in the original plan were unavoidable on account of the
failure of employees strictly to follow directions.

We were informed that turkey raising had been attempted
for several years, but never with much success. In the previous
season one hundred young turkeys were hatched under Rhode
Island Red hens, and kept in the yard with the old turkeys.
Forty of these turkeys were reared. Of the sixty lost it was
thought that about fifty died from blackhead and the rest from
other causes. The turkeys lost began to die at six weeks of
age, August being the worst month. After the period of
"throwing the red," losses ceased. The various sick birds
were doctored with various remedies, but not one recovered.

At the time that this w^ork was undertaken, in 1920, two
broods of about thirty young turkeys had already been hatched
and placed in care of common hens. For the purpose of
raising the greatest possible number of turkeys hatched, our
advice was to have all subsequent hatchings take place in the
incubator, and to have the turkeys brooder-reared, that they
might be raised without contact with hens or old turkeys.
Failure of the man in charge of the poultry to follow this plan

17

Private avenue

Old stock

A

turkeys

Pr ivate ave nue

Dwelling

Mixed lot with
old turkey

D

Mixed Jot

E

transferred
fro) Yard D

added to the interest of the experiment, but introduced an
unnecessary risk. Thus young turkeys hatching from a batch
of eggs incubated by an old turkey hen were left in her care.
Other young turkeys were
kept near the hennery and
then placed with the brood,
mothered by the old turkey.
Furthermore, the man in
attendance, having no great
faith in new-fangled no-
tions, and none whatever
in professors, was less in-
terested in the brooder
turkeys, and some loss re-
sulted from crowding and
other causes. Examination
of the organs of those
dying showed no evidence
of blackliead.

The yards for the various
groups of turkeys were
built on grassed-over slop-
ing ground with more or
less shade furnished by
small white pines. The
general arrangement of the
vards is shown in the ac-
companying plan.

On May 15, at the time
of our first visit to the
farm, we found the old
stock turkeys occupying an

old enclosure designated as yard A. It was decided to fence
in some new land on slightly higher ground to the south,
making yards B and C, the former for the two lots of young
tiukeys already hatched and in the care of common hens,
and the latter for future incubator and brooder raised tm-keys
which would be free from any contact with hens or older
tiu-keys. These yards were about 85 feet square and cost

Young turkeys

B

in care of
hens

Brooder

c

turkeys

Fig. 4. — Plan of enclosures in which turkeys were
raised on Mr. Saltonstall's farm at Sherborn,
Massachusetts.

18

about $30 apiece. An intervening space was left between yard
B and yard C. On June 1 young turkeys hatched by a turkey
hen in yard A were placed with the old turkey in a small
enclosure designated as D. Various additions were made to
this lot so that it became necessary to furnish more space,
which was provided by yard D'.

No case of blackliead occurred in either the brooder-raised
turkeys (yard C), or in the hen-raised turkeys (yard B).
Blackhead made its appearance in yard D' shortly after the
middle of September. Two turkeys died of the disease at
this time. With the view of preventing further losses this lot
of turkeys was moved to new ground, yard E. It appeared
advisable to construct an additional fence so as to leave a
space between yards E and B, but owing to the pressure of
other farm work this could not be accomplished. Yard E
was, however, divided into halves by a cross fence, so that the
larger turkeys could be separated from the smaller ones that
comprised the mixed lot that had occupied yard D'. There
were then no further losses from blackliead in these yards.
About two months later, after the turkeys had been moved to
the hennery on account of the onset of winter, blackhead again
appeared.

The conditions of the experiment thus resulted in the rearing
of one hundred and twenty-three high-grade turkeys. The loss
from blackhead was so slight as to be almost negligible, and it
should be noted that the only cases occurring on the newly
enclosed areas were in the hodgepodge group that had been
exposed, to some extent, to hennery conditions as well as to
an old hen turkey. Those brooded by old hens also "got by"
without blackhead as well as the brooder turkeys. Two cases
developed in cold weather after the young turkeys had been
moved to hen houses.

What may be regarded as our "good luck" by some may be
attributed to a favorable season by others. To refute the latter
possibility it is only necessary to point to other farms in the
vicinity where blackhead was very prevalent in young tiukeys
this same season. It appears to us, therefore, that, until other
preventive measures for blackhead are found, isolation is prac-
tically essential to the successful rearing of turkeys.

19

While it may sometimes be possible to raise young turkeys
with a turkey or hen, or in common with the other poultry,
the losses attending these practices have often been so disas-
trous that turkey raising is no longer attempted in many
localities which formerly produced large numbers.

It should not be supposed that isolation alone will insure
success. Small turkeys, like children, require intelligent care,
and probably this is one of the reasons why women have
succeeded to a degree in tiu'key raising. Turkeys grow rapidly,
so that they must be considered as babies until they are quite
large. Those who are fond of animals succeed best in raising
turkeys. Young turkeys that are ordinarily perfectly tame and
tractable, if placed in the care of certain individuals become
wild game birds, which become frantic with fear, and flutter
about or hide on the approach of a human being. On the
whole, however, their requirements are quite simple if only
understood.

Various interesting beliefs have long existed concerning the
details of turkey raising. In 1674 one John Josselyn, Gent,
visited New England and gave the follow^ing account of the
turkey : —

The turkie, which is in New-England a very large Bird, they breed
twice or thrice in a year, if you would preserve the young chickens alive,
you must give them no water, for if they come to have their fill of water
they will drop away strangely, and you will never be able to rear any of
them : they are excellent meat, especially a Turkie-Capon beyond that,
for which eight shillings was given, their eggs are very wholesome and re-
store decayed nature exceedingly. But the French say they breed the
Leprosie: the Indesses make coats of Turkie-feathers woven for their
children.

At the present time some turkey raisers will not let young
turkeys out to range until the dew has dried off the grass.
Wetting young turkey's is universally considered bad, but we
have, nevertheless, succeeded in raising turkeys in a yard so
poorly drained that it practically becomes a duck pond with
each rainstorm. It is possible that there is something about
moisture that favors the ingestion of worm eggs from the
soil, — it is not improbable that the bird in loosening mud from
its feet with its beak may get worm eggs — but in so far as

20

we can determine no amount of wetting will of itself produce
blackliead.

Others la}' great stress on warmth, and keep their turkeys in
the kitchen nights until they are of considerable size. Warmth
should be furnished sufficient to keep turkeys contented until
they show an inclination to roost at night. The amount of
artificial heat necessary will depend upon climatic conditions.
By the middle of June, hereabouts, turkeys may be removed
from the heated brooder to a hover when two and one-half
weeks old, and subsequently even earlier.

Turkeys are said to die from eating ants, but ants are not
necessary. They will die of blackhead where there are no ants.

"Sting nettle" is said to be a preventive of blackhead, yet
this disease occurs in places where it abounds.

Some put great faith in various drugs and profess cures even
for such diseases as blackliead. All attempts in the laboratory
to influence this disease by using drugs of recognized value in
the treatment of similar diseases of man and animals have
failed entirely. It is possible that the administration of castor
oil may at times tend to cause the loosening and discharge of
the "core" from the diseased caecum. This, however, will not
affect the lesions of the liver, which are, after all, of primary
importance. Recovery occurs without treatment in a small
proportion of cases, and it is questionable whether any treat-
ment, beyond placing the turkey where it is quiet and has
access to clean food and water, causes any favorable effect.
Whether the occasional administration of an effective vermifuge
will serve as a preventive measure remains to be demonstrated.

Turkeys are supposed to require a wide range, but they
develop perfectly well if kept in a cage 8 by 4 by 2 feet until
they weigh several pounds. This should be placed on grass
and moved at least once each day to furnish new forage. In
fact, there are advantages in this method of confining young
turkeys, in that their movements are controlled, and they do
not have opportunity to wander to the hen yard or into other
trouble. They are also safe from cats, foxes, etc., in these cages.
If turkeys are kept confined in cages or small yards, their diet
will lack the proteid that they would obtain in the wild state,
and this may be supplied in the form of sour skim milk. The

21

entire skim milk must be fed from the start, and tliis is taken
better if soured. Turkeys fed the curd when small will later
refuse both the whey or the whole milk, and a great proportion
of curd-fed turkeys show faulty bone development, often so
marked as to make standing and walking impossible.

The conditions favoring the development of blackhead are
found on almost every farm, and unless provision is made to
remedy these conditions turkey raising must be considered a
most unpromising proposition. The question now arises as to
whether there will be any profit in turkey raising with the ex-
pense of maintaining young turkeys in isolation from other
poultry. This will depend, to a large extent, upon location,
and whether one can spare time and attention from other
occupation.

Practical Suggestions.

The fundamental points in turkey raising may be briefly
outlined as follows: —

1. Hatching free from contact with old turkeys and common hens.

2. Proper diet to insure rapid growth.

3. Proper housing and restraint.

4. Protection from intestinal worms.

5. Protection from animals and birds of prey.

Hatching and Brooder-raised. — Fertile eggs should be in-
cubated, or set under a hen until twenty-four or forty-eight
hours before hatching, when they should be transferred to a
clean and properly running incubator. After the turkeys are
twenty-four to thirty-six hours old they should be placed in a
brooder which must also be clean and properly heated. This
insures the young turkeys a start in life comparatively free from
various parasites, such as lice and intestinal worms, which in
the early weeks they seem less well prepared to accommodate
than as adults.

Diet. — Young turkeys are finicky about their food, and it is
rather difficult to get them to accept food with which they are
not already familiar. For this reason it is important to supply
from the very first the articles of food which are to comprise
their subsequent diet. On removal from the incubator they
are given a sip or so of clean water and placed beneath the

22

hover of the brooder. A small amount of finely crumbled
boiled egg is given from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after
hatching, and three times a day thereafter for at least a week.
The floor of the brooder should be covered with a few hand-
fuls of clean hayseed or similar material, uncontaminated by
poultry. After the second day a supply of clean water and a
small dish of sour milk should always be available. If the
weather is mild and sunny the young turkeys may be let out of
the brooder onto clean grass, which they will soon learn to eat.
A sprinkle of fine chick feed should be given along with the
crumbled egg, since grain will later on form a part of the diet.
An ample supply of fine grit should always be available.

After the turkeys are a month or six weeks old, mixed grain
should be added to the chick feed, and after the turke^'s are
found to take this it may replace the latter altogether. Only as
much grain as will be cleaned up at each feeding should be
supplied. This is important, as it lessens the chances of infec-
tion from unclean food. Coarse grit should be supplied as the
turkeys get older. If green forage runs low, it may be supple-
mented by lettuce or cabbage. These should be hung on a nail,
for turkeys do not accept loose green material until quite large,
but prefer to tear oft' pieces.

The diet of the growing turkey thus consists of sour milk,
mixed grain, green forage, water, grit, and what insects it is
able to catch.

Housing. — Young turkeys must be provided with clean sur-
roundings. The incubator must be thoroughly cleaned before
each hatching, and the brooder, if it has been used before,
should be preferably painted over, or at least whitewashed
thoroughly inside. The hover, if not new, should be thor-
oughly washed with soap and water and provided with clean
flannel. It is well to so arrange the hatches as to have an
interval in which the brooder may be thoroughly cleaned. It
has been our experience that it is bad practice to mingle suc-
cessive small batches of turkeys in a brooder. The dosage of
certain intestinal parasites, which are apparently always present,
and which are practically harmless if acquired gradually, is so
great that very young turkeys are likely either to succumb or
to have their growth somewhat checked.^

23

The brooder should be provided with a cage of chicken wire
having a top with a door for feeding, but no bottom. We
have used a cage 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 2 feet high. At
one end is an opening to correspond with the door of the
brooder. Such a cage will be ample for twenty to twenty-five
young turkeys until they are two and one-half to three weeks
old, when they may be moved from the brooder and provided
with a hover without artificial heat. Their housing from now
on may be varied according to the number to be raised and the
surrounding conditions.

A small flock of turkeys, one to two dozen, may be raised in
cages, as described above. They are then safe from hawks,
cats, etc., and there is no danger of their getting out of bounds
or into the hen yard. A dry goods box, with a hole in one end
and with a movable top covered with roofing, is provided as a
shelter in each cage. Within each box should be placed a
hover with strips of flannel for warmth. In case a hover is
not provided the young turkeys may suffer from cold at times,
and their crowding into a corner may cause losses from suffoca-
tion. While a single cage and hover will take care of a dozen
turkeys for a time, it will later be necessary to separate them
into lots of not more than six to a cage. The cages should be
shifted a foot or two daily to furnish new forage, and a piece
of roofing across the cage top furnishes both shade and pro-
tection from rain. We have raised turkeys in such cages up
to 6 or 7 pounds' weight.

In case there is no poultry near, the young turkeys may be
let out of the cages to range after they are of a size to take
care of themselves. They should always be brought back to
their cage for feeding, and shut in at night. In fact, ranging
for a few hours each day will be sufficient for their needs.
Later on they may be allowed to roost in trees or elsewhere.

The tendency of turkeys to wander makes it imperative to
have some sort of an enclosure for them after they become too
large for their cages. If their pasture is divided into two or
more yards, the birds may be kept in one yard while the forage
is growing in another. They should always be shut into a
cat-proof shelter at night. A fairly good plan is to have doors
open from this shelter into the various yards. It will be a

24

i2i

a.

.. II..

■ s

distinct advantage to have as many yards as possible so as to
furnish fresh forage, for birds roaming over their entire pas-
turage soon trample it to such an extent that it becomes un-
attractive for them. In case the
number of yards is limited, a port-
able strip of fence confining the
turkeys to a portion of the yard
at a time is very effective. It is
very important for turkeys to have
ample pasturage during their
period of active growth, as they
consume great amounts of green
stuff". The accompanying dia-
grams may furnish suggestions
for the planning of the yards
and night enclosure.

The shelter should be provided
with a roof for protection from
rain and for shade. It should
also be provided with a box and
straw for small-sized turkeys, and
roosts for larger ones. Lots
hatched at long intervals from
one another will do better if kept
apart. There will be no trouble
with birds flying over fences if

urage from being spoiled by tramp- they are shut lu cvery uight after
ling, c, three yards, into rach of feeding, and otlierwisc kept con-
tented. Turkeys have quite dif-
ferent feeding habits from chickens.
Instead of being continually busy
about something or other, their
feeding times are alternated with long periods of rest, and
young turkeys raised in the brooder probably do much better
than those that are continually stirred up by the clucking of
an old hen.

If turkeys are raised in such enclosures, where their move-
ments are completely controlled, it will be found that their
care is no more exacting than the care of chickens. As long as

-- s -.

Fig. 5. — Plans for Turkey Yards^S,
night shelter, from which gates con-
nect with yards. A, single yard, pro-
vided with movable partition. B,
double yard, with single shelter; a
movable partition prevents the past-

which the shelter opens. D, four
yards, which may be provided with
either one or two shelters. E, six
yards, built around the night shelter,
which may be subdivided if desired.

25

they are kept isolated there shoiihi be no loss from blackhead.
In case the disease appears, it should be assumed that they
are getting worm eggs from the soil upon which they are con-
fined, and steps should be taken immediately to move the
yard to new land. With regard 'to the isolation of sick turkeys
from the rest of the flock, this is proper as far as it goes, but
it should be borne in mind that other sources of worm eggs are
fully as important.

Protection from Intestinal Worms and Other Parasites. — The
sudden acquisition of large numbers of the parasitic worm,
Ileterakis papillosa, commonly found in common fowls and
turkeys, is extremely likely to be followed by blackhead. How,
then, is this to be avoided? The giving of vermifuges from
time to time will not insure against the acquisition of w'orms
in the interval, for the eggs of the latter may be picked up at
almost any time. It is necessary, therefore, to depend upon
isolation. If turkeys are raised upon a place where no other
poultry has been kept, isolation is a simple problem. It is
then only necessary to keep the young turkeys entirely apart
from the old ones, and never allow them on ground ranged
over by the latter. In case poultry is kept upon the premises
the problem is much more difficult, especially if it is allowed
free range. It will then be necessary to keep the growing
turkeys yarded on clean ground at a distance from the poultry.
This makes their supervision more difficult, and the expense of
fencing an enclosure large enough to provide forage throughout
the season is likely to be considerable. Such isolation will
probably not serve to prevent turkeys getting an occasional
worm, but they are apparently able to take care of a small
number of these w^ithout getting blackhead. The eggs of these
worms are quite resistant, and are probably transported from
place to place by sparrows and other birds visiting hen yards,
and possibly, to some extent, by the flies that feed upon the
droppings. If hens are kept, care must be taken that the
droppings of the henyard are not carried into the turkey en-
closure on the shoes of the attendant. The rule of always
tending the turkeys first, and then the hens, is important.

Young turkeys should be kept away from other poultry until
they are ready for market. Although few large turkeys sue-

26

cumb to blackhead, that loss is well worth preventing. The
cseca and liver may show evidence of disease within ten days
after exposure, and within a fortnight the loss of weight and
obvious diseased condition may make the bird unfit for mar-
keting.

For those who propose to undertake turkey raising on clean
ground it is suggested that parasitic worms be eliminated from
all poultry as far as possible. One may begin with turkeys or
hens that have been placed in quarantine until they have
received a thorough treatment with an efficient vermifuge,
such as santonin or areca nut. The latter should be bought
as whole nuts and freshly ground before using. This may be
done with an ordinary nutmeg grater or coflFee mill. An amount
equal to 15 to 45 grains to a bird is added to the first feeding
in the morning. This is followed an hour later by a dry mash
containing Epsom salts (1 pound per 100 birds). During this
period all poultry droppings should be collected and removed
from the premises. Such stock should be treated at intervals
of a week as a matter of routine. It is quite probable that the
increased vigor of the stock would pay for this extra effort in
addition to lessening the prevalence of blackhead.

Personal supervision is the price of success.

Acknowledgment is hereby made to the trustees of the Massachusetts
Society for Promoting Agriculture for a grant to carry on investigations in
this subject.

s

/

Sljc Commoitvocaltl) of illassacljusctts

DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAE, No. 16

June, 1920

TAKING THE RISKS OUT OF

FARMING

E. S. BRIGHAM

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

1

APPROVED BY THE \

TAKING THE RISKS OUT OF FARMING.

E. S. BRIGHAM, COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, MONTPELIER, VERMONT.

Those whose knowledge is largely confined to the purchase
of food in the city market think of farming as one of the most
independent and secure of occupations. The expression, "The
farmer is sure of his living, anyway," is often heard and is
commonly believed. It is very easy to account for this. When
land enough for a farm could be had from a generous govern-
ment for the asking, and when farming consisted principally in
raising supplies for family use, it was true that the farmer had
little to worry about.

Donald Grant Mitchell, in his book, "My Farm of Edge-
wood," written in 1863, refers to this type of farming thus: —

The farmer, . . . inheriting his httle patch of land, and feeling reason-
ably sure of his corn and bacon, and having none of that incentive which
attends risk, yields himself to a stolid indifference. . . . Yet some of the
agricultural papers tell us with pride that bankruptcies among farmers
are rare. Pray why should they not be rare? The man who never mounts
a ladder will most surely never have a fall from one. Dash, enterprise,
spirit, wakefulness have their hazards, and always will; but if a man
sleep, the worst that can befall him is only a bad dream.

This type of farming is passing as farm lands increase in
price, involving heavy interest charges, and as farmers feel the
need for money to pay for improvements, for automobiles,
telephones, electric lights, etc., — things which are considered
necessities to-day. Now the majority of farmers are doing a
commercial business which does not differ essentially from the
business of the manufacturer. Costs are incurred in raising a
crop, for labor, machinery, fertilizers, etc., which must be
paid with the proceeds therefrom, and a profit must be earned
if the business is a good one. The farmer has all the risks of
the manufacturer, and some besides, for while the manufacturer
gathers his business inside a plant where he is independent of
weather or the seasons, the farmer has to deal daily with weather

conditions over which he has no control and upon which he is
dependent.

The commercial farmer, like the business man or the manu-
facturer, has two choices as to how he will conduct his business.
He may plunge and take a gambler's chance upon the outcome
of a single season's crops, or he may take a more conservative
course, investing his capital partially in the extension of his
enterprise, and partially in taking those precautions which will
eliminate risks. In the fall, after a good season, it is quite
common to read in our daily newspapers an account something
like this : —

Mr. a makes Fortune in Squashes.

Mr. A of raised 20 acres of squashes this year which

yielded a big crop and gave him a net profit of $200 per acre. Mr. A is

employed in the Works, and hired this piece of land

and took care of the crop before and after hours, with some outlay for
hired team work. This shows what farraers could do if they were pro-
gressive.

Now the fact is that Mr. A simply took a flyer in squashes,
and happened to hit a season when this vegetable grew pretty
well in his particular locality, and sold in the market for a
good price. Perhaps Mr. A might try again for several years
and fail because of poor seasons or low prices. This is a type
of farming which the farmer who is in business to make a
living had, in my opinion, better avoid. It has been my own
policy to study carefully how to eliminate risks in every possible
way, so that the speculative feature would be reduced to a
minimum, depending upon a steady gain ahead every year
rather than heavy gains now and then and the possibilities of
large losses.

The Farmer's Problem.

In considering this question of taking the risks out of farm-
ing, let us think first of all of what is involved in the problem.
The farmer's business consists essentially in manufacturing
crops from the soil. The live-stock farmer goes farther and
carries on a secondary manufacturing process, but the first
stage is the same for both. The leading factors involved are
land, fertilizers, seeds, machinery, labor and markets. The
farmer must so make use of these factors that he can produce

a good crop and market it at a profit. There are certain seasons
when little skill is required to accomplish this task. The tem-
perature is favorable, rain falls at the right time and in the
right amount, and market prices are good. These seasons,
however, are the exception and not the rule. We find that in
the average season nature gives her support somewhat grudg-
ingly; she withholds a little in one direction and a great deal
in another. It is then that all the resourcefulness of the farmer
must be brought into play, and it is against such contingencies
that he must prepare if he expects to raise a crop in the adverse
years and eliminate the risks from his business. With this end
in view let us deal with some of the factors above enumerated.

Management of the Land.

Management of the land is the factor of first importance.
This includes not only tillage, but the more complex problems
of moisture and plant food control as well.

Moisture in the right amount is an absolute essential in the
production of crops. There are probably few soils so poor that
a crop cannot be produced if the right amount of moisture is
supplied, and there are none so good that a crop can be pro-
duced without moisture. Most of our plants need for root
room a zone 2| to 3 feet deep from which water should be
quickly drained away. The farmer may well study his land
to determine if he needs to assist the natural drainage processes
by putting in a system of tile drainage. The answer is not
hard to find. If work in the spring must often be delayed
waiting for the land to dry off, and if cultivation must be
delayed a long time after a heavy rain, — if, in fact, a crop
is frequently lost or made unprofitable because of too much
water in the soil, — then the risk should be eliminated by a
system of tile drainage. In the case of most of the land on
my own farm, a system of tile drainage is the determining
factor in producing a paying crop in a wet year. Such a sys-
tem, in pre-war days, cost about $50 per acre, and would cost
$100 to-day. In no year have I failed to receive 6 per cent
return on my investment, and in wet years, in growing ex-
pensive crops, I have received 100 per cent return. The value
of the crop one is growing would, of course, be a consideration

in determining whether or not a tile system should be installed
under given conditions. In the truck-growing sections of Nor-
folk, Virginia, I have seen complete systems of tile installed
in sandy soil which one would expect to afford a very quick
run off of rain water; but rains in that section are very heavy,
and the crops grown are worth a lot of money per acre, so that
the prudent farmer finds it a good investment to protect his
crop by an expensive system of tile.

Quite the reverse is the problem of guarding against a dry
season. Here, again, in the case of expensive crops, such as you
market gardeners are growing, an irrigation system will un-
doubtedly pay. I have not come to that yet, but have de-
pended upon careful conservation of moisture by cultivation to
ehminate risks in this particular. Investigations made by King
show that a clay loam soil which was not cultivated to make
a dust mulch evaporated in one hundred days 2,414 tons of
water, equalling a rainfall of 21.31 inches; while the same type
of soil stirred to the depth of 2 inches to maintain a mulch
evaporated but 979.7 tons, equalling a rainfall of 8.65 inches.
The maintenance of a mulch, therefore, saved moisture equiva-
lent to 12.66 inches of rainfall. Since a crop transpires 300
pounds of water for each pound of dry matter produced, the
saving effected by the maintenance of a mulch might easily be
the determining factor in a dry year in producing a crop, the
moisture saved in the case of this type of soil being sufficient
to produce 4f tons of dry matter. I have been most careful to
guard against dry seasons by beginning harrowing of all plowed
fields as soon as they were dry enough in the spring, harrowing
again after each heavy rain until the crop was planted, and con-
tinuing to maintain a mulch by cultivating thereafter. This
method will solve the weed problem, and will pay in insurance
against drought big returns on the cost. The effects of a dry
season may also be guarded against by increasing the humus
content of the soil by plowing in green crops or manuring with
stable manure. This is well illustrated by the results of long-
range experiments conducted at Rothamsted, England. Grain
was grown for years upon plots fertilized in different ways.
In the cold wet season of 1879 the plot which had been fer-
tilized continuously with a complete artificial fertilizer yielded

slightly more than did the plot which had received manure
continuously; but in the extremely dry season of 1S93 the
manured plot yielded 14 bushels per acre more grain than did
the plot receiving artificial fertilizer. I do not make as much
money out of dairying as I do in growing truck crops, but I
keep cows partly because I like them and partly because I
believe I must have the manure to enable me to grow the
crops successfully one year with another. I have tried to
increase the humus content of my soil by plowing in winter
rye, but the result was so disastrous one dry season that I
abandoned the practice. It was my custom to sow winter rye
ahead of the potato digger, depending upon the working of the
soil by the digger to cover the rye. By June 1 of the next year
there would be a heavy growth of rye to plow under when it
was time to plant string beans. The season of 1911 was ex-
tremelv drv, no rain falling after Mav. The rve made a dense
growth, but in doing so exhausted the soil moisture, leaving
but a small amount in reserve for the bean crop. A strip
through the center of the field which had no rye gave us a fair
crop of beans; the balance was a complete failure. I have
never tried to get humus that way since, but have used rape
and barley sown in late summer with good success. These
serve as a cover crop, add some humus and do not interfere
with the next crop.

Another important factor in land management is provision
of an ample supply of plant food. Professor Van Slyke, in his
introduction to his book on fertilizers, compares the condition
of many American farmers to the experience related by Dr.
Holmes, in "The Professor at the Breakfast Table," of the
person who put a little money into a bank and drew checks
against it. All went well for a time. The check book seemed
a "dictionary of possibilities" in which could be found all the
"synonyms of happiness;" at last, however, a check came
back with these two words on it: "No funds." Seasons of
abundant moisture and favorable temperatures for making
available the plant food of our soil may delay its protest of
our demands made upon it, but unless, we provide a reserve of
readily available plant food we shall regret it sooner or later,
I believe that a farmer should have a savings bank account to

8

guard against a financial emergency; but I believe also that
the farmer who does not make a little deposit of excess fertility
in his soil each year, upon which he may draw when the crop-
ping emergency comes, is not in the way of making the greatest
possible success as a farmer, I have known farmers to whom
it was a sort of a religion to deal justly with their soil — to
make it better each year. These men seldom fail to produce
a crop.

Good Seed.

The farmer who is looking to eliminate risks will pay most
careful attention to his seed supply. The seed carries in embryo
the possibilities of reproducing the parent plant. It may or
may not have great productive capacity and great vitality
which will enable it to survive adverse conditions; and it may
be free from diseases which will jeopardize the crop, or it may
be a carrier of these diseases.

In 1863 it took 18 pounds of beets to make a pound of sugar;
in 1904 less than 7 pounds of beets yielded a pound of sugar.
This improvement was brought about by testing the sugar
content of individual beets and saving for seed production those
which produced the most.

An experiment station has conducted a seven-year test of
the difference in productivity of small and large plump grain
seed. The results show an average increase of 15,4 bushels of
oats, 7,8 bushels of barley, 5 bushels of wheat, and 5.1 bushels
of peas from the large seed over the small.

I have seen no better illustration of the value of good seed
than the account, in the "New England Homestead" of Jan-
uary 17, of the demonstration experiments conducted by the
Hampden county agent on 11 farms to test the value of north-
ern-grown certified seed potatoes in comparison with home-
grown seed. The northern certified seed averaged 274 bushels
per acre, while the home-grown seed averaged but 131 bushels
per acre, or 143 bushels less. In a year of low prices this
difference in yield produced by good seed alone would have
made the difference between success and failure in the potato
crop of this section. No work which our experiment stations
have done for us has been more valuable than the breeding of
good strains of seeds and the determination of their produc-
tivity.

Machinery.

