A
DICTIONARY
OF
NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY
INGLIS JOHN
DICTIONARY
or
NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY
EDITED BY
SIDNEY LEE
VOL. XXIX. INGLIS JOHN
MACMILLAN AND CO.
LONDON : SMITH, ELDER, & CO. 1892
za
LIST OF WRITERS
IN THE TWENTY-NINTH VOLUME.
J. G. A. . . J. G. ALGEB. R. E. A. . . R. E. ANDERSON. W. A. J. A. . W. A. J. ARCHBOLD. G. F. R. B. . G. F. RUSSELL BARKER.
R. B THE REV. RONALD BAYNK.
T. B THOMAS BAYNE.
G. T. B. . . G. T. BETTANT.
G. C. B. . . G. C. BOASB.
G. S. B. . . G. S. BOULQEB.
E. T. B. . . Miss BRADLEY.
A. R. B. . . THE REV. A. R. BUCKLAND.
A. H. B. . . A. H. BULLEN.
E. C-N. ... EDWIN CANNAN.
H. M. C. . . H. MANNERS CHICHESTEB.
A. M. C. . . Miss A. M. CLERKE.
J. C THE REV. JAMES COOPBB.
T. C THOMPSON COOPER, F.S.A.
W. P. C. . . W. P. COURTNEY.
J. C-N. . . . JAMES CRANSTOUN, LL.D.
C. C CHARLBS CRKIGHTON, M.D.
M. C THE BISHOP OF PETERBOROUGH.
L. C LIONEL CUST, F.S.A.
A. I. D. . . ARTHUR IRWIN DASBNT.
R. D ROBERT DUNLOP.
C. H. F. . . C. H. FIRTH.
J. G. F. . . J. G. FOTHERINGHAM.
R. G RICHARD GABNETT, LL.D.
J. T. G. . . J. T. GILBERT, F.S.A. G. G GORDON GOODWIN.
A. G THE REV. ALEXANDER GORDON.
J. M. G. . . J. M. GRAY.
W. A. G. . . W. A. GREENHILL, M.D. J. C. H. . . J. CUTHBERT HADDEN. J. A. H. . . J. A. HAMILTON.
T. H THE REV. THOMAS HAMILTON, D.D.
R. H ROBERT HARRISON.
W. J. H. . . W. JEROME HARRISON.
T. F. H. . . T. F. HENDERSON.
W. H. ... THE REV. WILLIAM HUNT.
B. D. J. . . B. D. JACKSON.
H. J HENRY JENNER, F.S.A.
C. K. . . . . CHARLES KENT. C. L. K. . . C. L. KINGSFORD. J. K JOSEPH KNIGHT.
J. K. L. . . PBOFESSOB J. K. LAUGHTON.
S. L SIDNEY LEE.
A. G. L. . . A. G. LITTLE. W. R. LL. . COLONEL W. R. LLUELLYN. W. B. L. . . THE REV. W. B. LOWTHEB. M. M. ... JENEAS MACKAY, LL.D. E. H. M. . . E. H. MAKSHALL.
L. M. M. . . MlSS MlDDLETON.
A. H. M. . . A. H. MILLAR. C. M COSMO MONKHOUSK.
V
List of Writers.
N. M NORMAN MOORE, M.D.
J. B. M. . . J. BASS MUI.I.INGER.
A. N AXBEHT NICHOLSON.
K. N Miss KATE NORGATE.
F. M. O'D. . F. M. O'DoNOGHCE. J. F. P.. . . J. F. PAYNE, M.D.
B. L. P. . . R. L. POOLE.
B. P MlSS PORTER.
R. B. P. . . R. B. PROSSEH. E. J. R. . . E. J. RAPSOX. J. M. R. . . J. M. RIGG. T. S THOMAS SBCCOMHE.
R. F. S. . . R. FARQfHARSON SHARP.
AY. A. S. . . AY. A. SHAW. L. S. . . LESLIE STEPHEN.
C. W. S. . . C. W. SUTTON. W. C. S. . . W. C. SroNBY.
J. T JAMES TAIT, of Oxford.
H. R. T. . . H. R. TEDDER.
D. LL. T. . . D. LLKCFKR THOMAS.'
E. M. T. . . E. MAUNDE THOMPSON, D.C.L.
F.S.A. T. F. T. . . PROFESSOR T. F. TOUT.
E. V THE REV. CANON VENABLES.
R. H. V. . . COLONEL R. H. ATETCH, R.E. A. W. AY. . A. AV. AYARD, Litt.D.
M. G. W. . . THE REV. M. G. WATKINS.
F. W-T. . . FRANCIS WATT.
C. W-H. . . CHARLFS WELCH, F-S.A. W. W. ... WARWICK WROTH, F.S.A.
DICTIONARY
OF
NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY
Inglis
Inglis
INGLIS, CHARLES (1731 P-1791), rear- admiral, a younger son of Sir John Inglis of Cramond, bart., entered the navy in 1745 on board the Ludlow Castle,with Captain George Brydges (afterwards Lord) Rodney [q. v.] He followed Rodney to the Eagle, and in that ship was present in Hawke's action with L'Etenduere on 14 Oct. 1747. After three years in the Eagle he was appointed to the Tavistock with Captain Francis Holburne. He passed his examination on 5 Feb. 1755, being then, according to his certificate, more than twenty-three years of age, and the next day he was promoted to be lieutenant of the Monarch, with Captain Abraham North. In April 1756 he was appointed to the Magna- nime, with Captain Wittewronge Taylor; turned over, with him, to the Royal William on 3 June 1757 [cf. HOWE, RICHAKD, EARL], and a fortnight later was promoted to the command of the Escort sloop, attached to the expedition to Rochefort under Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Hawke [q. v.] In June 1759 he was appointed to the Carcass bomb, part of the force under Rodney which bom- barded Havre and destroyed the flat-bot- tomed boats there in July. On 15 Dec. 1761 he was posted to the Newark of 80 guns, which early in the following year went out to the Mediterranean with the broad pennant of Commodore Sir Peircy Brett. He re- turned to England after the peace, and on the occasion of the Spanish armament in 1770 was appointed to command the Lizard frigate. In August 1778 he commissioned the Salisbury of 50 guns, in which he went out to Jamaica, and on 12 Dec. 1779 cap- tured the San Carlos, a Spanish privateer of 60 guns, and laden with military stores, in
VOL. XXIX.
the Bay of Honduras. In the following sum- mer he returned to England, and when the Salisbury was paid off was appointed to the 64-gun ship St. Albans, one of the fleet under Vice-admiral Darby at the relief of Gibraltar in March 1781. Towards the end of the year he was sent out to the West Indies in charge of convoy, and having joined the flag of Sir Samuel (afterwards Viscount) Hood [q. v.] at Barbadoes, was with him during his attempt to relieve St. Kitts, 25 Jan. 1782. Afterwards, in the battle of 12 April, the St. Albans was the second ship astern of the Formidable, and passed through the enemy's line closely following her and the Namur. In August 1782 the St. Albans went to North America with Admiral Pigot, and returned to England after the peace. Inglis had no further service, but was promoted to be rear- admiral on 21 Sept. 1790. and died on 10 Oct. 1791.
His son Charles, first lieutenant of the Penelope in her remarkable engagement with the Guillaume Tell [see BLACKWOOD, SIK HENRY], was immediately promoted to com- mand the Petrel, and in her led the fleet under Lord Keith into the harbour of Marmorice, during a violent gale, on 1 Jan. 1801 (PARSON, Nelsonian Reminiscences, p. 80). He was ad- vanced to post rank on 29 April 1802, and died, still a captain, on 27 Feb. 1833.
[Charnock's Biog. Nav. vi. 455 ; Commission and Warrant Books in Public Eecord Office ]
J. K. L.
INGLIS, CHARLES (1734-1816), bishop of Nova Scotia, was born, apparently, in -Near Yorkj-in 1734. From 1755 to 1758 he con- ducted a free school at Lancaster, Pennsyl- vania, and gained the goodwill of the neigh-
No.1 M-t,
Inglis
hours, who recommended him to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He came to England, was ordained by the Bishop of London, and, returning to America, began work on the Dover mission station, which then included the county of Kent, Delaware, 1 July 1759. In 1765 he became assistant to Dr. Auchnutz, at Holy Trinity Church, New York, and catechist to the negroes. While there he took part in the controversy on the subject of the American episcopacy, advocating its foundation in a pamphlet, and being a member of the voluntary convoca- tion which met 21 May 1766. In conjunc- tion with Sir William Johnson he actively assisted in evangelical work among the Mo- hawk Indians. The university of Oxford created him by diploma M.A. 6 April 1770, and D.D. 25 Feb. 1778 (FOSTER, Alumni Oxon. p. 728). In 1776, when Washington obtained possession of New York, Inglis, as a loyalist, retired to Long Island for a time, but Dr. Auchnutz died 4 March 1777, and I Inglis was chosen to succeed him in the bene- fice of Holy Trinity. The church had just been burnt down, and Inglis was inducted by Governor Tryon among the ruins. His loyalty to the English crown rendered him obnoxious to the new American government. His property was taken from him, and he appeared in the Act of Attainder of 1779. He resigned his living 1 Nov. 1783, and visited England. On 12 Aug. 1787 he was consecrated first bishop of Nova Scotia, thus becoming the first British colonial bishop ; he proceeded to his diocese, and in 1809 was made a member of the council of Nova Scotia. He died at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1816. Inglis married Margaret Crooke, daugh- ter of John Crooke of Ulster county, New York, and by her had two daughters and a son, John, who became in 1825 third bishop of Nova Scotia, died in London in 1850, and was the father of Sir John Eardley Wilmot Inglis [q. v.] Inglis published a few pam- phlets.
[Sabine's Loyalists of the American Revolu- tion, i. 563-5 ; Notes and Queries, 1st ser. vi. 151, 516, vii. 263, ix. 527, 2nd ser. 461, 4th ser. viii. 87 ; Magazine of American Hist. ii. 59 ; Nichols's Lit. Illustr. vii. 488; Perry's Hist, of the Amer. Episc. Ch. i. 242, &c., ii. 50 n. &c. ; Winsor's Hist, of Amer. vi. 270, 608 ; Ander- son's Hist, of the Colonial Church, i. 420, iii. 435, 602-7, 716; Documentary Hist, of New York, vols. iii. and iv.] "W. A. J. A.
INGLIS, HENRY DAVID (1795-1835), traveller and miscellaneous writer, the only son of a Scottish advocate, was born at Edin- burgh in 1795, and was educated for commer- cial life ; but he found work in an office un-
Inglis
congenial, turned to literature, and travelled abroad. Under the nom de guerre of Derwent Conway, he published his first work, ' Tales of the Ardennes,' 1825. It met with a favour- able reception, and there followed in quick succession ' Narrative of a Journey through Norway, part of Sweden, and the Islands and States of Denmark,' 1826, ' Solitary Walks through many Lands,' 1828, and ' A Tour through Switzerland and the South of France and the Pyrenees,' 1830 and 1831. For a short time before 1830 he edited a local newspaper at Chesterfield in Derby- shire, but soon relinquished it for further foreign travel. Of his j ourneys through Spain and the Tyrol in 1830 and following years, he published valuable accounts, 'Spain in 1830' appearing in 1831, and 'The Tyrol, with a Glance at Bavaria,' in 1833. The former is his best work. In 1832 Inglis wrote a novel, in three volumes, entitled ' The New Gil Bias, or Pedro of Pennaflor,' 1832, de- lineating social life in Spain, but this effort, though not without merit, was a failure. In the same year he went to the Channel islands, and edited a Jersey newspaper, called ' The British Critic,' for two years. He pub- lished in 1834 a description, in two volumes, of the Channel islands. Later, in 1834, he made a tour through Ireland, publishing an interesting and impartial account of his ob- servations under the title of 'Ireland in 1834.' The book attracted attention, was quoted as an authority by speakers in parliament in 1835, and reached a fifth edition in 1838. Subsequently Inglis settled in London, and in 1837 contributed to ' Colburn's New Monthly Magazine ' his last literary work, ' Rambles in the Footsteps of Don Quixote,' with illustra- tions by George Cruikshank. He died of disease of the brain, the result of overwork, at his residence in Bayham Terrace, Regent's Park, on Friday, 20 March 1835. All his books are agreeably written, and supply ser- viceable information.
[Athenaeum, 28 March 1835 ; Chambers'sBiog. Diet, of Eminent Scotsmen, ii. 336 ; Gent. Mag. September 1835 ; Brit. Mus. Cat] W. C. S.
INGLIS, HESTER (1571-1624), cali- grapher and miniaturist. [See KELLO.]
INGLIS, JAMES (d. 1531), abbot of Cul- ross, was clerk of the closet to James IV in 1511,when he received, according to the ' Trea- surer's Accounts,' his livery and the instalment of his annual salary of 40/. He seems to have had the confidence of the king, who thanks him in one of his letters (Epistolce Regum Sco- torum) for an offer of certain rare books on alchemy. He became chaplain to Prince
Inglis
3
Inglis
James (afterwards James V), to whom Sir David Lyndsay was usher, and in 1515 was secretary to Queen Margaret. lie was also entrusted with money for the purchase of clothes, &c., for the young prince and his brother. In 1515 Inglis was in England on the queen's business (cf. his letters in the Cottonian MSS.) Like Lyndsay, he had a share in providing dramatic entertainments for royalty, and in 1526 received money, ' be the king's precept,' to purchase stage apparel (cf. Treasury Records}. In 1527 he is de- scribed in a charter as chancellor of the Royal Chapel of Stirling, and in the same year was * master of werk,' at an annual salary of 40£, superintending the erection of buildings for the king (cf. ib.*). About the same time he was appointed abbot of Culross. On 1 March 1531, for a reason unknown, he was murdered by his neighbour, John Blacater, baron of Tul- liallan, and a priest named William Lothian. Summary vengeance followed on 28 Aug., when ' John Blacater of Tullyalloune and William Louthian (publicly degraded from his orders in the Kingis presence the preced- ing day), being convicted by an assize of art and part of the cruel slaughter of James In- glis, abbot of Culross, were beheaded ' (PiT- CAIEN, Criminal Trials, i. *151).
Sir David Lyndsay, in stanza v. of the pro- logue to ' The Testament and Complaynt of •our Soverane Lordis Papyngo,' regrets the repression of Inglis's poetic gift owing to his holding ecclesiastical preferment : —
Quho can say more than Schir James Inglis sayis, In ballattis, farses, and in plesand playis ? Bot Culrose hes his pen maid impotent.
His writings are lost, although the Maitland MS. credits him with a vigorous onslaught on the clergy entitled ' A General Satyre,' which, however, the Bannatyne MS., with •distinct plausibility, assigns to Dunbar. Mac- kenzie's rash assumption, in his ' Writers of the Scots Nation,' that Inglis wrote the ' Complaynt of Scotland ' (which was not printed till 1549), has unnecessarily compli- cated the question regarding the authorship of that work. Another ecclesiastic named Inglis figures in the ' Treasurer's Accounts ' of 1532 as singing ' for the kingis saule at Banak- burne/andif an Inglis wrote the* Complaynt,' this may have been the man. Robert Wed- derburn, however, is the most likely author (see LAING, Dunbar).
[Lesley's De Rebus G-estis Scotorum ; Pinker- ton's Hist, of Scotland, vol. ii. ; Dunbar's Poems, ed. Laing, ii. 390, and Laing's preface to The Gude and Godlie Ballates ; Chambers's Eminent Scotsmen ; Irving's Hist, of Scotish Poetry.]
T.B.
INGLIS, JOHN, D.D. (1763-1834), Scot- tish divine, born in 1763, was the youngest son of Harry Inglis, M.A., minister of Forteviot, Perthshire. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh, studying divinity under the Rev. Dr. Hunter, and completed a distinguished academical course in 1783. He was ordained as minister of Tibbermore, Perthshire, on 20 July 1786. He took an active share in presbyterial administration, and early showed his ability as an ecclesiastical politician. On 3 July 1799 he was presented by the town council of Edinburgh to the Old Greyfriars Church as proximate successor to Principal Robertson the historian. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred upon him by the university of Edinburgh in March 1 804, and he presided as moderator of the general assembly held in that year. He was appointed one of the deans of the Chapel Royal by George III in February 1810, and was continued in the office by William IV. He died on 2 Jan. 1834. Inglis married, in 1798, Maria Moxham Pass- more, daughter of Abraham Passmore, of Rollefarm, Devonshire, and had four sons and one daughter. The youngest son, John, who became lord justice-general of Scotland, is separately noticed.
Inglis's name is principally associated with his scheme for the evangelisation of India. Through his efforts a committee was ap- pointed for this purpose by the general as- sembly on 27 May 1824, and it was largely owing to his perseverance, tact, and energy that the scheme was successfully carried out. As a preacher he was too profound and argu- mentative to catch the popular ear, and his influence was greater in the church, courts than in the pulpit. His principal wotka, all published in Edinburgh, were, besides four single sermons, 1803-26: 1. 'An. Exami- nation of Mr. Dugald Stewart's Pamphlet relative to the election of a Mathematical Professor,' 1805. 2. ' Reply to Professor Play- fair's Letter to the Author,' 1806. 3. 'A Vindication of Christian Faith,' 1830. 4. ' A Vindication of Ecclesiastical Establishments,' 1833. 5. Account of Tibbermore in Sinclair's ' Statistical Account.'
A portrait is in the National Portrait Gal- lery of Scotland.
[Hew Scott's Fasti, i. 44, iv. 668; Cockburn's Memoirs, p. 232.] A. H. M.
INGLIS, JOHN, LORD Gi,ENCOE8E(1810- 1891), lord justice-general of Scotland, youngest son — not eldest, as sometimes stated— of John Inglis [q. v.], minister of Tibbermore, Perthshire, by Maria Moxham Passmore, was born in his father's house in George Square, Edinburgh, on 21 Aug. 1810.
B2
Inglis
After attending the high school of Edinburgh and the university of Glasgow, he entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1834 and M.A. in 1836. He was admitted a member of the Faculty of Advo- cates, Edinburgh, in 1835, and soon acquired a reputation as an eloquent and skilful pleader. As an advocate his most famous achievement •was his brilliant defence in 1857 of Madeline Smith, accused of poisoning. The jury re- turned a verdict of not proven.
In politics Inglis was a conservative, and on the accession of Lord Derby to power in February 1852 he was made solicitor-general of Scotland, this office being, after the general election three months later, exchanged for that of lord advocate. He resigned his post on the defeat of Lord Derby's government in No- vember, and was elected immediately after- wards dean of the Faculty of Advocates. On the return of Lord Derby to power in 1858, he again became lord advocate, and on 3 March was returned to the House of Commons as member for Stamford, but his political career was brought to a close on 13 July of the same year, when he was raised to the bench as lord justice-clerk and president of the second divi- sion of the court of session. The only im- portant piece of legislation associated with his name is the Universities of Scotland Act of 1858. Though founded on a bill drafted by his predecessor in office, it was rendered, by the introduction of material modifications, prac- tically a new measure. It met with general approbation, and his services both in preparing it and guiding it through the House of Com- mons were acknowledged by his election to the permanent chairmanship of the commission appointed by the act, and the conferment on him in December 1858 of the degree of doctor of laws by the university of Edinburgh. In 1859 he was also created a D.C.L. by the uni- versity of Oxford. In the same year he was sworn a member of the privy council.
On the death of Lord Colonsay [see MAC- NEILL, DTJNCAN], Inglis was on 26 Feb. 1867 installed lord justice-general of Scotland, and lord president of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse. Except Lord Stair, no Scottish judge has ranked so high as a jurist. As an exponent of law he owed much to his severe conscientiousness and im- partiality, and to his reverence for Scottish jurisprudence as an independent national system. But his chief strength as a judge lay rather in a ' certain beneficent sagacity, a luminousness of mind, a humanity of in- telligence, which might almost be regarded as unique ' (Scots Observer, 19 July 1890). He was uniformly patient, courteous, and
1 • • /» t
dignified.
Inglis
Outside his judicial duties Inglis did much useful work. He was an active member of the board of manufactures, and, besides ren- dering important services to higher educa- tion in Scotland as permanent chairman of the university commission appointed in 1858, he was a governor of Fettes College, Edin- burgh ; was in 1857 chosen lord rector of King's College, Aberdeen, and in 1865 of the university of Glasgow; and as chancellor of the university of Edinburgh, to which, in opposition to Mr. Gladstone, he was elected in 1869, took a practical share in the admi- nistrationof university affairs. His inaugural addresses at Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Edin- burgh (1869) were published separately. He was president of the Scottish Text Society, and of his antiquarian tastes he gave incidental evidence in 1877 in a privately printed paper on the name of his parish, Glencorse, which was identical with the name of his own estate. The paper was written in protest against a proposal officially to change the name to Glencross. A valuable and succinct paper on ' Montrose and the Covenanters of 1638,' was published in ' Blackwood's Maga- zine ' for November 1887. Its chief aim is to vindicate the character of Montrose. Inglis's 'Historical Study of Law, an Address to the Juridical Society,' appeared at Edinburgh in 1863.
Inglis was a keen golfer, and was once elected to the annual honorary captaincy of the golf club of St. Andrews. On his estate of Glencorse he took a special interest in the cultivation of trees. Though latterly some- what broken in bodily health, he continued in office to the close of his life. He died, after a few days of prostration, at his residence of Loganbank, Midlothian, on 20 Aug. 1891, just before completing his eighty-first year. By his wife Isabella Mary, daughter of the Hon. Lord Wood, a judge of the court of session, he left two sons, A. W. Inglis, secre- tary to the board of manufactures, and H. Herbert Inglis, writer to the signet.
The original portraits of Inglis are a chalk drawing by John Faed, R.S.A., in possession of A. W. Inglis, esq., engraved by Francis Holl, about 1852 ; a full-length portrait by Sir John "Watson Gordon, P.R.S.A., 1854, now in the university of Edinburgh ; a Kit-Cat portrait in his justiciary robes as lord jus- tice-clerk, by Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A., in possession of A. W. Inglis, esq. ; bust in marble by William Brodie, R.S. A., engraved privately for James Hay, esq., Leith, now in the hall of the Parliament House, Edin- burgh; portrait, in a group representing a family shooting-party, by Gourlay Steell, U.S.A., 1867, in possession of A. W. Inglis,
Inglis
esq. ; half-length portrait, in robes of chan- cellor of the university of Edinburgh, by Sir Daniel McNee, afterwards P.R.S.A., 1872, now in the dining-hall of Fettes College, Edinburgh ; full-length portrait, in robes of lord justice-general, by George Reid, P.R.S.A., now in the hall of the Parliament House, Edinburgh ; and water-colour sketch in the possession of J. Irvine Smith, esq., Great King Street, Edinburgh, taken in 1890 by W. Skeoch Cumming, for his picture of the interior of the first division of the court of session.
[Obituary notices in Scotsman and other daily papers of 21 Aug. 1891 ; Scots Observer, 19 July 1890 — 'Modern Men ' series; National Observer, 29 Aug. 1891 ; Journal of Jurispru- dence for September 1891 ; Blackwood's Maga- zine for October 1891 ; information kindly sup- plied by A. W. Inglis, esq.] T. F. H.
INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WIL-
MOT (1814-1862), defender of Lucknow, born in Nova Scotia 15 Nov. 1814, was sou of John Inglis, D.D., third bishop of Nova Scotia, and his wife, the daughter of Thomas Cochrane, member of the council of Nova Scotia. Charles Inglis, D.D. [q.v.],first bishop of that colony, was his grandtather. On 2 Aug. 1833 he was appointed ensign by purchase in the 32nd foot (now 1st Cornwall light in- fantry), in which all his regimental service was passed. He became lieutenant in 1839, captain in 1843, major in 1848, brevet lieu- tenant-colonel in 1849, regimental lieutenant- colonel 20 Feb. 1855, brevet-colonel 5 June 1855. He served with the 32nd during the insurrection in Canada in 1837, including the actions at St. Denis and St. Eustache; in the Punjab war of 1848-9, including the first and second sieges of Mooltan, and in the attack on the enemy's position in front of the ad- vanced trenches 12 Sept. 1848, succeeding to the command of the right column of attack on the death of Lieutenant-colonel D. Pat- toun. He commanded the 32nd at Soorj- khoond, and was present at the storm and capture of Mooltan, the action at Cheniote, and the battle of Goojerat (brevet of lieu- tenant-colonel and medal and clasps).
Inglis was in command of the 32nd, lately arrived from the hills, at Lucknow on the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857. He was second in command under Sir Henry Law- rence [q. v.] in the affair at Chinhut, 30 June 1857 (see MALLESON, iii. 276-388), and after- wards in the residency at Lucknow, whither the garrison, numbering 927 European officers and soldiers and 765 loyal native soldiers, •withdrew on 1 July. When Lawrence was mortally wounded on 2 July, Inglis succeeded to the command, at Lawrence's wish, and
; Inglis
defended the place until the arrival of Sir Henry Havelock, 26 Sept. 1857, and remained there until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell on 18 Nov. (medal). Inglis was wounded during the defence, but was not included in the casualty returns. He was promoted to major-general from 26 Sept. 1857, and made K.C.B. ' for his enduring fortitude and perse- vering gallantry in the defence of the resi- dency of Lucknow for 87 days against an overwhelming force of the enemy ; ' and the legislature of his native colony presented him with a sword of honour, the blade formed of steel from Nova Scotian iron. He commanded a brigade in the attack on Tantia Topee, 6 Dec. 1857 (ib. iv. 188). He was appointed colonel 32nd light infantry 5 May 1860, and soon after was given the command of the troops in the Ionian islands. Inglis died at Hamburg 27 Sept. 1862, aged 47. He was, wrote a contemporary, ' entitled to admira- tion for his unassuming demeanour, friendly warmth of heart, and sincere desire to help by all means in his power every one with whom he came in contact ' ( United Service Mag. November 1862, p. 421). Inglis mar- ried in 1851 the Hon. Julia Selina Thesiger, daughter of the first Lord Chelmsford, who, with her three children, was present in the Lucknow residency throughout the defence.
[Dod's Knightage ; Hart's Army Lists. For particulars of the operations in Canada in 1837 see Henry's Events of a Military Life, London, 1843, ii. 275-311. For accounts of Punjab war see despatches in London Gazettes, 1848-9. For particulars of the defence of the Lucknow re- sidency, see Malleson's Indian Mutiny (ed. 1888- 1889), vols. iii. iv. ; Quarterly Keview, ciii. 505 et seq., and personal narratives there noticed; Professional Papers, Corps of Eoyal Engineers, vol. x. ; obituary notices in Colburn's United Ser- vice Mag. November 1862.] H. M. C.
INGLIS, MES. MARGARET MAX- WELL (1774-1843), Scottish poetess, born on 27 Oct. 1774 at Sanquhar, Dumfriesshire, •was daughter of Dr. Alexander Murray. Her decided literary and musical gifts were de- veloped by a good education. When very young she was married to a Mr. Finlay, who was in the navy, and who soon died in the WTest Indies. After some vears at home with her relatives, Mrs. Finlay, in 1803, be- came the wife of John Inglis, son of the parish minister of Kirkmabreck in East Gal- loway, and an officer in the excise. On his death in 1826, his widow and three children had to depend solely on a small annuity de- volving from his office. Mrs. Inglis now studied hard, and wrote much, publishing in 1828 ' Miscellaneous Collection of Poems, chiefly Scriptural Pieces.' These are gene-
Inglis
Inglis
rally spirited and graceful in expression. One of the lyrics is a memorial tribute to James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, whose manner Mrs. Inglis frequently followed with consi- derable success. She died in Edinburgh on 21 Dec. 1843. According to Rogers, Burns commended her for her exquisite rendering of his songs, especially ' Ca' the yowes to the knowes.'
[Rogers's Scottish Minstrel ; Wilson's Poets and Poetry of Scotland.] T. B.
INGLIS, SIR ROBERT HARRY (1786- 1855), politician, born in London on 12 Jan. 1786, was only son of Sir Hugh Inglis, bart., for many years a director of the East India Company, and sometime M.P. for Ashburton, by his first wife, Catherine, daughter and co- heiress of Harry Johnson of Milton Bryant, Bedfordshire. He was educated at Win- chester and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated 21 Oct. 1803, and graduated B. A. 1806, M. A. 1809, and was created D.C.L. 7 June 1826. He was admitted a student of Lincoln's Inn on 17 July 1806, and acted for some time as private secretary to Lord Sidmouth, an old friend of his father (PEL- LEW, Life of Lord Sidmouth, 1847, iii. 108). In 1814 he was appointed one of the com- missioners for investigating the debts of the nabobs of the Carnatic, an office which he retained to the final close of the commission in March 1830. He was called to the bar on 8 June 1818, but did not attempt to prac- tise, and on 21 Aug. 1820 succeeded his father as the second baronet. On the occasion of the coronation of George IV it is said that he was deputed to meet Queen Caroline at the abbey door in order to intimate to her that the government had determined to re- fuse her admission (Christian Observer, Ixv. 526). At a by-election in May 1824 Inglis was returned to parliament in the tory in- terest for the borough of Dundalk. In "May 1825 he strenuously protested against the third reading of the Roman Catholic Relief Bill, denying that the Roman catholics had either under the treaty of Limerick or under the articles of the union any claim whatever to relief (Par/. Debates, new ser. xiii. 489- 504). At the opening of the new parliament in November 1826 Inglis was without a seat in the House of Commons, but was returned for Ripon at a by-election in February 1828. In the same month he opposed Lord John Russell's motion for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (ib. xviii. 710-15), and in the following May again protested at length against any concession to the Roman catholic claims (ib. xix. 417-527). In Fe- bruary 1829 he accepted the Chiltern Hun-
dreds to contest the representation of Oxford University against Sir Robert Peel, who had resigned his seat on changing his opinions on the Roman catholic question, in order that his constituents might express an opinion on his policy. Inglis defeated Peel by 755 votes to 609, and continued thenceforth to represent the university until he retired from parliamentary life. On 30 March 1829 he both spoke and voted against the third read- ing of the Roman Catholic Relief Bill (ib. xx. 1596-1609, 1637), and on 1 March 1831 made a learned and elaborate speech against ! the ministerial plan of parliamentary reform | (ib. 3rd ser. ii. 1090-1128). On 12 March j 1831 Inglis was appointed a commissioner • on the public records (Parl. Papers, 1837, vol. xxxiv. pt. i.), and with Hallani made a ! minute examination of all the principal de- positories of records, making a full report to the board on the subject, which was printed ! in April 1833. In May 1832, when the Duke- of Wellington made an abortive attempt to form a ministry for the purpose of carrying- ! a moderate reform bill, Inglis warmly de- j nounced any compromise of the kind (Parl. ' Hist. 3rd ser. xii. 944-8). In February 1833 he protested against Lord Althorp's bill for the reform of the Irish church (ib. xv. 578- 585), and in April 1834 opposed the intro- duction of Grant's Jewish Relief Bill (ib. xxii. 1373) [see GRAXT, SIR ROBERT]. On the presentation of the ' Report of the Eccle- siastical Commissioners for England and Wales' in March 1836, Inglis announced his opposition to the reduction of the episcopal revenues (ib. xxxii. 162-3). In May 1838- he carried an address condemning the foreign slave-trade (ib. xlii. 1122-37). In April 1842r when the income-tax was under discussion, Inglis suggested that not only incomes under ISO/, should be exempted, but that that amount should be deducted from all incomes of a higher value (ib. Ixii. 126-8). In 1845 he led the opposition to the Maynooth grant, and branded the proposed establishment of queen's colleges in Ireland ' as a gigantic scheme of godless education ' (ib. Ixxx. 378). In the following year he opposed the repeal of the corn laws, and in August 1847 was returned at the head of the poll for the uni- versity as a protectionist. In 1851 he sup- ported Lord John Russell's Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill, though in his opinion it was not stringent enough. Inglis retired from parliament at the opening of the session in January 1854, and was sworn a member of the privy council on 11 Aug. following. He died at his house in Bedford Square on 5 May 1855, aged 69.
Inglis was an old-fashioned tory, a strong
Inglis
churchman, with many prejudices and of no great ability. He, however, accurately re- presented the feelings and opinions of the country gentleman of the time, and his genial manner and high character enabled him to exercise a considerable influence over the House of Commons, where he was exceed- ingly popular. He was a frequent speaker in the debates. He supported Lord Ashley in his attempts to amend the factory system. He also took an active part in many learned and religious societies. He was elected a fel- low of the Society of Antiquaries on 22 Feb. 1816, and was for several years one of the vice-presidents. He was also president of the Literary Club and a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1850 was elected the anti- quary of the Royal Academy. He mar- ried, on 10 Feb. 1807, Mary, eldest daughter of Joseph Seymour Biscoe of Pendhill Court, Bletchingley, Surrey, who survived him many years.
In default of issue the baronetcy became extinct upon his death. His portrait, by George Richmond, R.A., was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1855. A verse task of Inglis at Winchester on ' the influence of local attachment' is preserved among the Ad- ditional MSS. in the British Museum (29539, ff. 15-16). The authorship of the ' Sketch of the Life of Sir Hugh Inglis, Bart.' (London, 1821, 8vo, privately printed),is ascribed in the ' Grenville Catalogue ' to his son. There does not, however, appear to be any authority for this, and the pamphlet is identical with the obituary notice given in the fifth volume of the 'Annual Biography and Obituary ' (1821, pp. 320-8).
Inglis published the following works : 1. ' Speech ... in the House of Commons on the Third Reading of the -Roman Catholic Relief Bill,' &c., London, 1825, 8vo. 2. ' On the Roman Catholic Question. Substances of two Speeches delivered in the House of Commons on 10 May 1825 and 9 May 1828. [With an appendix],' London and Oxford, 1828, 8vo. 3. ' Reform. Substance of the Speech delivered in the House of Commons, 1 March 1831, on the Motion of Lord John Russell for a Reform in the Representation,' London, 1831, 8vo. 4. ' Parliamentary Re- form. Substance of the Speech delivered in the House of Commons 17 Dec. 1831,' &c., London, 1832, 8vo. 5. 'The Universities and the Dissenters. Substance of a Speech delivered in the House of Commons . . . 26 March 1834 ... in reference to a Peti- tion from certain Members of the Senate of the University of Cambridge,' London, 1834, 8vo. 6. 'Family Prayers. [By Henry Thorn- ton, edited by R. H. I.],' London, 1834, 8vo ;
Inglis
15th edition, London, 1843, 8vo ; 26th edi- tion, London, 1851, 8vo ; 31st edition, Lon- don, 1854, 8vo. 7. 'Family Commentary upon the Sermon on the Mount. [By H. Thornton, edited by R. H. I.],' London, 1835, 8vo. 8. 'Family Commentary on portions of the Pentateuch ; in Lectures, with Prayers adapted to the Subjects. [By Henry Thorn- ton, edited by R. H. I.],' London, 1837, 8vo. 9. ' Sermons on the Lessons, the Gospel, or the Epistle, for every Sunday in the Year. (Vol. iii., Sermons ... for Week-day Fes- tivals and other Occasions.) [By Reginald Heber, Bishop of Calcutta, edited by Inglis],' London, 1837, 8vo, 3 vols. ; 3rd edition, Lon- don, 1838, 8vo, 2 vols. 10. ' Church Exten- sion. Substance of a Speech delivered in the House of Commons ... 30 June 1840,' London, 1840, 8vo. 11. ' Ecclesiastical Courts Bill. Subject of a Speech delivered in the House of Commons ... 10 April 1843,' London, 1843, 8vo. 12. ' On the Ten Com- mandments: Lectures [with the text] by . . . H. Thornton . . . with Prayers by the Editor (R. H. I.),' London, 1843, 8vo. 13. ' Female Characters. [By Henry Thorn- ton, with a preface by Inglis],' London, 1846, 8vo. 14. ' The Jew Bill. Substance of a Speech delivered in the House of Commons 16 Dec. 1847,' London, 1848, 8vo. 15. ' The Universities. Substance of a Speech . . . in the House of Commons ... 23 April 1850,' London, 1850, 8vo. 16. ' Parochial Schools of Scotland. Substance of a Speech delivered in the House of Commons 4 June 1851,' London, 1851, 8vo. 17. ' Universities ; Scotland. Substance of a Speech delivered in the House of Commons . . . against the Second Reading of the Bill to regulate the Admission of Professors to the Lay Chairs in the Universities of Scotland,' London, 1853, 8vo.
[Fraser's Mag. 1846, xxxiv. 648-53; Christian Observer, 1865, Ixv. 521-7, 610-19; Random Ee- collections of the House of Commons, 1836, pp. 127-30; Eyall's Portraits of Eminent Conserva- tives, Istser. (with portrait) ; Illustrated London News, 21 Jan. 1854 (with portrait), 12 May 1855 ; Times, 7 May 1855 ; Walpole's Hist, of England from 1815, vols. ii-v. ; Ann. Eeg. 1855, App. to Chron. pp. 272-3; Gent. Mag. 1855, new ser. xliii. 640-1; Burke's Peerage, &c., 1857, p. 500 b; Foster's Alumni Oxon. 1885, ii. 728 ; Official Ee- turn of Lists of Members of Parliament, pt. ii. pp. 298, 305, 309, 319, 332, 344, 355, 369, 385, 403, 420 ; Brit. Mus. Cat.] G. F. E. B.
INGLIS, SIB WILLIAM (1764-1835), general, born in 1764, was the third son of William Inglis, M.D. His father was three times president of the College of Surgeons, Edinburgh, and descended from the Inglis
Inglis
8
Inglis
family of Manner and Mannerhead, Rox- burghshire. The son was appointed on 11 Oct. 1779 ensign in the 57th regiment, which he joined at New York in 1781 ; he continued to serve in America till 1791. In 1793 he ac- companied the expedition to Flanders, and afterwards that to Normandy and Brittany. He returned to Flanders, was present in Nimeguen during the siege, and took part in the retreat through Holland and Westphalia in the winter of 1 794-5. In 1796, having at- tained the rank of major, he commanded a detachment of the 57th at the siege and fall of Morne Fortune, St. Lucia, and the capture of the island, and received the special thanks of Sir John Moore, to whom, until the arrival of the headquarters of the regiment, he was second in command. After assisting in the reduction of the insurgent force at Grenada, be in 1797 accompanied his regiment to Tri- nidad, whence he returned to England in the latter end of 1802. Having obtained the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was in 1803 employed informing a second battalion of the regiment. This done, he rejoined the first battalion, succeeded to its command in 1805, accompanied it in the November of that year to Gibraltar, and in 1809 embarked with it to join the army under Sir Arthur "Wellesley in the Peninsula. The 57th was attached to the brigade commanded by Major- general Richard Stewart, which formed part of General Hill's division ; but, in conse- quence of General Stewart's illness, the bri- gade command devolved on Inglis at Sarce- dos, and he continued to hold the command during the movements previous to the battle of Busaco, at that battle (September 1810), and in the subsequent retreat to the lines before Lisbon. During the pursuit of Massena from Santarem Inglis again commanded the bri- gade, and took part in the affair at Pombal. After being present at Campo Mayor, Los Santos, and the first siege of Badajoz, Inglis commanded the 57th at the battle of Al- buera (May 1811), where the brigade was under the command of General Houghton, till the death of that officer again placed In- glis in brigade command.
At Albuera the 57th occupied a position I as important as it was deadly. ' Die hard ! ! 57th,' said Inglis, ' die hard ! ' They obeyed, and the regiment is known as the 'Die-hards ' to this day. Inglis, besides having a horse shot under him, received a four-ounce grape- shot in the neck, which, after he had carried it about with him for two days, was extracted from behind his shoulder. Twenty-three offi- cers and 415 rank and file, out of 579, were among the killed and wounded ; not a man was missing. ' It was observed,' wrote Mar-
shal Beresford, ' that our dead, particularly the 57th, were lying as they fought, in ranks, and every wound was in front.' ' Nothing,' he added, ' could exceed the conduct and gallantry of Colonel Inglis at the head of his regiment.' When the 57th was engaged at Inkerman on 5 Nov. 1854, ' Men, remember Albuera ! ' were the words of encouragement used by the officer in command, Captain Ed- ward Stanley, just before he fell, and it de- volved on Inglis's elder son, Captain William Inglis, to lead the regiment out of action (KiNGLAKE, Hist, of Crimean War).
Inglis was sent home after Albuera to re- cover from his wound, but he soon returned to the Peninsula, and when able to take the field was appointed brigadier-general to com- mand the first brigade of the seventh divi- sion, consisting of the 51st and 68th regi- ments of light infantry, the first battalion of the 82nd, and the Chasseurs Britanniques. The division was commanded by Lieutenant-
feneral the Earl of Dalhousie. In June 1813, nglis, who had been made a major-general, marched with his brigade from St. Estevan, and on 8 July gained the top of the range of mountains immediately above Maya, over- looking the flat country of France, and occu- pying the passes of Maya and Echallar. On 25 July, the French having succeeded in turning the British right, that flank was thrown back, and retired in the direction of Pamplona, in the neighbourhood of which town a series of engagements took place. It was on 30 July, during the engagement known as the second battle of Sauroren, that Inglis was ordered to possess himself of the crest of a high mountain occupied by the enemy, commanding the high road which passed between that position and their main body. ' General Inglis,' writes Napier, ' one of those veterans who purchase every step of promotion with their blood, advancing on the left with only five hundred men of the seventh division, broke at one shock the two French regiments covering Chauzel's right, and drove down into the valley of Lanz. He lost, indeed, one-third of his own men, but, instantly spreading the remainder in skirmish- ing order along the descent, opened a biting fire upon the left of Conroux's division, which was then moving up the valley from Sau- roren, sorely amazed and disordered by this sudden fall of two regiments from the top of the mountain into the midst of the column.' Wellington, in his despatch, gives the highest credit to the conduct and execution 01 this attack. The strength of the enemy, accord- ing to their own computation, exceeded two thousand men, while, from the occupation of a part of his brigade elsewhere, the force
Inglott
Ingoldsby
which Inglis could employ is placed by one estimate as low as 445 bayonets. The casual- ties in this small force amounted to 145. Inglis had a horse shot under him. The brigade was further engaged in the actions of the following days. On 31 Aug. 1813, the day on which San Sebastian was taken, In- glis's brigade took an active part in the com- bat of Vera, having been ordered to support the 9th Portuguese brigade in Sir Lowry Cole's division. The fight was a severe one. Inglis again had a horse shot under him. Lord Dalhousie, in referring Wellington for details of the operations to Inglis's report, re- marked : ' The 1st brigade had to sustain the attack of two divisions of the enemy on a strong and wooded hill ; the loss there was unavoidable.' On 10 Nov. the seventh divi- sion marched to the embouchure of the Puerto d'Echallar, and Inglis's 1st brigade, after carry ing the fortified heights above the village of Sure, received orders from Marshal Beres- ford to cross the Nivelle by a wooden bridge on the left and attack the heights above. The heights were carried after a severe struggle. On 23 Feb. 1814 the brigade was again en- gaged with the enemy near the village of Airgave. On the 27th it had a considerable share in the battle of Orthez. The general's horse was struck.
For these services Inglis, with other gene- ral officers, received the thanks of both houses of parliament. In 1825 he became a lieu- tenant-general. He was created a knight commander of the Bath, appointed lieutenant- governor of Kinsale, and subsequently gover- nor of Cork (January 1829). Finally, on 16 April 1830, he was appointed colonel of the 57th. He died at Ramsgate on 29 Nov. 1835, and was buried in Canterbury Cathe- dral.
Inglis married in 1822 Margaret Mary Anne, eldest daughter of Lieutenant-general William Raymond of the Lee, Essex, and had two sons, the General William Inglis mentioned above (1823-1888), and Major Raymond Inglis (1826-1880).
[Napier's Peninsular War; Wellington Des- patches ; United Service Journal, February 1836 ; Philippart's Koyal Mil. Cal.] W. E. LL.
INGLOTT, WILLIAM (1554-1621), mu- sician, was born in 1554, and became organist of Norwich Cathedral. He was noted for his skill as a player on the organ and vir- ginals. His name appears as a composer in the manuscript volume (Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge) known as ' Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book,' but none of his works are now known. He died at Norwich in De- cember 1621, and was buried in the cathe-
dral, where a monument was erected to his memory in 1622. About ninety years after- wards the monument, having fallen into dis- repair, was restored at the expense of Dr. William Croft [q. v.] An engraving of it as restored may be seen in the 'Posthumous Works of Sir Thomas Browne,' 1712, and the eulogistic inscription is printed by Hawkins.
[Hawkins's Hist, of Music, v. 22, 23 ; Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 3.] J. C. H.
INGMETHORPE, THOMAS (1562- 1638), schoolmaster, born in 1562, was a native of Worcestershire. He matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford, in the end of May 1581, graduated B.A. from St. Mary Hall in 1584, and proceeded M. A. from Brase- nose in 1586 (Oaf. Univ. J?e?.,Oxf. Hist. Soc., ii. iii. 119). In 1594 he received the living of Stainton-in-Strata, Durham, and about 1610 was also head-master of Durham School. But he was ultimately deprived of his mastership for ' a reflecting sermon ' against Ralph Ton- stall, prebendary of Durham Cathedral, and retired to Stainton, where he taught a few boys. Wood speaks of him as a famous school- master, and eminent in the Hebrew iongue. He held the living of Stainton till his death in November 1638, and was buried there. He published several sermons, of which three are in the Bodleian Library. 1. ' Upon Part (w. 3-6) of the 2nd chapter of the 1st Epistle of St. John,' Oxford, 1598, 8vo. 2. « Upon the same chapter (vv. 21-3), wherein the present state of the Papacie is in parte but impartially represented, and showed to be . . . plaine Anti-christian,' London, 1609, 4to. 3. ' Upon the Wordes of St. Paul, Rom. xiii. 1 . . . wherein the Pope's Sovereignitie over Princes is refuted,' London, 1619, 4to. Be- sides these sermons Wood mentions ' A Short Catechism for Young Children to learn by Law authorized,' London, 1633> 8vo, and there is in the British Museum Library ' A short Catechism . . . Translated into He- brew by T. I.,' 1633, 8vo.
[Wood's Athenae (Bliss), iv. 592 ; Surtees's Durham, iii. 64.] E. T. B.
INGOLDSBY, SIR RICHARD (rf. regicide, was the second son of Sir Richard Ir-goldsby of Lenthenborough, Buckingham- shire, by Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Oliver 1O/,, . Cromwell of Hinchinbrook, Huntingdon- shire. He was educated at Thame grammar school (CKOKE, History of the Family of Croke, 1823, p. 616; WOOD, Fasti, sub ann. 1649). At the outbreak of the civil war he held a captain's commission in Hampden's regiment, and in 1645 was colonel of a regi- ment of foot in the ' New Model ' (PEACOCK,
Ingoldsby
10
Army Lists, pp. 46, 105). He was detached by Fairfax in May 1645 to relieve Taunton, and was therefore not present at Naseby, but took part in the storming of Bridgwater and Bristol, and in Fairfax's campaign in the west (SPRIGGE, Anglia Rediviva, ed. 1854, pp. 19, 77, 107, 120). In the quarrel between the parliament and the army in 1647 Ingoldsby, whose regiment garrisoned Oxford, took part with the army. The regiment was ordered to be disbanded at two o'clock on 14 June 1647, and 3,500/. sent to pay it off. The money was recalled by a subsequent vote, but had already reached Oxford, and was forcibly seized by the soldiers, who attacked and routed its escort (WooD, Annals, ii. 508 ;' RTTSHWORTH, vi. 493, 499). The regiment was also one of the first to petition against the treaty at Newport, and to demand the punishment of the king (ib. vii. 1311 ; The Moderate, 31 Oct.-7 Nov. 1648). Ingoldsby himself was appointed one of the king's judges, and signed the death-warrant, but does not appear to have been present at any of the previous sittings of the court (NALSON, Trial of Charles I, 1684). At the Restora- tion he asserted that his signature had been extorted by force, ' Cromwell taking his hand in his and, putting the pen between his fingers, with his own hand writ Richard Ingoldsby, he making all the resistance he could ' (CLA- RENDON, Rebellion, xvi. 225). But the name is remarkably clearly written, shows no sign of any constraint, and is attested by In- goldsby's family seal.
Ingoldsby's regiment, which was deeply imbued with the principles of the levellers, broke out into mutiny in September 1649, made New College their headquarters, and confined their colonel in one of the Oxford inns; but he was released by the courage of Captain Wagstaffe, with whose aid he quickly suppressed the revolt {The Moderate, 11-18 Sept. 1649 ; Proceedings of the Oxford Architectural and Historical Society, No- vember 1884).
On 4 Oct. 1647 Ingoldsby was elected M.P. for Wendover, and represented Buck- inghamshire in the parliaments of 1654 and 1656 (Old Parl. Hist. xx. 497, xxi. 4; Re- turn of Members of Parliament, i. 485). He was chosen one of the council of state in November 1652, and was summoned to Crom- well's House of Lords in December 1657 (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1651-2, p. 505). In the ' Second Narrative of the late Parlia- ment' (1658) he is described as 'a gentleman of courage and valour, but not very famous for any great exploits, unless for beating the honest innkeeper of Aylesbury in White-hall,' ' no great friend to the sectaries,' and, accord-
ing to common report, 'can neither pray nor preach' (Harleian Miscellany, iii. 482, ed. Park).
In 1659, when the officers of the army began to agitate against Itichard Cromwell, Ingoldsby vigorously supported the new Pro- tector, who was his own kinsman. ' Here is Dick Ingoldsby, who can neither pray nor preach, and yet I will trust him before ye all,' said the Protector ; ' which imprudent and irreligious words,' writes Ludlow, ' were soon published to his great prejudice' (Me- moirs, ed. 1751, p. 241). On the fall of Ri- chard Cromwell, Ingoldsby lost his command and, seeing the Restoration at hand, entered into negotiation with the agents of Charles II (BAKER, Chronicle, ed. Phillips, pp. 657, 660 ; Clarendon State Papers, iii. 489, 650). The Earl of Northampton, in representing In- goldsby's merits to the king, states that his conversion was free and unconditional. ' He would never listen to any discourse of reward, but still declared that your pardon and for- giveness of his former errors was all that he aimed at, and that his whole life should be spent in studying to deserve it' (CARTE, Original Letters, ii. 333). As he was a regi- cide, the king refused to promise him in- demnity, and left him to earn a pardon by signal services (CLARENDON, Rebellion, xvi. 226). Accordingly, in the struggle between the parliament and the army Ingoldsby ener- getically backed the former, and on 28 Dec. 1659 received its thanks for seizing Windsor Castle (Old Parl. Hist. xxii. 34). Monck ap- pointed him to command Colonel Rich's regi- ment (February 1660), and sent him to sup- press Lambert's intended rising (18 April 1660). On 22 April he met Lambert's forces near Daventry, arrested him as he endeavoured to fly, and brought him in triumph to London (KENNETT, Register, pp. 68, 120; CLARENDON, Rebellion, xvi. 148). Ingoldsby was thanked by the House of Commons 26 April 1660 ( Commons' Journals, viii. 2), and was not only spared the punishment which befell the rest of the regicides, but was created a knight of the Bath at the coronation of Charles II, 20 April 1661 (KENNETT, Register, p. 411).
In the four parliaments of Charles II, In- goldsby represented Aylesbury. He died in 1685, and was buried in Hartwell Church, Buckinghamshire, on 16 Sept. 1685. He married Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir George Croke of Waterstock, Oxfordshire, and widow of Thomas Lee of Hartwell(CROKE, p. 605 ; NOBLE, House of Cromwell, ii. 190).
Sir Richard Ingoldsby is sometimes con-* fused with his younger brother, SIR HENRY INGOLDSBY (1622-1701), who commanded a regiment in Ireland under Cromwell and <
Ingoldsby
Ireton, represented the counties of Kerry, Limerick, and Clare in the parliaments of 1654, 1056, and 1659, and had the singular fortune to be created a baronet both by the Protector (31 March 1658) and by Charles II (30 Aug. 1660) (ib. ii. 184 ; Life of Anthony Wood, ed. 1848, p. 51).
[Crake's Hist, of the Family of Croke, 1823 ; Noble's House of Cromwell, ed. 1787, ii. 181; Wood's Athenae Oxon. ed. Bliss ; a pedigree is also given in the Genealogist, July 1886.]
C. H. F.
INGOLDSBY, RICHARD (d. 1712), lieutenant-general, commander of the forces in Ireland, does not appear in the family pedigree given by Lipscombe (Buckingham- shire, ii. 169), but is probably correctly de- scribed by Sir Alexander Croke (Hist, of Croke, genealogy No. 33) as the son of Sir George Ingoldsby or Ingoldesby, a soldier, who was a younger brother of the regicide, Sir Richard Ingoldsby [q. v.] ; married an Irish lady of the name of Gould ; was knighted, and was killed in the Dutch wars. Richard In-
foldsby obtained his first commission 13 July 667. Beyond the statement that he adhered to the protestant cause in 1688, and was employed under King William, the military records afford no information respecting him until 1692, when he held the rank of colonel, and was appointed adjutant-general of the ex- pedition to the coast of France (Home Office Military Entry Book, ii. f. 282 ; MACATJLAY, Hist, of England, iv. 290 et seq.) He was appointed colonel of the Royal Welsh fusi- liers, vice Sir John Morgan deceased, 28 Feb. 1693, and commanded the regiment under King William in Flanders, being present at the famous siege of Namur. In 1696 he be- came a brigadier-general. He appears to have been in Ireland from 1697 to 1701. Lut- trell mentions his committal to prison for carrying a challenge from Lord Kerry to the Irish chancellor, Methuen, and his re- lease by order of the king on 5 Jan. 1697-8 (Relation of State Affairs, v. 326-8). He ' had command of the troops sent from Ire- land to Holland in November 1701, and commanded a division under Marlborough in | 1702-6, and in the attack on Schellenburg. j At the battle of Blenheim he was second in command of the first line under Charles Churchill (Marlborough Desp. i. 401, 407). He became a major-general in 1702, and lieutenant-general in 1704. In 1705 he was transferred to the colonelcy of the 18th royal } Irish foot from the royal Welsh fusiliers, and appears to have been sent to Ireland on a mission relating to reinforcements for Marl- borough's army. Marlborough refers to him
r Ingoldsby
as sick at Ghent in 1706 (ib.), in which year he commanded the British troops at the siege of Ath. In 1707 he was appointed one of the comptrollers of army clothing (LTJTTKELL, vi. 270), and was made commander of the forces, master of the horse, and general of artillery in Ireland, posts which he held up to his death. He -sat for Limerick in the Irish parliament from 1703. In the absence of the lord-lieutenant, Ormonde, Ingoldsby acted as one of the lords j ustices. In a letter dated 6 Oct. 1709 Marlborough is glad 'to learn that my endeavours to do you justice have succeeded to your satisfaction ' (Marl- bqrough Desp. iv. 638). Ingoldsby died in Dublin on 11 (27 ?) Jan. 1712, and was buried in Christ Church. He appears to have had a son, an officer in the royal Welsh fusiliers- when commanded by Brigadier Sabine (ib. vol. v.) ' Swift (Letters to Stella) and Lut- trell cause some obscurity by occasionally styling him ' brigadier ' after his promotion, to higher rank. In the British Museum Catalogue he is indexed as ' Colonel ' Richard Ingoldsby in 1706 (Addit. MS. 23642, f. 18). Ingoldsby had a contemporary namesake in the service, a Colonel Richard Ingoldsby , who was made major and captain of one of the independent companies of foot in garrison at New York 10 Sept. 1690 (Home Office Mili- tary Entry Book, ii. f. 161), was sometime lieutenant-governor of the province of New York (Cal. State Papers, 1697-1707), and died a colonel about 1720 (Treas. Paperst ecxxxiii. 50).
INQOLDSBY, RICHARD (d. 1759), brigadier- general, was son of Thomas Ingoldsby, who was high sheriff of Buckinghamshire in 172Q and M.P. for Aylesbury in 1727-34, and died in 1760. His mother was Anne, daugh- ter of Hugh Limbrey of Tangier Park, Hamp- shire. Sir Richard Ingoldsby [q. v.] the regi- cide was his great-grandfather, and the elder Richard Ingoldsby was a: distant cousin. He was appointed ensign 1st foot-guards 28 Aug.. 1708, became lieutenant and captain 24 May 1711, and captain and lieutenant-colonel 11 Jan. 1715. He was second major of his. regiment in Flanders, and was appointed a. brigadier of foot by the Duke of Cumberland (MACLACHLAN, pp. 65, 189-92). The night before Fontenoy (11 May 1745) he was sta- tioned on the British right, with the 12th (Duroure's) and 1 3th (Pulteney's) regiments of foot, the 42nd highlanders, and the Hanoverian regiment of Zastrow. They were ordered to take a French redoubt or masked battery called the Fort d'Eu, a vital point ; cavalry support was promised. Ingoldsby advanced to the attack, but met with such a warm reception from the French light troops in the adjacent -
Ingram
12
Ingram
•wood that he fell back and sent to ask for artillery. Further delays and blunders fol- lowed; the cavalry never came, and when Cumberland's last advance was made, In- goldsby was wounded and Fort d'Eu remained untaken, so that the guards, on gaining the crest of the French position, were exposed to a reverse fire from it. Ingoldsby was afterwards brought before a court-martial or council of war, as it was called, at Lessines, of which Lord Dunmore, commanding the 3rd foot-guards, was president, was found guilty of not having obeyed the Duke of Cum- berland's orders, and was sentenced ' to be suspended from pay and duty during his highness's pleasure.' The duke then named three months to allow Ingoldsby time to dispose of his company and retire, which he did. The king refused to allow him to dis- pose of the regimental majority, which on 20 Nov. 1745 was given to Colonel John Laforey. A letter from Ingoldsby appealing piteously to the Duke of Cumberland is in the British Museum Addit. MS. 32704, f. 46. Ingoldsby appears to have retained the title of brigadier-general after leaving the army. He died in Lower Grosvenor Street, Lon- don, 16 Dec. 1759, and was buried at the family seat, Hartwell, Buckinghamshire. His widow, named in the burial register Catherine, died 28 Jan. 1789, and was buried in the same place. Letters from this lady, signed ' C. Jane Ingoldsby,' appealing to the Duke of Newcastle on behalf of her husband, and finally asking for a widow's pension of 50Z., are in Addit, MSS. 32709 f. 265, 32717 f. 313, 32902 f. 242, at the British Museum.
[Home Office Military Entry Books, vols. ii- viii. ; Marlborough Despatches ; Cannon's Hist. Eec. 18th Royal Irish Foot and 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers ; Cal. State Papers, Treasury, under dates. Collections of Ingoldsby letters are noted among the Marquis of Ormonde's and Duke of Marlborough's papers in Hist. MSS. Comm. 3rd Rep. 426, 7th Rep. 761 6, 8th Rep. pt. i. 32 a, 35 b, 37 a, 38 b, 40a. Lipscombe's Bucking- hamshire, ii. 1 69 ; Hamilton's Hist. Grenadier Guards, ii. 119 et seq., and Roll of Officers in vol. iii. ; A. N. C. Maclachlan's Orders of Wil- liam, Duke of Cumberland, London, 1876, in which Ingoldsby's Christian name is wrongly
given ' James ; ' The Case of Brigadier I y,
London, 1746.] H. M. C.
INGRAM, SIB ARTHUR (d. 1642), courtier, was son of Hugh Ingram, a native of Thorp-on-the-Hill, Yorkshire, who made a fortune as a linendraper in London, by Anne, daughter of Richard Goldthorpe, haberdasher, lord mayor of and M.P. for York (FosiEE, Yorkshire Pedigrees, vol. i.) fie became a successful merchant in Fen-
church Street, London, and acquired the manor of Temple Newsam, where he built a splendid mansion, and other estates in Yorkshire. In buying estates his practice was to pay half the purchase-money down, then, pretending to detect some flaw in the title, he would compel the seller to have re- course to a chancery suit. In this way he ruined many. Ingram was fond of lavish expenditure ; often placed his purse at the service of the king, and thus rendered him- self an acceptable person at court. In 1604 he was appointed comptroller of the customs of the port of London, and on 21 Oct. 1607 the office was conferred on him for life. He was chosen M.P. for Stafford on 1 Nov. 1609, for Romney, Kent, in 1614, for Appleby, Westmoreland, in 1620-1, and again for that borough, Old Sarum, and York in 1623-4, when he elected to serve for York, being re- elected in 1625, 1625-6, and 1627-8. In 1640 a Sir Arthur Ingram (possibly Ingram's eldest son, who had been knighted on 16 July 1621) was returned for New Windsor and Callington, Cornwall (METCALFE, Book of Knights, p. 178).
Ingram was himself knighted on 9 July 1613 (ib. p. 164). In March 1612 he was appointed one of the secretaries of the coun- cil of the north, and about the same time undertook to carry on the royal alum works in Yorkshire, paying the king an annual sum of 9,000/. (cf. Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1623-5, pp. 44, 336-7, 360). The specula- tion proved a loss. When occupied with the affairs of the northern council he lived prin- cipally in a large and splendidly furnished house on the north side of York Minster. In February 1614-15 he was sworn cofferer of the king's household, but was removed from the office in April following at the in- stigation of the courtiers, who objected to his plebeian birth. He was high sheriff of Yorkshire in 1620. At the instance of Sir John Bourchier, who pretended to have dis- covered in the alum accounts a deficiency of 50,000/., Ingram was arrested and brought up to London in October 1624 (Court and Times of James I, ii. 484), but he appears to have cleared himself to the satisfaction of the king. In 1640 he built the hospital which bears his name in Bootham, York. Charles I, who occupied Ingram's house during his long sojourn at York in 1642, would have made him a peer for a money consideration had he dared (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1641- 1643, p. 41). Ingram must have died at York in 1642, for his will (registered in P. C. C. 107, Cambell) was proved in that year. He married, first, Susan, daughter of Richard Brown of London ; secondly, Alice, daughter of Mr.
Ingram
Ingram
Ferrers, citizen of London ; and, thirdly, Mary, daughter of Sir Edward Grevile of Milcote, Warwickshire. He had issue by each mar- riage.
[Cartwright's Chapters in the Hist, of York- shire ; Court and Times of James I ; Davies's Walks through York ; Earl of Strafford's Let- ters (Knowler), i. 6, 28, 29, 30; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1611-18 ; Yorkshire Archaeolog. and Topogr. Journal, vols. ii. v. vii. viii.]
G. G.
INGRAM, DALE (1710-1793), surgeon, was born in 1710, and, after apprenticeship and study in the country, began practice at Reading, Berkshire, in 1733, and there, in 1743, published ' An Essay on the Gout.' Later in that year he emigrated to Barbadoes, where he practised till 1750, when he re- turned to England and set up as a surgeon and man midwife on Tower Hill, London. In 1751 he published ' Practical Cases and Observations in Surgery,' his most important work. It contains records of cases observed in England and the West Indies. He de- scribes one successful and one unsuccessful operation in cases of abdominal wounds pene- trating the bowel. He washed the intestine with hot claret, and then stitched the perito- neum to the edge of the wound and the ab- dominal wall. The procedure is one of the earliest English examples of a method of sur- gery which has only been universally adopted within the last few years. In 1754 he went to live in Fenchurch Street, London, and in 1755 published ' An Historical Account of the several Plagues that have appeared in the World since the year 1 346.' It is a mere compilation. On 24 Jan. 1759 he was elected from among five candidates to the office of surgeon to Christ's Hospital, and thence- forward resided there. He sometimes visited Epsom, and in 1767 published ' An Enquiry as to the Origin of Magnesia Alba, the principal saline ingredient of the Epsom springs. A controversy had arisen as to the cause of death of a potman who had received a blow on the head in an election riot at Brentford in 1769, and he published a lengthy pamphlet entitled ' The Blow, or Inquiry into the Cause of Mr. Clarke's Death at Brent- ford,' which demonstrates that blood-poison- ing arising from an ill-dressed scalp wound was the true cause of death. In 1777 he published ' A Strict and Impartial Inquiry into the Cause of Death of the late William Scawen,' an endeavour to prove that poison had not been administered. In 1790 it was stated that he was too old for his work at Christ's Hospital, and as he would not resign he was superseded in 1791. He died at Epsom on 5 April 1793.
[Works ; original journals of Court of Go- vernors of Christ's Hospital, examined by per- mission of the treasurer ; original lists of sur- geons in London at Koyal College of Surgeons ; Index Catalogue of Library of Surgeon-General's Office, Washington, U.S.A. ; original parish regis- ters of St. Bartholomew the Less, St. Sepulchre- extra-Newgate and Christ Church, Newgate Street ; Gent. Mag. 1 793, pt. i. p. 380.] N. M.
INGRAM, HERBERT (1811-1860), pro- prietor of the ' Illustrated London News,' was born at Boston, Lincolnshire, on27 May 1811, and was educated at the Boston free school. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to Joseph Clarke, printer, Market Place, Boston. From 1832 to 1834 he worked as a journey- man printer in London, and about 1834 settled! at Nottingham as a printer, bookseller, and1 newsagent, in partnership with his brother- in-law, Nathaniel Cooke. In company with his partner he soon afterwards purchased from T. Roberts, a druggist at Manchester, a re- ceipt for an aperient pill, and employed a schoolmaster to write its history. Ingram claimed to have received from a descendant of Thomas Parr, known as Old Parr, who was said to have lived to the age of one hundred and fifty-two, the secret method of preparing a vegetable pill to which Parr's length of life- was attributed {Medical Circular, 23 Feb. 1853, pp. 146-7, 2 March, pp. 167-8). Mainly in order to advertise the pill its proprietors removed to London in 1842.
Meanwhile Ingram had projected an illus- trated newspaper. He had long noticed how the demand for the 'Weekly Chronicle' in- creased on the rare occasions when it con- tained woodcuts, and on 14 May 1842 he and his partner produced the first number of the 'Illustrated London News.' Their original design was to make it an illustrated weekly record of crime, but Henry Vizetelly, who was employed on the paper, persuaded Ingram to give it a more general character. The- Bow Street police reports were, however, il- lustrated by Crowquill. The first number of the paper, published at sixpence, contains sixteen printed pages and thirty-two wood- cuts, and twenty-six thousand copies were circulated. The best artists and writers of the day were employed. Frederick William- Naylor Bayley, known as Alphabet Bayley, or Omnibus Bayley, was the editor, and John Timbs was the working editor. The news- paper steadily advanced in public favour, and" soon had a circulation of sixty-six thousand copies. The Great Exhibition of 1851 gave- it a further impetus, and in 1852 a quarter of a million copies of the shilling number illus- trating the funeral of the Duke of Wellington are said to have been sold. At Christmas
Ingram
1855 the first number containing coloured prints was brought out. High prices were charged for advertisements, and the average profit on the paper became 12,000/. a year. The success of the enterprise caused Andrew Spottiswoode, the queen's printer, to start a rival paper, the ' Pictorial Times,' inwhich he lost 20,000/., and then sold it to Ingram, who afterwards merged it in a venture of his own, the ' Lady's Newspaper.' Another rival was the 'Illustrated Times,' commenced by Henry Vizetelly on 9 June 1855, which also came into Ingram's hands, and in 1861 was incorpo- rated with the 'Penny Illustrated Paper.' On 8 Oct. 1857he purchased from George Stiff the copyright and plant of the ' London Journal,' a weekly illustrated periodical of tales and romances, for 24,0007. (Ingram v. Stiff, 1 Oct. 1859, in The Jurist Reports, 1860, v. pt. i. pp. 947-8). Elated by the success of the ' Illustrated London News,' Ingram, on 1 Feb. 1848, started the 'London Telegraph,' in which he proposed to give daily for three- pence as much news as the other journals supplied for fivepence. The paper was pub- lished at noon, so as to furnish later intelli- gence than the morning papers. It com- menced with a novel, ' The Pottleton Legacy,' ty Albert Smith, but the speculation was un- profitable, and the last number appeared on 9 July 1848.
Ingram and Cooke, besides publishing newspapers, brought out many books, chiefly illustrated works. In 1848 the partnership was dissolved, and the book-publishing branch of the business was taken over by Cooke. From 7 March 1856 till his death Ingram was M.P. for Boston. In an evil hour he made the acquaintance of John Sadleir [q. v.], M.P. for Sligo, a junior lord of the treasury, and lie innocently allowed Sadleir to use his name in connection with fraudulent companies started by Sadleir and his brother James, chiefly in Ireland. After the suicide of Sadleir on 16 Feb. 1856, documents were found among his papers which enabled Vincent Scully, formerly member for Sligo, to bring against Ingram an action for recovery of some losses incurred by him owing to Sadleir's frauds \Law Mag. and Law Review, February 1862, pp. 279-81). The verdict went against In- gram, but the judge and jury agreed that his honour was unsullied. He left England with liis eldest son in 1859, partly for his health, and partly to provide illustrations of the Prince of Wales's tour in America. In 1860 he visited the chief cities of Canada. On
7 Sept. he took passage at Chicago on board the steamer Lady Elgin for an excursion through Lake Michigan to Lake Superior. On
8 Sept. the ship was sunk in a collision with
4 Ingram
another vessel, and he and his son, with almost all the passengers and crew, were drowned. Ingram's body was found, and buried in Bos- ton cemetery, Lincolnshire, on 5 Oct. A statue was erected to Ingram's memory at Boston in 1862. He married, on 4 July 1843, Anne Little of Eye, Northamptonshire.
His youngest son, WALTER IXGRAM (1855- 1888), became an officer of the Middlesex yeomanry, and studied military tactics with great success. At the outset of Lord Wolse- ley's expedition to Khartoum in 1884, In- gram ascended the Nile in his steam launch, joined the brigade of Sir Herbert Stewart in its march across the desert, was attached to Lord Charles Beresford's naval corps, and took part in the battles of Abu Klea and Metammeh, after which he accompanied Sir Charles Wil- son and Lord Charles Beresford up the Nile to within sight of Khartoum. His services were mentioned in a despatch, and he was re- warded with a medal (SiR C. WILSON, From Korti to Khartoum, 1886, p. 120; Times, 11 April 1888, p. 5). He was killed by an elephant while on a hunting expedition near Berbera, on the east coast of Africa, on 6 April 1888.
[Mackay's Forty Years' Recollections, 1877, ii. 64-7-5 ; Jackson's Pictorial Press, 1885, pp. 284-311, with portrait; Hatton's Journalistic London, 1882, pp. 24, 221-39, with portrait; Bourne's English Newspaper Press, 1887, ii. 119- 124, 226-7, 235, 251, 294-8 ; Grant's News- paper Press, 1872, iii. 129-32 ; Andrews's British Journalism, 1859, ii. 213, 255-6, 320, 336,338, 340; Bookseller, 26 Sept. 1860, p. 558; Gent. Mag. November 1860, pp. 554-6 ; Annual Register, 1860, pp. 154-6; Times, 24 Sept. 1860, p. 7, 27 Sept. p. 1 0 ; Illustrated London News, 29 Sept. I860, p. 285, 6 Oct. pp. 306-7, with portrait, 26 Sept. 1863, pp. 306, 309, with view of statue ; Boston Gazette, 29 Sept. and 6 Oct. I860.]
G. C. B.
INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), Anglo- Saxon scholar and president of Trinity Col- lege, Oxford, son of John Ingram, was born 21 Dec. 1774, at Codford St. Mary, near Salis- bury, where his family had possessed property for several generations. He was sent to War- minster School in 1785, and entered as a com- moner at Winchester in 1790. On 1 Feb. 1793 he was admitted a commoner at Trinity College, Oxford, and was elected scholar of the college 16 June 1794. He graduated B.A. in 1796, M.A. in 1800, and B.D. in 1808 ; was for a time an assistant master at Winchester ; became fellow of Trinity College 6 June 1803, and acted astutorthere. Froml803 to 1808 he was Rawlinsonian professor of Anglo-Saxon. On the establishment of the examination for undergraduates called ' Responsions,' in 1809,
Ingram
Ingram
Ingram acted as one of the ' masters of the schools.' From 1815 to 1818 he filled the office of keeper of the archives, and from 1816 to 1824 was rector of Rotherfield Grays, a Trinity College living, near Henley-on-Thames. On 24 June 1824 he was elected president of his college, and proceeded D.D. Ingram was too deeply absorbed in antiquarian research to take much part in the management of the college or in the affairs of the university. At Garsington, near Oxford, of which Ingram was rector in virtue of his presidency, he super- intended and largely helped to pay for the erection of a new school, of which he sent an account to the ' Gentleman's Magazine,' 1841, vol. i. He died 4 Sept, 1850, and was buried at Garsington, where there is a brass plate to his memory inserted in an old stone slab. He was married, had no family, and survived his wife. By his will he left the greater part of his books, papers, drawings, &c., to Trinity College, some pictures to the university galleries, and some coins to the Bodleian Library. There are two portraits of him in the president's lodgings at Trinity. Ingram was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and held a high rank among archaeologists. As an Anglo-Saxon scholar he was perhaps the very best of his genera- tion, and the most distinguished of John Mitchell Kemble's predecessors. In 1807 he published his inaugural lecture (as professor of Anglo-Saxon) on the utility of Anglo- Saxon literature, to which is added the geo- graphy of Europe by King Alfred (Oxford, 4to). His edition of the ' Saxon Chronicle,' London, 1823, 4to, was a great advance on Gibson's edition (Oxford, 1692, 4to), for Ingram had thoroughly explored the Cot- tonian MSS. in the British Museum. His edition of Quintilian (Oxford, 1809, 8vo) is correct and useful. The work by which Ingram is best known is his admirable ' Me- morials of Oxford,' with a hundred plates "by Le Keux, 3 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1832-7 (reissued 1847, 2 vols.) Among his other publications are : 'The Church in the Middle Centuries, an attempt to ascertain the Age and Writer of the celebrated " Codex Boer- nerianus"' (anon.), 8vo, Oxford, 1842; ' Me- morials of the Parish of Codford St. Mary,' 8vo, Oxford, 1844 ; and the descriptions of Oxford and Winchester cathedrals in Brit- ton's ' Beauties of England and Wales.'
[Annual Eegister, 1850 ; Gent. Mag. 1850, p. 553; Illustrated London News, 14 Sept. 1850 ; Oxford Calendar ; personal knowledge and recol- lections ; communication from Professor Earle of Oxford. Ingram is mentioned in Pycroft's Ox- ford Memories, and in G. V. Cox's Eecollec- tions of Oxford, p. 158.] W. A. G.
INGRAM, JOHN (1721-1771?), en- graver, born in London in 1721, first prac- tised engraving there. He subsequently went to Paris, and settled there for the re- mainder of his life. He both etched and engraved in line-manner. He engraved a number of plates after Francois Boucher, some after C. N. Cochin, and a set of emble- matical figures of the sciences in conjunction with Cochin and Tardieu. He was employed in engraving small plates for book illustra- tion, and more especially on plates for the ' Transactions ' of the Academic des Sciences. He was an engraver of great merit.
[Nagler's Kiinstler-Lexikon ; Beraldi et Por- talis's Graveurs du XVIIP Siecle ; Dodd's ma- nuscript Hist, of English Engravers (Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 33402).] L. C.
INGRAM, ROBERT, D.D. (1727-1804), divine, born at Beverley, Yorkshire, on 9 March 1726-7, was descended from the family of Henry Ingram (1616-1666), vis- count Irwine in the Scottish peerage. His father had retired from business in London, and settled at Beverley soon after his mar- riage with Theodosia, younger daughter of Joseph Gascoigne, sometime revenue collector at Minorca. He was educated at Beverley school under John Clarke (1706-1761) [q. v.], and in 1745 was admitted to Corpus Christ! College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1749 and M.A. in 1753. In 1758 he became perpetual curate of Bredhurst, Kent, and in the following year Dr. Green, bishop of Lincoln, presented him to the small vicar- age of Orston, Nottinghamshire. In 1760 he obtained the vicarage of Wormingford, Essex, where he resided till within a year of his death. He also became, through the influence of his wife's family with Dr. Terrick, bishop of London, vicar of Boxted, Essex. He died in his son's house at Seagrave, near Loughborough, Leicestershire, on 3 Aug. 1804. He married in 1759 Catherine, eldest daughter of Richard Acklom, esq., of Weir- eton, Nottinghamshire, and by her left two sons, Robert Acklom Ingram, B.D. [q. v.], and Rowland Ingram, who succeeded Paley as head-master of Giggleswick school.
His works are : 1. ' An Exposition of Isaiah's Vision, chap. vi. ; wherein is pointed out a strong similitude betwixt what is said in it and the infliction of punishment on the Papists, by the witnesses, Rev. xi. 6,' Lon- don, 1784, 8vo. 2. ' A View of the great Events of the Seventh Plague, or Period, when the Mystery of God shall be finish'd,' Colchester, 1785, 8vo. 3. ' Accounts of the Ten Tribes of Israel being in America, origi- nally published by Manasseh ben Israel, with
Ingram
16
Ingulf
Observations thereon,' London, 1792, 8vo. [ 4. ' A complete and uniform Explanation of the Prophecy of the Seven Vials of Wrath, or the Seven last Plagues, contained in the Revelations of St. John, chapters xv. xvi. To which is added a short Explanation of chapter xiv. ; with other Revelation Pro- phecy interspersed and illustrated,' 1804.
[Gent. Mag. Iv. 732, Ixii. 548, Ixxiv. 343, 882; Chalmers's Biog. Diet.; Cantabrigienses Graduati, 1787, p. 217 ; Watt's Bibl. Brit. ; Reuss's Reg. of Authors, p. 215 ; Bodleian Cat. ; Masters's Corpus Christi Coll. List of Members, p. 28.]
T. C.
INGRAM, ROBERT ACKLOM (1763- 1809), political economist, eldest son of Robert Ingram [q. v.], was born in 1763, and educated first in Dr. Grimwood's school at Dedham, and afterwards at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he graduated B. A. as senior wrangler in 1784. He became fellow and tutor of his college, commenced M.A. in 1787, was moderatorin 1790, and proceeded B.D.inl796. On taking orders he was appointed curate of i Boxted, Essex, and in 1802 he was presented | by the master and fellows of Queens' College to the rectory of Seagrave, Leicestershire, where he died on 5 Feb. 1809.
His principal works are: 1. ' The Necessity of introducing Divinity into the regular Course of Academical Studies considered,' Colchester, 1792, 8vo. 2. ' An Enquiry into the present Condition of the Lower Classes, and the means of improving it ; including some Remarks on Mr. Pitt's Bill for the better Support and Maintenance of the Poor : in the course of which the policy of the Corn Laws is examined, and various other im- portant branches of Political Economy are illustrated,' London, 1797, 8vo. 3. 'A Syl- labus or Abstract of a System of Political Philosophy ; to which is prefixed a Disserta- tion recommending that the Study of Political Economy be encouraged in our Universities, and that a Course of Lectures be delivered on that subject,' London, 1800, 8vo. 4. ' An Essay on the importance of Schools of In- dustry and Religious Instruction ; in which the necessity of Promoting the good Educa- tion of poor Girls is particularly considered,' London, 1801, 8vo. 5. 'The Causes of the Increase of Methodism and Dissension, and of the Popularity of what is called Evan- gelical Preaching, and the means of obviat- ing them, considered in a Sermon [on Rom. xiv. 17, 19]. To which is added a Postscript ... on Mr. Whitbread's Bill ... for en- couraging of Industry among the Labouring Classes,' London, 1807, 8vo. 6. 'Disquisi- tions on Population, in which the Principles of the Essay on Population, by T. R. Malthus,
are examined and refuted,' London, 1808, 8vo.
[Lit. Memoirs of Living Authors, 1798, i. 318; Reuss's Reg. of Authors, Suppl. i. 546; Gent. Mag. Ixxix. 189, 275; Cooper's Memorials of Cambridge, i. 315 ; Graduati Cantabr. ; Watt's Bibl. Brit.] T. C.
INGULF (d. 1109), abbot of Crowland or Croyland in Lincolnshire, an Englishman, was secretary of William the Conqueror, and after having made a pilgrimage to Jeru- salem entered the monastery of St. Wan- drille in Normandy, where Gerbert, a man of much learning, was then abbot. He became prior, and when Ulfcytel, abbot of Crowland, was deposed, was in 1086 appointed by the Conqueror to his office. He interceded suc- cessfully for his predecessor, who was released from confinement at Glastonbury, and allowed to return to his old home, the monastery of Peterborough. Though much afflicted with gout, Ingulf was full of energy, and rebuilt part of his abbey church and other buildings which had been destroyed by fire. In 1092 he translated the body of Earl Waltheof
Ej. v.], beheaded in 1076, from the chapter- ouse to a place near the high altar of the church. He died on 16 Nov. 1109. He was one of the few Englishmen appointed to high office in the Conqueror's reign (FBEEMAN, Norman Conquest, iv. 600).
Some fabulous notices of Ingulfs life are given in the forged ' History ' which bears his name ; his known relations with Gerbert, however, probably justify partial acceptance of the account of his learning contained in the forgery. The assertion that he wrote a life of St. Guthlac is founded only on a passage in the ' History,' and is not worthy of belief. The ' History ' has been printed by Savile in his ' Scriptores post Bedam,' pp. 850-914, London, 1596, fol. ; reprinted, Frankfort, 1601 ; byFulman, with a continuation falsely attributed to Peter of Blois and other con- tinuations, in his ' Quinque Scriptores,' pp. 1 sqq., Oxford, 1684, fol., a volume usually reckoned as the first of Gale's ' Scriptores ; ' separately by Mr. Birch in the ' Chronicle of Croyland Abbey by Ingulph ' (Lat.), 1883 ; and in part in the ' Recueil des Historiens,r xi. 153-7 ; it has been translated by Riley in Bonn's ' Historical Library,' 1854. Five manuscripts of it are known to have existed, of which only one is supposed to be extant (Brit. Mus. Arundel MS. No. 178, 54 pages fol., written in a hand of the sixteenth cen- tury ; printed by Mr. Birch). Selden, in his edition of ' Eadmer ' (1623), speaks of a ma- nuscript then kept at Crowland, and held to- be Ingulfs autograph. He could not see it ;
Ingulf
Ingworth
Spelman, however, saw and used it for his * Concilia,' i. 623 (1639). Selden used another manuscript for the so-called laws of William the Conqueror, given in his notes on ' Ead- mer.' This manuscript is noticed by Camden in the dedicatory epistle to his reprint oi Asser in his ' Anglica,' &c. (1602) ; it is sup- posed to have been burnt in the fire which destroyed part of the Cotton Library in 1731. A third manuscript was used by Fulman ; it belonged to Sir John Marsham, and was said to have been carried off by Obadiah Walker (seeMonumentaHistorica£ritannica,p.l.ln.) A fourth, imperfect, was used by Savile who gives no account of it.
From the foundation of the abbey to the thirty-fourth year of Edgar the writer pro- fesses to base his work on a chronicle of the house compiled under Abbot Turketul by a brother named Sweetman. The early part consists mainly of charters of donation con- nected by a slender thread of narrative. From the accession of Edward the Confessor the narrative becomes more prominent. The book contains a great many curious and evidently untrue stories. In Fulman's time the charters were used as evidence of title, and Dr. Caius, in his book on Cambridge (1568), and after him Spelman, Dugdale, Selden, and others, ac- cepted the ' History ' as authoritative. Whar- ton, however, in his ' Historia de Episcopis et Decanis Londinensibus' (1695), pp. 19, 24-6, pointed out that some of the charters were forgeries, and he was followed by Wanley, and more at length by Hickes in his ' Thesau- rus ' and his ' Dissertatio Epistolaris.' From that time the charters were rejected ; but at the end of the eighteenth century Richard Gough [q. v.] maintained that the ' History ' was by Ingulf, who, however, himself forged the charters. Gibbon noted the anachronism in the statement regarding the study of Aris- totle at Oxford. In 1826 Sir Francis Palgrave, in an article in the ' Quarterly Review,' ex- posed some of the points which mark the book as a forgery, and in 1862 this was done more thoroughly by Riley in the ' Archaeological Journal.' Among these points may be noticed the assertions that the abbey in Edred's days bore the French appellation of ' curteyse ; ' that Turketul, who is said to have been born in 907, is also said to have advised the con- secration of bishops in 905 ; that Ingulf, the supposed author, was educated at Oxford, and read Aristotle there ; that on visiting Constantinople he saluted the emperor Alexis (Alexius), who began to reign in 1081, and was received by the patriarch Sophronius, who died in 1059, that he was appointed abbot in 1075, and that there was a ' vicar ' of a place called Wedlongburc in 1091. The
VOL. XXIX.
spelling of place names belongs rather to the fourteenth than to the eleventh century, and many words and phrases occur which were certainly not in use in Ingulfs time. The motive of the forgery appears to have been the desire to defend the property of the abbey against the claims of the Spalding people. From the fifteenth-century continuation, which seems to be a bona fide work, Riley shows that it is probable that the forgery of the charters began about 1393. He further, with great ingenuity, assigns the compilation of the book to 1413-15, and regards it as the work of the prior Richard, then engaged, the abbot being blind, in a lawsuit with the people of Spalding and Multon on behalf of the abbey ; the counsel for the abbey, Serjeant Ludyng- ton, afterwards justice of the common pleas, must, in Riley's opinion, have been cognisant of the affair. One of the absurdities of the book is the story of the five sempectae or senior members of the house, who, in order to ac- count for the preservation of the traditions of the convent, are made to live to immense ages, one to 168, another to 142 years, and one of them, a fabulous Aio, to about 125 years. In spite of the work of Palgrave, Riley, and others, and of the general con- sensus of scholars, H. S. English, in his ' Crowland and Burgh ' (1871, 3 vols.), be- lieves that the ' History ' is a mutilated and altered edition of a genuine work written by Ingulf (i. 22) ; and Mr. Birch, in his ' Chro- nicle of Croyland Abbey ' (1883), argues that the charters are a reconstruction of original documents, and that the book, as a whole, is not a wanton forgery. Neither of them accurately defines his position or supports it with adequate arguments.
[The only authority for the Life of Ingulf is the account given by Orderic, pp. 542, 543 ; see also Freeman's Norman Conquest, iv. 600-2, 690. For the character of the Crowland History see Quarterly Beview (1826), xxxiv. 289 sqq. ; Archseol. Journal (1862), xix. 32-49, 113-33; Hardy's Materials, i. ii. 816, ii. 58-64 (Eolls Series); Mon. Hist. Brit. pp. 11,18,19; Wright's Biog. Brit. Lit. ii. 28-33 ; and other works quoted in text.] W. H.
INGWORTH, RICHARD OP (fl. 1224), Franciscan, was, according to Thomas Ec- cleston [q. v.],the first Minorite who preached to the peoples north of the Alps. He was among the friars who came to England with Agnellus in 1224, and was then a priest and advanced in years. W7ith three other friars he established the first house of Franciscans in London ; he then proceeded to Oxford, hired ahouseinSt.Ebbe's, and thus founded the ori- ginal convent in the university town ; he also founded the friary at Northampton. After-
Inman
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wards he became custodian of Cambridge, •which was specially noted for its poverty under his rule. In 1230, when Agnellus at- tended the general chapter at Assisi, Richard acted as vicar of the English province. Soon after this he was appointed by the general, John Parens, provincial minister of Ireland. He was released from the office by Albert of Pisa in 1239, and set out as a missionary to the Holy Land, where he died. In the manu- scripts of Eccleston his name is usually written ' Ingewrthe ' or ' Indewurde.' Le- land and his followers call him 'Kinges- thorp.' The only authority for this form is a late marginal note in the Phillipps MS. of Eccleston, from which Leland made his extracts (see English Hist. Rev. for October 1890).
[Mon. Franciscana, vol. i. ed. Brewer (Rolls Ser.)] A. G. L.
INMAN, GEORGE ELLIS (1814-1840), song-writer, born in 1814, and well educated, was for some time clerk in the office of a firm of wine merchants in Crutched Friars, Lon- don. He obtained some reputation as a song- writer,fellavictimto opium-taking, and com- mitted suicide on 26 Sept. 1840 in St. James's Park.
Two compositions of his, 'The Days of Yore' and 'St. George's Flag of England,' gained prizes of ten and fifteen guineas re- spectively from the Melodists' Club in 1838 and 1840. Other songs of his were ' Sweet Mary mine,' which enjoyed a concert season's popularity; 'My Native Hills,' set to music by Sir Henry Bishop ; and ' Wake, wake, my Love,' set to music by Raffaelle Angelo WalKs. He wrote the libretto for Wallis's opera, ' The Arcadians.' He also contributed to various magazines. In the ' Bentley Bal- lads,' edited by Dr. Doran (new edition, 1 861 ), are included two vigorous poems of his, ' Old Morgan at Panama' (p. 17) and 'Haroun Alraschid' (p. 80). In 'La Belle Assem- blee ' for September 1844 appeared posthu- mously a piece by him, ' Le premier Grena- dier des Armees de la Republique.' He is said to have published a small volume of poems (Notes and Queries, 4th ser. v. 326).
[Globe newspaper, 28 Sept. 1840, p. 4, and 30 Sept. p. 4; Gent. Mag. November 1840, p. 550; Notes and Queries, 4th ser. v. 225-6.]
F. W-T.
INMAN, JAMES (1776-1859), professor of navigation and nautical science, born in 1776, was younger son of Richard Inman of Garsdale Foot, Sedbergh, Yorkshire. The family of substantial statesmen had owned property in the neighbourhood from the
time of the dissolution of the monasteries. James received his early education at Sedbergh grammar school, and subsequently became a pupil of John Dawson [q. v.] (see also J. W. CLARK, Life and Letters of Adam Sedgwick, i. 70), and although entered at St. John's Col- lege, Cambridge, in 1794, did not go into resi- dence till 1796. Inman graduated B. A . in 1800 as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, and was elected to a fellowship. Though with no immediate intention of taking orders, In- man now turn 3d his thoughts towards mission work in the East, and set out for Syria. The course of the war rendered it impossible for him to proceed further than Malta, where he devoted some time to the study of Arabic. On his return to England he was recom- mended to the board of longitude for the post of astronomer on board the Investigator dis- covery-ship, and joined her on her return to Port Jackson in June 1803 [see FLINDERS, MATTHEW]. When the Investigator's officers and men were turned over to the Porpoise, Inman was left at Port Jackson in charge of the instruments; but after the wreck and the return of Flinders, Inman accompanied him in the Rolla, and assisted him in determining the position of the reef on which the Porpoise had struck. With the greater part of the crew he then returned to England, via China, being assigned a passage in the company's ship War- ley, in which he was present in the celebrated engagement with Linois off Pulo Aor on 15 Feb. 1804 [see DANCE, SIR NATHANIEL ; FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN]. In 1805 he proceeded M.A., and about the same time was ordained, though he does not appear to have held any cure ; he proceeded to the degree of B.D. in 1815, and of D.D. in 1820.
On the conversion of the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth in 1808 into the Royal Naval College, Inman was appointed professor of mathematics, and virtually prin- cipal, and here he remained for thirty years. In this office Inman turned to good account the knowledge of navigation and naval gun- nery which he had acquired at sea. In 1821 appeared his well-known book, ' Navigation and Nautical Astronomy for the use of Bri- tish Seamen,' with accompanying tables. In the third edition (1835) he introduced a new trigonometrical function, the half-versine, or haversine, thelogarithms of which were added to the tables, and enormously simplified the practicalsolution of spherical triangles. After long remaining the recognised text-book in the navy, the ' Navigation ' has been gradually superseded, but the tables, with some addi- tions, still continue in use.
It is said that Inman suggested to Captain Broke [see BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERB]
Inman
Inman
some of the improvements in naval gunnery which were introduced on board the Shannon. He published in 1828 ' An Introduction to Naval Gunnery/ designed strictly as an ' in- troduction' to the course of scientific teach- ing. It was during this period also that he produced for the use of his classes short trea- tises on ' Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry,' 1810, and ' Plane and Spherical Trigono- metry,' 1826. These, however, have long been out of use, and are now extremely rare. No copy of either can be found in any of the principal libraries in London.
At his suggestion the admiralty established a school of naval architecture in 1810, and Inman was appointed principal. To supply the want of a text-book, he published in 1820 ' A Treatise on Shipbuilding, with Ex- planations and Demonstrations respecting the Architectura Navalis Mercatoria, by Fre- derick Henry de Chapman,. . .translated into English, with explanatory Notes, and a few Eemarks on the Construction of Ships of War,' Cambridge, 4to. The translation was made from a French version, though com- pared with the Swedish. It has of course long been obsolete ; but to Inman's labours was largely due the improvement in English ship-building during the first half of the present century. In 1839 the college was again reorganised, and Inman retired. For the next twenty years he continued to reside in the neighbourhood of Portsmouth, and died at Southsea on 2 Feb. 1859.
Inman married Mary, daughter of Richard Williams, vicar of Oakham, Rutlandshire, a direct descendant of the mother of Sir Isaac Newton [q. v.] by her second husband, and left issue. In addition to the works already named, he was also the author of ' The Scrip- tural Doctrine of Divine Grace : a Sermon preached before the University,' Cambridge, 8vo, 1820, and 'Formulae and Rules for making Calculations on Plans of Ships,' London, 8vo, 1849.
[Information from the Eev. H. T. Inman, In- man's grandson.] J. K. L.
INMAN, THOMAS, M.D. (1820-1876), mythologist, born on 27 Jan. 1820 in Rut- land Street, Leicester, was second son of Charles Inman (a native of Lancaster, de- scended from a Yorkshire family), who was sometime partner in Pickford's carrying com- pany, and afterwards director of the Bank of Liverpool. William Inman [q. v.] was his younger brother. Thomas went to school at Wakefield, and in 1836 was apprenticed to his uncle, Richard Inman, M.D., at Preston, Lancashire. He entered at King's College, London, where he had a distinguished career,
graduating M.B. in 1842 and M.D. in 1844 at the university of London. Declining a commission as an army surgeon, he settled in Liverpool as house-surgeon to the Royal Infirmary. He obtained a good practice as a physician, and was for many years phy- sician to the Royal Infirmary. His publica- tions on personal hygiene are full of shrewd practical counsel.
On 21 Oct. 1844 he became a member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liver- pool, to whose ' Proceedings ' he frequently contributed papers, chiefly on archaeological subjects. He had little original scholarship, but read widely, and, although the philological basis of his researches is quite unscientific, his writings display great ingenuity. From God- frey Higgins [q. v.] he. derived the suggestion that the key to all mythology is to be sought in phallic worship. On 5 Feb. 1866 he first propounded this theory in a paper on ' The An- tiquity of certain Christian and other Names.' The subject was pursued in other papers, and in three works on ' Ancient Faiths,' which he published between 1868 and 1876.
In 1871 he gave up practice and retired to Clifton, near Bristol, where he died on 3 May 1876. He was a man of handsome presence, and his genial temperament made him generally popular. He married in 1844 Jennet Leigh- ton, daughter of Daniel Newham of Douglas, Isle of Man, and had six sons and two daugh- ters, of whom tAvo sons and two daughters survived him.
His most important publications are: 1. ' Spontaneous Combustion,' Liverpool, 1855, 8vo. 2. ' On certain Painful Muscular Affections,' 1856, 8vo ; 2nd edition, with title, ' The Phenomena of Spinal Irritation,' &c., 1858, 8vo ; 3rd edition, with title, ' On Myalgia,' &c., 1860, 8vo. 3. ' The Foundation for a new Theory and Practice of Medicine,' 1860, 8vo; 2nd edition, 1861, 8vo. 4. 'On the Preservation of Health,' &c., Liverpool, 1868, 8vo ; 2nd edition, 1870, 8vo ; 3rd edi- tion, 1872, 8vo. 5. 'Ancient Faiths em- bodied in Ancient Names ; or, an Attempt to trace the Religious Belief ... of certain Nations,' &c., vol. i. 1868, 8vo ; vol. ii. 1869, 8vo ; 2nd edition, 1872-3, 8vo. 6. ' Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism exposed and explained,' &c., 1869, 8vo. 7. ' The Restoration of Health,' &c., 1870, 8vo ; 2nd edition, 1872, 8vo. 8. < Ancient Faiths and Modern: a Dissertation upon Worships . . . before the Christian Era,' &c., New York (printed at Edinburgh), 1876, 8vo.
[Information kindly furnished by Miss Z. Inman ; Proceedings of the Lit. and Philos. Soc. of Liverpool ; personal knowledge.] A. G
c2
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Innes
INMAN, WILLIAM (1825-1881), foun- der of the Inman line of steamships, born at Leicester on 6 April 1825, was fourth son of Charles Inman, a partner in the firm of Pickford & Co., who died on 10 Nov. 1858, by Jane, daughter of Thomas Clay of Liver- pool (she died 11 Nov. 1865). Thomas In- man [q. v.], the mythologist, was his elder brother. Educated at the Collegiate Institute at Liverpool and at the Liverpool Royal In- stitution, William entered a mercantile office, and was clerk successively to Nathan Cairns (brotherof Lord Cairns), toCater& Company, and to Richardson Brothers, all merchants at Liverpool. Of the latter firm he became a partner in January 1849, and managed their fleet of American sailing packets, then trading between Liverpool and Philadelphia. Here he first gained an intimate knowledge of the emigration business. Having watched with interest the first voyage to America, early in 1850, of Tod & Macgregor's screw iron ship the City of Glasgow of 1,600 tons and 350 horse-power, he was convinced of the advantages she possessed over both sailing ships and paddle steamers for purposes of navigation. In conj unction with his partners, he purchased the City of Glasgow, and on 17 Dec. in the same year despatched her with four hundred steerage passengers on a successful voyage across the Atlantic. In 1857 he formed the Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia Steamship Company, better known as the Inman line. Between 1851 and 1856 the company purchased the City of Manchester, the City of Baltimore, the Kan- garoo, and the City of Washington, all iron screw-ships. In 1857 the company enlarged the area of their operations by making New York one of their ports of arrival, and esta- blishing a fortnightly line thither. In 1860 they introduced a weekly service of steamers ; in 1863 they extended it to three times a fortnight, and in 1866 to twice a week during the summer. The failure of the Collins line was advantageous to Inman, for he adopted their dates of sailing, and henceforth carried the mails between England and America. Inman specially directed his attention to the removal of the discomforts of emigrant passengers. In 1875 the City of Berlin, the longest and largest steam-vessel afloat, the Great Eastern excepted, was launched. In- man was a member of the local marine board, of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Trust, and of the first Liverpool school board; was a captain of the Cheshire rifle volunteers, a magistrate for Cheshire, and chairman of the Liverpool Steam Shipowners' Association. He frequently gave evidence before com- mittees of the House of Commons, more par-
ticularly in 1874 on the committee on Mer- chant. Ships Measurement of Tonnage Bill (Parliamentary Papers, 1874, vol. x., Report 1874, pp. 182-8, 238-47).
He died at Upton Manor, near Birkenhead, on 3 July 1881, and was buried in Moreton parish church on 6 Julv. He married, on 20 Dec. 1849, Anne Brewis, daughter of Wil- liam Stobart of Picktree, Durham, by whom he had twelve children, nine sons and three daughters.
[Lindsay's Merchant Shipping, 1876, iv. 251- 260, 611-12; Times, 26 Jan. 1877, p. 10, 5 July 1881, p. 8 ; Burke's Landed Gentry.]
G. C. B.
INNERPEFFER,,LoRD. [See FLETCHER, ANDREW, d. 1650, Scottish judge.]
INNES, COSMO (1798-1 874), antiquary, born on 9 Sept. 1798at the old manor-house of Durris on Deeside, was the youngest child but one of the sixteen children of John Innes by his wife Euphemia (wee Russell). John Innes, who belonged to the family of Innes of Innes, had sold his property in Moray to buy Durris. He resided at Durris for many years, but was afterwards ejected by a legal decision, a lead- ing case in the Scottish law of entail. Cosmo was sent to the high school, Edinburgh, under Pillans, and studied at the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow. He afterwards matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, on 13 May 1817, graduating B.A. 1820, and M.A. 1824. In 1822 he became an advocate at the Scottish bar. His practice was never large, but he was soon employed in peerage and other cases demanding antiquarian and genealogical research. His first case of this kind was the Forbes peerage case, about 1830-2. In the Stirling case he was crown advocate. For several years, from about 1833, he was advocate-depute. In 1840 he was appointed sheriff of Moray, and while in office had to deal with the Moray mobs, who at the time of the Irish potato famine resisted the export of produce from their own dis- trict. In 1845 he was a member of the municipal corporation (Scotland) commis- sion. In 1852 he resigned his sheriffdom, and succeeded his friend Thomas Thomson as principal clerk of session.
About 1830 Innes had assisted Thomson in arranging the ancient documents in the Register House (cp. INNES, Memoir of T. Thomson, 1854, 8vo). He was afterwards officially engaged in editing and preparing for the press the ' Rescinded Acts,' and in partly editing the folio edition of the ' Acts of the Scots Parliament' (1124-1707). He wrote an introduction to vol. i. (1844) of the
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' Acts,' and in July 1865 began to compile with his assistants the 'General Index' to the whole work. This was published in 1875 after his death. Innes was an acute and learned student of ancient Scottish records, and singularly skilful as a decipherer. He was an active member and editor of the Ban- natyne, Spalding, and Maitland clubs. He edited the chartularies of numerous Scottish religious houses, as well as various acade- mical and municipal works of importance. In his ' Scotland in the Middle Ages,' 1860, and ' Sketches of Early Scotch History,' 1861 (the latter selected from his ' Intro- ductions to the Chartularies'), he displayed a sympathetic interest in the pre-Reformation period, and was accused of being a Roman catholic, though he was a member of the episcopal church. From 1846 till his death Innes held the post of professor of consti- tutional law and history at the university of Edinburgh. His lectures were attractive. He also gave valuable lectures on Scottish legal antiquities before the Juridical Society. While on a highland tour he died suddenly at Killin on 31 July 1874. His body was removed to Edinburgh, and buried in War- riston cemetery on 5 Aug. In appearance Innes was tall and handsome. He suffered from shyness, which sometimes took the form of nervous volubility in conversation. He was a keen sportsman, and amused himself with gardening. He had a great contempt for the mere bookworm, and said that more was to be learnt outside books than in them. As an antiquary he had no rival in his own line. In politics he was a whig. He advo- cated the claims of women students of medi- cine to graduate at the university of Edin- burgh.
Innes married in 1826 Miss Rose of Kil- varock, by whom he had nine children. The eldest son entered the Indian army, but died at twenty-four. The eldest daughter married in 1855 John Hill Burton [q. v.] the his- torian. During his married life Innes lived chiefly in or near Edinburgh, first at Ramsay Lodge ; then at No. 6 Forres Street (where he was intimate with Francis Jeffrey [q. v.] and his family) ; subsequently at the Hawes, South Queensferry, and finally at Inverleith House, Edinburgh.
The following are Innes's principal publi- cations (S. and B. indicate the publications of the Spalding and Bannatyne clubs respec- tively): 1. 'Two Ancient Records of the Bishopric of Caithness,' 1827, &c., 4to ; also 1848, 4to, B. 2. ' Registrum Monasterii de Passelet' (Paisley), 1832, 4to, Maitland Club. 3. ' Liber Sancte Marie de Melros,' 1837, 4to, B. 4. ' Registrum Episcopatus Moraviensis,'
1837, 4to, B. 5. ' Liber Cartarum Sancte Crucis. Munimenta Eccles. Sanct. Crucis de Edwinesburg,' 1840, 4to, B. 6. ' Registrum de Dunfermelyn,' 1842, 4to, B. 7. ' Regis- trum Episcopatus Glasguensis,' 1843, 4to, B. 8. ' Liber S. Marie de Calchou ' (Kelso Abbey), 1846, 4to, B. 9. ' Liber Insule Missarum : Abbacii Canonic. Regul. . . . de Inchaffery re- gistrum,' 1847, 4to, B. 10. ' Carte monialium de Northberwic' (North Berwick Priory), 1847, 4to, B. 11. ' Liber S. Thome de Aber- brothoc ' (Arbroath Abbey), ed. by C. Innes and P. Chalmers, 1848, &c., 4to, B. 12. 'Re- gistrum S. Marie de Neubotle ' (Newbattle Abbey), 1849, 4to, B. 13. ' Origines Paro- chiales Scotiae,'1850,4to, B (a work of much research). 14. ' Registrum Honoris de Mor- ton,' ed. completed by C. I., 1853, 4to. 15. 'Fasti Aberdonenses,' 1854, 8vo (selec- tions from the records of the university and King's College of Aberdeen). 16. ' The Black Book of Tayrnouth,' 1855, 4to, B. 17. ' Registrum Episcopatus Brechinensis,' 1856, 4to, S. 18. J. Barbour's ' The Bras,' 1856, 4to, S. 19. ' The Book of the Thanes of Cawdor,' 1859, 4to, S. 20. 'Scotland in the Middle Ages,' Edinburgh, 1860, 8vo (adapted from his university lectures). 21. 'Sketches of Early Scotch History and Social Progress,' Edinburgh, 1861, 8vo. 22. 'An Account of the Familie of Innes' (by Duncan Forbes (1644 P-1704) [q. v.], with additions by C. I.), 1864, 4to, S. 23. ' Ledger of A. Halyburton, 1492-1503,' 1867, 8vo. 24. 'Facsimiles of National Manuscripts of Scotland. Edited, with Introduction, by C. I.,' 1867, £c., fol. 25. 'Ancient Laws and Customs of the Burghs of Scotland,' 1868, &c., 4to. 26. ' Lectures on Scotch Legal Antiquities,' Edinburgh, 1872, 8vo. 27. ' Memoir of Dean Ramsay ' in the 22nd (1874) ed. of Ramsay's < Reminis- cences.' 28. Contributions to the 'Quarterly Review ' and the ' North British Review.' (For Innes's work connected with the Scotch statutes, see above.)
[Memoir of Innes, Edinburgh, 1874, partly founded on obituary notices in the Scotsman, Courant, Glasgow Herald, Athenaeum, and Pall Mall Gazette; Dr. J. A. H. Murray in the Academy for 15 Aug. 1874, p. 181 ; Brit. Mus. Cat,] W. W.
INNES or INNES-KER, JAMES, fifth DUKE OP ROXBUKGHE (1736-1823). [See KEE.]
INNES, JOHN (d. 1414), bishop of Moray, a native of Moray, is reckoned by Forbes (Familie of Innes, 1698) as thirteenth laird of Innes, but it is not certain, though it is pro- bable, that he belonged to that family. In 1389 he was a canon of Elgin Cathedral, in
Innes
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1395 he held the prebend of Duffus, and in
1396 he was also archdeacon of Caithness. He desired to go to Paris to study canon law, and, ' inasmuch as the fruits of his arch- deaconry were not sufficient to enable him to fulfil his wish,' Alexander Bar, bishop of Moray, gave a grant of certain of the tithes of that diocese by way of an exhibition ( ' ad exhibendum Joanni de Innes in studio Parisiensi ' ). He returned by 1397, when he was judge in a question of tithe between William de Spynie, bishop of Moray, and the vicar of Elgin. On 23 Jan. 1406 he was con- secrated bishop of Moray at Avignon by Pope Benedict XIII. In the li'st (dated 1437) of the bishops of Moray he is described as ' bachelor in both laws and in arts.' He died at Elgin on 25 April 1414, and was buried in his cathe- dral, where his monument, now demolished, told how during his seven years' episcopate he had strenuously pushed on the rebuilding of that noble church, which had been burned in 1390 by Alexander Stewart, 'the Wolf of Badenoch ' [q. v.] At the chapter held to elect his successor the canons agreed that if any of them should be elected he should devote the third of his revenue to the completion of the cathedral. The older part of the bishop's palace at Elgin and the beautiful gateway at the palace of Spynie are Innes's work. His arms show the three stars of Innes on a bend between three keys ; the shield is surmounted, not by a mitre, but by a pastoral staff. The Greyfriars Church at Elgin, sometimes attri- buted to him, was founded by another John Innes fifty years later.
[Chartulary of Moray ; Familie of Innes (Spald- ing Club) ; Keith's Catalogue ; Young's Annals of Elgin ; M'Gibbon and Ross's Castellated Architecture of Scotland.] J. C.
INNES, JOHN (1739-1777), anatomist, was born in 1739 at Callart in the highlands of Scotland. He went to Edinburgh as a boy, and was employed by the second Dr. Alexander Monro [q. v.], then professor of anatomy in the university. He became a dexterous dissector, and when eighteen was made dissector to the anatomical theatre. It was his duty to dissect out the parts for each of the professor's lectures, and he thus ac- quired a minute knowledge of human anatomy. The students liked him, and with the con- sent of his employer he used to give evening demonstrations of anatomy, and became so famous for the clearness of his descriptions that his audience numbered nearly two hun- dred students. In 1776 he published at Edin- burgh 'A Short Description of the Human Muscles, chiefly as they appear on Dissection,' and this book, with some additions by Dr.
Monro, continued to be used in the dissect- ing rooms at Edinburgh for fifty years after his death. Though its descriptions in places show signs of being written by a man with- out literary education, they are generally terse and lucid, and copies of the book often bear evidence that it was placed, as intended by the author, upon the body which the stu- dent was dissecting. Later in the same year he published ' Eight Anatomical Tables of the Human Body.' The plates represent the skeleton and muscles, and are copied from Albinus, with brief original descriptions of each plate. Both books were published in second editions by John Murray in London in 1778 and 1779 respectively. After a long illness Innes died of phthisis, 12 Jan. 1777, in Edinburgh.
[Works; Memoir by Dr. Alexander Monro prefixed to both -works.] N. M.
INNES, LEWIS (1651-1738), principal of the Scots College in Paris, born at Walker- dales, in the Enzie of Banff, in 1651, was the eldest son of James Innes, wadsetter, of Drumgask in the parish of Aboyne, Aber- deenshire, by his wife, Jane Robertson, daugh- ter of a merchant in Aberdeen. The family of Drumgask was descended from the Inneses of Drainie in the county of Moray. Lewis's father held Drumgask in mortgage from the Earl of Aboyne, but it afterwards became the irredeemable property of the family. Lewis studied for the Roman catholic priest- hood at Paris, and on the death of Robert Barclay in February 1682 he was appointed principal of the Scots College there. Along with his brother, Thomas Innes [q. v.l, he devoted himself to the preservation and ar- rangement of the records in the college library. He took a conspicuous part in the proceed- ings connected with the vindication of the authenticity of the famous charter which established the legitimacy of King Robert III. He carried this charter to St. Germains, where it was shown to James II and the nobility and gentry of his court. Afterwards he submitted it to an examination by the most famous antiquaries of France, including Renandot, Baluze, Mabillon, and Ruinart, in the presence of several of the Scottish nobility and gentry, at a solemn assembly held in the abbey of St. Germain-des-Pres, on 26 May 1694. The document was printed by him, under the title of ' Charta authentica Robert! Seneschalli Scotiae ; ex Archivio Collegii Scotorum Parisiensis edita,' Paris, 1695, 4to. Innes is said to have been one of five who acted as a cabinet council to James II at St. Germains on the king's return from Ireland in 1690. On 11 Nov. 1701 he was admitted
Innes
Innes
almoner to the queen-mother, Mary of Este, an office he had previously held while she was queen-consort. On 23 Dec. 1713 he was ad- mitted almoner to her son, the Chevalier de St. George, resigned the office of principal of the Scots College in the same year, and in 1714 was appointed lord almoner. He ap- pears to have acted as a sort of confidential secretary, and repeated allusions to him are scattered through the printed volume of the ' Stuart Papers.' In the beginning of 1718 he was set aside from his office, but within a few years he was again in confidential communi- cation with his master. He was trusted in the important business of securing Bishop Atterbury's papers, which after the bishop's death were deposited in the Scots College. He died at Paris on 23 Jan. 1738.
Innes probably compiled ' The Life of James II, King of England, &c., collected out of Memoirs writ of his own hand,' 2 vols., London, 1816, 4to, edited by James Stanier Clarke [q. v.], who attributed the authorship to the younger brother, Thomas Inues. It is certain that the original memoirs written by James II were deposited in the Scots College under the special care of Lewis Innes [see under JAMES II, infra].
[Memoirs by George Grub, LL.D., prefixed to Thomas Innes's Hist, of Scotland, 1853, and his Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland, 1879 ; Miscellany of the Spalding Club, ii. 418; Life of James II (Clarke), pref. p. xix; Chalmers's Life, of Kuddiman, p. 201 ; Stothert's Catholic Mission in Scotland, pp. 248, 249; Michel's Les Ecossais en France, ii. 303, 319, 328 n.t 531.] T. C.
INNES, THOMAS (1662-1744),historian and antiquary, second son of James Innes, and younger brother of Lewis Innes [q. v.], was born in 1662 at Drumgask in the parish of Aboyne, Aberdeenshire. In 1677 he was sent to Paris, and studied at the college of Navarre. He entered the Scots College on 12 Jan. 1681, but still attended the college of Navarre. On 26 May 1684 he received the clerical tonsure ; on 10 March 1691 was promoted to the priesthood, and afterwards spent a few months at Notre Dame desVertus, a seminary of the Oratorians near Paris. Re- turning to the Scots College in 1692, he as- sisted the principal, his elder brother Lewis, in arranging the records of the church of Glasgow, which had been deposited partly in that college and partly in the Carthusian monastery at Paris by Archbishop James Beaton. In 1694 he graduated M.A. at Paris, and in 1695 was matriculated in the German nation. After officiating as at priest for two years in the parish of JNIagnay in
the diocese of Paris, he went again to the Scots College in 1697. In the spring of 1698 he returned to his native country, and officiated for three years at Inveravon, Banff- shire, as a priest of the Scottish mission. In October 1701 he returned to Paris, and be- came prefect of studies in the Scots College, and also mission agent. There he spent twenty years, occupied in the quiet discharge of his duties and in literary pursuits. His intimacy with Rollin, Duguet, and Santeul led to his being suspected of Jansenism. In 1720 his bro- therLewis, in what appears to be aformal letter to the vicar-general of the Bishop of Apt, con- tradicted a report that Thomas had concurred in an appeal to a general council against the condemnation of Quesnel's ' Moral Re- flections ' by Pope Clement XI. ' There is/ remarks his biographer, Dr. Grub, 'no ap- pearance of Jansenism in his historical works, though they mark clearly his decided opposi- tion to ultramontanism.' After a long absence he again visited Scotland in order to collect materials for his ' Essay ' and his ' History.' In the winter of 1724 he was at Edinburgh, pursuing his researches in the Advocates' Library. In December 1727 he was appointed vice-principal of the Scots College at Paris, where he died on 28 Jan. 1744.
The results of Innes's laborious researches in Scottish history and antiquities were libe- rally communicated to all scholars who sought his assistance. Atterbury and Ruddiman ap- pear to have been equally attracted by him, and Bishop Robert Keith was greatly in- debted to him for materials incorporated in the ' Catalogue of Scottish Bishops.'
His works are: 1. 'A Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of the Northern Parts of Britain or Scotland. Containing an Account of the Romans, of the Britains betwixt the Walls, of the Caledonians or Picts, and particularly of the Scots. With an Appendix of ancient manuscript pieces,' 2 vols., London, 1729 ; reprinted, with a Memoir by George Grub, LL.D., in vol. viii. of ' The Historians of Scotland,' Edinburgh, 1879, 8vo. This work elicited an anonymous volume of 'Remarks' [by George Waddel], Edinburgh, 1733, and ' The Roman Account of Britain and Ireland, by Alexander Taitt,' 1741. Both these replies are reprinted in ' Scotia Rediviva,' 1826, vol. i., and in ' Tracts illustrative of the Antiquities of Scotland,' 1836, vol. i. Innes's fame mainly rests upon this ' Critical Essay.' ' Authors [such ra« Pinkerton and Chalmers] who agree in nothing else have united to build on the foundations which Innes laid, and to extol his learning and accuracy, his candour and sagacity' (Spalding Club Miscellany, vol. ii.
Inskipp
pref. p. cxv). 2. ' Epistola de veteri apud Scotos habendi Synodos modo,' dated Paris, 23Nov.l735. Invol.i.of Wilkins's 'Concilia Magnse Britanniae;' reprinted with Innes's ' Civil and Ecclesiastical History.' 3. ' The Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland/ edited by George Grub, LL.D., and printed at Aberdeen for the Spalding Club, 1853, 4to, from a manuscript in the possession of Dr. James Kyle, bishop of Germanica, and vicar- apostolic of the northern district of Scotland. 4. Papers by Innes, and documents con- nected with his family. In ' Miscellany of the Spalding Club,' ii. 351-80. They include (a) ' Letter to the Chevalier de St. George,' dated 17 Oct. 1729; (b) 'Remarks on a Charter of Prince Henry, son of David I ; ' (c) 'Of the Salisbury Liturgy used in Scotland.'
6. Five closely-written volumes, mostly in his handwriting, of his manuscript collections in Scottish history, now among the Laing manuscripts in the library of Edinburgh Uni- versity. 6. A thick quarto volume of collec- tions and dissertations. This was at Preshome under the charge of Bishop Kyle in 1853.
7. 'Original Letters,' 1729-33. In the Uni- versity Library, Edinburgh (' Laing Collec- tions,' No. 346). Several of his letters to the Hon. Harry Mania of Kelly, author of the ' Registrum de Panmure,' are printed in the appendix to Dr. John Stuart's edition of that work, 2 vols. 4to, Edinburgh, 1874.
The ' Life of King James II ' has been attributed to him, but was probably com- piled by his brother, Lewis Innes.
[Life by George Grub, LL.D., prefixed to Innes's Hist, of Scotland and his Critical Essay, 1879 ; Maule's Eegistrum de Pantnure, pref. pp. Ixiv-lxvi, cxi-cxxviii ; Chambers's Biog. Diet, of Eminent Scotsmen (Thomson), ii. 337 ; Fox's Hist, of James II, pref. p. xxvi n. ; Eegistrum Episcopatus Gla«guensis (Bannatyne Club), vol. i. pref. p. xiii ; Life of James II, edited by J. S. Clarke, vol. i. pref. p. xix ; Michel's Les Ecossais en France, ii. 322, 325-8, 329, 519, 531 ; Miscel- lany of the Spalding Club, ii. 418 ; Stothert's Catholic Mission in Scotland, pp. 248, 249, 566; information from H. A. Webster, esq.] T. C.
INSKIPP, JAMES (1790-1868), painter, born in 1790, was originally employed in the commissariat service, from which he retired with a pension, and adopted painting as a profession for the remainder of his life. He began with landscapes, one of which he ex- hibited at the Royal Academy. Subsequently he devoted himself to small subject-pictures, and with less success to portraits. He was a frequent contributor to the British Insti- tution and to the Society of British Artists, as well as to the Royal Academy. A pic- ture of ' A Girl making Lace ' is at Bowood,
4. Insula
Wiltshire, and another of 'A Venetian Wo- man'at Deepdene, Surrey. His pictures were admired at the time, and some were engraved. He drew a series of illustrations for Sir Harris- Nicolas's edition of Izaak Walton's' Complete Angler,' published in 1833-6. Inskipp re- sided the latter part of his life at Godalming,. Surrey, where he died on 15 March 1868, aged 78. He was buried in Godalming ceme- tery. In 1838 he published [a series of en- gravings from his drawings, entitled 'Studies of Heads from Nature.'
[Redgrave's Diet, of Artists; Graves's Diet, of Artists, 1760-1880; Catalogues of the Royal Academy and British Institution.] L. C.
INSULA, ROBERT DE, or ROBERT" HALIELAND (d. 1283), bishop of Dur- ham, was born at Holy Island, apparently of humble parentage. He became amonk at Dur- ham. The Lanercost chronicler (p. 113) call* him Robertus de Coquina, which looks as if he was employed in some menial office. He rose to be prior of Finchale, and in May 1274 attended the council of Lyons' as proctor for the prior of Durham. On 24 Sept. in the same year he was chosen bishop of Durham;, his election was confirmed 31 Oct., the temporalities were restored 11 Nov., and on 9 Dec. he was consecrated at York. In 1276 he issued some ' Const itutiones Synodales,' relating to tithes, which are printed in Wil- kins's ' Concilia ' (ii. 28-30). Next year he- was engaged in a quarrel with the king of Scotland as to some border forays, and when Edward issued a commission to treat with the Scots, Bishop Robert attended at Tweedmouth to substantiate his claim, but nothing came of it (F&dera, ii. 84-6). In 1280 he and his chapter refused to admit the visitation of William Wickwaine, archbishop of York, grounding their refusal on a state- ment that the archbishop was bound to visit his own chapter first, and when the arch- bishop came to Durham on 24 June they shut the gates of the city against him. The archbishop thereupon excommunicated them,, and laid the diocese under interdict. Bishop Robert paid a visit to Rome during the year to lay the matter before the pope, but the dispute was still unsettled at his death ; some letters relating to the quarrel are preserved' (see RAINE, Letters from Northern Registers f pp.65-6, and PECKH AM, Reg. i. 383, ii.494, both in Rolls Ser. ; see also HEMINGBTTRGH, ii. 7, 219, and GRAYSTANES, c. xvii.) Robert db Insula died at Middleham, Yorkshire, 7 June 1283, and was buried in the chapter-house at Durham. He is praised as a defender and en- larger of the liberties of his church (Planctus in laudem Roberti Episcopi, ap. Surtees Sa-
Inverarity s
ciety, xxxi. 51-3). Three charters granted by him to Finchale are printed, with engravings of his seal, in ' The Priory of Finchale ' (pp. 110, 148, 183, Surtees Soc.) He left various bequests to the convent of Durham (Hist. Dunelm. Script. Tres, p. xci), and is said to have been a benefactor of the university of Cambridge.
[Authorities quoted ; Annales Monastic! (Rolls Ser.); Graystanes Chronicle in Hist. Dunelm. Script. Tres (Surtees Soc.) ; Wharton's Anglia Sacra, ii. 743-5 ; Tanner's Bibl. Brit.-Hib. p. 429 ; Surtees's Hist. Durham, i. xxx-i.] C. L. K.
INVERARITY, ELIZABETH, after- wards MRS. MARTYN (1813-1846), Scottish vocalist and actress, was born in Edinburgh on 23 March 1813. She was first taught by Mr. Thorne, and afterwards by Alexander Murray of Edinburgh, at one of whose con- certs she appeared as an amateur singer in 1829. She made her debut at Covent Garden in 'Cinderella 'on 14 Dec. 1830. In 1832 she sang in ' Robert le Diable ' at Covent Garden, and in the same year appeared at the Philhar- monic Society's concerts. In 1836 she married Charles Marty n, a bass singer, and in 1839 she went with an operatic company to New York, where,with her husband, she sang in ' Fidelio ' and other works. She died at Newcastle-on- Tyne on 27 Dec. 1846. She is said to have been a fine-looking woman, but not to have excelled greatly either as a singer or an actress. She had a sister who was also a professional vocalist. Mr. and Mrs. Martyn wrote jointly some ballads of no merit.
[Brown's Diet, of Music ; Scotsman, 6 Jan. 1847; Dibdin's Annals of the Edinburgh Stage; private information.] J. C. H.
INVERKEITHING, RICHARD (d.
1272), bishop of Dunkeld, was in earlier life a prebendary of that see (KEITH, Scottish Bishops, p. 80), and, according to some autho- rities, chamberlain of the king (Chron. de Lanercost,^. 56; MYLNE, Vit. Dunkeld. Eccl. EpiscopJ) By favour of the crown he suc- ceeded David, bishop-elect of Dunkeld, in the bishopric in 1250. In the contests for supreme power which filled the minority of Alexander III [q. v.] Inverkeithing was a pro- minent leader of the English party (RYHER, Fcedem, orig. ed. i. 565-7). In 1255 his party secured possession of the king and, after in- terviews with Henry III at Wark Castle and Kelso (August), deprived the rival party of the Comyns of office. Thereupon Inverkeith- ing displaced Gameline [q.v.], bishop of St. Andrews, as chancellor of Scotland, and was among the fifteen regents appointed for seven years (ib.) But in the counter-revolution of 1257 the party of the Comyns took the great
> Inwood
seal from his vice-chancellor, Robert Stute- will, dean of Dunkeld, and he seems to have- been superseded in his office by Wishartr bishop of Glasgow. The compromise of 1258 between the two parties does not appear to- have restored the seal to him. According to- Keith he declined to continue in the office.
About Easter 1268 Inverkeithing was with the other bishops summoned to a council by the legate Ottobon. The bishops deputed Inverkeithing and Robert, bishop of Dun- blane, to watch over their interests. When the council met the legate ordained some new statutes, chiefly concerning the secular and regular priests of Scotland, which the- bishops declined to accept (FoRDUN', i. 303). Inverkeithing died on St. Magnus day 1272, at a great age ; his body was buried at Dun- keld, and his heart in the choir of the church of Inchcolm, which he himself had built (MYLNE, u.s.) Reports, which rest on no ascertained authority, are said to have been circulated that Inverkeithing and Margaret, queen of Alexander III, who died shortly after, were both poisoned (Chron. de Laner- cost, p. 97). The Lanercost chronicler also- states that Inverkeithing, in order to prevent the customary confiscation by the crown of the possessions of deceased prelates, disposed of his property in his lifetime.
[Fordun, Chronica Gentis Scotorum, i. 297-8,. 303, ed. Skene, 1871 ; Chron. de Lanercost, pp. 56, 97, ed. J. Stevenson for Bannatyne Club,. 1835 ; Mylne, Vitse Dunkeldensis Ecclesiae Epi- scoporum, p. 11 (Bannatyne Club), 1823; Wyn- toun, lib. vii. c. x.; Keith's Scottish Bishops, pp.. 80-1, 1824; Burton's Hist, of Scotland, ii. 25-6 ; Tytler's Hist, of Scotland, i. 59, ed. Alison.]
J. T-T.
INVERNESS, titular EARL OP. [See- HAY, JOHN, 1691-1740.]
INWOOD, HENRY WILLIAM (1794- 1843), architect, born on 22 May 1794, was- the eldest son of William Inwood [q. v.], the architect. He was educated under his father, and in 1819 travelled in Greece, espe- cially studying and drawing the architecture- of Athens. He formed a small collection of Greek antiquities from Athens, Mycenae,. Laconia, Crete, &c. This collection, con- sisting of about thirty-nine objects (frag- ments from the Erechtheion and Parthenon,, terra-cottas, inscriptions, &c.), was sold to the British Museum in 1843 for 401. Ant inventory of it (dated 8 March 1843), in Inwood's handwriting, is in the library of the department of Greek and Roman an- tiquities in the museum. He assisted his father in designing and in superintending the erection of St. Pancras New Churcbi
Inwood
lolo Goch
(1819-22), and was also connected with him in the erection of three London chapels (1822-4) [see under IXWOOD, WILLIAM]. Inwood was a fellow of the Society of An- tiquaries, and for many years, from 1809, an exhibitor at the Royal Academy. He is sup- posed to have died on 20 March 1843, about which time a vessel in which he had sailed for Spain was lost with all on board. In- •wood published : 1. ' The Erechtheion at Athens ; fragments of Athenian architec- ture, and a few remains in Attica, Megara, FJleusis, illustrated,' London, 1827, fol. A German work, ' Das Erechtheion,' Potsdam, I 1843, by A. F. Quast, is based on this. 2. ' Of the Resources of Design in the Archi- tecture of Greece, Egypt, and other Countries | obtained by ... studies . . . from Nature,' , London, 1834, 4to (only two parts published).
[Architectural Publ. Soc. Diet.; Eedgrave's Diet, of Artists.] W. W.
INWOOD, WILLIAM (1771 P-1843), architect and surveyor, was born about 1771 j at Caen Wood, Highgate, where his father, ] Daniel Inwood, was bailiff to Lord Mans- field. He was brought up as an architect and surveyor, and became steward to Lord Colchester and practised as a surveyor. He designed numerous mansions, villas, bar- racks, warehouses, &c. In 1821 he planned the new galleries for St. John's Church, Westminster, and in 1832-3 designed, with the assistance of his second son, Charles Fre- derick Inwood (see below), the new West- minster Hospital. His best-known work is St. Pancras New Church, London, in the designing of which after Greek models, espe- cially the Athenian Erechtheion, he was as- sisted by his eldest son, Henry William In- wood [q. v.] This church was built between 1 July 1819 and 7 May 1822, and cost 63,25U, •exclusive of the organ and fittings (BRITTON and PUGIN, Public Edifices, 1825, i. 145 : WAL- :FORD, Old and New London,\. 353). Its style is severely criticised by Fergusson (Hist, of -Architecture, 2nd edit.iv. 334,|335), who says its erection ' contributed more than any other circumstances to hasten the reaction towards the Gothic style, which was then becoming fashionable.' Inwood also erected in Lon- don, with the assistance of his eldest son, St. Martin's Chapel, Camden Town, 1822- 1824; Regent Square Chapel, 1824-6; Somers Town Chapel, Upper Seymour Street, 1824-7. From 1813 Inwood for several years exhi- bited architectural designs at the Royal Aca- demy. He died at his house in Upper Seymour Street, London, on 16 March 1843 (in the 'Gentleman's Magazine' for 1843, new ser. xix. 547, he is described as ' late of Euston
Square '). He was buried in the family vault in St. Pancras New Church. He had many pupils, one of whom was AV. Railton the ar- chitect. Inwood published (in 1811 or 1819 ?) ' Tables for the Purchasing of Estates . . . and for the Renewal of Leases held under . . . Corporate Bodies.' A second edition of this well-known work, which was founded on the tables of Baily and Smart, appeared in 1820, and the 21st edition, by F. Thoman, in 1880.
His eldest son, Henry William, is sepa- rately noticed. His second, CHARLES FRE- DERICK IXWOOD (1798-1840), also an archi- tect, acted as assistant to his father and brother, designed All Saints' Church, Great Marlow (opened 1835), and the St. Pancras National Schools, London.
[Architectural Publ. Soc. Diet.; Eedgrave's Diet, of Artists.] W. W.
IOLO GOCH, or the RED (Jl. 1328-1405), Welsh bard, whose real name is said to be EDWARD LLWTD, was lord of Llechryd and resided at Coed Pantwn in Denbighshire, his mother, according to Gruffydd Hiraethog [q. v.], being the Countess of Lincoln. The recently extinct family of Pantons of Plas- gwyn, Anglesey, traced its descent from lolo. He is said to have received a university edu- cation, and to have taken the degrees of M. A. and Doctor of Laws. According to a state- ment in a late manuscript (printed in lolo MSS. pp. 96, 491), he attended the last of the ' three Eisteddfods of the Renascence ' of Welsh literature (Tair Eisteddfod Dadeni), which was held, probably in 1330, at Maelor (Bromfield), under the patronage and pro- tection of Roger Mortimer, first earl of March. Dafydd ap Gwilym [q. v.] was the president, and lolo was made a ' chaired bard ' for his knowledge of the laws of poetry, his tutor being Ednyfed ab Gruffydd. lolo must have been quite a young man at the time. A diffi- culty has been made as to his date, because he wrote an elegy on the death of Tudur ab Gronw, of the family of Edny ved Fychan of Penmynydd, Anglesey, who is said to have died in 1315 ; but itappearsfrom a genealogical table of that family (Archceologia Cambrensis, 3rd ser. xv. 378) that there was another Tudur ab Gronw, who died in 1367 ( Y Cymmrodor, v. 261-3), and the elegy probably referred to the latter. lolo was a staunch friend of Owen Glendower [q. v.], who owned a neighbour- ing estate. When Owen was in the height of his glory he invited lolo to stay at his house at Sycharth, which must have been before 2 May 1402, when it was burned by Hotspur ; and after his visit the poet wrote a glowing description of the splendour of Owen's palace,
lolo Goch
lorwerth
comparing it with Westminster Abbey. On this account lolo has often been erroneously described as Owen's family bard (FouLKES, Geiriadur Bywgraffyddol, p. 553) instead of his friend and neighbour. This poem is preserved in a manuscript volume in the British Museum, known as the ' Book of Huw Lleyn ' (Add. MS. 14967), which is in the handwriting of Guttyn Owain, written prior to 1487. When Owen actually broke out into rebellion, lolo, though in advanced years, poured forth stirring patriotic songs in his praise, and chief among them is one 'com- posed with the view of stirring up his country- men to support the cause of Owen' (Welsh text in JONES, Gorchestion Beirdd Cymru, p. 79, English translation in Y Cymmrodor, vi. 98). Much of Owen's early success may be justly attributed to the enthusiasm created by lolo's stirring verses. The appearance of a comet in March 1402 (WALSINGHAM, Hist. Anglicana, ii. 248) was made the subject of a poem by lolo, in which he prophesied Owen's coming triumph (JONES, Gorchestion, p. 84). In another poem, possibly the last he ever wrote, he lamented the mysterious disappear- ance of Owen in 1412, though he still fore- told his ultimate success (ib. p. 81 ; see Eng- lish translation in Y Cymmrodor, iv. pt. ii. pp. 230-2). He probably died soon after- wards [see GLENDOWER, OWEN].
Besides the numerous poems inspired by the political events of his time, much devo- tional verse was composed by lolo. Seven of his poems were published in ' Gorchestion Beirdd Cymru,' edited by Rhys Jones. An elegy on Dafydd ap Gwilym was printed in that poet's works edited by Owen Jones in 1789. In 1877 the Rev. Robert Jones [q.v.] commenced to publish a complete edition of lolo's poems for the Cymmrodorion Society, but he died when thirteen only had been printed, two of which had previously been published in Jones's ' Gorchestion.' Only eighteen of lolo's poems have therefore been printed. One hundred and twenty-eight poems by him are mentioned as scattered throughout different volumes of the Myvyrian collection in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 14962- 15089), but some of these are probably du- plicates. There are many at Peniarth, par- ticularly in Hengwrt MSS. 253 a, 330, 356, and 361, and three are also included in the ' Red Book of Hergest.' lolo is said to have written a history of the three principalities of Wales (JONES, Poetical Eelicks of Welsh Bards, ed. 1794, p. 87), but this has long since been lost.
[Williams's Eminent Welshmen ; Hans Llenyddiaeth y Cymry, by G-. ab Ehys, pp. 127- 135.] D. LL. T.
IORWERTH AB BLEDDTN (d. 1112), Welsh prince, was a younger son of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn, and brother, therefore, of Cadw- gan (d. 1112) [q.v.], Madog, Rhirid, and Maredudd. In 1100 he was living in Cere- digion as the vassal of Robert of Belleme, earl of Shrewsbury [q. v.], and to some extent joint ruler with his elder brother Cadwgan (d. 1112) [q.v.], the prince of Ceredigion and part of Powys. In 1102, when Belleme revolted against Henry I, he called on the Britons sub- ject to him to come to his help, promising them property, gifts, and freedom (Brut y Tywysogion, p. 69, Rolls ed. The dates of the ' Brut ' are here two years wrong). lor- werth accompanied Cadwgan to the neigh- bourhood of Bridgnorth to annoy the troops which Henry I had brought against Robert's stronghold (OBDEKictrs VITALIS, Hist. JEccl. iv. 173, ed. Le PrSvost). Henry now sent William Pantoul or Pantulf, a bitter enemy of his former lord, Belleme, to buy off the Welsh kings (ib. iv. 174). He separated lorwerth from Cadwgan by promising him Powys, Ceredigion, half of Dy ved (including Pembroke Castle), Ystrad Towy, Gower, and Kidwelly, ' whilst the king should live, free without homage and payment \Bruty Tywy- soyion, p. 71). lorwerth went to the king's camp and agreed to change sides. While Cadwgan and Maredudd were still with Earl Robert, lorwerth managed to turn the whole Welsh army against the lord of Shrewsbury. This unexpected blow was the more severe as Belleme had sent his cattle and riches for safety among the Britons. He saw that all was lost, in despair abandoned Bridgnorth, and soon lost his power altogether. The Welsh writers perhaps assign too great a share to lorwerth in bringing about Belleme's fall, but it was not inconsiderable.
lorwerth was now at war with his brothers, but he soon made peace with Cadwgan, ac- knowledging him as lord of his former pos- sessions in Ceredigion and Powys and con- tenting himself with the rest of King Henry's grant. But he took Maredudd prisoner and handed him over to King Henry. He then repaired to Henry to receive his reward. But the king broke his word, and gave Dy ved to a Norman knight named Saer, and Ystrad Towy, Gower, and Kidwelly to a rival Welsh chieftain, Howel, son of Goronwy. Next year (1103) lorwerth was summoned to Shrewsbury, and, after a day's trial before the king's council, in which all his pleadings and claims were judged against him, was thrown into prison, ' not according to law but according to power.' ' Then failed the hope and happiness of all the Britons' (ib. p. 77).
Irby
Irby
lorwerth remained in prison until 1111 (Annales Cambria, p. 34 ; Eruty Tywysogion, p. 97, dates his release in 1107). He was then released by the king on giving hostages and paying a ransom, and his territory (apparently some part of Powys) was restored to him. But his outlawed nephews, Owain, son of Cadwgan, and Madog, son of Rhirid, took up their abode on his lands and hid their prey there. lorwerth in vain besought them to leave him in peace. As he had been strongly enjoined to have no intercourse with them but to hunt them out and deliver them to the king, he was forced to collect his followers and pursue them. They retreated to Meirio- nydd, but soon went to Ceredigion, whose ruler, Cadwgan, was now again on good terms with lorwerth. There they committed fresh outrages. lorwerth accompanied Cadwgan on his visit to the king's court to deprecate Henry's wrath. Henry deprived Cadwgan of Ceredigion for his weakness, but left lorwerth in possession of Powys. Madog soon went back to lorwerth's territory. lorwerth was still afraid to receive him, so Madog hid him- self and joined Llywerch, son of Trahaiarn, in a plot against his uncle. They at last (1112) made a night attack on lorwerth's house in Caereineon, and sent up a shout which awoke lorwerth, who bravely defended the house. Madog set fire to it, and lor- werth's companions escaped, leaving him in the fire. lorwerth, severely burnt, tried to get out, but his enemies received him on the points of their spears and slew him.
[Brut y Tywysogion, the Welsh text in J. G-. Evans's Red Book of Hergest, vol. ii., the Eng- lish translation in the Rolls ed. ; Annales Cam- brise (Rolls ed.) ; Ordericus Vitalis, Hist. Eccl. ed. Le Prevost ; Freeman's William Rufus, ii. 424-53.] T. F. T.
IRBY, CHARLES LEONARD (1789- 1845), captain in the navy and traveller, born 9 Oct. 1789, was sixth son of Frederick Irby, second lord Boston, and brother of Rear- admiral Frederick Paul Irby [q. v.] He entered the navy in 1801, and after serving in the North Sea and Mediterranean, at the Cape of Good Hope, the reduction of Monte Video, and in the Bay of Biscay, was pro- moted to be lieutenant on 13 Oct. 1808. He afterwards served at the reduction of Mauri- tius, and on the coast of North America ; and on 7 June 1814 was promoted to the command of the Thames, in which he took part in the unfortunate expedition against New Orleans. Ill-health compelled him to resign the command in May 1815; and in the summer of 1816 he left England in company with an old friend and messmate, Captain
James Mangles [q. v.], with the intention of making a tour 011 the continent. The jour- ney was extended far beyond their original design. They visited Egypt, and, going up the Nile, in the company of Giovanni Baptista Belzoni [q. v.] and Henry William Beechey [q. v.], explored the temple at Abu-Simbel (Ipsamboul) ; afterwards, they went across the desert and along the coast, with a divergence to Balbec and the Cedars, and reached Aleppo, where they met William John Bankes [q. v.] and Thomas Legh, who with themselves were the earliest of modern explorers of Syria. Thence they travelled to Palmyra, Damascus, down the valley of the Jordan, and so to Jerusalem. They after- wards passed round the Dead Sea, and through the Holy Land. At Acre they embarked in a Venetian brig for Constantinople ; but being both dangerously ill of dysentery, they were landed at Cyprus for medical assistance. In the middle of December 1818 they shipped on board a vessel bound for Marseilles, which they reached after a boisterous passage of seventy-six days. Their letters during their journeyings were afterwards collected, and privately printed in 1 823 under the title of ' Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria and Asia Minor, during the years 1817-18.' In 1844 they were published as a volume of Murray's ' Colonial and Home Library.'