I sometimes think we do not often realize how much we are
indebted to machinery for our present industrial and agricul-
tural output. Harrington Emerson, in his work on the "Twelve
Principles of Efficiency," estimates that the amount of coal
used to-day for power purposes develops a volume of power
equivalent to supplementing each adult man with 22 mechan-
ical slaves. The American farmer has always led the world
in supplementing his own labor with horses and machinery,
just as in this period he leads the world in the use of tractors.
Prior to the war Germany had an agricultural population nearly
as great as our own, but she had on her farms only about
one fifth the number of horses and mules. Our superiority in
horse power on farms over that of Germany would exert a
muscular force equal to that of 80,000,000 men. Furthermore,
it has been estimated that the farm machinery invented and
perfected between 1830 and 1895 resulted in the latter year in
saving 450,368,992 days' work, or 79 per cent of the labor which
would have been required by hand methods to produce nine
of our principal agricultural crops. The farmer, then, who
would take the risks out of farming must pay careful attention
to his farm power and his equipment of machinery.

We should consider carefully how much power we need, and
whether it should be horse or tractor power, or both. There
seems to be a pretty general agreement that tractor power is
not much cheaper than horse power, but that there is a decided
gain in time. This is a very important point in this climate
where we have to raise crops between frosts. The first season
after I bought my tractor was very cold and wet in the early
spring. Our first plantings of string beans rotted and had to
be replanted. This upset our schedules of plantings, and had
there been much delay in replanting we would have run into
fall frosts. But with the tractor working sixteen hours a day
v\hen dry weather came we were able to refit the ground for
replanting quickly, to keep up with our other work, and grow
a profitable crop. Our ability to meet this particular emer-
gency probably paid the entire cost of our tractor. So far,
however, I have not dared to let the tractor displace much

10

horse power. A tractor, even in good hands, has off days,
when it is laid up for repairs. In the case of truck crops such
delays are attended with too much risk. I have, therefore, kept
the same number of horses as before I had the tractor, but
have enlarged my business by purchasing another farm which
is devoted largely to hay and grain growing. A few days'
delay in handling these crops is not dangerous, so we have
plenty of reserve power to handle our truck crops in an emer-
gency, and use the reserve to advantage when all goes well.

I have found it good policy, also, to have duplicates of certain
kinds of machinery which experience demonstrates is likely to
give out when in use. A potato digger in stony soil is such a
machine, and while my acreage in potatoes is not sufficient to
require two diggers, yet I have an extra one in readiness if one
breaks down. Three years ago I thought of purchasing a potato
sprayer of a little larger capacity, but the price was so high
that I thought I would wait until prices went down after the
war. In July, 1918, our sprayer broke down when we first
began to use it, and we were delayed in getting repairs. In the
meantime late blight developed to a large degree. We sprayed
thoroughly the rest of the season, and perhaps would have
been all right if it had not been a rainy fall. But the fall was
rainy, and we had fallen down in our preparations for such an
emergency. The consequences were that we lost money enough
to have bought five new sprayers at war prices.

The crops farmer in our climate is usually at a loss to find
ways to employ his men during the winter season. I have
found a farm shop, where all harnesses and machinery can be
overhauled, repaired and all weak parts renewed, to be a splen-
did investment. Every day spent at this work in winter saves
a day at a critical time in summer. With a full complement of
machinery all overhauled and repaired, and every piece ready
for use the day it is needed, we have eliminated a big source
of risk.

Labor.

Our next factor is that of labor. Farm management studies
have shoMm that the farmer's labor income is conditioned upon
his doing a business of good size. This means that most
farmers must hire labor to supplement their own. Ability to

11

get labor will depend upon making the farm job pay as good
wages and offer as good working conditions as industrial com-
petitors are offering.

Since the farmer's work is seasonal, it has been too much
the custom to hire in the spring and fire in the fall. Such a
job is not a good one, and we can never expect to get good
men on our farms unless we offer all-the-year-round employ-
ment. Even though profitable employment cannot be found in
winter, it is sometimes good business policy to carry good men
through the slack season, so that they will be available when
needed.

Men who work on farms like homes of their own, and those
farms which have tenement houses for their men seldom have
labor troubles. I have never advertised for a man and offered
to provide a house, without receiving a number of good appli-
cations.

I am a behever in the profit-sharing plan as a means of in-
teresting men in my farm business. A good man will not
always work for wages. He will save until he has capital
enough to start as a tenant farmer or to purchase a farm for
himself; then he will start a business of his own. If we are
to keep such men with us we must give them an interest in our
business through some system of profit-sharing which will give
them something more than ordinary wages. I have had such
good success with this plan that I can recommend it to you.
Not every man will appreciate it sufficiently to work under it,
but for those who will, it is a wonderful incentive to stay on
the job and do their best in the farm business.

Markets.

The next and final factor in our discussion is that of markets.
Our crop raised, are we to receive a paying price for it, or are
we to find a glutted market and an unprofitable price? This
is a risk which the farmer fears as much as any other in normal
times. How are we to avoid it? Diversity of crops will help.
If we put our eggs all in one basket, we stake our all on what
happens to that basket. Perhaps under certain conditions it
will pay best to do so, after all. Aroostook County, Maine, is
an example of a section which depends almost entirely upon

12

the potato crop for its farm income. That section has such
ideal conditions for potato growing that a good crop is almost
sure. When something happens to the crop in other sections
of the country, so that prices are high, the Aroostook farmer
makes a "killing;" when there is a big crop in the country
and prices are low he loses, but the general average is in his
favor, so it pajs better to concentrate on potatoes. Personally,
however, I would not care to run the risk, and prefer to have
three or four specialties so that if one fails the others may
make up the loss.

Another way of avoiding market risks is to contract for the
crop at a stated price. I have done this with string beans
and potatoes with good success, but the average is probably
not much better than to take one's chances in the market. It
is always good policy for a farmer to study market conditions
and crop-planting tendencies and vary his crop acreages within
certain limits accordingly, although in the long run it is perhaps
best to plan out a steady course and keep to it. The man who
plunges into certain crops now and then in speculative fashion
usually owns supplies w^hen prices are low, and is out when
prices are high. Even though acreages planted to a crop are
unusually large, we always have the possibility of unfavorable
growing conditions which will cut short the crop of the un-
skilled grower and reduce the production. I am of the opinion
that the man who diversifies his crops, who contracts for a
portion if his financial condition is not such as to enable him
to stand a bad year, and who is a skilled grower so that he
can raise good crops in a bad year when prices are high, will
not suffer in the long run from market risks.

Now if we have done our best to control all the factors we
have enumerated, if we have carefully prepared our land for
the worst season that may come, if we have sown good seed
and have had enough labor and machinery to handle our work
carefully and promptly, then in the words of Paul, "having
done all," it is ours "to stand" and take what comes. There
will perhaps still be some near failures, but from my experience
I believe they will be few. Nature is exacting but not fickle.
He who learns her laws and how to co-operate with her will
find her ready to yield her bounty.

13

•

Mr. Howard. I would like to inquire from the speaker as
to how many men he would care to put in a tenement? How
many he would think advisable if he had 20 to 40 men? I
would like a little light on that.

- Mr. Brigham. That would depend somewhat on the size
of your business and upon whether you could give winter em-
ployment to that number of men. It would also depend upon
whether you could get summer help; that is, what you want,
very readily. If you don't need 20 men the year around, and
you can readily get summer help, why, I think it w^ould be
best for you to provide houses for the number of men that
you want to carry through the year. That is what I should do.

Chairman Stone. I would like to ask the Commissioner
if he has any trouble in hiring these men, getting a man on the
place, getting him moved there, him and his family, and then
finding he isn't suitable to do the work. What are you going
to do with him? Do you have trouble in getting rid of him?

Mr. Brigham. Well, of course, if you install a man in a
tenement house, especially in the spring of the year, and he
plants his garden, you are under an obligation to keep him
through the season. If you start in in November, you can
perhaps get rid of him in the spring honorably, but you have
got to make the best of a bad bargain probably for a year.
Use the greatest care that you can in getting your men. I
haven't had a great deal of trouble from that source. I have
had some pretty unpromising characters, but we were able ta
get along with them. Some of them improved under our
instructions. Get him interested in your business so he looks,
ahead to something; that is the secret.

A Member. What per cent of the profit is the help entitled
to?

Mr. Brigham. That would depend somew^hat on your profits.

A Member. Do you consider you should pay them their
full value in salary?

Mr. Brigham. Why, pay them the value of a common
laborer, or for a laborer doing that class of w^ork for which
you employed them. Now, I figure that if you get the right
kind of a man and give him an interest in the profits he is
going to work enough harder and be an enough better man to

14

earn in addition to his wages that sum which you will pay
him out of the profits. He won't be so particular about stop-
ping at 5 o'clock. He will want to see the work go on. You
know Mr. Hoover said, in an article in the "Saturday Evening
Post," that the farmer was the only one who had maintained
his production because he was interested in his own production.
Now, a farmer has so much work ahead of him to do he isn't
thinking about hours. He is thinking about doing that work
and raising that crop. Now, he gets his wages out of the crop,
but the wages are quite remote, so he isn't thinking about an
eight-hour day, and for that reason the farmers of the country
have maintained their production in the face of a falling off
of a large per cent in the production of all other classes of
industry. Now, if you can get a man interested with you to
take that same view with reference to your farm business, you
are going to get enough more service out of him to pay that
extra cost.

A Member. Supposing the farmers should adopt the eight-
hour principle, and work only eight hours, they would produce
less. Consequently, their crops would bring more money,
because they would be more and more scarce. How would
that theory work?

Mr. Brigham. I think your theory is correct. If the farmer
adopted the eight-hour day, — and I don't see any reason, if
the rest of the world is going to have an eight-hour day, why
the farmer isn't entitled to it, — if he does adopt an eight-hour
day, I should predict that our consuming population would
pay double, nearly, what it does now for its food products.

A Member. Why not?

Mr. Brigham. What do you say, Mr. Harwood?

Mr, Harwood. I think so.

Mr. Brigham. I think some would go hungry, too.

Mr. Harwood. I can't give you any reason why he should.
I am with you on that.

Mr. Brigham. But the fact he does, as Mr. Hoover explains,
is because he is interested in his business.

A Member. I have been working that way for seventy-
five years, and I am paying more for my help one year than I
ever earned and laid by in ten years. He isn't worth as much
as I was at that age.

15

Mr. Brigham. I think it was Secretary Lane who said that
what we needed to conserve most in this country was a man's
interest in his work, and I think that we have lost something
when we turn from the standpoint of working to accompHsh
something to the standpoint of working by the hour. We have
lost a lot of interest out of life. I would like to see some plan
evolved whereby other industries could come back and develop
that interest in men so that they would be willing to work for
the cause of production rather than simply by the hour. That
is the big problem ahead of us.

A Member. I noted this past season, although everything
was high priced, that we fellows were selHng our goods just as
cheap, many of them, as we were five or ten years ago, and
they would only give us 1 cent an ear for corn, and we wouldn't
take it. That is this year, and what are we fellows going to
do? If everything is high priced but the farmers' goods, and
they won't give us enough so we can afford to pick our corn,
it is about time something was done.

Mr. Brigham. That isn't always going to last. It can't
last. It is absolutely impossible for it to continue. It will
work itself out, I think, within two years. Either prices of
agricultural products have got to go up, because a lot of people
go out of producing them, or else labor has got to go down.
One of the two things has got to happen. Now, which it will
be, I don't know.

A Member. Now would be a good time. There never will
be a time when the pendulum swings only one way.

A Member. I would like to ask the speaker what wages
he has to pay in his section.

Mr. Brigham. Well, men by the month, ordinarily men by
the year — we pay this present year S55 per month, house
rent, fuel, milk and other perquisites, which makes a total
comparing rather favorably with the competitive wages, if
we don't count the overtime. Now, we have had to shorten
our day. Can't help it. The men simply won't work when
they see their neighbors on an eight-hour day getting the same
wages or a little more. They are not going to work eighteen
and be satisfied or work a twelve-hour day and be satisfied,
so while we are expected to work the same length of day we

16

always did, as a matter of fact we don't. We are trying to
overcome that by machinery. We hire a good deal of piece
work. We are situated where we can get a large number of
women. We try to work them in wherever we can, but I
rather feel that at the present time business is in sort of an
unsatisfactory situation because we cannot pay the full wages
and give the same working hours — I can't afford to — that
the Railroad Administration has established. Our town is a
railroad center, and that is our main competition.

A Member. With your experience in life, would you advise
a young man to go into farming or go into something else?

Mr. Brigham. Well, I asked that question when I was a
young man of one of the best farmers that you ever produced,
I think, in Massachusetts, the late Mr. A. W. Cheever, who,
at that time, was editor of the "New England Farmer," or a
contributor, and be wrote me a long letter, I remember, when
I was in the high school. I asked him that question, and he
referred me to, and I believe bought for me, Donald Grant
Mitchell's "My Farm of Edgewood," in which Mr. Mitchell
answered that question. I believe that agriculture is the basic
industry. We cannot get along without it, and I believe that
in a series of years conditions are bound to be such that a
man who follows farming, and follows it efficiently, is going to
make a good living, and something besides. He won't be a
multi-millionaire. He may not. I never saw but one farmer,
in fact, who got to be worth a million. He lived in Norfolk,
Virginia; a farmer down there got to be worth a million. He
is the only specimen of the kind I ever saw.

A Member. Did he do it all on the farm?

Mr. Brigham. Well, he made investments as he accumulated
money.

A Member. Did he make it on the farm?

Mr. Brigham. I do not know abou^ that, but he was a very
fortunate farmer. That is where he made his money — • where
he got his start. Of course, then he made something out of
investments, as he accumulated money. But I believe there is
something in farming, and there has got to be. If the in-
dustrial structure of the country is safe, I believe in a long
series of years farming has got to be a good business, and I

17

believe it is up to us to make it a good business. We have got
to make our voices heard in the counsels of the government to
get a square deal more than we have in the past, and I think
that conditions have got to be better and will be better.

A Member, Let us hope so.

A Member. I have eight boys, and they were raised on a
farm, and there was only one of them that wanted to stay
at home. When they got ready to leave home, after they got
through school, they said, "Father, what are we going to do?"
"Well," I said, "get your schooling, and I will be sure then
you will go into some sphere you are adapted for," and so there
is only one of them that wanted to stay at home. He is
making a success of it. I do not believe the others would be
making a success of it if they stayed at home. They did not
care enough about it. That is the boy I would like to see on
the farm.

Mr, Brigham, Of course, a boy must have a liking for the
job. I believe it would be absolute torture for a man to farm
if he did not like it; but a man who has a liking for it, I
believe, would not be happy anywhere else. I should feel that
something had gone out of my life if I should lose my farm
and couldn't have another, because I like it.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 17

June, 1920

THE SMALL AGRICULTURAL FAIR

OLIVER E. REMEY

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

THE SMALL AGRICULTURAL FAIR

OLIVER E. REMEY, SECRETARY OF THE WISCONSIN STATE FAIR.

Within the United States to-day there are more than 3,000
large and small fairs, expositions and allied displays, represent-
ing a total investment of over $80,000,000, and attended during
each year by over 40,000,000 people, — a number equal to one-
third the population of this great land.

Actively engaged in management, direction and realization of
these fairs, expositions and allied shows are over 1,000,000
earnest men and women, a vast majority of whom have right
ideas, and are striving to educate and inspire through their
fair work. More money is paid out in premiums at bona fide
fairs and expositions than is taken in at outside and grandstand
gates. Villages, towns, counties. States and the Nation annually
contribute liberally of their funds to fair work.

Although fairs and expositions have existed since society
began to concentrate on marketing facilities, their great day is
just dawning. During the past few years a decided change has
taken place in the fair, both large and small, — a change
tending toward all-year influence in the community, rather
than a one-week round-up display. Night also has fallen on
objectionable features of fairs. The immoral show, the crooked
concessionaire and the misleading exhibit are folding tents and
stalking toward oblivion.

The fair is taking on new and wider activities. The up-to-
date fair not only shows the farmer and allied worker how to
accomplish greater and better production, but it shows him,
among many other things, what sort of home to build; how to
furnish that home; how to build and maintain highways; how
to protect his life and the lives of his family, and of his live
stock, against disease; how to prepare his products for the

market, and how to get in touch with the best markets; how
to build and furnish model schools; brings together for his in-
spection and purchase all that is known to the farm machinery
world and the motor world; and how to obtain more than he
now receives of money that ultimate consumers pay for prod-
ucts he produces.

The up-to-date fair, while basically organized and operated
for the farmer, does not forget town and city people, and for
them adds a vaiied array of educational and inspirational fea-
tures. Town and city residents make up a large majority of
consumers of products of the agriculturist. It is one of the
missions of the fair to bring closer producer and ultimate con-
sumer, for when they become commercially acquainted many
evils bitterly complained of gradually will fade. The up-to-
date fair is not afraid of activity and expenditure of effort and
money for public good, and it is its duty to accept every line
of work that will bring results.

Object-lesson an Effective Educator.

During the past few years no institution has made such
decided steps toward increased results as an educator. The
fair is no longer satisfied to dominate the large community, but
it is entering remote sections of every State, throwing the sun-
light of its good influences everywhere. Every progressive
State has its State fair or exposition; some States more than
one in this class. Districts of States have their fairs, where
several counties compete with each other. Every live county
either has a fair or is preparing to have one.

During the past five years the community fair has taken a
fixed place in the ranks of fairs, and it is multiplying at a rapid
rate, until the day seems not far distant when every rural
schoolhouse will be a community fair center as well as a com-
mon school. The fair has found its place in the social structure,
and every year, through improved methods, it is making that
place more secure. With due respect for other forms of educa-
tion, none is doing more effective work than the fair, for the
reason that no method of education is as effective as the object-
lesson. Excepting the common school, few forms of education
so nearly reach all the people. The fair not only reaches all

the people, but it keeps after them until it surely has them
interested.

While larger fairs are the show places more generally before
the people, it is the smaller fair through which the greatest
good is accomplished. Smaller fairs are feeders for larger fairs,
but they perform a far more important function than that.
They build u]) their respective communities. They represent
the tendrils, so to speak, that reach to the very ends of the
world in the intensive training which fair work accomplishes.

Include All Agricultural Agencies.

The organization to operate the fair having been perfected,
we will say on the plan of annual and life memberships, the
plant having been located and decided on, it is necessary to
perfect thoroughly the plan of management before the first
classifications for premiums have been outlined. The organiza-
tion operating the fair will of course handle the affairs of the
organization, but the officials of the fair should have the advice
and co-operation of all agencies in the county and State asso-
ciated w^ith agricultural work.

In the first place, each State should have supervision over all
of its fairs, big and little, whether they receive State aid or not.
This supervision is best exercised through a State Department
of Agriculture. This department should have direct charge of
the State fair, if operated by the State, and it should exercise
supervising influence over every other fair through rigid inspec-
tion. The State Department of Agriculture should have on its
staff men and women well versed in fair Avork, and the depart-
ment should at all times be ready to give advice to fair officials
during periods of preparations of fairs. The plan followed
in Wisconsin, and to some extent in other western States, is
for the Department of Agriculture to have entire charge of
the State fair, a board of one member from each congres-
sional district assisting in advisory capacity. The State fair is
a division of the Department of Agriculture. With the State
Department of Agriculture advising and supervising, next estab-
lish co-operation with colleges of agriculture, farmers' institutes,
county agents, breeding associations, agricultural associations
and farm boys' and girls' clubs — in fact, enlist the co-opera-

6

tion of every individual and organization engaged in agri-
cultural or allied Mork.

As to the county fair, I say that if you neglect to enlist the
county agent in your fair you have committed a blunder which
should make necessary a new set of officers. The county agent
is the county agricultural leader, and if he is properly enlisted
he can greatly assist to interest all the rural people in the
county in the fair". Please do not get the impression that all
of the various agencies I have mentioned shall be in control of
the fair. Officers of the fair, under supervision of the State
Department of Agriculture, should be in absolute control. Seek •
the advice and active co-operation of the other agencies, using
advice when it is good and disregarding it when it is not good.

Select Manager with Care.

With reference to officers in charge of the fair itself, select
the best man to be found who shall practically manage the
fair, under the supervision of a board of directors. When you
select this man choose a conscientious live wire, — the most
alert, active, keen-minded diplomat you can find, and be sure
that he is a hard worker, has good business judgment and is
resourceful. When you find the right man, give him plenty of
authority, pay him well, and, instead of hindering him, help
him run things. Some fairs make the mistake of choosing as
their fair officers men and women who are unfitted for fair
work. Others make the fair a sort of haven for failures in other
walks of life. A business enterprise of the magnitude of most
any fair in a live county would first engage a good man as
manager. Why ordinary business sense should not be followed
in count V, State and national work is more than I can
fathom.

In the management of the fair probably the first impulse will
be to place in charge a farmer, or one well versed in agriculture.
This is a good policy, providing the man is a good fair man, or
will soon acquire efficiency in this direction. Do not assume
that because a man is a farmer he should make a good manager
of a fair. Training for agriculture does not of itself make an
expert fair man, any more than training for any other walk of
life makes a fair man. The point is, fair management is a

calling peculiar to itself, and one successful in this calling must
have qualities peculiar to fair direction. The salary attached
to the position of secretary or manager of a county fair should
be such that it would attract desirable talent.

A mistake a large majority of county fairs make is to delay
])lanning and working for the annual fair until a few weeks
before the annual fair period. No sooner does a fair end than
its officers should immediately begin work for the fair of the
year following. Let your secretary or manager form a sort of
partnership with the county agent, and be at work the entire
year. How can any one expect the people of any county to be
as greatly interested in their fair as they should be, unless the
fair is kept before them during the entire year? It is possible
that some who have helped to conduct small fairs are now
trying to figure out just what a manager of a small fair can
do to keep busy the year round. Later on I will show how
he can keep busy.

Chief Mission of the Fair.

Your fair plant having been settled upon, and co-operation
established with all agricultural agencies in the county and
State, it will be necessary to organize the first fair. First, let
us see what the fair chiefly aims to accomplish. Its first big
mission is that of encouraging production. Its next mission is
that of encouraging the right kind of production. This en-
couragement is attained principally through offering pre-
miums for agricultural products, live stock, horticultural prod-
ucts, dairy products, farm women's work and farm boys' and
girls' work.

In arranging classifications many important conferences should
be held to determine for what premiums shall be offered. For
instance, twenty varieties of potatoes may be cultivated in the
county. Do not offer premiums for each variety of potato;
find out those best adapted to the county and offer premiums for
those varieties only. It is possible that every breed of cattle
known to the civilized world may be represented in the county.
This does not mean that all should be encouraged, for un-
doubtedly some breeds are raised through whim and not because
of commercial value. Find out what breeds of cattle, horses,

8

sheep and swine should be encouraged, and offer premiums for
them only.

I have been asked several times to arrange a model premium
list for smaller fairs of my own State, There can be no such
project as a model premium list covering an entire State, for
what should be encouraged in one section of the State probably
should not be encouraged in another, because of climatic and
soil differences, or because of marketing or transportation prob-
lems. In such cases the advice to be given is that the fair offi-
cials, through a survey, must ascertain, with the assistance of
agencies mentioned, those products worthy of encouragement in
the county.

Help to solve Farm Labor Problem.

Now, the up-to-date fair has many ways of encouraging pro-
duction in addition to the awarding of premiums. Farm labor
is becoming scarce. The old-time farmhand, who worked like
a slave for small wages, has disappeared. If farm work is to be
done, some one, or something, must take the place of the farm-
hand. The live fair of to-day presents to its patrons as large
a display of farm machinery as it is possible to get together.
It is the duty of the fair to present to farmers of its territory
everything possible in genuine farm machinery, tractors, motors,
silos, well machinery, farm home lighting plants, and so on.
Last year, orders taken in the farm machinery section of the
Wisconsin State Fair exceeded one and one-half millions of
dollars, and the purchases were made almost entirely by
farmers. Fair managers will find machinery, motor, tractor,
lighting and other companies manufacturing products for the
farm ready to co-operate by putting on displays at the fair.
These companies should not be charged for the space assigned
them, for they help materially to make the fair successful.

Help to solve Marketing Problems.
Still another method of encouraging production, in addition
to offering premiums, is in presenting information with reference
to marketing. I can best illustrate this by telling you that the
1920 Wisconsin State Fair will present marketing features in every
department. It will show how to prepare products for market.

9

and it will give advice showing how to get into the best markets.
Tliis work will be in charge of the State Marketing Commission.
This is one line of work at which the secretary, or manager,
of the fair should be busy the year round, and if he does the
right kind of work in showing residents in his county, perhaps
co-operating with the county agents, how to best market prod-
ucts, many thousands of dollars will be reaped in benefits by
residents of the county. When the ideal state of affairs is
reached, wherein products of a State are purchased in the State,
the surplus only being sold outside, a decided setback will be
encountered by the high cost of living. It should be one of the
duties of the county fair officers to help this project along.

Keep Boys and Girls on Farms.

The county fair should be a sort of civic and social center,
with branches reaching out to each rural school, the home of
the community fair. To-day the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation, the Young Women's Christian Association and other
fine organizations of this kind are unwittingly helping to lure
the farm boy and girl away from the farm. Fine edifices are
erected by these organizations in the big cities and thriving
towns. Dormitories, reading rooms, swimming pools, club
rooms and gymnasiums are beckoning to the farm boy and
girl. Is it not but natural that the farm boy and girl, used to
long hours and the fewer conveniences of the average rural
home, are anxious to get to the cities and towns where so many
fine things are provided for them?

If the farm boy and girl are to be kept on the farm, some of
these latter-day conveniences must be brought to them. Club
rooms, swimming pools, athletic fields, reading rooms, better
home conveniences must be brought within easy reach. Let
your county fair grounds solve this problem. Build a club
house, with all the modern equipment, on your county fair
grounds, and let your fair secretary, or manager, and your
county agent see that your county club headquarters are made
so attractive that your farm boys and girls will forget the lure
of the city, with its enticing conveniences.

This work will serve to take considerable of the effort and
time of your fair secretary, or manager, during the entire year.

10

In this connection see that your fair builds up a strong farm
boys' and girls' department. You will find it will be the best
feature of your fair. You will find that this department, also,
will help to keep the interest of your farm boys and girls at
home.

Exhibits by State Agencies.

State departments of agriculture and colleges of agriculture
should take advantage of all fairs within the State to reach the
people through exhibits. Colleges of agriculture, and State de-
partments of agriculture, for instance, should present compre-
hensive exhibits demonstrating necessity of use of pure seed,
use of fertilizer, weed control, grading of products and similar
lines. Departments of agriculture should be called on for
various exhibits reflecting work of divisions of entomology,
horse breeding, immigration and live-stock sanitation. These
exhibits should include all work of both colleges of agriculture
and the State departments of agriculture which apply to the
county. Then there are many other departments of State gov-
ernment which should be called upon for exhibits, such as
highway commissions, departments of education, health depart-
ments, industrial commissions, employment agencies, and so on.

It will be found that these exhibits are forthcoming almost
for the asking, for those in charge of these various agencies are
as anxious to get in touch with the people of the county as the
county is anxious to have them show what they are doing.

By confining your efforts and funds to work along strictly
production lines, and calling upon agencies such as I have
suggested for the most spectacular features of encouraging pro-
duction, you will be surprised to see how easily and quickly a
really worth-while fair will be realized.

How TO MAKE Exhibits Attractive.

Limit of time will not permit me to take up all the basic
departments of the average county fair, or any fair, and show
just what ought to be done in the way of exliibits in each de-
partment. However, I will take three departments and make
suggestions which may be followed throughout the fair.

The modern dairy department does not stop at displays of
butter, cheese, milk and cream. The up-to-date dairy depart-

11

ments will show, for instance, a herd inchidino; from six to
twenty dairy cows. It will show them installed in model
quarters, how they should be looked after, Avhat they should
be fed, and how much they should be fed, say, for one year.
These cows will be milked before patrons of the fair, demon-
strating use of the milking machine and cleanliness of milking
methods. Care of the milk will be demonstrated, also separa-
tion of cream from milk, and, if possible, the actual making of
butter and cheese, and preparation of dairy products for ship-
ment to market.

The women's work department should not be confined to
arrays of garments, fancy work and cooking. Get something
into this department that will be of real service to farm women.
For instance, present a display of dresses best adapted to use
on the farm, cutting patterns, making the garments and dis-
playing them on living models before farm women. Another
display worth while for this department is one showing how to
furnish a rural home and how to arrange furniture. The Art
Institute of Chicago presents an exliibit of this kind that is
very instructive. Another feature for this department is dem-
onstrations of cooking by farm girls, taught through the agency
of the farm boys' and girls' clubs. The fair should be filled with
demonstrations.

In the department of education exliibits usually 'are confined
to work of school pupils. Provide an exhibit showing the
model school and model school furniture, so that school officials
of your rural communities may profit by seeing them.