In August 1826 Irby was appointed to command the Pelican sloop, fitting out for the Mediterranean, where she was actively employed in the suppression of piracy in the Levant and on the coast of Greece. On 2 July 1827 he was posted to the Ariadne, but was not relieved from the command of the Peli- can till the end of September ; and after the battle of Navarino he was appointed by Sir Edward Codrington to bring home the Genoa [see BATHTTRST, WALTER], which he paid off at Plymouth in January 1828. He had no further service, and died on 3 Dec. 1845. He married, in February 1825, Frances, a sister of his friend Captain Mangles, and left issue.
[Marshall's Roy. Nav. Biog. x. (vol.iii. pt. ii.) 1 ; O'Byrne's Naval Biographical Diet. ; Gent. Mag. 1845, xxv. new ser. 536 ; Travels in Egypt, &c. (as ia text) ; Foster's Peerage.] J. K. L.
IRBY, FREDERICK PAUL (1779- 1844), rear-admiral, born on 18 April 1779, was second son of Frederick, second lord Boston, and brother of Captain Charles Leo- nard Irby [q. v.] He entered the navy in 1791, served on the home and North Ameri- can stations, and, as midshipman of the Mon- tagu, was present in the battle of 1 June 1794. On 6 Jan. 1797 he was promoted to be lieutenant of the Circe frigate, in which
Irby
he was present at the battle of Camperdown. He was afterwards in the Apollo, which was wrecked near the Texel on 7 Jan. 1799. On 22 April 1800 he was promoted to command the Volcano bomb ; in the following year was moved into the Jalouse, was employed in the North Sea, and was advanced to post rank on 14 April 1802. In 1805 he had command of the sea-fencibles in the Essex district, and towards the end of 1807 was appointed to the Amelia, a 38-gun frigate, on the home station, one of the squadron under Rear- admiral Stopford, which, on 24 Feb. 1809, drove ashore and destroyed three large fri- gates near Sables d'Olonne [see STOPFORD, SIR ROBERT]. The Amelia, being the look- out ship of the squadron, first sighted them, engaged them in a running fight, and received little material support from her consorts. Irby's gallantry and the good conduct of his men elicited the special approval of the admi- ralty. For the next two years he continued ac- tivelyemployed on the coast of France,and on 24 March 1811 he assisted in driving on shore and destroying the French frigate Amazone. Still in the Amelia, Irby was afterwards sent as senior officer of the squadron on the west coast of Africa, which was employed in the suppression of the slave trade and the support of our settlements. In the end of January 181 3, as he was on the point of leaving Sierra Leone for England, two French 40-gun fri- gates, Arethuse and Rubis, arrived on the coast. Each of them was of rather more than the nominal force of the Amelia, whose crew was, moreover, worn and reduced by the two years of African climate, while the enemy's ships were newly come from France. Irby, however, at once put to sea, meaning to keep watch on them, while he collected such force as was on the station ; but coming in sight of them at anchor on 6 Feb., the Arethuse weighed and stood out to meet him. Irby, who did not know that the Rubis had been on shore and was disabled, made sail off the land in order to draw the Arethuse away from her consort, and it was not till the evening of the next day, 7 Feb., that he turned to meet the French ship. One of the most equal and gallant actions of the war then followed. After four hours of stubborn fight, both frigates had received such injuries that they were unable to continue. They separated to repair damages, and neither was willing to renew the combat. Each re- ported that the other had fled, though, in the damaged state in which they both were, flight was impossible. Irby was naturally in momentary apprehension of the Rubis join- ing her consort, and at the same time felt sure that the Arethuse would be compelled
) Ireland
to return to France, and that the Rubis would go with her. He thus felt justified, for the sake of his many wounded, in leaving the coast. The Amelia was paid off in May 1813, and Irby had no further service. He was made a C.B. in 1831, became a rear- admiral in 1837, and died on 24 April 1844. He was twice married, and left a numerous issue.
[Marshall's Roy. Nav. Biog. iii. (vol. ii.) 488 ; Men of the Eeign ; James's Naval His- tory, ed. of 1860, vi. 42 ; Chevalier's Histoire de la Marine Fran<jaise sous le Consulat et 1'Empire, p. 299 ; Foster's Peerage.] J. K. L.
IRELAND, DIJKE op. [See VERE, RO- BERT DE.]
IRELAND, FRANCIS (fl. 1745-1773), musical composer. [See HUTCHESON, FRANCIS, the younger.]
IRELAND, JOHN (d. 1808), author, was born at the Trench Farm, near Wem in Shropshire ; the house had been the birth- place and country house of Wycherley, whose widow is said to have adopted him, but, dying without a will, to have left him unprovided for. His mother was daughter of the Rev. Thomas Holland, and granddaughter of Philip Henry [q. v.] Ireland was first apprenticed to Isaac Wood, a watchmaker, of Shrewsbury. He afterwards practised as a watchmaker in Maiden Lane, London, and was a well-known member of the society that frequented the Three Feathers coffee-house, Leicester Fields (see J. T. SMITH, Book for a Rainy Day). He published in 1785 a poem, ' The Emigrant,' for which he apologised on the score of youth. He was a friend of John Henderson [q. v.] the actor, and in 1786 published Hender- son's ' Letters and Poems, with Anecdotes of his Life,' a book of some merit. Ireland was a great admirer and collector of the works of William Hogarth [q. v.] In 1793 he was employed by Messrs. Boydell to edit a work on the lines of Trusler's ' Hogarth Moralised,' and called ' Hogarth Illustrated.' The first two volumes were published in 1791, and reprinted in 1793 and 1806. Sub- sequently Ireland obtained from Mrs. Lewis, the executrix of Mrs. Hogarth, a number of manuscripts and sketches which had belonged to Hogarth, including the original manuscript of the 'Analysis of Beauty,' and many auto- biographical memoranda and sketches pre- pared by Hogarth himself in view of the publication of 'A History of the Arts.' From this Ireland compiled a biography of the artist, which has been the foundation of all subsequent memoirs. It was published in 1798 as a supplementary volume to his ' Hogarth
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3°
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Illustrated, with Engravings from some hitherto unpublished Drawings.' A second edition of the ' Supplement ' appeared in 1804 ; the whole work was reprinted in 1812. Ireland died in Birmingham in November 1808.
His collection was sold by auction on 5 and 6 March 1810. A portrait of Ireland was engraved by Isaac Mills from a drawing by J. R. Smith, which was afterwards in the collection of J. B. Nichols. Another por- trait, drawn by his friend J. H. Mortimer, was engraved by Skelton for his ' Hogarth Illus- trated ; ' a copy of this by T. Tagg appeared in the later reprints. A portrait of him, drawn by R. "VVestall, R.A., is in the print room at the British Museum, where there is also a small drawing of him prefixed to a copy of the sale catalogue of his collection. He was no relation to Samuel Ireland (d. 1800) [q. v.] He is sometimes stated to have been a print-seller, but, if this was the case, he does not appear to have concerned himself with other engravings than those by or after Hogarth,
[Gent. Mag. 1808, Ixviii. 1189; Chalmers's Biog. Diet. ; Shropshire Archseol. Trans. 2nd ser. ii. 349 ; Ireland's own works.] L. C.
IRELAND, JOHN, D.D. (1761-1842), dean of Westminster, born at Ashburton, Devonshire, on 8 Sept. 1761, was son of Thomas Ireland, a butcher of that town, and of Elizabeth his wife. He was educated at the free grammar school of Ashburton, under the Rev. Thomas Smerdon. William Gifford [q. v.] was a fellow-pupil, and their friend- ship continued unbroken until death. For a short time Ireland was in the shop of a shoe- maker in his native town; but on 8 Dec. 1779, when aged 18, he matriculated as bible- clerk at Oriel College, Oxford. He gra- duated B.A. on 30 June 1783, M.A. as grand compounder on 13 June 1810, and B.D. and D.D. on 24 Oct. 1810. After serving a small curacy near Ashburton for a short time, he travelled on the continent as tutor to the son of Sir James Wright. From 15 July 1793 till 1816 he was vicar of Croydon. While in that position he acted as reader and chap- lain to the Earl of Liverpool, who procured his appointment to a prebendal stall in West- minster Abbey (14 Aug. 1802). His con- nection with the abbey lasted for life. He was made subdean in 1806, when the theo- logical lectureship, which was founded at Westminster by the statutes of Queen Eliza- beth, was revived for him, and on the death of Dean Vincent in December 1815 he was promoted to the deanery, being installed on 9 Feb. 1816. From 1816 to 1835 Ireland
held the rectory of Islip in Oxfordshire, and he was also dean of the order of the Bath. The regius professorship of divinity at Oxford was offered to him in 1813, but he declined it. With such preferments Ireland acquired con- siderable wealth, which he used with great generosity. In 1825 he gave 4,000/. for the foundation at Oxford of four scholarships, of the value of 301. a year each, ' for the pro- motion of classical learning and taste.' (For a full list of the scholars, see Oxford Mag. 21 Jan. 1891.) To Westminster* School he gave bOOl. for the establishment of prizes for poems in Latin hexameters. (For a list of the winners from 1821 to 1851, see WELCH, Alumni Westmonasterienses, ed. Phillimore.) Mindful of the advantages he had derived from his free education in classics, he ex- pended 2,000/. in purchasing a house in East Street, Ashburton, as a , residence for the master of its grammar school, left an endow- ment for its repair, and drew up statutes for remodelling the school. For the support of six old persons of the same town he settled a fund of 301. per annum.
For four years before his death Ireland was in feeble health, but he lived to a great age, dying at the deanery, Westminster, on 2 Sept. 1842, and being buried on 8 Sept. by the side of Gifford, in the south transept of the abbey, where a monument, with a Latin inscription, was placed to his memory. He married Susannah, only daughter of John Short of Bickham, Devonshire, who died without issue at Islip rectory on 9 Nov. 1826, aged 71. Though much of his property passed to his relatives, he left 5,000/. for the erection of a new church at Westminster, which was in- validated under the Mortmain Acts ; 10,000/. to the university of Oxford for a professor of the exegesis of the Holy Scripture ; and 2,0001. to Oriel College for exhibitions. As dean of Westminster he held the crown at the coronations of George IV, William IV, and Queen Victoria, and his likeness, as he ap- peared on the first of these occasions, was drawn by G. P. Harding, and engraved by James Stow in Harding's series of portraits of the deans in Brayley's ' Westminster Abbey,' illustrated by Neale, and also in Sir George Naylor's ' Coronation of George IV/ A marble bust of him by Chantrey is in the Bodleian Library. An early portrait by Hoppner has not been engraved.
Ireland was the author of: 1. 'Five Dis- courses for and against the Reception of Christianity by the Antient Jews andGreeks,' 1796. 2. ' Vindicise Regise, or a Defence of the Kingly Office, in two Letters to Earl Stanhope' [anon.], 1797, 2 editions. 3. ' Let- ters of Fabius to Right Hon. William Pitt,
Ireland 3
on his proposed Abolition of the Test in favour of the Roman Catholics of Ireland' [anon.], 1801. The letters originally appeared in Cob- bett's paper, ' The Porcupine.' 4. ' Nuptiae Same, or an Enquiry into the Scriptural Doc- trine of Marriage and Divorce' [anon.], 1801. Reprinted by desire 1821, and again in 1830.
5. ' The Claims of the Establishment,' 1807.
6. ' Paganism and Christianity compared, in a Course of Lectures to the King's Scholars at Westminster in 1806-7-8,' 1809 ; new edit., 1825. The lectures were continued until the summer of 1812, the second subject being ' The History and Principles of Revelation,' but they were not printed. 7. ' Letter to Henry Brougham,' 1818, and in the ' Pam- phleteer,' vol. xiv. relating to certain cha- rities at Croydon, which were referred to by Brougham in his ' Letter to Sir Samuel Ro- milly on the Abuse of Charities.' A printed letter to Sir William Scott on the same sub- ject is also attributed to Ireland in the Cata- logue of the British Museum Library. 8. ' The Plague of Marseilles in 1720. From docu- ments preserved in the archives of that city, 1834.' It was read by Sir Henry Halford at the College of Physicians, 26 May 1834. A lecture on the ' Plague of Athens compared with the Plague of the Levant and that of Milan in 1630 ' was also written by Ireland, and read by Halford on 27 Feb. 1832, but does not appear to have been printed. When dying he ordered that all his manuscripts should be destroyed.
Ireland gave valuable assistance to Wil- liam Gifford in his edition of the works of Massinger, and Gifford cordially acknow- ledged his help in his translation of Juvenal. In the ' Maeviad ' (lines 303, &c.) are some touching allusions by Gifford to their long friendship, and among the odes is an 'Imita- tion of Horace,' addressed to Ireland. At the close of the ' Memoir of Ben Jonson ' ( Works, i. p. ccxlvii) is a feeling reference by Gifford to his friend, and in announcing to Canning his retirement from the editorship of the ' Quarterly Review ' (September 1824), he mentions that Ireland had stood closely by him during the whole period of its exist- ence. He is said to have contributed many articles to the early numbers of the ' Quar- terly,' but none of these have been identified. Ireland proved Gifford's will, and obtainec his consent to his burial at Westminstei Abbey.
Edward Hawkins [q. v.], provost of Oriel and first professor of the exegesis of the Holy Scripture under Ireland's will, delivered the inaugural lecture (2 Nov. 1847), which was afterwards printed, ' with brief notices of the founder.
Ireland
[Welch's Alumni Westmonast. ed. Phillimore, 3p. 36, 538, 540-2 ; Forshall's Westminster School, pp. 110-11 ; Chester's Eeg. of Westmin- ster Abbey, p. 510 ; Stapleton's Corresp. of Can- ning, i. 225-6 ; Worthy's Ashburton, pp. 38, 47, and App. pp. x, xi, xxv ; Gifford's Massinger, . pp. xxxiv-v ; Nichols's Illustr. of Lit. vi. 9, 11 ; Foster's Oxford Reg. ; Gent. Mag. 1826 pt. ii. p. 476, 1842 pt. ii. pp. 549-50.] W. P. C.
IRELAND, SAMUEL (d. 1800), author and engraver, began life as a weaver in Spitalfields, London, but soon took to deal- ing in prints and drawings and devoted his Leisure to teaching himself drawing, etching, and engraving. He made sufficient progress to obtain a medal from the Society of Arts in 1760. In 1784 he appears as an exhibitor for the first and apparently only time at the Royal Academy, sending a view of Ox- ford (cf. Catalogues, 1780-90). Between 1780 and 1785 he etched many plates after John Hamilton Mortimer and Hogarth. Etched portraits by him of General Ogle- thorpe (in 1785) and Thomas Inglefield, an armless artist (1787), are in the print room of the British Museum, together with etch- ings after Ruisdael (1786) and Teniers (1787) and other masters, and some architectural drawings in water-colour. There is some- thing amateurish about all his artistic work. Meanwhile his taste for collecting books, pic- tures, and curiosities gradually became an all- absorbing passion, and his methods exposed him at times to censure. In 1787 Horace Wai- pole, writing of an edition (limited to forty copies) of a pamphlet which he was pre- paring at Strawberry Hill, complained that ' a Mr. Ireland, a collector, I believe with interested views, bribed my engraver to sell him a print of the frontispiece, has etched it himself, and I have heard has represented the piece, and I suppose will sell some copies, as part of the forty ' (Letters, ed. Cunning- ham, ix. 110). In 1794 Ireland proved the value of a part of his collection by issuing- ' Graphic Illustrations of Hogarth, from Pic- tures, Drawings, and Scarce Prints in the Author's possession.' Some of the plates- were etched by himself. A second volume appeared in 1799. The work is of high in- terest, although it is possible that Ireland has, either wilfully or ignorantly, assigned to Hogarth some drawings by other artists (cf. sketch of Dennis in vol. ii.)
In 1790 Ireland published ' A Picturesque Tour through France, Holland, Brabant, and part of France made in the Autumn of 1789,' London (2 vols. roy. 8vo and in large- paper 4to). It was dedicated to Francis Grose and contained etchings on copper in aqua-tinta from drawings made by the
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author ' on the spot.' He paid at least one visit to France (cf. W. H. IRELAND, Con- fessions, p. 5), and the charge brought against him by his enemies that he was never out of England is unfounded. A second edition appeared in 1795. The series, which was long valued by collectors, was continued in the same form in ' Picturesque Views on the Eiver Thames,' 1792 (2 vols.,2nd ed. 1800-1), dedicated to Earl Harcourt ; in ' Picturesque Views on the River Medway,' 1793 (1 vol.), dedicated to the Countess Do wager of Ayles- ford ; in ' Picturesque Views on the War- wickshire Avon,' 1795 (1 vol.), dedicated to the Earl of Warwick ; and in ' Picturesque Views on the River Wye,' 1797 (1 vol.) In 1800, just after Ireland's death, appeared ' Picturesque Views, with an Historical Ac- count of the Inns of Court in London and Westminster,' dedicated to Alexander, lord Loughborough, and the series was con- cluded by the publication in 1824 of ' Pic- turesque Views on the River Severn '(2 vols.), with coloured lithographs, after drawings by Ireland, and descriptions by T. Harral. Ireland had announced the immediate issue of this work in his volume on the Wye in 1797.
In 1790 Ireland resided in Arundel Street, Strand, and a year later removed to 8 Nor- folk Street. His household consisted of Mrs. Freeman, a housekeeper and amanuensis, whose handwriting shows her to have been a woman of education, a son William Henry, and a daughter Jane. The latter painted some clever miniatures. He had also a mar- ried daughter, Anna Maria Barnard.
Doubts are justifiable about the legitimacy -of the surviving son, WILLIAM HENRY IRE- LAND (1777-1835), the forger of Shake- speare manuscripts, with whose history the later career of the father is inextricably con- nected. Malone asserted that his mother was Mrs. Irwin, a married woman who was separated from her husband, and with whom the elder Ireland lived (manuscript note in British Museum copy of W. H. IRE- LAND'S Authentic Account, 1796, p. 1). Ac- cording to the same authority the boy was baptised as William Henry Irwin in the church of St. Clement Danes in the Strand in 1777, in which year he was undoubtedly born, but there is no confirmation of the statement in the parish register. He him- self, in a letter to his father dated January 1797 (Addit. MS. 30346, f. 307), mournfully admitted that there was a mystery respect- ing his birth, which his father had promised to clear up on his coming of age, and in an earlier letter, 13 Dec. 1796, he signed him- aelf ' W. H. Freeman,' evidence that he be-
lieved his father's housekeeper to be his mother (ib. f. 3026). Although undoubtedly christened in the names of William Henry, his father habitually called him ' Sam,' in affectionate memory, it was asserted, of a dead brother, and he occasionally signed him- self 'Samuel Ireland, junior,' and ' S. W. H. Ireland.' At first educated at private schools in Kensington, Baling, and Soho, he was sent when he was thirteen to schools in France, and he retained through life the complete knowledge of French which he ac- quired during his four years' stay there. On his return home he was articled to William Bingley, a conveyancer in chancery of New Inn. He enmlated his father's love of an- tiquities, and while still a boy picked up many rare books. He studied Percy's ' Re- liques,' Grose's ' Ancient Armoury,' and mediaeval poems and romances, and amused himself by writing verse in imitation of early authors. His father read aloud to him Herbert Croft's ' Love and Madness,' and the story of Chatterton, with which part of the book deals, impressed him deeply. At the same time he was devoted to the stage. The elder Ireland was a fervent admirer of Shake- speare, and about 1794, when preparing his ' Picturesque Views of the Avon,' he took his son with him to Stratford-on-Avon. They carefully examined all the spots associated with the dramatist. The father accepted as true many unauthentic village traditions, including those concocted for his benefit by John Jordan [q. v.], the Stratford poet, who was his chief guide throughout his visit ; and he fully credited an absurd tale of the recent destruction of Shakespeare's own manuscripts by an ignorant owner of Clop- ton House.
Returning to London in the autumn of 1794, young Ireland, who developed lying proclivities at an early age, obtained some ink which had all the appearance of ancient origin, and wrote on the fly-leaf of an Eliza- bethan tract a dedicatory letter professing to have been addressed by the author to Queen Elizabeth. His father was com- pletely deceived. The young man had much time to himself at Bingley's chambers, and had free access there to a collection of parch- ment deeds of the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. At the house of Albany Wal- lis, a solicitor of Norfolk Street, and an inti- mate friend of his father, he had similar opportunities of examining old legal docu- ments. In December 1794 he cut from an ancient deed in Bingley's office a piece of old parchment, and wrote on it in an old law hand a mortgage deed purporting to have been made between Shakespeare and John Hem-
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inge on the one part, and Michael Fraser and his wife on the other. The language and sig- nature of Shakespeare were copied from the genuine mortgage deed of 1612, which had been printed in facsimile by George Steevens. Old seals torn from other early deeds were ap- pended. On 16 Dec. young Ireland presented the document to his father, who at once ac- cepted it as genuine, and was corroborated in his opinion next day by Sir Frederick Eden, who carefully examined it. In the follow- ing months William supplied his father with many similar documents, and with verses and letters bearing Shakespeare's forged sig- nature written on fly-leaves torn from Eliza- bethan books. He also produced a large number of early printed volumes in which he had written Shakespeare's name on the title- pages, and notes and verses in the same feigned handwriting on the margin. A transcript of ' Lear,' with a few alterations from the printed copies, and a few extracts from ' Hamlet,' were soon added to the col- lection. The orthography, imitated from Chatterton's ' Rowley Poems,' was chiefly characterised by a reckless duplication of consonants, and the addition of e to the end of words. When his father inquired as to the source of such valuable treasure-trove, young Ireland told a false story of having met at a friend's house a rich gentleman who had freely placed the documents at his disposal, on the condition that his name was not to be revealed beyond the initials ' M. H.' Mon- tague Talbot, a friend of young Ireland, who was at the time a law-clerk, but subsequently was well known as an actor in Dublin under the name of Montague, accidentally dis- covered the youth in the act of preparing one of the manuscripts, but he agreed to keep the secret, suggested modes of develop- ing the scheme, and in letters to his friend's father subsequently corroborated the fable of ' M. H.,' the unknown gentleman. When the father was preparing to meet adverse criticism, he made eager efforts to learn more of ' M. H.,' and addressed letters to him, which he gave William Henry to deliver. The an- swers received, though penned by his son in a slightly disguised handwriting, did not ex- cite suspicion. The supposititious correspon- dent declined to announce his name, but took every opportunity of eulogising William Henry as ' brother in genius to Shakespeare,' and enclosed on 25 July 1795 some extracts from a drama on William the Conqueror, avowedly William Henry's composition.
In February 1795 the elder Ireland had arranged all the documents for exhibition at his house in Norfolk Street, and invited the chief literary men of the day to inspect them.
VOL. XXIX.
The credulity displayed somewhat excuses Ireland's sell-deception. Dr. Parr and Dr. Joseph Warton came together, and the latter, on reading an alleged profession of faith by Shakespeare, declared it to be finer than any- thing in the English church service. Bos- well kissed the supposed relics on his knees (20 Feb.) James Boaden acknowledged their genuineness, while Caley and many offi- cers of the College of Arms affected to demon- strate their authenticity on palseographical grounds. Dr. Valpy of Reading and George Chalmers were frequent visitors, and brought many friends. On 25 Feb. Parr, Sir Isaac Heard, Herbert Croft, Pye, the poet laureate, and sixteen others, signed a paper solemnly testifying to their belief in the manuscripts. Person refused to append his signature. The exhibition, which roused much public excite- ment, continued for more than a year. On 17 Nov. Ireland and his son carried the papers to St. James's Palace, where the Duke of Clarence and Mrs. Jordan examined them, and on 30 Dec. Ireland submitted them to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House.
Meanwhile the collection had been growing. Encouraged by his success, young Ireland had presented his father in March with a new blank-verse play, ' Vortigern and Rowena,' in what he represented to be Shakespeare's auto- graph, and he subsequently produced a tra- gedy entitled ' Henry II,' which, though tran- scribed in his own handwriting, he represented to have been copied from an original in Shake- speare's handwriting. On the announcement of the discovery of Vortigern,' Sheridan, the lessee of Drury Lane Theatre, and Harris of Covent Garden both applied to Ireland for permission to read it, with a view to its representation. In the summer young Ireland concocted a series of deeds to prove that an ancestor of the same names as himself had saved Shakespeare from drowning, and had been rewarded by the dramatist with all the manuscripts which had just been brought to light. It was not, however, with the assent of his son that Ireland issued a prospectus announcing the publication of the docu- ments in facsimile (4 March 1795). The price to subscribers for large-paper copies was fixed at four guineas, and in December 1795 the volume appeared. Its title was ' Miscellaneous Papers and Legal Instru- ments under the hand and seal of William Shakespeare, including the tragedy of King Lear, and a small fragment of Hamlet, from the original MSS. in the possession of Samuel Ireland ' (London, 1796). Neither 'Vorti- gern ' nor ' Henry II ' was included.
From the first some writers in the news- papers had denounced the papers as forgeries
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34
Ireland
(cf. Morning Herald, 17 Feb. 1795). Eitson and George Steevens, among the earliest visi- tors to Norfolk Street, perceived tlie fraud. Malone, although he declined to call at Ire- land's house,was soon convinced of the deceit, and promised to expose it. James Boaden, a former believer, grew sceptical ; placed the ' Oracle,' of which he was editor, at the dis- posal of the unbelievers, and published early in 1796 ' A Letter to George Steevens,' at- tacking Ireland. ' A Comparative View of the Opinions of James Boaden,' from the pen of Ireland's friend Wyatt, ' Shakespeare's Manuscripts, by Philalftthes ' [i.e. Colonel Francis Webb], and ' Vortigern under Con- sideration,' by W. C. Oulton, were rapidly published in Ireland's behalf in answer to Boaden. Porson ridiculed the business in a translation of ' Three Children Sliding on the Ice' into Greek iambics, which he represented as a newly discovered fragment of Sophocles. A pamphlet by F. G. Waldron, entitled ' Free Reflections,' was equally contemptuous, and supplied in an appendix a pretended Shake- spearean drama, entitled ' The Virgin Queen.' The orthography of the papers was unmerci- fully parodied by the journalists. The ' Morn- ing Herald ' published in the autumn of 1795 Henry Bate Dudley's mock version of the much-talked-of ' Vortigern,' which was still unpublished, and Ireland had to warn the public against mistaking it for the genuine play. Dudley's parody was issued separately in 1796 as ' Passages on the Great Literary Trial.'
After much negotiation Sheridan in Sep- tember 1795 had agreed to produce ' Vor- tigern ' at Drury Lane. Two hundred and fifty pounds were to be paid at once to Ireland, and half-profits were promised him on each performance after 350?. had been received by the management (cf. agreement inAddit^MS. 30348, ff. 22 sq.) When the piece was sent to the theatre in December Kemble's suspicions were aroused. Delays followed, and Ireland wrote many letters to both Sheridan and Kemble, complaining of their procrastination. At length the piece was cast ; the chief actors of the company were allotted parts. Pye wrote a prologue, but it was too dubious in tone to satisfy Ireland, who rejected it in favour of one of Sir James Bland Burges [q. v.] ; Robert Merry prepared an epilogue to be spoken by Mrs. Jordan ; William Linley wrote music for the songs. When the play was put into rehearsal Mrs. Siddons and Mrs. Palmer resigned their characters, on the spe- cious excuse of ill-health. On the eve of the performance (March 1796) Malone issued his caustic ' Inquiry into the Authenticity ' of the papers, to which Ireland temporarily replied
in a handbill, appealing to the public to give the play a fair hearing. On Saturday, 2 April 1796, the piece was produced. Kemble, who had been prevented by Ireland's complaints from fixing the previous night — April Fool's day — for the event, nevertheless added to the programme the farce entitled ' My Grand- mother,' and Covent Garden announced for representation a play significantly entitled ' The Lie of the Day.' Drury Lane Theatre was crowded. At first all went well, but the audience was in a risible humour, and the baldness of the language soon began to pro- voke mirth. When, in act v. sc. 2, Kemble had to pronounce the line
And when this solemn mockery is o'er,
deafening peals of laughter rang through the house and lasted until the piece was con- cluded (cf. Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. iii. 492). Barrymore's announcement of a second per- formance met with a roar of disapprobation. The younger Ireland afterwards commemo- rated the kindly encouragement which Mrs. Jordan offered him in the green-room, but for Kemble and most of the other actors he ex- pressed the bitterest scorn. Kemble asserted that he did all he could to save the piece {Clubs of London, 1828, ii. 107). The receipts from the first and only performance amounted to 555/. 6s. Qd., of which 1021. 13s. 3d. was paid to the elder Ireland.
The flood of ridicule rose to its full height immediately after this exposure, and both the Ireland's were overwhelmed. But the father's faith was not easily shaken. His son at once confessed to his sisters that he was the author of all the papers, but when the story was repeated by them to the elder Ire- land he declined to credit it. A committee of believers met at the house in Norfolk Street in April to investigate the history of the papers. William Henry was twice examined, and repeated his story of 'M. H.' But find- ing the situation desperate, he fully admitted the imposture at the end of April to Albany Wallis, the attorney of Norfolk Street, and on 29 May he suddenly left his father's house without communicating his intention to any of the family. Before the end of the year he gave a history of the forgeries in an ' Au- thentic Account of the Shakesperian MSS.,' avowedly written ' to remove the odium under which his father laboured.' George Steevens made the unfounded statement that this work was published, by arrangement be- tween father and son, with the sole view of ' whitewashing the senior culprit ' (NICHOLS, Lit. III. vii. 8). This opinion gained ground, and the old man's distress of mind was piti- able. He still refused to believe his son, a lad
Ireland
35
Ireland
of nineteen, capable of the literary skill need- ful to the production of the papers, or to re- gard the proof of forgery as sufficient. He published in November 1796 ' A Vindication of his Conduct,' defending himself from the charges of having wilfully deceived the pub- lic, and with the help of Thomas Caldecott attacked Malone, whom he regarded as his chief enemy, in 'An Investigation of Mr. Ma- lone's Claim to the Character of Scholar and Critic.' On 29 Oct. 1796 he was ridiculed on the stage at Covent Garden as Sir Bamber Blackletter in Reynolds's ' Fool of Fortune.' When in 1797 he published his ' Picturesque Tour on the Wye,' the chilling reception •with which it met and the pecuniary loss to which it led proved how low his reputation liad fallen. George Chalmers's learned 'Apo- logy for the Believers in the Shakesperian Papers/ with its 'Supplemental Apology' (1797), mainly attacked Malone, made little reference to the papers, and failed to re- store Ireland's credit. In 1799 he had the hardihood to publish both ' Vortigern ' and * Henry II,' the copyrights of which his son gave him before leaving home, and he made vain efforts to get the latter represented on the stage. Obloquy still pursued him, and more than once he contemplated legal pro- ceedings against his detractors. He died in July 1800, and Dr. Latham, who attended him, recorded his deathbed declaration, ' that lie was totally ignorant of the deceit, and was equally a believer in the authenticity of the manuscripts as those who were the most cre- dulous ' (Diabetes, 1810, p. 176). He was never reconciled to his son. His old books and curiosities were sold by auction in Lon- don 7-15 May 1801. The original copies of the forgeries and many rare editions of Shake- speare's works were described in the printed catalogue. His correspondence respecting the forgeries was purchased by the British Museum in 1877 (cf. Addit. MS. 30349-53). Gillray published, 1 Dec. 1797, a sketch of Ireland as ' Notorious Characters, No. I.,' with a sarcastic inscription in verse by Wil- liam Mason (cf. Gent. Mag. 1797, p. 931). Ireland was anxious to proceed against the artist for libel (Addit. MS. 30348, f. 35). Two other plates, ' The Gold Mines of Ire- land,' by John Nixon, and ' The Ghost of Shakespeare appearing to his Detractors,' by Silvester Harding, introduce portraits of Ire- land.
Meanwhile William Henry had wandered almost penniless through Wales and Glou- cestershire, visiting at Bristol, in the autumn )f 1796, the scenes connected with Chatter- on' s tragic story. His appeals to his father or money were refused. On 6 June 1796 he
had married in Clerkenwell Church Alice Grudge, and in November 1797 he wrote home that ' he had been living on his wife's cloaths, linnen, furniture, &c., for the best part of six months.' He thought of going on the stage, but his applications were treated with scorn, and he began planning more tragedies after the pattern of ' Vortigern.' In 1798 he opened a circulating library at 1 Princes Place, Ken- nington, and sold imitations in his feigned handwriting of the famous forged papers. A copy of ' Henry II' transcribed in this manner is now in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 12052). A complete set of the forgeries belonged at a later date to William Thomas Moncrieff the dramatist (Notes and Queries, 5th ser. v. 160), and was presented in 1877 to the Birmingham Shakespeare Memorial Li- brary, where it was destroyed by fire in 1879. Book-collectors, in pity of his poverty, em- ployed him to ' inlay ' illustrated books, and rumours of his dishonesty in such employ- ment were current at one time. In 1802 he had a gleam of better fortune, and was employed by Princess Elizabeth, afterwards landgravine of Hesse-Homburg [q. v.], to prepare a ' Frogmore Fete.' Finally he ob- tained fairly regular employment of varied kinds from the London publishers. He was in Paris in 1822, and thenceforth described himself on the title-pages of his books as ' member of the Athenaeum of Sciences and Arts at Paris.' His verses show some literary facility, and his political squibs some power of sarcasm. Throughout his writings he exhi- bits sufficient skill to dispose of the theory that he was incapable of forging the Shake- spearean manuscripts. That achievement he always regarded with pride, and complained until his death of the undeserved persecution which he suffered in consequence. His ' Con- fessions,' issued in 1805, expanded his 'Au- thentic Account' of 1796, and was reissued in London in 1872, and with a preface by Mr. Grant White in New York in 1874. Almost his latest publication was a reissue of ' Vorti- gern' (1832), prefaced by a plaintive rehearsal of his misfortunes. He died at Sussex Place, St. George's-in-the-Fields, on 17 April 1835, and was survived by a daughter, Mrs. A. M. de Burgh. Mr. Ingleby describes his wife as belonging to the Kentish family of Culpepper, and widow of Captain Paget, R.N. ; but this does not correspond with what we learn from the elder Ireland's papers of the lady whom young Ireland married in 1796 ; he may, how- ever, have married a second time.
A portrait of W. H. Ireland at the age of twenty-one was drawn and etched by Silvester Harding in 1798. An engraving by Mackenzie is dated 1818. A miniature of him in middle
D2
Ireland
Ireland
life, painted on ivory by Samuel Drummond, hangs in Shakespeare's birthplace at Strat- ford-on-Avon.
W. H. Ireland's chief publications in verse were 'Ballads in Imitation of the Antient,' chiefly on historical subjects, and ' Mutius Scaevola,' an historical drama in blank verse (both in 1801) ; under the pseudonym of Paul Persius, ' A Ballade wrotten on the Feastynge and Merrimentes of Easter Maunday laste paste ' (1802) ; ' Rhapsodies,' by the ' author of the Shaksperian MSS.' (1803) ; ' The Angler, a didactic poem by Charles Clifford,' 1804, 12mo ; ' All the Blocks, or an Antidote to All the Talents,' by Flagellum, and ' Stul- tifera Navis, or the Modern Ship of Fools,' anon., both in 1807 ; ' The Fisher Boy ' and ' The Sailor Boy,' narrative-poems, after the manner of Bloom field, both issued under the pseudonym of ' H. C., Esq.,' 1809 (2nd edit, of the latter, 1822); ' Neglected Genius, a poem illustrating the untimely and un- fortunate fate of many British Poets,' 1812, chiefly treating of Chatterton,with imitations of the Rowley MSS. and of Butler's ' Hudi- bras ; ' ' Jack Junk, or the Sailor's Cruise on Shore,' by the author of ' Sailor Boy,' 1814 ; ' Chalcographiminia, or the Portrait-Collector and Printseller's Chronicle,' by Satiricus Scriptor, 1814, in which he is said to have been assisted by Caulfield, and ' Scribbleomania, or the Printer's Devil's Polichronicon,' edited by ' Anser Pen-drag-on, Esq.,' 1815, 8vo.
His novels and romances included ' The Abbess ; ' 'The Woman of Feeling,' 1803, 4 vols. 12mo ; ' Gondez the Monk, a Romance of the Thirteenth Century,' 4 vols. 1805 ; and 'The Catholic, or Acts and Deeds of the Popish Church,' 1826. ' Les Brigands de 1'Estramadure,' published at Paris in 1823 (2 vols.), was described as translated from the English of W. H. Ireland. ' Rizzio, or Scenes in Europe during the Sixteenth Cen- tury,' was edited from Ireland's manuscript by G. P. R. James in 1849.
Other of his works were : ' The Maid of Orleans,' a translation of Voltaire's ' Pucelle,' 1822 ; ' France for the last Seven Tears,' an attack on the Bourbons, 1822 ; ' Henry Fielding's Proverbs,' 1822 (?) ; ' Memoir of a Young Greek Lady (Pauline Panam),' an attack on the Prince of Saxe-Coburg, 1823 ; 'Memoir of the Duke of Rovigo,' 1823; 'Memoirs of Henry the Great and of the Court of France,' 1824; 'The Universal Chronologist from the Creation to 1825,' under the pseudonym of Henry Boyle, Lon- don, 1826; ' Shaksperiana : Catalogue of all the Books, Pamphlets, &c., relating to Shakespeare' (anon.), 1827; 'History of Kent,' 4 vols. 1828-34; 'Life of Napoleon
Bonaparte,' 4 vols. 1828 ; ' Louis Napoleon's Answer to Sir Walter Scott's " Life of Na- poleon,"' a translation, 1829; 'Authentic Documents relating to the Duke of Reich- stadt,' 1832. In 1830 he produced a series of political squibs: 'The Political Devil/ 'Reform,' 'Britannia's Cat o' Nine Tails,' and ' Constitutional Parodies.'
[Gent. Mag. 1800, pt. ii. pp. 901, 1000; Fra- ser's Mag. August 1860 (art. by T. J. Arnold) ; London Review, October 1860 ; Ingleby's Shake- speare, The Man and the Book, pt. ii. pp. 144 sq. ; Prior's Life of Malone, pp. 222-7 ; W. H. Ireland's Authentic Account (1796), Confessions (1805), and Preface to Vortigern (1832); Ge- nest's Account of the Stage, vii. 245 sq. For an account of contemporary pamphlets on the manu- scripts controversy see R. W. Lowe's Bibliogra- phical Account of Theatrical Literature. The story of the forgery is the subject of Mr. James- Payn's novel, The Talk of the Town (1885). Brit. Mus. Addit. MSS. 30349-53 contain the elder Ireland's correspondence respecting the forgeries and a number of cuttings from contemporaneous newspapers. In the British Museum are also many specimens of the younger Ireland's forged documents and of his inscriptions on old books.]
S. L.
IRELAND, alias IRONMOXGEK, WIL- LIAM (1636-1679), Jesuit, born in 1636, was eldest son of William Ireland of CroftonHallr Yorkshire, by Barbara, daughter of Ralph (afterwards Lord) Eure of Washingborough,. Lincolnshire. He was sent at an early age to the English College at St. Omer, was ad- mitted into the Society of Jesus 7 Sept. 1655, and made a professed father in 1673. After being for some years confessor to the Poor Clares at Gravelines, he was in 1677 sent to- the English mission, and shortly afterwards became procurator of the province in London. On the night of 28 Sept. 1678 he was arrested by a body of constables, headed by Titus Gates in person, and carried before the privy council, together with Thomas Jenison, John Grove [q. v.], Thomas Pickering, and John Fenwick [q. v.] After examination by the privy council the prisoners were committed to Newgate, where Ireland appears to have undergone ex- ceptionally severe treatment. He was tried at the Old Bailey sessions on 17 Dec. following, the charge against him being that, in addition to promoting the general plot, he had been present at a meeting held in William Har- court's rooms on 19 Aug. 1678, when a plan for assassinating the king was discussed, and it was finally decided to ' snap him in his morning's walk at Newmarket.' Ireland at- tempted to prove an alibi, and in a journal written afterwards in Newgate he accounted for his absence from London on every day between 3 Aug. and 14 Sept. The trial oc-
Ireton
37
Ireton
eurred, however, at the moment when the excitement concerning the plot was at its climax. Edward Coleman [q. v.], the first victim, had been executed barely a fortnight, Gates was at the summit of his popularity, «.nd the death of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey
£}. v.] was still fresh in people's memory. The ard swearing of Gates and Bedloe, together with the evidence of a woman called Sarah Pain, who swore to having seen Ireland on 20 Aug. at a scrivener's in Fetter Lane, over- came any-scruples on the part of the jury. Chief-justice Scroggs summed up against the prisoner, who in vain pleaded his relationship to the Pendrells of Boscobel, and the death of his uncle, Francis Ireland, in the king's ser- vice. Ireland was executed together with John Grove on 3 Feb. 1679, the event being at- tended (it was alleged by the victim's friends) by a number of miraculous circumstances, which are detailed in Tanner's ' Brevis Rela- tio Felicis Agonis,' Prague, 1683, and in Foley's 'Jesuits,' v. 233 seq. Portraits of Ireland are given in both these works. A deposition, ' plainly proving ' that Ireland's plea of an alibi was false, was subsequently published by Robert Jenison (1649-1688) [q. v.], and further charges were brought against Ireland in John Smith's ' Narrative containing a further Discovery of the Popish Plot,' 1679, fol., p. 32. The supposed plot of Ireland was also the occasion of another very curious pamphlet entitled ' The Cabal of several notorious Priests and Jesuits dis- covered as William Ireland . . . Shewing their endeavours to subvert the Government and Protestant Religion ... by a Lover of his King and Country who was formerly an Eye- witness of those things ' (London), 1679, fol. [Cobbett's State Trials, vii. 570 sq. ; The His- tory of the Plot, or a Brief and Historical Account of the Charge and Defence of William Ireland, •&c., London, 1679, fol. ; Challoner's Memoirs of Missionary Priests, 1748, ii. 208, 376; Burnet's Own Time.ii. 178; Gillow's Diet, of Engl. Cath. iii. 552; Lingard's Hist. ix. 191.] T. S.
JKIRETON, HENRY (1611-1651), regi- ''cide, baptised 3 Nov. 1611, was the eldest son of German Ireton of Attenborough, near Nottingham. His father, who settled at eAttenborough about 1605, was the younger brother of William Ireton of Little Ireton in Derbyshire (CORNELIUS BKOWN, Worthies of Nottinghamshire, p. 182). Henry became in 1626 a gentleman-commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, and took the degree of B.A. in 1629. According to Wood, ' he had the character in that house of a stubborn and saucy fellow towards the seniors, and there- fore his company was not at all wanting' (Athena O.wn. ed. Bliss, iii. 298). In 1629
he entered the Middle Temple (24 Nov.), but was never called to the bar ( The Trial of Charles I, with Biographies of Bradshaw, Ireton, fyc., in Murray's Family Library, 1832, xxxi. 130).
At the outbreak of the civil war Ireton was living on his estate in Nottinghamshire, ' and having had an education in the strictest way of godliness, and being a man of good learn- ing, great understanding, and other abilities, he was the chief promoter of the parliament's interest in the county ' (HtrTCHirrsoN, Me- moirs of Col. Hutchinson, ed. 1885, i. 168). On 30 June 1642 the House of Commons nomi- nated Ireton captain of the troop of horse to be raised by the town of Nottingham (Commons' Journals, ii. 664). With this troop he joined the army of the Earl of Essex and fought at Edgehill, but returned to his native county Avith it at the end of 1642, and became major in Colonel Thornhagh's regiment of horse (HUTCHINSON, i. 169, 199). In July 1643 the Nottinghamshire horse took part in the vic- tory at Gainsborough (28 July), and shortly afterwards Ireton ' quite left Colonel Thorn- hagh's regiment, and began an inseparable league with Colonel Cromwell' (ib. pp. 232, 234 ). He was appointed by Cromwel 1 deputy governor of the Isle of Ely, began to fortify the isle, and was allowed such freedom to the sectaries that presbyterians complained it was become 'a mere Amsterdam' (Man- chester's Quarrel with Cromwell, Camden Soc., 1875, pp. 39, 73). He served in Man- chester's army during 1644, with the rank of quartermaster-general, and took part in the Yorkshire campaign and the second battle of Newbury. Although Ireton, in writing to Manchester, represented the distressed con- dition of the horse for want of money (Hist. MSS. Comm. 8th Rep. pt. ii. p. 61), he was anxious that Manchester should march west to join Waller, and after the miscarriages at Newbury supported Cromwell's accusation of Manchester by a most damaging deposi- tion ( Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1644-5, p. 158).
Ireton does nyt appear in the earliest list of the officers of the new model, but directly the campaign began he obtained the com- mand of the regiment of horse to which Sir Michael Livesey had been at first appointed (Lords' Journals, viii. 278 ; SPEIGGE, Anglia JRediviva, ed. 1854, p. 331). The night before the battle of Naseby he surprised the royal- ists' quarters, ' which they had newly taken up in Naseby town,' took many prisoners, and alarmed their whole army. Next day Fairfax, at Cromwell's request, appointed Ireton commissary-general of the horse and gave him the command of the cavalry of the left wing. The wing under his command
Ireton 3
was worsted by Rupert's cavaliers and par- tially broken. Ireton, seeing some of the parliamentary infantry hard pressed by a brigade of the king's foot, ' commanded the division that was with him to charge that body of foot, and for their better encourage- ment he himself with great resolution fell in amongst the musketeers, where his horse being shot under him, and himself run through the thigh with a pike and into the face with an halbert, was taken prisoner "by the enemy.' When the fortune of the day turned Ireton promised his keeper liberty if he would carry him back to his own party, and thus suc- ceeded in escaping (ib. pp. 36, 39, 42). He re- covered from his wounds sufficiently quickly to be with the army at the siege of Bristol in September 1645 (ib. pp. 99, 106-18). The letter of summons in which Fairfax endea- voured to persuade Rupert to surrender that city was probably Ireton's -work.
Ireton was one of the negotiators of the treaty of Truro (14 March 1646), and was afterwards despatched with severalregiments of horse to block up Oxford, and prevent it from being provisioned (ib. pp. 229, 243). The^king tried to open negotiations with him, and sent a message offering to come to Fair- fax, and live wherever parliament should direct, ' if only he might be assured to live and continue king.' Ireton refused to discuss the king's offers, but wrote to Cromwell beg- ging him to communicate the king's message to parliament. Cromwell blamed him for doing even that, on the ground that soldiers ought not to touch political questions at all (CART, Memorials of the Civil War, i. 1 : GARDINER, Great Civil War, ii. 470). Ireton took part in the negotiations which led to the capitulation of Oxford, and married Bridget, Cromwell's daughter, on 15 June 1646, a few days before its actual surrender. The cere- mony took place in Lady Whorwood's house at Holton, near Oxford, and was performed by William Dell [q. v.], one of the chaplains attached to the army (CARLTLE, Cromwell, i. 218, ed. 1871).
Though the marriage wasthe result of the friendship between Cromwell and Ireton, rather than its cause, it brought the two men closer together. The union and the confidence which existed between them was during the next four years a factor of great importance in English politics. Each exercised much influence over the other. 'No man,' says Whitelocke, ' could prevail so much, nor order Cromwell so far, as Ireton could ' (Memorials, f. 516). Ireton had a large knowledge of poli- tical theory and more definite political views than Cromwell, and could present his views logically and forcibly either in speech or
* Ireton
writing. On the other hand, Cromwell's wider sympathies and willingness to accept compromises often controlled and moderated Ireton's conduct.
On 30 Oct. 1645 Ireton was returned to parliament as member for Appleby ; but there is no record of his public action in parlia- ment until the dispute between the army and the parliament began (Names of Mem- bers returned to serve in Parliament, i. 495). His justification of the petition of the army, which the House of Commons on 29 March 1647 declared seditious, involved him in a personal quarrel with Holies, who openly derided his arguments. A challenge was ex- changed between them, and the two went out of the house intending to fight, but were stopped by other members, and ordered by the house to proceed no further. On this basis Clarendon builds an absurd story that Ireton provoked Holies, refused to fight, and submitted to have his nose pulled by his cho- leric opponent ( Clarendon MSS. 2478, 2495 ; Rebellion, x. 104; LTJDLOW, ed. 1751, p. 94; Commons' Journals, 2 April 1647). Thomas Shepherd of Ireton's regiment was one of the three troopers who presented the appeal of the soldiers to their generals, which Skippon on 30 April brought to the notice of the House of Commons. In consequence Ireton, Cromwell, Skippon, and Fleetwood, being- all four members of parliament, as well as officers of the army, were despatched by the house to Saffron Walden ' to employ their endeavours to quiet all distempers in the army.' The commissioners drew up a report on the grievances of the soldiers, which Fleet- wood and Cromwell were charged to present, while Skippon and Ireton remained at head- quarters to maintain order. Ireton foresaw a storm unless parliament was more mode- rate, and had little hope of success. In private and in public he had at first dis- couraged the soldiers from petitioning or taking action to secure redress, but when an open breach occurred he took part with the army (Clarke Papers, i. 94, 102; GARY, Me- morials of the Civil War, i. 205, 207, 214). When Fairfax demanded by whose orders Joyce had removed the king from Holdenbyr Ireton owned that he had given orders for securing the king there, though not for taking- him thence (Huntingdon's reasons for laying- down his commission, MASERES, Tracts, i. 398). From that period his prominence in setting forth the desires of the army and de- fending its conduct was very marked. ' Colonel Ireton,' says Whitelocke, 'was chiefly em- ployed or took upon him the business of the pen, . . . and was therein encouraged and assisted by Lieutenant-general Cromwell,
Ireton
39
Ireton
his father-in-law, and by Colonel Lambert ' (Memorials, f. 254).
The form, if not the idea, of the ' engage- ment' of the army (5 June) was probably due to Ireton, and the remonstrance of 14 June was also his work (RTJSHWOETH, vi. 512, 564). lie took part in the treaty between the com- missioners of the army and the parliament, and when the former decided to draw up a general summary of their demands for the settlement of the kingdom, the task was entrusted to Ireton and another (Clarke Papers, i. 148, 211). The result was the manifesto known as ' The Heads of the Army Proposals.' By it Ireton hoped to show the nation what the army would do with power if they had it, and he was anxious that no fresh quarrel with parliament should take place until the manifesto had been published to the world. He hoped also to lay the foundation of an agreement between king and parliament, and to establish the liberties of the people on a permanent basis (ib. pp. 179, 197). But, excellent though this scheme of settlement was, it was too far in advance of the political ideas of the moment to be ac- cepted either by king or parliament. Ireton was represented as saying that what was offered in the proposals was so just and rea- sonable that if there were but six men in the kingdom to fight to make them good, he would make the seventh (' Hunting- don's Reasons,' MASEEES, i. 401). In his anxiety to obtain the king's assent he modi- fied the proposals in several important points, and consequently imperilled his popularity with the soldiers. "When the king rejected the terms offered him by parliament, Ireton vehemently urged a new treaty, and told the house that if they ceased their addresses to the king he could not promise them the support of the army (22 Sept. 1647). Pam- phlets accused him of juggling and under- hand dealing, of betraying the army and deluding honest Cromwell to serve his own ambition, and of bargaining for the govern- ment of Ireland as the price of the king's restoration (Clarke Papers, i. Preface, xl- xlvi ; A Declaration of some Proceedings of Lieutenant-colonel John Lilburn, 1648, p. 15). In the debates of the council of the army during October and November 1649, Sexby and Wildman attacked him with the greatest bitterness. Ireton passionately disavowed all private engagements, and asserted that if he had used the name of the army to support a further application to the king, it was because he sincerely believed himself to be acting in accordance with the army's views. He had no desire, he said, to set up the king or parliament, but wished to make the best
use possible of both for the interest of the kingdom ( Clarke Papers, i. 233). In resisting a rupture with the king he urged the army, for the sake of its own reputation, to fulfil the promises publicly made in its earlier declara- tions (ib. p. 294). With equal vigour he op- posed the new constitution which the level- lers brought forward, under the title of ' The Agreement of the People,' and denounced the demand for universal suffrage as destruc- tive to property and fatal to liberty, although for a limitation of the duration and powers of parliament and a redistribution of seats he was willing to fight if necessary (ib. p. 299). He wished to limit the veto of the king and the House of Lords, but objected to the proposal to deprive them altogether of any share in legislation.
Burnet represents Ireton as sticking at nothing in order to turn England into a com- monwealth ; but in the council of the army he was in reality the spokesman of the conser- vative party among the officers, anxious to maintain as much of the existing constitu- tion as possible. The constitution was always in his mouth, and he detested and dreaded nothing so much as the abstract theories of natural right on which the levellers based their demands (ib. Preface, pp. Ixvii-lxxi ; BTTENET, Own Time, ed. 1833, i. 85).
On 5 Nov. the council of the army sent a letter to the speaker, disavowing any desire that parliament should make a fresh applica- tion to the king, and Ireton at once withdrew from their meetings, protesting that unless they recalled their vote he would come there no more (Clarke Papers, -p. 441). But the flight of the king to the Isle of Wight (11 Nov.) led to an entire change in his attitude. The story of the letter from Charles to the queen, which Cromwell and Ireton intercepted, is scarcely needed to account for this change. Without it Ireton perceived the impossibility of the treaty with Charles, on which he had hoped to rest the settlement of the king- dom (BiKCH, Letters between Colonel Robert Hammond, General .Fai'r/a.r,&c.,1764, p. 19). He held that the army's engagements to the king were ended, and when Berkeley brought the king's proposals for a personal treaty to the army, received him with coldness and disdain, instead of his former cordiality (29 Nov. 1647 ; BERKELEY, Memoirs ; MA- SEEES, i. 384). Huntingdon describes him as saying, when the probability of an agreement between king and parliament was spoken of, ' that he hoped it would be such a peace as we might with a good conscience fight against them both ' (ib. i. 404). When Charles refused the ' Four Bills,' Ireton urged par- liament to settle the kingdom without him
Ireton
Ireton
(WALKER, History of Independency, i. 71, ed. 1601). As yet he was not prepared to abandon the monarchy, and for a time sup- ported the plan of deposing the king and setting the Prince of Wales or Duke of York on the throne (ib. p. 107 ; GARDINER, Great Civil War, iii. 294, 342).
In the second civil war Ireton served under Fairfax in the campaigns in Kent and Essex. After the defeat of the royalists at Maid- stone he was sent against those in Canter- bury, whocapitulated on his approach (8 June 1648) (RUSHWORTH, vii. 1149 ; Lords' Jour- nals, x. 320). He then joined Fairfax before Colchester, and was one of the commissioners who settled the terms of its surrender (RUSH- WORTH, vii. 1244). To Ireton's influence and to his 'bloody and unmerciful nature' Clarendon and royalist writers in general attribute the execution of Lucas and Lisle (Rebellion, xi. 109 ; Mercurius Pragmaticus, 3-10 Oct. 1648; GARDINER, Great Civil War, iii. 463). Ireton approved the decision of the council of war which sentenced them to death, and defended its justice both in an argument with Lucas himself at the time and subsequently as a witness before the high court of justice. There is no foundation for the charge that the sentence was a breach of the capitulation [see FAIRFAX, THOMAS, third LORD FAIRFAX].
The fall of Colchester (28 Aug.) was fol- lowed by a renewal of agitation in the army, and Ireton's regiment was one of the first to petition for the king's trial (RUSHWORTH, vii. 1298). Already a party in the parliament was anxious that the army should interpose to stop the treaty of Newport, but Ludlow found Ire- ton strongly opposed to premature action. He thought it best 'to permit the king and the par- liament to make an agreement, and to wait till they had made a full discovery of their inten- tions, whereby the people, becoming sensible of their danger, would willingly join to oppose them' (LTJDLOW, Memoirs, p. 102). About the end of September Ireton offered to lay down his commission, and desired a discharge from the army, 'which was not agreed unto' (GARDINER, Great Civil War, iii. 473-5). For a time he left the headquarters and re- tired to Windsor, where he is said to have busied himself in drawing up the army re- monstrance of 16 Nov. 1648 (reprinted in Old Parl. Hist, xviii. 161). All obstacles to agreement among the officers of the army were removed by the king's rejection of their last overtures. 'It hath pleased God,' wrote Ireton to Colonel Hammond, 'to dispose the hearts of your friends in the army as one man . . . to interpose in this treaty, yet in such wise both for matter and manner as we be-
j lieve will not only refresh the bowels of the saints, but be of satisfaction to every honest member of parliament.' He conjured Ham- mond, in the national interest, to prevent i the king from escaping, and endeavoured to ; convince him that he ought to obey the army j rather than the parliament (BiRCH, Letters \ to Hammond, pp. 87, 97). In conjunction j with Ludlow he arranged the exclusion of I obnoxious members known as ' Pride's Purge' j (Memoirs, p. 104). In conjunction with I Cromwell he gave directions for bringing the j king from Hurst Castle ; he sat regularly in I the high court of justice, and signed the \ warrant for the king's execution (NALSON, Trial of Charles I, 1684).
During December 1648 the council of the army was again busy considering a scheme for the settlement of the kingdom, which resulted in the ' Agreement of the People ' pre- sented to the House of Commons on 20 Jan.
1649 (Old Parl. Hist, xviii. 516). The first sketch of the 'Agreement' was not Ireton's, but by the time it left the council of war it had been revised and amended till it sub- stantially represented his views. While a section in the council held that the magis- trate had no right to interfere with any man's religion, Ireton claimed for him a certain power of restraint and punishment. Lilburne complains that Ireton ' showed himself an absolute king, against whose will no man must dispute' (Legal Fundamental Liberties, 1649, 2nd ed. p. 35). Outside the council of war his influence was limited. The levellers hated him as much as they did Cromwell, and denounced both in the ' Hunting of the Foxes by five small Beagles ' (24 March 1649) and in Lilburne's ' Impeachment of High Treason against Oliver Cromwell and his son-in-law, Henry Ireton' (10 Aug. 1649). With the parliament he was, as the chief author of the 'Agreement,' far from popular, and though he was added by them to the Derby House Committee (6 Jan. 1649) they refused to elect him to the council of state (10 Feb. 1649).
On 15 June 1649 Ireton was selected to accompany Cromwell to Ireland as second in command, and set sail from Milford Haven on 15 Aug. His division was originally in- tended to effect a landing in Munster, but the design was abandoned, and he disem- barked at Dublin about the end of the month (Commons' Journals, vi. 234; MURPHY, Crom- well in Ireland, p. 74). During Cromwell's illness in November 1649, Ireton and Michael Jones commanded an expedition which cap- tured Inistioge and Carrick, and in February
1650 he took Ardfinnan Castle on the Suir (CARLYLE, CromwelCs Letters, cxvi. cxix.)
Ireton
Ireton
On 4 Jan. 1650 the parliament appointed him president of Munster ( Cal. State Papers, Dora. 1649-50, pp. 476, 502 ; Commons' Journals, vi. 343). When Cromwell was recalled to Eng- land he appointed Ireton to act as his deputy (29 May 1650). Parliament approved the choice (2 July), and appointed Ludlow and three other commissioners to assist Cromwell in the settlement of Ireland (ib. vi. 343, 479). All Connaught, the greater part of Munster, and part of Ulster still remained to be con- quered. Ireton began by summoning Carlow (2 July 1650), which surrendered on 24 July. Waterford capitulated on 6 Aug. and Dun- cannon on 17 Aug. Half Athlone was taken (September) and Limerick was summoned (6 Oct.), but as the season was too late for a siege it was merely blockaded. Ireton's army went into winter quarters at Kilkenny in the beginning of November (GILBERT, Apho- rismical Discovery, iii. 218-25 ; BOELASE, Hist, of the Irish Rebellion, ed. 1743, App. pp. 22-46). The campaign of 1651 opened late. On 2 June Ireton forced the passage of the Shannon at Killaloe, and the next day came before Limerick, which did not capitu- late till Oct. 27. In announcing the fall of Limerick he congratulated the parliament that the city had not accepted the conditions tendered it at the beginning of the siege. This obstinacy, he said, had served to the greater advantage of the parliament ' in point of freedom for prosecution of justice — one of the great ends and best grounds of the war ; ' and also ' in point of safety to the English planters, and the settling and securing of the Commonwealth's interest in this nation ' (GILBERT, iii. 265). Twenty-four persons were excepted from mercy, some on account of their influence in prolonging the resist- ance, others as ' original incendiaries of the rebellion, or prime engagers therein ' (ib. p. 267). Seven of the excepted were imme- diately hanged, and others reserved for future trial by civil or military courts. Ireton's severity, however, was not indiscriminate. His 'noble care' of Hugh O'Neill, the go- vernor of Limerick, is praised by the author of the ' Aphorismical Discovery' (iii. 21). He cashiered Colonel Tothill for breaking a pro- mise of quarter made to certain Irish prisoners, and executed two other officers for ' the kill- ing one Murphy, an Irishman' (BORLASE, App. p. 34 ; Several Proceedings in Parlia- ment, 31 July-7 Aug. 1651). The distinc- tion he drew between the different classes among his opponents is clearly set forth in his letter of summons to Galway (7 Nov. 1651 ; Mercurius Politicus, p. 1401). Ireton's policy as to the settlement of Ireland was a continuation of Cromwell's. He regarded
the replantation of the country with English colonists as the only means of permanently securing its dependence on England. He ordered the inhabitants of Limerick and Waterford to leave those towns with their families and goods within a period of from three to six months, on the ground that their obstinate adherence to the rebellion and the principles of their religion rendered it im- possible to trust them to remain in places of such strength and importance. He promised, however, to show favour to any who had taken no share in the massacres with which the rebellion began, and to make special pro- vision for the support of the helpless and aged (BORLASE, p. 345). Toleration of any kind he refused, believing that the catholics were a danger to the state, and that they claimed not merely existence but supremacy. He forbade all officers and soldiers under his command to marry catholic Irishwomen who could not satisfactorily prove the sincerity of their conversion to protestantism (1 Mayl651 ; Several Proceedings in Parliament, p. 1458 ; LUDLOW, Memoirs, p. 145).
In the civil government of Ireland and in the execution of his military duties Ireton's industry was indefatigable. Chief-justice Cooke describes him ' as seldom thinking it time to eat till he had done the work of the day at nine or ten at night,' and then willing to sit up ' as long as any man had business with him.' ' He was so diligent in the pub- lic service,' says Ludlow, 'and so careless of everything that belonged to himself, that he never regarded what clothes or food he used, what hour he went to rest, or what horse he mounted ' (ib. p. 143). Immoderate labours and neglect of his own health produced their natural result, and after the capture of Lime- rick Ireton caught the prevailing fever, and died on 26 Nov. 1651. On 9 Dec. parliament ordered him a funeral at the public expense ( Commons' Journals, vii. 115). His body was brought to Bristol, and conveyed to London, where it lay in state at Somerset House, and was interred on 6 Feb. 1652 in Henry VII's Chapel in Westminster Abbey (CHESTER, Westminster Abbey Registers, p. 522 ; CaL State Papers, Dom. 1651-2, pp. 66, 276). His funeral sermon was preached by John Owen, and published under the title of ' The Labour- ing Saint's Dismission to his Rest ' (ORME, Life of Owen, p. 139). An elegy on his death is appended to Thomas Manley's ' Veni, Vidi, Vici'(12mo, 1652). A magnificent monument was erected with a fervid epitaph, which is printed in Crull's ' Antiquities of Westmin- ster' (ed. 1722, ii. App. p. 21). ' If Ireton could have foreseen what would have been done by them/ writes Ludlow, ' he would certainly
Ireton
Ireton
have made it his desire that his body might haA'e found a grave where his soul left it, so much did he despise those pompous and ex- pensive vanities, having erected for himself a more glorious monument in the hearts of good men by his affection to his country, his abili- ties of mind, his impartial justice, his dili- gence in the public sen-ice, and his other virtues, which were a far greater honour to his memory than a dormitory amongst the ashes of kings ' (Memoirs, p. 148). On 4 Dec. 1660 the House of Commons ordered the ' carcasses ' of Cromwell, Ireton, Brad- shaw, and Pride to be taken up, drawn on a hurdle to Tyburn,there to be hanged up in their coffins for some time, and after that buried under the gallows (Commons' Journals, viii. 197). This sentence was carried into effect on 26-30 Jan. 1661 [see CROMWELL, OLIVER]. The royalist conception of Ireton's cha- racter is given by Sir Philip Warwick (Me- moirs, p. 354) and by Clarendon (Rebellion, xiii. 175). The latter describes him as a man ' of a melancholic, reserved, dark nature, who communicated his thoughts to very few, so that for the most part he resolved alone, but was never diverted from any resolution he had taken, and he was thought often by his \ obstinacy to prevail over Cromwell, and to extort his concurrence contrary to his own | inclinations. But that proceeded only from | his dissembling less, for he was never re- served in the communicating his worst and ' most barbarous purposes, which the other always concealed and disavowed.' Accord- j ing to Ludlow, Ireton was in the last years of his life 'entirely freed from his former j manner of adhering to his own opinion, which had been observed to be his greatest infirmity ' (Memoirs, p. 144). Ludlow s pane- gyric on the lord deputy expresses the general opinion of his companions in arms. ' We that knew him,' wrote Hewson, 'can and must say truly we know no man like-minded, most seeking their own things, few so singly mind the things of Jesus Christ, of public concernment, of the interest of the precious sons of Zion ' (Several Proceedings in Par- liament, 4-11 Dec. 1651). John Cooke de- scribes Ireton's character at length in the preface to ' Monarchy no Creature of God's making' (12mo, 1652), dwelling on his in- dustry, self-denial, love of justice, godliness, and extraordinary learning. Ireton's disin- terestedness was undoubted. On the news that parliament had voted him a reward of 2,000/. a year he said ' that they had many just debts, which he desired they would pay before they made any such presents; that he had no need of their land, and therefore would not have it, and that he should be
more contented to see them doing the ser- vice of the nation than so liberal in dispos- ing of the public treasure.' 'And truly,' adds Ludlow, ' I believe he was in earnest ' (Memoirs, p. 143; Commons' Journals, vii. 15). This disinterestedness, combined with the rigid republicanism attributed to Ireton, led to the belief that he would have op- posed Cromwell's usurpation, and made him the favourite hero of the republican party (CLARENDON, Rebellion, xiii. 175 ; Life of Col. Hutchinson, ii. 185). Portraits of Ireton and his wife by Robert Walker, in the pos- session of Mr. Charles Polhill, were num- bers 785 and 789 in the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866. Engravings are given in Houbraken's ' Illustrious Heads,' and Vandergucht's illustrations to Clarendon's ' Rebellion.' A royalist newspaper, in a pre- tended hue and cry after Ireton, thus de- scribes his person : ' A tall, black thief, with bushy curled hair, a meagre envious face, sunk hollow eyes, a complection between choler and melancholy, a four-square Machia- vellian head, and a nose of the fifteens ' (The Man in the Moon, 1-15 Aug. 1649).
Ireton's widow, Bridget Cromwell, mar- ried in 1652 General Charles Fleetwood [q. v.], and died in 1662. By her Ireton left one son and three daughters: (1) Henry, married Katharine, daughter of Henry Powle, speaker of the House of Commons in 1689, became lieutenant-colonel of dragoons and gentleman of the horse to William III. He left no issue ; (2) Elizabeth, born about 1647, married in 1674 Thomas Polhill of Ot- ford,Kent; (3) Jane, born about 1648, mar- ried in 1668 Richard Lloyd of London; (4) Bridget, born about 1650, married in 1669 Thomas Bendish (NoBLE, House of Cromwell, ed. 1787, ii. 324-46 ; WAYLEX, House of Cromwell, 1880, pp. 58, 72 ; Notes and Queries, 5th ser. vi. 391, and art. supra BEXDISH, BRIDGET).
JOHN IRETON (1615-1689), brother of the general, was lord mayor of London in 1658, and was knighted by Cromwell. After the Restoration he was excepted from the Act of Indemnity, and for a time imprisoned in the Tower. In 1662 he was transported to Scilly, was released later, and imprisoned again in 1685 ( NOBLE, i. 445; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1661-2, p. 460). Another brother, Thomas Ireton, captain in Colonel Rich's regiment in 1645, was seriously wounded at the storming of Bristol (SPRIGGE, pp. 121, 131).
[Lives of Ireton are contained in Wood's Athense Oxon. ed. Bliss, iii. 298 ; Noble's Souse of Cromwell, ed. 1787, ii. 319; and Cornelius Brown's Worthies of Notts, 1882, p. 181. The
Ireton
43
Ireton
fullest biography is that appended to the Trial of Charles I and of some of the regicides, vol. xxxi. of Murray's Family Library, 1832. Let- ters by Ireton are printed in Gary's Memorials of the CivilWar, 1842; Birch's Letters to Colonel Kobert Hammond, 1764; and Nickolls's Origi- nal Letters and Papers addressed to Oliver Cromwell, 1743. Borlase's History of the Irish Rebellion, ed. 1743, has a valuable supplement, containing a number of Ireton's letters derived from the papers of his secretary, Mr. Cliffe. For other authorities on his services in Ireland see the bibliography of the article on Oliver Crom- well. The Clarke Papers, published by the Cam- den Society (vol. i. 1891), throw much light on Ireton's career, and contain reports of his speeches in the council of the army. The Memoirs of Lud- low and the Life of Colonel Hutchinson are of special value for Ireton's Life.] C. H. F.
IRETON, RALPH (d. 1292), bishop of Carlisle, was a member of a family that took its name from the village of Irton, near Ra- venglass in Cumberland, where it held estates that remained in its possession until the eighteenth century. A pedigree in Hutch- inson's ' Cumberland' (i. 573) makes him the son of Stephen Irton, and assigns him two brothers, Robert and Thomas. Ralph Ireton became a canon regular of the order of St. Augustine, at the priory of Gisburne in Cleve- land. In 1261 he first appears as prior of Gisburne (DUGDALE, Monasticon, vi. 266), an office which he held until 26 Dec. 1278, when he was elected by the prior and canons of Carlisle, who were also of the Augustinian order, as bishop of Carlisle. At a previous election on 13 Dec. the chapter had chosen William Rotherfield, dean of York, who had, however, declined the promotion. The second election was without royal license, and Ed- ward I fined the chapter five hundred marks and refused his assent. Moreover, the Arch- bishop of York delayed his confirmation of the election, and after his death the bishop- elect, whom the chapter still refused to recog- nise, appealed in despair to Pope Nicholas III, who appointed a committee of three cardi- nals to investigate the matter. They decided that the election had been, on highly tech- nical grounds, informal, whereupon the pope quashed the appointment, but at once nomi- nated Ireton to the vacant see by papal pro- vision. Ireton, who was still in Rome, was there consecrated by Ordonius Alurz, cardinal bishop of Tusculum, one of the three com- missioners. On 9 April 1280 Nicholas, when informing King Edward of these events, urged him to receive Ireton as bishop (Fcedera, i. 579). At the end of May Ireton was back in England. Edward accepted the pope's advice, and on 10 July 1280 Ireton's tempo- ralities were restored. The prior and con-
vent were pardoned on paying 100/. to the king.
Ireton was active in his diocese. The Franciscans of Carlisle, the probable authors of the so-called ' Chronicle of Lanercost,' give a very black account of his doings. He was a man of foresight and wisdom, but exceed- ingly avaricious. His constant visitations became mere means of despoiling his poverty- stricken clergy. In October 1280 he extorted a tenth from a diocesan council, and insisted that it should be paid on a real, and not on. a traditional, valuation, and in the new money. He incurred special odium by extort- ing large sums of money from the ' anniver- sary' priests who, without benefices, earned a precarious livelihood by saying private- masses. This he devoted to building a new roof and adding glass and stall-work to his cathedral (Chron. de Lanercost, pp. 102,.
105, 145). A visitation of Lanercost in. 1281 seems to have been equally resented (ib. p. 106).
Ireton's benefactions were insignificant. In 1282 he appropriated the church of Ad- dingham and gave it to the prior of his cathe- dral, though this was only the confirmation of a grant of Christiana Bruce (RAINE, Papers from Northern Registers, p. 250, Rolls Ser.) In 1287 he confirmed a grant of the church of Bride Kirk to his old comrades at Gisburne (Monasticon, vi. 274). He recovered Dalston manor and church from Michael Barclay, and sought in vain to obtain the tithes of the newly cultivated lands in Inglewood Forest for his chapter (HuTCHiNSOtf, Cumber- land, ii. 622-3). Ireton's most important poli- tical employment was with Bishop Antony Bek [q. v.], on the embassy sent to negotiate- the marriage of Edward, the king's son, and Margaret of Norway. On 18 July 1290 the- envoys brought the negotiation to a success- ful issue iu. the treaty of Brigham. Ireton was at the famous gatherings at Norhani and Berwick in 1291, and was in the same year appointed jointly with the Bishop of Caith- ness to collect the crusading tenth in Scot- land. He attended the London parliament in January 1292, and died suddenly at his manor of Linstock, near Carlisle, imme- diately after his return, on 28 Feb. or 1 March 1292. He was buried in Carlisle- Cathedral, where on 25 May a great fire de- stroyed his tomb, along with much of his- new work. This was looked upon as a judgment for his extortions from the sti- pendiary priests.
[Rymer's Fcedera, vol. i., Eecordedit. ; Steven- son's Historical Documents relating to Scotland, vol. i.; Chron. of Lanercost, pp. 101, 102, 105-
106, 113, 143, 1 44-5 (Maitland Club); Heming-
Irland
44
Irland
burgh, i. 40 (Engl. Hist, Soc.) ; Le Neve's Fasti Ecclesise Anglicanae, ed. Hardy, iii. 233 ; Parl. Writs, vol. i. ; Hutchinson's Cumberland, i. 573, ii. 622-3 ] T. F. T.
IRLAND, JOHN (f. 1480), divine and •diplomatist, apparently a native of Scotland, .settled in Paris, and became a doctor of the Sorbonne. A Johannes de Hirlandia, ' bac- calaureus Navarricus,' appears in the index t>ut not in the text of Bulaeus (Hist. Univ. Paris, vol. v.) as rector of the university of Paris in 1469. Irland's Scottish birth and proved ability caused Louis XI of France to send him to Scotland in 1480 to urge James III to declare war with England and to recon- cile Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany fq. v.], with his brother, James III. In the atter object he failed, but he is said to have greatly impressed James, who induced him to return to live in Scotland, and gave him a rich benefice (DEMPSTER, Hist. Eccl. Gentis Scotorum, No. 752). He was doubtless the Dr. John Irland, doctor of theology and rec- tor of Hawick, who was one of the Scottish ambassadors sent in 1484 to France to re- ceive the oath of Charles VIII to the treaty of 1483 (CRAWFURD, Affairs of State, i. 45, ed. 1726 ; MICHEL, Les Ecossais en France}. On 23 Sept. 1487 Henry VII, at the request of King J ames, granted a safe-conduct to the Bishop of St. Andrews and John Irland, clerk ; (Fcedera, orig. ed., xii. 326). According to i Dempster, Irland wrote : 1. 'In Magistrum ! Sententiarum,' in four books. 2. A book of sermons. 3. ' Reconciliations Modus ad Ja- I cobum III Kegem super dissidio cum Duce i Albanise.' 4. One book of letters.
[Dempster's Hist. Eccl. Gentis Scot. (Ban- natyne Club), 1829; Michel's Les Ecossais en France; Burton's Hist, of Scotland, iii. 22.]
J. T-T.
IRLAND, ROBERT (d. 1561), professor of law at Poitiers, was the second son of Alexander Irland of Burnben in Lorn and Margaret Coutts. His family, an old and ; important one, was originally settled in the west of Scotland, but the elder male line be- coming extinct the estates passed by marriage about 1300 to the Abercrombies. Irland, when a young man, went to France about 1496. Having completed his studies at the univer- sity of Poitiers, he there received the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1502 obtained one of •the chairs of law in that university. Letters of naturalisation were granted to him by Francis I in May 1521. Irland, whose lec- tures were well attended, acquired a great reputation as a jurist. Philippe Hurault, chancellor of France, and de Harley, first pre- sident of parliament, and other well-known
statesmen were among his pupils. Baron, professor of law at Bourges, whom Cujas termed the most learned man of his time, dedicated (25 Dec. 1536) to Irland in highly laudatory terms his work, ' The Economy of the Pandects.' Rabelais refers to Irland in treating of the decretals. ' II m'avint/ he says, ' un jour a Poitiers chez 1'Ecossais Doctor Decretalipotens, &c., &c.' He occupied his chair for about sixty years, and died at an advanced age on 15 March 1561. He was twice married, first to Marie Sauveteau, by whom he had one son, John, who became counsellor in the parliament of Rennes ; and again to Claire Aubert, of a noble family of Poitou, by whom he had two sons, Louis and Bonaventuve.
BOXAYEXTFRE IRLAXD (1551-1612 ?) SUC-
ceeded his father in the professorship of laws at Poitiers, was a colleague of Adam Black- wood [q. v.], and was a conseiller du roi of the city. He wrote : ' Remontrances au roi Henri III, au nom du pays de Poitou,' Poitiers, n.d., 8vo (HoEFEB). A philosophi- cal treatise entitled ' Bonaventurse Irlandi antecessorum primicerii sive decani et con- siliarii regii apud Pictavos, de Emphasi et Hypostasi ad recte judicandi ration em con- sideratio,' Poitiers, 1599, 8vo. By ' Emphase' he designated the false or misleading forms under which things may be presented so as to delude our apprehension or our judgment; and by ' Hypostase,' the truth or reality of things which is hid from us. He proposes, in a manner somewhat akin to that of Bacon in indicating his ' Idola,' to guard the mind against the seductions of the imagination. He refers to his master Ramus, whose errors he deplores. In the preface to this work he mentions that he had written a life of his father, and had dedicated it to the Chancellor de Chiverny. It does not seem to have been published. He also wrote a ' Latin speech on the birth of the Dauphin Louis XIII, dedicated to Henry IV,' Poitiers, 1605, 12mo. He died about 1612. According to a cus- tom much in vogue during the sixteenth century his name of Bonaventure was fre- quently translated into Greek, Eutyches or Eutychius. Dreux du Radier states that some of his contemporaries called him indif- ferently by the one or the other name. The family of Irland intermarried with the best families of Poitou, and Robert Irland's de- scendants in France are very numerous at the present time.
[Letters patent passed under the great seal of Scotland, 19 April 1665, giving genealogy, and attesting the noble descent of Eobert Irland, included in Flores Pictavienses, by Napoleon Wyse, Perigueux, 1859; Filleau's Dictionnaire
Irons
45
Ironside
des families de 1'ancien Poitou, ii. 234, 238 ; Kabelais' Pantagruel, lib. iv. chap. lii. ; Michel's LesEcossais en France; Bibliotheque historique et critique du Poitou, par Dreux du Radier, 5 vols. 18mo, Paris, 1754 ; Nouvelle Biographie Gene- rale, par Hoefer, Paris, 1868 ; Dempster's Hist. Eccles. Gentis Scotorum, No. 748.] J. G. F.
IRONS, WILLIAM JOSIAH (1812- 1883), theological writer, born at Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, 12 Sept. 1812, was second son of the Rev. JOSEPH IKONS (1785-1852), by his first wife, Mary Ann, daughter of William Broderick. His mother died in 1828. His father, a popular evangelical preacher, born at Ware, Hertfordshire, on 5 Nov. 1785, com- menced preaching in March 1808 under the auspices of the London Itinerant Society, was ordained an independent minister on 21 May 1814, was stationed at Hoddesdon from 1812 to 1815, and at Sawston, near Cambridge, from 1815 to 1818, and was minister of Grove Chapel, Camberwell, Surrey, from 1818 until his death at Camberwell on 3 April 1852 (BAYFIELD, Memoir of the Rev. Joseph Irons, 1852).
William Josiah, after being educated at home, matriculated from Queen's College, Oxford, on 12 May 1829, and graduated B.A. 1833, M.A. 1835, B.D. 1842, and D.D. 1854. He was curate of St. Mary, Newing- ton Butts, Surrey, from 1835 till 1837, when he was presented to the living of St. Peter's, Walworth. He became vicar of Barkway in Hertfordshire in 1838, vicar of Bromp- ton, Middlesex, 17 Sept. 1840, honorary canon of St. Paul's Cathedral December 1840, rector of Wadingham, Lincolnshire, 6 April 1870, and on 7 June 1872 rector of St. Mary Woolnoth with St. Mary Wool- church-Haw in the city of London, on the presentation of Mr. Gladstone. In 1870 he was Bampton lecturer at Oxford, and his published lectures, 'Christianity as taught by St. Paul,' reached a second edition in 1871. He died at 20 Gordon Square, Lon- don, on 18 June 1883. He married first, in 1839, Ann, eldest daughter of John Melhuish of Upper Tooting, who died 14 July 1853 ; and secondly, on 28 Dec. 1854, Sarah Albinia Louisa, youngest daughter of Sir Launcelot Shadwefl; she died 15 Dec. 1887. _
Irons's chief work is the 'Analysis of Hu- man Responsibility,' 1869, written at the re- questof the foundersof the Victoria Institute. There Irons lectured on Darwin's ' Origin of Species,' on TyndalPs ' Fragments of Science,' on Mill's 'Essay on Theism,' and on the ' Unseen Universe.' For the volume of ' Re- plies to Essays and Reviews ' he wrote, in 1862, ' The Idea of a National Church.' He zealously defended church establishment in
a series of works, of which the earliest was a pamphlet called ' The Present Crisis,' pub- lished in 1850, and the latest a series of letters entitled 'The Charge of Erastianism/ In 1855 appeared a pamphlet signed 'A. E./ entitled ' Is the Vicar of Brompton a Trac- tarian ? ' He was an advocate of free and com- pulsory education, and suggested an entire modification of the poor law. He was one- of the editors of the ' Tracts of the Anglican- Church,' 1842, and of the 'Literary Church- man.' In the latter he wrote the leading- articles from May 1855 to December 1861. He translated the ' Dies Tree ' of Thomas de- Celano in the well-known hymn commencing ' Day of wrath ! 0 day of mourning ! '
Irons wrote, besides the works mentioned and single sermons and addresses: 1. 'On the Whole Doctrine of Final Causes,' 1836. 2. 'On the Holy Catholic Church,' parochial lectures, three series, 1837-47. 3. ' Our Blessed Lord regarded in his Earthly Re- lationship,' four sermons, 1844. 4. ' Notes of the Church,' 1845 ; third edit., 1846. 5. ' The Theory of Development examined/ 1846. 6. 'Fifty-two Propositions. A Letter to the Rev. Dr. Hampden,' 1848. 7. ' The- Christian Servant's Book,' 1849. 8. 'The Judgments onBaptismal Regeneration,' 1850. 9. ' The Preaching of Christ/ 1 853. 1 0. ' The- Miracles of Christ,' a series of sermons, 1859. 11. 'The Bible and its Interpreters,' 1865; 2nd edit., 1869. 12. ' On Miracles and Pro- phecy,' 1867. 13. ' The Sacred Life of Jesus Christ. Taken in Order from the Gospels/
1867. 14. 'The Sacred Words of Jesus Christ. Taken in Order from the Gospels/
1868. 15. ' Considerations on taking Holy Orders,' 1872. 16. ' The Church of all Ages/ 1875. 17. ' Psalms and Hymns for the Church,' 1875 ; another edit., 1883. 18. ' Oc- casional Sermons,' chiefly preached at St.. Paul's, seven parts, 1876.
[Mackeson's Church Congress Handbook, 1877, pp. 98-100 ; Guide to the Church Congress,. 1883, p. 46; Miller's Singers and Songs of the- Church, 1869, pp. 34, 515; Times, 20 June 1883, p. 14, 21 June, p, 5.] G. C. B.
IRONSIDE, EDWARD (1736 P-1803),
topographer, born about 1736, was the eldest son of Edward Ironside, F.S.A., banker, of Lombard Street, who died lord mayor on 27 Nov. 1753. He was a supercargo in the- East India Company's service. For many years he lived at Twickenham, where he died1 on 20 June 1803, aged 67, and was buried on the 28th (LYSONS, Environs, Suppl. pp. 319, 322 ; Gent. Mag. vol. Ixxiii. pt. i. p. 603). He wrote ' The History and Antiquities of Twickenham ; being the First Part of Paro-
Ironside
Ironside
chial Collections for the County of Middlesex,' 4to, London, 1797, issued in Nichols's 'Biblio- theca Topographica Britannica,' vol. x. No. 6. It was to have been followed by a history of Isleworth, which he did not complete. [Nichols's Lit. Anecd. ix. 194.] G. G.
IRONSIDE, GILBERT, the elder (1588- 1671 ), bishop of Bristol, elder son of Ralph Ironside, by Jane, daughter of William Gil- bert , M.A. of Magdalen College, Oxford, supe- rior beadle of arts, was born at Hawkesbury, near Sodbury, Gloucestershire, on 25 Nov. 1588. His father, Ralph Ironside (1550?- 1629), born at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, about 1550, was third son of John Ironside of Iloughton-le-Spring (d. 1581) ; matriculated from St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, 20 Dec. 1577, and graduated B.A. in 1580-1. Elected a fellow of University College, he graduated M.A. in 1585, and B.D. in 1601. He was rector of Long Bredy and of Winterbourne Abbas, both in Dorset, and died 25 May 1629. He is often confused with his second son, also Ralph (1 590-1 683),who took holy orders, became rector of Long Bredy in succession to his father, and is said to have been ejected from his benefice by the Long parliament, and to have been reduced to the utmost poverty (HuiCHlNS, Hist, of Dorset, ii. 194). On the Restoration the younger Ralph was reinstated in his living ; was chosen proctor of the clergy in convocation, and became arch- deacon of Dorset in 1661. He died o March 1682-3, and was buried in Long Bredy Church, where there is a monument to him.
Gilbert Ironside matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford, 22 June 1604, and became scholar of his college 28 May 1605,B.A. 1608, M.A. 1612, B.D. 1619, and D.D. 1660, and feUow of Trinity 1613. In 1618 he was presented to the rectory of Winterbourne Steepleton, Dorsetshire, by Sir Robert Miller. In 1629 he succeeded his father in the benefice •of Winterbourne Abbas. He was also rector of Yeovilton in Somerset. Wood says that he kept his preferments during the protec- torate, but this statement seems doubtful (ib. ii. 198). Either by marriage or other means he amassed a large fortune before the Resto- ration. On 13 Oct. 1660 he was appointed to a prebendal stall in York Minster, but re- signed the post next year, when on 13 Jan. 1661 he was consecrated bishop of Bristol. As a man of wealth he was considered fitted to maintain the dignity of the episcopate with the reduced revenues of the see (Woon, Athena Oxon. iii. 940, iv. 849). At Bris- tol Ironside showed much forbearance to nonconforming ministers. Calamy gives the particulars of a long conference between
him and John Wesley [q. v.] of Whitchurch (father of Samuel Wesley [q. v.] of Epworth and grandfather of the famous John Wesley [q. v.]). Wesley refused to use the Book of Common Prayer, and, according to Ken- nett, ' the bishop was more civil to him than he to the bishop.' Finding him impracti- cable, Ironside is said to have closed the interview with the words, ' I will not meddle with you, and will do you all the good I can ' (KEXXETT, Register, p. 919; CAIAJIY, Me- morial, pp. 438-47). Ironside died on 19 Sept. 1671, and was buried in his cathedral without any memorial, near the steps of the bishop's throne. He married (1) Elizabeth, daughter of Edward Frenchman of East Compton, Dorsetshire, and (2) Alice, daugh- ter of William Glisson of Marnhull, Dorset- shire. By his first wife he was father of four sons, of whom Gilbert, the third son, is separately noticed.
He was the author of ' Ten Questions of the Sabbath freely described,' Oxford, 1637; and two separately published sermons, 1660 and 1684.
[Wood's Athense Oxon. iii. 940, iv. 896-7 ; Ken- nett's Register/pp. 295, 328, 331, 354, 919 ; Hut- chins's Hist, of Dorset, Introd. vol. xxv. pt. ii. pp. 198, 280; Calamy's Memorial, pp.438-47 ; Lans- downeMSS. 987, 102, No. 2; Burke's Landed Gentry.] E. V.
IRONSIDE, GILBERT, the younger (1632-1701), bishop of Bristol and of Here- ford, third son of Gilbert Ironside the elder [q. v.], was born at Winterbourne Abbas in 1G32. On 14 Nov. 1650 he matriculated at Wadham College, Oxford,where he graduated B.A. on 4 Feb. 1652-3, M.A. 22 June 1655, B.D. 12 Oct. 1664, D.D. 30 June 1666. He became scholar of his college in 1651, fellow in 1656, and was appointed public reader in grammar in 1659, bursar in 1659 and 1661, sub-warden in 1660, and librarian in 1662. He was presented in 1663 to the rectory of Winterbourne Faringdon by Sir John Miller, with which he held from 1666, in succes- sion to his father, the rectory of Winter- bourne Steepleton. On the promotion of Dr. Blandford to the see of Oxford in 1667, he was elected warden of Wadham, an office which he held for twenty-five years. Ac- cording to Wood he was ' strongly averse to Dr. Fell's arbitrary proceedings,' and re- fused to serve the office of vice-chancellor during his life. After Fell's death in 1686, he filled the office from 1687 to 1689, and when James II made his memorable visit to Oxford in September 1687, with the view of compelling the society of Magdalen College to admit his nominee as president, Ironside
Irvine
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in a discussion with the king insisted on the fellows' rights (WoOD, Life, pp. cvii-xii ; BLOXAM, Magdalen College and James II, Oxf. Hist. Soc., pp. 90-2). He declined in November an invitation to dine with the king's special commissioners on the evening after they had expelled the fellows of Mag- dalen, saying, ; My taste differs from that of Colonel Kirke. I cannot eat my meals with appetite under a gallows ' (MACATTLAY, Hist. vol. ii. chap, viii.) ' The new chancellor has much pleased the university,' wrote Sykes to Dr. Charlett, ' by his prudent behaviour in all things, and I hear that the king was pleased to say that he was an honest, blunt man ' (AUBREY, Lives, i. 36).
After the revolution, Ironside was re- warded for his resistance by being appointed bishop of Bristol. Hearne spitefully writes that he supported the Prince of Orange, so as to 'get a wife and a bishopric.' But the emolument of the Bristol see was small, and Ironside was consecrated, 13 Oct. 1689, on the understanding that he should be translated to a more lucrative see when opportunity offered. Accordingly, on the death of Bishop Herbert Croft, he was trans- ferred to the see of Hereford in July 1691. He died on 27 Aug. 1701, and was buried in the church of St. Mary Somerset, Thames Street, London. On the demolition of that church in 1867, the bishop's remains were transferred to Hereford Cathedral.
He appears to have been conspicuous for the roughness of his manners among his Ox- ford contemporaries (' Table Talk of Bishop Hough,' in Collectanea, ii. 415, Oxf. Hist. Soc.) When about sixty years of age, ac- cording to Wood, Ironside married 'a fair and comely widow ' of Bristol, whose maiden name was Robinson.
Ironside published, with a short preface from his own pen, Bishop Ridley's account of a disputation at Oxford on the sacrament, together with a letter of Bradford's, Oxford, 1688, and a sermon preached before the king on 23 Nov. 1684, Oxford, 1685.
A portrait is in the hall of Wadham Col- lege.
[Wood's Athense Oxon. iv. 896 ; Wood's Life, pp. cv, cvii-xii; Hutchins's Dorset, Introd. p. xxvi, ii. 529 ; Macaulay's Hist, of England, ii. 304 ; Bloxam's Magdalen College and James II, pp. 90-2, and passim; Gardiner's Eeg. of Wad- ham College, p. 184 ; Hearne's Coll., ed. Doble (Oxf. Hist. Soc.), i. 97.] E. V.
IRVINE, SIR ALEXANDER, OF DKTJM (d. 1658), royalist, was descended from Wil- liam de Irvine, who was armour-bearer to Robert Bruce, and was rewarded for his de- voted services by a grant of the forest of
Drum, Aberdeenshire, at that time part of a royal forest. A grandson of William de Irvine (Sir Alexander) distinguished himself at the battle of Harlaw (1411), in a hand- to-hand encounter with MacLean of Dowart, general of Donald of the Isles, in which both were slain. The prowess of this ' gude Sir Alexander Irvine' is specially celebrated in the ballad on the battle of Harlaw. Other heads of the family rendered important ser- vices to subsequent sovereigns, and in the seventeenth century the lairds of Drum vied in wealth and power with many families of noble rank.
Alexander, the royalist, was the eldest son of Alexander, ninth laird of Drum, by Lady Marion, daughter of Robert Douglas, earl of Buchan. He was probably educated at the university of Aberdeen, where the name of Alexander Irvine occurs as an entrant on the ides of December 1614 (Fasti Aber. p. 454). In December 1634 he was appointed sheriff of Aberdeen (SPALDING, Memorials, i. 55), and the appointment was annually renewed for many years (ib. passim). As one of the commissioners for Aberdeen he received in 1638 an order to cause the people to subscribe the king's covenant and bond (ib. p. Ill), and he was one of the few commissioners in the north who aided the Marquis of Huntly in that work (ib. p. 112 ; GORDON, Scots Affairs, i. 122). He also accompanied Huntly to the cross of Aberdeen, when the king's proclama- tion discharging the Service Book was read (SPALDING, i. 113). On the outbreak of hos- tilities in 1639, Montrose on 6 April quartered five hundred highlandmen sent by Argyll on the lands of the laird of Drum, where ' they lived lustelie upon the goods, sheep, corn, and victual of the ground ' (ib. p. 162) until the llth (ib. p. 166). Irvine himself had meanwhile, on 28 March, taken ship for Eng- land (ib. p. 151); but in June he returned in a collier brig under the command of Lord Aboyne, and finally, landing on the 6th (ib. p. 203), assisted in the capture of Aberdeen for the king (ib. p. 205). Afterwards he pro- ceeded to fortify his place of Drum (ib. p. 265), but according to Gordon it was ' not strong by nature, and scarcely fencible at that time by art ' (Scots Affairs, iii. 197). On 2 June 1640 General Monro arrived before it with the Earl Marischal. Irvine was absent, but when Monro proceeded to open fire his wife agreed to deliver the castle, on condition that the garrison were permitted to go out free with their arms and baggage, and that she and her children were allowed to reside in one of the rooms. She moreover promised to send her husband to Monro at Aberdeen (GORDON, pp. 197-8 ; SPALDING, i. 280-1).
Irvine
4s
Irvine
Irvine accordingly delivered himself up to Monro, by whom he was courteously re- ceived, but was det ained a prisoner (ib. p. 283"), and on the llth was sent with other anti- covenanters to Edinburgh, where they were warded in the Tolbooth, Irvine being also fined ten thousand merks (ib. p. 288). While he was still a prisoner in Edinburgh he was again named sheriff of Aberdeen,but his lands were plundered by the covenanting soldiers (ib. p. 295), and on 23 July the tenants were required to pay their rents to the Earl Ma- rischal (ib. p. 308). He obtained his liberty early in 1641, and, discouraged both by the disasters that had befallen him and by the absence of the Marquis of Huntly from the country, he conformed to the covenant. On 20 Nov. 1643 he, however, refused to subscribe the covenant at Aberdeen, affirming that it was sufficient to have subscribed it in his own parish church (ib. ii. 293). In January 1644 he refused to attempt the apprehension of the Marquis of Huntly (ib. p. 306), but refrained from actually assisting the royal cause. When Huntly on 26 March assembled a large force in Aberdeen in behalf of the king, Irvine — though his son Alexander (see below) was present — 'baid at hame, and miskenit all' (ib. p. 330). In the beginning of the follow- ing year (1645) Argyll and the Earl Ma- rischal paid a hostile visit to Drum. Irvine and his sons were absent ; but although the visitors were welcomed by Irvine's ' lady and his gude daughter, Lady Mary Gordon,' both ladies were evicted from the house ' in pitiful form,' and with difficulty 'got twa wark naigs [horses] which bure thame in to Aberdeen ' (ib. p. 354). The place of Drum was then plun- dered by the soldiers, not only of its provi- sions, but of all its costly furniture, and left in charge of fifty musketeers (ib. p. 355). The reason for these forcible proceedings was that Irvine's two sons were giving active support to the royalists in the north, and although Irvine intimated his disapproval of their con- duct, and ' came to the lords in humble manner,' his professions were not trusted and he received no redress, the only favour granted him being leave to go to his daughter's house at Frendracht (ib. p. 356). As evidence of his good faith he attended, on 24 May 1645, a meeting of the covenanting committee in Aberdeen (ib. p. 370), but on subsequently going to Edinburgh, where his sons were im- prisoned in the Tolbooth, he was confined (November) within the town (ib. p. 431), and was not permitted to return home till 31 May in the following year (ib. p. 478). Being called in 1652 to subscribe the covenant by the presbytery of Aberdeen, he affirmed that neither in conscience nor honour could he
agree to what was proposed. On being- threatened with excommunication, he sent a protest to the presbytery (printed in Mis- cellany of the Spalding Club, iii. 205-7), and appealed to Colonel O verton, who commanded the parliamentary forces in the district. No further steps appear to have been taken against him. On 12 April 1656 Irvine sup- plemented his father's gift for the foundation of bursaries in Marischal College, Aberdeen (Fasti Marts, p. 207). He died in May 1658. By his wife, Magdalene, eldest daughter of Sir John Scrimgeour, he had, besides other children, two sons, ALEXANDER IRVINE, tenth laird (d. 1687), and ROBERT IRVINE (d. 1645), who were among the most persistent sup- porters of the cause of Charles in the north. They were excommunicated, and on 14 April 1644 a price was put upon their heads. After setting sail from Fraserburgh, they were com- pelled by stress of weather to put in at Wick, where they were apprehended and imprisoned in the castle of Keiss. Thence they were sent to Edinburgh, and confined in the Tolbooth. Robert died there on 6 Feb. 1 644-5 (SPALDIN G, ii. 446). but Alexander, after being removed to- the castle of Edinburgh, obtained his liberty through the triumph of Montrose at Kilsyth in 1645. After the Restoration Charles II renewed to him the offer of the earldom of Aberdeen — of which a patent to his father had been prevented from passing the great seal by the outbreak of the revolution — but he declined the honour. He died in 1687, and was buried in Drum's aisle, in the parish- church of St. Nicholas, Aberdeen. After the death of his first wife, Lady Margaret Gor- don, fourth daughter of the first Marquis of Huntly, he married Margaret Coutts, a maiden of low degree, ' the weel-faured May T of the well-known ballad/ The Laird o' Drum /
[Spalding's Memorialls of the Trebles (Spald- ing Club) ; Gordon's Scots Affairs (Spaldin* Club) ; Sir James Balfour's Annals ; Miscellany of the Spalding Club, vol. iii. ; Burke's Landed Gentry; Anderson's Scottish Nation.] T. F. H.
IRVINE, ALEXANDER (1793-1873), botanist, son of a well-to-do farmer, was born at Daviot, Aberdeenshire, in 1793. He was educated at the grammar school at Daviot and at Marischal College, Aberdeen, which he left in 1819 to engage in private tuition. In 1824 he came to London in pursuit of the same profession. He afterwards acted as schoolmaster at Albury, in London, at Bris- tol, and at Guildford. He finally opened a school in 1851 at Chelsea. For eight or ten years toward the close of his life he held a ministerial office in the Irvingite church at White Notley, Essex, but did not reside
Irvine
49
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there. He died in Upper Manor Street, Chel- sea, on 13 May 1873, and was buried in Brompton cemetery.
Irvine interested himself in botany at an early age, and on his first visit to London (1824) he made extensive collections in the surrounding country. John Stuart Mill and William Pamplin often accompanied him in his botanical excursions. A manuscript cata- logue of over six hundred species, which he found within a two-mile radius of Hampstead Heath, was compiled by him between 1825 and 1834. After contributing to Loudon's e Magazine of Natural History,' he published in 1838, while at Albury, his so-called ' Lon- don Flora,' the first part of which includes plants from all the south-eastern counties and the second part from the whole of Britain. A new edition is dated 1846.
Irvine was in the habit of making long summer excursions in Wales, Scotland, or England, mostly on foot, and became a con- tributor to the old series of the ' Phyto- logist.' On its cessation at the death of the editor (George Luxford) in 1854, Irvine edited a new series, which was carried on through six volumes, at a pecuniary loss, from May 1855 to July 1863, when Pamplin, the publisher, retired from business. With the earlier numbers of this magazine were given away some sheets of a descriptive work on British botany. This material Irvine in- corporated in his most comprehensive work, the ' Illustrated Handbook of British Plants,' a popular manual, issued in five parts in 1858. Always endeavouring to popularise the study of his favourite science, he started in Novem- ber 1863 the ' Botanist's Chronicle,' a penny monthly periodical. This he circulated with a catalogue of second-hand books which he had for sale. It only ran, however, to seven- teen numbers. In addition to botany, Irvine made a close study of the Scriptures, and left behind him manuscript collections of pro- verbs and folk-lore.
[Journal of Botany, 1873, p. 222 ; Gardeners' Chronicle, 1873, p. 1017.] G. S. B.
IRVINE, CHRISTOPHER, M.D. (fl. 1638-1685), physician, philologist, and anti- quary, was a younger son of Christopher Irvine of Robgill Tower, Annandale, and barrister of the Temple (ANDERSON", Scottish Nation, ii. 538), of the family of Irvine of Bonshaw in Dumfriesshire. He calls him- self on one of his title-pages ' Irvinus abs Bon Bosco.' He was brother of Sir Gerard Irvine, bart., of Castle Irvine, co. Fermanagh, who died at Dundalk in 1689.
Irvine, like his relative, James Irvine of Bonshaw, who seized Donald Cargill, was
VOL. XXIX.
an ardent royalist and episcopalian, and was ejected from the college of Edinburgh in 1638 or 1639 for refusing the covenant. In- volving himself in some unexplained way in the Irish troubles of the following years, he was deprived of his estate (Preface to his Nomenclature?). 'After my travels,' he con- tinues, ' the cruel saints were pleased to mor- tify me seventeen nights with bread and water in close prison' (ib.) Allowed to re- turn to Scotland, he was reduced to teaching in schools at Leith and Preston (SiBBALD, Bibliotheca Scotica, MS. Adv. Lib. ap. CHAM- BERS). About 1650 or 1651 Irvine resumed the profession to which he seems to have been bred, and became surgeon, and finally phy- sician, at Edinburgh. He was present in the camp of Charles II in Athol in June 1651 (Preface to Anatomia Sambuci). After the battle of Worcester he made his peace with the party in power, and was appointed about 1652 or 1653 surgeon to Monck's army in Scotland. This office he held until the Restoration. He was in London in 1659, and after the Restoration held the office of surgeon to the horse-guards. By what he calls ' a cruel misrepresentation ' he lost his public employment before 1682 (Preface to Nomenclatura). Irving says he was also his- toriographer to Charles II. On 17 Nov. 1681 the Scottish privy council granted his petition that he should be allowed to practise in Edin- burgh, of which he was a burgess, free of in- terference from the newly incorporated Col- lege of Physicians. This act was ratified by the Scottish parliament in 1685 (Acts of Parl. ofScotl. viii. 530-1). The date of his death is unknown. He married Margaret, daughter of James Whishard, laird of Pot- terow, and had two sons, Christopher, M.D., and James.
Irvine published the following works :
1. 'Bellum Grammaticale, ad exemplar Ma- gistri Alexandri Humii . . . editum,' a ' tra- gico-comcedia ' in five acts and in verse, nar- rating a war of the nouns and the verbs. This rare jeu d'esprit is stated by Chambers to have been first published in 1650, but the copy in the British Museum, printed at Edin- burgh in 1658 in 8vo, bears no signs of being a second edition. It was reprinted in 1698.
2. ' Anatomia Sambuci,' by Martin Bloch- witz, translated by C. Irvine, London, 1655, 12mo. 3. ' Medicina Magnetica, or the art of Curing by Sympathy,' London (?), 1656, 8vo, dedicated to Monck; a curious tract reviving some of the wildest ideas of Para- celsus. 4. ' J. Wallsei [of Leyden] Medica Omnia,' edited by C. Irvine, London, 1660, 8vo (preface dated London, 26 July 1659). 5. 'Locorum, nominum propriorum . . . quae
E
Irvine
Irvine
in Latinis Scotorum H istoriis occummt expli- catio vernacula. ... Ex schedis T. Craufurdii excussit . . . C. Irvine,' Edinburgh, 1665, 8vo, pp. 79. 6. ' Historise Scoticae nomenclatura Latino-vernacula,' Edinburgh, 1682, 8vo, and 1697, 4to, fulsomely dedicated to James, duke of York, at the time he was high commis- sioner in Scotland (an expansion of No. 5). This has twice been reprinted, by James Watt, Montrose, 1817, 16mo, and at Glasgow, 1819, 12mo. Irvine also projected, but never car- ried out, a work ' On the Historic and An- tiquitie of Scotland.'
[The fullest account of Irvine is in Chambers's Diet, of Eminent Scotsmen, ed. Thomson, ii. 339 ; Burke's Landed Gentry.] J. T-T.
IRVINE, JAMES (1833-1889), portrait- painter, born in 1833, was eldest son of John Irvine, wright, of Meadowburn, Menmuir, Forfarshire. He was educated at Menmuir
garish school ; became a pupil of Colvin mith [q. v.], the painter, at Brechin; subse- quently studied at the Edinburgh Academy, and was afterwards employed by Mr. Carnegy- Arbuthnott of Balnamoon to paint portraits of the old retainers on his estate. Irvine practised as a portrait-painter for some years at Arbroath, and then removed to Montrose. After a period of hard struggle he became recognised as one of the best portrait-painters in Scotland, and received numerous commis- sions. He was an intimate friend of George Paul Chalmers [q. v.] Among his best-known portraits were those of James Coull, a sur- vivor of the sea-fight between the Shannon and the Chesapeake (which was painted for Mr. Keith of Usan, and of which Irvine painted four replicas), of Dr. Calvert, rector of Montrose Academy, and other well-known residents at Montrose. He also painted some landscapes. He had begun memorial por- traits of the Earl and Countess of Dalhousie for the tenantry on thePanmure estate, when he died of congestion of the lungs at his resi- dence, Brunswick Cottage, Hillside, Mont- rose, 17 March 1889, in his sixty-seventh year. [Dundee Advertiser, 18 March 1889 ; Scots- man, 18 March 1889.] L. C.
IRVINE, WILLIAM,M.D. (1743-1787),
chemist, was the son of a merchant in Glas- gow, where he was born in 1743. He entered the university of his native town in 1756, and studied medicine and chemistry under Dr. Joseph Black [q. v.], whom he assisted in his first experiments on the latent heat of steam. After graduating M.D. he visited London and Paris for purposes of professional im- provement, was appointed on his return in 1766 lecturer on materia medica in the uni- versity of Glasgow, and succeeded Eobison
in 1770 in the chair of chemistry. His lec- tures were described by Cleghorn as remark- able for erudition, sagacity, and explanatory power. His experiments were largely de- voted to the furtherance of manufactures. He was working at the improvement of glass- making processes in a large factory in which he was concerned when he was attacked with a fever, which proved fatal on 9 July 1787. The offer of a lucrative post under the Spanish government came to him upon his deathbed. By his wife, Grace Hamilton, he left one son, William (1776-1811) [q. v.], who published from his father's papers, with some additions of his own, ' Essays, chiefly on Chemical Sub- jects,' London, 1805. Irvine's doctrine of the varying capacities of different bodies for heat was defended, and his method of experiment- ing was explained by his son in Nicholson's ' Journal of Natural Philosophy ' (vi. 25, xi. 50). [Preface to Irvine's Essays on Chemical Sub- jects ; preface to William Irvine the younger's Letters on Sicily ; Edinburgh Medical Commen- taries for 1787, p. 455 (Cleghorn) ; Watt's Bibl. Brit. ; Poggpndorff's Biographisch-Literarisches Handworterbuch ; Black's Lectures on Chemistry, i. 504 (Robison).j A. M. C.
IRVINE, WILLIAM (1741-1804), American brigadier-general, was born near Inniskilling, Ireland, 3 Nov. 1741, studied medicine at Dublin University, and served as a surgeon in the royal navy during part of the war of 1756-63. He resigned before the close of the war, emigrated, and settled in medical practice at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He sided with the colonists at the beginning of the revolution, and took an active part in public affairs. He was a member of the provincial convention assembled at Phila- delphia, 15 July 1774, which recommended a general congress. He was appointed by congress colonel of the 6th Pennsylvanian infantry and ordered to Canada. He raised the regiment, led it through the mouth of the Sorel, and commanded it in the attempted surprise of the British at Three Rivers. He was taken prisoner on 16 June 1776, and was released on parole, but was not exchanged until 6 May 1778. He was a member of the court-martial that tried General Charles Lee. In 1778 he commanded the 2nd Penn- sylvanian infantry, and in 1779 was made brigadier-general and given command of the 2nd Pennsylvanian brigade, with which he was engaged at Staten Island and in Wayne's unsuccessful attempt on Bull's Ferry, 21-22 July 1780. He attempted unsuccessfully to raise a corps of Pennsylvanian cavalry. In March 1782 he was sent to Fort Pitt to com- mand on the western frontier, where he re- mained until October 1783. In 1785 he was
Irvine
appointed agent for the state of Pennsylvania to examine the public lands, and had the administration of the act directing the distri- bution of the donation-lands promised to the soldiers of the revolution. He suggested the purchase of the piece of land known as ' The Triangle,' to give Pennsylvania an outlet on Lake Erie. He was a member of the conti- nental congress of 1786, and was one of the assessors for settling the accounts of the union with individual states. He commanded the Pennsylvanian state militia against thewhisky insurgents in 1794 ; served as a representative in the third congress from 2 Dec. 1793 to 3 March 1795 ; subsequently he removed to Philadelphia, and in 1801 was made superin- tendent of military stores there. He was pre- sident of the state society of Cincinnati at the time of his death, which took place at Philadel- phia 29 July 1804. Two of Irvine's brothers were in the military service of the revolution, Andrew, a captain of infantry, and Matthew, a surgeon ; and he left several sons serving as officers in the United States army.
[Appleton's Cyclop. American Biography, vol. iii. The statement in Appleton that Irvine 'graduated' at Dublin is doubtful, as the name does not appear in the Dublin Catalogue of Graduates.] H. M. C.
IRVINE, WILLIAM (1776-1811), phy- sician, son of William Irvine (1743-1787) [q. v.], professor of chemistry at Glasgow, was born there in 1776. He studied medicine in the university of Edinburgh,where he took the degree of M.D. 25 June 1798. His thesis, 'De Epispasticis,' was based upon an unpublished essay of his father's on nervous diseases (Pre- face to Chemical Essays, 1805). He became a licentiate of the College of Physicians of London 25 June 1806, and his professional life was spent in the medical service of the army as physician to the forces. In 1805 he pub- lished his father's ' Essays, chiefly on Chemical Subjects.' In 1808 he was stationed in Sicily, and in 1810 his most important work ap- peared, ' Some Observations upon Diseases, chiefly as they occur in Sicily.' This book is based upon observations on malarial fever and dysentery made in the general army hospital at Messina, and contains several acute remarks, such as that abscess of the liver is associated with dysentery, that it may burst through the diaphragm into the lung, and the patient nevertheless recover. Shingles was then confused with erysipelas, but he notes accurately a difference in the results of treatment which is due to the de- finite duration of the former disease. He had carefully compared his own observations with those of George Cleghorn [q. v.] and of James Currie [q. v.] on similar fevers, and
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had studied minutely the observations of Hippocrates on diseases of the Mediterranean region. He died of fever at Malta, 23 May 1811. After his death were published in 1813
his ' Letters on Sicily.'
[Works ; Hunk's Coll. of Phys. iii. 37.]
KM.
IRVING, DAVID, LL.D. (1778-1860), biographer and librarian, fourth and youngest son of Janetus Irving of Langholm, Dum- friesshire, by Helen, daughter of Simon Little, was born at Langholm on 5 Dec. 1778. After a sound preliminary education at Langholm, David entered Edinburgh University in 1796, and in 1801 graduated M.A. While a stu- dent he was a successful private tutor, and enjoyed the friendship of the veteran critic, Dr. Anderson, to whom in 1799 he ' grate- fully inscribed ' his ' Life of Robert Fergus- son, with a Critique on his Works.' This puerile and imperfect performance was fol- lowed by similar biographies of William Falconer of the ' Shipwreck,' and Russell the historian of modern Europe, and the three sketches were republished together in 1800, with a dedication to Andrew Dalzel, the Edinburgh professor of Greek. In 1801 ap- peared Irving's ' Elements of English Com- position,' which has been a very popular text- book.
Abandoning his original intention of be- coming a clergyman, Irving for a time studied law, but at length settled to literary pursuits. In 1804 he published in two volumes ' The Lives of the Scotish Poets ; with Preliminary Dissertations on the Literary History of Scot- land and the Early Scotish Drama.' This evinced both learning and critical capacity, and it was followed in 1805 by the 'Life of George Buchanan,' which amply demon- strated Irving's wide and minute scholarship, exceptional faculty for research, and literary dexterity. Revised and enlarged, the work re- appeared in 1817 as ' Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan.' In 1808 the university of Aberdeen conferred on Irving the honorary degree of LL.D., and in the same year he was candidate for the chair of classics at Belfast, but withdrew before the election. InlSlO he marriedthe daughter of Dr. Robert Anderson (1750-1830) [q. v.], who died in 1812 after the birth of a son. In 1813 he printed a touching ' Memorial of Anne Mar- garet Anderson,' for private circulation. Up to 1820 Irving devoted himself to literary work, and to the interests of a few university students who boarded with him. His super- intendence of their studies led to his printing in 1815 'Observations on the Study of the Civil Law,' which was reprinted in 1820 and
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1823, and in 1837 appeared in an enlarged form as ; An Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law.'
In 1820 Irving became principal librarian of the Faculty of Advocates, passing his first vacation at Gottingen, in accordance with the terms of his appointment. This gained him new friends and valuable experience, and brought him in time the Gottingen de- gree of doctor of laws. In October of this year he married his cousin, Janet Laing of Canonbie, Dumfriesshire, and for twenty- nine years pursued a quiet, but prosperous and happy career. At the disruption in 1843 lie joined the seceders from the church of Scotland, remaining a valued member of the Free church. In 1848 the curators of the library, on account apparently of his ad- vancing years, induced him to resign his post. I Thenceforth he lived a retired and studious life, amassing a private library of about seven thousand volumes. He died at Meadow Place, Edinburgh, on 11 May 1860.
Irving published much during his last forty years. In 1821 he edited, with bio- graphical notices, the poems of Alexander Montgomerie, author of ' The Cherrie and the Sloe.' For the Bannatyne Club he prepared, in 1828-9, an edition of Dempster's ' De Scriptoribus Scotis ; ' in 1835 a reprint of Robert Charteris's edition of ' Philotus, a Comedy ; ' and, in 1837, the first edited issue of David Buchanan's Lives : ' Davidis Bu- chanani de Scriptoribus Scotis Libri Duo.' For the Maitland Club he edited in 1830 ' Clariodus, a Metrical Romance,' from a six- teenth-century manuscript, and in 1832 ' The Moral Fables of Robert Henryson : reprinted from the edition of Andrew Hart.' He did not revise Hart's text, but he furnished a valu- able preface. Between 1830 and 1842 he con- tributed to the seventh edition of the ' Ency- clopaedia Britannica ' the articles on Juris- prudence, Canon Law, Civil Law, and Feudal Law, besides numerous important Scottish biographies, many of which were republished, in 1839, in two volumes, entitled ' Lives of Scotish Writers.' In 1854 Irving reissued, with enlarged preface and notes, Selden's ' Table Talk,' which he had edited in 1819. He likewise progressed with his 'History of Scotish Poetry,' which he began in 1828 ; it appeared posthumously in 1861, edited by Dr. John Carlyle, with a prefatory memoir by Dr. David Laing. Several of the ' Ency- clopaedia ' articles — notably those on Bar- bour, Dunbar, Henryson, and Lindsay — were incorporated in this work. Although it wants revision in the light of researches undertaken since the date of its composition, it remains the standard authority on its subject.
[Laing's Memoir prefixed to Scotish Poetry ; Gent. Mag. 1860, i. 645 ; Dr. Hanna's obituary notice in the Witness.] T. B.
IRVING, EDWARD (1792-1834), divine, was born at Annan on 4 Aug. 1792, on the same day as Shelley. His father, Gavin Irving, was a tanner, of a family long esta- blished in the neighbourhood ; his mother, Mary Lowther, was the daughter of a small landed proprietor. As a boy, he was emi- nently successful in gaining school prizes, and showed a partiality for attending the ser- vices of extreme presbyterians, seceders from the church of Scotland, at the neighbouring hamlet of Ecclefechan, Carlyle's birthplace. There he doubtless received impressions which influenced his future career. At thirteen he went to Edinburgh University, where he gra- duated in 1809. Though he does not appear to have been a remarkably distinguished stu- dent, he attracted the favourable notice of Professors Christison and Leslie, by whose recommendation he obtained in ISlOthe mas- tership of the so-called mathematical school just established at Haddington. Here he re- mained two years teaching, studying for the ministry, and at the same time giving private lessons to a little girl, Jane Baillie Welsh, who was destined to influence his life in future years. In 1812, by the continued patronage of Sir John Leslie, he obtained the master- ship of a newly established academy at Kirk- caldy, on the northern shore of the Firth of Forth, which he administered successfully, but, if lingering traditions may be trusted, with unreasonable severity towards his scholars. He found another female pupil destined to affect his future life in Isabella Martin, daughter of the minister of the parish, and, after obtaining a license to preach in June 1815, occasionally assisted her father, not greatly, as would appear, to the edifica- tion of the people. ' He had ower muckle gran'ner,' they said. While at Kirkcaldy he made the acquaintance of Carlyle, who arrived in the autumn of 1816 to take charge of an opposition school. Irving received his competitorwith the utmost generosity. ' Two Annandale people,' he said, 'must not be strangers in Fife.' Neither teacher appears to have taken a very engrossing or strictly professional interest in his pursuit, and they speedily became fast friends. Irving, the elder man, and at the time by much the more interesting and conspicuous, was in a posi- tion to be of the greatest service to Carlyle, who gratefully records the stimulus of his conversation and the access to books which he afforded to him. ' But for Irving I had never known what the communion of man with man means.' In 1818 Irving resigned
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his appointment, a proceeding speedily imi- tated by Carlyle, and he repaired to Edin- burgh with a view to qualifying himself for some profession. He learned French and Italian, he attended lectures in chemistry and natural history, and, not wholly despairing of being a preacher yet, burned all his unap- preciated Kirkcaldy sermons, and exercised himself in writing others on a new model. When, in August 1819, he found another opportunity of preaching, he succeeded so well that Dr. Chalmers, one of his audience, invited him to become his assistant at St. John's, Glasgow, where he settled in October. This congregation thus had for a time the two most famous modern preachers of Scot- land ; but Irving felt himself entirely eclipsed by Chalmers. The consciousness that he was unjustly depreciated combined with in- creased confidence in his own powers to sti- mulate the ambition which had always been a leading trait in his character, but which circumstances had hitherto repressed. He became restless and uncomfortable, and em- braced the opportunity of a new sphere afforded by the invitation which he received in 1822 from the little chapel in Hatton Garden, London, connected with the Cale- donian Asylum, although a knowledge of Gaelic should have been a requisite, and the congregation was so small and poor that it at first seemed unable to give the bond for the minister's due stipend required by the church of Scotland. These difficulties were eventually surmounted, and, ' at the highest pitch of hope and anticipation,' Irving re- moved to London in July 1822. He had already, in May 1821, given Carlyle an in- troduction to Jane Welsh, and had parted from his friend after an earnest conversation on Drumclog Moss, unforgotten by either.
Byron scarcely leapt into fame with more suddenness than Irving. The new preacher's oratory was pronounced worthy of his melo- dious and resonant voice, noble presence, commanding stature, and handsome features, which were marred only by a slight obliquity of vision. The little chapel was soon crowded, and the original congregation was almost lost in the influx of the more brilliant members of London society. His celebrity is said to have been greatly aided by a compliment paid him by Canning in the House of Commons, but, however attracted, his hearers remained. One great source of magnetism in Irving was un- doubtedly the tone of authority that he as- sumed. Others might reason and expostulate, he dictated. The effect of Irving's success on his own character was unfavourable ; it fos- tered that ' inflation ' which Carlyle had al- ready remarked in him in his obscure Kirk-
caldy days, and, by encouraging his belief in his own special mission, made him a ready prey to flatterers and fanatics. His first im- portant publication, ' An Argument for Judg- ment to come,' published along with his ' Ora- tions ' in 1823, is in its origin almost incredi- bly silly, being a protest against the respec- tive Visions of Judgment of Southey and Byron, which Irving thought equally profane. It is no wonder that he himself soon became a mark for satirists, but their attacks only served to evince his popularity.
Irving's domestic circumstances were not satisfactory. On 13 Oct. 1823 he was married at the manse of Kirkcaldy to Isabella Martin, after an eleven years' engagement, which, as Mrs. Oliphant significantly says, ' had sur- vived many changes, both of circumstances and sentiment.' It is in fact now known that Irving had been in 1821 deeply in love with Jane Welsh, who had before conceived a childish attachment to him. that she at that time reciprocated his feeling, that he had endeavoured to persuade the Martin family to release him from his engagement, that they had refused, and that he fulfilled it reluctantly, though with the best grace in his power. The marriage proved neverthe- less much happier than might have been ex- pected ; but it was still the greatest of mis- fortunes to Irving to have missed a wife I capable of advising and controlling him, and found one who ' could bring him no ballast for the voyage of life.' Her admiration and affection led her to surround him with wor- ] shippers, inferior people themselves, who kept superior people away. Carlyle, whose criti- cism might have been very valuable, found it impossible to keep up any intimate inter- course with his old friend. ' If I had married Irving,' said Jane Welsh Carlyle long after- wards, ' the tongues would never have been heard.'
While Irving's extravagant assumptions in the pulpit served to provide frivolous so- ciety in London with a new sensation, the student of ecclesiastical history may see in them a premonition of the great sacerdotal reaction which occurred ten years later, a reaction grounded on very different postu- lates and supported by very different argu- ments, but equally expressive of a tendency in the times. Indeed, when Irving arrived in London in 1822, partly by inevitable reaction from the lukewarmness of the eighteenth cen- tury, partly from the marvellous political his- tory of the preceding thirty years, a great revival of enthusiastic religious feeling was beginning. People could hardly be blamed for seeing a fulfilment of prophecy in the events of the French revolution ; and, this granted,
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the corollary of an impending end of the world was but reasonable. The Apocalyptic ten- dency expressed itself in the poetry and art of the time ; in Byron's ' Heaven and Earth' and Moore's ' Loves of the Angels ; ' and in the pictures of Danby and Martin. It was inevi- table that Irving should go with the current, and equally so that he should be entirely carried away by it. His entire absorption in the subject may be dated from the beginning of 1826, when he became acquainted with the work of the Spanish Jesuit Lacunza, pub- lished under the pseudonym of Aben Ezra, ' The Coming of the Messiah in Glory and Majesty.' Deeply impressed, he resolved to translate it, and the intimacy which this task occasioned with Henry Drummond [q. v.] and others of similar sentiments gave birth to the conferences for the study of unfulfilled prophecy which for many years continued to be held at Drummond's seat at Albury. The translation was published in 1827, with a long preface, which has been reprinted separately. Irving's eloquence had long ago transformed his originally small and poor congregation into a large and rich one, and at this time the fact became externalised in a new church in Regent Square, then regarded as the handsomest of any not belonging to the establishment in London. There, Sunday after Sunday a thousand persons assembled to hear Irving expound for three hours at a stretch, though, as he assured Chalmers, he could bring himself down to an hour and forty minutes. A less devoted congregation at Hackney Chapel dropped away at the end of two hours and a half, and the prudent Chalmers began to fear ' lest his prophecies and the excessive length and weariness of his services may not unship him altogether.' Chalmers was right. Whether from Irving's prolixity, or their own fickleness, or from the distance of the new church from any leading thoroughfare, the fashionable crowds that had filled Hatton Garden stopped short of Regent Square. Irving proved his sincerity by making no attempt to bring them back. Early in 1828 he published his ' Lectures on Baptism,' evincing a decided approximation to the views of the sacramental party in the church of England. In May of that year he undertook a journey in Scotland, with the object of proclaiming the imminence of the second advent. The experiences of this tour were of a chequered character. Chalmers thought his Edinburgh lectures ' woeful,' but he brought the Edinburgh people out to hear them at five in the morning. At his native Annan he was received with enthusiasm ; but at Kirkcaldy an unfortunate accident from the fall of the overcrowded galleries
made him, most unreasonably, an object of popular displeasure. On this tour he con- tracted a friendship with Campbell of Row, soon about to be tried for heresy, which gave support to the suspicions of heterodoxy which were beginning to be entertained against himself. They were increased by the publication at the end of the year of his ' Sermons on the Trinity,' though these had been delivered in 1825 without exciting cri- ticism from any quarter. Early in 1829 the ' Morning Watch,' a journal on unfulfilled prophecy, entirely pervaded, as Mrs. Oliphant remarks, by Irving, was established by the members of the Albury conference. Another expedition to Scotland followed, and at the beginning of 1830 his tract, ' The Orthodox and Catholic Doctrine of our Lord's Human Nature,' exposed him to open charges of heresy, intensified by the accusations simi- larly brought against his friends Campbell, Scott, and Maclean. For the time, how- ever, inquisition remained in abeyance, while public attention was directed to matters of a more exciting character, and which gave an easier handle to Irving's adversaries.
The 'unknown tongues' — the crowning development of Irving's ministrations — were first heard on 28 March 1830, from the mouth of Mary Campbell, ' in the little farmhouse of Fernicarry, at the head of the Gairloch.' On Irving's theories of the second advent, this and the miraculous cure of Miss Campbell, which was believed to have occurred shortly afterwards, were events to be expected, and he can scarcely be excused of excessive cre- dulity for having rather encouraged than repressed the manifestations which rapidly multiplied. They were at first confined to private prayer-meetings, but on 16 Oct. 1831 the public services in Regent Square Church were interrupted by an outbreak of unin- telligible discourse from a female worshipper, and such occurrences speedily became ha- bitual. ' I did rejoice with great joy,' owns Irving, ' that the bridal jewels of the church, had been found again.' The manifestations have been described by many, both speakers and hearers. The best descriptions are the vivid account of Robert Baxter, himself an agent, who ended by attributing them to diabolical possession, and that by Irving himself, who, obliged to maintain the Pente- costal affinities of the phenomenon, is exceed- ingly indignant with ' the heedless sons of Belial 'who pronounced the utterances mere gibberish ; and protests that, on the contrary, ' it is regularly formed, well proportioned, deeply felt discourse, which evidently want- eth only the ear of him whose native tongue it is to make it a very masterpiece of power-
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ful speech.' But whose native tongue was it ? Miss Campbell conjectured, for unknown reasons, the Pelew Islanders'. The whole story is a curious instance of religious delu- sion.
Irving had never been on cordial terms with the religious world, and since the de- livery in 1826 of a powerful sermon advo- cating the prosecution of missions by strictly apostolic methods, he had been regarded by it with suspicion and dislike. An attempted prosecution for heresy in December 1830 had failed for the time in consequence of Ir- ving's withdrawal from the jurisdiction of the London presbytery, but he was now helpless. The church trustees, who disapproved of the tongues, were clearly bound to take steps for the abatement of what they regarded as an intolerable nuisance, and as Irving was not prepared ' defendre a Dieu de faire miracle en ce lieu,' no course but his removal was possible. He defended himself with an im- perious haughtiness little calculated to con- ciliate his judges, most of whom were pro- bably inimical to him on other grounds, but the most friendly tribunal could hardly have come to any other decision, and he was re- moved from the pulpit of Regent Square Church on 26 April 1832. The larger part of the congregation, numbering no less than eight hundred communicants, nevertheless adhered to him, and found temporary refuge in a large bazaar in Gray's Inn Road, which was shared with them, much to their dis- satisfaction, by Robert Owen. In the autumn Irving's followers, reconstituted (as they as- serted) with 'the threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry,' and assuming the title of the ' Holy Catholic Apostolic Church,' removed to the picture gallery in Newman Street which had formerly been used by Benjamin West. Though now the minister of a dissenting con- gregation, Irving retained his status as a clergyman of the church of Scotland until his deprivation by the presbytery of Annan, on 13 March 1833, on a charge of heresy re- specting the sinlessness of Christ. The tri- bunal was not a highly competent one, and its decision carried little moral weight. It broke Irving's heart nevertheless. He tra- velled for some time through his native county, addressing crowded audiences in the open air, and then returned to London to find himself suspended and almost deposed by his own congregation, of which the world naturally supposed him to be prophet, priest, and king. It was far otherwise. Irving him- self had never been favoured with any super- natural gifts ; he was consequently bound, on his own principles, to give place to those \vhohad. When, therefore, immediately upon
his return an inspired voice proclaimed that, having lost his orders in the church of Scot- land, he must not administer the sacraments until he had received fresh ones, he could only acquiesce and stand aside. He accepted the situation with the utmost meekness, con- senting without a murmur to be controlled and on occasion rebuked by inferior men, whose alleged revelations on points of cere- monial were often in violent contrast with his own ideas and the traditions of the church to which he had hitherto belonged. He still preached, and occasionally undertook mis- ! sions at the bidding of the authorities who had assumed the direction of his conscience, but never came prominently before the world, and his own rank in his community was only that of an inferior minister. His health de- clined rapidly. The last glimpse of him as j a writer is obtained, in the autumn of 1834, from a series of letters written to his wife while he was on a journey through the west midland counties and Wales in search of health, and preparing for another mission to Scotland. These letters, in every way more simple, natural, and human than the more celebrated epistles of former years, convey a most affecting picture of the man sinking into the grave. After his arrival at Glasgow his strength entirely failed, and he expired on 7 Dec. 1834, his last words being, ' If I die, I die unto the Lord.' He was buried in the crypt of Glasgow Cathedral. Few of his children survived to adult age, but he left a son, Martin Howy Irving, who obtained distinction as a professor in Australia.
The 'Irvingite' or 'Holy Catholic Apos- tolic Church' still survives. A fine Gothic church, built in Gordon Square in 1854, is the chief home of the denomination.
Irving's character offers a paradox in many respects. As a general rule, a person in whom the moral qualities are greatly in excess of the intellectual may be a pleasing figure, but not a picturesque or imposing one. The person, too, who obtains a large share of public notice by mere eloquence, without solid acquire- ments or valuable ideas, is usually something of a charlatan. Irving was one of the most striking figures in ecclesiastical history, and as exempt from every taint of charlatanism as a man can be. He cannot be acquitted of an enormous over-estimate of his own powers and a fatal proneness to believe himself set apart for extraordinary works ; but this mis- taken self-confidence never degenerated into conceit, and on many occasions he gave evi- dence of a most touching humility. Morally his character was most excellent ; his life was a succession of tender and charitable actions, in so far as his polemics left him
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time and opportunity. Intellectually he was weak, to say nothing of his deficiency in judgment and common sense ; his voluminous writings are a string of sonorous common- places, empty of useful suggestion and ori- ginal thought. This poverty of matter is in part redeemed by the dignity of the manner, for which Irving has never received sufficient credit. The composition is always fine, often noble ; and, though it is certainly framed upon biblical models, such perfect imitation implies delicate taste as well as rhetorical power. In his familiar letters, however, the maintenance of this exalted pitch soon becomes exceedingly tiresome.
[Oliphant's Life of Edward Irving; Wilks's Edward Irving, an Ecclesiastical and Literary Biography ; Carlyle's Reminiscences, and Essay on Irving in Eraser's Mag. for January 1835; Froude's Thomas Carlyle ; Jane Welsh Carlyle's Memorials ; Mrs. Alexander Ireland's Life of Jane Welsh Carlyle ; Baxter's Narration of Facts ; Hazlitt's Spirit of the Age ; Collected Writings of Edward Irving, edited by G. Carlyle.]
E. G.
IRVING, GEORGE VERE (1815-1869), lawyer and antiquary, born in 1815, was only son of Alexander Irving of Newton, Lanark- shire, afterwards a Scottish judge with the title of Lord Newton. In 1837 he was called to the Scottish bar. He took a great interest in the volunteer movement, and became captain of the Carnwath troop. He died at 5 St. Mark's Crescent, Regent's Park, London, on 29 Oct. 1869, aged 53 (Edinburgh Evening Courant, 3 Nov. 1869, p. 4).
Irving was F.S.A. Scot, and vice-president of the British Arch geological Association. He also contributed frequently to ' Notes and Queries.' His works are: 1. 'Digest of the Law of the Assessed Taxes in Scotland/ 8vo, Edinburgh, 1841. 2. 'Digest of the Inhabited House Tax Act,' 8vo, London, 1852. 3. ' The Upper Ward of Lanarkshire described and delineated. The Archaeological and Historical Section by G. V. Irving. The Statistical and Topographical Section by Alexander Murray,' 3 vols. 4to, Glasgow, 1864.
[Notes and Queries, 4th ser. iv. 398; Irving's Book of Scotsmen, p. 234.] G-. G.
IRVING, JOSEPH (1830-1891), histo- rian and annalist, born at Dumfries 2 May 1830, was son of Andrew Irving, joiner. After being educated at the parish school of Troqueer, Maxwelltown, on the opposite bank of the Nith from Dumfries, he served an apprenticeship as a printer in the office of the 'Dumfries Standard;' subsequently prac-
tised as compositor and journalist in Dum- fries and Sunderland ; was for a time on the staff of the ' Morning Chronicle,' London, and in 1854 became editor of the ' Dumbarton Herald.' For some years afterwards he was a bookseller in Dumbarton, published a his- tory of the county, and started in 1867 the 'Dumbarton Journal,' which was unsuccess- ful. In 1860 he became a fellow of the So- ciety of Antiquaries of Scotland, and in 1864 an honorary member of the Archa3ological Society of Glasgow, to the 'Transactions' of which he contributed an important paper on the ' Origin and Progress of Burghs in Scot- land.' Disposing of his Dumbarton business in 1869 on the death of his wife, who had helped him much in all his undertakings, Irving, after living a few years in Renton, Dumbartonshire, settled in Paisley in 1880, where he wrote for the ' Glasgow Herald' and other journals, and did much solid literary work. He was an authority on Scottish his- tory and an excellent reviewer. After some- years of uncertain health he died at Paisley 2 Sept. 1891.
Irving's works are as follows : 1. ' The Conflict at Glenfruin : its Causes and Con- sequences, being a Chapter of Dumbarton- shire History,' 1856. 2. ' History of Dum- bartonshire from the Earliest Period to the Present Time,' 1857 ; 2nd edit. 1859. 3. 'The Drowned Women of Wigtown : a Romance of the Covenant,' 1862. 4. ' The Annals of our Time from the Accession of Queen Vic- toria to the Opening of the present Parlia- ment,' 1869 (new edit. 1871), with two sup- plements from February 1871 to 19 March 1874, and from 20 March 1874 to the occu- pation of Cyprus, published respectively in 1875 and 1879 ; a further continuation brings the record from 1879 down to the jubilee of 1887 (Lond. 1889), and Mr. J. Hamilton Fyfe has undertaken a later supplement. 5. ' The Book of Dumbartonshire : a History of the County, Burghs, Parishes, and Lands, Me- moirs of Families, and Notices of Industries/ a sumptuous and admirable work, 3 vols. 4tot 1879. 6. 'The Book of Eminent Scotsmen/ 1882, a compact and useful record. 7. 'The West of Scotland in History/ 1885. He also published : ' Memoir of the Smolletts of Bon- hill ' ; ' Memoir of the Dennistouns of Den- nistoun/ 1859; and 'Dumbarton Burgh Re- cords, 1627-1746/ 4to, 1860. Irving has sterling merits as a local historian, and his ' Annals ' Lis a standard work of refer- ence.
[Information from Irving's son, Mr. John Irving, Cardross, Dumbartonshire, and Mr. George Stronach, Advocates' Library, Edin- burgh; Glasgow Herald, 5 Sept. 1891.] T. B.
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IRVING, SIR PAULUS ^EMILIUS
(1751-1828), general, born 30 Aug. 1751, was son of Lieutenant-colonelPaulus^Emilius Irving, who was wounded at Quebec when serving as major commanding the 15th foot under Wolfe, and died lieutenant-governor of Upnor Castle, Kent, in 1796. His mother was Judith, daughter of Captain William Westfield of Dover. He was appointed lieu- tenant in the 47th foot in 1764, became cap- tain in 1768, and major in 1775. He served with his regiment in the affair at Lexington, at the battle of Bunker's Hill, and in Boston during the blockade. Subsequently he ac- companied the regiment to Quebec, and was present in the affair at Trois Rivieres and the various actions of Burgoyne's army down to the surrender at Saratoga, 17 Oct. 1777. He was afterwards detained as a prisoner of war in America for three years. He returned home in 1781, and in 1783 became lieutenant- colonel 47th foot. In 1790 he took the regi- ment out to the Bahamas, where he served until 1795, becoming brevet-colonel in 1791 and major-general in 1794. On the death of Sir John Vaughan, 21 June 1795, Irving succeeded to the West India command, in which he was replaced by Major-general Leigh in September of the same year. Irving then assumed the command in St. Vincent, and on 2 Oct. 1795 carried the enemy's position at La Vigie with heavy loss. He received the thanks of George III, conveyed through the Duke of York. He returned home in December 1795. He was appointed colonel of the 6th royal veteran battalion in 1802, and was afterwards transferred to the colonelcy of his old corps, the 47th (Lan- cashire) foot. He was created a baronet 19 Sept. 1809, became a full general in 1812, and died at Carlisle 31 Jan. 1828. Irving married, 4 Feb. 1 786, Lady Elizabeth St. Law- rence, second daughter of Thomas, first earl of Howth, by whom he left two sons and a daughter. The baronetcy became extinct on the death of Irving's younger son, the third and last baronet.
[Burke's Baronetage, 1850 ; Appleton's Cyclop. American Biography under 'Irving, Paulus ^Emilius ' and ' Irving, Jacob ^rnilius ; ' Gent. Mag. xcviii. pt. i. 269-70; Philippart's Eoyal Military Calendar, 1820, i. 349-50.] H.M. C.
IRWIN, EYLES (1751P-1817), oriental traveller and miscellaneous writer, younger son of James Irwin, H.E.I.C.S., of Hazeleigh Hall, Essex, by his wife Sarah (Beale), widow of Henry Palmer, was born in Calcutta, and educated in England under Dr. Rose at Chis- wick. Being appointed on 21 Nov. 1766 to a writership in the East India Company's
service in the Madras presidency, he returned to India in February 1768, and in 1771 was appointed ' superintendent of the company's grounds within the bounds of Madras,' &c. Upon the deposition of Lord Pigot in 1776, Irwin signed a protest against the revolution in the Madras government, and on his refusal to accept the post of assistant at Vizagapa- tam, to which he was appointed by the coun- cil in November 1776, was suspended from the company's service. In order to seek redress, Irwin sailed for England early in 1777. After enduring many vicissitudes of fortune during a journey of eleven months, a full account of which is given in his ' Series of Adventures in the course of a Voyage up the Red Sea,' &c., Irwin arrived in England! at the close of the year, and found that ha had already been reinstated in the service of the company. Returning to India in the autumn of 1780 by another route, which is described in the third edition of his ' Series of Adventures,' &c., he was appointed by Lord Macartney on 6 Oct. 1781 a member of the committee of ' assigned revenue,' and in 1783 was made the superintendent of revenue in the Tinnevelly and Madura districts. Under his advice, Colonel William Fullarton [q. v.} undertook a successful expedition against the Poligars, and by his judicious manage- ment the revenues of the district were greatly improved. In November 1784 he was ordered to the Trichinopoly district to arrange ' the speediest and most effectual mode of paying off the fighting men ' of the southern army. In March 1785 he was further appointed com- missary on the part of the Madras government to negotiate for the cession of the Dutch settlements on the coasts of Tinnevelly and1 Marawa, and in consequence of the surrender of the assignment, delivered over the district of Tinnevelly in July to the nabob's agents. Towards the close of 1785 Irwin was com- pelled to return to England on account of his health, and in 1789 was awarded the sum of six thousand pagodas by the court of direc- tors for his ' able, judicious, and upright man- agement ' of the assigned districts south of the Coleroon. In 1792 he was sent out with two colleagues to China, where he remained rather less than two years. He retired from the service in 1794, and in the following year was an unsuccessful candidate for a director- ship of the company. The remainder of his days he passed in retirement, devoting himself chiefly to literary pursuits. Irwin died at Clifton, near Bristol, on 12 Aug. 1817, and was buried in the old churchyard at Clifton. He appears to have been an honest and able administrator. His character is said to have been 'remarkable for its amiable simplicity.'
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Invin
His portrait, painted by Romney, is in the possession of his great-grandson, Charles Stuart Pringle. It has been engraved by I James Walker and Thornthwaite. In 1778 Irwin married Honor, daughter of the Rev. "William Brooke of Dromavana and of Fir- , mount, co. Longford, and first cousin once re- i moved of Henry Brooke (1703 P-1783) [q. v.], | the author of ' The Fool of Quality.' By her j he had three sons and two daughters. His eldest son, James Brooke Irwin, a captain in the 103rd regiment, was killed in the assault on Fort Erie in August 1814.
Irwin was the author of the following •works: 1. 'Saint Thomas's Mount; a Poem, j Written by a Gentleman in India,' London, 1 774, 4to. 2. ' Bedukah, or the Self-devoted, ' anlndian Pastoral,' London. 1776, 4to. 3. 'An Epistle to ... George, Lord Pigot, on the Anniversary of the Raising of the Siege of j Madras. Written during his Lordship's Con- j finement at St. Thomas's Mount ' [in verse], ) anon., London, 1778, 4to. 4. 'Eastern Eclo- gues ; written during a Tour through Arabia, | Egypt ... in the year MDCCLXXVII,' &c., ' anon., London, 1780, 4to. 5. ' A Series of Adventures, in the course of a Voyage up the Red Sea, on the coasts of Arabia and Egypt, and of a Route through the Desarts of Thebais ... in the year MDCCLXXVII. , . . . Illustrated with Maps,' &c., London, 1780, 4to; 2nd edit., London, 1780, 4to ; •3rd edit., ' with a Supplement of a Voyage from Venice to Latichea, and of a Route through the Desarts of Arabia, by Aleppo, Bagdad, and the Tigris, to Busrah, in the years 1780 and 1781,' &c., London, 1787, &vo, 2 vols. Translated from the third edi- tion into French by J. P. Parraud, Paris, 1792, 8vo, 2 torn. 6. ' Occasional Epistles, •written during a Journey from London to Busrah ... in the years 1780 and 1781 ' fin verse], London, 1783, 4to. 7. ' Ode to Robert Brooke, Esq., occasioned by the death of Hyder Ally,' London, 1 784, 4to. 8. ' The Triumph of Innocence ; an Ode, written on the Deliverance of Maria Theresa Charlotte, Princess Royal of France, from the Prison of the Temple,' London, 1796, 4to. 9. ' An .Enquiry into the Feasibility of the supposed Expedition of Buonapart6 to the East,' Lon- don, 1798, 8vo. 10. 'Buonaparte in Egypt, or an Appendix to the Enquiry into his sup- posed Expedition to the East/ Dublin, 1798, Svo. 11. 'Nil us, an Elegy. Occasioned by the Victory of Admiral Nelson over the Trench Fleet on August 1, 1798,' London, 1798, 4to. 12. ' The Failure of the French Crusade, or the Advantages to be derived by Great Britain from the restoration of Egypt to the Turks,' London, 1799, 8vo.
13. ' The Bedouins, or Arabs of the Desert. A Comic Opera in three Acts [prose and verse]. With Corrections and Additions,' Dublin, 1802, 12mo. 14. 'Ode to Iberia,' London, 1808, 4to. 15. ' The Fall of Sara- gossa, an Elegy,' 1808, 4to. 16. ' Napoleon, or the Vanity of Human Wishes,' 1814, 4to, 2 pts. 17. 'An Elegy to the Memory of Captain James Brooke Irwin, who perished ... in the Assault of Fort Erie, Upper Canada, on the fifteenth of August, 1814,' London, 1814, 4to, privately printed. 18. 'An Essay on the Origin of the Game of Chess/ prefixed to 'The incomparable Game of Chess developed after a new Method . . . translated from the Italian of Dr. Ercole dal Rio [or rather D. Ponziani]. By J. S. Bingham/ London, 1820, 8vo. This essay is an extract from a letter written by Irwin while at Can- ton, dated 14 March 1793, and communicated by the Earl of Charlemont to the Royal Irish Academy (see Transactions, vol. v. 'Antiqui- ties,' pp. 53-63).
[Annual Biog. and Obit. 1818, ii. 221-36 ; European Mag. 1789 xv. 179-81 (with portrait), 1817 Ixxii. 277; Gent. Mag. 1792 vol. Ixii. pt. i. p. 276, 1817 vol. Ixxxvii. pt. ii. p. 376, 1818 vol. Lxxxviii. pt. i. pp. 93-4 ; Asiatic Journal, 1817, iv. 425; A Collection of Letters, chiefly between the Madras Government and Eyles Irwin, in the years 1781-5 (1888) ; Colonel William Fullarton's View of the English Interests in India, 1788; Bishop Caldwell's Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, 1881, pp. 82, 143-57; Georgian Era, 1834, iii. 465-6 ; Baker's Biog. Dramatics, 1812, vol. i. pt. i. pp. 390-3; Prinsep's Record of Services of Madras Civilians, 1885, p. 80 ; Burke's Landed Gentry, 1882, i. 199-200 ; Foster's Peerage, 1883, s.n. ' Charlemont ; ' Dictionary of Living Authors, 1816, p. 174 : Notes and Queries, 4th ser. xi. 34 ; Watt's Bibl. Brit. ; Brit. Mus. Cat.]
G. F. R. B.
IRWIN, SIR JOHN (1728-1788), general, born in Dublin in 1728, was son of General 1 Alexander Irwin. who entered the army in ! 1689, and was colonel of the 15th foot i'rom 1737 until his death in 1752, holding im- portant commands on the Irish establish- ment. While still very young John attracted the notice of Lionel, duke of Dorset, lord- lieutenant of Ireland, who appointed him page of honour about 1735 or 1736. Owing to his patron's interest and his father's rank in the army, he was given a company in his father's regiment (the 5th foot) while still a schoolboy. His commission as ensign bears the date'8 July 1736, and on 14 Jan. 1737 | he became a lieutenant. At the close of I 1748 his father granted him a year's fur- lough so that he might travel on the conti-
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nent. Lord Chesterfield, who, while lord- lieutenant of Ireland in 1745-6, seems to have taken a fancy to him and regularly corresponded with him for the succeeding twenty years, gave him a letter of introduc- tion to Solomon Dayrolles at the Hague (cf. CHESTERFIELD, Letters, iii. 307). Chester- field describes him as ' a good pretty young fellow ; and, considering that he has never been yet out of his native country, much more presentable than one could expect.' From the Hague Irwin went to Paris, and in April 1749 Chesterfield advised him (ib. iii. 337) by letter to visit Rome to see the papal jubilee. On his return to Dublin at the close of the year, Chesterfield (ib. iii. 363) wrote to him : ' You have travelled a little with great profit ; travel again, and it will be with still greater.' But his marriage in December 1749 with Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Hugh Henry of Straffan, Kildare, kept him at home. His wife died in the following April, and he was still in Dublin in 1751, when he had attained the rank of major. In the following year (1752) he was gazetted lieu- tenant-colonel of the 5th foot, his father's old regiment, and in 1753 he married Anne, daughter of Sir Edward Barry [q. v.] In 1755 he visited Chesterfield at Bath, and it was currently reported that Irwin at this time suggested to Chesterfield his paper on ' Good- Breeding ' which appeared in the ' World ' (No. 148) of 30 Oct. 1755. Irwin and his wife were very frequently in London after 1757, when his regiment left Ireland for Chatham. In 1760 he served with distinc- tion in Germany through the campaign upder Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. He be- came a full colonel on 1 March 1761, and was appointed to command the 74th foot . On 10 July 1762 he attained the rank of major- general, and on 30 Nov. entered the House of Commons, in accordance with a desire he had expressed to Chesterfield eight years earlier (cf. ib. iv. 105), as member for East Grinstead, a borough in the hands of the Duke of Dorset, his first patron. He was re-elected in 1760, 1774, and 1780, and retired in 1783, but his attendance in the house was always irregular. On becoming a member of parlia- ment he took a prominent place in London society, and fixed his town residence in Queen Anne Street, Cavendish Square.
From 1706 to 1768 he held the post of governor of Gibraltar, where his second wife died in 1767. While abroad he was gazetted colonel of the 57th regiment of foot on the Irish establishment (17 Nov. 1767). He was in Paris on 26 June 1768, when Madame du DefFand wrote to Horace Walpole of the favourable impression she had formed of him.
Chesterfield introduced him at the same time to Madame de Monconseil, writing of him, ' pour un Anglais, il a des manieres ' (ib. iv. 473). Chesterfield afterwards told him that he believed him to be the first English traveller that could bring testimonials from Paris of having kept good company there.
In May 1775 he was appointed commander- in-chief in Ireland and a privy councillor there. He was active in repressing White- boy outrages, but lived chiefly in Dublin, where he maintained a lavish establishment and was popular with all classes. In 1779 he was made a knight of the Bath, and joined the other new knights in giving a ball at the Opera House in the Haymarket to all the nobility and distinguished persons in London. In 1780 he became colonel of the 3rd regiment of horse or carabineers in Ire- land (afterwards the 6th dragoon guards). At a banquet which he gave at Dublin to the lord-lieutenant (the Earl of Carlisle) in 1781 he spent nearly 1,500£. on a centre-piece for the dinner-table, consisting of a model in barley-sugar of the siege of Gibraltar. He retired from the post of commander-in-chief in Ireland on the downfall of Lord North's administration in 1782 ; took up his residence in his house in Piccadilly, overlooking the Green Park ; resumed his place in parliament ; and became full general on 19 Feb. 1783.
Irwin delighted in the pleasures of so- ciety, and his charm of manner rendered him a general favourite. With George III he was on especially good terms. Wraxall tells the story that the king once said to him : ' They tell me, Sir John, that you love a
§lass of wine,' to which Irwin replied : ' Those, ir, who have so reported of me to your Majesty have done me great injustice; they should have said a bottle ' (WRAXALL, Me- moirs, ed. 1 884, iii. 93). Wraxall relates that his tall, graceful figure, set off by all the ornaments of dress and by the insignia of the order of the Bath, which he constantly wore, even in undress, always made him conspicu- ous when he attended the House of Com- mons. But his reckless extravagance both at home and abroad dissipated his resources. At Paris Madame duDeffand noted his 'folles depenses.' Owing to pecuniary difficulties he resigned his seat in parliament on 3 May 1783 and retired to France, where he rented a chateau in Normandy. Thence he removed into Italy, and took up his permanent abode at Parma, where he enjoyed the friendship of the duke and his consort, the Archduchess Amelia, and kept open house for all English visitors with characteristic hospitality. He died at Parma towards the close of May 1788, aged 60. Wraxall relates that, notwithstand-
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Isaacson
ing the intervention of the duke, his remains were denied by the priesthood the rites of Christian burial, and the funeral service was read by an English gentleman. Sir John was survived by a third wife, who died on 27 Aug. 1805. Her maiden name and the date of the marriage are not known.
Portraits of Sir John and his second wife were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds in March 1761 ; Mrs. Irwin's portrait was en- graved in mezzotint by Watson.
[Gent. Mag. 1788, p. 562; Morning Post and Morning Chronicle, 20 June 1788 ; Memoirs of Sir James Campbell of Ardkinglass, 1832, i. 279 ; Earl of Chesterfield's Letters, 1845-53, iii. 307, 310, 337, 363, 433, iv. 17, 95, 105, 209, 348, 473, 477, 479, 485, v. 346 ; Wraxall's Memoirs, ed. 1884, iii. 91-5 ; Corresp. de Madame du Deffand, Paris, 1865, i. 483, 490,544 ; Grenville Corresp.]
A. I. D.
ISAAC, SAMUEL (1815-1886), projector of the Mersey tunnel, son of Lewis Isaac of Poole, Dorsetshire, by Catherine, daughter of N. Solomon of Margate, was born at Chatham in 1815. Coming to London as a young man, he established a large business as an army contractor in Jermyn Street, trading as Isaac, Campbell, & Company. His brother, Saul Isaac, J.P., afterwards member for Nottingham 1874-80, was associated with him in partnership. The firm during the Confederate war in America were the largest European supporters of the southern states. Their ships, outward bound with military stores and freighted home with cotton, were the most enterprising of blockade-runners between 1861 and 1865. Isaac's eldest son Henry, who died at Nassau, West Indies, during the war, had much to do with this branch of the business. Having raised a regi- ment of volunteers from among the workmen of his own factory at Northampton, Isaac was rewarded with the military rank of major. He and his firm were large holders of Confederate funds, and were consequently ruined on the conclusion of the American war in 1865. In 1880 he acquired the rights of the promoters of the Mersey tunnel, and himself undertook the making of the tunnel, letting the works to Messrs. Waddell, and employing as en- gineers Mr. James Brunlees and Sir Douglas Fox. The Right Hon. H. C. Raikes became chairman, with the Right Hon. E. P. Bouverie as vice-chairman, of the company formed to carry through the undertaking. Money was raised, and the boring was completed under Isaac's superintendence on 17 Jan. 1884. The tunnel was opened on 13 Feb. 1885 ; the first passenger train ran through on 22 Dec., and it was formally opened by the Prince of Wales on 20 Jan. 1686 (Illustrated London
News, 30 Jan. 1886, pp. Ill, 112). The queen accepted from Isaac an ingenious jewelled representation of the tunnel, in which the speck of light which shines at the end of the excavation was represented by a brilliant. He formed a collection of paintings contain- ing some of the best works of Mr. B. W. Leader, A.R. A. Isaac died at 29 Warrington Crescent, Maida Vale, London, on 22 Nov. 1886, and left 203,084/. 17*. 9d.
[Times, 24 Nov. 1886, p. 6 ; Jewish Chronicle^ 26 Nov. 1886, p. 10.] G-. C. B.
ISAACSON, HENRY (1581-1 654),theo- logian and chronologer, born in the parish of St. Catherine, Coleman Street, London, in September 1581, was the eldest son of Richard Isaacson, by Susan, daughter of Thomas Bryan ( Visitation of London, 1633-5, Harl. Soc., ii. 3-4). He appears to have been educated under the care of Bishop Lance- lot Andrewes [q. v.], by whom he was sent to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. Upon leaving- college he became an inmate of the bishop's house, and remained with him as his amanu- ensis and intimate friend until Andrewes's death in 1626. In 1645 he held the office of treasurer of Bridewell and Bedlam ( Gent. Mag. 1831, pt. ii. p. 502). Besides hand- somely providing for his numerous children, of whom several settled in Cambridgeshire, Isaacson, in imitation of his father, was a benefactor to the poor of the parish of St. Catherine, Coleman Street, where he died1 on 7 Dec. 1654, and was buried on the 14th (SMYTH, Obituary, Camden Soc., p. 39, name misprinted ' Jackson '). In his will he de- scribed himself as ' citizen and paint er-stainer of London' (P. C. C. 263, Aylett), and be- queathed to Dr. Collins, provost of King's College, Cambridge, a portrait of Bishop Andrewes. By his wife Elizabeth, daughter and sole heiress of John Fan of London, he had nine sons and eight daughters. He was owner of the advowson of Woodford, Essex, to which he presented successively his younger brother William and his eldest son Richard (WooD, Fasti Oxon. ed. Bliss, i. 377).
In 1630 appeared a small volume called ' Institutiones Piae, or Directions to Pray,' &c., 12mo, London, collected by ' H. I.,' which passed through several editions. Some passages are borrowed from Andrewes's ' Pre- ces Privatse,' and in a preface to the fourth edition (1655) the original publisher, Henry Seile, claimed the whole work for Andrewes, and described Isaacson's relations to the three former editions as that of a kind foster-father then lately dead (cf. Hale's Preface to In- stitutiones Pice, ed. 1839).
Isaacson's principal work is a great folio-
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entitled ' Satvrni Ephemerides, sive Tabvla Historico-Chronologica, containing a Chrono- logical Series ... of the foure Monarchyes. . . . As also a Succession of the Kings and Rulers ouer most Kingdomes and Estates of the World . . . with a Compend of the His- tory of the Chvrch of God from the Creation . . . lastly an Appendix of the Plantation and Encrease of Religion in ... Britayne,' &c., London, 1633. It was probably inspired by Andrewes. The lists of authorities fill six pages, and the citations and references are remarkable for their accuracy. Richard Cra- shaw contributed some pleasing verses in explanation of the curious engraved title- page by W. Marshall (CRASHAW, Works, ed. Grosart, i. 246).
Isaacson wrote also ' An Exact Narrative of the Life and Death of ... Lancelot An- drewes,' 4to, London, 1650, which was in- corporated in the following year in Fuller's ' Abel Redivivus.' The work treats of An- drewes's mental endowments rather than of the events of his life. An edition published in 1829 by a descendant, Stephen Isaacson {q. v.], contains a life of the author.
To Isaacson may be probably ascribed the devotional manuals issued under the initials of ' H. I. : ' 1. ' Jacob's Ladder, consisting of fifteene degrees or ascents to the know- ledge of God by the consideration of His creatures and attributes,' 12mo, London, 1637. The address to the reader is signed <H. I.' 2. 'A Treaty of Pacification, or Conditions of Peace between God and Man,' 12mo, London, 1642. 3. ' A Spirituall Duell between a Christian and Satan,' &c., 12mo, London, 1646. 4. 'The Summe and Sub- stance of Christian Religion, set down in a Catechisticall Way,' 12mo, London, 1647. 5. 'Divine Contemplations necessary for these Times,' 12mo, London, 1648. 6. ' The Scrip- ture Kalendar in use by the Prophets and Apostles and by our Lord Jesus Christ/ 8vo, London, 1653. Isaacson may likewise have furnished the 'Address to the Reader by H. I.' prefixed to R. Sibbes's 'Breathing after God,' 12mo, 1639.
[Stephen Isaacson's Life referred to: r,(nt.Mag. vol. ci. pt. ii. p. 194; Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. iv. 286.] G. G.
ISAACSON, STEPHEN (1798-1849), miscellaneous writer, born on 17 Feb. 1798, at the Oaks, Cowlinge, Suffolk, was son of Robert Isaacson, auctioneer, of Cowlinge, and afterwards of Moulton, Suffolk, by his second "wife, Mary Anne, daughter of John Isaacson, rector of Lydgate and Little Bradley, Suffolk, and perpetual curate of Cowlinge. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, and
graduated B.A. in 1820. Both at school and college he obtained some reputation as a writer of humorous verse, and was even then a frequent contributor to the ' Gentle- man's Magazine ' and other periodicals. In 1822 he projected the ' Brighton Magazine,' which had a very brief existence. More suc- cessful was his translation of Jewel's ' Apo- logia ' (1825), with a life of the bishop and a preliminary discourse on the doctrine and discipline of the church of Rome in reply to some observations which Charles Butler had addressed to Southey on his ' Book of the Church.' Butler answered Isaacson in a ' Vindication of " The Book of the Roman Catholic Church'" (1826). Shortly after- wards Isaacson accepted the rectory of St. Paul, Demerara. In 1829 he edited Henry Isaacson's ' Life ' of Bishop Andrewes, and prefixed a brief memoir of the author. By 1832 he had returned to England, and avowed as the results of his own experience that the social and religious condition of the negro slaves could not be bettered. On 8 Aug. of that year he delivered a clever speech in vindication of the West India pro- prietors at Mansion House Chapel, Camber- well, which was afterwards published. For the next year or two he served as curate of St. Margaret, Lothbury. In 1834 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the preachership of the Magdalen Hospital. He soon became curate of Dorking, Surrey, and remained there until February 1837. In that year he published two popular manuals, entitled ' The Altar Service ; for the use of Country Con- gregations,' and ' Select Prayers for all Sorts and Conditions of Men.' He again came forward as an anti-abolitionist in 1840 by issuing part i. of ' An Address to the British Nation on the Present State and Prospects of the West India Colonies,' in which he argued in favour of an extensive system of immigration as the only means of extinguish- ing slavery and the slave-trade. From 1843 to 1847 he lived at Dymchurch, near Hythe in Kent, taking duty as chaplain of theElham union.
During his residence there Isaacson became a member of the newly established British Archaeological Association, and contributed some papers on local antiquities to its 'Jour- nal.' His quaint poem of the ' Barrow Digger ' and other legends (printed in 1848) were suggested by the field operations of the as- sociation. He subsequently removed to Hod- desdon, Hertfordshire ; but died on 7 April 1849 at 2 Tavistock Street, Bedford Square, London.
Isaacson married at St. George's Church, Guiana, in November 1826, Anna Maria
Isabella e
Miller, youngest daughter of Bryan Bernard Killekelly of Barbadoes.
[Gent. Mag. ne\r ser. xxxii. 101-2; Archaeo- logia Cantiana, xv. 369, 372-3 ; Clergy Lists.]
G. G.
ISABELLA (1214-1241), wife of the emperor Frederic II, born in 1214, was the second daughter and fourth child of John, king of England, and his queen, Isabella of Angouleme [q. v.] Her nurse, Margaret, had an allowance of one penny a day from the royal treasury in 1219 (Rot. Glaus, i. 393). This was doubtless Margaret Biset, 'her nurse and governess,' who went with Isabella to Germany sixteen years later, and who during all those years had the care of the girl, left virtually motherless by the queen's re-marriage early in 1220. When in the fol- lowing June Isabella's sister Joanna [see JOANNA, QUEEN OF SCOTLAND] was betrothed to Alexander II of Scotland, it was stipu- lated that if Joanna could not be brought back to England before Michaelmas, Alex- ander should within a fortnight after marry Isabella in her stead; but this article of the treaty was not enforced. Twice within the next ten years Henry III vainly en- deavoured to dispose of one of his sisters — probably Isabella — in marriage ; first (1225) to Henry, king of the Romans, son of the man whom Isabella eventually married, and afterwards to Louis IX of France. In Novem- ber 1234 the emperor Frederic H, then a widower for the second time, sought Isabella's hand at the suggestion of Pope Gregory IX, and (an embassy, headed by his chancellor, Peter de Yinea, was sent to urge his suit in February 1235. After three days' delibera- tion Henry consented to the match ; Isabella was brought from her retirement in the Tower for the inspection of the ambassadors at Westminster; they 'pronounced her most worthy of the imperial nuptials,' placed the betrothal-ring on her hand, and saluted her as empress. The marriage contract was signed 22 Feb. 1235. Henry gave his sister a dowry of thirty thousand marks, to be paid by instalments within two years, besides plate, jewels, horses, and rich wearing ap- parel. The marriage of a daughter of Eng- land with the emperor was a subject of ex- ultation to both king and people, though the latter were sorely aggrieved by the immense ' aid ' exacted for the occasion. Early in May the Archbishop of Cologne and the Duke of Brabant came to fetch the bride ; she set out from London 7 May, under their care and that of the Bishop of Exeter, William Brewer. Her brothers accompanied her in a trium- phal progress through Canterbury to Sand-
5 Isabella
wich, whence she and her escort sailed 11 May ; four days later they landed at Antwerp. Some of the emperor's foes were said to be in league with the French king to seize and carry her off, but the guard pro- vided by Frederic was strong enough to pre- vent any such attempt, and on Friday, 24 May, she arrived safe at Cologne. Here she dwelt in the house of the provost of St. Gereon for more than six weeks, the emperor being engaged in a war with his own son. At last he summoned her to meet him at Worms, where they were married, and the empress was crowned by the Archbishop of Mainz (Chron. Tewkesb. a. 1235) on Sunday,
15 July (HinLLABD-BBEHOLLES,Vol. iv. pt. ii.
p. 728). The wedding festivities lasted four days, and are said to have been attended by four kings, eleven dukes, and thirty counts and margraves, besides prelates and lesser nobles out of number. Isabella — or Eliza- beth, as some of her husband's subjects called her — seems to have been a very win- ning as well as beautiful woman ; Frederic was delighted with her, but no sooner were theweddingguests departed than he dismissed all her English attendants except Margaret Biset and one maid, and placed her in seclu- sion at Hagenau, where he spent a great part of the winter wit h her. The statement of later writers that Isabella's first child was a son named Jordan, that he was born at Ravenna in 1236, and that he died an infant, rests on no contemporary authority. The terms in which Frederic announced to some of his Italian subjects the birth of a daughter (Margaret), in February 1237, clearly imply that she was the first child of the marriage (ib. vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 926). Twelve months later the emperor and empress were in Lom- bardy together, and there, 18 Feb. 1238, a son, Henry, was born. In September Frede- ric sent his wife to reside at Andria in Apulia till December, when the Archbishop of Palermo escorted her back to Lombardy. Early in 1239 she spent sometime at Noenta while her husband was at Padua; in Fe- bruary 1240 she returned to Southern Italy, whither Frederic soon followed her. He seems to have esteemed and loved her in a character- istically strange fashion, taking the greatest care of her safety, and surrounding her with luxury and splendour, but keeping her in strict retirement. Henry III complained that she was never permitted to ' wear her crown ' in public, or appear as empress on state occasions, and in 1241, when her second brother, Richard of Cornwall, went to visit Frederic, it was only ' after several days ' that, ' by the emperor's leave and good will,' he visited his sister's apartments. She died
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Isabella
at Foggia, 1 Dec. 1241, at the birth of a child, which did not survive her. Frederic was then besieging Faenza ; her last words to him when they parted had been a request that he would continue to befriend her brother the English king. She was buried at Andria, beside Frederic's second wife, Yolanda of Jerusalem. Matthew Paris lamented her as ' the glory and hope of England.' Her son Henry, titular king of Jerusalem after his father's death (December 1250), died in 1254. Her daughter Margaret became, by marriage with Albert, landgrave of Thuringia, a re- mote ancestress of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
[Eoger of Wendover, vol. iii. ; Matt. Paris's Chronica Majora, vols. iii. iv. and Historia Anglorum, vol. ii. ; Eoyal Letters, vol. i. (all in Rolls Ser.) ; Rymer's Fcedera, vol. i. pt. i. (Re- cord edition) ; Annales Colonienses and Annales Marbacenses (Pertz's Mon. Germ. Hist. vol. xvii.); Ann. S. Justinae Patavini (ib. vol. xix. and Muratori's Ital. Rer. Script, vol. viii.); Richard of San Germane (Pertz, vol. xix. and Muratori.vol.vii.) ; Huillard-Breholles's Historia Diplomatica Friderici II ; Mrs. Everett-Green's Princesses of England, vol. ii.] K. N.
ISABELLA OP ANGOIJLEME (d. 1246), queen of John [q.v.], daughter and heiress of Aymer, count of Angouleme, by Alicia, daughter of Peter of Courtenay, a younger son of Louis VI of France, was by the ad- vice of Richard of England solemnly es- poused to Hugh of Lusignan, called ' le Brun,' eldest son of Hugh IX, ' le Brun,' count of La Marche, and lived under the care of her betrothed husband's family, though the marriage was not completed on account of her youth. When John was in France in 1200 he agreed to marry her, and, her father having obtained the custody of her by craft, she was married to the king at Angouleme by the Archbishop of Bordeaux on or about 26 Aug. John's marriage with her led to the loss of nearly all his conti- nental possessions [see under JOHN]. She accompanied her husband to England, and was crowned with him by Archbishop Hubert at Westminster on 8 Oct. The crown was again placed on her head at the court held at Canterbury at Easter, 25 March 1201. In May she went with her husband to Nor- mandy, where she shared his idle, luxurious life, his carelessness about the loss of his do- minions being in some measure ascribed to his fondness for her (WENDOVEK, iii. 171, 181). She bore her first-born son, after- wards Henry III [q. v.], on 1 Oct. 1207. In 1213 she inherited Angoumois, and early in the next year sailed with her husband to Ro- chelle and visited her city of Angouleme.
John was an extremely unfaithful husband, but it is said that she also was guilty of in- fidelities, and that the king put her lovers to death. In December 1214 John ordered that she should be kept in confinement at Gloucester, and she was probably there at the time of his death. In 1217 she returned to her own country, and wrote several let- ters asking for help from England against the French king. In May 1220 she married her old lover Hugh, who had succeeded his father as count of La Marche, and was be- trothed to her daughter Joanna. She de- manded her dowry and especially Niort, the castles of Exeter and Rockingham, and 3,50^ marks. Her demands not being granted, she stirred up her husband and his house to acts of hostility against her son's subjects in Poitou, for which she was threatened with excommunication by Honorius III, and she seems to have been disposed to detain Joanna, who was to marry Alexander of Scotland ; but Honorius wrote decidedly to Hugh on the matter, and a severe illness caused him to send Joanna back to her brother in No- vember. Relying on help from England, Isabella, in December 1241, persuaded her husband to refuse to do homage to Alfonso, brother of Louis IX, as count of Poitou ; she was present at the count's court at Christmas, when Hugh defied Alfonso, and rode off with, her husband and his men-at-arms through, the midst of Alfonso's troops. Henry made alliance with Hugh and his mother as coun- tess of Angouleme, and when Louis and Al- fonso invaded La Marche brought an army over to help them. Hugh played him false at Taillebourg, and declared that his change of conduct was entirely due to his wife's in- trigues. They both submitted unreservedly to Louis and were pardoned. Isabella is said to have sent two servants to poison the French king and his brother, and when the attempt was discovered to have tried to stab herself in a rage, and to have fallen in a se- vere sickness from mortification (WILLIAM DE NANGIS ; Chron. de St.-Denys). The at- tempt probably belongs to the time when the king and his brother were overrunning La Marche, and its discovery may be con- nected with the charge brought against Hugh in 1243 by a French knight who challenged him to combat. Alfonso spoke bitterly of Hugh's misdeeds, and on hearing this Isabella fled to Fontevraud and dwelt with the nuns there (MATT. PAKIS) . She died at Fontevraud in ] 246, hated both by English and Poitevins, and was buried in the cemetery of the house. In 1254 Henry III visited her grave, caused her body to be moved into the church, and placed a tomb over it. The effigy on her
D«/
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tomb is still to be seen at Foutevraud ; an engraving of it by Stothard has been partly reproduced for Miss Strickland's ' Queens of England.'
Isabella was a beautiful and mischievous •woman. By John she had two sons and three daughters [see under JOHN], and by Hugh le Brun five sons (Hugh of Lusig- nan, who succeeded his father ; Guy, lord of Cognac ; William of Valence ; Geoffrey of Lusignan, lord of Chateauneuf; and Aymer of Valence, bishop of Winchester [see AYMER] ; the four younger were of note in England) and probably three daughters, of whom Margaret married Raymond VII, count of Toulouse, and Alicia married John, earl of Warren.
[Hoveden, iv. 119, 139, 140 (Rolls Ser.) ; Wendover, iii. 148, 165, 166, 171, 181 (Engl. Hist. Soc.)l Matt. Paris, ii. 563, iv. 178, 211, 253, 563, v. 475 (Rolls Ser.); Coggeshall, p. 168 (Rolls Ser.) ; Royal Letters, Hen. Ill, i. 10, 22, 114, 302, 536, ii. 25 (Rolls Ser.) ; Hardy's Patent Rolls, Introd. pp. 46-50; Rigord, De Gestis Philippi, and W. of Armorica, De Gestis and Philippidos, ap. Recueil des Hist, xv-ii. 55, 75, 185. The editors of Recueil xviii. have made a perplexing confusion between Hugh, the hus- band of Isabella, and his father, see p. 799 and references p. 783. Isabella could not have been betrothed to the father of her future husband in 1200, for his -wife Matilda was then alive, comp. L'Art de Verifier, x. 231 ; W. de Nangis and Chron. de St.-Denys, Recueil, xx. 337-9, xxi. 113; Strickland's Queens, i. 328 sq.]
W. H.
ISABELLA OP FRANCE (1292-1358), •queen of Edward II, was the daughter of Philip the Fair, king of France, and of his wife, Joan of Champagne and Navarre. She is said to have been born in 1292 (ANSELME, Histoire Genealogique de la Maison de France, i. 91 ; Ann. Wig. in Ann. Monastici, iv.!538). She is, however, described as about twelve years old in 1308 (Cont. GTJILL. DE NANGIS, i. 364, Soc.de 1'Histoire de France) . In June 1298 Boniface VIII, as mediator, brought about a truce between her father and Ed- ward I, by which her aunt Margaret became Edward's second wife and Isabella was pro- mised to Edward, the king's son. The renewal of the truce in 1299 contained a similar pro- vision, and after the conclusion of the perma- nent peace in May 1303 Isabella was formally betrothed to young Edward at Paris (Fce- dera, i. 954). In January 1307 the Cardinal Peter of Spain was sent to the Carlisle parlia- ment to conclude the marriage arrangements (Chron. de Lanercost, p. 206, Maitland Club). Edward soon after became king of England, and, crossing over to France, was married to Isabella at Boulogne on 25 Jan. 1308,
Philip the Fair and a great gathering of French nobles attending the magnificent ceremonies. Charles of Valois and Louis of Evreux, Isabella's uncles, accompanied her to England. On 25 Feb. she was crowned at Westminster. Edward gave all her pre- sents from her father to Piers Gaveston, and neglected her for the sake of his favourite. Her uncles left England, disgusted at her treatment (Ann. Paulini in STUBBS, Chron. Edward I and II, i. 262, Rolls Ser.) Isabella complained to her father of the slights she underwent and the poverty to which she was reduced (TROKELOWE, p. 68). In May 1312 she was with Edward and Gaveston at Tyne- mouth. She implored Edward with tears in her eyes not to abandon her, but Edward left her with Gaveston and went to Scarborough. She was comforted by secret messengers from Thomas of Lancaster, assuring her that he would not rest till he drove Gaveston from Edward's society (ib. pp. 75-6). This is the first evidence of her dealings with the opposition.
Isabella's first child, afterwards Ed- ward III, was born on 13 Nov. 1312 at Windsor. On 29 Jan. 1313 she removed from Windsor to Westminster. On 4 Feb. the Fishmongers' Company gave a great pa- geant in her honour, accompanying her to Eltham, where she now took up her abode (Ann. London, in STTTBBS, i. 221). In May she accompanied Edward on a visit to her father at Paris, where, on Whitsunday, her brothers were dubbed knights with great state. She returned to England on 16 July. In October she joined Gilbert Clare, tenth earl of Gloucester [q. v.], in mediating a peace between Edward and the barons (TROKELOWE, p. 80).
On 15 July 1316 Isabella gave birth to her second son, John, at Eltham. In July 1318 her daughter Isabella was born at Wood- stock. In August of the same year she joined the Earl of Hereford in procuring for a second time a peace between Edward and the party of Lancaster (MONK OF MALMES- BURY in STUBBS, ii. 236). In 1319 she went northwards with Edward. While Edward and Lancaster besieged Berwick, Isabella remained behind, in or near York. The Scots invaded Yorkshire, and James Douglas formed a plan for carrying off Isabella by surprise (ib. p. 243; TROKELOWE, p. 103). The design was frustrated by the capture of a spy, and Isabella was sent offby water to Nottingham. The expedition which had sought to capture her defeated Archbishop Melton at Myton, Yorkshire. It was believed in France on another occasion that Robert Bruce purposely avoided capturing the queen on account of
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her connection with his friends (Cont. GTJILL. DE NANGIS, i. 410).
In June 1320 Isabella went with Edward to Amiens/where she met her brother Philip V, to whom Edward did homage for Ponthieu. In June 1321 she gave birth to her youngest daughter, Joan, at the Tower of London. In August she again joined Pembroke and some of the bishops in procuring a new peace between the king and his lords, ' begging on her knees for the people's sake ' (Ann. Paul. p. 297). But on 13 Oct. of the same year she was travelling to Canterbury, and re- quested Lady Badlesmere to give her ad- mission to Leeds Castle to pass the night. Though the castle belonged to the crown, and Badlesmere was a member of Pembroke's party, with whom Isabella had generally acted, her marshals were told that no one might enter. Six of her followers were slain in a scuffle that ensued (TROKELOWE, pp. 110- 111 ; Ann. Paul. pp. 298-9). Edward took up his wife's cause, and his siege of Leeds brought about the beginning of the conflict which ended with the fall of Lancaster and the great triumph of Edward's reign at the parliament of York. In the disastrous cam- paign against the Scots which succeeded Isabella was again exposed to great per- sonal danger. When in October Edward was nearly captured by the Scots at Byland Abbey, Isabella fled with difficulty to some castle on the sea-coast, whence she only es- caped the danger of a siege by a voyage over a stormy sea, during which she suffered great hardships and two of her ladies perished (Cont. GTJILL. DE NANGIS, ii. 44).
The influence of the Despensers over Ed- ward in the years following his triumph soon proved no less irksome to Isabella than that of Gaveston. By their advice Edward resumed possession of her estates on 18 Sept. 1324 (Foedera, ii. 569 ; GALFRIDTJS LE BAKER, pp. 17-18, ed. Thompson), and put her on an allowance of 20s. a day. Her friends and ser- vants were removed from her, the wife of the younger Hugh Despenser was appointed to look after her, and she could not even write a letter without that lady's knowledge (Laner- cost, p. 254). The motives for such action, apart from economy, were that Isabella was in close relations with Adam of Orleton, the disgraced bishop of Hereford, and with Bishop Burghersh of Lincoln, who was anxious to •evenge his uncle Badlesmere. She was also suspected of intrigues with the French, and •specially with her uncle Charles of Valois. t was rumoured that the younger Despenser lad sent a friar, named Thomas of Dunheved, o Home to ask the pope to divorce Edward -om Isabella (ib. p. 254 ; Ann. Paul. p. 337).
TOI. XXIX.
Isabella's indignation with the Despensers was soon transferred to her husband. But, guided probably by the crafty Orleton, she quietly meditated revenge. She found her opportunity in the unwillingness of the De- spensers to allow Edward to visit France to perform homage to her youngest brother, the new king, Charles IV. She used all her blandishments to persuade Edward to allow her to visit her brother, and begged him to desist from his attacks on Gascony. Bishop Stratford and many of the magnates approved of her design. The Despensers were not sorry to get rid of her. Early in February 1325 the prudent prior Henry of Eastry [q. v.] urged the necessity of restoring her to her accus- tomed state and following before she went abroad (Lit. Cantuar. i. 137, Eolls Ser.) But the commonest precautions were neglected, and early in March 1325 she crossed over to France with a scanty following. Froissart gives a pretty picture of her reception by her brother (ii. 29, ed. Kervyn de Letten- hove). But the only political advantage she obtained for England was a prolongation of the truce until 1 Aug. (MALMESBXJRY p. 279). All through the summer Charles insisted that Edward should perform homage in person, but, instigated by Isabella, agreed to accept the homage of their eldest son, Edward, if the king would invest him for that purpose with Guienne and Ponthieu. On 12 Sept. the boy left England ; but after he had per- formed homage, he and his mother lingered at Paris. About Michaelmas Edward wrote asking her to return. She sent back many of her retinue, and gave specious excuses for remaining at her brother's court. But her acts had now become so hostile that Bishop Stapleton, who had accompanied her son to France, escaped to England in the disguise of a pilgrim. On 1 Dec. Edward peremptorily ordered her to come home (Fcedera, ii. 615). But she had now formed a close political connection with the escaped traitor, Roger Mortimer, which soon ripened into criminal intimacy. Before Christmas it was feared she would invade England (Lit. Cantuar. i. 162). Her connection with Mortimer was notorious in England in March 1326. An in- creasing band of exiles and fugitives gathered round her. She protested that she would never return to her husband as long as the Despensers remained in power. Edward stopped all supplies, but Isabella was main- tained by her brother, King Charles (Cont. GriLL. DE NANGIS, ii. 61), who saw in her perfidy prospects of recovering Guienne.
In the spring of 1326 Isabella left Paris for her dower lands in Ponthieu (ib. ii. 67). She afterwards removed to Hainault, where
F
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she obtained a valuable ally by negotiating the marriage of her son with Philippa, daughter of Count William of Hainault (G. LE BAKER, p. 20). Froissart, who (ii. 43-61) gives a long romancing account of her wanderings in the Netherlands, says that she left Paris because her brother was ashamed to support her any longer. She had employed her daughter-in- law s marriage portion in hiring mercenaries in Germany and the Low Countries. Roger Mortimer and John, brother of the Count of Hainault, took command of her troops, and she and the Duke of Aquitaine were out- lawed as traitors.
On 23 Sept. 1326 Isabella embarked at Dort, and on 24 Sept. landed at Harwich, accompanied by her son, Edmund, earl of Kent, her brother-in-law, John of Hainault, Roger Mortimer, a large number of English exiles, and her foreign mercenaries. She took Colvasse, four leagues from Harwich, about mid-day, and lodged for the first night at Walton. Her other brother-in-law, Thomas, the earl-marshal, amid whose estates she landed, at once joined her, along with Henry of Lancaster and most of the gentry of the neighbourhood. She then marched on Bury St. Edmunds, 'as if on a pilgrimage,' and seized there a large sum of the king's money. Thence she went to Cambridge, stopping some days at Barnwell Priory and went through Baldock and Dunstable, in pursuit of the king, who had fled to Wales. Bishops Orleton and Burghersh hurried to her standards, and were soon joined by Bishop Stratford, after his hollow attempt at mediation had failed. Archbishop Reynolds sent her money. She found no real resistance. At Oxford her spokesman, Orleton, explained in a sermon that she had come to put an end to mis- government. At Wallingford she issued on 15 Oct. a violent proclamation against the Despensers (Foedera, ii. 645-6). On the same day London rose in revolt in her behalf, the king's minister, Bishop Stapleton, was mur- dered, and a revolutionary government was established under her second son, John of Eltham. Isabella now advanced to Gloucester, where she was joined by a northern army under Lords Percy and Wake, and a strong force from the Welsh marches. She then marched from Gloucester to Berkeley, re- storing the castle, which the younger De- spenser had held, to Thomas of Berkeley, the lawful heir. When she advanced to Bristol, the town surrendered after a show of resist- ance. On 26 Oct. she proclaimed the Duke of Aquitaine guardian of the realm (tb. ii. 646). Isabella then advanced to Hereford, where she stayed a month. The execution of the two Despensers and the capture of her
husband soon completed her triumph. Re- turning eastwards with Mortimer and her son, she kept Christmas at Wallingford, and reached London on 4 Jan. 1327. A parlia- ment assembled there on 7 Jan., deposed Edward II, and recognised the Duke of Aqui- taine as Edward III. Isabella's agent, Orle- ton, told the estates that if she rejoined her husband he would murder her.
The new king was only fourteen years old, and Isabella and Mortimer governed England in his name. So large a provision was made for Isabella that hardly a third of the re- venue remained to the king (MvKDnriH, p. 52). The forfeited estates of the De- spensers were secured for herself and her lover. She now sought to win popularity by carrying on the war against Scotland, and after keeping Easter at Peterborough Abbey, held a great council on 19 April at Stamford, where she was ordered by the barons never to return to her husband (Orleton's apology in TwTSDEN", c. 2766, and BAKER, ed. Thomp- son, p. 207). She went north for the rest of the year, dwelling mostly at York, while her son Edward led an inglorious expedition over the border. She still wrote in affectionate terms to her husband (MuRiMFTH, p. 52), but, conscious that he was a danger to the per- manency of her rule, and fearful, perhaps, of being forced to return to him (G. LE BAKEB, p. 29), she urged on his gaolers to treat him with the utmost severity, and in September 1327 procured his murder (tb. p. 31). To strengthen her position, she now concluded a permanent peace with France (September 1327). This was followed by the ' disgraceful peace' (AVESBTJRY, p. 283, Rolls Ser.) of Northampton, which in March 1328 gave up the overlordship of Scotland, and was espe- cially regarded as the work of Isabella and Mortimer (Lanercost, p . 26 1 ) . Isabella seems to ha ve obtained for herself a large share of the 20,OOOZ. paid by the Scots. Her shameless ra- pacity, no less than her pusillanimous policy, provoked the strongest disgust. Already in 1327 Isabella's old enemy, Thomas of Dun- heved, formed an abortive plot against her.
After Trinity Sunday 1328 Isabella went to Hereford and Wigmore, to attend the mar- riage of two of Mortimer's daughters and the great 'round-table' that celebrated the event (BAKER, p. 42; AVESBTJRY, p. 284). On 19 July she was at Berwick for the marriage of her daughter Joan to David of Scotland (Lanercost, p. 261). In October she was at Salisbury to meet the parliament. Henry of Lancaster refused to attend it, and Isabella and Mortimer ravaged his lands and took his town of Leicester. The mediation of the new archbishop, Meopham, secured peace
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for a time, but in March 1330 Isabella and Mortimer procured the death of Edmund of Woodstock, earl of Kent [q. v.] This led Lancaster to make another effort against the queen and her favourite, and the king, tired of his mother's disgraceful tutelage, readily joined in his plans. In October Isabella and Mortimer, who now lived almost openly together, went to Nottingham to open a parliament (RNTGHTOsr, c. 2553). On the night of 18 Oct. the attack was made on them. Both were arrested, despite Isabella's despairing cry, ' Sweet son, have pity on the gentle Mortimer ! ' Mortimer was speedily executed as a traitor (G. LE BAKEB, p. 46 ; French Chron. of London, p. 63; KNTGHTON, c. 2556 ; Ann. Paul. p. 352 ; Gesta Edwardi in STTJBBS, ii. 101).
Isabella's power was now at an end, but Edward at the pope's entreaty hushed up the story of1 his mother's shame, and showed her every deference (STTJBBS, Const. Hist. ii. 357). Numerous as were the articles on which Mortimer was condemned, nothing was said in the legal record of his adultery with the queen. The only charge against him which involved Isabella was one of causing discord between her and the late king (Hot. Parl. ii. 53). Though Isabella was forced to sur- render her ill-gotten riches, the adequate dower of 3,000/. a year was assigned for her maintenance (Fcedera, ii. 835). It has often been said that Isabella lived the rest of her life in a sort of honourable imprisonment ( Cont. G. DE NASTGIS, ii. 120 ; FROISSAKT, ii. 247), and her manor of Castle Rising, near Lynn in Nor- folk, is generally regarded as the place of her confinement. But Castle Rising was only one of her favourite places of abode. The months immediately succeeding her fall were spent at Berkhampstead, while she passed her Christ- inas in 1330 at Windsor (Norfolk Archeology, iv. 61). In 1332 she received permission to dwell at Eltham whenever her health required a change of air. Her income was increased by the restoration of Ponthieu and Montreuil and other manors (Foedera, ii. 893), and she was permitted to dispose of her goods by will. In June 1338 she was at Pontefract, and in 1344 she celebrated the king's birthday with him at Norwich (MTTKIMTJTH, pp. 155, 231). At Castle Rising she lived a com- fortable and somewhat luxurious life, as the presents of meat, wax, wine, swans, turbot, lampreys, and other delicacies from the neigh- bouring corporation of Lynn clearly show (Hist, MSS. Comm. llth Rep. App. iii. 213- 219). She amused herself with hawking and •-ollecting relics, and went on pilgrimage to >ur Lady of Walsingham. She entertained ier son on his frequent visits to her with no
small state. Her numerous retinue some- times quarrelled with the Lynn burgesses (ib. p. 217). In 1348 she was even proposed as a mediator for peace with France. She de- voted herself to pious works, almsgiving, and charity, and finally took the habit of the sisters of Santa Clara (Chron. Lanercost, p. 266). She died on 23 Aug. 1358 at her castle of Hertford, and was buried in November in the Franciscan church at Newgate in London. There is a statue of her among the figures which adorn the tomb of her son, John of Eltham, at Westminster.
[Stubbs's Chron. of Edward I and Edward II, Thompson's Murimuth and Avesbury, Literse Cantuarienses, Annales Monastic!, Trokelowe (all the above in Eolls Ser.) ; Chron. Lanercost (Maitland Club) ; Galfridus le Baker, ed. E. M. Thompson ; Cont. Guillaume de Nangis and Froissart, ed. Luce (both inSoc. de 1'Histoirede France) ; Kymer's Fcedera, vols. ii. and iii. ; Kolls of Parliament, vol. ii. (Record ed.) ; Hist. MSS. Comm. llth Rep.; Harrod in Norfolk Archaeology, iv. 59-68, 1855; Strickland's Queens of England, i. 326-76, 6 vol. ed.] T. F. T.
ISABELLA (1332-1379), eldest daughter of Edward III and his queen Philippa, was born at Woodstock on 16 June 1332. In June 1335 her father made an unsuccessful attempt to arrange a marriage between her and Peter, son of Alfonso XI of Castile, who was after- wards betrothed to her younger sister Joanna (Fcedera, ii. 910). Negotiations were opened in November 1338 for a marriage between Isabella and Louis, son of Louis, count of Flanders, in place of her sister Joanna, whose name had been submitted in 1337 (ib. pp. 967, 998, 1063). This marriage was pressed by Ed- ward through 1339 and 1340, but as the count was allied with France, while Edward was on friendly terms with the count's rebellious sub- jects, the proposals came to nothing. Anew match with the son of John III, duke of Bra- bant, was planned for Isabella in 1344, and application was made to the pope for a dis- pensation, for the parties were within the prohibited degrees (ib. iii. 25). But after the murder of Edward's ally, Van Arteveld, the hief towns of Flanders sent deputies to the English king to suggest, along with other matters, that the scheme for a marriage be- tween their count's son and Isabella should be renewed (FROISSART, i. 207). The count fell at Crecy, and neither Edward's ambassa- dors nor the Flemings could induce the young count Louis, who was under the influence of Philip of France, to consent to marry Isabella. He defended his refusal by alleging that Isa- bella's father Edward had slain his father. His Flemish subjects punished his resistance to the match by placing him under restraint, and
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he soon thought it politic to appear to yield. Isabella's wedding clothes were provided (GREEN), and she was taken by her father and mother to Bergues, near Dunkerque, where on 1 March 1347 they were met by Louis and the Flemishburgomasters ; Ed ward protested that he had had no hand in the last count's death, and Louis solemnly promised to marrylsabella within the fortnight after the coming Easter, agreeing to assign her as dower Ponthieu and Montreuil, or a certain compensation until such time as he should have peaceable pos- session of them, and ten thousand livres a year, while the king settled a sum of money on his daughter (FROISSART, i. 258 ; Fosdera, iii. Ill, 112). On the 28th, however, Louis escaped from his keepers, took refuge in France, and soon afterwards married Mar- garet of Brabant.
Isabella had been reared in luxury, and after her father's return to England in the autumn of 1347 shared in all the gaieties and splendours of the court (GREEN). In Febru- ary 1349 Edward proposed her in marriage to Charles IV, the king of the Romans, then a widower. The scheme failed, and in May 1351 Edward published his consent to her marriage with Bernard, eldest son of the lord of Albret, promising to settle on her a revenue of one thousand marks and to give her four thousand marks as her portion (Fcedera, iii. 218). On 15 Nov. five ships were ordered to take her to Gascony. The marriage never took place, and Edward satisfied certain claims of the lord of Albret by other means. In March 1355 Edward assigned Isabella the custody of the alien priory of Burstall in Yorkshire, and gave her other grants. She seems to have been extravagant, like the rest of the court, and incurred heavy debts. On 29 Sept. 1358 the king settled on her an income of one thousand marks a year, and gave her the revenues proceeding from the lands in England belonging to the abbey of Fontevraud (GREEN).
On 27 July 1365, when Isabella had just completed her thirty-third year, she married at Windsor Ingelram or Enguerraud VII, lord of Coucy,son of Enguerraud VI (d. 1347) and Catharine, daughter of Leopold I, duke of Austria (d. 1327), by his wife Catharine, daughter of Amadeus V, count of Savoy. Enguerraud, who was then twenty-seven, was residing at the court of Edward III as j a hostage; his grace and valour had made him a favourite with the king, who had j granted him lands in the north of England, \ which he claimed in virtue of the marriage of Enguerraud V with Christina, niece of John de Baliol (1249-1315) [q. v.] He was released at his marriage from his pledges as a hostage, and
in November Isabella accompanied her hus- band to Coucy. In April 1366 she bore a daugh- ter named Mary, and soon afterwards visited England with her husband, who was created earl of Bedford in May. In 1367 she bore another daughter named Philippa, at Elthamr and in July returned to France. On the eve of the renewal of the war between England and France in 1368, Enguerraud, unwilling either to break with his father-in-law or to fight against his lord the French king, went to Italy and served in the wars of Urban V and Gregory XI against the Viscouti. Dur- ing his absence Isabella resided in Eng- land. She met her husband at Saint-Gobain on his return after about six years' absence, but came back to England while he made his campaign in Aargau and Alsace in 1375 against Leopold II of Austria. She met him on his return in January 1376, and ac- companied him to England. He had, how- ever, promised to uphold the cause of the French king, and after staying for a while at the English court, where he and his wife were received joyfully, he left her and returned to- France, allowing her younger daughter to remain with her, and keeping the elder with him in France, where she had been brought up. Subsequently Enguerraud renounced his homage to the English king, and his lands- in England were forfeited. In March 1379- Richard II provided out of those lands for the maintenance of his aunt, Isabella (Fce- dera, iv. 60). She died a few months laterr and was buried in the church of the Grey Friars in London. Her effigy is on her father's tomb in Westminster Abbey. Her elder daughter, Mary, married Henry, son of Robert, duke of Bar ; her younger, Philippa, married Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford.
[Mrs. Green, in Lives of the Princesses, iii. 164-221, gires a full account, of Isabella's life, drawn mainly from manuscript records ; Rymer's- Foedera, iii. passim, iv. 60 (Record edit.) ; Frois- sart, i. 257-9, 603, 703, 706, ed. Buchon ; Duchesne's Histoire des Maisons de Guisnes . . . Coucy, &c., pp. 26.5, 415 ; L'Art de Verifier les Dates, xii. 357 ; Chron. Angliae, pp.4, 56 (Rolls Ser.); Dugdale's Baronage, i. 61.] W. II.
ISABELLA or FRANCE (1389-1409), second queen of Richard II, was the second daughter, and the first that survived infancy, of Charles VI, king of France, and his queen Isabella of Bavaria. She was born at the Louvre in Paris on 9 Nov. 1389 (ANSELME, Histoire Genealogique de la Maison de France, i. 114; Bibliotheque de VEcole des Chartes, 4e serie,iv.477; GODEFROY, Hist.de Charles VI, p. 731). On 15 Dec. 1391 she was contracted in marriage to John, eldest son of Peter II, count of Alencon (WALLON, Richard II, ii.
Isabella
69
Isabella
440). Froissart's statement (xv. 164, ed. Ker- vyn de Lettenhove) that she was affianced to the son of the Duke of Brittany is an error.
Richard II had become a widower in 1394, and was very anxious for a permanent good understanding with France, and had already concluded a short truce with that country. He therefore proposed to marry Isabella, then a child of six. The first commissions to treat of the marriage \vere issued by Richard in July 1395 (Fcedera, vii. 802). But there •were difficulties on both sides which pro- tracted the negotiations. In France Louis of Orleans and in England Thomas of Glou- cester disliked the match, and the French •council urged that a settled peace or a long truce was an indispensable preliminary of the alliance. But the general desire of both countries to secure a peace triumphed over •every obstacle.
Young as she was, Isabella, when visited by Mowbray, the earl-marshal, who was at the head of the English embassy, replied, ' of her own accord, and without the advice of any one,' that she would willingly be queen of England, ' for they tell me that then I shall "be a great lady' (FROISSART, xv. 186). The ambassadors brought back to Richard glow- ing accounts of the precocity, intelligence, and beauty of the child. After a second -embassy had been despatched the marriage contract was signed on 9 March 1396 at Paris (Fcedera, vii. 820). By it Isabella re- ceived a marriage portion of eight hundred thousand francs of gold, of which three hun- dred thousand were to be paid down at once, and the rest in annual instalments of one hundred thousand. It was provided, how- ever, that if Richard died before she attained the age of twelve, all that had been actu- ally paid of this sum should be refunded, •except the original payment of three hun- dred thousand. In the same case Isabella was to be allowed to return freely to France with all her property. She was also to re- nounce all her rights to the French throne. A truce for twenty-eight years, carefully kept separate from the marriage treaty, was signed at the same time (CosNEAU, Les grandes Traites de laguerre de Cent Ans, pp. 71-99). On 12 March the betrothal took place in the Sainte Chapelle, before the patriarch of Alex- andria, the earl-marshal acting as Richard's proxy (Religieux de Saint-Deny s, ii. 412). There were great rejoicings. The new queen Isabella would end the wars which the former queen Isabella had begun (ib. ii. 414). Dis- pensations were obtained from both popes (Fcedera, vii. 836 ; Report on Faedera, App. D, p. 63), and the chief English lords, including Henry of Derby, bound themselves to allow
Isabella to return freely to France if Richard died before her (ib. pp. 63-4).
Isabella, provided with an equipment of unheard-of splendour, and followed by her father, was taken through St.-Denis to Pi- cardy (Religieux de Saint-Denys, ii. 450, 452- 462, 466 ; DOTJET-D'ARCQ, Pieces inedites sur le regne de Charles VI, i. 130, Soc. de 1'Histoire de France ; FROISSART, xv. 304-6 ; J. JTJVE-
KAL DES URSINE in MlCHATJD et PotJJOTTLAT,
Coll. de Memoires, le s6rie, ii. 404-7 ; WALS- INGHAM, Hist. Anglic, ii. 221-2 ; OTTER- BOURNE, pp. 186-7). Richard was waiting for her at Calais. At the second interview of the kings on 28 Oct. Isabella was handed over by her father as a pledge of peace, Richard loudly proclaiming his entire satisfaction at the marriage. She was entrusted to the Duchesses of Lancaster and Gloucester, who had brought her to Calais in a magnificent litter. The lady of Coucy was the chief of her French attendants. Isabella was married to Richard at St. Nicholas Church, Calais, by Archbishop Arundel. The date is variously given (1 Nov. FROISSART, xv. 306 ; 4 Nov. Religieux de Saint-Denys, ii. 470, which is probably right ; 10 Nov. MONK OP EVESHAM, p. 129, which is plainly too late). On 4 Nov., after the ceremony, the first three hundred thousand francs of her portion were paid (Fcedera, vii. 846). After a short stay at Calais, Isabella was taken to Eltham through Dover and Canterbury. On 23 Nov. she made her solemn entry into London (MoNK OF EVESHAM, p. 129). On 5 Jan. she was crowned at Westminster by Arundel. Enormous sums were lavished on her reception, and she re- ceived many costly presents (Chronique de la Traison, pp. 108-13).
Richard showed a remarkable attachment to Isabella. He learnt from her French friends a strong love of display and a keen desire to make himself absolute. Isabella's marriage was the prelude to his successful attempt at despotism in 1397.
Isabella resided at Eltham, Leeds Castle in Kent, Windsor, and other places in the neigh- bourhood of London. Just before his depar- ture for Ireland (May 1399) Richard got tired of the extravagance of the lady of Coucy, and left orders behind him that she should be dismissed (ib. p. 163). He parted with Isa- bella after a very affecting interview at Wind- sor, where great jousts had been given in her honour (FROISSART, xvi. 151). Richard pro- mised that she should follow him (Chronique de la Traison, pp. 163-8). They never met again.
Isabella was ill of grief for a fortnight or more, and was then removed to Wallingford Castle, while her French attendants were dis-
Isabella
missed, as Richard had ordered. Great in- dignation was expressed in France (Reli- gieux de Saint-Denys, ii. 702-5 ; JUVENAL DBS URSINS, p. 417). Froissart is wrong in making the Londoners expel the French ladies in the interests of Henry of Lancaster (xvi. 189). Henceforward Isabella was left with English-speaking attendants, except one lady and her confessor. On Henry's invasion in July the regent York entrusted her to the care of "Wiltshire and Richard's other chief favourites (Focdera, viii. 83). But she soon fell into Henry's hands, and was placed at Sonning, near Reading. A letter she wrote to her father never reached him (Religieux de Saint-Denys, ii. 720). Richard asked in vain to see her (CRETOX, p. 117).
The French court would not recognise Henry IV as king, and demanded the resti- tution of Isabella and the two hundred thousand francs of her portion paid since her marriage. Henry was unable to pay so large a sum, and commissioned ambassadors to treat for a marriage between the Prince of Wales and a daughter or cousin of Charles VI (Fcedera, viii. 108). Isabella was evidently intended (FROISSART, xvi. 237 ; Chronigue de la Tra'ison, p. 106), and it would not have been hard to arrange the union, as her mar- riage with Richard had never been consum- mated. But the French would not listen to the proposal, even after Richard's death. They demanded the fulfilment of the treaty of 1396, and Henry, though putting things off as long as he could, did not venture to openly repudiate it. But he set up, as a counterclaim to the demand for Isabella's portion, a request for the unpaid arrears of King John's ransom.
Isabella was still at Sonning when the rebellion of January 1400 broke out. The insurgents, headed by Kent, captured Son- ning, and comforted her with hopes of greater success, tearing away Henry IVs badges from her sen-ants (WALSINGHAM, ii. 243-4), but they do not seem to have attempted to take her away with them. After this she was guarded more carefully, and removed to Havering-atte-Bower in Essex. The death of Richard was for a time carefully concealed from her. In November 1400 she was visited by the French ambassadors, who pledged themselves to make no mention of Richard (FROISSART, xvi. 220). They had been se- cretly instructed to urge her not to involve herself in any matrimonial or other engage- ment (DoUET-D'ARCQ, Pieces Inedites, i. 171- 173). It was feared that Henry would keep her until after her twelfth birthday, when she could contract a legal marriage. The threat of an invasion of Guienne facili-
tated Isabella's restoration. On 27 May 1401 a treaty was signed at Leulinghen that she should be sent back with her jewels and be- longings in July, on her pledging herself to abstain from all intrigues in England. The question of her portion was to be considered later on. Great preparations were now made for her restoration with a pomp not unworthy of her reception. On 27 June the Earl of Worcester conducted her to Westminster. She was taken before Henry, but in his pre- sence she hardly spoke, remaining sullen and morose, and clad in deep black (ADAM OP USK, p. 61). Next day she was taken through the silent crowds of Londoners on her way to the coast. She was kept nearly a month at Dover, and crossed the Straits on 28 July. On 31 July she was handed over by Worcester to the Count of Saint-Pol at Leulinghen, and Isabella took leave of her English ladies amid much weeping and lamenting. She signed at Boulogne the required bond, and was taken to Paris, being received with great re- joicings in every town. On her arrival at Paris she was made to issue a declaration that she had never acknowledged Henry as her husband's successor. Her mother now took charge of her. Henceforth she lived in less state, but was still attended by ladies of high rank (Reliyieux de Saint-Denys, iii. 4). Common fame said that she was never happy after her return from England (Chron. Anonyme in MOITSTRELET, vi. 192). Partisans of Richard II in England still looked to Isabella or her friends for help. In 1403 it was believed she was about to land in Essex, and in 1404 the French invaders of the Isle of Wight demanded tribute in her name and that of the false Richard, hidden away in Scotland. But Isabella's friends never recognised the impostor in any way, though repeated applications had failed to extract any of her marriage portion from Henry IV, and Louis of Orleans, Henry's special foe, was predominant in her father's counsels. In June 1404 she was contracted in marriage to her cousin Charles, count of Angouleme, afterwards famous as a poet, and the eldest son of Louis of Orleans (DOUBT- S' ARCQ, Pieces Inedites, i. 260), who gave her as dower six thousand livres a year, and all the profits of the chatellenie of Crecy- en-Brie (Report on Fcedera, App. D, p. 146). In 1406 another proposal to marry her to- Henry, prince of Wales, was rejected (Mox- STRELET, i. 126), and she was married to- Angouleme at Compiegne on 29 June 140& (Religieux de Saint-Denys, iii. 394 ; Mox- STRELET, i. 129 ; ANSELME, i. 208). Isabella wept bitterly during the ceremony which united her to a boy two years her junior
Isbister
Isham
(JUVENAL DBS UESINS, p. 438, who says the marriage was at Senlis). Isabella became Duchess of Orleans, on the murder of her father-in-law, on 23 Nov. 1407. With Valen- tina Visconti, her husband's mother, she went to Paris, and throwing herself at Charles VI's feet, demanded justice on the murderers.
On 13 Sept. 1409 Isabella gave birth at Blois to her only child, Joan, and died a few hours after. She was buried at Blois, in the chapel of Notre Dame des Bonnes Nouvelles, in the abbey of Saint-Laumer. Charles of Orleans gave her rich robes to the monks of St.-Denys, to be made up into chasubles and dalmatics (Religieux de Saint-Denys, iv. 252). In 1624 her body was transferred to the Orleans burying-place in the church of the Celestines in Paris (ANSELME, Hist. Geneal. i. 208). Her daughter Joan married in 1424 John II of Alenfon, and died without chil- dren in 1432. A portrait of Isabella as the bride of Charles of Orleans is engraved in Miss Strickland's 'Lives of the Queens of England.'
[Most of the facts of Isabella's life are col- lected, in a readable, if not very critical "way, in Strickland's Lives of the Queens of England, i. 428-54, ed. 1889. Anselme's Histoire Gene- alogique de la Maison Eoyale de France, vol. i., corrected by^ M. Vallet de Viriville in Biblio- theque de 1'Ecole des Chartes, 4C serie, iv. 473- 482. Wallon's Kichard II and Wylie's Henry IV best summarise the political aspects of Isabella's life. The chief original sources include Froissart, ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove ; Chroniques du Ee- ligieux de Saint-Denys (Doc. Inedits) ; Monstrelet (Soc. de 1'Histoire de France) ; Jean Juvenal des Ursins in Michaud andPoujoulat's Collection des Memoires, le serie, t. ii. ; Walsingham's Hist. Angl. (Eolls Ser.) ; Monk of Evesham and Otter- bourne, both ed. Hearne ; Chronique de la Tra'ison et la Mort de Eichart Deux (Engl. Hist. Soc.) ; Creton's Metrical Chronicle in Archseologia, vol'. xx. ; Eymer's Fcedera, vols. vii. and viii., and Eeport on Fcedera, App. D ; Nicolas's Proc. and Ord. of Privy Council, vol. i. ; Godefroy's Hist, de Charles VI.] T. F. T.
ISBISTER, ALEXANDER KENNEDY
(1822-1883), educational writer, eldest son of Thomas Isbister, an officer of the Hudson Bay Company, was born at Fort Cumberland, Canada, in 1822, and was sent to Scotland, the original home of his family, to be edu- cated. In his fifteenth year he returned to Canada, and after serving for a short time as a pupil-teacher, he entered the service of the Hudson Bay Company. Seeing little prospect of advancement he threw up his appointment and, returning to Scotland, studied at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. At the latter he graduated M. A. on 3 March 1858. During part of this period he supported him-
self by contributing to the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica ' and to Chambers's ' Educational Course.'
In 1849 he became second master in the East Islington proprietary school, and a year afterwards the head-master. Five years later he was appointed the head-master of the Jews' College in Finsbury Square, and from 1858 to 1882 was master of the Stationers' Company's school. His connection with the College of Preceptors, 42 Queen Square, Bloomsbury (now located in its own building in Bloomsbury Square), began in 1851. In 1862 he was appointed editor of the 'Educa- tional Times,' the official organ of the college, and in 1872 he succeeded the Rev. G.A.Jacob, D.D.,as dean of the college. His services were very great, and to him the present position of the college is largely due. On 17 Nov. 1864 he was admitted to the bar at the Middle Temple, and took the degree of LL.B. at the university of London in I860. He died at 20 Milner Square, Islington, London, on 28 May 1883. He was the author of nu- merous works, chiefly school books, among which were: 1. ' Elements of Bookkeeping,' 1850, with forms of a set of books, 1854. 2. 'A Proposal for a New Penal Settlement in the Uninhabited Districts of British North America,' 1850. 3. 'Euclid,' 1860, 1862, 1863, and 1865. 4. 'Csesaris Commentarii de Bello Gallico,' 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866.
5. 'The Elements of English Grammar,' 1865.
6. ' Arithmetic,' 1865. 7. ' Outlines of the English Language,' 1865. 8. ' Xenophon's Anabasis,' 1866. 9. 'First Steps in Read- ing and Learning,' 1867. 10. ' The Word- builder,' 1869. 11. ' The Illustrated Public School Speaker,' 1870. 12. ' Lessons on Elocution,' 1870.
[Times, 30 May 1883, p. 11 ; Journal of Edu- cation, July 1883, p. 247; Solicitors' Journal, 9 June 1883, p. 537; Law Times, 9 June 1883, p. 119.] G. C. B.
ISCANUS, JOSEPHUS. [See JOSEPH
OF EXETER.]
ISHAM or ISUM, JOHN (1680 P-1726), composer, was born about 1680 and educated at Merton College, Oxford, whence he pro- ceeded to London and served as deputy or- ganist of St. Anne's, Westminster, under Dr. William Croft [q. v.] Croft resigned in Isham's favour in 1711, and in 1713 Isham went from London to Oxford to assist Croft in the performance of the exercise for his doctor's degree, being himself admitted at the same time to the degree of Mus. Bac. Appointed organist of St. Andrew's, IIol- born, in April 1718, and of St. Margaret's, Westminster, in the following year, Isham
I sham
Isham
held the two last-mentioned posts in conjunc- tion until his death in June 172G, when he was buried in St. Margaret's Church. Two anthems composed by Isham, ' Unto Thee, O Lord,' and ' O sing unto the Lord a new song,' are included in Croft's 'Divine Har- mony, or a New Collection of Select Anthems ' (1712). With William Morley he published, about 1710, a collection of songs, from which Sir John Hawkins reprinted in his 'History' a duet by Isham, ' Bury delights my roving eye.' Three other songs and a catch are catalogued under the name of Isum in the British Museum Library.
[Hawkins's Hist, of Music, ii. 799; Burney, iii. 303 ; Georgian Era, iv. 513 ; Hueffer's Pur- cell, pp. 103, 105; Add. MS. 31464; Notes and Queries, 6th ser. xii. 288.] T. S.
ISHAM, SIR JUSTINIAN, second baronet (1610-1674), royalist, was only son of Sir John Isham (1582-1651), by his wife Judith, daughter of William Lewin, D.C.L., of Otterden, Kent, and was baptised on 3 Feb. 1610, taking his Christian name from his mother's brother, Sir Justinian Lewin, knt. He was admitted a fellow-commoner at Christ's College, Cambridge, on 18 April 1627, and subsequently contributed 20/. towards the new buildings of his college ( May 1640). He was married on 10 Nov. 1634 to Jane, eldest daughter of Sir John Garrard, bart., of Lamer, Hertfordshire ; but his wife died in childbirth on 4 March 1638, and Isham became one of the suitors of Dorothy Osborne. The earnest- ness and persistency of his suit did not make a favourable impression upon the lady, who nicknamed him ' The Emperor,' laughed at his vanity and pompousness, and finally de- clared that she would rather 'chose a chain to lead her apes in' than marry him. On the other hand, however, Miss Osborne frequently mentions ' Sir Jus's ' learning. She describes him to Sir William Temple as ' that one of her servants ' whom Temple liked the best, and she showed herself by no means best pleased on the occasion of his second mar- riage (Dorothy Osbome's Letters, ed. Parry, passim). Isham appears in fact to have been a man of culture, and seems to have laid the foundation of the present library at Lamport Hall, Northamptonshire. BrianDuppa[q.v.], bishop of Salisbury, was a frequent correspon- dent of his, and answered in a letter, still extant, some inquiries which Isham made re- spectingthedisposition of Selden's books after his death (Hist. MSS. Comm. 3rd Rep. App. p. 255). Loans to the king as well as fines to the parliament had greatly injured the Isham estates when in 1651 Sir Justinian succeeded to the baronetcy. He had been detained in
prison for a short time during 1649 as a de- linquent, and he was now forced to compound for the estate of Shangton in Leicestershire, which had been bought by his father in 1637 by a payment of 1,106/. (C'a/. of Advance of Money, ed. Green,i. 485). After the Restora- tion he was elected M.P. for Northamptonshire in the parliament which met in 1661. He died at Oxford, whither he had gone to place his two sons at Christ Church, on 2 March 1674, and was buried in the family burial place on the north side of the chancel in Lamport Church, where there is a long Latin inscription to his memory (see LE NEVE, Monumenta Anyli- cana, ii. 163). There is a portrait of the baronet at Lamport Hall by John Baptista.
Isham's second wife, whom he married in 1653, was Vere, daughter of Thomas, lord Leigh of Stoneleigh, by Mary, daughter of Sir Thomas Egerton. Four children by her survived him : Sir Thomas, noticed below, third baronet ; Sir Justinian, fourth baronet (d. 1730) ; Mary (d. 1679), who married Sir Marmaduke Dayrell of Castle Camps, Cam- bridgeshire ; and Vere, an erudite young lady, ' learned beyond her sex and years in mathema- ticks and algebra,' who died in 1674, aged 19. There also survived him three daughters by his first wife: Elizabeth (d. 1734), who mar- ried Sir Nicholas L'Estrange of Hunstanton, Norfolk, second baronet, and nephew of Sir Roger L'Estrange [q. v.] ; Judith, who died unmarried, and was buried in Westminster Abbey 22 May 1679 ; and Susanna, who was married on 4 May 1656 to Sir Nicholas Carew, kt.
ISHAM, SIB THOMAS (1657-1681), third baronet, eldest son of the above, was born at Lamport on 15 March 1657. When still a boy he wrote a diary in Latin by the command of his father. This diary, which gives a vivid picture of the everyday doings of a family of the period, was translated and privately printed (1875) by the Rev. Robert Isham, rector of Lamport, where the original is still preserved. Isham succeeded to the baronetcy upon the death of his father in 1674, and shortly afterwards proceeded with his tutor, the Rev. Zacheus Isham [q. v.], upon an ex- tended tour on the continent, especially in Italy, whence he brought numerous art trea- sures to Lamport. He died unmarried in Lon- don, and was buried at Lamport on 9 Aug. 1681. There are several portraits of Sir Thomas Isham at Lamport Hall, including one by Lely, which was engraved by Loggan, and is noticed in Granger's 'Biographical History,' iii. 393, where Isham is described as 'a young gentleman of great expectations.'
[Bridges's Northamptonshire, ed. Whalley, ii. 1 12 ; Collins's English Baronetage, 1741, ii. 40 ;
Isham
73
Islip
Foster's Peerage ; Burke's Eoyal Descents ; in- formation kindly supplied by the Eev. H. Isham Longden. There are some interesting memoranda of the Isham family, transcribed from a note- book of Sir John, first baronet, in the Genealogist, ii. 241, iii. 274 ; and a full pedigree of the family is given in Hill's History of Langton, p. 216; see also Addit. MS. 29603.] ' T. S.
ISHAM, Z ACIIEUS (1651-1705), divine, was the son of Thomas Isham, rector of Barby, Northamptonshire (d. 1676), by his wife Mary Isham (d. 1694). He was grand- son of another Zacheus, who was first cousin once removed of Sir John Isham of Lamport, Northamptonshire, first baronet (d. 1651). He matriculated from Christ Church, Oxford, in 1666, and was successively student, B.A. (1671), M.A. (1674), B.D. (1682), and D.D. (1689). After taking his degree in 1671 he acted for some time as tutor to Sir Thomas Isham, third baronet [see under ISHAM, SIR JUSTINIAN], and accompanied him on his travels in Italy and elsewhere. In 1679 he was an interlocutor in the divinity school at Oxford (TASWELL, 'Autobiography ' in Cam- den's Miscellany, iii. 28), and was speaker of theMorrisian oration in honour of Sir Thomas Bodley in 1683 (MACKAT, Annals of the Bod- leian Library, p. 151). He was appointed chaplain to Dr. Compton [q. v.], bishop of London, about 1685, obtained a prebend at St. Paul's in 1685-6, and was in 1691 installed a canon at Canterbury Cathedral. He became rector of St. Botolph's, Bishopsgate, in 1694, represented the clergy of the diocese of Lon- don in the convocation of 1696 (LTJTTRELL, Brief Relation, iii. 552, v. 572), and was in 1701 appointed rector of Solihull, Warwick- shire, where he died on 5 July 1705. He was buried in Solihull Church, and there is a monu- ment to him on the chancel floor in which he is described as ' Vir singular! eruditione et gravitate preeditus, in concionando celeber- rime foecundus' (DUGDALE, Warwickshire, ed. Thomas, ii. 944). Isham was married to Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Pittis, chap- lain to Charles II; he had four sons and four daughters, the second of whom, Mary (d. 1750), married Arthur Brooke, grandfather of Sir Richard de Capell Brooke, first baronet.
Besides sermons, including one on the death of Dr. John Scott (1694), which is in- corporated in Wilford's ' Memorials,' Isham published : 1. ' The Catechism of the Church, with Proofs from the New Testament,' 1695, 8vo. 2. 'Philosophy containing the Book of Job, Proverbs, and Wisdom, with explana- tory notes,' 1706, 8vo. There is a small work of his among the Rawlinson MSS. in the Bodleian Library entitled ' The Catechism of the Church, with Proofs from the New Testa-
ment, and some additional questions and answers,' 1694. An attestation by Isham and others is prefixed to ' George Keith's Fourth Narrative . . . detecting the Quakers' Gross Errors in Quotations . . . ,' 1706, 4to.
[Wood's Athenae,iv. 654; Fasti, ii. 407; Cole's Athense Cantabr. i. f. 77 ; Dart's History and An- tiquities of Canterbury Cathedral, 1726, p. 202; Colvile's Warwickshire Worthies, p. 456 ; Bridges's Northamptonshire, i. 26, ii. 112; Hearne's Collec- tions, ed. Doble, i. 322 ; Hasted's Kent, iii. 188, iv. 615; Ellis Orig. Lett. 2nd ser. iv. 65, where Isham is wrongly described as dean of Christ Church; information from the Eev. H. Isham Longden.] T. S.
ISLES, LOEDS OP THE. [See MACDONALD, DONALD,J#. 1420; MACDONALD, JOHN, d. 1388 ; Ross, JOHN, eleventh EARL OF Ross, d. 1498.]
ISLIP, JOHN (d. 1532), abbot of West- minster, was doubtless a member of the family which rose to ecclesiastical impor- tance in the person of Archbishop Simon Islip [q. v.] John entered the monastery of West- minster about 1480, and showed his admin- istrative capacity in minor offices, till in 1498 he was elected prior, and on 27 Oct. 1500 abbot of Westminster. The first business which he undertook was to claim for the abbey of Westminster the possession of the body of Henry VI, for whose canonisation Henry VII was pressing at Rome. The claim was disputed by Windsor and Chertsey, and the question was argued before the privy council, which decided in favour of West- minster. Henry VI's remains were removed from Windsor at a cost of 500/. Islip had next to advise Henry VII in his plan for re- moving the old lady chapel of the abbey church and the erection instead of the chapel which still bears Henry VII's name. The old building was pulled down, and on 24 Jan. 1503 Islip laid the foundation-stone of the new structure (HOLINSHED, Chronicle, ed. 1577, ii. 1457). The indentures between the king and Abbot Islip relating to the foun- dation of Henry VII's chantry and the re- gulation of its services are in the Harleian MS. 1498. They are splendidly engrossed, and have two initial letters which represent the king giving the document to Islip and the monks Avho kneel before him. The face of Islip is so strongly marked that it seems to be a real portrait (see NEALE and BRAY- LET, Westminster Abbey, ii. 188-92).
Islip seems to have discharged carefully the duties of his office. In 1511 he held a visitation of the dependent priory of Mai vern, and repeated it in 1516, when he suspended the prior. His capacity for business led Henry VIII to appoint him a member of the
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privy council, probably on his departure to France in 1513, as Islip's name first appears attached to a letter in September of that year (BREWER, Calendar of State Papers, i. 5762). Islip was further one of the triers of petitions to parliament, and was on the com- mission of the peace for Middlesex. Still Islip's dignified position did not protect him from Wolsey's authority, who showed his determination to use his legatine power by a severe visitation of Westminster in 1518 (POLYDORE VERGIL, Hist. Angl. ed. 1570, p. 657) ; and again in 1525, when the monas- tery had to pay a hundred marks for the ex- penses of the visitation. In the same year we find Islip acting as Wolsey's commissioner in the affairs of the monastery of Glastonbury (BREWER, Calendar, iv. 1244). In 1527 Islip, as president of the English Benedictines, issued a commission to the Abbot of Glou- cester for the visitation of the abbey of Malmesbury, where there had been a rebellion of the monks against their abbot (ib. 3678).
This peaceful discharge of ordinary duties was disturbed for Islip, as for most other Englishmen of high position, by the pro- ceedings for the king's divorce. In July 1529 Islip was joined with Burbank and others for the purpose of searching among the royal papers for documents to present to the legatine court of Wolsey and Campeggio (ib. 5783, 5791). In 1530 Islip was one of those who signed a letter to the pope in favour of the king's divorce (RxMER, Fcedera, xiv. 405), and in July 1531 Henry VIII suggested to the pope that Islip, whom he calls ' a good old father,' should be joined as an assessor to Archbishop Warham for the purpose of trying the cause in England (State Papers of Henry VIII,\'u. 312). But though Henry was bent upon his divorce, he could attend to minor matters; for in September 1531 he negotiated an exchange with the abbey of Westminster of sundry tenements reaching as far as Charing Cross, for which he gave them the site of the con- vent of Poghley, Berkshire, one of the lesser monasteries, dissolved by Wolsey, which had become forfeited to the crown (BREWER, Calendar, v. 404). Islip died peaceably on 12 May 1532. and was buried in the abbey with extraordinary splendour. An account of his funeral is in the Brit ish Museum Addit. MS. 5829, f. 61 ; extracts are given in Dug- dale's 'Monasticon,' i. 278.
Islip's career was entirely representative of the life of a great churchman of the time in other points than those already men- tioned. In 1526 he was one of those com- missioned by Wolsey to search for heretics among the Hanseatic merchants in London
(ib. iv. 1962), and often sat in the consistory court of London to judge English heretics (FoXE, Acts and Monuments, ed. Townsend, iv. 689, v. 417). But the chief reason why Islip's name is remembered is his buildings at Westminster Abbey. He raised the western tower as far as the level of the roof, repaired much of the church, especially the buttresses, filled the niches with statues, and designed a central tower, which he did not proceed with because he found the pillars too weak to bear the weight. He built many apartments in the abbot's house, and a gallery overlooking the nave on the south side. Moreover, he built for himself the little mortuary chapel which still bears his name, and is adorned by his rebus, a boy falling from a tree, with the le- gend ' I slip.' The paintings in the chapel have disappeared, and only the table of his tomb remains. The original work is described by Weever in ' Funerall Monuments,' p. 488. Islip's fame as a custodian of the fabric of the abbey long remained, and his example was held as a model by Williams when he was dean of Westminster (HACKET, Life of Williams, p. 45).
[Dugdale's Monasticon, i. 277-8 ; Widmore's Hist, of Westminster Abbey, pp. 119-26; Stevens's Additions to Dugdale, i. 285-6 ; Dart's West- monasterium, i. 40, ii. 34; Newcourt's Reper- torium Ecclesiasticum, i. 717; Neale and Bray- ley's History and Antiquities of Westminster Abbey, i. 11-16, ii. 188-92; Historical Manu- scripts Commission, i. 95 ; Stanley's Memorials of Westminster Abbey, ed. 1882, p. 335.]
M. C.
ISLIP, SIMON (d. 1366), archbishop of Canterbury, derived his name from the vil- lage of Islip on the Cherwell, about six miles north of Oxford, where he was probably born. Of his namesakes or kinsfolk, Walter Islip was a baron of the Irish exchequer between 1307 and 1338, and in 1314 treasurer (Cal. Hot. Pat. 68 b, 77, 121 b, 128). John Islip was until 1332 archdeacon of Stow, in the diocese of Lincoln. William Islip, Simon's nephew, held the manor of Woodford in south North- amptonshire, and William Whittlesey, subse- quently archbishop, was another kinsman.
In 1307 Simon was a fellow of Merton College (WooD, Colleges and Halls, p. 15 ; BRODRICK, Memorials of Merton, p. 199, Ox- ford Hist. Soc.) He proceeded doctor in canon and civil law at Oxford. He soon made his way as an ecclesiastical lawyer, and apparently enjoyed the patronage, first of Bishop Burghersh of Lincoln, and after- wards of Archbishop Stratford of Canter- bury. His early preferments include the rectories of Easton, near Stamford, and Horn- castle, the first of which he exchanged in
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1332 for a brief tenure of the archdeaconry of Stow (1332-3), and the last he vacated by cession in 1357 (LsNEVE, Fasti Heel. Anglic. ii. 78, ed. Hardy). He held the prebend of Welton Brinkhall, in the cathedral of Lin- coln, from 1327 tiU 1331 (ib. ii. 228). In 1329 he was collated to the prebend of Ayles- bury in the same cathedral, which he ex- changed in 1340 for that of Welton Beckhall (ib. ii. 96, but cf. ii. 225). In 1337 he was vicar-general to the Bishop of Lincoln. In 1343 he was made archdeacon of Canterbury, but in 1346 he surrendered that post to Peter Rogier, afterwards Pope Gregory XI (ib. i. 40). He also became dean of arches, and in 1348 prebendary of Mora in St. Paul's Cathedral on the presentation of the king (ib. ii. 410). In March 1348 he wae also collated to the prebend of Sandiacre in Lich- field (ib. i. 624).
Islip attached himself to the king's service, becoming in turn chaplain, secretary, coun- cillor, and keeper of the privy seal to Ed- ward III. On 4 Jan. 1342 he was one of the ambassadors sent to treat for a truce with France at Antoing, near Tournay, on 3 Feb. (Fcedera, ii. 1185, Record ed.) On 1 July 1345 he was appointed, with other members of the council, to assist the king's son Lionel, while acting as regent during the king's ab- sence abroad (ib. iii. 50). In 1346 he was authorised to open royal letters and treat with foreign ambassadors during Edward Ill's residence beyond sea (ib. iii. 85).
Archbishop Stratford had died on 23 Aug. 1348. His successor, John Ufford, died of the Black Death on 20 May 1349, before he was consecrated. On 26 Aug. the famous scholastic Bradwardine [q. v.] died of the same pestilence, only a week after he had received the temporalities of the see. On 20 Sept. the monks of Christ Church elected Islip, at the king's request, to the vacant archbishopric (WiiAETON', Anglia Sacra, i. 119) ; but on 7 Oct. Pope Clement VI, also in obedience to a royal request, conferred the
Srimacy upon him by provision (ib. i. 376). n 20 Dec. 1349 Islip was consecrated at St. Paul's. He received the pallium on 25 March 1350 at Esher from Bishop Edington. As the Black Death had not yet ceased its ravages, he caused himself to be enthroned privately at Canterbury (ib. i. 377), and without the usual lavish festivities. The Christ Church monks, who already resented his consecra- tion out of Canterbury, unfairly attributed the absence of the customary entertainments to his parsimony, and a reputation for nig- gardliness remained to him for the rest of his life. On 23 April 1350 Islip assisted at the gorgeous pageant at "Windsor in which
Edward III inaugurated the order of the Garter (G. LB BAKEE, pp. 109, 278-9, ed. Thompson). He long remained very poor, and he incurred much reproach for cutting down and selling the timber on his estates ; for exacting larger sums from his clergy than he had received papal authority to exact ; for dealing hardly with the executors of Ufford in the matter of dilapidations ; and for alienating for ready money the perpetual right of the archbishops to receive from the Earls of Arundel a yearly grant of twenty- six deer.
Islip's diocese had been demoralised by the ravages of the Black Death, and in an early visitation he sought energetically to remedy the evils. He afterwards visited ' perfunc- torily' the dioceses of Rochester and Chi- chester, but subsequently remained mostly in his manors, of which Mayfield in Sussex soon became his favourite residence. In 1356 he was specially exhorted by Innocent VI to resume his visitations (WiLKiNS, Concilia, iii. 35-6). Islip was never lacking in vigilance, and strove earnestly to restore discipline (cf. his constitutions and canons in WILKINS, vol. iii.) He deprived criminous clerks of their benefices ; took care that clerks incar- cerated in ecclesiastical prisons should not fare too well ; and enforced a stricter keeping of Sunday, especially by putting down mar- kets and riotous gatherings on that day. He directed, however, that work should not be suspended on minor saints' days (WALSING- HAM, Hist. Angl. i. 297, Rolls Ser.) The plague had thinned the ranks of the beneficed clergy, and unbeneficed priests now refused to undertake pastoral work for the stipends customary before the Black Death. Many parishes were thus wholly or in part deprived of spiritual direction. Islip therefore issued in 1350 a canon which is a sort of spiritual counterpart of the Statute of Labourers, or- dering chaplains to remain content with the salaries they had received before the Black Death ("WILKINS, iii. 1-2). In 1362, the year after the second visitation of the Black Death had intensified existing evils, Islip drew up other constitutions defining more strictly the priests' remuneration, and ordering the de- privation of those who refused to undertake pastoral functions when called upon by the bishop (ib. iii. 50). Islip's measures drove many priests to theft (WALSINGHAM, i. 297). In 1353 Islip also drew up regulations for the apparel and salaries of priests (WlLKlNS, iii. 29). His care for the secular clergy led him to limit the rights of the friars to hear con- fessions or discharge pastoral functions (ib. iii. 64).
In 1353 Islip arranged with Archbishop
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Thoresby of York to end the long strife be- tween the rival archbishops as to the right of the northern primate to carry his cross erect in the southern province. They submitted their respective claims to the arbitration of Edward III, whose decision, uttered on 20 April at Westminster, was confirmed by Pope Clement VI. The chief feature in the agreement was that the archbishops of York were allowed to bear their cross erect within the province of Canterbury on condition that every archbishop of York, within two months of his confirmation, presented to the shrine of St. Thomas a golden image of an archbishop or jewels to the value of 40£. (Anglia Sacra, i. 43, 75 ; T. STFBBS in RAIXE, Historians of York, ii. 419, Rolls Ser. ; RAINE, Fasti Ebo- racenses, pp. 456-7; WILKIXS, Concilia, iii. 31-2).
Islip was involved in several grave dis- putes with Bishop Gynwell of Lincoln, who had procured a bull from Clement VI ab- solving him from his obedience to Canter- bury. Islip obtained another bull from Innocent VI which practically revoked the preceding grant. When, in 1350, Gynwell refused to confirm the election of William of Palmorva to the chancellorship of Oxford University, Islip, in answer to the univer- sity's appeal, summoned Gynwell to appear before him, and appointed a commission to admit William to his office. The Bishop of Lincoln then appealed to Pope Clement VI, who finally decided in Islip's favour (WTIL- KJNS, Concilia, iii. 3-8 ; Mun. Acad. pp. 168- 172 ; LYTE, Hist . Univ. Oxf. pp. 169-70 ; WOOD, Annals of Oxford, i. 452-3, ed. Gutch). A third triumph over his unruly diocesan was obtained by Islip in 1354, when he removed the interdict under which Gynwell had placed Oxford, after a great riot between town and gown. Gynwell, however, had previously sus- pended the interdict. The final arrangement between the university and the townsmen was made by the king on the mediation of Islip.
Islip was generally on good terms with his old master, Edward III. It was during his primacy that the first Statutes of Provisors and Prsemunire were passed. In 1359, how- ever, when Islip refused to confirm the elec- tion of Robert Stretton to the bishopric of Lichfield, on the ground of his age, blindness, and incompetency, Edward, prince of Wales, and his father the king obtained his appoint- ment by appealing to Avignon against the primate's action ( Anglia Sacra, i. 44, 449). He Lad another difference with the Prince of Wales in 1357, when the prince demanded certain crown dues on the death of Bishop Trevor of St. Asaph, and Islip successfully maintained against him that these dues be-
longed in the north AVelsh dioceses and in Rochester to the Archbishop of Canterbury (Archaeological Journal, xi. 275). Yet in 1358, when Bishop de Lisle of Ely was found guilty by a secular court of burning a farm- house belonging to Lady Wake, and insti- gating the murder of one of her servants, Islip declined to shelter the guilty prelate by the authority of the ecclesiastical courts.
Islip bitterly resented the extravagance of Edward III. In 1356 he presided over a synod which rejected the king's demand for a clerical tenth for six years, and only allowed him a tenth for one year (AvESBURY, p. 459, Rolls Ser.) Disgusted at the exactions of the king's servants and courtiers, he addressed to Edward a long and spirited remonstrance on the evils of purveyance, and the scandal and odium produced by the king's greedy insist- ence on his prerogative. The action of the archbishop combined with the strong peti- tion of the commons to procure the statute of 1362, which seems to have removed the worst abuses of purveyance. Copies of Islip's remon- strance, which is entitled ' Speculum regis Edwardi,' are in Bodleian MS. 624, Harleian MS. 2399, Cotton. MSS. Cleopatra D. ix., and Faustina, B. i. Extracts are given in Stubbs's ' Constitutional History,'ii. 375, 404, 536, and a summary is in ' Archseologia,' viii. 341-4.
In January 1363 a stroke of paralysis de- prived Islip of the power of articulate speech. He partially recovered, but died at May- field on 26 April 1366. On 2 May he was buried in his cathedral. At his own request all expense and pomp were avoided, and only six wax candles were lighted round his corpse (Eulogium Hist. iii. 239). Over his grave in Canterbury Cathedral was erected a ' fine tomb of marble inlaid with brass in the middle,' in the nave of the church (SOMNER, Canterbury, ed. Battely, i. 134). His epitaph is preserved by Weever (Ancient Funerall Monuments, pp. 223-4). Parts of his will, dated in 1361, are printed in 'Anglia Sacra,' i. 60-1 (cf. Hist. MSS. Comm. 5th Rep. p. 436). He left a large amount of plate and vestments to the monks of Canterbury, together with a thousand of his best ewes to improve the breed of their sheep. According to Bale (Script. Brit. Cat. cent. vi. xx. ed. Basel), Islip wrote sermons on Lent, on the saints, and on time.
Despite his poverty Islip increased the en- dowments of the Canterbury hospitals (Hist. MSS. Comm. 5th Rep. p. 443) ; gave Buck- land parsonage to Dover priory, and Bilsing- ton parsonage to the monks of that place ; restored his palace at Canterbury, and pulled down WTrotham manor to complete the build- ing of the manor-house at Maidstone, which had been begun by Archbishop Ufford (Son-
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NER, Canterbury, ed. Battely, i. 62, 73, 134 ; cf. HASTED, Kent, ' Canterbury,' ii. 118, 392). In 1350 he released the monks of St. Martin's, Dover, from their old dependence on Christ Church (Hist. MSS. Comm. 5th Rep. p. 441). In 1365 he restored to the monks of his cathe- dral the churches of Monkton and Eastry, though taking care that perpetual vicars should be appointed (ib. p. 442 ; SOMNER, i. 134). He was, however, often on bad terms with Christ Church. In 1362 he had listened to ' sinister reports ' against the prior and monks (Literce Cantuar. ii. 308). In 1353 the prior ' with his own hand ' wrote what amounted to a practical refusal to entertain the archbishop during a proposed visit of twelve days (ib. ii. 314-16).
Islip always took a keen interest in Oxford, and since 1356 was commemorated by the university among its benefactors ( Munimenta Academica, i. 186). He was also a benefactor of Cambridge (Anglia Sacra, i. 794). He was most anxious to increase the number of ' exhibitions ' at the universities for poor stu- dents, and desired that the regular clergy should receive more generally an academic training. The Black Death had greatly di- minished the numbers of the learned clergy. In 1355 Islip strongly urged the prior of Christ Church to send more of his monks to the uni- versities (Literce Cantuar. ii. 332). Finally, he elaborated a plan for a new college, in which he made the bold experiment of mix- ing together in the same society monks and secular clergy. He bought for this purpose some houses, whose situation is still marked by the Canterbury quadrangle of the modern Christ Church, Oxford. On 20 Oct. 1361 he obtained the royal license to found his col- lege for ' a certain number of clerks both re- ligious and secular,' and secured the king's consent to appropriate the advowson of Pag- ham in Sussex for its endowment (ib. ii. 409-10 ; LEWIS, Life of Wycliffe, pp. 285- 290). He closely connected his college with his cathedral, and directed the monks of Christ Church to appoint the first warden by nominating three persons to the arch- bishop, of whom he chose one (Literce Can- tuar. ii. 417). Islip in March 1362 nominated one of the monks' three nominees, Dr. Henry Woodhall, as first warden (ib. ii. 416). On 13 April 1363 Islip issued his charter of foun- dation (ib. ii. 442-3). Provision was made for eleven fellows, besides the warden, and a chaplain. Four of these seem to have been Christ Church monks, the rest seculars. On 4 June 1363 Islip obtained from his nephew, "William Islip, the manor of Woodford, North- amptonshire, as an additional endowment (ib. ii. 443, 447-8). Quarrels at once arose be-
tween the regular and secular members on. the foundation. The seculars, who were in a majority, seem to have driven out Woodhall and the monks, and to have chosen as their head John Wycliffe, a secular priest, who is variously identified with the reformer [see WYCLIFFE, JOHN] and with another John Wycliffe, whom Islip had, in 1361, appointed to be vicar of Mayfield (LECHLER, John Wy- clif, i. 160-84, translated by Lorimer; but cf. SHIRLEY, Fasciculi Zizaniorum, pp. 513-28, Rolls Ser., and POOLE, Wycliffe and Move- ments for Reform ; cf. also WYCLIFFE, De Ecclesia, pp. 370-1, ed. Loserth, Wyclif So- ciety). Islip practically sided with the secu- lars. The elaborate statutes for the college (printed in WILKINS, iii. 52-8), which were- probably drawn up by him at this time as a new constitution, substantially contemplate a secular foundation, based on the rule of Merton, Islip's old college. Wycliffe only re- tained office for the rest of Islip's life. Arch- bishop Langham [q. v.] restored Woodhall, and in 1370, after a famous suit, the pope's decision converted Islip's foundation into a mere appendage at Oxford of Christ Church, Canterbury, and a place for the education of the Canterbury monks. It was finally ab- sorbed byWolsey and Henry VIII, in Cardinal College, afterwards Christ Church, Oxford.
[Hook's Archbishops of Canterbury, iv. 111- 162 ; Wharton's Anglia Sacra, vol. i., especially Birchington's Life, pp. 43-6, and Dies obituales, pp. 60-1 and p. 119; Sheppard's Literse Can- tuarienses, Walsingham's Hist. Angl., both in Rolls Ser.; Wilkins's Concilia, vol. iii.; Bymer's Fcedera, Record ed. ; Hist. MSS. Comm., 5th Rep. ; Lewis's Life of Wycliffe ; Lechler's John Wyclif and his English Precursors, translated by Lo- rimer ; Wood's Hist, and Antiquities of Oxford, ed. Gutch; Lyte's Hist, of the University of Ox- ford ; Le Neve's Fasti Ecclesise Anglicanse, ed. Hardy; Somner's Canterbury, ed. Battely.]
T. F. T.
ISRAEL, MANASSEH BEX (1604- 1657), founder of the modern Jewish com- munity in England. [See MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL.]
ITE (d. 569), Irish saint, whose name also occurs as Ita, Ida, Ide, Ytha, Idea, and with the prefix mo, mine, as Mide, Mida, Medea, is the patroness of Munster, and is sometimes spoken of by Irish writers as the Mary of Munster. Her father, Cennfoeladh, and her mother, Necta, were both of the tribe of the Deisi, descendants of Feidhlimidh Recht- mhuir,king of Ireland, who had marched south from Tara and conquered for themselves a territory in the south of Munster, part of the present county of Waterford. When grown up, Ite left her own country with the inten-
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tion of founding a religious community, settled at Cluaincreadhail, at the foot of Sliabh Luachra (co. Limerick), and she be- came abbess of the society which she instituted there. Her abbey has disappeared, and the only indication of its site is her name in the parochial designation, Killeedy (Gill Ite), Ite's church. The baronies of Costello, in which this parish is situated, were then called Ua Conaill Gabhra, and the O'Cuileans, who then ruled it, and are still numerous in the district under the Anglicised name Collins, gave land and protection to the saint. She was no recluse, but took part in the public affairs of the clan, travelled to Clonmacnois (King's County), visited St. Comgan when he was dying, and received St. Luchtighern and St. Laisrean. The Ua Conaill believed that they obtained victory by her prayers, and many legends are preserved of the wonders performed by her in the improvement of the wicked, the cure of the sick, and the breed- ing of horses. She died on 15 Jan. 569, ap- parently of hydatid of the liver.
[Colgan's Acta Sanct. Hibernise, 1645, p. 66 ; Martyrology of Donegal, p. 17; Reeves's On a MS. Volume of Lives of Saints, 1877; Annala Rioghachta Eireann, i. 207.] N. M.
IVE, PAUL (fl. 1602), writer on fortifi- cation, appears to have been a member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, in 1560, though he was never matriculated. In 1597 he received money from the crown for the fortification of Falmouth and for the trans- portation of prisoners into Spain. In January 1601-2 he was employed in fortifying the isle of Haulbowline, near Cork, and Castle Ny Park, to command the haven of Kinsale.
He is the author of: 1. 'Instructions for the warres, Amply, learnedly, & politiquely, discoursing of the method of Militarie Disci- pline,' from the French of ' Generall, Monsieur William de Bellay, Lord of Langey,' London, 1589, 4to, dedicated to Secretary William Davison [q. v.] 2. ' The Practise of Fortifi- cation, in all sorts of scituations ; with the considerations to be used in declining and making of Royal Frontiers, Skonces, and renforcing of ould walled Townes,' London, 1589, 1599, 4to, dedicated to William Brooke, lord Cobham, and Sir Francis Walsing- ham, kt.
[Masters's Corpus Christi Coll. ed. Lamb; Pacata Hiberniae, p. 252; Cooper's Athense Can- tabr. ii. 241, 550; Ames's Typogr. Antiq. (Her- bert), p. 1243; Dep.-Keeper's Eecords, 4th Rep., App. ii. 172 ; Addit. MS. 5873, f. 19.] T. C.
IVE, STMOX (1600-1662), musician, bap- tised at Ware in Hertfordshire 20 July 1600, was lay vicar of St. Paul's Cathedral until
about 1653, after which he gave lessons in singing. Wood wrote : ' He was excellent at the lyra-viol, and improved it by excellent inventions.' Upon the Restoration Ive was installed as eighth minor prebendary of St. Paul's (1661). He died^at Newgate^Street, in the parish of Christchurch, London," on 1 July 1662, and bequeathed his freehold and other property in Southwark and Moorfields to his daughter Mary, wife of Joseph Body, citizen and joiner. He also left legacies to his son Andrew, and to relatives in Hertfordshire and Essex. A son, Simon, also a musical com- poser, was student of Clare Hall, Cambridge, about 1644, and probably died early.
Ive was chosen by Whitelock to co-operate with Henry Lawes [q. v.] and William Lawes [q. v.] insetting to music Shirley's masque the ' Triumph of Peace,' which was performed at Whitehall in February 1633-4 (ARBER, Sta- tioners' Registers, iv. 287). Ive was paid 1001. for his share of the work. He also assisted Whitelock in the composition of a popular corante. Among his vocal compositions are : 'Si Deus nobiscum,' canon a 3 (in Warren's ' Collection' and Hullah's 'Vocal Scores,' p. 154) ; ' Lament and Mourn,' a 3 ; an ' Elegy on the Death of William Lawes ' (in Lawes's ' Choice Psalms,' 1638) : several numbers in Playford's ' Select Ayres and Dialogues,' 1669 ; catches (in Hilton's ' Catch that catch can,' 1652 ; Playford's ' Musical Companion,' 1672; and Additional MS. 11608, fol. 74 b). His instrumental works include twelve pieces in ' Musick's Recreation on the Lyra-viol,' 1652, ' Court Ayres,' 1655, and ' Musick's Recrea- tion on the Viol, Lyra-way,' 1661 ; seventeen fantasias for two basses (in the handwriting of J. Jenkins [q. v.], Addit. MS. 31424), and fantasias, almain, pavan (Addit. MSS. 17792 and 31423). He also set the collect of the Feast of the Purification to music (CLIFFORD, Divine Services). Ive bequeathed a ' set of fancies and In Nomines of (his) own com- position of four, five, and six parts' to the petty canons of St. Paul's, in addition to 'one chest of violls, of Thomas Aired his making, wherein are three tenors, one base, and two trebles ; also another base that one Muskett his man made.'
[Hawkins's Hist, of Music, iii. 770; Burney's Hist, of Music, iii. 369-79, quoting Whitelock ; Diet, of Musicians, 1827. p. 401 ; Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 26 ; Anthony a Wood's manuscript notes (Bodleian) ; P. C. C. Registers of Wills, Laud, fol. 97; Malcolm's Londinium Redivivum, iii. 27.] L. M. M.
IVE or IVY, WILLIAM (d. 1485), theologian, studied at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was afterwards a fellow and lec- turer in theology there. He was head-master
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at Winchester College from 1444 to 1454 {Hist. of the Colleges of Winchester, #c.,p. 51). In 1461-2, before which date he had gradu- ated D.D.,Ivewas commissary or vice-chan- cellor for George Neville, the chancellor of the university. A number of documents relating to his tenure of this office are printed in the ' Munimenta Academica ' (ii. 683-4, 693, 697, 757, Rolls Ser.) On 29 Jan. 1463 he was appointed rector of Appleby, Lincolnshire, and on 21 July 1464 master of Whitting- ton's College at St. Michael Royal, London, which post he resigned before 1470 (NEW- COURT, Repertorium, i. 493). He was a canon residentiary of Salisbury, and on 21 Aug. 1470 was made chancellor of the diocese. Tanner says he was also canon of St. Paul's, and for some time held the church of Brikkelworth. He was dead by 8 Feb. 1485.
Ive wrote : 1. ' Praelectiones contra hsere- sim fratris Johannis Mylverton.' These lec- tures, four in number, were delivered at St. Paul's, apparently at the end of 1465. Myl- verton was a Carmelite who had defended the Mendicant Friars. The first two lectures had for their subject ' quod Christ us in per- sona sua nunquam proprie mendicavit ' (styled by Bale ' De Mendicitate Christ! '). The third is ' De Sacerdotio Christi,' and the fourth ' De Excellentia Christi.' The manuscript was in Bernard's time in the royal library at West- minster (Cut. MSS. AnffL, 'MSS. in ^Edibus Jacobaeis,' No. 8033). The manuscript does not, however, appear in Casley's ' Catalogue of the Royal MSS.' thirty years later, and it seems to have now disappeared . Tanner gives a description of the manuscript. 2. ' Lec- tura Oxonii habita 9 Feb. contra mendicita- tem Christi.' This appears to have been in the same manuscript. Bale also gives, 3. ' In Minores Prophetas.' 4. 'De Christi Dominio.' 6. ' Sermones ad Clerum.' 6. ' Determina- tiones.' New College, Oxford, MS. 32 was pre- sented by Ive. It contains the commentary of Peter Lombard on the Psalms. Ive was also the owner of Magd. Coll. Oxford MS. 98.
[Bale, viii. 31 ; Pits, p. 654 ; Tanner's Bibl, Brit.-Hib. p. 447 ; Wood's Hist, and Antiq. Univ Qxon. i. 622, 626. The writer has also to thank Mr. "Ward, of the British Museum, for an endea- vour to trace Ive's manuscript.] C. L. K.
IVES, EDWARD (d. 1786), surgeon anc traveller, served in the navy as surgeon o: the Namur in the Mediterranean from 1744 to 1746, and returned to England in the Yarmouth. He was afterwards for some time employed by the commissioners for sick anc wounded, and from 1753 to 1757 was surgeon of the Kent, bearing the flag of Vice-admira Charles Wat son [q.v.] as commander- in-chie
n the East Indies. On the admiral's death n August 1757, his own health being some- what impaired, he resigned his appointment, ind travelled home overland from Bassorah, ;hrough Baghdad, Mosul, and Aleppo, thence >y Cyprus, to Leghorn and Venice, and so lome through Germany and Holland, arriving nEngland in March 1759. He had no further service in the navy, but continued on the half- mylist till 1777, when he was superannuated. During his later years he resided at Titch- leld in Hampshire, dividing his time, appa- rently, between literature and farming. He died at Bath on 25 Sept. 1786 (Gent. Mag. 1786, vol. Ivi. pt. ii. p. 908). In 1773 he pub- .ished ' A Voyage from England to India in she year 1754, and an Historical Narrative of the Operations of the Squadron and Army in India, under the command of Vice-admiral Watson and Colonel Clive, in the years 1755- 1756-7 ; . . . also a Journey from Persia to England by an unusual Route.' Ives's pre- sence at many of the transactions which he describes and his personal intimacy with Watson give his historical narrative an un- usual importance, and his accounts of the manners and customs of the inhabitants, and of the products of the countries he visited, are those of an enlightened and acute ob- server. Ives married about 1751 Ann, daugh- ter of Richard Roy of Titchfield, by whom he had issue a daughter, Eliza, and three sons, the eldest of whom, Edward Otto, was in Bengal at the time of his father's death ; the second, Robert Thomas, had just been appointed to a writership ; the third, John Richard, seems to have been still a child (will in Somerset House, 29 March 1780, proved in London, 1787). Mention is also made of a sister, Gatty Ives.
[Beyond his own narrative, nothing is known of his life, except the bare mention of his ap- pointments in the official books preserved in the Public Eecord Office.] J. K. L.
IVES, JEREMIAH (^. 1653-1674), general baptist, came of a family afterwards connected with Norwich, but originally of Bourn, Lincolnshire. Probably he is the ' brother Ives ' whom Henry Denne [q. v.] and Christopher Marriat sought in vain at Littlebury, Essex, on 8 Nov. 1653, in order ' to require satisfaction of him concerning his preaching at that place.' He was at this time, if Crosby's vague statement may be trusted, ' pastor of a baptised congre- gation ' which met somewhere in the Old Jewry. Crosby says he held this office ' be- tween thirty and forty years.' A self-taught scholar, he exercised his remarkable contro- versial powers in defence of adult baptism.
Ives
Ives
and against quakers and Sabbatarians. For a time he shared the quaker objection to oath- taking. For refusing in January 1661 the oath of allegiance he was thrown into prison in London, whence he wrote a letter to two of his friends reproaching them for taking the oath. After five days' incarceration he took the oath himself, and published a book to
Erove some oaths lawful, though not all. ater he held a disputation with a ' Komish priest' at the bidding and in presence of Charles II. Ives was habited as an anglican clergyman, but his opponent, finding at length that he had to deal with ' an ana- baptist preacher,' refused to continue the argument. Among his own people he was highly esteemed. His latest known publi- cation is an appendix to a report of dis- cussions held on 9 and 16 Oct. 1674, and he is supposed to have died in the following year.
He published: 1. 'Infants-baptism Dis- proved,' &c., 1655, 4to (in answer to Alex- ander Kellie). 2. ' The Quakers Quaking,' &c., 1656 ? (answered by James Nayler [q.v.] in ' Weaknes above Wickednes,' &c., 1656, 4to). 3. ' Innocency above Impudency,' &c., 1656, 4to (reply to Nayler). 4. ' Confidence Questioned,' &c., 1658, 4to (against Thomas Willes). 5. ' Confidence Encountred ; or, a Vindication of the Lawfulness of Preaching without Ordination,' &c., 1658, 4to (answer to Willes). 6. ' Saturday no Sabbath,' &c., 1659, 12mo (account of his discussions with Peter Chamberlen, M.D. [q. v.], Thomas Tillam, and Coppinger). 7. ' Eighteen Ques- tions,' &c., 1659, 4to (on government).
8. ' The Great Case of Conscience opened . . . about . . . Swearing,' &c., 1660, 4to.
9. ' A Contention for Truth,' &c., 1672, 4to (two discussions with Thomas Danson [q.v.]).
10. 'A Sober Request,' &c., 1674 (broadside; answered by William Penn). 11. 'William Penn's Confutation of a Quaker,' &c., 1674 ? (answered in William Shewen's ' William Penn and the Quaker in Unity,' &c., 1674, 4to). 12. ' Some Reflections,' &c., appended to Thomas Plant's 'A Contest for Chris- tianity,' &c., 1674, 8vo. The British Mu- seum Catalogue suggests that Ives wrote ' Strength-weakness ; or, the Burning Bush not consumed ... by J. J.,' &c., 1655, 4to.
[Sewel's Hist, of the Quakers, 1725, pp. 504 sq. ; Crosby's Hist, of the Baptists, 1739 ii. 308, 1740 iv. 247 sq.; Wilson's Diss. Churches of London, 1808, ii. 302, 444 sq.; Ivimey's Hist, of Engl. Baptists, 1814, ii. 603 sq. ; Wood's Hist, of Gen. Baptists, 1847, p. 140 ; Records of Fen- stanton (Hanserd Knollys Society), 1854, xxvi. 77 ; Smith's Bibliotheca Anti-Quakeriana, 1873, pp. 243 sq., 362.J A. G.
IVES, JOHN (1751-1776), Suffolk herald extraordinary, born at Great Yarmouth in 1751, was the only son of John Ives, an opu- lent merchant of that town, by Mary, daugh- ter of John Hannot. He was educated in. the free school of Norwich, and was subse- quently entered at Caius College, Cambridge, where he did not long reside. Returning to Yarmouth, he became acquainted with ' honest Tom Martin' of Palgrave, from whom he derived a taste for antiquarian studies. He was elected F.S.A. in 1771, and F.R.S. in 1772. His first attempt at antiquarian publication was by the issuing of proposals, anonymously, in 1771, for printing ' The His- tory and Antiquities of the Hundred of Lothingland in the County of Suffolk,' for which several arms and monuments were en- graved from his own drawings. The work never appeared, but a manuscript copy of it is preserved in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 19098). His next performance was 'A True Copy of the Register of Baptisms and Burials in ... Yarmouth, for seven year* past,' printed at his private press 5 Sept. 1772. He contributed the preface to Henry Swinden's ' History and Antiquities of Great Yarmouth,' 1772." Swinden, who was a schoolmaster, was an intimate friend of Ivesr who not only rendered him pecuniary as- sistance when living, but superintended the publication of the history for the benefit of the author's widow.
In 1772 he had nine wooden plates cut of old Norfolk seals, entitled ' Sigilla antiqua Norfolciensia ; ' and a copper-plate portrait of Thomas Martin, afterwards prefixed to that antiquary's ' History of Thetford,' was en- graved at his expense. By favour of the Earl of Suffolk, he was in October 1774 appointed an honorary member of the College of Arms, and created Suffolk herald extraordinary, which title was expressly revived for him (NOBLE, Hist, of the College of Arms, p. 445).
In imitation of Horace Walpole (to whom, the first number was inscribed), Ives began in 1773 to publish 'Select Papers chiefly relating to English Antiquities,' from his own collection, of which the second number was printed in 1774 and a third in 1775. Among these are 'Remarks upon our English Coins, from the Norman Invasion down to the end of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth,' by Archbishop Sharp; Sir William Dug- dale's ' Directions for the Search of Records, and making use of them, in order to an His- torical Discourse of the Antiquities of Staf- fordshire;' with 'Annals of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge,' and the ' Coro- nation of Henry VII and of Queen Elizabeth.' In 1774 he published 'Remarks upon the
Ivie
81
Ivimey
Garianonum of the Romans ; the Scite and Remains fixed and described,' London, 8vo, with map and plates ; 2nd edit., Yarmouth,
1803. He died of consumption, 9 June 1776, having just entered on his twenty-fifth year, and was buried with his father and grand- father at Belton, Suffolk, where a monument was erected to his memory with a Latin in- scription which has been printed by Dawson Turner (Sepulchral Reminiscences of a Market Town, p. 128). His library was sold by auction 3-6 March 1777, including some curious manuscripts, chiefly relating to Suf- folk and Norfolk, that had belonged to Peter Le Neve, Thomas Martin, and Francis Blome- field. His coins, medals, ancient paintings, and antiquities were sold in February 1777. Two portraits of him have been engraved. One of them, engraved by P. Audinet from a drawing by Perry, is in Nichols's ' Illustra- tions of Literature.'
In August 1773 Ives eloped with Sarah, daughter of Wade Kett of Lopham, Norfolk, and married her at Lambeth Church, 16 Aug. 1773. A temporary estrangement from his father followed. His wife survived him, and married, on 7 June 1796, the Rev. D. Davies, B.D., prebendary of Chichester.
[Memoir by the Eev. Sir John Cullum, bart., prefixed to 2nd edit, of Remarks upon the Ga- rianonum of the Komans ; Gent. Mag. Ivii. 275, j hriii. 575; Granger's Letters (Malcolm), pp. 101, 296; Lowndes's Bibl. Man. (Bohn), p. 1174; Nichols's Illustr. of Lit. iii. 608, 609; Nichols's Lit. Anecd. iii. 198, 199, 200, 622, 756, v. 386- 389, vi. 93 ; Thorpe's Cat. of Ancient MSS. <1835),No. 869.] T.C.
IVIE, EDWARD (1678-1745), Latin poet, born in 1678, was admitted a founda- tion scholar of Westminster School in 1692, and was elected in 1696 to a scholarship at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1700 and M.A. in 1702. After taking orders he was appointed chaplain to Dr. Smalridge, bishop of Bristol. He was instituted on 27 March 1717 to the vicarage of Floore, Northamptonshire, where he died on 11 June 1745, aged 67.
He was well known to scholars by his * Epicteti Enchiridion, Latinisversibus adum- bratum,' Oxford, 1715, 8vo; 1723, 8vo; re- printed, with Simpson's ' Epictetus,' Oxford,
1804, 8vo, which was undertaken on the idvice of Bishop Smalridge, to whom it is ledicated. Ivie also contributed 'Articuli
5acis,' a poem, to the ' Examen Poeticum,'
698.
[Gent. Mag. xv. 332 ; Baker's Northampton- lire, i. 157; Welch's Alumni Westmon. (Philli- ore), pp. 222, 231; Cat. of Oxford Graduates; owndes's Bibl. Man. (Bohn), p. 745.] T. C.
VOL. XXIX.
IVIMEY, JOSEPH (1773-1834), baptist minister and historian, eldest of eight chil- dren of Charles Ivimey (d. 24 Oct. 1820) by his wife Sarah Tilly (d. 1830), was born at Ringwood, Hampshire, on 22 May 1773. His father was a tailor, of spendthrift habits. Ivimey was brought up under Arian influ- ences, but his convictions led him towards the Calvinistic baptists, and on 16 Sept. 1790 he received adult baptism from John Saffery at Wimborne, Dorsetshire. He fol- lowed his father's trade at Lymington, Hampshire, whither he removed on 4 June 1791. In April 1793 he sought employment in London ; he finally left Lymington in 1794 for Portsea, Hampshire. Here he be- came an itinerant preacher, visiting in this capacity many towns in the district. Early in 1803 he was recognised as a minister, and settled as assistant to one Lovegrove at Wallingford, Berkshire. He was chosen pastor of the particular baptist church, Eagle Street, Holborn, on 21 Oct. 1804, and was or- dained on 16 Jan. 1805. From 1812 he acted on the committee of the Baptist Missionary Society. On 19 April 1814 the Baptist So- ciety for Promoting the Gospel in Ireland was formed. Ivimey was the first secretary (an honorary office) ; he visited Ireland in May 1814, and retained the secretaryship till 3 Oct. 1833. In 181 7, and again in 1819, he made missionary journeys to the Channel islands. At Portsea, on 18 Aug. 1820, his father and mother received adult baptism at his hands. He was a conscientious minister, but his strictness caused in 1827 a secession of some fifty or sixty members from his church. His views on religious liberty were not equal to the strain of Roman catholic emancipation ; on this ground he had opposed the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, and at length separated himself from the ' three denominations,' after their meeting at Dr. Williams's Library on 20 Jan. 1829, to promote the emancipation of Roman catho- lics. He warmly advocated the abolition of colonial slavery ; and, to commemorate the abolition, foundation-stones of Sunday- school premises and almshouses, in connec- tion with Eagle Street Church, were laid on 12 Nov. 1833. Ivimey died on 8 Feb. 1834, and was buried on 15 Feb. at Bunhill Fields. A tablet to his memory was placed in the boys' schoolroom at Eagle Street. He mar- ried, first, on 7 July 1795, Sarah Bramble (d. 1806), by whom he had two sons and four daughters : a son and daughter survived him ; secondly, on 7 Jan. 1808, Anne Price (d. 22 Jan. 1820), a widow (whose maiden name was Spence) with three children : by her he had no issue.
o
Ivo 82
Ivory
Ivitney was a rapid -writer, and from 1808, when he began to publish, a very prolific one. His historical account of English bap- tists was projected in 1809, primarily with a biographical aim. The work swelled to four volumes 8vo (1811-30), and contains a great deal of information, to be used with caution. George Gould [q. v.] has severely criticised its ' blunders and contradictions,' asserting that Ivimey is apt to get into ' a maze of mistakes ' except when he follows Crosby.
Other of his publications are: 1. 'The History of Hannah,' £c., 1808, 12mo. 2. ' A Brief Sketch of the History of Dissenters,' &c., 1810, 12mo. 3. 'A Plea for the Protestant Canon of Scripture,' &c., 1825, 8vo. 4. 'The Life of Mr. John Bunyan,' &c., 1825, 12mo. 5. ' Communion at the Lord's Table,' &c., 1826, 8vo (against open communion, in reply to Robert Hall). 6. ' Pilgrims of the Nine- teenth Century,' &c., 1827, 12mo (intended as a continuation of Bunyan's ' Pilgrim's Progress '). 7. ' Letters on the Serampore Controversy,' &c., 1831, 8vo. 8. 'The Triumph of the Bible in Ireland,' &c., 1832, 8vo. 9. ' The utter Extinction of Slavery,' &c., 1832, 8vo. 10. 'John Milton ; his Life and Times,' &c., 1833, 8vo ; republished in America. Also many single sermons and tracts, including funeral sermons for Wil- liam Button and Daniel Humphrey (both 1821) ; memoirs of Caleb Vernon (1811), "William Fox of the Sunday School Society (1831), and William Kiffin (1833) ; and anti- papal pamphlets (1819, 1828, 1829). He contributed to the ' Baptist Magazine ' from 1809, using generally the signature ' Iota ; ' from 1812 he was one of the editors. He edited, among other works, the 4th edition, 1827, 12mo, of 'Persecution for Religion,' by Thomas Helwys [q. v.], originally published 1615; Bunyan's 'Pilgrim's Progress . . . with . . . Notes,' &c., 1821, 12mo, and the 1692 'Life of ... John Bunyan,' &c., 1832, 12mo.
[Memoir, by George Pritchard, 1835; Monthly Repository, 1829, pp. 426 sq. ;] Gould's Open Com- munion, 1860, pp. xcvii sq.] A. G.
IVO OP GBANTMEsifiL (fl. 1101), crusader. [See under HUGH, d. 1094, called of Grant- mesnil.]
IVOR HAEL, or the GENEROUS (d. 1361), patron of Welsh literature, and particularly of his nephew, the poet Dafydd ap Gwilym [q. v.], was lord of Maesaleg (Bassaleg), Y Wenallt, and Gwernycleppa in Monmouth- shire, being the second son of Llewelyn ab Ivor of Tredegar, by Angharad, daughter of Sir Morgan ab Meredith. He married Nest, daughter of Rhys ab Grono ab Llywarch (his elder brother, Morgan, marrying her sister),
and founded the cadet branch of Gwerny- cleppa. He died in 1361, and it is often er- roneously stated that he left no issue behind him (Sarddoniaeth, ed. Jones, p. vi), but he had a long line of descendants, in whose possession Gwernycleppa remained until it was sold, 15 Oct. 1733, to a descendant of Ivor's elder brother, from whom Lord Tre- degar claims descent.
Ivor is the hero of much absurd fiction. Dafydd ap Gwilym is said to have fallen in love with his daughter, who was sent to a nunnery in Anglesey in order to prevent an alliance, while Dafydd was still retained in Ivor's household as family bard and land steward. This story is, however, probably based upon a mistaken interpretation of some of Dafydd's poems. Under Ivor's patronage was held, about 1328, at Gwernycleppa the first of the ' three Eisteddfods of the Renas- cence'of Welsh poetry (Tair Eisteddfod Da- deni).
At least nine poems were addressed by Dafydd ap Gwilym to Ivor and members of his family, and the same poet wrote elegies on the death of Ivor and Nest, his wife.
[Clark's Genealogies of Glamorgan, pp. 310, 329 ; Barddoniaeth Dafydd ap Gwilym, ed. Jones, Introduction; Llenddiaeth y Cymry, byGweirydd. ab Khys.] D. LL. T.
IVORY, SAETC (d. 500?). [See IBHAK. or IBEBIUS.]
IVORY, SIK JAMES (1765-1842), mathe- matician, born in Dundee in 1765, was the eldest son of James Ivory, a watchmaker there. At the age of fourteen he matriculated at St. Andrews University, and after six years' study with a view to becoming a minister of the Scottish Church, went to Edinburgh to com- plete his theological course, accompanied by John (afterwards Sir John) Leslie (1766- 1832) [q. T.], a fellow-student at Aberdeen, who like himself had already evinced a strong mathematical bias. Ivory returned to Dundee in 1786, and for three years taught in the principal school, introducing the study of algebra, and raising the standard of general instruction. He afterwards joined in starting a flax-spinning mill at Douglastown, on the Carbet, near Forfar, and acted as managing partner. Ivory devoted all his leisure to ma- thematical work, especially to analysis as it was then taught on the continent, and Henry Brougham, at the time a young advocate, cul- tivated his acquaintance, and visited him at Brigton, near the flax-factory, when on his way to the Aberdeen circuit. Four mathe- matical papers of his, the first dated 7 Nov. 1796, were read to the Royal Society of Edin-
Ivory
burgh at this time, on rectifying the ellipse, solution of a cubic, and of Kepler's problem, &c. (Edinb. Roy. Soc. Trans, iv. 177-90, v. 20-2, 99-118, 203-46).
The flax-spinning partnership was dissolved in 1804, and soon afterwards Ivory was ap- pointed professor of mathematics in the Royal Military College, then at Marlow, Bucking- hamshire, and subsequently removed to Sand- hurst. His work at the Royal Military Col- lege was thorough and successful, though the higher parts of the science were considered by some to absorb too much of his attention. He prepared an edition of Euclid's ' Elements ' for military students, which simplified the geo- metrical treatment of proportion and solids. Resigning his professorship in 1819, he was allowed the full retiring pension, although his period of office was shorter than the rule required.
Ivory's skill in applying the infinitesimal calculus to physical investigations gave him a place beside Laplace, Lagrange, and Le- gendre. In 1809 Ivory read his first paper to the Royal Society, enouncing a theorem which has since borne his name, and which completely resolves the problem of attractions for all classes of ellipsoids. Ivory's theorem was received on the continent ' with respect and admiration.' He received three gold medals from the Royal Society, of which he was elected fellow in 1815: viz. the Copley, in 1814, after showing a new method of deter- mining a comet's orbit ; the royal medal, in 1826, for a paper on refractions, which was acknowledged by Laplace to evince masterly skill in analysis ; and the royal medal a second time in 1839, for his ' Theory of As- tronomical Refractions,' which formed the Bakerian lecture of 1838. Fifteen papers by Ivory are printed in the 'Philosophical Transactions.' All are characterised by clear- ness and elegance in the methods employed (Phil. Trans. 1812, 1814, 1822, 1824, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1838, 1842; TILLOCH, Phil. Mag. 1821, &c. ; Quarterly Journal of Science, 1822, &c.)
In 1831, on the recommendation of Lord Brougham, then lord chancellor, Ivory re- ceived the honour of knighthood, in company with Herschel and Brewster, and his civil list pension was at the same time raised to 300J. a year. Ivory was elected member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of France, the Royal Academy of Berlin, and the Royal Society of Gottingen.
In 1829 he made an offer of his scientific library to the corporation of Dundee, his native town, and as there was then no public building suitable for the purpose, James, lord Ivory [q. v.], his nephew and heir, kept the
3 Ivory
books in his own collection, until his death in 1866, when they became part of the Dun- dee public library in the Albert Institute. Ivory died unmarried at Hampstead, London, on 21 Sept. 1842.
[Nome's Dundee Celebrities, p. 70 ; Weld's Hist. Koy. Soc. pp. 570, 573 ; private informa- tion.] K. E. A.
IVORY, JAMES, LOED IVORY (1792- 1866), Scottish judge, son of Thomas Ivory, watchmaker and engraver, was born in Dun- dee in 1792. Sir James Ivory [q. v.] the mathematician was his uncle. After at- tending the Dundee academy he studied for the legal profession at Edinburgh University, was admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates in 1816, and in that year was en- rolled as a burgess of his native town. When, in 1819, the select committee of the House of Commons was engaged in making inquiries into the state of the Scottish burghs, Ivory was examined with reference to the municipal condition of Dundee, and strongly advocated the abolition of self-election, which was then prevalent in the town councils of Scotland, and continued in force till 1833. Ivory was chosen advocate-depute by Francis Jeffrey, lord advocate, in 1830; two years afterwards he was appointed sheriff of Caithness, and in 1833 was transferred to a similar office in Buteshire. He was solicitor-general of Scot- land under Lord Melbourne's ministry in 1839, was made a lord-ordinary of session in the following year, and sat as j udge in the court of exchequer. In 1 849 he was appointed a lord of justiciary (taking the title of Lord Ivory), and served both in the court of ses- sion and the high court of justiciary until his retirement in October 1862. For several years before that date he was the senior judge of both courts. Ivory died at Edinburgh on 18 Oct. 1866. He married, in 1817, a daugh- ter of Alexander Lawrie, deputy gazette writer for Scotland. His eldest son, William Ivory, has long been sheriff of Inverness-shire.
As a lawyer Ivory was distinguished by the subtlety of his reasoning, his minute- ness of detail, and profound erudition. He was not a fluent orator, but in the early part of his career, when legal argument was con- ducted in writing, he obtained a high repu- tation.
[Millar's Eoll of Eminent Burgesses of Dun- dee, p. 249 ; Norrie's Dundee Celebrities, p. 273 ; Dundee Advertiser, 19 Oct. 1866.] A. H. M.
IVORY, THOMAS (1709-1779), archi- tect, practised his profession in Norwich. He was admitted a freeman of the town as a car- penter 21 Sept. 1745. He lived in the parish
Ivory
84
Izacke
of St. Helen. At Norwich he designed the assembly house (1754), afterwards used as the Freemasons' Hall (lithograph by James Sillett of Norwich ; view on King's map of Norwich, 1766 ; on reduced scale in BOOTH, Norwich, 1768, frontispiece); the Octagon Chapel in Colegate Street (1754-6), a hand- some building in the Corinthian style (views, Sillett, King, and Booth, as above) ; and the theatre (1757), called Concert Hall before 1764, of which he is said to have been the proprietor. The interior of the last was a copy of the old Drury Lane Theatre, and Ivory is said to have been assisted in his design by Sir James Burrough (1691-1764) [q. v.] (view on King's map of Norwich; BOOTH, ii. 13). He obtained a license for his company of players to perform in Norwich in 1768, and in the same year ' Mr. Ivory of Northwitch' sent competition drawings for the erection of the Royal Exchange in Dublin (MTTLVAXY, Life of Gandon, p. 30). Ivory is also said to have designed the Nor- folk and Norwich Hospital. He died at Norwich on 28 Aug. 1779. His widow died on 18 June 1787, aged 80. A handsome monument to their memory is in the cathedral. In his will Ivory is described as ' builder and timber merchant.' Of his two sons, Thomas was in the revenue office, Fort William, j Bengal, and William, architect and builder j in Norwich, erected a pew in St. Helen's | Church in 1780, and died in King Edward VI Almsliouses, Saffron Walden, on 11 Dec. 1837, aged 90.
[Redgrave's Diet, of Artists ; Diet, of Architec- ture ; Browne's Norwich, 1814, pp. 47, 49, 124, 149 ; Woodward's Norfolk Topographer's Manual, pp. 110, 113, 114; Booth's Norwich, ii. 602; Stacy's Norwich, p. 94 ; Gough's Brit. Topogr. ii. 13; Architectural Mag. 1837, p. 96; Probate Eegistry, Norwich ; information from the Eev. Albert J. Porter, T. E. Tallack, esq., and Lionel Cust, esq.] B. P.
IVORY, THOMAS (d. 1786), architect, is said to have been self-educated. He prac- tised in Dublin, and was appointed master of architectural drawing in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society in 1759. He held the post till his death, and among his pupils was Sir Martin Archer Shee [q. v.] In 1765 he prepared designs (plate in Gent. Mag. 1786, fig. i. p. 217) and an estimate for additional buildings to the society's premises in Shaw's Court, but these were not executed. Ivory's principal work was the King's Hospital in Blackball Place (commonly known as the Blue Coat Hospital), a handsome building in the classic style. The first stone was laid on 16 June 1773, but from want of funds the central cupola has never been finished. The
chapel and board-room are especially beauti- ful ; in the latter some of Ivory's drawings of the design hung for many years, but are now in a dilapidated condition (cf. in AVARBTTRTOX, Dublin, i. 564-71 ; thirteen neatly prepared drawings, signed Thomas Ivory, 1776, in the King's Library; plate, with cupola and steeple as intended, in MALTOST , Dublin ; elevation of east front in POOL and CASH, Dublin, p. 67). He designed Lord Newcomen's bank, built in 1781, at the corner of Castle Street and Cork Street (Gent. Mag. 1788, fig. iii. p. 1069). The building is now the public health office. The Hibernian Marine School, usually attributed to him, was probably the work of T. Cooley [q. v.] He made a drawing of Lord Charlemont's Casino at Marino, near Dublin (designed by Sir W. Chambers), which was engraved by E. Rooker. Ivory died in Dublin in December 1786. In the board- room of the King's Hospital is a picture (as- signed to 1775) representing Ivory and eight others sitting at or standing round a table on which a^ e spread plans of the new build- ing.
[Redgrave's Diet, of Artists (in which Ivory is erroneously called James) ; Diet, of Architec- ture ; Bye-Laws and Ordinances of the Dublin Society, p. 12; Gilbert's Hist, of Dublin, i. 26, ii. 301-2, iii. 222 ; Warburton, Whitelaw, and Walsh's Hist, of Dublin, i. 566-7; Pasqnin's Artists of Ireland; Hibernian Mag. 1786, p. 672; Herbert's Irish Varieties, pp. 57, 63 ; informa- tion from G. E. Armstrong, esq., King's Hospital, Dublin.] B. P.
IZACKE, RICHARD (1624 P-1700 ?), antiquary, born about 1624, was the eldest son of Samuel Izacke of Exeter, and appa- rently a member of the Inner Temple (1617). On 20 April 1641 he was admitted a com- moner of Exeter College, Oxford, but left the university at the end of the following year on account of the civil war. He had in the meantime entered himself at the Inner Temple (November 1641), and was called to the bar in 1650 (CooKE, Inner Temple Stu- dents, 1547-1660, pp. 218, 310). In 1653 he became chamberlain of Exeter, and town- clerk about 1682 (WooD, Athenee Oxon. ed. Bliss, iv. 489). His father, to whom he had behaved badly, left him at his death in 1681 or 1682 a house in Trinity parish, Exeter, and leasehold property in Tipton, Ottery St. Mary, on condition of his future good con- duct towards his stepmother, brothers, and sisters (will registered in P. C. C. 34, Cottle). Izacke is stated to have died 'about 1700.' By his wife Katherine he had, with other issue, a son, Samuel, who also became cham- berlain of Exeter. He wrote: 1. 'Anti-
Jack
quities of the City of Exeter,' 8vo, London, 1677 (with different title-page, 1681). Other editions, 'improved and continued' by his son, Samuel Izacke, were issued in 1723, 1724, 1731, 1734, and 1741. The book is a careless compilation. 2. 'An Alphabetical Register of divers Persons, who by their last Wills, Grants, . . . and other Deeds, &c., have given Tenements, Rents, Annuities, and Monies towards the Relief of the Poor of the
; Jack
County of Devon and City and County of Exon,' 8vo, London, 1736, printed from the original manuscript by Samuel Izacke, the author's grandson. It was reprinted with another title, ' Rights and Priviledges of the Freemen of Exeter,' &c., 8vo, London, 1751 and 1757 ; and enlarged editions were pub- lished at Exeter, 1785, 4to, and 1820, 8vo.
[Cough's British Topography, i. 305; David- sou's Bibl. Devon.] G. G.
JACK, ALEXANDER (1805-1857), brigadier, a victim of the Cawnpore massacre, was grandson of William Jack, minister of Northmavine, Shetland. His father, the Rev. William Jack (d. 9 Feb. 1854) (Ml). Edin- burgh), was sub-principal of University and King's colleges, Aberdeen, 1800-15, and principal 1815-54. Principal Jack married in 1794 Grace, daughter of Andrew Bolt of Lerwick, Shetland, by whom he had six children. Alexander, one of four sons, was born on 19 Oct. 1805, was a student in mathematics and philosophy at King's Col- lege, Aberdeen, in 1820-2, and is remem- bered by a surviving class-fellow as a tall, handsome, soldierly young man. He obtained a Bengal cadetship in 1823, was appointed ensign in the (late) 30th Bengal native in- fantry 23 May 1824, and became lieutenant in the regiment 30 Aug. 1825, captain 2 Dec. 1832, and major and brevet-lieutenant-colo- nel 19 June 1846. He was present with his battalion at the battle of Aliwal (medal), and acted as brigadier of the force sent against the town and fort of Kangra in the Punjab, when he received great credit for his extraordinary exertions in bringing up his 18-pouiider guns, which he had been re- commended to leave behind. The march was said ' to reflect everlasting credit on the Ben- gal artillery' (BUCKLE, Hist, of the Bengal Art. p. 520). Some views of the place taken by Jack were published under the title ' Six Sketches of Kot-Kangra, drawn on the spot ' (London, 1847, fol.) Jack was in command of his battalion in the second Sikh war, in- cluding the battles of Chillianwalla and Goojerat (medal and clasps and C.B.) He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in the (late) 34th Bengal native infantry 18 Dec. 1851. He became colonel 20 June 1854, and on 18 July 1856 was appointed brigadier at Cawnpore, the headquarters of Sir Hugh Wlieeler's division of the Bengal army. On 7 June 1857 the mutiny broke out at Cawn-
pore. Wheeler maintained his position in an entrenched camp till the 27th, when an attempted evacuation was made in accord- ance with an arrangement entered into with Nana Sahib. After the troops had embarked in boats for Allahabad, the mutineers trea- cherously shot down Jack and all the Eng- lishmen except four. During the previous defence of the lines a brother, Andrew Wil- liam Thomas Jack, who was on a visit from Australia, had his leg shattered, and suc- cumbed under amputation.
[Information supplied through the courtesy of the registrar of Aberdeen University ; East Indian Registers and Army Lists ; Buckle's Hist, of the Bengal Art. ed. Kaye, London, 1852; Kaye'sHist. of the Indian Mutiny, ed. (1888-9) Malleson, ii. 217-68 ; Mowbray Thorn son's Story of Cawnpore, London, 1859 ; Gent. Mag. 3rd ser. iii. 565.] H. M. C.