Many fairs, large and small, present w'hat they call a fine arts
department. Shun any such travesty on real art. I know of
but one fair in America that has a real fine arts department, and
that is the State fair of Texas. Hundreds of thousands of dol-
lars have been spent on this exliibit, and it contains real art.

Provide High-class Entertainment.
Now we come to a very important feature of fair manage-
ment — that of its policy in providing features in addition to
real educational exliibits. In other words, shall there be enter-
tainment features and how much entertainment shall be pro-
vided? As I said earlier in this discussion, fairs should be built

12

for all of the people. ^Yhile the agricultural fair is basically
organized for improved agricultural production, it should give
consideration also to people of towns and cities. If your fair
is given State aid, people of the towns and cities pay about 60
per cent of this State aid, because they pay about 60 per cent
of the cost of the State government. They also do not win
many, if any, of the premiums.

The slogan of every fair should be to educate, inspire and
entertain. There should be some relief from the serious meth-
ods of educating patrons, and this relief is furnished best
through high-class, clean entertainment. Rural people will ap-
preciate entertainment more than the town and city people,
because they see less of it. Harness racing helps to entertain,
and at the same time encourages breeding of the light harness
horse. Harness racing, also, is not an expensive form of enter-
tainment. The big fairs find that they cannot buy for what
harness racing costs other features that will take the place of
harness racing and hold the crowds. Vaudeville acts, circus
acts, aviators, balloonists, merry-go-rounds and other riding
devices and instructive shows, such as model cities and clean
pay-shows that do not offend, should be provided, for your
patrons want them. Plenty of good, lively music is essential.
You will hear some protests against entertainment at fairs,
saying that* it detracts from the educational features. Do not
take these protests seriously. Without entertainment your at-
tendance will be seriously cut down. Be careful, however, in
providing entertainment features not to forget the basic de-
partments or the real missions of your fair.

Fair responsible for Moral Tone.

No fair in America presents a better array of high-class en-
tertainment than the Wisconsin State Fair, running the scale
from pay-shows through automobile, motorcycle, harness racing,
vaudeville and circus acts, aviation and fireworks. The services
of a first-class stage director and twenty-two stage hands are
required to put on these acts, staged as they are staged in any
first-class theater. But all the time efforts of officials are
centered chiefly on the fair itself, so we have a first-class fair
ior those who do not care for entertainment, and a first-class

13

fair and high-class entertainment for those who want both the
fair and entertainment. Although the Wisconsin State Fair
spends over $50,000 annually for racing and other entertain-
ment features, these expenditures do not cut down the amount
of money paid in premiums or spent for real educational ex-
hibits in the thirty-two departments of the fair.

One important fact to be remembered is that a fair is an
institution peculiar to itself. You must have all the features
associated in the average mind with the name "fair." A
big western fair a few years ago decided to have nothing but
the fair itself, and cut off all entertainment. The fair proper
was the best this State had presented up to that year. But
the fair was dead. People went away believing the fair had
"gone back," so to speak. The following year all of the en-
tertainment features were restored.

As I have said, do not let entertainment features dominate
to the disadvantage of the fair proper, and by all means do
not provide anything that possibly can offend any one. Offi-
cials of fairs are in absolute control of their grounds. If they
allow anything of an objectionable nature to be presented
they solely are to blame, and not the promoters presenting
the objectionable feature, and the public should hold the
fair officials responsible.

How State Aid is given.

Some States do not give State aid to fairs. All States, how-
ever, should give State aid. The system followed in Wis-
consin is as follows: —

The State operates the State fair. On March 1 each year
$140,000 is turned over to the State fair for operation, and
$10,000 for maintenance, and officials of the fair are allowed
to enter into percentage and agency contracts in presenting
amusement features. In addition to the State fair there are
over eighty district and county fairs receiving State aid,
amounting to about $180,000 a year. Each district and
county fair receives 85 per cent of the money paid out in
premiums, excepting for speed events. After the close of the
fair officials must file an affidavit showing how much was
paid out for premiums, and that no objectionable shows or

14

gambling devices were allowed on the grounds, and that no
liquor was sold. This affidavit is filed with the Secretary of
State and passed on to the State Treasurer for payment. No
fair receives more than $5,000, this limit being fixed because
among the district fairs are three or four of magnitude almost
equal to some State fairs.

Right here I wish to say a word of warning. Strive ever
to keep the fair up to a high standard. If once the fair starts
to go backward, it will require much time and additional
expenditure of money to retrace the backward steps.

Get Results from Judging.

Many fairs neglect to obtain all possible results from judg-
ing. Exhibitors are awarded premiums, and really do not
know exactly why they receive them. Other exhibitors see
premiums awarded for exhibits presented by others, and are
not told why they lost. This is a serious mistake. If pos-
sible, at the conclusion of judging see that judges tell just
why, at least, the highest premiums were awarded. This
cannot be done very well at a large fair, but it certainly
should be done at all small fairs. The award of the premium
furnishes the educational results of competition. The live-
stock exhibitor who sees his animal beaten in the show ring
when he thought he should have won, and is told exactly
why he lost, goes away satisfied. Chances are that he will
overcome points in his live stock which |ost him premiums he
expected. This applies all through every department.

In the farm boys' and girls' department, judging by the
boys and girls is an effective feature, both for the boys and
girls and for spectators as well. Every fair should make it a
point to promote the boys' and girls' department in every
way. The boys and girls of to-day will be the older ex-
hibitors later on, and through their competition during youth-
ful days will become life-long patrons of the fair.

Obtain the best judges available, and see that no parti-
ality is exercised. Be insistent on all awards being made
solely on merit. In this way commercial worth is given to
the premiums offered, and competition is made keener. To
award premiums excepting upon merit is to nullify the value

15

of the premiums; also make symbols of premiums — ribbons
and cards — as attractive as possible, for in all likelihood
winners will keep them many years.

Use the Budget System.

Plans covering all expenditures of funds should be carefully
made. The best plan is to conduct the fair, no matter how
small, on the budget system. Intelligent and effective ap-
])ortionment of funds available cannot be made without care-
ful study, and the budget system provides means for this
careful study. In planning expenditures, funds for premiums
especially, ascertain through careful calculation about what
receipts will be, then outline expenditures according to prob-
able receipts, leaving a safe margin as a contingent fund.
Build the fair for average weather. No one can accurately
forecast six months ahead probable weather of a given period.
If the fair is built for average weather, the wisest course has
been followed. The public ought not to criticize if rain or
cold weather ruins attendance.

Be careful to conduct all financial transactions under a
proper system of accounting. Issue a receipt for every pay-
ment received, and insist on having a receipt for every pay-
ment made. See that books of the fair are open to any one
who cares to examine them. The fair well managed has
nothing to hide from any one.

Every exhibitor in competitive departments should be re-
quired to pay an entry fee equal to the cost of a season
ticket, and a ticket should be furnished on receipt of the
entry fee. Premiums should be spread as far as possible. Do
not offer all the money available for three or four premiums
in a single classification; ten premiums get better results than
three or four. The small exhibitor must be encouraged.

It is an open question whether a county fair should accept
exhibits from another county. If the fair is young, it is
advisable to confine all exhibits to the county, until quality
and quantity of county exliibits are such that outside com-
petition is not to be feared.

Pay premiums and all other obligations promptly — during
the fair period if possible. Nothing pleases exliibitors so
much as prompt payment of money they have won.

16

Methods of obtaining Publicity.

Do not "hide the fan- under a bushel." This means that
it is very important to advertise the fair properly. Nothing
will serve to build up a fair more than the right kind of
publicity. One strict rule to be followed is this: never ad-
vertise a feature of the fair unless absolutely certain that it
will be shown. The publicity campaign should begin in
earnest at least six weeks before the fair period. There
should be something in the newspapers of the county con-
cerning the fair the year round, but the intensive campaign
should cover at least six weeks. Use all the newspapers of
the county. Do not expect that the newspapers are going
to promote the fair for nothing. See that they receive as
much paid advertising matter as you can afford to give them,
and by no means stint on this expenditure. The newspapers
will willingly run much news matter, if they receive a fair
share of paid advertising. Next to newspapers use billboards,
even though billboards are in many localities considered
eyesores. The fact that billboards are worth while is pretty
w^ell established through use of billboards by newspapers
themselves.

After funds have been apportioned for newspapers and
billboards, other forms may be used, if money for them is
available. However, do not enter into every form of advertis-
ing that is offered. The aim should be to reach every man,
woman and child in the territory at least once with some-
thing of interest concerning the fair.

Some fairs publish a monthly fair bulletin, sending it to a
selected list. This bulletin is devoted entirely to the fair and
its features. This is an excellent form of publicity and gets
good results. It is quite costly, especially since price of
paper has advanced so greatly.

Do not be afraid of criticism. Welcome honest criticism at
all times, and be prepared to hit unfair criticism on the head,
in a high-class way, any time it appears.

An effective publicity departure is that of admitting free of
charge all school children on a particular day, preferably on
the opening day. Induce the school authorities to close

17

schools in the territory on the day selected, and for that day
provide as many features as possible appealing to school
children. The attendance of school children on Children's
Day last year at the Wisconsin State Fair was 42,352. The
school children went home and told members of the family
not present of the wonderful things they saw, and i)erhaps in-
duced many to attend the fair who would not have attended
without the publicity given the fair by the children.

What the United States Government has learned.

I have set forth the necessity for fairs to establish co-
operation with departments of agriculture and colleges of
agriculture and other like agencies. Really, it ought not
be necessary for fairs to seek this co-operation, for it should
be forthcoming without seeking.

Two years ago the United States Department of Agricul-
ture began to send exhibits to the larger fairs. Results were
so excellent during the first year that congress appropriated
$100,000 a year, one year ago, to pay the cost of these ex-
hibits. I understand that it is the ultimate aim of the United
States Department of Agriculture to add to its exhibits until
small fairs receive them everywhere. If the United States
government obtains results warranting such extensive plans,
why cannot State governments obtain equal results? I would
say to all State departments of agriculture and colleges of
agriculture, get into every fair of your State with an exhibit.
If this is not being done, a fine avenue for reaching rural
people is being neglected, and some one should be called to
account.

Western fairs choose many of their judges from faculties of
agricultural colleges, and they also employ members of facul-
ties as departmental heads of the fairs. Some colleges of
agriculture are attempting to assume fair functions in pre-
senting annual exhibits at the colleges. The time is coming
when this departure will be turned over entirely to fairs of
the State, as it should be.

18

Supervision and State Associations.

I am a strong advocate of States having supervision of all
fairs presented within their borders, even though some fairs
may be owned privately and operated on private capital.
Proper State supervision not only insures right moral tone and
direction along desirable educational lines, but it insures for
the struggling smaller fairs assistance greatly needed.

Each State should have a staff of expert fair men and
women for the purpose of assisting in the organization and
direction of its fairs. No State has as yet reached this point
in its fair supervision, but it is coming, and soon. Every
State should have an association of fairs which conducts each
year a convention during which questions vital to fair work
are discussed thoroughly. Several States have these asso-
ciations, which not only provide solutions of many serious
questions of management, but they serve to obtain proper
recognition for fairs from State and the national governments.
When a committee representing every fair in a State appears
before the Legislature it commands immediate attention, for
members of the Legislature know this committee has the power
of a giant at its disposal. Search through the fair personnel
in any community, and it will be found that the best men
and women are identified with the fair. Members of Legis-
latures know this. If any State is suffering for want of proper
legislative recognition of its fairs, it is because the fairs of
the State have been lax in organizing.

The State Department of Agriculture is the logical organi-
zation to have supervision over fairs. If fairs of a State are
organized, they also will be in shape to combat any unfair
supervision that may be exercised by departments of agricul-
ture, or other supervising authority, which may be experienced
in remote instances.

Reorganize when Found Necessary.

This discussion, it may appear to some, is chiefly along lines

of aid to the newly organized fair. What about the small

agricultural fair that has been in existence for many years,

and which is found not to be as progressive as it should be?

19

Officials of this sort of fair should begin at once a reorgani-
zation, and many small agricultural fairs are undergoing this
process.

The world has made wonderful strides during the past four
years. Progress seems to be the watchword everywhere. The
unrest in which the world to-day finds itself is simply a pro-
gressive reorganization of society in many directions. Above
all, the fair must be kept right up to the minute. It cannot
be as impressive an educational and inspirational influence as
it should be, unless in the very lead of thought and action in
its territory. This is still another reason why its chief di-
rector should be a man who is always alert and quick to make
use of progressive methods and departures.

In 1918 I attended a small fair which has a wide reputation
for large attendance, and which has been in existence for many
years. I was struck with the evident lack of progressiveness.
Some of the officials of this fair must have been impressed as
I was, for beginning last year this particular fair is going
through a complete reorganization.

So conduct the fair that a reorganization will not be neces-
sary. It is very difficult to retrace a backward step in man-
agement of fairs. Watch keenly to keep right up to date,
and reorganization will not be necessary. One very good
method of keeping up to the minute is by reading of what
other fairs are doing, by examining carefully premium books,
and, if possible, by visiting other fairs known to be in the
first rank of advanced fairs.

Suggestions for Fair Managers.
Price of Admission.
There is a disposition on the part of fairs to raise the price
of general admission.

The price should not be more than 50 cents.
The educational advantages of fairs should be within reach
of every one.

No Charge for Automobiles.
Patrons of fairs are using automobiles more and more every
year, instead of railroads, in traveling to and from fairs.
Admit automobiles free.

20

Make arrangements to park cars, free of charge, on the
fair grounds.

Also make arrangements for parking just outside, so that
cars can be looked after when all space for parking within the
grounds is in use.

Organize Efficient Police Departments.

Every fair should have efficient police, not only to guard
gates and fences, but to be of service to patrons in giving in-
formation asked for.

Insist on police being courteous, and also insist that they
enforce all regulations.

Maintain a Bureau of Information.

Every fair should have a bureau of information located
where it can easily be found.

Place in this office clerks who are thoroughly informed on
every feature of the fair, so that patrons can be intelligently
and quickly directed.

Eating Places and Reasonable Prices.

See that as many clean eating places as are necessary for
accommodation of crowds are provided.

Have the State Board of Health inspect these places and the
food served.

Allow no one operating an eating place to make exorbitant
charges for meals or lunches.

Provide Supplies for Exhibitors.

Do not allow your exhibitors to be overcharged for sup-
plies and forage.

Establish a department to furnish forage for live stock at
cost, plus cost of handling.

Make your exhibitors feel that they are a part of your
organization.

Restrict All Vehicle Traffic.

No vehicle traffic should be allowed on the grounds after
10 o'clock A.M. each day up to 6 o'clock p.m.

Give crowds every opportunity to get about the grounds
without being impeded by vehicle traffic.

21

Supplies can be delivered to concessionaires and exhibitors
before 10 o'clock each morning, and after 6 o'clock at night.

If necessary, establish supply depots for use during hours
when vehicle traffic is restricted.

Do not allow Solicitors on Grounds.

Do not permit solicitors about the grounds.

If solicitors are allowed on the grounds, see that they pro-
vide a booth for their work, and remain in it.

Allow no organization, no matter how worthy, to conduct
a tag day at the fair.

People come to see the fair, and should not be bothered
while there.

Keep Fair Grounds cleaned up.

The fair should be a model in every respect.

Keep grounds clean and attractive at all times.

Free use of paint is mandatory. It not only protects build-
ings, but it serves to make the grounds look as though some
one lived there.

Look after Health of Patrons.

See that health authorities of the community and the
State supervise buildings and tents occupied by concessionaires.
Make everybody clean up, and stay clean.

Establish a System of Special Days.

Let your patrons know on what days certain breeds of live
stock are to be judged. A good plan is to establish a "Jersey,"
"Holstein," "Guernsey," etc., day.

Have a "city" day and a "farmers'" day, and others, as
conditions make possible.

Always be Courteous to Patrons.

Always treat patrons with courtesy, even when complaints
may be unfair. Establish all regulations to the end that your
patrons are given first consideration.

If you find a rule or regulation unfair, change it.

However, insist on enforcement of all rules and regulations.

22

Erect Buildings for Actual Service.

In constructing buildings, aim at practical service rather
than beautiful architectural effects.

Adequate display of exhibits is of more importance than
beautiful roofs and cupolas.

American production is of more importance than Italian
art — at a fair.

Missions of Any Fair.

To define all missions of the fair would be a difficult task.

A fair is an educational institution, and it is its duty to
educate along any line that will develop worth-while practical
results.

Be considerate of All Suggestions.

Do not visibly despise a poor suggestion.

The fact that the suggestion is made shows that its maker
is interested in the fair.

Everybody in the territory served should be interested in
the fair.

Faie Woek Publications.

There are a number of bulletins and circulars on fair work
published by various departments of agriculture and extension
services. I would recommend that every fair worker read the
following publications and keep them for references : —

"Live Stock Classifications at County Fairs." Farmers'
Bulletin No. 822, U. S. Department of Agriculture, June,
1917.

"The Community Fair." Farmers' Bulletin No. 870, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, December, 1917.

"The Rural Community Fair." Bulletin No. 307, Agricul-
tural Experiment Station of the University of Wisconsin,
November, 1919.

"Composite Premium List and Judges' Score Cards."
Bulletin of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture,
April, 1918.

"Fairs and Their Educational Value." Extension Circular
No. 69, North Carolina Extension Service, July, 1918.

23

"The Organization and Management of Fairs." Extension
Circular No. 68, North CaroHna Extension Service, July, 1918.

"How Co-operative Fair Work is Carried on in North
Carolina." Bulletin of North Carolina Department of Agri-
culture, February, 1919.

"Some Results of Fair Work in North Carolina." Extension
Circular No. 94, North Carolina Extension Service, June, 1919.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 18

March, 1920

Raspberey and Blackbeery Geowing in

Massachusetts

S. L. DAVENPORT

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
• Supervisor of Administration.

3-20-2,500.

RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY GROWING
IN MASSACHUSETTS.

S. L. DAVENPORT, NORTH GRAB^TON, MASSACHUSETTS.

Massachusetts is not considered to be one of the most im-
portant fruit-growing States of the Union; nevertheless, we find
in many sections of the State that the industry has developed
very rapidly during the last ten years, and that to-day we are
producing large quantities of apples, like the Baldwin and
Mcintosh, of the highest quality. Not only are we producing
them, but grading and packing them correctly, and meeting the
competition of the fine fruit from the West, and obtaining
equally as good, and many times better, prices. What, you
ask, has been the cause of this great awakening in fruit grow-
ing? Surely we must give considerable credit to the Massa-
chusetts Fruit Growers Association and the fine work they are
doing, and also to the State Department of Agriculture, the
Agricultural College and agricultural schools for the education,
encouragement and leadership they have given. How^ever, I
believe that we must give our fellow^ fruit growers of the West
the credit for most of this awakening, for they, through their
pioneer work and great success, have aroused us to the won-
derful possibilities right here at home.

But most of this development has been with the large fruits,
like apples, etc., and we find that very little has been done in
developing the wonderful possibilities of the raspberry and
blackberry. Here, again, I am wondering if it will not take the
West to show us the great opportunity we have in growing
these fruits right at home. Already large areas in raspberries
and blackberries have been developed in the West, and are in-
creasing rapidly, while we in Massachusetts are hardly doing
anything at all.

What is the raspberry and blackberry situation in ^Nlassa-
chusetts to-day? If for a moment we turn back to the last
census report of 1910 we find that more than 650 acres at that
time were devoted to the production of these fruits; but during
the last ten years we find that the number of acres has generally
decreased, and I feel that our 1920 census will show that the
industry is not growing very rapidly in this State. However, it
is safe to say that, although the production has diminished, the
demand and consumption has greatly increased. Thus we find
to-day that Massachusetts is producing only a very small per
cent of the raspberries and blackberries consumed, and that
the rest are being shipped to us from New York State and
from the South. Therefore we wonder what are the reasons
for this decline, and again, turning to the present and future,
what are the opportunities to-day in growing these fruits.

There have been many reasons why the growing of these
fruits have declined in Massachusetts, but I believe to-day
that most of these reasons will not hold, and for the right man
the growing of these delicious berries offers an attractive future.

In many sections of our State we find favorable soil and
climatic conditions for these fruits, and with our markets at
our doors our crops may be sold even before they are produced.
Thus, again, we realize that we are most favorably located, for
what is better than fresh ripe raspberries served the same day
they are picked? Moreover, our markets for these fruits are
growing wider and wider every day, for we find that with the
coming prohibition the demand for fruit juices and other prod-
ucts is increasing rapidly. Further, we note the great develop-
ment of canning and preserving plants, which are to be the
great stabilizers of prices, and which will assure always a
market for our crops. But right here in Massachusetts it will
be some years to come before the supply will be able to meet
the demand for the fresh fruit, and this fact will assure us
high prices for quality products.

Now, before we take up some of the essentials of success in
growing raspberries and blackberries, let us consider the vari-
ous groups of these fruits. There are, we find, three groups of
raspberries grown in this State: first, the red raspberries and
a variation from the red, — the yellow; second, the blackcaps,

or thimble berries; and third, the purple canes, which are the
results of the crossing of the red and black varieties. In this
part of the country the varieties of red raspberries seem to be
the most ])()pular, and at the same time they are probably best
adapted to this section. The blackcaps are, when well grown,
a much sweeter berry than the red, and, owing to the fact that
their fruit ripens practically all at one time, they can be har-
vested cheaper and thus sell for a little less. In some sections
they have become very popular, owing to 'their high quality
and cheapness. In sections of New York State the blackcaps
are used very extensively for drying and canning. There may,
however, be some question whether it is advisable to try to
grow them commercially in Massachusetts. They should, how-
ever, be given a trial. The purple canes, which make up the
newest group, seem to be w^ell adapted to various sections of
the States, and although they are not as attractive in appear-
ance nor as good shippers as the others, they are wonderfully
prolific and of good quality. They are becoming more and
more in favor, owing to their hardiness and extremely heavy
habit of bearing.

The blackberries we may divide into two groups: first, the
blackberry; and second, the dewberry. We are all familiar
with the blackberry, and if we have had the privilege of eating
it ripe, from the vines, we appreciate what a fine fruit it is.
The dewberry, or trailing blackberry, is not as well known, but
in sections where they grow to perfection they are not only
larger, but more juicy and finer flavored than the blackberry.
Here I believe some experimental work should be done to
obtain varieties suited to this section.

The soil requirements of the various groups of raspberries
and blackberries, we find, vary a great deal with each group.
The dewberry likes a warm sandy loam, while the red rasp-
berry and blackcaps do best on a medium or gravelly loam.
The purple canes like a little heavier soil, and the blackberry a
medium to heavy loam. For best results they all require a deep,
well-drained soil, well supplied with humus, so that a good
supply of water will be available at fruiting time. All should
be planted on elevated land, the dewberry on the warmer
slopes, and the blackberry on the cooler northern slopes. The

6

land should be thoroughly prepared before setting, remember-
ing that we are planting a fairly permanent crop. It should be
well plowed and finely harrowed, never setting on newly turned
sod land, witch grass sod, or on land on which water stands.

In preparing the land a good coat of manure should be
plowed under, and for subsequent fertilization we must depend
on commercial fertilizers and cover crops. The matter of fer-
tilization is one of the most difficult problems to give recom-.
mendations on, owing to various conditions of soil, etc., so that
only a few general suggestions may be offered. In general,
nitrogen or nitrogenous fertilizers should be used very lightly
on these fruits. The use of nitrogen and the amounts to use
must depend almost entirely on the vigor and growth of the
plantation. If there is a lack of growth, or the color of foliage
is poor, nitrogen should be used, but if plants are healthy,
vigorous and making a good yearly growth, use nitrogen spar-
ingly. The use of an excessive amount of nitrogen gives a very
heavy rank growth which is detrimental to the production of
fine fruit. A light yearly application of phosphoric acid and
potash will, I believe, prove to be of considerable value. Cul-
tivation, however, is of more importance than the heavy use of
fertilizers.

The use of lime on very acid soils seems to be of some value
for red raspberries, but blackcaps are not usually benefited, and
blackberries may be injured.

Now let us consider the very important subject of varieties.
Here, we find, is a most difficult problem to select from a cata-
logue varieties which may prove to be adapted to our section,
more especially since most of the nurseries are located outside
of the State, and, to complicate the situation still more, we
find that many new varieties of reds and purple canes have been
introduced in late years. These as yet have not been tested to
any great extent, either by growers or our experiment station,
so that I believe the best indication in the choice of varieties
is to find what varieties are now proving to be a success in
your section. Plant those and also try a few of the new varie-
ties in a small way. In the case of the blackberry we do not
find as many new varieties.

Some of the good varieties of these fruits are as follows: —

Red Rasj>berries.

Cuthbcrt : old standard variety of fine quality.
Herbert : a very large, hardy variety originated in Canada.
June: a fine berry; origin, Geneva Experiment Station, New York.
Perfection: a large, bright red, firm berry, hardy; only fair in ciuality.
Empire: a large, firm, bright red berry, productive, early; origin, Marl-
boro, N. Y.
Golden Queen : yellow variety, very sweet.
St. Regis or Ranere: fall bearing, fair quality.

Pur'ple Canes.

Columbian : New York origin, very hardy, berries large but soft.
Royal Purple: season late, very productive, berries large and firm.
Cardinal : very hardy, productive, with large but rather soft berries.

Black Caps.

Plum Farmer: Ohio origin, very hardy, withstands drought, berries large,

firm, season early.
Cumberland: Pennsylvania origin, usually hardy, berries very large and

firm, midseason.
Pearl: Missouri origin, hardy, looks promising.

Blackberries.

Snyder: old reliable, hardy, fruit small, midseason.
Agawam : hardy, very productive, season medium early.
Eldorado : hardy, fruit large, sweet, season medium early.

Dewberries.

Lucretia : berries large, long, very black and attractive.
McDonald: should be tried.

Tliere are, however, some varieties of blackberries which are not adapted
to this section of the country, such as the loganberry, Himalaya blackberry,
etc.

Having now decided on our list of varieties, we are ready to
obtain our plants, and here, I believe, we often make some
serious mistakes. Unfortunately, raspberries and blackberries
are subject to certain very serious diseases, such as root gall
on the red varieties, anthracnose on the blackcaps, rust on the
blackberries, etc., which cannot be easily controlled by spray-
ing. This, then, becomes a serious problem, because if these

8

diseases once get a good foothold they will quickly put one out
of business. Thus it is absolutely essential at the start that
we obtain clean, healthy, vigorous stock. Such raspberry
stock may be obtained from reliable nursery concerns, or,
better still, direct from the growers. However, in regard to
blackberry stock we are not quite as fortunate. To be sure,
blackberry stock can be obtained, but to get good vigorous
stock, true to name and free from disease, is another matter,
and right here, I believe, is one of the greatest dangers to the
future of blackberry growing, — the way in which blackberry
stock is being produced. To-day it is almost impossible to find
a nurseryman propagating blackberry stock; in fact, the ma-
jority of the stock is produced on berry farms. Here in many
cases the plants are taken from the sides of the fruiting rows,
without particular regard to disease, age of plantation, etc.
We all appreciate that this is not the best way of obtaining
plants, and the longer this practice is carried on the more our
varieties of blackberries are going to degenerate, and I firmly
believe that that is the cause of more than half of the poor
results with the blackberry to-day. Here, I believe, is a need
for some one to propagate the blackberry, producing fine,
healthy, vigorous stock true to names, etc. Not only should
this be done to improve the growing of the blackberry, but
experimental work, on testing and originating new varieties,
suited to our conditions should be taken up.

Further, it is not a wise policy under present conditions to
buy large quantities of raspberry and blackberry stock to set
direct into your fruiting fields. The chances of introducing
diseases are too great. On the other hand, it is far safer to buy
smaller lots of stock, put the same in a nursery or propagating
field, and grow your own plants from them. Then if disease
develops in your nursery you can much more easily eradicate
it without much loss. Other advantages are that you will
have the stock on hand, in ideal condition when ready to set,
and you can produce the type of plants to give best results.
With the red raspberry best results can be obtained by the
following method: in the spring, when the new green shoots
are coming up, dig them up carefully and set them close to-
gether in nursery rows for one year. This will give fine vigor-

9

oils stock. Then in the following fall or spring this stock is
taken up, inspected for disease, and, if found clean, is set in
the fruiting fields. Plants of this type will make wonderful
growth in one season, and the second season will bear a very
heavy crop of fruit. Blackcaps and purple canes, however, are
usually propagated by tip layering. Blackberries may be grown
either from root cuttings or suckers.

Now, having obtained our plants, we are ready for planting.
Reds and blackberries may be either planted in the spring or
fall, but blackcaps and dewberries should always be planted
in the spring.