JACK, GILBERT, M.D. (1578P-1628), metaphysician and medical writer, born in Aberdeen about 1578, was son of Andrew Jack, merchant. After attending Aberdeen grammar school, he became a student in Marischal College. By the advice of Robert Howie, the principal, Jack proceeded to the continent, and studied first at the college of Helmstadt, and then at Herborn, where he graduated. Attracted by the high reputa- tion of the newly founded university of Leyden, he enrolled himself a student on 25 May 1603 (Leyden Students, Index Soc., p. 53), and after acting as a private lecturer, he became in 1604 professor of philosophy. He at the same time diligently prosecuted his own studies, particularly in medicine, and proceeded M.D. in 1611. His inaugural dis- sertation, 'De Epilepsia,' was printed at Leyden during the same year. Jack was the first who taught metaphysics at Leyden, and his lectures gained him such celebrity that in 1621 he was offered the Whyte's pro- fessorship of moral philosophy at Oxford, then lately founded, but he declined it, He
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died at Leyden on 17 April 1628, leaving a widow and ten children. At his funeral on 21 April Professor Adolf Vorst pronounced an eloquent Latin oration. His portrait ap- pears in vol. ii. of Freher's ' Theatrum.'
Jack published : 1. ' Institutions Physicse,' 12mo, Leyden, 1614 ; other editions, 1624, Amsterdam, 1644. 2. ' Primse Philosophise Institutions,' 8vo, Leyden, 1616 ; other edi- tions, 1628 and 1640, which he prepared at the suggestion of his friend Grotius. 3. ' In- stitutiones Medicae,' 12mo, Leyden, 1624; another edition, 1631.
[Paul Freher's Theatrum Virorum Eruditions Clarorum, 1688, ii. 1353 ; Vorst's Oratio Fune- bris ; Icones ac Vitae Professorum Lugd. Batav. 1617, pt. ii. pp. 29-30 ; Waller's Imperial Diet. ; Evans's Cat. of Engraved Portraits, ii. 216; Granger's Biog. Hist, of England, 2nd edit., ii. 5 ; Anderson's Scottish Nation.] GK Gr.
JACK, THOMAS (d. 1598), |cottish schoolmaster, was appointed minister of Rutherglen in the presbytery of Glasgow, in 1567, and subsequently became master of Glasgow grammar school. In 1570 he was presented by James VI to the vicarage of Eastwood in the presbytery of Paisley, and in August 1 574 resigned his mastership. In 1577 his name occurs as quaestor of Glasgow University, along with the record of his gift of the works of St. Ambrose and St. Gregory to the university. In 1582 he was an oppo- nent of the appointment of Robert Mont- gomery as archbishop of Glasgow, and from 1581 to 1590 he was thrice member of the general assemblies, and in 1589 a commis- sioner for the preservation of the true re- ligion. He was imprisoned before 1591 with Dalgleish, Patrick Melville, and others. He died in 1598. His widow, Euphemia Wylie, survived till 1608, and a daughter, Elizabeth, became the wife of Patrick Sharpe, principal of Glasgow University. While master of Glas- gow grammar school, Jack began a dictionary in Latin hexameter verse of proper names oc- curring in the classics. Andrew Melville en- couraged and helped him ; and he tells us that when he called on George Buchanan at Stir- ling, the great man interrupted his history of Scotland, the sheets of which were lying on the table, to correct Jack's book with his own hand. Robert Pont, Hadrian Damman, and other scholars also gave their aid. The dictionary, a work of considerable scholar- ship, was finally published as ' Onomasticon Poeticum, sive Propriorum quibus in suis Monumentis usi sunt veteres poetse, brevis descriptio poetica, Thoma lacchseo Caledonio Authore. Edinburgi excudebat Robertus Waldegrave,' 1592, 4to.
[M'Crie's Life of Melville, 1824, i. 444, ii. 365, 478 ; Hew Scott's Fasti Ecclesise Scoticanse, vol. ii. pt. i. pp. 78, 210 ; Chambers's Biog. Diet, of Eminent Scotsmen, 1869; Tanner's Bibl. Brit. p. 426 ; R. Baillie's Letters and Journals, iii. 403 ; Wodrow's Collections upon the Lives of the Reformers, &c., i. 179, 529.] E. B.
JACK, WILLIAM (1795-1822),botanist, was born at Aberdeen 29 Jan. 1795, and re- ceived his early education at that university. At sixteen years of age he graduated M.A., but an attack of scarlet fever prevented him from going to study medicine at Edinburgh. He came to London in October 1811, and passed his examination as surgeon in the next year. Having been appointed surgeon in the Bengal medical service, he left for his post on his eighteenth birthday. He went through the Nepal war in 1814—15, and after further service in other parts of India, he met Sir Stamford Raffles at Calcutta in 1818, and accompanied him to Sumatra to investi- gate the botany of the island. Broken down by fatigue and exposure, he embarked for the Cape, but died the day following (15 Sept. 1822). He published some papers on Malayan plants in the scarce ' Malayan Miscellanies ' (two volumes printed in 1820-1 at Ben- coolen), and these were reprinted by Sir W. J. Hooker thirteen years later. Jack's name is commemorated in the genus Jackia, Wallich.
[Hooker's Comp. Bot. Mag. i. 122; Hooker and Thomson's Flora Indica, i. 48.] B. D. J.
JACKMAN, ISAAC (fl. 1795), journal- ist and dramatist, born about the middle of the eighteenth century in Dublin, prac- tised as an attorney there. He ultimately removed to London and wrote for the stage. His ' Milesian,' a comic opera, on its produc- tion at Drury Lane on 20 March 1777, met with an indifferent reception (Biog. Dramat. ; GEXEST, Engl. Stage, \. 554). It was pub- lished in 1777. ' All the World's a Stage,' a farce by Jackman in two acts and in prose, was first acted at Drury Lane, 7 April 1777, and was frequently revived. Genest (t'6.) characterises it as an indifferent piece, which met with more success than it deserved. It was printed in 1777, and reprinted in Bell's ' British Theatre ' and other collections. ' The Divorce,' ' a moderate farce, well received,' produced at Drury Lane 10 Nov. 1781, and afterwards twice revived, was printed in 1781 (ib. vi. 214). ' Hero and Leander,' a burletta by Jackman (in two acts, prose and verse), was produced ' with the most distinguished applause,' says the printed copy, at the Royalty Theatre, Goodman's Fields, in 1787. Jackman prefixed a long dedication to Phillips
Jackson *
Glover of AVispington, Lincolnshire, in the shape of a letter on ' Royal and Royalty Theatres,' purporting to prove the illegality of the opposition of the existing theatres to one just opened by Palmer in Wellclose Square, Tower Hamlets. Jackman seems to be one of two young Irishmen who edited the ' Morning Post ' for a few years between 1786 and 1795, and involved the printer and proprietor in several libel cases (Fox BOURNE, Hist, of Newspapers ; JOHN TAYLOK, Record of my Life, ii. 268).
[Authorities in text ; Webb's Irish Biography, •quoting Dublin Univ. Mag.] J. T-T.
JACKSON, ABRAHAM (1589-1646?), divine, born in 1589, was son of a Devon- shire clergyman. He matriculated at Oxford from Exeter College on 4 Dec. 1607 (Or/. Univ. Reg., Oxf. Hist. Soc., vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 299) ; graduated B.A. in 1611 ; became chap- lain to the Lords Harington of Exton, Rut- land ; and proceeded M. A. when chaplain of Christ Church in 1616 (ib. vol. ii. pt. iii. p. 303). In 1618 he was lecturer at Chelsea, Middlesex. On 18 Sept. 1640 he was ad- mitted prebendary of Peterborough (LE NEVE, Fasti, ed. Hardy, ii. 546), and appa- rently died in 1645-6.
Jackson wrote : 1. ' Sorrowes Lenitive ; an Elegy on the Death of John, Lord Harring- ton,' 8vo, London, 1614. In dedicating it to Lucy, countess of Bedford, and Lady Anne Harington, Jackson observes that he has addressed them before in a similar work. 2. ' God's Call for Man's Heart,' 8vo, London, 1618. 3. ' The Pious Prentice . . . wherein is declared how they that intend to be Pren- tices may rightly enter into that calling, faithfully abide in it,' &c., 12mo, London, 1640.
[Wood's Athense Oxon. ed. Bliss, ii. 267-8 ; Bodleian Libr. Cat.] G. G.
JACKSON, ARTHUR (1593?-1666), ejected divine, was born at Little Walding- fi'eld, Suffolk, about 1593. He early lost his father, a Spanish merchant in London ; his mother (whose second husband was Sir T. Crooke, bart.) died in Ireland. His uncle and guardian, Joseph Jackson of Edmonton, Middlesex, sent him to Trinity College, Cam- bridge. His tutor was inefficient, but Jack- son was studious and obtained his degrees. In 1619 he left Cambridge, married, and be- came lecturer, and subsequently rector, at St. Michael's, "Wood Street, London. He was also chaplain to the Clothworkers' Company, preaching once a quarter in this capacity at Lamb's Chapel, where he celebrated the com- munion on a common turn-up table. He
j Jackson
declined to read the ' book of sports.' Laud remonstrated with him, but, as Jackson was ' a quiet peaceable man,' took no action against him. His parochial diligence was exemplary ; he remained amidst his flock during the plague of 1624. He accepted the rectory of St. Faith's under St. Paul's, vacant about 1642 by the sequestration of Jonathan Brown, LL.D., dean of Hereford, who died in 1643. Under the presbyterian regime Jack- son was a member of the first London classis, and was on the committee of the London provincial assembly.
He was a strong royalist, signing both of the manifestos of January 1648-9 against the trial of Charles. In 1651 he got into trouble by refusing to give evidence against Chris- topher Love [q. v.] The high court of jus- tice fined him 50CM., and sent him to the Fleet (Baxter says the Tower) for seventeen weeks. At the Restoration he waited at the head of die city clergy to present a bible to Charles ft as he passed through St. Paul's Churchyard (in Jackson's parish) on his entry into London. He opposed the nonconformist vote of thanks for the king's declaration, being of opinion that any approbation of pre- lacy was contrary to the covenant. In 1661 he was a commissioner on the presbyterian side at the Savoy conference. The Unifor- mity Act of 1662 ejected him from his living, and Jackson retired to Hadley, Middlesex, afterwards removing to his son's house at Edmonton. He does not appear to have preached in conventicles, but devoted himself to exegetical studies. Since his college days he had been accustomed to rise at three or four o'clock, winter and summer, and would spend fourteen, and sometimes sixteen, hours a day in study. He died on 5 Aug. 1666, aged 73. He married the eldest daughter of T. Bownert of Stonebury, Hertfordshire, who survived him, and by her he had three sons and five daughters.
Jackson published : 1 . ' Help for the Under- standing of the Holy Scripture ; or, Annota- tions on the Historicall part of the Old Tes- tament,' &c., Cambridge and London, 1643, 4to ; 2nd vol., 1646, 4to. 2. ' Annotations on Job, the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon,' &c., 1658, 4to, 2 vols. Posthumous was : 3. ' Annotations upon . . . Isaiah,' &c., 1682, 4to (edited by his son).
[Memoir by his son, John Jackson, prefixed to Annotations upon Isaiah ; Reliquiae Baxterianae, 1696, i. 67, ii. 284 ; Calamy's Account, 1713, pp. 3 sq.; Calamy's Continuation, 1727, i. 7; Walker's Sufferings of the Clergy, 1714, ii. 34 ; Palmer's Nonconformist's Memorial, 1802, i. 120 sq. ; Neal's Hist, of the Puritans, 1822, iii. 280, 325, iv. 374.] A. G.
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JACKSON, ARTHUR HERBERT (1852-1881), composer, born in 1852, was a student from 1872 of the Royal Academy of Music, where he won among other honours the Lucas medal for composition, and was elected in 1878 a professor of harmony and composition. During his short life Jackson accomplished work of a high order of merit. He died, aged 29, on 27 Sept. 1881.
His manuscript orchestral compositions were : ' Andante and Allegro Giocoso,' pub- lished for the piano, 1881 ; overture to the ' Bride of Abydos ; ' ' Intermezzo ; ' concerto for pianoforte and orchestra (played by Miss Agnes Zimmermann at the Philharmonic Society's concert, 30 June 1880, the piano- forte part published in the same year) ; violin concerto in E, played by Sainton at Cowen's orchestral concert, 4 Dec. 1880. For the pianoforte he published : ' Toccata,' 1874 ; < March ' and ' Waltz,' Brighton, 1878 ; 'In a boat,' barcarolle, 'Elaine,' 1879; 'An- dante con variazione,' 1880 ; ' Capriccio ; ' ' Gavotte ' and ' Musette,' and ' Song of the Stream,' Brighton, 1880 ; three ' Humorous Sketches,' 1880 ; and fugue in E,both for four hands; three 'Danses Grotesques,' 1881. His vocal pieces are: manuscript, two masses for male voices; 'Magnificat;' cantata, 'Jason,' ' The Siren's Song,' for female voices, harp, violin, and pianoforte, published 1885 ; ' 'Twas when the seas were roaring,' four-part song, 1882 ; ' O Nightingale,' duet ; and songs : ' Lullaby,' ' Who knows ? ' ' I meet thee, love, again' (1879), 'Pretty little Maid,' ' The Lost Boat,'
[Musical Times, xxii. 581 ; Brown's Biogra- phical Dictionary, p. 342 ; Athen?eum, 1880, p. 2?.] L. M. M.
JACKSON, CHARLES (1809-1882), antiquary, was born 25 July 1809, and came of an old Yorkshire family long connected with Doncaster, where both his grandfather and his father filled the office of mayor. He was the third son of the large family of James Jackson, banker, by Henrietta Priscilla, se- cond daughter of Freeman Bower of Baw- try. In 1829 he was admitted of Lincoln's Inn, and called to the bar there in 1834, but settled as a banker at Doncaster. He was treasurer of the borough from 1 838, and trustee of numerous institutions, taking a chief share in establishing the Doncaster free library. He suffered severe losses by the failure of Overend, Gurney, & Co. Jackson died at Doncaster 1 Dec. 1882. By his marriage with a daughter of Hugh Parker of Wood- thorpe, Yorkshire, he left four sons and four daughters.
For the Surtees Society Jackson edited, in
1870, the 'Diary of Abraham de la Pryme, the Yorkshire Antiquary;' in 1873 the ' Autobiography of Mrs. A. Thornton,' &c. ; and in 1877 ' Yorkshire Diaries and Auto- biographies of the 17th and 18th Centuries.' He was engaged at the time of his death in editing for the society a memoir of the Priestley family. Jackson also contributed to the ' Yorkshire Archreological Journal ' a paper on Sir Robert Swift and a memoir of the Rev. Thomas Broughton, as well as papers on local muniments (abstracts of deeds in, the possession of Mr. James Montagu of Melton-on-the-IIill) and on the Stovin MS. His chief work, however, was his ' Doncaster Charities, Past and Present,' which was not published until 1881 (Worksop, 4to), though it was written long before. To it a portrait is prefixed.
[Doncaster Chron. 8 Dec. 1882; Athenaeum, 16 Dec. 1882 ; Times, 15 Dec. 1882 ; Notes and Queries, 6th ser. vi. 500.] J. T-T.
JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819), dean, of Christ Church, Oxford, born in Yorkshire in 1746, was the elder son of Cyril Jackson, M.D. (who lived successively at Halifax,. York, and Stamford). Hismotherwas Judith Prescot, widow of William Rawson of Jsidd, Hall and Bradford, who died in 1745, leaving to her the estate and manor of Shipley in the parish of Bradford. This property passed, to her sons, Cyril and William Jackson(1751— 1815) [q. v.], and afterwards came into the hands of John Wilmer Field (BuKKE, Com- moners, ii. 47). Some letters to and from the father on scientific matters are in Nichols's ' Illustrations of Literature,' iii. 353-6. He- died 17 Dec. 1797, aged 80, and was buried at St. Martin's, Stamford, on 22 Dec., his wife having previously died on 6 March 1785, at the age of sixty-six.
Cyril was, after some slight teaching at. Halifax, admitted into Manchester grammar school on 6 Feb. 1755 (cf. Manchester School Register, Chetham Soc., i. 62-4). He soon- migrated to Westminster School, and in 1760 became a king's scholar on its foundation. Here he was known as one of Dr. William. Markham's two favourite pupils, and to his master's favour he was partly indebted for his success in life. In 1764 he was elected a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge ; but with the prospect of a studentship at Christ Church,. Oxford, he matriculated there as a commoner on 26 June 1764, and the following Christ- mas was appointed student. He graduated BA. 1768, M.A. 1771, B.D. 1777, and D.D. 1781.
When Markham was selected as precep- tor to the two eldest sons of George III,.
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Jackson became, on his recommendation, the sub-preceptor (12 April 1771). From this position he was dismissed in 1776, when all the other persons holding similar places about the princes resigned their posts ; but his salary was paid to him for some time afterwards. The Duke of York told Samuel Rogers that Jackson conscien- tiously did his duty (Recollections of Table- talk of Rogers, pp. 162-3). John Nicholls attributes his removal to the peevishness of the Earl of Holdernesse, the governor of the prince, and considered i't ' a national cala- mity ' (Recollections, i. 393-4). Jackson after- wards took holy orders, and from 17 May 1779 to 1783 held the preachership at Lin- coln's Inn. In 1779 he was also created canon of Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1783 became dean, whereupon the Prince of Wales wrote a letter of thanks to Fox, expressive of his warm admiration and friendship for Jackson (Memorials of C. J. Fox, ii. 109). Two minor preferments were the rectory of Kirkby in Cleveland, to which he was collated in 1781, and a prebendal stall in Southwell Collegiate Church, which was given to him in 1786.
At Christ Church Jackson soon became famous. He possessed a genius for govern- ment, and enforced discipline without any distinction of persons. He took a large share in framing the ' Public Examination Statute,' and always impressed upon his undergradu- ates the duty of competing for exhibitions and prizes. Every day he entertained at dinner some six or eight members of the foundation, and on his annual travel in some part of the United Kingdom took the most promising pupil of the year for his companion. He was a good botanist and a student of ar- chitecture, and under his charge the buildings and walks of Christ Church were greatly improved. By some he was considered cold in his manners and arbitrary in his tone, but Polwhele ( Traditions, i. 89) and John James, then an undergraduate at Queen's College, praise his kindly bearing (Letters ofRadclijfe and James, pp. 146-9). C. Kirkpatrick Sharpe wrote of him in 1798 as ' a very handsome oldish man' (Letters of Sharpe, i. 78-9). Copleston highly commended his talent in governing and his love of encou- raging youth (Letters of Lord Dudley to Bishop of Llandaff, p. 192). He declined the bishopric of Oxford in 1799 and the primacy of Ireland in 1800. When offered an English see on a later occasion he is said to have remarked : ' Nolo episcopari. Try Will [i.e. his brother]; he'll take it.' In 1809 he resigned his deanery, and retired to the Manor House at Felpham, near Bognor,
in Sussex. Some Latin lines by himself on this clerical elysium are in the ' Manchester School Register.' He died there on 31 Aug. 1819. Over his grave in the churchyard i& a stone with his name, age, and date of death only; but the east window of the church, when restored in 1855, was dedicated to his memory. An excellent portrait of him by Owen hangs in Christ Church hall, and has. been engraved by C. Turner. From it was executed the statue by Chantrey, which was- placed in 1820, at the cost of Jackson's pupils, in the north transept of the cathedral. By the death of his brother without a will con- siderable wealth fell to him, which was sub- sequently inherited by his near relation, Cyril George Ilutchinson, rector of Batsford in Gloucestershire.
Many illustrious men were under Jackson'a charge at Christ Church, among them Can- ning, Sir Robert Peel, and Charles Wynn. Several letters to and from him are in Par- ker's 'Sir R. Peel,' i. 27-8, and in one of them Jackson characteristically recommends ' the last high finish ' of oratory by the con- tinual reading of Homer. Abbot, first lord Colchester, was his chief friend, and ob- tained much political gossip from him. Jack- son helped to bring about the removal of Addington from the premiership in 1804. For some years he kept a diary of his life and times, which, with characteristic caution, he afterwards destroyed ; but his political intrigues are visible in the ' Diaries of the first Earl of Malmesbury,' iv. 255-6, 302, in Lord Colchester's ' Diary ' (passim), and in Dean Pellew's ' Life of Lord Sidmouth,' ii. 302-4. Jackson was considered to excel in Greek scholarship, and about 1802 he and the Rev. John Stokes of Christ Church, Ox- ford, began printing at the Clarendon press. an edition of the history of Herodotus ; but it was soon stopped, and almost every copy destroyed. The printed sheets are preserved at the British Museum (cf. Manchester School Register, ii. 272). Parr's not unnatural com- ment on him was : ' Stung and tortured as he is with literary vanity, he shrinks with, timidity from the eye of criticism.' Jackson is described under the name of President Herbert in R. Plumer Ward's novel of ' De Vere,' and a caricature by Dighton, in which his stoop is well brought out, depicts him as walking with one or two companions.
[Gent. Mag. 1819 pt. ii. 273, 459-63, 486, 573, 1820 pt. i. 3-5, 504-5; Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. xi. 170, 233, 296, 3rd ser. xi. 229-30, 267, 319, 448, 5th ser. xi. 9, 353, 398, 6th ser. vi. 488, vii. 216. viii. 139; Annual Biog. 1822, vi. 444-6; Spilslmry's Lincoln's Inn, p. 77; Bell's George Canning, pp. 23-6; Welch's.
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Alumni "Westmonast. (Phillimore), pp. 374,380- 382, 484, 556-7; Chatham Corresp. ir. 151; Manchester School Reg. i. 62-4, 229-30; Quar- terly Rev. xxiii. 403 ; G-. V. Cox's Recollections, pp. 172-6; Life of Admiral Markham, pp. 13- 16; Foster's Oxford Reg.] W. P. C.
JACKSON, FRANCIS JAMES (1770- 1814), diplomatist, born in December 1770, was son of THOMAS JACKSON, D.D. (1745-1797). The father, a Westminster scholar, matricu- lated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1763, and graduated B.A. 1767, M.A. 1770, B.D. and D.D. 1783 (WELCH, Alumni Westmon.) He was tutor to the Marquis of Carmarthen, afterwards fifth Duke of Leeds ; minister of St. Botolph, Aldersgate, until 1796 ; chaplain to the king, 1782 ; prebendary of Westmin- ster, 1782-92 ; canon residentiary of St. Paul's, 1792 ; and rector of Yarlington, So- merset. He died at Tunbridge Wells 1 Dec. 1797.
Francis James, his eldest son, entered the diplomatic service at the early age of sixteen, and was secretary of legation from 1789 to 1 797, first at Berlin, and afterwards at Madrid. His letters to the fifth Duke of Leeds during this time are among British Museum Addit. MSS. 28064-7. He was appointed ambassador at Constantinople 23 July 1796, and minister plenipotentiary to France on 2 Dec. 1801, after Cornwallis had returned from the peace con- gress at Amiens [see CORNWALLIS, CHARLES, first MARQUIS]. In October 1802 Jackson was sent as minister plenipotentiary to Berlin, where he married. Except for a brief period, when his younger brother George [see JACK- SON, SIR GEORGE, 1785-1861] was in tem- porary charge, Jackson stayed at Berlin un- til the breaking-off of diplomatic relations consequent upon the occupation of Hanover in 1806. He was employed in 1807 on a spe- cial mission to Denmark previous to the i bombardment, which he witnessed. After- wards, in 1809, he was sent as minister pleni- • potentiary to Washington on the recall of ' DaA'id Montagu Erskine [q.v.], second lord Erskine, whose arrangement of the difficulty arising out of the conflict between H.M.S. Leopard and the U.S. frigate Chesapeake in 1807 the British government refused to ratify [cf. BERKELEY, GEORGE CRANFIELD]. Jackson remained at Washington until the rupture between Great Britain and the United States in 1811, which ended in the war of 1812-15.
Jackson died at Brighton, after a linger- ing illness, on 5 Aug. 1814, in the forty-fourth year of his age. A number of his diaries and letters during the period 1801-10 are included in Lady Jackson's ' Diaries and Letters of Sir George Jackson.'
[Welch's Alumni Westmon. 1852 ; Gent. Mag. Ixvii. 1075, Ixxxiv. pt. ii. 198; Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. under name ; Nelson Desp. vol. iii. ; Lady Jackson's Diaries and Letters of Sir George Jack- son (London, 1872, 2 vols.) Also Foreign Office Papers in Public Record Office, London ; corre- spondence under countries and dates ; Haydn's Book of Dignities ; Military Auxiliary Expedi- tions.] H. M. C.
JACKSON, afterwards DUCKETT, SIR GEORGE (1725-1822), judge-advocate of the fleet, born 24 Oct. 1725, was eldest sur- viving son of George Jackson of Richmond, Yorkshire, by Hannah, seventh daughter of William Ward of Guisborough. He entered the navy office about 1743, became secretary to the navy board in 1758, and second secre- tary to the admiralty and judge-advocate on 11 Nov. 1766. In the last capacity he pre- sided at the court-martial on Keppel in 1778. Subsequently Palliser was summoned by the same tribunal to answer the evidence inci- dentally given against him at the court- martial on Keppel. No specific charge was brought against Palliser. The Duke of Rich- mond in the House of Lords (31 March 1779) attacked this method of procedure, for which Jackson was held responsible. He was called before the house and ably defended himself ; but the lords passed a resolution which ap- peared to censure the admiralty officials, and when Lord Sandwich, under whom he had worked since 1771, retired from the board, Jackson resigned his office of second secre- tary 12 June 1782. He retained the judge- advocateship, but subsequently declined Pitt's offer of the secretaryship of the admiralty. From 1762 to 1768 Jackson was M.P. for Weymouth'and Melcombe Regis; in 1788 he was elected for Colchester, defeating George Tierney at a cost of 20,000/., but although on that occasion unseated, represented the borough from 1790 to 1796. Captain Cook the navigator had been, when a boy, in the service of Jackson'ssisterat Ayton, andhence Jackson was favourable to his schemes, and probably influenced Sandwich in his behalf. In gratitude Cook, in his first voyage, named after him Port Jackson in New South Wales, and Point Jackson in New Zealand. Jackson obtained in 1766 an act of parliament for making the Stort navigable up to Bishop Stortford, and saw the work completed in 1769 (Gent. Mag. 1769, p. 608). On 21 June 1791 he was created a baronet, and died at his house in Upper Grosvenor Street, London, on 15 Dec. 1822. He was buried at Bishop Stortford. A portrait by Dance and a miniature by Copley are in the possession of Sir George Duckett, hart. Jackson mar- ried, first, his cousin Mary, daughter of Wil-
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liam Ward of Guisborough, by whom he left three daughters ; secondly, Grace, daughter of Gwyn Goldstone of Goldstone, Shropshire by Grace, daughter and coheiress of George Duckett of Hartham House, "Wiltshire, by whom he left surviving a son, George, second baronet. In 1797 Jackson assumed the name of Duckett by royal license, in accordance with the will of his second wife's uncle, Thomas Duckett. His reports of the courts- martial held on the loss of the Ardent and on the lion. William Cornwallis (1744-1819) [q. v.] were published in 1780 and 1791 re- spectively. He also left a manuscript list, drawn up about 1755, of commissioners oi the navy from 12 Charles II to 1 George III, which was edited by his grandson, Sir George Duckett, in 1889. Many of his papers are at Hinchinbrook in the possession of the Earl of Sandwich. He was very friendly with the Pitts, and has been rashly identified with Junius (Notes and Queries, 1st ser. i. 172, 276, 322).
[Sir George Duckett's Duchetiana, pp. 70, &c. ; Jackson's Works ; Annual Eegister ; Haydn's Book of Dignities.] W. A. J. A.
JACKSON, SIR GEORGE (1785-1861), diplomatist, born in October 1785, was youngest son of Thomas Jackson, D.D. [see under his brother, JACKSON, FRANCIS JAMES! He was intended for the church, but his father s death in December 1797 changed the plans of the family, and in 1801 he joined the diplo- matic mission to Paris under his brother Fran- cis James as an unpaid attache. In October 1802 he accompanied his brother to Berlin, and in 1805 was presented at the Prussian court as charge d'affaires, and was sent on a special mission to Hesse Cassel. In 1806 diplomatic relations were broken off" by Great Britain in consequence of the occupation of Hanover ; but later in the year overtures were made by the Prussians for a renewal of friendly relations, and when Lord Morpeth [see HOWARD, GEORGE, sixth EARL OF CAR- LISLE] was sent to conduct the negotia- tions at Berlin, Jackson, then a very young man, with pleasing manners and a good diplomatic training, was sent into the north of Germany to pick up what information he could. He returned home in February 1807, with a treaty signed at Memel by Lord Hutchinson [see HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN, second EARL OP DONOUGHMORE], and was sent back with the ratification of the treaty, and instructions to Hutchinson to appoint him charge d'affaires on leaving. Diplomatic relations were suspended after the treaty of Tilsit, and Jackson returned home by way of Copenhagen, bringing with him
the news of the seizure of the Danish fleet on 7 Sept. 1807. In 1808-9 he was one of the secretaries of legation with the mission under John Hookham Frere [q. v.] to the Spanish junta, and was subsequently appointed in the same capacity to "Washington, where his brother Francis James was minister pleni- potentiary, but diplomatic relations with the United States were broken off before he could join. He subsequently did duty with the West Kent militia, in which he held a captain's commission from 2 July 1809 to 1812. In 1813 he accompanied Sir Charles Stewart (afterwards third marquis of Lon- donderry) to Germany ; was present with the allied armies in Germany and France during the campaigns of 1813-14, and entered Paris with them. On the return of the king of Prussia to Berlin, Jackson was appointed charge d'affaires, with the appointment of minister at the Prussian court, and remained there until after the battle of Waterloo. In 1816 he was made secretary of embassy at St. Petersburg. In 1822 he was sent by Canning on a secret and confidential mission to Madrid, and the year after was appointed commissioner at Washington, under article 1 of the treaty of Ghent, for the settlement of American claims. This post he filled until 1827.
Jackson's later services were in connection with the abolition of the slave trade. In 1828 he was appointed the first commissary judge of the mixed commission court at Sierra Leone. Afterwards he was chief commis- sioner under the convention for the abolition of the African slave trade at Rio Janeiro from 1832 to 1841, at Surinam from 1841 to 1845, and at St. Paul de Loando from 1845 until his retirement on pension, after fifty- seven years' service, in 1859.
Jackson was made a knight-bachelor and K.C.H. in 1832, and died at Boulogne, 2 May 1861, aged 75. He married (1) in 1812 Cor- delia, sister of Albany Smith, M.P. for Oke- hampton, Devonshire — she died in 1853; (2), in 1856, at St. Helena, Catherine Char- lotte, daughter of Thomas Elliott of Wake- field, Yorkshire, who survived him.
His widow published selections from his ' Diaries and Letters,' London, 1872, 2 vols. ; and a continuation entitled ' Bath Archives/ London, 1873, 2 vols.
[Dod's Knightage, 1861 ; Foreign Office List, 1861 ; Lady Jackson's publications cited above; jent.Mag. 3rd ser. x. 699 ; see also Foreign Office Correspondence in Public Kecord Office, London.]
H. M. C.
JACKSON, HENRY (1586-1662), divine, editor of Hooker's ' Opuscula,' born in 1586 n St. Mary's parish, Oxford, was the son of
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Henry Jackson, mercer, and was a ' kinsman ' of Anthony a Wood. On 1 Dec. 1 602 he was admitted scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, ' having for years before been clerk of the said house,' and proceeded B. A. 1605, M. A. 1608, B.D. 1617. In 1630 he succeeded his tutor, Dr. Sebastian Benefield [q. v.], as rector of Meysey Hampton, Gloucestershire. His death at Meysey Hampton, on 4 June 1662, is noted by Wood in his diary. Wood, who attended the funeral, speaks of Jackson as one of the earliest of his learned acquaint- ances, and says that ' being delighted in his company, he did for the three last yeares of his life constantly visit him every summer 'and took notes of Jackson's recollections of the Oxford of his youth.
In 1607 Dr. Spenser, president of Corpus Christi College, employed Jackson in tran- scribing, arranging, and preparing for the press ' all Mr. Hooker's remaining written papers,' which had come into Spenser's pos- session shortly after Hooker's death [see HOOKEK, RICHAKD]. Jackson printed at Ox- ford in 1612 in 4to Hooker's answer to Walter Travers's ' Supplication,' and four sermons in separate volumes; of that on justification a ' corrected and amended ' edition appeared in
1613. Two sermons on Jude, doubtfully as- signed to Hooker, followed, with a long dedi- cation by Jackson to George Summaster, in the same year. After Spenser's death, in April
1614, Hooker's papers were taken out of Jack- son's custody, but he would seem to have supervised the reprints by William Stansby, London, of Hooker's ' Works,' in 1618 and 1622, which included the above-mentioned 'Opuscula' and the first five books of the ' Ecclesiastical Polity.' The preface, with Stansby's initials, is conjectured to be Jack- son's. When Hooker's papers were taken from Jackson's care, he was engaged uponan edition of the hitherto unpublished eighth book of the 'Polity,' and complained (December 1612) that-the president (Spenser) proposed to put his own name to the edition, ' though the re- surrection of the book is my work alone ' (' a me plane vitae restitutum'). Keble suggests that Jackson, aggrieved by Spenser's treat- ment, retained his own recension of Hooker's work when he delivered up the other papers, and that when his library at Meysey Hamp- ton was plundered and dispersed by the par- liamentarians in 1642, his version of book viii., or a copy of it, came into Ussher's hands. It is now in the library of Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, and has been made the basis of the text printed in Keble's editions of Hooker's works.
Besides his editions of Hooker's Sermons, Jackson published: 1. « WicklifFes Wicket ;
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or a Learned and Godly Treatise of the Sacrament, made by John Wickliffe. Set forth according to an ancient copie,' Ox- ford, 1612, 4to. 2. ' D. Gulielmi Whitakeri . . . Responsio ad Gulielmi Rainoldi Refuta- tionem, in qua varise controversise accurate explicantur Henrico Jacksono Oxoniensi in- terprete,' Oppenheim, 1612. 3. 'Orationes duodecim cum aliis opusculis,' Oxford, 1614, 8vo. Jackson's lengthy dedication to Sum- master is inserted after the first two ora- tions, which had been previously published. 4. ' Commentarii super 1 Cap. Amos,' Oppen- heim, 1615, 8vo, a translation of Benefield's- ' Commentary upon the first chapter of Amos, delivered in twenty-one sermons.' 5. ' Vita Th. Lupseti,' printed by Knight in the ap- pendix to his ' Colet,' p. 390, from Wood's- MSS. in the Ashmolean Museum. Besides these printed works Jackson projected editions of J. L. Vives's ' De corruptis Artibus ' and his ' De tradendis Disciplinis,' and of Abe- lard's works. The rifling of his library de- stroyed his notes for these works, but Wood mentions as extant ' Vita Ciceronis, ex variis Autoribus collecta ; ' ' Commentarii in Cice- ronis Quaest. Lib. quintum' (both dedicated to Benefield) ; translations into Latin of works by Fryth, Hooper, and Latimer. Jack- son collected the ' testimonies' in honour of John Claymond [q. v.] prefixed to Shepgreve's ' Vita Claymundi,' and translated Plutarch's ' De morbis Animi et Corporis.' Among Wood's MSS. are 'Collectanea H. Jacksoni,' regarding the history of the monasteries of Gloucester, Malmesbury, and Cirencester.
[Wood's Fasti, ed. Bliss, passim ; Wood's Athense Oxon. ed. Bliss, i. xli, li, iii. 577 and passim ; Cooper's Athense Cantabr. ii. 199 ; Hooker's Works, Clarendon Press 7th edit.,, editor's preface, pp. 28, 31, 51, 52, and passim; Catalogues of British Museum and Bodleian Libraries.] R. B.
JACKSON, HENRY (1831-1879), novel- ist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire, on 15 April 1831, was son of a brewer. After attending Sleaford and Boston grammar schools, he was placed first in a bank, and subsequently in his father's brewery. Severe illness left him an invalid for life at eighteen, and he devoted himself thenceforth to literary work. He died at Hampstead on 24 May 1879.
Jackson's earliest stories were published in ' Chambers's Journal,' beginning with a brief tale called 'A Dead Man's Revenge.' His first novel, entitled ' A First Friendship,' was
Sublished in ' Eraser's Magazine ' while Mr. . A. Froude was editor ; it was reissued in one volume in 1863. His next novel, ' Gil- bert Rugge,' appeared in the same magazine, and was published in three volumes in 1866k
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Both novels were reprinted in America, where they had alarger circulation than in England. In 1871 Jackson published a volume of three stories, called ' Hearth Ghosts,' and in 1874 a novel in three volumes, entitled ' Argus Fairbairn,' the only one of his writings to which his name is attached.
[Information from F. Jackson, esq.] G. G.
JACKSON, JOHN (d. 1689 ?), organist and composer, was ' instructor in musick ' at Ely in 1669 for one quarter only. He was organist of Wells Cathedral in 1676, and died at Wells probably in 1689, as adminis- tration was granted of his goods to Dorothea, his widow, in the December of that year.
There are printed in Dering's ' Cantica Sacra,' second book, 1674, two of Jackson's an- thems, ' Set up Thyself ' and ' Let God arise.' In Tudway's manuscript collection, vol. ii. (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 7338), is Jackson's solo anthem, ' The Lord said unto my Lord ; ' in the choir-books of Wells are a service in C, and some single parts of various anthems and of a burial service. In the library of the Royal College of Music four out of the five chants described as ' Welles tunes ' are attributed to Jackson, together with the organ part of the service in C, and of the anthems, 'The days of Man,"O Lord, let it be Thy pleasure,' ' The Lord said unto my Lord,' ' O how amiable,' ' Christ our Passover,' ' Many a time ' (a thanksgiving anthem for 9 Sept. 1683), ' God standeth in the congregation,' and ' I said in the cutting off of my days ' (a thanksgiving anthem for recovery from a dangerous illness).
[Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 27 ; Cat. of the Li- brary of the Sacred Harmonic Society; Dick- son's Ely Cathedral ; P. C. C. Administration Acts, December 1689.] L. M. M.
JACKSON, JOHN (1686-1763), theolo- gical writer, eldest son of John Jackson (d. 1707, aged about 48), rector of Sessay, near 'Thirsk, North Riding of Yorkshire, was born at Sessay on 4 April 1686. His mother's maiden name was Ann Revell. Afterpassing through Doncaster grammar school he entered at Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1702, and went into residence at midsummer 1703. He studied Hebrew under Simon Ockley. Gra- duating B. A. in 1707 he became tutor in the family of Simpson, at Renishaw, Derbyshire. His father had died rector of Rossington, West Riding of Yorkshire, and this pre- ferment was conferred on Jackson by the corporation of Doncaster on his ordination Xdeacon 1708, priest 1710).
Jackson's mind was turned to contro- versial topics by the publication (1712) of the ' Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity ' by
Samuel Clarke (1675-1729) [q. v.] His first publication was a series of three letters, dated 14 July 1714, by ' A Clergyman of the Church of England,' in defence of Clarke's position. He corresponded with Clarke, and made his personal acquaintance at King's Lynn. Jackson's theological writings were anonymous ; he acted as a sort of mouth- piece for Clarke, who kept in the back- ground after promising convocation, in July 1714, to write no more on the subject of the Trinity. Whiston, in a letter to William Paul, 30 March 1724, says that ' Dr. Clarke has long desisted from putting his name to anything against the church, but privately assists Mr. Jackson ; yet does he hinder his speaking his mind so freely, as he would otherwise be disposed to do.' Almost simul- taneously with his first defence of Clarke, Jackson advocated Hoadly's views on church government in his ' Grounds of Civil and Ecclesiastical Government,' 1714, 8vo ; 2nd edit. 1718. In 1716 he corresponded with Clarke and Whiston on the subject of baptism, defending infant baptism against Whiston ; his ' Memoirs ' contain a previously unpub- lished reply to the anti-baptismal argument of Thomas Emlyn [q. v.] In 1718 he went up to Cambridge for his M.A.; the degree was refused on the ground of his writings respecting the Trinity. Next year he was presented by Nicholas Lechmere (afterwards Baron Lechmere [q. v.]), chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, to the confratership of Wigston's Hospital, Leicester. Clarke held the mastership of the hospital, and recom- mended Jackson. The post involved no sub- scription, and carried with it the afternoon lectureship at St. Martin's, Leicester, for which Jackson, who removed from Rossing- ton to Leicester, received a license on 30 May 1720from Edmund Gibson[q.v.], then bishop of Lincoln. On 22 Feb. 1722 he was in- ducted to the private prebend of Wherwell, Hampshire, on the presentation of Sir John Fryer; here also no subscription was re- quired. The mastership of .Wigston's Hos- pital was given to him on Clarke's death
(1729) by John Manners, third duke of Rut- land, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Several presentments had previously been lodged against him for heretical preaching at St. Martin's, and when he wished to con- tinue the lectureship after being appointed master, the vicar of St. Martin's succeeded
(1730) in keeping him out of the pulpit by somewhat forcible means. In 1730 Hoadly offered him a prebend at Salisbury on con- dition of subscription, but this he declined, for since the publication (1721) of Water- land's '.Case of Arian Subscription' he had
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resolved to subscribe no more. He busie himself in writing treatises and pampblets many of them against the deists. In Septem ber 1736 he went to Bath for the benefit o a dislocated leg. On 28 Sept. he preache at St. James's, Bath, at the curate's request Dr.Coney, the incumbent, preached on 12 Oct and refused the sacrament to Jackson, on the plea that he did not believe the divinity of th Saviour. Jackson complained to the bisho (John Wynne), who disapproved Coney' action.
Jackson's later years were spent in the compilation of his ' Chronological Antiquities (1752), a collection of laborious research He had projected a critical edition of the Greek Testament, but his work was inter- rupted by decaying health. He died at Lei cester on 12 May 1763. He married, in 1712 Elizabeth (d. December 1760), daughter o John Cowley, collector of excise at Doncas- ter, and had twelve children ; his son John and three daughters (all married) survivec him.
Apart from his relation to Clarke, Jack- son's polemical tracts possess little impor- tance. The most notable replies to them are by Waterland. Jackson was a pertinacious writer, without originality or breadth of cul- ture. He had none of the devotion to science which distinguished the abler divines of his school, and of modern languages he was wholly ignorant. He is said to have been litigious; but his general disposition was amiable and generous.
He published, besides the tracts already mentioned : 1. ' An Examination of Mr. Nye's Explication ... of the Divine Unity/ &c., 1715, 8vo. 2. ' A Collection of Queries, wherein the most material objections . against Dr. Clarke . . . are . . . answered,' &c., 1716, 8vo. 3. ' A Modest Plea for the . . . Scriptural Notion of the Trinity,' &c., 1719, 8vo. 4. < A Reply to Dr. Waterland's Defense,' &c., 1722, 8vo (by ' A Clergyman in the Country'). 5. 'The Duty of Subjects towards their Governors,' &c., 1723, 8vo (ser- mon, at the camp near Leicester, to Colonel Churchill's dragoons). 6. ' Remarks on Dr. Waterland's Second Defense,' &c., 1723, 8vo (by 'Philalethes Cantabrigiensis'). 7. ' Fur- ther Remarks on Dr. Waterland's Further Vin- dication of Christ's Divinity,' &c., 1724, 8vo (same pseudonym). 8. ' A True Narrative of the Controversy concerning the . . . Trinity,' &c., 1725, 4to. 9. ' A Defense of Humane Liberty,' &c., 1725, 8vo ; 2nd edit. 1730, 8vo.
10. ' The Duty of a Christian . . . Exposi- tion of the Lord's Prayer,' &c., 1728, 12mo.
11. ' Novatiani Presbyteri Romani Opera,' &c., 1728, 8vo (this was criticised by Lard-
ner, ' Works,' 1815, ii. 57 sq., and led to a correspondence with Samuel Crell, the Soci- nian critic, published in ( M. Artemonii De- fensio Emendationum in Novatiano/ &c., 1729, 8vo). 12. ' A Vindication of Humane Liberty,' &c., 1730, 8vo ; also issued as second part of 2nd edit, of No. 9 (against Anthony Collins). 13. 'A Plea for Humane Reason/ &c., 1730, 8vo (addressed to Edmund Gibson, then bishop of London). 14. ' Calumny no Conviction/ &c., 1731, 8vo (defence of No. 15). 15. ' A Defense of the Plea for Humane Reason/ &c., 1731, 8vo. 16. ' Some Reflexions on Prescience/ &c., 1731, 8vo. 17. ' Remarks on ..." Christianity as old as the Crea- tion/" &c., 1731, 8vo; continuation, 1733, 8vo (by ' A Priest of the University of Cam- bridge '). 18. ' Memoirs of ... Waterland, being a Summary View of the Trinitarian Controversy for 20 years, between the Doc- tor and a Clergyman in the Country/ &c., 1731, 8vo. 19. 'The Second Part of the Plea for Humane Reason/ &c., 1732, 8vo.
20. ' The Existence and Unity of God/ &c., 1734, 8vo (defence of Clarke's proof).
21. < Christian Liberty asserted/ &c., 1734, 8vo. 22. ' A Defense of ..." The Exist- ence and Unity/" &c., 1735, 8vo (against William Law). 23. 'A Dissertation on Matter and Spirit/ &c., 1735, 8vo (against Andrew Baxter [q. v.]) 24. ' Athanasian Forgeries . . . chiefly out of Mr. Whiston's Writings/ &c., 1736, 8vo (by ' A Lover of Truth and of True Religion ; ' ascribed to Jackson, but not certainly his). 25. ' A Nar- rative of ... the Rev. Mr. Jackson being refused the Sacrament/ &c., 1736, 8vo (see above). 26. ' Several Letters ... by W. Dudgeon . . . with Mr. Jackson's Answers/ &c., 1737, 8vo. 27. ' Some Additional Let- ters/ &c., 1737, 8vo. 28. ' A Confutation of
. Mr. Moore/ &c., 1738, 8vo. 29. 'The Belief of a Future State proved to be a Fun- damental Article of the Religion of the Hebrews, and held by the Philosophers/ L745, 8vo (against Warburton). 30. 'A Defense of ..." The Belief of a Future State/" &c., 1746, 8vo. 31. 'A Farther Defense/ &c., 1747, 8vo. 32. • A Critical nquiry into the Opinions ... of the An- ;ient Philosophers concerning . . . the Soul/ 748, 8vo. 33. ' A Treatise on the Improve- ments ... in the Art of Criticism/ &c., 748, 8vo (by ' Philocriticus Cantabrigien- is'). 34. ' A Defense of . . . "A Treatise/" cc.[1748],8vo. 35. ' Remarks on Dr. Middle- on'sFree Enquiry/ &c., 1749, 8vo. 36. 'Chro- lological Antiquities ... of the most An- ient Kingdoms, from the Creation of the World for the space of 5,000 years/1752, 4to, ~ vols. (this was translated into German).
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[Memoirs of Jackson, with Letters and Ee- mains, were published anonymously, 1764, by Dr. Sutton of Leicester ; the memoirs are founded on particulars given by Jackson the summer before his death, and their defects are attributed to his failing memory ; Memoirs of Whiston, 1753, p. 267; Nichols's Lit. Anecd.] A. G-.
JACKSON, JOHN (/. 1761-1792), ac- tor, manager, and dramatist, the son of a clergyman who held livings at Keighley, Doncaster (?), and Beenham in Berkshire, was born in 1742, and was educated for the church. On 9 Jan. 1761 (according to Biog. Dram, on 9 Oct. 1762, as ' a gentleman ') he appeared at the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, as Oroonoko. During the season he played Romeo, Osmyn in the 'Mourning Bride,' Jaffier, Douglas, Hamlet, Prospero, &c. Hav- ing given offence to George Anne Bellamy &^. v.], he left the following season for Lon- on, and appeared at Drury Lane under Gar- rick, 7 Oct. 1762, as Oroonoko. He remained at this house two or three years, playing Lord Guilford Dudley in ' Lady Jane Gray,' Mo- neses in ' Tamerlane,' Southampton in ' Earl of Essex,' Sir Richard Vernon in the ' First Part of King Henry IV,' Polydore in ' The Orphan,' Lysimachus in the ' Rival Queens,' &c. About 1765 he was playing at Smock Alley Theatre, Dublin, where he married Miss Browne, the daughter of an actor in the same theatre. She was a pleasing singer, and was ' possessed of much merit both in tragedy and comedy ' (HITCHCOCK). At Dub- lin the pair remained for several seasons, ? laying very many leading characters. On July 1775 Jackson was at the Haymarket the original Eldred Durvy in his own tragedy of ' Eldred, or the British Freeholder,' which had been previously given in Dublin. His wife, announced as 'from Dublin,' played the heroine. As Juliet, Mrs. Jackson made her first appearance at Covent Garden on 25 Sept. 1775. For her benefit, 1 May 1776, ' Eldred ' was given here, with Jackson as Eldred Durvy. In the two following seasons she frequently appears to have assumed cha- racters of importance, Juliet, Mariana in 'Ed- ward the Black Prince,' Cordelia, &c., Jackson being rarely heard of except on the occasion of her benefits. On 9 June 1777 he, however, played Tony Lumpkin at the Haymarket.
On 10 Nov. 1781 Jackson, according to his own account, purchased the Edinburgh thea- tre on advantageous terms from Ross, a former manager. Bringing his wife with him, he began his management with the ' Suspicious Husband,' 1 Dec. 1761. About the middle of January 1782 he opened a new theatre which he had built in Dunlop Street, Glasgow, and this he managed together with that at
Edinburgh. He seldom played himself; en- gaged Miss Farren, Mrs. Siddons, Henderson, &c., and seems for some years to have been a fairly good manager. His engagement of Fennell led to a curious quarrel with the Edinburgh lawyers [see FENNELL, JAMES]. In 1790-1 he fell into pecuniary difficulties, took out sequestration,' and put his estate into the hands of trustees. His failure seems mainly due to his efforts to work together the theatres of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen. A partnership with Stephen Kemble was arranged, and led to prolonged litigation, Jackson during 1791-2 being re- fused admittance into his own theatre. In 1801-2 Jackson was again manager in con- junction with a Mr. Aickin. Under his ma- nagement Henry West Betty appeared in 1804, and Jackson published a pamphlet in his defence entitled ' Strictures upon the Merits of Young Roscius,' Glasgow, 1804r 8vo. In 1809 Jackson finally retired from management.
During his management he had produced his own tragedy of ' Eldred ' (Edinburgh, 1782), a work of some merit, the authorship of which was, however, frequently claimed for a Welsh clergyman, who was said to have given it to Jackson. ' The British Heroine/ an unprinted tragedy by him, was given at Covent Garden for the benefit of Mrs. Jack- son, 5 May 1778. It had been seen under the title of ' Giralda, or the Siege of Harlech,' in Dublin a year previously. On the same oc- casion was given at Covent Garden ' Tony Lumpkin's Ramble,' a piece not assigned to Jackson by theatrical authorities, but claimed by him when he produced it, 26 July 1780, in Edinburgh,with the title ' Tony Lumpkin's Rambles through Edinburgh.' ' Sir William Wallace of Ellerslie, or the Siege of Dum- barton Castle,' a tragedy by him, also un- printed, was acted in Edinburgh without success. In addition to these works, Jackson wrote 'The History of the Scottish Stage/ Edinburgh, 1793, a species of apologia, a work of no merit and little authority, incor- porating a previously published ' statement of facts explanatory of Jackson's dispute with Stephen Kemble, 8vo, 1792. Jackson was eaten up with vanity. He had a good person and some judgment, but was an in- different performer, having a harsh voice and a provincial accent. Churchill, in ' The Rosciad/ speaks of him with much severity. His death cannot be traced.
[The full particulars of Jackson's life have not been collected ; they have to be gleaned from his own History of the Scottish Stage, and from the Memoirs of Charles Lee Lewis, 1805, vols. iii. and iv. of which are largely occupied with dia-
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tribes against him, the outcome of a quarrel. Genest's Account of the English Stage, the Bio- graphia Dramatiea, Dibdin's Annals of the Edin- burgh Stage, the Thespian Dictionary, and Lowe's Bibliographical Account of English Theatrical Literature, have been freely used.] J. K.
JACKSON, JOHN (d. 1807), traveller, was for at least six years before 1792 a wine merchant at 31 Clement's Lane, City. In 1786 he sent to Richard Gough [q. v.], the topographer, a description of Roman remains then lately discovered during some excava- tions in Lombard Street and Birchin Lane, which was printed, with plates, in ' Archeeo- logia,' vol. viii. He was made a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, 15 March 1787. Some years afterwards he proceeded to India on private business ; and on 4 May 1797 left Bombay by country ship for Bassora on his way home. He proceeded by way of the Euphrates and Tigris to Baghdad, and thence travelled through Kurdistan, Armo- rica, Anatolia, Bulgaria/Wallachia, Transyl- vania, reaching Hamburg on 28 Oct. the same year. He published an account of his tra- vels under the title 'Journey from India to- wards England . . ./London, 1799, in which he showed that the route he followed was prac- ticable all the year round. In 1803 he com- municated to the Society of Antiquaries an account of some excavations made under his directions among the ruins of Carthage and at Udena, published in 'Archaeologia,' vol. xv., 1806. He also wrote 'Reflections on the Commerce of the Mediterranean, deduced from actual experience during a residence on both shores of the Mediterranean Sea . . showing the advantages of increasing the number of British Consuls, and of holding possession of Malta as nearly equal to our West Indian trade,' London, 1804, 8vo. He died in 1807 (Gent. Mag.)
[Lowndes's London Directory, 1 789 ; List of the Soc. of Antiquaries of London, 1717-96 ; Index to Archseologia, vols. i-xxx.; Watt's Bibl. Brit.; Gent. Mag. vol. Ixxvii. pt. ii. p. 785.] H. M. C.
JACKSON, JOHN (1778-1831), portrait- painter, born 31 May 1778, was son of a tailor at Lastingham in the North Riding •of Yorkshire, to whom he was apprenticed. At an early age he showed a predilection for art, and drew portraits of his boyish as- sociates. His father, who did not wish to lose his services, discouraged such practices. In 1797 Jackson is said, however, to have offered himself as a painter of miniatures at York, and during an itinerant excursion to Whitby (whether as painter or tailor does not appear) he seems to have been introduced to Lord Mulgrave. Lord Mulgrave recommended
him to the notice of the Earl of Carlisle, who gave him the advantage of studying the fine collection of pictures at Castle Howard. Finally Lord Mulgrave and Sir George Beau- mont freed him by purchase from the last two years of his apprenticeship. His early portraits were in pencil, weakly tinted with water-colour, and his first essay in oils was a copy of a portrait of George Colman the elder, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, lent to him by Sir George Beaumont. He had to seek the materials in the shop of a local house- painter and glazier at Lastingham, and not- withstanding their roughness and paucity he managed to make so creditable a copy that Sir George advised him to go to London, promising him 50/. a year during his student- ship, and a place at his table (some accounts say a room in his house, and HAYDON says that the pension came from Lord Mulgrave). He arrived in London in 1804, and was ad- mitted a student of the Royal Academy in the following year, the same year as Wilkie and the year after Hay don. The three stu- dents soon became fast friends, and Jackson generously introduced Haydon to Lord Mul- grave, and brought Lord Mulgrave and Sir George Beaumont to see Wilkie's picture of the ' Village Politicians,' a visit which laid the foundation of Wilkie's success. Jackson first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1804, sending a portrait of Master H. Robinson. In 1806 he exhibited a portrait group of Lady Mulgrave and the Hon. Mrs. Phipps, and his contributions for several years testi- fied to the kind patronage of that family, which continued till his death. Although the boldness of his effects of colour and chiaroscuro did not attract a taste which de- lighted in the smooth manner of Lawrence, Jackson made a good income by his admir- able small portraits in pencil, highly finished with water-colour, and he obtained much employment in painting and copying por- traits for Cadell's 'Portraits of Illustrious Persons of the 18th Century.' Though not greatly patronised by the aristocracy, he soon exhibited portraits of Lady Mary Fitzgerald, the Marquis of Huntly, the Marquis of Hart- ington, the Archbishop of York, Lord Nor- manby, and the Marquis of Buckingham, besides more than one of Lord Mulgrave, and he painted many of the academicians, Northcote, Bone, West, Stothard, Ward, Westmacott, Thomson, and Shee, to whom he afterwards added Nollekens, Dance, Flax- man, Soane, and Chantrey. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1815. In 1816 he travelled in Holland and Flan- ders with the Hon. General Phipps, making sketches, some of which are in the South
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Kensington and British Museums. In the following year he was raised to the full honours of the Academy, and received a pre- mium from the British Institution of 200/. In 1819 he went to Rome by way of Geneva, Milan, Padua, Venice, Bologna, and Florence. Chantrey, who accompanied him, testifies to his merit as a companion, ' easy and accom- modating to a fault.' At Rome he is said to have astonished the Italians by his por- trait of Canova, one of his best works, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1820, and by the rapidity and skill with which he copied Titian's ' Sacred and Profane Love ' (or a portion of it). He was elected a mem- ber of the Roman Academy of St. Luke, and in the British Museum are several sketches in Italy taken in the course of the tour. During the remainder of his life Jackson sent yearly to the Academy from five to eight portraits, though he does not appear to have become fashionable or to have charged more than fifty guineas for a portrait. The most he made in a single year was probably not more than 1,500/., a sum which Lawrence once received for one picture — that of Lady Gower and her child — but the list of Jack- son's sitters from 1815 to 1830 contains many notable names, such as the Duke of York, the Dukes of Devonshire and Wellington, the Marquis of Chandos, Viscounts Nor- manby and Lascelles, Earls Grosvenor, Grey, Villiers, and Sheffield, Lords Grenville, Bray- brooke, and Dundas, Lady Dover, Ladies Georgina Herbert, Caroline Macdonald, Mary Howard, and Anne Vernon, and the Hon. Mrs. Agar Ellis. He also painted some actors and actresses, Listen and Macready (as Macbeth), Miss Wilson, and Miss Stephens (Countess of Essex). At the Loan Collec- tion of National Portraits at South Kensing- ton in 1868 were (besides some already men- tioned) portraits of James Heath, A.R.A., Dr. Wollaston, F.R.S., Dr. Latham, F.R.S., president of the Royal College of Physicians, James Montgomery the poet, the Rev. Adam Clarke, Wesleyan preacher, Sir John Frank- lin, the arctic explorer, and Sir John Barrow, F.R.S.
Jackson was a Wesleyan methodist, and executed the monthly portrait in the ' Evan- gelist Magazine,' the organ of his sect. His religious opinions were earnest but gloomy, and are said to have ruined his health and spirits in his last years, while the low state of his finances at his death is partly attri- buted to his extravagant generosity in sup- port of Wesleyan institutions. That his re- ligious opinions were not illiberal is never- theless testified by his painting for the church of his birthplace (Lastingham) a copy of the
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Duke of Wellington's Correggio — ' Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane ' — the figures increased to life size. He also gave 50/. in order to improve the light about the part of the building in which it was placed.
The death of Sir Thomas Lawrence on 7 Jan. 1830 might have been expected to give Jackson much professional advantage, but his health was then declining. On returning from Lastingham he caught a cold, which was aggravated by a chill caught in attend- ing the funeral of his old patron the Earl of Mulgrave. He died at his house at St. John's Wood, 1 June 1831. His addresses, given in the Royal Academy Catalogues, are : 1804, Hackley Street; 1806, 32 Haymarket; 1809, 54 Great Marlborough Street; 1811,7 New- man Street, where his painting-room was to the last. He married twice. His first wife, daughter of a jeweller named Fletcher, died in 1817 ; his second wife, daughter of James Ward, R.A., survived him with three chil- dren. They were left without any resources, and the Royal Academy granted a pension to the widow.
As a man Jackson was simple and sincere, silent in society, but companionable and even lively with one or two friends. As a portrait-painter he was wanting in vivacity and elevation, but very faithful and vigorous in character. Of his female portraits, that of Lady Dover is regarded as the finest ; of his male, that of Flaxman. This portrait and that of Chantrey were commissions from Lord Dover, and were intended to form part of a series of portraits of famous English ar- tists, which was never completed. Sir Thomas Lawrence characterised the Flaxman, at the Academy dinner of 1827, as ' a grand achieve- ment of the English School, and a picture of which Vandyck might have felt proud to own himself the author.' In execution Jack- son was rapid and masterly. Several stories are told by Cunningham and others of his ' marvellous alacrity of hand ' in painting portraits and copying the works of others, and he excelled as a colourist. ' For subdued richness of colour,' says Leslie, ' Lawrence never approached him.'
At the National Gallery is Jackson's por- trait of the Rev. William Holwell Carr ; and at the National Portrait Gallery, Catherine Stephens (Countess of Essex), Sir John Soane, his own portrait, and one of John Hunter (copied from Reynolds). At the South Kensington Museum is another one of Earl Grey, besides the six sketches made in Holland and Belgium. Among the nu- merous drawings by him at the British Museum are portraits of Sir David Wilkie, Joseph Nollekens, R. A., Alexander, emperor
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of Russia, Mrs. Hannah More, and two copies (one a sketch in pencil and one highlyfinished in water-colour) of Sir Joshua Reynolds'e portrait of George Column the elder, already referred to. The sketch is inscribed ' The first of Sir Joshua's pictures I ever saw, 13 Jan. 1802.' At the British Museum is also a sketch of Lastingham. The Royal Academy possesses his diploma picture, ' A Jewish Rabbi.' Between 1804 and 1830 (both inclusive) Jackson exhibited 146 pictures at the Royal Academy, and twenty at the British •Institution.
[Redgrave's Diet, of Artists ; Redgraves' Century of Painters ; Bryan's Diet. (Graves) ; Graves's Diet. ; Library of Fine Arts ; Cunning- ham's Lives (Heaton) ; Haydon's Autobiography; Cunningham's Life of Wilkie ; European Maga- zine, August 1823 ; Annals of the Fine Arts, 1817 ; Cat. of Loan Collection of National Portraits at South Kensington, 1868; Catalogues of Royal Academy, &c.; Gent. Mag. 1831.] C. M.
JACKSON, JOHN (1769-1845), pugilist, known as GENTLEMAN JACKSON, was the son of a London builder. He was born in Lon- don on 28 Sept. 1769, and appeared only three times in the prize-ring. His first public fight took place on 9 June 1788 at Smitham Bottom, near Croydon, when he defeated Fewterel of Birmingham in a contest lasting one hour and seven minutes, in the presence of the Prince of Wales. He was defeated by George (Ingleston) the Brewer at Ingate- stone, Essex, on 12 March 1789, owing to a heavy fall on the stage, which dislocated his ankle and broke the small bone of his leg. He offered to finish the battle tied to a chair, but this his opponent declined. His third and last fight was with Mendoza, whom he beat at Hornchurch, Essex, on 15 April 1795, in ten minutes and a half. Jackson was champion of England from 1795 to 1803, when he retired and was succeeded by Jem Belcher. After leaving the prize-ring, Jack- son established a school at No. 13 Bond Street, where he gave instructions in the art of self-defence, and was largely patronised by the nobility of the day. At the coronation of George IV Jackson was employed, with eighteen other prizefighters dressed as pages, to guard the entrance to Westminster Abbey and Hall. He seems, according to the in- scription on a mezzotint engraving by C. Tur- ner, to have subsequently been landlord of the Sun and Punchbowl, Holborn, and of the Cock at Sutton. He died on 7 Oct. 1845 at No. 4 Lower Grosvenor Street West, Lon- don, in his seventy-seventh year, and was buried in Brompton cemetery, where a co- lossal monument was erected by subscription to his memory.
Jackson was a magnificently proportioned man. His height was 5 feet 11 inches and his weight 14 stone. He was also a fine short-distance runner and jumper, and is said to have lifted, in the presence of Harvey Combe, 10£ cwt., and with an 84 Ib. weight on his little finger to have written his own name (Gent. Mag. 1845, new ser. xxiv. 649). Jackson was said to make ' more than a thou- sand a year by teaching sparring ' (MooEE, Memoirs, ii. 230). Byron, who was one of his pupils, had a great regard for him, and often walked and drove with him in public. It is related that while Byron was at Cam- bridge his tutor remonstrated with him on ; being seen in company so much beneath his I rank, and that he replied that Jackson's manners were ' infinitely superior to those of the fellows of the college whom I meet at the high table ' (J. W. CLARK, Cambridge, 1890, p. 140). Byron twice alludes to his ' old I friend and corporeal pastor and master ' in his notes to his poems (BYRON, Poetical Works, 1885-6, ii. 144, vi. 427), as well as in his ' Hints from Horace ' (ib. i. 503) :
And men unpractised in exchanging knocks Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box.
Moore, who accompanied Jackson to a prize- fight in December 1818, notes in his diary that Jackson's house was ' a very neat esta- blishment for a boxer,' and that the respect paid to him everywhere was ' highly comical ' (Memoirs, ii. 233). A portrait of Jackson, from an original painting then in the posses- sion of Sir Henry Smythe,bart.,will be found in the first volume of Miles's 'Pugilistica' (opp. p. 89). There are two mezzotint en- gravings by C. Turner.
[Miles's Pugilistica, 1880, i. 89-102; Fights for the Championship, by the Editor of Bell's Life, 1855, pp. 15-17; Fistiana, 1868, pp. 40, 46, 64-5, 82, 134 ; Bell's Life in London, 12 Oct. 1845; Moore's Life of Byron, 1847, pp. 70, 71, 206, 271, 342 ; Lord John Russell's Memoirs of Moore, 1853, ii. 229, 230, 233, iv. 53, 58, v. 269, vi. 72 ; Annual Register, 1845, App. to Chron. p. 300 ; Gent. Mag. 1845, new ser. xxiv. 649.]
G. F. R. B.
JACKSON, JOHN (1801-1848), wood- engraver, was born of humble parentage at Ovingham, Northumberland, on 19 April 1801. His early attempts at drawing at- tracted the notice of his neighbours, and in the expectation that he might follow the example of Thomas Bewick [q. v.], a native of the same village, he was apprenticed to Messrs. Armstrong & Walker, engravers and printers at Newcastle. On the failure of their business he was apprenticed to Be- wick, and at the close of his apprentice-
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ship came to London. Here he assisted "William Hughes to engrave the illustrations of Mr. Weare's murder for the ' Observer/ and was afterwards employed by James North- cote, R.A. [q. v.], to engrave most of his well-known series of ' Fables.' Henceforth Jackson was one of the first engravers of illustrations on wood for popular literature or journalism. His work for Charles Knight's 'Penny Magazine' did much to insure the success of the periodical. Jackson also drew and painted domestic subjects with some success. Some of his drawings were engraved in the ' New Sporting Magazine,' and to that magazine as well as to Hone's ' Every-day Book ' he contributed literary articles. Jack- son took a literary and historical, as well as a practical interest in his profession as a wood- engraver, and continually collected materials for a history of wood-engraving. Ultimately he and his intimate friend, "William Andrew Chatto [q. v.], joined together in bringing out the work in 1839. The project was Jack- son's ; the subjects were selected by him, and he contributed some of the historical matter, bore the cost of production, and en- graved the illustrations ; some of his best work as a wood-engraver is to be found in the first edition. The whole was edited and brought into shape by Chatto. A dispute fol- lowed between Jackson and Chatto as to their respective shares in the credit of producing it. Jackson died in London of chronic bronchitis on 27 March 1848, and was buried in High- gate cemetery. He was the father of Mason Jackson, the well-known wood-engraver. There are good examples of his work in the print room at the British Museum, rinformation from Mr. Mason Jackson.]
L. C.
JACKSON, JOHN (1811-1885), bishop successively of Lincoln and of London, the son of Henry Jackson of Mansfield, Notting- hamshire, and afterwards of London, was born in London on 22 Feb. 1811. He was educated under Dr. Valpy at Reading, and became scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1829. In 1833 he came out in the first class in the honour school of lit, human., a class which also contained the names of Charles John, afterwards Earl Canning, Henry George Liddell, afterwards dean of Christ Church, Robert Scott, afterwards dean of Rochester, and Robert Lowe, after- wards Lord Sherbrooke. Jackson remained at Oxford a short time after taking his degree, and failed in a competition for a fellowship at Oriel, but in 1834 was awarded the Eller- ton theological prize. In 1835 he was or- dained deacon, and began pastoral work as
a curate at Henley-on-Thames. This he re- linquished in 1836 to become head-master of the Islington proprietary school. Settled in North London, Jackson rapidly won a posi- tion as a preacher. As evening lecturer at Stoke Newington parish church he delivered the sermons on ' The Sinfulness of Little Sins,' the most successful of his published works. In 1842 he was appointed first in- cumbent of St. James's, Muswell Hill, re- taining his mastership the while. In 1845 his university made him one of its select preachers, an honour repeated in 1850, 1862, and 1 866. In 1 853 Jackson was Boyle lecturer, and in the same year, at the suggestion of his friend Canon Harvey (to whom the post was first offered), he was made vicar of St. James's, Piccadilly. There his reputation as a good organiser and a thoughtful, if not brilliant, preacher steadily grew. He was appointed chaplain in ordinary to the queen in 1847, and canon of Bristol in 1853. In the same year the see of Lincoln fell vacant by the death of Dr. Kaye, and Lord Aberdeen asked Jackson to fill it. The choice was widely approved. Even Samuel Wilberforce thought it ' quite a respectable appointment,' which, however, had ' turned at the last on a feather's weight' (Life, ii. 179). The diocese found in Jackson the thorough, methodical, patient worker it needed. He welded together the counties of Lincoln and Nottingham, galva- nised into life the ruridecanal system, stimu- lated the educational work of the diocese, and raised the tone of its clergy. In con- vocation he was active, but rarely spoke in the House of Lords. When Tait was translated from London to Canterbury in 1868, Jackson was unexpectedly selected by Mr. Disraeli, then prime minister, for the vacant see of London. The choice was amply vindicated by the results. Jackson, like his predecessor, had the mind of a lawyer, and was a thorough man of business. Despite grave anxieties over ritual prosecutions, he achieved much that was valuable. By the creation of the diocese of St. Albans, and the rearrangement of Rochester and Winchester, the diocese of London was made more work- able, and towards the end of his life a suf- fragan was appointed for the oversight of East London. Jackson energetically sup- ported the Bishop of London's Fund, encou- raged the organisation of lay help, and, after much hesitation, created a diocesan confer- ence. At first opposed to the ritual move- ment, he displayed toleration in his final action in the case of A. H. Mackonochie [q. v.] He died suddenly on 6 Jan. 1885, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Me- thodical in thought and act, Jackson was
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reserved in manner, but was sympathetic nevertheless. Jackson married in 1838 Mary Anne Frith, daughter of Henry Browell of Kentish Town, by whom he had one son and ten daughters.
Jackson's works were: 1. 'The Sanctify- ing Influence of the Holy Spirit is indispen- sable to Human Salvation' (Ellerton essay), Oxford, 1834. 2. ' Six Sermons on the Lead- ing Points of the Christian Character,' Lon- don, 1844. 3. ' The Sinfulness of Little Sins,' London, 1849. 4. ' Repentance : a Course of Sermons,' London, 1851. 5. ' The Wit- ness of the Spirit,' London, 1854. 6. ' God's Word and Man's Heart,' London, 1864. He also wrote the commentary and critical notes on the pastoral epistles in ' The Speaker's Commentary,' New Testament, vol. iii., Lon- don, 1881 ; a preface to Waterland ' On the Eucharist,' Oxford, 1868 ; with many sepa- rately issued charges and sermons.
[Times, 7 Jan. 1885 ; Guardian, 7 and 14 Jan. 1885 ; Eecord, 9 and 16 Jan. 1885 ; Our Bishops and Deans, London, 1875, i. 349 ; Life of Samuel Wilberforce, London, 1881, ii. 179; Annals of the Low Church Party, London, 1888, ii. 154, 250, 377, 488 ; Honours Reg. of the Univ. of Oxford (Oxford, 1883), pp. 135, 136, 175, 222.1
A. R. B.
JACKSON, JOHN BAPTIST (1701- 1780?), wood-engraver, born in 1701, is stated to have been a pupil of Elisha Kirkall [q. v.], and it has been conjectured that he and Kirkall engraved conjointly the anony- mous wood-engravings in Croxall's edition of ' JEsop's Fables.' Some cuts to an edition of Dryden's 'Poems' in 1717 bear Jackson's initials. About 1726 Jackson went to Paris, where he was employed on engraving vig- nettes and illustrations for books, working under the well-known wood-engraver, Papil- lon, who has left a depreciatory notice of Jackson as a man and as an artist. Not being successful in Paris, Jackson went to Rome about 1731, and shortly afterwards removed to Venice, where he resided some years. At Venice Jackson engraved a fine title-page to an Italian translation of Suetonius's ' Lives of the Caesars ' (1738), and also devoted him- self to a revival of the disused art of engraving in colours or chiaroscuro, by the superimposi- tion of a number of different blocks. He published in 1738 as his first essay, in coloured engraving, ' The Descent from the Cross ' by Rembrandt, now in the National Gallery, but then in the collection of Mr. Joseph Smith, the British consul at Venice, who patronised and employed Jackson. In 1 745 he published a set of seventeen large coloured en- gravings from pictures by Titian, Paolo Vero- nese, and other Venetian painters, entitled
'Titiani Vecelii, Pauli Caliari, Jacobi Ro busti, et Jacopi de Ponte opera selectiora a Joanne Baptista Jackson Anglo ligno coelata et coloribus adumbrata.' He also en- graved some chiaroscuros after Parmigiano, six coloured landscapes after Marco Ricci, and a portrait of Algernon Sydney. After twenty years on the continent Jackson returned to England, and started a manufactory of paper- hangings, printed in chiaroscuro, at Batter- sea, the first of its kind in England. In 1754 he published ' An Essay on the Invention of Engraving and Printing in Chiaroscuro, as practised by Albert Diirer, Hugo di Carpi, &c., and the Applications of it to the Making Paper-hangings of Taste, Duration, and Ele- gance.' Thomas Bewick, writing in his diary about 1780, notes that Jackson lived in old age at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and died in an asylum near the Teviot or on Tweedside.
[Chatto and Jackson's Hist, of Wood En- graving ; Linton's Masters of Wood Engraving ; Dodd's manuscript Hist, of English Engravers (Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 33402) ; Redgrave's Diet, of Artists.] L. C.
JACKSON, JOHN EDWARD (1805- 1891), antiquary, born on 12 Nov. 1805, was second son of James Jackson, banker, of Don- caster, by Henrietta Priscilla, second daugh- ter of Freeman Bower. Charles Jackson (1809-1882) [q. v.] was a younger brother. John matriculated at Oxford from Brasenose College on 9 April 1823, graduated B. A. with second-class classical honours in 1827, and proceeded M.A. in 1830 (FOSTER, Alumni Oxon. 1715-1886, ii. 736). In 1845 he be- came rector of Leigh Delamere-with-Seving- ton, Wiltshire, and in 1846 vicar of Norton Coleparle in the same county. He was also rural dean and honorary canon of Bristol (1855). Jackson, who was F.S.A., was li- brarian to the Marquis of Bath, and arranged and indexed the bulk of the manuscripts at Longleat (Hist. MSS. Comm. 3rd Rep. p. 180, 4th Rep. p. 227). He died in March 1891.
Jackson was a careful writer on antiquarian topics, and was always ready- to aid fellow- students. His works are : 1. ' The History of Grittleton, co. Wilts,' 4to, 1843, for Wilts Topographical Society. 2. 'A Guide to Far- leigh-Hungerford, co. Somerset,' 8vo, Taun- ton, 1853 (1860, 1879). 3. ' History of the ruined Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Don- caster,' 4to, London, 1853. 4. ' Maud Heath's Causey,' 4to, Devizes, 1854. 5. ' Murder of H. Long, Esq., A.D. 1594,' 8vo, Devizes, 1854. 6. ' Kingston House, Bradford,' 4to, Devizes, 1854. 7. 'History and Description of St. George's Church at Doncaster,' 4to, Lon- don, 1855. 8. ' On the Hungerford Chapels
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in Salisbury Cathedral,' 4to, Devizes, 1855. 9. ' A List of Wiltshire Sheriffs,' 4to, Devizes,
1856. 10. ' History of Longleat,'8vo, Devizes,
1857. 11. 'The History of Kington St. Mi- chael, co. Wilts,'4to, Devizes, 1857. 12. ' The History of the Priory of Monkton Farley, Wilts,' 4to, Devizes, 1857. 13. ' Swindon and its Neighbourhood,' 4to, Devizes, 1861. 14. 'Malmesbury,'4to, Devizes, 1863. 15. 'De- vizes/4to, Devizes, 1864. 16. ' The Sheriffs' Turn, Wilts, A.D. 1439,' 4to, Devizes, 1872.
Jackson also edited for the Wiltshire Ar- chaeological and Natural History Society the 'Wiltshire Topographical Collection' of John Aubrey, 4to, 1862 ; Leland's ' Journey through Wiltshire,' 4to (1875 ?) ; and for the Rox- burghe Club the ' Glastonbury Inquisition of A.D. 1189, called "Liber Henrici de Soliaco,'" 4to, 1882. He was an active contributor to the ' Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine,' in which appeared his valuable monographs on ' Charles, Lord Stourton, and the Murder of the Hartgills, January 1557,' 1864 ; ' Ambres- bury Monastery,' 1866; ' Ancient Chapels in Wilts,' 1867; and 'Rowley, alias Witten- ham, co. Wilts,' 1872, reissued separately.
[Athenaeum, 14 March 1891, p. 352; Crock- ford's Clerical Directory, 1890 ; Brit. Mus. Cat. ; Foster's Yorkshire Pedigrees, vol. i.] G. G.
JACKSON, JOHN RICHARDSON
(1819-1877), engraver, born at Portsmouth on 14 Dec. 1819, was second son of E. Jack- son, a banker in that town. In 1836 he became pupil to Robert Graves, A.R. A. [q. vj, from whom he learnt line-engraving. He subsequently devoted himself to engraving in mezzotint. In 1847 he engraved ' The Otter and Salmon' after Sir Edwin Landseer, which brought him into notice. He obtained frequent employment as an engraver of por- traits, and to that work he almost entirely devoted himself. His engravings show care- ful drawing, and a great feeling for the colour in mezzotint. He engraved numerous por- traits after George Richmond, R. A., including 'Lord Hatherley,' 'The Earl of Radnor,' ' Samuel Wilberforce,' ' Archbishop Trench ; ' several after J. P. Knight, R. A., including ' Sir F. Grant, R. A.,' and 'F.R. Say; "The Queen' after W. Fowler ; ' The Princess Royal and her Sisters' after Winterhalter ; ' The Arch- bishop of Armagh' after J. Catterson Smith, and 'Lady Gertrude Fitzpatrick' after Sir Joshua Reynolds. He also engraved, among other subjects, 'St. John the Baptist' after the well-known picture by Murillo in the National Gallery. Jackson died at Southsea of fever on 10 May 1877. There are some fine examples of his engravings in the print room at the British Museum.
[Printing Times, 15 June 1877; Art Journal, 1877, p. 155; Kedgrave's Diet, of Artists.]
L. C.
JACKSON, JOSEPH (1733-1792), letter- founder, was born in Old Street, Shoreditch, London, 4 Sept. 1733, and was educated at a school near St. Luke's, in which church he was the first infant baptised. He was ap- prenticed to William Caslon the elder (1692- 1766) [q. v.], at Chiswell Street, to learn ' the whole art'(E. Rows MOKES, Dissertation on English Typographical Founders, 1778, p. 83), and, says Nichols, ' being exceedingly tractable in the common branches of the business, he had a great desire to learn the method of cutting the punches, which is in general kept pro- foundly secret ' {Literary Anecdotes, ii. 359). This important art was carried on privately by Caslon and his son, and Jackson only dis- covered the process by watching through a hole in the wainscot. He worked for Caslon a short time after the expiration of his arti- cles, and is represented as a rubber in the view of the foundry given in the ' Universal Magazine ' (June 1750, vi. 274). Thomas Cottrell and he were discharged as the ring- leaders of a quarrel among the workmen, and the two began business themselves. In 1759, however, Jackson was serving on board the Minerva frigate as armourer, and in May 1761 held the same office on the Aurora. At the peace of 1763 he took 40/. prize-money. Having left the navy, he returned to work in Cottrell's foundry in Nevill's Court, Fetter Lane. He then hired a small house in Cock Lane, and about 1765 produced his first specimen-sheet of types. His business in- creased, and he moved to Dorset Street, Salisbury Square, Fleet Street. In 1773 he issued another specimen, including Hebrew, Persian, and Bengalee letters ; it is praised by Mores, who describes Jackson as ' obliging and communicative'(Z)zsserto&'cm,p.83). He produced the type used in Domesday Book, 1783. Woide's facsimile of the New Testa- ment of the Codex Alexandrinus is described on the title-page as being ' ty pis Jacksonianis ; ' and Jackson also cut the punches for Kip- ling's edition of the ' Codex Bezse,' 1793. In 1790 his moulds and matrices were much damaged in a fire. He cut for Bensley a splendid fount for Macklin's ' Bible,' 1800, 7 vols. folio, and another for the same printer, used in Hume's ' England,' 1806, 10 vols. folio ; the last, he asserted, would ' be the most exquisite performance of the kind in this or any other country '{Gent. Mag. 1792, p. 166). The anxiety of this undertaking is supposed to have hastened his death, which took place 14 Jan. 1792, in his fifty-ninth, year.
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Jackson was married, first, to Elizabeth Tassell (d. 1783), and, secondly, to Mrs. Pasham (d. 1791), widow of a printer in Blackfriars. He was buried beside his two wives in the burial-ground of Spa Fields Chapel. He ' was in every sense 01 the word a master of his art ' (T. C. HANSABD, Typo- graphia, 1825, p. 359). ' By the death of this ingenious artist and truly worthy man the poor lost a most excellent benefactor, his own immediate connections a steady friend, and the literary world a valuable coadjutor to their labours' (NICHOLS, Literary Anecdotes, ii. 360). An engraved portrait is given by Nichols (ib. ii. 358) ; a portrait in oil was shown by W. Blades at the Caxton Exhibi- tion (Catalogue, p. 336). He was childless, and left the bulk of his fortune, which was large, to fourteen nephews and nieces. His foundry was ultimately purchased by the third William Caslon, by whom it was en- larged and improved.
[Nichols's Lit. Anecd. ii. 358-63, iii. 264, 460 ; Gent. Mag. January 1792, pp. 92-3, 166; Reed's Old English Letter Foundries, 1887, pp. 315- 329.] H. K. T.
JACKSON, JULIAN (wrongly called JOHN RICHARD) (1790-1853), colonel of the imperial Eussian staff and geographer, son of William Turner Jackson and his wife Lu- cille, was born 30 March 1790, and baptised at St. Anne's Church, Westminster, 24 May following. He passed through the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, was nomi- nated to a Bengal cadetship by Sir Stephen Lushington in 1807, and was appointed second lieutenant in the Bengal artillery 26 Sept. 1808, and first lieutenant 28 April 1809. He resigned his rank in India 28 Aug. 1813 to seek employment in Wellington's army in the Peninsula, but arrived too late. On 2 June 1815 the emperor Alexander of Russia appointed Julian ' Villiamovitch ' Jackson to the quartermaster's staff of the imperial suite, with the rank of lieutenant. He did duty with the quartermaster-general's staff of the 12th Russian infantry division under Count Woronzow, forming part of the allied army of occupation in France, until 6 Nov. 1818, when he went to Russia with them in the rank of staff-captain. On the augmentation of the Lithuanian army corps next year Jackson was appointed to the quartermaster-general's staff, and attached to the grenadier brigade. He did duty with this part of the army during most of his service, becoming captain 8 Aug. 1821, and lieutenant-colonel 29 March 1825. He was promoted colonel on the general staff of the army 14 Aug. 1829, and retired from the
Russian service 21 Sept. 1830 (information supplied by the imperial Russian staff). On Jackson's retirement the Count de la Cane- rine, imperial finance minister, appointed him commissioner and correspondent in London for the Russian department of manufactures. Early in 1841 he was appointed secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, London. H& resigned the secretaryship in February 1847. About the same time he was suddenly super- seded in his Russian post and emoluments, and was thus placed in very straitened cir- cumstances. Through Sir Roderick Mur- chison he obtained a clerkship under the- council of education, which he held until his- death. The czar Nicholas also gave him a small pension (Journ. of the Roy. Geogr. Soc. 1853, presidential address). Jackson wa» made a F.R.S. London in 1845, and was a member or corresponding member of many learned societies. He was a knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland. He died, after long suffering, 16 March 1853 (Gent. Mag. new ser. xxxix. 562). He married Miss Sarah. Ogle, by whom he had several children.
Jackson was an industrious writer. Hi* ' Guide du Voyageur,' published at Paris in 1822, went through several French editions, and was reproduced in English under the- title of ' What to Observe ; or the Traveller's Remembrancer,' in 1841, 1851 (?), and 1861. Papers on ' Couleurs dans les corps trans- parents,' ' Les Galets ou pierres roulees- de Pologne,' 'Transparence et Couleur de 1'Atmosphere,' ' Les lacs salves ' were con- tributed by him to the ' Bibliotheque Univ. de Geneve,' 1830-2; and ' Physico-Geogra- phical Essays,' ' Hints on Geographical Ar- rangement,' a translation of Wietz's memoir on 'Ground Ice in Siberian Lakes,' a memoir on 'Picturesque Descriptions in Books of Travel,' and other papers to the ' Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.' He also- wrote a pamphlet on ' National Education/ which went through two editions ; a work on. ' Minerals and their Uses ' (London, 1848) ; a memoir on ' Cartography ; ' and numerous reviews. He translated and edited from the- French La ValleVs well-known treatise on ' Military Geography,' which in Jackson's hands became almost a new work. Jackson also indexed the first ten volumes of the ' Proceedings of the Royal Geographical So- ciety,' a task that occupied him 255 days, at the rate of five hours a day.
[Information obtained from the India Office, from the chief of the Scientific Committee, Im- perial Eussian Staff, through the courtesy of J. Michell, esq., H.B.M. Consul, St. Petersburg, and from the Royal Geographical Society, Lon- don ; Presidential Address, 1853, in Journ. of th&
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Roy. Geogr. Soc. 1853, xxiii. Ixxii-iii. Lists of Jackson's writings are given in Roy. Soc. Cat. Scient. Papers under ' Jackson, Julian R., F.R.S.,' and in Brit. Mus. Cat. Printed Books, under 'Jackson, John Richard, F.R.S.']
H. M. C.
JACKSON, LAURENCE (1691-1772), divine, born on 20 March 1691, son of Lau- rence Jackson of London, entered Merchant Taylors' School on 12 March 1700-1, was admitted a pensioner of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1709, and graduated B.A. in 1712. He migrated to Sidney Sussex Col- lege, of which he was elected a fellow, and commenced M.A. in 1716, proceeding B.D. in 1723. He became vicar of Ardleigh, near Colchester, 11 May 1723, rector of Great Wigborough, Essex, 25 April 1730, was col- lated to the prebend of Asgarby in the cathedral church of Lincoln 15 April 1747, and died on 17 Feb. 1772.
His works are : 1. Verses on the death of his ' pious friend and schoolfellow,' Am- brose Bonwicke the younger [q.v.], prefixed to Bonwicke's ' Life,' 1729, and reprinted in Nichols's 'Literary Anecdotes,' v. 154. 2. 'An Examination of a Book intituled " The True Gospel of Jesus Christ asserted," by Thomas Chubb, and also of his Appendix on Pro- vidence. To which is added A Disserta- tion on Episcopacy, shewing in one short and plain view the Grounds of it in Scrip- ture and Antiquity,' London, 1739, 8vo. The 'Dissertation' is reprinted in 'The Church- man's Remembrancer,' vol. ii., London, 1807, 8vo. 3. ' Remarks on Dr. Middleton's Exami- nation of the Lord Bishop of London's [T. Sherlock] Discourses concerning the Use and Intent of Prophecy. In a Letter from a Country Clergyman to his Friend in London,' London, 1750, 8vo. 4. ' A Letter to a Young Lady concerning the Principles and Conduct of the Christian Life,' London, 1756, 8vo ; 4th edit., London, 1818, 12mo. 5. ' A Short Review and Defence of the Authorities on which the Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity in Unity is grounded,' London, 1771, 8vo.
[Addit. MS. 5873, f. 8 b ; Cantabrigienses Gra- duati, 1787, p. 211 ; Gent. Mag. xlii. 151, xlviii. 623 ; Le Neve's Fasti (Hardy), ii. 103 ; Morant's Essex, i. 421, 435 ; Nichols's Lit. Anecd. i. 418, v. 154 ; Robinson's Register of Merchant Taylors' School, ii. 4 ; Watt's Bibl. Brit.] T. C.
JACKSON, RANDLE (1757-1837), par- liamentary counsel, son of Samuel Jackson of Westminster, was matriculated at Oxford 17 July 1789, at the age of thirty-two (Fos- TEK, Alumni Oxonienses). A member first of Magdalen Hall, afterwards of Exeter College, he was created M.A. 2 May 1793. In the same year, on 9 Feb., he was called to the bar
by the Middle Temple (FosiEK; the Georgian Era, ii. 548, says by Lincoln's Inn). He was admitted ad eundem at the Inner Temple in 1805, and became a bencher of the Middle Temple in 1828. Jackson won a considerable reputation at the bar, and acted as parlia- mentary counsel of the East India Company and of the corporation of London. Five or six of his speeches delivered before parlia- mentary committees or the proprietors of East India stock on the grievances of cloth- workers, the prolongation of the East India Company's charter, &c., were printed. Jack- son died at North Brixton 15 March 1837.
Besides his speeches, Jackson published : 1. 'Considerations on the Increase of Crime,' London, 1828, 8vo. 2. ' A Letter to Lord Henley, in answer to one from his Lordship requesting a vote for Middlesex, and with observations on his Lordship's plan for a re- form in our Church Establishment,' London, 1832, 8vo.
[Authorities cited ; Gent. Mag. 1837, i. 544 ; Brit. Mus. Cat.] J. T-T.
JACKSON, RICHARD (fl. 1570), ballad writer, matriculated from Clare Hall, Cam bridge, 25 Oct. 1567, proceeded B.A. 1570, and was shortly afterwards appointed master of Ingleton school, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The authorship of the well- known ballad on the battle of Flodden Field, supposed to have been written about 1570, has been generally ascribed to him, either on the ground of vague tradition or from the fact that Ingleton borders on the Craven dis- trict, in the dialect of which the poem is written. Apart from its historical interest the ballad is valuable as a spirited example of early alliterative poetry. We gather from the opening lines that the author was no novice at ballad-writing, while the partiality constantly shown for the house of Stanley and the Lancastrian forces seems to indicate some connection between the author and the Stanley family.
The earliest existing manuscript of the ballad is in Harl. MS. 3526, with a long title commencing ' Heare is the famous his- torie in songe called Floodan 'Field ; ' it bears no date, but was probably written about 1636. The first printed edition was published under the title of ' Floddan Field in nine Fits, being an exact History of that Famous Memorable Battle fought between the English and Scots on Floddan-Hill, in the time of Henry the Eight, Anno 1513. Worthy of the Perusal of the English Nobility,' London, 12mo, 1664. In the copy of this edition at Bridgewater House there is a manuscript note by Sir Wal- ter Scott to the effect that ' this old copy ia
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probably unique,' but there are copies in the British Museum, the Huth Library, and else- where. Another edition (n. d.) was printed by Thomas Gent [q. v.] about 1756, and this version is of special interest as having been taken from a different source, a manuscript in the possession of John Askew of Pallings- burn, Northumberland. A third edition was printed by Robert Lambe, vicar of Norham- upon-Tweed, Berwick, 1773 (reprinted with- out alteration in ' Ancient Historic Ballads,' Newcastle, 1807), and a fourth by Joseph Benson, 'philomath,' 1774. Two valuable critical editions were subsequently published, one by Henry Weber, Edinburgh, 1808, and the other by 'Charles A. Federer, Manchester, 1884.
[Cooper's Athenae Cantabr.ii. 1 18 ; Whitaker's Craven, ed. Morant, p. 326 ; Collier's Bibl. Ac- count, i. 290 ; Watt's Bibl. Brit. ; Weber's and Federer's editions of Flodden Field ; Brit. Mus. Cat.] T. S.
JACKSON or KUERDEN, RICHARD (1623-1690?), antiquary, son of Gilbert Jackson and his wife Ann Leyland, was born at Cuerden, near Preston, Lancashire, in 1623. He received his early education at Leyland, Lancashire, under Mr. Sherburn, and was admitted a commoner of St. Mary Hall, Ox- ford, in 1638. On the outbreak of the war he removed to Emmanuel College, Cam- bridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1642. In 1646 he returned to Oxford, graduated M. A. 22 March, and was elected vice-principal of St. Mary Hall and tutor. He was a staunch royalist, and declined the office of proctor of the university rather than submit to the parliamentary government. He then began the study of medicine, and in 1652 was appointed ' replicant to all incept ors of physic,' which office qualified him for the degree of M.I). After paying the fees he, however, again declined to take the required oath, and it was not until after the Restoration that he was made M.D. (26 March 1663). At that time he was settled at Preston as a physician. He appears as a freeman of the borough on the Guild Merchant Rolls of 1662 and 1682. According to Wood he neglected his practice, and devoted himself to the study of antiqui- ties. In conjunction with Christopher Town- ley of Carr Hall he contemplated the pub- lication of a complete history of Lancashire, but the project was frustrated by Townley's death in 1674. Jackson afterwards issued proposals for publishing his work under the title of ' Brigantia Lancastriensis Restaurata ; or History of the Honourable Dukedom or County Palatine of Lancaster, in 5 vols. in folio,' 1688. No further progress was made, and the manuscripts, in a crabbed and almost
illegible hand, and consisting of crude ma- terials without arrangement, are now pre- served in the Heralds' College (8 vols.), the Chetham Library, Manchester (2 vols.), and the British Museum (1 vol.) A fragmentary but valuable itinerary of some parts of Lan- cashire from his pen is given in Earwaker's ' Local Gleanings,' 1876. He was a friend of Sir William Dugdale, and acted as his deputy and marshal at a visitation held at Lancaster. It is supposed that he died be- tween 1690 and 1695.
[Wood's Fasti Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 94, 275; Whitaker's Hist, of Manchester, 1775, 4to, ii. 587 ; Dugdale's Visitation of Lane. (Chetham Soc.), p. 1 68 ; Earwaker's Local Gleanings, vol. i. ; Baines's Lancashire (Harland), i. 326 ; Ralph Thoresby's Diary, i. 388.] C. W. S.
JACKSON, RICHARD (1700-1782?), founder of the Jacksonian professorship at Cambridge, born in 1700, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduated B.A. in 1727, M.A. in 1731, and became fellow of the college. On 13 Nov. 1739 he was in- corporated M.A. at Oxford (FOSTER, Alumni Oxon. p. 736). By 1775 he was residing at Tarrington in Herefordshire. He died ap- parently in 1782, and was buried with his wife at Kingsbury, Warwickshire. He mar- ried Katherine (d. 1762), second daughter of Waldy ve Wellington of Hurley in Kings- bury, but had no issue (BiTRKE, Landed Gentry, 1868, p. 1671). By his will (re- gistered in P. C. C. 135, Cornwallis) he bequeathed to Trinity College a freehold estate at Upper Longsdon in Leek, Stafford- shire, for founding a professorship of natural experimental philosophy. His bequest took effect in 1783, when Isaac Milner was ap- pointed the first professor. Jackson also gave his library to Trinity College.
[Authorities cited.] G-. G.
JACKSON, RICHARD (d. 1787), poli- tician, was son of Richard Jackson of Dub- lin. He was entered at Lincoln's Inn as a student in 1740, and called to the bar in 1744. On 22 Nov. 1751 he was admitted ad eundem at the Inner Temple, became a bencher in 1770, reader in 1779, and trea- surer in 1780. He was created standing counsel to the South Sea Company in 1764, was one of the counsel for Cambridge Uni- versity, and held the post of law-officer to the board of trade. He was elected F.S. A. in 1781, and was a governor of the Society of Dis- senters for Propagation of the Gospel. On a chance vacancy (1 Dec. 1762) he was re- turned to parliament for the conjoint borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis, and from 1768 to 1784 he sat for the Cinque port of
Jackson
New Romney. Lord Edmund Fitzmaurice calls him ' the private secretary of George Grenville ' in 1765, and writes that in that year he warned the House of Commons against applying the Stamp Act to the Ame- rican colonies. In after-years Jackson was known as the intimate friend of Lord Shel- burne. When Shelburne formed his ministry in July 1782, Jackson was made a lord of the treasury, and he held that office until the fol- lowing A pril. He died at Southampton Build- ings, Chancery Lane, London, on 6 May 1787, when a considerable fortune came to his two sisters.
From his extraordinary stores of know- ledge he was known as 'Omniscient Jackson,' but Johnson, in speaking of him, altered the adjective to ' all-knowing,' on the ground that the former word was ' appropriated to the Supreme Being.' "When Thrale meditated a journey in Italy he was advised by Johnson to consult Jackson, who afterwards returned the compliment by remarking of the 'Journey to the Western Islands' that ' there was more good sense upon trade in it than he should hear in the House of Commons in a year, except from Burke.' He is introduced into ' The old Benchers of the Inner Temple ' in Lamb's ' Essays of Elia.'
[Boswell, ed. Hill, iii. 19, 137; Fitzmaurice's Life of Lord Shelburne, i. 321-2 ; W. H. Cooke's Inner Temple Benchers, p. 80 ; Lamb's Elia, ed. Ainger, p. 127; Gent. Mag. 1764 p. 603, 1787 pt. i. p. 454 ; Cooper's Annals of Cambridge, iv. 390 ; Nichols's Lit. Anecd. viii. 466.] W. P. C.
JACKSON, ROBERT, M.D. (1750- 1827), inspector-general of army hospitals, born in 1750 at Stonebyres, near the Falls of Clyde, was the son of a small farmer. After a good schooling at Wandon and Crawford he was apprenticed for three years to a surgeon at Biggar, and in 1768 joined the medical classes at Edinburgh. Supporting himself by going twice on a whaling voyage as surgeon, he finished his studies without graduating, and went to Jamaica, where he acted as assistant to a doctor at Savanna-la- mer from 1774 to 1780. He next made his way to New York, with the intention of join- ing the state volunteers ; but he was even- tually received by the colonel of a Scotch regiment (the 71st) as ensign, with the duties of hospital-mate. After various adventures he arrived at Greenock in 1782, and travelled to London on foot. He left early in 1783 on a journey on foot through France, Switzer- land, Germany, and Italy, and landed on his return at Southampton with four shillings in his pocket. He walked to London, and thence, in January 1784, to Perth, where the 71st regiment was stationed. Coming at
5 Jackson
length to Edinburgh he remained two or three months, and married the daughter of Dr. Stephenson, and the niece of an officer whom he had known in New York. The lady's fortune placed him in easy circumstances, and he spent the next year in Paris, attend- ing hospitals and studying languages (in- cluding Arabic), and then proceeded to Ley- den, where he passed an examination forM.D. in 1786. He settled as a physician at Stock- ton-on-Tees, and remained there seven years, but with no great relish for private practice. When war broke out in 1793, he got appointed surgeon to the 3rd regiment, or Buff's, on the strength of a book which he had published on West Indian fevers. Not being connected with the College of Physicians of London he was ineligible for the office of army phy- sician ; but he received the promotion in 1794, owing to the personal intervention of the Duke of York, who recognised his abili- ties. This personal incident was the begin- ning of Jackson's resolute opposition to the monopoly of the College of Physicians and to the corrupt administration of the old army medical board, which ended in a new regime in 1810, and in an open career from the lowest to the highest ranks of the army me- dical service. In the course of the contest he wrote seven pamphlets (from 1803 to 1809), was obliged to retire from active service, and committed an assault on Keate, the surgeon- general (by striking him across the shoulders with his gold-headed cane), for which he suf- fered six months' imprisonment. The over- throw of the monopolists was hastened by their proved incompetence in the disastrous Walcheren expedition. Jackson had many supporters, among the rest Dr. McGrigor, afterwards head of the army medical depart- ment. Meanwhile, from 1794 to 1798, he had been on active service in Holland and in the West Indies, acquiring experience which formed the basis of his most important works. In 1811, his old enemies being now out of the way, he was recalled from his re- tirement at Stockton to be medical director in the West Indies, in which office he re- mained until 1815. He retired on half-pay as inspector-general of army hospitals, and a pension of 200/. per annum was after- wards granted him. In 1819, when yellow fever was in Spain, hS visited the Mediter- ranean. He died of paralysis at Thursby, near Carlisle, on 6 April 1827. Four children of his first marriage predeceased him. His second wife, who survived him, was a daugh- ter of J. H. Tidy, rector of Redmarshall, Durham. Jackson was of the middle height, muscular, blue-eyed, inclined to be florid, and of a pleasing expression.
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Jackson's first book was ' A Treatise on the Fevers of Jamaica,' 1791 (reprinted at Phila- delphia in 1795, and in German at Leipzig in 1796), the result of his early experience as an assistant. He recommends the treat- ment of fevers by cold affusion, which was afterwards advocated by Currie, and by him- self in a special essay published at Edin- burgh in 1808. His San Domingo experi- ences of 1796 were embodied in his next work, ' An Outline of the History and Cure of Fever, Epidemic and Contagious, more especially of Jails, Ships, and Hospitals, and the Yellow Fever. With Observations on Military Discipline and Economy, and a Scheme of Medical Arrangement for Armies,' Edinburgh, 1798 ; German edition, Stuttgart, 1804. The subject last in the title he took up again in 1804 and expanded into his best- known work, ' A Systematic View of the Formation, Discipline, and Economy of Ar- mies,' which was republished by him at Stockton in 1824, and finally at London in 1845, with portrait and memoir. Part ii. of this work is a philosophical sketch of ' na- tional military character ' from ancient and modern sources. In 1817 appeared his ' His- tory and Cure of Febrile Diseases,' relating chiefly to soldiers in the West Indies, 1819 ; 2nd edit., enlarged to 2 vols., 1820. His ' Observations of the Yellow Fever in Spain ' was published in 1821. In 1823 he published at Stockton ' An Outline of Hints for the Political Organization and Moral Training of the Human Race.' Besides studying Arabic for its biblical interest he became a student of Gaelic in connection with the Ossian con- troversy.
Both as an administrative reformer and as a writer on fevers Jackson holds a distin- guished place. He was philosophically in- clined, modest, and zealous for the public interests.
[Memoir prefixed to 3rd edit. (1845) of his Formation, Discipline, and Economy of Armies, drawn up from his own papers and from recol- lections by Borland; medical notice by Dr. Thomas Barnes in Trans. Prov. Med. and Engl. Assoc.; Gent. Mag. June 1827, p. 566.] C. C.
JACKSON, afterwards SCORESBY- JACKSON, ROBERT EDMUND (1835- 1867), biographer and medical writer, was a son of Captain Thomas Jackson of the merchant navy, of Whitby, by Arabella, third and youngest daughter of William Scoresby the elder, and sister of William Scoresby, D.D. [q. v.], the well-known arctic explorer and divine. He was born at Whitby in 1835. Jackson was educated for the medical pro- fession at St. George's Hospital, London, at
Paris, and afterwards at Edinburgh, where he devoted himself especially to the study of materia medica under Professor (afterwards Sir) Robert Christison. He took the degree of M.D. in 1857, writing a thesis on ' Climate, Health, and Disease,' a subject on which he afterwards became an authority. In 1859 he became F.R.C.S., in 1861 F.R.S.E., and in 1862 F.R.C.P. He was lecturer upon materia medica and therapeutics in Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh, and in 1865 was appointed physician to the Royal Infirmary, and soon afterwards lecturer on clinical medicine. On the death of his uncle, William Scoresby, he assumed the additional name of Scoresby. For some time he was chairman of the medical department of the Scottish Meteo- rological Society. Scoresby-Jackson died at 32 Queen Street, Edinburgh, on 1 Feb. 1867. He married in 1858 the only child of Sir William Johnston of Kirkhill, and by her had two daughters, who survived him. He published, besides occasional papers: 1. 'A Life of William Scoresby, D.D.,' London, 1861, 8vo. 2. 'Medical Climatology: a Topo- graphical and Meteorological Description of Localities resorted to in Winter and Summer by Invalids,' London, 1862, 12mo ; a work based upon the results of personal visits to the chief continental and Mediterranean health resorts between 1855 and 1861. 3. 'A Note- Book on Materia Medica, Pharmacology, and Therapeutics,' 1866, a fourth edition of which, revised by F. W. Moinet, M.D., appeared at Edinburgh, 1880.
[Scotsman, 2 Feb. 1867; Edinburgh Medical Journal, March 1867; Lancet, 9 Feb. 1867; British Medical Journal, 9 Feb. 1 867 ; Athenaeum, 16 Feb. 1867; Life of William Scoresby; prefaces to his works.] J. T-T.
JACKSON, SAMUEL (1794-1869), landscape-painter, was born 31 Dec. 1794 at Bristol, where his father was a merchant. He began life in his father's office, but on his death abandoned business in favour of land- scape-painting, and became a pupil of Francis Danby [q. v.], who was then residing in Bristol. In 1823 he was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in Water-colours, and during the next twenty-six years con- tributed forty-six drawings to its exhibitions. All these, with the exception of a few West Indian views, the result of a voyage taken in 1827 for the benefit of his health, illustrated English scenery, which he treated in a pleas- ing and poetical manner,somewhat resembling- that of the two Barrets. In 1833 Jackson was one of the founders of a sketching so- ciety at Bristol, to which W. J. Miiller, J. Skinner Prout, and other artists who later
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achieved eminence belonged, an'd he was always closely identified with the Bristol ' school.' In 1848 he withdrew from the Water-colour Society, having failed to obtain election to full membership. In 1855 and 1856 Jackson made tours in Switzerland, after which he painted, almost exclusively, Swiss views in oils, which were sent to the Bristol annual exhibition and sold well. Two draw- ings by him are in the South Kensington Museum. Jackson died at Clifton, 8 Dec. 1869. By his marriage with Jane Phillips he had one son, Samuel Phillips, now a member of the Royal Society of Painters in Water- colours, and three daughters.
[Redgrave's Diet, of Artists ; Eoget's Hist, of the Old Water-colour Society, 1891 ; information from the family.] F. M. OT>.
JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640), pre- sident of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton-on-the-Wear, Durham, about St. Thomas's day, 21 Dec. 1579. Members of his father's family were Newcastle merchants, and he was at first intended for commerce. But his abilities came under the notice of the third Lord Eure, at whose suggestion he •was sent to Queen's College, Oxford (25 June 1596), where Crackanthorpe was his tutor. He obtained a scholarship at Corpus Christi College on 24 March 1596-7. He graduated B. A. on 22 July 1599, and M.A. 9 July 1603, became a probationer fellow of his college on 10 May 1606, and was afterwards repeatedly elected vice-president. On 25 July 1610 he proceeded B.D., receiving a license to preach on 18 June 1611, and the degree of D.D. 26 June 1622. At Oxford Jackson won much reputation for his varied learning, but mainly devoted himself to theology. He read divinity lectures weekly both at his own col- lege and at Pembroke, and published the first two books of his commentary on the Creed in 1613, dedicating the first to his patron, Lord Eure. He was instituted to the living of St. Nicholas, Newcastle, on 27 Nov. 1623, through the influence of Neile, bishop of Durham, to whom he was chaplain for a time. In 1624, with the permission of his bishop, he resided much at Oxford, engaged in literary work. About 1625 he was pre- sented by Neile to the living of Winston, Durham, receiving on 14 May 1625 a dispen- sation to hold it with Newcastle, and also becoming chaplain in ordinary to the king. He resided principally at Newcastle, where his preaching and charitable work were alike notable. In Fuller's words, he became ' a factor for heaven where he was once designed a merchant.' In 1630 Laud and Neile se- cured for Jackson the presidency of Corpus
Christi, his own college, and on 8 July 1632 he was presented to the crown living of Witney, Oxfordshire. The latter he resigned in 1637, the former he held till his death. He was installed prebendary of Winchester on 18 June 1635, and on 17 Jan. 1638-9 be- came dean of Peterborough. He died, aged 61, on 21 Sept. 1640, and was buried at Oxford, in the inner chapel of Corpus Christi Col- lege, but no memorial marks the spot. By his will, dated 5 Sept., Jackson bequeathed most of his books to his college.
Jackson's theological works rank high. His views were at first decidedly puritanical, but they changed under the influence of Neile and Laud, and he ultimately incurred the wrath of the presbyterians, and especially of Prynne, who attacked him in ' Anti- Armi- nianism ' and • Canterburie's Doome.' At Laud's trial Dr. Featley described Jackson as ' a known Arminian,' and Dr. Seth Ward similarly characterised his religious position. ' An Historical Narration ' by Jackson, ap- parently of extreme Arminian tendency, was licensed by Laud's chaplain while Laud was bishop of London, but was afterwards called in and suppressed, by order, according to Prynne, of Archbishop Abbot. Southey de- scribed him as ' the most valuable of all our English divines,' and insisted on the sound- ness of his philosophy and the strength of his faith. Jones of Nayland found in his works ' a magazine of theological knowledge.' His theology powerfully commended itself to modern high church divines, as recent re- prints abundantly prove. Pusey asserted that his was ' one of the best and greatest minds our church has nurtured.'
Jackson's chief work was his ' Commenta- ries on the Apostles' Creed.' It was designed to fill twelve books, nine of which were published in separate volumes in his lifetime. The first two appeared (London, 1613, 4to) under the titles of ' The Eternall Truth of Scriptures ' and ' How Far the Ministry of Man is necessary for Planting the True Chris- tian Faith.' The third, 'The Positions of Jesuitesand other later Romanists concerning' the Authority of their Church,' appeared in 1614 ; the fourth, entitled ' Justifying Faith,' in 1615 (2nd edit. 1631) ; the fifth, entitled ' A Treatise containing the Originall of Un- beliefe,' in 1625; the sixth, entitled 'A Treatise of the Divine Essence and Attri- butes,' pt. i. in 1628 (dedicated to the Earl of Pembroke), pt. ii. 1629 ; the seventh, ' The Knowledge of Christ Jesus,' in 1634 ; the eighth, ' The Humiliation of the Sonne of God,' in 1636 ; the ninth, < A Treatise of the Consecration of the Sonne of God,' Ox- ford, 1638, 4to.
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The tenth book ('Christ exercising his Everlasting Priesthood,' or the second part of the ' Knowledge of Christ Jesus ') was pub- lished by Barnabas Oley for the first time in 1654, folio, and the eleventh book (' Domi- nus Veniet. Of Christ's Session at the Right Hand of God') first appeared, also under Oley's auspices, in 1657, folio, in a volume containing other of Jackson's sermons and treatises. A collected edition of Jackson's works, some of which had not been printed previously, dated 1672-3, in 3 vols., supplies a twelfth book, of which a portion had been issued as early as 1627 under the title of ' A Treatise of the Holy Catholike Faith and Church,' 3 parts (reprinted separately in 1843). A completer edition of Jackson's •works was issued at Oxford in 1844, 12 vols. In 1653 Oley issued in a single folio volume, •with a preface by himself and a life of Jack- son by Edmund Vaughan, a new edition of the first three books of the ' Commentaries,' •with which the tenth and eleventh books (1654 and 1657) were afterwards frequently bound. Other books of the Creed, with a treatise on the ' Primeval State of Man,' also appeared in folio in 1654.
Besides the ' Commentaries,' Jackson pub- lished in his lifetime three collections of sermons: 1. 'Nazareth to Bethlehem,' Ox- ford, 1617, 4to. 2. 'Christ's Answer unto John's Question,' London, 1625, 4to. 3. ' Di- verse Sermons,' Oxford, 1637, 4to.
[Wood's Athense Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 664 ; Wood's Fasti (Bliss), i. 281, 299, 339, 401 ; Clark's Reg. Oxf. Univ. pt. i. pp. 36, 217, pt. ii. p. 214 ; Lloyd's Memoirs, ed. 1668, p. 69; Kennett's Register, pp. 670, 681 ; Jones's Life of Bishop Home, p. 75 ; Walton's Life of Hooker ; Rymer's Fcedera, xviii. 660 ; A Discovery of Mr. Jackson's Vanitie, by W. Twisse, ed. 1630, p. 270 ; Repertorium Theologicum, a synoptical table of Jackson's works, by the Rev. H. J. Todd, 1838; Mac- kenzie and Ross's Durham, p. 278 ; Brand's Newcastle, i. 305 ; Mackenzie's Newcastle, p. 280; Gale's Winchester, p. 123; Biog. Brit.; Chalmers's Diet.] E. T. B.
JACKSON, THOMAS (d. 1646), pre- bendary of Canterbury, born in Lancashire and educated at Cambridge, graduated M.A. in 1600, and B.I), in 1608, at Christ's College; and proceeded D.D. in 1615 from Emmanuel College. He was beneficed at several places in Kent, between 1603 and 1614 at Wye, and later at Ivychurch, Chilham-with-Molash, Great Chart,"Milton, near Canterbury, and St. George's in Canterbury. On 30 March 1614 he was installed a prebendary in Canterbury Cathedral. At the trial of Laud in 1644 he testified that the archbishop had in one of his statutes enjoined bowing towards the altar.
When Laud was taunted with giving prefer- ment only to men ' popishly inclined,' he re- plied that he disposed of livings to ' divers good and orthodox men, as to Doctor Jackson of Canterbury,' to whom he had given ' an hospital/ Wood says that he ' mostly seemed to be a true son of the church of England.' He nevertheless found favour with the par- liament, as he continued in office until his death in November 1646. His wife Eliza- beth was buried at Canterbury on 27 Jan. 1657. One of his sons, also named Thomas, was among a number of Canterbury clergy- men who in August 1636 were reported to Laud for tavern-haunting and drunkenness. Jackson was author of: 1. 'David's Pas- torall Poeme, or Sheepeheards Song. Seven Sermons on the 23 Psalme,' 1603, 8vo. 2. ' The Converts Happiness : a Comfortable Sermon/ 1609, 4to. 3. ' Londons New Yeeres Gift, or the Uncouching of the Foxe. A Godly Sermon,' 1609, 4to. 4. ' Peters Teares, a Ser- mon,' 1612, 4to. 5. ' Sinnelesse Sorrow for the Dead. A Comfortable Sermon at the Funeral of Mr. John Moyle,' 1614, 12mo. 6. ' Judah must into Captivitie. Six Ser- mons,' &c., 1622, 4to. 7. ' The Raging Tem- pest Stilled. The Historie of Christ, His Passage with His Disciples over the Sea of Galilee,' &c., 1623, 4to. 8. 'An Helpe to the Best Bargaine. A Sermon,' 1624, 8vo.
[Wood's Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 669 ; Prynne's Canterbury's Doom, 1646, pp. 79, 534; Wbarton's Troubles and Tryal of Laud, 1695, pp.326, 369 ; Walker's Sufferings of the Clergy, fol. pt. ii. p. 7 ; Hist. MSS. Comm. 4th Rep. p. 125 ; House of Lords' Journals.viii. 573; Le Neve's Fasti (Hardy), i. 49 ; Hasted's Kent, ' Canterbury,' 1801, ii. 65; Registers of Canterbury Cathedral (Harl. Soc.) ; Mnsters's Corpus Christi College (Lamb), pp. 193, 199 ; Calendar of State Papers, Dom. Ser. James I, i. 74,1634-5, 1635, 1635-6, 1636-7; Brit. Mus. Cat. ; information kindly supplied by the Revs. J. I. Dredge and J. E. B. Mayor.] C. W. S.
JACKSON, THOMAS (1783-1873), Wesleyan minister, born at Sancton, a small village near Market Weighton, East York- shire, on 12 Dec. 1783, was second son of Thomas and Mary Jackson. His father was an agricultural labourer. Three of the sons, Robert, Samuel, and Thomas, became minis- ters in the Wesleyan Methodist Connexion. Thomas was mainly self-taught, being taken from school at twelve years of age to work on a farm. Three years after he was appren- ticed to a carpenter at Shipton, a neighbour- ing village. At every available moment he read and studied, and in July 1801 joined the Methodist Society and threw his energies into biblical study and religious work. In Sep- tember 1804 he was sent by the Wesleyan
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conference as an itinerant preacher into the Spilsby circuit. For twenty years he laboured in the Wesleyan connexion in the same ca- pacity, occupying some of the most important circuits, such as Preston and Wakefield, Man- chester, Lincoln, Leeds, and London. His position and influence grew rapidly. From 182-4 to 1842 he was editor of the connexional magazines, and, despite his lack of a liberal education in youth, he performed his duties with marked success. The conference elected him in 1842 to the chair of divinity in the Theological College at Richmond, Surrey, where he remained until 1861.
In 1838-9 Jackson was for the first time chosen president of the Wesleyan conference. A hundred years had just passed since the formation of the first Methodist Society by the brothers Wesley, and Jackson prepared a centenary volume, describing the origin and growth of methodism, and the benefits springing from it (1839). In the centennial celebration he played a leading part, and preached before the conference in Brunswick Chapel, Liverpool, the official sermon, which occupied nearly three hours in delivery. The sermon was published, and had a very large circulation.
Jackson was re-elected president in 1849, when the methodist community was agitated by the so-called reform movement and the expulsion of Everett, Dunn, and Griffiths [see DUNN, SAMTTEL, and EVERETT, JAMES]. Jackson throughout the crisis showed great tact and dignity.
He retired from Richmond College and from full work as a Wesleyan minister in 1861. At the same time his private library was bought by James Heald [q. v.] for 1,00(W. and given to Richmond College. After leaving Richmond he resided with his daughter, Mrs. Marzials, first in Bloomsbury, and afterwards in Shepherd's Bush, where he died on 10 March 1873.
In 1809 Jackson married Ann, daughter of Thomas Hollinshead of Horncastle. She died 24 Sept. 1854, aged 69. His son, the Rev. Thomas Jackson, M.A., is separately noticed.
Jackson's style as a preacher was simple and lucid. As a theologian he belonged to the school of Wesley and Fletcher of Made- ley. Besides occasional sermons and pam- phlets he wrote : 1. ' Life of John Goodwin, A.M., comprising an Account of his Opinions and Writings,' 8vo, London, 1822 ; new edi- tion, 8vo, 1872. 2. ' Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Rev. Richard Watson,' 8vo, 1834. 3. ' The Centenary of Wesleyan Methodism : a Brief Sketch of the Rise, Pro- gress, and Present State of the Wesleyan
Methodist Societies throughout the World,' post 8vo, 1839. 4. ' Expository Discourses on various Scripture Facts,' &c., post 8vo, 1839. 5. ' The Life of the Rev. Charles Wesley,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1841. 6. ' The Jour- nal of the Rev. Charles Wesley, with Selec- tions from his Correspondence and Poetry; with an Introduction and Notes,' 2 vols. fcp. 8vo, London, 1849. 7. ' The Life of the Rev. Robert Newton, D.D.,' post 8vo, 1855.
8. ' The Duties of Christianity theoretically and practically considered,' cr. 8vo, 1867.
9. 'The Providence of God, viewed in the Light of Holy Scripture,' cr. 8vo, 1862.
10. 'Aids to Truth and Charity,' 8vo, 1862.
11. 'The Institutions of Christianity, exhi- bited in their Scriptural Character and Prac- tical Bearing,' cr. 8vo, London, 1868. 12. ' Re- collections of my own Life and Times,' edited by the Rev. B. Frankland, B.A. ; with an introduction and a postscript by the Rev. G. Osborn, D.D., cr. 8vo, London, 1873.
He also edited, with a preface or introduc- tory essay : ' The Works of the Rev. John Wesley in 14 vols.,' 8vo, London, 1829-31 ; ' John Goodwin's Exposition of Romans ix., with two other Tracts by the same,' 8vo, London, 1834 ; 'The Christian armed against Infidelity,' 24mo, 1837 ; ' Memoirs of Miss Hannah Ball,' 12mo, 1839 ; 'A Collection of Christian Biography,' 12 vols. 18mo, 1837- 1840 ; ' Anthony Farindon's Sermons,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1849 ; ' Wesley's Journals,' 4 vols. 12mo, 1864 ; ' The Lives of the Early Methodist Preachers,' 6 vols. 12mo, 1865.
SAMUEL JACKSON (1786-1861), Thomas Jackson's younger brother, was president of the Wesleyan conference at Liverpool in 1847, and died at Newcastle during the ses- sion of the conference there in August 1861.
[Eecollections of my own Life and Times (as above) ; Minutes of the Methodist Conferences ; private information.] W. B. L.
JACKSON, THOMAS (1812-1886), divine, son of Thomas Jackson [q. v.], Wes- leyan minister, was born in 1812. He was educated at St. Saviour's school, Southwark,. and St. Mary Hall, Oxford, where he gra- duated B.A. 27 Nov. 1834, M.A. 23 NOT. 1837. While an undergraduate he was the author of &jeu (P esprit, entitled ' Uniomachia,* in which John Sinclair, afterwards arch- deacon of Middlesex, had a hand ; it was printed at Oxford about 1833, with annota- tions by Robert Scott, afterwards dean of Rochester, and went through five editions. After holding a curacy at Brompton he be- came vicar of St. Peter's, Stepney. In 1844 he was chosen principal of the National So- ciety's training college at Battersea, and in 1850 prebendary of Wedland in St. Paul's
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Cathedral. In 1850 also he was nominated to the bishopric of the projected see of Lyttelton, New Zealand, and accordingly went out to that colony. Difficulties, how- ever, arose about the constitution of the new diocese, and he was never consecrated. His attitude was vindicated by Blomfield, al- ways his firm friend, and Archbishop Sum- ner. Blomfield presented him in 1852 to the rectory of Stoke Newington. Here he rebuilt the parish church from the designs of Sir Gilbert Scott. He took great interest in the question of education, for some time editing the 'English Journal of Education.' Owing to ill-health Jackson made arrange- ments to vacate his living in June 1886, but died previously on 18 March. A mural monu- ment was put up to his memory in Stoke Newington Church. He was married and left issue.
He published, besides single sermons and addresses (1843-56) : 1. ' A Compendium of Logic . . . with . . . Notes,' &c., 1836, 12mo (an edition of Aldrich). 2. ' Sermons,' &c., 1859, 8vo; 1863, 8vo. 3. ' Our Dumb Companions,' &c., 2nd edition [1864], 4to ; new edition [1869], 4to. 4. ' Curiosities of the Pulpit,' &c. [1868], 8vo ; with new title,
* Reminiscences and Anecdotes of Celebrated Preachers,' &c. [1875], 8vo. 5. « The Nar- rative of the Fire of London, freely handled on the principles of Modern Rationalism, by P. Maritzburg,' &c., 1869, 8vo (reprinted from
* Good Words '). 6. ' Our Dumb Neighbours,' &c. [1870], 4to. 7. ' Our Feathered Com- panions,' &c. [1870], 8vo. 8. ' Stories about Animals,' &c. [1874], 4to.
[Times, 20 March 1886, p. 7 ; Cat. of Oxford Graduates, 1851, p. 358 ; Crockford's Clerical Directory, 1885.] A. G.
JACKSON, WILLIAM (1737 P-1795), Irish revolutionist, son of an officer in the pre- rogative court, Dublin, became at an early age a tutor in London, and, taking holy orders, was for a time curate of St. Mary-le-Strand, and gained some notoriety as a preacher at Tavistock Chapel, Drury Lane. Before 1775 he became secretary or factotum to Elizabeth Chudleigh [q. v.], duchess of Kingston. Foote satirised him as Dr. Viper in his ' Capuchin.' An acrimonious correspondence followed in the newspapers. In a letter to the duchess
Foote wrote : ' Pray, madam, is not J n
the name of your female confidential secre- tary? . . . May you never want the benefit of clergy in every emergency.' Jackson re- taliated by suborning Foote's ex-coachman to prefer an infamous charge against him [see FOOTE, SAMUEL], and by publishing a disgust- ing poem under the pseudonym of Humphry
Nettle (1775). Jackson had already made his way as a radical journalist. He became editor of the ' Public Ledger,' a daily paper, and published a reply to Dr. Johnson's ' Taxation no Tyranny,' in which he strongly supported the American revolutionists. In 1776 he edited Gurney's report of the evi- dence taken at the Duchess of Kingston's trial for bigamy, and probably accompanied her to France. Soon returning to England, he resumed his connection with the press by editing the ' Morning Post,' and gave able support to the advanced whigs by pub- lishing ' The Constitutions of the several in- dependent States of America, the Declara- tion of Independence, and the Articles of Confederation between the said States. To which are now added the Declaration of Rights, «&c. With an Appendix, &c.,' 8vo, London, 1783, dedicated to the Duke of Portland. ' Thoughts on the Causes of the Delay of the Westminster Scrutiny/ 8vo, by Jackson, appeared at London in 1784. According to Cockayne, he was sent by Pitt on a secret mission to the French govern- ment in the interval between Louis XVI's deposition and his trial. He may have been the pretended Irish quaker sent from London to Paris at the end of 1792 with a passport from Roland (ETIEXNE DTTMONT, Souvenirs sur Mirabeau'). He seems to have remained in France until 1794. In March 1794 he was commissioned by Nicholas Madgett and John Hurford Stone, men in the employ of the French foreign office, to ascertain the chances of success for a French invasion of England or Ireland. Arriving in London, he conferred or corresponded with radical politicians, who all deprecated an invasion. He also renewed acquaintance with the Duchess of Kingston's former attorney, Cockayne, who betrayed his plans to Pitt. Cockayne accompanied Jackson to Dublin, and gave information to the authorities which led to the intercepting of Jackson's letters. Jackson was thereupon charged with high treason and arrested (24 April 1794), but was treated with great indulgence, and was al- lowed to receive visitors. One night, on a friend leaving him, he accompanied him to the gate, found the turnkey asleep, with his keys on the table, took up the keys to let his friend out, and went back to his «ell. He could not have escaped without compromising both friend and turnkey. While awaiting trial he wrote and published ' Observations in An- swer to Mr. T. Paine's "Age of Reason,'" Dublin, 1795. Refusing to make any disclo- sures, which would apparently have saved his life, he was tried for high treason 23 April 1795, the only evidence against him being
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given by Cockayne and the intercepted let- ters. Curran, together with Ponsonby and M'Nally, defended him, their contention being that Cockayne was unworthy of cre- dit, and that a single witness was insuffi- cient. Jackson was convicted, but recom- mended to mercy on account of his age. He must therefore have looked or have been more than fifty-eight. Judgment was fixed for 30 April, on which day his wife break- fasted with him, and probably brought him poison. After whispering to M'Nally on his ar- rival in court, ' We have deceived the senate' (the dying words of the suicide Pierre in Ot- way's ' Venice Preserved '), he dropped down dead in the dock while his counsel were dis- puting the validity of the conviction. His suicide was attributed to a desire to save from forfeiture a small competency for his wife. His funeral, on 3 May, in St. Michan's ceme- tery, Dublin, was attended by the leading United Irishmen, who till his death had sus- pected him of being a government spy. He was twice married, and by his second wife had two daughters.
[Madden's United Irishmen ; Lecky's Hist, of England in the 18th Cent. vii. 27, 28, 136; M'Nevin's Pieces of Irish History, New York, 1807; Lives of Tone, Curran, and Grattan; Howell's State Trials ; John Taylor's Records of My Life, ii. 319-33.] J. G. A.
JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), musical composer, known as JACKSON OP EXETEE, born 28 May 1730, was the son of an Exeter grocer, who afterwards became master of the city workhouse. After re- ceiving some musical instruction from John Silvester, organist of Exeter Cathedral, Jack- son was sent in 1748 to London, to become a pupil of John Travers, organist to the Chapel Royal. In 1767 he wrote the music for an adaptation of Milton's ' Lycidas,' which was produced at Covent Garden on 4 Nov. of the same year, on the occasion of the death of Edward Augustus, duke of York and Albany, brother to George HI. While in London Jackson was a visitor at the meetings of the Madrigal Society. On his return to Exeter he devoted himself to teaching music until Michaelmas 1777, when he was ap- pointed subchanter, organist, lay vicar, and master of choristers to the cathedral, in suc- cession to Richard Langdon.
On 27 Dec. 1780 Jackson achieved a great success by the production at Drury Lane of his opera ' The Lord of the Manor,' the li- bretto to which was written by General John Burgoyne [q. v.] One of its numbers, ' En- compassed in an angel's frame,' became very popular, and the opera held the stage for fifty years. On 5 Dec. 1783 was first per-
formed a comic opera, ' The Metamorphosis/ of which Jackson wrote the music and pro- bably the words also.
In 1792, with the help of one or two friends, he started a Literary Society in Exeter. At its meetings, which were held at the Globe Inn, Fore Street, each member present read an original prose or verse composition. A volume of the compositions was published in 1796. By means of an introduction from the Sheridans, with whom he was intimate, Jack- son contracted in his seventieth year a friend- ship with Samuel Rogers, the poet. Writing to Richard Sharp on 5 Feb. 1800, the poet says, his [Jackson's] kindness has affected me not a little. Among other proofs of his re- gard, he requested me to take charge of his papers.' Dr. Wolcot was another of Jack- son's intimate friends. Jackson died of dropsy on 12 July 1803. A contemporary account describes him as 'pleasant, social, and com- municative.' He possessed some skill as a painter of landscape after the style of his friend Gainsborough, and was an honorary exhibitor at the Royal Academy. Early in life he married Miss Bartlett of Exeter. His wife, two sons, and one daughter survived him.
Jackson's music displays refinement and grace, but little character. Its insipidity is most obvious in his church music ; neverthe- less his ' Service in F ' was popular, and is still to be heard. Besides the works already mentioned, his published compositions in- clude: 1. 'Twelve Songs,' op. 1, London [1765 ?]. 2. ' Elegies for Three Voices,' op. 3, London, 1767. 3. 'Twelve Songs,' op. 4, London [1767 ?]. 4. < Twelve Songs,' op. 7, London [1768 ?]. 5. A setting of Warton's 'Ode to Fancy,' op. 8, London [1768?]. 6. ' Twelve Canzonets for Two Voices,' op. 9, London [1770?]. 7. 'Six Quartets for Voices,' op. 11, London [1775?]. 8. 'Twelve Canzonets for Two Voices,' op. 13, London [1780?]. 9. A setting of Pope's ode 'A Dying Christian to his Soul' [London, 1780?]. 10. 'Twelve Pastorals for Two Voices",' op. 15, London [1784?]. 11. 'Twelve Songs,' op. 16, London [1785 ?]. 12. ' Six Epigrams for 2, 3, and 4 Voices,' op. 17, London [1786?]. 13. 'Six Madrigals for 2, 3, and 4 Voices,' op. 18, London [1786?].
14. 'Services in C, E, E flat, and F.'
15. ' Hymns in three parts.' He also pub- lished two small collections of sonatas for the harpsichord, and various separate glees and songs.
Jackson was also the author of ' Thirty Letters on Various Subjects ' (three of them on music), anon., London, 1782 ; 2nd edit. London, 1784 ; 3rd edit. London, 1785, with author's name ; ' Observations on the Present
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State of Music in London' (a pamphlet), London, 1791 ; ' Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects,' London, 1798 ; ' A First Book for Performers on Keyed In- etruments ; ' and various anonymous letters and essays contributed to periodicals.
Posthumous publications were : ' Anthems and Church Services by the late W. Jackson of Exeter, edited by J. Peddon ' (organist to the cathedral), 3 vols., Exeter, 1819 ; ' The Year : a Cantata,' London, 1859 ; and selec- tions from his works, sacred and secular, 4 vols., published in London without date.
[Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 27 ; Brown's Biog. Diet, of Music, p. 343 ; Bemrose's Choir Chant Book, App. p. xxi ; Georgian Era, iv. 246 ; Clayden's Early Life of Samuel Rogers, p. 399 ; Public Characters of 1798-9, p. 242 ; John Taylor's Records of My Life ; Madrigal Soc. Re- cords ; Jackson's music in Brit. Mus.] R. F. S.
JACKSON, WILLIAM (1751-1815), bishop of Oxford, born in 1751, was the younger son of Cyril Jackson, physician, of Stamford, Lincolnshire, but latterly of York. He was entered at Manchester grammar school on 12 Jan. 1762, but was removed to West- minster in 1764, when he was elected a king's scholar. On 1 June 1768 he matriculated at Oxford as a student of Christ Church (FOSTER, Alumni Oxon. 1715-1886, ii. 737), and in 1770 gained the chancellor's prize for Latin verse, the subject being ' Ars Medendi.' He graduated B.A. in 1772, M.A. in 1775, B.D. in 1783, and D.D. in 1799. At Christ Church he was for many years actively engaged as tutor, rhetoric reader, and censor. He also became chaplain to Markham, archbishop of York, who appointed him prebendary of Southwell on 23 Sept. 1780 (LE NEVE, Fasti, ed. Hardy, iii. 420), prebendary of York on 26 March 1783 (ib. iii. 208), and rector of Beeford in East Yorkshire. On 19 Dec. 1783 he was elected regius professor of Greek at Oxford (ib. iii. 517), and shortly afterwards one of the curators of the Clarendon press. In the same year he was chosen preacher of Lincoln's Inn. On 4 Jan. 1792 he was made prebendary of Bath and Wells (ib. i. 203), and became dean in 1799 (ib. i. 155). He was preferred to a canonry at Christ Church on 2 Aug. 1799 (ib. ii/522). The prince regent having vainly solicited his old tutor, Jackson's elder brother, Cyril [q. v.], to accept a bishopric, conferred that dignity upon William . Jackson was accordingly con- secrated bishop of Oxford on 23 Feb. 1812 (ib. ii. 509), and was subsequently appointed clerk of the closet to the king. He died at Cuddesdon, Oxford, on 2 Dec. 1815 (Gent. Mag. vol. Ixxxv. pt, ii. p. 633). In E. H. Barker's 'Parriana' (i. 421-4) Jackson is
described as very self-indulgent. His por- trait, by W. Owen, is in Christ Church Hall. An engraving by S. W. Reynolds is in the old school at Manchester.
Jackson published several sermons.
[Reg. Manchester Grammar School (Chetham Soc.), i. 98-9 ; Welch's Alumni Westmon. 1852, p. 388 ; Wood's Antiq. of Oxford (Gutch). vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 855, 950 ; Brit. Mus. Cat.] G. G.
JACKSON, WILLIAM, 'of Masham' (1815-1866), musical composer, was born at Masham in Yorkshire on 9 Jan. 1815. He was the son of a miller, and as a boy worked in the flour-mill or in the fields. At an early age he showed an interest in music and in the mechanism of instruments. After mending some barrel-organs for neighbours, he induced his father (equally inexperienced) to help him in the construction of one, a task the pair accomplished during leisure hours in four months' time. Jackson then made a five- stop finger-organ. He had taught himself to play on fifteen musical instruments, studying scores from a library, as well as Callcott's ' Grammar of Thorough Bass.' His first efforts in composition were some tunes for a military band, and twelve short anthems. In 1832 Jackson was earning 3s. 6d. a week as a jour- neyman miller ; but after taking a few lessons at Ripon, he was appointed first organist to the Masham Church, at a salary of 30/. In 1839 Jackson went into partnership with a tallow- chandler for thirteen years. In 1852 he settled in Bradford as a music-seller, in part- nership with one Winn, and became or- ganist to St. John's Church, and afterwards to the Horton Lane Independent Chapel. He was conductor of the Bradford Choral Union (male voices), chorus-master of the Bradford musical festivals of 1853, 1856, and 1859, and conductor of the Festival Choral Society from 1856. Jackson came withhis chorus of 210 singers to London in 1858, and performed before the queen at Buckingham Palace.
Jackson did not live to conduct his last work, the ' Praise of Music,' composed for the Bradford festival of 1866. He died at Ash- grove, Bradford, on 15 April 1866, leaving a widow and nine children. His son William, organist at Morningside Church, Edinburgh, died at Ripon on 10 Sept. 1877.
Jackson published : 1 . An anthem for soprano and chorus, ' For joy let fertile valleys ring,' 1839. 2. A glee, ' Sisters of the Lea/ which won the prize at Huddersfield, 1840. 3. ' 103rd Psalm,' 1841. 4. ' The Deliverance of Israel from Babylon,' oratorio, 3 parts, Leeds, 1844-5, first performed at Bradford, 1847, and favourably criticised. 5. ' Blessed be the Lord God of Israel.' 6. A service in G.
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7. Church music in vocal score, London, 1848.
8. ' Singing Class Manual.' 9. ' Mass in E,' four voices. 10. 'O come hither !' and 11. '0 Zion ! ' anthems, 1850. 12. Oratorio, ' Isaiah,' 1851, produced three years later at Bradford. 13. Another ' 103rd Psalm,' 1856. 14. Can- tata, ' The Year,' words selected from various poets, London, composed for Bradford festival of 1859, published in that or the following year. 15. Several glees. 16. Slow move- ment and rondo, pianoforte. 17. ' O Happi- ness !' vocal duet. 18. Songs, 'Breathe not for me,' ' Come, here's a health,' ' She's on my heart,' 'Tears, idle tears.' 19. Sixty-three hymns and chants (Bradford Hymn-book harmonised), 1860. 20. Glees. 21. Sym- phony for orchestra and chorus, compressed for pianoforte, London, 1866. Jackson was the author of ' Rambles in Yorkshire/ a series of articles published in a newspaper.
[Eliza Cook's Journal, ii. 324 ; Musical Times, iii. 229, xii. 289 ; Sheahan's Hist, of the Wapen- take of Claro, iii. 239 ; James's Hist, of Brad- ford, Supplement, p. 128; Musical World, xliv. 252; Grove's Diet. ii. 27, iv. 685.] L. M. M.
JACOB, ARTHUR (1790-1874), oculist, second son of John Jacob, M.D. (1754-1827), surgeon to the Queen's County infirmary, Maryborough, Ireland, by his wife Grace (1765-1835), only child of Jerome Alley of Donoughmore, was born at Knockfin, Mary- borough, on 13 or 30 June 1790. He studied medicine with his father, and at Steevens's Hospital, Dublin, under Abraham Colles [q. v.] Having graduated M.D. at the uni- versity of Edinburgh in 1814, he set out on a walking tour through the United King- dom, crossing the Channel at Dover, and con- tinuing his walk from Calais to Paris. He studied at Paris until Napoleon's return from Elba. He subsequently pursued his studies in London under Sir B. Brodie, Sir A. Cooper, and Sir W. Lawrence. In 1819 he returned to Dublin, and became demonstra- tor of anatomy under Dr. James Macartney at Trinity College. Here his anatomical re- searches gained for him a high reputation, and he collected a valuable museum, whichMacart- ney afterwards sold to the university of Cam- bridge. In 1819 he announced the discovery, whichhe had made in 1816, of a previously un- known membrane of the eye, in a paper in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' (pt. i. pp.300-7). The membrane has been known since as ' membrana Jacobi.' On leaving Macartney, Jacob joined with Graves and others in found- ing the Park Street School of Medicine. In 1826 he was elected professor of anatomy in the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, and held the chair until 1869. He was three
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times chosen president of the colle, 1832, in conjunction with Charles Benson' and others, he established the City of Dublin Hospital. "With Dr. Henry Maunsell in 1839 he started the ' Dublin Medical Press,' a weekly journal of medical science, and edited forty-two volumes (1839 to 1859). He also took an active part in founding the Royal Medical Benevolent Fund Society of Ireland and the Irish Medical Association. At the age of seventy-five he retired from the active pursuit of his profession. His fame rests upon his anatomical and ophthalmological discoveries. Apart from his discovery of the 'membrana Jacobi,' he described 'Jacob's ulcer,' and revived the operation for cataract through the cornea with the curved needle. To the ' Cyclopaedia of Anatomy ' he contributed an article on the eye, and to the ' Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine ' treatises on ' Ophthalmia ' and ' Amaurosis.' In December 1860 a medal bearing his likeness was struck and presented to him, and his portrait, bust, and library were afterwards placed in the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. He died at Newbarnes, Barrow-in-Furness, on 21 Sept. 1874. In 1824 he married Sarah, daughter of Coote Carroll, esq., of Ballymote, co. Sligo. She died on 6 Jan. 1839. By her he had five sons. His chief publications were : 1. 'A Treatise on the Inflammation of the Eyeball,' 1849. 2. ' On Cataract and the Operation for its Re- moval by Absorption,' 1851.
[British Medical Journal, 1874, ii. 511 ; Medi- cal Press and Circular, 1874, Ixix. 278, 285; Medical Times and Gazette, 3 Oct. 1874, pp. 405-6; Graphic, 17 Oct. 1874, pp. 367, 372, with portrait; Jacob and Glascott's Hist, and Genealogical Narrative of the Families of Jacob, privately printed, 1875, pp. 63 sq.] G. C. B.
JACOB, BENJAMIN (1778-1829), or- ganist, son of Benjamin Jacob, an amateur violinist, was born before 26 April 1778, and was employed as a chorister at Portland Chapel, London. He learnt the rudiments of music from his father, singing from Robert "Willoughby, harpsichord and organ from William Shrubsole and Matthew Cooke, and at a later date harmony from Dr. Samuel Arnold [q. v.] At the age of ten Jacob be- came organist of Salem Chapel, Soho; in 1789 organist of Carlisle Chapel, Kennington Lane ; in 1790 organist of Bentinck Chapel, Lisson Grove; in 1791 he was a chorister at tho Handel commemoration ; and in 1794 was ap- pointed organist of Surrey Chapel, in succes- sion to John Immyns [q. v.], the first organist there. An organ (built by Thomas Elliot) was first introduced into Surrey Chapel in 1793, ten years after the chapel was opened
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by Rowland Hill (1744-1833) [q.v.], and 'all the serious people were exceedingly grieved' by its introduction. Jacob held the post until 1825; he was a very fine executant, and established a series of organ recitals at the chapel. In 1809 Wesley played alter- nately with him, and in 1811 and some years afterwards Dr. Crotch [q. v.] was his principal coadjutor. Their concerts begun at 11 A.M. and lasted between three and four hours, the audiences numbering three thou- sand people. A variation was made when Salomon played the violin in concert with the organ. Jacob also gave annual public con- certs in aid of the Rowland Hill Almshouses. His connection with Hill ceased after May 1825, when he accepted the post of organist to St. John's Church, Waterloo Road, at a salary of 70/., with permission to play once each Sunday at Surrey Chapel. Hill preferred to dispense entirely with the musician's ser- vices, and after a painful discussion and a published correspondence their friendship was interrupted. Jacob remained at St. John's Church until his death on 24 Aug. 1829. He was buried atBunhill Fields. He left a widow and three daughters. An only son died early.
Jacob's compositions were few and unim- portant. The best known are ' Dr. Watts's Divine and Moral Songs, Solos, Duets, and Trios,' London, 1800 (?) ; 'National Psalmody ' contains twelve pieces by Jacob among a large collection of old church melo- dies, London, 1819, 4to. Jacob is also re- presented in ' Surrey Chapel Music,' London, 2 vols. 1800 (?) and 1815 (?). ' Letters ' ad- dressed by Wesley to Jacob ' relating to Bach' were published by Eliza Wesley in 1875.
[Diet, of Music, 1827, i. 385; Georgian Era, iv. 324 ; Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 28 ; article by F. G. Edwards in the Nonconformist Musical Journal, April and May 1890.] L. M. M.
JACOB, EDWARD (1710 ?-1788), an- tiquary and naturalist, born about 1710, was son of Edward Jacob, surgeon, alderman, and chamberlain of Canterbury, Kent, by his wife Mary Chalker of Romney in the same county. He practised as a surgeon at Faversham, Kent, and was several times mayor of the borough. He purchased the estate of Sex- tries in Nackington, near Canterbury. He died at Faversham on 26 Nov. 1788, in his seventy-eighth year (Gent. Mag. vol. Iviii. pt. ii. p. 1127). Jacob married, first, on 4 Sept. 1739, Margaret, daughter of John Rigden of Canterbury, by whom he had no surviving issue; and secondly, Mary, only daughter of Stephen Long of Sandwich, Kent,
by whom he had eleven children ; she died on 7 March 1803, in her eighty-first year (ib. vol. Ixxiii. pt. i. p. 290; Arch<eologia Cantiana, xiv. 384).
Jacob was author of: 1. 'The History of the Town and Port of Faversham,' 8vo, Lon- don, 17 74; and 2. ' Plantse Favershamienses. A Catalogue of . . . Plants growing . . . about Faversham . . . With an Appendix, exhibit- ing a short view of the Fossil bodies of the adjacent Island of Shepey,' 8vo, London, 1777, to which his portrait, engraved by Charles Hall, is prefixed. In 1754 he com- municated to the Royal Society 'An Account of several Bones of an Elephant found at Leysdown, in the Island of Sheppey' (Phil. Trans, vol. xlviii. pt. ii. pp. 626-7). In 1770 he edited, with a preface, the tragedy, ' Arden of Faversham.' Jacob was elected F.S. A. on 5 June 1755, and in 1780 contributed to the ' Archseologia' some 'Observations on the Roman Earthen Ware taken from the Pan- Pudding Rock'at Whitstable, Kent, in which he took occasion to refute the views held by Governor Thomas Pownall, F.S. A. He also assisted William Boys in 'A Collection of the minute . . . Shells . . . discovered near Sandwich,' 4to [1784]. Some of his letters to A. C. Ducarel are printed in Nichols's 'Illustrations of Literature' (vols. iv. vi.); his correspondence with E. M. da Costa, ex- tending from 1748 to 1776, is in Addit. MS. 28538, ff. 260-77.
JOHN JACOB (1765-1840), third son of the above, born on 27 Dec. 1765, was in 1803 residing at Roath Court, Glamorgan- shire. In 1815 he removed to Guernsey, where he employed his leisure in collecting materials for ' Annals of some of the British Norman Isles constituting the Bailiwick of Guernsey,' of which part i., comprising the Casket Lighthouses, Alderney, Sark, Herm, and Jethou, with part of Guernsey, was printed in a large octavo volume at Paris in 1830. Part ii., announced for December 1831, never appeared. John Jacob died on 21 Feb. 1840, in Guernsey, in his seventy-fifth year ( Gent. Mag. newser. xiv. 663-4). He married Anna Maria, daughter of George Le Grand, surgeon, of Canterbury, and had five sons and four daughters. Sir George Le Grand Jacob [q. v.] was his fifth son.
[Nichols's Lit. Anecd. vii. 194, 601 ; Jacob and Glascott's Hist, and Geneal. Narrative of the Families of Jacob, privately printed, 1 875, pp. 15, 23.] G. G.
JACOB, SIR GEORGE LE GRAND (1805-1881), major-general in the Indian army, the fifth son and youngest child of John Jacob [see JACOB, EDWABD, 1710?-
Jacob i
1788, ad Jin.'], by his wife Anna Maria Le Grand, was born at his father's residence, Roath Court, near Cardiff, 24 April 1805. His family in 1815 removed to Guernsey. Jacob was educated at Elizabeth College, Guernsey, and under private tutors in France and Eng- land, and when about fifteen was sent to London to learn oriental languages under Dr. John Borthwick Gilchrist [q. v.] He ob- tained an Indian infantry cadetship in 1820, and on the voyage out to Bombay contracted a close friendship with Alexander Burnes [q. v.] He was posted to the 2nd or grena- dier regiment Bombay native infantry (now Prince of Wales's own) as ensign 9 June 1821, in which corps he obtained all his regimental steps except the last. His sub- sequent commissions were : lieutenant 10 Dec. 1823, captain 6 June 1836, major 1 May 1848, lieutenant-colonel in the (late) 31st Bombay native infantry 15 Nov. 1853, brevet- colonel 6 Dec. 1856, brigadier-general 21 July 1858, major-general on retirement 31 Dec. 1861.
Jacob passed for interpreter in Hindustani so speedily after arrival in India, that he was complimented in presidency general orders. He afterwards passed in Persian and Ma- rathi. He saw some harassing service with his regiment against the Bheels in the pes- tiferous Nerbudda jungles, and was subse- quently with it in Cutch and at Ukulkote. He took his furlough home in 1831, and in January 1833 was appointed orderly officer in the East India Military Seminary, Addis- combe. While there, at the request of the Oriental Translation Fund, he undertook the translation of the ' Ajaib-al-Tabakat ' (Wonder of the Universe), a manuscript purchased by Alexander Burnes in the bazaar at Bokhara. Jacob considered the work not worth printing, and his manuscript translation is now in the library of the Asiatic Society, London. On 18 June 1835 he married Emily, daughter of Colonel Utterton of Heath Lodge, Croydon, and soon afterwards sailed for India. His wife died at sea, and Jacob landed at Bombay in very broken health. He recovered under the care of a brother, William Jacob, then an officer in the Bombay artillery, and in 1836 was appointed second political assistant in Kattywar, where he was in political charge in 1839-43. His ability in dealing with the disputed Limree succession was noticed by the government ; the curious details are given in his book (Ls GRAND JACOB, Western India, pp. 22-55). He was also thanked for his report on the Babriawar tribes (1843) and other reports on Kattywar. Early in 1845 he served as extra aide-de-camp to Major-general Delamotte during the disturbances in the
-5 Jacob
South Mahratta country, and was wounded in the head and arm by a falling rock when in command of the storming party in the assault on the hill-fort of Munsuntosh. In April 1845 Jacob was appointed political agent in Sawunt Warree. The little state was bankrupt,with its gaols overflowing ; but Jacob's judicious measures during a period of six years restored order, retrieved the finances, andreformed abuses. On 8 Jan. 1851 Jacob was made political agent in Cutch, and was sent into Sind as a special commissioner to inquire into the case of the unfortunate Mir Ali Morad, khan of Khypore, the papers relating to which were printed among ' Ses- sional Papers' of 1858 and the following years. He also sat on an inquiry into de- partmental abuses at Bombay. An account of his travels in Cutch appeared in the ' Pro- ceedings ' for 1862 of the Bombay Geogra- phical Society, since merged in the Asiatic Society of Bombay. His health needing change, he obtained leave, and visited China, Java, Sarawak, and Australia, ' keeping his eyes and ears ever on the alert, always read- ing, writing, or inquiring — mostly smoking — winning men by his geniality and women by his courteous bearing ' (Overland Mail, 6 May 1881). On his return he was shipwrecked on a coral reef in Torres Straits, and saved from cannibal natives by a Dutch vessel. He quitted Cutch for Bombay in December 1856, at first purposing to retire ; but he served under Outram in the Persian expedition. In Persia he was in command of the native light batta- lion in the division under Henry Havelock, whom Jacob appears to have regarded as too much of a martinet. He returned with the expeditionary force to Bombay in May 1857. Acting under the orders of Lord Elphin- stone, the governor of Bombay, Jacob arrived at Kolaporeonl4 Aug., a fortnight after the 27th Bombay native infantry had broken into mutiny there. Four days later he, with a mere handful of troops, quietly disarmed the regiment, and brought the ringleaders of the outbreak to justice (JACOB, Western India, pp. 144-77). On 4 Dec. following, when the city closed its gates against Jacob's small force which was encamped in their lines outside, Jacob promptly blew open one of the gates, put the rebels to flight, tried by drumhead court-martial and executed on the spot thirty- six who were caught red-handed, and held the city until the mischief was past (ib. pp. 182-208). His vigour, no doubt, pre- vented the wave of rebellion from sweeping over the whole southern Mahratta country and overflowing into the nizam's dominions (HOLMES, Indian Mutiny, p. 455 ; Report on Administration of Public Affairs in Bombay,
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pp. 18-19). Jacob was specially thanked in presidency general orders 8 Jan. 1858 for 'the promptitude and decision shown by you on the occasion of the recent insurrection at Kolapore,' and ' for the manner in which you upheld the honour of this army, proving' to all around you what a British officer can effect by gallantry and prudence in the face of the greatest difficulties ' (ib. p. 264). Jacob's powers, at first limited to Kolapore, Sawunt Warree, and Rutnagerry, were in May 1858 extended to the whole South Mahratta coun- try, of which he was appointed special com- missioner, the command of the troops with the rank of brigadier-general being subsequently added. After dealing successfully with various local outbreaks (ib. pp. 210-32), Jacob was sent to Goa to confer with the Portuguese autho- rities respecting the Sawunt rebels on the frontier (ib. pp. 232-6). This service suc- cessfully accomplished, he resigned his com- mand. He remained nominally political agent in Cutch up to the date of his leaving India in 1859. James Outram appears to have desired that Jacob should succeed him as member of the council at Calcutta, but he retired with the rank of major-general from 31 Dec. 1861. He was made C.B. in 1859, and K.C.S.I. in 1869.
Jacob has been likened in character to his cousin, General John Jacob [q. v.] He had the same fearlessness, the same hatred of red- tape and jobbery, and the same genius for understanding and conciliating Asiatics. His outspoken advocacy of native rights not un- frequently gave offence to the officials with whom he came in contact. Throughout his life he was a zealous student of the literature of India, and whenever opportunity offered did his best to promote research in the history and antiquities of the land. He was one of the earliest copiers of the Asoka inscriptions (250 B.C.) at Girnar, Kattywar; and in Cun- ningham's ' Corpus Inscriptionum,' Calcutta, 1877, are many inscriptions transcribed by him in Western India. A list of papers bear- ing on the history, archaeology, topography, geology, and metallurgy of Western India, contributed by Jacob at different times to various publications, is given in the ' Journal of the Asiatic Society,' London, new ser. xiii. pp. vii and viii. Some are included in the ' Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers ; ' but neither list appears complete. In his prime he was an ardent sportsman. Seven lions fell to his rifle in one day in Kattywar, and his prowess as a shikarry is perpetuated in native verse. The last twenty years of Jacob's life were spent at home under much suffering — a constant struggle with asthma, bronchitis, and growing blindness.
His mental vigour remained unimpaired. With the assistance of his niece and adopted daughter, Miss Gertrude Le Grand Jacob, he wrote his ' Western India before and during the Mutiny,' which was published in 1871, and was highly commended by the historian Kaye ; and shortly before his death he paid 20/. for a translation from the Dutch of some papers of interest on the island of Bali (east of Java), subsequently printed in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society,' London, viii. 115, ix. 59, x. 49. Jacob died in London on 27 Jan. 1881, and was buried in Brookwood ceme- tery, near Woking, Surrey.
[East India Kegisters and Army Lists ; Kaye's Hist. Indian Mutiny, ed. Malleson, cabinet edi- tion, vol. v. book xiii. chap. i. book xir. chap. iv. ; T. R. E. Holmes's Indian Mutiny, 3rd ed. pp. 446- 457 ; Report on Administration of Public Affairs in Bombay in 1857-8; Goldsmid's James Outram, a biography, London, 1888, i. 341-80; Overland Mail, 6 May 1881 ; Journal of the Asiatic Soc. London, May 1881, new ser. vol. xiii.; Jacob's Western India.] H. M. C.
JACOB, GILES (1686-1744), compiler, born in 1686 at Romsey, Hampshire, was the son of a maltster. In his ' Poetical Register ' (i. 318) he states that he was bred to the law under a ' very eminent attorney,' and that he was afterwards steward and secretary to the Hon. William Blathwait. He died on 8 May 1744.
Jacob was a most diligent compiler. He is chiefly remembered by the (1) ' Poetical Register, or Lives and Characters of the Eng- lish Dramatic Poets,' 2 vols., 1719-20, 8vo (some copies are dated 1723) ; and (2) ' A New Law Dictionary,' 1729, fol., which reached a tenth edition in 1782, and was re- issued, with additions by T. Tomlins, in 1797, 1809, and 1835. Among other law-books compiled by Jacob are : 3. ' The Accom- plished Conveyancer,' 3 vols., 1714. 4. ' Lex Mercatoria,' 1718. 5. 'Lex Constitutionis,' 1719. 6. ' The Laws of Appeal and Murder,' 1719. 7. 'The Laws of Taxation,' 1720.
8. ' The Common Law common-placed,' 1726.
9. ' The Compleat Chancery-Practiser,' 1730.
10. ' City Liberties/ 1732, &c. Other com- pilations are: 11. 'The Compleat Court- keeper, or Land-Steward's Assistant,' 1713 ; 8th edit. 1819. 12. 'The Country Gentle- man's Vade Mecum, containing an Account of the best Methods to improve Lands,' 1717. 13. ' The Compleat Sportsman,' in three parts, 1718. 14. 'The Land Purchaser's Com- panion,' 1720.
In 1714 Jacob published an indifferent farce (never acted), ' Love in a Wood, or the Country Squire ' (one act, prose) ; and he mentions in the 'Poetical Register' that
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he had written a play called ' The Soldier's Last Stake.' ' Human Happiness : a Poem,' &c., appeared in 1721, with a dedication to Prior.
Pope introduced Jacob in the ' Dunciad,' iii. 149-50:—
Jacob, the Scourge of Grammar, mark with awe, Nor less revere him, Blunderbuss of Law.
In the 'Poetical Register' Pope had been handsomely treated, but scant courtesy had been shown to Gay, in whose behalf Pope attacked Jacob. The latter retorted in a letter to John Dennis, printed in ' Remarks upon several Passages in the Preliminaries to the " Dunciad," by John Dennis,' 1729. In 1733 Jacob reprinted the letter to Dennis (and opened a fresh attack on Pope) in ' The Myrrour, or Letters Satyrical, Panegyrical, Serious,' &c., 8vo.
[Poetical Kegister, i. 318; Baker's Biographia Dramatica, 1812 ; Nichols's Anecdotes, viii. 296- 297 ; Watt ; Brit. Mus. Cat. See for supposed descendants Jacob and Grlascott's Hist, and Genealog. Narrative of the Families of Jacob, privately printed, p. 99.] A. H. B.
JACOB, HENRY (1563-1624), sectary, born in 1563, was son of John Jacob, yeo- man, of Cheriton, Kent (parish register). He matriculated at Oxford from St. Mary Hall on 27 Nov. 1581 (Oxf. Univ. Reg., Oxf. Hist. Soc., vol. ii. pt. ii. p. Ill), and gradu- ated B.A. in 1583 and M.A. in 1586 (ib. vol. ii. pt. iii. p. 116). His father left him property at Godmersham, near Canterbury. For some time he was precentor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, but he never held the rectory of Cheriton. About 1590 he joined the Brownists, and upon the general banishment of that sect in 1593 he retired to Holland. On his return to England in 1597 he heard Bilson [q. v.], bishop of Winchester, preach at Paul's Cross on the article in the Apostles' Creed relating to Christ's descent into hell. He opposed Bilson's doctrine in ' A Treatise of the Suiferings and Victory of Christ in the Worke of our Redemption de- claring . . . that Christ after his Death on the Crosse went not into Hell in his Soule,' 8vo (Middelburg ?), 1598. For this attack he was again compelled to fly to Holland, where he renewed the conflict in ' A Defence of " A Treatise," ' 4to, 1600.
Though a Brownist, Jacob allowed that the church of England was a true church in need of a thorough reformation. Hence he was commonly called a ' semiseparatist,' and his moderation involved him in a fierce con- troversy with Francis Johnson [q. v.]
For a time Jacob settled at Middelburg in Zealand, where he collected a congrega-
tion of English exiles. Thence he issued an address ' to the right High and Mightie Prince lames,' entitled ' An humble Suppli- cation for Toleration and Libertie to enioy and observe the ordinances of Christ lesvs in th' administration of his Churches in lieu of humane constitutions,' 4to, 1609. The copy in the Lambeth Library contains mar- ginal notes by the king. In 1610 he went to Leyden to confer with John Robinson (1575- 1625) [q. v.], and ultimately adopted the latter's views in regard to church govern- ment, since known by the name of indepen- dency or Congregationalism. In 1616 he re- turned to London with the object of forming a separatist congregation similar to those which he and Robinson had organised in Holland ; and the religious society which he succeeded in bringing together in South- wark is generally supposed to have been the first congregational church in England. In the same year he sent forth as the manifesto of this new sect ' A Confession and Protesta- tion of the Faith of Certain Christians in England, holding it necessary to observe and keep all Christs true substantial Ordinances for his Church visible and political,' &c., 16mo, 1616, to which was added a petition to James I for the toleration of such Christians. He continued with this congregation about six years. In order to disseminate his views among the colonists of Virginia, he removed thither with some of his children in October 1622 and formed a settlement, which was named after him ' Jacobopolis.' He died in April or May 1624 in the parish of St. An- drew Hubbard, London (Probate Act Book, P. C. C., 1624). By his wife Sara, sister of John Dumaresq of Jersey, who survived him, he had several children.
Jacob's writings, other than those noticed, include: 1. ' A Defence of the Churches and Ministery of Englande, written against the . . . Brownists,' &c., 2 pts., 4to, Middelburg, 1599. Francis Johnson rejoined in ' An An- swer,' 1600. 2. ' Reasons taken out of God's Word and the best humane testimonies prov- ing a necessitie of reforming our Churches in England,' 4to (Middelburg ?), 1604, dedi- cated to James I. 3. ' A Position against vainglorious and that which is falsly called learned Preaching,' 8vo, 1604. 4. ' A Chris- tian and Modest OlFer of a ... Conference . . . abovt the . . . Controversies betwixt the Prelats and the late silenced . . . Mini- sters in England,' 4to, 1606. 5. ' The Divine Beginning and Institution of Christs True Visible or Ministeriall Church,' 8vo, Leyden, 1610. 6. ' A Plaine and Cleere Exposition of the Second Commandement,' 8vo [Leyden ?] 1610 ; another edition Middelburg, 1611.
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7. 'A Declaration and plainer opening of certain points ... in a Treatise intituled " The Divine Beginning," ' &c., 12mo, Mid- delburg,1611; another edit. 8vo, 1612. 8. 'An Attestation of many . . . Divines . . . that the Church-governement ought to bee alwayes with the peoples free consent,' incidentally replying to Downame and Bilson, 8vo [Geneva?], 1613. To Jacob has been wrongly attributed ' A Counter-Poyson ' (1584 ?), a reply to Richard Cosin [q. v.] ; it was written by Dudley Fenner [q. v.j
HENRY JACOB (1608-1652), son of the above, studied at Leyden ; arrived in Oxford in 1628, and on recommendations made by William Bedwell [q. v.] to the Earl of Pem- broke, the chancellor, was created B.A. In 1629 he was elected probationer-fellow of Merton College ; became subsequently ' reader in philology to the juniors' there ; and in 1641 was nominated superior beadle of divinity and proceeded bachelor of physic. Selden befriended him and learned much Hebrew from him, but he was shiftless and always in pecuniary difficulties, was expelled from his fellowship in 1648 by the parliamentary com- missioners, and died at Canterbury 5 Nov. 1652. He was buried in the church of All Saints. Henry Birkhead published (Oxford, 1652) a collection of his Greek and Latin- verse with two of his Oxford lectures, and Edmund Dickinson [q. v.] issued as his own (Oxford, 1655) Jacob's ' Delphi Phoenici- zantes ' (WooD, Athena Oxon. ed. Bliss, iii. 329).
[Notes kindly communicated by E. J. Fyn- more, esq. ; Dexter's Congregationalism as seen in its Literature, passim ; will of Henry Jacob, registered in P. C. C. 38, Byrde ; Wood's Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 308-10, iii. 329; Brook's Lives of the Puritans, ii. 330-4; Jacob and Glascott's Families of Jacob.pp. 6-7 ; Hanbury's Historical Memorials, i. 292.] G. G.
JACOB, HILDEBRAND (1693-1739), poet, born in 1693, was only son of Colonel Sir John Jacob, third baronet, of Bromley, Kent, by his wife Lady Catherine Barry, daughter of the second Earl of Barrymore. He was named after his mother's brother, Hildebrand Alington, fourth lord Alington (d. 1722). He is usually described as of West Wratting, Cambridgeshire. During 1728 and 1 729 he visited Paris, Vienna, and the chief towns of Italy. He died, in the lifetime of his father, on 25 May 1739, having married Muriel, daughter of Sir John Bland, bart., of Kippax Park, Yorkshire, by whom he left a son, Hildebrand (see below), and a daughter.
Jacob published anonymously in 1720-1 a clever but indelicate poem, ' The Curious
Maid,' which was frequently imitated and parodied. ' The Fatal Constancy,' a tragedy, acted five times at Drury Lane, was published in 1 723, 8vo. ' Bedlam: a Poem,' and ' Chiron to Achilles: a Poem,' appeared in 1732, 4to ; they were followed in 1734 by a 'Hymn to the Goddess of Silence,' fol., and ' Of the Sister Arts : an Essay,' 8vo. These scattered writings were collected, with large additions, in 1735, in 1 vol. 8vo : ' The Works of Hilde- brand Jacob, Esq., containing Poems on various Subjects and Occasions, with the " Fatal Constancy," a Tragedy, and several Pieces in Prose. The greatest Part never before publish'd.' In the dedicatory epistle to James, earl of Waldegrave, ambassador extraordinary at the court of France, Jacob states that he published the book because incorrect copies had been circulated, and because he wished to convince his friends that he was not the author of ' some, perhaps, less pardonable Productions that were laid to my charge here at home while I had the advantage of living under your Lordship's protection abroad.' The dedicatory epistle is followed by an amusing ' Dialogue, which is to serve for preface,' between the publisher and author. In the essay, ' How the Mind is rais'd to the Sublime,' Jacob shows himself to have been an enthusiastic admirer of Mil- ton. < A Letter from Paris to R. B * * * *, Esq.,' gives a very interesting account of his travels in 1728-9. Jacob's other works are 'Donna Clara to her Daughter Theresa: an Epistle ' (verse), 1737, fol. ; and ' The Nest of Plays,' 1738, 8vo, consisting of three sepa- rate comedies — ' The Prodigal Reformed,' ' The Happy Constancy,' and ' The Trial of Conjugal Love' — which were acted on the same night at Covent Garden, and were em- phatically damned.
SlE HlLDEBKAXD JACOB (d. 1790), the
poet's son, who succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his grandfather in 1740, is said to have been excelled by few as a general scholar, and ' in knowledge of Hebrew scarcely equalled.' It is related of him that in early life, as soon as the fine weather set in and the roads were clear, he used to start off with his man, ' without knowing whither they were going.' When it drew towards evening he in- quired at the nearest village whether ' the great man in it was a lover of books and had a fine library. If the answer was in the negative, they went on further ; if in the affirmative, Sir Hildebrand sent his compliments that he was come to see him, and then he used to stay till time or curiosity induced him to move elsewhere' (Gent. Mag. 1790, p. 1055). In this way he travelled through the greater part of England. He died unmarried at
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Malvern, 4 Nov. 1790, aged 76, and was buried at St. Anne's, Soho.
[Jacob and Glascott's Hist, and Geneal. Nar- rative of the Families of Jacob, privately printed, p. 42; Baker's Biog. Dram. 1812; Gent. Mag. 1790, p. 1055; Nichols's Lit. Auecd. ii. 61, 83.]
A. H. B.
JACOB, JOHN (1765-1840), topo- grapher. [See under JACOB, EDWARD.]
JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858), brigadier- general, fifth son of Stephen Long Jacob, vicar of Woolavington-cum-Puriton, Somer- set, by his wife Eliza Susanna, eldest daughter of James Bond, vicar of Ashford, Kent, was born at Woolavington on 11 Jan. 1812. Wil- liam Stephen Jacob [q. v.] was his brother, and Sir George le Grand Jacob [q. v.] his cousin. He was educated at home by his father until 1826, when he was sent to Addiscombe Col- lege. Havingobtained a commission as second lieutenant in the Bombay artillery of the East India Company's service on 11 Jan. 1828, he went to India, and passed the first seven years of his service with his regiment. He was then entrusted with a small detached command, and later was employed for a short time in the provincial administration of Guzerat. He was promoted lieutenant on 14 May 1836.
On the outbreak of the Afghan war in 1838, Jacob went to Sind with the Bombay column of the army of the Indus under the command of Sir John Keane, and in 1839 commanded the artillery in the expedition under Major Billamore into the hill country north of Cutchee. This was the first expe- dition ever undertaken against the hill tribes of that deadly climate, and the interesting de- tails were only made known by Jacob in 1845, when the publication of Sir William Na- pier's ' History of the Conquest of Sind ' pro- voked the 'surviving subaltern of Billa- more's' to correct the inaccuracies of the historian. Soon after the close of the ex- pedition Jacob made a reconnaissance of the route from Hyderabad to Nuggar Parkur in a very hot season and at considerable risk. For this service he received the official com- mendation of the Bombay government.
In 1839, when all North-west India was in a ferment, it was determined to raise some squadrons of irregular horse for service on the frontier, and in 1841 some six hundred men stood enrolled as the Sind irregular torse. At the end of 1841 it was decided to augment the regiment. Outram, the politi- cal agent in Sind and Baluchistan, selected Jacob for the command, and also for the political charge of Eastern Cutchee, and in an official letter to Jacob of 9 Nov. 1842 was able to record that for the first time within the memory of man Cutch and Upper Sind |
had been for a whole year entirely free from the devastating irruption of the hill tribes. This result he ascribed entirely to the extra- ordinary vigilance of Jacob and the strict discipline enforced by him.
At the end of 1842 Sir Charles Napier arrived in Sind. On the fields of Meanee, Dubba or Hyderabad, and Shah-dad-poor, Jacob's irregular horse won great fame. Napier called him 'one of the best officers he had ever met in his life,' and in his despatch after the battle of Meanee (fought 17 Feb. 1843) said that the crisis of the action was decided by the charge of Jacob's horse and the 9th Bengal cavalry. Jacob, he said, had rendered ' the most active services long pre- vious to and during the combat. He won the enemy's camp, from which he drove a body of 3,000 or 4,000 cavalry.' To Sir William Napier he called Jacob ' the Seidlitz of the Sind army.' At Shah-dad-poor Jacob, with a force of eight hundred men of all arms, attacked the army of Shere Mahomed, eight thousand strong, and utterly defeated and dispersed it. Jacob also served at the capture of Oomercote. Although Jacob was recom- mended for promotion and honours, neither came, and he wrote to his father that he wished he had died at Meanee, but that he had the consolation of knowing that in the eyes of his superiors and comrades he had merited the distinction which had fallen to others, and he found distraction in incessant work.
The publication of Sir William Napier's ' History of the Conquest of Sind,' with its studied depreciation of Outram, roused Jacob to enter the lists for his friend and to publish a rejoinder, which led to a complete estrange- ment from Sir Charles Napier. When Napier left Sind in 1847 Jacob, who had been made a brevet captain on 11 Jan. 1843 and hono- rary aide-de-camp to the governor-general on 8 March the same year, was appointed political superintendent and commandant of the fron- tier of Upper Sind. On 10 Sept, 1850 he was made a C.B. for his services in 1843 ; he had already received medals for Meanee and Hyderabad. In 1847 Jacob achieved a suc- cess against the Boogtees at Shahpore, and in 1852 was given the command of the troops at Koree for service in Upper Sind. From a few troops the Sind horse had expanded until it included a second regiment, the Silidar, raised by Jacob, and the whole force mustered 1,600 of the best horsemen in India. Jacob trained his men to act always on the offensive. His detachments were posted in the open plain without any defensive works. Patrols scoured the country in every direction on the look-out for the enemy, which was no sooner discovered than it was attacked by the nearest
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detachment. He thus struck terror into the marauding tribes, and prevented their incur- sion into British territory. He next disarmed every man in the country who was not a go- vernment servant, and he succeeded in get- ting some of them to work at roads and canals. Good roads were made all over the country, means of irrigation multiplied fourfold, and security generally established on the border. The village that ten years before did not con- tain fifty souls became a flourishing town of twelve thousand inhabitants, and in 1851, by order of Lord Dalhousie, its name was changed from Kanghur to Jacobabad in honour of the man who had made it.
Jacob, who from subaltern to colonel re- mained the commandant of the corps which usually went by his name, was assisted by only four European officers, two to each regi- ment of eight hundred men, and yet the discipline was so firm and the devotion so unquestioned that it was said not a trooper in the corps knew any will but that of his colonel. Jacob's theory was that Europeans were naturally superior to Asiatics, and that the natives, so far from resenting such ascend- ency, desired nothing better than to profit by it. All they wanted was to obey, provided only that their obedience was claimed by one clearly competent to demand it.
In 1854 Jacob was entrusted with the task of negotiating a treaty with the khan of Kelat, which he did to the entire satisfaction of the government of India. On 13 April 1855 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel, and on the departure of Bartle Frere on furlough to Eu- rope in 1856 was appointed acting commis- sioner in Sind. On 20 March 1857 Jacob was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen, with the rank of colonel in the army, in recognition of his services in Sind.
When war was declared with Persia, Outram was named commander-in-chief, and Jacob received from his old friend the command of the cavalry division. He arrived in Bushire in March 1857, and was appointed to the com- mand at that place. When peace followed the fall of Mohumrah, Jacob, with the rank of brigadier-general, was left in command of the entire force in Persia until Bushire was entirely evacuated, when he returned to India. His services in Persia were favourably men- tioned in despatches, and in the ' Indian Government Gazette ' of 7 Nov. 1857. He landed at Bombay on 15 Oct., and proceeded at once to the north-west frontier.
Shortly after his return to Sind he pub- lished his scheme for the reorganisation of the Indian army and a collected edition of his various tracts on the same subject. Captain (now Sir) Lewis Pelly, a member of Jacob's
staff, had collected and edited the ' Views and Opinions of General Jacob,' and in 1858 a second edition, 1 vol. 8vo, was published in London. In the same year Jacob was au- thorised to raise two regiments of infantry, to be called 'Jacob's Rifles,' and to be armed with the pattern of rifle which he had in- vented, and, in face of great opposition, suc- cessfully developed, after spending much of his private resources on experiments with it and with its explosive bullet. Towards the end of 1858 he was surveying in the districts when, on 24 Nov., he was taken ill, and at once rode into Jacobabad, a distance of fifty miles. He arrived on 28 Nov., and died of brain fever on 5 Dec. 1858, surrounded by all the officers of his staff and of the Sind irregular horse, and by his oldest native officers. He was buried next day, mourned by the entire population, of whom it is esti- mated that ten thousand, out of the thirty thousand inhabitants to which Jacobabad had grown, were present at the ceremony.
Jacob was unmarried, and did not visit Eng- land in the thirty years after he first set foot in India. He published many pamphlets on military organisation, and was unceasing in his denunciations of the lax state of discip- line of the Bengal army. His warnings were received with indignation and resentment at the time, but were too fully verified in the Indian mutiny before he died. He was a soldier of a rare type. A brilliant cavalry leader and swordsman, the inventor of a greatly im- proved rifle, the originator of a military system, his achievements in the field were not his greatest titles to public gratitude. He valued the military art only as the instru- ment and guarantee of civilisation and peace ; he sketched road and irrigation systems, and established schemes of revenue collection and magistracy, while he matured his mili- tary plans, and studied with care the internal politics of the ill-known, but important, countries beyond the north-western frontier, throughout which his name was held in respect. Jacob was a man of indefatigable energy, possessed of an even temper, and showing such an entire forgetfulness, amounting even to disdain, of self, that he acquired great influ- ence over all with whom he came in contact. A bust of Jacob was placed in the Shire Hall of his native county at Taunton.
The following is a list of Jacob's works : 1. Large map of Cutchee and the north-west frontier of Scinde, London, 1848. 2. Papers on ' Sillidar Cavalry, as it is and as it might be,' printed for private circulation only, Bombay, 8vo. 3. ' A few Remarks on the Bengal Army and Furlough Regulations with a view to their improvement, by a Bombay
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Officer,' 1851 ; reprinted with corrections, 8vo, Bombay, 1857. 4. 'Memoir of the First Campaign in the hills north of Cutchee, under Major Billamore, in 1839-40, by one of his surviving Subalterns,' with appendix, post 8vo, London, 1852. 5. ' Record Book of the Scinde Irregular Horse,' printed for private use, 1st vol. fol., London, 1853 ; 2nd vol., London, 1 856. 6. ' Papers regarding the First Campaign against the Predatory Tribes of Cutchee in 1839-40, and affairs on the Scinde Frontier. Major Billamore's surviving subal- tern versus SirWilliam Napier and the " Naval and Military Gazette," ' 8vo, London, 1854. 7. 'Remarks by a Bombay Officer on a pam- phlet published in 1849 on " The Deficiency of European Officers in the Army of India, by one of themselves." ' 8. ' Remarks on the Native Troops of the Indian Army,' London, 1854. 9. ' Notes on Sir Charles Napier's posthumous work " On the Defects of the Government of India," ' 8vo, London, 1854. 10. ' On the Causes of the Defects existing in our Army and in our Military Arrange- ment,' London, 1855. 11. 'Rifle Practice with Plates,' 1st edit. 1855, 2nd edit. 1856, 3rd edit., 8vo, London and Bombay, 1857. 12. 'Letters to a Lady on the progress of Being in the Universe,' for private circula- tion, 1855 ; reprinted, with prefatory apology and addenda, and published 8vo, London, 1858. 13. ' Tracts on the Native Army of India, its Organisation and Discipline, with Notes by the Author,' 8vo, London, 1857. 14. ' Notes on Sir William Napier's Adminis- tration of Scinde,' 8vo, no date.
[Despatches ; India Office Records ; official and private correspondence and papers.] E. H. V.
JACOB, JOSEPH (1667P-1722), sectary, born of quaker parents about 1667, was ap- prenticed to a linendraper in London, and early showed a keen interest in politics. In 1688, shortly after his coming of age, he showed his zeal for the revolution by riding to meet William of Orange on his progress from Torbay. On the passing of the Tolera- tion Act in 1689 he avowed himself a con- gregationalist, and studied for the ministry under Robert Trail (1642-1716), a Scottish presbyterian minister in London. As a preacher he obtained a numerous following. He conducted a weekly lecture (1697) in the meeting-house of Thomas Gouge (1665?- 1700) [q. v.], but this was soon stopped on the ground of his preaching politics. In his farewell sermon he satirised Matthew Mead [q. v.] and other leading nonconformist di- vines. He carried away some of Gouge's hearers, and his friends built him (1698) a meeting-house in Parish Street, Southwark.
Here he introduced the then novel practice of standing to sing ; and enforced, on pain of excommunication, a strict code of life. Dress was regulated ; wigs were not allowed ; the moustache for men was obligatory. No one was permitted to marry out of the congrega- tion or to attend the worship of any other church. The society dwindled away, and the meeting-house was given up in 1702. Jacob then hired Turners' Hall, Philpot Lane, Fenchurch Street, where he preached politi- cal sermons, introducing many personalities. Before 1715 he removed to Curriers' Hall, London Wall, near Cripplegate, sharing the use of it with a baptist congregation. H# died on 26 June 1722, aged 55. The inscrip- tion on his monument in Bunhill Fields de- scribed him as ' an apostolic preacher.' He had good natural capacity and some learn- ing, but his eccentricities prevented his exeiv cising any permanent influence. His wife, Sarah Jacob, and two of his daughters were buried in Bunhill Fields. He published: 1. ' Two Thanksgiving Sermons,' &c., 1702, 4to. 2. ' A Thanksgiving Sermon,' &c., 1705, 4to.
[Wilson's Dissenting Chxirches of London, 1808, i. 139 sq., 236, ii. 561 ; James's Hist. Litig. Presb. Chapels, 1867, p. 690.] A. G.
JACOB, JOSHUA (1805 P-1877), leader of the ' White Quakers,' born at Clonmel, co. Tipperary, about 1805, prospered as a grocer in Dublin. A birthright member of the Society of Friends, he was disowned by that body in 1838. He then formed a society of his own, which gained adherents at Dublin, Clonmel, Waterford, and Mountmellick, Queen's County. His principal coadjutor was Abigail, daughter of William Beale of Irishtown, near Mountmellick. The society held a yearly meeting of Friends, commonly called ' White Quakers,' in Dublin, on 1 May 1843. Its nickname was suggested by the practice of wearing undyed garments, a costume previously adopted, in 1762, by John Woolman (1720-1772) [q. v.] Jacob protested also against the use of newspapers, bells, clocks, and watches. Funds employed by him in his religious experiment were said to be derived from the property of some orphans, whose guardian he was. A chan- cery suit to recover the funds went against him, and he was imprisoned for two years for contempt of court. From his prison he issued anathemas against the chancellor (Sugden) and Master Litton. About 1849 he established a community at Newlands, Clondalkin, co. Dublin, formerly the resi- dence of Arthur Wolfe, viscount Kilwarden [q. v.] The members of this establishment
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lived in common, abstaining from flesh-food, and making bruised corn the staple of their diet, flour being rejected. On the breaking up of the Newlands community, Jacob went into business again at Celbridge, co. Kildare. He had lived apart from his wife, who did not share his peculiar views. On her death he married a person in humble life who was a Roman catholic, and at Celbridge Jacob brought up a numerous family in that faith. He died in Wales on 15 Feb. 1877, and was buried at Glasnevin cemetery, Dublin, in a plot of ground purchased long previously in conjunction with Abigail Beale, on which an obelisk had been erected.
A list of his printed writings, undated (ex- cept the last), but all (except the first) issued in 1843, is given in Smith's 'Catalogue,' along with other publications emanating from the -society: 1. ' On the 18th of the 3rd month, 1842 . . . the word of the Lord came,' £c., fol. 2. 'The Beast, False Prophet,' &c., fol. 3. « To the Police of Dublin,' &c., Svo. 4. ' Newspapers, Mountebanks,' &c. , fol. .5. ' To those calling themselves Roman Ca- tholics,' &c., fol. 6. ' The Sandy Foundation,' &c., fol. 7. ' Some Account of the Progress of the Truth,' &c., Mountmellick, 1843, Svo, 3 vols. issued in parts. Other tracts, later than the above, are known to have been printed ; but they were not published, and their circu- lation was wholly restricted to adherents.
[Smith's Catalogue of Friends' Books, 1867, ti. 4 ; Webb's Compendium of Irish Biographv, 1878, p. 260 ; private information.] A. G."
JACOB, ROBERT, M.D. (d. 1588), physician, eldest son of Giles Jacob of Lon- don, was entered at Merchant Taylors' School on 21 Jan. 1563-4 {Register, ed. Robinson, i. 4). He matriculated as a sizar of Trinity College, Cambridge, on 12 Nov. 1565, pro- ceeded B. A. in 1569-70, was elected a fellow, •and in 1 573 commenced M. A. He graduated M.D. at Basle, and was incorporated at Cam- bridge on 15 May 1579. He became phy- sician to Queen Elizabeth, who in 1581 sent him, at the Czar I van's request, to the Russian court, where he attended the czarina, and acquired a reputation which still survives. Jacob recommended Lady Mary Hastings to the czar for his seventh wife. Happily for the lady the czar died before the conclu- sion of the negotiations, which were opened in 1583 with the sanction of Elizabeth. Jacob returned to England with Sir Jerome Bowes [q. v.], the English envoy in Russia, about March 1584. The Russian company charged him with trading on his own account. On 21 May 1583 he was admitted a licentiate of the College of Physicians in London, a
candidate on 12 Nov. 1585, and a fellow on 15 March 1586. In the latter year he went out to Russia a second time. He died abroad, unmarried, in 1588 {Probate Act Book, P. C. C., June 1588).
[Hamel's England and Russia ; Eussia at the close of the Sixteenth Century, ed. Bond (Hakl, Soc.), pp. 292-3; Cooper's Athenae Cantabr. ii. 76 ; Munk's Coll. of Phys. 1878, i. 88-9 ; British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, October 1862, p. 291 ; will registered in P. C. C. 42, Rutland.] G. G.
JACOB, WILLIAM (1762 P-1851), tra- veller and miscellaneous writer, was born about 1762. For some years he carried on business in Newgate Street, London, as a merchant, trading to South America. He was returned as M.P. for Rye, Sussex, to par- liament in the tory interest in July 1808, and sat till the dissolution in 1812. In 1809 and 1810 he spent six months in Spain, and the letters he wrote from that country were published as ' Travels in the South of Spain,' 4to, London, 1811, with numerous plates. He was elected alderman for the ward of Lime Street in 1810, but resigned his gown in the following year. His industry in col- lecting and epitomising returns and ave- rages connected with the corn law question was rewarded by his appointment in 1822 to the comptrollership of corn returns to the board of trade, from which he retired on a pension in January 1842. He died on 17 Dec. 1851, aged 89 {Gent. Mag. new ser. xxxvii. 523). On 23 April 1807 he was elected F.R.S. (THOMSON, Hist, of Roy. Soc. App. iv.)
He wrote also : 1. ' Considerations on the Protection required by British Agriculture, and on the Influence of the Price of Corn on Exportable Productions,' 8vo, London, 1814. 2.'ALetterto;SamuelWhitbread,Esq.,M.P., being a Sequel to " Considerations "... To which are added, Remarks on the Publications of a Fellow of University College, Oxford, Mr. Ricardo, and Mr. Torrens,' Svo, London, 1815. 3. ' An Inquiry into the Causes of Agricultural Distress,' Svo, London, 1816 (also in the ' Pamphleteer,' 1817, x. 395-418). 4. ' A View of the Agriculture, Manufacture, Statistics, and State of Society of Germany and parts of Holland and France, taken during a Journey through those Countries in 1819,' 4to, London, 1820. 5. ' Report on the Trade in Foreign Corn, and on the Agricul- ture of the North of Europe .... To which is added an Appendix of Official Documents, Averages of Prices,' &cv 2nd edit. Svo, Lon- don, 1826. 6. ' A Report . . . respecting the Agriculture and the Trade in Corn in some of the Continental States of Northern Europe/ dated 16 March 1828, in the ' Pamphleteer,'
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1828, xxix. 361-456. 7. ' Tracts relating to the Corn Trade and Corn Laws, including the Second Report ordered to be printed by the two Houses of Parliament,' 3 pts. 8vo, London, 1828. 8. 'An Historical Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of the Precious Metals,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1831 (translated into German by C. T. Kleinschrod, 2 vols. 8vo, Leipzig, 1838). Jacob also con- tributed numerous articles, mostly on agri- cultural and economical subjects, to the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica,' 7th edit.
His son, EDWARD JACOB (d. 1841), gra- duated B.A. in 1816 at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman. He was subsequently elected fellow of his college, proceeded M.A. in 1819, and was called to the bar at Lin- coln's Inn on 28 June of that year. He prac- tised with great success in the chancery court, and was appointed a king's counsel on 27 Dec. 1834. He died on 15 Dec. 1841. With John Walker he edited ' Reports of Cases in the Court of Chancery during the time of Lord- chancellor Eldon, 1819, 1820,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1821-3, and by himself a volume of similar reports during 1821 and 1822, published in 1828. He also published with valuable addi- tions a second edition of R. S. D. Roper's 'Treatise of the Law of Property arising from the relation between Husband and Wife/ 8vo, 1826.
[Authorities cited in the text.] G-. G.
JACOB, WILLIAM STEPHEN (1813- 1862), astronomer, sixth son of Stephen Long Jacob (1764-1851), vicar of Woolavington, Somerset, brother of John Jacob (1812-1858) [q. v.], and cousin of Sir George le Grand Jacob [q. v.l, was born at his father's vicar- age on 19 Nov. 1813. He entered the East India Company's college at Addiscombe as a cadet in 1828, passed for the engineers, and completed his military education at Chatham. For some years after his arrival at Bombay in 1831 he was engaged on the survey of the north-west provinces, and es- tablished a private observatory at Poonah in 1842. In 1843 he came to England on fur- lough, married in 1844, and returned in 1845 to India, but withdrew from the company's service on attaining the rank of captain in the Bombay engineers. He now devoted himself to scientific pursuits, and presented to the Royal Astronomical Society in 1848 a catalogue of 244 double stars, observed at Poonah with a 5-foot Dollond's equatoreal (Memoirs, xvii. 79). For several noted bi- naries he computed orbits (ib. xvi. 320), and the triplicity of v Scorpii was discovered by him in 1847 (Monthly Notices, xix. 322). Ap-
pointed in December 1848 director of the Madras Observatory, he published in the 1 Madras Observations ' for 1848-52 a « Sub- sidiary Catalogue of 1,440 Stars selected from the British Association Catalogue.' His re- observation of 317 stars from the same col- lection in 1853-7 showed that large proper motions had been erroneously attributed to them (Mem. Royal Astr. Soc. xxviii. 1). The instruments employed were a 5-foot transit and a 4-foot mural circle, both by Dollond. The same volume contained 998 measures of 250 double stars made with an equatoreal of 6'3 inches aperture constructed for Jacob by Lerebours in 1850. Attempted determina- tions of stellar parallax gave only the osten- sible result of a parallax of Ov-06 for a Her- culis (ib. p. 44 ; Monthly Notices, xx. 252). From his measures of the Saturnian and Jovian systems, printed at the expense of the Indian government (Mem. Royal Astr. Soc. vol. xxviii.), he deduced elements for the satellites of Saturn and a corrected mass for Jupiter (Monthly Notices, xvii. 255, xviii. 1, 29) ; and he noticed in 1852, almost simul- taneously with Lassell, the transparency of Saturn's dusky ring (ib. xiii. 240). His plane- tary observations were reduced by Breen in 1861 (Mem. Royal Astr. Soc. xxxi. 83).
The climate of Madras disagreed with him ; he was at home on sick leave in 1854-5, and again in 1858-9. A transit-circle by Simms, modelled on though smaller than that at Greenwich, arrived from England in March 1858, a month before he finally quitted the observatory, of which he resigned the charge on 13 Oct. 1859. He joined the official ex- pedition to Spain to observe the total solar eclipse of 18 July 1860 (Edinburgh New Phil. Journal, xiii. 1). His project of erecting a mountain observatory at Poonah five thou- sand feet above the sea was favourably re- ceived, and parliament voted, in 1862, 1,000/. towards its equipment. He engaged to work there for three years with a 9-inch equatoreal, purchased by himself from Lerebours, and landed at Bombay on 8 Aug., but died on reaching Poonah on 16 Aug. 1862, in his forty-ninth year. His wife, Elizabeth, fourth daughter of Mathew Coates, esq., of Gains- borough, survived him. By her he had six sons and two daughters (JACOB and GLAS- COTT, Hist, and Genealogical Narrative of the Families of Jacob, privately printed, p. 22).
Jacob's high moral and mental qualities and earnest piety won him universal esteem. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Astro- nomical Society in 1849. The results of magnetical observations at Madras (1846- 1850) were published by Jacob in 1854 ; those made under his superintendence (1851—
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1855) by Mr. Pogson in 1884. Jacob pub- lished in 1850 the Singapore meteorological observations (1841-5), and in 1857 and those made at Dodabetta (1851-5). While in Eng- land in 1855 he wrote a pamphlet on the ' Plurality of Worlds,' and described the re- sults of his experience in the computation of stellar orbits for the Royal Astronomi- cal Society (Monthly Notices, xv. 205).
[Monthly Notices, xxiii. 128 ; Me" moires Cou- ronnes par i'Academie de Bruxelles, xxm. ii. 1 29, 1873 (Mailly); Andre et Kayet's L'Astronomie Pratique, ii. 84.] A. M. C.
JACOBSEN, THEODORE (d. 1772), architect, was a merchant in Basinghall Street, London, and belonged to a wealthy family, who were residing near the Steelyard at the time of the fire of London. Jacobsen designed the Foundling Hospital ; the plan was approved in 1742, and was carried out under John Home as surveyor. He be- came a governor of the hospital, and there is a portrait of him still there by Thomas Hudson. Jacobsen also designed the Haslar Royal Hospital for Sick Soldiers at Gosport (see Gent. Mag. 1751, xxi. 408, for an en- graving of this hospital). He was a fellow of the Royal Society, the Society of Anti- quaries, and the Society of Arts. He died on 25 May 1772, and was buried in All Hallows Church, Thames Street, London.
[Diet, of Architecture ; Redgrave's Diet, of Artists.] L. C.
JACOBSON, WILLIAM (1803-1884), bishop of Chester, son of William Jacobson, a merchant's clerk, of Great Yarmouth, Nor- folk, by his wife Judith, born Clarke, was born on 18 July 1803. His father died shortly after his birth, and as his mother's second husband was a nonconformist, he was sent when about nine years old to a school at Norwich kept by Mr. Brewer, a baptist, father of John Sherren Brewer [q. v.] Thence he went to Homerton (nonconformist) College, London, and in 1822-3 was a student at Glasgow University. On 3 May 1823 he was admitted commoner of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, being, it is said, befriended by Daw- son Turner of Yarmouth, a member of the Society of Friends ( Times). His means were small, and he lived a life of great self-denial. In May 1825 he was elected scholar of Lin- coln College, and graduated B.A. in 1827, taking a second class in literce humaniores. Having stood unsuccessfully for a fellowship at Exeter College, he accepted a private tutor- ship in Ireland, where he remained until 1829. He then returned to Oxford, obtained the Ellerton theological prize, was elected to a fellowship at Exeter on 30 June, and pro-
ceeded M.A. On 6 June 1830 he was or- dained deacon, was appointed to the curacy of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford, and was or- dained priest the following year. In 1832 he was appointed vice-principal of Magdalen Hall, where he did much to encourage in- dustry and enforce discipline. With a view to preparing an edition of the ' Patres Apos- tolici, he went at this period to Florence, Rome, and elsewhere to consult manuscripts. In 1836 he was offered a mastership at Harrow by Dr. Longley, the head-master, afterwards archbishop of York ; but as Longley was that year made bishop of Ripon, nothing came of it. He offered himself as Longley's succes- sor at Harrow, but was not appointed. In 1839 he became perpetual curate of Iffle y, near Oxford, was made public orator of the uni- versity in 1842, and was chosen select preacher in 1833, 1842, and 1863, but did not serve on the last occasion. By the advice of Lord John Russell, then prime minister, Jacobson was in 1848 promoted to the regius professor- ship of divinity at Oxford, which carried with it a canonry of Christ Church, and at that time also the rectory of Ewelme, Oxfordshire. In politics he was a liberal, and he was chair- man of Mr. W. E. Gladstone's election com- mittee at Oxford in 1865. On 23 June 1865 he accepted the offer of the see of Chester, and was consecrated on 8 July.
Jacobson was a man of universally acknow- ledged piety and of simple habits. Although extremely reserved and cautious, he never hesitated to act in accordance with his sense of right, and was a kind and considerate friend. He was a high churchman of the old scholarly sort ; the Oxford movement exercised no influence on him, and he took no part in it. While his theological lectures, given when he was divinity professor at Ox- ford, were replete with erudition, those at which the attendance of candidates for orders was compulsory were unsuited to the larger part at least of his audience. He diligently performed his episcopal duties, and in the general administration of his diocese he showed tact and judgment ; he continued to live simply, and gave away his money libe- rally. In his charge at his primary visitation in October 1868 (published) he spoke with- out reserve on the duty of rubrical confor- mity. Although personally he had no liking for new or extreme ritual, he made it clearly understood that he would discountenance prosecutions, and that he viewed with dis- pleasure laxity and defect in order. His call to conformity gave offence to the more violent low churchmen, and in the earlier years of his episcopate he was twice mobbed by j ' Orangemen ' in Liverpool when on his way
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to consecrate churches intended for the per- ; formance of an ornate service. He promoted , the division of his diocese made by the foun- i dation of the bishopric of Liverpool in 1880. j Failure of health caused him to resign his bishopric in February 1884 ; he was then in j his eighty-first year. He died at the episco- | pal residence, Deeside, on Sunday morning, 13 July 1884. His portrait, painted by Rich- mond, has been engraved. He married, on 23 June 1836, Eleanor Jane, youngest daugh- ter of Dawson Turner. By his wife, who survived him, he had ten children, of whom three sons and two daughters survived him.
Jacobson published an edition of Dean Alexander Nowell's ' Catechismus,' with Life, 1835, 1844 ; an edition of the extant writings of the ' Patres Apostolici,' with title ' S. de- mentis Romani,S.Ignatii. . . quae supersunt,' &c., 2 vols. 1838, 1840, 1847, 1863, a work of great learning, and specially important with reference to the genuineness of the longer recension of the Ignatian epistles f see under CTTKETON,WILLI AM] ; an edition of the 'Works of Robert Sanderson,' bishop of Lincoln, 6 vols., 1854, and a few smaller books, ser- mons, and charges. He also wrote annota- tions on the Acts of the Apostles for the ' Speaker's Commentary.'
[Dean Burgon's Lives of Twelve (rood Men, ii. 238-303, in the main a reproduction of the dean's art. in the Guardian newspaper of 30 July 1884; see also Guardian of 13 Aug. following; Saturday Keview of 19 July 1884 ; Times news- paper of 14 July 1884, where the obituary notice is not quite accurate ; Maurice's Life of F. D. Maurice, i. 99, 179, 356.] W. H.
JACOMBE, THOMAS (1622-1687), non- conformist divine, son of John Jacombe of Burton Lazars, near Melton Mowbray, Lei- cestershire, was born in 1 622. He was edu- cated at the free school of Melton, and for two years under Edward Gamble at the school of Newark. He matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in the Easter term, 1 640, and when the civil war broke out removed to St. John's College, Cambridge (28 Oct. 1642), where he graduated B. A. in 1643 ; shortly after signed the covenant, and became a fellow of Trinity in the place of an ejected royalist, completing his M.A. in 1647. In the same year he took presbyterian orders, became chaplain to the Countess-dowager of Exeter, widow of David Cecil, third earl, and received the living of St. Martin's, Ludgate Hill, on the sequestra- tion of Dr. Michael Jermyn. He was ap- pointed by parliament an assistant to the London commissioners for ejecting insuffi- cient ministers and schoolmasters, and in 1659 he was made one of the approvers or triers of ministers. His opinions, how-
ever, were moderate, and upon the Restora- tion he was created D.D. at Cambridge by royal mandate dated 19 Nov. 1660, along with two presbyterian ministers, William Bates [q. v.j and Robert Wilde. He was named on the royal commission for the review of the prayer-book (25 March 1661), and was treated respectfully at the meetings. He was on the presbyterian side, and took a leading part in drawing up the exceptions against the prayer- book. Pepys heard him preach on 14 April 1661 and 16 Feb. 1661-2. He was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. His two farewell sermons, preached on St. Bartholomew's day, 17 Aug. 1662, were published separately with a portrait (8vo, 1662), again in a collection of other sermons, entitled ' The London Mini- sters' Legacy,' 8vo, 1662, and in 'Farewell Sermons of some of the most eminent of the Nonconformist Ministers,' London, 1816. After his deprivation Jacombe held a con- venticle from 1672 in Silver Street, and was several times prosecuted. He was protected by his old patroness, the Countess-dowager of Exeter. Luttrell says that the ' fanatick par- son' was taken into her house (in Little Bri- tain) in February 1684-5. He died there of a cancer, aged 66, on Easter Sunday, 27 March 1687. The countess's respect for the doctor is spoken of by W. Sherlock as ' peculiar,' and the favours she conferred on him as extraordi- nary. Jacombe was buried on 3 April at St. Anne's, Aldersgate, and a large number of con- forming and nonconforming divines attended his funeral. The sermon was preached by Dr. W. Bates. Jacombe had collected a valuable library, which was sold after his death for 1,300£. (see the catalogue, Bibliotheca Jacom- biana, London, 1687, 4to). Sherlock calls Jacombe ' a nonsensical trifler' (A Discourse of the Knowledge of Jesus Christ, 1674); but he is favourably mentioned by Baxter and Calamy. S. Rolle in his ' Prodromus ' speaks of Jacombe as a person of ' high repute for good life, learning, and excellent gravity,' much beloved by the master of Trinity. Pepys was pleased by his preaching.
Jacombe's chief works are : 1. ' Enoch's Walk and Change : Funeral Sermon and Life of Mr. Vines, sometime Master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, preached at St. Laurence Jewry on 7 Feb. 1655-6,' London, 1656, 8vo. 2. ' A Treatise of Holy Dedication, both per- sonal and domestic, recommended to the Citizens of London on entering into their new Habitations after the Great Fire,' Lon- don, 1668, 8vo. 3. ' Several Sermons, or Com- mentary preached on the whole 8th Chapter of Romans,' London, 1672, 8vo. 4. ' How Christians may learn in every way to be con- tent,' in the supplement to the ' Morning Exer-
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cise at Cripplegate,' London, 1674, and en- larged 1683, 8vo ; republished, first by T. Case in the « Crown Street Chapel Tracts '' (1827), and in a collection of sermons preached by different nonconformists between 1659 and 1689, called 'The Morning Exercises/ by James Nicholls, London, 8vo, 1844. 5. ' A Short Account of W. Whitaker, late Minister of St. Mary Magdalen, Bermondsey,' prefixed to his ' Eighteen Sermons,' London, 8vo, 1674. 6. ' The Covenant of Redemption opened, or the Morning Exercise methodized, preached at St. Giles'-in-the-Fields, May 1659,' Lon- don, 8vo, 1676. 7. ' The Upright Man's Peace at his end,' preached at Matthew Martin's funeral, London, 1682. 8. 'Abraham's Death,' at Thomas Case's funeral, London, 1682. Wood is mistaken in assigning to him a share in Poole's ' Annotations.'
Jacombe had subscribed his name to a letter against the quakers, which called forth a pamphlet by W. Penn, entitled 'A Just Rebuke to one-and-twenty learned Divines (so called) . . .,' London, 1674.
SAMUEL JACOMBE (d. 1659), Thomas's younger brother, was also a puritan divine and popular preacher. He matriculated at Queens College, Cambridge, in 1642 - 3 (WooD, Athenee, Bliss, iv. 205), graduated B.D. 21 June 1644, and became a fellow of his college 1 March 1648. He won some reputation as a preacher at Cambridge, and was made one of the university preachers by the parliament. He left Cambridge for Lon- don about 1653, and received the living of St. Mary Woolnoth in 1655. He died 12 June 1659. His funeral sermon was preached by Simon Patrick, afterwards bishop of Ely ; it was subsequently published under the title of ' Divine Arithmetic, or the Right Art of Numbering our Days ' (London, 1659, 4to, 1668, 1672), and dedicated to Thomas Ja- combe. He wrote some lines on the death of Vines (see funeral sermon above), 1656, and published them with other elegies and a ser- mon entitled ' Moses, his Death,' preached at Christ Church, Oxford, at the funeral of E. Bright, 23 Dec. 1656, London, 1657,4to; re- published in vol. v. of the ' Morning Exercises.' Another of Samuel's numerous discourses on the ' Divine Authority of the Scriptures ' is also in the ' Morning Exercises,' and has been reprinted in the reissues of that work.
[Kennett's Register, pp. 308, 403, 407, 502, 505, 743, 852 ; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. i. 160 ; Nichols's Leicestershire, ii. 270 ; S.Baxter's Biog. Collections, 1766, vol. ii.; Newcourt's Keperto- rium, i. 416; Neal's Puritans, ii. 776; Brook's Puritans, iii. 319; Luttrell's Relation, i. 328; Dunn'sMemoirsofSeventy-fiveEminent Divines, pp. 132-206.] E. T. B.
JAENBERT, JANBRIHT, JAM- BERT, GENGBERHT, LAMBERT, or LANBRIHT (d. 791), archbishop of Can- terbury, was consecrated abbot of St. Augus- tine's at Canterbury in 760, and was regarded with friendship by Eadbert, king of Kent. When foiled in his attempt to secure the body of Archbishop Bregwin [q. v.] for burial in his monastery, he appealed against the claim of the monks of Christ Church. His resolute behaviour excited the admiration of his opponents ; they knew that he was prudent and able, and they had, it is said, no fancy for defending their claim at Rome. Accord- ingly they elected him to the vacant arch- bishopric, and he appears to have been con- secrated on Septuagesima Sunday, 2 Feb. 766, and to have received the pall from Pope Paul I, probably in the course of 767. In or about 771 Offa, the Mercian king, began to conquer Kent ; the struggle lasted for some years, and he appears at first to have tried to win Jaenbert over to his side, for in 774 he made him a grant of land at Higham in Kent. It is evident that he was unsuccess- ful, and having established his superiority over Kent, he formed a plan for destroying the power of the primatial see of Canterbury and transferring the primacy to a Mercian metropolitan. Jaenbert vigorously resisted his scheme, and it is stated on highly ques- tionable authority that he invited Charles the Great to invade England (MATT. PAEIS, Vitee Offarum, p. 978). Offa was successful at Rome, and in 786 Hadrian sent two legates to England, who after an interview with Jaenbert proceeded to Offa's court, and in the following year held a synod at Chelsea (Ceal- chythe), where the archbishop was forced to give up a large portion of his province to Hig- bert [q. v.lbishop ofLichfield, who was raised to the rank of an archbishop. By this arrange- ment only the dioceses of London, Winches- ter, Rochester, Selsey, and Sherborne seem to have been left to the province of Canterbury. Jaenbert had also to complain of other in- juries at Offa's hands. It is said that his resistance to the king's scheme cost him all the possessions of the see which lay within the Mercian kingdom ; but this is perhaps founded on the fact that Offa continued to withhold from him, as he had withheld from Bregwin, an estate granted to his church by Ethelbald of Mercia [q. v.] Jaenbert de- termined to do his part towards restoring to his former monastery its old privilege of being the burying-place of the archbishops, of which it had been deprived in the cases of Cuthbert [q. v.] and Bregwin, his immediate predeces- sors. When,therefore,he felt that his end was near, he had himself removed to St. Augus-
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tine's, and there died on 11 or 12 Aug. 791 (SrsiEON, or 790 FLOE. WIG. and Anglo-Saxon Chron.) He was buried in the monastery. Jaenbert was the first archbishop of Canter- bury of whose coins specimens have been preserved.
[Haddan and Stubbs's Eccl. Docs. iii. 402- 466 ; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops, i. 242- 254 ; Kemble's Codex Dipl. i. cxiii-clvii, mxix (Engl. Hist. Soc.) ; Anglo-Saxon Chron. ann.
763, 764, 785, 790 (Rolls Ser.); Flor. Wig. ann.
764, 790 (Engl. Hist. Soc.) ; Symeon of Dur- ham, ii. 43, 53 (Rolls Ser.) ; Hoveden, i. 8 (Rolls Ser.) ; William of Malmesbury's Gesta Regum, i. c. 87 (Engl. Hist. Soc.) ; Gesta Pontiff, p. 15 (Rolls Ser.); Gervase, ii. 346 (Rolls Ser.); Ralph de Diceto, i. 16, 124, 126; Thorn, cols. 1773-5,2210, 2211 (Twysden); Matt. Paris'sVitse Offarum, p. 978, Wats; Elmham, pp. 319, 335, Hardwick; Hawkins's Silver Coinage, p. 102, ed. Kenyon; Diet. Chr. Biog., art. ' Jaenbert,' ii. 336, by Bishop Stubbs.] W. H.
JAFFRAY, ALEXANDER (1614- 1673), director of the chancellary of Scot- land and a quaker, son of Alexander Jaffray (d. 10 Jan. 1645), provost of Aberdeen, by his wife Magdalen Erskine of Pittodrie, was born at Aberdeen in July 1614. His educa- tion, which began in 1623 at the Aberdeen High School, was desultory ; he was at several country schools, and spent part of a session, 1631-2, at Marischal College, Aberdeen, leaving it at the age of eighteen to marry a girl of his parents' choice. Shortly after his marriage his father sent him to Edinburgh, where he stayed some time in the house of his relative Robert Burnet, father of Gilbert Burnet [q. v.] His father sent him in 1632 and 1633 to London, and in 1634 and 1635 to France. At Whitsuntide 1636 he set up housekeeping in Aberdeen, his wife having hitherto lived with his parents. He was made a bailie in 1642, and in this capacity committed a servant cf Sir George Gordon of Haddo to prison for riot. On 1 July 1643 Gordon attacked Jaffray on the road near Kintore, Aberdeenshire, wounding him in the head, and his brother, John Jaffray, in the arm. For this outrage Gordon was fined twenty thousand merks, five thousand of which went as damages to the Jaffrays. On 19 March 1644 Gordon, who had joined the rising under George Gordon, second marquis of Huntly [q. v.], rode into Aberdeen with sixty horse, captured the Jaffrays and others, and confined them, first at Strathbogie, Aberdeenshire, afterwards at Auchendoun Castle, Banffshire. They were released in about seven weeks, but Jaffray's wife had died at Aberdeen, partly from the fright caused by the violence attending her husband's cap-
ture. Owing to the troubles of the times, Jaffray, who now represented Aberdeen in the Scottish parliament, and had been no- minated (19 July 1644) a commissioner for suppressing the rebellion, took refuge in Dunnottar Castle, Kincardineshire ; but, leav- ing it one day, he was taken prisoner with his brother Thomas, and committed for several weeks to the stronghold of Pitcaple, Aber- deenshire. Taking advantage of the laxity of the royalist garrison, the Jaffrays and another prisoner made themselves masters of the place (September 1645), holding it for twenty-four hours, till they were relieved by a party of their friends. Thereupon they burned the stronghold, an act which received the approbation of the Scottish parliament on 19 Feb. 1649.
Jaffray appears to have been the represen- tative of Aberdeen in the Scottish parliament from 1644 to 1650. He sat on important committees, and exercised what he after- wards considered ' unwarranted zeal ' in censuring delinquents. In 1649, and again in 1650, he was one of six commissioners de- puted to treat with Charles II in Holland. On the second occasion he blames himself for procuring Charles's adhesion to the cove- nant, well knowing that he hated it in his heart. He took part in the battle of Dun- bar (3 Sept. 1650); his horse was shot under him ; and he was severely wounded and taken prisoner ; his brother Thomas was killed. During the five or six months which elapsed before his exchange, Jaffray had many con- versations with Cromwell and his chaplain, John Owen, D.D., with the result that his views on questions of religious liberty were widened, and his attachment to presbyterian- ism diminished. He was provost of Aberdeen (not for the first time) in 1651, and con- ducted the negotiations with Monck whereby the burgh escaped a heavy fine after its sur- render on 7 Sept. In March 1652 he was appointed by the court of session keeper of the great seal and director of the chancel- lary. He accepted the latter office in June, and it was confirmed to him by Cromwell, with a salary of 2001., by letters of gift at Whitehall, 2 March 1657, and at Edinburgh, 20 Nov. 1657. In June 1653 he was sum- moned from Scotland, with four others, to sit in the Little parliament, which came to an end on 12 Jan. 1654. Jaffray was one of some thirty members who remained sitting till a file of musketeers expelled them, yet Cromwell gave him an order for 1,5001. on the commissioners at Leith, to reimburse him for his share in the outlay connected with the bringing over of Charles II from Breda in 1650. Returning to Scotland, Jaffray
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divided his time between Aberdeen and Edin- burgh, where the duties of the chancellary compelled him to be in attendance for six months in the year. On 15 Nov. 1656 he removed his household from Aberdeen to Newbattle, near Edinburgh ; and thence on 10 Nov. 1657 to Abbey Hill, Edinburgh. When the Restoration came, Jaffray was called upon for his bond to remain in Edinburgh till the parliament's further order, or forfeit 20,000/. Some delay in finding sureties led to his imprisonment in the Edinburgh Tol- booth, where he lay from 20 Sept. 1660 till 17 Jan. 1661, when, in consequence of the infirm state of his health, he was released on subscribing the bond.
Jaffray's public life was closed, and he ap- pears henceforth as a religious leader. Al- though he did not actually secede from the presbyterian church, and permitted the bap- tism of his children, he had lost faith in its ordinances, in accordance with the views he h*ad first adopted in 1650, and relied much on private meditation, which he recorded in his diary. On 24 May 1652, in conjunction with four others, three of them clergymen, he addressed a letter from Aberdeen to ' some godly men in the south,' advocating inde- pendency and separation from the national church. Samuel Rutherford and other divines held a conference with the signatories to this document. By 1661 he was in considerable sympathy with the quakers, and joined their body at Aberdeen towards the end of 1662, owing to the preaching of William Dews- bury [q. v.l He then removed to Inverury, Aberdeenshire, where he set up a quaker meeting. Returning about 1664 to Kings- wells, near Aberdeen (an estate which had been in his family since 1587), he was sum- moned before the high commission court, at the instance of Patrick Scougal, bishop of Aberdeen, and ordered to remain in his own dwelling-house, and hold no meetings there, under a penalty of six hundred merks. His health was now very frail, and he suffered from quinsy. On 11 Sept. 1668 he was taken to Banff Tolbooth for holding a religious meeting at Kingswells, and kept in gaol for over nine months, till released by an order of the privy council. His infirm health dis- qualified him from rendering active service to the quaker cause in Scotland, but his ac- cession gave impetus to the movement, which was taken up by George Keith (1640 P-1716) [q. v.] in 1664 and by Robert Barclay (1648- 1690) [q. v.] in 1667. Jaffray died at Kings- wells on 7 May 1673, and was buried on 8 May, in a ground attached to his own house. He married, first, on 30 April 1632, Jane Downe or Dune, who died on 19 March
1644, and was mother of ten children, all of whom died young except Alexander (6. 17 Oct. 1641, d. 1672); and secondly, on 4 May 1647, Sarah, daughter of Andrew Cant [q. v.], by whom he had five sons and three daughters, all dying young except An- drew (see below), 'Rachel, and John.
Jaffray published nothing except ' A Word of Exhortation by way of Preface,' &c., to George Keith's ' Help in Time of Need,' &c., 1665, 4to. His manuscript ' Diary ' was dis- covered in the autumn of 1827 by John Bar- clay. Part of it was in the study of Robert Barclay, the apologist, at Ury House, Kin- cardineshire, the rest in the loft of a neigh- bouring farmhouse. It was admirably edited, with ' Memoirs ' and notes, by John Barclay, 1833, 8vo ; reprinted 1834 and 1856.
ANDREW JAFFRAY (1650-1726), son of the above, was born on 8 Aug. 1650. He became an eminent minister among the quakers, and died on 1 Feb. 1726. He mar- ried Christian, daughter of Alexander Skene of Skene, by whom he had four sons and six daughters. He published ' A Serious and Earnest Exhortation ... to the . . . Inha- bitants of Aberdeen,' &c. [1677], 4to.
[Jaffray's Diary, 1833; Smith's Catalogue of Friends' Books, 1867, ii. 5 sq.] A. G-.
JAGO, RICHARD (1715-1781),poet, was the third son of the Rev. Richard Jago (born at St. Mawes in Cornwall in 1679, and rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, from 1709 until his death in 1741), who married in 1711 Mar- garet, daughter of William Parker of Henley- in-Arden. He was born at Beaudesert on 1 Oct. 1715, and educated at Solihull under the Rev. Mr. Crumpton, whom he afterwards described as a ' morose pedagogue.' Shen- stone was at the same school, and theirfriend- ship lasted unimpaired for life. In his father's parish he also made the acquaintance of So- merville, the author of ' The Chase.' As his father's means were small, he matriculated as a servitor at University College, Oxford, on 30 Oct. 1732, when Shenstone was also in residence as a commoner. He graduated B.A. in 1736, and M.A. in 1739, and was ordained in 1737 to the curacy of Snitter- field in Warwickshire. In 1746 he was ap- pointed by Lord Willoughby de Broke to the small livings of Harbury and Chesterton in that county. As he had seven children, his nomination in 1754, through the assist- ance of Lord Clare, afterwards Earl Nugent, to the vicarage of Snitterfield, proved a wel- come addition to his resources. These three benefices he retained until 1771, when he resigned the former two on his preferment, through the gift of his old patron, Lord
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SVilloughby de Broke, to the more valuable •ectory of Kimcote in Leicestershire (1 May L771). Jago continued, however, to reside it Snitterfield, passing much of his time in mproving the vicarage house and grounds, md there he died on 8 May 1781. He was buried in a vault which he had constructed for his family under the middle aisle of the zhurch, and an inscription to his memory was placed on a flat stone, which has since been moved to the north aisle. He married in 1744 Dorothea Susanna Fancourt, daugh- ;er of John Fancourt, rector of the benefice }f Kimcote, which he himself afterwards held. She died in 1751, leaving three sons and four laughters ; three of the latter survived their father. On 16 Oct. 1758 he married at Ruge- ey Margaret, daughter of James Under wood, svho survived him, but left no issue.
Jago's pleasing elegy, 'The Blackbirds,' ariginally appeared in Hawkesworth's ' Ad- venturer,' No. 37, 13 March 1753, and was by mistake attributed to Gilbert West. Its author thereupon procured its insertion, with Dther poems and with his name, in Dodsley's ; Collection' (vols. iv. and v.), when the manager of a Bath theatre (who is suggested in Note» and Queries, 5th ser. v. 198-9, to have been John Lee) claimed it as his own, alleging that Jago was a fictitious name from ' Othello.' This piece was a great favourite with Shenstone, who reports in his letters (June 1754) that it had been set to music by the organist of Worcester Cathedral. Jago published in 1767 a topographical poem, in bur books, 'Edge Hill, or the Rural Pro- spect delineated and moralized,' a subject vhich did not present sufficient variety for a >oem of that length, but it has been praised or the ease of its diction. He also wrote : . ' A Sermon on occasion of a Conversation aid to have pass'd between one of the In- abitants and an Apparition La the Church- ard of Harbury,' 1755. 2. ' Sermon at Snit- 3rfield on the Death of the Countess of 'oventry,' 1763. 3. ' Labour and Genius : Fable,' inscribed to Shenstone, 1768 ; also i Pearch's « Collection/ iii. 208-18. 4. 'An ssay on Electricity,' which is alluded to in lenstone's letters, but apparently was never iblished. Some time before his death he re- sed his poems, which were published in 84 with some additional pieces, the most portant of which was ' Adam ; an Oratorio, mpiled from "Paradise Lost,'" and with n'j account of his life and writings by hn Scott Hylton of Lapal House, near ilesowen. His poems have appeared in ^ny collections of English poetry, including >se of Chalmers, vol. xvii., Anderson, vol. , Park, vol. xxvii., and Davenport, vol. Iv.
JOL. XXIX.
Southey, in his 'Later Poets' (iii. 199-202), included Jago's ' Elegy on the Goldfinches;' and Mitford, while praising his ' taste, feel- ing, and poetical talent,' suggested a selection from Shenstone, Dyer, Jago, and others. Shenstone addressed a poem to him, in- scribed a seat at Leasowes with the words ' Amicitise et meritis Richardi Jago,' and cor- responded with him until death ( Works, iii. passim). Many of his letters, essays, and several curiosities which were formerly his property, have passed to the Rev. W. lago of Bodmin. An indignant letter from Jago to Garrick on the Stratford jubilee is in Gar- rick's ' Correspondence,' i. 367-8.
[Gent. Mag. 1781, p. 242; Colvile's Warwick- shire Worthies, pp. 458-62 ; London Mag. 1822, vi. 419-20; Foster's Alumni Oxon. ; Nichols's Lit. Anecd. iii. 50-1 ; Shenstone's Works (1791 edit.), ii. 318, iii. passim ; Mrs. Houstoun's Mit- ford and Jesse, pp. 227-31 ; Old Cross (Coventry, 1879), pp. 369-74; Boase and Courtney's Bibl. v Cornub. iii. 1243 ; Boase's Collect. Cornub. p. 411 ; Maclean's Trigg Minor, iii. 424.]
W. P. C.
JAMES THE CISTERCIAN (Jl. 1270), also called JAMES THE ENGLISHMAN, was the first professor of philosophy and theology in the college which Stephen Lexington [q. v.], ab- bot of Clairvaux, founded in the house of the counts of Champagne at Paris for the instruc- tion of young Cistercians. He supported St. Thomas Aquinas in contesting the immacu- late conception of the Virgin Mary, and is said to have written : 1. ' Commentaries on the Song of Songs.' 2. ' Sermons on the Gos- pels.' 3. ' Lecturse Scholastic*.'
[Visch. Bibl. Script. Ord. Cist. p. 142, Douay, ed. 1649; Tanner, Bibl. Brit.-Hib. p. 426; Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. Med. Mvi, iv. 5, ed. 1754; Hist. Litt. de la France, xix. 425.] C. L. K.
JAMES I (1394-1437), king of Scotland, third son of Robert III [q. v.] and Annabella Drummond [q. v.], was born at Dunfermline shortly before 1 Aug. 1394 (letter from his mother to Richard II). His age and his father's weak health and feeble character render it probable that his education was en- trusted to his mother, who lived chiefly at Dunfermline and Inverkeithing. After her death, in 1402, he was sent to St. Andrews, where he was placed under the care of Henry Wardlaw, consecrated bishop in 1403. The murder of his only surviving brother David, duke of Rothesay, in March 1402, at the in- stigation of his uncle Albany [q. v.] and Archibald, fourth earl of Douglas [q. v.], made it necessary that he should be in safe custody, and no better guardian could have been found. In 1405 Wardlaw received as guests the Earl
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of Northumberland and his grandson, young Henry Percy, Hotspur's son, driven into exile after the defeat of Shrewsbury, and the two boys were perhaps for a short time educated together. The aged and infirm king Robert, apprehensive that Albany might treat James like his brother, determined to send him to France. Embarking at the Bass Rock along with the Earl of Orkney, a bishop (according to Walsingham),and young Alexander Seton (afterwards Lord Gordon), their vessel was intercepted off Flamborough Head by an English ship of Cley in Norfolk. The bishop escaped ; the prince, Orkney, and Seton were sent to Henry IV in London, who released Orkney and Seton, but detained James and his squire, William Gifford. There is discre- pancy in the date assigned, both by earlier and later historians, for the capture of James. The ' Kingis Quair,' his own poem, implies that it was in the spring of 1404, when he was ten, or about three years past the state of in- nocence, i.e. the age of seven. Wyntoun sug- gests 12 April 1405, which Pinkerton, Irving, and Professor Skeat in his edition of the 'Kingis Quair' adopt. But in that case the capture would have been in most flagrant defiance of a truce which had been agreed to by Henry till Easter 1405. And Walsing- ham, the St. Albans chronicler, is probably more correct in assigning the event to 1406.
that day the constable was ordered to deliver him and Griffin, son of Owen Glendower, to Richard, lord de Grey, in whose charge he was placed at Nottingham Castle, where he re- mained from 12 June 1407 till the middle of July. He was then removed to Evesham, where he continued at least down to 16 July 1409. In 1412 he appears to have visited Henry IV, and there is a holograph letter by him in the same year, by which he granted, or promised, lands to SirW.Douglas of Drumlan- rig, dated at Croydon, where he was probably the guest of his kinsman, Thomas Arundel [q. v.], archbishop of Canterbury.
after his father's death on 20 March 1413, was to recommit James to the custody of the constable of the Tower, along with the Welsh prince and his cousin, Murdoch, earl of Fife, who had been a prisoner in England since the battle of Homildon Hill. On 3 Aug. the three were ordered to be transferred to Windsor Castle. Throughout his reign HenryV treated James well, hoping through his influence to detach the Scots from the French alliance. But the constable of the Tower continued to receive payments for his expenses down to 14 Dec. 1416. On 22 Feb. 1417, after James was twenty-one, Sir John Pelham was ap- pointed his governor, with an allowance of TOO/, a year, and leave to take him to certain
Northumberland, who came to St. Andrews i places. Windsor was henceforth his prin- before the prince left, certainly did not reach cipal residence. After 1419 there are traces Scotland till June 1405, and Bower states of small personal payments to James himself, that Robert III, who is known to have died The victory of Agincourt, in 1415, placed .on 4 April 1406, barely survived the news of another illustrious captive in Henry's hands, his son's capture. Mr. Burnett and Mr. W. Charles of Orleans, about the same age as Hardy adopt the later date, and place the James, and, like him, of bright intellect and capture about 14 Feb. 1406. The English ] poetic tastes. It has been assumed rather records state that the first payment to the than proved that they were fellow-prisoners lieutenant of the Tower for the expenses of at Windsor. It is more likely that they were the son of the Scotch king was on 10 Dec., j kept apart. In 1420 Henry was engaged in in respect of cost incurred from 6 July 1406, | his final struggle with France, and during-
but the entries are too incomplete to prove there was no earlier payment.
For nineteen years the life of James was spent in exile under more or less strict ciis- tody. His ransom — always an item in the calculations of the English exchequer, ex- hausted by the French war — made his life safer than at home in the neighbourhood of an ambitious uncle and turbulent nobles. His education was carefully attended to, and improved a naturally vigorous mind. He be- came an expert in all manly and knightly exercises. We learn from the recent publi- cation of English and Scottish records that he was at first confined in the Tower of Lon- don, where his expenses were allowed for at the rate of 6s. 8d. a day and 3s. 4d. for his suite, from 6 July 1406 to 10 June 1407. On
May, June, and July James received sundry- sums towards his equipment for the French war. He sailed from Southampton in July, and joined Henry at the siege of Melun. Henry failed to detach the Scots then fighting for France. They declined to acknowledge a king who was a prisoner, and he refused, for the same reason, to claim their allegiance.
Melun capitulated after a brave resistance of four months, and James suffered the igno- miny of seeing his countrymen who had taken part in the defence hanged as rebels. He was present at the triumphal entry of Henry into Paris on 1 Dec. 1420. In the beginning ear James went with Henry e appears to have remained, during Henry's absence in England, from 3 Feb. till the middle of June. The defeat of
of the following y< to Rouen, where h
James I i,
the English at Beauge", 23 March 1421, re- called Henry to France, and if James had in the interval returned to England he must have come back with Henry. During the first half of 1422 notices of payments to him prove that he was at Rouen. After Henry V's death he returned to England.
The negotiations for his release had gone on without intermission from the time of his capture. But Albany succeeded in procuring the ransom of his own son, Murdoch, in 1416, and as the return of James would have put an end to a regency which was actual sove- reignty of Scotland, it is scarcely likely that he wished to see James back in Scotland. Albany's death in 1420 at once improved the prospects of his liberation. In May 1421 it was agreed that he should be permitted to return to his own kingdom on sufficient hos- tages being given, and on Henry V's death the negotiations between the Duke of Bedford [q. v.], the English, and Murdoch, the new Scottish, regent, began in earnest.
Thomas of Myrton, James's chaplain, who had been sent to Scotland on 21 Feb. 1422, appears to have been the envoy who smoothed the way for the subsequent treaty. In the autumn of 1423 English and Scottish com- missioners met at Pontefract, and there the basis of the treaty was arranged : a payment of sixty thousand marks for the king's release, in instalments of ten thousand marks a year, for which hostages were to be given; an agreement that the Scottish troops should quit France, and a request that a noble Eng- lish lady should be betrothed to James. The treaty was signed 10 Sept. in the chapter- house of i York. On 24 Nov. Myrton was again sent to Scotland, probably to arrange as to the hostages, and in December the Scots agreed that the four principal burghs, Edin- burgh, Perth, Dundee, and Aberdeen, were to become sureties for payment of part of the stipulated sum.
The condition as to the marriage was easiest fulfilled. James had already set his heart on Jane [q. v.], the young daughter of the Earl of Somerset. The marriage was celebrated in the church of St. Mary Overy in Southwark on 12 Feb. 1424, and the banquet in the ad- jacent palace of the lady's uncle, the Bishop of Winchester. Next day ten thousand marks of the ransom were remitted as Jane's dowry. James and his bride set out at once for Scot- land, and on 28 March, at Durham, the host- ages, twenty-eight of the principal nobles or their eldest sons, were delivered, along with the obligations of the four burghs, and a truce for seven years from 1 May 1424 was signed. On 5 April, at Melrose, James issued letters under his great seal confirming the treaty,
i of Scotland
and by a separate deed acknowledged that ten thousand marks were to be paid within six months of his entry into Scotland. After spending Easter in Edinburgh he was crowned at Scone, on 21 May, with great pomp by Bishop Wardlaw. The Duke of Albany, as earl of Fife, placed him on the throne. The queen was crowned with him, and the king showed favour to her English followers. Walter, elder son of the late regent, whose insubordination and profligacy had removed some obstacles to James's restoration, was arrested a week before the coronation and sent to the Bass. Malcolm Fleming of Cum- bernauld, a brother-in-law of the regent, was arrested at the same time, but soon libe- rated. In this, as in subsequent steps taken by James to regain firm possession of the throne, his object was to strike down Albany and all his kin. He returned to Perth for his first parliament on 26 May 1424. A series of twenty-seven acts prove his legislative ac- tivity. These acts appear to have been not merely drafted but passed by the lords of the articles, a committee of the three estates, not then first instituted, but perhaps reor- ganised, with full power to make laws dele- gated to them by the other members of par- liament, who were allowed to return home. The privileges of the church were confirmed ; private war was prohibited ; forfeiture de- clared the penalty of rebellion ; those who abstained from assisting the king were to be deemed rebels ; those who travelled with more than a proper retinue or who lay upon the land were to be punished ; and officers of the law were to be appointed to administer justice to the king's commons. The customs, both great and small, were granted to the king for life; the process of 'showing of holdings ' was to be used, to ascertain who had titles to their lands from the death of Robert I ; taxes were imposed to provide for the king's ransom ; salmon, an important branch of revenue, were protected by various regulations ; gold and silver mines were to belong to the king ; clerks were not to pass the sea without leave or to grant pensions out of their benefices ; export of gold and silver was taxed, and foreign merchants were to spend their gains in Scotland; archery was encouraged, football and golf prohibited; rooks were not to be allowed to build, and muirburn after March forbidden ; customs were imposed on the chief exports ; money was to be coined of equal value to that of Eng- land ; hostelries were to be kept in towns ; and the burghs were to provide, partly by loans in Flanders, twenty thousand English nobles towards the king's ransom. The royal eye was directed to every branch of
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government, agriculture and trade, peace and war, currency and finance, church and state. Some of the statutes, as that relating to the coin, were never carried out ; others were tem- porary; but it is from this parliament that the Scottish statute-book known in the courts dates. For the first time since Robert the Bruce, Scotland had effective legislation, directed by the king, and accepted by the clergy, barons, and burghs. Parliament now became annual. James had learned from the Lancastrian kings the value of a national assembly as a support against nobles who were petty kings, engaging in private war, and administering private law in their own courts. Several of the statutes of this and subsequent parliaments were copied from the more advanced constitution of England.
Before the end of 1424 Duncan, earl of Lennox, father-in-law of the late regent, was arrested and imprisoned at Edinburgh. A second parliament, at Perth, 12 March 1425, continued, and a third, on 11 March 1426, repeated the same politic legislation. The most important acts provided for registra- tion of infeftments, or titles to land, in the king's register ; prosecution of forethought felony by the king's officers ; personal attend- ance in parliament of prelates, barons, and freeholders ; revision of the old books of law by a committee of the three estates ; punish- ment of heretics with the aid of the secular arm ; prayers to be said by the clergy on behalf of the king and queen ; a judicial committee or sessions, the first attempt to introduce a central court, to sit thrice a year; the punish- ment of idle men, and the regulation of weights and measures.
More important than the legislation was the coup d'etat by which, on the ninth day of the parliament of 1425, the late regent, his younger son Alexander, with other nobles, including Archibald, earl of Douglas, Wil- liam Douglas, earl of Angus [q. v.], George Dunbar, earl of March, twenty-six in all, were arrested. The castles of Falkland and Doune, the chief seats of the late regent, were seized ; Isabella, the daughter of Lennox, and wife of the regent, was imprisoned, while her hus- band was sent to Caerlaverock. James, youngest son of the regent, the only one of the family who escaped, raised a force in the highlands, and, aided by Finlay, bishop of Lismore, burnt Dumbarton and slew Sir John, the Red Stewart of Dundonald, the king's uncle, but, pursued by the royal forces, fled by way of England to Ireland, from which he never returned. Meanwhile the parliament, adjourned to Stirling, met on 18 May 1425, to pass judgment on Albany and his kin. An assize of twenty-one nobles
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and barons, with Atholl, the king's uncle, as foreman, sat on the 22nd, in presence of the king, and made quick work of the charges. The record is not extant, and under the gene- ral term robbery (roboria) of one of the chro- nicles (Extracta ex Chronicis Scotice, p. 220) must be understood all the illegal acts of the regency. The ' Book of Pluscarden ' calls their crime treason. Walter was convicted, and beheaded on the day of trial; his father, his brother Alexander, and his grandfather, Lennox, on the following day ; and at the same time five retainers of Albany were hanged and their quarters sent to different towns. Some pity for the victims appears in the contemporary chronicles. This startling victory is to be attributed to the fact that the clergy were on the king's side. With the exception of the Bishop of Argyll no prelate supported Albany. James conciliated the bishops by a strict enforcement of the law against heresy, a copy of the Lancastrian statute, and by confirming their privileges. James also had the support of the ablest of the smaller barons, the natural rivals of the older nobles. Moreover he had gained the
! commons by good laws and impartial justice.
| He thus initiated the constant policy of the Stewart kings — to rely on the clergy and the burghs in order to withstand the great feudal lords.
The chief offices in the n6w administration were bestowed on those who had taken a leading part in James's restoration. Some of the new officers, however, like Lauder, bishop of Glasgow, and Sir John Forester of Corstorphine, the chamberlain, had already served under the regent. The heads of the house of Douglas — Archibald, earl of Dou- glas, William Douglas, earl of Angus, and James Douglas of Balvenie — had separated themselves from the regent, but their alle- giance to James was doubtful, and had to be retained by fear. The strength of James lay in Lothian, where his adherents held the castles of Dalkeith, Dunbar, the Bass, and Tantallon ; in the south-west, where they
j held Caerlaverock; and in Fife, where Ward-
! law, his old tutor and chief adviser, held St. Andrews, and the king himself held Doune and Falkland. The possession of Perth and Dundee, Edinburgh and Stirling, gave him control of the chief burghs. The regent's party had more influence in the less civilised west, the country of Lennox, and in the highlands.
The lowlands being now safe, and the whole line of Albany cut off, the lawless con- dition of the highlands urgently called for strong measures. James summoned a parlia- ment in the spring of 1427 to Inverness, where
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he had repaired the royal tower, and he seized forty chiefs who obeyed the summons. Alex- ander Macgorrie and two Campbells were tried and executed. The rest were sent to different castles throughout the kingdom, where some were put to death, though the greater number were afterwards liberated, including the Lord of the Isles, whose mother, however, was detained till her death. On his return south he held in July another parliament, chiefly occupied with reforms of the civil and ecclesiastical courts ; ,and in the next parliament, of March 1428, he made an attempt to introduce representation of the shires and a speaker on the English model. But this change — another blow at the feudal aristocracy, who had the right of personal attendance — was not carried out. About the end of 1427, or early in 1428, Sir John Stewart of Darnley, constable of the French army, the Archbishop of Rheims, and Alain Chartier the poet, chancellor of Bayeux, came to ask the hand of the infant Princess Mar- garet [q. v.] for the dauphin Louis. So bril- liant an offer was not to be refused. Scottish ambassadors were sent to France to arrange the terms. The treaty was signed by James at Perth on 17 July 1428, and by Charles VII at Chinon in November. The bride being only two and the bridegroom five the mar- riage was postponed till they reached the legal age ; but the princess was to be sent to France, along with six thousand men, as soon as a French fleet arrived. Charles promised her the dowry of a dauphiness, or, if her husband came to the throne, of a queen of France, and conveyed to James the county of Saintonge and castle of Rochefort.
Margaret did not, however, go to France till the last year of her father's life, and the Scottish troops, so urgently needed to sup- port Charles against the English, were never despatched. This treaty excited the jealousy of the English court, and Cardinal Beaufort was sent in February 1429 to James at Dunbar in order to counteract its effects. He succeeded in procuring a renewal of the truce between England and Scotland, but not in breaking off the treaty with France, though possibly in delaying its execution, But James showed no favour to England. He could not forget his enforced exile. He could not raise, and was unwilling to pay his ransom, and its non-payment became a subject of frequent remonstrance. The Eng- lish court kept firm hold of the hostages, the sons of his principal nobles, and reasserted, if English writers may be credited, the supe- riority of England, which had been disowned as the result of the war of independence. The disorganised state of France, until the
enthusiasm kindled by Joan of Arc effected its deliverance, made James see the necessity of fostering other alliances, and he pursued a foreign policy which had in view the com- mercial and political interests of his king- dom. In 1425 he restored, at the request of a Flemish embassy, the staple of the Scottish trade to Bruges, from which it had been re- moved to Middelburg in Zealand, and four years later he entered into a commercial league for one hundred years with Philip III, duke of Burgundy, as sovereign of Flanders. In 1426 a Scottish embassy under Sir William Crichton renewed at Bergen the alliance with Denmark, and settled the long-standing dis- pute as to the payment claimed as still due for the Hebrides. His relations with the papal see were not so amicable. James, as a good catholic, sternly suppressed heresy, restored the estates of the see of St. Andrews, and founded a Carthusian monastery at Perth. But he was also a church reformer and a Scot- tish patriot, who was determined to tolerate neither the abuses nor the encroachments of the church. One of James's early acts was to pass statutes forbidding the clergy to cross the sea without leave, or to purchase benefices at Rome (the Scottish equivalents of the Eng- lish statutes of praemunire and provisors) . In 1425 he issued a letter to the abbots and priors of the orders of St. Benedict and St. Augustine, exhorting them to reform their convents, whose abuses, he declared, threa- tened the ruin of religion. When he visited David I's tomb at Dunfermline he remarked that David's piety made him useless to the commonwealth,whence came the proverb that David was a ' sair saint for the crown.' The parliament of 1427 not only passed a strin- gent act to reform procedure in the church courts, but ordered the provincial council then sitting to accept it as one of their statutes.
Martin V, alarmed at these incursions of the state into the domain of the church, sum- moned in 1429 Cameron, archbishop of Glas- gow, and chancellor, to Rome ; but James sent the Bishop of Brechin and the Arch- deacon of Dunkeld to remonstrate with the pope, and inform him that the chancellor's absence would be most prejudicial to the kingdom. Eugenius IV, the successor of Martin, instead of yielding, sent William Croy ser, archdeacon of Teviotdale, as a nuncio, to cite his own bishop to Rome. For exe- cuting the papal citation Croyser was tried by an assize in his absence (for he had fled back to Rome), and deprived of all his benefices and property in Scotland. Eugenius in 1435 issued a bull restoring Croyser to his bene- fices, and denouncing the censures of the
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church on all who recognised the sentence. The conflict between church and state had never been so acute since Robert the Bruce refused to receive a papal bull.
The highlands again claimed the king's attention in 1429, for Alexander of the Isles had raised the clans and burnt Inverness. James surprised him in Lochaber and put i him to flight, aided by the dissensions of the clans. The Lord of the Isles, forced to seek the royal clemency, appeared before James at i Holyrood on Palm Sunday without arms, ex- cept a bare sword, which he offered the king, | who spared his life on the intercession of the | queen and barons, but sent him to Tantallon. The repair of the castles of Urquhart and In- verness, and acts for providing arms, men, and, in the west highlands, ships for the ; royal service, were passed in the parliament | of March 1430, and were calculated to main- tain peace in the highlands.
The same year was marked by the impor- tation into Scotland of the first great cannon, the Lion, from Flanders. Artillery began from this time to be the special care of the Scottish kings, and gave them an advantage over the barons. In 1431 Donald Balloch, a kinsman of the Lord of the Isles, having defeated the Earls of Mar and Caithness at Inverlochy, James had again to take up arms in person, and Balloch was forced to fly to Ireland. The statement of Boece that an Irish chief sent Bal- loch's head to the king at Dunstaffnage is not corroborated. The arrest of the Earl of Dou- glas and John, lord Kennedy, both nephews of the king, shows that his policy had roused op- position beyond the highlands; but Douglas was released at the parliament of October 1431. This parliament granted an aid to re- press the northern rebels, and imposed penal- ties on those who had not joined the king's army in the highlands. In 1432 what Bower calls the flying pestilence of lollardism re- appeared in Scotland, and next year Paul Crawar, a missionary of the Hussites, was burnt at St. Andrews. James rewarded the diligence of Fogo, the inquisitor, with the abbacy of Melrose.
Throughout his reign James pursued his policy of destroying the power of the great nobles. One chapter of his legislation, by which he protected the tillers of the soil in the possession of their holdings, had the best results, and this innovation on the oppressive rules of the feudal law became an integral part of the law of Scotland. But his whole- sale forfeiture of the nobles' estates led to his own ruin. Immediately after his return to Scotland, the attainder of Albany and his sons placed the earldoms of Fife, Monteith, and Ross in his hands, and that of Lennox
the earldom of that name, and by 1436 he had gained possession of the earldom of March in the south, of Fife in the east, of Lennox, Strathearn, and Monteith in the central high- lands, of Mar in the north-east, and Ross in the north. The only great earls left were Atholl (his uncle), Douglas (his nephew), Crawford, and Moray, and, with the exception of Atholl, a secret and fatal foe, none were strong enough to be formidable to the king.
In the last years of his life the relations of James with the pope became less, those with England more, strained. In 1433 he sent eight representatives to the council of Basle. In the winter of 1435 ^Eneas Silvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II,was sent to James by the Cardinal of Santa Croce, and in the summer of 1436 the Bishop of Urbino followed, as a nuncio from the pope, ostensibly to reconcile the Scottish court with the papal see, and procure the repeal of the sentence against Croyser, the archdeacon ; but both envoys probably had instructions to procure the adhesion of James to the treaty of Arras. JEne&s Silvius was received graciously. James granted his requests and presented him with two palfreys and a pearl. A fanci- ful picture of his reception was painted by Pinturicchio on the walls of the library of Siena for Cardinal Piccolomini, where it may still be seen.
In 1430 Lord Scrope came from England to negotiate a peace on the basis of restoring to Scotland Berwick and Roxburgh, and James referred the matter to the parliament of Perth in October 1431. The debate in presence of James, which Bower reports, was chiefly conducted by the clergy, the Abbots of Scone and Inchcolm contending that peace could not be made without the consent of France; while Fogo, abbot of Melrose, took the opposite side. No terms could be agreed on, and the alliance with France continued. In 1436 the Princess Margaret was sent with a great retinue, under | the conduct of the Earl of Orkney, to fulfil her engagement to the dauphin. On 10 Sept. ; 1436 William Douglas, second earl of Angus, defeated at Piperden Robert Ogle, who made ' a raid on the Scottish borders in breach of j the truce. An attempt was also made to kid- nap the king's daughter on her way to France. Thereupon James summoned the whole forces of his kingdom to the siege of Roxburgh in October 1436, but returned after an inglorious siege of fifteen days. There can be little doubt that the war with England had led to a mu- tiny of the Scottish barons, and that James had received information of it. After a short stay in Edinburgh, where he held his last parliament, James went to Perth to keep
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Christmas. As he was about to cross the Forth a highland woman shouted, ' An ye pass this water ye shall never return again alive.' He took up his residence in the cloister of the Black Friars at Perth. While play- ing a game of chess with a knight, nick- named the 'King of Love,' James, referring to a prophecy that a king should die that year, said to his playmate : ' There are no kings in Scotland but you and I: I shall take good care of myself, and I counsel you to do the same.' A favourite squire told James he had dreamt ' Sir Kobert Graham would slay the king,' and he received a rebuke from the Earl of Orkney. James himself had a dream of a cruel serpent and horrible toad attacking him in his chamber.
These stories were not written down till after the event, but enough was known of Sir Robert Graham to lead men to dream or to invent stories of the coming danger. In the parliament of 1435 Graham, the uncle and tutor of Malise, earl of Strathearn, whose earldom the king had seized, had taken hold of James in the presence of the three estates, and said that he arrested him in their name for his cruel conduct and illegal acts. Graham relied on a promise that the lords would support him, but they failed to keep it, and himself being arrested, was banished to the highlands, where he openly rebelled and a price was set on his head. Graham then tried, but failed, to incite the nobles to revolt at the parliament of Edinburgh in October 1436, but succeeded in procuring a secret promise of assistance from Atholl, the king's uncle, and Sir Robert Stewart, Atholl's grandson, a young man in great favour with the king, who had made him his chamberlain, and at Roxburgh constable of the army. The object of Graham and his friends was to place the crown on the head either of Atholl or his grandson. On the night of 20 Feb. 1437, when James and his courtiers, Atholl and his grand- son among the rest, were amusing themselves with chess and music, reading romances and hearing tales told, the highland woman who had already warned James again appeared in the courtyard and asked an audience, but the king put her off till the morning. About midnight he drank the parting cup, and the courtiers left. Robert Stewart, the last to leave, tampered with the bolts, so that the doors could not be made fast. While James was still talking with the queen and her ladies round the fire, the noise of horses and armed men was heard. James, suspect- ing it was Graham, wrenched a plank from the floor with the tongs, and hid himself in a small chamber below. Catherine Dou- glas, afterwards called ' Bar-lass,' one of the
queen's maids, heroically barred the door of the house with her arm, which was broken by the incursion of Graham and his followers. James's hiding-place was soon discovered. After two of the band were thrown down by the king, Graham thrust a sword through his body. Those who saw the corpse reported that there were no less than sixteen wounds in the breast alone. The alarm spread to the king's servants and the town, and the con- spirators, who could not have effected their object without the aid of traitors in the king's household, fled. Before a month had elapsed all the leaders were caught, and within forty days tortured and executed with a barbarity which was deemed unusual even in that age. The king was buried in the convent of the Carthusians, where his pierced doublet was long kept as a relic. His heart was sent to the Holy Land and brought back in 1443 from Rhodes by a knight of St. John, and presented to the Carthusians. The highly coloured and circumstantial narrative of his death translated from Latin into English by John Shirley about 1440 is nearly contem- porary, and has been accepted by historians. Yet it omits the heroic act of Catherine Douglas.
Affectionate and somewhat melancholy in his youth, James was as a king decided, stern, severe, even cruel to enemies and breakers of the law, yet amiable and playful with friends, and, though regardless of the interests, even the rights, of the great lords, was zealous for those of the people. The story that he shod with horseshoes the chief who had done the same to a poor woman, is consistent with the retributive justice of his time and his own cha- racter. His attempts to reform the Scottish on, or even in advance of, the model of the English constitution of the fifteenth century led to his ruin; but he left a monarchy with a stronger hold on the loyalty of the nation, and a nation freer from feudal tyranny. Though James only lived to see the marriage of his eldest daughter, that union led to the marriage of her sisters with foreign princes, and forged new links in the connection be- tween Scotland and Europe. It was said of him by Drummond that, while the nation made his predecessors kings, he made Scotland a nation. His children were : Margaret [q.v.], afterwards wife of Louis the Dauphin, subse- quently Louis XI ; Elizabeth, or Isabel, be- trothed in 1441 to Francis, count of Montfort, whom she married in 1442, when he had be- come by his father's death Duke of Bretagne ; Alexander and James, twins, born 16 Oct. 1430, of whom the former died young and the latter succeeded his father as James II ; Joan or Janet, who, although dumb, married
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James Douglas, lord Dalkeith ; Eleanor, mar- ried in 1449 Archduke Sigismund of Austria ; Mary, who, while still a child, was married in 1444 to Wolfram von Borselen, lord of Camp-Vere in Zealand, and, in right of his wife, earl of Buchan in Scotland ; and Anna- bella, betrothed in 1444 to Philip, count of Geneva, second son of Amadeus, duke of Savoy, the anti-pope Felix of the council of Basle, but who married George Gordon, second earl of Huntly [q. v.] His love for his wife never wavered. Almost alone of Scottish kings, he had no mistress and no bastards.
In person James was short and stout, broad-shouldered, narrow- waisted, but well- proportioned and agile. ' Quadratus,' or square-built, is the term which ^Eneas Sil- I vius used and Scottish historians accept as appropriate, though Major explains that he might have been fat for an Italian but not for a Scotsman. A portrait in the castle of Kielberg, near Tubingen, is wrongly said, by Pinkerton, in whose 'Iconographia' it is en- graved, to represent James I. It is a picture of James II. From an engraving of James I in John Johnstone's 'Icones ' later portraits have been taken. In this he appears as a man prematurely old, with grey hair, sunken cheek, and a double-pointed beard. His hair is said by Drummond of Hawthornden to have been auburn. His stoutness did not interfere with his activity, for he excelled in all games, the use of the bow, throwing the hammer, and wrestling. Nor was he less skilled in music, playing all the instruments then com- mon, and having a good voice.
Theimaginationwhichinspiredthe ' Kingis Quair ' did not desert him on his return home, and he composed verses both in Latin and the vernacular, though the subjects of his poems, alluded to by Major under the names ' Yas Sen ' and ' At Beltane,' have not been identified. The manuscript of the ' Quair ' was discovered by Lord Woodhouselee in the Bodleian Library in Oxford in 1783, and published by him in the same year. The best edition is that edited by Professor Skeat for the Scottish Text Society. The ascription of ' Christ-is Kirk on the Green,' ' Peebles to the Play,' and the ' Ballade of Guid Counsale ' to his authorship has not been established, though the last is accepted as his by Professor Skeat, on the authority of the colophon in \ The Gud and Godly Ballads,' 1578, and the internal evidence of the earliest manuscript of the close of the fifteenth century. His love of learning was shown by his favour for St. Andrews. He was its nominal founder during his exile, and after his return sought out its best students foroffices in church and state, attended their disputations, and con-
firmed their privileges. He was no pedant, and encouraged the introduction of foreign musicians and actors, as well as of artisans, from Flanders to teach his subjects. While he repressed, on political grounds, the trade with England, he fostered that with France, the Low Countries, and Scandinavia.
[Bower is the contemporary authority for the whole life, Wyntoun for the few years prior to his capture. The Acts of Parliament are of more than usual importance, and the Exchequer Rolls and Great Seal Registers are useful supplemen- tary records. For his life in England the various English records collected by Mr. Bain in vol. iii. of the Documents relating to Scotland, pub- lished in the Scottish Record Series. Pinkerton's History and Mr. Burnett's Preface to the Ex- chequer Rolls are the best modern histories ; the latter correct, and indeed supersede, Tytler and Burton. The King's Tragedy, by D. G. Ros- setti, is a modern poetic version of the prose narrative of the death of James by Shirley, printed by the Maitland Club and as an appendix to Pinkerton. Gait's Spaewife is a novel founded on the same story.] JE. M.
JAMES II (1430-1460), king of Scotland, son of James I [q. v.] and Jane [q. v.], was born on 16 Oct. 1430, and succeeded to the throne of Scotland on his father's murder on 21 Feb. 1437. He was crowned at Holyrood,. in the parliament of Edinburgh, on 25 March 1437. An act of this parliament revoked alienations of crown property since the death of the late king,and prohibited them, without the consent of the estates, till the king's ma- jority. The queen retained the custody of James and his sisters. Archibald, fifth earl of Douglas [q. v.], was regent or lieutenant of the kingdom ; John Cameron, bishop of Glasgow, appears to have continued chan- cellor. The chief power was in the hands of two of the lesser barons, Sir William Crich- ton [q. v.] and Sir Alexander Livingstone [q. v/] The queen, afraid of the growing posi- tion of the former, removed the king to> Stirling in the beginning of 1439, concealing him, it is said, in a chest when she left Edin- burgh Castle ostensibly for a pilgrimage to White Kirk. She placed herself and her son under the protection of Livingstone, and a general council at Stirling, on 13 March 1439-, passed measures to strengthen the hands of Douglas, as lieutenant of the king, against Crichton. But Livingstone made terms with his rival under conditions which led to Crichton superseding Cameron as chancellor, while Livingstone retained Stirling and the custody of the king.
The death in 1439 of the Earl of Douglas, and the queen's marriage to James Stewart, the knight of Lome, in the same year, afforded
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an opportunity and a pretext to Livingstone to seize the persons of the queen and her new husband, who were placed in strict ward in Stirling Castle on 3 Aug. They were released on 4 Sept. only by making a formal agree- ment to resign the custody of James to the Livingstones, by giving up her dowry for his maintenance, and confessing that Living- stone had acted through zeal for the king's safety. The barons soon fell out. Crichton kidnapped the king in Stirling Park, and brought him back to Edinburgh Castle. His next act was to kidnap and execute William, sixth earl of Douglas [q. v.] Four days after, Fleming, the old baron of Cumbernauld, brother-in-law of Murdoch, the regent in the reign of James I, an ally of the house of Douglas, was executed. The great rivals to the Stewarts, the Douglases, whose estates were partly forfeited to the crown, partly divided between the male and female heirs, were rendered for a time powerless. But in 1443 William Douglas (1425 P-1452) [q. y.] became eighth earl, and soon after the chief companion of the king. On 20 Aug. 1443 Douglas, in the king's name, besieged and razed to the ground Barnton, near Edin- burgh, the seat of Sir George Crichton, the admiral, brother of the chancellor. A coun- cil-general at Stirling on 4 Nov., at which James for the first time presided in person, outlawed both Sir William, the chancellor, and Sir George, and deprived them of their offices. Douglas was allowed, by marrying his cousin, the Fair Maid of Galloway, to reunite the female to the male fiefs of his house. Three years of civil war followed, in which the rivals harried each other's lands. The king, or Douglas in his name, held, with the aid of Livingstone, Linlithgow and Stir- ling, where James continued to live, while Crichton maintained himself in the castle of Edinburgh. The marriage of the king's sister Mary to the Lord of Camp-Vere, the be- trothal at Stirling of his sister Annabella to Philip, a son of the Duke of Savoy, and the death of his mother at D unbar on 15 July 1445, appear to have had no imme- diate influence on his life. His two other sisters were sent about the same time to the court of France, where they arrived shortly after the death of their eldest sister, Margaret [q. v.], the wife of the dauphin. On 14 June a parliament met at Perth, but ad- journed apparently to the town tolbooth at H^lyrood while Douglas besieged Edinburgh Castle for nine weeks. Crichton capitulated on good terms, his offences being condoned ; and then, or shortly after, on the death of Bruce, bishop of Glasgow, in 1447, he again became chancellor. A sentence of forfeiture
pronounced in the castle of Edinburgh agaii James, earl of Angus, on 1 July 1445 pro\
uinst proves,
that the king must have been by that date in possession of the castle. Before Christmas he had retired to Stirling, where he kept the festival. During 1446 and 1447 the compro- mise between the factions of Crichton, Living- stone, and Douglas continued, and the chief offices of state remained in their hands, or in those of members of their families.
In 1447 Mary of Gueldres was recom- mended by Philip the Good as a suitable, bride for James. The negotiations began in July 1447, when a Burgundian envoy came to Scotland, and were concluded by an em- bassy under Crichton the chancellor in Sep- tember 1448. Philip settled sixty thousand crowns on his kinswoman, and her dower of ten thousand was secured on lands in Strath- earn, Athole, Methven, and Linlithgow. A tournament took place before James at Stir- ling, on 25 Feb. 1449, between James, mas- ter of Douglas, another James, brother to the Laird of Lochleven, and two knights of Burgundy, one of whom, Jacques de Lalain,. was the most celebrated knight-errant of the time. The marriage was celebrated at Holy- rood on 3 July 1449. A French chronicler, Mathieu d'Escouchy, gives a graphic account of the ceremony and the feasts which fol- lowed. Many Flemings in Mary's suite re- mained in Scotland, and the relations between. Scotland and Flanders, already friendly under James I, consequently became closer.
In Scotland the king's marriage led to his emancipation from tutelage, and to the down- fall of the Livingstones. In the autumn Sir Alexander and other members of the family were arrested. At a parliament in Edin- burgh on 19 Jan. 1450, Alexander Living- stone, a son of Sir Alexander, and Robert Livingstone of Linlithgow were tried and executed on the Castle Hill. Sir Alexan- der and his kinsmen were confined in dif- ferent and distant castles. A single member of the family escaped the general proscription — James, the eldest son of Sir Alexander, who, after arrest and escape to the highlands, wa3 restored in 1454 to the office of chamber- lain to which he had been appointed in the summer of 1449. The parliament sat from 19 Jan. 1450 to the end of the month. Its acts show that the influence of the Douglas party, with whom Crichton the chancellor was now reconciled, was dominant ; but also that the estate of the church, headed by Kennedy, bishop of St. Andrews, the king's cousin, and Turnbull, the new bishop of Glas- gow, was rising into power, and that the king himself could no longer be treated as a cipher. Several statutes of his father's reign were rer
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enacted, and eighteen added, the most impor- tant of which provided for the proclamation of a general peace throughout the realm ; the penalties of rebellion and treason, and of tres- pass by officers in the execution of their offices ; the endurance of leases, notwithstanding sale or mortgage of the lands, and against spolia- tion or harrying of crops and cattle — enact- ments much needed in favour of the poor labourers of the ground ; against sorners and masterful beggars ; against the building of towers and fortalices: for the administra- tion of civil and criminal justice, the revi- sion of the laws, and the preservation of the purity of the coinage. Before the parlia- ment rose a special charter was granted, at the request of the queen and the bishops, giving the latter the right of disposing of their goods by testament. A series of char- ters of lands in favour of the Earl of Dou- glas were confirmed. Crichton the chancellor and his brother the admiral also received considerable grants of land.
This legislation proves that James was pre- pared to govern in his father's spirit, as a ling of the nation against breakers of the law, however powerful. In November he had some quarrel with the Earl of Douglas. During Douglas's absence in Rome James seized and demolished Douglas Craig, one of his castles, besieged others, and forced his vassals to swear fealty to the crown. Douglas, on his return in 1451, made peace with James, and at the parliament of Edinburgh on 25 June obtained a re-grant of his estates. In spite of these favours, he intrigued with the English court, and in the autumn the ex- istence of a bond between Douglas and the Earls of Crawford and of Ross against all men, not excluding the king, was discovered. The lawless acts of Douglas forced James to take decisive measures against his too power- ful vassal. Douglas was induced, by a safe- conduct under the privy seal, to visit the king at Stirling on 21 Feb. 1452. James re- ceived him well, entertaining him at dinner and supper on the following day, Shrove Thursday. But after supper, at seven o'clock, James led him to an inner chamber, chal- lenged him with the existence of the bond •with the earls, charged him to break it, and on Douglas's refusal stabbed him with a knife. On 17 March James, the brother and heir of the murdered earl, with a band, rode through Stirling and denounced the murderer. James •was then at Perth, on his way against the Earl of Crawford. Before they met, Craw- ford had been defeated at Brechin Muir by the Earl of Huntly on 17 May. 'Far more were with the Earl of Huntly than with the Earl of Crawford, because he displayed
the king's banner ' — a significant proof that James, like his father, was more popular than the great earls. On 12 June 1452, in a par- liament at Edinburgh, James denied having given a safe-conduct to Douglas. The estates absolved the king of breach of faith, and de- clared Douglas had been justly put to death. The earl's brothers, however, posted a letter of defiance on the door of the parliament hall. The Bishop of St. Andrews, Crichton, and other barons who joined in the declaration received grants of land, and several of them were raised to the dignity of peers. It is noted by the chronicler that some of the grants of land were made by the king's privy council, and not by parliament. The Earl of Crawford, who had joined the bond with Douglas, was attainted in the same session. Immediately afterwards the king, having as- sembled his feudal levy on Pentland Muir to the number of thirty thousand, marched south, and wasted the Douglas lands in Peebles, Selkirk, and Dumfries. The raid, however, led to the submission of James, the new earl of Douglas [see DOUGLAS, JAMES, 1426-1488]. In the spring of 1453 James led his forces north of the Tay, and received an equally speedy submission from the Earl of Crawford, who died soon after. As James had already made terms with Ross, the formidable confederacy of the three earls was dissolved, and the crown was strengthened by the new nobility against any attempt to revive it. The deaths in 1454 of Crichton the chancel- lor, of his son (lately created earl of Moray), and of his brother forced James to rely still more upon himself, and upon Bishop Ken- nedy as his principal adviser. But the Earl of Douglas was still intriguing with the Eng- lish. In the beginning of March 1455 James resolved anew to crush the Douglases. After demolishing their castle of Inveravon, James passed to Lanark, where he defeated Dou- glas. He then wasted with fire and sword Douglasdale, Avondale, and the lands ot Lord Hamilton in Lanark, and returned to Edinburgh. From Edinburgh he went south to the forest of Ettrick with a host of low- landers, destroying the castles of all who would not take the oath of fealty. Coming back to Edinburgh, he laid siege to the castle of Abercorn, on the Forth, in the first week of April, when Lord Hamilton, act- ing on the advice of his uncle, Sir James Livingstone, came and made his submission, in return for which he was appointed sheriff of Lanark. Before the end of the month Abercorn was taken by escalade. Meantime men ' wist not wheare the Douglas was.' On 1 May his three brothers, the Earls of Or- monde and Moray and Lord Balvenie, were
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signally defeated at Arkinholm, now Lang- holm, on the Esk, by the king's lowland forces. The head of Moray was brought to James at Abercorn ; Ormonde was captured and executed. Douglas Castle and other strongholds surrendered, and Threave, the chief seat of the earl, in Galloway, alone re- mained untaken. Against it James directed the whole strength of his artillery, including the great bombard, perhaps Mons Meg, which he had imported from Flanders. The Earl of Orkney at first commanded the siege, but James went in person before the surrender of the castle.
Parliament met at Edinburgh on 9 June 1456, and Douglas, his mother the Countess Beatrice, and his three brothers were at- tainted, and their whole estates forfeited. The sentences show that the rebellion ex- tended from Threave in Galloway to Darn- away in Elgin, and included the fortification of castles in nearly every county. The fol- lowing parliament of 4 Aug. passed an act of attainder, which, besides uniting to the crown the earldoms of Fife and Strathearn, forfeited in his father's reign, renewed the grant of the whole customs ; declared the king's right to the royal castles of Edin- burgh, Stirling, Dumbarton, Inverness, and Urquhart, and annexed the forfeited Douglas lordship of Galloway and castle of Threave, and the lordship of Brechin, which the Earl of Crawford had held, as well as a number of highland baronies, several of them in Ross. By these great accessions of territory James became more powerful than any former king, and for the short remainder of his reign was, in fact, almost an absolute monarch in Scot- land. Parliament was summoned to Stirling on 13 Oct., for the third time in 1455, a proof how greatly the king relied on its support. The parliament of Stirling was almost exclusively occupied with measures to secure the kingdom against the English, with whom war had already broken out in the course of the summer, as a sequel of the suppression of the Douglas rebellion. In November an embassy under the Bishop of Galloway was sent to France pressing for immediate assistance, and suggesting that the French should attack Calais, and the Scots Berwick, simultaneously. Henry VI, or those who governed in his name, addressed, on 26 July 1455, a threatening letter to James, ' asserting himself to be king of Scots,' and announcing the intention of the English king to chastise him for his rebellion. The falsehoods as to Scottish homage collected by Edward I were about this time resuscitated, and added to by the forgeries of John Hardyng [q. v.] and Palgrave's ' Documents illustrating
the History of Scotland,' pp. cxcvi-ccxxiv. James answered these threats by a raid in the autumn of 1456, advancing as far as the Cale or Calne, a tributary of the Teviot. In- terrupted by what Boece calls the fraudu- lent promise of the English ambassadors, who appear to have represented themselves as having authority from the pope to prohibit wars between Christian powers, James re- treated, but returned within twenty days, and ravaged Northumberland with fire and sword, destroying, according to the ' Auchinleck Chronicle,' seventeen towers and fortalices, and remainingin England six days and nights. Between 26 Sept. and 1 Oct. he was hunting in the neighbourhood of Loch Freuchie, north of Glenalmond. On 19 Oct. he was back again in Edinburgh, where the parliament made further provision for the defence of the realm. Regulations were also laid down as to the pestilence in burghs and the administration of justice in certain places by a committee of the three estates. It is noticeable that the two last acts seem to have passed, at the king's instance, with the special consent of the clergy. The burghs probably at the same time imposed on themselves a large tax, to be paid in Flemish money, and raised it by a Flemish loan. These measures for self-de- fence were the more necessary as the French king, Charles VII, though making professions of attachment to James, had pleaded the more urgent necessities of his own kingdom, and declined to aid in the English war.
On 6 July 1457 a truce was concluded between James and Henry VI, to last till 6 July 1459 by land, and 28 July by sea. It was important for James to have time to reduce the northern parts of his kingdom to order, and for Henry that Scotland should preserve at least an armed neutrality in view of the probable renewal of Yorkist intrigues. There are no charters under the great seal between 25 July 1457 and 30 April 1458, i which may perhaps correspond to the period James spent in the highlands. While there he was busily occupied with building castles ; he repaired that of Inverness, completed the great hall of Darnaway which Archibald Dou- glas, the earl of Moray, had begun, and placed that castle under the charge of the sheriff of Elgin. About the same time he gave a life- rent right of Glenmoriston and Urquhart, with the custody of its castle, to the young Earl of Ross. Ross's half-brother, Celestine, was made keeper of the castle of Redcastle, and his ally, Malcolm Mackintosh, chief of the clan Chattan, was gratified with gifts of land and the commutation of a fine. These favours were granted through the influence of Lord Livingstone, Ross's father-in-law,
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now chamberlain, who, on the king's coming south to Linlithgow, . received an extensive charter of lands in three counties, and his hereditary castle of Callendar.
In the spring of 1458 the marriages of James's sisters, Annabella and Joanna, the former to George Gordon, heir of the Earl of Huntly, and the latter, though dumb, to James Douglas, third lord Dalkeith, who was created earl of Morton, still further strengthened the crown.
The most important parliament of his reign was held in Edinburgh on 6 March 1458. It formally instituted a supreme and central court for civil justice, although it was still to meet at three places, Edin- burgh, Perth, and Aberdeen, and provided that the judges, representatives of the three estates, were to pay their own expenses, apart from what could be recovered as fines. Annual circuits of the justiciary court were also to be held, for the good of the commons, and abuses of their extensive jurisdiction by the lords of regality to be put down. The chamberlain ayres, which sat in the burghs, were to be reformed, be- cause ' the estates, and specially the poor commons,' had been sorely grieved by their procedure, and the extortion of fines by the royal constables or their deputies suppressed. Other statutes showed an anxious desire on the part of James to remedy abuses and to protect the poorer classes against the great lords and his own officers. Another chapter of legislation related to the tenure of land, and although it did not first introduce the tenure called ' feu farm,' gave legal security to the farmers who took feus against the casualty of ward, and greatly encouraged that useful modification of feudal holding. Its short preamble, that it was expedient that the king should set an example to other land- owners, was carried out in practice, for we find many charters of feu granted by James, especially in Fife. There were also statutes for the reform of coinage, of weights and measures, of gold and silver work, and to pre- vent adulteration by goldsmiths. A com- mission was instituted for the reformation of hospitals. The smaller freeholders, under 207. rent, were relieved from attendance at par- liament, which was deemed a burden, not a privilege. Better provision was made for the promulgation of the statutes by the sheriffs and commissioners of burghs. It is clear from the tenor of the acts of this parliament that James II is entitled, as much as his father, to the character of a reformer. In February 1459 a further prolongation was concluded of the truce with England, for seven years, to 6 July 1468 by land, and to 28 July by sea.
Towards the end both of 1458 and 1459 par- liaments were held at Perth, but nearly all the acts of these last two parliaments of the i reign appear to have been destroyed or lost, No records of either kingdom are extant to I support the probable statement of Boece that [ Douglas and Northumberland made, in 1459, an unsuccessful raid on the Scottish border; or that of Bishop Leslie, that Henry VI sent ambassadors to treat with James, and offered to restore to Scotland the counties of North- umberland, Cumberland, and Durham, as the price of his help against the Duke of York. It is certain that James threw his whole influence on the Lancastrian, and Douglas on the Yorkist, side. His maternal uncle, the Duke of Somerset, was killed fight- ing for Henry at the battle of St. Albans, and after the defeat and capture of Henry himself at Northampton in July 1460, his wife and son fled to Scotland. A renewal of the war with England followed. James brought his whole lowland forces to besiege Roxburgh, and the artillery which had been specially prepared for use against the Eng- lish castles. Reinforced by the highlanders under the Earl of Ross and the Lord of the Isles, he reduced the town and was on the eve of taking the castle, when on Sunday, 3 Aug. 1460, while he was watching the discharge of a bombard, a wedge flew out, killed him on the spot, and wounded the Earl of Angus, who stood near. His wife courageously prosecuted the siege, and the castle was soon after taken. The young prince was brought to Kelso, and crowned in its abbey, while the corpse of James was carried to Holyrood, and was buried there. He was only thirty years of age at his death. He left three sons (James III, Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany (d. 1485) [q. v.], and John Stewart, earl of Mar (d. 1479) [q. v.]) and two daughters, one of whom was afterwards married to Thomas, master of Boyd, created earl of Arran, and after his forfeiture to Lord Hamilton, who succeeded to the Arran earldom.
James was a vigorous, politic, and singu- larly successful king. He was popular with the commons, with whom, like most of the Stewarts, he mingled freely, both in peace and war. His legislation has a markedly popular character. He does not appear to have in- herited his father's taste for literature, which descended to at least two of his sisters; but the foundation of the university of Glasgow in his reign, by Bishop Turnbull, perhaps shows that he encouraged learning; and there are also traces of endowments by him to St. Salvator's, the new college of Archbishop Ken- nedy at St. Andrews. He possessed in a high
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degree his father's restless energy. A blemish, a red mark on one side of his face, gained him the name of the ' Fiery Face,' and appears to have been deemed by contemporaries an out- ward sign of a fiery temper. The manner of the death of Douglas leaves a stain on his memory ; but it was an age of violence and treachery, against which violence and trea- chery were regarded as lawful weapons.
A portrait of James II in the castle of Kielberg, near Tubingen, was engraved for George von Ehingen's ' Itinerarium,' 1660, and in Pinkerton's ' Iconographia,' where it is erroneously described as a picture of James I.
[There is no contemporary historian except the brief Chronicle printed by Mr. Thomas Thomson from the Asloan MS. in the Auchin- leck Library. John Major and Hector Boece •were born shortly after his death, and their his- tories, and the later history of Lindsay of Pit- ccottie, supplement the imperfect contemporary records. The Records of Parliament and the Ac- counts of Exchequer are, however, more than usually valuable in estimating the character of the reign, and as a check on the frequently un- trustworthy statements of Boece.] JE. M.
JAMES III (1451-1488), king of Scot- land, son of James II [q. v.] and Mary of Gueldres, was born 10 July 1451, and became king in his ninth year. He was crowned on Sunday, 10 Aug. 1460, in the abbey of Kelso. The queen-mother retained the chief power, whether or not she was formally regent. Her chief counsellors were Kennedy, archbishop of St. Andrews, and James Lindsay, provost of Lincluden, keeper of the privy seal, and the usual changes of a new reign were made in the custody of the principal royal castles. Parliaments were held, but their records have not been preserved. The continuance of the English war, as well as large building opera- tions at the palace of Falkland, the new castle of Ravenscraig, near Dysart, and the Trinity College ChurchmEdinburgh,showthequeen- mother to have been a vigorous ruler. She was supported by the ' young lords,' but opposed by the older nobles. When after the de tea oi Tow- ton, on 29 March 1461, Henry VI, !iis wife, and son, with several of the Lancastrian nobles, came to Scotland as refugees, she received them hospitably, and the surrender of Berwick to Scotland was arranged. Edward IV re- taliated by stirring up the rebellion of the Earl of Ross, who exercised almost royal au- thority in his highland domains, and, though frequently summoned, did not appear in par- liament. In July 1 462 the households of the queen-mother and the young king were sepa- rated, and parliament declared that James should ' aye remain with the queen,' but
that she was not to meddle with the profits of his estates. In December 1463 Edward IV ratified the truce with Scotland, and extended it, on 3 June 1464, for fifteen years. In spite of the truce, the king's brother, the Duke of Albany, was seized when on his voyage to Guelderland, but was released on the inter- cession of Bishop Kennedy. On 20 June 1465 a marriage was proposed between James and an English subject, and although this was not carried out, the truce was prolonged for fifty-four years on 1 June 1466.
Mary of Gueldres died on 16 Nov. 1463, and Bishop Kennedy on 10 May 1466. The nobles tried as usual to take advantage of a royal minority. Three of them usurped the chief power : Lord Kennedy, brother of the bishop and uncle of the king, became keeper of Stirling Castle ; Robert, son of Malcolm Fleming of Cumbernauld, who had been steward of the household of James II ; and Sir Alexander Boyd, governor of Edinburgh Castle, to whom the young king's military training was entrusted. On 10 Feb. 1456 these nobles entered into an agreement, by which Fleming undertook to maintain Boyd and Kennedy as custodians of James. On 9 July of the same year the king was seized, while attending an audit of the exchequer at Linlithgow, by a party of nobles headed by Boyd, with the connivance of Kennedy, and taken to Edinburgh Castle, where a parlia- ment was held in his name on 9 Oct. On the fifth day of its session a mock trial was acted. Boyd came, begged, and received the pardon of the boy-king, who, with the con- currence of the estates, made his captor go- vernor of the persons of himself and of his brothers, Albany and Mar, and gave him the custody of the royal castles. This was con- firmed by a writ under the great seal, and on 26 April 1467 the eldest son of Boyd, Thomas, was created earl of Arran and married to the king's sister. The Boyds monopolised offices and power, but do not appear to have been oppressive rulers.
In the parliament of Stirling, in January 1468, the project for the marriage of James with Margaret, daughter of Christian of Denmark, which had been suggested by Charles VII of France before James II's death, was resumed, and an embassy, for whose cost 3,0001. was raised, was despatched to Copen- hagen. The marriage treaty was signed on 8 Sept., and Arran, who took a principal part in the negotiation, went home to procure its ratification. Denmark agreed to abrogate her claim to an annual payment demanded from the kings of Scotland since 1263 on ac- count of the Danish cession to Alexander III of the Hebrides, and promised the payment
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of sixty thousand Rhenish florins, for which the Orkney and Shetland Isles, at the time nominally under Denmark's suzerainty, were pledged to James. The ambassadors returned with the bride, and the marriage was cele- brated with great pomp at Holyrood in July 1469. During Arran's absence the Boyds, his kinsmen, had fallen into discredit. Arran fled to Denmark with his wife. His father, Lord Boyd, escaped to England. In the parliament of Edinburgh in November 1469 the queen was crowned, the Boyds were for- feited for treason, and their lands annexed to the principality of Scotland. Although only in his eighteenth year, and his bride in her twelfth, James now undertook the go- vernment, and there is nothing to show that any one of the nobles or bishops acquired a controlling influence.
In the autumn of 1470 James and the queen went north, by way of Aberdeen, as far as Inverness. On 6 May 1471 he held a parliament in Edinburgh, which passed acts prohibiting the procuring of Scottish benefices at Rome, and making provision for the de- fence of the kingdom. The queen's jointure was settled, and William Sinclair, earl of Caithness, received a grant of Ravenscraig in Fife, in compensation for the cession of his rights in Orkney, which, with Shetland, was annexed to the crown. In 1474 Edward IV proposed the betrothal of James's infant son, afterwards James IV [q. v.], with his daugh- ter Cecilia [q. v.] The English king agreed to pay a dowry of twenty thousand marks, as well as five hundred more as compensation for Bishop Kennedy's great barge, the St. Salvator, which had been plundered when wrecked on the sands of Bamborough. In 1474 James proposed that his sister Margaret should marry the Duke of Clarence, and his brother Albany the widowed Duchess of Bur- gundy, sister of Edward IV. But Edward, on making terms with France, waived these proposals, and stopped the instalments of his daughter's dowry. At the parliament of Edinburgh on 1 Dec. 1475, the Earl of Ross, whose share in the rebellion of 1462 remained unpunished, was forfeited for treason in ab- sence, appeared before James in parliament at Edinburgh on 15 July 1476, and sur- rendered all his estates, but received them back, with the important exception of the earldom of Ross. He was also created a lord of parliament, with the title of Lord of the Isles, and the succession to his estates was settled, failing legitimate, on his illegitimate children. On 7 Feb. 1478 James, who had now reached what the Scots, following the Roman law, called the perfect age of twenty- five, revoked, as was usual, all alienations of
crown property to its prejudice, and specially of any of the royal castles. He also entrusted the queen with the custody of the prince and of Edinburgh Castle for a period of five years.
Up to this time James's reign had been sin- | gularly fortunate. The civil wars in Eng- land had enabled him to recover Berwick and Roxburgh. His marriage had completed the boundaries of Scotland by the addition of the northern islands. The fall of the Boyds had brought into the hands of the crown Arran and Bute, as well as their Ayrshire estates. The highlands had been reduced by the submission of the Lord of the Isles and the annexation of the earldom of Ross. The skilful diplomacy of Patrick Graham fa. v.], the successor of Kennedy in the see of St. Andrews, had procured for Scotland the coveted archiepiscopal pall, which freed the Scottish church from the claims of supremacy asserted by the Archbishop of York over the southern sees, and by the Archbishop of Drontheim over the sees of Orkney and the Western Isles.
It is difficult to fix the exact date or the precise causes of the misfortunes which fol- lowed. Like his contemporary, Louis XI, James adopted as favourites new men from the lower ranks ; but he had none of the tena- city of purpose which enabled the French king to succeed in this policy. The earliest of his favourites appears to have been William Schevez [q. v.], his physician and an astro- loger, who was installed in the archbishopric of St. Andrews in 1478. Another favourite was Robert Cochrane [q. v.], well known as an architect. The royal family was divided against itself. His brothers — Albany, who was three, and Mar, who was six years his junior — were more popular than James. They took part in the martial exercises of the period, which James neglected for the more effeminate pursuits of music, literature, and architecture. The estates seem from the first to have distrusted James. In the parliament of July 1476 a committee, consisting of the king's brothers, Albany and Mar, most of the prelates, great barons, and representatives of the burghs, were invested with almost regal powers. The king's jealousy of Albany and Mar led, in 1479, to the arrest of Mar, whose death, it was suspected through foul play, quickly followed. Cochrane succeeded to the vacant earldom. The accusation of witch- craft made against Mar, and the burning of several witches who were charged with melt- ing a wax image of the king, are among the first references to this crime in Scottish his- tory. Albany was arrested soon after Mar, and placed in the castle of Edinburgh, from which he escaped to Leith, and thence to
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France. He was received with favour by Louis XI of France, lie married Anne de la Tour, daughter of the Count of Boulogne and Auvergne, and subsequently came over to England. Edward IV had, in violation of the existing truce, shown himself the active enemy of Scotland. In June 1481 he concluded an alliance with the Lord of the Isles and Donald Gorme, another highland chief, and showed marked favour to the exiled Earl of Douglas [see DOUGLAS, JAMES, 1426-1488]. In the Scottish parliament of March 1482 extensive preparations were au- thorised for the defence of the kingdom against Edward, who retaliated by a treaty with Albany, and conferred on him the dis- honourable title of ' Alexander, King of Scot- land by the gift of the King of England.'
To carry out this treaty, Gloucester, with an English army, accompanied by Albany, and secretly abetted by the Earl of Angus and other Scottish nobles, marched to the border. In July, James, having assembled his feudal army, to the number of about fifty thousand, at the Borough Muir of Edinburgh, marched to Lauder, where mutiny broke out. The barons hanged Cochrane and other favourites, and sent the king to Edinburgh Castle.
Meantime, the town, and in August 1482 the castle, of Berwick was retaken by the English army. The border burgh never again became Scottish. Gloucester and Albany at once marched to Edinburgh. Then, by a sudden and inexplicable change, Albany and James were reconciled, through the media- tion of the Archbishop of St. Andrews and Lord Avondale, the chancellor. Albany re- ceived a remission for his treasonable treaty with Edward IV, and in the parliament of December 1482 was appointed lieutenant- general of the kingdom. Gloucester was ignored and returned home. Edward IV was offered the restoration of the dowry, so far as paid, of the Princess Cecilia; but this was never carried out, and fruitless negotia- tions were set on foot for the marriage of Princess Margaret of Scotland with Anthony, lord Rivers. On 11 Feb. 1483 Edward entered into a new treaty with Albany to aid him in acquiring the Scottish crown, and promised him one of his daughters in marriage. This fresh treason became known to James and his Scottish council, but in- stead of leading, as might have been an- ticipated, to proceedings against Albany, an indenture was entered into between him and the king, signed at Dunbar on 19 March 1483, by which, among other provisions, James granted Albany a full remission for all ' trea- son and other misdeeds.' Albany renounced his obligations to Edward IV, engaged not to
come within six miles of the king without special leave, and surrendered his office of lieutenant-general, retaining that of warden of the middle marches. He further promised to endeavour to procure peace with England.