The system of planting will vary a great deal with different
varieties. The reds are grown both in the hedgerows and hill
svstems. Some varieties mav do better in the hill svstem,
while others give better returns in the hedgerow. For Massa-
chusetts in general the latter is preferable. Blackcaps are grown
in hills, and the purple canes in both systems. Blackberries
are grown in hedgerows and on wire trellis. Dewberries which
creep on the ground the first year are usually tied to stakes or
to wires on a trellis the second, or fruiting, season. After fruit-
ing, the old canes are cut away, and the following spring the
new canes are tied, this being repeated each year.

After setting, the field should be kept thoroughly cultivated
and hoed until late summer, when a cover crop should be sown.
This is very important, as it protects the land and plants during
the winter, and adds humus to the soil. In the growing of dew-
berries it is essential that a cover crop or a crop of weeds be
allowed to grow to protect the plants over winter. In some sec-
tions it may be necessary to protect the red raspberry by laying
down and covering. This is rather an expensive process, and
I believe we should grow liardier varieties and correct other
conditions to prevent, if possible, winter killing, by giving con-
siderable attention to the location of the plantation, soil mois-
ture, cover crops and windbreaks.

The latter is very important, as heavy drying winds during
the winter and early spring have a great deal to do with the
loss of plants by winter injury. Pruning, then, becomes a very
important operation in growing these fruits, owing to the fact
that the fruit is borne on new canes each season. Thus each

10

spring they should be thoroughly pruned, cutting out old dead
or diseased canes and small weak shoots, and if plants are very
thick they should be thinned some; also cut back the tops
about one-third each year.

Having now produced our crop, we find that harvesting be-
comes a most important problem, for a great deal depends on
our success at harvesting whether or not the undertaking will
show a profit or loss. Raspberries and blackberries are fruits
which to be at their best must be picked at just the right time;
at the same time, they must be picked carefully and moved
rapidly. Never leave the boxes of fruit in the sun, handle
roughly or store in a damp place, remembering always that
these fruits are very delicate, delicious when in prime condition,
but of no value if over ripe or moldy, etc.

Yields and profits of these fruits will vary' a great deal, but
with present prices and average yields of 3,000 to 4,000 pints
of red raspberries, 3,000 to 5,000 pints of blackcaps, and 2,000
to 3,000 quarts of blackberries per acre, we may be assured of
good returns.

In closing I believe we should give more attention to the
growing of these fruits in Massachusetts. The experiment sta-
tions and others should test new varieties to find those best
adapted to our State, and also carry on experimental work in
producing new varieties which will better suit our conditions,
and propagate stock, so that clean, healthy, true-to-name
stock will be available and encourage in other ways the grow-
ing of raspberries and blackberries. Then and then only will
this industry flourish, and we will be able to supply the tre-
mendous demand for these fruits.

The testing of varieties and the production of stock has al-
ready been started in a small way in this State, and I believe
with this start already made, a bright future awaits those who
are interested in growing these fruits.

Mr. Cook. I would like to ask if among the purple canes
there are good red berries.

Mr. Davenport. In the case of the new purple canes, vari-
eties that are being originated, there is more or less variation
in the color. Most people object to the varieties of purple

11

cane berries to-day, saying that they are not attractive in ap-
pearance. The public in general in buying those berries are not
attracted at first by the appearance, and I think you will find
inside of a very few years the purple canes, or some of the
])urple cane varieties that are being put on the market, will be
almost entirely different in color than the ones we have at the
present time. In the experimental work that is being carried
on in the crossing of various varieties for the purpose of ob-
taining these purple canes they have been using all kinds and
types of raspberries, not only the American Reds but Euro-
pean Reds, some of the ornamental varieties of raspberries,
the blackcaps, and all kinds and types of raspberries they have
been able to determine, so I am sure we will find the develop-
ment may be such that in a few years the purple canes or the
newer varieties, or some of them at least, will be much more
attractive in color than those we have at present.

jNIr. Williams. Would you recommend setting out the
Columbian?

Mr. Davenport. I believe the Columbian to-day is one of
our safest purple canes to start off. It is an extremely hardy
variety and extremely productive.

Mr. Williams. You prefer that to the red Marlboro?

Mr. Davenport. Yes, I think so, at the present time.

j\Ir. Williams. For the same reason?

Mr. Davenport. Yes, sir, a good deal the same reasons.

A Member. How late can you cultivate in the summer?
What is the best cover crop?

Mr. Davenport. In the matter of lateness of cultivation,
that varies, and it depends almost entirely on the season. If
it is extremely dry there is no particular object in putting in
a cover crop, and we keep on cultivating until conditions are
a little more favorable. We like, however, to start the latter
part of July to give one or two cultivations after the crop is
harvested, and then sow a cover crop. The cove'r crops we
plant in some cases are buckwheat, in some cases barley or
oats, and in other cases some nitrous cover crop. We, however,
depend entirely on the soil conditions and what cover crop
will do well in that soil. And speaking about cultivation and
other things, many people have advocated that during the

12

picking season of the red raspberry we ought to discontinue
cultivation. I beheve we ought to increase our cultivation
during the harvest season rather than cut down on the cultiva-
tion. The more the pickers walk through the field the more
they tramp down the surface of the soil. The more they tramp
down the surface of' the soil the heavier the evaporation. At
that season of the year the rainfall is apt to be light, and in
order to bring through a good crop it is absolutely necessary
and essential that we have a good supply of moisture, and we
can hold the moisture we have there by more frequent culti-
vation.

Chairman Munson. Any other questions?
A Member. Wouldn't mulching answer the same purpose?
Mr. Davenport. Mulching during the fruiting season? Yes,
mulching during the fruiting season would serve the same pur-
pose. It can be done in a small way where there is only a
small amount to be done, but cannot be done very well commer-
cially. In the case of winter conditions, I believe it would be
cheaper to grow a cover crop than to try a mulch. In many
sections, particularly in the case of the dewberry, their mulch
is practically always weeds. Usually from the middle of July
they let the weeds grow, serving as a cover crop and mulching
the land.

A Member. I suppose that is a matter of cost, isn't it?
Mr. Davenport. Yes. I rather think in the case of the
dewberry we might, if we gave it proper protection and planted
it on proper soil, be able to obtain fairly good results.

Mr. Van Meter. Do you plow your plantation in the
spring?

Mr. Davenport. In regard to the plowing, usually as soon
as the' land is in workable condition we plow one or two fur-
rows on each side of the row, throwing dirt towards the plants;
then a little bit later we start cultivation, depending on soil
conditions, and cultivate the soil down level again. I found
in some sections, particularly New York State, that there the
growers plow towards the plant the first part of the spring;
then about two weeks later they go in again and plow the soil
back from the plants, before they start cultivation. I do not
really see that there is any need or any particular object in

13

that double plowing. I think In- plowing towards the plant
the first part of the spring, and then by cultivation, we can
keep the land in good condition.

Mr. Williams. What is the distance betw^een the rows?

]\Ir. Davenport. The distance between the rows, in regard
to raspberries, should vary quite a good deal, depending on the
particular variety. With some of the smaller growing varieties
5 feet is plenty, whereas with some of the larger and heavier
growing varieties we ought to have at least 6 feet.

Mr. Stockwell. May I just say a word? I wouldn't throw
any cold water upon what the speaker has said, nothing of
the kind, but if you are going to follow the raising of black-
berries and raspberries you had better follow the instructions
that the speaker has given you very closely. I had two acres
of raspberries at one time, and I fertilized very high because I
wanted the best thing on earth. I did get a large, handsome
growth of plants, but the consequence was nine-tenths of them
all died in the winter, I put in an acre of dewberries and they
did finely the first year, and next winter they almost entirely
died out. Now, you have got to be careful how you handle
these things, and you had better follow your instructions pretty
closely or you will come to grief.

Mr. Merritt. I would like to ask Mr. Davenport if he
knows if the June Red has been tried out to any extent around
here.

Mr. Davenport. I do not know for sure. I think probably
Mr. Sprague could tell us. Wasn't the June tried at Turner
Hill? I am under the Impression it was tried there.

Mr. Sprague. Not that I know of.

Mr. Merritt. I have a few, but I am not satisfied with
them in this locality.

Mr. Sprague. I tried those myself with indifferent results
the last few years.

Mr. Davenport. In Worcester Countv thev tried the June
and had good results there. It is a variety used a great deal
in the work of crossing and originating new varieties. Under
New York conditions I found the June in some sections was a
very important variety, grown almost to the exclusion of some
of the others.

14

Mrs. Goodwin. I would like to ask if vou know anything
abovit Syracuse Reds.

Mr. Davenport. All I know about the Syracuse Red is
that I saw it growing this last year for the first time in one of
the nurseries near Rochester, New York. It certainly was
liked there. I haven't seen it in a fruit field, but simply in
a nursery where they were propagating stock. It shoots up
well, the berry is exceptionally good, of fine color and fine size,
firm, and is a very attractive appearing berry, and the same
applies to the foliage.

Mrs. Goodwin. I had something like fifty-one canes from
which I had some 50 quarts of berries this last year, and
won the prize here at the hall, and it proved to be a very
firm, very large and very beautiful berry, and held up well.

Mr. Cook. I would like to inquire about the Gibraltar
blackcap.

Mr. Davenport. That is a new one on me.

Mr. Cook. King Brothers had a nursery of it, and it proved
very satisfactory. Forty years ago blackcap was one of the
most productive. I noticed last year in Worcester that the
blackcap sold equally as well as the red raspberry, so our
blackcap is coming back again.

A Member [from New York]. Relative to the June, it has
been one of the most satisfactory breeds I have grown. It is
very early, of a good size and a very attractive color. It is
subject to yellow leaf, a rather obscure trouble in New York
State, which almost all of our commercial reds seem to be
subject to, yet it is about as promising as any. The Ontario
also looked very good.

ai)e Olcmmouiucaltl) of iHasBacljuscto

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 19

March, 1920

MARKETING APPLES

D. T. DODD

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-'20-2,500

THE BEST SYSTEM OF MARKETING APPLES.

D. T. DODD, HUDSON, MASSACHUSETTS.

In order to be a successful fruit grower it is necessary not
only to be able to grow high quality fruit, but also to market
the fruit in such a way that the net returns may be the largest
possible. Like all producers, the fruit grower's problem is how
to get the greatest proportion of the consumer's dollar. In
Massachusetts the problem of marketing fruit is far different
from that which confronts the western grower. Here we have
the best markets in the world at our very doors, while the
western growers must transport their fruit many thousands of
miles to these same markets. The market being far away, the
western fruit grower has found that the only successful way to
compete with the eastern grower is by co-operating and selling
his fruit through an exchange. By this means he gets a uni-
form standard of grades, a uniform pack and a very high
standard grade of fruit. As the fruit is all pooled together and
shipped and sold by trained men, the individual grower has the
marketing of his fruit taken out of his hands, and can devote
all his attention to the growing end of the business. Here in
Massachusetts, more particularly so in the eastern part of the
State, the individual grower must work out his marketing
problem in his own way. As we each have our own methods,
no one of which is perfect, we can all profit by finding out our
neighbors' successes and failures. In the rest of this article I
will describe how I have worked out my marketing problem.

My fruit is sold in two ways, — through commission men in
Boston, and direct to the consumer on a roadside stand situated
on the main automobile highway from Boston to Worcester.
My orchard is located in Hudson about 30 miles from Boston,
the stand being about 3 miles from the orchard.

Before discussing these two types of market, I will briefly
describe the method of handling the fruit from its arrival in the
packing house until it is ready for shipment. The fruit is
brought in the left-hand door of the packing house and is piled
beside the grader, which is directly opposite this door. The
type of grader used is the Pease Perfect grader, which will
separate the fruit into four sizes. The grader should really be
called a sizer, as no machine can separate perfect fruit from
imperfect. The smaller apples fall into a tin shoot under which
a box is placed. The rest of the fruit drops into three trays,
according to the size of the apple. From these trays it is taken
out by hand and put into boxes, the well-colored, perfect and
nearly perfect apples being separated from the imperfect or
badly blemished apples. By this method the fruit is divided
into four sizes, all but the smaller size being graded. The
three graded sizes are brought across the packing room and put
on the packing bench, each size being stacked separately. The
smallest grade is taken to a sorting table and divided by hand
into two sizes, the poor apples being thrown out. The imper-
fect apples from the three trays are also brought to the sorting
table and all very bad apples, such as (1) badly mishapen,
(2) wormy or partially rotten, are thrown out. On this table
the boxes have risers, so that they can be filled full of apples.
When the boxes are filled, they are slatted and stenciled and
piled up near the right-hand cr shipping door, ready for ship-
ment.

In grading the apples by machine the work is done by three
men. One turns the machine and keeps it supplied with apples,
while the other two men do the actual hand grading. On an
average, 20 boxes are run through the grader in an hour. As
each man is paid 50 cents per hour, the cost of grading by
machine is found to be 7| cents per bushel.

The three best grades when sold on commission in Boston
are packed in layers in the bushel box, great care being taken
that the bottom layer is as good as the top. The fruit sold in
this way is all put in the Boston market gardener's box, and as
it is all sent to market by automobiles, it is sent as an open
package. One man does the entire packing. He averages six
boxes an hour, and as he is paid 50 cents per hour the cost of

packing is found to be 8§ cents per bushel box. All dropped
apples and all other grades are sent in the loose pack, simply
being graded.

The packages used are the Boston bushel box for the whole-
sale trade, and a 4-quart basket and the bushel box for the
retail trade. The cost of the box is 23 cents delivered in the
packing house. To this must be added the cost of four risers
and two slats, and the labor of putting them on. This makes
the total cost of the box 25 cents. In selling on commission 15
cents is returned to the grower for the box, making his net loss
on the box 10 cents. The cost of the 4-quart basket is 7 cents
at the packing house.

The varieties sold are Red Astrachan, Gravensteins, Wealthy
and Mcintosh. The following are the amounts of each kind
sold on commission this year: Red Astrachans, 287 bushels;
Gravensteins, 245 bushels; Wealthy, 126 bushels; and Mcintosh,
372 bushels, a total of 1,030 bushels sold on commission. The
fruit sold on commission in Boston is all hauled from the pack-
ing house by automobile truck. By this means the fruit can
be shipped in open packages; it arrives on the market in
perfect condition, and by leaving here in the evening arrives on
time for the opening of the market. The cost of hauling is
21 cents per bushel. The fruit is sent to two commission
houses, one oil each side of the market. By this means there is
keen competition between them to get the highest prices.

Each box is stenciled with the name of the variety, the grade
and the commission house. It is also stenciled, "Packed by
D. T. Dodd, Hudson, Massachusetts." The fruit being mar-
keted in this way for the last four years has now won a very
good reputation, so that top prices are obtained on all grades.
Purchasers have learned that the fruit is uniform throughout
the boK, and that they can depend absolutely upon finding the
lower layers fully equal to the top layer. Many are content
to order, simply by asking for the grade desired, knowing that
they can depend absolutely upon the honesty of the packing.
I attribute the good prices obtained to my invariable adherence
to this practice.

Best Red Astrachans brought SG.50 and $6 per bushel, .and
the best grade of the other varieties, $5.50 per bushel. The

6

net returns on the 1,030 bushels sold was $3,320, and the
average net return per bushel was $3.23. The cost of selling
was 10 per cent of the selling price.

The stand is operated by the Highland Co-operative Fruit
Exchange. The members are a group of 25 farmers, living in
Marlborough and Hudson. The stand is located about a mile
from Marlborough, on the main Boston & Worcester road.
It is run and managed by the manager of the exchange. Only
products grown by the members are sold on the stand. Each
grower pays 12 per cent on his products sold. The exchange is
a stock company, so that if it proves a success, each member
will benefit from the dividends. The policy of the exchange is
to give the buying public an opportunity to buy fresh farm
products at less than the retail price in the cities. We do not
believe in profiteering, but by charging fair prices expect our
patrons to become steady customers. This policy has already
proved its value, as we now have many regular customers
who buy every week or so. A satisfied customer w^ill tell his
friends about us, so that we are constantly increasing our regular
trade.

Apples are sold by the basket and by the bushel, peck or
quart. Fancy apples can also be bought singly or by the dozen.
All the apples, except those in the basket, are weighed out and
sold in paper bags, unless the purchaser takes a whole bushel,
when an additional charge of 25 cents is made for the box.
The exchange furnishes the paper bags, so that the grower has
no additional expense for containers, except for the baskets.
When sold in baskets the fruit is sold at a high enough price
to cover the expense of the container.

From this orchard the same varieties have been sold on the
stand as on the Boston market. In computing the number of
bushels sold, 8 baskets or 150 single apples are figured as equal
to 1 bushel. The following are the amounts of each kind sold
on the stand: Red Astrachans, 108 bushels; Gravensteins,
34 bushels; Wealthy, 20 bushels; and Mcintosh, 261 bushels.
The cost of grading is the same whether sold on commission
or on the stand. I have done my own hauling to the stand,
using a Ford truck. It is impossible to figure the exact cost of
hauling, as many times only a partial load is hauled. However,

as the distance for the round trip is 6 miles, which can be
covered in forty minutes, allowing for the time of unloading,
the cost of hauling is considerably less than it is for the GO-mile
trip to Boston and return. To get at an approximate figure,
the cost of each trip may be figured as 30 cents for running
expenses, and 34 cents for the driver or a total of 64 cents.
On an average, 10 bushels are sent on each load, making a cost
of 6.4 cents per bushel for hauling.

Each grower, after consulting with the manager, puts his
own price on his products. As a result, the price for the same
grade of apples from different farms is not uniform. However,
this arrangement has worked very well, as the grower putting
up the best pack at the lowest price will far outsell his fellow
growers.

The net returns on the apples sold on the stand by me was
$1,119.53, making a net return per bushel of $2.65. As already
stated, the net return per bushel on the apples sold on com-
mission was $3.23. The reason for this difference is that on
the stand the demand for my apples was largely for either
dropped apples or the cheaper grades of hand-picked apples,
thus leaving the best grades to be sold on commission.

Next year the stand will probably increase its business many
times; as this was its first year many experiments had to
be tried, some proving profitable and others failures. One of
our best experiments was that of having an advertising display
on the main stand on Sundays and holidays. The display
consisted of either packed boxes or flats of fancy apples put
up on an incline. The display was put up early in the morning,
the main object being to attract the attention of the passersby.
On Sundays and holidays a large proportion of the automo-
bilists are out simply for a trip. In passing the stand in the
morning they would be attracted by the display, and would
either stop then and buy, or, what was more often the case,
stop on their way home in the afternoon. During the morning
the display was not for sale, but by the middle of the afternoon
it had served its purpose as an attraction and could be bought
in box lots.

®l)c Olommoniocaltl) oi il\aBBat\)xwtiiB

DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 20

March, 1920

SPEAYINQ

H. H. WHETZEL

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-2C-2.700

SPRAYING.

H. H. WHETZEL, PROFESSOR OF PLANT PATHOLOGY,
CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK.

There are four fundamental principles upon which all methods
for controlling plant diseases are based, namely, exclusion,
eradication, protection and immunization.

It is upon the first of these, exclusion, that all quarantine
and similar exclusionary methods and measures are based.
The United States quarantine act of 1912, together wuth its
numerous amendments, the rules based thereon and quaran-
tines laid thereunder by the Federal Horticultural Board
constitute the most extensive application of this principle ever
undertaken. Upon the soundness of exclusion as a fundamental
principle in disease control there can be no question; upon
the practicability or advisability of its application for the
exclusion of foreign pathogenes and pests from this country
under modern conditions of commerce and transportation,
there is abundant ground for honest difference of opinion
which only trials and time can settle.

Eradication of pests and pathogenes which have become
established in crop areas of larger or smaller extent has been
applied in this country during the last decade on an extensive
scale in a number of notable cases, as, for example, the chestnut
blight, the white pine blister rust, the citrus canker, and several
insect pests. Remarkable success is claimed in a number of
these cases, while in others equally notable failure is admitted.
The eradication of certain disease-inducing fungi, such as grain
smut, the potato scab organism, etc., from limited areas has
long been regarded a successful practice.

Protection of crops from the attacks of fungi and insects by
the interposition of some sort of barrier is perhaps the oldest
and most widely applied of these four principles of control.
It is upon this principle that spraying is based. Spraying is,
in most cases, a method of protection. It has been for nearly
four decades the chief weapon of the fruit grower in combating
the insects and fungi that attack his crops.

Immunization, the development of immune or highly resistant
strains or varieties of cultivated crops, has but recently received
the practical consideration which its promise of profitable appli-
cation has warranted from the first. The perennial nature of
the crops of the fruit grower makes its application to their
problems of less immediate promise than in the case of the
annual crops of the cereal or field crop farmer.

Our attention, therefore, to-day will be directed to a con-
sideration of the principle of protection and more specifically
to spraying as a method based upon this principle.

Definition.
Spraying consists in the application of fungicides and insecti-
cides in liquid form for the protection of our fruit crops.
While, in general, spraying is to be looked upon as a method
of protection, it is in a few cases a distinctly eradication method
as, for example, in the case of the control of peach leaf curl or
San Jose scale. We shall, however, confine ourselves to-day
chiefly to its applications in the control of scab and codling
moth of apples and the brown rot and curculio of the peach.

History.

A brief consideration of the history of spraying, particularly
in the United States, will afford a desirable background for
a better understanding of the practice as now in vogue in this
country.

Spraying, as a measure for protection against pests and
diseases of plants, may be said to have been introduced into
the United States about 1885. Following the discovery of
Bordeaux mixture by that noted Frenchman Millardet, in
France in 1883, the mixture was almost immediately tried

out in this country for the black rot of grapes, the apple scab
and the late blight of potatoes. The results were so satis-
factory that within a decade it had become the generally recom-
mended and accepted fungicide for most of the fungous diseases
of our crops. It continued to hold this pre-eminent position
until about 1900, when, through a discovery by Cordley in
Oregon, lime-sulfur was introduced as a substitute for Bor-
deaux in the summer spraying of apples. The work of Wallace
in New York during the years 1909 to 1912 on the control of
apple scab by the use of lime-sulfur brought about the all but
complete abandonment of Bordeaux as a fungicide for apple
scab in that State. Work in the other apple-growing sections
of northeastern United States, Canada and the Pacific Coast
completely confirmed the results obtained in New York, so
that within five years lime-sulfur had largely replaced Bor-
deaux as a summer spray for apples in most apple-growing
regions in the United States and Canada.

It is interesting to observe in passing that experimental work
on spraying as a field practice in the control of plant diseases
and pests in thjs country was at first almost entirely in the
hands of horticulturists. The reasons for this are not far to
seek. Plant pathologists as such were few and their efforts
were largely confined to investigational work in the laboratory.
They were busy with studies on the nature and life history of
the organisms that caused these diseases. Horticulturists were
far more numerous and were, from the nature of their work,
most closely associated with the grower in the practical problems
in the orchards and fields. Disease and pest control was looked
upon as a practical problem rather than a scientific one. Plant
pathology as a profession had little or no standing, while
horticulture was generally recognized as the most advanced
and progressive of agricultural professions.

The decade from 1900 to 1910 saw the entrance of the prac-
tical plant pathologist into the agricultural field in this country.
The first university chair of plant pathology was established
in America in 1907. Before the end of the decade plant pathol-
ogists as such were appointed to positions in many of the
agricultural colleges and experiment stations in this country.
Immediately they began to claim their rightful place in agri-

6

cultural teaching and practice. They rapidly took from the
horticulturist those functions and problems to which their pro-
fessional training and obligations justly entitled them. The
process of transferring the plant disease and insect pest work,
especially their practical applications, from the horticulturist
to the plant pathologist and entomologist is still going on.
Another decade will see it completed. This division of labor
and differentiation or specialization has had its usual reward
in a phenomenal progress in disease and pest control. America,
to-day, is twenty-five years in advance of Europe in the science
and practice of plant disease control. The day of the profes-
sional plant doctor is at hand. Already the progressive farmers
and fruit growers are bidding against the agricultural institu-
tion of the country for the services of the professional plant
pathologists. They are buying their services with their own
hard cash, and the institutions must look to their salaries if
they expect to retain for State and Federal service the best
men in the profession.

What constitutes a Good Fungicide.

A fungicide is a substance which properly and timely applied
to susceptible parts of the living plant will protect it from the
attacks of pathogenic organisms.

The requirements of a good fungicide are effectiveness against
the pathogene to be controlled, safety to the plant to which
applied and adhesiveness. As corollaries to these fundamental
requirements are to be noted cheapness, ease of application,
and miscibility with insecticides.

With the introduction and development of Bordeaux mixture,
copper became the all but universal active agent in fungicides.
Bordeaux meets the above requirements of an acceptable
fungicide to a remarkable degree. Copper is probably the most
active fungicidal agent yet discovered. Combined with calcium
in the form of a colloid known as Bordeaux mixture, it pos-
sesses a degree of adhesiveness as yet unsurpassed. Its inju-
rious action on the living tissues of many plants, especially
apples, peaches, plums and cherries, has led, however, to a
persistent search for substitutes. Among the substances pro-

posed from time to time to take the place of copper, none has
been found to so generally meet the requirements as sulfur.
Known and used as a fungicide long before the introduction of
copper sulphate, it was almost entirely discarded upon the
discovery of Bordeaux mixture. With the gradual appreciation
of the injurious action of the copper in Bordeaux upon the fruit
and foliage of the apple, and its early recognized unsafety on
the leaves of stone fruits, came the demand for a safer sub-
stitute in the spraying of these fruits. With Cordley's dis-
covery of the efficiency and safety of lime-sulfur as a substitute
for Bordeaux on apples and Scott's development of the self-
boiled lime-sulfur for peaches, the fallacy of a universal fungi-
cide was at last definitely recognized. To-day, we accept the
fact that both copper and sulfur have a distinct place in plant
medicine, and other substances promise to find a place in plant
prophylaxis.

Relation of Fungicides to Insecticides.

In the development and applications of a fungicide, one of
the chief problems which the pathologist has to meet is its
combination with insecticides. Modern agricultural practice
requires a rigid economy in operation. The cost of labor and
the requirements of timeliness in application demand that in
most cases fungicide and insecticide shall go on to the crop in
the same operation.

Arsenic in some form continues to be the chief agent in the
killing of chewing insects. Nothing has yet proved so effective
as nicotine for contact killing of sucking bugs, such as aphis,
red bug, psylla and the like. A practical fungicide must there-
fore be subject to safe and effective combination with insecti-
cides in which both arsenic and nicotine in some form are to
be used. Happily, both Bordeaux and lime-sulfur have quali-
fied in this respect to a remarkable degree. Wallace has shown
that the fungicidal value of lime-sulfur is even increased by
combination with arsenate of lead, without any evident decrease
in safety to either. Nicotine sulfate, sold under the trade name
of Black Leaf 40, has likewise proved a safe and efficient con-
tact insecticide in combination with both Bordeaux and lime-
sulfur.

8

It is evident, therefore, that we have in our present standard
fungicides and insecticides that fortunate compatibility so
requisite for practical and efficient use in meeting the problems
of disease and pest control.

Modern Spraying Machinery.
While the discovery and development of safe and effec-
tive fungicides and insecticides have been fundamental to
the present-day methods of plant protection, the perfection
of machinery with which to apply them has been almost
equally important. Bordeaux was first applied with a whisk
broom, and the primitive sprayers of the 80's were scarcely
more than sprinklers. We regard with amusement and con-
tempt the so-called nozzles through which our fathers squirted
Bordeaux and paris green. The knapsack and barrel hand-
pump sprayer have been almost entirely replaced by the handy
compressed-air sprayers and engine-driven orchard outfits.
The mechanical genius of the manufacturers has given us an
annual crop of improved nozzles, the most modern develop-
ment of which is the spray gun. Once satisfied with a pressure
of 25 to 50 pounds, we now demand 200 to 300 to get that
fine driving mist so generally recognized as essential to effective
application. The development of the spray gun was a^ direct
reply to the demand for greater rapidity and conservation of
labor in our spraying operations. Speed in operation has been
obtained, however, at the sacrifice of certain essentials in
application. A greatly increased wastage of spray materials
has undoubtedly resulted where spray guns have replaced the
pole and angle nozzle. Inferior control or distribution of ma-
terial over the leaf surface, especially in large trees, unquestion-
ably occurs, with the result that only the lower branches are
thoroughly covered, while the attempt to reach the higher
parts of the trees has resulted in frequent and serious foliage
injury due to drenching of the leaves below. In spite of the
claims that the solid stream from the gun will break into a
fine mist in the tops of tall trees, an examination of the foliage
there, and the poor control of scab and worms frequently to be
observed on the higher branches, does not bear out these
claims. If one is to judge from the frequent comment of gun

9

users (luring the past season, a general return to the slower but
more efficient pole and nozzle equipment is setting in. There
is no question that under certain conditions, for certain pur-
poses, and in the hands of competent operators the gun has
proved a rapid and efficient spraying weapon. But for general
orchard spraying and in the hands of the unskilled labor at
present available for the work, it is less satisfactory than the
best angle nozzle at the end of a 10 to 14 foot pole. Had the
tower and double lead of hose been retained, the advent of
the spray gun would undoubtedly have proved much less of
a disappointment.