Albany, however, with the aid of Lord Crichton, instead of carrying out the pro- visions of this agreement, fortified Dunbar Castle, and sent Sir James Liddale to renew his alliance with the English king. The death of Edward IV, on 9 April 1483, did not put a stop to Albany's treasonable plots, and1 on 27 June he was at last forfeited by parlia- ment, and a similar doom was then, or shortly after, pronounced against Liddale, Crichton, and others of his followers. Preparations were at once made by James for the siege of Dunbar, and the siege was begun, though it was prosecuted slowly. Richard III on his accession at first favoured Albany, but the security of his own crown made it necessary for him to temporise by receiving at the end of 1483 an embassy sent by James, which suc- ceeded in concluding a truce for three years, at Nottingham, on 21 Sept. 1484. On St. Magdalene's day (22 July of the latter year) Albany and the banished Earl of Douglas made an unsuccessful raid on Lochmaben. Douglas was taken prisoner and sent to- London, and Albany himself with difficulty escaped to France, where he was killed in a tournament in 1485. In or before June 1486 Dunbar surrendered. The same year, probably on 14 July, Queen Margaret diedr and her death facilitated the plot by which the leading nobles, who had never become really friendly to the king, procured his son (afterwards James IV) as the head of the rebellion, in Albany's place.
The death of Richard III, on 22 Aug, 1485, led to a treaty in November 1487 by which the new monarch, Henry VII, engaged to marry one of the sisters of his queen to- the Scottish heir-apparent, another to his brother, the Marquis of Ormonde, and the widow of Edward IV to James himself. Once more these matrimonial projects mis- carried, owing, it is said, to James's demand of the surrender of Berwick as a condition of his assent. But the quarrel, which had now reached a crisis, between him and his own nobles is a more probable cause. James had continued to favour men of inferior rank, his chief favourites now being Hommyl the tailor and Ramsay, lord Bothwell. He had de- preciated the currency, and had wasted money over building, particularly at Stirling, where a royal hall was built and a royal chapel en- dowed on a scale of more than ordinary mag- nificence. To obtain funds for this James pro- cured the pope's sanction to the annexation
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of the revenues of the monastery of Colding- ham, which alienated its patrons, the power- ful border family of the Humes. The chronic enmity of the great feudal houses to the sovereign, combined with the incapacity of James III, fully accounts for the extent of the revolt. Its heads were Angus (Bell the Cat), Lords Gray and Hume, and later the Earl of Huntly, Erroll, the Earl-Marischal, and Lord Glamis, chiefly, it may be observed, the lowland nobles. Most of the northern barons, the Earls of Crawford, Atholl, Mon- teith, Rothes, and others, and in the west Lords Kilmaurs and Boyd, remained faith- ful to James. The king showed special favour to Crawford, and tried to detach Angus and obtain his aid in arresting the rebels at a parliament or general council in Edinburgh in January 1488; but that stubborn earl re- fused to comply, disclosed the king's design to the nobles, and James himself had to seek safety by flight to the north. Crossing the Forth in a ship of Sir Andrew Wood, and summoning the barons of Fife, Strathearn, and Angus to his standard, he proceeded to Aberdeen. He then returned to Perth, where he was joined by his uncle, the Earl of Atholl, Huntly, Crawford, and Lindsay of the Byres, Tvho led a thousand horse and three thousand Infantry raised in Fife. Ruthven also brought •a force of three thousand men of all arms. When he reached Stirling, James was at the head of an army of thirty thousand men. In May he met the rebels under Hepburn, lord Hailes, at Blackness on the Forth. The barons had also raised their whole forces, and James, a timid general, rather than risk an engage- ment, entered into a pacification, by the terms of which Atholl was delivered as a hostage. It was felt on both sides that this was a mere suspension of hostilities. James created Craw- ford duke of Montrose, and Kilmaurs earl of Glencairn, as a reward for their services; and his second son was made duke of Ross, -with the probable intention of substituting him for his brother as heir to the crown. Envoys were despatched to France, England, and Rome, urgently begging for assistance. The castle of Edinburgh was fortified, and the royal treasure deposited in it. The rebels on their side were not idle ; they increased their forces, and treated the king's heralds -with derision. They gained over Shaw of 'Sauchie, the governor of Stirling, in whose custody the young prince James was, :ud, adopting the prince's standard as their own, led him with them to Linlithgow. J.ihies determined to attempt to gain possession of Stirling Castle, but Shaw refused to admit him, and on 11 June 1488 the two hosts con- fronted each otheronthe plain through which.
the Sauchie burn flows, about a mile south of the field of Bannockburn. The battle which followed, the most celebrated in the early civil wars of Scotland, traversed partly the same ground as that on which Bruce had won his famous victory. The rebels were superior in numbers, and their archers and spearmen gained the first advantage, which was at once turned into a victory by the flight of the king. Glencairn, Ruthven, and Erskine are the only nobles named as having been killed. James himself fled to Miltoun, called Beton's Mill, where he imprudently revealed his iden- tity to a woman drawing water at the well, by telling her in his craven fear, ' I was your king this morning.' She called, according to the traditionary story, for a priest, and one of Lord Gray's men assumed that character. When asked by the fallen monarch to shrive him, the soldier replied he would give him a short shrift, and despatched him with his sword. The stories that he survived the fatal day were the rumours of the camp or the gossip of the country-side.
James was buried beside his wife at Cam- buskenneth, where masses were said for a time for his soul, and a monument has re- cently been restored by Queen Victoria. He was only thirty-six years of age, but had been nominally king for twenty-eight years. He left three sons : James IV [q. v.], who succeeded ; James Stewart, duke of Ross (1476-1504) [q. v.], afterwards archbishop of St. Andrews ; and John, earl of Mar. Al- though pity was felt for his fate at the time, and one later historian has tried to defend his character, ne was quite unfit to rule over Scotland. It may be that his opponents among the nobles, whose accounts have chiefly come down to our time, exaggerated his weaknesses of character into vices. He had a share of the culture of his race, and was a lover of letters, music, painting, and architecture. His legislation, though it is difficult to say how far he deserves personal credit for it, was, so far as it has been preserved, a continuation of that of his father and grandfather — more favourable to the commons than to the nobles. He was not so fortunate as they were in his counsellors. The murder of one brother and the treason and exile of another were avenged by the rebellion of his son. He is said to have been pious. He was certainly supersti- tious, and, according to Lesley, immoral in his relations with women, but there is no record of his having left bastards.
Besides the imaginary portrait in the pos- session of the Marquis of Lothian, attributed to George Jameson [q. v.], there is a three- quarters length picture by an unknown artist, now the property of F. Mackenzie Fraser of
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Castle Fraser. The portrait contained in the fine altarpiece, perhaps by Van der Goes, now at Holy rood, was apparently painted for Trinity College Church, the foundation of Mary of Gueldres, and represents him kneel- ing at the altar with his son, James IV, be- hind him. The features betray a weak and effeminate character. He may be in some points compared to Louis XI, and in others to Henry VI, but he had not the wicked ability of the French nor the genuine piety of the English monarch. Nor had he, as they both had, the excuse of an insane taint. [Boece's History becomes more nearly contem- porary, and is of more value than in earlier por- tions. Major's History is tantalisingly brief. Lindsay of Pitscottie is, as always, too good a story-teller to be quite trustworthy as a his- torian. The full publications both of the Ex- chequer and Treasurer's Accounts in the Lord Clerk Register Series by Mr. Burnett and Mr. Dickson are of the greatest value, and enable this reign to be told in a manner impossible either to Tytler or Burton. Some of the Eng- lish records are also important, especially the letters of Richard III and Henry VII in the Eolls Series, edited by Mr. Gairdner.] JE. M.
JAMES IV (1473-1513), king of Scot- land, eldest son of James III [q. v.] and Mar- garet, daughter of Christian I of Denmark, was born on 17 March 1473. His betrothal at Edinburgh on 18 Oct. 1474 to the Princess Ce- cilia [q. v.], third daughter of Edward IV, and a proposal in 1487 for his marriage to a sister-in-law of Henry VII, both came to nothing. The prince was placed at the head of the rebels at Sauchieburn, where his father was killed (11 June 1488). He was crowned at Scone in the last week of June. A chap- lain at Cambuskenneth was paid to say masses for his father's soul. James performed the somewhat ostentatious penance of wearing an iron belt, if we may credit his portraits, out- side his doublet, and never forgave himself for his father's death. The leaders of what could no longer be called a rebellion succeeded to the great offices of state. The Earl of Argyll became again chancellor ; Alexander, master of Home [q.v.], replaced David, earl of Crawford [q. v.], as chamberlain ; Knollis, pre- ceptor of Torphichen, succeeded the abbot of Arbroath as treasurer; Lords Lyle [q.v.] and Glamis were appointed justiciars south and north of the Forth. The Earl of Angus [q. v.] as guardian of the king, Home, who soon be- came warden of the east marches, and Patrick Hepburn, lord Hailes [q. v.], warden of the middle and west marches, created earl of Bothwell and high admiral, were the nobles in whose hands the chief power rested. Before parliament met two staunch adherents of the
VOL. XXIX.
late king, the Earl of Crawford and Sir An- drew Wood, were conciliated by a pardon and regrant of their estates.
After his coronation James came on 26 June from Perth to Stirling, attended his father's obsequies at Cambuskenneth, and after pre- siding over the audit of exchequer on 7 July, went to Edinburgh. On 3 Aug. he was at Leith to see the Danish ships which had brought his uncle, Junker Gerhard, count of Oldenburg, who was hospitably entertained till the end of the year. On 5 Aug. he went to Linlithgow, where the players acted be- fore him, and next week to Stirling, on his way to a hunt in Glenfinlas, from which he returned to the justice ayre at Lanark on 21 Aug. On the 14th he went to Perth, from which he returned next day to Edinburgh to prepare for the meeting of parliament. In this parliament, which met on 6 Oct., all grants by James III prior to 2 Feb. 1488 were rescinded, and several of the late king's sup- porters were forfeited ; but the Earl of Bu- chan was pardoned, and a declaration made that the sons of those who fell on the side of James HI at Sauchie should succeed to their estates as if their ancestors had died in the king's peace.
A singular debate, the first distinctly re- corded in a Scottish parliament, is entered in the minutes as 'The Debate and Cause of the Field of Stirling,' ending with a declaration of the three estates, which laid the whole blame for the slaughter at the battle upon James III and his ' perverse council.' Em- bassies were to be sent to the pope, and to the kings of France, Spain, and Denmark, with a copy of the Act of Indemnity under the great seal, and were at the same time to search for a wife for the new king. James, although only fifteen, began at once to attend audits of ex- chequer and circuits of justiciary, as well as to preside in parliament. Pitscottie gives a graphic account of the trial of Lord Lindsay of the Byres before the king in person. James kept Yule at Linlithgow, returning to Edin- burgh before 14 Jan. 1489, when an adjourned session of parliament met. During the next two months he went on circuit, both in the south and north, returning on 1 April to Edinburgh, where he kept Palm Sunday, but came to Linlithgow for Easter. He took part from May to July, and again in October, in the suppression of a rebellion headed by the Earl of Lennox and Lord Lyle in the west, and by Lord Forbes [q. v.] in the north, who carried the bloody shirt of James III as his standard. The insurrection was not crushed till December. But on 28 July James had returned to Edinburgh to meet the Spanish ambassadors. He received them at Linlith-
L
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gow in the middle of August, and they pre- sented him with a sword and dagger, pro- bably those afterwards taken at Flodden, and still preserved in the English Heralds' Col- lege. They received in return six hundred crowns. The object of the embassy, which had already negotiated a marriage between Arthur, the eldest son of Henry VII, and the Princess Katherine, was by a similar offer to detach Scotland from the French alliance ; but De Puebla, its chief, exceeded his instruc- tions, offering James the hand of an infanta instead of an illegitimate daughter of Ferdi- nand of Aragon, for which he was repri- manded, yet told to ' put off the Scotch king with false hopes ' lest he should renew the French alliance.
James kept his Yule in 1489 at Edin- burgh. By a prudent policy the leaders of the recent rebellion, Lennox, Huntly, the Earl-Marischal, Lyle, and Forbes, were par- doned. During the same year his atten- tion was directed to the defence of the east coast from the attacks of English pirates, and found in Andrew Wood [q. v.] of Larg, who became one of his chief counsellors, an admiral able to cope with the marauders. The king saw the political importance of the navy, and throughout his reign the equipment of vessels of war and the encouragement of trading and fishing craft were kept steadily in view. On 3 Feb. 1490 parliament met at Edinburgh, by which the principal rebels were forfeited, though afterwards pardoned. A mutilated document in the English records of that year casts light on a plot otherwise unknown for the delivery of the persons of ' James, king of Scotland, now reigning, and his brother, at least the king,' to Henry VII. The parties to this plot, which was in the shape of a bond for payment of 2661. 13s. 4<Z., were Sir John Ramsay, Patrick Hepburn, Lord Both well [q. v.], and Sir Thomas Todd, a Scottish knight.
In the parliament which met on 28 April 1491 important acts were passed for ' wapen- schaws,' or musters of the forces, in each shire, the practice of archery, the holding of justice ayres, and the reform of civil and criminal procedure. But the king's marriage chiefly interested the parliament. Embassies were despatched to find a wife in France, Spain, or any other part. The en- voys paid repeated visits to France without result, and subsequently the Emperor Maxi- milian was requested to bestow on James his daughter Margaret, but as the lady was already betrothed to the infant of Spain, that negotiation failed. James was, perhaps, not so eager for a marriage as his advisers. His illegitimate connections were numerous. His
intrigue with Marion Boyd, daughter of Archibald Boyd of Bonshaw, commenced soon after his accession, for its result was the birth, at least as early as 1495, of Alexander Stewart, afterwards archbishop of St. An- drews, as well as of a daughter, Catherine. Marion Boyd appears to have been succeeded as royal mistress-in-chief by Janet, daughter of John, lord Kennedy, and a former mistress of Archibald Douglas, fifth earl of Angus [q. v.], who became, by the king, the mother of James, born in 1499, and created earl of Moray on 20 June 1501. This connection lasted at least till 1 June 1501, when the castle and forest of Darnaway were granted to her for life, under certain conditions. She received grants from the king down to 1505 (Exche- quer Soils, pp. xii, xliii). In February 1510 she surrendered lands conveyed to her in 1498 by her earlier lover Angus, receiving in exchange all the lands of Bothwell under a decree arbitral confirmed by the king (ib. p. xlviii). This transaction perhaps gave rise to the assertion, which appears scarcely credible, that she married Angus after being discarded by the king. The best beloved of the king's mistresses was Margaret, daughter of Lord Drummond, who was high in his favour from May 1496 to 1501, the date of her death [see DRtrMMOXD, MABGAEET]. In 1497 her only child, Lady Margaret Stewart, was born. The poem of Tayis Banks,' if the work of her royal lover, is proof of James's affection. Masses were at the king's cost sung for her soul at Cambuskennethand other places till the close of the reign. A fifth lady of noble birth, Isabel Stewart, daughter of Lord Buchan, is mentioned as the mother of a daughter, Jean, by James, while Dunbar, who entreated the king to release himself by marriage from such entanglements, hints at more vulgar and forgotten amours.
In the autumn of 1493 James visited the Western Isles and received the homage of the chiefs, whose head, John, lord of the Isles, had been forfeited in the parliament which met in May of that year. He was at Dunstaffnage in August, and on his return south made the pilgrimage to Whithern in Galloway, which became an annual custom. In October he paid his first visit to St. Duthac's at Tain, which divided with Whit- hern the honour of being the principal resort of the royal pilgrim. His frequent pilgrim- ages to these and other shrines, as well as his external devotion to the offices of religion, have been cited as proof that he was a good catholic. Like the penance of the iron belt, his admission to the offices of a lay canon of the cathedral of Glasgow, and a lay brother of the Friars Observant at Stirling, and his
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benefactions to these friars, from whom he chose his confessor, are evidence of intervals of penitence, intermingled with acts of sin, which indicate a singularly unstable cha- racter. In May 1494 he again paid a short visit to the Isles, and returned to Glasgow in July. Probably it was on the occasion of this visit that the prosecution of the lollards of Kyle in Ayrshire, before the king and his council at the instance of Robert Blaca- der [q. v.], the archbishop, took place, of which Knox has preserved a graphic account in his ' History.' If the trial was really al- lowed to end by a series of jocular answers to the inquisitor, James cannot have been a virulent persecutor of heretics ; there were mo martyrs in his reign. At Glasgow he raised an expedition, which met him at Tar- bert in Kintyre on 24 July ; he repaired the castle of Tarbert and took the castle of Dun- averty, which he garrisoned. But as soon as he left it was recaptured by John of Isla, and its captain hung in sight of the royal fleet. John Mackian of Ardnamurchan recovered Dunaverty in September, and John of Isla and four of his sons were sent to Edinburgh and executed. In 1495 he prepared a new expe- dition to the still disturbed Western Isles. At Easter he was in Stirling, busy with pre- parations for his personal equipment, and on 5 May, along with the lords of the west, «ast, and south, he came to Dumbarton. Em- barking at Newark Castle, on the Ayrshire coast, he sailed to Ardnamurchan, where, at the castle of Mingary, he received the sub- mission of some of the island chiefs. Before the end of June he returned to Glasgow, where O'Donnel, chief of Tyrconnel in Ulster, visited him and renewed an old league.
The adroit monarchs of Castile and Ara- gon kept dangling before the eyes of James the hope of a Spanish match, and the nego- tiations for this purpose form a consider- able part of the external affairs of Scotland during the next three years. On 20 Nov. 1495 Perkin "Warbeck [q. v.] came to Stir- ling. His claim to be the Duke of York, son of Edward IV, first put forward in 1491, was useful to James, now at enmity with Henry VII. James knew nothing of his real antecedents, but Warbeck brought strong credentials, and as early as March 1492 James had heard of him from the Earls of Desmond and Kildare, who forwarded letters from Perkin himself ( Treasurer's Accounts, i. 190). James allowed him 1,2001. a year, for which a special tax was levied, introduced him to the principal nobility, and soon after gave him the hand of Lady Katharine Gor- don, daughter of the Earl of Huntly, grand- daughter of James I, and one of the beauties
of the Scottish court, in marriage. The mar- riage, which took place with much ceremony in January, appears proof that James at this time believed in Perkin's pretensions. Prepa- rations were at once made for a war to assist his claims, and Perkin remained in constant attendance at the royal court. James had kept Yule (1495) at Linlithgow, and two days be- fore had received at Stirling the Spanish am- bassadors, Martin de Torre and Garcia de Herrera, who had come with instructions to detach James from Perkin and secure his alliance with Henry VII, to whose eldest son, Arthur, the infanta of Spain had been already contracted in marriage. Unfortunately the astute monarchs of Spain outwitted them- selves by instructing their ambassadors to keep James in play by offering him an infanta as a bride, an offer they never intended to fulfil. Their letters disclosing this duplicity fell into his hands before their arrival, and they were naturally received with coolness. He waived their proposals, but agreed to seno. to Spain the Archbishop of Glasgow, with one of the Spanish ambassadors, and if a marriage could be concluded to consent to peace with England. In March 1496 he went his usual pilgrimage to St. Duthac's, but returned to spend Easter at Stirling, where Perkin was still in his company. In June or July 1496 another ambassador of Spain, Don Pedro de Ayala, arrived at Stirling, where he was hos- pitably received. He described James as a most accomplished sovereign, knowing all the languages of Europe, Spanish included, which seems little likely ; a devoted son of the church, attending all its services, con- fessing to the Friars Observant, and full of warlike spirit, only .too rash in exposing his own person; a wise administrator, taking counsel from others, but in the end acting on his own opinion. Ayala gives contradictory accounts as to James's disposition to marry. The Spanish monarchs, unable to fulfil the hope they had held out of an infanta, now suggested that Henry VII should offer James his own daughter, and this device was first broached by Richard Foxe [q. v.], bishop of Durham, who was sent to Scotland early in September 1496, but failed to persuade James of the sincerity of the offer or to abandon Per- kin. On 2 Sept. 1496 Ramsay, a spy in the English interest, was present at a council of the Scottish king, when Perkin agreed that on ob- taining the English throne he would restore Berwick and other northern districts (the seven sheriffdoms) to Scotland, as well as pay fifty thousand marks. Ramsay notes the extent of the preparations for the war, and alleges that it was opposed by the leading nobles and the king's brother, the Duke of
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Ross. Ramsay was also present at the recep- tion of Monipenny, Sieur de Concressault, with letters from France, and of Roderic de Lalain from Flanders, with two small ships and six score men. The French king is said by Ramsay to have offered a hundred thou- sand crowns for the surrender of Perkin, and Lalain to have refused to speak to the adven- turer, saying his embassy was only to the king. But a spy wishing to please his em- ployer is a bad authority. Meanwhile James was eager to set out, and after summoning his troops to meet him at Ellem Kirk on the borders on 15 Sept., and reviewing his artil- lery at Restalrig on the 12th and 14th, when he made offerings at Holyrood and ordered masses to be sung at Restalrig Church, he marched, with Perkin, to Haddington on the 14th, and from that across the Lammermuir to Ellem Kirk, which he reached on the 19th. A proclamation issued in the name of Ri- chard IV, king of England, met, to James's disappointment, with no response from the English borderers, and Perkin, pretending that he disliked to shed the blood of his own subjects, recrossed the Tweed to Cold- stream. After a raid on the Northum- brian border and a fruitless siege of the house of Heiton, James himself tired of the expedition and returned to Edinburgh by 8 Oct. After spending some time in sport, he again came south to Home Castle on the east marches, where he conferred on 21 Nov. with Hans, his master-gunner, probably the Fleming much employed by the monarchs of that age in casting guns. Henry VII had, in a council at Westmin- ster, received a subsidy for war with the Scots, and James was preparing for defence and retaliation. In the middle of December he was at Dunglas, another castle of Lord Home's, on the confines of Haddington and the Merse. His Yule was kept at Melrose. In preparation for the renewal of war with England, wapenschaws were held in January and February 1497, the artillery repaired, Dunbar fortified, and Sir Andrew Wood ap- pointed its captain. On 14 Feb. James sent letters to the sheriffs ordaining a muster of the lieges for forty days from 6 April. Be- fore Easter he had returned to Stirling, where he received the Spanish ambassadors, who tried in vain to induce him to give up Perkin and desist from the English war. On 23 May he visited Dunbar to inspect the fortifications. His visit was marked as usual by gifts to churches. The English, encouraged by the delay, commenced hostilities, but were de- feated by the Master of Home at Duns early in June. On 12 June James was at Melrose, where his artillery and feudal levy met him,
apparently not insufficient number, for an- other summons was issued for Lauder on the 26th. But neither monarch was ready for a campaign. The defence of the English border was left to the energetic Bishop of Durham, who was able to ward off an assault by James on his castle of Norham, and summoning- Thomas Howard, second duke of Norfolk [q.v.],then Earl of Surrey, a retaliatory raid was made on Ay ton Castle, which was taken. James, according to the English historians, though in sight of the smoke of the English guns, declined a general engagement or a single combat with Surrey, who retreated across the border before the end of August. Foxe had indeed received on 12 July from his sovereign instructions which show through their diplomatic verbiage how anxious Henry was for peace. Foxe was in the first place to demand Perkin's surrender, and to represent that the terms offered by the Earl of Angus and Lord Home at Jenninghaugh, a short time before, could not be entertained ; but if this was declined he was to propose a meeting between the two kings at Newcastle. A duplicate, and no doubt secret, copy of the- instructions provided that, if the meetingwas refused, Foxe was to be content with the. offers made at Jenninghaugh, as the English army was not sufficiently prepared to march north (GA.IRDJTEE, Letters of Richard III and Henry VII, i. 110). Meantime Perkin, with his wife had gone by way of Ireland to Cornwall, and he was captured at Exeter on 5 Oct. The return to Scotland of the Spanish ambassador, Ayala, seems to have converted James to the side of peace, and he consented to close the enmity between the two nations by marrying Henry VII's daughter Margaret. Henry persuaded his council to consent to the alliance by the argument that, if a unions followed, the lesser would be subordinate to* the greater kingdom, citing the precedent of Normandy and England. Foxe, a good diplo- matist, arranged the treaty of Ayton, which provided for a truce of seven years, from 30 Sept. 1497. The truce was threatened almost as soon as made by a quarrel over a game between some Scottish and English youths at Norham, but on 5 Dec. Ayala, who- had gone to London, negotiated with William Warham its conversion into a peace for the- joint lives of the two monarchs; it was rati- fied by James at St. Andrews on 10 Feb. 1498. On 21 Feb. 1498 he started from Stirling- on an expedition to the still unsettled Western Isles. He passed through Glasgow toDuchalr where his mistress, Marion Boyd, and her son, the future archbishop, resided, and thence ta Ayr, whence he sailed to Campbelton, a new castle on the shores of Loch Kilkerran, now
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called the Bay of Campbelton. He received there the homage of Alexander Macleod of Dunvegan and Torquil Macleod of the Lews, and attempted to suppress the feud between the Clan Huistean of Sleat and the Clan- ranald of Moydart. Remaining only a week in Kintyre, he returned to Duchal, where on 16 March, having now completed his twenty- fifth year, he executed a revocation of all grants in his minority. In April 1499 he made Archibald Campbell, second earl of Argyll £q. v.], lieutenant of the Isles, and gave vari- ous grants to him and other chiefs who had been serviceable, and thus strengthened the royal authority in the outlying parts of the highlands and isles. In 1499 a plague, still more fatal during 1500, caused a suspension of the royal activity.
On 28 July 1500 Henry obtained a papal dispensation for James's marriage with Mar- garet. James and Margaret Tudor were re- lated only in the fourth degree through the marriage of James I with Joan Beaufort, the great-grandmother of James, whose brother John, duke of Somerset, was the great-grand- father of Margaret. In October 1501 pleni- potentiaries went to England to conclude the marriage, and on 24 Jan. 1502 the treaty was agreed to at Richmond. When it was con- firmed by James by oath on the evangels and <the mass on 10 Dec. the title of king of France had been entered in the titles of Henry; but James on the same day executed ,-a notarial instrument declaring that this was * by inadvertence,' and signed a copy in which the objectionable title was cancelled. Mar- garet, attended by the Earl of Surrey and a large suite, left Richmond on 27 June 1503, and reached the border before the end of July. On 3 Aug. James met her at Dalkeith. Next <day he paid a private visit, and found Mar- garet at cards. She left her game, and to show her accomplishments danced a bass dance with Lady Surrey while James played on the harpsichord and lute. At leaving, to «how his agility, he leapt on his horse without a, stirrup. On the 7th she made her entry into Edinburgh, and the marriage was cele- brated at Holyrood on the 8th. It was accom- panied and followed by festivities of all kinds, but the English visitors reported that they ad- mired the manhood more than the manners of the Scots. The ' Controller's Accounts' show an expenditure of more than 6,000/. It was, perhaps, in honour of the marriage that a new order of knighthood, which took its pattern from the round table of Arthur with the thistle as its symbol, was instituted. Though this cannot be proved from records, it is certain that the national symbol then first began to be common in connection with
the royal arms. The windows at Holyrood were painted with the device of the union of the English flower with the Scottish wild plant, and Dunbar wrote, as poet of the court, ' The Thistle and the Rose.'
Amid all the festivities, the bride, not yet fourteen, was sad, homesick, and petulant. Soon after the wedding James visited Elgin, Inverness, and Dingwall. About this time the Western Isles once more broke out into open revolt under Donald Dubh (the Black), an illegitimate son of Angus, and grandson of John, lord of the Isles. The royal forces under Huntly having proved insufficient, James in person, with his whole southern levy, took the field and crushed the rebellion. The parliament of 1504 introduced royal law by justiciars or sheriffs for the north and south isles, the former at Inverness or Ding- wall, and the latter at Loch Kilkerran orTar- bert, and provided that the western highlands of the mainland were to attend the ayres of Perth and Inverness, and for the appointment of sheriff's of Ross and Caithness. Such im- portant steps towards the civilisation of these districts were supplemented by further expe- ditions in April 1504. During summer and early autumn James made a raid in Eskdale, reducing the Armstrongs, Jardines, and other border clans, and after returning to Stirling in the end of September went his usual pro- gress to the autumn ayres in the north, as far as Torres and Elgin. In 1505 he was again in the Western Isles ; the McLeans of Mull and other minor chiefs of Mull and Skye submitted. Next year Stornoway Castle, the fort of Torquil Macleod of the Lews, was taken. The Earls of Argyll and Arran, Macleod of Harris, and Y or Odo Mackay of Strathnaver had all along supported the king. A poem of Dunbar blames James for sparing the life of the agile highlander, Donald Dubh, who was captured in 1506. Measures were taken in 1505 and 1506 to bring the isles south of Ardnamurchan, as well as Trot- ternish in Skye, into subjection by leases for short terms to the occupiers or others, on con- dition of their becoming loyal subjects. But well devised as these plans were, the chronic rebellion of the Western Isles was not over- come. James began, however, to introduce law and order among the islanders, whose language, it is worthy of notice, he is said to have spoken.
The important parliament of Edinburgh, on 4 June 1504, sat by continuation on 3 Oct. and 31 Dec. A daily council was instituted to meet in Edinburgh instead of the movable sessions. This was the first attempt to con- stitute a central fixed royal court for civil causes, a blow to the arbitrary justice of the
of Scotland
feudal barons, and a further step towards confirming Edinburgh in the position of capi- tal, which it had begun to assume since the death of James I. Other statutes dealt with the administration of criminal law. The privileges of the burghs were confirmed, and provision made for yearly election of magis- trates from those who traded within the burghs. No begging was to be tolerated ex- cept by sick or impotent folk. All freeholders with land of one hundred merks value were to appear in parliament personally or by pro- curators. The most important statutes, all of which show James as a legislator at his best, related to the tenure of feu farm. This tenure, known from early times in reference to church lands, had been regulated by sta- tute in 1457. But it was now expressly pro- vided by one act that the king might let his whole lands annexed or unannexed in feu to any person, and that the feu should ' stand perpetually to his heirs,' and by another that every man, both of the spiritual and temporal estate, might do the same. Fixity of tenure was thus secured. The general revocation which closed the acts of this parliament in- cluded not only all acts prejudicial to the crown, but also to the catholic church. James was a devoted son of the church, and deserved the hat and sword with gold hilt and scab- bard which Julius II sent him as a special mark of favour in 1507.
The peace with England and the suppres- sion of rebellion gave more prominence to James's relations with foreign powers, with all of whom he desired to be on pacific terms. With Denmark his connection, owing to his near kinship, was intimate. Between August 1501 and August 1502 James sent two ships of war to aid his uncle, Hans of Denmark, against Swedish rebels. In 1507 and 1508 James again assisted Hans in his contest with Liibeck and the Hanseatic League, and in April of the latter year, in response to an embassy of Tycho Vincent, dean of Copenhagen, he despatched Andrew Barton [q. v.] with a ship to the Danish king, which, however, Barton appropriated to him- self. When James prepared for the English war at the close of his reign he urgently, but in vain, solicited the aid of his uncle of Den- mark, but succeeded in making him at least the nominal ally of France. His amicable relations with the Emperor Maximilian, Louis XII of France, and Henry VII enabled him to intercede effectually on behalf of Charles, duke of Gueldres, when threatened by Philip, archduke of Austria, and entitled him to remonstrate warmly with the arch- duke when he showed signs of being inclined to receive with favour Edmund de la Pole,
earl of Suffolk. In 1506 he sent an embassy to Louis XII of France, and from both Den- mark and France he procured supplies of wood when his ship-building had exhausted the- Scotch forests. On 21 Dec. an ambassador from James presented a letter of credence to> the Venetian signory stating James's inten- tion to visit Jerusalem, and requesting galleys- or artificers to build them from the Venetian republic — a request willingly granted. He also asked the pope to excuse him from visit- ing Rome on his way. But the remonstrances- of the king of Denmark and the state of his- own kingdom prevented James's project from being realised. Two years later Blacader, archbishop of Glasgow, actually started for the Holy Land, perhaps as the deputy of James, but died on the way. With Spain he continued on good terms, and he remon- strated with King Emmanuel of Portugal against the piracy practised by the Portu- guese, though he found the granting of let- ters of reprisal to the Bartons more effectual. The year 1507 and the first half of 150& were the most brilliant period of his reign. He was courted by foreign princes, on friendly terms with his father-in-law, blessed by the pope, and at peace with his own sub- jects. The last five years are a period of de- cline, due partly to external causes, but still more to his own defects of character. At the- end of 1507 the Earl of Arran and his brother, Sir Patrick Hamilton, passed through Eng- land to France without a safe-conduct, and on their return in January 1508 they were- detained as prisoners, though treated civilly. In March, Wolsey (as Mr. Gairdner thinks, and not West as Pinkerton and Tytler sup- posed) was sent to Scotland to receive James's- remonstrances against Arran's detention. His letter to Henry VII in April contains his view of the character of James. When the English envoy reached Edinburgh the king was so much occupied in making gunpowder that he could not be received till 2 April, after which he had daily audiences till the 10th ; but such was ' the inconstancy ' of James that the envoy did not know what report to send. His chief object was to prevent the renewal of the old league between Scotland and France, which James promised to suspend so long as Henry continued to be ' his loving- father.' The whole nation, commons as well as nobles, were in favour of the renewal ; the king, the queen, and the Bishop of Moray were the only exceptions. Bernard Stewart, lord d'Aubigny, was on his way from France, and James promised that after he had heard his proposals the Bishop of Moray should be- sent to Henry with a secret letter. James was willing to meet Henry on the borders.
James IV i
On 21 May D'Aubigny and Sellat, the presi- dent of the parliament of Paris, arrived. Their object was to enlist James in the alliance made by the treaty of Cambrai, between the pope, the emperor, and France against Venice, and to consult as to the marriage of the daugh- ter of Louis XII, whose hand was sought by Charles of Castile, and also by Francis de Valois, dauphin of Vienne. James advised the latter. He delayed entering into the treaty, and D'Aubigny's death, a month after his arrival, interrupted negotiations.
The death of Henry VII on 22 April 1509 altered for the worse the relations of the two kingdoms. James had now to deal with an ambitious brother-in-law as eager for the honours of war as himself. Though a formal embassy under Bishop Forman congratulated the new monarch, trifling disputes continued, and finally led to war. Quarrels on the bor- der were incessant. Henry VIII detained, in spite of repeated demands, the jewels left to his sister by her father's will. He also aided the Duchess of Savoy against the Duke of Gueldres, kinsman and ally of James. In July 1511 Andrew Barton was defeated and slain. Both monarchs now began to prepare for war. The chief object of Henry was the invasion of France ; that of James, of England.
James's relations with Louis XII had now become intimate. He had done his best to reconcile the French king with the pope and the emperor by twice sending the Duke of Albany, his uncle, and the Bishop of Moray to the pope to mediate in the quarrel, which threatened to involve all Europe, but without result. He also implored by more than one envoy the assistance of Denmark, but the king was engaged with his own in- ternal troubles. When the pope formed the Holy league against France in October 1511 Scotland was France's only ally. James was energetically making ready for war during the whole of 1511, and completed the build- ing, though not the outfit, of the Great Michael, which took a year and day to build, and carried, he boasted, as many cannon as the French king had ever brought to a siege. The preliminaries of his league with France were signed by him at Edinburgh on GMarch, and the treaty itself on 12 July 1512. By the former he engaged to make no treaty with England unless France was included ; and by the latter none without the consent of France. Henry vainly sent Lord Dacre and West on 15 April to Edinburgh to prevent the completion of the league, but early next year James, with characteristic inconstancy, sent Lord Drummondto Henry to offer terms, which the English king refused. Leo X issued
;i of Scotland
an excommunication or interdict against James in 1513, and immediately afterwards James heard that war was finally resolved on in the English parliament against both France and Scotland. Still, it was Henry's obvious policy to keep peace if possible with Scotland while he invaded France ; and West was again in Edinburgh in March, when James promised to abstain from hostilities for the present, but would write no letter which would ' lose the French king,' though he 'cared not to keep him ' if Henry would make an equal promise. West left it to the judgment of Henry whether 'there was craft in the demeanour and answer ' of James. He re- ported that he saw on all sides building and equipping of ships at Leith and New- haven, and the preparation of artillery and fortifications. When dismissed after some angry passages with James he carried with him a letter from Margaret, indignant at the detention of her jewels. The single request of Henry, which James granted, was the ap- pointment of a commission to treat of the border grievances in June, but when it met it adjourned. No sooner had West left than De la Motte, the French ambassador to Scot- land, arrived from France. He brought four. ships with provisions, fourteen thousand gold crowns of the Sun, and, besides his master's, letters, one from Anne of Brittany, sending a ring and appealing to James, as her knight, to succour the French kingdom and queen in their hour of need. The Bishop of Moray, James's envoy in France, to whom Louis had given the rich bishopric of Bourges, about the same time, sent a letter to James, assur- ing him that his honour was lost if he did not assist France. Despite the protest of Bishop Elphinstone and 'the smaller but better part of the nobles,' it was determined to declare war with England unless Henry refrained from attacking France. A letter, not so imperative in its terms as might have been expected, but asking Henry whether he would enter into the truce which Louis and Ferdinand of Aragon had agreed to for a year from 1 April, was despatched by Lord Drummond on 24 May (ELLIS, Orig. Letters, i. 1, 76). On 30 June Henry, instead of en- tering into the truce, sailed for France and began active hostilities. James at once sent his fleet under Huntly and Arran to aid the French on 26 July, and on the same day despatched the Lyon king to Henry before Terouenne had arrived, with a letter which, after recounting all the Scottish grievances, ended by peremptorily requiring Henry to desist from the French war under the penalty of an alliance between James and the French. Henry gave a contemptuous refusal.
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Meantime hostilities had begun on the bor- der by the ' 111 Raid ' of Lord Home, the j chamberlain, who was defeated by Sir W. | Bulmer at Broomridge, near Millfield. Be- fore leaving England, Henry had sent Surrey ! from Dover to defend the borders, and James had summoned his feudal array to meet him at the Borough Muir of Edinburgh. Before leaving Linlithgow he had been warned against the war by one of the best attested j apparitions in history. Sir David Lindsay, i who was present, told the story to George Buchanan. A version, enlarged after the event in the prose of Pitscottie, and turned into poetry by Scott in ' Mannion,' describes how a bald-headed old man, in blue gown, with ' brotikins ' on his feet, and belted with a linen girdle, suddenly appeared at the king's desk while he prayed, and prophesied his de- feat and death. In Edinburgh another ap- parition at the Cross summoned by name the citizens on the way to the muster to the tri- bunal of Plotcock (Pluto or the devil), and one only, who protested, escaped that fatal summons. James nevertheless advanced with haste to Norham at the head of eighty thou- sand men, according to the English reports, certainly with as large a force as any Scot- tish king had brought into the field, and with artillery hitherto unequalled. He took Nor- ham on 28 Aug., after a six days' siege, during which he held a parliament or council at Twiselhaugh, and seized the smaller castles ', of Wark, Etal, and Ford within a few days, j At Ford he met the wife of its owner, still a prisoner in Scotland, and, according to an j early tradition (which Pitscottie first put into [ history, and Buchanan adopted), he was him- • self taken captive by the beauty of its mis- tress, and wasted in a criminal intrigue the precious days which allowed Surrey to ad- vance to the border. Surrey was at Newcastle on the 30th ' to give an example to those that should follow.' On Sunday, 4 Sept., he sent from Alnwick a herald proposing battle on Friday, the 9th. James detained the English herald, Rouge Croix, and sent his own, ac- cepting the challenge. Surrey advanced to Woolerhaugh, within three miles of the Scot- tish camp, which was on the sideof Flodden,a ridge of the Cheviots. He then made a feint j march, as if about to attack the Scots on the flank, and posted his force under Barmoor- ', wood, only two miles distant. On Friday he approached Flodden, and James, fearing that the enemy would march to Scotland, left his strong position on the hill, setting fire to the litter of his camp. The smoke impeded the ' view, and the two armies were within a mile before they could see each other. They met ' at the foot of Brankston Hill, the Scots
keeping the higher ground to the south, the English on the east and west with their backs to the north. The artillery began the battle. James advanced with his main body in five or six divisions, but two formed the reserve and did not engage. It was met by the Eng- lish in the same order. The king himself fought on foot in the third division. He fell within a spear's length from Surrey. Only two commanders in his division, Sir William Scot and Sir John Forman, escaped death, and they were taken prisoners. The defeat was total except on the left wing, where Lord Home and Huntly had for a time the advantage. The Scots' loss was reckoned at ten thousand by the English. Among the slain were the king's son the archbishop, the Bishop of the Isles and two abbots, twelve earls, thirteen lords, and fifty heads of families only less than noble. Every part of the country felt the blow. James is said to have clad several men in the same dress as himself that he might not be known, and might take the place of an ordinary com- batant. It was variously rumoured in Scot- land that he survived, that he had been treacherously slain after the battle, and that he had gone to the Holy Land. But his body was recognised, and the sword, dagger, and ring in the Heralds' College attest his death. His corpse lay unburied till Henry VHI in mockery got leave from his ally, the pope, to commit the corpse of one excommunicated to consecrated ground ; but, according to Stow, it was still left, lapped in lead, in a waste room in the Carthusian monastery of Sheen till Young, the master-glazier of Queen Eliza- beth, gave it an ignoble burial with the bones from the charnel-house in the church of St. Michael's.
James left only one legitimate child, his successor, James V. Five other children of Queen Margaret, whose second husband was Archibald Douglas, sixth earl of Angus [q.v.], had died infants. His illegitimate children by Marion Boyd were Alexander Stewart [q. v.J, archbishop of St. Andrews ; James, to whom there is a solitary reference in a letter printed by Ruddiman as a possible candidate, when only eight years old, for the abbacy of Dunfermline ; and Catherine, who married James, earl of Morton ; James Stewart, earl of Moray (1499-1544) [q. y.], by Janet Kennedy ; Margaret, who married John, lord Gordon, by Margaret Drummond ; and Jean, who married Malcolm, lord Flem- ing, by Isabel Stewart, daughter of the Earl of Buchan ; and probably Henry, called Wemyss, bishop of Galloway (KEITH, Scot- tish Bishops, p. 278), by a lady of that name.
Several authentic portraits of James IV
James IV of Scotland 153 James V of Scotland
have been preserved. One, in the diptych, now at Holyrood, represents him as a boy praying by the side of his father ; and another, with a falcon on his wrist, formerly in the royal English collection, is at Keir. A third, attributed to Holbein, is in the possession of the Marquis of Lothian ; it represents James holding a Marguerite daisy in his right hand. A fourth painting of 1507, and supposed to represent James IV, is the property of the Hon. Mrs. Maxwell-Scott. No copy of the medal he struck just before Flodden is now known to exist.
Flodden is a deeper stain than Sauchieburn on the memory of James. He was the chief author of the defeat, which his country never recovered till the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the person of his great-grandson. A large share of the misery of Scotland during the interval must be at- tributed to his decision to side with France against England, and to his incompetence as a general. Yet he had the chivalry of a knight-errant and the courage of a soldier. He was a wise legislator, an energetic ad- ministrator, and no unskilful diplomatist, a patron of learning, the church, and the poor. Scotland under him advanced in civilisa- tion, and became from a second- almost a first-class power.
The elegant latinity of James's diploma- tic letters (Letters of Richard III and Henry VII), of which many are still in manuscript in the Advocates' Library and British Museum, is probably due to the scholarship of Patrick Panther, royal secre- tary during the greater part of the reign, and not to James, who cannot himself, as Mr. Brewer surmises (Henry VIII, i. 28), have been a pupil of Erasmus, though he entrusted the education of his bastard son Alexander, the archbishop, to the great hu- manist. But at no period was the Scottish court more friendly to literature and edu- cation. The chief authors were Henry the Minstrel [q. v.], Robert Henryson [q. v.], William Dunbar [q.v.], and Gavin Douglas [q. v.], besides a crowd of minor minstrels, one of whom, ' Great Kennedy,' was appa- rently counted the equal of Dunbar. His- tory, as distinguished from mere chronicles, was beginning [cf.BoECE, HECTOR; HAY, SIR GILBERT; and MAJOR, JOHN]. The statute of 1504, which required all barons and free- holders to send their sons to grammar schools till they had perfect Latin, and then to the university, marks the royal interest in edu- cation. William Elphinstone [q. v.], bishop of Aberdeen, founded the university in his town, and James gave his name to King's College. James's personal predilection was
perhaps more for science than literature. He amused himself with the astrology and practised the imperfect surgery then in vogue. A professorship of medicine was instituted at Aberdeen, and more than one surgeon was in the royal pay. His dabbling in the black arts unfortunately made him a prey to impostors, one of whom, Damian, the abbot of Tung- land, who pretended to fly, and obtained large sums to experiment on the quintessence, has been pilloried in Dunbar's verse. Another of the king's favourite pursuits was the tourna- ment, already passing out of fashion in Eng- land, but never celebrated with more pomp in Scotland than at James IVs marriage, that of Perkin Warbeck, and the reception of D'Aubigny. The morality of James's court was as low as that of the Tudor kings, and its coarseness was less veiled.
James's personal faults infected his regal virtues. Inconstancy rendered him infirm as a general. Extravagance impoverished the exchequer. Obstinacy deprived him of wise counsellors, and pride exposed him, though not to the same extent as his father, to flat- terers. His superstition placed him too much in the hands of a bad class of ecclesiastics. But with all these faults, he continued popu- lar with the commons. The nobles were his natural enemies, as of all the Stewarts, but he controlled them better than any of his house, as the death-roll of Flodden proves. Dunbar, though he obtained no preferment and his satires had no effect, remained his friend. Sir David Lindsay observed him with the close- ness of a courtier, and although himself a reformer, speaks of him, like Erasmus and Ayala, in terms of panegyric.
[The Treasurer's Accounts, Exchequer Rolls, and Acts of Parliament, the letters of James IV in Ruddiman's Epistolae Regum Scotorum, sup- plemented by Mr. Gairdner's additions in the Letters of Richard III and Henry VII, the docu- ments printed in Pinkerton's Appendix, and the poems of William Dunbar (Scottish Text Soc. ed.) are the original authorities. Major is a con- temporary, but tantalisingly meagre. Buchanan, Leslie, and Lindsay of Pitscottie are separated only by one generation.] JE. M.
JAMES V (1512-1542), king of Scot- land, the only son who survived infancy of James IV [q. v.] and Margaret (Tudor) [q. v.], was born at Linlithgow on Easter eve, 10 April 1512, and christened on Easter day by the name of ' Prince of Scotland and the Isles.' The title had been borne by two elder brothers, James and Arthur. The date is fixed by letters from James IV to his uncle, Hans of Denmark, and his queen announcing the happy event. David Lindsay, the poet, an usher at court, who seems at first to have
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been attached to the person of Prince Arthur, was appointed to discharge similar duties for James, and he has described in attractive verse the prince's playfulness in infancy (Complaynt to the King, 11. 87-98).
Leslie dates the coronation of James at Stirling on 21 Sept. 1513, and Buchanan at the same place on 22 Feb. 1514, but it pro- bably took place at Scone in presence of the general council which met at Perth before 19 Oct. and sat till at least 26 Nov. 1513, when the French ambassadors, De la Bastie, and James Ogilvy presented letters from Louis XII. The alliance with France was re- newed, and John Stewart, duke of Albany (d. 1536) [q. v.], requested to return to Scot- land ' to serve the king, the queen, and the realm ' against England. The queen-mother had been appointed regent under the will of James IV while she remained a widow, but a council, consisting of James Beaton [q. v.], archbishop of Glasgow and chancellor, Alex- ander Gordon, third earl of Huntly [q. v.l, Archibald Douglas, sixth earl of Angus [q. v.], and James Hamilton, first earl of Arran [q. v.], was appointed, without whose con- sent she was not to act. After the coun- cil she removed to Stirling, taking with her the young king, and there, in April 1514, she gave birth to a posthumous son by James IV, Alexander, duke of Ross. Her rash marriage in August to Archibald Douglas, sixth earl of Angus, lost her the regency. Albany landed in Scotland on 18 May 1515, and at a parliament in Edinburgh on 12 July was proclaimed protector and governor of Scot- land till James attained his eighteenth year. Eight lords were chosen, from whom Albany selected four, who went to Edinburgh, or more probably Stirling, with an offer that the queen might reject one. The remain- ing three were to be the guardians of James and his brother. Margaret declined the offer, and, still keeping James with her, was besieged in Stirling Castle. On 4 Aug. Albany himself appeared with seven thou- sand men and artillery. After trying a thea- trical coup, by placing James on the ramparts with crown and sceptre, she surrendered, and was confined in Edinburgh. James and his brother were detained in Stirling under the guardianship of Borthwick, Fleming, and Erroll, and the young king was soon brought to Edinburgh. His education, though often interrupted, was fairly good. His tutors were Gavin Dunbar [q. v.l, John Bellenden [q. v.l David Lindsay [q. v.J, and James Inglis [q. v.J, also a poet.
When Albany returned to France, Scot- land was distracted by the contest between two of the council of regency, Angus, head of
the Douglases, and Arran, head of the Hamil- tons, for possession of the young king's per- son. His guardians deemed the castle of Edinburgh the best place for his safe keep- ing, but in the summer or autumn of 1517 he was sent to Craigmillar on the suspicion of a plot, and his mother, who had quarrelled with Angus and her brother Henry VIII, was allowed to visit him, until a rumour that she intended to convey him away to England led to his being brought back to Edinburgh. In September 1519 he was for a similar reason taken to Dalkeith. Meanwhile the rival parties of Arran and Angus struggled for the possession of Edinburgh [see under DOUGLAS, ARCHIBALD, 1489 P-1557], and on 30 April 1520 Angus gained the town. Next year Albany returned to Scotland. The queen joined him, and on 4 Dec. they visited the young king in Edinburgh Castle. The par- liament which met in Edinburgh on 18 July 1522 agreed, by the desire of the regent and the queen, that the king should be removed to Stirling and Lord Erskine made his sole guardian. In September Albany again went to France. Thereupon the queen wrote to Surrey, the English lieutenant in the north, suggesting that he might aid her in obtaining James's emancipation from his guardians and his establishment as king with a council in which she herself would be paramount. She assured Surrey of James's competence. Al- bany on his return in September 1523 resumed the personal rule. To protect the young king- from the nobles, Scottish archers of the French king's bodyguard were sent to attend on James, and he is the first Scottish king- who had such a guard. Albany held at Edin- burgh, on 17 Nov., a parliament which en- trusted the guardianship of James to Lords Borthwick, Cassilis, and Fleming, in turns of three months, with the Earl of Moray, a bas- tard of his father, as his constant companion. At the request of the queen Lord Erskine was added, and she herself was allowed to visit her son with her ladies but without troops. On 20 May 1524 Albany once more returned to France, under the condition that if he did not come back before 1 Sept. his office should terminate and the young king receive the sceptre of his kingdom. But the queen-mother and the nobles in the English interest, on 26 July 1524, carried off James from Stirling- to Edinburgh, where he was received with ac- clamations by the people as well as the nobles. A bond, still extant, was signed by the Bishops, of Galloway and Ross, the Earl of Arran, and others, who undertook to be loyal subjects of the king, and annulled their engagements to Albany. On 22 Aug. the queen proposed at a meeting in the Tolbooth to abrogate.
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the regency of Albany, and when Beaton, the chancellor, refused to affix the great seal to the necessary document, she obtained for- cible possession of the seal, and put Beaton and the Bishop of Aberdeen in ward. James was now surrounded by a guard commanded by Arran, by Henry Stuart, his mother's fa- vourite, and by his brothers, and these men attempted to gain his favour by indulging his youthful passions. Sir David Lindsay and Bellenden were dismissed from their posts as his tutors. Soon after Thomas Magnus [q. v.] arrived on an embassy from England, and pre- sented James with a coat of cloth of gold and a dagger, with which he was greatly pleased.
On 16 Nov. a parliament met at Edin- burgh, by which Albany's governorship was at last terminated, because of his failure to return, according to his promise, before 1 Sept. ; the king was declared to have full authority to govern in his own person, with the advice of his mother and a privy coun- cil appointed to assist her. The Archbishop of St. Andrews, the Bishop of Aberdeen, and the Earls of Arran and Argyll were named as members of this select council, without whose advice nothing was to be done. The next parliament of 15 Feb. 1525 added Angus and three others, but declared that the queen should be principal councillor. James apparently was not present at either of these parliaments, but he went with his mother to Perth, attended the northern jus- tice ayres in spring, and was again joined by her at Dundee in April. At this time she actually used James as an agent to try to persuade her husband Angus to submit to a divorce. He attended in state the parliament at Edinburgh on 17 July, and in it new keepers of his person, who were to hold office in turn, were appointed, and the queen-mother was practically deprived of any share in the regency. From this time Angus was the cus- todian of James, and exercised sole power in the state.
In March, having obtained a divorce from Angus, the queen-mother married Henry Stuart, losing thereby all political influence. James disliked his mother's remarriage. Lord Erskine in his name seized her new hus- band at Stirling, and he was kept for some time in ward. The parliament of June 1526, on the ground that James was now fourteen, declared the royal prerogatives were to be exercised by himself; it was really an as- sembly of the party of Angus who effected for a time a reconciliation with Arran. Two unsuccessful attempts, with both of which the king secretly sympathised, were made to rescue him from Angus, one by Walter Scot of Buccleuch on 25 July, near Melrose, and
the other by Lennox, who assembled an army for the purpose in the beginning of Septem- ber, but was defeated and slain. On 12 Nov. a parliament at Edinburgh passed acts ap- proving of Angus's conduct, and forfeited, many of his opponents. Although some sort of reconciliation was effected, and the queen visited her son at Christmas, all the offices of state were in the hands of Angus and his adherents. Angus himself assumed the office of chancellor, and in June accompanied James to the borders, where the Armstrongs,, an unruly clan, were forced to give pledges for good behaviour. The queen-mother and Beaton the archbishop now made terms with Angus, and at Christmas 1527 met at the king's table at Holyrood. At Easter Beaton entertained the king and the Douglases at St. Andrews. But these were hollow recon- ciliations. Margaret and her husband were forcibly expelled from Edinburgh Castle in the end of March 1528 by Angus, and her ambitious husband again put in ward. Beaton now prompted James to escape from the con-^ trol of Angus. In July 1528, on the pretext, of a hunt from Falkland during the absence of Angus and of his brother and uncle, the young king, disguised as a groom, rode to Stir- ling Castle, which his mother had given him in exchange for Methven. When Angus and his kinsmen went in pursuit of the king, they were met by a herald forbidding them to> come within six miles of court, under the pains of treason, and Angus fled to Tantal- lon. On 2 Sept. a parliament, from which. Angus and his friends were absent, forfeited the estates of the Douglases, and revoked all gifts made during the domination of Angus. Henry Stuart was created Lord Methven and master of the artillery. James came at once to Edinburgh, where a council was held, and Gavin Dunbar [q. v.], archbishop of Glasgow,, his old tutor, was created chancellor. Dun- bar retained a strong influence over him throughout his reign. Sir David Lindsay, who> had been removed by Angus, re-entered the royal service. Lord Maxwell, provost of Edin- burgh, and Patrick Sinclair, a favourite of James, were sent on an embassy to England. Summonses were also issued to all the lieges to attend the king and proceed against Angus. James was still under eighteen, but the turbulent scenesthrough which he had passed had brought on an early manhood. He at once raised a force to besiege Douglas Castle. But his own party among the nobles forced him to delay the siege till after harvest. James passionately swore that no Douglas should remain in Scotland so long as he lived. " Having summoned to his aid Argyll and his highland forces, as well as Lord Home and^
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the borderers, he succeeded in reducing An- gus's castle of Tantallon before the end of the year. Angus fled to England. On 14 Dec. a truce for five years was concluded at Berwick between James and Henry VIII, Angus being allowed to live in England, and the sentence of death alone of the penalties for treason being remitted. The next year James was occupied with reducing the borders, which had relapsed, owing to the change of govern- ment, into a state of lawlessness. Lords Maxwell, Home, Scot of Buccleuch, Ker of Fernihurst, Polwarth, Johnston, and other border chiefs were put in ward, and James in person, having summoned the highland chiefs to come as if to a hunting match, rode through the border dales, when he seized and executed Cockburn of Henderland, Scott of Tushielaw, and Johnnie Armstrong of Gil- nockie [q. v.] A rising in the Orkneys, headed by the Earl of Caithness, was put down by the islanders themselves, and a revolt of the Western Isles, under Hector McLean of Duart, against the authority of the Earl of Argyll as royal lieutenant, was checked by the prudent course of accepting the personal submission of the chiefs to James himself. James, like his forefathers, found many enemies among the nobles, and had to follow the hereditary policy of crushing their power. In the west Argyll was imprisoned. In the north Crawford was deprived of a great part of his estates. Bothwell, who in- trigued with the English king, was thrown into Edinburgh Castle. Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie (1480 P-1540 ?) [q. v.], the friend of James's youth, was banished. The king relied chiefly on the clergy, whose sup- port he gained by repressing heresy, and on the commons, whom he protected, and with whom he mingled freely, sometimes openly, sometimes under the incognito of the ' Gude- man of Ballinbreich.' To him specially was given the title of the 'king of the commons,' though at least two of his ancestors had as good a title to the name. In 1531 he enter- tained an English embassy under Lord Wil- liam Howard [q. v.] at St. Andrews, when his mother was with him, but he declined the proposal that he should wed the Princess Mary of England. The relations of James to his mother seem to have been friendly, for lie gave his consent soon after this to her re- covery of the Forest of Et trick, which had been part of her dower.
In 1532 James took a step, aimed at by .successive kings since James I, for centralising j justice and reducing the arbitrary power of the baronial courts. Albany had already obtained leave of the pope to assign a portion of the ; revenues of the Scottish bishops for the pay- j
ment of royal judges ; but it was not carried into effect until 13 May 1532, when the par- liament passed an act concerning ' the order of justice and the institution of ane college of prudent and wise men for the administration of justice.' Gavin Dunbar, archbishop of Glasgow, has the credit of being the chief promoter of this measure. The opposition of the bishops was overcome by giving the clerical estate, to which almost all the law- yers belonged, half the places, as well as the presidency in the new court of fifteen. This court, called the College of Justice, was to hold its sittings constantly in Edinburgh. In Leslie's opinion the institution gave eternal glory to James, but Buchanan pronounces a less favourable judgment, and complains that it placed too much power in the hands of fif- teen men in a country where ' there are almost no laws, but decrees of the estates.' ?- From 1532 to 1534 Henry VIII, taking advantage of the unpopularity of James with many of his own nobles, and urged by re- fugees in England, encouraged border hos- tilities, and James retaliated by counter-raids and by allowing some of the western islanders to support the Irish rebels. Peace was made on 11 May 1534, for the joint lives of Henry and James and one year longer. Henry was eager to secure the support of his nephew in his new ecclesiastical policy. James did not much favour the policy of separation from Rome, though he for a time wavered in ap- pearance, and seems to have been really dis- posed to reform the abuses of the church. He recognised the validity of his uncle's divorce and marriage to Anne Boleyn, and on 4 March 1535 he was invested by Lord William How- ard with the Garter as a reward for this con- cession. Henry still offered James the hand of his daughter in marriage. But the emperor sent him the order of the Golden Fleece, and
fave him the choice of three Marys : his sister lary, widow of Louis in Hungary, his niece, Mary of Portugal, and his cousin, Mary of England. The French king also conferred on him the order of St. Michael, and offered him either of his two daughters. James, proud of these honours, carved the arms of the em- peror and French king along with his own on the gate of Linlithgow Palace. Henry thereupon sent Sir Ralph Sadler with a proposal to meet his nephew at York, but James declined to go further than New- castle. Though conscious of the value of the English alliance, his personal inclination was more favourable to that with France, and this view was seconded by Pope Paul III, who sent, in 1537, Campeggio to Scotland to present the cap and sword annually blessed at Christmas and presented to the most favoured
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son of the church among the monarchs of Europe. The title of ' defender of the faith,' which Henry had forfeited, was offered him, and more was promised, if James would take up arms against the heretic king. The lead- ing Scottish bishops gave the same advice.
The turning-point of James's life and reign was his French marriage. On 29 March 1536 a treaty was concluded by which James was to marry Marie de Bourbon, daughter of the Duke of Vendome. Eager to see his betrothed, James started with five ships on a voyage to France without the knowledge of the nobles, but was driven back by a storm to St. Ninians in Galloway. He then returned to Stirling, from which he made a pilgrimage to Our Lady of Loretto, near Musselburgh, and, having held a council, obtained its consent to his going to France, after naming a regency. He again set sail from Kirkcaldy, with a larger suite, on 1 Sept. 1536, and landed at Dieppe on the 10th. He then paid an in- cognito visit, in the dress of John Tennant, one of his servants, to Marie de Bourbon, but that lady did not please him, and he proceeded to the court of Francis I at Lyons. In Octo- ber, James fell in love with Madeleine, elder daughter of Francis, and their mar- riage was agreed to by a treaty signed at Blois on 25 Nov. Francis is said to have pressed the hand of his second daughter as of stronger constitution, but yielded to the urgency of James. He was received on his entry into Paris on 31 Dec. with the honours usually reserved for the dauphin. The mar- riage was celebrated in Notre Dame on 1 Jan. 1537. Stories have been told of his munifi- cence ; he is said to have presented his guests at a banquet with cups of gold filled with bonnet pieces, saying these were the fruits of his country. But the whole of his ex- penses in France were in the end paid by the French king. James remained in France with his young bride till the following May, and an observer, not altogether trust- worthy, for he was a retainer of Angus, may probably be credited when he relates how James escaped from the ceremonials of the court to run about the streets of Paris and make purchases as if unknown, though the boys in the street pointed to him as 'the king of the Scots.' His bad French pro- bably betrayed him. At Rouen on 3 April 1537, when he attained his legal majority, he made the usual revocation of previous grants. He landed at Leith on 19 May, hav- ing received a visit when off Scarborough from some Yorkshire catholics, who informed him of the oppression of Henry VIII. He promised them that he would ' bend spears with England if he lived a year.' Madeleine
was received with great rejoicing in Scotland, her fragile beauty attracting both the nobility and the commons. According to Buchanan, there was even hope that she might have- favoured the reformers' movement through her education by her aunt, the queen of Na- varre. Her premature death, at the age of sixteen, in July was the cause of great mourning, and led, it is said, to the introduc- tion of mourning dress into Scotland. James spent some time in retirement, but at once sought a successor. David Beaton [q. v.], nephew of the archbishop, then abbot of Arbroath, the future cardinal, was sent to France, and concluded a treaty of marriage with Mary of Guise, widow of the Due de Longueville, early in 1538. She landed at Grail on 14 June, and the marriage was cele- brated at St. Andrews. Sir David Lindsay wrote and prepared the masque in which an angel, descending from a cloud, presented Mary with the keys of Scotland as a token that all hearts were open to her.
Between his first and second marriage the- attention of James had teen occupied with two conspiracies. On 15 July John, master of Forbes, was found guilty of having plotted at some earlier date ' the slaurghter of our Lords most noble person by a warlike machine called a bombard, and also of treasonable se- dition ; ' he was hanged and quartered at Edinburgh. Three days later Lady Glamis was condemned for taking part in a treason- able conspiracy to poison James, and was. burnt on the Castle Hill. Forbes was brother- in-law, and Lady Glamis was sister, of Angus- [see under DOUGLAS, JANET]. At the same period James encouraged the bishops to-
froceed against heretics. Patrick Hamilton ij. v.] had been burnt at St. Andrews in 528, and similar auto-da-fes followed at Edinburgh in 1534 and Glasgow in 1539. Heretical books were strictly prohibited, and those who owned them punished. James him- self was highly commended by the clergy for refusing to look at some heretical books which Henry VIII sent him. He was, says Leslie, ' a hydra for the destruction of pesti- lent heresy.' The young queen, Mary of Guise, was ' all papist,' and the old queen, who always exercised some influence on her son, ' not much less,' according to Norfolk's report to the English council. In the personal cha- racter of James V there was little either of the piety or the superstition of his father. He and his queen seem to have had, however, their favourite pilgrimage to Our Lady of Loretto, near Musselburgh, and they were- duped, not only by Thomas Doughty, the. alleged miracle-working hermit of Loretto, but also by the fasting impostor, John Scot,.
' James V
The language which James V addressed the clergy, even the bishops, has something of the brutal frankness of his Tudor kin. There was undoubtedly something ambiguous in the attitude of James V towards the Roman church. He saw the necessity for reform of corruptions in the church, and on a few points carried it out, but probably allowed himself to be guided by Beaton, on condi- tion of receiving pecuniary aid for himself and the state from the overgrown reve- nues of the church. He made a communica- tion to the provincial council in Edinburgh in 1536, urging the abolition of the ' corpse presents,' the ' church cow,' and the ' upmost cloth,' three of the most hated exactions of the clergy, and threatened that if this was not done he would force them to feu their lands at the old rents. He obtained a con- tribution from the revenues of the prelates of 1,400/. a year to pay the judges of the new court of session. In 1540 James is said to have threatened the bishops that if they did not take heed, he ' would send half a dozen of the proudest to be dealt with by his uncle of England.' George Buchanan, who was tutor to one of his bastards, wrote by James's desire his ironical ' Palinodia,' and his more out- spoken 'Franciscanus' against the friars [see under BUCHANAN, GEORGE], In January 1540 Sir William Eure, an English envoy, met on the borders Thomas Bellenden and Henry Balnavis, when the former requested that a copy of the English statutes against the pope should be sent for James's private study, and represented him as prepared to aid the Re- formation. But James never pursued that policy. In February Sir Ralph Sadler was sent on a fruitless mission to Edinburgh with a present of some horses, and vainly endea- voured to induce James, by a promise of the succession to the English crown in the event of Prince Edward's death, to openly support Henry and the Reformation. To Sadler's pro- posal that he should seize the estates of the church, as Henry had done in England, he re- plied that ' his clergy were always ready to supply his wants,' and that 'abuses could «asily be reformed.' He seemed especially to favour Beaton, and Sadler himself confesses that the Scottish nobles who were opposed to an English alliance were men of small capa- city, a circumstance which forced James to use the counsel of the clergy. Sadler men- tions the rumour which Knox refers to in his * History,' that Beaton had given James a list of 360 barons and gentlemen whose estates might be forfeited for heresy, with the name of Arran at the head.
On 22 May Mary of Guise bore her first child, and soon afterwards James set out on
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a voyage round the north and west coasts. Alexander Lindsay, who had been selected as his pilot, has left a narrative of the ex- pedition, which was published in Paris in 1718 by Nicolas d'Arville, the royal cos- mographer. The fleet of twelve ships, well furnished with artillery, set sail from the Forth in the beginning of June, coasted the east and north of Scotland, visited the Ork- neys, Skye, the coast of Ross and Kintail, and the more southern islands, Coll, Tiree, Mull, lona, and finally reached Dumbarton by way of Arran and Bute. The royal forces were strong enough to extort the submission of the clans, but the stay was too short for per- manent effect. In August Sir James Hamil- ton of Finnart (d. 1540) [q. v.] was suddenly arrested in his lodging in Edinburgh, on the information of his kinsman James, the bro- ther of the martyr, Patrick Hamilton ; he was tried, condemned, and executed as a traitor on 16 Aug. The historians all report a dra- matic scene of the informer meeting the king as he passed over the Forth, when James, giving the ring off his finger to him, told him he was to present it to the master of the household and treasurer in Edinburgh, who effected the arrest of Hamilton. The king, perhaps, did not wish to appear prominent in the arrest of his old councillor. A weird story relates that James thought he saw in a dream ' Sir James Hamilton of Finnart com- ing upon him with a naked sword, and first cut his right arme and next his left from him ; and efter he had threatened efter schort space also to tak his lyf he evanished.' The prophecy was supposed to be half fulfilled when the news came in the following year of the deaths of his two infant sons within a few days of each other, one, an infant five days old, on 29 April, and his elder brother, James, before 25 May. The king's mother, too, died in October 1541. On 3 Dec. 1540 James held an important parliament at Edin- burgh. Besides passing many acts, chiefly relating to the administration of justice and preparation for war, there occur among its proceedings the king's general revocation, by which he confirmed the revocation of all grants made before 3 April 1537. But by an act of annexation he added to the crown 'the Lands and Lordships of all the Isles North and South, the two Kintyres with the Castles, the Lands and Lordships of Douglas, the Lands and Lordships of Craw- ford Lindsay, and Crawford John, the Su- periority of all Lands of the Earldom of An- gus and all other lands, rents, and posses- sions of the Earl of Angus, the Lands and Lordships of Glamis, " that are not halden of the Kirk," the Orkney and Shetland Isles,
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the Lands and Lordships of Sir James Hamil- ton of Finnart, and the Lands and Lordships of Liddesdale and Bothwell.' A general amnesty was granted, but from it Angus, his brother, Sir George, and the whole adherents of the Douglases were excepted. So sweeping and unparalleled a confiscation, which, so far as time allowed, was acted on, involved in a common ruin not only the hated name of Dou- glas, but also the Earl of Crawford and the chiefs and landowners of the isles. It was a sign of the complete breach bet ween James and his nobles. On 14 March 1541 James held his last parliament, which passed severe statutes against heresy, ratified the institution of the College of Justice, and made several useful laws with regard to criminal justice and the administration of burghs, and prohibited the passage of clerks to Rome without the king's leave, or the reception in Scotland of a papal legate. The last act was perhaps aimed at Beaton, who had gone to Rome with the view of obtaining legatine powers.
In the summer of 1541 James and the queen made a progress to the north, in the course of which they visited the college of Aberdeen, where they were entertained by plays and speeches and deputations of the students. In the autumn of 1541 Sir Ralph Sadler came on another embassy from Eng- land to invite James once more to meet Henry at York, but James, though he signed ar- ticles promising to do so in December 1541, after consulting his council and Beaton, who tad now returned and was his chief adviser, sent Sir James Learmonth to decline the in- vitation. It is stated by Pitscottie that the clergy about this time granted him an aid of 3,0001. a year, which gave force to their ad- vice. Henry, who had waited a week at York to meet his nephew, expostulated warmly on James's failure to keep his pro- mise, and is reported to have said that he had the same ' rod in store for him as that with which he beat his father,' a reference to Sur- rey, the victor of Flodden ,who was still living.
A border raid in August 1542 by Sir Ro- bert Bowes [q. v.], the English warden, led to his defeat and death at Halidon Rig, when Angus, who was with him, narrowly escaped capture. War was then made inevitable, and Henry, in a long proclamation, declared it. On 2l Oct. Norfolk invaded the Lothians with twenty thousand men, and, after burn- ing villages and destroying the harvest, re- turned to Berwick, Huntly, James's general, not venturing to attack him, as his force was inferior. James had meantime collected an army of thirty thousand strong, with his artil- lery, on the Borough Muir of Edinburgh, and inarched to Fala Muir, on the western ex-
tremity of the Lammermuir Hills, where he received the news of Norfolk's invasion. The Scottish barons, averse to war beyond the borders, refused to proceed further. They ( concluded,' says Knox, that ' they would make some new remembrance of Lauder brig/ where their ancestors had hanged Cochrane and other favourites of James III before his eyes, but they could not agree among them- selves who were to be their victims, and only went the length of silently withdrawing their forces. James was obliged to return to Edin- burgh on 3 Nov. He disguised his anger, but determined, even without the consent of the nobles, to renew the war, and passed to the west borders, where his exhortations induced Lord Maxwell, the warden, and the Earls of Cassilis, Glencairn, and Lord Fleming to in- vade England. Oliver Sinclair, one of the royal household, a member of the Roslin family, who had always been favourites at court, and himself a special favourite of James, was the king's military counsellor. James did not take the command in person, but stayed either at Lochmaben or Caerlaverock. He appears already to have been suffering from the illness of which he died. A brief letter to Mary of Guise is extant, without date, but evidently written about this time, and bears witness by its incoherent and broken sense to weakness of mind as well as body. It concludes : ' I have been very ill these three days past as I never was in my life ; but, God be thanked, I am well.' His forces, to the number of about ten thousand, crossed the Sol way, and marched in the direction of Car- lisle, wasting the country after the usual manner of a raid. The Cumberland farmers began to collect to defend their crops and their houses. Sir Thomas Wharton, the English warden, Lord Dacres, and Lord Musgrave, with*a small force, not more than three hundred, it was said, came to their aid, and harassed the Scots. With singular impru- dence James had entrusted Sinclair with a private order conferring upon him the post of general, which naturally belonged to Max- well as warden. Sinclair, now producing the royal mandate, was proclaimed general. Maxwell, whose office gave him claim to the command, and the other nobles, whose rank was disparaged by a commoner being set over them, were indignant, and though they fought, fought without heart, and suf- fered a total discomfiture. On their at- tempt to retreat, many were lost in the Sol- way Moss, from which the battle took its name. The Earls of Cassilis and Glencairn, Lords Maxwell, Fleming, Somerville, Oli- phant, and Gray, and two hundred gentlemen were taken prisoners. Sinclair fled, according
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to Knox, without a blow, but was afterwards captured. It was a rout more disgraceful than Flodden. When the news reached James at Lochmaben, the melancholy which had been growing overwhelmed him, and though he went to bed, he could not rest, and kept ex- claiming in reference to Sinclair, ' Oh, fled Oliver ! Is Oliver tane ? Oh, fled Oliver ! ' Next day, 25 Nov., he returned to Edinburgh, where he remained till the 30th, then, crossing to Fife, went to Halyards, one of the seats of Sir William Kirkcaldy, the treasurer. Sir William's wife, in her husband's absence, tried in vain to comfort him, and after a short stay at Cairny, another castle in Fife, he repaired to Falkland, and took to his bed. On 8 Dec. Mary of Guise gave birth to Mary Stuart at Linlithgow. This news he treated as the last blow of adverse fate, and exclaimed, ' The Devil go with it. It will end as it began. It came with a lass, and will go with a lass.' He spoke few sensible words after, and died on 16 Dec., and was buried at Holy- rood. After his death a will was produced by Beat on, under which the cardinal, Huntly, Argyll, and Moray were named regents, but the condition in which James had been since he came to Falkland gave rise to the suspicion reported by Knox and Buchanan that he had signed a blank paper put into his hands by Beaton. The original document, dated 14 Dec. 1542, was discovered by Sir William Fraser among the Duke of Hamilton's manuscripts at Hamilton Palace (cf. Hist. MSS. Comm. llth Rep. pt. vi. pp. 205-6 ; HERKLESS, Car- dinal Beaton, 1891 ; Atheneeum, June and July 1891).
-Besides his only lawful surviving child, Mary Stuart, he left seven known bastards : by Elizabeth Shaw of Sauchie, James, the pupil of Buchanan, who became abbot of Kelso and Melrose and died in 1558; by Margaret Er- skine, daughter of the fifth Lord Erskine, who afterwards married Sir James Douglas of Lochleven, James Stewart, earl of Moray (1533-1570) [q. v.], well known as the Re- gent Moray ; by Euphemia, daughter of Lord Elphinstone, Robert, sometimes called Lord Robert Stewart, afterwards prior of Holyrood and Earl of Orkney ; by Elizabeth, daughter of Lord Carmichael, John, prior of Colding- ham, who was father of Francis Stewart Hepburn, fifth earl of Bothwell [q. v.], and Janet, who married the Earl of Argyll ; by Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of John, earl of Lennox, Adam, who became prior of the Car- thusian house at Perth; and by Elizabeth Beaton, a child whose name is not known (Hist. MSS. CoTO»t.l2thRep.pt. viii.p.92). The bishops, according to Knox, encouraged his amours, and the pope certainly legitimated
his natural children, and promoted some of them while still minors to church benefices. James's face was oval, his quick eyes a bluish grey, his nose aquiline, his hair red, his mouth small, his chin weak for a man, his figure good, his height about the middle size. Both Leslie and Buchanan note his good looks, and from him, rather than Mary of Guise, Mary Stuart inherited her fatal beauty. Portraits are at Windsor Castle and Castle Fraser, and two others belong to the Marquis of Hartington. Buchanan also credits him with great activity and a sharp wit, insuffi- ciently cultivated by learning, and notes that he seldom drank wine, that he was covetous from the parsimony of his early life, and li- centious from the bad guidance of his guar- dians, who tolerated his vices that they might keep him under their own control. His licentiousness hastened the coming, and gave a tone to the character, of the Scottish refor- mation. A great number of his letters and speeches have been preserved. He had some of his ancestors' literary tastes, but the ascrip- tion to him of ' Christis Kirk on the Green' and a few songs cannot be accepted. His character had two sides : one shows him as the promoter of justice, the protector of the poor, the reformer of ecclesiastical abuses, the vigorous administrator who first saw the whole of his dominions, and brought them under the royal sceptre ; the other exhibits him as the vindictive monarch, the oppressor of the nobles, the tool of the priests, the licen- tious and passionate man whose life broke down in the hour of trial. John Knox, with all his prejudices, describes him in language which comes nearest the facts. ' Hie was called of some a good poore mans king ; of otheris hie was termed a murtherare of the nobilitie, and one that had decreed thair hole destructioun. Some praised him for the re- pressing of thyft and oppressioun ; otheris dis- praised him for the defoulling of menis wifns and virgines. And thus men spak evin as affectionis led thame. And yitt none spack all together besydis the treuth : for a parte of all these foresaidis war so manifest that as the verteuis could nott be denved, so could nott the vices by any craft be clocked.'
[Buchanan, James's senior by six years, and. Bishop Leslie, his junior by fifteen, give con- temporary views of his life and reign as seen from opposite points. Their Histories, and the publication of the State Papers, both Domestic and Foreign, afford more complete materials for his life than exist for any prior Scottish king. Buchanan, Leslie, and Knox's Histories are the primary authorities, and require to be compared and tested by the Record sources, the Acts of Parliament, Exchequer Rolls, and the Epistola&
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Regum Scotorum piiblished byRuddiman. The Poems of Sir David Lindsay are also of great importance, from Lindsay's close intimacy -with James and the historical character of several of .his works. Of modern historians Pinkertou is the fullest and best. Brewer's Henry VIII and vol. i. of Fronde's History represent the English •view of James's political position. Michel's Les Ecossais en France and the documents in Teulet's Relations de la France avec 1'Ecosse, vol. i., give the most detailed account of his French marriages, as to which Miss Strickland's Lives of Queens of Scotland deserves also to be consulted. His rela- tions with the Vatican are partially shown by the documents in Theiner, Monumenta Historica ; but independent search of the papal records with reference to Scottish history is still urgently required.] ^E. M.
JAMES VI (1566-1625), king of Scot- land, afterwards JAMES I, king of England, son of Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, and Mary •Queen of Scots, was born on 19 June 1566, in Edinburgh Castle. On 24 July 1567 he be- came king by his mother's enforced abdica- tion, and was crowned at Stirling on 29 July. The child was committed to the care of the Earl and Countess of Mar. The regency was given to the Earl of Moray, the illegitimate brother of James's mother, and in 1570, on Moray's murder, to James's paternal grand- father, the Earl of Lennox, whose accession to power was followed by a civil war. On 28 Aug. 1571 the young king was brought into parliament, and, finding a hole in the tablecloth, said that ' this parliament had a hole in it ' (History of James the Sext, p. 88). This childish remark was thought to be pro- phetical of the death of Lennox in a skirmish in September. Mar succeeded as regent, and on his death was followed by Morton, who in 1573 put an end to the civil war. On Mar's death the care of James's person was •entrusted to Mar's brother, Sir Alexander Erskine, under whom the education of the young king was conducted by four teachers, of whom the most notable was George Bu- chanan [q. v.J Buchanan made his pupil a good scholar, and James felt considerable respect for his teacher, though he afterwards •expressed detestation of his doctrines. At the age of ten James had a surprising com- mand of general knowledge, and was ' able •extempore to read a chapter out of the Bible out of Latin into French and out of French after into English ' (Killigrew to Walsing- ham, 30 June 1574, printed in TYTLER, Hist, of Scotland, ed. Eadie, iii. 97). Buchanan wanted to make of James a constitutional king, subject to the control of what he called ' the people.' As a matter of fact, neither was James fitted by character to as- sume that part, nor did the times demand
YOL. XXIX.
such a development. There was in Scotland a strong body of nobles still exercising the old feudal powers, and lately gorged with the plunder of the church. The parliament, which consisted of a single house, was at that time virtually in the hands of the nobles, and a merely constitutional king would therefore have been no more than the ser- vant of a turbulent nobility. On the other hand, the only popular organisation was that of the presbyterian church, in which the middle class, small and comparatively poor as it was, took part in the kirk sessions and presbyteries, and thus acquired an ecclesias- tical-political training. It was, however, guided by the ministers, naturally hostile to the lawless nobles who kept them in poverty, and also fiercely intolerant of any- thing savouring of the doctrines and practices of the papacy.
With elements thus opposed to one an- other there was no possibility of parlia- mentary union. There were, so to speak, two Scottish nations striving for the mastery, and only a firm royal government could moderate the strife and lay the basis of future unity. Something of this kind was attempted by Morton as regent, but he made enemies on both sides, and was compelled on 8 March 1578 to abandon the regency, the boy king, now nearly twelve years of age, nominally taking the government into his own hands [see DOUGLAS, JAMES, fourth EAEL OF MOR- TON"]. Before long, however, Morton regained his authority, but on 8 Sept. 1579 the situa- tion was changed by the arrival in Scotland of Esm6 Stuart, a son of a brother of the regent Lennox.
It was not only in domestic matters that Scotland was divided. The old policy of leaning upon France was confronted by the new policy of leaning upon England. Morton strove, as far as Elizabeth would let him, to be on good terms with England. Esm6 Stuart was sent by the Guises to win the boy king back to the French alliance. Temporarily at least he succeeded. He was created earl and afterwards duke of Lennox, and an in- strument of his, James Stewart, was made earl of Arran. Morton was seized, and on the charge of complicity with Darnley's murder was condemned to death, and exe- cuted on 2 June 1581.
Lennox had attempted to disarm the hos- tility of the clergy by professing himself a protestant. He soon found it impossible to overcome their suspicions, and the conflict between himself and the ministers came to a head in 1582, when he induced James to appoint Robert Montgomery to the vacant bishopric of Glasgow. The general assembly,
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with Andrew Melville at its head, resisted, and before long many of the Scottish no- bility, indignant at the predominance of a favourite, joined the party of the ministers. The result was the so-called Raid of Ruth ven. On 22 Aug. 1582 James was seized by the Earl of Gowrie and his allies. Though he was treated with all outward respect, he was compelled to conform to the will of his captors and to issue a proclamation against Lennox and Arran. Before the end of the year Lennox retired to Paris, where he shortly afterwards died. Arran was for the present excluded from power.
James was now in his seventeenth year, a precocious youth, whose character was developed early under the stress of contend- ing factions. His position called on him to continue the policy of Morton — on the one hand, to reduce to submission both the nobles and the clergy ; and on the other, to cultivate friendship with England, which might lead to the maintenance of his claim to the Eng- lish throne after Elizabeth's death. If he had attempted to carry out this policy with a strong hand he would probably have failed ignominiously. As it was, he succeeded far better than a greater man would have done. He was, it is true, inordinately vain of his own intellectual acquirements and intolerant of opposition, but he was possessed of con- siderable shrewdness and of a desire to act reasonably. Moreover, in seeking to build up the royal authority he had more than personal objects in view. He regarded it as a moderating influence exercised for the good of his subjects, and employed to keep at bay both the holders of extreme and exclusive theories like the presbyterian clergy, and the heads of armed factions like the Scottish nobles. The love of peace which was so characteristic of him thus attached itself in his mind to his natural tendency to magnify his office. His life, though his language was sometimes coarse, was decidedly pure, so that he did not come into conflict with the presbyterian clergy on that field of morality on which they had obtained their final vic- tory over his mother. On the other hand, there was a want of dignity about him. If he had not that extreme timidity with which he has often been charged, he certainly shrank from facing dangers ; and this shrinking was allied in early life with a habit of cautious fencing with questioners, without much re- gard for truth, which was the natural out- come of his position among hostile parties. Add to this that he was to the end of his life impatient of the intellect ual labour needed for the mastery of details, and therefore never stepped forward with a complete policy of
his own, and it can be easily understood how, though he was never the directing force in politics, he was able by throwing himself on one side or the other to contribute not a little to his special object, the establishment of peace under the monarchy.
James in the custody of the raiders pro- fessed to have discovered the enormity of Lennox's conduct, and the obvious explana- tion is that he spoke otherwise than he thought. It is not, however, quite impossible that explanations given to him on one point may have changed his feelings towards Len- nox. Lennox had been the channel through which he had received a proposal for associ- ating his mother with himself in the sove- reignty over Scotland, and some progress had been made in the affair. Objections made to the scheme by his new guardians, on the ground that by accepting it he would dero- gate from the sufficiency of his own title to the crown, would be likely to sink into his. mind ; and it is certain that when Bowes, the English ambassador, attempted to gain a sight of the papers relating to the proposed association, the young king baffled all his inquiries. (For a harsher view of James's conduct, see BURTON, Hist, of Scotland, p. 458.)
James I in any case did not like being under the control of his captors, and this dislike was quickened by an equally natural dislike of the presbyterian clergy, who under the guidance of Andrew Melville put for- ward extreme pretensions to meddle with all affairs which could in any way Ibe brought into connection with religion. /The Duke of Guise, who wanted to draw James back to an alliance with France, sent him six horses as a present. An alliance with France meant hostility to protestantism. The horses, there- fore, in the eyes of the ministers, covered an attack on religion, and twq__of their numjjer'tu were sent to remonstrate with the king/ James promised submission, but kept toe horses. On 27 June 1583 he slipped away from Falkland and threw himself into St. Andrews, where he was supported by Huntly and Argyll, together with other noblemen hostile to Gowrie and to the other raiders. There were always personal quarrels enough among Scottish nobles to account for any divisions among them ; but the leading differ- ence was hostility to the rising power of royalty on the one side, and hostility to the clergy on the other.
James had now placed himself in the hands of those who were hostile to the clergy. Of course the clergy lectured him on what he had done, and James, knowing that the lords from whom he had escaped were
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friendly to Elizabeth, wrote to the Duke of Guise in approbation of a design for setting his own mother free, and for establishing the joint right of her and himself to the Eng- lish crown (James to the Duke of Guise, 9 Aug. 1583, FROUDE, xi. 592). James soon recalled Arran to favour. Gowrie and his allies, anticipating evil, made a dash at Stir- ling Castle. They were anticipated by Arran, and most of them fled to England. Arran was made chancellor. Melville was ordered into confinement in the castle of Blackness ; but he too succeeded in escaping to England.
In February 1584 James made fresh over- tures to the Duke of Guise, and even wrote to the pope, holding out no expectation that he intended to change his religion, but ask- ing the pope to support his mother and himself against Elizabeth (ib. xi. 637-40). James was himself always in favour of a middle course in politics and religion. He had no love for either papal or presbyterian despotism. Before long Arran took advan- tage of James's greatest moral weakness, his love of pleasure and his dislike of business. He persuaded James to amuse himself with hunting instead of attending the meetings of the council, and to receive information of affairs of state from Arran alone. Arran made use of his master's confidence to entrap the Earl of Gowrie into a confession of trea- son, on promise that it should not be used against him, and then had him condemned to death and executed (BEtrcE, ' Observations on the Life and Death of William, Earl of Gowrie,' in Archtsoloffia, vol. xxxiii.) [see RiTTHVEir, WILLIAM, first EARL OF GOWRIE].
James's subserviency to the base and ar- rogant Arran was, far more than his subser- viency to Esme Stuart, an indication of the most mischievous defect in his character. It was not that James weakly took his views of men and things from his favourites. He thought very badly of Gowrie, and was glad that Arran should assail him ; but he took no pains to investigate the points at issue for him- self, or to understand the character and mo- tives of those with whom he had to deal. His character at this time is admirably painted by a French agent, Fontenay: ' He is wonderfully clever, and for the rest, he is full of honourable ambition, and has an excellent opinion of himself. Owing to the terrorism under which he has been brought up, he is timid with the great lords, and seldom ventures to contra- dict them ; yet his especial anxiety is to be thought hardy and a man of courage. . . . He dislikes dances and music and amorous talk, and curiosity of dress and courtly trivialities. . . . He speaks, eats, dresses, and plays like a boor, and he is no better in the company of
Avonien. He is never still for a moment, but walks perpetually up and down the room, and his gait is sprawling and awkward ; his voice is loud and his words sententious. He prefers hunting to all other amusements, and will be six hours together on horseback. . . . His body is feeble, yet he is not delicate ; in a word, he is an old young man. . . . He is prodigiously conceited, and he underrates other princes. He irritates his subjects by indiscreet and violent attachments. He is idle and careless, too easy, and too much given to pleasure, particularly to the chase, leaving his affairs to be managed by Arran, Montrose, and his secretary. . . . He told me that, whatever he seemed, he was aware of everything of consequence that was going on. He could afford to spend time in hunting, for that when he attended to business he could do more in an hour than others could do in a dav ' (Letter of Fontenay to Nau, in FROUDE, xL467).
It was not in James's power to maintain Arran in authority long. The nobles and the clergy were alike hostile to the favourite. Circumstances soon involved James in a policy which drew him in another direction. A crisis was approaching in the struggle between the two great forces into which Europe was divided, and of these forces the representatives in Britain were Elizabeth and Mary. Mary hoped to make her son an instrument in her designs, and had for that object favoured the rise successively of Lennox and Arran. James thought far too much of himself and of his crown to accept the subordinate position which was assigned to him, and of filial affection there could be no question, as he had never seen his mother since he was an infant. He entered into communication, through a rising favourite, the Master of Gray, with Queen Elizabeth, and though Arran took part in these ne- gotiations, their tendency was manifestly hostile to himself. In April 1585 an Eng- lish ambassador, Edward Wotton, arranged terms with James. He was to have a pen- sion of 5,000/. a year, and to ally himself with England. Then there was a disturbance on the border, in which Lord Russell was killed. Wotton declared that Arran was implicated in the affair, and demanded and obtained his arrest. James had to choose between an alli- ance with England and Elizabeth and an alliance with the Guises and the catholic powers. Not heroically, but with some con- sideration for the interests of his country, as well as his own, he preferred the former. Before the end of July the estates agreed to a protestant league between England and Scotland. James, however, was still per-
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sonally attached to Arran, and, releasing him from confinement, refused Elizabeth's de- mand for his surrender. On this Elizabeth let loose upon him the banished lords of the party of the Ruthven raiders. At the head of eight thousand men they, with loyalty on their lips, secured, on 4 Nov., the person of the king at Stirling. Arran fled, and disappeared from public life.
James soon recovered his equanimity. A treaty with England, which had been authorised by the estates in July 1585, and again by the estates which met in December of the same year, after the fall of Arran, •was pushed on, and a treaty between the crowns was at last signed at Berwick on 2 July 1586. James was to have a pension of 4,000£. a year from Elizabeth, and Eliza- beth engaged, in terms intentionally vague, to do nothing or allow anything to be done to derogate from ' any greatness that might be due to him, unless provoked on his part by manifest ingratitude.'
James's alliance with Elizabeth and pro- testantism necessarily brought with it a com- plete breach with his mother and her catholic allies. Mary, foreseeing what was coming, had disinherited her son in May, as far as any word of hers could disinherit him, and had bequeathed her dominions to Philip II of Spain (ib. xii. 233, 234). The discovery of the Babington conspiracy followed. The be- quest to Philip having come to light, Eliza- beth took care that James should be informed of it. On this James declared that, though ' it cannot stand with his honour to be a con- senter to take his mother's life,' he would not otherwise interfere in her favour (the Master of Gray to Archibald Douglas, 8 Sept. 1586, MURDIX, p. 568). The English au- thorities gathered from this letter that he would not interfere even if his mother were put to death.
Sentence of death having been pronounced on Mary on 25 Oct. 1586, James thought it time to protest, and authorised his ambassadors in England to intercede with Elizabeth. On 8 Feb. 1587 he despatched the Master of Gray and Sir Robert Melville to England with the same object ; but he took care not to instruct them to use anything like a threat, which, indeed, he was hardly in a position to carry into effect. Still, there were people about him who wanted him to throw in his lot with his mother and the Catholic League, and, though he does not seem deliberately to have bargained for the recognition of his title to the English succession as the price of his surrender of his mother's life, his pressing the matter at such a time showed how little chivalry or even respect for de-
cency there was in his nature (Letters of the Master of Gray, MTJRDIST, pp. 569, 571,573).
I In Scotland itself the clergy were bitterly opposed to any intervention on Mary's be- half, and when James ordered the ministers to pray for his mother, ' they refused to do it in the manner he would have it to be done — that is, by condemning directly or indirectly the proceedings of the queen of England and their estates against her, as of one innocent of the crimes laid to her charge.' James then ordered Adam- son, archbishop of St. Andrews, to make the prayers ; but when Adamson appeared in the church he found his place occupied by one of the hostile ministers, John Cowper, who only gave way at the express order of the king. James afterwards had to explain that he had only bidden the ministers to pray for the enlightenment of his mother, and ' that the sentence pronounced against her might not take place ' (CALDERWOOD, iv. 606, 607). Mary was executed on 8 Feb. 1586-7, and James had no difficulty in reconciling himself to the event. The Master of Gray was con- demned to death, partly on the charge that he had urged the English ministers to put the queen to death, though he had been sent to prevent that catastrophe. His sentence was, however, changed to that of banishment [see GRAY, PATRICK, sixth LORD GRAY].
On 19 June 1587 James reached the age of twenty-one. He celebrated the event by an attempt to reconcile the feuds between the nobility by making the bitterest enemies
! walk through the streets of Edinburgh hand
j in hand. In July the estates passed an act revoking all grants made to the injury of the crown during the king's nonage.
In 1588 the approach of the Spanish Ar- mada threw Scotland as well as England into consternation. In opposition to the Earl of Huntly in the north and to Lord Maxwell on the western borders, James took his stand against Spain. He rejected the demand of Huntly that he should change his officers, and when Maxwell attempted resistance he marched against him and reduced him to submission (ib. iv. 677, 678). The Armada
| was ruined before Scotland could be affected by its proceedings.
The bequest of the Scottish crown by Mary to Philip II had probably done more than anything else to wean James from his reliance on favourites like Lennox and Arran, who had been in the confidence of the catho- lic powers of the continent ; and his know- ledge that his chance of succession to the English crown would be endangered if he placed himself in opposition to Elizabeth, drew him in the same direction.
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Ever since 1585 negotiations had been in progress for a marriage between James and Anne, the second daughter of Frederick II, king of Denmark. These negotiations had been hampered by the objections of Eliza- beth ; but James resolved to persevere, and the marriage was celebrated by proxy at Copenhagen on 20 Aug. 1589. The young queen was, however, driven by a storm to Norway, and James, impatient of delay, set sail from Leith on 22 Oct. to see what had become of her. He found her at Opslo, near the site of the modern Christiania, where the pair were married on 23 Nov. The winter was spent in Denmark, and on 21 April 1590 James and his queen sailed for Scotland, landing at Leith on 1 May [see ANNE OF DENMARK].
The old problem of dealing at the same time with the nobles and the clergy awaited James on his return, and it was perhaps the success with which he had tided over the danger from the Armada which threw him this time, to some extent, on the side of the clergy. In August 1590 he delivered a speech in the general assembly in which he praised the Scottish at the expense of other protestant churches (ib. v. 106). James was at this time thoroughly in accord with the clergy in mat- ters of doctrine, but he was constantly bicker- ing with them on account of their interference with his personal actions. Yet in 1592 he consented to an act of parliament, said to have been promoted by his chancellor, Mait- land of Thirlestane, annulling the j urisdiction of bishops and establishing the presbyterian system of discipline in all its fulness. The lawyers, of whom Maitland was a fair repre- sentative, gave warm support to James's no- tions of establishing order through the royal authority, j ust as the French lawyers did when the French monarchy was struggling with feudal anarchy in the middle ages.
From the end of 1591 James suffered from personal attacks directed against him by Francis Stewart, a nephew of his mother's third husband, to whom he had given the title of Earl of Bothwell [see HEPBURN, FRANCIS STEWART]. James had no armed force at his disposal, and was at the mercy of any nobleman who could gather his fol- lowers, unless he could rouse other noble- men to take his part. How much unruli- ness this implied was seen when letters of fire and sword were given to the Earl of Huntly to suppress Bothwell after his at- tack on Holyrood House. He did not sup- press Bothwell, but he used his powers to attack and slay the Earl of Moray, a per- sonal enemy of his own. Popular rumour ascribed the contrivance of the slaughter to
James, on the ground that 'the bonny Earl of Moray ' was ' the Queen's luve.' For this scandal there appears to have been no founda- tion, but popular opinion in Edinburgh was much excited against the king, as Huntly was the leader of the catholic nobility, and regarded in the capital with deep suspicion. James had to send for some of the ministers, and to protest that he had no more to do with Moray's death than David had to do with the slaughter of Abner by Joab (ib. v. 145).
James was doubtless wise in refusing to levy war, as the clergy wished him to do, against Huntly and the other powerful Ro- man catholic nobles, whose strength was too great to be easily shaken, and who might, if pushed hard, throw themselves into the hands of foreign states ; but he could hardly con- ceal the truth that he looked on these very Roman catholic nobles as useful allies against the clergy themselves. As to foreign affairs, James held, in opposition to the clergy, the opinion that it was wise to cultivate the civil friendship of Roman catholic govern- ments ; but partly because this opinion was obnoxious to the clergy, partly because he thought much more of his own private in- terest in the English succession than of any avowable broad course of policy, he had to carry out his ideas in this respect by secret intrigues, which whenever they came to light increased the general distrust of his character.
Such an intrigue there had lately been carried on with the king of Spain by Lord Semple and his cousin, Colonel Semple (BtrR- TON, Hist, of Scotland, vi. 54, n. 1), and in 1592 Scottish protestants were frightened by the so-called ' Spanish blanks,' or blank papers, signed by Huntly and others, apparently to be filled up with letters addressed to the king of Spain, inviting him, as was believed, to send an army to be used in an attack on England. Moreover, James himself in 1593 published certain letters of a dangerous ten- dency, addressed for the most part to the Duke of Parma (PiTCAiRN, Criminal Trials, i. 317), and, though he actually marched against the northern lords, the clergy com- plained that he did not push home the ad- vantages which he gained.
James's difficulty with the clergy about the northern earls remained a cause of irrita- tion. In 1594 he again marched against Huntly, and had pressed him so hard that on 19 March 1595 Huntly and other lords left Scotland [see GORDON, GEORGE, sixth EARL and first MARQUIS OF HUNTLT] ; but James did not proceed to declare the lands of Huntly and his allies forfeited, which was what the ministers wanted. James's finan- cial condition was at the same time deplorable,
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and early in 1596 (CALDERWOOD, vi. 393) he appointed a committee, the members of which, being eight in number, were known as the Octavians, to improve his revenue. The Oc- tavians pursued their work for about a year and a half, but they failed to increase the revenue of the crown to any appreciable ex- tent. Their appointment irritated the clergy, as ' some of the number were suspected of papistry' (ib. vi. 394). In August 1596 a convention of estates was held at Falkland, at which, in the teeth of the protests of Andrew Melville, the most pertinacious of the presbyterian ministers, it was resolved that the exiled lords should be called home, ' the king and the kirk being satisfied ' (ib. vi. 438). Andrew Melville came over, unbidden, to Falkland* to testify in the name of ' the king, Christ Jesus, and his kirk' against these proceedings, and in September, an assembly being held at CuparFife, a deputation of four ministers was sent to Falkland to remonstrate with the king. James told them that their assembly was ' without warrant and seditious.' On this Andrew Melville broke in, telling James that he was ' but God's silly [i.e. weak] vassal,' and in outspoken language upheld the right of the clergy to tell him the truth about his own conduct (JAMES MELVILLE, Diary, pp. 368-70).
The position of the kirk became more difficult to defend when, on 19 Oct., the Countess of Huntly offered, in the presbytery of Moray, on behalf of her husband, that he would be ready to make his submission, Huntly himself having by that time returned to Scotland, and being in hiding in his own district [see GORDON, GEORGE, sixth EAEL and first MARQUIS OF HIJNTLY].
But the ministers' sermons increased in bitterness, and on 16 Dec. the four ministers who served Edinburgh were ordered to leave the town (CALDEEWOOD, v. 540), and seventy- four of the Edinburgh burgesses were to share the same fate. Consequently, there was on 17 Dec. a tumult in Edinburgh, which was put down without difficulty. On the 18th James went off to Linlithgow, leaving behind him a proclamation announcing that in con- sequence of the tumult he had removed the courts of justice from Edinburgh, which was no longer a fit place for their peaceful labours. The announcement cooled the ardour of the townsmen in defence of the clergy. During the king's absence the ministers, especially Robert Bruce, had been violent in their in- j vectives ; after which Bruce and the more outspoken of his colleagues, hearing that the magistrates had orders to commit them to prison to await their trial, took refuge in England. On 1 Jan. 1597 James returned to
Edinburgh completely master of the situa- tion (ib. v. 514-21 ; SPOTISWOOD, iii. 32-5). In the course of the year he obtained the re- storation of Huntly and the northern earls, on condition of their complete submission to the kirk, and their hypocritical acceptance of its religion and discipline.
With a view to reconciling the preten- sions of the church and state, James astutely summoned an assembly to meet at Perth on 29 Feb. 1597. The Scottish clergy were poor, and as travelling was expensive, assemblies were always most fully attended by those ministers who lived in the neighbourhood of the place of meeting. The northern clergy would therefore be in a majority at Perth, and they would be unwilling to displease the powerful Roman catholic northern earls, or were themselves less inclined to high presby- terian views than were the ministers of Fife and the Lothians.
James having obtained a decision in his favour on the question whether the assem- bly, having been convened by royal authority, was lawfully convened, proposed thirteen queries, to which he obtained satisfactory replies. The answers limited the claim ot the clergy to denounce persons by name from the pulpit, and forbade them to find fault with the king's proceedings unless they had first sought a remedy in vain. Moreover, the king was to have the right of proposing to future assemblies any changes he thought desirable in the external government of the church. Speaking broadly, the result of this assembly was to establish constitutional re- lations between the king and the clergy, thereby cutting at the root of the theory of ' two kingdoms,' which Melville had pro- pounded. Of course Melville and his allies denounced the meeting at Perth as no true and free assembly of the kirk (CALDERWOOD, v. 606-21; MELVILLE, Diary, pp. 403-14; Book of the Universal Kirk, p. 889).
James, having thus felt his way, gathered anotfier assembly at Dundee in May, and ac- cepted a proposal for the appointment of cer- tain ministers as commissioners of the church, authorised to confer from time to time with the king on church affairs. During the re- mainder of the year everything seemed set- tling down into peace : the Edinburgh clergy were allowed to reoccupy their pulpits ; the northern earls were restored; nothing was heard of foreign intrigue or domestic disorder.
The next step was to bring the church into constitutional relations with parliament. Doubtless by agreement between James and the new commissioners of the church, a peti- tion was presented to the parliament which met on 13 Dec. 1597, asking that the church.
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might have representatives of its own in par- liament. Parliament, however, was very much under the control of the nobles, and replied with a counter-proposition — which it embodied in an act (Acts ofParl. of Scotland, iv. 130) — that such ministers ' as at any time his Majesty shall please to provide to the office, place, title, and dignity of ane bishop, abbot, or other prelate,' should have votes in parliament. Nothing imported the allowance of any spiritual jurisdiction to the prelates, though a wish was expressed in the act that the king should treat with the assembly on the office to be exercised by them ' in their spi- ritual policy and government of the church.' James had therefore to choose between throw- ing in his lot with the old nobility, who wanted posts and dignities for their younger sons, and the new clerical democracy, which he had discovered to be, after all, less liable than he had once feared to be led away by the extreme zealots.
For some months James seems to have hoped to follow the latter course. On 7 March 1598 an assembly met at Dundee. There was the usual amount of manoeuvring on the part of James, and Andrew Melville was excluded by an unworthy trick. The assembly agreed, though only by a small majority, that fifty- one representatives of the church should sit in parliament, and that a convention of a select number of ministers and doctors should decide on the mode of their election, the de- cision of the members only to be binding in case of unanimity. The convention met at Falkland on 25 July 1598, and decided that each representative should be nominated by the king out of a list of six ; but the conven- tion was not unanimous, and the question •was thus relegated to the next general as- sembly (CALDERWOOD, vi. 17).
In the autumn of 1598 James adopted the opposite idea of keeping the clergy in order by nominees of his own. How completely this alternative policy soon took possession of James's mind appears from the 'Basilikon Doron,' a book written by him as a guide for the conduct of his eldest son, Henry, when he became a king. This book, which, though not published till 1599, was in exist- ence in manuscript in October 1598 (Nichol- son's Advices, October 1598 ; State Papers, Scotl. Ixiii. 50), is full of hard hits at those ministers who meddled with state affairs, and acted as tribunes of the people against the authority of princes. To remedy this disorder he advised his son to ' entertain and advance the godly, learned, and modest men of the ministry . . . and by their provision to bishoprics and benefices' to banish the con- ceited party; and also to 're-establish the
old institution of three estates in parliament, which cannot otherwise be done.'
In another book, ' The True Law of Free Monarchies,' published anonymously in Sep- tember 1598 (CALDERWOOD, v. 727), James set forth more distinctly his theory of govern- ment. Kings were appointed by God to govern, and their subjects to obey; but it was the duty of a king, though he was him- self above the law, to conform his own actions to the law for example's sake, unless for some beneficial reason. Further, though subjects might not rebel against a wicked king, God would find means to punish him, and it might be that the punishment would take the form of a rebellion.
The chief resistance to the crown at this time came from the clerical zealots. In No- vember 1599 James held a conference of ministers at Holyrood, urging them to con- sent to the appointment of representatives of the church, to hold seats in parliament for life, and to give to their representatives the name of bishops. James's proposal was, how- ever, rejected (ib. v. 746), and though an as- sembly held at Montrose in July 1600 agreed to the appointment of parliamentary repre- sentatives, it limited their appointment to a single year, and tied them down by restric- tions which made them responsible to the assembly for their votes (ib. vi. 17).
In the course of the year James was once more brought into violent collision with the clergy. The Earl of Gowrie and Alexander Ruthven were the sons of the Earl of Gowrie who had been executed early in the reign, and bore a deep grudge against James on account of their father's death. On 5 Aug. 1600 Alexander Ruthven enticed James to his brother's house in Perth, and induced him to come into a chamber in a tower, locking the doors behind him. It is probable that the intention of the brothers was to keep the king there, and then, after persuading his followers to disperse by telling them that he had ridden off, to put him in a boat on the Tay and to carry him off by water to the gloomy and isolated Fast Castle, on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, where they might murder him or dispose of him at their pleasure. (The whole story is discussed in BURTON'S Hist, of Scotland, vi. 90.) The plan was, however, frustrated by the king's struggles, in the course of which he contrived to reach a window and to call his followers to his help. The arrival of a few of them on the scene was followed by a fray, in which Gowrie and his brother were both slain by a young courtier, James Ramsay. The 5th of August was appointed to be held as a day of annual thanksgiving for James's escape.
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But five ministers refused to accept his story as true, or to express their belief in it in the pulpit. After trying his best to convince them of their error, he threatened them with punishment, and finally drove the most per- sistent of them, Robert Bruce, into exile.
This conflict with the ministers, by whom the Gowrie family was regarded as specially devoted to the defence of the presbyterian system, seems to have strengthened James in his resolution to meet the resolutions of the assembly of Montrose by the direct ap- pointment of three bishops in November 1600. These bishops had seats in parliament, but they in no way represented the church, as the representatives whose appointment had been suggested at Montrose would certainly have done. More regrettable was the king's settled hostility to Gowrie's brothers and sisters. Two of the sisters were at once turned out of the queen's service, and two Ruthven boys, brothers of Gowrie, had to take refuge in England, where they did not venture to appear in public.
James's eye had for some time been fixed on the English succession. His hereditary right, combined with his protestantism, gave to his claim a weight which left him the only com- petitor with any chance of acceptance. Under these circumstances a man of common sense in James's position would have patiently waited till the succession was open. But James, unable to restrain himself, engaged in a succession of intrigues to secure what was virtually already his own. He had many counsellors who were anxious to bring about an understanding between him and the pope, thereby to secure the assistance of the Roman catholics in England as well as in Scotland. To this James made no objection, though he refused to sign a letter in which the pope was addressed as 'Holy Father.' In 1599 a letter so addressed was carried to Rome by Edward Drummond, in favour of the ap- pointment of William Chisholm III [q. v.], the Scottish bishop of "Vaison, to the cardi- nalate, and this letter bore James's signature ; but it was subsequently, and, as there is every reason to believe, truthfully asserted by him that the signature had been surreptitiously obtained from him by James Elphinstone [ q. v.], his secretary of state (GARDINER, Hist, of England, 1603-42, i. 81, ii. 31). James also entered into secret negotiations with prominent English statesmen and courtiers, among them, fortunately for his prospects, Sir Robert Cecil, Elizabeth's secretary of state, who did his best to keep him patient (BRUCE, Correspondence of James VI, Camden Soc.)
At last, on 24 March 1603, Elizabeth died, and James was at once proclaimed in Eng-
land by the title of James I, king of Englandr though he subsequently styled himself, with- out parliamentary authority, king of Great Britain. He left Edinburgh for his new kingdom on 5 April. Coming from a poor country, he fancied that the wealth and power of an English king was far greater than it really was, and before long he scattered titles and grants of money and land with unjusti- fiable profusion. As he passed through Newark he ordered a cutpurse to be hanged without trial, fancying that the royal autho- rity, so hampered in Scotland, must be with- out limit in England. As a matter of fact, the tide of public opinion in the two countries was making in opposite directions. In Scot- land it was favourable to the creation of a monarchy somewhat after the French type, in opposition to the nobles and clergy. In. England, all that a strong monarchy could do had been accomplished, and opinion was therefore in favour of imposing restrictions upon the existing royal authority.
The first test of James's statesmanship lay in the selection of his councillors. Elizabeth had filled her council with representatives of all parties. James kept those whose opinions agreed with his own. He was himself for peace, and he consequently dismissed Raleigh as a partisan of war, and kept Cecil, who was ready to promote peace. He ordered the cessation of hostilities with Spain, though peace was not actually concluded till 1604. Cecil remained to the day of his death James's trusted councillor [see CECIL, ROBERT, EARL OF SALISBURY], Raleigh was charged with high treason, and condemned to death, but his sentence was commuted by James to that of imprisonment [see RALEIGH, SIR WALTER]. The first purely political question which confronted James was that of toleration. He had led the English catholics to expect better treatment from him than they had had from Elizabeth ; and though James does not seem to have given any express promise of setting- aside the recusancy laws, he had used lan- guage in writing to the Earl of Northumber- land which implied a disposition to show them reasonable favour (Degli EfFetti to Del Bufalo, July 16-26, Roman Transcripts, Record Office). Cecil, however,- was in favour of the old system, and for some time after James's accession the recusancy fines were still collected. James's language continued favourable, but the action of his govern- ment did not respond to his words, and in June a plot for his capture and an enforcedv change of his system of government was dis- covered to have been formed by a catholic priest named Watson, and other catholics. The information which led to the discovery
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had been given by the Jesuit, John Gerard [q. v.], who still hoped much from the king; and on 17 June James, in gratitude, informed Rosny, the French ambassador, of his intention to remit the fines. It was not, however, till 17 July, when a catholic deputa- tion waited on him, that James openly an- nounced that the fines were to be remitted. In August he received assurances from the nuncio in Paris that the pope would do all in his power to keep the catholics obedient subjects of the king, and on this James des- patched Sir James Lindsay to Rome, to ask Pope Clement VIII to send to England a layman to confer with him on the subject of obtaining the excommunication of turbulent catholics.
Unfortunately, James was liable to be led away from a great policy by personal con- siderations. The queen, much to his annoy- ance, was secretly a Roman catholic, and in January 1604 Sir Anthony Standen arrived from Rome with objects of devotion for her. Shortly afterwards James learnt that the pope refused to agree to allow sentence of excommunication to be passed on catholics at the instance of a heretic king, and James, irritated at the failure of his plan, and at the domestic discord, which he attributed to Standen's mission, was at the same time alarmed by the discovery that the number of priests and of catholic converts had greatly increased since the removal of the fines. Though he did not at once reimpose the fines, he issued on 22 Feb. 1604 a proclamation banishing the priests.
The condition of the puritans was forced on James's attention as much as that of the catholics. On his progress from Scotland the so-called Millenary Petition was presented to him, asking, not for permission to hold sepa- rate worship, but for such a permissive modifi- cation in the services of the church as might enable puritan ministers to comply with their obligations without offending their con- sciences. Bacon pleaded in favour of the change, and on 14 Jan. 1604 James met them and the bishops at the Hampton Court con- ference. James was quite ready to agree to changes, and he signified as much in his con- versation with the bishops on the first day. On the second day, however, when four re- presentatives of the puritan clergy were ad- mitted, his old antagonism with the Scottish clergy influenced his mind, and though, in the actual discussion, he took up a position as mediator between the parties, the unlucky use of the word 'presbyters' by one of the puritans sent him ofl' into more scolding. ' If this be all they have to say,' he declared of the puritans after he had driven them out
of the room, ' I shall make them conform themselves, or I will harry them out of the land.' The phrase of ' No bishop, no king,' became an integral part of his policy.
James, however, did not as yet take refuge in unyielding conservatism. He authorised a new translation of the Bible, and made up his mind to ask the consent of parliament to various alterations in the prayer-book.
The temper of parliament, when it met on 19 March 1604, was not favourable to work in combination with James. The House of Commons not only favoured the whole of the puritan demands, but urged James to abandon his lucrative feudal rights, for what he con- sidered to be an inadequate compensation. It also set itself against a scheme for a union with Scotland which he had much at heart, with the result that on 7 July he prorogued parliament, after administering a good scold- ing to the House of Commons.
Before the end of 1605 the puritan clergy who refused to conform had been expelled from their livings. In 1604 the treaty with Spain was signed, and James talked with the- ambassadors about his desire to marry his eldest son to the eldest daughter of Philip III of Spain. In the ' Basilikon Doron' he had denounced marriages between persons of dif- ferent religions, as harmful to the parties. But he was now especially gratified by being- treated as an equal by the king of Spain, and was perhaps also attracted by a scheme for putting an end to the religious wars which had devastated Europe, by means of the closest possible alliance between himself and Philip.
None the less James deliberately drew back from his policy of conciliating the Eng- lish catholics. His proclamation banishing* the priests (February 1604) was not put in execution for some weeks, but when a bill providing for a stricter course with priests and recusants was offered to him, he gave it the royal assent. Still, however, he re- strained himself from taking actual steps against the catholics. In the summer he talked with an agent of the Duke of Lorraine about the means of converting into reality that ignis fatuus of diplomatic churchmen, the reunion of the churches of Rome and England on terms satisfactory to both (Del Bufalo to Aldobrandino, 11-21 Sept., Roman Transcripts, Record Office). Just at this time, however, judges and juries were con- demning catholics to death, and in September James, who had probably not authorised the action of the judges, again took alarm at the increase of the numbers of the catholics, and issued a commission to banish the priests. In November he ordered the exaction of the
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fines from the wealthiest of the catholic laity, and early in 1605, being annoyed by learning that the pope had taken his loose talk about a reunion of the churches to signify a desire of personal conversion, replied, announcing on 10 Feb. his intention to execute the whole of the recusancy laws.
Long before this severe measure was taken there had grown up in the minds of certain catholics a design to destroy the king and his young sons, by blowing them up with the Houses of Lords and Commons when parlia- ment was next opened [see FAWKES, GUY]. Gunpowder plot, as it was called, was re- vealed to the council on 26 Oct. 1605, and on 3 Nov. the ministers, in informing James of their discovery, took care to allow him to pride himself on being the first to penetrate the secret. In 160G parliament retaliated by a recusancy act of increased severity, though its operation was intended to be modified by a new oath of allegiance, which was to make a distinction in favour of such catholics as re- fused to uphold the power of deposing kings, said to be inherent in the papacy.
The bringing forward of an oath of alle- giance at a time of general exasperation with the catholics was the outcome of the con- ciliatory tendencies of James's mind. In the same spirit he refused to ratify a collection of canons drawn up by convocation in 1606, in which the doctrine of non-resistance was taught, on the ground that obedience was due to the king actually in possession (BISHOP OVERALL, Convocation Book). To this James objected, not merely on the ground that here- ditary right was a better basis of authority than actual possession, but because he denied that tyranny could ever exist by the appoint- ment of God. Although ideas so completely out of accord with all the fanaticisms of the day could never be popular, yet, in this very session of 1606, a rumour that James had been murdered called forth, as soon as it proved to be false, an outburst of enthusiasm in the House of Commons, which took visible form in the grant of a supply of money.
It was not, however, only by living in an intellectual world of his own that James failed to gain a hold on the hearts of English- men. The riotous profusion of his court gave wide offence. In July 1606, when his brother- in-law, Christian IV of Denmark, visited him, ladies who were to act in a dramatic per- formance before the two kings were too drunk to play their parts, and the offence was left unconnected. His own life was a double one. He liked the company of the learned, who could discuss with him questions of theology and of ecclesiastical politics, but he also liked the boon companionship of the
hunting-field ; and though his own life was pure, and his own head, according to his physician's report (MAYERXE,Z)/an/), too hard to be affected by wine, he himself indulged in coarse language, and took no pains to avoid the society of evil-livers.
James's anxiety to pursue the work of as- similation between Scotland and England now led him to continue his work of reducing the independence of the Scottish clergy. For some years after his appointment in Scotland of bishops without jurisdiction he had appa- rently abandoned all attempts to bring the ministers under a real episcopacy, and after his removal to England had contented him- self with prohibiting the meetings of general assemblies. Against this the more active clergy rebelled, and on 2 July 1605 nineteen ministers met at Aberdeen and declared themselves a lawful assembly, though they prorogued themselves to September. James forbade the meeting, and ordered the prose- cution of the leading ministers who had been present at Aberdeen, and who subsequently declined to submit to the judgment of a civil court. In 1606 six ministers, after a trial in which every species of unfairness was practised, had a verdict recorded against them, and were sent into perpetual banish- ment, while eight others were placed in con- finement. Towards the end of 1606 James, summoning to Linlithgow a body of ministers nominated by himself,obtained from them the concession that the presbyteries and synods should always have a ' constant moderator,' instead of appointing one at each meeting. As the existing bishops were elected as moderators of the presbyteries in which they resided, men got in the habit of seeing them in places of authority, though no formal in- road on the presbyterian system had been made. James owed his success in part to the influence which he had gained over the Scottish nobility by his removal to England. On the one hand, it was no longer in their power to capture him, while, on the other, he had pensions and estates to give away to their younger sons.
James also attempted to bring about a political union between the two countries. He learnt, however, that English prejudice was against the complete union which he would have preferred, and in 1606-7, during the third session of his first parliament, he contented himself with asking for four con- cessions, of which the two most important were freedom of trade between the two coun- tries, and the naturalisation of Scotsmen in England and of Englishmen in Scotland. On both these the House of Commons proved obdurate, and in 1608 James obtained from
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the judges in the exchequer chamber a deci- sion that the post-nati, that is to say Scots- men born after his own accession to the throne of England, were natural subjects of the king of England. At the same time, James's partiality to worthless Scotsmen, if only they were sprightly and active, was shown by the rapid rise in favour of Robert Carr [q. v.], to whom, in January 1609, he granted the estate of Sherborne, which he took away, though not without compensa- tion, from Raleigh.
The other side of James's nature appeared in the controversy in which he engaged with Cardinal Bellarmine. After Gunpowder plot (1605) he published anonymously ' A Dis- course of the Manner of the Discovery of the Powder Treason,' and in February 1606 he published, also anonymously, 'An Apology for the Oath of Allegiance,' in answer to two breves of Paul V, in which the new oath of allegiance was denounced, and also to a letter from Bellarmine to the archpriest Blackwell. This 'Apology' was answered by Bellarmine under the name of one of his chaplains, Mat- thew Tortus, and the answer reached James in October 1608. The view of the matter taken at Rome was that no catholic ought to be asked to swear that the pope had no right to absolve from allegiance to kings. But the controversialists on that side laid greater stress on any thing which might dis- credit their royal antagonist. Tortus had accordingly pointed out that when James was still in Scotland his ministers had held out hopes of his becoming a catholic, and that he had himself written a letter to the pope of that day Recommending the Bishop of Vaison to the cardinalate. James soon obtained from his former secretary, Elphin- stone, now Lord Balmerino, an acknowledg- ment of having foisted that letter on him and hid one of his Scottish favourites, Hay, in a neighbouring room, of which the door was left open, so that the confession might not be without witnesses. James was overjoyed at this proof of his cleverness and innocence (see extracts from the Hatfield MSS. in GARDINER'S Hist, of EngL 1603-42, ii. 33). In 1609 he reissued his ' Apology,' this time with his name attached to it, together with ' A Premonition to all most Mighty Mon- archies, Kings, Free Princes, and States of Christendom,' in which he warned his brother sovereigns of the danger of acknowledging the claims of the papacy to exert authority -over themselves.
James's view of the position of the mon- archy at hoine, as that of a moderating power to avoid conflicts between administra- tive and judicial officers, was thrown into
prominence by the claim of the common law courts to issue prohibitions annulling the action of the ecclesiastical courts. In 1605 Archbishop Bancroft presented to James certain articuli cleri directed against these proceedings, and in November 1607 James, having had an altercation on the subject with Chief-justice Coke, told him ' he thought that the law was founded on reason, and that he and others had reason as well as the judges.' On Coke's argument for the supre- macy of the law, which practically meant the supremacy of the judges, James replied in heat : ' Then I shall be under the law, which it is treason to affirm.' In February 1609 there was a still hotter argument, and in the following July the whole matter was discussed before the king. James expressed his wish to be impartial, but ordered that for the present the issue of prohibitions was to cease.
To maintain the position which he had taken up James needed the strength of popu- larity behind him, and that he had taken no pains to secure. Moreover, his finance was in a deplorable condition, and when he met parliament for its fourth session, in 1610, Cecil, who was now earl of Salisbury and lord treasurer, as well as secretary of state, attempted to choke the deficit by what was known as the Great Contract, a bargain with the commons by which the king was to sacrifice his feudal revenue, most of which arose from the court of wards, and to receive in return 200,000/. a year. JThe contract was agreed to in general terms, on the understand- ing that parliament was to meet again in November to consider the manner in which the new grant was to be raised. The' House of Commons would not have proceeded so far as this unless James had been concilia- tory in another matter. In 1606 the court of exchequer had decided in Bate's case that the crown had a right to levy impositions — that is to say, customs duties — without a parliamentary grant, and in 1608 Salisbury, taking ad vantage of this decision, had ordered the levy of new impositions bringing in about 70,000/. a year. In 1610 James agreed to abandon the most burdensome of them, re- ducing his income from that source, and to consent to a bill declaring illegal all further levying of impositions without consent of parliament, provided that they would confirm by a parliamentary grant those impositions to which he now laid claim. This, too, was left over to the winter session. When that arrived a dispute broke out between the king and the commons on the Great Contract, which was therefore abandoned. Warm lan- guage was used in the house, and on 9 Feb.
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1611 James dissolved the first parliament of liis reign.
It is possible that a feeling of weakness consequent on this breach Avith the House of Commons had something to do with James's harshness towards his cousin, Arabella Stuart, who in 1610 married William Seymour. Both husband and wife had some sort of claim to the throne, and James, who was determined that no child should be born of this marriage to contest the claims of his own offspring, imprisoned the bride, and kept -her in confinement till her death [see ARA- BELLA].
In dealing with the continental powers there was the same absence of strength, con- joined with the same desire to mediate be- tween extreme parties. He had done his best to bring about a peace between Spain and the Dutch republic, and on 16 June 1608 he agreed to a defensive league with the latter, binding him to give direct mili- tary assistance if Spain attacked the re- public after peace had been made. When peace appeared to be unattainable, James joined the French government in recom- mending both parties to agree to a long truce, which was ultimately signed at Antwerp on 30 March (April 9) 1609.
The strife which threatened to break out in Germany in 1609 in consequence of a dis- puted succession in Cleves and Juliers, and which threatened to bring about a general European war, caused James some trouble. After the murder of Henry IV he consented to pay four thousand English infantry, which were at that time in the Dutch service, to be employed under Sir Edward Cecil, in com- bination with a Dutch force, to rescue Juliers from the Archduke Leopold, in order to place it in protestant hands. Juliers was captured on 22 Aug. (1 Sept.), and James then did his best to negotiate a final settlement of the dispute ; but he found it impossible to induce any of the claimants to abate their preten- sions, and the annoyance which he felt led him to seek for the maintenance of peace by allying himself with the catholic powers.
The policy on which James thus deliberat ely entered led to the worst errors of his reign. It was, indeed, not altogether a new one. The talk about a marriage between his eldest son Henry, who was created Prince of "Wales in 1610, and a Spanish princess had never quite died out. When a Spanish ambassador pro- posed a marriage between him and the eldest daughter of Philip III, James sent Sir John Digby to Madrid in 1611 with instructions to treat for the alliance. No doubt James's quarrel with the House of Commons and his consequent impecuniosity made him eager for
a rich marriage portion ; but when Digby arrived in Madrid, and found that the Infanta Anne was already engaged to Louis XIII of France, and that her younger sister Maria, whom the Spaniards proposed to substitute for her, was not yet six years old, James let the matter drop. He was, however, still anxious to be on good terms with the fol- lowers of both religions on the continent, and before the end of 1611 he was negotiat- ing for the hand of a Tuscan princess for his son, and had engaged to marry his daughter Elizabeth to Frederick V, the leader of the German Calvinists. In following up the latter alliance he entered on 28 March into a defensive alliance with the protestant union of German princes.
On 24 May 1612 Salisbury's death de- prived James of what was, on the whole, a steadying influence. James, thinking it a fitting moment to assert his own authority, put the treasury in commission, and declared his intention of being his own secretary of state. Unlike Louis XIV when he an- nounced a similar resolve on the death of Mazarin, he threw the influence which ought to have been his own into the hands of a favourite, Carr, whom he had created vis- count Rochester, but he retained the general direction of policy. On 6 Nov. 1612 his eldest son, Henry, died of typhoid fever (XORMAN MOOEE, M.D., TJie Illness and Death of Henry, Prince of Wales}, and on 14 Feb. 1613 his daughter Elizabeth was married to the elector palatine. For a time James in- clined to the continental protestant s. At his request the Dutch, on 6 May, signed a defensive treaty with the union, and a cor- responding coolness between himself and Spain was the natural result.
During these years of fluctuating foreign policy James had at last secured the hold on the Scottish church which he had long coveted. In 1610 the assembly at Glasgow consented to the introduction of episcopacy, and on 21 Oct. of that year three Scottish bishops received consecration at the hands of English prelates. In Ireland, after the flight of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel and the rising of O'Dogherty, James had favoured the colonisation of Ulster by English and Scottish immigrants, a measure which, what- ever might be its ultimate results, gave him for the moment a stronger hold upon Ireland than any of his predecessors had had. This increased power, however, brought an increase of expense, and to provide for this he insti- tuted the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay 1,080/. to be employed in keeping thirty foot-soldiers in Ireland for three years. The idea that James made a personal profit by
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the sale of baronetcies is erroneous. As soon as the need was past in Ireland, he invariably repaid to the new baronets the sums at which they were assessed (Receipt and Issue Books of the Exchequer, Record Office).
Before the end of 1613 increasing financial difficulties turned James's thoughts in the ction of summoning another parliament, vain Bacon reminded him of the necessity of having a popular policy if he was to con- ciliate popular feeling. When the new par- i liament met in 1614, James offered merely to l repeat on a smaller scale the policy of bar- gaining with the House of Commons which had been at the bottom of the failure of the Great Contract in 1610. He also, through certain influential personages known as the Undertakers, attempted to influence the elec- tions. The House of Commons, instead of voting subsidies in return for small conces- sions, declared the impositions to be illegal, and asked for the restoration of the non- conforming clergy. After a short session James dissolved his second parliament, which, as it passed no acts, is known in history as the Addled parliament.
The dissolution took place on 7 June. Before he ventured on the step he had sent for Sarmiento, the very able Spanish am- bassador, who was afterwards known as the Count of Gondomar, asking him whether he could depend on the support of the king of Spain. It was a new and by no means a fortunate departure in James's English career, though it was in accordance with his readi- ness to rely on foreign aid when he was king of Scotland alone. Hitherto he had sought a good understanding with Spain to support his continental policy ; he now sought it to support him against his own subjects.
As the Spanish alliance was to be sealed by a Spanish marriage between James's sur- viving son, Charles, and the Infanta Maria, Digby was sent back to Spain to see what •chance there was of the scheme proving ac- ceptable there. A Spanish bride might bring with her a considerable portion. In 'the meanwhile James was in great extremities. He sent to the Tower four of the most violent of the opposition in the late House of Com- mons. To Sarmiento he unbosomed himself of his grievance in having to tolerate a par- liament so disorderly, and then, on the ground that fresh troubles were breaking out in Cleves and Juliers, he appealed to the country to make him voluntary gifts under the name of a benevoknce, an appeal which, after con- siderable pressure from the government, re- sulted in bringing in about 66,000£, none of which was spent in assisting protestants in Cleves and Juliers.
The scission which was declaring itself between James and his subjects led to in- creased severity on one side and to increased outspokenness on the other. In 1614 Oliver St. John was sentenced to fine and imprison- ment for denying in violent and unbecoming language the legality of the benevolence, though his punishment was remitted on his acknowledging his offence. In the same year a clergyman named Oliver Peacham [q. v.] was committed to the Tower for having written, though he had not preached or pub- lished, a sermon in which he attacked James's government. Peacham's affair led to a new stage in the dispute between Coke and the king. The judges had been hitherto con- sidered the fit counsellors of the king on questions of law, and in January 1615 James wished to have their advice on legal questions arising out of Peacham's case. At Bacon's recommendation, however, James took the unusual course of ordering that they should be separately consulted, in order to prevent them from being no more than the echo of the overbearing and self-opinionated Coke. Coke, of course, was very angry, and de- livered an opinion as opposed as possible to that which the court lawyers desired to elicit from him.
Moral causes were contributing with poli- tical differences to sap James's position in England. In 1613 his favourite, Rochester, was anxious to marry Frances Howard, wife of the Earl of Essex, and the marriage with Essex was annulled by a commission which James appointed for the purpose. Before the end of 1613 Rochester was married, and created earl of Somerset. By his marriage he became closely allied to the family of Howard, most of the members of which were catholics or semi-catholics, and warmly in favour of the Spanish alliance. The opponents of the Spanish match consequently set themselves against him by putting forward young George Villiers as a rival favourite, and in 1616 had the satisfaction of seeing both the earl and countess convicted of the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury [q. v.] James commuted the death-penalty into one of imprisonment. They were afterwards released, but James never saw either of them again [see CAKR, ROBERT, EARL OF SOMERSET], At the time of the trial James exhibited signs of great anxiety, as if he feared lest Somerset should reveal some dangerous secret. It is probable that his anxiety was caused by his know- ledge that Somerset knew more about his dealings with Spain than he cared to have openly told. The Spanish negotiations, in- deed, were being pushed steadily on, and in 1616 James sent Hay to Paris to break off a
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negotiation which had been previously en- tered on for a marriage between Charles and Chrjstina, the sister of Louis XIII, as a pre- liminary to a more formal procedure in the Spanish treaty.
In the same year James finally settled accounts with Coke, who was now chief justice of the king's bench, and in that capacity assumed a right of interfering with the chancery when it gave a decision in con- travention of one already delivered in the king's bench. At his instigation, too, the judges proceeded to deal with a case relating to commendams, though they had been or- dered by James, through Bacon, to stop the trial till they had spoken to the king. James summoned all the judges before him, and asked them whether they would acknowledge that they ought, in a case which concerned the king, to stay proceedings till he could consult with them. Coke alone refused to submit, and on 30 June was suspended from the chief-justiceship, from which he was ulti- mately dismissed [see BACOX, FRANCIS, and COKE, SIR EDWARD]. On 20 June James had declared in the Star-chamber his views on the relation between the crown and the judges. ' As in the absolute prerogative of the crown,' he said, 'that is no subject for the tongue of a lawyer, nor is it lawful to be disputed. ... It is presumption and high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can do, or say that a king cannot do this or that ; [he must] rest in that which is the king's will revealed in his law.'
Meanwhile James persisted in an unpopular foreign policy. In March 1617 he finally decided upon opening formal negotiations for his son's marriage with the Infanta Maria ; and in the course of the year he charged Digby to carry them on at Madrid [see DIGBY, JOHN, first EARL OP BRISTOL]. In part, at least, he was actuated by his desire of acquir- ing a large marriage portion. For the same reason, no doubt, he in 1616 liberated Raleigh at the request of Villiers, giving him leave to seek a gold mine on the Orinoco, but leav- ing him exposed to the penalty of death pro- nounced on him for treason in 1603 in case of his doing any injury to the lands or sub- jects of the king of Spain [see RALEIGH, SIR WALTER].
At home the most striking feature of court life was James's inordinate fondness for Villiers. who was rapidly promoted in the peerage, till, in 1623, he became duke of Buckingham. James heaped riches on his new favourite, and entrusted him with the patronage of the crown, while he kept the direction of policy in his own hands [see VILLIERS, GEORGE, DUKE OP BUCKINGHAM].
Buckingham soon discovered that James would support him in his quarrels whether he was right 'or wrong, and in 1617 James took his part in a question arising out of a proposed marriage between one of his brothers and Coke's daughter, a marriage to which Bacon was opposed. With James's help Buckingham brought Bacon on his knees.
During the progress of this dispute James was on a visit to Scotland. Not content with the establishment of episcopacy in Scotland, he had come to desire the introduction of some of the rites of the church of England into his native country. In 1614 and 1615 he ordered that all persons in Scotland should receive the communion on Easter-day; and in 1616 he called on an assembly which met at Aberdeen to adopt five articles which he sent down. The communion was to be re- ceived in a kneeling posture ; it was, in cases of sickness, to be administered in private houses ; baptism was, if necessary, to be ad- ministered in the same way ; there were to be days set apart in commemoration of the birth, passion, and resurrection of the Saviour ; and, finally, children were to be brought to the bishop to receive his blessing. Resistance to these proposals at once .declared itself, and James postponed their consideration. He gave, however, no little offence by sending an organ before him to be set up in the chapel at Holyrood, and the force of public opinion compelled him to withdraw an order for the erection of some figures of patriarchs and apostles in the same chapel.
In spite of these preliminary difficulties James was well received in Scotland, where he laid the foundation of future trouble by enforcing kneeling at the reception of the communion on great persons attending the court at Edinburgh. He lectured the nobility on the patriotism that they would show if they surrendered their: heritable jurisdic- tions, and though he attempted in vain to get an act passed acknowledging his own power to determine all matters relating to the external goA'ernment of the church ' with the actions of the archbishops, bishops, and a competent number of the ministry,' he at once claimed the power as inherent in the crown in default of legislation. The best thing that he did was to increase the low stipends of the clergy; but this was afterwards used as a lever to make them subservient. In 1618, after he had himself returned to England, James obtained from an assembly held at Perth an acceptance of his five articles, partly by pressure put upon the ministers by the nobility, but also by threatening them with lowering the increased stipends of those who voted against his wishes.
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In 1618 Raleigh returned from Guiana. Not only had he completely failed in the ob- ject of his search, but his men had burnt a Spanish village. Gondomar complained, and James ordered an inquiry into Raleigh's con- duct. There were legal difficulties in the way of bringing Raleigh to a formal trial, but it was possible to accuse him in public and to allow him to answer in his defence. James, however, preferred to send him to the block on the old sentence of 1603, because he feared lest Raleigh should denounce him as an accomplice of Spain [see RALEIGH, SIB WALTER].
James's project for a Spanish alliance was by this time at a standstill. What the Spaniards wanted was to secure the con- version of England, and when, in May 1618, Digby returned to England, he brought in- formation that Philip was ready to give a marriage portion of 600,000^., on condition that James would promise, among other things, to obtain an act of parliament repeal- ing all laws against the catholics. James neither could nor would do this, though he was prepared to promise to do everything in his own power to alleviate their lot. On 15 July Gondomar left for Spain.
The higher side of this unhappy marriage treaty lay in James's desire to maintain peace with all nations on terms equitable to all alike. In the spring of 1618 he issued a little book named ' The Peacemaker,' much of which, as far as may be judged by its style, was written by Andre wes, some per- haps by Bacon, some by James himself. It was the manifesto of a king who preferred peace to war.
In the course of 1618, besides questioning Raleigh and discussing the Spanish proposals with Gondomar, James was engaged in re- moving] the influence of the Howards from his domestic administration. During this and the following year one Howard after another was, on one pretext or another, deprived of office, ^the result being that all power was practically accumulated in the person of Buckingham. The change was, no doubt, ac- companied by a series of administrative and financial reforms, conducted mainly by Lionel Cranfield [q. v.], afterwards lord treasurer and earl of Middlesex. For the first time in James's reign his receipts nearly balanced his expendi- ture.
About the same time James became in- volved in difficulties connected with the out- break of a revolution in Bohemia, which proved to be the opening scene of the thirty years' war. His attitude towards the con- tending parties was that of a man sincerely desirous of peace, and hopeful of conciliating
adverse interests by a cheap profession of general principles, without real knowledge of the characters of men or of the forces by which his contemporaries were swayed. In Sep- tember he accepted the office of mediator between the Bohemians and their king, the Emperor Matthias, at the request of the Spanish government — a request which was made in the hope that England would thereby be kept from giving material aid to the Bo- hemians. James was thus attracted to the side of Spain, and continued to think the Spanish marriage desirable. In January 1619 he threw cold water on the schemes of his son-in-law, Frederick, the elector paic*u.~ for raising a general conflagration in Ger- many, informing the elector's ambassador, Christopher Dohna, that though he was ready to assist his son-in-law and the other princes of the union in defending themselves against attack, he would not support aggression. In February he despatched Doncaster [see HAY, JAMES, EAEL OF CARLISLE] to Germany to mediate on his behalf, and in April he re- jected a proposal made through De Plessen, one of Frederick's agents, that he should support a plan for giving Bohemia to Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, and for procuring for him the imperial crown in succession to Matthias, who had recently died.
On 2 March 1618-19 the queen died [see ANNE OP DENMARK]. The difference of reli- gion between the pair after Anne became a Roman catholic had for some years been a bar to any close intercourse of affection, and when the queen died James was lying ill at Newmarket. At one time he was thought to be dying, but by the middle of April he was well enough to be moved to Theobalds, and on 1 June appeared in London, where his popularity was still sufficient to gather unusual crowds to attend a thanksgiving ser- mon at Paul's Cross. The Banqueting House at Whitehall, completed in this year by Inigo Jones, was the unfinished beginning of a great palace which James hoped to com- plete.
For the moment all looked hopeful. Spain and France were, in outward show, bidding for his help, and he could flatter himself that his influence was at least strong enough to restrain the ambition of his son-in-law. But in July 1619 James found that not only was Frederick drifting towards interference in Bohemia, but that his own ambassador, Don- caster, approved of Frederick's vague hopes and plans. James refused to countenance these proceedings, but it was not long before he learnt that his optimistic hopes of the restoration of peace in Bohemia were unlikely to be realised. Ferdinand of Styria, a bigoted
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Roman catholic, who had succeeded Matthias in his hereditary dominions, and who counted Bohemia among them, rejected Doncaster's mediation, and on 18 Aug. was elected em- peror at Frankfort. Two days before (on 16 Aug.) Frederick was chosen king of Bo- hemia by the Bohemian Diet. In Septem- ber Dohna arrived in England as Frederick's ambassador, to implore James's assistance in making good this new claim. James laid the matter before the privy council, but on 10 Sept., before a decision was arrived at, news came that Frederick had accepted the •crown ; and on the 12th James told his council that, as the winter was coming on, there was no need for coming to an im- mediate conclusion. James wanted an ex- cuse for keeping the peace, and he found it in the rash act of his son-in-law. lie told Dohna when he took his leave that he ex- pected to be furnished with evidence of the legality of Frederick's election. His own opinion of his son-in-law's action was re- vealed in the order given by him to Don- caster to seek out Ferdinand to congratulate "him on his election as emperor. Yet he was large-minded enough to perceive that there were two sides to the question, but he was not strong-minded enough to decide on which side the balance of argument or ad- vantage lay.
The change which had passed over James's mind during 1619 appears clearly in two little books which he wrote and printed at the interval of a year. Early in 1619 he gave to the world 'Meditations on the Lord's Prayer.' The spirit with which it is pervaded is buoyant, and it contains, along with pious observations, attacks on the puritans and stories from the hunting-field. Another small book, ' Meditations on w. 27-29 of the 27th chapter of St. Matthew,' is written in a far more melancholy strain. There are no jokes in it, no assaults on the puritans; but the crown of thorns is spoken of as the pattern of the crowns of kings, whose wisdom should be applied to tempering discords into a sweet harmony.
James had not yet lost his old self-reliance. On 21 Feb. 1620 Buwinckhausen arrived in London, as an emissary from the princes of the union, to ask James to defend their terri- tory if Spain should attack the Palatinate, the elector palatine being the chief member of the union. James hesitated, and took refuge in an investigation of Frederick's title to Bohemia. In the meanwhile Eng- lishmen were growing excited, and wanted to send help of some kind to the protestant husband of an English princess. James refused permission to Dohna to raise for
Frederick a loan in the city, and also refused to allow Sir Andrew Gray to levy soldiers for Bohemia. He told Buwinckhausen that the danger of the union resulted from Fre- derick's aggression in Bohemia, and that he could therefore do nothing for the princes.
Early in March James changed his mind, giving Gray leave to raise the men he needed, and sending an ambassador to the king of Denmark to borrow money for the defence of the Palatinate. On 5 March, how- ever, Gondomar landed in England on a second embassy, and soon made himself master of James's irresolution by a mixture of firmness and compliment. The marriage treaty was again under discussion, and on 14 March James refused help to Buwinck- hausen, on the ground that he hoped to bring about a general peace, which would make warlike preparations needless. On the other hand, he allowed a voluntary contribution to be raised for the princes, and volunteers to be enrolled for the defence of the Palatinate. On 23 March he finally dismissed Buwinck- hausen with an answer which bound him to nothing.
As usual there was something to be said both for a policy of war and for a policy of peace. There was nothing to be said for a king who, after putting forward exorbitant claims to be far wiser than his subjects, shifted his ground from day to day, and, claiming to be the indispensable leader of the nation, showed no signs of capacity to lead it. Gondomar was fixing the toils around him, and, without committing him- self to any direct engagement, contrived to persuade him that the preparations made in the Spanish Netherlands for a military ex- pedition under Spinola were not directed against the Palatinate. James was busy with many things, and in his anger at the mal- treatment of English sailors by the Dutch in the East, he allowed himself in July to be talked over by Gondomar into a plan for a joint attack on the Dutch by the combined forces of Spain and England, the English re- ceiving the promise of Holland and Zealand as their share of the spoil. He then sent forth a whole band of ambassadors to mediate peace on the continent, while he allowed Sir Horace Vere to embark with a regiment of volunteers for the defence of the Palatinate, though he expressed himself with extreme bitterness against his son-in-law.
In September James learnt that Spinola had actually invaded the Palatinate. He was very angry, and publicly announced his intention of helping the princes ; but he soon drew back, declaring that his help would be conditional en Frederick's withdrawal from
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Bohemia. Yet he resolved to summon parlia- ment to support him if he found it necessary to engage in war. In the meanwhile he called on his subjects to furnish him with a benevo- lence a second time. On 6 Nov. he issued a proclamation summoning parliament to meet on 21 Jan. Before that date the question of the Bohemian crown had been settled. On 29 Nov. it was known in London that Fre- derick had been defeated on the White Hill, near Prague, and was a fugitive from his new kingdom.
James's chief moral difficulty was now at an end. He sent an embassy to the princes of the union, assuring them that he would do everything possible on their behalf, and in January 1621 appointed a council of war to draw up a scheme for the defence of the Palatinate. The session of the new parlia- ment was opened by James on 30 Jan. with a long, rambling speech, in which he pro- claimed his intention to treat for peace, but with sword in hand. For this reason money would be wanted to strengthen his position. The speech sounded so uncertain a note that the House of Commons was not very enthu- siastic over it ; but they voted two subsidies, and then waited to see what James would do. James, in fact, was falling back on his old policy of mediation, and soon found the difficulty of inducing the various powers em- broiled to do precisely what he thought they ought to do. Frederick continued to lay claim to the crown of Bohemia, and refused to go to the Palatinate to defend his heredi- tary dominions ; while Charles IV of Den- mark thought scornfully of James's proposal to negotiate first, and to prepare for war only after the negotiation had reached its inevitable stage of failure.
The commons, having no longer to think of preparations for war, fell on the abuses of the court and government. James's indolence and favouritism had made his court a hot- bed of corruption, and the attendant evils were popularly believed to be even worse than they were in reality. The commons began by questioning various patents con- ferring monopolies and regulating trade, and finding that these had been referred, before they were granted, to certain committees of the privy council, they demanded inquiry into the conduct of ' the referees ' — that is to say, of the members of these committees. On 10 March James addressed to them a speech resisting inquiry, finding fault with the commons as disrespectful to himself. The commons, however, persisted in their demand, and Buckingham at last grew frightened, and by his persuasion James sent a message to the commons on the 13th declaring his
VOL. XXIX.
readiness to redress the grievances of which they complained. Soon afterwards Bacon was charged with corruption [see BACON", FRANCIS]. On 19 March James asked that the case of his chancellor might be referred to a commission appointed in a special way, but when this plan was resisted he abandoned it. On 26 March he made a conciliatory speech to the house, and protested his readi- ness to deal strictly with actual abuses. He stood aloof while the monopolists were punished, and Bacon impeached and con- demned.
In another matter in which James came into collision with the House of Commons he gained his end. The commons took steps to punish Edward Floyd [q. v.] for using scornful expressions against Frederick and Elizabeth. On 2 May the king denied their authority to punish any one, not being one of their own members, who had neither offended their house nor any one of its mem- bers. On this the commons gave way, and left the matter to the House of Lords. On 4 June the houses, by James's direction, ad- journed themselves to the winter, to give him time to exercise his diplomatic skill.
Digby, who was sent to Vienna [see DIGBY, JOHN, first EAEL OF BRISTOL], failed to sepa- rate the combatants, and before he returned home Frederick's general, Mansfeld, having abandoned theUpper, fell back on the Lower Palatinate. Digby, as soon as he reached England, advised James to ask the commons for supplies enough to pay Mansfeld during the winter, and, unless peace could be ob- tained, to prepare for war on a large scale in the summer of 1622. On 20 Nov. 1621 the houses reassembled, and it soon appeared that there was a difference between the poli- cies of James and the commons. James wanted to proceed with the Spanish match, and to trust to the honesty of Philip IV, who in 1621 had succeeded his father, Philip III, as king of Spain, to help him to make Frederick again the undisputed master of both Palatinates. The commons, believ- ing that Spain was the real originator of the mischief, wanted an immediate breach with that country. On 3 Dec. they adopted a petition on religion asking that James should take the lead of the protestant states of the continent, should suppress recusants at home, and marry the prince to one of his own religion.
Already Gondomar had called on the king to punish the authors of the petition, and James, willing enough to comply with the request, sent a message to the house telling it that it had entrenched on his prerogative, and threatening the members with punish- ment if they behaved insolently. On 11 Dec.
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James received at Newmarket a deputation from the house which had been sent to ex- plain the first petition. ' Bring stools for the ambassadors,' he cried out as the members entered his presence, indicating his belief that the house by which they were sent was claiming sovereign power in asking for the direction of foreign policy. The discussion grew warmer as it proceeded, and at last turned on the question whether or no the commons had a right to debate all matters of public policy, as the house affirmed, though it disclaimed any right to force an answer from the king ; or whether, as the king affirmed, it had only a right to debate such matters as he thought fit to lay before them. On 18 Dec. the commons entered on their ' Journals ' a protestation setting forth their view of the case. On the 19th the house was adjourned. On the 30th James tore the obnoxious protestation out of their ' Journal Book.' Gondomar was tri- umphant, and wrote home that James's quar- rel with the parliament was ' the best thing that had happened in the interests of Spain and the catholic religion since Luther began to preach heresy.' Some of the leading members of the House of Commons were imprisoned in the Tower, and others sent on a disagreeable mission to Ireland. On 6 Jan. 1622 James dissolved his third parlia- ment.
As no subsidy had been voted, James in- creased the impositions and called for another benevolence. He then despatched more am- bassadors abroad, with as slight results as in former years. He could not pay Mansfeld, and Mansfeld's army could not exist without plundering, thus raising enemies on every side. Before the end of the summer of 1622 Mansfeld, who was now accompanied by Fre- derick, was driven out of the Palatinate, and all Frederick's allies defeated. Only three fortified posts were held in Frederick's name in the Palatinate — Heidelberg, Mannheim, and Frankenthal. James still expected the recovery of all that had been lost through the good offices of Spain.
Gondomar had left England in May 1622, after inviting Prince Charles to come to Madrid and woo the infanta in person, in the hope that he would change his reli- gion in Spain. The Spanish government was almost in as great difficulty as James. Philip IV did not want war with England, and at the same time he could not join pro- \ testant states in a war against the catholic j emperor and the Catholic League. Conse- I quently, he temporised, but the necessity of decision soon became pressing, both in Eng- land and Spain. Heidelberg, defended by an
English garrison in Frederick's service, was taken by Tilly on 6 Sept., and Mannheim was surrendered by Sir Horace Vere on 28 Oct. On 29 Sept., when James heard of the fall of Heidelberg, he summoned Philip to obtain its restoration within seventy days, and on the 30th he wrote to Pope Gregory XV, urging him to put his hand to the pious work of restoring peace. Fresh news from Spain, however, brought assurances that the Spanish government intended to make all reasonable concessions in various points of dispute aris- ing out of the marriage treaty, which was now being negotiated at Madrid by Digby, who had recently been created earl of Bristol. James, in his love of peace, was anxious to accept the hand held out to him ; but the privy council, led by Buckingham and Charles, declared against it, and James found himself face to face with an opposition which he could not get rid of as he had got rid of suc- cessive parliaments.
Under these circumstances James pro- crastinated. He sent orders to Bristol to remain at his post, even if he received an unfavourable answer about the Palatinate, and on 7 Oct. he sent Endymion Porter to Madrid, with instructions to come to an un- derstanding, if possible, with the Spanish minister, Olivares. Before an answer was received the news of the fall of Mannheim arrived to aggravate James's difficulties ; but it was not till 2 Jan. 1623, when Porter re- turned to England, that James was in a position to come to a resolution on the two questions of the marriage treaty and the Palatinate. As to the former, he accepted certain alterations proposed by Spain, and he and his son signed the articles of mar- riage, together with a letter in which they promised to relieve the English Roman ca- tholics from the operation of the penal laws as long as they abstained from giving scandal, a letter which was to be kept in Bristol's hands till the dispensation for the marriage arrived from Rome. In the Palatinate, only Frankenthal remained untaken, and James now proposed that it should be sequestered in the hands of the Infanta Isabella, the gover- ness of the Spanish Netherlands, to be re- tained by her till terms of peace could be agreed on.
While James was catching at straws he was suddenly informed that Buckingham and Charles had resolved to start for Madrid, in order to put the professions of the Spaniards to a test. James's consent was most unwil- lingly given. When his son and his favourite had once left England control over the rela- tions between Spain and England practically passed out of James's hands; but he con-
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tinued to write to the pair letters of advice and warning1, which they took into account just so far as it suited them to do so (HARD- WICKE, State Papers, vol. i.) He was ready, he wrote on one occasion, to acknowledge the pope as chief bishop if he ' would quit his godhead and usurping over kings,' but he himself was ' not a monsieur who can shift his religion as easily as he can shift his shirt when he cometh from tennis.'
The full consequences of Charles's journey revealed themselves slowly to James. In March he ordered bonfires to be lighted in London upon his son's arrival in Madrid, and in April directed the equipment of the fleet which was to fetch the infanta to Eng- land. In May he made Buckingham a duke. Yet he did not altogether like the terms which the Spaniards were now attempting to exact from him. 'We are building a temple to the devil,' he said, in speaking of the chapel which was being raised for the in- fanta's Roman catholic worship. On 14 June Cottington arrived with n,ews that the Spa- nish government wanted Charles to remain another year in Spain. On this he wrote a piteous letter to his ' sweet boys ' (his son and Buckingham), urging them to come away, ' except ye never look to see your old dad again.' The thought of recovering his boys was now uppermost in his mind. lie •engaged to sign the marriage articles as they had been altered in Spain, and wrote to Charles that he might be married and come home. If the Spaniards kept the infanta from soon following him, it would be easy to divorce him here.
On 20 July James signed the articles. The public articles had included permission to the infanta to have a church open to all Eng- lishmen, while the secret articles relieved the English catholics of all penalties for worshipping in private houses, and in all .other respects relieved them from the pres- sure of the penal laws. James, however, explained to the Spanish ambassadors that he should hold himself free to put the laws in execution if state necessity occurred. James had thus in a roundabout way slipped back into his own policy. There was to be toleration for the catholics as long as they were not dangerous. It was precisely what he had offered in 1603 with no favourable results.
This explanation was not likely to smooth Charles's way in Madrid. It soon appeared that if Charles was married he would have to return without the infanta, and without any definite promise about the Palatinate. Hurrying back in anger, Charles and Buck- ingham returned to England, and on 6 Oct.
found James at Royston, when they urged him to declare immediate war against Spain. Gradually, and sorely against his inclina- tion, James gave way. His own policy of regaining the Palatinate with the help of Spain had broken down too completely to be capable of resuscitation. The king of Spain was still ready to give vague promises, but would engage himself to nothing definite. At last, on 28 Dec., James summoned parlia- ment. On 19 Feb. 1624 he opened the ses- sion with a speech in which he made the best of his failure, and left it to Buckingham to unfold the actual state of affairs.
On 3 March the houses were ready to pre- sent a petition for the breaking off of the ne- gotiations with Spain ; but it was not till the 23rd that James declared, under much pres- sure, that the treaties were dissolved. From this time James ceased to be in any real sense the ruler of England. Power passed into the hands of his son and his favourite. He him- self acted, when he acted at all, as a restraining influence, though that influence was usually exerted in vain. Towards the end of March and in the beginning of April he had inter- views with two Spanish agents, Lafuente and Carondelet, who told him that he was a mere tool in the hands of Buckingham, and was thereby inclined to hold back the despatch ordering his ambassador in Spain to break off negotiations. Charles, however, insisted on its being sent out on 6 April. How power- less James had now become was shown when his lord treasurer, Middlesex [see CKAJTFIELD, LIONEL, EARL OF MIDDLESEX], supported the Spaniards against Buckingham. Charles and Buckingham set the commons on to impeach Middlesex, and James, much against his will, had to submit to the disgrace of a minister to whom he was attached. In the same way, he was obliged to allow the prosecution of Bris- tol, on charges brought against him in con- nection with his embassy in Spain.
With respect to the new policy, James, as far as he was allowed to have a policy at all, occupied a position of his own. The com- mons were for a maritime war exclusively directed against Spain. Buckingham was for a war against Spain and all the catholic powers of the continent. James was for a war limited to an effort to recover the Pala- tinate by land. Whatever shape the war was to take, it would be advisable to be on good terms with France, and overtures were therefore made to the French court for a marriage between Charles and the sister of Louis XIII, Henrietta Maria. Both James and Charles, however, promised the House of Commons that in this case there should be no toleration for any catholics in England,
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excepting for the bride and her household. On 29 May parliament was prorogued, on the understanding that in the course of the sum- mer James was to ascertain what allies he could find, and to hold a session in the au- tumn to lay his plans before parliament and ask for the necessary supplies. That this un- dertaking was not carried out was owing to James's incapacity to resist the combination between Charles and Buckingham. When it appeared that Richelieu insisted on a secret article in the French marriage treaty, in which religious liberty should be assured to the English catholics, James would have refused his assent, but gave way before the insistence of his favourite and his son. On these terms the marriage treaty was actually signed on 10 Nov. 1624, and it was therefore impossible to hold a session of parliament, because the houses would at once have de- •nounced the leniency shown to the catholics. Without a parliamentary grant it was in vain to hope for the regaining of the Palati- nate. Yet, in combination with France, James prepared to send an expedition with that object under Mansfeld. Soon, however, disputes with France arose. The French king wanted to divert the expedition to the relief of the Dutch fortress of Breda, then besieged by the Spanish general Spinola. James re- fused to come to an open breach with Spain, and Mansfeld's English troops sailed on 31 Jan. 1625, with orders to make for the Palatinate, and to leave Breda alone. The whole expedition, however, soon collapsed for want of money and supplies. James's efforts to stir up allies for the recovery of the Palatinate were scarcely more successful. Each of the continental powers who were likely to join him had objects in view more important than the recovery of the Palatinate ; while James wanted them to make the re- placement of his daughter and her husband at Heidelberg the main object of their policy. On 5 March 1625 James was attacked by a tertian ague. Buckingham's mother attempted to doctor him, and thus brought upon her son, and even upon Charles, the ridiculous accusation of combining to poison him. James's condition varied from day to day, but on 27 March he died at Theobalds. He was buried in Westminster Abbey on 5 May. James had too great confidence in his own powers, and too little sympathetic insight into the views of others, to make a successful ruler, and his inability to control those whom he trusted with blind confidence made his court a centre of corruption. He was, how- ever, far-sighted in his ideas, setting himself against extreme parties, and eager to recon- cile rather than divide. In Scotland he, on
the whole, succeeded, because the work of reconciliation was in accordance with the tendencies of the age. In England he failed, because his Scottish birth and experience- made him stand too much aloof from English parties, and left him incapable of understand- ing the national feeling with regard to Spain ; while his feeble efforts to reconcile the con- tinental powers, at a time when the spirit of division was in the ascendant, exposed him to the contemptuous scorn of his own subjects.
During his reign in Scotland, and for some | time after his arrival in England, James was- doctrinally Calvinistic, and he took up a ' position of strong antagonism against Ar- i minius. In later life his views were affected '. by the loyalty and the moderate spirit of the ! English church. In 1622 he issued an order to the vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford, which had a great influence on the rising generation of students, that those who i designed to make divinity their profession should chiefly apply themselves to the study of the holy scriptures of the councils and fathers and the ancient schoolmen ; but as for the moderns, whether Jesuits orpuritans, they should wholly decline reading their works. Yet it was the pliableWilliams, not the unre- lenting Laud, who was his favourite prelate.
For a list of James's children, see AKXTB OF DEXMARK, except that the name of the young- est, Sophia, is there omitted. She only lived for one day, and was buried on 23 June 1607 in Westminster Abbey.
James was the author of: 1. ' Essays of a Prentice in the Divine Art of Poetry,' 1584. 2. ' A Fruitful Meditation, containing a Plaim . . . Exposition of the 7, 8, 9, and 10 verses of the xx. chap. Revelation,' 1588. 3. ' A Medita- tion upon the xxv-xxix. verses of the First Book of the Chronicles,' 1589. 4. ' Poetical Exercises,' 1591. 5. ' Demonology,' 1597. 6. « Basilikon Doron,' 1599. 7. ' The true Law of Free Monarchies,' 1603. 8. ' A Counter- blast to Tobacco/ 1604. 9. ' Triplici Nodo Triplex Cuneus ; or, an Apology for the Oath of Allegiance,' 1607. 10. ' Declaration du Roy Jacques I ... pour le droit des Hois/ 1615. His collected works were published by Bishop Montague in 1616, with the addi- tion of earlier speeches and state papers. After that date appeared 'A Meditation upon the Lord's Prayer,' 1619, and 'A Meditation upon the 27, 28, 29 verses of the xxvii. chapter of St. Matthew,' 1620.
Numerous portraits of James I are extant. Four are in the National Portrait Gallery, one at the age of eight by Zucchero, and another at the age of fifty-five by Paul van Somer. Van Somer and Marc Gheeraerts the younger [q. v.] were liberally patronised
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by James, and portraits of the king by the former are also at Windsor, Ilolyrood, and Hampton Court. From a miniature by Hil- liard (1617) Vandyck painted a portrait, which was engraved by F. White. A paint- ing by George Jameson belongs to the Mar- quis of Lothian. Prints were engraved by Vertue after Van Somer, and by R. White after Cornelius Janssen.
[The materials for the reign are very ex- tensive. The following are specially worthy of attention : The History and Life of King James, being an Account of the Affairs of Scotland from the year 1566 to the year 1596, with a short Continuation to the year 1617, Bannatyne Club, 1825; Memoirs of his own Life, by Sir James Melville of Halhill, 1519-93, Bannatyne Club, 1827 ; Papers relative to the Marriage of King James VI of Scotland with the Princess Anna of Denmark, Bannatyne Club, 1828 ; Diary of Mr. James Melville, 1-556-1601, Bannatyne Club, 1829; Letters and Papers relating to Patrick, Master of Gray ; Memorials of Transactions in Scotland, 1569-73, byKichard Bannatyne, Ban- natyne Club, 1836 ; Original Letters relating to the Ecclesiastical Affairs of Scotland, 1603- 1625, Bannatyne Club, 1851 ; State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melros, Abbotsford Club, 1837 ; Calderwood's History of the Kirk of Scot- land, Wodrow Soc. 1842-9 ; Eow's History of the Kirk of Scotland, Wodrow Soc. 1842; Spotiswood's History of the Church of Scot- land, vols. ii. iii., Spottiswoode Soc. 1851 ; Cor- respondence of Robert Bowes, Surtees Soc.,1842 ; Papiers d'Etat . . . relatifs al'Histoiredel'Ecosse, tome ii. iii. Bannatyne Club; Correspondence of King James VI of Scotland with Sir R. Cecil And others, Camden Soc. 1861 ; History and Life of King James the Sext, Bannatyne Club, 1825; Secret History of the Court of James the First, Edinburgh, 1811 ; Court and Times of James I, London, 1848 (full of misprints); Goodman's Court of King James I, London, 1839. Above all the State Papers, the Scottish .series for James's reign in Scotland, the Domes- tic and Foreign series for his reign in England, should be diligently consulted. Particulars of other sources of information will be found in the references to M'Crie's Life of A. Melville, Burton's History of Scotland, vols. v. and vi., and Gardiner's History of England, 1603-42, vols. i-v. Spedding's Letters and Life of Bacon, vols. iii-vii., throw light on many points in James's career in England. The popular esti- mate of James's character is chiefly derived from Sir Walter Scott's Fortunes of Nigel.] S. R. G.
JAMES II (1633-1701), king of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland, second son of j Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria, was born at St. James's Palace 14 (not 15) Oct. 1633. Soon after his christening he was created duke of York and Albany. At Easter 1642 he was, in defiance of the prohibition
of parliament, taken by the Marquis of Hert- ford to York, whence he was, 22 April, sent forward to Hull, with the object of facilitating the king's entrance on the following day. He was allowed to return unmolested with his father, when admission was refused (CLA.- RENDON, Rebellion, ii. 385). After narrowly escaping capture at Edgehill, he accompanied the king to Oxford, where he remained almost continuously till the surrender of the city, 24 June 1 646. In accordance with the articles of capitulation, he was handed over to the parliamentary commissioners. Sir George Ratcliffe remained in attendance upon him till he was removed to London, when all his servants, down to a favourite dwarf, were dismissed. He was now, with the Duke of Gloucester and the Princess Elizabeth, placed under the guardianship of the Earl of North- umberland (Life, i. 29-30). The children were allowed to visit their father in June 1647 at Caversham, and in August at Hamp- ton Court and Sion House (CLARENDON, Re- bellion, v. 453-4, 471 ; cf. Life, p. 51). At- tempts, made at the king's instigation, to effect the Duke of York's escape in the winters of 1646-7 and 1647-8 failed. The duke was examined by a committee of both houses, and permitted to remain at St. James's Palace, where he discreetly refused to receive even a secret letter from the queen. His escape was effected under cover of a game at hide and seek, 20 April 1648. He was taken to the river and, disguised in women's clothes, to Middelburg and Dort. He settled at the Hague with his sister the Princess of Orange, which led to a coolness between him and his brother Charles, and many quarrels followed among his attendants (Life, i. 33-7, 43-4 ; CLARENDON, Rebellion,\i. 33-6, 139-40; arts, supra, BAMPFIELD, JOSEPH, and BERKELEY, JOHN, first LORD OF STRATTON).
Early in January 1649 James, by his mother's orders, quitted the Hague for Paris, which he reached 13 Feb., and spent some months there and at St. Germains. On 19 Sept. he accompanied Prince Charles to Jersey, and showed some seamanship on the occasion (Life, i. 47). At Jersey he spent nearly a twelvemonth, in the course of which he lost another favourite dwarf, ' M. Bequers ' (CHEVALIER, Journal ap. Hist. MSB. Comm. 2nd Rep. App. (1871), p. 164). On his re- turn he soon tired of his dependence upon the queen-dowager (EVELYN, Correspondence, iv. 203). It is quite unproved that his mother at this time sought to convert him (SiR STEPHEN Fox, p. 17). He disliked Sir Ed- ward Herbert and Sir George RatclifFe, while Lord Byron's moderating influence was over- powered by Berkeley (CLARENDON, Life, i.
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284-6). Thus James allowed himself to be persuaded to leave Paris in October 1650 for Holland, against his mother's desire. The j Princess of Orange declining to receive him, ! he spent some time at Brussels and in the i queen of Bohemia's house at Rhenen, in great want of money, while his followers talked of a futile project for a match with a natural daughter of the Duke of Lorraine. In January 1651 he was received at the Hague, and remained there and at Breda till peremptorily summoned back to Paris by Charles. At Paris the queen received him about the end of June, ' without reproaches ' (CLARENDON, Rebellion, vi. 471-84; cf. Life, pp. 48-51).
After Worcester the royal cause seemed hopeless, and the ' sweet Duke of York ' (EVELYN, Correspondence, iv. 344) was eager to provide for himself. Berkeley vainly sug- gested a match with the only daughter and heiress of the Duke of Longueville (Life, i. 54; cf. CLARENDON, Rebellion, pp. 588-92). James now resolved to take service in the French army as a volunteer. Accompanied only by Berkeley, Colonel Worden, and a few servants, the duke joined Turenne's army at Chartres, 24 April 1652. James has himself lucidly described the campaign against the Fronde which ensued (Life, i. 64—157). He was for a time in personal attendance upon Turenne ; and on the capture of Bar-le-Duc (December), Mazarin allowed him to incor- porate in the ' regiment of York ' under his command an Irish regiment taken from the Duke of Lorraine. At the close of the cam- paign James returned to Paris (February 1653). In June 1653 he eagerly entered on his second campaign under Turenne, against Spain and Lorraine as the allies of Conde. At the siege of Mousson he was nearly killed ; but he vsoon returned with the court from Chalons-sur-Marne to Paris (December), ' full of reputation and honour ' (Hyde to Browne in EVELYN, Correspondence, iv. 298 ; cf. Life, i. 159-91). In 1654 and 1655 James joined Turenne's army as lieutenant-general, and was left in command of the army at the time of the conclusion of the treaty with Cromwell, which provided for the removal of the English royal family from France. Mazarin was anxious to obviate the loss of the Irish troops in the French service, and accordingly arrived at an understanding with the Protector which enabled James to become captain-general under the Duke of Modena over the forces of the French and their allies in Piedmont (ib. pp. 245- 266 : cf. CLARENDON, Rebellion, vii. 229-30). Charles, however, refused his brother's re- quest to remain in the French service. Their
mutual jealousy had been fomented by rival factions among the duke's household, headed by Berkeley and Sir Henry Bennett. James obeyed his brother's summons, but against his express desire brought Berkeley with him to Bruges. A serious misunderstanding was removed with the aid of the Princess of Orange in January 1657 ; and, in defiance of the queen-mother's faction, James took service under the Spanish crown (Life, i. 275-97).
When in the same year he joined the Spanish forces in Flanders, he claims to have stood at the head of a contingent of two- thousand of his brother's subjects ' drawn out of France.' A project to surprise Calais failed, and the siege of Ardres, in which James took part with his younger brother, was raised. James's exposure of himself at the siege met with Don John's disapproval. James's dissatisfaction with the stolid in- activity of the Spaniards increased during the successful siege of Mardykeby the French and English. Before the Spanish army went into winter quarters, January 1658, he had an interview with the English commander, Reynolds, Avhich aroused grave suspicions in Cromwell (ib. i. 297-329). After the faU of Dunkirk, in June, James was put in command of Is ieuport. Here he received the news of Oliver's death, and speedily quitted the army for Brussels and Breda (ib. i. 334-68 ; CLAREN- DON, Rebellion, vii. 284; PEPYS, ii. 481-2).
On the news of the rising of Sir George Booth in Cheshire (August 1659), James hastened to Boulogne, where he remained, in a very hazardous incognito, in correspondence with his elder brother at Calais. At Amiens he entered into a negotiation with Turenne, who was eager to command an expedition to England for the restoration of Charles ; but on the news of Booth's defeat James returned to Brussels (Life, i. 378-9), and probably soon afterwards refused an offer made to him by the Spanish government of the post of high admiral, with the command against Portugal (ib. i. 381). Clarendon adds that the acceptance of this offer would have involved James's becoming a catholic (Rebellion, vii. 363-4). At Breda, 24 Nov. 1659, he con- tracted, in sufficient time to legitimatise the eldest child afterwards born to them (PEPYS, i. 362), a secret promise of marriage with Anne, daughter of Sir Edward Hyde [see HYDE, ANNE].
A few days before he and Charles sailed for England, James received a gift of seventy- five thousand guilders from the States of Holland (SiR STEPHEN Fox, pp. 83-4, cf. ib. pp. 53, 62), as well as another of 10,000?. brought by the committee of the lords and commons. He was named lord high admiral
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of England 16 May ; and, when the English fleet arrived off Schevening, he was enthu- siastically received on board (23 May; PEPYS, i. 127 ; cf. CLARENDON, Rebellion, vii. 498). He hoisted his flag on the London, landed with the king at Dover on 25 May, and accompanied him to London.
It was proposed in parliament to raise estates for James and the Duke of Gloucester ' out of the confiscations of such traitors as they daily convict ' {Hist. MSS. Comm. App. to 5th Rep. pp. 18, 205). In the end (1663) it proved more convenient to settle on him the revenues of the post-office, amounting to 21,0001. a year (THOMAS, Historical Notes, 1856, ii. 732). Although James had not yet caused public scandal in his relations with women, like his brother, he gave proof of a similartemperament with less discrimination. His amour with Lady Anne Carnegie (after- wards Lady Southesk), according to Pepys (v. 250), dated from the king's first coming-in ; and soon after the acknowledgment of his marriage with Anne Hyde (concluded 3 Sept. 1660), he engaged in fresh inconstancies [for circumstances of this marriage, see HYDE, ANNE]. But the duchess gradually obtained a strong ascendency over him. The marriage was certainly unpopular, and James attri- buted to it much of the opposition soon ex- cited against himself. Meanwhile James paid unrequited attentions to the beautiful Miss Hamilton, to the elder Miss Jennings — after- wards married to Tyrconnel, who, as Dick Talbot, was (according to BTJRNET, i. 416) looked upon as the chief manager of the duke's intrigues — to Lady Robarts, and to Lady Chesterfield (PEPYS, ii. 76, 117, 130; cf. Me- moirs of Grammont).
James took a keen interest from the first in public affairs. Early in 1661 he was in London during the outbreak of Venner's plot, and at his recommendation the disbandment of the troops was stayed; this proved the beginning, under the name of guards, of the regular army (HALLAM, Constitutional His- tory, 10th edit. ii. 314-15). He was, how- ever, chiefly interested in the affairs of the navy. On his appointment as lord high ad- miral the navy board was reconstituted and enlarged. Sir William Coventry [q. v.] be- came secretary. Otherwise few changes were made among the heads of the official body. In January 1662 were issued his general ' In- structions,' afterwards (1717) printed from an imperfect copy as' The (Economy of H.M.'s Navy Office.' They are stated to have re- mained in force till the reorganisation of the admiralty at the beginning of the present century. His general interest in naval mat- ters is acknowledged by Pepys, and is shown
by his 'Original Letters and other Royal Authorities,' published under the pretentious title of 'Memoirs of the English Affairs, chiefly Naval, 1660-73,' probably the handi- work of Pepys. He was unable to remedy the flagrant evils in the administration of the navy, more especially as they were largely caused by want of money (PEPYS, i_ 314). About 1663 he obtained a grant of 800,000/., which was chiefly spent in naval stores (Life, i. 399). The inefficiency caused in the service by the employment of land-officers was dis- tinctly encouraged by James's own example (cf. BTJKNET, i. 306-7, CLARENDON, Life, ii. 326, and WHEATLEY, Samuel Pepys, 1880). Particular inquiries were made by the duke in the early part of 1664 into the con- dition of the fleet (PEPYS, ii. 453, 473), when he was advocating a Dutch war, in opposi- tion to Clarendon (CLARENDON, Life, ii. 237 seqq.) Besides his sympathy with the house of Orange, he had become governor of the Royal African Company (about 1664), and was thus particularly alive to the prevailing mercantile jealousies (ib. ii. 234-6 ; cf. Life, i. 399). As early as 1661 the name of James- fort had been given to a fort taken from the Dutch on the Guinea Coast by Sir Robert Holmes [q. v.], and when in 1664 the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam on Long Island was reduced, Charles II in March granted his brother a patent of it, and re- named it New York. While De Ruyter was making reprisals, the duke took advantage of the zeal for naval service among the young nobility by admitting as many volunteers as possible on his flagship (CLARENDON, Life, ii. 356). Mutual declarations of war having been issued (January and February 1665), the English fleet, commanded by the Duke of York, set sail for the Texel ; but after maintaining a blockade of the Dutch ports for about a month, was driven home by stress of weather. Hereupon the Dutch put to sea in great force under Opdam, and gave battle to the duke in Solebay off Lowestoft early in the morning of 3 June. After a protracted conflict, in which the duke's ship, the Royal Charles, closely engaged Opdam's, which finally blew up, the Dutch fell into hope- less confusion, and only a portion of their fleet was brought off by Van Tromp. The English losses were small, and the victory if pressed home might very probably have ended the. war. The duke, who had borne himself bravely in the fight, had gone to bed, leaving orders that the fleet should keep its course. Henry Brouncker, a groom of his bedchamber [see under BROUNCKER, WILLIAM], afterwards delivered an order purporting to come from James, to slacken sail and thus allow the
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Dutch to escape. The duke, when the question was discussed some months later, disavowed the order, and dismissed Brouncker, but em- ployed him subsequently in most disgraceful services (PEPTS, iii. 474, cf. iv. 117, 389, 486, v. 62-4; Life, i. 422-30, ii. 408-20 ; CLAREX- DOX, Zj/ie, ii. 384-8 ; CAMPBELL, Naval Hist, of Great Britain, 1813, ii. 146-52 ; BIJRXET, i. 397-9; and cf. DEXHAM'S ' Directions to a Painter,' 1067, in State Poems, p. 26).
The Duke of York was voted 120,000/. by the House of Commons. But Coventry's counsel prevailed (PEPTS, iii. 180-1), and he had no share in the following battles. In
1665 he had been sent to York to prevent an expected republican rising (Life, i. 422 ; CLA- REXDOX, Life, ii. 454-00 ; Memoirs of Gram- inont, p. 280). In 1666 he joined the king in his endeavours to arrest the great fire of Lon- don (Life, i. 424 ; cf. PEPTS, iv. 67, 70). The brothers were still on bad terms (ib. iii. 284- 285, 308). Charles was vexed by the report of the duke's passion for Miss Stewart (ib. iii. 308), while about the same time James began his amour with Arabella Churchill [q. v.] (Memoirs of Grammont, p. 274). His mistress, Lady Denham [see under DEXHAM, SIR JOHX, 1615-1669], died on 6 Jan. 1667 (PEPTS, iv. 201). The duke's license and the duchess's extravagance brought their house- hold into such disorder that a commission of audit, appointed by James himself, certified that his estate showed an annual deficit of 20,000/. (ib. pp. 389-90, and cf. p. 142).
James still exercised a real authority over his office (ib. pp. 223, 246). In November
1666 Pepys submitted to him a report ' laying open the ill condition of the navy ' (ib. pp. 160, 242). In March 1667, in prospect of a Dutch blockade of the Thames, he obtained half a million, and made some attempt to strengthen Sheerness and Portsmouth (ib. pp. 260-1, 268, 287). He even (Life, i. 425) advocated the sending out of a fleet to sea. When De Ruyter was in the river, the duke ran ' up and down all the day here and there,' giving orders, and superintending defensive measures (PEPTS, iv. 367-8; EVELTX,H. 219) ; but he showed no capacity for averting dis- grace, nor even any becoming sense of it (PEPTS, iv. 389-90, 394). When the war was over, Pett served as the momentary scapegoat (ib. v. 319, 333, 335, 380), and letters drawn up by Pepys, and signed by the duke, admonishing his subordinates, were read to the navy board, 29 Aug. and November 1668 (ib. v. 343-7, 362, 380, 395; cf. WHEAT- LET, pp. 139-42). The prevalent indigna- tion, however, was concentrated on Claren- don. The duke, though never on cordial terms with Clarendon, spoke in the House of Lords
against his banishment (CLAREXDOX, Life, iii. 293-4, 308-9 ; cf. Life, i. 433-4). Claren- don and James were both reported to have plotted with the king for overthrowing par- liamentary government by means of an army (PEPTS, iv. 423, 441, 447, 452). A fresh es- trangement ensued between the brothers (ib. v. 18, 20), and the duke's authority sank. Coventry was dismissed from his service (CLAREXDOX, Life, iii. 293). In the midst of the transactions connected with the fall of Clarendon, James had a slight attack of small-pox (ib. iii. 320 ; PEPTS, v. 37-8, 114).
The birth of a son to the Duke of York (14 Sept. ; an elder son had died in the pre- vious June) suspended the rumours of the king's intention to legitimatise Monmouth; but though the brothers embraced over the bottle, the coolness continued (ib. v. 29, 93). Charles was beginning, behind the backs of his ministers, the policy of a French al- liance. James, who really loved France, and whose interest it was at any cost to enter into his brother's most secret political de- signs, had a special motive for taking the same line. It is not known at what date he began to turn towards the church of Rome. He had been thought rather to favour the presbyterians (RERESBT, pp. 81-2; and cf. Life, i. 431 ; SIDXET, Diary, ed. Blencowe, i. 3-4, and notes). But when in the winter of 1668-9 Charles expressed to James his re- solution to be reconciled to the church of Rome (MACPHERSOX, i. 50), James inquired of the Jesuit Symond whether he could ob- tain a papal dispensation for remaining out- wardly a protestant after joining the church of Rome. Symond said that he could not, and was confirmed in his reply by Pope Clement IX. The agreement with France, formulated in the secret treaty of Dover (20 May 1670), included the restoration of England to the catholic church. James's adversaries proclaimed him a ' partner ' to the secret treaty when it was brought to light (see e.g. ' An Account of the Private League,' &c., in State Tracts, 1705, i. 37-44; cf. Secret History of Whitehall, letter xix.), and con- nected his subsequent conversion with its conclusion (RERESBT). But, however that may have been, of the Anglo-French alliance he undoubtedly fully approved.
In the summer of this year (1670) James was seriously ill (Life, i. 451). The death of his duchess (31 March 1671), as a professed catholic, naturally hastened his own con- version, which probably took place before the outbreak of the third Dutch war (March 1672) (cf. ib. i. 455). James eagerly threw himself into the war when once declared, and hoped to redeem the reputation of the
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navy. "Without the help of the French the duke gained a victory in Southwold Bay over DeRuyter's superior numbers (28 May). James, who had been obliged to change his ship during the battle, next morning ordered the fleet home for refitting. De Ruyter's at- tempt to renew the fight ended in his with- drawal in a fog, and the duke's hopes of pro- longing the campaign were destroyed by the revolution in Holland (ib. i. 457-81 ; cf. BFRXET, i. 612).
The breakdown of the attempt to crush the Dutch republic was followed by the re- vocation of the Declaration of Indulgence and the passing of the Test Act (March 1673). In consequence of the Test Act, the duke, who at Christmas 1672 had refused to receive the sacrament with the king according to the anglican rite (Life, i. 482-3 : cf. EVELYN, ii. 290), resigned the admiralty (RERESBY, p. 88). In the same year (1673) he married again (cf. BURNET, ii. 16; cf. JESSE, iii. 297- 300). Negotiations for a marriage between him and the Archduchess Claudia Felicitas, begun in the summer of 1672 by the Em- peror Leopold I, were crossed by Louis XIV, who, after other suggestions, urged a match with one of two princesses of Modena, Elea- nor, aunt of the reigning duke, Francis II, or his sister, Mary Beatrice. Early in 1673 the Austrian negotiation was broken off, the emperor having resolved to marry the lady himself. About the end of July, Peter- borough, who had inspected several other candidates, was ordered to Modena to ask for the hand of Mary Beatrice. She was mar- ried to him as the duke's proxy, 30 Sept. [see i MARY BEATRICE]. Soon afterwards she was | received by her husband at Dover, and their | marriage was ' declared ' lawful by Crew, ' bishop of Oxford (21 Nov. ; Life, i. 486). This marriage finally bound James to the policy of Louis XIV. Violent addresses were passed against it by the House of Commons (cf. BURNET, ii. 17). The fall of the cabal, the accession to office of an anti-French and church of England administration, and the conclusion of peace with the United Provinces (January-February 1674), were followed by a dead-set against the Duke of York (see KLOPP, i. 350-8 ; Supplement to the Life of James, 3rd edit. 1705, pp. 11-41 ; also Les dernicrs Stuarts, i. 1-134).
James was advised to retire with his wife to thecountry (Life, i. 487). But he courageously refused (MACPHERSON, i. 81). The attempt of Burnet and Stillingfleet to reconvert him (ib. pp. 24-30) was repeated by Archbishop Sancroft in February 1678, with the help of Bishop Morley of Winchester and with the cognisance of iheking (Clarendon Correspond-
ence, ii. 465-71 ; cf. Life, i. 539-40). James did not yield, but allowed both his daughters to be brought up as members of the church of England, and assented reluctantly to the marriage of the elder to the Prince of Orange (November 1677). Both before and after the secret treaty with France of May 1678 he was in constant correspondence with the prince (DALRYMPLE, ii. 175 seqq., 208 seqq.)
James's right of succession was now en- dangered by the pretensions of the Duke of Monmouth [see SCOTT, JAMES, DUKE OF MOST- MOUTH]. James (cf. Life, i. 499-500) dis- played on the whole a judicious modera- tion, and preserved an attitude of submissive loyalty. Occasionally he received in return tokens of goodwill, such as the title of gene- ralissimo, after a commission as general of the forces had been bestowed upon Mon- mouth (ib. p. 497). Closer observers, like Halifax, perceived that James remained true to the French interest, and to the cause of Rome, which he sought to strengthen by ad- vocating toleration for dissenters in general (RERESBY, p. 116). His position became perilous as the unpopularity of his cause increased. In March 1678 he warned his friends in the commons of ' a design to fall upon him and the lord treasurer ' (ib. p. 130) ; and soon after Oates's first informations the duke prudently handed to the king certain letters which had been addressed to his con- fessor, Bedingfield (BURNET, ii. 149-50). Gates seems at first to have wavered about bringing charges against the duke (BRAMSTON, p. 179). But papers discovered in the house of Edward Coleman [q. v.], secretary to the duchess, showed that a correspondence with Louis's Jesuit confessor, La Chaise, had been carried on with the duke's cognisance (not- withstanding his attempted denial, RERESBY, p. 146). It treated of the scheme for the conversion of England agreed upon at Dover, though it did not confirm the existence of the plot ' revealed ' by Gates (ib. p. 169). The letter from the duke himself, discovered with the rest, and printed by order of the House of Commons, was dated 1675 (State Papers of Charles II, pp. 137 seqq.) Soon after the meeting of parliament (October 1678) Shaftes- bury demanded the removal of the Duke of York from the king's counsels and from public affairs. James perceived his peril (Les dernier -s Stuarts, i. 229). He consented, at the king's request, to absent himself from the council ; but the commons voted another and more stringent address against him. A concilia- tory speech from the king in person delayed the passing of this address and secured the duke s exemption from the operation of a bill disabling papists from sitting in parliament.
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The public agitation increased, and even the catholic lords imprisoned in the Tower sent a message to James entreating him to withdraw into some neighbouring country, France ex- cepted (Life, i. 536). The king himself finally ordered his brother's -withdrawal, in a letter couched in affectionate terms (28 Feb. 1679; ib. \. 541-2 ; KENNETT, iii. 369). After ex- cusing himself to Barillon for not retiring to France (Les derniers Stuarts, i. 245), James sailed on 4 March for Antwerp, and thence to the Hague (PEPYS, Correspondence,^!. 125).
James met with little civility at the Hague (SIDNEY, Diary, i. 41, 142, 179), but was well received at Brussels (BuENET, ii. 198 «.) A vote of distrust was hurled after him by the House of Commons (27 April), and three days later the king offered to compromise matters by strictly limiting the powers of a popish successor. But the commons were not satisfied, and the second reading of the Exclusion Bill, brought in for the first time on 5 May, was carried on 21 May by a large majority. The duke's satisfaction at the con- sequent prorogation and dissolution of par- liament was marred, both by his inability to induce the king to order decisive measures of repression and by his jealousy of Mon- mouth (Dartmouth's note to BUENET, ii. 228 ; cf. REEESBY, p. 172). His friends in Eng- land continued to urge his conversion (so the ' old cavalier ' who published a letter under the signature ' Philanax Verus ; ' and cf. Clarendon Correspondence, i. 45, 46, 51 ; Life, i. 560; SIDNEY, Diary, i. 13) ; while a notion was started of making him king of the Romans (ib. i. 22, 23, 129). Charles con- tinued to forbid his return. When in August 1679 Charles was unexpectedly seized by a succession of ague fits, he, at the suggestion of Halifax, Essex, and others, who feared the ascendency of Monmouth and Shaftes- bury, sent for the duke (TEMPLE ap. SIDNEY, Diary, i. 137 n. ; REEESBY, p. 177). The king was now much better, and it was agreed that Monmouth should be sent away from court and the Duke of York appointed high commissioner in Scotland. James re- turned to Brussels to fetch the duchess, and reached England in October (ib. p. 179; SID- NEY, Diary, i. 163, 171). On the 27th, not- withstanding the opposition of Shaftesburv (ib. p. 181), they left for Scotland.
In Scotland, where Lauderdale had or- ganised a loyal reception, and where the duke took his seat on the privy council with- out being tendered the oath of allegiance, he bore himself impartially and moderately (see his letter ap. SIDNEY, Diary, i. 385, and cf. Life, i. 580, 587 ; BFBXET, ii. 292). But the persistency of Monmouth and symptoms of a
reaction against the whigs induced him to return to London, which he reached by sea on 24 Feb. 1680, and where he was well received (RERESBY, p. 181 ; Silvius to Sidney ap. SID- NEY, Diary, i. 285-6 ; cf. ib. p. 303 n.) He now bore himself withjnjich_tact (ib. ii. 25), and visibly began to establish a commanding influence over the king (REEESBY, pp. 182-3), which he used to prevent the meeting of par- liament. Shaft esbury presented him as a recu- sant to the Middlesex grand jury (16 June), but Chief-justice North removed the indict- ment from the Old Bailey to the king's bench, ' in order to a non pros.1 (Lives of the Norths, i. 399 ; Life, i. 675). Soon afterwards the Duchess of Portsmouth turned against him (BUENET, ii. 249) ; and when in August the king gave way to the cry for a parliament, James was obliged again to withdraw to Scotland (21 Oct.), having in vain sought to obtain from the king a pardon safeguarding him against the consequences of impeachment (Life, i. 597; cf. ' Reasons for the Indictment of the Duke of York,' &c., in State Papers, under Charles II, i. 466 seqq.) He was now willing to entertain a project of civil war, in which he was promptly encouraged by Louis XIV (BAEILLON ap. DALEYMPLE, ii. 334 seqq.) A resolution against a popish, successor was passed by the commons, and an exclusion bill brought in (4 Nov.), and rapidly carried up to the lords, where it was finally thrown out on the occond reading, -f i r through the influence of Halifax (KENNETT, iii. 388). But on the following day (16 Nov.) Halifax proposed the banishment of the Duke of York, and important limitations in his royal authority should he succeed. These proposals were rejected as futile, but James never forgave Halifax (Historical MSS. of the House of Lords, 1678-88, p. 209 ; cf. BUENET, ii. 340; Life,i. 619; State Papers from 1660 to 1689, ii. 91-2). The commons retorted upon the lords by bringing in a bill for a protestant association, aimed directly against the duke's succession ; and, in reply to a firm speech from the king, passed an address insisting on the principle of the ex- clusion (20 Dec.) On 18 Jan. 1681 the par- liament was dissolved and a new one sum- moned to Oxford for 21 March. At Oxford the king made one more attempt at compro- mise by a bill of security, which would have entrusted the substance of power to the Prince of Orange, and in the meantime banished the Duke of York ; but the commons adhering to the plan of simple exclusion, the parliament was dissolved on 28 March. In August 1681, after many representations had been made to the duke from his friends at home to declare himself a protestant (Life, i. 626 seqq., 657-8),
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Hyde was sent to Edinburgh to declare that the king could no longer uphold his brother unless he conformed, at least so far as to attend church (ib. i. 699 ; cf. MACPHERSON, Original Papers, i. 129, and RANKE, vii. 149).
In Scotland, though James adhered in sub- stance to the line pursued by Lauderdale, he adopted the conciliatory tone sanctioned by the king (STORY, William Carstares, 1874, p. 50). His courtesy was valued by the nobility and gentry ; while his attitude was concilia- tory towards the presbyterians. He even discouraged a rigid enforcement of the laws against conventicles. But no actual change of system seems to have taken place, and in 1681 James's rule became more severe. The parliament, opened by him in July, passed an act completely securing the legitimate suc- cession, any difference of religion notwith- standing, and another imposing a complicated test in favour of the royal prerogative (DAL- RYMPLE, i. 71). Argyll, after attempting to take it with a reservation, was prosecuted by the duke's orders, and sentenced to death, but escaped from prison (BURNET, ii. 300 seqq., 326-7; cf. Life, pp. 694 seqq., 702 seqq.) Great severity was shown in the application of the Test Act, though even Macaulay admits that the degree of James's personal responsi- bility is doubtful. Macaulay 's general de- scription (i. 270-1) is clearly overdone ; the grotesque charge against him of having taken pleasure in the spectacle of the administra- tion of torture appears to be founded solely on Burnet, ii. 426-8 (see Lockhart Papers, 1817, i. 600).
The duke's withdrawal from Scotland was the work of the Duchess of Portsmouth, who was intent upon a job for settling upon her- self a portion of the post-office revenues en- joyed by him (MACPHERSON, Original Papers, i. 129, 132-4; Life, i. 722-7). He sailed from Leith on 4 March 1682 for Yarmouth, and on 11 March reached Newmarket, where he was very kindly received by the king (RERESBY, p. 243 ; PEPTS, vi. 138). Though the duchess's job could not be managed, the king was gratified by his brother's compla- cency. James sailed on 3 May to fetch home his duchess from Scotland in the Gloucester frigate (a ' third rate '). The Gloucester [see under BERRY, SIR JOHN] was wrecked off the "Yorkshire coast with great loss of life. James was afterwards accused of having taken par- ticular care of his strong-box, his dogs, and his priests, while Legge with drawn sword kept off other passengers (BuRNET, ii. 324- 325 ; Clarendon Correspondence, i. 67-9, 71-4 ; PEPYS, Diary and Correspondence,^. 141-4; ELLIS, Orig. Letters, 2nd ser. iv. 67 seqq.)
After his return to England (June), the
1 political ascendency of James \vas fully esta-
' Wished. Notwithstanding his pretence of impartiality (RERESBY, p. 271), his influence was thrown altogether on the side of Roches- ter in the ensuing struggle for supremacy
i between him and Halifax ; while, by making his peace with the duke, Sunderland con- trived to be restored to his secretaryship (BuR- NET, ii. 338 ; RERESBY, p. 269). The design of the Rye House plotters was directed against him equally with the king, and rumour con- nected him with the death of Essex (Secret Hist, of James II, p. 179 ; cf. Life, ii. 314). He had to consent to the restoration of Mon- mouth to the king's favour, which he per- sisted in attributing to Halifax (RERESBY, pp. 286-90 ; cf. BURJTET, ii. 411-12), and to
j the discharge of Danby (RERESBY, p. 295). But his influence steadilyrose. In May 1684 he regained the powers, if not the full dignity,, of the admiralty (ib. p. 303; but see Life, ii. 81). (He had just before assented to the marriage of his daughter Anne with George of Denmark ; Life, i. 745.) He was freely admitted to the deliberations of the cabinet (Lives of the Norths, i. 65). In accordance with his wishes greater severity was intro- duced by Perth in Scotland. James was pre- sent at the administration of the last sacra- ment to Charles II by Johnlluddleston [q. v.]r and after the death of Charles published, with an attestation from his own hand, the two papers found in his brother's strong-box (KEXNETT, iii. 429-30 ; cf. the Defence of the Papers written by the late King and the Duchess of York, &c., 1686).
In the reign of James II three periods are clearly distinguishable :
I. From his accession, 6 Feb. 1685, to the autumn of the same year. During this period James was supported by all moderate men,, and the whigs remained mute. In the speech delivered by him to the privy council on quitting his brother's deathbed, he gave pro- mise of support to the church of England ( Cla- rendon Correspondence, i. 115; Life, ii. 4-5^ cf. EVELYN, ii. 445 seqq.) At first he took no step to the contrary. From an early date, however, the doors of the queen's chapel at St. James's, where he heard mass, were thrown open, and on Easter Sunday he attended the catholic service in full official pomp. At his coronation on St. George's day James cur- tailed the anglican rites, but submitted to be crowned by the primate (see State Tracts under William III, 1706, ii. 94). No dis- content was aroused by the proceedings against Gates and Dangerfield, or by the re- lease of large numbers of quakers and Roman catholics. James's policy was still undecided, though Louis XIV urged upon him the im- '
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mediate proclamation of liberty of worship (C. J. Fox, Appendix, xxiv). In Scotland parliament annexed the excise to the crown for ever, and voted James a revenue exceed- ing by nearly one-third that enjoyed by his brother (March and April) (LiXGARD, x. 66). The bestowal in Ireland of a regiment upon the catholic Talbot (April), in defiance of the Test Act, appears to have excited definite apprehensions (Fox, Ixvi-vii).
The ministerial changes made by James within the first fortnight of his reign seemed .even less significant than they were. Ro- chester, who was made lord treasurer, and who with Godolphin and Sunderland formed the inner cabinet, was the favourite of the church party. Although (12 Feb.) the king illegally declared his intention of levying the customs duties on his own authority, the convenience of the professedly temporary encroachment recommended it to the mer- cantile community. "When parliament met on 19 May it contained an overwhelming tory majority. A revenue equal to that of Charles was at once settled on the king for life, certain additional taxes being imposed at his request, and, though the committee of religion passed a resolution calling upon him to execute the penal laws against noncon- formists, it was revoked when it was under- stood to be offensive to him (MACAULAY, i. 514). Probably public feeling had been fur- ther gratified by certain reforms in the condi- tion of the court, which were facilitated by the banishment of the Duchess of Portsmouth. The attempt made by James at the same time to dismiss his own mistress, Catharine Sed- ley, failed (Venetian despatch in Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 19). James, although economical, received ambassadors with more dignity than Charles, and gratified English pride by assert- ing his equality with the king of France on ceremonial occasions (KLOPP, iii. 30-1 ; cf.
BURNET, iii. 12).
The crucial question in foreign affairs was that of the French alliance. Charles had become weary of Barillon's influence. James was in a more independent position. His first communication to the ambassador was his intention to summon a parliament, but he avowed his continued adhesion to the alliance with Louis. Louis had transmitted the ar- rears (five hundred thousand livres) due to Charles ; according to Barillon, James re- ceived the sum with tears, and sent Churchill as ambassador to Paris to ask for more. But Louis, on hearing of the summoning of parlia- ment, repented (KLOPP, iii. 13, citingMAZURE, ii. 43), and, though a fund four times as large had been entrusted to Barillon, rarely allowed him to use any part of it. Louis was no
doubt disturbed by the efforts of the Prince of Orange to keep up friendly relations with his father-in-law. James met these overtures halfway, and William in return consented to receive Skelton as ambassador, and sent Monmouth away from the Hague. The gene- ral impression that a complete reconciliation had taken place between them (DALRYMPLE, ii. 142-4; cf. KLOPP, ii. 20-1) induced Spain and the emperor to attempt to gain the confidence of James, who was still demand- ing money while failing to break with AVil- liam. This double position and the loyalty of his parliament seem for a moment to have suggested to James II the thought of play- ing the part of general pacificator of Europe (COUNT THUN ap. KLOPP, i. 37-8). In return Louis drew the pursestrings tight (C. J. Fox, Appendix, xcv, xcvii-viii). The loyal conduct of William of Orange during Monmouth's rebellion led to the formal renewal of the old treaties between England and the United Provinces (August), though there never was any question of James joining a coalition against France (BuRXET, iii. 20 ; cf. MACAU- LAY, ii. 2). Louis's disputes with Pope Inno- cent XI contributed to the coolness. After 1 Nov. 1685 Barillon's payments, which had amounted to 60,000/., ceased altogether (C. J. Fox, Appendix, cxxi; cf. LINGAKD, x. 65).
In spite of the landing of Argyll (14 May) and of Monmouth (11 June), the loyalty of parliament remained unimpaired. James, as a matter of course, assented to the bill of attainder against his nephew, while an extra- ordinary vote of supply and a bill for the pre- servation of the king's person were alsopassed. Parliament was prorogued 2 July, and four days later the insurrection came to an end at Sedgemoor. James has been accused of inhumanity for granting the captive Mon- mouth an interview without intending to pardon him (MACAULAY, i. 616 ; but see Life, i. 34-5). It was thought that the publica- tion by his orders of the narrative of Mon- mouth's capture and execution proved the truth of the saying, that, ' though it was in his power, it was not in his nature to pardon ' (DALRYMPLE, i. 146). The cruel treatment of the rebels bears more heavily upon him. His satisfaction in the Bloody Assizes {The Western Martyrology, 5th edit. 1705) was proved by the elevation of Jeffreys to the lord chancellorship, and by remarks in his letters to William of Orange (10 and 24 Sept., DAL- RYMPLE, ii. 53). The executions in London and the general rigour with which the penal laws were enforced against protestant non- conformists spread the terror beyond the seat of the rebellion. But there are few signs of
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a reaction against James's government such as Burnet attributes to the horror excited (iii. 68-9). The power of James at home and abroad had reached its climax.
II. From the second meeting of the first parliament (November 1685) to the acquittal of the seven bishops, 30 June 1688.
By keeping up the military force raised against Monmouth, and thereby increasing the standing army more than threefold, as •well as by granting commissions in the newly raised regiments to Roman catholics, in de- fiance of the Test Act (Lives of the Norths, ii. 150), James entered upon an aggressive policy. In the speech with which he opened parliament (Life, ii. 48-50) he confidently demanded sufficient supplies for his aug- mented army, and announced that he should maintain his illegal appointments. The com- mons sent Coke to the Tower for language disrespectful to the king, but when the lords showed a spirit of opposition, he prorogued parliament forthwith (19 Nov.) The king's displeasure with several members was so marked that even a courtier like Reresby (p. 349) perceived a crisis to have arrived 'for every thinking man.' The Scottish par- liament, which met April 1686 and showed itself unwilling to meet the king's wishes as to his catholic subjects, was likewise pro- rogued.
The dismissal of Halifax from office and from the privy council (21 Oct. 1685) secured the ascendency of Sunderland. A catholic cabal, of which Sunderland, Father Petre, Henry Jermyn (Dover); and Richard Talbot (Tyrconnel) (Life, ii. 77) were the principal members, was set on foot for the management of catholic affairs, which soon came to involve affairs at large. James now dropped his caution, and took a line too decided for many of the English catholics and for Pope Inno- cent XI. The Jesuits, with few exceptions, supported, like their patron Louis XIV, an active policy ( Clarendon Correspondence, ii. App. 507-8). James's confessor, the capuchin Mansuete, resigned (Ellis Correspondence, \. 47), and was succeeded by the Jesuit Warner, a nominee of Father Petre (LINGARD, x. 127 ; cf. RERESBY, p. 363 ; Ellis Correspondence, i. 35). At the beginning of 1686 James appears to have been above all desirous to prevent public discussion of his religious policy (ib. i. 23).
The queen and the c'atholics at large were offended by the ennoblement as Countess of Dorchester (January) of their antagonist Catharine Sedley (EVELYN, iii. 15 ; cf. Ellis Correspondence, i. 23) ; but the king was ulti- mately brought to regard this connection as unfavourable to his designs. She left for
Ireland and returned in August (Clarendon Correspondence, i. 544, 552), but did not regain her former ascendency (ib. ii. 279). James henceforward arranged his amours more de- cently than was usual with contemporary sovereigns. He was much occupied in the ' modelling ' of his army, and held frequent reviews in the encampment established by him on Hounslow Heath (Ellis Correspond- ence,].. 60, 125; RERESBY, p. 360; BRAMSTON, p. 234 ; cf. Life, ii. 71). About the same time- the administration of the navy was reor- ganised in accordance with the plans of Pepys (Ellis Correspondence, i. 73). James showed throughout unusual bodily activity and a restless devotion to business (ib. pp. 125, 272 ; REKESBY, p. 362 ; BRAMSTON, pp. 226- 228).
His religious policy first became unmis- takable in Ireland, where Clarendon was early in 1687 superseded by Tyrconnel. In Scot- land the royal letter recommending the re- moval of religious tests made a subservient parliament unmanageable, and was followed t>y the arbitrary admission of catholics to offices and honours (cf.BALCARRES, p. 3). Early in 1 686 James published the late king's papers, and naively pressed the primate to indite a ' gentlemanlike and solid ' reply (Life, ii. 9). He sent Lord Castlemaine to Rome (February} as ambassador, with no definite mission except that of obtaining a red hat for Father Petre, and began the proceedings which aimed at the removal of catholic disabilities by means of the dispensing power. Changes on the bench insured a favourable judicial decision on the subject (June); and, according to Burnet (iii. 103), steps had been taken beforehand to in- sure nonconformist support even in the west. In July four catholics were admitted into the privy council (RERESBY, p. 364). In May leave had been given to a catholic convert to- retain his London benefice ; another, Obadiah Walker, continued to hold the mastership of University College, Oxford ; and a third catholic, John Massey, was actually named dean of Christ Church. In July the court of high commission was revived, and sus- pended the Bishop of London [see COMPTON,. HENRY]. Disturbances ensued in London and in other towns. The clergy of the established church were now awake, and a very lively 'controversial war' (BuRNET, iii. 305) began. The king's scheme was at last openly carried out, catholics being placed on the commis- sions of the peace, and freely introduced as officers into the army (BRAMSTON, p. 251). On Christmas day 1686 the new chapel at Whitehall, dedicated by the king, was opened (ib. p. 253) and put into the hands of Father Petre; many other catholic chapels were
J
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opened, but the anglican churches were left unmolested (Life,\i. 79), except that Benedic- tines were settled in St. James's Chapel. The court in October was said to be deserted by all not called thither on actual service (KLOPP, iii. 261). On 5 Jan. 1687 Rochester, whom the king had in vain attempted to convert, succumbed to the cabal [see HYDE, LAU- BEXCE].
In Scotland a proclamation, issued 18 Feb. 1687, granted the right of public worship to all nonconformists, though with reservations burdensome to the presbyterians, and sus- pended all penal law against the catholics. In London a preliminary attempt was made to secure by royal 'closetings ' as many distin- guished recruits as possible for Rome (BRAM- STON, pp. 268-70; cf. Ellis Correspondence, i. 265) ; while in the country the judges on assize were instructed to feel the pulse of members of parliament (RERESBY, p. 370). At court Penn was frequently admitted to the presence (Ellis Correspondence, i. 269), and on 4 April the fateful Declaration of In- dulgence appeared (see ib. ii. 285 ; EVELYX, iii. 39). On 3 July James publicly received at Windsor the papal nuncio (Count Ferdi- nand d'Adda). To the deep annoyance of the king (Les dernier s Stuarts, ii. 148), the pope left Father Petre unpromoted, but con- ferred a cardinalate upon Mary of Modena's brother Rinaldo, and named him protector of the English nation at Rome. Father Petre appointed to the privy council, in November 1687, the convert Sir Nicholas Butler, and Sunderland now formed the triumvirate in control of affairs.
On the day after the nuncio's reception the dissolution of parliament was proclaimed (4 July 1687). James II tried to secure a more subservient body by a manipulation of •the surrendered municipal charters (BtrBNET, iii. 191), and by managing the counties with the aid of a renovated lord-lieutenancy. The universities were likewise attacked. On the deprivation of the vice-chancellor of Cam- bridge (May) followed the expulsion of the fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford (Decem- ber), and its conversion into a catholic semi- nary. In the Magdalen case James inter- vened personally (Diary of Bishop Cart- wright of Chester, pp. 83, 86-93 et al. ; cf. BRAMSTON, pp. 284 seqq.) i
The determination of the king stiffened as his manoeuvres failed, and on 27 April 1688 he put forth his second Declaration of Indul- gence, which, while reiterating his religious policy, announced his intention of assembling parliament in November at the latest. This declaration was (4 May) ordered to be read in church on two specified successive Sun-
days, after being previously distributed by the bishops in their dioceses. When seven bishops petitioned him (18 May) against the declaration, James told them that they had raised the standard of rebellion. A fortnight afterwards they were consigned to the Tower (BuRXET, iii. 189-90; Clarendon Correspond- ence, pp. 177, 179-80). The acquittal of the bishops (30 June 1688) naturally disturbed the king, though he appears to have preserved his self-control when the news reached him in the camp at Hounslow Heath (RERESBY, p. 397 ; Ellis Correspondence, ii. 24-5 ; cf. Life, ii. 165).
The confidence shown by James was partly due to the birth of a prince of Wales (10 June) ; for the doubtfulness of the suc- cession had been an element of weakness in his position. The significance of the birth of an heir was soon apprehended, and little art was needed to prompt and develope the suggestion that the child was supposititious. Although James was only in his fifty-fifth year, while the queen had already given birth to four children (who died young), the story found willing listeners in the Princesses Mary and Anne and among the public at large [see JAMES FRAXCIS EDWARD STUART].
III. From the summer to the autumn of 1688 the relations between James II and the Prince of Orange had been uneasy. The fear that James would renew Charles's offensive alliance with France easily became a belief that such an alliance had been actually con- cluded (KLOPP, iii. 275-6), and that a league, more or less resembling the treaty of Dover, had been concluded between James and Louis. The literature on the subject is enor- mous (by way of example see 'An Account of a Private League,' &c., in Harleian Miscel- lany, i. 37 seqq.) The officiousness of Skelton, the English envoy, had personally irritated William against James, who in his turn was annoyed by the favourable reception given at the Hague to Burnet (BURNET, iii. 137-9), though by James's desire he ceased to be re- ceived at court. In January 1687 James sent to the Hague in Skelton's place Albeville, a catholic Irishmaif in the pay of France. Wil- liam hereupon sent Dykvelt to England, who, besides warning the king against the repeal of the Test Act, communicated with all the statesmen, by whom William was afterwards invited to England. During the summer of 1687 the irritation between the English and Dutch governments increased. James, who about this time declined to oblige the em- peror by coming forward on behalf of the peace of Europe, was more isolated than ever in his foreign relations. After the dissolu- tion of parliament Zuylesteen was sent to
to
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England to sound the situation and to take up the threads of Dykvelt's correspondence. At this conjuncture (September) it was sug- gested to James, through Sunderland (DAL- RYMPLE, iii. 134 seqq.), to transfer to the ser- vice of the French government, for his own eventual use, the regiments in the Dutch ser- vice in his pay. But, though Louis offered to facilitate the proposal by maintaining part of these troops in England (MACATJLAY, ii. 260), their recall was delayed, and the Prince and Princess of Orange declared their loyalty towards James, while recommending a more moderate policy (BuKKET, iii. 215-17). At last, after vainly demanding the extradition of Buruet, James ordered the recall of the six regiments from the service of the states (27 Jan. 1688). The states refused compli- ance, and finally only some officers returned (BRAMSTOX, p. 305). In England prices fell, and warlike preparations began in the Netherlands, where the action of James had brought about cordial relations between the states and the Prince of Orange, and where Louis XIV was suspected of planning an immediate invasion. James had not yet thought of offensive war. On 3 April he issued a proclamation recalling all his sub- jects in the Dutch service, and authorising their forcible removal after a certain date from Dutch ships. Louis, however, urged the equipment of an English fleet equal in strength to the Dutch (BAEILLO^ ap. MAZTTRE, iii. 92, undated). He empowered Barillon to offer James a sum of — in the extreme case — six hundred thousand livres. On 29 April an agreement was concluded, Louis promising five hundred thousand livres for an English fleet and the maintenance of two thousand English troops recalled from the provinces (ib. p. 99). In the meantime Albeville at the Hague strove to keep up the tension between his master and the Dutch government. The issue of the second Declaration of Indulgence, followed by the order to the clergy, furnished "William with his opportunity. Zuylesteen was sent over on the pretext of congratulating James on the birth of the Prince of Wales, and on the day of the acquittal of the bishops the letter was signed which invited William of Orange to England (30 June). James, still unaware of his danger, had just declined Louis's offer of sixteen men-of-war, and this offer was not renewed. It was not till 30 Sept. that Louis offered a joint declaration against Holland, which James declined. Thus, when the expedition of William of Orange sailed, England, Holland, and France were all at peace, and there was no alliance, despite the popular belief, between England and France.
During July and August James held re- views at the Nore and at Portsmouth (Ellis Correspondence, ii. 63, 128), without neglect- ing the camp on Hounslow Heath (ib. ii. 24, 116). On 27 Aug. all governors and other officers were ordered to repair to their respective commands (Dartmouth MSS. p. 145). Till the latter part of September, how- ever, appointments were made and honours bestowed in the sense of James's previous policy. On 23 Aug. he and the queen were loyally entertained at Bulstrode by Jeffreys (Ellis Correspondence, ii. 139), while the troops near London were reinforced by a small body of Irish soldiery (Clarendon Cor- respondence, ii. 190). On 21 Sept., however, a proclamation announced that in the ap- proaching election catholics should remain ineligible as members of parliament, and the king thought of summoning the peers in order to apprise them of his design to undo his innovations. On 22 Sept. he informed the Bishop of Winchester of his intention to sup- port the church of England (ib. pp. 189-91). On the same day a royal proclamation ap- pealed to the country for support against the imminent Dutch invasion, and stated that the king found himself forced to recall the parliamentary writs, as his present place was at the head of his army (Life, ii. 185). On the 29th, the day on which came out a gene- ral pardon, from which, with blundering pedantry, the clergy were corporately ex- cepted (Clarendon Correspondence, ii. 192), was also issued the declaration of the Prince of Orange. On the following day its circu- lation was prohibited (BKAMSXON, p. 329 ; cf. EVELYX, iii. 59), and the king had interviews concerning it with both bishops and suspected temporal peers (Clarendon Correspondence, ii. 199-201). The westerly winds appeared to allow him time for concessions. He restored a number of displaced officials in church and state, beginning with Bishop Compton (30 Sept.), personally restored their old char- ter to the mayor and aldermen of the city of London (2 Oct.), restored other municipal charters (Dartmouth MSS. p. 175), gave au- dience to the bishops in London, and within a few days abolished the high commission, and virtually empowered the Bishop of Win- chester, as visitor of Magdalen, to re-establish the old order of things there.
But no enthusiasm was roused. James, in answer to an accusation of ' fraud ' in Wil- liam's ' Declaration,' made a formal declara- tion, supported by evidence, of the genuine- ness of the birth of the Prince of Wales to an extraordinary council of peers and high dignitaries summoned for the purpose (22 Oct.) Two days afterwards Sunderland
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was dismissed from the secretaryship of state, and Preston appointed in his place.
Meanwhile active preparations of defence went on. French aid was disdained {Life, ii. 186) ; but thirty ships of the line, with sixteen fireships, were collected under the command of Dartmouth ; and the king, with the aid of Pepys, was active in remedying shortcomings (Dartmouth MSS. pp. 152, 154, 178). The army was augmented so as to amount, according to the king's computation, to forty thousand men (cf. REKESBT, p. 409 ; see History of Desertion, pp. 59-61).
The news of William's landing at Torbay reached James 6 Nov., on which date he had an unsatisfactory interview with the bishops. On 9 Nov. he acquitted Dartmouth of any shortcoming in letting the Dutch fleet pass, and on the 12th sent him some seaman- like suggestions for the future (Dartmouth MSS. pp. 198, 202-3, 206, 230). For about a week no person of consequence joined the prince's army, but desertions began as the armies approached one another. James as- sembled«tne principal officers still in London before leaving for the field, and was warmly received. About the same time he un- graciously promised a deputation of peers, headed by the primate, to call a parliament so soon as the invasion and rebellion were over (Life, ii. 212 ; cf. History of Deser- tion, p. 44 ; MACATJLAY, ii. 502; Les dernier s Stuarts, ii. 331 seqq.) Before leaving for Salisbury he sent the Prince of Wales under the guard of Irish dragoons to Portsmouth, where Berwick was in command ; the queen seemed safe in London under the protection of six thousand troops. ' He committed the government to a council of five, Jeffreys, Godolphin,and three catholics : Father Petre, however, left for France (Life, ii. 222). James resolved to strike a crushing blow against the enemy in the west. He was de- tained at Salisbury, where he arrived 19 Nov., by a violent bleeding at the nose. He had | to relinquish his intention of visiting his ad- j vanced posts at Warminster, and thus in his own belief escaped falling a victim to a plot laid by Churchill and others to seize him and deliver him up to the enemy ( Clarendon Cor- respondence, ii. 211; Life] ii. 222-3; MAO PHERSON, Original Papers, i. 280 seqq. ; cf. | BERWICK, i. 330). The delay facilitated trea- son. Churchill's and Grafton's desertion, and Kirke's recalcitrance, induced him to fall back as far as Andover (23 Nov.) On the same evening Prince George of Denmark, Ormonde, and Drumlanrig, Queensberry's eldest son, rode off into the enemy's camp. There was no longer doubt of a conspiracy in the army, and on his return to London at 5 P.M. on 26 Nov.
James heard of the flight of the Princess Anne in Lady Churchill's company (Dartmouth MSS. pp. 214-15). Next day a council of between forty and fifty peers, including nine bishops, met in Whitehall at the king's sum- mons chiefly to discuss the question of sum- moning a parliament. The king assented to the issuing on the following day of writs for a meeting of parliament on 13 Jan., but de- manded anight to consider the other proposals made to him. He would not, he said, see him- self deposed like Richard II ( Clarendon Corre- spondence, ii. 208-11). During the next few days all Halifax's suggestions were agreed to, a general amnesty was proclaimed, and Halifax himself, Nottingham, and Godolphin were named commissioners to treat with the prince. James meanwhile assured Barillon that his promises were merely feigned in order to insure the safety of the queen and prince, when he would withdraw to Ire- land or Scotland, or, if necessary, to France (MAZURE, iy. 46; Dartmouth MSS. pp. 228, 283-6 ; cf. Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 413). The removal of the queen and her son was managed by Lauztin and other foreign helpers (ib. pp. 381 seqq.)
Meanwhile the spirit of defection spread, and London was full of confusion. On 8 Dec. William met the royal commissioners at Hun- gerford. He accepted terms which recognised him as a victorious belligerent, and, while referring the points in dispute to parliament, imposed upon James the dismissal of all papists. James could hardly meet parlia- ment with any advantage to himself after accepting the Hungerford terms, and was in- clining towards flight. On 10 Dec., assured that his wife and son were fairly on their way to safety, he addressed two letters to Dart- mouth, announcing his imminent withdrawal. He directed that faithful sailors should repair to Ireland, and there take orders from Tyr- connel (Dartmouth MSS. p. 234). In the same spirit he wrote a letter to Feversham, which left the latter little choice but to disband his forces (KEXXETT, iii. 500 ; cf. BURXET, iii. 345 ). James took many precautions to con- ceal his plan, and assured the city authorities- of his intention to remain (MACATJLAY, ii. 546). At the same time he confided nine volumes of manuscript memoirs to Terriesi, the Tuscan ambassador, together with three thousand guineas (Life, ii. 242-4 ; cf. Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 377). On the morning of 11 Dec., between two and three o'clock, the king left Whitehall by a secret passage. A hackney coach, in which Sir Edward Hales was waiting, carried him to Millbank, whence he crossed to Vauxhall. From the place where it was afterwards found the great seal was
James II i
there supposed to have been thrown by him into the river (RERESBY, p. 421, is clearly in error). He continued his journey in a car- riage to Sheerness, where he had appointed a custom-house hoy to be in readiness. ' With this,' says Burnet (iii. 345), ' his reign ended.'
James did not venture to reveal himself to the commander of the hoy. Moreover a gale was blowing ; ballast had to be taken in ; and thus it was that at 11 P.M., when the vessel was on the point of putting out again from Sheppey Island, she was boarded by fifty or sixty fishermen (RERESBY). James was roughly handled, was brought to Faversham, where his identity was discovered, and es- corted by 'seamen and rabble' to the mayor's house. He was detained there for two days under arrest (Life, ii. 251-6; Hist. MSS. Comm. App. to 5th Rep. (1876) p. 319).
The news of the king's detention arrived in London 13 Dec., in a letter unaddressed but written in his own hand. The council of lords under Halifax immediately des- j patched Feversham with a troop of life-guards to set him at liberty. Middleton and a few others sent by the lords found their way to him even sooner. James was allowed to take his departure to Rochester, but William sent Zuylesteen to bid him remain there. On the afternoon of the intervening Sunday (16 Dec.) James was back in London. Ac- counts differ as to his reception (MACATILAY, ii. 572 n. ; Life, ii. 272 ; Clarendon Corre- spondence, ii. 230 ; Diary of Sir Patrick Hume, ib., 231 n. ; see also Dartmouth MSS. p. 244), but it raised his spirits for the moment. After his arrival he went to mass and dined in public, a Jesuit saying grace (EVELYN, iii. 6J ). He also held a council, at which he ' refused all proposals ' (ib.) But he assented to the introduction of William's Dutch guards into St. James's (Clarendon Correspondence, ii. 226 n. ; cf. MACATJLAY, ii. 574) ; declined to reassemble his disbanded army, and told Balcarres and Dundee, who had come from Scotland with projects of aid, that he was bound for France (Memoirs of Colin, Earl of Balcarres, pp. xv-xvi ; Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 431 ; MAZURE, iv. 71). The lords at Windsor, 10 Dec., concluded that he should take up his abode outside London. On 17 Dec. James was sent back to Rochester.
Here he received numerous messages en- treating him to yield, including an address from the primate and the bishops (Life, ii. 270-2) ; Middleton and Dundee advised him to stay. On the night of the 22nd he left Rochester with Berwick, passing by a back door to the Medway, and on the morning of the 23rd boarded a smack which took him out of the Thames (BERWICK, p. 334).
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He left behind him a paper, in which he charged the Prince of Orange with having, while posting his own guards at Whitehall, given him notice to quit on the following morning (cf. BRAMSTON, pp. 341-2 ; Life, ii. 263 seqq. ; ' Reflections on " H.M.'s Reasons for withdrawing himself from Rochester," ' in State Tracts of Revolution and Reign of Wil- liam III, 1705, i. 126-8). James also dwelt, not without dignity and force, on the accu- sations connected with his son's birth (Life, ii. 273-5). Various accounts circulated as to James's immediate motives. Halifax was said to have terrified him by statements as to personal violence intended against him by the Prince of Orange (RERESBY, pp. 433-4-6). The fiction, according to which the reign of James II in England and in Scotland was supposed to have terminated by his flight from Whitehall, 11 Dec. 1688, was consum- mated by William's acceptance of the De- claration of Right, 13 Feb., and of the Claim of Right, 11 April 1689.
At 3 A.M. on Christmas day 1688, James, after a rough voyage, landed at Ambleteuse, under the guns of a French man-of-war. After hearing mass he received the Duke d'Aumont. with whom he dined at Boulogne (Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 456-8). He re- ceived a warm welcome on his journey through France. He had intended to pro- ceed to Versailles : but Louis insisted on re- ceiving him at St. Grermains, where the queen and Prince of Wales had already found shelter. The reception has been often de- scribed (by MME. DE SEVIGNE, edit. 1862, viii. 399-401 ; DANGEATT, ii. 292-5 ; MME. DE LA FAYETTE, pp. 205-8 ; cf. Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 390-2). St. Germains was freely assigned to the English royal family, with a monthly pension of between forty and fifty thousand francs and fifteen thousand scudi ; other courtesies were heaped upon them. While the queen was generally admired, James looked old, fatigued, and dull (ib. ii. 471, 477). He paid visits at Paris to the Jesuits and Carmelites (ib. pp. 481-2 ; cf. LA FAYETTE, pp. 211, 225 seqq.)
James's first political efforts were feeble. On 2 Feb. 1689 his equerry, Ralph Shel- don, arrived in London to fetch away the king's equipage (ClarendonCorrespondence, ii. 251 ; Dartmouth MSS. p. 260). But he also carried with him a long epistle from James to the peers at Westminster. Though not allowed to be read to the house it was gene- rally known there, and is preserved among the papers (MSS. of the House of Lords, 1689-90, p. 19). A postscript, dated 26 Jan., offered a free pardon to all who had taken part against him, accompanied, however, by
o
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an announcement of exceptions, to which Macaulay (ii. 642) attributes a decisive in- fluence upon the debates of the Convention parliament (see KEXNETT, iii. 509). Other diplomatic overtures made by James and Melfort, who acted as his prime mini- ster, were equally unsuccessful. Help from Louis XIV was out of the question until the French king was at peace with the emperor (Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 514). James's vice- chamberlain, Colonel Porter, was sent (Fe- bruary 1689) to Rome to request the support of Pope Innocent XI (ib. pp. 482 seqq., 489- 490, 492-4). James also appealed to the Emperor Leopold I (ib. ii. 495 seqq.), and applied to several Italian courts (ib. pp. 515 seqq.) The project of a European crusade on his behalf proved one of James's most complete delusions (ib. ii. 498-501 ; cf. State Papers, 1660-89, pp. 446 ; Life, ii. 326-7). In August "William III joined the grand alliance.
Some English statesmen were equally de- luded in believing that James might be re- stored if only he would desert the papists. A reaction undoubtedly set in, and competent observers thought a landing by James in either England or Scotland had even chances of success (HoFFMAirar ap. KLOPP, iv. 388). Louis XIV, however, urged an expedition to Ireland.
In January 1689 James was in communica- tion with Tyrconnel in Ireland. The French government sent thither an agent in whom James placed great confidence (St. Ruth), and James soon followed in person. Accom- panied by Berwick, Powis, Doncaster, Dover, Melfort, d'Avaux, the French ambassador, Bishop Cartwright, and half a dozen inevit- able Jesuits (Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 527), he sailed from Brest on 17 March with ships and men furnished by Louis. While on board he addressed a tardy manifesto to his Scottish subjects, peremptorily ordering a return to their allegiance by the end of the month (Life, ii. 325, 342-3). He landed at Kinsale 12 March, and two days later was met at Cork by Tyrconnel, who inspired him with great hopefulness (Les derniers Stuarts, ii. 278). On 24 March he made his entry into Dublin ; on the following day summoned a parliament for 7 May, and then left Dublin to take part in the siege of Londonderry. He twice changed his mind on the way, and finally, when his summons of surrender was refused, returned to Dublin, where he ordered a Te Deum for a naval skirmish in Bantry Bay. On 7 May he opened the Irish parlia- ment with a speech insisting on his intention to grant liberty of conscience and asking for the relief of those injured by the Act of Settlement (Life,ii. 355-6). An act of tolera-
tion was accordingly passed, followed by a corresponding declaration. Other acts an- nulled the supreme authority of the English parliament, and transferred the greater part of the tithes to the catholic clergy. Very numerous confiscations followed. After tem- porising, he assented to the repeal of the Act of Settlement and to the wholesale Act of Attainder. The persecutions and emigrations which ensued, the raising of the siege of Lon- donderry (1 Aug.), the almost simultaneous defeat of the Irish army and consequent rais- ing of the siege of Enniskillen, and the news from Scotland of the dispersion of the clans after Killiecrankie impaired the strength of the Jacobite cause, and in the middle of August Schomberg landed at Belfast.
James's exchequer was empty, notwith- standing the debasement of the coin (see MACPHERSOX, i. 304-8), and he was a helpless, though reluctant, tool in the hands of the Irish party. James joined his army at Drog- heda (lOSept.), but Schomberg refused to give battle to his superior forces, and in Novem- ber both armies went into winter quarters. James hopefully contemplated a descent upon Scotland or England in the spring (DAXGEATJ, iii. 36). But he did nothing to improve the discipline of his troops, though in the spring of 1690 they were reinforced by a French force under Lauzun. Shortly after the opening of the campaign William III himself took the command of his army. James, in deference to Lauzun's advice, left Dublin 16 June and advanced as far as Dundalk. He then fell back to encamp, about twenty-six thousand strong, in a better position on the south side of the Boyne, pitching his own tent on the height of Donore. In the battle of the Boyne (1 July) James, by his own showing (Life,, ii. 395-401), played an irre- solute part. When the day was decided he was prevailed upon by Lauzun to quit the field, and he reached Dublin the same night. He hastily summoned the members of his council present in Dublin, and early on the following evening bade farewell to the lord mayor and chief catholic citizens. He then rode, ' leisurely ' (ib. p. 403), to Bray and through the Wicklow hills to Arklow, where alarming rumours induced him to ' mend his pace.' From Waterford, which he reached early on 3 July, he sailed to Kinsale, where he found a squadron of small French vessels. He landed about 23 July at Brest (DANGEATJ, iii. 179), and there he heard of the French victory off Beachy Head (30 June). This, as he afterwards declared, convinced him of the wisdom of his plan of withdrawing from Ireland in order to attempt a landing in Eng- land (Life, ii. 408-9 : cf. ib. p. 401). Louis XIV
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received the project coldly, and it fell to the ground (ib. pp. 411-13; cf. MACPHERSON, i. 234-5).
After his departure from Ireland James did not altogether abandon his schemes, but by 1692 (Life, ii. 472 seqq.) he seems to have become less confident of a speedy return. About this time he placed his court upon a more permanent footing (ib. ii. 411 n. ; and •of. Les derniers Stuarts, i. 31 seqq.) His most confidential dealings with Versailles are said to have been conducted through the Abbe Thomas Innes [q. v.] (BiscoE, p. 172). There is reason to distrust the current description of the life at St. Germains, which the lite- rary and artistic tastes of James and his con- sort can hardly have left in persistent gloom (see Les derniers Stuarts, i. 44 seqq.) On 28 June 1692 Mary bore James a daughter ; he had summoned a number of ladies from England to be present on the occasion (Life, ii. 474-5 ; EVELYN, iii. 102).
James did not again take an active part in the conflicts of the time. In the months pre- ceding the discovery of Preston's plot (31 Dec. 1690) he was distracted more than ever by the factions at St. Germains, by demands for money from Scotland and Ireland, and by the quarrels between Tyrconnel and his op- ponents (Life, ii. 421-41). To this time pro- bably belongs the preamble of a declaration averring the king's experience to be adverse to the making of any further declarations at all (MACPHEKSON, i. 385). But the intrigues with English Jacobites continued, and be- tween January and May James was in ac- tual correspondence with Marlborough. The scheme was, however, betrayed (January 1692), and came to nothing. The corre- spondence between James and Marlborough was not broken off, and led to a letter from Anne to her father, which he did not receive till he was at La Hogue. This reconcilia- tion, together with the fall of Mons (Octo- ber 1691) and the death of Louvois, fa- voured the resumption of James's scheme of an invasion of England ; and early in 1692 he pressed it upon Louis XIV in two elabo- rate minutes (ib. i. 400-11). In the spring an expedition on a large scale was accord- ingly fitted out by the French government. James also trusted in the supposed disaffec- tion of the English fleet and the discontent of its commander, Edward Russell (Orford) with whom he had been in correspondence Before leaving St. Germains (21 April) he issued a declaration excepting from the pro- spective indemnity a number of persons, in- cluding the fishermen who had insulted him at Faversham (MACATTLAY, p. 488; Stat Tracts under William Hf, vol. ii.) At La
logue James found all the Irish regiments n the French service, besides ten thousand French troops, while Tourville lay at Brest with forty-five men-of-war and numerous transports. The French fleet was defeated 19 May), and (24 May) thirteen ships were destroyed on the shore of La Hogue under ;he very eyes of James. Dangeau (iv. 98) says that he was unable to conceal t is satis- faction at the gallantry of the English. After ;his catastrophe Louis XIV sent forth no ?urther armament on behalf of James, but the exile continued to receive most honour- able treatment at St. Germains.
On 17 April 1693 James issued a declara- tion in accordance with propositions brought by the protestant Middleton from some Eng- lish Jacobites. It promised various conces- sions as to the dispensing power and so forth. James had taken the opinion of ecclesiastics, including Bossuet, before signing it (Life, ii. 506 seqq.), but it gave deep oft'ence to the advocates of an opposite policy (MACPHER- SON, i. 446 ; cf. An Answer, &c., in State Tracts under William III, ii. 349 seqq. ; EVELYN, iii. 109). The victory of the <com- pounders ' over the ' non-compounders ' was marked by Middleton's supersession of Mel- fort as prime minister. The news of Queen Mary's death (20 Dec. 1694) was received by her father without emotion (BiscoE, p. 189), and he requested the French court to abstain from the customary mourning. The event inclined his daughter Anne to a reconcilia- tion with King William, while it increased the activity of the Jacobite plotters. After the fall of Namur (4 Aug. 1695), direct en- couragement was given by Louis to a plan for the invasion of England. Ultimately, Berwick was sent over to prepare an insur- rection (Memoires de Berwick, i. 392), and learnt of the Assassination plot against King William. One of the conspirators was Sir George Barclay [q. v.], whom James had commissioned in November 1695 ' to do from time to time such acts of hostility against the prince as should most conduce to the royal service' (Life, ii. 547). Berwick re- turned to France without delay. At Cler- mont he met his father on his way to Calais, where a French fleet had assembled (Lexing- ton Papers, p. 177). A signal was expected from England but it never arrived, and James, at the request of Louis (BEKWICK, i. 394), remained on the French coast with Middle- ton, hoping in vain from the beginning of March to the end of April. According to the 'Life' (ii. 545), James had no complicity in the Assassination plot, which is said to have marred all his projects, and three cases are mentioned in which, during 1693-5, he re-
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jected proposals of violence against the Prince of Orange (cf. BISCOE, p. 237). Macaulay takes the opposite view (iv. 648 seqq.), and strains the commission to Barclay, who was not dismissed from the service of King James I (KLOPP, vii. 192).
James's disappointment was perhaps con- nected with his illness in the following year (DAXGEAr, vi. 83). After his return some time passed before the intercourse with Eng- land could be resumed (MACPHERSON,ii. 555) ; and the illness of William III only brought the certainty that the Princess Anne would not sacrifice her interests to his (Life,'\\. 559- 560). It soon became evident that the aban- donment of his claims by France would be a condition of peace between the two countries. Preliminaries signed by Louis's envoys at the Hague included the recognition of Y\ il- liam III (10 Feb.), and James issued vain protests to the catholic and protestant princes of Europe (ib. ii. 566 seqq. ; cf. MACPHERSOX, i. 561). He was refused a representative at the congress of Ryswick (May), and publicly disclaimed all acknowledgment of its resolu- tions (Life, ii. 572 seqq. ; MACPHERSON, i. 569- 571). Louis steadily refused to assent to the demand for the removal of James beyond the French frontier, and after promising not to countenance any attempt to subvert Wil- liam's government, contrived that no men- tion of James should be made in the treaty. An arrangement suggested by Louis, whereby after the death of William the Prince of Wales should succeed to the throne, liberal allow- ance being made to James, was rejected by both James and his consort (BERWICK, i. 409 ; Life, ii. 574-5 ; MACPHERSOX, i. 557-8, 569).
The peace of Ryswick deprived James of political occupation, and he gave himself up to religious exercises. About 1695 he had first begun to practise austerities indicative of his wish to sever himself from the world, and had ' turned St. Gennains into a sort of solitude ' (Life, ii. 528). Besides his dili- gent attendance on the great ecclesiastical solemnities at Paris, he occasionally went into retreat in religious houses for periods of seven or eight days, and attended the night offices of Easter week. He was espe- cially impressed by periodical retreats of three or four days to La Trappe, which he had commenced after his return from Ireland (ib. pp. 527-9, 582-3 ; Les derniers Stuarts, i. 77-80). He composed religious treatises, in- veighing against worldly dissipations, but to avoid the appearance of affectation, he took part in hunting and other diversions of the French court (ib. i. 582 seqq.) His charities, so far as his means went, seem to have kept
pace with his austerities (MACPHERSOX, i, 591 seqq.)
In March 1701 James had an attack of partial paralysis, and the waters of Bourbon proved ineffectual (ST.-Smox, ii. 448, iii. 22 ; Life, ii. 591-2). After a final illness of a fort- night he died at St. Germains, ' like a saint ,r on Friday, 6 Sept. (DANGEATT, viii. 184, 194). He exhorted Middleton and his other pro- testant followers to embrace the catholic faith ; took loving farewell of his wife and son ; repeatedly asseverated his forgiveness of his enemies, among whom he specified the Prince of Orange, the Princess Anne, and the Emperor Leopold, and in the second of two interviews with Louis obtained his pro- mise to recognise the Prince of Wales as king of England (Life, ii. 592 seqq., 601-2 ; cf. Si.-SmoN, iii. 188-91 ; BERWICK, i. 407- 408; the ELECTRESS SOPHIA, Brief e an die Raugrafinnen, &c., 1888, p. 217 ; see also ' An Exact Account of the Sickness and Death of the late King James II,' 1701, in Somers Tracts, xi. 339 seqq. ; and his ' Last Dying Words to his Son and Daughter and the French King,' ib. pp. 342-3).
Though James had expressed a wish to be buried in the parish church at St. Ger- mains, his remains were ' provisionally ' trans- ported to the English Benedictine church of St. Edmund, in the Faubourg St. Jacques, where miraculous cures were reported to have been performed through his interces- sion (MACPHERSOX, i. 596 seqq.) He had largely touched for the king's evil in the course of his reign (see e.g. CARTWRIGHT, Diary, p. 74 ; and cf. BRAMSTOX, p. 231), and continued the practice at the Petit Couvent des Anglaises in Paris. His heart was de- posited in the Convent of the Visitation at Chaillot ; his brain was bequeathed to the Scots College at Paris ; while his bowels were divided between the English College at St. Omer and the parish church of St. Germains. His corpse remained in its ori- ginal resting-place, awaiting transportation to Westminster Abbey, till the first French revolution, when the coffin was broken up for the sake of the lead, and its contents were carried away — it was said to be thrown into the fosse commune. His other remains dis- appeared, with the exception of those in the church at St. Germains, which, being dis- covered in 1824, were, in pursuance of orders by George IV, solemnly reinterred in Se.ptem- ber of that year, a temporary inscription being placed over them (Les derniers Stuarts, i. 99). The king's letters and autographs, en- trusted to the Benedictine fathers, disappeared during the French revolution, though some of them at all events seem to have fallen into
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the hands of the commissaries of the repub- lic (ib. pp. 91 seqq.) The manuscripts of the king's ' Original Memoirs,' carried to France fcy Terriesi in 1688, and continued by James in his exile, were during the revolution cleverly carried for transmission to England as far as the house of a trustworthy person living near St. Omer, and there destroyed in a panic by the man's wife (preface to C. J. Fox, Hist, of James II ; and cf. Les derniers Stuarts, i. 113 seqq.) But most of the docu- ments are printed in the ' Life of James II,' by Clarke. The last will of James, dated •6 Sept. 1701, and signed for the king by Middleton, exists in a copy in the French foreign office, and in draft among the ' Nairne Papers' at Oxford (ib. p. 118). He advises his son not to trouble his subjects in the en- joyment of their religion, rights, and liberties. The advice bequeathed by James to his son {ib. pp. 617-42), and deposited by him in the Scots College, is said by Macpherson (i. 77 ra.) to have been drawn up by him when in Ire- land in 1690.
James II had by his first wife eight, and by liis second wife seven, children, of the latter of whom only James (the subsequent ' Old Pretender ') and the youngest, Louisa Maria Theresa, whose death in 1712 caused so pro- found a sorrow at St. Germains, survived him (see W. A. LINDSAY, Pedigree of the House of Stuart, 1889). His acknowledged illegi- timate children were — by Arabella Stuart : (I) James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick, born 1670 ; (2) Henry Fitzjames, duke of Albe- marle, 'the Grand Prior,' born 1673; (3) Hen- rietta, married to Sir Henry (afterwards Lord) Waldegrave, her father's ' ambassador ' in France ; and (4) another daughter, who died a nun ; by Catharine Sedley (Lady Dorches- ter), a daughter known as Lady Catharine Darnley, married to Lord Anglesey, and after being divorced from him to Sheffield, duke •of Buckinghamshire [q. v.]
James had in his youth the worst possible training ; and through the greater part of his life he was the slave of the immorality then universal in his rank, in which he contrived to caricature the excesses of his brother. He neither gamed nor drank, and his early service in the field, his love of the sea, and his fond- ness for outdoorexercises,preventedhim from becoming a 'saunterer' like Charles. He showed personal courage in his youth, and in the two great sea-fights in which he held the command. His seamanship was by no means titular only, but shows itself in much of his correspondence with Dartmouth and others (cf. PEPYS, v. 246). He was capable in the details of business, and possessed some literary ability. Although the breakdown of
the naval administration under him has no parallel in shamefulness, it is certain that he both sought to improve the management of the navy, and to awaken king and parliament to a sense of its defects. He is said to have kept a journal from the time of his stay in the Scilly Isles. In his later years his pen was never out of his hands, as his numerous declarations attest. In the last period of his life he fell back, apparently with unabated zest, upon religious composition. Hispatron- age of Wycherley may be attributed in some degree to his literary insight as well as to his sympathy with the ' supposed virtues ' of the ' Plain Dealer ' (LEIGH HUNT). The charge of personal cruelty rests mainly on the severities in Scotland, on his supposed injunctions to Jeffrey s for the Bloody Assizes, his callousness at the wreck of the Gloucester, and one or two isolated anecdotes (BRAMSTON, p. 273). On the whole it seems insufficiently made out. He was obviously a political and a religious bigot. In the early days of Charles IPs reign his firmness was favourably contrasted with the fickleness of the king; but Clarendon concluded that it was due to obstinacy of will rather than to intellectual conviction (CLA- RENDON, Life, iii. 64). ' The king,' said Buck- ingham, ' could see things if he would; the duke would see things if he could ' (BuRNET, i. 304). His fidelity to old servants might be amply illustrated. His confidence once gained was estranged with even too much difficulty. To his brother he was always loyal. He was an affectionate father, and was cut to the heart by the conduct of his two eldest daughters.
His conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow-catho- lics in the first instance, and the recovery of England for Catholicism in the second, the governing objects of his policy. During his brother's reign the alliance with France was for James but the means to an end ; in his own he thought himself strong enough to accomplish that end without joining Louis in an offensive war against the United Pro- vinces. In the crisis of his destinies his j judgment deserted him, and by his fatuous I flight he placed his throne in William's I power. But even when he was in conflict with the de facto government of his country, tradition credited him with a vein of patriotic sentiment of which no part of his career shows him devoid.
In person James was rather above the middle height and of a commanding appear- ance. He was stiffer and more constrained than his brother, whom he resembled in the cast of his features, although his complexion was fair. He was not incapable of a grace- ful courtesy or a kindly warmth if he chose
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to display either. The portraits of him in the National Portrait Gallery are by Kneller and John Biley. In the Stuart Exhibition (1889) were exhibited portraits of him, at various stages of his life, by Vandyck, Lely (cf. EVELYN, ii. 101), Kneller, Dobson, and painters unknown, including one as lord high admiral, together with various miniatures and autographs. There is also a portrait of him by Faithorne. On Christmas day 1686 a large statue of James in Roman habit, by Grinling Gibbons, was erected in the court of Whitehall, facing the new catholic chapel, at the cost of the loyal Toby Rustat. It still stands in Whitehall Gardens (Ellis Corre- spondence, i. 214 n.; cf. BEAMSTON, p. 253).
[The chief source for the biography of James II is the Life of James II collected out of Memoirs writ "with his own Hand, edited from the original Stuart MSS. in Carlton House, by command of the Prince Regent, by his historiographer James Stanier Clarke [q. v.] (2 vols. 4to, London, 1816), -with which should in part be compared the extracts in M<tcpherson's Original Papers, 1775, i. 1-600. This Life, compiled soon after the death of James II by order of his son, was mainly based on the Original Memoirs said to have been finally burnt near St. Omer ; it was read and frequently ' interlined ' by the Old Pre- tender, from whose hands it ultimately came into those of the Prince Eegent. Ranke, in a remarkable appendix to his English History, analyses the sources, and estimates the authen- ticity, of its several portions. Of part i., down to the Restoration, the bulk was, with James's consent, translated into French, and afterwards authoritatively printed in Ramsey's Vie de Tu- renne ; it chiefly consists of a narrative of the duke's early campaigns. Part ii., which reaches to the death of Charles II, and part iii., com- prising the reign of James II, were, like part iv. and last, compiled from his original memoranda and correspondence and from other materials ; but he seems to have only superintended the selec- tion as far as 1678. In part iv. the passages quoted from his memoirs, more especially in reference to the war in Ireland, are particularly numerous. Of the materials used by the com- pilers genuine remains exist in the extracts made from the Memoirs by Carte, and incor- porated in his Life of Ormonde (new ed., 6 vols. Oxford, 18ol), as well as in those by Mac- pherson, published in vol. i. of his Original Papers (London, 1775). Carte also came into possession of the papers of Thomas Nairne, now in the Bodleian Library, from which and other sources extracts are likewise supplied by Mac- pherson. A French translation of the Life was edited by Guizot (4 vols. Paris, 1824-5). The most important among the other sources are the despatches of Barillon in the Paris archives, first largely used by Sir John Dalrymple in his Me- moirs of Great Britain and Ireland, &c. (here cited in 4th ed., 3 vols. 1 773), then partly printed
by C. J. Fox in the Appendix to his History of the Early Part of the Reign of James II (Lon- don, 1808), and since largely used by Mazure, Histoire de la Revolution de 1688 en Angleterre (2nd ed., 4 vols. 1843), and other historians; and, more especially for the Irish episode, the- despatches of d'Avaux, of which a collection was printed for the English foreign office. To these- materials large additions have been made in. the Marquise Campana de Cavelli's monumental Les derniers Stuarts a St. Germain-en-Laye (Paris, 1871, only 2 vols. issued). Other extracts from the Vienna archives are added in 0. Klopp's- Fall des Hauses Stuart (vols. i-ix., Vienna, 1875- 1881), the most exhaustive diplomatic history of the period, written from an imperialist point of view. Many confidential letters from James to the Earl of Dartmouth are cited in Hist. MSS. Comm. llth Rep. App. pt. v. (1887); valuable information is likewise contained ib. pt. ii. (1887), and 12th Rep. pt. vi. (1889), MSS. of the House of Lords, 1678-8/8 and 1689-90. The Caryll Papers in the possession of Sir Charles Dilke and those of d'Albeville are known in ex- tracts only; some letters from the latter and Tyrconnel are among the manuscripts of Sir A. Malet described in Hist. MSS. Comm. 5th Rep. pt. i. (1876). Of contemporary memoirs, diaries, and correspondence, since Anne Hyde's- Life of her husband shown by her to Burnet has perished, Burnet's History of his own Time (here cited in the Clarendon Press edition, 6 vols. 1833) is the most important, but one of the least safe, of text-books. The same reserva- tion applies, for the period to 1667, to Claren- don's Life and passages in his Rebellion (here cited in the editions of 1826 an<J 1827), and, though in a less degree, to the Diary and Cor- respondence of his sons Clarendon and Rochester (ed. S. W. Singer, 2 vols. 1828). In the Appen- dix to the last-named are printed several of Archbishop Bancroft's MSS. in the Bodleian concerning the crisis of 1688. The Diary and Correspondence of Pepys (ed. M. Bright, 6 vols. 1875-9) is the chief source for our knowledge of the Duke of York's naval administration up to 1669; his official papers, published under the absurd title of Memoirs of the English Affairs, chiefly Naval, from 1660 to 1673(London, 1729), were doubtless also edited by Pepys. H. B. Wheatley's chapter on the navy in Pepys and the World he lived in (1880) usefully supple- ments his author. Other serviceable memoirs and correspondences are Sir John Reresby's Me- moirs (1634-89), ed. J. J. Cartwright, 1875; Evelyn's Diary and Correspondence, ed. W. Bray and H. B. Wheatley, 4 vols. 1879; the Ellis Correspondence (1686-8), ed. G. A. Ellis, 2 vols. 1829 ; and, to a less extent, the Memoirs of the Count de Grammont ; H. Sidney's Diary of the Times of Charles II, ed. R. W. Blencowe, 2 vols. 1843 ; Memoirs of the Life of Sir Ste- phen Fox, 1717 ; and — out of the court sphere —the Life of Lord Guilford, in Roger North's Lives of the Norths, 3 vols. 1826; theAutobio-
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graphy of Sir John Bramston, ed. J. W. Bram- ston for the Camden Society, 1845. The revo- lution period in particular is illustrated by John Sheffield, duke of Buckinghamshire's fragmentary Some Account of the Eevolution, in his Works (1723), ii. 69-102 ; and, locally, by the Earl of Balcarres's Memoirs touching the Eevolution in Scotland, 1688-90, presented to the king at St. Germains, 1690, ed. (with Introduction) by Lord Lindsay for the Bannatyne Club, Edin- burgh, 1841. For the life of James in France the principal authorities are the Memoires of St.-Simon, ed. Cheruel and A. Eegnier fils, 20 vols. Paris, 1873-7 ; the Journal du Marqiiis de Dangeau, ed. Feuillet de Conches, 19 vols. Paris, 1854-60 ; Mme. de la Fayette's Memoires de la Cour de France, 1688 et 1689, recently republished in E. Asse's Memoires de Mme. de la Fayette, Paris, 1890 ; the Memoires du Due de Berwick, vol. L, collection Petitot et Mon- merque', vol. Ixv. Paris, 1828, which also con- tains the Memoirs of Mme. de la Fayette ; to- gether with the Lexington Papers, ed. H. Manners Sutton, 1851, and the various collec- tions of letters of Charlotte Elizabeth, duchess of Orleans, and of the Electress Sophia, "who thought that in James saintliness was next to childishness. The transactions during Middle- ton's secretaryship are narrated in A. E. Biscoe's The Earls of Middleton (1876). A series of papers illustrating Irish affairs in 1689 is in- cluded in Somers Tracts, xi. 426 seqq. The general political tracts throwing light on the biography of James II are legion ; many of them are among the State Tracts printed in the Eeign of Charles II, published collectively in 1689, and in vol. i. of the State Tracts published on occa- sion of the late Eevolution in 1688 and during the Eeign of William III, 1725. The verse satires and libels byDenham,Marvell, and others, of which the duke was a principal victim, were collected in Poems on State Affairs (here cited from ed. 1703). The small but scandalous Secret History of the Eeigns of Charles II and James II is dated 1690; the more elaborate and bolder Secret History of Whitehall, attributed to David Jones (fl. 1676-1720) [q. v.], was issued in three series, dated (i.andii.) 1693 and (iii.) 1717. The •whig Hi story of the Desertion (1689; reprinted in State Tracts, 1705), and the Quadricunium Jacobi (1689) are pxiblications of a different type; the Secret History of Europe (4th ed. 3 vols. 1724) contains nrach valuable, together with much questionable, material. In the Tragical History of the Stuarts (1717) James's reign occupies only nine pages. A sketch of James's life was put together during his residence in France by his biographer, Father Saunders ; and on this was based a French biography by the Franciscan father Bretonneau (Paris, 1703). Another life by Father Walden is said to have been destroyed in the Benedictine church at Paris. Some curi- ous information is contained in the Supplement to the loosely compiled Life of James II, late King of England (3rd ed. 8vo, 1705); and other
anecdotical matter will be found in vol. iii. of J. H. Jesse's Memoirs of the Court of England under the Stuarts (3 vols. ed. 1876). C. J. Fox's history produced the Observations of Gr. Eose (1809) and a Vindication byS. Heywood, 1811. Among older histories Echard's and Kennett's (vol. iii. in both cases) are of occasional use ; Echard also wrote a separate narrative of the revolution of 1688 (1725). Macaulay's History is unduly severe on James's character. Hallam's Constitutional History is little more favour- able.] A. W. W.
JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART (1688-1766), prince of Wales, known as the CHEVALIER DE ST. GEOKGE, and also as the OLD PRETENDEK, only son of James II, by his second wife, Mary of Modena, was born at St. James's Palace, London, on 10 June 1688. Five years had elapsed since the queen had given birth to a child ; her previous children had not sur- vived infancy, and the king's designs for the re-establishment of Catholicism made the birth of an heir highly desirable. When thanks- giving was appointed for the queen's preg- nancy open incredulity was expressed, and when the birth of a male child was announced the previous suspicions of deception became convictions. The publication, ' by his Ma- jesty's Command,' of the ' Depositions made in Council, on Monday, 22nd October 1688, concerning the birth of the Prince of Wales,' simply suggested the concoction of the ''warm- ing-pan' fiction. More careful precautions might have been take,n to provide evidence; the information that has led posterity to acquit the king of the fraud imputed to him was in substance always available (cf. LiN"- GAKD, Hist, of Engl. x.,167; BURNET, Hist, of his own Time, ed. 1823, iii. 239 et seq.) But the nation was prepared to disbelieve almost any evidence. When King James set out for Salisbury to oppose the march of William of Orange towards London, the in- fant prince was sent to the fortress of Ports- mouth, then under the command of the Duke of Berwick (CLARKE, Life of James II, pp. 220-1), but as soon as James had decided on flight from his kingdom the child was brought back secretly to Whitehall on 9 Dec. (ib. p. 237), and along with his mother was sent by night to Gravesend, whence they crossed to Calais, and proceeded to St. Germains fcf. MACAULAT, Hist, of England, i. 597). In Clarke's ' Life of James II ' (ii. 574) it is stated that subsequently the king of France ' had, underhand, prevailed with the Prince of Orange to consent that the Prince of Wales should succeed to the throne of Eng- land after his death,' and this is confirmed by Dalrymple, who indicates that William
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of Orange stipulated that the prince 'should be educated a protestant in England' {Me- moirs of Great Britain, iii. 119). In a me- morial, however, sent 27 July 1696 by Mid- dleton, in James II's name, to the pope, it is objected that such an arrangement would be a surrender of the absolute claim of here- ditary right (Original Papers, i. 553). The negotiation, therefore, did not go further. Louis XIV promised James II on his death- bed that the child should receive the same treatment as the father, and be acknowledged as king of England (ib. p. 589). Upon the death of James (6 Sept. 1701) a herald ap- peared at the palace gate of St. Germains,and in Latin, French, and English proclaimed the boy James III of England and VIII of Scot- land. Upon an attempt to perform a similar ceremony in London the mock pursuivants were ignominiously pelted and dispersed by the mob. By the Act of Settlement, 21 June 1701, the male line of the Stuarts was ex- cluded from the succession, and only a few hours before his death AVilliam gave assent to a special act of attainder against the young prince. Anne showed no more favour to the claims of her half-brother, and his youthful- ness weakened the hands of his supporters. The 'Scots Plot' of 1704, in which Simon, lord Lovat [q.v.], was chiefly concerned, can scarcely be classed among serious Jacobite attempts, but in 1705 Lieutenant Nathaniel Ilooke [q. v.], at the instance of the French king, undertook a mission to Scotland, and on his return to France, in the following May, he reported so favourably of the chances of success for a Jacobite rising, that Louis began to fit out a powerful expedition on behalf of the prince in the following January. Five men-of-war, two transports, and twenty frigates, with about four thousand troops, were collected at Dunkirk, under the com- mand of Admiral Fourbin, and it was de- cided that the prince should go to encourage his followers. On parting with him at Paris, Louis bade him adieu with the words : ' The best wish I can make you is that I may never see your face again.' The arrival of the prince at Dunkirk at once revealed to the English agents the purpose of the expedition, and on 28 Feb., when all was nearly ready, an English fleet, much more powerful than the French, appeared in the Channel. Fourbin sent off an express to Paris for fresh orders, and meantime, on the plea — a false one (Memoirs of the Chevalier de St. George, 1712, p. 58) — that the prince was suffering from measles, the troops were disembarked. Orders arrived to sail at all hazards, and as the English fleet, in dread of the equi- noctial gales, had returned to the Downs,
Fourbin succeeded on 8 March in stealing away unperceived ; but when on the 13th the vessels lay at anchor under the Isle of May, waiting for a tide to take them up the Firth of Forth, the approach of the English fleet was discovered. In face of such a force it was now impossible to carry out the original intention. The chevalier, it is said, wished to be put with his attendants in a small vessel, that he might make for the castle of "Wemyss in Fife; but to this the French admiral refused consent, and set out to sea. Byng, the English admiral, fol- lowed in pursuit, but only succeeded in cap- turing one vessel, and, losing sight of the enemy during the night, returned to the mouth of the Firth of Forth. After careful consideration, the French admiral agreed to a proposal to land at Inverness, but on ac- count of stormy weather this also was aban- doned, and ultimately a direct course was steered for Dunkirk.
On his ret urn to France the chevalier joined the army in Flanders, where he served with the household troops of Louis, especially dis- tinguishing himself at Oudenarde and Mal- plaquet. An endeavour was made to induce the French king to send a second expedition to Scotland in the following year, but he was now unable to afford help, and although active negotiations were continued with the Jacobites in England and Scotland (see ' Stuart Papers' in MACPHERSON'S Original Papers), no definite step was taken. The hopes of the chevalier were further shattered by a clause in the treaty of L'trecht, in April 1713, which provided for his removal from the dominions of France. Before the treaty was signed he went to Bar-le-Duc, where he was cordially received by the Duke of Lorraine. In May 1711 he had addressed a letter to Queen Anne (ib. ii. 223-4), request- ing to be named as her heir ; but if, as Lock- hart asserts (Papers, i. 480), the queen ' did design her brother's restorat ion,' she never for- mally declared her intentions before her death, in August 1714, when the Jacobites were unable to hinder the accession of George I. Nevertheless, the change of dynasty tended to strengthen their claim, and they felt the importance of instant action. Preparations for a new expedition were stopped by the death of Louis XIV (1 Sept. 1715). The re- gent refused any material aid ; but in August 1715 the irrevocable step was taken by Mar in the Scottish highlands [see ERSKIXE, JOHX, sixth or eleventh EARL OF MAR, 1675-1732]. The attempt of the Duke of Ormonde upon Devonshire at once collapsed, and the disaster at Preston on 13 Nov. completely extin- guished any immediate hope of a rising of
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England. The battle of Skeriffmuir happened on the same day, and in the report of it which reached France the dubious conflict was repre- sented as a magnificent Jacobite triumph. The chevalier had already arranged to set out for Scotland. On 21 Oct., disguised as a servant, he left Bar-le-Duc, and on 8 Nov. he reached the coast near St. Malo (Letter to Bolingbroke in THORNTON'S Stuart Dynasty, 1890, p. 411). Here the news of Sheriffmuir finally decided him to start for Scotland, but finding it impossible to obtain a passage from St. Malo, he journeyed through Normandy, disguised as a sailor, to Dunkirk, where in the middle of December he embarked on board a small privateer, accompanied by a few at- tendants. On 22 Dec. a safe landing was made at Peterhead. Here he passed the night, and the next day came to Newburgh, a seat of the Earl Marischal [see KEITH, GEORGE, tenth EARL MARISCHAL]. Passing through Aberdeen in disguise, he journeyed south to Fetteresso, another seat of the Earl Maris- chal's, where he was joined by the Earl of Mar and a small band of gentlemen from the army at Perth. On Mar's arrival the chevalier laid aside his disguise, and allowed his arrival to be openly announced. The gentlemen who had met him were constituted a privy coun- cil, and proclamations were issued' in the name of James VIII of Scotland and III of England, one of which appointed his corona- tion to take place at Scone. The magistrates of Aberdeen — nominees of Mar — went to offer him their homage, and the episcopal clergy presented him with an enthusiastic address of welcome. For a few days he was detained at Fetteresso by an attack of ague, but on2 Jan. 1716 he began his journey south- wards, by Brechin and Glamis, to Dundee, into which he made a kind of state entry, the populace receiving him with some en- thusiasm, and with no manifestations of hos- tility. He then journeyed leisurely to Scone Palace, which he reached on the 8th. Here he established his court, with the observances and etiquette appropriate to royalty. Pre- parations were begun for his coronation, the Jacobite ladies denuding themselves of their jewels and ornaments that a crown might be extemporised for the occasion. Almost from the time of the chevalier's landing, however, it was discerned that his position was well- nigh desperate, and even before his arrival at Scone he observed, by way of consoling his followers : ' For myself, it is no new thing for me to be unfortunate.' Whatever may have been the ardour kindled by Mar's en- thusiastic eulogy of the prince as ' the first gentleman I ever knew,' it was quenched as soon as he presented himself to the ' little
kings with their armies ' at Perth. ' I must not conceal,' writes one of his followers, ' that when we saw the man whom they called our king, we found ourselves not at all animated by his presence, and if he was disappointed with us, we were tenfold more so in him. We saw nothing in him that looked like spirit. He never appeared with cheerfulness and vigour to animate us. Our men began to despise him ; some asked if he could speak. His countenance looked extremely heavy. He cared not to come abroad among us soldiers, or to see us handle our arms or do our exercise' (True Account of the Proceedings at Perth, written by a Rebel, 1716, p. 20). The chevalier was weak of purpose, and was managed by his favourites. Mar saw the need of devising a means by which he could decorously escape the perilous consequences of his rash enterprise. The only persons prepared to risk battle on behalf of the chevalier were the highland chiefs and their followers ; but their chivalrous determination was one of Mar's chief difficulties. When, on 28 Jan., news reached Perth of Argyll's approach, nothing but immediate flight was thought of. A retreat into the highlands was the resolution ostensibly reached, and it was only on this understanding that the highland chiefs consented to the retrograde movement. The route selected was, however, by the Carse of Gowrie and Dundee to Montrose, provision having secretly been made for the escape, at Montrose, of the chevalier to France. On 31 Jan. the Jacobites crossed the Tay on the ice, the retreat being conducted with the swiftness and skill characteristic of the high- land clans, and when they reached Montrose, Argyll was two days' march in their rear. A French vessel was lying in the harbour, and, according to Mar, the chevalier was now first advised to escape to France. Mar, in his 'Narrative,' asserts that the chevalier only consented to the proposal when told that his presence would merely increase the danger of his followers ; but in a letter of 10 Feb. (Stuart Dynasty, p. 422) Mar asserts that he himself only joined the chevalier in his flight at his urgent solicitation. Lord Drum- mond and the Earl Marischal were left be- hind. To avoid English cruisers they sailed westwards, and afterwards, on nearing Nor- way, kept the coast-line till they reached Walden, near Gravelines, where they landed on 10 Feb. Before leaving Scotland the chevalier addressed a letter to the Duke of Argyll, enclosing a sum of money for dis- tribution among the sufferers from the de- vastation by the Jacobites on Argyll's line of march, and he also sent a letter to General Gordon, left in command of his highland
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followers, thanking them for their devotion, explaining that he was deserting them for their own good, and promising to write more in a short time. The letter aroused bitter in- dignation.
On reaching France the chevalier proceeded by Boulogne and Abbeville to St. Gennains, but the regent declined to grant him an in- terview, and desired him to return to his old quarters at Bar-le-Duc. He made a pretence of acceding to the request, but instead of doing so he went, according to Bolingbroke, ' to a little house where his female ministers resided.' Thence he sent a letter to Boling- broke dismissing him from his service, appa- rently on the ground of remissness in raising supplies, but probably on account of Mar's influence. Mar succeeded Bolingbroke in the chief management of the chevalier's affairs. Finding it impossible to continue living near Paris, the chevalier withdrew to Avignon, and subsequently retired to Rome. In 1718 an at- tempt was made by Mar, in his name, to in- duce Charles XII of Sweden — then at enmity with George I on account of the seizure by the English of the duchies of Bremen -and Verden — to send a deputation to Scotland ; and, as an earnest of their sincerity, he advised the Scottish Jacobites to send to Charles five or six thousand bolls of oatmeal for the support of his troops (LOCKHART, ii. 7). Charles, however, was killed on 1 1 Dec. Directly afterwards Cardinal Alberoni offered the chevalier the help of Spain, and on Albe- roni's invitation he left Rome secretly in Fe- bruary 1719, arriving in Madrid in the begin- ning of March. Before his arrival the king of Spain, at the instance of Alberoni, had begun preparations at Cadiz for an expedition. The Duke of Ormonde was to lead the main ex- pedition to England with five thousand men, and arms for over thirty thousand more. A subsidiary expedition under the Earl Mari- schal, of only two frigates, carrying a single battalion of men and over three thousand stands of arms, was to raise the highlands. The main expedition was, however, driven back to port by a storm. The smaller force reached Stornoway, in the Lewis, in safety, but surrendered after the action in the pass of Glenshiels on 1 April. The chevalier had judiciously remained at Madrid, where a residence in the palace of Buen Petro was assigned him, and he received the honours due to sovereigns. While still at Madrid he was, on 28 May, married by proxy at Avignon to the Princess Maria Clementina, daughter of Prince James Sobieski, eldest son of the king of Poland. There had been a previous proposal to marry him to a niece of the Emperor Charles VI (cf. Brit. Mus. Addit.
MS. 20311 ff. 268, 281, 20312 ff. 144, &c.) On learning the fate of the expedition he again retired to Rome. In 1722 another Jacobite expedition was contemplated, with- out foreign aid, but it was abandoned, owing partly to want of money and partly to dissension among the Jacobites in England (Stuart Papers, App. p. 6). To remedy these evils it was proposed to constitute the Earl of Oxford and Bishop Atterbury the heads of the Jacobite movement ; but, owing in all probability to the treachery of Mar, the correspondence in connection with the scheme was intercepted. On the pro- posal of Lockhart of Carnwath (Papers, ii. 26), the affairs of the chevalier in Scotland were entrusted to a body of trustees. When Mar's treachery was discovered, Hay [see HAY, JOHN, titular EARL OF INVERNESS] suc- ceeded him in the office of secretary to the chevalier (1724) ; but the appointment was very displeasing to the chevalier's wife, the Princess Sobieski, who, irritated perhaps chiefly by jealousy of the wife of Hay, retired in November to a nunnery (LOCKHART, ii. 265 : see also the chevalier's two letters of re- monstrance against the princess's resolution, dated Rome, 5 and 11 Nov. 1725, in Memo- rial of the Chevalier de St. George on occa- sion of the Princess Sobieski retiring to a Nunnery, London, 1726). His wife's deser- tion helped to confirm in the prince those habits which were the original cause of the estrangement, and he became a prey to mingled melancholy and dissipation. His conduct towards his wife tended, moreover, to alienate many of his supporters, whose hopes gradually turned towards his son, Charles Edward. The chevalier, who had a grant of a papal pension in 1727 (Brit. Mus. Addit. MS. 20313, f. 261), freely gave his savings to aid in fitting out the expedi- tion of 1745, but his interest in it was lan- guid and his anticipations of success were not sanguine. His son Charles, on parting from him, expressed the confidence that he would soon be able to lay three crowns at his feet ; but his staid reply was : ' Be careful, my dear boy, for I would not lose you for all the crowns in the world.' Writing of him in 1756, the traveller Keysler states that the pope had [ ' issued an order that all his subjects should style him king of England ; but the Italians make a jest of this, for they term him " the local king," or " king here," while the real possessor is styled " the king there," that is, in England.' Keysler also states that the chevalier had ' lately assumed some authority at the opera by calling encore when a song that pleased him was performed ; but it was not till after a long pause that his order was
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obeyed. He never before affected the least power' (Travels through Germany, &c., Eng- lish transl. ii. 284). On 8 Nov. 1760 Horace Mann writes : ' He seems of late totally in- different to all affairs, both of a public and of a domestic nature ' (Last Stuarts, Roxburghe Club, p. 18). He died about nine o'clock at night, on 1 Jan. 1766 (ib. p. 23). He was buried in the church of St. Peter's, where, in 1819, a monument by Canova was erected, at the expense of George III, over his tomb and that of his two sons, Charles Edward [q. v.] and Henry, cardinal York [q.v.]
The descriptions of the chevalier's character and person by a considerable number of ob- servers are tolerably consistent. Notwith- standing the numerous letters written by him which are still extant, and the variety of particulars recorded of him, he remains obscure because he had really no distinctive character. Physically, he was sufficiently pre- sentable : he was of good height, straight and well-made, and but for a certain vacuity of expression might have been esteemed hand- some. In 1714 he is described as ' always cheerful, but seldom merry, thoughtful but not dejected ' (Letter of Mr. Lesley to a Mem- ber of Parliament). ' An English Traveller at Rome,' in a ' Letter to his Father, 0 May 1721,' mentions the chevalier's ' air of great- ness, which discovered a majesty superior to the rest,' and says ' he returned my salute with a smile which changed the sedateness of his first aspect into a very graceful coun- tenance.' Gray, writing in 1740, is less flatter- ing : ' He is a thin, ill-made man, extremely tall and awkward, of a most unpromising countenance, a good deal resembling King James the Second, and has extremely the air and look of an idiot, particularly when he laughs or prays. The first he does not often, the latter continually' ( Works, ed. Gosse, ii. 85). Horace Walpole, in 1752, gives a similar account.
Keysler mentions the chevalier's special fondness ' of seeing his image struck on medals.' Among numerous portraits, men- tion may be made of those by A. S. Belle and A. 11. Mengs in the National Portrait Gallery ; that by Wizeman at Hampton Court ; those by Gennari at Stonyhurst, one as an infant ; that, as an infant, by Kneller, in the possession of Miss Rosalind B. C. C. de M. Howell ; that by T. Blanchet, in the possession of W. J. Hay of Duns ; and that, as a boy, by P. de Mignard, in the possession of the Duke of Fife. There are many anony- mous portraits. A portrait of him and his sister, Princess Louise, when young, by Lar- gilliere, is in the possession of the Earl of Orford ; and a picture of his marriage to the
Princess Maria Clementina, by Carlo Maratti, is in the possession of the Earl of Northesk. There are a large number of his letters printed in Lockhart's 'Papers,' Macpherson's 'Ori- ginal Papers,' the ' Stuart Papers,' and Thorn- ton's 'Stuart Dynasty' (1890; 2nd edit. 1891). Some of his correspondence with Car- dinal Gualterio and others is preserved at the British Museum among the Additional and Egerton MSS. (cf. Index to Additions to Manuscripts in the British Museum, 1854- 1875; Notes and Queries, 4th ser. vi. 405 et seq.)
[Various particulars about the chevalier, more or less trustworthy, are to be found in such con- temporary publications as Memoirs of John, Duke of Melfort, being an Account of the Secret Intrigues of the Chevalier de St. George, parti- cularly relating to the Present Times, 17H ; SecretMemoirs of Bar-le-Duc, 1716 ; Secret His- tory of the Chevalier de St. George, being an Impartial Account of his Birth and Pretensions to the Throne of England, 1714; the Duke of Lorraine's Letter to Her Majesty, containing a Description and Character of the Pretender, 1714 ; Revolution d'Ecosse et d'Irlandeen 1707, 1708, et 1709, partie i. 1728; Memorial of the Chevalier de St. George on occasion cf the Prin- cess Sobieski retiring to a Nunnery, 1726 ; His- tory of the Jacobite Club, 1712. See also Nathaniel Hooke's Correspondence (Abbotsford Club); Clarke's Life of James II; Dalrymple's Memoirs of Great Britain ; Decline of the Last Stuarts (Eoxburglie Club) ; Klopp's Fall des Hauses Stuart (up to 1713); La Marquise Cam- pana de Cavelli'sLes derniers Stuarts ; Memoirs of Marshal Keith (Bannatyne Chili); and various Lives of Bolingbroke. Among modern books are Jesse's Memoirs of the Pretenders ; Chambers's History of the Rebellion ; Charles de Brosses' L'ltalie il y a cent Ans, 1836; Lacroix de Marles's Histoire du Chevalier de Saint-Georges et du Prince Charles Edouard, 1860 ; Doran's Mann and Manners at the Court of Florence, 1875; and Doran's London in Jacobite Times, 1877.] T. F. H.
JAMES, DUKE OF BERWICK (1670-1734). [See FITZJAMES, JAMES.]
JAMES, BARTHOLOMEW (1752- 1827), rear-admiral, was born at Falmouth on 28 Dec. 1752. In 1765 he was entered on board the Folkestone cutter, stationed at Bideford ; in her, and afterwards in the West Indian and Lisbon packets, he remained till December 1770, when he was appointed to the Torbay at Plymouth, and in the following May to the Falcon sloop, going out to the West Indies. After an active commission he came home in the Falcon as acting lieutenant in August 1774 ; but his promotion not being- confirmed he again entered on board the Folkestone, and in the following January on
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board the Wolf sloop at Penzance. In Oc- tober 1775 be joined the Orpheus frigate, which sailed for North America on the 30th, and after a succession of heavy gales and snowstorms reached Halifax, dismasted and jury rigged, in ninety-seven days. In the Orpheus James took part in the reduction of New York ; in September 1770 he was taken into the Chatham by Sir Peter Parker [q. v.], whom in December he followed to the Bristol, and with whom, in January 1 778, he sailed for Jamaica, where Sir Peter was to be commander-in-chief. On arriving on the station James was made acting lieutenant, and appointed to command the Chameleon, from which he was afterwards moved to the Dolphin. In both he was employed con- stantly cruising, till on 10 Aug. he fell in with a squadron of French frigates, was cap- tured, and sent into Cape Fran£ois. After a disagreeable imprisonment of eight months he was exchanged and sent back to Port Royal, where the admiral presented him with a commission as lieutenant of the Porcupine sloop, one of the squadron, under Captain John Luttrell in the Charon, which, in Oc- tober 1779, reduced the fort of Omoa in the Gulf of Honduras (BEATSON, Nav. and Mil. Memoirs, iv. 482), and captured two galeons, with cargo and treasure valued at three million dollars. James was ordered to take one of the galeons to Jamaica, and was there appointed to the Charon, in which he sailed for England. A great part of the valuable cargo had been put on board the Leviathan, a worn-out ship of the line, doing duty as a store-ship, which foundered on the passage, 26 Feb. 1780. When she was seen to be in difficulties, James, with a party of seamen, was sent to help her, but nothing could be done ; the sea was too high to permit of any trans-shipment of the cargo, and he had the mortification of seeing his prize- money go with her to the bottom.
In June Captain Luttrell was superseded in command of the Charon by Captain Thomas Symonds, and the ship sailed from Spithead in the beginning of August. At Cork she joined the Bienfaisaut and two frigates, which put to sea on the 12th with a convoy of a hundred victuallers for North America. On the 13th they fell in with and captured the Comte d'Artois of 64 guns [see MACBRIDE, JOHN] ; after which the Charon took sole charge of the convoy, and arrived at Charles- town on 14 Oct. During the next year she was engaged in active cruising on the coast ; in September 1781 she was shut up in the York River, and after assisting in the defence of Yorktown, was destroyed by the enemy with red-hot shot. Wb.en Lord Cornwallis
surrendered, James, with the other officers of the Charon, became a prisoner ; he was sent to England on parole, and in March 1782 was exchanged. In June he was appointed to the Aurora frigate, and being in her at Spithead on 29 Aug., when the Royal George foundered, was in command of the Aurora's boats helping to pick up the survivors.
In May 1783 the Aurora was paid off, and James, with no prospect of employment and with a young family to provide for, engaged in business as a brewer. The brewery, how- ever, proved a failure, and James retired from it in September 1785, embarrassed by a heavy load of debt, the clearing off of which totally exhausted his little property. After much anxiety he obtained command of a merchant ship, and continued engaged, principally in the West Indian trade, till March 1793, when, on news of the war with France reaching him at Jamaica, he fitted out a small tender of forty tons with fifteen men armed with cutlasses, and with the sanction of the senior officer went out to warn merchant ships outward bound. Incidentally he made some small prizes,which, however, were condemned as droits of admi- ralty. On another voyage he had better suc- cess, but only enough to cover his expenses ; and in the summer he returned to England, where his ship was taken up by government as a transport for the expedition to the West Indies, and he himself appointed a transport agent [see JERVIS, JOHN, EARL OF ST. VIN- CENT]. The transports arrived at Barbadoes on 10 Jan. 1794, and after a month's drill and exercise in landing and re-embarking moved on to Martinique, the reduction of which was completed by 25 March. During this time James was constantly employed in fatigue duty on shore, making roads, cutting fascines, or dragging guns into position. The seamen of the transports objected to this duty, as bringing them into a danger for which they had not shipped, and on one oc- casion wrote to the admiral complaining that they were needlessly exposed. The admiral mentioned the complaint to James, who next day, as his men were crossing an open space, halted them for a breathing spell, and ques- tioned them on the subject. The French opened a sharp fire on them, and the men were anxious to move on ; but James refused to stir till they had denied all knowledge of the complaint (TuCKER, Memoirs of Earl St. Vincent, i. 114 n.) On 28 March, three days after the surrender of the last fort, James was appointed agent for the sale of the produce of the island, Jervis promising to take him in his flagship as soon as there was a vacancy.
In six weeks the agency brought him in about 3,000/., and on 13 May he was ap-
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pointed to the Boyne. On 14 Oct. he was landed in command of a party of seamen to strengthen the garrison of Fort Mathilde of Guadaloupe, and continued on that duty till 19 Nov., when he rejoined the Boyne, and in her returned to England. Jervis struck his flag shortly after arriving at Spithead, but the ship was ordered to refit for service. On 1 May 1795, while the marines were firing from the poop, the ship caught fire on the Spit and blew up. With a few exceptions all the men were saved.
After the court-martial on 18 May he was appointed to the Commerce de Marseille, and in September to the Victory, then in the Mediterranean, as part of the follow- ing of Sir John Jervis, going out as com- mander-in-chief. He went out with Sir John in the Lively frigate, and on 8 June 1796 was promoted to the rank of commander. For six weeks he was acting captain of the Mig- nonne on the coast of Corsica ; he was then appointed to the Petrel, in which in August he took the merchants of the British factory at Leghorn to Naples, where on 12 Aug., the Prince of Wales's birthday, he entertained Prince Augustus (afterwards Duke of Sussex), Sir William Hamilton, and ' his beautiful lady ' at dinner.
The Petrel after this went up the Adriatic, and back to Elba, where James was super- seded, and appointed by Commodore Nelson to the Dromedary store-ship, in which he took Commissioner Coffin and the officers of the yard at Elba down the Mediterranean, with orders to carry them to Lisbon, in company with the Southampton frigate. On 11 Feb. 1797, in passing through the Gut, they were chased by the Spanish fleet, which they counted as numbering twenty-seven sail of the line, and were thus, on joining the ad- miral on the 13th, able to give him exact information. The Dromedary was ordered to proceed at once to the Tagus, where James was moved into the Corso brig of 24 guns, with a nominal complement of 121 men, but having actually only thirty-nine besides officers. On 23 March he sailed from Lisbon, with orders to cruise off Teneriffe as long as his water and provisions lasted. Within a few days after getting on his station he was chased by an enemy's squadron, from which he escaped only by throwing overboard most of his guns, his provisions, his ballast, and starting his water ; but he managed to re- main out for three months, and on rejoining the admiral off Cadiz was sent back under similar orders, with a few guns supplied from the fleet, and some men, naturally of the worst character — foreigners or mutineers from the Channel fleet. After a singularly
adventurous cruise, he returned to Gibraltar in the end of October. In November the Corso was sent to England with despatches, and on rejoining the fleet in January 1798 was employed in cruising and the protection of trade on the coasts of Spain and Africa as far as Tunis. On 24 Oct. James was posted to the Canopus, one of the prizes from the Nile, and, refitting her at Lisbon, took her home towards the end of 1799. This was the end of his sea service. On the renewal of the war in 1803 he had command for some time of the sea fencibles on the coast of Cornwall ; but for the rest of his life he resided in simple retirement near Falmouth, and died in 1827, preserving to the last his high spirits and genial temper. He married Henrietta Pender of Falmouth, and left issue two daughters, of whom the younger, Hen- rietta, married in 1808 Admiral Thomas Ball Sulivan [q. v.]
James's journal deals with minor incidents illustrating life in the navy through the latter half of last century. It was lent by the family to W. H. G. Kingston [q. v.], who made it the groundwork of his carelessly constructed story of sea-adventure entitled ' Hurricane Hurry.'
[James's Journal, kindly lent to the present •writer by James's grandson, Rear-admiral George Lydiard Sulivan.] J. K. L.
JAMES, CHAKLES (d. 1821), major and miscellaneous writer, was at Lisle at the out- break of the French revolution, and made a solitary journey through France during its progress, which he described in his ' Audi alteram Partem.' He served as captain in the western regiment of Middlesex militia (since the 2nd royal Middlesex or Edmonton militia) in 1793-4, and as captain in the North York militia from 1795 to 1797. On 1 March 1806 he was appointed major of the corps of artillery drivers attached to the royal artillery. He was placed on half-pay when that rank was abolished in 1812. He died in London on 14 April 1821.
James, a very industrious writer, was author of: 1. ' Petrarch to Laura : a Poetical Epistle,' London, 1787, 4to. 2. ' Tarere,' an opera from the French of Beaumarchais, London, 1787, 8vo. 3. 'Poems,' 2 vols., 1789, dedi- cated to the Prince of Wales, including pieces written at school in 1775, at Liege in 1776, and elsewhere. 4. ' Hints founded on Facts, or a View of our several Military Establish- ments,' London, 1791, 8vo. 5. 'Suicide re- jected : a Poem,' 1791, 4to. A reprint dedi- cated to Lady James was issued in 1797, for the benefit of the daughter and grandchil- dren of Colonel Frederick [q. v.] (cf. BritisTi
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Critic, x.) 6. ' Poems,' 1792, 8vo ; 3rd edit. 1808. 7. 'Audi alteram Partem: an Ex- tenuation of the Conduct of the French Revolutionists from 14 July 1789 to 17 Jan. 1793, with Introduction and Postscript ex- planatory of the Author's reasons for the work,' London, 1793, 8vo ; a revised edition, 1796, and later. 8. ' Extenuation and Sketch of Abuses . . . with a Plan for the better re- gulation of the Militia,' London, 1794, 8vo. 9. ' A Comprehensive View of Abuses in the Militia,' London, 1797, 8vo. 10. 'Regimental Companion, containing a relation of the Duties of every Officer in the British Army,' London, 1799, 12mo ; a useful little manual of regimental economy, which went through seven or more editions. 11. 'New and en- larged Military Dictionary,' with glossary of French terms, London, 1802, 4to ; 1805, 8vo ; 1811, 2 vols. ; and 1817. 12. ' Military Cos- tumes of India, being an Exemplification of the Manual and Platoon Exercise for the Use of the Native Troops and British Army,' London, 1813, 4to. 13. ' CoUection of Court- Martial Charges,' London, 1820, 8vo, in- tended as a supplement to Tytler's ' Treatise on Military Law.'
[Army and Militia Lists ; Watt's Bibl. Brit. ; Brit. Mus. Catalogues of Printed Books.]