Timely Application.

Probably no feature of successful spraying is less understood
and appreciated by the average grower than timeliness of appli-
cation. In spite of accumulating evidence and the persistent
teaching of plant pathologists during the past ten years, grow-
ers have failed to fully appreciate or have not understood the
absolute necessity of getting the spray mixtures on at just the
right time. This factor more than any other conditions success
or failure. of spraying operations. "Spray just before the rains,
not after" has been shouted at you from platform and printed
page. The deeply rooted notion that rains will wash off the
fungicide or poison has been completely disproved and ex-
ploded. It has been repeatedly shown that for any given suc-
cessful application usually not to exceed two or three days
are available. Yet in spite of the fact that every intelligent
grower knows that not more than 4 acres of full-grown apple
trees on the average can be properly sprayed in a day, almost
none of you have a sufficient number of spray rigs available to
cover your plantings in the period available for successful
operation. There are still many growers who spray when most
convenient, thereby often missing the most effective time for
doing the work. A not inconsiderable number try to beat the
game by spraying almost continuously throughout the season
wdth the result that they waste most of their time, labor and
materials. A few growers have begun to appreciate the abso-
lute necessity for timeliness in application and have sought to
meet the situation by doubling or trebling their equipment.

10

but the high cost of machinery and labor has made the expense
of such measures increasingly prohibitive. Very recently grow-
ers have begun to look with hope to dusting as a means of
meeting the situation, but for the great mass of our fruit
growers a lack of understanding or appreciation of the factor
of timeliness constitutes the chief cause of failure to control
diseases and pests where spraying is carried out.

Dusting to Replace Spraying.

Of the many problems pressing us for further study and in-
vestigation, none is more urgent than that of dusting. Prior
to the war we carried out in New York State an extensive
series of investigations on the relative efficiency of dusting in
comparison with spraying for the control of apple scab and
codling moth. Our results showed dusting to be equally effec-
tive against these two pests. Experiments since that time in
other ap'ple-growing regions, notably Michigan, Illinois and
Nova Scotia, have given results in general accord with the
results we obtained. But dusting, as a general practice, has
made slow progress, due to certain limitations which, .however,
promise early solution. Among the chief drawbacks to its
general adoption by our fruit growers has been the lack of an
effective contact dust for sucking insects, like aphis, psylla and
red bug. Preliminary experiments, especially in California and
Nova Scotia, promise an effective nicotine dust in the near
future. Improvements in dusting machinery, cheapening of
dusting materials, and a better understanding of the factors
conditioning effective application are pressing for attention.

Replying to a questionnaire sent last November to duster
owners in New York State, 73 replied that they had dusted
apples last season. Of these, 49 reported as good or better con-
trol of scab by dusting than by spraying; 51 reported codling
moth as well or better controlled; and 68 (over 93 per cent)
report that they will dust apples again next season. Even
larger percentages replied in favor of dusting .peaches and
cherries.

The results obtained this past season in Nova Scotia, both
in the experimental plots and in commercial orchards, were so

11

uniformly successful with dusting that its substitution for spray-
ing will undoubtedly take place there as fast as the growers
can change machinery.

With the cost of spray materials and machinery almost uni-
formly high, it is significant that dusting materials promise to
be generally cheaper this next season than they were last and
the demand for dusting machinery threatens to exceed the pos-
sible supply.

Dusting has so many promising and profitable features,
especially as a saver of valuable time and labor, that its general
adoption cannot long be delayed. The principles upon which
it is based are sound; there is no virtue, per se, in the appli-
cation of fungicides in water if the same materials can be
applied dry. Professor Sanders of Nova Scotia has developed
a new copper-lime dust which gives every promise of efficiency
equal to that of the same materials in the form of liquid
Bordeaux, and Dr. Brittain of the same province is at work on
a nicotine contact dust which in preliminary experiments has
given great promise as a killer of the sucking insects. Dry
sulfur and arsenate of lead have already proved quite as ef-
fective when applied dry as when used in the liquid form.

With the standard fungicides and insecticides all thus avail-
able in dry form, there remains only to perfect the methods
for their application in order to eliminate entirely the water
which now so seriously interferes with rapid and timely opera-
tion in the control of our orchard pests and diseases.

The County Spray Service.

Impressed with the paramount importance of timely appli-
cation in the control of apple scab and other fruit diseases in
our New York orchards, we undertook about three years ago
the experiment of organizing and directing a so-called spray
service in certain of our best fruit counties. Upon request of
the Farm Bureau organization a man with good fundamental
training in plant pathology and entomology is placed in the
county as special field assistant, with headquarters at the Farm
Bureau office. The county provides and maintains a Ford for
his use. He is assigned to the county about April 1 and re-

12

mains until about October 1. His job is to work out in
co-operation with the county agent a plan for advising and
directing the spraying operation of such growers as make
request for the service. The extension pathologist and exten-
sion entomologist of the college supervise and direct his work.
A variety of schemes for notifying the growers have been tried
out, but the rela}^ telephone system handled through the Farm
Bureau office has usually proved the most satisfactory and
eflficient. With one eye on the weather map and the other on
the development of the buds, the field man determines the
proper time for the most effective application and promptly
notifies each grower a day or two in advance. The grower is
also advised of the proper strength and combination of fungi-
cides and insecticides to be used. A few criterion orchards,
scattered at advantageous localities over the county, are
sprayed under the personal supervision of the field assistant,
and serve to demonstrate the efficiency of the recommendations
sent out to the growers.

At first the State paid the entire salary of the field assistant
and furnished supervision of his work without expense to the
county. Last season six counties maintained such field assist-
ants, providing one-third the man's salary. This coming season
at least 8 counties will have a special field assistant on plant
disease and insect control and will pay two-thirds the salary,
the college providing but one-third. The growers receiving the
service provide the funds for meeting the counties' share of the
salary in addition to providing the funds for buying and main-
taining the car. Besides general supervision by the extension
pathologist and entomologist the college will provide (as it did
last season) a special supervisor, who, during the growing
season, will give all his time to assisting and overseeing the
work of the special field assistant.

The positions of field assistant have been almost entirely
filled by seniors or graduate students specializing in plant
pathology and entomology. They are young men of marked
ability but usually with little actual practical experience. That
they have met their opportunities and responsibilities is evi-
denced in the rapidly increasing demand on the part of our
growers for their services. The willingness of the growers to

13

bear an increasingly large proportion of the expenses of such
service is a further indication of their confidence in this plan.

In emphasis of the justification and value of this service I
can do no better than quote from a recent paper on the subject
prepared by Professor C. R. Crosby, our extension entomologist,
and G. R. Palmer, one of our most successful field assistants.

It is becoming increasingly apparent that to be most effective demon-
stration work in the control of insect pests and plant diseases should be
conducted for the most part on the basis of a seasonal program of treatment
and not by demonstrating the control of any single disease or pest nor by
isolated tests of spray materials or methods of application. The object
of this kind of demonstration work is to show the value of the approved
seasonal program of treatment as adapted to local conditions and to the
weather prevalent during the season, and to teach the growers the most
effective and economical method of protecting their crops from insect pests
and plant diseases. Both from an educational and financial standpoint
demonstrations conducted in accordance with the seasonal program are
of greater value not only to the individual but also to the county as a
whole. Efficiency requires that the work be done with an organized
group of growers rather than with individuals. In order to achieve this
result it is necessary that sound expert advice be available and that the
necessary information be placed in the hands of the growers at the time
when it ■will be of most use to them.

The plan of doing this work by means of field assistants was adopted
because our experiences with industrial fellowships financed by associations
of farmers had shown that the greatest good can be accomphshedin the
control of insect pests and plant diseases by having a trained man located
in a definite territory where he can become thoroughly acquainted with the
local problems, can watch the crops throughout the growing season and by
his intimate knowledge of conditions be able to anticipate and prevent
destructive outbreaks. He also is able to win the respect and confidence
of the farmers as they become familiar with his aims and methods of work.
Our experiences have shown that, in general, graduate students, preferably
the younger ones, are more efficient and successful in this line of work than
are older persons who have become more or less settled in life and conse-
quently opinionated. It has been generally supposed that for this kind
of work mature men would be more desirable, but as a matter of fact such
is not the case. Wliere we have been compelled to use older men not
actively interested in science or where we have used graduate students who
were past the optimum age for stud}'-, we have had more misfits and failures
than where younger men with more active interest have been employed.
This may seem paradoxical. The explanation is that the salarj^ available
is not sufficient to attract mature men of sufficient ability. It is much
better for the work to employ young men of special ability in their ap-

14

prenticeship stage than men of mediocre ability who have nothing better
in prospect. A young man who in the course of the next ten years is
Ukely to be occupying a $5,000 to S10,000 position is much more vahiable
for this work than an okler man who would be satisfied to take a short-
term appointment at $150 a month.' The younger men look on this work
as an opportunity to obtain first-hand knowledge of field conditions and
methods and are therefore willing to spend the summer season for two
or three years in this way since it is a part of their training and of direct
advantage to them in their life work. Furthermore, thay have an incen-
tive to do their best, since if they make good as field assistants they have
a better chance to obtain a good position on receiving the advanced degree ;
and, moreover, they do not receive a sufficient salary to make them wish
to settle down in the work permanently as field assistants.

In western New York, particularly, where the control of apple scab
is of the utmost importance, the weather is the vital factor in determining
the time at which most sprays must be applied. In this region the work
of the field assistants was greatly facilitated by the co-operation of the
United States Weather Bureau. A special forecaster was detailed to the
Rochester office from April 6 to July 10. Arrangements were made
whereby he received from Washington twice daily a special long range
forecast, covering the conditions most needed by the service. These
forecasts were often modified by the special forecaster. At least one of
these forecasts as modified by the forecaster was sent daily to each of the
Farm Bureau offices where a special assistant was stationed. A striking
illustration of the practical value of these forecasts occurred on May 12,
when the forecast indicated that a rain was probable in three or four days.
Scab infections had already occurred in considerable numbers in orchards
that had not received the delayed dormant spray. A spray warning was
issued calling for the application of the blossom pink spray immediately
although the blossoms did not yet show pink. The rain began in the
afternoon of May 16. Subsequent events showed that this was the critical
application for the commercial control of apple scab in western New York
this season. In orchards where the application was delayed until after
the rain'of May 16, 17, the leaves became badly infected with scab and a
serious defoliation resulted. Furthermore, in these orchards it was very
difficult to keep the fruit free from later infections. Had the special fore-
cast of the Weather Bureau not been available, most of the growers would
have waited until the 19th or 20th before making the application, when
it was too late to protect the foliage.

During the past season the six assistants we had in the field traveled an
aggregate of 34,343 miles, making 3,017 visits, and issued 66 circular
letters with a total circulation of 18,207. It is very difficult to estimate
the financial return to the growers of the counties concerned, but there is
every reason to believe that the increased value of the crops directly
resulting from the work would pay several times over the entire cost of
the undertaking, including supervision and overhead.

15

The Community Plant Doctor.

Your attention has been directed in the above quotation to
our experience with industrial fellowship laboratories. The
w^ork of the field man on an industrial fellowship differs, in two
respects at least, from that of the special field assistant. The
former has for his primary function that of research or the solu-
tion by investigation of problems of pressing importance to the
growers. He also performs the function of general advisor or
supervisor on disease and pest control applicable to the crops
grown by the farmers with whom he works. This, however,
is a secondary though verj^ important feature. In the second
place his obligations are limited to a much smaller number of
growers, usually from 12 to 25. He is the personal or local
plant doctor for a very small number of growers, who provide
his salary, living expenses while in the field, a laboratory room,
and a car for his use in conducting the work. The college pro-
vides a complete laboratory equipment and directs his work.
The fellow spends the growing season (four to six months) in
the field, the remainder of the time at the college in study and
investigation looking to his doctor's degree. The fellowship
contract is so drawn that the growers may look forward to the
services of the same man for a continuous period of from two
to four years. The total cost to the growers per year ranges
from $1,500 to $2,000. It costs the college an approximately
equal amount to equip the laboratory and supervise the work.

During the period from 1909 to 1916, the department of
plant pathology at Cornell University had about forty-five such
annual fellowships, representing a total investment by our
farmers and commercial concerns of some $60,000. During the
war, due to a lack of qualified men to fill such positions, the
number of fellowships dropped to one, but last year we had
three in operation and already requests for a total of eleven
such arrangements for next season have been made. Two of
these are from small groups of fruit growers. The others are
distributed among groups of potato growers, cauliflower grow-
ers, market gardeners, truck growers and greenhouse men, and
two have been provided by a commercial company for investi-
gations on dusting. Even in the last case the eager co-opera-

16

tion of farmers is assured to the extent of providing laboratory
facilities, orchards, labor and cars for transportation.

This method of solving the plant disease problems of the
State has proved highly profitable to the growers. The actual
profits in dollars and cents which we are able to show prove
this, and the overwhelming demand for more fellowships from
many sections of the State indicate the enthusiasm for and the
confidence with which the hard headed farmers of New York
are turning to scientific methods in solving their plant disease
problems.

A Member. I would like to know how you control bitter
rot on apples.

Professor Whetzell. Now, before I can answer that ques-
tion, I must be sure I know what you are talking about. Bitter
rot of apples, as the plant doctors know it, isn't a disease of
New York and New England. It is a disease of the South. I
do not believe you have bitter rot. There was bitter rot in the
Hudson valley this year, but I think you mean a Baldwin spot,
a little brown spot under the skin, with a depression over it.
If you want to call it "bitter," call it bitter pit. If you call it
bitter rot, the plant doctor thinks it a disease which occurs in
the South. It cannot be controlled by spraying. To explain
to you briefly, we think it happens this way: It is a very com-
mon disease the world over where apples are grown. It comes
only in those seasons where we have had sudden changes from
wet to dry some time during the season.

The explanation is this: Suppose you start off with a wet
spring. You have a certain amount of root surface developed
to feed a certain amount of foliage with water. If the weather
suddenly becomes dry, there isn't enough root surface to get
far enough to supply the top leaves and the fruit, and the
result is either the leaves or the fruit suft'ers from lack of
water.

It is well known that when it is a fight between fruit and
leaves, the leaves get it. In other words, water is withdrawn
from the fruit to go into the leaves, and you will notice that
spot is always worse around the blossom end. It is around the
blossom end that the tips of the sap tubes have their opening

• 17

to the outside. Naturally, those are farthest away from the
water supply, so when the water begins to be pulled away from
the current and there isn't water enough to supply the whole
apple, the little tips of the sap tubes out around the blossom
end and the cells which surround them, have no water.

You get all degrees of injuries, too, from cells that are dead
to those more or less injured. You put those apples in storage
and not having enough water in the apple, those cells, slightly
injured cannot draw it, and they die; and it gets worse and
worse until you have large numbers of those spots under the
skin, running into the heart of the apple and turning brown,
and it dies. That is the explanation given for bitter pit.

The only thing that can be done, as far as I know, is to
make every effort to maintain a uniform water supply during
the season. If you have a wet spring and dry weather follows,
anything you can do in the way of cultivation to ease that
drop from much water to a little water and to keep a high
amount of water in the soil will tend to reduce the amount of
Baldwin spots.

The fewer apples you have on the tree, the more injury there
will be. I do not understand it well enough to explain, but
that is the general theory. I have never myself carried on
investigations on the thjng, but there were extensive investi-
gations recorded some few years ago on the disease in Australia,
where the disease is ba.d- Th'C evidence we collected year after
year In the State of New York indicates that bitter pix, or
Baldwin spot, is the result of sudden changes in the water
supply during the season. We never have Baldwin spots in
the State of New York when we have a uniformly wet season
or uniformly dry season, because then the balance between
root and leaf is not disturbed.

Chairman Jenks. A question is asked, is it worse with trees
in sod than those in cultivated areas?

Professor Whetzell. I have no data on that. JMy opinion
would be it was likely to be, particularly if the sod pumps the
water out. It tends to emphasize the change. It may or may
not. It depends on the season, and depends on the conditions
in your orchard. Probably in that orchard, if the grass was
cut and used as a mulch, you might not get that effect.

18 •

A Member. Why do you have a Baldwin spot in one tree
and not in another tree?

Professor Whetzell. The only way I can answer that is to
ask why does one man get baldheaded and another man
doesn't? There is some particular condition respecting that
tree. Trees are just as individual as you fellows are. Some of
them, because of the particular soil in which they grow, or
conditions under which they grow, or their inherited tendencies,
or something of that sort, show more Baldwin spots. Just as
some of you fellows can wear your hat all the time and not
get baldheaded. Others can't wear it at all. You will get
baldheaded, anyway.

A Member. I would like to ask Professor Whetzell if he
thought he could control apple scab just as well by dusting
as he could by the liquid spray. I have often found the
liquid spray in the" pink stage is just as important as the spray
after the blossoms fall.

Professor W^hetzell. In New York State it is more im-
portant.

A Member. How can you get dust on the pink stage?

Professor Whetzell. Just as well as on the calyx.

A Member. Is it as effective on the Mcintosh where they
are subject to apple scab?

Professor Whetzell. Taking the averages of the experi-
mental dusting work done in New York,. Illinois, Michigan and
Nova Scotia, taking the average of the work going on since
1912, ■ — I do not know how many total years that would be
for all of them, — but taking those averages, as I. took them
last week, I found on the average the difference between dusted
and sprayed trees, so far as scab control was concerned, did
not vary more than 3 or 4 per cent, which is within the range
of experimental error. Now that you talk specifically on that
particular variety, I do not recall the varieties that were in-
volved, but' I do recall that in a number of these cases we had
as high as 95 per cent or more of scabby fruit on the checks,
and reduced it to 85 to 90 per cent on the dusted. Does that
answer the question?

A Member. Do you advocate dusting under any conditions
when the trees are in blossom?

19

Professor Wiietzell. Xo, it isn't necessary, any more than
I would advocate spraying. Now, so far as injury to the fruit
is concerned, there is no evidence that spraying or dusting when
the trees are in blossom will injure the set of fruit. No evi-
dence, no experimental evidence, as far as I know. The bee
men are very certain it kills the bees if you spray or dust when
the trees are in blossom. We have dusted trees experimentally
in blossom, and we have sprayed trees experimentally in blos-
som. There is, as far as I know, no experimental evidence to
show that spraying or dusting kills bees. I once went over the
matter with a professor who made a very careful search for
evidence on that point, and he said there was none. I do not
say it doesn't kill bees. I do not know. But I say, as far as
the experimental evidence goes, there is absolutely none to
show it injures the bees and none to show it injures the set
of fruit,

A Member. That is the reason I asked that question.
Formerly I used to make more than $1,000 on bees. Last year
I lost $100. A man there locally will spray his trees many
times. He knows better. There is no law against him. He
sprays with a weak solution, and he claims it doesn't kill the
bees, but the whole hive will dwindle down when the poison
has been used in that way.

Professor Whetzell. As far as I know, there is no carefully
carried out experiment on that subject to prove it, one way or
the other, but the point is, it isn't necessary to spray when the
trees are in blossom. There is no particular point in doing it.
There may be once in a good many years such weather con-
ditions where it would be profitable to catch the trees when
they are in blossom. In other words, the trees usually blossom
during a rainless period. At least, the blossoms open when the
sun shines. He should have it ahead of the rain. If a man
sprays his trees properly with respect to weather, there is prac-
tically never any occasion to spray when they are in blossom;
therefore, he and the bee man can live happily without arguing
the question. They don't need to even discuss the question,
because they don't have to spray when they are in blossom.

Chairman Jenks. The question is asked if you know of sat-
isfactory means of controlling pear psylla.

20

Professor Whetzell. That is out of my line. That is a bug
question, and I wouldn't offer you any opinion on it.

Chairman Jenks. Can you tell us what is the general prac-
tice in New York, where they grow so many pears?

Professor Whetzell. I never tell anything about bugs. I
can't forget my line.

Chairman Jenks. The question is asked relative to dry
lime-sulfur, and its merits.

Professor Whetzell. We have carried on no investigations
in the State of New York on the use of dry lime-sulfur. We
had one or two demonstrations carried out by the Farm Bureau,
and I think this is the general status at the present time in
connection with the dry lime-sulfur. I am quoting Professor
Parrott, who, while he is a bug man, has also launched into
some of the things from the other side. As far as fungous dis-
eases are concerned, if enough dry lime-sulfur is used in the
solution, it will be just as effective as the liquid, because it is
the same thing, but, as ordinarily sold and recommended, the
dilution is too weak. I believe Professor Parrott said to our
men last year that 23 to 25 pounds per 50 gallons should be
used to give the same result you would get with 1 to S, of com-
mercial lime-sulfur liquid, or something of that sort, for scale.
Then you diluted accordingly to get 1 to 40.

A Member. Professor, do you expect that dusting would be
as effective as spraying in a season when there is much wind?
I mean particularly after the spray has been applied. Say you
get up in the morning and get the dust on before the wind
came. Would it be possible, if the leaves were dry, that the
dust would be blown off?

Professor Whetzell. I will answer you by an experience of
your own. You drive a car? Yes? You wash it sometimes?
No? Never wash it? Well, I can't help you. Well, you have
seen fellows wash their car. Yes, nice and clean and shiny.
Then they drive it through a dusty road, and then they come
in and turn the hose on and soak it with water to wash it off,
but the dust was still there when they got done. They had to
take a rag and wipe it off. If you can't wash it off with a hose,
it isn't likely any wind that blows in New England would blow
it off. It doesn't blow off. The finely ground sulfur sticks

21

just tlie same as the same sulfur put on wet. It sticks like
dust sticks to furniture or to the carpet, and it will stick just
as well, as far as I know, as it will when it is put on wet. So,
so far as blowing off is concerned, you do not need to worry
about that, unless you have windier blows here than we have
in New York State. The question is often raised whether it
will w^ash off, and I give the same illustration.

Chairman Jenks. Can you give us some idea as to the rela-
tive costs of spray materials and labor in dust and liquid
spraying?

Professor Whetzell. There is no question but what dust
materials to-day cost more money than the same materials for
spraying, that is, than the spray materials that are used. But
that is not the way to figure your relative costs of course. If
you figure labor saved and time saved and the value of timeli-
ness, — well, leave out that which is the most valuable point, —
the time and labor saved, if you figure those in, counting labor
costs and cost of materials, in Nova Scotia this year Professor
Saunders found that to dust cost about the same as to spray.
I think in the two experiments that he made his figures on, the
difference was 10 cents less to dust than it was to spray, per
acre, — a small amount.

Now, the relative costs of those methods would depend upon
many factors which are not constant. A man who has every-
thing right for spraying — water handy, doesn't take much
time to fill, and good engines — can put his spray on cheaper
than a man who has all these other troubles.

But taking it by and large this last year, so far as I have
been able to get figures — accurate figures — experimentally
taken by Professors Saunders and Brittain in Nova Scotia, those
figures show that the cost, counting labor and materials, was
approximately the same for the two.

Now, then, that was counting the relatively high cost of
materials for dusting, but, as I pointed out to you, we are in
the experimental stage with dusting, and naturally the stuff
costs more money than when it is commercial, so you can save
on the cost of apparatus. In other words, we are using a crude
machine as compared with sprayers, and the duster will be
improved. We will get around to it by and by until we control

22

the dust. We want to go over our methods and our arrange-
ments, and I want to say that those who will do so will do a
better job with less material wasted.

Now, another interesting thing. Professor Saunders devel-
oped a Bordeaux dust which promises to be as effective as
liquid Bordeaux. He found that where he dusted with this
Bordeaux dust on apples and compared with it spraying with
Bordeaux, although he put 75 gallons of material on in spray-
ing and only 50 pounds in dusting, that he actually got more
copper on the leaf surface by dusting than he did by spraying.

In other words, the actual wastage of copper was less in the
dusting than it was in the spraying, a thing nobody suspected.
The chemist actually found a higher percentage of copper on
dusted trees than he did on sprayed trees, so the actual wast-
age under present conditions in that orchard where he was
using Bordeaux in both cases was less for dusting than for
spraying.

Chairman Jenks. What is the smallest acreage you would
suggest putting on the dust at its present stage of development?

Professor Whetzell. I would leave that to the individual.
I never recommend anything. That is one thing I want you
to remember when you go away from here, — Whetzell did
not recommend a single thing. I am trying to give you the
facts as I have them and my opinion, which you can take for
whatever it is worth, but if you go home and buy a duster and
it doesn't work, don't look at me.

Chairman Jenks. What do you think of soluble oil as com-
pared with lime-sulfur?

Professor Whetzell. In the first place, soluble oils are used
primarily to control insects, scale, and so forth. They are not
used as fungicides to any extent. I have no information on it.
I have carried on no experiments, and I do not know. The
only thing I can imagine soluble oils used for in a fungicide is
disinfecting peach trees for curl.

Chairman Jexks. The question is asked how about the
sooty blotch on apples?

Professor Whetzell. It can be controlled by any of the
spray mixtures you use. You have got to put on a later

23

application. That means ordinary apple scab sprays won't
catch.

Chairman Jenks. Sooty blotch is very bad with us in east-
ern Massachusetts.

Professor Whetzell. Sooty blotch is a disease that comes
on relatively late, and you have got to get a mixture on ahead
of it, and probably a couple of them.

Chairman Jenks. The question is asked, why is it better
to spray before rather than after rain?

Professor Whetzell. Well, for exactly the same reason that
it is better to get inoculated for typhoid before you get it than
after.

Here is the situation. Take the apple scab. The first infec-
tions in the spring are produced in the old leaves of last season
that lay on the ground, the scabby foliage of last year, that
fell to the ground this year.

Those spores are shot from the old leaves, and then a breeze
catches them and carries them to the foliage, but they are only
shot out during rains, and they get on to the leaves only
during rains, and they germinate, and they go into the leaves
during that rainy period.

In other words, to get apple scab infection on your early foli-
age, you have to have about forty-eight hours of rainy weather,
some rain for a period of about forty-eight hours, and you will
get infection. The fungus will be inside the leaf. If you have
no protection on the foliage, you can go if you want, after
the rain is over, and put it on the outside, but the spray mix-
ture does not operate to kill the fungus.

In other words, spraying is a protection.

Now, some of you labor under the delusion that you spray
to kill something which is already there. You do not. You
put the spray mixture on to protect it from something that is
going to come, and that something comes during the rain.
Almost all fungi are either put on the leaf in the rain or germ-
inate only during a period when the surface is wet; therefore,
you must put protection on ahead and not after.

Any other question?

Chairman Jexks. Is it the opinion, Professor, that it is

24

almost impossible to do as cheap a job with a spray gun as it
is with a spray tower and two rods?

Professor Whetzell. No, it is possible to do as good a job
with the spray gun, in my opinion, but it ordinarily isn't done
that way, for the reasons I pointed out. If you have a man on
the ground and another one on the tower, on a 10 or 15 foot
tower, with a good angle nozzle on the end, you apply so much
spray per second, and you cover all parts of the tree, and you
do not drench any part of it. If a man is out on the tower
with a spray gun, and another man on the ground with a spray
gun, and the trees were not so large but what you could shoot
this mist into the middle of the tree, you can do just as good
a job, and applying so much more mixture per second you have
to be on the job constantly. That is what happens. The hired
man turns on the gun, and the more stuff he can get out of it,
the better it looks to him, and he drenches the trees in spots.
I saw an orchard in Nova Scotia sprayed with a spray gun
where the fellow shot the tree; he took all the leaves and
apples off.

Chairman Jenks. If you were doing the job yourself, and
of course wanted to save time and expense, would you be
inclined to use the gun or the rod?

Professor Whetzell. I never had any extensive experience
with the gun on my own account, but my own opinion is that
I would stick to the pole and get a big angle nozzle on the end
of it. I think I would save enough material and do enough
better job to warrant me using the pole and nozzle than I
would with a spray gun. I have seen some men spraying with
a spray gun, especially if the trees were small, and they were
up on the wagon, do a pretty good job with it, but I have
seen many more men, who opened it wide to get to the top
of the tree, do a poor job on the top and drench the trees
below. So that in the hands of the ordinary man, the average
man, I believe that better work will be done with a pole and
nozzle than with a spray gun. That is not saying you can't
do good work with a gun.

Chairman Jenks. It is particularly applicable to high trees?

Professor Whetzell. Particularly so, yes, sir, and particu-
larly applicable to the man who isn't very much interested in

25

doing it exactly right. You see, you are shooting so much more
stuff at a time, your chances of doing damage are much more
than where you have a small amount.

Chairman Jenks. I think, friends, we will have to draw
this discussion to a close, as the time is gone. I am sure that
even though Professor Whetzell did not recommend anything
to us, he gave us a whole lot to think about that we will try
to put into practice somewhat on our own farms this vear.

©Ije Olommnmitpaltli uf ilaBHarljua^tt^

DEFAirrMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 21

March, 1920

FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT

CHARLES W. MANN

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-'20-2,500

FRUIT GROWING FOR PROFIT.

CHARLES W. MANX, METHUEN.

I do not intend to tell you what to do, or how to do it, in
the business of growing fruit for profit as I do not wish to give
particular advice without personally seeing the locations and
conditions, as that savors too much of quackery, — prescribing
without seeing the patient, — but I will try to tell you what
I have been doing myself in fruit production.

You may remember that I have been a grower of strawberries
to the amount of perhaps $40,000 and perhaps half that value
of tomatoes, but with the changing conditions of labor and
markets, the increasing weediness of the soil and other reasons
combining to make the business harder and less profitable, I
began in 1910 to set apple trees in the ground previously used
for strawberry and tomato growing, the most of which I had
reclaimed from rough, rocky pasture and sprout land with
some underdraining in the low parts.

Baldwin trees were set 40 feet apart, with early varieties or
peaches and pears for fillers, leaving spaces of 20 feet when all
set, some in cultivated land and others in grass. I have con-
tinued planting until the past season, when I put out one
thousand apple trees in my large grass field, and now have
growing on the farm several thousand healthy, vigorous trees
rapidly coming into bearing. While I enjoyed picking the
luscious big berries in the years gone by, I have more pleasure
now in gathering the highly flavored, juicy fruit from the trees,
and it is easier on knees and back.

In buying trees to plant an orchard, I should prefer well-
grown two-year-old stock from reliable nurseries, and can see
little to choose between northern and southern grown, though
it does seem reasonable to suppose that the former would be
more rugged and longer lived. It has been possible in some

years to buy whips, or one-year-old trees, of good stock at
very low prices, at 10 cents or less, and I have set them in
nursery rows in heavy soil for two or three years, until they
are rather oversize, when they can be transplanted to the field
with plenty of dirt on the roots, and hardl}^ stop groM'ing.
This method saves work in caring for them.

Last spring I told my son, who was then fifteen years old,
that I would set one thousand apple trees for him if he would
take care of them when I could not, and as he was happy to
agree to do so we put them in (about half of them grown for
a time in our garden or nursery, and the balance picked up
from New York nurseries) any size to be found, mostly very
small, as the supply was very limited. Holes were dug as soon
as the frost was out, while digging was easy (hardly half the
work it would have been when the ground had dried out and
hardened), 2 feet across and 15 inches or more deep, over 10
acres or more of our big grass field. The sod was placed one
side, the black loam another side, and the yellow loam on
another side, and, to be a little extra good to the young trees,
we cleaned up the loam from some old hotbeds, quite a num-
ber of cords of it, and put a half bushel or so in the bottom of
each hole. Digging holes cost 6 cents each and was begun
March 12 and all dug in March, something we couldn't do
this year with our heavy coat of snow and ice, showing how
seasons vary. It is but a few years since I plowed for eighteen
days in January on this same land. After this loam was put
in, the trees were moved from our nursery, and set the first
week in April. The dark loam was thrown in first, then the
sod reversed and well trod, and last the yellow loam.

After writing, telegraphing and finally telephoning to western
New York nurseries to get delivery of trees paid for months
before, I got whips when I had bought two-year-olds, and got
them into the ground May 13, with five weeks of good time
lost. These small stored-over-winter trees looked very slim
and cheap beside our 8 and 9 foot ones, but by wetting the
roots well and giving them extra care they have lived and
started fairly well and are apparently true to name, which is
after all the one great point in putting out trees. One can
forgive the nurserymen almost anything except substitution or

mistakes in varieties. We will grant that all nurserymen mean
to be honest, but still it goes hard to plant a good Baldwin or
Mcintosh (supposedly) and in four or five years find it bearing
a worthless early yellow or greening. It means four years or
more to get it back to a worth-while kind by top-working, so it
pays to be very careful in buying.

We cut two crops of hay in this one thousand tree orchard
this last year. We also cut perhaps a dozen trees among the
whips, and mice have accounted for a few more during the
summer, so we shall have to replant a score or so. I do not
look for damage from mice this winter as I gave them a good
dose of lime and sulphur, put on with a brush before snow
came; that proves a cheap and effective preventive if applied
below the branches perhaps twice a year. These trees are
headed about 2 feet from the ground and each has been given
two, forkfuls of cow manure this winter, which will be dug in
when the ground is soft again. They will be pruned back about
half their growth and put into shape as they grow.

Now, let me tell you about the seven hundred peaches set
for fillers with the idea that they would help pay for growing
the apple trees. One year I sold $200 worth from twenty
Carmen trees, and that is the only good story I can tell except
that there is nothing more beautiful than a peach when it is
just ready to drop into your hand. In 1917 and 1918 there
were no peaches, just when the trees were full grown and
should have done their best. Up to that time I had sold $1,000
worth, and last year they bore so heavily that many were
broken down and ruined, with a crop that sold for $1,300,
enough to just about pay up for the expense and care they had
caused, but little or nothing to help grow the apple trees.
This crop was so heavy and the trees so old and high that the
expense of picking would have eaten up most of the returns
but for the second crop of grass that was so thick under them
that I could jar them off as they ripened and pick them up
without injury, and they were sold on our lawn by the road-
side. Prices were very low because there was not the usual
demand for the fruit for canning, owing to the scarcity of sugar.

The pears set for fillers are coming on and have begun to
make returns, and, being longer lived than the peaches and

6

growing more upright and compact, I am hoping that they will
be more satisfactory.

The main orchard that was planted in 1910, and later had
been severely pruned in the first two or three years to-produce
strong, sturdy, low-bodied, open-centered trees, has come into
bearing as well as I could hope for. The past season I have
picked between 400 and 500 barrels, about half Baldwins, of
very fine quality and large size, and find that early apples for
fillers are more desirable than peaches or pears for quick and
good returns. I picked 11 bushels from a Mcintosh set in 1912
and 3^ barrels from a Baldwin set in 1910. On the other hand,
I had plenty of trees not bearing any.

I have many Baldwin trees that spread 20 feet and Wolf
Rivers that are much larger, and I find that the last named are
very fine as a baked apple. I tried one with my oatmeal for
breakfast and it lasted four mornings. Some apple!

Well, I think I have started something in this orchard that
will make life easier through my declining years.

As a last word let me say that our Massachusetts Fruit
Growers Association is a good thing, and so good that many
more should receive the benefit of membership with us. I
have obtained sixteen new names so far this year and propose
to gain as many more before our next annual meeting, and I
believe that many of us can do better than that. At least let
each of us bring one new member into our circle.

A Member. At what temperature do you keep your apples
in storage?

Mr. Mann. I like to have it about 34. I generally maintain
it about there. We have a thermometer at the top of the room.

It is the only one there, and I do not care much whether it is

there or not. I noticed this morning that it was 38.

A Member. Isn't it all right at 30?

Mr. Mann. Yes, but when j'ou are at 30, you may get to
28 or 26.

A Member. I mean, suppose it stays at 30 all the time?

Mr. Mann. Yes, it is all right if it will stay there.

A Member. What kind of soil did you have?

Mr. Mann. It is a pretty good soil. It is good corn land,

with not much gravel to it. It is a heavy loam, but a good,
hardened undersoil and stony ground. In fact, stony ground
is pretty good for fruit. Whether it is because there is more
potash in it or not, I don't know. On one farm there is quite
a little of it cultivated, they raise green crops for their cattle —
those apples, as I say, grow larger and bear heavy, but they
are not quite the keepers that they are in other parts of that
farm or in other places where they are grown in grass. My
own orchard is now mostly grass. The first few years I
raised strawberries and then tomatoes, and such cultivated
crops in it. Some parts have been grass all the time. The
parts that have been cultivated the first few years went ahead
faster, but I do not look in the end for any better results.

A Member. Do the apples keep better in the upper part of
the cellar?

Mr. Mann. The top of the cellar is where you will find the
poorest apples. They get a little more heat and a little more
light, and they will go a little quicker.

A Member. What do you use for containers to store the
apples?

Mr. Mann. As a general thing, good orange boxes, —
Florida orange boxes. They are very cheap and very easy to
handle. An egg crate is so tenderly made that it won't hold.
You might use it once by carrying it a good deal as you would
a baby, but they are not safe to use for any length of time.

A Member. Did you take the grass out of your orchard?
, Mr. Mann. I have, yes. I have cut two crops out of most
of it so far, but I expect as the apple trees grow and the hay
grows less, to cut it and leave it on the ground, instead of
buying fertilizer. Fertilizer and manure are two thipgs almost
out of the question now. The only fault anybody has found
with me w^as from Mr. Bogue. I said to him, "You have said
all the nice things, but tell me what is wrong about it." He
said, "I can't see anything wrong, unless it is growing a little
too fast."

A Member. Did I understand you to say that you had a
temperature of 34 when you put the apples in in the fall?

Mr. Mann. No, that won't come until the cold weather.

A Member. About what temperature can you get in the fall?

8

Mr. Mann. I can't tell you exactly, but we put them in
and keep them shut up in the daytime as mufch as we can, and
keep it open at night, to get the benefit of the night air to
cool them off. The water is somewhere about 46 degrees, and
that helps to keep the temperature down. In fact, I will tell
you what is a pretty good thermometer, — a pail of water
in the cellar. If it doesn't freeze, it is all right, and if it
freezes a little and doesn't thaw, it is all right. You want it
just about at that point. I happened to put a board in a week
ago, put it on top of a box to step on, and on one end there
was a handful of snow. I put it in under another box, set it
on it, and I noticed this morning that the bunch of snow was
there yet. It has been there a week and hasn't thawed. Still
the apples aren't freezing.

A Member. How much growth on the orchard would you
call right growth?

Mr. Mann. On the branches a year? I should judge a foot
or a foot and a half. A foot is small. Perhaps a foot and a
half. I guess they grow 2 feet, sometimes. Of course the
small tree will often grow more than that if you let it run up,
sometimes 4 or 5 feet.

Chairman Jenks. We have just time for one or two other
questions. The question is asked how is the storage ventilated
in the winter.

Mr. Mann. Why, I have one window open all the time. I
have been kind of scared when this 14 degrees below weather
came along, thinking that it might get in there. It is just a
window covered with a screen, burlap hung behind it, and that
is open on the south side all the winter. That lets some air
through. And then I have other places that have been venti-
lated some, I leave the door open to the south.

Chairman Jenks. One more question.

Mr. Mann. When you take hold of an apple and turn it
up that way [indicating] and it comes off fairly easy, that is
about the right time to pick it, no matter whether it is going
to rain next day or not.

A Member. What kind of apples would you set if you were
going to set in your orchard?

Mr. Mann. Set Baldwins for main crop.

®l)c ^ommontucaltl) of iitassacljusetts

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 22

March, 1920

MODEM DEVELOPMENTS IN
PEACH GROWING

MAURICE A. BLAKE

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-'20-2,500

MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN PEACH GROWING.

MAURICE A. BLAKE, NEW JERSEY EXPERIMENT STATION, NEW BRUNS-
WICK, NEW JERSEY.

Peach production has occupied an important place in eastern
fruit growing since early colonial days. Orchards of hundreds
and thousands of seedling trees were common before the Revo-
lutionary War, and peach yellows, the great scourge of the
peach industry, had even appeared by that time.

W^ are, then, discussing an industry as old as colonial Amer-
ica, and you have asked me to address you upon its modern
developments. Some one has said, "There is nothing new under
the sun," and while I do not subscribe to this, it is often diffi-
cult to tell where the old leaves off and the modern begins.

Before we become too deeply concerned with methods and
details of practice, it may be w^ell to have a word as to the
character of the business, since I infer that it is commercial
peach growing that you are principally interested in.

The fruit of the peach, with its attractive colorings, its aroma
and luscious flavor, makes a strong appeal to the prospective
grower. Its promptness in coming into bearing and the reports
of big profits in a single season are the deciding factors that
start many a one in the game.

Where the climate and soil are favorable, the peach will give
profitable returns earlier than any other deciduous fruit, and
may give consistent returns. However, in the east it cannot be
depended upon to produce a profitable crop before the fourth
season and seldom after the tenth or twelfth season in the
orchard. This short life must, therefore, be a merry one if
the grower is to be properly compensated, and it becomes
doubly so in localities where Jack Frost takes heavy toll.

The peach must remain upon the tree until well matured
before high quality is attained, and then it must be soon con-

Slimed or preserved. It may be held for ten days in cold
storage, but the luscious flavor generally suffers. The period
of successful distribution from tree to consumer is commonly a
matter of less than a week. A grower, therefore, with several
thousand baskets of peaches ripening faster than his available
labor force or the railroad will handle them, is certain of plenty
of exercise for his mind.

Peach growing is an intensive business which calls for skill,
energy and persistence. It is decidedly not a lazy man's game,
but played right it is attractive and profitable.

In a discussion of modern developments in peach growing
some items of status should perhaps receive first attention.

The severe winter of 1917-18 seriously injured and killed
thousands of peach trees in eastern and middle western peach
regions, only those in especially favored districts escaping.
During the period of the war, labor was difficult and expensive
to obtain, and orchards not producing full crops were frequently
left uncultivated. These two factors have resulted in a marked
reduction of the peach orchards that are now in condition to
produce good crops.

The United States census for 1910 was taken when the peach
industry was just recovering from the attacks of the San Jose
scale, and that of 1920 will be taken just after heavy reduction
due to the effects of war and freezing. The high point reached
in 1915 will never be measured in figures.

Together with this reduction in the number of vigorous or-
chards, there is a marked shortage in the number of nursery
trees ready for planting, and a correspondingly increased price
upon those that are available, which all points toward good
prices for peaches during the next year or tw^o if the crop is
properly distributed.

The acreage of bearing peaches can be reduced suddenly,
and it can also "come back" quickly, and the present shortage
in peach nursery stock will be overcome much more quickly
than that of apples. Even now everything resembling a peach
pit has been collected and has gone into the ground for the
next year. In some districts we may look for a mad rush to
get aboard the peach wagon.

When a l)uil(lin<;- biu'iis down uiid we have the opportunity
to erect a new one we shouhl make sure that we have a good
foundation on the right site and that all old faults are eliminated
in the new structure. The same situation presents itself when-
ever there is a marked reduction in peach orchards, and during
the next few years many will have the opportunity to huild
wisely and well.

To my mind, peach growers may be classified into two
groups, those who have extensive orchards and ship in carload
lots to distant markets, and those who have much smaller
orchards and supply a more local trade.

The appearance of the roadside market is, in my experience,
a modern development that means much both to the large and
small peach grower, and especially the latter if he takes advan-
tage of it.

Hundreds of farm fruit and vegetable stands are seen in the
summer along prominent auto routes in the east, especially
those leading to shore resorts. I have seen automobile parties
buying Greensborough peaches from farm stands when they
could secure the finest southern Belle and Elberta in Atlantic
Citv, New Jersev, a noted shore resort. I have seen these
parties coming out into the country from the resort day after
day to purchase such fruit. Why do they do it? Because they
think they can get fresher and better fruit. Herein lies the
opportunity of the local grower. So long as he offers well-
ripened, attractive fruit at a fair price his business will prosper.
If he grows and offers especially fine fruit and sells wuth an
effort to please, he will need to hire a traffic "cop" to keep
the crowd in line. A successful roadside trade demands especial
attention, but it eliminates cartage, freight and commission.
Poor quality and indifferent handling of the fruit, or deception
and dishonesty in any form, will soon injure the roadside mar-
ket. One may never expect to see a passing customer again,
but people gather together and discuss their bargains and ex-
periences, and automobile parties may be easily discouraged
from buying while en route.

I believe there are many favorable sites for small peach or-
chards in the eastern States where one may develop a profit-

6

able orchard of a few acres, the fruit from which could largely
be sold in a local way. A small orchard isolated several miles
back from a main highway might, however, become a liability
instead of an asset.

In all of the old peach regions it should not be difficult to
obtain information as to what exact sites and areas are espe-
cially favorable to peaches. There is no more important point
than the right "spot" for the orchard. Once it is planted, you
have made a decision as to local climate, exposure and soil
which cannot be changed during its lifetime.

Cultivation.

Cultivation is one of the requirements of a successful peach
orchard that must not be overlooked. Young peach trees grow
rapidly under good cultivation, but stop culture only for one
season and they make but little growth and soon appear yellow
and weak.

Spraying, cultivation and fertilization are often neglected
following a winter when the fruit buds are killed by extreme
cold. Then is the time when they need culture as never before
in order that they may overcome the effects of the freezing.
If, in addition to lack of culture, the injured trees are left ex-
posed to attacks of leaf curl and borers, the end is in sight.

Where temperatures of 10 to 15 degrees or more below zero
are likely .to prevail in winter, the cultivation should stop
early, but it is, nevertheless, essential that cultivation be prac-
ticed. In some situations in northern districts only a portion
of the land between the trees is cultivated. This may be en-
tirely satisfactory, provided that sufficient growth and vigor
result.

Fertilization.

Peach trees that are weak in vigor cannot be depended upon
for either good or consistent crops. Cultivation of some soils
which have been put in a state of high fertility may promote
a sufficient growth of the trees for several years without further
stimulation, but under average conditions some fertilization
will be required annually.

It has been clearly shown in recent years that nitrogen is
more often the limiting factor with peaches than either potash

or phosphoric acid. Nitrogen has a marked effect upon the
vegetative growth, which is one of the determining factors in
size, color and quahty of fruit. We must have a certain amount
of growth and vigor to secure crops.

Peach trees can be overfertilized with nitrogen, however, as
the summer of 1919 emphatically demonstrated. When it rains
frequently during the summer, trees make a much more rapid
growth than under normal conditions, even when the fertility
of the soil is the same. Fruit upon rapidly growing trees with
vigorous foliage is more susceptible to attack from brown rot
than fruit upon slow or moderately growing trees. Fruit heav-
ily shaded by foliage does not develop as firm a texture and
the skin lacks the protective qualities of that on fruit which
develops in sunlight.

By employing a quickly available source of nitrogen, such as
nitrate of soda, one may control the growth of his trees some-
what according to the character of the season. A smaller
amount than is believed necessary should be applied just as
growth begins in early spring to make sure the trees have vigor
enough to set the crop. If a wet season follows, no additional
nitrogen may be necessary. If, on the other hand, the trees
,show a need for the nitrogen, an additional application can be
made. The effects of an application of nitrate of soda will
often be seen within ten days, or, at most, two weeks' time,
unless the weather is very dry. I am unable to say just how-
late it would be safe to make a second application in New
England if the trees needed it, but probably June 15 to 20 is
within bounds.

Pruning.

Pruning is a topic for discussion in itself and I shall only
mention one fact which may be a bit less well known than some
others. It is generally understood that dormant pruning in-
vigorates a tree, and this, in general, is true. The character
of the pruning, however, largely determines whether any result-
ant effect will be noted. A light thinning out of the branches,
especially near the base of the tree, may result in but little or
no increase in annual twig development, while the same amount
of wood removed in a cutting back of the tips of branches will
do so.

8

Trees weakened by production or from winter injuries will
require cutting back as well as thinning out in order to secure
the desired vigor.

Spraying.

The wSan Jose scale no longer causes peach growers any worry,
which in some instances results in more cases of peach leaf curl
because of the failure of the growers to apply a dormant spray.
Leaf curl weakens the trees by reducing the foliage in early
spring and in severe cases causes the loss of the crop. It is true
the trees put out a second crop of leaves, but damage has been
done. Thorough spraying with winter strength lime-sulfur in
early spring before the buds start into growth will completely
control the disease. If applied after the leaf buds show the
least bit of green, how^ever, your time and material may be
wasted for the year, since the disease will probably have entered
the leaves and will develop in spite of any spray.

Dusting peaches for the control of scab, curculio and brow^n
rot in summer is becoming a frequent practice in New Jersey
and districts south. A dust comprised of sulfur and arsenate of
lead powder without lime was tried out upon peaches as early
as 1914 in New Jersey and caused severe defoliation. Experi-
ments the same year in which a mixture of sulfur, arsenate of'
lead and air-slaked lime were used showed no burning and gave
good control of peach scab. A more extensive experiment in
1916 showed that a mixture of 65 pounds sulfur, 25 pounds
hydrated lime and 10 pounds dry arsenate of lead was safe to
use, and gave good control of peach scab. Since then mixtures
of 70-20-10 and 80-10-10 have been used with good results in
the control of scab and brown rot. During the past season I
have heard of serious injuries to peaches south of New Jersey
by applications of dust containing no lime, and of growers who
made an application of arsenate of lead without lime with the
idea of slightly burning the foliage to gain color. Any one who
attempts either of the above is "playing with fire." If you use
sulfur and dry arsenate of lead on peaches, do not fail to use at
least 10 per cent of lime. It is better to be safe than sorry.

9

Brown Rot.

A discussion upon spraying of the peach would not be com-
plete without a word as to the serious outbreak of brown rot
which occurred in eastern and southern peach regions during
the summer of 1919.

An attack upon the blossoms was followed by an extended
period of wet weather at ripening time, and some growers
suH'ered heavy losses in decayed fruit, especially of such varie-
ties as Champion. In looking for the cause of the great volume
of infection. Dr. M. T. Cook, plant pathologist of New Jersey,
found that the disease not only carried over from one season to
the next on the dried mummied peaches but also in cankers
on the new wood. These cankers continue to develop spores
during the early part of the summer, and infect the fruits
unless they are protected by spray. Thorough summer spraying
therefore protects not only the ripening fruit but keeps down the
number of cankers upon the branches.

While brown rot was very severe during 1919, it is doubtful
whether weather conditions will prove as favorable for its de-
velopment in 1920, and a normal, thorough summer spraying
should hold it in check. The severe outbreak of brown rot in
1919 served to point out the weakness of some varieties of
peaches that are striving for popular favor.

Varieties.

Only a very few varieties of all that are introduced are able
to secure a place upon a list of the best five, and still fewer are
able to hold such a place for many years. It is of interest to
note that Oldmixon Free originated previous to 1800 and held
high commercial rank for a hundred years. Heath Cling ap-
parently originated before Oldmixon and is still planted in a
very limited way, but has never become as popular.

Elberta, Carman and Greensbo rough are, therefore, all young-
sters who Avere almost unknown twenty-five years ago. Their
introduction was a distinct advance in hardiness, especially the
latter two. In the last few years no introduction has been able
to win a place from the leading sorts, yet we need better varie-
ties than any we now have that ripen before Elberta.

10

The New Jersey Experiment Station has more than 2,000
seedlings from known parents that are of fruiting age, several
hundred of which fruited in 1919. We hope that at least one
of these will be able to advance the standard of present-day
varieties.

Although my subject is modern developments in peach grow-
ing, I am going to wander a bit in closing in order to bring out
some facts which should interest you.

^ I said earlier that in some sections there was likely to be a
mad rush to plant peaches. Some of these will be small farm
orchards, some moderate-sized commercial plantings and some
of a syndicate nature. History certainly repeats itself in the
peach business. Many orchards are never cultivated after they
are planted and still others are abandoned after the second or
third year. Some plant their whole farm to peaches at the
very start and find the burden too heavy for the capital avail-
able before a profitable crop is secured and fall by the wayside.
I would not advise any one to put all his eggs in one basket,
and this is especiallly true of peaches in regions where severe
winter temperatures may cause severe damage. It is a good
plan to combine peach growing with the culture of other fruits
and vegetables or other lines of farming. In fact, this is good
advice for any one starting to grow any tree fruit.

Another point worthy of our attention at this time is that
there are always seasons when competition is so great that low
prices prevail. It is then that the man with favorable loca-
tion, who can produce peaches at low cost, wins out.

There is a tendency to-day toward the formation of so-called
orchard companies or syndicates, who plant out thousands of
trees, and they not infrequently limit their efforts to the pro-
duction of a single tree fruit, so that before the orchard comes
into bearing they have a tremendous overhead expense. High
salaries to managers and foremen are also common in such
enterprises. And while it is true that you can buy tools,
spraying materials and fruit packages cheaper in large lots, it
becomes increasingly difficult as the size of the orchard is in-
creased to obtain the best results in the form of fine fruit.

To my mind the best results in peach growing are obtained
in the long run where one who knows and likes the business

11

can gi\e it his inclividual attention, and who stays in the game
through the ups and downs that are almost certain to occur.
And those who have the welfare of fruit growing at heart like
to see a large number of individual owners actually engaged
in the growing of fruit.

Mr. Blake. Perhaps I could interest you more if we could
have a discussion of any of the questions which may come to
your mind. The peach-growing industry in New Jersey is one
in which all phases bring questions forward, and the modern
developments at the present time seem to me largely those of
the question of getting started right and the details of carrying
on the work. Sometimes I think a certain fact or a certain
principle is new, comparatively new. Then I will run across
some old report of a State horticultural society or an old gar-
den magazine and find that some man fifty or sixty or one hun-
dred years ago said the same thing, so it is hard to tell where
the old leaves off and the new begins.

Mr. Parsons. On the foliage spray, does it pay to put it
on in the years when the buds are frozen?

Mr. Blake. Why, if you have an orchard in good condition,
I think it would certainly pay to protect that against leaf curl,
if you are likely to have leaf curl.

Mr. Parsons. That would be the dormant spray?

Mr. Blake. That would be the dormant spray. In the
summer time, if there was no crop, I do not think that would
be necessary ordinarily. You could save that. But some cul-
ture and fertilization to keep up the vigor would be desirable.

A Member. The brown rot is apt to affect the foliage, I
understand; and what spray would you spray for that? We
find the small twigs dead, caused by brown rot.

Mr. Blake. Yes. I think if your orchard is without a crop,
I do not think it would be necessary to go through a thorough
system of summer spraying. Now, I suppose that some of the
plant pathologists and others would disagree with me there, —
the idea is to spray and keep spraying, but we carried on an or-
chard in a commercial way in connection with our work, and I
also looked at it from the economical and money side; and if
I had an orchard, even in Xew Jersey, where the rot is un-

12

doiibtedlv more severe than here, — it is more severe as vou
go south, — I would spray it for curl and cultivate it so as to
keep it in good vigor. But I would not do very much summer
spraying. That is my personal opinion. I think I could save
money there. I do not fear the brown rot so very much. I
think with thorough spraying in the season in which the crop
is produced you can hold it down, unless you have some variety
like our old friend Triumph, when it is almost a race to see
whether you can get to the station with it before it rots, but I
think with ordinary varieties it would not be necessar>' to
summer spray very much in the season when there was no
crop.

A Member. The dormant spray which controls the leaf
curl, I presume that is also good to control brown rot on those
cankers. Would it hold that in check, to some extent?

Mr. Blake. Well, not very much, in our experience. It
was found this past summer that those cankers putting up
growths kept producing spores, and the winter spraying will
not prevent that. But without a crop in the trees, and in this
section, I do not think it would be serious.

Mr. Parsons. Does brown rot ever kill the Champion
trees?

Mr. Blake. I do not think so. Champion is going out with
us very fast, and we won't have any for it to kill there in a
few years. It is so uncertain as a shipper, it rots so easily;
and I will always remember the season of 1915, when I went
into New York one morning with the market already heavily
supplied with yellow peaches and saw 16 carloads from West
Virginia, where they had cold weather, and they were all cling-
stone. That 16 carloads of Champion broke the camel's back.
That is, it was a lot of clingstones in there that were rotting,
and it hurt the market.

Mr. Parsons. Have you found anything to take the place
of the Elberta peach?

Mr. Blake. No, and I do not think we will for a few years.
I think very few of the fruit growers realize that in the Elberta
peach you have a commercial variety that has a record that no
other commercial variety tree fruit can match. It is either the
first or second variety of importance from Connecticut to

13

Georgia, and east and west to California. It has a great range
of adaptability, and the ability to come across better than any
other commercial variety we have. Now, we are using Elberta
in our crossing in New Jersey, to obtain new varieties, but I
think it will be some time before we get varieties that will
exceed that one in all its qualities. We have some of our most
interesting seedlings that are crosses between either the Belle
and Elberta and some other variety.

Dr. Fowler. What is the best spray for brown rot, and
how often do you use it? I have a small orchard, and it was
nearly killed by brown rot last year.

Mr. Blake. In my experience, thorough spraying with any
of the good summer sprays is the best recommendation to make.
We find self-boiled lime-sulfur a little bit the most effective
spray; but last summer our growers who dusted several times
late in the season after that wet period got very good results;
and some of our growers used the commercial mixture known
as "atomic sulfur." I believe either of those materials applied
thoroughly and at frequent intervals will hold it in check. Of
course, this thing was true: some growers two years ago did
not pick their orchards clean at ripening time, and they left
some peaches on to get very ripe for the local trade, and those
orchards gave the most trouble from brown rot last year. The
orchards that were picked promptly and clean did not suffer as
severely as the others, but I think it is in the thoroughness of
the spray and increasing the number of sprays in a bad season
that are the most important points in controlling the rot.

Dr. FoW'LER. What is the name of the last spray?

Mr. Blake. Atomic sulfur is a commercial material that
many of our growers use.

Mr. Parsons. How many sprays would you recommend?

Mr. Blake. WVll, with us we w^ould use three or four
summer sprays in a wet season like the last one, and I think
some of the men put on more, but we have a fairly long season,
and we have peach scab to contend with in southern New Jer-
sey every year. That is a disease that causes little black spots
to come on the fruit. We have that every year, and what our
growers did last season was to apply an extra spray. We had
that rainy weather after a period when we would ordinarily

14

stop. They dusted and sprayed again. The men that did that
saved the crop. The ones that did not suffered severely from
rot. We did the same thing with apples. The growers who
put on a late spray on the apples in August, w'hich they ordi-
narily do not apply, had fruit free from the sooty blotch and
fungus. In other words, the spray schedule that any section
might have should be a basis for guidance. That is all. You
have to vary that somewhat according to the season, and our
growers put on an extra spray.

Mr. Donald MacRae. Have you seen any orchards that
have entirely controlled the different fungi and insects by the
dusting method? In Massachusetts this last year, — what I
mean to say, been controlled entirely without any wet spray?
What has been the result?

Mr. Blake. The question is, whether dusting will control
all of the insects and diseases? No, I do not think so. I think
we have to depend upon our wet spray in the winter leaf curl.
Personally, where the rot is serious and where we have peach
scab as serious as we had in southern New Jersey and south,
I think a wet spray, just as the fruit sets, before the shooks are
off, is a good thing too. Then, I think you can dust with good
results. Most of our growers thus far have put on one or two
winter sprays and have then dusted, but I do not believe that
you can depend upon dusting to control leaf curl.

Mr. Van Meter. What are your best controllers for cur-
culio ?

Mr. Blake. What are our best measures for control of cur-
culio? First, a little as to our experience with curculio. We
find that orchards that are surrounded by grass lands give us
more trouble for curculio than where they are surrounded by
cultivated area.

It is a common statement that curculio is more prevalent
where orchards adjoin woodlands, and that is true to some
extent, but they seem to be able to harbor very well in grass
land.

In the second place, we believe that thorough summer spray-
ing just at the time the fruit is setting and about ten days to
two weeks after is the most effective means to control curculio
with us.

15

Now, some of your station publications and schedules are a
little weak on one point. They say, "Spray when the shooks
are slipping, or when the shooks are well off," and until about
two or three years ago our growers were about two or three
days late on that spray.

With us, the curculio begins to attack the fruit just as soon
as the calyx has slipped away from the stem. If it is only one-
eighth of an inch, then the curculio starts in, and if you ex-
amine tho?e peaches carefully, you can find the punctures and
the egg laid, so we believe you must start just as soon as the
calyx commences to slip. If you wait until half of them are
off, a lot of curculio damage will have been done.

In our experience, the curculio question is not serious when
you have a very heavy set of fruit. They take off 20 per cent.
There is plenty left. It is serious when you have just enough
to make a crop. Then you can't afford to give any away.
Then it is important to put on that spray early enough.

The curculio last year got fooled somehow with the weather.
It did not show up with us until the peaches were three-
quarters of an inch in diameter, so we had very little dropping
of the fruit as the result. But that is an exception to the
rule.

Mr. Roach. What Avinters, in your experience, would you
say would be the most detrimental or the most favorable to the
perpetuation of brown rot?

Mr. Blake. What kind of winter? The question is, what
kind of winter would be the most favorable or detrimental to
brown rot? I do not believe the winter would make very much
difference. I believe the disease is able to stand cold as well as
heat, but I doubt whether the winter would have very much
effect. These cankers will produce spores the next spring if
the weather is favorable. They will continue to produce them
during the spring and summer, so it is summer spraying you
must depend upon to hold it in check.

Mr. Chess]vl\n. After a good winter freeze, I would like to
ask a question as to whether you would advise light or mod-
erate or severe pruning.

Mr. Blake. In my experience, that would depend on the
age and condition of the tree. If the injury were slight and I

16

had two and three year old trees in good form, I would prune
them about the same as I always would. If they were older, I
would cut them back fairly well. If they were very much
weakened in vigor and nearing the end of their bearing age, I
would cut them back severely.

Mr. Mayo. I. would like to ask what your idea is in putting
in a new orchard where you have an old one.

Mr. Blake. Would you plant a new orchard on the site of
an old one?

Mr. Mayo. Yes.

Mr. Blake. I would rather not do it for one or two years.
I think it would pay to put that land to some other crop for
a year or two and get it back into uniform shape. After the
trees are planted, it is not as easy to improve the soil. How-
ever, it might be possible, if the land was in a high state of
cultivation, to grpw an orchard there immediately after one
has been taken out, but I think it would be best to rotate it
for a year or two.

Mr. Knowles. You spoke of dormant pruning giving vigor
to the tree. Now, up in New England here so much of a peach
tree will winterkill that we do not know which is going to live
and which is going to die. We hardly know" which branch is
going to bear and which branch isn't going to bear until towards
spring, and sometimes we are compelled to wait to ascertain
those facts before we can do any pruning at all, or we may
simply cut off the branches that are going to live and leave
those that are going to die, or cut off the branches that are going
to bear and leave those that are not going to bear, in dormant
pruning.

Mr. Blake. Well, when you have winter injuries late in
the season, it does disarrange your program some. You do not
know in November or December what you are going to have
left in March or April, and sometimes it is necessary to prune
rather late in the spring. But by late winter and early spring,
you should know something about what your trees are likely
to do.

Mr. Campbell. If a person has a roadside stand, what
would you recommend planting to come in between main vari-
eties of the Greensborough, Carman, Belle and Elberta?

17

]VIr. Blake. Varieties coming in between Greensborough and
Belle?

Mr. Campbell. Between Greensborongh, Carman and El-
berta and Belle in the time those peaches are not in the market
and you have a roadside market and want to continue.

Mr. Blake. The question is, a man has a roadside stand,
what varieties should he grow to fill in between Greensborough,
Carman, Belle and Elberta?

Now, I haven't studied the roadside situation in New Eng-
land. I do not pretend to know it as intimately as I do in
New Jersey; for roadside stands our people start with Greens-
borough. Usually the next variety is Carman. Some follow
that with Lola, which is practically a freestone Carman, ripen-
ing about a week later. Then the next most common variety
is the Hiley. We find that variety has to receive special atten-
tion in pruning, after the first three or four years, if we want
good size. It needs to be pruned back harder than some of the
others; otherwise, the fruit runs a little small.

Then our people still have the Champion, but it is growing
less popular every day because of its susceptibility to rot, and
more of them are growing Belle and Elberta. With us, the Arp
and Rochester have not been satisfactory. So that we still
stand upon those older varieties.

Of course, you can vary the ripening of any variety a week
by your method of culture. Eor example, Elberta upon light,
sandy soil, not heavily fertilized, will ripen a week earlier than
Elberta that is well fertilized, so that you can extend the ripen-
ing of a variety a little by the way you handle it, and the few
varieties mentioned would practically cover the season as we
have it now.

Mr. Packard. I would like to ask in regard to spraying at
the time of blossoming. I ask this question because in our
section in Plvmouth Countv thev are now considering the
killing of the bees, — as the bees are looking after their honey
at that time, — as the spraying, the poisonous substance used,
is killing oft" the bees.

Mr. Blake. The question is as to my opinion of spraying
the peach while in full bloom. I do not think it is desirable,
and I do not think it is of any use. I heard it suggested at a

18

meeting two weeks ago that it would help to control blossom
blight caused by the brown rot in early spring, but I do not
believe it would help at all. It won't help in the control of
curculio, and if it doesn't help in the case of brown rot, why
do it? No, I can't see any advantage in spraying at full bloom,
and I wouldn't advise it.

Chairman MuNSON. We generally go to New York State to
get an authority on apple-grading laws. We havfe done it in
this case, and the subject is a very important one to Massa-
chusetts growers, and I thought we ought to have some one
here who had had a little experience in demonstrating apple-
grading laws, so we have Mr. B. D. Van Buren, assistant director.
Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture of New
York, to discuss this important subject with us.

Mr. Van Buren. Just before I start my paper, T would
like to say a word, in regard to the question of pruning, which
was raised in Mr. Blake's talk. I think that where you have
peach trees eight to twelve years old, which have been very
badly injured by the winters, — I believe that severe pruning
would seriously injure the tree and might kill it, and that really
moderately heavy pruning would give better results than the
severe pruning along dehorning lines.

Mr. Blake. I tried to make it clear that we did not believe
in dehorning trees in good bearing condition, and that we did
not alter our pruning very much on young trees, but when an
orchard gets to the point that it is very, very weak, and is
about ready to go out, our idea is if it isn't pruned back, j'ou
might as well pull it out, whether it is winter injured or not,
but that would mean orchards that are about ten years old.
On those orchards you would either try to renew them or take
them out if they were severely injured.

Mr. Van Buren. If they were severely winter injured, and
I calculated to pull through, instead of giving severe pruning,
give them a moderately heavy pruning and give moderate
thinning out.

Mr. Blake. It is one of the points that might interest you.
We believe it is a mistake to let an orchard go in pruning until
about the tenth, or any renewal pruning until about the tenth
year, so that if you want to renew it you have to dehorn it.

19

The suggestion is that tlie part be pruned out in the center, so
that the year before you would cut back severely, you would
get a lot of new suckers and new growth inside, and then by
cutting back you have a new top without heavy pruning. I
did not intend to convey the idea that we would approve of
heavy dehorning of orchards of trees that were in good condi-
tion, — six or seven years of age, — but only after they were
very, very weak and ready to go out.

®l)c ^cinmontocaltf) of iBa00acl)ii0eto

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 23

March, 1920

APPLE GRADING LAWS

B. D. VAN BUREN

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

appkoved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

3-'20-2,500

^ i

APPLE GEADING LAWS.

B. D. VAN BUREN, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY,
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, NEW YORK.

Why an Apple Grading Law?

Because all commodities that are in general trade are handled
to a much better advantage in a large way if standardized, and
such standardization cannot be generally obtained in food
products except by some compulsory standard defined by law
and some body with authorized power to enforce such standard-
ization.

The apple trade of many of the States is now one of the large
items of their agricultural income.

The United States total apple production in 1918-19 was as
follows: in 1919, 49,152,000 barrels valued at $275,463,000; in
1918, 56,697,000 barrels valued at $225,562,000; approximately
7,535,000 barrels less in 1919, valued at $25,000,000 more.

The commercial crop was estimated as follows: in 1919,
26,174,000 barrels valued at $154,950,000; in 1918, 24,743,000
barrels valued at $126,684,000.

The difference between the commercial and total crop a^ given
by government statistics would indicate that 23,000,000 barrels
of apples in the United States have been used for home con-
sumption or sold locally or used in by-products. It is esti-
mated that 9,830,000 barrels have gone into by-products, prin-
cipally cider, vinegar and dried apples.

We, apple growers of the barreled apple States, are face to
face with a keen competition, which is cutting into our markets
for our best grades of apples to such an extent that we must
wake up and that quickly.

I refer to the western box apple trade, — one of the great
reasons why we should have an apple grading law. Western

box apples are standardized to such a degree that, opened top,
side or bottom, what you see represents the entire contents of
the package. How about the barrel that was packed before
any apple grading law was enacted? Could you tell from look-
ing at the top or bottom what was contained therein except
apples? How about the barrel that is now packed under the
present apple grading laws of the various States? Better? Yes.
Possibly you do not all agree with me, but handlers, commission
merchants, retailers and all that I have talked with agree that
it is much better than a few years ago. But all agree that there
is yet room for much improvement, and if you growers will go
down with me to the wholesale markets and compare the aver-
age box with the average barrel of apples found there and being
offered for sale, you could not help coming away with a feeling
of discouragement and even disgust with the poor showing that
many of our eastern barreled apples are making compared to
the western box apple.

Relative to western box apple competition I would like to
submit the following data relative to New York City markets,
and I believe that to some extent at least the same general
condition exists here in Boston: —

From August 1 to December 31, 1919, there were received in
New York City 5,578 cars of apples of which 2,973 carloads
were barreled apples, 1,791 of which originated in New York
State, and 2,605 cars were box apples from the w^estern box
States.

During the same time, in 1918, there were received in New
York City a total of 6,056 cars of apples of which 4,701 car-
loads were barreled apples, 2,788 of which originated in New
York State, and 1,355 cars were box apples.

During the whole season of 1918-19 there were received in
New York City a total of 10,627 cars of apples of which 7,772
cars were barreled apples, of which 5,201 came from New York
State, that is two-thirds of the barreled apples sold in New
York City, season of 1918-19, came from New York State, and
during the same season there were received 2,855 cars of box
apples.

The car lots of barreled apples received in New York City,
season of 1919-20, up to December 31, 1919, originated as
follows : —

West Virginia,

131

New Hampshire,

8

Delaware,

37

Connecticut, .

12

Nebraska,

1

New York,

1,783

Massachusetts,

180

Pennsylvania,

27

Arkansas,

5

Maryland,

46

Nova Scotia, .

9

New Jersey, .

232

Missouri,

3

Wisconsin,

2

Unknown, . ,

2

Indiana, .

1

Virginia, .

263

Vermont,

95

Rhode Island,

3

Illinois, .

1

Maine,

121

Long Island, .

8

Total, .... 2,973

Michigan,

3

Many of our apple grading laws are not drastic enough.
They go only part way, and the reason why they have gone
only part way is largely because of the opposition of growers
who yet believe that they have the right to put over a raw deal
upon the consumer.

I can talk a little stronger here, possibly, than I would dare
to do in New York State. You have a better law here than we
have, and I might say that in New York City it has been
recognized, during the past few months, that Massachusetts A
grade usually stands for good packs and some of the best Bald-
wins on the New York City market have been Massachusetts
Baldwins. But some growers want to put in as many poor
apples as possible. Then the person who buys the barrel,
which opens up beautifully at the face end, and maybe is good
to look upon at the press end, while two-thirds of the apples
in the barrel are so much poorer than the face end, feels sore.
Even if he bought them at cider apple prices, he, at heart,
feels he has been stung.

Trade in a commodity is bound to lag if there is no stand-
ardized grade and one does not know what he is buying until
he sees the pack.

A State or National Apple Grading Law?

I believe, and many growers and dealers in New York are of
similar belief, that we should have a national apple grading
law, supplemented by State laws similar in nature, and even-
tually we will all have to come to this view. Some, at least,

6

of the best authorities on agricultural law and interstate trade
feel that we, in New York, are treading on dangerous ground
when we insist that apples grown and packed in New York
State, or any State, must be branded and packed in accordance
with the State apple grading law, when, as a matter of fact,
the goods are for export to other States or foreign countries.
Good lawyers doubt if the law will hold water when the apples
are going outside the State in so-called interstate trade. A
Federal law would obviate all doubt upon the subject, and we
would be able to catch easily the fellow who now ships out
"unclassified" and after getting them outside the State shaves
off the "unclassified" and labels them "A Grade," or else
ships out carlots unmarked as to grade and so poor as to be
unclassified and marks them a standard grade after getting
them outside of the State. I think you, in Massachusetts, have
the same difficulty but to a smaller degree than we in New
York. We feel the need of such a Federal law and will give
such a law our hearty support. About the only opposition
will be from those that want no apple grading law of any kind.
Optional laws have been tried out, both Federal and State, and
from their influence upon the trade are not worth the time it
takes to pass them or the paper they are printed upon.

Some Essentials of Any Good Apple Grading Law.

The face must be a true representation of the contents of the
package. We have got to come to it in New York State. All
of the barreled apple States have got to come to it. Uniformity
of grade — you see top, you see all — sells western box apples,
sold Hales' Georgia peaches, and will sell barreled apples from
barreled apple States. Buyers have reached the point of no
patience with the snide pack, package or packer.

Canada had to require that the face should truly represent
the pack.

The West Virginia law states, "the facing shall fairly repre-
sent the contents as to size, color and quality."

Delaware has gone further and requires that the face "shall
be truly representative of the size, color and quality of the
apples in the package."

Pennsylvania requires that "face or exposed surface shall

fairly represent the average of the apples in the package," and
goes on to state that "it shall be considered a fair representa-
tion if the face does not excel the average of the apples in the
package by more than 15 per centum in the matter of size and
freedom from defects." But the Pennsylvania law establishes
no grades.

Maine states, "the pack should be uniform throughout ex-
cept in barrels, the facing should be made of apples of uniform
size, color and shape. The apples used in facing should be a
part of the grade in the package; they should not be taken
from a higher grade." "Should be" is not a term positive
enough to put in any apple grading law.

The Vermont law not being compulsory, it is probable that
most of the apples packed in Vermont which have complied
with the law as to packing and branding, have been so packed
because these grades were generally recognized in the markets
of the east where their fruit is marketed.

Massachusetts requires that the packages shall not be over-
faced.

The tolerance allowance for standard grades should be small,
and the poor, indefinable term, now used in many of the laws
"practically free," should be defined in the laws to read:
"Practically free means free from all defects except for toler-
ance allowance." Such terms as "should be," "fairly repre-
sent," "materially deform or discolor," etc., are too indefinite
and make the prosecution of violations difficult.

The following barreled apple States have apple grading laws:
Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont,
Delaware, New York, West Virginia, Michigan, Pennsylvania,
and possibly one or two other States.

Provisions for Educational IVork among Groivers and Packers.
— Certainly an attempt should be made through Farm Bureau
organizations and local fruit growers' associations to fully in-
form growers and dealers as to the requirements of the law and
how they can best obey its mandates. The requirements must
not be so high that it is impossible to obey them if reasonable
care is taken, and should not greatly hinder the speed of pack-
ing operations.

8

How ENFORCED.

And, lastly, it must have teeth. A compulsory law will soon
fall into disuse and disfavor if adequate penalties are not pro-
vided and action is not brought against violators promptly and
carried through to completion.

Under our New York law it seems almost impossible for us
to get prompt action. By that I mean it is impossible to get
the defendant into court before several months or a year after
the violation. I know that the effect would be much better if
we could reduce the time to ten days or two weeks. However,
even with this delay and a comparatively few men inspecting
for the enforcement of the law, a great change has been made.

In looking over the New York markets to-day we find but
few shipments in which the packer has not tried to obey the
law. This is also true in shipments from those other States
that have compulsory grading laws.

In New York we employ from four to twelve men from Sep-
tember to May on this work, largely making the inspections at
shipping points, storage houses and the large city markets.
From two to four men are kept busy in New York City, and
the fruit is largely inspected there when unloaded from car to
boat. This is comparatively easy as 95 per cent or more of
the New York apples going to New York City arrive there at
two railroad stations and three Hudson River steamboat docks;
probably two-thirds of the New York apples that go to New
York Citv are unloaded at Pier 17, North River.

This year up to January 15, 2, .300 inspections have been
made, 40 cases have been referred as violations, and 213 people
have violated the law in some minor manner, which has been
taken up with the violator by correspondence.

I have spoken of western box apple competition, and you
should realize that this year in particular it has made great
inroads upon the barreled apple trade. As seen on our markets,
they excel our apples in color, finish and uniformity of both
size and grade in the package. Those are their selling points.

Eastern barreled apples have a reputation for better flavor,
texture and keeping quality than the western boxed fruit. Is
there any reason why we cannot equal the West on uniformity

of size and grade, and then put our flavor, texture and keeping
quality against their color and finish? And with our best colored
varieties we can come pretty close on the color and finish prop-
osition. So close, indeed, that if we, in other respects, equal
them, we shall find our apples retaining their part of the best
dessert trade, which, as a matter of fact, is to-day drifting
rapidly to the box. It costs now $2.30 in freight and tax to
bring a barrel of box apples to our eastern markets. This will
certainly be a great handicap in years of plenty and low prices.
When we have packed and have on sale apples described
above, we can go into the advertising game in a State-wide way
and not before.

Mr. Houston. I live in New York. I would like to know
what becomes of the good apples in New York State or any-
where else. I belong to eight or ten horticultural societies, and
I have been chasing good local-grown apples all the way from
Kansas and Minnesota down to here for the last sixteen years,
and I have attended most of the horticultural meetings in the
Central West and the Eastern States, and I have always made
it a practice to go around town and see if I could find a respect-
able apple, a sound, local-grown apple in the town, and the
only town east of the Rocky Mountains in which I have ever
found a localrgrown, — by that I mean grown in the same State
where the town is, — the only town I ever found a respectable
local-grown apple in is the little village of Dover in Delaware.
There they were just the Delaware apples, good, nice and sound
apples grown in Delaware, at retail; and I have been over to
Rochester a good deal. I have never been able to find a good
local-grown apple in Rochester. They are always hollering
there about the apple market being good. It is the same way
in Maine when I go there. I can't find anything but culls; I
never saw anything but culls around this town of local-grown
apples. There may be some. I wish, Mr. Van Buren, some
time you would come to Washington Heights and see if you
cannot find a respectable New York apple in the four or five
miles of local markets that are run by the Italians and the
Greeks up there. I fail to find it.

You see barreled apples sometimes, but you dig into those

10

apples and there isn't a sound apple in the whole barrel. I
don't know whether they sell the face of the apples separately
or not, but what is the result on the retail trade? Why, they
don't buy any apples. That is all there is to it. I was raised
on a New England farm where we had apples fit to eat. What
is the final result of the operation? We all buy citrous fruit.
Simply got to buy it. Simply got to buy it in New York City
to get any fruit fit to eat, unless you buy western boxed apples,
and you may consider western boxed apples cost you 10 cents
apiece. I can get three very good grape fruit for a quarter.
What do I buy? I buy the grape fruit, of course, as everybody
else has to do. It seems to me the apple grading law is good,
and it rather arouses interest in seeing if anything can be done
to get into the market a respectable local apple where the
people that live in the State can get some of the apples that
grow in that State and get them in good condition. I wish
somebody would get busy about it.

Mr. Van Buren. Well, the gentleman certainly brings a
point out about the city of Rochester. I am quite well ac-
quainted with it. The good apples they ship away, and they
sell the culls there. That is just about the size of it. You
can't find in a fruit store good local-grown apples. Rochester
has got one large grower. Syracuse has got one large grower.

There are several stores there that handle Hitchings apples,
which are brought in there by crates and in crates and sold
there, local-grown apples, but a lot of us really get away from
that local market, particularly here in New England. Isn't it
so? And in, possibly, your State they get away from that good
local market that we have right at our doors, — people that
would like to buy good apples and pay good prices for them.

Now, there are a lot of good barreled apples grown in about
New York City. I do not know who buys them. I do not
know to whom they go. It is a mighty big place. At the
same time, the proportion of good apples may be very small
to the total proportion of poor ones, but this buyer for But-
ler's stores,, — of course, they are grocery stores and supply
the general housewife, — he said, "why, we buy Baldwins
and Greenings, almost exclusively." By the way, if you here
in New England are going to grow apples for the New York

11

market, I would ask you to keep an eye on Rhode Island
Greenings. There isn't an apple selling better in New York
City than Rhode Island Greenings. It pretty nearly tops the
market.

One thing you can get good money for is good Northern Spy
and Mcintosh. They wanted good apples. He said they very
rarely bought anything below A grade. He said, ''We have
bought some marks of B grade, when the mark was excep-
tionally good and was a good pack." But who handles those
good barreled apples, I don't know. I do not know where they
go to. If we are going to get that trade, we have got to put
our apples up better. There is no question about it, or else a
large part of our eastern barreled trade goes for pies and
bakers' stuff and for household use.

And certainly they can't grow anything in the West which
can exceed, and I think will hardly equal, our best Spies or
Mcintosh, or some of our better varieties.

In fact, I do not know anything they can grow in the West
which is any better than a well-grown, well-colored Baldwin,
which isn't too ripe, from Hudson valley or East. I tell you,
the Baldwin is pretty good dessert fruit if it is properly grown,
and it is a good cooking apple, besides.

Dr. TwiTCHELL. Recognizing, as we all do with our interest
in growing apples, the need of stringent legislation, it seems to
me that we never will get results satisfactorily until we get
back to some of the underlying facts or principles.

Enforcement of any law is always dominated by public opin-
ion, and public opinion is simply the opinion of the individual in
the aggregate. Therefore, we must deal with individuals if we
are going to secure the public opinion necessary to insure the
enforcement of any law which has teeth in it. The need of
law is necessary. It seems to me that there was necessary more
thorough work by the inspectors, more general work along
educative lines.

I know that our Commissioner has recognized that fact, but
hasn't had the appropriation necessary to do the work which
he wanted to do. That is, we must secure, if possible, funds
by which and through which men may train men, and they
may be sent into all the sections during the apple packing

12

time, there to work with the packers. There, I believe, is where
we must do more missionary w^ork than we have done in the
past, and that it may lead up to more uniform packing.

I have in mind one bu^•er who has had twentv-six to thirtv
men in my State during the past season, the past year, and he
sent out good men, faithful men, to pack, but there must have
been an inevitable variation in the standards of packing by the
different men in charge of the group; and I think our inspectors
at the cars should be more careful, because the cars are loaded
from half a dozen or more orchards, and only one or two bar-
rels opened for inspection, and no idea of the actual condition
of the car.

It seems to me we ought to get back to the primitive work,
if you may call it so, educative work in packing sheds at the
time of packing the apples that the owners and growlers may
receive the benefit of training as well as the packer and avoid
the friction which grows out of any drastic enforcement of
stringent legislation.

®l)c €omm0nrucaltl) of illa05acl)U0ctt0

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 24

March, 1920

WINTER INJURY TO FRUIT TREES

W. H. CHANDLER

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

/

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.-

WINTER INJURY TO FRUIT TREES.

PROFESSOR W. H. CHANDLER, POMOLOGIST, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE, ITHACA, NEW YORK.

In preparing this paper I am assuming that the growers are
interested primarily in the losses due to the killing of the wood
of the trees during such winters as that of 1917-18. So while
the killing of buds or blossoms is more common, particularly in
case of peaches, cherries, some of the plums and apricots, I
shall confine myself largely to killing of the w^ood.

Before describing the injuries that were to be observed fol-
lowing the winter of 1917-18, it seems w^ell to review briefly
the knowledge gained before that time through experimental
studies as to how plant tissues are killed by low temperature.
Some of the things that we knew were, first, that, unlike ani-
mals, plants possess no ability to maintain a temperature
above that of the air, that is, the temperature of the wood or
buds of the tree follows very closely that of the air temperature.
There are a few exceptions to this rule. Thus, in the case of
the trunks of very large trees, on account of the slowness
with which the heat is conducted through the tissues, the
temperature may remain several degrees above the air tem-
perature. This may be of considerable importance; thus it
is well known that the lowest temperature is likely to be just
before sunrise. The temperatures then begin to rise some-
what rapidly. If at that time the temperature of the tree
trunk should be several degrees above the air temperature, it
may thus be saved from reaching a killing temperature. Small
tree trunks on this account may sometimes reach temperatures
lower than the large ones and may therefore be killed when
the larger trunk, whose tissues are no more resistant, may
survive.

The plant tissue may have a temperature different from the
air temperature when the sun is shining brightly because the
dark color of the tissue absorbs the sunlight. We have thus
known the trunk of a tree on the side next to the sun to show
a temperature of more than 20 degrees above that of the other
side, and the dark twigs may on this account show a tempera-
ture of 15 or 20 degrees above the air temperature. When the
sun is not shining, however, we are generally safe in assuming
that the tree tissue, except in case of very large trunks, is at a
temperature very near to that of the air. At a few degrees
below the freezing point, therefore, we will generally find ice
throughout the tissue.

We also knew that in some way this ice formation is as-
sociated with the killing of the tissue; at least, tissues that kill
at rather high temperature will not be killed unless ice is
formed. Thus it is known that water may reach a temperature
several degrees below freezing without ice formation. The
juices in the plant may sometimes do the same thing. If,
when the plant tissue is thus supercooled, it can be warmed
back up to above the freezing point without ice formation, no
injury results, even when the temperature to which it had
fallen was low enough to kill it if ice had formed. This, of
course, does not mean that ice formation always kills. More of
the water must be in the form of ice to kill some plants than
others. In case of the wood of our trees, nearly all the water
is frozen out before killing takes place. We, of course, do not
know whether the killing results from the taking of the water
away from the protoplasm in ice formation or whether it is
the extent of the ice mass crushing or otherwise injuring the
protoplasm.

It has often been said that if the tissue thaws slowly it may
be uninjured, when it might be killed by rapid thawing. This is
true in the case of ripe apples and pears, provided the tem-
perature has not been too low. With these fruits in storage, if
it becomes cold enough to kill them partially, the injury may
sometimes be avoided by keeping them where they will thaw
very slowly. This does not seem to be true of any other
tissues; thus, in case of the wood of our trees and certainly in

the buds of our peaches, if they reach a given temperature,
they kill regardless of how they thaw.

The rate at which the temperature falls, however, has much
to do with the amount of killing; thus I have been able to
kill peach buds at a temperature above zero F. by freezing them
very rapidly, and I have been able to kill the tissues of fruit
trees in winter at a temperature but 7 degrees below freezing,
when with slow freezing they would have stood very much
lower temperature. This is of practical importance in several
ways. Thus, generally, peach buds will be killed at a tempera-
ture of 12 to 15 degrees below zero, if the temperature fall is
rather rapid, let us say if the buds have been thawed within
twenty-four to forty-eight hours of the time they reach this
temperature. A few winters I have had occasion to observe
the killing of peach buds when the killing temperature came at
the end of a long, cold period. While there had been fluctua-
tions in the temperature, the fall had in reality been rather
gradual. On such occasions I have known a considerable crop
of peaches to be borne on a summer following a temperature of
— 24 degrees F. The greater injury following rapid temperature
fall is also to be observed in case of sun scald. It is not un-
common to see the southwest side of the tree killed. From our
studies the explanation of this killing seems to be that on a
clear day in winter the temperature on the southwest side may
be high enough to thaw the tissue even when the air tempera-
ture is nearly zero. As soon as the direct sunlight goes off of
that tissue it drops almost instantly to that of the other side
of the tree. Then, if the night following is very cold, it is
more liable to be killed than if the temperature fall had been
more gradual.

The killing seems to occur on a single cold night rather
than as the result of long-continued freezing. This is known
to be true in case of buds, for we can thaw them and examine
them the next day and find them dead. In case of the wood,
if we freeze it artificially, we find that it is killed by tempera-
tures about the same as those reached on the extremely cold
nights. This may explain why trees are often killed worse in
one little section than in another that seems to have about the

6

same temperature. Thus, during the winter of 1917-18, there
was much less injury toward the western end of Lake Ontario
than in the counties farther east, but still on the lake that
should have the same lake protection. Probabl}', except for
the cold night of December 30, the temperatures ran about the
same, but on that night there was a cloud hanging over the
western end of the lake and the temperature did not go nearly
so low. It seems probable, then, that it was on that night
that the killing was done farther east.

Of course, in case of wood, the amount of injury suffered at
any temperature is influenced much more largely by the ripe-
ness of the wood than by anything else. This does not mean
that the w^eakest trees that cease growing earlier are necessarily
the ones that suffer the least injury. We shall see from ex-
perience in 1917-18 that proper maturity depends upon the
presence of a large healthy leaf surface. Then, too, the recovery
of the tree does not depend entirely upon the amount of tissue
killed. Thus, if two trees of unequal vigor have an equal pro-
portion of their wood killed, the more vigorous tree will gen-
erally make the better recovery.

During the summer of 1918 I had an opportunity to study
the effects of the preceding severe winter in nearly all sections
of New York and in some sections of Canada, Vermont, Massa-
chusetts and Indiana. There were many different kinds of
injury to be observed, and it seems wise to describe some of the
more general ones.

If a bearing tree were injured but little, what injury there
was would generally show by the browning in the sapwood of
the spurs. If the injury were greater, this browning was likely
to be found in the sapwood in any portion of the tree above
the snow line. In the case of Baldwin and Greening, there was
often browning in the twigs when the amount of injury back in
the branches was not great enough to cause serious harm. On
the other hand, with Ben Davis there was often very little
browning in the twigs and very much near the base of the
branches. When the browning was in the twigs and smaller
portion of the branches, the growth in the following spring was
very weak, the leaves being much smaller than normal. On
the other hand, when the twigs were but slightly injured and the

browning was severe toward the base of the branches, as in
the case of Ben Davis, the early summer growth would often
be nearly normal, but as hotter weather approached the leaves
would suddenly wilt. Of course it is well known that the water
moves up to the leaves through the sapwood. Naturally, if the
sapwood w'ere largely killed, the movement of water would be
interfered with. In the case of Ben Davis, it seems that in
early spring, before the weather was hot enough to cause great
loss of water from the leaves, they could secure a sufficient
amount through the injured sapwood, but, when the evapora-
tion became greater, they naturally wilted. In the case of
Baldwin and Greening and some other varieties, where condi-
tions were favorable there was marked improvement during the
summer and particularly during the summer of 1919. This
was to be expected, since the cambium was not killed and a
new layer of sapwood was soon formed. Where the soil has
been kept in good condition, the tendency has been for the
recovery to be more rapid toward the base of the branches, so
there are very many water sprouts formed. The recovery from
this sapwood injury has been much better where the nitrogen
supply was abundant; thus, in case of some peach trees in our
own orchard, trees fertilized in the spring of 1918 with about
3 pounds of nitrate of soda to a mature peach tree recovered
very much better than alternate trees not so fertilized. It is
now known that when plowing is delayed until late in the
season the nitrogen supply in the soil is very much reduced.
Our apple orchard at Ithaca was plowed in the fall of 1917 and
again in the fall of 1918, so there should have been a maximum
of nitrates in the soil during ^arly summer when growth is
most rapid in case of both seasons. In addition to this, we
applied 3 pounds of nitrate of soda to the tree early in the
spring of 1918 and 4 pounds early in the spring of 1919. We
had careful records as to the amount of winter injury suffered
by each tree as indicated by the growth at the beginning of
1918. Every one of our Baldwin, Greening and Tompkins
King trees started with a very weak growth, yet now they
have reached a normal state of vigor and have practically re-
covered in so far as sapwood injury is concerned. Many
orchards out in the State, where the injury as indicated by the

8

growth at the beginning of the season of 1918 was less than
that in our orchard, have not shown anything Hke such good
recovery. In all cases these orchards were not plowed during
the summer of 1918 or the plowing was delayed until June.
The only orchards, except very young ones, that have shown
marked recovery were either plowed in the fall of 1917 or in
the very early spring of 1918. Severe pruning of such trees
by reducing the initial summer leaf surface should tend to
hasten the recovery of the trees, but whether it actually has
such an effect or not we cannot say with reference to any fruit
except the peach. In case of that fruit, in some years rather
severe pruning has seemed to favor better recovery, but in
other years it has resulted in the death of the tree. So far as
I have observed no harm has ever come from light pruning,
such as would be given the trees in an average year, but very
severe pruning (dehorning) in spite of its apparent benefits
in some years is to be avoided.

The bark is generally more resistant to low temperature than
the sapwood; however, bark killing was often found following
this severe winter. It is found most commonly at the base of
the trunk or at the base of the branches on the inner side. It
seems that the bark ripens more slowly in early winter at these
points. The injury on the trunk is serious only when it is large
enough to go, let us say, one-third of the way around the tree.
That at the base of the branches is the more serious because it
heals so slowly. Young Northern Spy trees are particularly
susceptible to this branch injury, though any trees that grow
so upright that the secondary growth is largely on the other
side of the branches are susceptible. It seems probable that
the reason for the killing is the same as for the slow healing,
that is, the slow movement of the material from the leaves,
there being fewer leaves on that side of the branch. In fact,
I have had a chance to observe Ben Davis and Northwestern
trees where the branches had been so caused to droop by the
crops borne that the secondary branches were only on the upper
side. In that case the bark injury was on the under side of
the branch at the base, thus the injury always seems to be
greatest on the opposite side of the branch from that containing
the most foliage. It is often recommended that this dead bark

9

be removed very early in order to avoid the danger from
heart rot fungus. It should be remembered, however, that the
cambium is even more resistant than the bark and may remain
alive when both bark and sapwood have been badly killed. In
that case a new layer of bark will be formed under this old
dead bark if it is not removed. If it is removed, the cambium
is likely to be dried out and to die. In our observation in a
large percentage of cases the cambium was alive and new bark
did form if the old bark was not removed. In practically all
cases the cambium was alive at least around the edges of the
wound under the dead bark, so leaving the dead bark in prac-
tically all cases markedly reduced the size of the wound.
When it is considered how slowly these wounds heal and how
important it is for the strength of the branch that they be
healed, the benefit from leaving this old bark for one summer
will be appreciated. It would seem best, then, to delay remov-
ing this old bark until the second summer after the trees have
been injured, and if there is an area left where the sapwood is
exposed to paint that. It seems best, also, to do the same with
the dead bark on the trunk.

So far as sapwood killing or complete killing was concerned
the most tender variety of apples was the Baldwin. Tompkins
King, Rhode Island Greening, Gravenstein, bearing Hubbard-
ston, Stayman Winesap and Esopus were nearly as tender.
Ben Davis was more resistant, but it suffered great injury. Xo
injury was found in New York- State to either Mcintosh or
Oldenburg, and Delicious seemed very resistant. Both Fameuse
and Wealthy proved less resistant than Mcintosh, and North-
ern Spy was decidedly less resistant.

It should be borne in mind that the killing during the winter
of 1917-18 was not determined entirely by the winter. The
previous summer was exceedingly short and the wood was not
well ripened for winter. Anything that reduced the foliage
during the previous summer generally increased the amount of
injury; thus, in an average year, the loss of foliage of late
summer due to the red hump apple worm has not been consid-
ered serious. However, I do not know of a single case where a
tree or branch was not killed where the foliage had been re-
moved in this way during the summer of 1917. I saw instances

10

where heavy pruning by reducing the foliage had increased the
injury and where the bark was killed around a wound made by
the removal of a branch in the spring of 1917. An excellent
example of the effect of severe pruning was seen in an orchard
at Pultneyville, New York. Some high-headed Northern Spy
trees had been top-worked to Hubbardston. With some of the
trees all of the Spy wood had been removed during the summer
of 1917, while with.others it had not. Of course the removal of
the Spy wood reduced the size of the top and the amount of
foliage for that year. In all cases where this had been done the
bark and sapwood of the trunk were badly killed, the injury
being greater the farther away from the foliage on the trunk
the tissue was located. In case of the trees where the Spy wood
was not removed, there was little such injury. All over the
State of New York during that winter lower branches that had
lower secondary branches shaded off by upper ones were badly
killed. The foliage on these branches of course was very small
in proportion to the branch. It seems, then, that something
moves downward from the foliage to ripen the wood. An in-
teresting observation was the effect of a heavy crop in the
summer of 1917 on the resistance of the wood during the fol-
lowing winter. Trees bearing a heavy crop in nearly all cases
were killed much worse than others. It would seem possible,
then, that the material from the leaves that would ripen the
wood goes instead to the fruit. The crotch injury and trunk
injury that we have mentioned above seem to be explained in
this wav. TheA' are farthest from the foliage and it takes
longer for the material to reach them, and in case of the
crotch injury there is less foliage on the inner side of the branch
from which the material may move.

Killing in the pear was very much like that of the apple
except that the pears average more tender. Particularly is the
wood more tender in the spurs, thus in most winters in Ithaca
we have serious killing of this wood in the spurs. The Bart-
lett, Angouleme, Bosc, Clairgeau and, generally, Kieffer were
among the more tender, while Clapp's Favorite, Anjou, Lawrence
and Flemish Beauty were among the more resistant, Flemish
Beauty and Anjou being markedly resistant.

11

Since Injury to the peach is quite common and there was
nothing peculiar brought out by the year 1917-18, I shall omit
any discussion of that here.

One is not able to make recommendations for avoiding or
overcoming injury from severe cold as he would be in case of
insect or fungous injury. As we have seen, the most important
method of enabling the trees to overcome rather severe injury
of the wood is good cultivation, that is, either plowing the trees
in the fall or very early spring, and where the soil is not verj^
fertile using nitrate of soda. Of course the trees may be so
injured that nothing can cause them to recover. In that
case the money for the nitrate of soda and for the plowing
would be wasted. There is not much advice to be given as to
means of avoiding injury through increasing resistance of the
trees. If such cold winters always followed short seasons, like
that of 1917, then one might be inclined to advise against en-
couraging too much growth in the case of young trees. How-
ever, if the previous summer should be dry in early summer
and wet in late summer, then a tree in sod might be in more
danger than one receiving good cultivation, for it might receive
a check during early summer when it was dry and start a sec-
ond growth during the wet period following. In "that case it
might be killed by a rather mild winter. So far as our ex-
perience indicates, a tree growing under good cultivation will
have its wood in better condition to resist the average winter
than one that is not well cultivated, and we have seen that
good cultivation will greatly improve its chance to recover even
when the injury has been rather severe.

Much has been said about the effect of the killing of so many
trees during that winter on the outlook for fruit growing. The
number of trees killed was very large, but in so far as the apple
is concerned it is probably small compared with the number of
trees that will soon be coming into bearing in portions of New
York, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland and other sections.
It seems very doubtful if the effect of the number of trees
killed during that year in the total crop of the country could
ever be measured, since the fluctuations due to other causes was
so large.

®l)c ^ommonrDealtf) of iHaesacljusettB

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR No. 25

August, 1920
Supplanting Circular, No. 31, 1915

The FARMER'S Interest in
Game Protection

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS

32 DERNE STREET
1920

Publication of this Document

approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.

THE FAEMER'S INTEREST IN GAME PROTECTION.

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY,
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Introduction.

It is imfortimate that so many farmers evince little or no
interest in game protection. Some regard game laws as of no
advantage to the farmer, but rather as class legislation for the
benefit of the sportsman. Nevertheless, the protection of
game affects the agriculturists more vitally than any other
element of our population. The farmers own the greater
part of the land, and the game is more accessible to them
than to any other class, for they live upon the land where
the game is. Game conservation is advocated under our
present system not solely to furnish sport for a limited num-
ber of individuals, but to protect useful species of birds and
mammals for the benefit of the whole people. Rational game
protection should so work out as to restrict injurious species
to some extent, to protect the land owner against law-break-
ing, trespassing hunters, and to create a community of in-
terest between the farmer and the sportsman. The principle
that game is the property of the State is now well established;^
and has been sustained by the higher courts; but bj^ means
of laws against trespass, which have been enacted simul-
taneously with the game laws, the farmer who posts his land
against hunters or trespassers has been given practical control
of the game so long as it remains on his land, and the exclu-
sive privilege of hunting it there during the open season.^
In Massachusetts he is even allowed by law at any time to
kill deer that are injuring his crops, and also to collect dam-
ages from the State for such injury. Game laws tend to
limit the number of hunters and to shorten the season during
which hunting is legal. They also protect most insect-eating

1 The possession of a hunting license gives no privilege to hunt on the posted land of another.

birds at all times, and abolish the trapping and netting of
game. Were it not for these laws, the farmer would be con-
tinually annoyed by the tramping of hunters through his
fields at all seasons, the tearing down of his pasture walls
and fences and the shooting of birds in the nesting season.

Some game birds are very valuable to the farmer as de-
stroyers of insects and other pests; some game mammals, on
the contrary, are sometimes destructive to his crops or trees;
but the farmer who takes advantage of the laws enacted for
the prevention of trespass, the protection of crops and the
conservation of game and birds, may thereby add to his
prosperity as well as to his pleasure in life, and by fosteiing
the increase of fish, game and birds he may make life more
attractive to his boys, and thus help to keep them on the
farm. This paper will be devoted mainly to the material
advantages that the farmer may derive from the protection
of wild game, and particularly game birds.

Economic Value of Game Birds.

High among the valuable destroyers of insects and weeds
we must rank the bob-white, commonly known in New Eng-
land as the quail. This bird has not only an esthetic value,
by reason of its bright, lively presence and its cheery call, but
it is also one of the chief feathered helpers in field and garden.

Dr. Judd of the Bureau of Biological Survey gives some in-
teresting records obtained by a study of its food.^

The contents of the stomachs of 801 bob-whites were ex-
amined by the experts of the survey; over 50 per cent of
the food consisted of seeds, the bulk of this being weed seeds.
One bird had in its stomach 1,000 seeds of rag weed; another
had eaten no less than 5,000 seeds of the troublesome pigeon
grass. As each bird eats two or more meals a day of this
character during the season when weed seeds may be found,
a few flocks of such birds might do much to limit the pro-
duction of weeds on any farm. Dr. Judd estimates that
the bob-whites of Virginia consume 573 tons of weed seeds
between September 1 and April 30. Examining the insect

1 Judd, Sylvester D. The Economic Value of the Bob-white. Year Book, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1903, pp. 193-204.

food of this bird, he finds that many of the most important
insect pests of the United States are eaten in quantities.
Cucumber beetles, bean leaf beetles. May beetles, click beetles
and their progeny the wireworms, weevils, potato beetles,
spinach flea beetles, grape vine beetles, corn bill bugs, chinch
bugs, cut-worms, cotton worms, boll worms, southern tobacco
worms, army worms, garden caterpillars, grasshoppers, lo-
custs and ants are found in its bill of fare. It is one of the
few birds that are very destructive to the Colorado potato
beetle and the chinch bug. Without question the bob-white
is one of the birds that the farmer should strive to protect
The ruffed grouse, the heath hen, the wild turkey, the in-
troduced pheasants, the woodcock and the snipe, — all have
a greater or less value as insect destroyers, and most of these
birds feed upon the seeds of weeds.

Wild ducks ma}' be of great service during any outbreak
of insect pests in the fields. They are destructive to weed
seeds, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, locusts and army worms.
Most of the non-game birds of the farm are particularly
beneficial. In a report of the Secretary of Agriculture on
the work of the Biological Survey, transmitted to Congress
with a special message by President Roosevelt on Dec. 21,
1907, it is estimated that the sparrows of the United States
saved the farmers of the country in 1906 $35,000,000 by the
destruction of weeds; and that a single species of hawk saves
the farmers of the western States $175,500 a year by the
destruction of grasshoppers and field mice. It will pay the
farmer, therefore, to promote the protection of nearly all the
birds of the farm, and to lend his influence to the enforce-
ment of the game laws and bird laws, for the birds that are
distinctly injurious are not protected.

The Economic Value of Game Mammals.

The native game mammals of Massachusetts consist of
squirrels, hares, commonly called rabbits, and deer. The
woodchuck, raccoon, fox and other predatory or destructive
mammals, although hunted, are usually classed as vermin by
the gamekeeper, but some of them yield valuable fur. Squir-
rels are of some service as tree planters, for they distribute

6

the seeds of nut-bearing and cone-bearing trees far and wide;
also they destroy insects, for a time, in the summer. Under
protection, however, they are likely to so increase in numbers
as to become destructive to birds, nuts, fruit and grain. Rab-
bits, when numerous, destroy young trees; and deer, under
the same conditions, attack young fruit trees and vegetables.
Therefore the farmer has not the same economic incentive
for conserving mammals that he has for protecting birds.
Nevertheless, all these animals add to the attractiveness of
country life. And if the laws are so framed as to give to the
owner of the land an opportunity to protect his property
from their inroads, and to take a reasonable number for
food, the game mammals may be considered as of consider-
able value to the farmer.

Financial Benefits derived from Game.

Under the present laws the game on the farm may be so
conserved and handled as to bring in an annual cash revenue
to the farmer. Owing to the laws which prohibit the sale of
wild game birds, these birds cannot be marketed. Ordinarily,
however, the farmer will find it more profitable to lease his
land for shooting purposes than to sell the game in the mar-
ket. Associations of farmers and sportsmen have been formed,
in which the farmers grant shooting rights on their property
to a limited number of sportsmen, and the sportsmen agree
to protect the farm property from poachers. In other cases
the protection of the farm property is left to the farmer.
In Rockford township, Illinois, a farmers' association was
organized in 1901, each member of which had the right to
grant to any one the privilege of hunting on his farm in his
company. All undertook to promote the strict enforcement
of the game laws. Seventy-five members were enrolled, rep-
resenting 12,000 to 15,000 acres of land. The system under
which this association worked was so complete that poaching
and trespassing were nearly eliminated. Notwithstanding
the shooting done, prairie chickens and quail increased in
numbers, while insect-eating birds became abundant.^

I Palmer, Theodore S. Some Benefits the Farmer may derive from Game Protection. Year
Book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 518.

A somewhat similar system is in operation in North Caro-
lina. Exclusive shooting privileges over farm lands are se-
cured by the sportsman either by paying the owner a certain
sum per acre, or by paying all taxes on his real and per-
sonal property. The sportsman or the sportsmen's club may
thus lease several farms. The lease does not interfere in any
way with the rights of the owner to cultivate the land, or
with his residence thereon. Planting is encouraged. Many
of the lessees furnish the farmers with cow peas or grain for
planting, that the quail may have better food and cover, and
this planting is often carried out on a large scale. Some of
these lessees employ gamekeepers to destroy the natural
enemies of the game and to keep watch for law breakers.
Thus the farmer is relieved from some of the trouble and
annoyance of guarding his property and prosecuting poachers.
This system has become very popular among the southern
farmers, and the game is regarded as one of the assets of
the farm. In Guilford County more than 150,000 acres
have been leased out in this manner, and there are in the
State some large preserves, varying in size from 9,000 to
more than 18,000 acres. This system, as applied in the
south, has a tendency to better the condition of the agricul-
tural population, and to give the children of the farmers
better educational facilities. Under the laws of North Caro-
lina special taxes are imposed for the support of the school
system, and the farmers, realizing that their taxes are paid
by the sportsmen, are more likely to vote additional funds
for school purposes. Thus the game helps to educate the
children.^ This system has brought additional prosperity to
the region, and has increased the numbers of game and birds.
It gives the farmer opportunities to furnish boats and teams
to the hunters, and he and his boys receive some employment
as guides and helpers.

This system has not made much headway in Massachusetts,
but farmers who have given it a trial are well satisfied with
the result. A number of farmers in southeastern Massa-
chusetts, who have learned the value of the bob-white, find

1 Some of the South Carolina lands are poor and rather barren, and where the rights for such
lands are taken by the acre, the annual rental averages only about 6 cents per acre, — a sum
which would look small to Massachusetts farmers.

8

that they can maintain a good stock of these birds by com-
bining, and leasing the shooting rights. Their lands are not
much wooded, and are more easily guarded against poachers
and trespassers than the wooded lands in some other parts
of the State. This may account, in a measure, for their
success.

The principal difficulty in finding lessees for shooting rights
lies in the scarcity of the game, but this drawback can be
remedied. Wherever the game is protected against excessive
shooting, and where such natural enemies of the game as
lynxes, cats, foxes, raccoons, minks, weasels, rats, crows and
bird hawks are held in check by the gamekeeper, the game
soon becomes abundant. In some cases it increases so fast
that considerable shooting becomes necessary to prevent ex-
cessive increase and the consequent spread of infectious dis-
eases, which are very fatal on an overcrowded game preserve.
In this latitude the bob-white is sometimes nearly extermi-
nated by severe winters; but much of this excessive mortality
might be avoided by giving the birds a little care, protection
and food in winter. The woodcock needs only suitable cover
and protection. The ruffed grouse or partridge is hardy,
and may be made numerous on any preserve which contains
good cover and an abundant supply of food. The wooded
hillsides of Massachusetts, interspersed with swampy hollows,
are the natural paradise for this king of game birds; and
there is much rocky and swampy land that is of little value
for anything but the production of timber and game. The
pinnated grouse or heath hen ought to thrive under protec-
tion on much of the sparsely wooded land in southea.-'tern
Massachusetts. The increase in the numbers of these birds
on Martha's Vineyard since the year 1918 gives hope that
they may recover their lost ground. Snipe and certain shore
birds gather on any suitable marshes where they are not
continually molested, while ducks may be attracted to ponds,
streams or fens by a few call or decoy ducks, or by wild rice
or a supply of grain for food.

The principal objection urged by the opponents of' the
system of leasing shooting rights and the establishment of
game preserves is that the policy is un-American, and that it

9

gives over the shooting privileges into the hands of the wealthy
few, thus depriving the many of the right to take game that
belongs to the whole people. It may be admitted that the
system is un-American, for the American policy of destruction
which was so successful in the past allowed unlimited free-
dom to all to take or destroy every living wild thing upon
the face of the earth. Such license was necessarily permitted
during the time of settlement; but unless the people are
restrained in their rapacious tendencies, as population increases
the extinction of all wild game will result. Already the day
of open and free shooting in the east has passed. The occu-
pation of the market hunter has become precarious, and
necessary laws have been enacted, — too late, indeed, to save
some species of our game, but in time to prevent the destruc-
tion of others. As population increases, the number of shoot-
ers will increase; and the present system of game protection
must and undoubtedly will be changed to follow somewhat
that of other countries, which, although more thickly settled
than our own, have nevertheless an abundance of game in
fields and coverts as well as in their markets.

If we are to have game in the future, we must regulate
hunting strictly, and adopt some system of game preserving,
coupled with artificial propagation of game. The policy of
licensing hunters, which has gone into effect in New England,
will restrict the number of hunters, particularly the alien
hunters; and this is a long step in the right direction. For-
eigners, who come here without knowledge of our laws and
with the idea implanted in their minds that liberty in the
new country means license to do as they please, should not
be allowed to shoot at all. Aliens now are prohibited from
hunting, but even with the alien eliminated from the field
there will still remain an army of hunters so vast that, with
free shooting allowed, the game will have little chance except
in remote regions. In 1919 about 72,000 hunters were licensed
in Massachusetts, and the number is constantly increasing.

Under our present system, the only salvation of the game
is to prohibit its sale and thus remove the incentive for mar-
ket shooting. Sale has been forbidden now by law except in
the case of rabbits or hares. But with the advent of arti-

10

ficial propagation and scientific game preserving the sale of
such species as can be reared in captivity or produced in
large numbers on game preserves is permitted under restric-
tions imposed by the Commissioners on Fisheries and Game.
Unless our farmers undertake the rearing of game, we shall
soon have little game in our markets except such as is im-
ported from foreign countries. The demand for game will
continue, and it remains for our people to decide whether
they will produce it here or send thousands of dollars abroad
for it. Our country is so large that it is not probable that
the greater part of it ever will be occupied by game pre-
serves, as is the case in some European regions; therefore,
the overflow from preserves will still afford shooting for the
people in the country surrounding them. It is undoubtedly
true that the rich have advantages over the poor under this
system, as in many other respects, and they always will
have certain advantages under any system; but it is also
true that the farmer is in a position to derive some benefits
from the expenditure of the rich man's money in support of
a system of game preserving which, while it interferes to a
certain extent with free shooting, provides an abundance of
game in regions where without it and under the old system
there would be no game at all.

The above is not written for .the purpose of advocating any
change in our system of game laws or to approve the Euro-
pean system of game preserving, but merely to point out the
logical tendency of a movement which already has gained a
strong foothold in this country, and to show the farmers the
benefits that they may derive from the inevitable extension
of this movement.

The Artificial Propagation of Game.
The rearing of native upland game birds in confinement is
still a subject of experiment, and never has been made a
financial success; but enough has been accomplished to prove
that it is possible to rear the ruffed grouse, the pinnated
grouse and the bob-white in domestication. Mallard ducks,
black ducks, wood ducks, teal, Canada geese and a few other
species have been reared successfully. When such birds as

11

wood ducks and Canada geese find a ready market alive at
from $10 to $25 a pair, or more, those who miderstand the
business of rearing them ought to make a profit. Pheasants
may be sold at similar prices, and at present they will bring
profitable returns in some of our markets. Any successful
pheasant raiser in Massachusetts ought now to be able to
dispose of all the birds that he can rear. If the people take
advantage of their opportunity, enough of these birds should
be raised by farmers and sportsmen to make them plentiful
in our markets. The ring-necked pheasant, which is the
species most commonly reared, is not a conspicuous success as
a wild game bird in Massachusetts; but it has succeeded
better, under the adverse conditions surrounding game birds
here, than has any other introduced species. It thrives best,
however, if given some care and protection, and it needs to
be fed in winter. As a half-domesticated game bird, arti-
ficially propagated, protected and fed by man, it is unexcelled.
Its general distribution throughout the State under protection
is not particularly desirable, for it is liable to diseases that are
fatal to native game birds, and where it becomes numerous it
is destructive to certain crops, and consumes the food of
quail in winter. But if reared in inclosures while young, and
allowed to run half wild on the grounds of the owner, it makes
a very desirable addition to the supply of game for the table,
and therefore will probably take the place in our markets of
some of the native game birds now illegally sold.

A general open shooting season for pheasants will prevent
them from becoming too numerous, and thus constituting a
menace to our natiA'e game birds. In the meantime, those
who wish to propagate or protect pheasants have now their
opportunity.

Deer may be reared in pastures and sold alive at a profit.
The rearing of game in inclosures or on preserves must be de-
pended on to help in solving the problem of the game supply
of the future.

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