H. M. C.
JAMES, EDWARD (1807-1867), bar- rister, born at Manchester in 1807, was second son of Frederick William James, merchant, by Elizabeth, daughter of William Baldwin. He is incorrectly said to have been educated at Manchester grammar school. He served in a Manchester warehouse for two years, where he acquired knowledge which was afterwards useful to him in conducting mer- cantile cases. He matriculated from Magdalen Hall, Oxford, on 3 Nov. 1 827, was a scholar of Brasenose from 1829 to 1832, and graduated B.A. in 1831, and M.A. in 1834. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn on 16 June 1835, and went the northern circuit, of which he became leader in 1860. He settled in practice at Liverpool, and was assessor of the court of passage there from 1852 until his death. In November 1853 he was ad- vanced to be a queen's counsel, became a bencher of his inn soon afterwards, and in 1863 was gazetted attorney-general and queen's serjeant of the county palatine of Lancaster. By that date he had removed to London. On 14 July 1865, after a severe contest among four liberals, he was elected member of parliament for Manchester, and sat until 1867, speaking occasionally on legal subjects and on the reform of the represen- tation.
James was a sound practical lawyer, with a great knowledge of commercial law, especi- ally in its relation to shipping. His argu- ments before the courts were always pointed, and his management of cases admirable. He was excellent in cross-examination. Too prone to take offence, he brooked no inter- ference in court, and often had unseemly disputes with the judges. James died of typhoid fever, while returning from a holiday in Switzerland, at the Hotel du Louvre, Paris, on 3 Nov. 1867, and was buried in Highgate cemetery, London, on 9 Nov. He married in 1835 Mary, daughter of Edward Mason Crossfield of Liverpool. James was the writer of a pamphlet entitled ' Has Dr. AVise- man violated the Law ? ' 1851, which went to a second edition.
[Law Mag. and Law Review, February 1868, pp. 293-300 ; Times, 5 Nov. 1867, p. 7, 12 Nov. p. 9 ; Law Times, 9 Nov. 1867, p. 28, 16 Nov. p. 43.] G. C. B.
JAMES, EDWIN JOHN (1812-1882), barrister, eldest son of John James, solicitor, and secondary of the city of London (d. 21 July 1852, aged 69), by Caroline, eldest daughter of Boyce Combe, was born in 1812, and was educated at a private school. In early life he frequently acted at a private theatre in Gough Street, Gray's Inn Road, London, and after taking lessons from John Cooper played George Barnwell at the Theatre Royal, Bath. His appearance was against him. It is said that he looked like a prize-fighter (Cruus JAY, The Law, 1868, pp. 296-301). At the intercession of his parents he left the stage, and on 30 June 1836 was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, and went the home circuit. Owing to his father's interest he soon acquired an extensive junior practice both civil and criminal. He was engaged in the Palmer poisoning trial, 14-27 May 1856, the trial of Dr. Simon Bernard for conspiring with Orsini to kill Napoleon III, 12-17 April 1858, and the Canadian appeal case respecting the runaway slave John Anderson, 16 Feb. 1861. In dealing with common juries he freely appealed with conspicuous success to their ignorance and prejudices, but his knowledge of law was very limited. In December 1853 he was gazetted a queen's counsel, but his inn did not elect him a bencher. From 1855tol861 he acted as recorder of Brighton, and on 25 Feb.
1859 he was elected member of parliament for Marylebone. He was a steady supporter of Palmerston's government. In the autumn of
1860 he visited Garibaldi's camp, and was present at the skirmish before Capua on 19 Sept. (Illustrated London News, 13 Oct.
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1860,p. 330, with port rait). He was now mak- ing 7,0001. a year, but was heavily in debt. On 10 April 1801 he announced his retire- ment from the House of Commons, and soon afterwards withdrew from Brooks's and the Reform Club. An execution took place in his residence, 27 Berkeley Square, and his liabilities were stated to exceed 100,000/. Grave charges were meanwhile made against his professional character, and on 7 June
1861 the benchers of the Inner Temple com- menced an inquiry into his conduct. It was proved that he had for his own sole benefit in 1857 and 1860 involved Lord Worsley, a young man just of age, son of Lord Yar- borough,in debts amounting to about 35,000/. From a west-country solicitor he obtained in 1853, by misrepresentations, 20,000/., and when engaged in the case of Scully v. Ingram, which was a claim brought against the pro- prietor of the ' Illustrated London News ' in connection with the floating of a new com- pany, he, while acting for the plaintiff, bor- rowed 1,250/. from the defendant, on the pretence that he would let him off easily in cross-examination [see INGKAM, ROBERT]. A fourth charge in connection with James's con- duct to Colonel Dickson, in the action of Dickson v. the Earl of Wilton, was not in- vestigated. On 18 June 1861 James offered to resign his membership of the bar, but the offer was refused, and on 18 July 1861 he was disbarred. His name was struck off the books of the inn on 20 Nov.
In the meantime James went to America, and on 5 Nov. 1861 was admitted to the bar of New York. When his conduct in Eng- land became known in New York, an attempt was made to cancel his membership, but he denied on oath the truth of the charges, the judges were divided in opinion, and the matter dropped. In America, where he be- came a citizen, he gave a legal opinion against the British interest in the matter of the Trent. A notice in the 'London Gazette' of 15 July
1862 cancelled his appointment as queen's counsel. In April 1865 he was playing at the Winter Garden Theatre, New York. Re- turning to London in 1872, he lectured on America at St. George's Hall (17 April). In the following year he xmsuccessfully petitioned the common-law judges to recon- sider his case. In May 1873 he articled him- self to William Henry Roberts of 46 Moor- gate Street, city of London, solicitor, and about the same time again offered himself as a candidate for Marylebone. He afterwards practised as a jurisconsult, came occasionally before the public as a friend of Garibaldi, and wrote magazine articles. Latterly he fell into difficulties, and a subscription was about
to be made for him when he died in Bedford Street, Bedford Square, London, on 4 March 1882. He married, 9 July 1861, Marianne, widow of Captain Edward D. Crosier Hilliard of the 10th hussars, who died on 4 June 1853. She obtained a decree of divorce in New York on 2 Jan. 1863.
James was the author of: 1. 'The Act for the Amendment of the Law in Bank- ruptcy,' 1842. 2. ' The Speech of E. James in Defence of S. Bernard,' 1858. 3. ' The Bankrupt Law of the United States,' 1867. 4. 'The Political Institutions of America and England,' 1872.
[Law Mag. and Law Eev. February 1862, pp. 263-86, August 1862, pp. 335-45 ; Times, 7 March 1882, p. 10; Daily News, 7 March 1882, p. 5; Solicitors' Journal, 11 March 1882, p. 301; Law Times, 18 March 1882, p. 358; Illustrated London News, 30 April 1859, p. 429, with portrait; Annual Kegister, 1862, pp. 140- 143.] G. C. B.
JAMES, ELEANOR (fl. 1715), printer and political writer, was the wife of Thomas James, a London printer, who is described by Dunton as ' a man that reads much, knows his business very well, and is ... something the better known for being husband to that she-state-politician Mrs. Eleanor James' {Life and Errors, 1705, p. 334). Her daugh- ter Elizabeth was born in 1689. On her hus- band's death in 1711 she continued to carry on the business. As her husband's executrix she presented his library to Sion College, with portraits of her husband and his grandfather, Thomas James (1573?-! 629) [q. v.], and of Charles II. Her portrait in the full dress of a citizen's wife of the period is also pre- served in Sion College (MALCOLM, Lond. Rediviv. i. 34-5). She had three sons, John [q. v.], an architect, Thomas, a type-founder, and George, a printer in Little Britain, who succeeded Alderman Barber as city printer in 1724, and died in 1736 (NICHOLS, Anecdotes of W. Bowyer, pp. 585-6 n., 609 ; NICHOLS, Literary Anecdotes, i. 305). She had two daughters, one of whom was mother of Jacob Hive [q. v.] A tablet erected ' to prevent scandal ' by Mrs, James in 1710 in the church of St. Bene't, Paul's Wharf, records sums amounting to a few hundred pounds which she had given to her daughters. Another tablet, dated 1712, commemorates her gift to the church of a large collection of communion plate (MALCOLM, Lond. Rediviv. ii. 471-2). She gave a silver cup to Bowyer the printer after his loss by fire on 30 Jan. 1712, and this was bequeathed by his son to the Stationers' Company (NICHOLS, Anecdotes of W. Bowyer. p. 485).'
Mrs. James is described in Nichols's ' Anec-
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dotes of Bowyer ' as ' a mixture of bene- volence and madness ' (p. 609). Her nume- rous writings largely consist of single printed sheets, issued chiefly between 1685 and 1715. She describes herself in the latter year as having ' spoken ' for over forty years. She constituted herself the counsellor of the reigning sovereigns from Charles II to George I. In her 'Apology' (1694) she states that she went to Windsor and back on foot in one day, apparently for the pur- pose of telling Charles II of his faults. In her ' Reasons humbly presented to the Lords Spiritual and Temporal ' (1715) is an amus- ing account of her interview with James II. In 1710 she published a prayer for Queen Anne, the parliament, and kingdom. AVith George I she adopted a severer tone, and charged him with threatening to destroy London by fire, and with going to church to talk to his daughter and play with dogs and puppies (Good Counsel to King George). A religious enthusiast, she was an intolerant champion of the church of England and the Test Act equally against the Roman catho- lics and dissenters. She is mentioned by Dryden only to be dismissed with a smile (Preface to The Hind and the Panther), but her ' Vindication of the Church of England,' 1687, brought forth a satirical ' Address of Thanks to Mrs. James on behalf of the Church of England for her worthy Vindication of that Church,' to which she replied with ' Mrs. James's Defence.' She also met with a female antagonist ; see ' Elizabeth Rone's Short An- swer to Eleanor James's Long Preamble or Vindication of the new Test ' (DRYDEX, Works, ed. Scott, 1821, x. 116). Her « Ad- vice to all Printers in general ' has been several times reprinted. The city authorities were not so indulgent to her as the court, and on 11 Dec. 1689 she was committed to New- gate ' for dispersing scandalous and reflective papers' (LTJTTRELL, Brief Relation, i. 617). The date of her death is not known. Imper- fect lists of her publications will be found in the British Museum Catalogue and in that of the Guildhall Library.
[Authorities above quoted; Timperley's En- cyclopaedia of Literary and Typographical Anec- dote, pp. 597-8 ; Reading's History of Sion Col- lege, 1724, p. 37.] C. W-H.
JAMES, FRANCIS (1581-1621), Latin poet, born in 1581, was a native of Newport, Isle of Wight, and near kinsman of Thomas James (1573 P-1629) [q. v.] He was aqueen's scholar at Westminster School, and was elected in 1598 to a studentship at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1602, M.A. 1605, B.D. 1612, and D.D. in 1614
(Oxf. Univ. Reg. n. i. 210, ii. 231, iii. 235). He distinguished himself as a writer of Latin verse. A Latin poem by him appears in the university collection issued on James I's visit to Christ Church in 1605, and he published in 1612 ' Threnodia Henricianarum Exe- quiarum, sive Panolethria Anglicana et Apotheosis Henrici Ducis Glocestrensis,' &c. He was appointed preacher or reader at the Savoy Chapel, London, and in 1616 was made by King James rector of St. Mat- thew's, Friday Street. Wood states that he died in 1621, and was buried at Ewhurst, Surrey.
[Wood's Fasti, ed. Bliss, i. 359; Welch's Alumni Westmonast. p. 67; W. Hazlitt's Col- lections and Notes, 1867-76, p. 234 ; Newcourt's Repertorium, i. 475.] R. B.
JAMES, FRANK LINSLY (1851-1890), African explorer, was the eldest son of Daniel James (1800-1 876), by his second wife, Mary, daughter of Thomas Hitchcock of New York. His father was a wealthy Liverpool metal merchant, who had in 1828 migrated from Albany, U.S.A. He was born at Liverpool on 21 April 1851, and in consequence of an accident in his early youth was educated at home, with the result that he acquired strong literary and artistic tastes. He entered at Caius College, Cambridge, in 1870, and after- wards proceeded to Downing, where he gra- duated B.A. in 1877 and M.A. in 1881. A taste for travel was first fostered in James by the delicate health of his younger brother, William, which necessitated his wintering in warm climates, and he made his first ex- tended tour in the winter of 1877-8, when he penetrated the Soudan as far as Berber, going by the Nile and Korosko desert, and returning across the desert to Dongola. In the following winter he visited India, and was allowed by Sir Samuel Browne to join the troops under the latter's command and march up the Khyber Pass to Jellalabad. The next two winters he devoted to the suc- cessful exploration of the Base country in the Soudan, the results of which are embodied in his ' Wild Tribes of the Soudan,' 1883, 8vo (2nd edit. 1884, prefaced by a chapter on the ' Political Aspect of the Soudan ' by Sir Samuel Baker). Although largely a chronicle of merely sporting adventures, the book sup- plies much new geographical information re- specting the Soudan. In the course of the journey James and his party made the ascent of the Tchad- Amba, a high and precipitous mountain occupied by an Abyssinian monas- tery, and never previously ascended by Eu- ropeans ( Wild Tribes, p. 202). In the winter of 1882-3 James visited Mexico, and on 8 Dec.
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1884, after some months spent in cruising along the Somali coast in an Arab dhow, lie embarked at Aden for Berbera. Thence he made his way, in company with his bro- ther and four others, into the interior of •the Somali country. In spite of previous attempts on the part of Burton, Speke, Haggenmacher, and others, this region had hitherto been unexplored beyond sixty or seventy miles from the coast. James now succeeded in getting as far south as the Webbe Shebeyli River, where he found a wide fertile country which markedly con- trasted with the deserts he had traversed. The remarkable feat of taking a caravan of nearly a hundred people and a hundred camels a thirteen days' journey across a •waterless waste led Lord Aberdare, in his annual address to the Royal Geographical Society in 1885, to describe the expedition as one of the most interesting and difficult in all recent African travel. A representative collection of flora which was made in the course of the expedition was presented to the Kew Herbarium, while a collection of lepidoptera was presented to the natural history branch of the British Museum. A graphic account of the whole undertaking is given in ' The Unknown Horn of Africa, an Exploration from Berbera to the Leopard River,' written by James on his return, and published in 1888: 2nd edit, 1890.
During 1886, 1887, and 1888 James spent most of his time on his yacht, the Lancashire Witch, and visited the Persian Gulf, Spits- bergen, and Novaya Zemlya. In the spring of 1890 he ascended the Niger, and made a series of inland expeditions on the West African coast. On 21 April he landed from his anchorage off San Benito, about one hun- dred miles north of the Gaboon River, and within a mile of the shore was killed by an elephant which he and his friends had wounded. He was buried in Kensal Green cemetery. A home for yacht sailors is being established at East Cowes as a memorial to him by his two brothers, Arthur and William Dodge James, and his personal friends.
As an explorer James was distinguished by his powers of organisation and by his tact in the management of natives. In private life he Avas noted for extreme generosity. His literary and artistic tastes were mani- fested in the fine library arid superb collec- tion of eighteenth-century proof engravings which he formed at his house, 14 Great Stanhope Street, London.
[James's Works and Obituary Notice by J. A. and W. D. James, prefixed to 1890 edition of the Unknown Horn of Africa (with portrait) ; infor- mation kindly communicated by James Godfrey
YOL. XXIX.
Thrupp, Esq., surgeon to the Somali expedition ; Eoyal Geogr. Soc. Proc. vii. 26o, xii. 426 ; Times, 29 Dec. 1888; Sat. Eev. 17 Nov. 1888.] T. S.
JAMES, GEORGE (d. 1795), portrait- painter, was born in London, and studied for some time in Rome. Establishing himself in Dean Street, Soho, London, he became a mem- ber of the Incorporated Society of Artists, and exhibited with them from 1761 to 1768. In 1764 he exhibited a painting called ' The Death of Abel.' In the latter year he sent a large picture of the three Ladies Waldegrave, which met with severe criticism. In 1770 James was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and up to 1779 was a regular con- tributor of portraits to its exhibitions. In 1780 he removed to Bath, where he prac- tised with some success, and in 1789 and 1790 again appeared at the Royal Academy. Later he retired to Boulogne, where he died early in 1795, after suffering imprisonment during the reign of terror. Having inherited house property in Soho, and marrying a woman of some fortune, James was independent of his profession. His portraits, though carefully painted, were poorly drawn and without cha- racter.
[Edwards's Anecdotes of Painting; Sandby's Hist, of the Eoyal Academy ; Eedgrave's Diet, of Artists; Graves'sDict. of Artists, 1760-1880.]
F. M. O'D.
JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAIXS- | FORD (1801-1 860), novelist, born in George Street, Hanover Square, on 9 Aug. 1801, was son of Pinkstan James, M.D. (1766-1830), a physician in practice in London, who had previously been an officer in the navy (MmfK, Coll. of Physicians, ii. 466). Robert James [q. v.], the inventor of James's powder, was his grandfather. He was educated at the Rev. AVilliam Carmalt's school at Putney, where he readily acquired a good knowledge of French and Italian, and is said to have shown some turn for Persian and Arabic. While still a youth he travelled much on the continent ; read history and poetry widely, although in a desultory way ; and became acquainted with Cuvier, Darwin, and other eminent men. Influenced by Sir Walter Scott's style, he soon began to write romances, which had some success in the magazines, and while living the life of a man of fashion in London, he continued his historical studies. He had expected to have been able to enter political life, but about 1827 this hope was abandoned (see, however, J. MoRLEr, L>fe of Cobden, ed. 1881, i. 272). Fortified by the encouragement of both Scott and Washington Irving, he continued his career as a novelist, and producing about one romance in every
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nine months for eighteen successive years, became the most prolific, and in some ways the most successful novelist of his time (see letter from James to J. Murray in S. SMILES, A Publisher and his Friends, ii. 374). He is said to have written (Athen&um, 23 June 1860) upwards of a hundred novels, many of which have been repeatedly reprinted, and the British Museum Catalogue enumerates sixty-seven. ' Richelieu,' his first novel, was written in 1825, and published in 1829 ; the plan of ' Darnley ' was sketched at Montreuil- sur-Mer in December 1828, and the book was completed before the winter was over. The author was at that time living near Evreux in France, and ' De 1'Orme,' written in 1829, ap- peared in 1830. ' Philip Augustus,' a volume of 420 large octavo pages, was produced in less than seven weeks, and was published in 1831. At the close of the year 1833 he pub- lished anonymously ' Delaware,' which met with no success till he republished it as ' Thirty Years Since ' under his own name. Others of his better known romances are 'Henry Masterton,' 1 832, ' The Gypsy,' 1835, 'Attila/ 1837, 'The Man-at- Arms 'and 'The King's Highway' in 1840, 'Agincourt' and ' Arabella Stuart,' both in 1844, ' The Smug- gler,' 1845, 'Henry Smeatcn' in 1851, and ' Ticonderoga ' in 1854. He collected his novels in a large octavo series of twenty- one volumes, with prefaces and dedications, 1844-9.
James was also an active author and editor of popular historical books. He began a work, 'France in the Lives of her Great Men,' in 1832, but it ended with the first volume, a life of Charlemagne, which De Quincey reviewed in ' Blackwood's Magazine ' in No- vember 1832. He wrote ' Memoirs of Great Commanders,' in 3 vols., 1832 ; a useful ' Life of the Black Prince,' in 2 vols., in 1830 ; ' Me- moirs of Celebrated Women,' in 3 vols., 1837 ; ' Lives of Eminent Forei gn Statesmen ,' 4 vols., in Lardner's ' Cabinet Cyclopaedia,' 1838-40 ; ' The Life and Times of Louis XIV,' in 4 vols., in 1838 ; 'A History of Chivalry ' in 1843; ' Life of Richard I,' in 4 vols., 1842-9 ; ' Life of Henry IV of France,' 1847, and in 1849 'Dark Scenes of History,' in 3 vols., 'John Jones's Tales from English History,'in 2 vols., and ' An Investigation into the Murder of the Earl of Gowrie.'
On the strength of James's reputation as an historical student his friends had procured for him from William IV the post of historio- grapher royal|feind in that capacity he pub- lished in 1839 'a pamphlet, ' History of the "United States Boundary Question.' He had previously written in 1835 a pamphlet on the 4 Educational Institutions of Germany,' and
one on 'The Corn Laws' appeared in 1841. He also attempted poetry in ' The Ruined City,' a poem, 1828, 'Blanche of Navarre,' a five-act play, 1839, and ' Camaralzaman,' a fairy drama, in three acts, 1848, and he edited ' Let tern illuotrotivo of tho Roign of Wil
liam III,' ' Lottoro of Jamoo Vomon, firat Dulio of SbrowobviBy)' a careless piece of work (see Edinburgh Recieic, October 1841), W. H. Ireland's ' Rizzio,' 1849, and R. Heathfield's ' Means of Relief from Taxation,' 1849. Though his works had brought him large sums, he was a poor man. About 1850 he was appointed British consul for Massachu- setts, about 1852 was removed to Norfolk:,. Virginia, and in 1856 became consul-gene- ral at Venice, where he died of apoplexy on 9 May 1860, and was buried in the Lido cemetery. An epitaph, in terms of some- what extravagant eulogy, was written by Walter Savage Landor {Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. ii. 366). During the last years of his life James ceased to write. His widow, an American lady, died on 9 May 1891 in the United States.
Flimsy and melodramatic as James's ro- mances are, they were highly popular. The historical setting is for the most part labori- ously accurate, and though the characters are without life, the moral tone is irreproach- able ; there is a pleasant spice of adventure about the plots, and the style is clear and cor- rect. The writer's grandiloquence and arti- ficiality are cleverly parodied by Thackeray in ' Barbazure, by G. P. R. Jeames, Esq., &c.,' in 'Novels by Eminent Hands,' and the conventional sameness of the openings of his novels, ' so admirable for terseness,' is effectively burlesqued in 'The Book of Snobs,r chaps, ii. and xvi.
[The best authority for his life is the preface •which he •wrote for the collected edition of his novels cited above. See too Athenaeum, 23 June 1860; Times, 15 June 1860; Ann. Rear. 1860; Brit. Mus. Cat. ; Edinburgh Review, April 1837 ; Gent. Mag. I860.] J. A. H.
JAMES, SIR HENRY (1803-1877), di- rector-general of the ordnance survey, was the fifth son of John James, esq., of Truro, by Jane, daughter of John Hosken, esq., of Carines. He was born at Rose-in- Vale, near St. Agnes, Cornwall, in 1803; was educated at the grammar school, Exeter, and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich ; became a pro- bationer for the corps of royal engineers in 1825, and was gazetted second lieutenant 22 Sept. 1826. The following year he was appointed to the ordnance survey. He re- mained on the survey, devoting himself to his duties, and in particular to the geological
^ After * historio- ^rapher royal ' add * (gazetted 2O May
1837)'-
** " Letters
illustrative of the reign of William III from 1696 to 1708. Addressed to the duke of Shrewsbury, by James Vernon," 3 vols.,
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part of them, until 1843, when, having been successively gazetted as lieutenant on 22 July 1831 and second captain on 28 June 1842, he was, on the recommendation of Colonel T. F. Colby [q. v. ], the head of the survey, appointed local superintendent of the geo- logical survey of Ireland under Sir Henry De la Beche, who was then director-general of the geological survey of the United King- dom. On 7 July 1846 he was transferred to admiralty employment, and was sent to Portsmouth as superintendent of the con- structional works in the dockyard. He was promoted captain on 9 Nov. 1846, and on 8 Sept. 1847 was appointed a member of the commission for inquiring into the ap- plication of iron in railway structures. In
1850 he returned to the ordnance survey, and had his divisional headquarters at Edin- burgh. During part of this year he was em- ployed in the board of health inquiry into the sanitary state of towns. On 12 May
1851 James was appointed an associate juror for naval architecture, military engineering, ordnance, &c., comprising Class viii. in the Great Exhibition of that year. On 23 Aug. 1853 he was sent to Brussels on special service. On 20 June 1854 he was promoted brevet-major, and on 11 July of the same year he succeeded Colonel Hall as director-
feneral of the ordnance survey. On 16 Dec. 854 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel.
On assuming the command of the survey, James found the 'battle of the scales/ as it has been called, in full development. Inde- cision as to scale had produced serious delay. Hundreds of thousands of acres of ground had been surveyed, but not laid down on paper. The battle had been waged for some years, and James entered with spirit into the fight. He was not only possessed of the necessary scientific knowledge, but he was always ready with an answer, as his evidence before committees printed in the parliamen- tary blue-books fully proves. When he was appointed director of the ordnance survey, the whole of Ireland, Yorkshire and Lancashire in England, and a few counties in Scotland had been surveyed on the scale of six inches to the mile, but many eminent authorities had given a decided opinion in favour of the scale of ^oo or 25-344 inches to the mile. The re- sult was that both the one-inch and six-inch scales were retained for the whole country, and the 5â„¢ scale (almost exactly one inch to an acre) adopted in addition for the agricul- tural districts.
The reduction of the plans from one scale to another was much facilitated by the ap- plication of photography. James had satis- fied himself by trial at the Paris exhibition
of 1855 that plans could be reduced from larger to smaller scales by photographv with- out sensible error, and lost no time'on his return in adding a photographic establish- ment to the survey office, Southampton, at which all the plans on the ^^j scale have since been reduced to the six-inch scale, thereby effecting a great saving of expense.
On 22 Aug. 1857 James was appointed director of the topographical and statistical department of the war office, and the staff employed in the quartermaster-general's office in London were by order of Lord Panmure, the then secretary of state for war, combined with that of the ordnance survey, and placed under James's direction. This continued until the severance of the ordnance survey from the war department, and its transfer to the office of works in 1870.
On 16 Dec. 1857 James was promoted colonel in the army. While the survey of the country and the duties of the topo- graphical department were being actively carried on, various scientific investigations connected with them were in progress. In 1856 observations were taken with Airy's zenith sector on the summit of Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and at points north and south of that hill, in order to compare the deflection of the plumb-line due to the configurations of the ground with the differences between the observed latitudes, and to determine the mean specific gravity of the earth. In 1860 James was knighted in recognition of his services. In 1861 the English triangulation was extended into France and Belgium, in order to establish the connection between the triangulations of the three countries in the most perfect manner, with a view to the calculation of the length of the arc of parallel between Oursk on the river Oural and the British astronomical station at Feaghmain in the island of Valentia. In 1866 the re- sults of the comparisons of the standards of length of England, India, Australia, France, Russia, Prussia, and Belgium were published, all these countries having, on the invitation of the British government, sent their standards for comparison to the ordnance survey office, Southampton, where abuildingand apparatus had been constructed by James for the pur- pose. The units of measure used in the triangulation of the various countries, and the lengths of the several arcs which had been measured in different parts of the world, were then reduced in terms of the English standard yard and foot, and the elements of the earth's figure corrected accordingly.
In 1867 points at Haverfordwest and in the island of Valentia, which had been se- lected as stations of the great European arc
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of longitude, were connected with the prin- cipal triangulations; and the direction of the meridian was observed at Valentia and com- pared with the direction as calculated from Greenwich by means of the triangulation connecting Greenwich with Valentia. The lengths of the arcs of parallel from Green- wich to Mount Kemmel in Belgium, from Greenwich to Haverfordwest,and from Green- wich to Valentia Avere also calculated.
Besides these services immediately con- nected with the ordnance survey, James, in 1864-5, arranged for a survey of Jerusalem, which was made by a party of royal engineers under Captain (now Sir Charles) Wilson; the survey was published in 1865, with de- scriptive notes and photographs. In 1868-9, on James's initiative, the two rival mountains, Jebel Musa and Jebel Serbal, were surveyed by Captains Wilson and Palmer.
The principal work with which the name of James will always be associated is photo- zincography. With a view of substituting photographic carbon prints for the tracings of the six-inch plans which were made for the purposes of the engraver, James had a carbon print of a small drawing prepared and transferred to zinc with perfect success. The new art was found invaluable. It was intro- duced at the ordnance survey office in 1859, under the supervision of Captain (now Major- general) A. De C. Scott, R.E., who had charge of the photographic establishment at Southampton. Without its assistance it would have been impossible to ke3p pace •with the demand for maps on a variety of scales, while the gain in accuracy was re- ported by a committee under the presidency of Sir Roderick Murchison to be such that the greatest error in a photozincograph re- duction did not amount to 5^5 part of an inch, a quantity quite inappreciable, and much less than the error due to the contrac- tion and expansion of the paper on which the maps were printed. The resulting economy was obviously considerable. Photozinco- graphy in its application to maps attracted much attention abroad, and representatives of the principal European powers were sent to Southampton to study the process. The Spanish government especially interested itself in the process, and sent officers on several occasions to study it ; in 1863 the queen of Spain appointed James a commander and Scott a knight of the royal order of Isa- bella the Catholic. The services of photo- zincography, as developed under James, have proved most useful in popularising the study of palaeography and philology. At James's suggestion this process was adopted in the reproduction of Domesday Book.
On 6 March 1868 James was promoted major-general, and on 21 Nov. 1874 lieu- tenant-general. He remained at the head of the ordnance survey until August 1875, when failing health compelled him to resign. He died 14 June 1877 at his residence in Southampton. He married Anne, daughter of Major-general Watson, R.E., by whom he had two sons and a daughter who survived him. He was made a fellow of the Royal Society on 30 Nov. 1848, and an associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers on 1 May 1849.
James was a man of varied gifts, strong per- sonality, and commanding presence. Some- • what egotistical and imperious in manner, I he was unpleasant if opposed, but was pos- i sessed of so much humour that he was a most agreeable companion. He was a keen sportsman, a good shot, and a successful fisherman. He was always particular to clear the survey men out of the deer forests before the close season began.
For the following publications James was responsible: 1. 'Abstracts from the Meteoro- logical Observations taken at the Stations of the Royal Engineers in 1853-4,' 4to, 1855; those from 1853-9 were published in 1862. 2. ' On the Deflection of the Plumb-line at Arthur's Seat, and the mean Specific Gravity of the Earth,' pamphlet, 4to, 1856. 3. ' On the Figure, Dimensions, and mean Specific I Gravity of the Earth as derived from the I Ordnance Trigonometrical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland,' 4to, 1856. 4. ' Principal Triangulations of the Earth,' 2 vols. 4to, j 1858. 5. 'Lecture on the Ordnance Survey,' j pamphlet, 8vo, 1859. 6. 'Tables for the Re- j duction of Meteorological Observations,' 8vo, | 1860. 7. ' Photozincography,' 8vo, Southamp- ; ton, 1860. 8. ' Abstract of the principal Lines of Spirit-Levelling in England and Wales,' with a volume of plates, 4to, 1861. 9. ' Extensions of the Triangulations of the Ordnance Survey with France and Belgium, and Measurement of an Arc of Parallel 52° N.,' 4to, 1863. 10. ' The Astragalus of Tin : Note on the block of Tin dredged up in Falmouth Harbour,' 8vo, London, 1863. 11. ' Comparisons of Standards of Length of England, France, Belgium, Prussia, Russia, India, Australia. . . .' 1866, 4to. 12. 'De- termination of the Positions of Feaghmain and Haverfordwest, longitude stations on the great European Arc of Parallel,' 4to, 1867. 13. 'Plans and Photographs of Stonehenge and of Turnsachen in the Island of Lewis, with Notes relating to the Druids, and Sketches of Cromlechs in Ireland,' 4to, South- ampton, 1867. 14. ' Notes on the Great Pyra- mid of Egypt and the Cubits used in its
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Design, with plates,' 4to, Southampton, 1809. 15. ' Photozincography and other Photo- graphic Processes employed at the Ordnance Survey Office,' 4to, 1870. 16. 'Notes on the Parallel Roads of Lochaber,' with map and sketches, 4to, Southampton, 1874.
[Corps Kecords; Ordnance Survey Eecords; private manuscript Memoir by Major-general Cameron ; ' Eomance of State-mapping,' by Colonel T. P. White, K.E., see Blackwood's Magazine, 1888; for a full bibliography see Boaseand Courtney's Bibl. Cornubiensis.]
K. H. V.
JAMES, JOHN (d.1661), Fifth-monarchy man, was a native of England, born of poor parents, but his birthplace is unknown. He had little education, and was a ribbon-weaver by trade. For some years he earned a living as a small-coal man, but was not strong enough for the work, and returned to weav- ing. He appears to have been of weak frame and diminutive stature, ' a poor, low, de- formed worm.' In 1661 he speaks of ' having not worn a sword this eleven years,' and im- plies that he had never been in the army. He became preacher to a congregation of seventh-day baptists, who met in Bulstake Alley, Whitechapel Road. Here he advocated the doctrine of the approaching millennial reign of Christ, and seems to have got into trouble, owing to the vehemence of his expres- sions, in Cromwell's time. He had no hand in the rising of Fifth-monarchy men under Tho- mas Venner in January 1661, and, apart from the fanaticism of his preaching, was a peace- able man. On the information of John Tipler, a journeyman tobacco-pipe maker, James and his congregation, to the number of thirty or forty, were arrested in their meeting-place on Saturday, 19 Oct. 1661. James was committed to Newgate, and brought to trial at the king's bench on 14, 19, and 22 Nov. The indictment was for high treason, with five counts. Sir Robert Foster [q. v.], the chief justice, with two other judges, tried the case; the attor- ney-general (Jeoffry Palmer) and solicitor- general (Heneage Finch, first earl of Notting- ham [q. v.]), with four king's counsel, prose- cuted for the crown. James was undefended. The evidence as to the use of treasonable lan- guage was conflicting ; no evidence was given of treasonable action. James was found guilty, and sentenced to be hanged, disem- bowelled, and quartered. In the interval be- tween his conviction and sentence his wife, Elizabeth James, twice waylaid the king with a petition. Charles held up his finger and said, ' 0, Mr. James, he is a sweet gentle- man.' The sentence was carried out at Ty- burn on 26 Nov. 1661. His head was set up on a pole ' over against the passage to the
meeting-place where he and his company were apprehended.' Some of his addresses, and a remarkable prayer, are contained in ' A Nar- rative of the Apprehending . . . and Execu- tion of John James,' &c., 1662, 4to ; re- printed in Cobbett's ' State Trials,' 1810, vi. 67 sq. (nearly in full), and in 'The Fifth Monarchy of the Bible,' &c., 1886, 12mo.
[Speech and Declaration of John James, 1661 ; Narrative, 1662; the accounts in Crosby's Hist, of the Engl. Baptists, 1739, ii. 165 sq., Ivimey'sHist. of theEngl. Baptists, 1811, i. 320 sq., and Brook's Lives of the Puritans, 1813, iii. 391 sq., are abridged from the Narrative. 1^^.., \ A. G-.
JAMES, JOHN^t^.^746), "architect, 'of Greenwich,' was son of 'Jbwiwiwuud Eluuiiui Jaiuoo [qi vi] Qno John James, master of the Holy Ghost School at Basingstoke, Hamp- shire (29 July 1673), and vicar of Basingstoke (1697-1717) and rector of Stratfield Turgis from 1717 till his death on 20 Feb. 1732-3, had a oon; oloo John Jamoo; who htuo boon identified with the architect, apparently in error. In 1705 the latter succeeded Nicholas Hawksmoor [q. v.] as clerk of the works at Greenwich Hospital. He held the post till his death, and thus worked under Wren, Vanbrugh, Campbell, and Ripley. He be- came master-carpenter at St. Paul's Cathe- dral on 30 April 1711 (Frauds and Abuses of St. Paul's, pp. 7, 8, 22), and in 1716 as- sistant surveyor. At the time of his death he appears to have been surveyor. On 6 Jan. 1716, on the resignation of James Gibbs [q. v.], he was chosen surveyor of the fifty new London churches, in conjunction with Hawksmoor. From 22 Jan. 1725 he was surveyor of. Westminster Abbey. He was master of the Carpenters' Company in 1734. He is said to have succeeded Hawksmoor as principal surveyor of his majesty's works in April 1736.
The Manor-house opposite the church at Twickenham (afterwards called Orleans House) was rebuilt from his designs for the Hon. James Johnr.ton in 1710, after the model of country seats in Lombardy ( Vitru- vius Britannicus, 1717, vol. i. plate Ixxvii.) The octagon room was afterwards added by Gibbs. The body of the parish church at Twickenham having fallen down on the night of 9 April 1713 was rebuilt from his designs and completed in 1715. It is classic in style, and as a specimen of brickwork irreproach- able. He designed the church of St. George, Hanover Square, the first stone of which was laid on 20 June 1712 and the building com- pleted in 1724 (cf. in MALCOLM, Lend. Rediv. iv. 231. 233 ; plates in CLARKE, Archi. Eccles. Lond. xlvi., and MALTOIT, London and West- minster, xcii.) He directed some alterations
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to the chapel of Caius College, Cambridge, be- tween Lady day 1718 and Michaelmas 1720. In 1 721 he designed Sir Gregory Page's house on Blackheath, which is said to have been copied, with some alterations, from that at Houghton, and was demolished in 1789 (cf. CAMPBELL, Vitruvius Brit, ed. Woolfe and Gandon, 1767, vol. iv., plates Iviii. to Ixiv. ; WATTS, Seats, plate xlvii. ; east view en- graved by Morris, 1786). The first additions to the old East India House, Leadenhall Street, were built under his direction in 1726 (of. MALCOLM:, Land. Rediv. i. 82-5 ; plate in WALFORD, London, v. 61), and he superin- tended the rebuilding of Bishopsgate Gate be- tween 1731 and 1735, and of the belfry story of the tower of St. Margaret's Church, West- minster, in 1735 {Daily Journal, 25 Feb. 1735). He added the new steeple to St. Alphage Church, Greenwich, in 1730. The design of the church (built in 1711) is fre- quently attributed to James, but is more probably by Hawksinoor (cf. plate by Kip, 1714). "
After the death of Tenison, archbishop of Canterbury (4 Dec. 1715), a survey of the archi episcopal residences was made by James, under the direction of Dickenson, and de- mands for dilapidations were made by Arch- bishop Wake. Tenison's executors contested the demand as exorbitant. A war of pam- phlets followed in 1716 and 1717, James de- fending himself in ' The Survey and Demand for Dilapidations. . .justified, against the Cavils and Misrepresentations contained in some Letters lately published by Mr. Arch- deacon [Edward] Tenison [the archbishop's nephew],' 1717 (see letter from E. Tenison, 27 Oct. 1717, in STRYPE, Correspondence, Cambr. Univ. Libr. MS. 2508). The matter was finally settled by arbitration. The Duke of Chandos is said to have employed James, as well as Gibbs and Sheppard, in designing his mansion, Canons, near Edgware, Middle- sex, but Gibbs was chiefly responsible (cf. Builder, 1864, p. 41 ; Beauties of England and Wales, vol. x. pt. iv. p. 635).
In 1729 he joined his .brother Thomas, a type-founder (1685-1738), William Fenner, a stat ioner, and James Ged in their unlucky at- tempt to work William Ged's system of block- printingor stereotyping [see GED, WILLIAM]. James appears to have been ' taken into part- nership as having money' (cf. MORES, Narra- tive of Block Printing, p. 37), and being ' uni- versally acquainted with the nobility and dignified clergy.' The losses of the enterprise fell heavily on him in 1738, when its failure was complete. He died at Greenwich, after a. lingering illness, on Thursday, 15 May 1746/f I His wife Mary survived him. Only one child '
is mentioned in the will (made 8 Oct. 1744, proved 30 May 1746), a son, who had died before 1744, leaving a widow.
James published: 1. ' Rules and Examples of Perspective, proper for Painters and Archi- tects,' from the Italian of Andrea Pozzo (Rome, 1693), with plates by John Sturt,
1707. 2. ' A Treatise of the Five Orders of Columns in Architecture,' from the French of Claude Perrault, with plates by Sturt,
1708. 3. 'The Theory and Practice of Gar- dening, wherein is handled all that relates to Fine Gardens,' from the French of J. B. Alexandre Le Blond (Paris, 1709), with plates by Vandergucht and others, 1712; 2nd edition, from a later French edition, ' with very large additions and a new trea- tise of flowers and orange-trees,' 1728. 4. 'A Short Review of the several Pamphlets and Schemes that have been offered to the Pub- lick in relation to the Building of a Bridge at Westminster,' 1736. To James's work Batty Langley [q. v.], who was here somewhat se- verely handled, published a reply in 1737. James drew the ' Xorth-west Prospect of Westminster Abbey, with the Spire as de- signed by Sir Christopher Wren,' which was engraved bv Fourdrinier, and by Toms for Maitland's '"London ' (1736, p. 686).
A brother, GEORGE JAMES (1683-1735), was printer to the city of London, a common councilman, and a man of cultivation. A nephew, JOHN (d. 1772), son of his brother Thomas, carried on his father's type-foundry in St. Bartholomew's, and is described as ' the last of the old English letter-founders.'
[Axithorities quoted in the text ; entries in parish register, Basingstoke, kindly communi- cated by the Rev. J. E. Millard ; Baigent and Millard's Basingstoke, pp. 26, 150, 587 ; Diet, of Architecture (Architectural Publication Society); Kedgrave's Diet, of Artists ; Walpole's Anecdotes, ed. Wornum, p. 696 ; Cooke and Maule's Green- wich Hospital, p. 142; Bloxam's Keg. of Mag- dalen College, i. 86 ; Chronological Diary of Hist. Keg. 1716 p. Ill, 1725 p. 7; Gent. Mag. 1733 p. 102, 1735 p. 560, 1736 p. 28, 1746 p. 273, 1781 p. 622; Longman's Hist, of the Three Cathedrals, p. 87 ; Ironside's Twickenham, in Bibl. Topogr. Brit. vol. x. No. 6, pp. 7, 10 ; Cob- bett's Memorials of Twickenham, pp. 21, 213; Lysons's Environs, iii. 579, iv. 329 ; Willis and Clark's Architectural Hist, of Cambridge,!. 195-6, iii. 44, 53 sq. ; Woodward's Hampshire, iii. 230; Maitland's London, 1756, pp. 23, 1003; Gough's Brit. Topogr. i. 480 ; Jupp's Carpenters' Com- pany, ed. Pocock, p. 628; London Evening Post, 15-24 May ; Grub Street Journal, 18 July 1734, 6 Feb. and 6 March 1735, and 8 April 1736; Nichols's Biog. Memoirs of William Ged, pp. 5, 6, 13, 14, 19, 21, 23 ; Mores's Dissertation, pp. 50-76 ; B. Langley's London Prices, p. 246 ;
i ' He is buried at Eversley, Hants., where in 1724 he built the still existing Warbrook House.'
. To authorities add : Epitaph in Col-
lectanea topographica et genealogica, viu. 64, and in Times Literary Supplement, 1941, p. 328 ; V.C.H., Hants., iv. 32.
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Brit. Mus. Cat. ; Cat. of King's Prints and Draw- ings ; Cat. of Drawings, &c., in K.I.B.A. Li- brary.] B. P.
JAMES, JOHN, D.D. (1729-1785), schoolmaster, born in 1729, son of Thomas James of Thornbarow, Cumberland, entered Queen's College, Oxford, as batler 6 June 1745, was elected taberdar 27 June 1751, proceeded B.A. 28 June 1751, and M.A. 7 Feb. 1755. On 11 April 1754 lie became curate of Stanford Dingley, near Heading, and in 1755 head-master of St. Bees School, where he remained till 1771, and met with much success. He accepted in 1771 the lord chancellor's nomination to the vicarage of Kirk Oswald, near Penrith, but preferred to serve the curacy of Arthuret, near Car- lisle, which was soon afterwards offered to him. He never resided at Kirk Oswald, and after paying the emoluments to a deputy for three years resigned the living in 1774. On 15 Feb. 1782 he was presented to the rectories of Arthuret and Kirk Andrews, proceeding B.D. and D.D. at Oxford as grand compounder on 1 March following. Dying at Arthuret 1 Jan. 1785, he was buried in the chancel of Arthuret Church. He married in 1757 Ann Grayson of Lamonby Hall, by whom he had four sons and three daughters.
The second son, JOHN JAMES (1760-1786), became a member of his father's college, won the Latin prize poem in 1782, the subject feeing Columbus, and graduated B.A. 4 July 1782. He took orders 1783-4, was appointed to a lectureship at Grosvenor Chapel, South Audley Street, London, and on his father's death was presented to the livings of Ar- thuret and Kirk Andrews. He died from the results of an accident 23 Oct. 1780, leaving a widow and one daughter. Richard Radcliffe's letters to his father, the corre- spondence which passed between his father and himself while he was in residence at Oxford, the letters of both father and son addressed to Jonathan Boucher [q. v.], the son's Latin poem on Columbus, and his Greek translation of an extract from Gay's ' Fan,' •were printed in 1888 for the Oxford Histo- rical Society in ' Letters of Richard Radcliffe and John James.' Both father and son are shown in a very amiable light.
The youngest son, HUGH JAMES (1771- 1817), after studying in London and Edin- burgh, practised as a surgeon at Whitehaven (1796-8) ; in 1803 removed to Carlisle ; com- pletely lost his sight in 1806, but continued liis surgical practice at Carlisle till his •death in 1817.
[Letters of Ki chard Radcliffe and John James, Oxford, 1888 ; Foster's Alumni Oxonienses <1715-1886), ii. 740.] J. T-x.
JAMES, JOHN (1811-1867), antiquary, was born of humble parents at West Witton, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, on 22 Jan. 1811. After receiving a very scanty education, and working at a lime-kiln, he became clerk, first to Ottiwell Tomlin, solicitor, of Richmond, Yorkshire, and afterwards to a Bradford so- licitor named Tolson. He had spent all his leisure in study, and Tolson encouraged him to compile 'The History and Topography of Bradford,' 8vo, 1841, of which a ' continua- tion and additions ' appeared in 1866. After Tolson's death James forsook the law for journalism and antiquarian research. He became the local correspondent at Bradford of the ' Leeds Times ' and ' York Courant,' and furnished articles on the Exhibition to the ' Bradford Observer ' in 1862. To an edition of the ' Poems ' of John Nicholson, the Aire- dale poet, published in 1844 (reissued in 1876), he prefixed an appreciative memoir. In 1857 he published a valuable ' History of the Worsted Manufacture in England from the Earliest Times,' and at the meeting ot* the British Association held at Leeds in Sep- tember 1858 he read a paper on the 'Worsted Manufactures of Yorkshire ' (Report, xxviii. pt. ii. pp. 182-3). In 1860 he published a lecture on ' The Philosophy of Lord Bacon and the Systems which preceded it ; ' and in 1801 edited for the benefit of the widow the ' Lyrical and other Minor Poems ' of his old friend Robert Story, with a sketch of his life. In October 1863 his paper ' On the Little British Kingdom of Elmet and the Region of Loidis ' was communicated to the British Archaeological Association, then at Leeds (Journal, xx. 34-8). For the eighth edition of the ' Encyclopaedia Britannica ' he wrote the article on ' Yorkshire.' James died on 4 July 1867 at Nether Edge, near Sheffield, and was buried on the 8th at West Witton. On 18 Dec. 1856 he was elected F.S.A.
[Bradford Observer. 11 July 1867; Bradford Times, 6 July 1867; Sheffield Daily Telegraph,
5 July 1867 ; Sheffield and Rotherham Indepen- dent, 6 July 1867 ; Lists of Society of Anti- quaries.] G. G.
JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859), independent minister, eldest son and fourth child of Joseph James (d. 1812, aged 59), was born at Blandford Forum,' Dorset, on
6 June 1785. His father, who came of an old Dorset family, was a linendraper and maker of wire buttons. He received his second name in compliment to Mrs. Angell, an Arian general baptist, who was aunt to his mother, Sarah James (d. 1807, aged 59). After schooling at Blandford and at Ware-
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ham under Robert Kell, presbyterian mini- ster, he was apprenticed in 1798 to a linen- draper at Poole, Dorset. In 1802 he was admitted, with a bursary of 301. a year, on Robert Ilaldane's foundation, as a student for the ministry in the Gosport academy, Hamp- shire, under David Bogue [q. v.] At Gos- port James was baptised and admitted to communion. He qualified at Winchester on 18 July 1803 as a dissenting preacher under the Toleration Act ; his first sermon was at Hyde, Isle of Wight. He accepted Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, on 11 Jan. 1805. For seven years his ministry was attended •with no great success. During the winter 1812-13 his chapel was closed for improve- ments, and he was granted the use of the Old Meeting House. This gave him pub- licity, and his popularity began. On 12 May
1819 he preached at Surrey Chapel on behalf of the London Missionary Society. His sermon, which lasted two hours, was de- livered from memory. Carr's Lane Chapel was now rebuilt, at a cost of 1 1,000/., and on a scale of more than double its former size ; the new building was opened in August
1820 ; schools and lecture room were subse- quently added, and six other chapels were erected in the town and suburbs as offshoots of the congregation. He took considerable part in the public business of the town ; it has been said that from 1817 to 1844 he was the only public man among the evangelical nonconformist ministers of Birmingham. From the foundation in 1838 of Spring Hill College, Birmingham (now Mansfield Col- lege, Oxford), till his death, James was chair- man of its board of education. In May 1842 he was one of the leading projectors of the Evangelical Alliance. A sum of oOO/. pre- sented to him on the jubilee of his pastorate (1855) was made by him the nucleus of a pastors' retiring fund.
James was a man of abstemious habits and much simplicity of character. The honorary degree of D.D. was sent him by Glasgow University, as well as by the American col- leges of Princeton, New Jersey, and Jeffer- son, but he declined to use the title. His early preaching was somewhat overloaded in style, but he gained in naturalness; his numerous writings owe their widespread in- fluence to his power of direct personal ap- peal. His ' Anxious Enquirer ' is his best- known book ; it was in consequence of hav- ing met with his 'Christian Charity 'that A\ ordsworth went to hear him preach, and afterwards introduced himself. A Calvinist in creed, James dwelt more on Christian duty than on doctrinal niceties. His rugged features indicated his strength of purpose
! more fully than his benevolence of heart, I He retained much of his vigour to the last. 1 James died on Saturday, 1 Oct. 1859, and ! was buried on 7 Oct. in a vault before the , pulpit at Carr's Lane Chapel. He married first, on 7 July 1806, Frances Charlotte Smith 1 (d. 27 Jan. 1819), a physician's daughter of some independent fortune, who had formerly ; been a member of the established church, and 1 had a son, Thomas Smith James (see below), and two daughters, one of whom died in in- fancy; secondly, on 19Feb. 1822, Anna Maria ' (d. 3 June 1841), the rich widow of Benjamin Neale, whom she had married in 1812.
He published, besides single sermons 1(1810-59) and pastoral letters: 1. 'The Sunday School Teacher's Guide,' £c., 1816, 12mo/ 2. ' Christian Fellowship,' &c., 1822, 12mo. 3. ' The Christian Father's Present,' I &c., 1824, 12mo. 4. ' The Family Monitor,' j &c., 1828, 12mo. 5. ' Christian Charity, or the Influence of Religion upon the Temper,' &c., 1829, 12mo (see above). 6. 'Dissent and the Church of England,' &c., 1830, 8vo ; 2nd edition, 1831, 8vo. 7. 'The Importance of Doing Good,' &c., 1832, 8vo. 8. ' The Anxious Enquirer after Salvation,' &c., Bir- mingham, 1834, 8vo (two editions same year, often reprinted, and translated into Welsh, Gaelic, and Malagasy ; a sequel to it appeared with the title ' Christian Progress '). 9. ' Pro- testant Nonconformity,' &c., 1849, 8vo (an- I historical work, dealing especially with non- i conformity in Birmingham). 10. ' The Church in Earnest,' &c., 4th edition, 1851, 12mo. 11. 'Female Piety,' &c., Birming- ham, 1853, 12mo. Posthumous was 12. ' Au- tobiography,' 1864, 8vo; begun 1858, and published, with additions by his son, as the seventeenth and last volume of his collected ' Works,' 1860-4, 8vo.
JAMES, THOMAS SMITH (1809-1874), son of the above, was a solicitor in Birmingham. He edited his father's works, and defended his view of justification in additions to the i autobiography. He published ' The History of the Litigation and Legislation respecting" Presbyterian Chapels and Charities in Eng- I land and Ireland,' £c., 1867, 8vo. A very valuable portion of this work was earlier issued with the title ' Lists and Classifica- tions of Presbyterian and Independent Ministers, 1717-31,' &c., 1866, 8vo ; an 'Addendum' [1868], 8vo, deals with the criticisms of John Gordon. The work has many errors of transcription or of the press; but it contains 'Dr. Evans's List' (1715- 1729), rather incorrectly transcribed, from the original in Dr. Williams's Library, Gor- don Square, WT.C. James was twice married and left issue, and died on 3 Feb. 1874.
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[Autobiography, 1864; Life and Letters, ed. E. W. Dale, 2nd edit. 1861 ; Campbell's Review of James's History, Character, &c., 1860 ; Sibree and Caston's Independency in Warwickshire, 1855, pp. 179 sq. ; Eedford's Brief Memoir of Mrs. James, 1841.] A. G.
JAMES, JOHN HADDY (1788-1869), surgeon, the son of a retired Bristol merchant, was born at Exeter on 6 July 1788. He at- tended the Exeter grammar school, and at sixteen was apprenticed (in 1805) to Benja- min Johnson, a surgeon, and from 1806 until 1808 to Mr. Patch, surgeon to the Devon and Exeter Hospital. From 1808 to 1812 he was a student at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, re- siding one of the years in Abernethy's house, and then becoming house-surgeon. He quali- fied M.R.C.S. in 1811, became assistant-sur- geon to the 1st life-guards, and was present at Waterloo. Quitting the service in June 1816, he was elected at the same time (after two previous failures) surgeon to the Devon and Exeter Hospital, and commenced as a general practitioner in Exeter, his residence being in the Cathedral Close. At the hos- pital he gave lectures on anatomy and phy- siology, along with Barnes, and began the pathological museum, the catalogue of which occupied much of his leisure. He was a strong advocate of provincial as against exclusively metropolitan medical education, and became one of the original members of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association. At its Liverpool meeting in 1839 he was chosen to give the retrospective address in surgery, and was made president of the Exeter meeting in 1842. He became a town councillor of Exeter in 1820, sheriff in 1826, and mayor in 1828, retiring from municipal business when the old corporation was dissolved in 1835. He was a man of great vigour, bodily and men- tal, dressed in the old fashion, and professed tory and staunch church principles. In pro- fessional matters he was cautious, opinion- ative, and conservative, a careful, although not an artistic, operator, a most assiduous note-taker (he left eleven manuscript folio volumes of cases written by himself), and gifted with a good memory, which made his large experience available. In 1843 he was nominated one of the first set of honorary fellows of the College of Surgeons under its new charter. In 1858 he resigned the sur- geoncy of the Devon and Exeter Hospital (his son succeeding him), but retained until 1868 his favourite duty of curator of the museum, for which he had a house built in the grounds by private subscription in 1853. He died on 17 March 1869 at Southernhay, Exeter, after a lingering illness of five years.
James was twice married, first in 1822 to
Elizabeth Wittal, who died in 1839, and again in 1840 to Harriet Hills of Exmouth, who survived him. He was the father of nine children by his first wife, only one of whom (his eldest son, a surgeon) died before him.
' James of Exeter ' was well known in the profession at large, partly by the spread of his local fame, and partly as a writer on in- flammation, and as one of the few surgeons who had tied the abdominal aorta for aneur- ism of the internal iliac (the patient died in less than three hours, see Med.-Chir. Trans. 1829, vol. xvi.) His writings on inflamma- tion began in 1818, when he won the Jack- sonian prize for an essay upon it, printed in 1821 ; 2nd edit. 1832. He constantly quoted John Hunter and Bichat, distinguished be- tween the reparative and other effects of in- flammation, and maintained that the extent of the process was limited by the quantity of plastic lymph effused. He published a num- ber of other papers, ' On the Results of Am- putation,' ' On Hernia,' ' On the Scars after Burns,' &c. (for complete list see Brit. Med. Journ. 1869, i. 319). His literary activity revived in his closing years (1865-9), during which he recurred to the subject of inflamma- tion, made a qualified defence of bleeding, and wrote on ' Chloroform versus Pain.'
[Brit. Med. Journ. 1869, i. 318; Med. Times and Gaz. 1869, i. 369 (analysis of his doctrines) Lancet, 1869, i. 480.] C. C.
JAMES, JOHN THOMAS, D.D. (1786- 1828), bishop of Calcutta, born 23 Jan. 1786 at Rugby, was eldest son of Dr. Thomas James [q. v.], head-master of Rugby School, by his second wife. He was educated at Rugby until he was twelve years old, when, by the interest of the Earl of Dartmouth, he was placed on the foundation of the Charter- house. In 1803 he gained the first prize medal given by the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts and Sciences. He left the Charterhouse in May 1804, when he was chosen to deliver the annual oration, and entered Christ Church, Oxford, as a com- moner. After the death of his father, 23 Sept. 1804, he was nominated dean's student by Dr. Cyril Jackson. He graduated B.A. 9 March 1808, and MA. 24 Oct. 1810, and continued'to reside at Oxford, first as a pri- vate tutor and afterwards as student and tutor of Christ Church, till 1813, when he went abroad. During this tour he visited the courts of Berlin, Stockholm, and St. Peters- burg. He visited Moscow, which had just then been burned, and thence through Poland to Vienna. After his return he published,, in 1816, a 'Journal of a Tour in Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Poland, during 1813
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and 1814,' 4to (1 vol.) Subsequent editions, in 2 vols. 8vo, appeared in 1817 and 1819.
In 1816 James visited Italy, and studied painting at Rome and Naples. On his return to England he took holy orders, and resigned his studentship on being presented by the •dean and chapter of Christ Church to the vicarage of Flitton-cum-Silsoe in Bedford- shire. While there he published two works on art — ' The Italian Schools of Painting,' in 1820, and 'The Flemish, Dutch, and German Schools of Painting,' in 1822— and a theolo- gical work entitled 'The Semi-Sceptic, or the Common Sense of Religion considered,' in 1825. His intention was to have completed his writings on art by treatises on the Eng- lish, French, and Spanish schools. In 1826 he began the publication of a series of ' Views in Russia, Sweden, Poland, and Germany.' These were engraved on stone by himself, and coloured so as to represent originals. Five numbers appeared during 1826 and 1827, when the publication was interrupted by his appointment to the bishopric of Calcutta, in succession to Heber, at the end of 1826. James resigned his vicarage in April 1827. The university of Oxford gave him the degree of D.D. by diploma on 10 May, and on Whit- sunday, 3 June, he was consecrated at Lam- beth. He landed at Calcutta 18 Jan. 1828, and was installed in the cathedral on the fol- lowing Sunday, the 20th.
For purposes of organisation James divided the city of Calcutta into three parochial dis- tricts, the fort itself constituting a fourth. On 20 June 1828 he set out on a visitation to the western provinces of his diocese, but, being seized with illness, he returned to Cal- cutta and was ordered to take a sea voyage. He sailed for China on 9 Aug., but died •during the voyage on 22 Aug. A ' Charge ' by him was published in 1829. In 1823 James married Marianne Jane, fourth daugh- ter of Frederick Reeves, esq., of East Sheen, Surrey, and formerly of Mangalore, in the Bombay presidency.
[Brit. Mus. Cat.; Brief Memoir by E. James; Kaye's Christianity in India.] E. J. K.
JAMES, RICHARD (1592-1638), scho- lar, born at Newport in the Isle of Wight in 1592, was third son of Andrew James of that town, by his wife Dorothy, daughter of Philip Poore of Durrington, Wiltshire. Thomas James [q. v."], Bodley's first librarian, was his uncle. Richard was educated at Newport grammar school, and matriculated as a commoner at Exeter College, Oxford, on 6 May 1008. On 23 Sept. of the same year he migrated to Corpus Christi College, of which he had been elected scholar, and gra- duated thence B.A. 12 Oct. 1611 and M.A. |
24 Jan. 1614-15 (Reg. Univ. O.ron. II. ii. 300, iii. 305, Oxford Hist. Soc.) On 30 Sept. 1615 he was elected probationary fellow of his college, and on 7 July 1624 graduated B.D. After taking holy orders James set out on a long series of travels, which, commencing in Wales and Scotland, extended to Shetland and Greenland, and eventually to Russia. To the last-named country, where he spent some time, he went in 1618 as chaplain to Sir Dudley Digges [q. v.], but unfortunately his own record of his journey is lost, and we know- little, except that a rumour was spread that he was dead, and that in November and December 1618 he was at Breslau. James had returned to Oxford possibly by 1620, certainly before 28 Jan. 1623, when Thomas James wrote to Archbishop Ussher that his nephew was en- gaged on a life of Thomas Becket. In the latter part of 1624 Richard James was em- ployed with Selden in the examination of the Earl of Arundel's marbles, and when Selden published his ' Marmora Arundeliana ' i n 1 628 he acknowledged in his preface the assistance which he had received from James, ' multi- jugse doctrinae studiique indefatigabilis vir.' Previously to this James had been intro- duced to Sir Robert Bruce Cotton [q. v.] ; he soon became Cotton's librarian, and the lists of contents prefixed to many manuscripts in the Cottonian collection are in James's handwriting. Sir Simonds D'Ewes says that ' James, being a needy sharking companion, and very expensive . . . let out or lent most precious manuscripts for money to any that would be his customers.' James seems to be cleared from the dishonourable part of the accusation by the continued friendship be- tween him and members of his patron's family. There is, however, no doubt that in July 1629 he lent to Oliver St. John the manuscript tract on the bridling of parlia- ments which was written in 1612 by Sir Robert Dudley, titular duke of Northumber- land [q. v.] The tract was secretly circu- lated by St. John among the parliamentary leaders ; the wrath of the king and his minis- ters was roused, and James, with Cotton and others, was imprisoned by order of the privy council in the autumn of 1629 [see under COTTOX, SIR ROBERT BRUCE]. James peti- tioned for his release ( Col. State Papers, 1629- 1631, p. 110), and was probably set free, with the other defendants, on the birth of the Prince of Wales, 29 May 1630 (RusHWORTH, Collections, i. 52-3). On 22 Oct. 1629 James was presented to the sinecure living of Little Mongeham, Kent, the only church preferment which he ever held ; for, although on the title- page of The Muses Dirge ' he describes himself as ' preacher of God's word at Stoke Newing-
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ton,' lie never held any cure of souls there. After Sir Robert Cotton's death in 1631 James remained in the service of his son, Sir Thomas, at whose house in Westminster he died early in December 1638 of a quartan fever. He was buried in St. Margaret's Church on 8 Dec. ; the register describes him as ' Mr. Richard James, that most famous antiquary.' James was unmarried. Some of his early poems are addressed to a lady, whom he styles Albina, afterwards the wife of Mr. Philip Wodehouse. . .
James enjoyed a great reputation as a scho- lar. Wood says ' he was noted by all those that knew him to be a very good Grecian, poet, an excellent critic, antiquary, divine, and admirably well skilled in the Saxon and Gothic languages.' D'Ewes, in his spiteful notice, calls him ' a short, red-bearded, high- coloured fellow ... an atheistical, profane scholar, but otherwise witty and moderately learned.' He had a wide circle of scholarly friends, including, besides those already re- ferred to, Sir Kenelm Digby, Sir John Eliot (with whom he corresponded during his im- prisonment, and whom he helped in prepar- ing his treatises ' De Jure Majestatis ' and ' Monarchy of Man '), Sir Henry Spelman (to whom he dedicated his sermon on Lent), Ben Jon son (to whom he addressed a poem on his 'Staple of Niews first presented'), Sebastian Benefield [q. v.], Thomas Jackson (1579-16-40) [q. v.l Brian Twine [q. v.], and Thomas Greaves [q. v.] He was a man of strong protestant opinions, which coloured his political views. In a curious note pre- fixed by him to a manuscript of ' Giraldus Cambrensis de Instructione Principum' (Cott. MS. Julius B. xiii.) he speaks of the treacherous pretence of religion under which the Norman princes intended ' omnes Brytanniarum in- sulas reducere sub monarchiam Gallicanam, quod mysterium hodie operaturinpragmaticis Hyspanorum.'
James published under his own name the following: 1. ' Anti-Possevinus, sive Concio [on 2 Tim. iv. 13] habita ad clerum in Aca- demia Oxoniensi,' Oxford, 1625, 4to. 2. ' The Muses Dirge, consecrated to the Remem- brance of ... James, King of Great Brit- taine, &c.,' London, 1625, 4to, pp. 16. The last four pages contain ' Anagrammata An- glica-Latina, or certaine Anagrams applied unto the Death of our late Soueraigne.' 3. ' A Sermon concerning the Eucharist [on Matt. xxvi. 26-8]. Delivered on Easter-Day in Oxford,' London, 1629, 4to. 4. ' A Sermon delivered in Oxford concerning the Observa- tion of Lent Fast,' London, 1630, 4to. 5. 'A Sermon [on 1 Cor. ix. 16] delivered in Ox- ford concerning the Apostles' Preaching and
ours,' London, 1630, 4to, with an epistle to Sir R. Cotton. 6. ' A Sermon [on 1 Cor. ii. 25] concerning the Times of receiving the ' Sacrament, and of Mutual! Forgivenesse. Delivered in C. C. C. at the election of a President,' London, 1632. 7. 'An Apologeti- call Essay for the Righteousnesse of Miserable Vnhappy People : deliuered in a Sermon [on Psalm xxxvii. 25] at St. Marie's in Oxford,' London, 1632, 4to, with a poetical preface ad- dressed to Selden. 8. ' Concio [on Matt. xvi. 18] habita ad clerum Oxoniensem de Ec- clesia,' Oxford, 1633, 4to, with a dedication to Sir Kenelm Digby. 9. ' Epistola T. Mori ad Academiam Oxon. . . . cui adjecta sunt quondam poemata,' 1633, 4to. The poems at the end of this volume, which is also dedi- cated to Digby, consist of two to Sir R. Cotton and one to Thomas Allen of Glouces- ter Hall. 10. ' Minucius Felix his Dialogue called Octavius ; containing a Defence of Christian Religion. Translated by Richard James,' London, 1636, 24mo, dedicated to Lady Cotton, widow of Sir Robert. In the same volume there are three poems — ' A Good Friday Thought,' ' A Christmasse Caroll,' and ' A Hymne on Christ's Ascension.'
James was also the author of some lines on Felton ; Sir James Balfour says, under date 27 Nov. 1628: 'At this time one Mr. James, an attender on Sir Robert Cotton, a grate louer of his country and a hatter of all suche as he supposed enimies to the same, was called in question for wretting some lynes wich he named a Statue to the memory of that worthy patriot S. Johne Feltone ' (Hist. Works, ed. 1825, ii. 174-5). The lines are reprinted by Dr. Grosart, and in Fairholt's ' Poems and Songs relating to George Villiers,' pp. 69-70 (Percy Soc. 1850). James has also been credited, on very slight grounds, with the lines ' OnWorthy Master Shakespeare and his Poems,' which were prefixed to the second folio edition of 1632, with the initials J. M. S., i.e. JaMeS (HUNTER, New Illustrations of Shakespeare, p. 310). They are assigned with greater probability to Jasper Mayne [q. v.]
James left a number of manuscripts, which at his death passed into the possession of Thomas Greaves, with whose library they were acquired in 1676 for the Bodleian, where they now are. These manuscripts, forty-three in number, are all in James's handwriting, and consist for the most part of collections and extracts from medieval chronicles un- favourable to the Roman church. Original works of more interest are : 1. MS. James 1. ' Decanonizatio T. Becket,' with an index by Thomas Greaves. A work of vast learning, to which reference has already been made. 2. MS. James 9. ' Antiquitates Insulse Vectse,' pp
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17, 4to. An unfinished work in Latin, which only brings the history of the island down to the reign of Henry II. 3. MS. James 13. ' Epistolte R. Jamesii ad amicos cum variis orationibus et carminibus ejusdem,' pp. 300, 4to. 4. MS. James 16. 'An Epitome of a book entitled, The first tome of the Agree- ment of the two Monarchies Catholique, that of the Roman Church, and the other of the Spanish Empire, and a defence of the pre- cedency of the Catholique kings of Spain above all princes of the world. By Father John de la Puent, Madrid, 1612.' 5. MS. James 33. ' Epistola Ric. Jamesii ad ami- cum quendam de genuflexione sive adora- tione ad nudam prolationem nominis Jesu.' 6. MS. James 34. ' Legend and Defence of that noble knight and martyr Sir John Old- castle set forth by Richard James.' An an- notated copy of Hoccleve's poem. 7. MS. James 35. ' Translations and English Verses by R. James.' 8. MS. James 36. ' Reasons concerning the unlawfulness of Attempts on the Lives of Great Personages.' 9. MSS. James 37, 38. Two sermons from which some extracts are printed by Corser in his preface, pp. Ixxxviii-xciii. 10. MS. James 40. ' Iter Lancastrense.' .11. MS. James 41. 'Dictionarius Anglo-Saxonicus.' 12. MS. James 42. ' Dictionarius Saxonico-Latinus.' 13. MS. James 43. A bundle containing, with other notes, 'A Description of Poland, Shetland, Orkney, the Highlands of Scot- land, Wales, Greenland, and Guinee' (4 sheets), ' An Account of James's Travels into Russia' (5 sheets, which never reached the Bodleian Library and are now lost), 'A Russian Vocabulary ' and ' A Russian MS.' In MS. Cotton. Julius C. iii. there are five letters of James's which are printed by Cor- ser (pp. 1-lii) and by Dr. Grosart, and in Harl. MS. 7002 six more which are printed by Dr. Grosart (pp. xxxiii-viii) ; in Tanner MS. Ixxv. f. 54 there is a letter from James to a Mr. Jackson asking him to present to Sir R. Cotton a manuscript of Abelard belonging to Balliol College.
James's ' Iter Lancastrense ' is a poem de- scriptive of a tour in Lancashire in 1636, when he stayed with Robert Hey wood [q. v.] It was edited for the Chetham Society in 1845 by Thomas Corser [q. v.], with notes and a copious introduction, in which many of James's minor poems are reprinted, together with extracts from some of his prose works. In 1880 Dr. A. B. Grosart published ' The Poems of Richard James' (only one hundred copies printed), with a preface, in which he adds a little to Corser's account. This volume contains the ' Iter Lancastrense,' ' The Muses Dirge,' the edition of Hoccleve's ' Oldcastle,'
the minor English and Latin poems collected from James's published works and MSS. James 13 and 35, and the ' Reasons concerning the unlawfulness of Attempts on the Lives of Great Personages.'
[Authorities quoted; Wood's Athense Oxon. ii. 629-32 ; Forster's Life of Eliot, ii. 506-9, 610, 659-61, 668 ; Macray'sAnnals of Bodleian,1890,p. 148; Sir SimondsD'Ewes's Autobiography, ii. 39, ed. J. 0. Halliwell ; Bernard's Cat. MSS. Anglise; Brit. Mus. Cat. ; Notes and Queries, 1st ser. iii. 393, 3rd ser. vii. 135, 185; Gardiner's Hist, of Engl. vii. 1 39. The fullest accounts will, however, be found in Corser's preface to the Iter, and Grosart's preface to the Poems.] C. L. K.
JAMES, ROBERT, M.D. (1705-1776), physician, son of Edward James, a major in the army, was born at Kinvaston, Stafford- shire, in 1705. He was educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, and at St. John's College, Oxford, where he matricu- lated in 1722 (aged 17), and graduated B.A. on 5 July 1720 (FOSTER, Alumni Oxon. ii. 741). He studied medicine, and was ad- mitted an extra-licentiate of the College of Physicians of London, 12 Jan. 1728. In the same year (8 May) he was created M.D. in the university of Cambridge by royal man- date. After practising at Sheffield, Lichfield, and Birmingham, he settled in London, where he lived first in Southampton Street, Covent Garden, and afterwards in Craven Street, Strand, having also rooms in Craig's Court, Charing Cross. On 25 June 1745 he was ad- mitted a licentiate of the College of Physi- cians, but never attained any higher degree in the college. In 1743 he published ' A Medical Dictionary, with a History of Drugs,' in three volumes, folio. The dedication to Dr. Richard Mead [q. v.] was written by Dr. Johnson (BoswELL, i. 85, ed. 1790), who also made some contributions to the work, and wrote the proposals for it. The articles are well written, and contain much information compiled from books, but very little original information. In 1745 he published ' A Trea- tise on the Gout and Rheumatism,' and in 1748 a ' Dissertation on Fevers.' In both works the chief object is to draw attention to his own method of cure, which is praised, without being clearly described. It con- sisted in the administration of a powder and of a pill, for which James took out a patent on 13 Nov. 1746. On 11 Feb. 1747 he de- posited in the court of chancery a description of the components and method of manufac- ture of these prescriptions. It was asserted at the time that both had been learnt from a German named William Schwanberg, and it was clearly proved afterwards that the re- ceipt sworn to in the patent would not pro-
James 2
duce the powder patented by James and sold by him and by F.Newbery (DE. G. PEARSON, Philosophical Transactions, 1791). The chief constituents of James's powder were phos- phate of lime arid oxide of antimony, and it resembled closely the present pulvis anti- monialis of the British Pharmacopoeia (GAR- ROD, Materia Medica, 1874, p. 60). It had a strong diaphoretic action, and was frequently prescribed in cases of raised temperature of all kinds, and of inflammatory pain. Gold- smith took a dose of the powder, which his servant bought at Newbery's, early in the attack of fever from which he died (letter of his laundress, Mary Ginger, in the Morning Post, 1 April 1774), and Hawes, the apothe- cary who attended him, attributed bad results to this dose ( W. HAWES, An Account of the late Dr. Goldsmith's Illness as far as relates to the exhibition of Dr. James's Powders, 1774). Newbery wrote to the papers in de- fence of his nostrum (Morning Post, 27 April 1774), and the controversy which arose does not seem to have injured its reputation, for it was prescribed for George III early in his attack of mania in November 1788 (Life and Letters of Sir Gilbert Elliot, i. 231). Since the depressant treatment of fever has fallen into disrepute, James's powder has almost ceased to be used by physicians. The way in which the powder was patented and sold diminished the reputation of James as a phy- sician, but Johnson never gave up his early friendship for him, and once observed of him, ' No man brings more mind to his profes- sion' (BoswELL, Johnson, i. 85). In the life of Edmund Smith (Lives of the Poets, ed. 1781, ii. 259), Johnson says that at Gilbert Walmsley's table in Lichfield ' I enjoyed many chearful and instructive hours, with companions such as are not often found with one who has lengthened and one who has gladdened life : with Dr. James, whose skill in physick will long be remembered, and with David Garrick.' The remainder of James's works are only original in so far as they praise his powder. He translated *Ramazzini de Morbis Artificum ; ' Simon Pauli's ' Treatise on Tobacco, Tea, Coffee, and Chocolate ; ' Prosper Alpinus's ' The Pre- sages of Life and Death in Diseases,' 2 vols., all in 1746. In 1752 he published ' Pharma- copeia Universalis, or a New Universal Eng- lish Dispensatory.' His ' Practice of Physic/ 2 vols., published in 1760, is a mere abstract of Boerhaave, and his ' Treatise on Canine Madness' (1760) recommends mercury, for hydrophobia on very slight grounds of obser- vation. He diefd on 23 March 1776, and after his death was printed his ' Vindication of the Fever Powder,' and a short treatise by
>i James
him on the disorders of children, London, 1778. His son, Pinkstan, was father of George Payne Rainsford James [q. v.]
[Munk's Coll. of Phys. ii. 269; Boswell's Life of Johnson, ed. 1791; Johnson's Lives of the Poets, ed. 1781, ii. 259 ; Affidavits and Proceed- ings of Walter Baker upon his Petition to the King in Council to vacate the Patent obtained for Dr. Kobert James for Schwanberg's Powder, Lon- don, 1753 ; Morning Post, April 1774 ; William Hawes's Account of the late Dr. Goldsmith's Ill- ness, London, 1774, copy, with additions, in library of Eoyal Medico-Chirurgical Society of London ; Dr. John Miller's Observations on Anti- mony, 1774 ; Dr. George Pearson's Experiments and Observations to investigate the Composition of James's Powder, London, 1791.] N. M.
JAMES, THOMAS (1573 P-1629), Bod- ley's librarian, uncle of Richard James [q. v.], was born about 1573 at Newport, Isle of Wight. In 1586 he was admitted a scholar of Winchester College, matriculated at Ox- ford from New College on 28 Jan. 1591-2, and was fellow of his college from 1593 to 1602 (KlRBY, Winchester Scholars, p. 152). He graduated B.A. on 3 May 1595, M.A. on 5 Feb. 1598-9, B.D. and D.D. on 16 May 1614 (WooD, Fasti Oxon. ed. Bliss, vol. i.) His learning was extensive, and he was ' esteemed by some a living library.' He assisted in framing a complete body of the ancient statutes and customs of the univer- sity, in which he was well versed. He was also skilled in deciphering manuscripts and in detecting forged readings. His first at- tempts at authorship were translations from the Italian of Antonio Brucioli's ' Commen- tary upon the Canticle of Canticles,' which was licensed for the press in November 1597 (ARBER, Stationers'1 Registers, iii. 27), and from the French of ' The Moral Philosophy of the Stoicks,' 16mo, London, 1598 (ib. iii. 27 b). He next edited Bishop Aungervile's ' Philobiblon,' 4to, Oxford, 1599, which he dedicated to Sir Thomas Bodley. About this time he obtained leave to examine the manu- scripts in the college libraries at Oxford, and was allowed by the easy-going heads of houses (especially those of Balliol and Merton) to take away several, chiefly patristic, which he gave in 1601 to the Bodleian Library, together with sixty printed volumes. As the result of his researches he published ' Ecloga Oxonio-Can- tabrigiensis, tributa in libros duos,' 4to, Lon- don, 1600, a work much commended by Joseph Scaliger. It gives a list of the manuscripts in the college libraries at Oxford and Cam- bridge, and in the university library at Cam- bridge, besides critical notes on the text of Cyprian's ' De Unitate Ecclesise ' and of Au- gustine's ' De Fide.'
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From the first Bodley had fixed upon James as his library keeper, and the appointment was confirmed by the university in 1G02. On 14 Sept. of that year he also became rector of St. Aldate, Oxford. His salary as librarian was at the commencement 51. 13s. 4d. quar- terly, but he threatened forthwith to resign unless it was raised to 30/. or 40£ a year. At the same time he demanded permission to marry. Bodley, who had made celibacy a stringent condition in his statutes, expostu- lated with James on his ' unseasonable and unreasonable motions,' but eventually allowed him to take a wife (Reliquice Bodleiance, pp. 52, 162, 183). In 1605 appeared the first cata- logue of the library compiled by James, and dedicated to Henry, prince of Wales, at the suggestion of Bodley, who thought that 'more reward was to be gained from the prince than from the king' (i&.p.206). It includes both printed books and manuscripts, arranged alphabetically under the four classes of theo- logy, medicine, law, and arts. A continuation of this classified index, embracing writers on arts and sciences, geography and history, is to be found in Rawlinson MS. Miscell. 730, drawn up by James after quitting the library for the use of young students. An alpha- betical catalogue prepared by him in 1613 in ' two small hand-books ' was not printed, but remains in the library. In December 1610 the library began to receive copies of all works published by the members of the Stationers' Company, in pursuance of an agreement made with them by Bodley at the suggestion of James. In 1614 James, through Bodley's in- terest, was preferred to the sub-deanery of Wells, and in 1617 he became rector of Monge- ham, Kent. At the beginning of May 1620 he •was obliged through ill-health to resign the librarianship, but not before he had superin- tended the preparation of a second edition of the catalogue, which appeared in the ensuing July. It abandons the classified arrange- ment of the former catalogue, and adopts only one alphabet of names. There was also issued in 1635 ' Catalogus Interpretum S. Scripturse juxta numerorum ordinem qui ex- tant in Bibliotheca Bodleiana olim a D. Jamesio . . . concinnatus, nunc vero altera fere parte auctior redditus. . . . Editio cor- recta,' 4to, Oxford.
At the convocation held with the parlia- ment at Oxford in 1625 he moved that cer- tain scholars be commissioned to peruse the patristic manuscripts in all public and pri- vate English libraries in order to detect the forgeries introduced by Roman catholic edi- tors. His proposal not meeting with much encouragement, he set about the task himself. James died at Oxford in August 1629, and
was buried in New College Chapel. One por- trait of him hangs in the Bodleian Library ; another is in the library of Sion College (HEAEXE, Collections, O^i.'Ri&t. Soc.,iii. 416). James's works not already described are : 1.' Bellum Papale, sive Concordiadiscors Sixti Quinti& Clementis Octavi circa Hieronymia- nam Editionem,' 4to, London, 1600; 12mo, 1678. 2. ' Concordantiae sanctorum Patrum, i.e. vera & pia Libri Canticorum per Patres universos, tarn Grsecos quam Latinos, Expo- sitio,' '4to, Oxford, 1607. 3. ' An Apologie for John Wickliffe, shewing his Conformitie with the now Church of England,' 4to, Ox- ford, 1608 ; in answer to Robert Parsons and others. 4. ' Bellum Gregorianum, sive Cor- ruptionis Romanae in Operibus D. Gregorii M. jussu Pontificum Rom. recognitis atque editis ex Typographica Vaticana loca insig- niora, observata, Theologis ad hoc officium deputatis,' s. sh. 4to, Oxford, 1610. 5. ' A Treatise of the Corruption of Scripture, Counsels, and Fathers, by ... the Church of Rome. . . . Together with a sufficient An- swere unto J. Gretser and A. Possevine, Jesuites, and the unknowne Author of the Grounds of the Old Religion and the New,' 5 pts. 4to, London, 1611 ; other editions in 1612,1688, and 1843. 6. 'The Jesuits Downe- fall threatened against them by the Secular Priests for their wicked lives, accursed man- ners, heretical doctrine, etc. Together with the Life of Father Parsons,' 4to, Oxford, 1612. 7. 'Index generalis sanctorum Pa- trum, ad singulos versus cap. 5. secundum Matthfeum,' 8vo, London, 1624. 8. ' G. Wicelii Methodus Concordise Ecclesiastical . . . Adjectae sunt notae . . . et vita ipsius . . . una cum enumeratione auctorum qui scripseruut contra squalores . . . Curiae Ro- manse,' 8vo, London, 1625. 9. ' Vindiciae Gregorianae, seu restitutus innumeris psene locis Gregorius M., ex variis manuscriptis . . . collatis,' 4to, Geneva, 1625, with a pre- face by B. Turrettinus. 10. ' A Manuduc- tion or Introduction unto Divinitie : con- taining a confutation of Papists by Papists throughout the important Articles of our Religion,' 4to, Oxford, 1625. 11. 'The humble . . . Request of T. James to the Church of England, for, and in the behalfe of, Bookes touching Religion,' 16mo, Oxford ? 1625 ?
12. 'An Explanation or Enlarging of the Ten Articles in the Supplication of Doctor James, lately exhibited to the Clergy of Eng- land' [in reference to a projected new edi- tion of the 'Fathers'], 4to, Oxford, 1625.
13. ' Specimen Corruptelarum Pontificiorum in Cypriano, Ambrosio, Gregorio M. & Authore operis imperfecti, & in jure ca- nonico,' 4to, London, 1626. 14. ' Index
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generalis librorum prohibitorum a Ponti- ficiis,' 12mo, Oxford, 1627.
James is said to have been the ' Catholike Divine ' who edited, with preface and notes in English, the tract entitled ' Fiscus Papalis ; sive, Catalogus Indulgentiarum & Reliquia- rum septem principalium Ecclesiarum urbis Romse ex vetusto Manuscripto Codice de- scriptus,' 4to, London, 1617; another edition, 1621, was accompanied by the English version of William Crashaw. In 1608 James edited Wycliffe 's ' Two short Treatises against the Orders of the Begging Friars.' Four of his manuscripts are in the Lambeth Library : 1. 'Brevis Admonitio ad Theologos Protest- antes de Libris Pontificorum caute, pie, ac sobrie habendis, legendis, emendis,'&c. 2. ' En- chiridion Theologicum, seuChronologia Scrip- toruni Ecclesiasticorum, ordine alphabetico,' &c. 3. ' Suspicionum et Conjecturarum liber primus, in quo ducenta ad minus loca SS. Patrum in dubium vocata, dubitandi Ra- tiones, Rationum Summse perspicue con- tinentur.' 4. ' Breviarium Episcoporum to- tius Anglise, seu nomina, successio, et chrono- logia eorundem ad sua usque tempora.' In the Bodleian Library (Bodl. MS. 662) is his ' Tomus primus Aniniadversionum in Patres, Latinaeque Ecclesise Doctores primaries.' Two letters from James to Sir Robert Cotton, dated 1625 and 1628, are preserved in Cotton. MS. Julius C. iii., ff. 159, 183. Bodley's letters to James are in 'Reliquiae Bodleian^,' published by IIearne,frorn Bodleian MS. 699, in 1703.
[Wood's Antiquities of Oxford (Gutch) ; Wood's Collegesand Halls (Gutch) ; Wood'sAtbense Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 464-70; Macray's Annals of Bodleian Library :Camden's Britannia (1607),' Monmouth- shire;' Parr's Life of Ussher, 1686, pp. 307,320 ; Todd's Cat. of Lambeth MSS. ; Eeg. of Univ. of Oxf. (Oxf. Hist. Soc.), vol. ii.] G. G.
JAMES, THOMAS (1593 P-1635 ?), navi- gator, a kinsman, it is believed, of Thomas James (d. 1619), alderman and twice mayor of Bristol, was born about 1593 (JAMES, Strange Voyage, portrait prefixed). Thomas Nash, of the Inner Temple, addressed him as ' my fellow templar,' but there is no other proof of James's connection with the law (ib. pref.) He was very probably a companion of Button in his voyage into Hudson's Bay in 1612 [see BUTTON, SIR THOMAS] ; but the first certain mention of him is on 16 July 1628, when he was granted letters of marque for the Dragon of Bristol, of which he was owner and captain {Gal. State Papers, Dom.) In 1031 he was appointed by the merchants oi Bristol, with the approval of the king, to command an expedition for ' the discovery o! the north-west passage into the South Sea,
and so to proceed to Japan and round the world to the westward.' Guided, he says, by former experience,' he decided that one well-conditioned ship of not more than 70 ;ons would be best for his purpose. His crew of twenty-two men, all told, he carefully selected as 'unmarried, approved able and healthy seamen, privately recommended for heir ability and faithfulness ; ' but he refused all who ' had used the northerly icy seas ' or ' had been in the like voyage, for some private reasons,' in all probability referring to the fate of Henry Hudson (d. 1611) [q. v.] On 3 May 1631 he sailed from Bristol in the Henrietta Maria, and on 4 June made the coast of Greenland. The next day they were besetwithice. AfterroundingCape Farewellr and making Cape Desolation, they steered a westerly course for Resolution Island, and so into Hudson's Strait. Cold, fog, storm, and adverse winds delayed their passage ; it was not till 5 July that they sighted Salisbury Island. The ice forced them to the south- ward and into Hudson's Bay. After touch- ing at Mansfield Island, they struggled west- ward, against much fog, north-westerly wind, and biting cold, and on 11 Aug. made the west coast of the bay at ' a place which was formerly called Hubbert's- Hope, but now it is hopeless,' about lat. 60° N. Keeping then to the southward, on the 17th they were off" Port Nelson, and on the 20th sighted the land, low and flat, which they named ' the new principality of South Wales.' On the 29th they met Luke Fox [q. v.], who dined on board the Henrietta Maria on the 30th. After parting from Fox, James continued his way towards the south-east ; on 3 Sept. he named Cape Henrietta Maria, and so into* James's Bay.
They beat to the southward, through storms and cold, till on 6 Oct. they reached an island, which they called Charleton, where they were compelled to remain. The ship could not come within three miles of the shore ; the weather was tempestuous, and the ice made approach difficult. They built a hut on shore, and on 29 Nov. ran the ship aground and bored holes in her bottom, to keep her from bumping. After a miserable winter they dug the ice out of the ship in May, and got her afloat again in sound condition, con- trary to all expectations, and after further examination, in better weather, of James's. Bay and the south coast of Hudson's Bay, sailed for England. They arrived at Bristol on 22 Oct. 1632, after a bad voyage, with the ship so injured 'that it was miraculous how she could bring us home.' Fox wrote slight- ingly about the Henrietta Maria as a ship too small for the voyage, and of James
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himself as no seaman. But James and his ship made this very remarkable voyage in an exceptionally bad season, wintered, though without proper appliances, and came safely home again with the loss of only four men.
On 6 April 1633 James was appointed to command the Ninth Whelp, cruising in the Bristol Channel and over to the coast of Ire- land, for the prevention of piracy. On '29 Jan. 1634-5 he wrote to Nicholas that he was ut- terly disabled by sickness for any employment that year, and on 3 March Sir Beverley New- comen was appointed to succeed him in com- mand of the Ninth Whelp ( Cal. State Papers, Dom.) It is doubtful whether he died of the sickness or is to be identified with the Thomas James whose petition was referred to the admiralty committee on 22 April 1651 (ib.\ or with the Thomas James of Bunting- ford, Hertfordshire, who was appointed on 3-19 Dec. 1653 (ib.) a trustee for the money granted by parliament to the widow of Ed- mund Button, slain in the battle of Portland [see BUTTON, SIR THOMAS"].
TJie spirited account of James's arctic voy- age, first published in 1633, shows him as an experienced seaman, a scientific navigator, and a careful observer not only of latitude, longitude, and variation of compass, but of tides, ' overfalls,' and other natural pheno- mena. An attempt has been made to prove that James's narrative is the original of the 'Rime of the Ancient Mariner,' and some remarkable agreements of thought and ex- pression have been pointed out (NiCHOLLS, p. 76 ; IVOR JAMES, The Source of the Ancient Mariner, 1890). That Coleridge had read and been impressed by James's story is very probable ; but the incidents he has described have little resemblance to thoseof the voyage. A portrait is on the original map.
[The Strange and Dangerous Voyage of Cap- tain Thomas James in his intended Discovery of the North-West Passage into the South Sea . . . Published by His Majesty's Command (sm. 4to, not dated [1633]); a second edition -was pub- lished in 1740; it -was also printed in Harris's Collection of Voyages, 1705, vol. ii., and in Churchill's Collection of Voyages, vol. ii. An abridgment is given in Rundall's Voyages to- wards the North-West (Hakluyt Soc.") ; Nicholls's Bristol Biographies, No. 2 ; notes kindly supplied by Mr. Fullarton James and Mr. Ivor James.]
J. K. L.
JAMES, THOMAS (1748-1804), head- master of Rugby School, was born on 19 Oct. 1748 at St. Ives, Huntingdonshire. In 1760 he was sent to Eton, was subsequently elected a scholar there, and won a reputation by his Latin and Greek verses, specimens of which are in the ' Musse Etonenses.' For a Greek
translation of one of his smaller poems, begin- ning ' Whoever thou art,' Mark Akenside pre- sented him with a copy of Homer's ' Iliad.' In February 1767 James proceeded as a scholar to King's College, Cambridge, became fellow in February 1770, and graduated B.A. in 1771 and M.A. 1774. He obtained in 1772 the first members' prize for a Latin essay awarded to middle bachelors, and in 1773 that awarded to senior bachelors. He was ordained and chosen tutor of his college. While still an undergraduate he wrote ' An Account of King's College Chapel ' for the benefit of Henry Maiden, the chapel clerk, under whose name it was published in 1769. In May 1778 he was elected head-master of Rugby School. "When James went to the school, there were only sixty boys there. He at once instituted a thorough reform in the discipline and system of teaching, and introduced the Etonian method. His exertions were soon successful ; in its best days under his rule the school num- bered over three hundred boys. Among his more distinguished pupils were Samuel But- ler, afterwards bishop of Lichfield, and WT. S. Landor. Rather than publicly expel Landor for repeated acts of rebellion and insolence, James quietly sent him home (FoRSTEK, Life of Landor, i. 14, 18, 31, 195-7). In 1786 he proceeded D.D., and in the same year founded two 51. prizes for Latin declamations by scholars of King's. Upon his resignation of his head-mastership in 1794 the trustees presented him with a handsome piece of plate, and at their next meeting wrote to Mr. Pitt, then prime minister, requesting some church preferment for him. James was accordingly appointed in May 1797 to a prebend in Wor- cester Cathedral, and was instituted to the rectory of Harvington in the same county. He died suddenly at Harvington on 23 Sept. 1804, and was buried in Worcester Cathedral, where there is a monument to his memory. Another monument by Chantrey was erected in 1810 in the chapel of Rugby School, with a Latin inscription by Bishop Butler. His portrait was engraved by an old pupil, Mat- thew Haughton of Birmingham, from a minia- ture by Englehart.
James married first, on 21 Dec. 1779, Elizabeth (1757 P-1784), eldest daughter of John Blander of Coventry, by whom he had a son and a daughter; and secondly, on 27 March 1785, Arabella (d. 1828), fourth daughter of William Caldecott of Catthorpe, Leicestershire, by whom he had, with five other children, John Thomas James [q. v.l bishop of Calcutta. Besides the little work already mentioned James published a ' Com- pendium of Geography ' and ' The Principal Propositions of the Fifth Book of Euclid
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demonstrated Algebraically' (1791), both for use in Rugby School, as well as two sermons (both in 1800).
[Harwood's Alumni Eton. p. 347; Bloxam's Rugby, pp. 63-4 ; Short Memoir of T. James, reprinted -with additions from Public Characters, 1856; William Birch's School Master ; Colvile's Worthies of Warwickshire, pp. 463-7 ; Rugby School Reg. i. xi-xii.] G. G.
JAMES, WILLIAM (1542-161 7), bishop of Durham, was the second son of John James of Little Ore, Staffordshire, by Ellen, daugh- ter of William Bolte of Sandbach, Cheshire, where William was born in 1542. He en- tered Christ Church, Oxford, as a student about 1559 or 1560, and graduated B.A. on 22 Oct. 1563, M.A. 1565, B.D. 10 March 1571, and D.D. 22 April 1574. In 1571 he was made divinity reader at Magdalen College, and in 1572 was elected master of University Col- lege. In 1573 the chaplain and fellows of the Savoy vainly petitioned Burghley to make James their new master, and spoke of his ' wisdom and policy in restoring and bring- ing to happy quietness the late wasted, spoiled, and indebted University College' (SiETPB, Annals, iv. 581). From 1575 to 1601 James was also rector of Kingham, Oxfordshire (RYMER,XV. 742 ; Lansd. MSS. v. 983, p. 168), and archdeacon of Coventry from 1577 to 1584, when he was elected dean of Christ Church (cf. Hist. MSS. Comm. 5th Rep. i. 363). James was vice-chancellor of Oxford in 1581 and 1590, and was one of those ap- pointed to meet Elizabeth on her visit to the university in September 1592. About this time James was chaplain to Dudley, earl of Leicester, and attended him on his deathbed in 1588. Although disappointed in 1595 of the bishopric of Worcester, for which Whitgift recommended him, he obtained the deanery of Durham 5 June 1596, and 7 Sept, 1606 suc- ceeded Toby Matthew in that bishopric. Many of his extant letters in the Record Office, dated between 1596 and his death, recount the seditious state of the country, the constant feuds on the bo.rder, his difficulties with re- cusants, and his repeated collisions with the citizens of Durham. He procured the resti- tution of Durham House in London, and re- paired the chapel of his palace at his own ex- pense. Histemporal power is shown byhisap- pointment of several officers by patent in the port of Sunderland, besides incorporating the Company of Clothworkers in the city of Dur- ham, and granting a weekly market and annual fair to Wolsingham. By a royal war- rant, dated 13 March 1611, the bishop was commanded to receive the state prisoner, Arabella Stuart, into his charge at Durham (Harl MSS. v. 7003, ff. 94, 96, 97). He met
VOL. XXIX.
her at Lambeth Ferry on 15 March, in order to escort her north. But the lady was too ill to move further than Barnet, where she re- mained in the bishop's care till 2 April, when, after removing her to East Barnet, he went to Durham to prepare for her reception (see his letters to Council, State Papers, James I, Dom. Ixii. 27, 39). On his way north he interviewed the king at Royston (id. Ixii. 30 ; see art. ARABELLA. STUART for details). Arabella never reached Durham, but so shattered was the bishop's health by the worries connected with his brief guardianship that after six months' illness he was obliged to recruit at Bath, 23 Jan. 1612 (State Papers, ib. Ixviii. 271). In 1615 by a royal com- mand the bishop mustered on Gilesgate Moor 8.320 men between sixteen and sixty able to bear arms. On 12 Sept. 1616 he was instituted to the living of Washington, and purchased the manor, which he bequeathed to his heir Francis. On the king's progress to Scotland in May 1617 he was entertained at Durham by the bishop, and it is said that a reproof administered by the king, probably on account of the bishop's contest with the citizens about their borough privileges and parliamentary representation, broke the old man's heart. He died, aged 75, on 12 May 1617, four days after the royal visit, and was buried in the cathedral choir, beneath a brass effigy and inscription (see WILLIS, Cathe- drals, p. 248), which have disappeared. The bishop's unpopularity in Durham was very great, and there were riots after his death. James married three times. His eldest son, William, by his first wife, Katharine Bisbye of Abingdon, was a student of Christ Church, and public orator of Oxford University in 1601, and became prebendary of Durham 6 Oct. 1620. To his youngest and only sur- viving son, Francis (by his third wife, Isabel Atkinson of Newcastle), he left the bulk of his property, and made him executor of his will, proved 4 July 1617. James seems to have been too fond of hoarding money, but ' bat- ing this [was] as kindly and quiet a bishop as ever lived.' His hospitality was famed at Oxford, and Elizabeth is said to have never forgotten the ' good entertainment ' he gave her there (HARINGTON, State of the Church of England, 1653, p. 203). Two of James's sermons, one preached at Hampton Court before the queen on 9 Feb. 1578 (London, 1578,8vo),the other at Paul's Cross on 9 Nov. 1589 (London, 1590, 8vo), were published.
[Lansd. MSS. v. 983, p. 1 68 ; Fuller's Worthies, ' Cheshire,' p. 175, and Church History, x. 71 ; Wood's Athenae (Bliss"), ii. 203; Wood's Fasti, i. passim; Wood's Antiq. of Oxford (Gutch), vol. ii. ; Clark's Register of the University,
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pt. i. pp. vii, 41, 228,241, ii.98, 178, 184, iii. 35 ; Boase's Kegister, i. 249 ; Strype's Annals (Clar. Press), iv. 318, 336; Strype's Whitgift, i. 198, 337, 549; Strype's Grindal, p. 238; Willis's Cathedrals, pp. 254, 416; Surtees's Durham, i. 216, ii. 41, 43, 159; Hutchinson's Durham, i. 479. See constant letters to and from James in j Calendars of State Papers, James I, Dom. 1598- 1601, 1603-10; Addenda, 1580-1626, &e.]
E. T. B.
JAMES or JAMESIUS, WILLIAM (1635 P-1663), scholar, son of Henry James, and grandson of a citizen of Bristol, was born about 1635 in Monmouthshire. He was first educated privately by his uncle, William Sutton, at Blandford Forum, Dorsetshire, ' and being extraordinary rath-ripe, and of a prodigious memory, was entred into his ac- cedence at five years of age' (Woon, Athence Oxon. iii. 634). In 1646 he was elected a king's scholar at Westminster School, and ' making marvellous proficiency under Mr. Busby, his most loving master' (ib. p. 634), he was elected a student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1650 (M.A. 1656). Before he took his degree Busby appointed him an assistant in the school. He contributed, with his schoolfellow, Dryden, English verses to John I Hoddesdon's ' Sion and Parnassus,' 1650, I small 8vo, and some Greek verses by him | are prefixed to the ' Horse Subsecivse' of H. | Stubbs, 1651, small 8vo. In 1651 he produced j ' Ela-ayo>yf) in linguam Chaldaicam in usum | scholse Regise Westmon.,' dedicated to ' his tutor, parent, and patron,' Busby ; was made usher at Westminster in 1658, and helped to prepare ' The English Introduction to the Latin Tongue, for the use of the Lower Forms in Westminster School,' 1659. In 1661 he became second master (J. WELCH, Alumni Westmonasterienses, new edit. 1852, p. 135). He died on 3 July 1663, aged about 28, ' to the great reluctancy of all who knew his admirable parts,' and was buried at the west end of Westminster Abbey, ' near the lowest door, going into the cloister '( WOOD, Athena, iii. 634 ; J. DART, History of Westminster Abbey, ii. 142).
James was one of Busby's favourite scholars. In the old library at Westminster School there are preserved among the Busby relics two neatly written manuscript Latin trans- lations by James of Bacon's ' Reginae Elisa- bethse frelicitas,' 1652, and the ' Heros Lau- rentii,' 1654, of Balthazar Gracian. The last is dedicated to Busby by his ' films et pupil- lus.' In the same collection are also Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek vocabularies prepared by James.
[Authorities mentioned above, esp. Welch's Alumni Westmonasterienses."| H. K. T.
JAMES, WILLIAM (Jl. 1760-1771), landscape-painter, practised in London, re- siding for some years in Maiden Lane, and later in Mav's Buildings, St. Martin's Lane. He exhibited with the Incorporated Society of Artists from 1761 to 1768, and at the Royal Academy from 1769 to 1771. He was an imitator of Canaletto, and painted views of London, chiefly on the river and in St. James's Park, but his works have only an antiquarian interest. They are hard and mechanical in execution, the ruler being largely used in the lines of the buildings, and the water conventionally treated. In 1768 James sent to the Society of Artists, and in the two following years to the Royal Academy, some views of Egyptian temples, but as he was never out of England these are presumed to have been copies. The date of his death is not recorded. Seven of his pictures are at Hampton Court.
[Edvards's Anecdotes of Painting; Kedgrave's Century of Painters ; Graves's Diet, of Artists, 1760-1880 ; Law's Catalogue of Pictures at Hampton Court.] F. M. O'D.
JAMES, SIR WILLIAM (1721-1783), commodore of the Bombay marine, is said to have been the son of a miller, to have been born in 1721 at Bolton Hill Mill, near Haver- fordwest in Pembrokeshire, and to have run away to sea to avoid punishment for poaching (Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. xii. 244). An- other story is that he was the son of an agri- cultural labourer. That he did go to sea is certain, and probably enough to the West Indies ; but the story that there, in 1738, he entered on board a king's ship under the com- mand of Captain (afterwards Lord) Hawke is either inaccurate or untrue. Hawke was on half-pay at the time, did not join the Portland till July 1739, and did not reach the West Indies till early in 1740; the only William James whose name appears on the Portland's books joined her on 17 July, and ran from her on 21 Oct. 1739, before she left England. The same doubt must remain on the story that he obtained command of a ship in the Virginia trade ; that she was captured by the Spaniards and carried into Havana ; that after some term of imprison- ment James and his companions were re- leased, and embarked on board a brig bound to South Carolina, which foundered in a hurricane ; that James, with the master and six of the crew, escaping in a small boat, was, after twenty days of excessive hard- ship, thrown again on the coast of Cuba ; and that some time after he found means to re- turn to England, where he married the land- lady of the Red Cow at Wapping.
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We reach firmer ground in 1747, when James entered the service of the East India Company, and after two years as chief mate, was appointed to command the Guardian, a ship of war belonging to the Bombay marine, in which he was employed as senior officer of a small squadron protecting the country trade and operating against the pirate chief Angria. Success attended his efforts ; his convoys passed safely; and in several encounters with Angria's ships they were repulsed with loss, and were at last driven to take shelter under the guns of Gheriah or Severndroog. James's energy and ability were recognised, andin!751hewas promoted to be commodore and commander-in-chief of the company's marine forces, with a broad pennant on board the Protector of 44 guns.
The pirates still continued formidable. Angria had built some larger vessels, and boasted that he would be master of the Indian seas. The Mahrattas, equally with the company, felt him as a scourge, and in March 1755 a joint expedition against Severn- droog was determined on, James being ordered to blockade, while the actual assault was given by the Mahrattas. James, however, soon found that his allies were either luke- warm or were overawed by Angria's prestige. He accordingly pushed his ships into the very harbour, between the forts, which were «ither blown up or surrendered after a sharp action lasting till midnight of 2 April. ' In one day,' wrote Orme, ' the spirited resolu- tion of Commodore James destroyed the timorous prejudices which had for twenty years been entertained of the impracticability of reducing any of Angria's fortified har- bours ' (Military Transactions . . . in Hin- dostan, i. 406). When Severndroog had fallen, the squadron moved up to Bankot, which surrendered. The Mahrattas, now anxious to push their advantage, offered James two lacs of rupees to co-operate with them. But James had already exceeded his instructions, and refused to do more without permission from Bombay. This the governor and council would not give, judging the season too late ; James was ordered back, and Severndroog, according to agreement, was handed over to the Mahrattas.
In November Rear-admiral Watson ar- rived at Bombay with a strong squadron of king's ships ; he found there a body of troops, under Colonel Clive, newly come from Eng- land. It was resolved to take advantage of this happy meeting to put an end to Angria's power. But this was sheltered by the forts of Gheriah, which were said to be im- pregnable. James was sent with a small squadron to reconnoitre. He reported ' that
the place was not high, nor nearly so strong as had been represented.' The expedition accordingly left Bombay on 7 Feb. 1756, appeared off Gheriah on the llth, and suc- cessfully attacked the forts on the 13th. The loss of the squadron was very small, mainly owing to the skilful pilotage of James (Edinburgh Review, cxlviii. 367). Early in 1757, when the news of the French declara- tion of war reached Bombay, it became neces- sary to send it on to Watson, then in the Hooghly. The passage up the Bay of Ben- gal, against the north-east monsoon, was till then held to be impracticable, or, at best, excessively tedious. James, however, under- took to make it. It would seem that he had already studied the variations of the mon- soons, and he now published his great dis- covery by running down to about 10° of south latitude, making the easting on that parallel, and so fetching Acheen, the north- west point of Sumatra, from which the course to the Hooghly is easy. James thus made the passage in an incredibly short time, and brought the important news to Watson and Clive.
In 1759, having amassed a considerable fortune, both by the Severndroog and Gheriah prize-money and by mercantile operations, James returned to England, purchased an estate near Eltham, a few miles from Black- heath, and married (if the early story be true, as his second wife) Anne, daughter of Edmond Goddard of Hartham in Wiltshire. His wealth procured him a seat at the board of directors, of which he was at different times deputy-chairman and chairman. On 25 July 1778 he was created a baronet. He was member of parliament for West Looe in Cornwall, and elder brother and deputy- master of the Trinity House. He died of apoplexy on 16 Dec. 1783, in the midst of the festivities attending the marriage of his only daughter, Elizabeth Anne, to Thomas Boothby Parkyns, afterwards first Lord Ran- cliffe. He was succeeded by his son Edward William, who died at the age of eighteen, in 1792, when the title became extinct (BITKKE). It has been said that Edward William was the third baronet, and that James's immediate successor was a son, Richard, born in India of a native mother. That there was such a son is possible, but his legitimacy would be extremely doubtful. James's widow erected in 1784 a tower on the top of Shooter's Hill as a monument to her husband's memory. It is still known as Severndroog Tower, but at the time it appears to have been popularly called ' Lady James's Folly.' Lady James died 9 Aug. 1789.
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[Naval Chron. xiii. 89, -with engrared portrait after Reynolds; Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. xii. 244, 354, 402 ; Low's Hist, of the Indian Navy, vol. i. chap. iv. A holograph letter to Lord Sandwich, dated 30 July 1783, in Addit. MS. 9344, f. 120, seems, neither in -writing nor in spelling, to be the production of an uneducated man.] J. K. L.
JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827), writer on naval history, was from 1801 to 1813 en- rolled among the attorneys of the supreme court of Jamaica, and practised as a proctor in the vice-admiralty court. In 1812 he was in the United States, and on the declaration of war with England was detained as a prisoner. After several months' captivity he effected his escape, and reached Halifax towards the end of 1813. His attention was thus turned to the details of the war. He sent several letters on the subject to the 'Naval Chro- nicle/ under the signature ' Boxer,' and in March 1816 he published a pamphlet en- titled ' An Inquiry into the Merits of the Principal Naval Actions between Great Britain and the United States.' In this he showed that the American frigates were larger, stouter, more heavily armed, and more strongly manned than the English which they had captured ; that the state- ments officially published in the United States were grossly inaccurate ; and that the victories of the Americans were to be attri- buted, not to superior seamanship nor to superior courage, but to superior numerical force. The excitement which the pamphlet caused both in Nova Scotia and the States was considerable, and many angry criticisms were published in the American papers. It was falsely asserted that James was an American by birth, that he had been guilty of felony nineteen years before, had been condemned and reprieved, and was now seeking a base revenge on his injured country. Later writers of repute have repeated the baseless slander, with the addition that he was a veterinary surgeon or ' horse doctor ' (J. FENIMORE COOPER, in United States Democratic Review, May and June 1842 ; Lora SBTJRT, J. F. Cooper, p. 206).
Meantime James had gone to England, and in the summer of 1817 published a second edition of the pamphlet, enlarged into virtu- ally a new work, under the title of ' A Full and Correct Account of the Chief Naval Oc- currences of the late War between Great Britain and the United States of America.' In 1818 he foUowed this with ' A Full and Cor- rect Account of the Military Occurrences of the late War between Great Britain and the United States of America ' (2 vols. 8vo), and in 1819 by a pamphlet entitled ' Warden Re-
futed, being a Defence of the British Navy against the Misrepresentations of a Work re- cently published at Edinburgh . . . by D. B. Warden, late Consul for the United States at Paris ' (46 pp. 8vo). In 1819 he began preparing a naval history of the great war, which was published under the title of 'The Naval History of Great Britain, from the Declaration of War by France in 1793 to the Accession of George IV,' 5 vols. 8vo, 1822-4. A second edition, in six vols., was published in 1826.
This remarkable work, which took as its motto Verite sans peur, aimed at an exact account of every operation of naval war dur- ing the period named. The author consulted not only every published work bearing on the subject, and especially the official narratives,, both English and French, but also the logs of the several ships, and, whenever possible,, the actors themselves. He thus produced a book ' of which it is not too high praise to. assert that it approaches as nearly to perfec- tion, in its own line, as any historical work ever did ' (Edinburgh Review, Ixxi. 121). It is, however, a chronicle rather than a his- tory, and while it describes events in minute detail, makes little attempt to show their re- lation to each other or to the current course of politics or diplomacy. It therefore pre- sents a series of lessons in tactics, but not of strategy. A more serious fault is due to the strong national bias which affects the whole work. The facts, although related with scrupulous accuracy, not unirequently, especially in the case of the American war, convey a false impression; and throughout it would be unsafe to accept the author's deductions without comparing his statements with those of the best French or American- writers.
James, who resided for the last few years at 12 Chapel Field, South Lambeth, died there on 28 May 1827. He had no children, but left a widow, a West Indian, unprovided for. A subscription was raised for her im- mediate relief, and she was afterwards granted a pension of 100/. on the civil list. She had, too, a share in the profits from the sale of the ' History,' but for several years these were very small. It was not till 1837 that a third edition was called for ; this was published with additions, including accounts of the first Burmese war and the battle of Nava- rino, for which Captain Frederick Chamier [q. v.] was responsible.
[Times, 31 May 1827 ; Gent. Mag. 1827, vol. xcvii. pt. ii. p. 281 ; James's own prefaces and pamphlets; Notes and Queries, 6th ser. xi. 195, xii. 1 38, 7th ser. vii. 207 ; Colburn's United Service Mag. April and May 1885.J J. K. L.
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JAMES, WILLIAM (1771-1837), rail- way projector, son of William James, solici- tor, was born at Henley-in-Arden, Warwick- shire, 13 June 1771. He was educated at Warwick, and at a school at Winson Green, near Birmingham. After duly serving his articles he commenced practice as a solicitor in his native place about 1797. His business consisted chiefly of land-agency, and having been appointed agent for the Earl of War- wick's property he removed to Warwick, where in 1804 he organised a corps of volun- teers. In the same year he carried out a plan for the drainage and levelling of Lambeth Marsh. A bridge over the Thames, to be erected near the site of the later Waterloo Bridge, formed part of the scheme. His wealth increasing he became a colliery owner in South Staffordshire, and was the first to open the WTest Bromwich coalfield. He sub- sequently became chairman of the West Bromwich Coalmasters' Association, and he was an active promoter of a bill for making a canal from that district to Birmingham. About 1815 he removed his offices to New Boswell Court, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London, where he carried on one of the largest land- agency businesses in the kingdom. At the same time he made many surveys for the en- closure of commons, and was largely inte- rested in canal undertakings. In conjunction with Lord Whitworth, the Duchess of Dor- set, Mr. Vansittart, and others, he embarked upon what proved a very costly and futile search for coal at Bexhill in Sussex. An ac- count of this boring appeared in the ' Standard,' 20 April 1889.
James's connection with the establish- ment of railways constitutes his chief claim to remembrance. His attention had been di- rected to the subject of ' tramways ' as early as 1806. Railways worked by horses were well known in the colliery districts of the north of England in the last century. James's notion was to extend this system over the •country, but the application of steam as a means of propulsion did not at first occur to him.
He seems to have constructed several short lines of railway in various parts of the king- dom, and to have proposed and surveyed many more. In 1820 he drew up a ' Plan of the Lines of the Projected Central Junc- tion Railway or Tram Road, showing its communications with the Coalfields, Canals, and Principal Towns, and with the Metro- polis,' which was not apparently published till 1861, when it was printed in the pam- phlet entitled ' The Two James's and the Two Stephensons,' by E. M. S.P. In the autumn of 1821 James paid a first visit to Killing-
worth and saw Stephenson's steam locomotive engine at work. His active mind at once perceived the capabilities of the machine, and Stephenson, impressed by James's wealth, commercial reputation, and energy, agreed, along with his partner Losh, by deed dated 1 Sept. 1821, to assign to James one-fourth of the interest in their locomotive patents, dated respectively 1815 and 1816, on the condition that James should recommend and give his ' best assistance for the using and employing the locomotive engines ' on rail- ways south of an imaginary line drawn from Liverpool to Hull (Mechanics' Magazine, 18 Nov. 1848, p. 500). James's efforts to carry out the agreement failed, and Stephen- son derived no benefit from it.
James, however, had heard earlier in 1821 that a project for constructing a railway be- tween Manchester and Liverpool was afoot. He at once communicated with Joseph San- dars, a wealthy Liverpool merchant, who was prominently connected with the scheme, and was allowed to begin, partly at his own ex- pense, in the summer of 1821, a survey of the line, which was completed in the next year. Robert, the son of George, Stephenson assisted James in the work (SMILES, Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, 1868, p. 243). The route proposed by James was not that eventually adopted, and he finally disagreed with the promoters. In May 1824 Sandars informed him that his delays and broken promises ' forfeited the confidence of the sub- scribers,' and his connection with the under- taking ceased. The work was completed by George Stephenson, who had the benefit of James's plans and sections, and the assistance of Padley, James's brother-in-law. Writing in November 1844 to James's eldest son, Ro- bert Stephenson said : ' I believe your late father was the original projector of the Liverpool and Manchester railway.'
In 1823 James published a ' Report to il- lustrate the Advantages of Direct Inland Communication through Kent, Surrey, Sus- sex, and Hants, to connect the Metropolis with the Ports of Shoreham (Brighton), Rochester (Chatham), and Portsmouth, by a Line of Engine Railroad, and to render the Grand Surrey Canal, Wandsworth and Merstham Railroad, Shoreham Harbour, and Waterloo Bridge Shares productive property.' The scheme was well thought out in detail, and showed that James clearly perceived the capabilities of a railway worked by loco- motive steam-engines. The ' Report ' was in- tended to be the first of a series of twelve reports upon rail way communication in vari- ous parts of England, but nothing further appeared.
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Although James was at one time reported to be worth 150,0001. arid to be earning 10,000/. a year from his practice, his affairs fell into confusion ; in 1823 he was declared bankrupt, and was imprisoned in the King's Bench. Shortly afterwards he retired to Bodmin in Cornwall. In 1824 he obtained a patent for hollow rails for railways, but it was of no practical importance. All his efforts to retrieve his position were unsuccessful, and he died at Bodmin on 10 March 1837. He married in 1 796 Dinah, daughter of Wil- liam Tarlton of Botley, and left a family un- provided for. In 1845 an attempt to raise a fund for the benefit of his sons was made, but although Robert Stephenson, Joseph Locke, I. K. Brunei, George Rennie, and other emi- nent engineers attested that to James's self- denying efforts the public were indebted for the establishment of the railroad system, the scheme failed (Mechanics' May. 21 Oct. 1848, p. 403). In 1858 Robert Stephenson de- scribed James, in a letter to Mr. Smiles, as ' a ready, dashing writer,' but ' no thinker at all in the practical part of the subject he had taken up. . . . His fluency of conversation I never heard equalled.' A portrait of James, after a miniature by Chalon. forms the fronti- spiece to vol. xxxi. of the ' Mechanics' Mag.1
James's eldest son, WILLIAM HEXRY JAMES (1796-1873), born at Henley-in-Arden in March 1 796, assisted his father in his survey of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. He subsequently commenced business as an engineer in Birmingham, where he made ex- periments upon steam locomotion on common roads. He took out patents for locomotives, steam-engines, boilers, railway carriages, diving apparatus, &c., and he is commonly stated to have anticipated Stephenson in the application of the tubular boiler to locomo- tives, but this is an error, James's boiler being what is known as a ' water-tube ' boiler. He died 16 Dec. 1873 in the Dulwich College Almshouses.
[E. M. S. P., The Two James's and the Two Stephensons, 1861, which appears to be based on family papers ; Smiles's Life of George Ste- phenson, 1857, pp. 158, 173; Smiles's Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, 1868, pp. 239- 246; Mechanics' Mag. xxxi. (1839) 156, 474,xlix. (1848) 401, 500 ; Booth's Account of the Liver- pool and Manchester Railway, 1831, pp. 3-4 ; Railway Mag. October, November 1836, pp. 303, 363 ; K. B. Prosser's Birmingham Inventors and Inventions, 1881, pp. 107-8.] R. B. P.
JAMES, SIB WILLIAM MILBOURNE
(1807-1881), lord justice, son of Christopher James of Swansea, was born at Merthyr Tydvil, Glamorganshire, in 1807. He was educated at the university of Glasgow, where
he graduated M.A., and afterwards became an honorary LL.D. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1831. He read in Fitzroy Kelly's chambers, and attended the Welsk sessions, but afterwards confined his work almost entirely to the court of chancery. Ill- health, which before his call had compelled a two years' residence in Italy, at first re- tarded his progress ; but in time he acquired a very large junior practice, and he became junior counsel to the treasury in equity, junior counsel to the woods and forests department,, the inland revenue, and the board of worksr and eventually in 1853 a queen's counsel and Bethell's successor as vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. He twice unsuccessfully contested Derby as a liberal, on the second occasion in 1859. Although not a brilliant speaker, he was a sound advocate, with a thorough knowledge of law. He was engaged in many well-known cases, such as those of Dr. Colenso against the Bishop of Cape Town, Mrs. Lyon v. Home, the spiritualist, the Baroda and Kirwee booty case, and Martin t\ Mackonochie. In 1866 he was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn. In January 1869 he became a vice-chancellor of the court of chancery and a knight, and in 1870 a lord justice of appeal and a privy councillor. He was a most eminent judge, exceptionally learned, shrewd and strong, and gifted with a great power of terse and clear enunciation of prin- ciples. The court of appeal under him and Lord-justice Mellish was a very efficient courtr and its decisions on the new and important questions arising under the Companies Acts and the Bankruptcy Act of 1869 were of the highest value. He was a member of the various commissions on equity procedure, of the Indian code commission and the army purchase commission, and as a member of the judicature commission was a strenuous reformer, and urged the total abolition of pleadings. On 7 June 1881 he died at his house, 47 Wimpole Street, London. He married in 1846 5laria (d. 1891), daughter of Dr. Otter, bishop of Chichester, and left two children : a son, Major W. C. James, of the 16th lancers ; and a daughter, married to- Colonel G. Salis Schwabe. He was a deep student of Indian history, and between 1864 and 1869 wrote a work, ' The British in India,' which was published by his daughter in 1882.
[Times, 9 June 1881 ; Solicitors' Journal, 11 June 1881 ; information kindly furnished by Mrs. Salis Schwabe ; see also eulogium on James by Baron Bramwell, Times, 15 June 1881.]
J. A. H.
JAMESON, ANNA BROWXELL (1794-1860), authoress, born at Dublin on 17 May 1794, was the eldest daughter of
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D. Brownell Murphy [q. v.], an Irish minia- ture-painter of considerable ability. In 1798 the family came to England, and, after short residences at Whitehaven and Newcastle, settled at Hanwell. Anna evinced much talent as a child, and at the early age of six- teen became a governess in the family of the Marquis of Winchester, where she remained for four years. After leaving this position she probably continued to contribute in some way to the support of her father. About 1821 she was introduced to her future husband, Robert Jameson, a young barrister from the Lake country, said to have been a man of artistic taste as well as a good lawyer. An engagement ensued, which was broken off for some unknown reason, and Anna Murphy, deeply depressed, accepted another situation as governess, and went with her pupil to France and Italy, where she continued for about a year. The journal she kept, with some alterations, the most important of which was a fictitious account of the authoress's death at Autun, was published anonymously, under the title of ' A Lady's Diary/ by a specula- tive bookseller named Thomas, on the sole condition that he should give the authoress a guitar out of his profits, if any. This con- dition he was able to fulfil on selling the copy- right to Colburn for 50/. Colburn changed the title to ' The Diary of an Ennuy^e ' (1826), and the book obtained wide popu- larity. By this time, having in the interim spent four years as governess in the family of Mr. Littleton (afterwards Lord Hather- ton), Miss Murphy (1825) had become re- conciled and united to her former lover, Robert Jameson. They settled in Chenies Street, Tottenham Court Road; but it soon appeared that their relations were uncon- genial. Jameson is described by his wife as cold and reserved ; she, on the other hand, was somewhat wanting in reticence. ' The wife,' says the ' Edinburgh ' reviewer, who evidently speaks from knowledge, ' was rudely neglected, and the authoress urged to make capital* out of her talents.' After four years Jameson went out to Dominica as puisne judge without objection on his wife's part or reluctance on his own. Mrs. Jame- son's pen was now active ; she produced ' Loves of the Poets ' (1829) and ' Celebrated Female Sovereigns' (1831, 2 vols.), compi- lations of no great literary pretensions ; wrote the letterpress to accompany her father's Windsor miniatures, at length en- graved under the title of ' The Beauties of the Court of Charles II ; ' and published in 1832 her excellent ' Characteristics of Women ' (2 vols.), essays on Shakespeare's female characters,dedicated to Fanny Kemble.
She had made many influential friends, whose interest, it is asserted, gained for her hus- band a valuable legal appointment in Canada which he obtained in 1833, and which he in that year departed to fill. Mrs. Jameson simul- taneously proceeded in an opposite direction, going to Germany, where she contracted the warmest friendship with Major Robert Noel and Ottilie von Goethe, and made the ac- quaintance of Tieck, Retzsch, Schlegel, and other distinguished persons. She was re- called to England in October by the paraly- tic seizure of her father. Her experiences of the continent in this and her next visit were recorded in ' Visits and Sketches ' (1834), one of the most delightful of her books. The portion relating to Germany was published separately at Frankfort in 1837. She re- turned to Germany in 1834, and spent two years there, carrying on a curious correspond- ence with her husband, who was continually pressing her to join him in Canada. Mrs. Jameson, although she much distrusted him, and was reluctant to relinquish the brilliant intellectual society in which she moved, sailed for America in September 1836. Her mis- givings proved well-founded, and she returned in 1838 after an ample experience of dis- comfort and disappointment, but with many warm friendships contracted in New Eng- land, and the substantial advantage of an annuity of 300/. from her husband, who ha become chancellor of the provinceo£--fl§« and was afterwards speaker and attorney- general.
Mrs. Jameson's life from this period was that of an indefatigable authoress. Her ' Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada ' appeared in 1838 ; her translation of Princess Amelia of Saxony's dramas, under the title of ' Social Life in Germany,' in 1840; and in 1841 she commenced the long series of her publications on art by her ' Companion to the Public Picture Galleries of London ' (1842), a work of great labour. ' A sort of thing,' she says, 'which ought to have fallen into the hands of Dr. Waagen, or some such bigwig, instead of poor little me.' It brought her SOOL, however. In the following year she began to contribute articles on the Italian painters to the ' Penny Magazine,' which were collected into a volume in 1845. Her handbook to the public art galleries had, meanwhile, been followed by a similar guide to the private collections (1844). In 1845 she edited ' Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters,' and in the same year again visited Germany, mainly with the purpose of con- soling her friend Ottilie von Goethe for the loss of an only daughter. In 1846 she published a volume of miscellaneous essays,
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chiefly on artistic subjects, including two of great merit, on 'The House of Titian' and the ' Xanthian Marbles,' for which latter two translations from the ' Odyssey ' were espe- cially made by Elizabeth Barrett. Her friend- ships at this time were very numerous, the most important in every respect being that with Lady Byron. In 1847 she left England for Italy, with the main object of collecting materials for the works on sacred and legen- dary art to which the remainder of her life was principally devoted, and taking with her her niece Gerardine Bate, afterwards Mrs. Macpherson, her f ut ure biographer. Her work ' Sacred and Legendary Art,' which, as the ' Edinburgh' reviewer observes, was nothing less than a pictorial history of the church from the catacombs to the seventeenth century, ap- peared in four successive sections : ' Legends of the Saints '(1848), 'Legends of the Monas- tic Orders '(1850), 'Legends of the Madonna' (1852), and ' The History of our Lord,' the last completed by Lady Eastlake after the authoress's death. About 1852 Mrs. Jameson began the ' Handbook to the Court of Modern Sculpture in the Crystal Palace.' Shortly afterwards occurred the greatest affliction of her life, her estrangement from her most in- timate friend Lady Byron. Mrs. Macpherson professes herself ignorant of the exact date, but from the hint of its connection with cir- cumstances arising after the death of Lady Byron's daughter, it may be referred to 1853. The facts are too imperfectly known to justify any expression of opinion beyond the observa- tion that Lady Byron could be both unreason- able and vindictive. The quarrel embittered the remainder of Mrs. Jameson's life, and her unhappiness was augmented by the necessity under which she felt herself of renouncing Major Noel's friendship also, lest he should be exposed to the displeasure of his relative. She nevertheless produced in 1854 'A Com- monplace Book of Thoughts, Memories, and Fancies, original and selected.' Some of the selections are from favourite authors, others from the communications of Lady Byron and Ottilie von Goethe, but the best part is Mrs. Jameson's own, and forms a most charming miscellany of graceful and often penetrating remarks on literature, art, and morals. In the same year Mrs. Jameson's circumstances were altered for the worse by the loss of the chief part of her income at the death of her hus- band, who made no provision for her by his will. Her friends rallied to her support, and an annuity of 100/. was raised by subscrip- tion ; a pension to an equal amount had been already conferred upon her. In her latter years, next to the prosecution of her great work on sacred art, Mrs. Jameson was chiefly
interested in the institution of sisters of charity and other improved methods of at- tendance upon the sick. She spent much time in foreign capitals inquiring into met hods of organisation as yet unknown in England, and her two lectures, ' Sisters of Charity ' and ' The Communion of Labour ' (1855 and 1856), did much to overcome prejudice at home. She died at Baling, Middlesex, on 17 March 1860, from the effects of a severe cold caught in returning on a wintry day to her lodgings from the British Museum, where she had been long working upon her ' History of our Lord.' Her pension was continued to her two unmarried sisters, whose principal support she had long been.
A marble bust by John Gibson, R.A., is in the National Portrait Gallery.
Mrs. Jameson was a valuable as well as a charming writer. Her ' Sacred and Legen- dary Art ' is a storehouse of delightful know- ledge, as admirable for accurate research as for poetic and artistic feeling, and only marred, to a slight extent by the authoress's limited acquaintance with the technicalities of paint- ing. She appears to equal advantage when de- picting her favourite Shakespearean heroines, or the brilliant yet unostentatious society she enjoyed so greatly in Germany — to greater advantage still, perhaps, in the graceful aes- thetics and deeply felt moralities of her 'Commonplace Book,' or the eloquence of her ' House of Titian,' an essay saturated with Venetian feeling. Much of her early writing is feebly rhetorical, but constant in- tercourse with fine art and fine minds brought her deliverance. The charm of her charac- ter is evident from her extraordinary wealth in accomplished friends. This is the more remarkable if, as asserted by a writer in the 'Athengeum,' probably Henry Chorley, she was heavy and unready in conversation.
[Memoirs of the Life of Anna Jameson, by Gerardine Macpherson, 1878 ; Harriet Marti- neau's Biographical Sketches ; Kemble's Records of a Girlhood ; B. R. Parkes's Vignettes ; Edin- burgh Review, vol. cxlix. ; Atheuseum, March I860.] R. G.
JAMESON, JAMES SLIGO (1856- 1888), naturalist and African traveller, was born on 17 Aug. 1856 at the Walk House, Alloa,Clackmannanshire, his father, Andrew Jameson, a land-agent, being the son of John Jameson of Dublin. His mother was Mar- garet, daughter of James Cochrane of Glen Lodge, Sligo. After elementary education at Scottish schools, Jameson was in 1868 placed under Dr. Leonard Schmitz at the In- ternational College, Isleworth, and subse- quently read for the army, but in 1877
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he decided to devote himself to travel. In that year he went by way of Ceylon and Singapore to Borneo, where he was the first to discover the black pern, a kind of honey- buzzard, and he returned home with a fine collection of birds, butterflies, and beetles. Towards the end of 1878 he went out to South Africa in search of big game, and hunted for a few weeks on the skirts of the Kalahari desert. In the early part of 1879 he returned to Potchefstroom, whence despite the disaffection of the Boers he reached the Zambesi district of the interior, trekking along the Great Marico river and up the Limpopo. In company with Mr. H. Collison he next passed through the 'Great Thirst Land' into the country of the Matabelis, whose king received them hospitably, and joined by the well-known African hunter, Mr. F. C. Selous, they pushed on into Mashona- land. They made their final halt near the Umvuli river, and hunted lions and rhino- ceroses, obtaining excellent sport, and de- monstrating the junction of the two rivers, Umvuli and Umnyati. In 1881 Jameson re- turned to England with a collection of large heads as well as ornithological, entomolo- gical, and botanical specimens. ' This ex- pedition to Mashona,' writes Mr. Bowdler Sharpe, ' added a great deal to our know- ledge of the birds of South-East Africa.'
In 1882, accompanied by his brother, he went on a shooting expedition to the Rocky Mountains, passing from the main range into Montana and thence to the North Fork of the Stinking Water. Spain and Algeria were visited in 1884, and on his return home in February 1885 he married Ethel, daughter of Sir Henry Marion Durand [q.v.]
Jameson joined as naturalist, by agree- ment signed on 20 Jan. 1887, the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition under the direction of Mr. H. M. Stanley ; contributed 1,000/. to the funds, and reached Banana at the mouth of the Congo in March. In June 1887 he was left as second in command of the rear-column under Major Walter Barttelot, at Yambuya on the Aruwhimi river, while Mr. Stanley's party pushed further into the interior in search of Emin.
The chief, Tippu-Tib, had promised Mr. Stanley to send to Yambuya men and car- riers. Thus reinforced Jameson and his com- panions were to follow Mr. Stanley with the stores, which were to reach them from the mouth of the Congo. Tippu-Tib failed to keep his word, and in August Jameson visited him at the Stanley Falls on the Upper Congo without result. No news from Mr. Stanley reached the camp, and privation and sick- ness soon carried off a third of its occupants.
In the spring of 1888 Jameson after an ad- venturous journey revisited Tippu at Kas- songo, three hundred miles higher up the Congo river than the Stanley Falls.
While returning with Tippu to the Falls in May Jameson witnessed at the house of the chief of the settlement of Riba Riba some native dances. Tippu told him that the festivities usually concluded with a banquet of human flesh. Jameson expressed him- self incredulous, but gave the performers six handkerchiefs, which they clearly regarded as a challenge to prove their cannibal habits. A girl ten years old was straightway killed and dismembered in Jameson's presence. Jameson asseverates in his ' Diary ' that until ' the last moment he could not believe that they were in earnest,' but he admits that later in the day he tried to ' make some sketches of the scene' (p. 291). After his death and the conclusion of the expedition, and at a time when Mr. Stanley's published account of his relations with the rear-column at Yambuya was undergoing severe criticism at the hands of its survivors, Mr. Stanley published the story in the 'Times' news- paper (8 Nov. 1890), and represented that Jameson almost directly invited the girl's murder, and made sketches on the spot. Mr. Stanley obtained his information from Mr. William Bonny, one of Jameson's compa- nions at Yambuya, and from Assad Farran, Jameson's interpreter, whose uncorroborated testimony was of little account. Of the in- humanity thus imputed to Jameson he was undoubtedly incapable, but that he was guilty of reprehensible callousness is ap- parent from his own version of the affair.
On arriving at Yambuya (31 May 1888) Jameson prepared for the evacuation of the camp, which took place on 11 June. Tippu had at length sent four hundred Manyemas to act as carriers, but they proved insu- bordinate, and Barttelot, dividing the expe- dition into two, hastened forward (15 June), and left Jameson to follow with the loads at greater leisure. On 19 July Barttelot, while still in advance of Jameson, was shot dead at Unaria. On receiving this disastrous news Jameson hurried to Unaria, and thence to Stanley Falls, where he arrived on 1 Aug. On 7 Aug. he was present at the trial and execution of Sanga, Barttelot's murderer, and obtained the promise of Tippu-Tib, who seemed alone able to control the unruly native followers, to accompany the expe- dition in the search for Mr. Stanley, under conditions, which it was necessary to sub- mit to the committee at home. Jameson offered to pay 20,000/. out of his own purse rather than allow the expedition to be aban-
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doned. In order to place himself in com- munication with England, he (8 Aug.) left Stanley Falls to go down the Congo to Bangala, where Mr. Herbert Ward, a mem- ber of Major Barttelot's party, was known to be awaiting telegrams from the Emin committee. The weather was bad ; a chill contracted by Jameson on 10 Aug. developed into hsematuric fever, and on 17 Aug., the day after his arrival at Bangala, he died. On the 18th he was buried on an island in the Congo opposite the village.
A small but valuable collection of birds and insects which Jameson made at Yam- buya was sent home in 1890. The bulk of his collections remains with his widow; but a valuable portion of the ornithological col- lections has been placed by Captain Shelley, to whom Jameson gave it, in the Natural History Museum, Kensington. His 'Diary' of the Emin Pasha expedition was published in 1890. A portrait is prefixed.
Of slight build, great refinement of man- ners and cultured habits, Jameson was to all appearance scarcely robust enough for the rough work of his latest expedition. Yet his loyal determination at all risks to carry out Mr. Stanley's orders, and his unflinching endurance of hunger, toil, and illness, go far to counterbalance the incident which has marred his fame. His widow and two daughters survive him.
[Information from Mrs. Jameson ; Times, 22 Sept. 1888 ; Athenaeum, 1888, p. 453 ; Darkest Africa, by H. M. Stanley, 1890; Barttelot's Letters and Diaries, 1891 ; Troup's Diary, 1891 ; Story of the Rear-Column of Emin Pasha Relief Expedition, by Jameson himself, edited by his wife, the preface by his brother, Mr. A. Jame- son, 1891 ; Personal Experiences in Equatorial Africa, by Surgeon T. H. Parke, 1891 ; Docu- ments and Log of the Rear-Column, published in the Times (weekly edition 14 and 21 Nov., and 5 Dec. 1890); Times, 7 and 24 Dec. 1890.]
M. G-. W.
JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), mi- neralogist, born at Leith on 11 July 1774, was educated at Leith grammar school and Edinburgh University, and became assistant to a surgeon in his native town, but having studied natural history under Dr. Walker in 1792 and 1793, he soon determined to abandon medicine for science. In 1798, when only twenty-four, he published his ' Mineralogy of the Shetland Islands and of Arran, with an Appendix containing Observations on Peat, Kelp, and Coal,' which he incorporated in 1800 with his ' Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles,' two quarto volumes. In this latter year he went to Freiburg, to study for nearly two years under Werner, after which he de-
voted two years to continental travel. On his return to Edinburgh in 1804 he was ap- pointed regius professor of natural history and keeper of the university museum in suc- cession to Dr. Walker. As a teacher he at- tracted numerous pupils, excited their en- thusiasm, keenly measured their abilities, and retained their friendship in after-life. Of a slender, wiry build, he conducted nu- merous successful excursions of students until prevented by the infirmities of age, and as keeper of the museum got together, with government aid but at great personal cost, an enormous collection, arranging in geographical order forty thousand specimens of rocks and minerals, in addition to ten thousand fossils, eight thousand birds, and many thousand insects and other specimens. He was the first great exponent in Britain of Werner's geological tenets, but afterwards frankly admitted his conversion to the views of Hutton. In 1808 he founded the Wer- nerian Natural History Society, and through- out his life he kept the scientific world in England informed as to the progress of science in Germany. In conjunction with Sir David Brewster he, in 1819, originated the ' Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,' of which, from its tenth volume, he was the sole editor until his death. Jameson died unmarried, in Edinburgh, on 19 April 1854. His bust is in the library of the university.
In addition to the works above mentioned, he published : 1. A mineralogical descrip- tion of Dumfriesshire, 1804, the first part of an intended series embracing all Scotland. 2. ' System of Mineralogy,' 3 vols. 1804-8, of which a second edition appeared in 1816, and a third in 1820. 3. ' External Characters of Minerals,' 1805; 2nd edit. 1816. 4. 'Elements of Geognosy,' 1809. 5. ' Manual of Minerals and Mountain Rocks,' 1821. 6. 'Elements of Mineralogy,' 1840. In 1813 he annotated Leopold von Buch's ' Travels through Nor- way/ adding an account of the author, and in 1813, 1817, 1818, and 1827 he published editions of Cuvier's ' Theory of the Earth.' In 1826 he edited Wilson and Bonaparte's ' American Ornithology,' and wrote the geo- logical notes on Sir W. E. Parry's third arctic voyage. In 1830 he edited ' The Ana- tomie of Humors ' for the Bannatyne Club, and in the same year probably produced the ' Illustrations of Ornithology ' in conj unc- tion with Sir William Jardine [q. v.], and P. J. Selby, as well as a ' Narrative of Dis- covery and Adventure in Africa,' written in conjunction with Hugh Murray and James Wilson. In 1834 he wrote an ' Encyclo- paedia of Geography,' and in 1843 an ' Histo- rical and Descriptive Account of British
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India,' both produced joint ly with Hugh Murray. Jameson was, moreover, the author of numerous contributions to the ' Encyclo- paedia Britannica,' ' Edinburgh Cyclopaedia,' ' Nicholson's Journal,' Thomson's ' Annals of Philosophy,' the 'Transactions' of the Wernerian Society, &c.
[Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, April 1854, with bibliography ; Gent. Mag. June 1854; Encyclopaedia Britannica.] Gr. S. B.
JAMESON, ROBERT WILLIAM
(1805-1868), journalist and author, born at Leith in 1805, was youngest son of Thomas Jameson, merchant, and nephew of Robert Jameson [q. v.] He was educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh, be- came a writer to the signet, and practised for many years in Edinburgh. Jameson was a strong radical, and prominent in the re- form, anti-slavery, and anti-cornlaw move- ments. Sir John Campbell, afterwards lord chancellor, said that he was the best hustings speaker he ever heard. He was also one of the first members of the reformed town coun- cil of Edinburgh. In 1855 he went to live at Stranraer as editor of the Wigtownshire ' Free Press,' and remained there till 1861, when he removed to England, residing first at Sudbury and afterwards in London. He died at 12 Earl's Court Terrace, Kensington, on 10 Dec. 1868. He married in 1835 Chris- tina, third daughter of Major-general Pringle of Symington, Midlothian, and by her had eleven children, of whom eight survived him. Jameson published : 1. ' Nimrod,' a poem in blank verse, Edinburgh, 1848, 8vo. 2. ' The Curse of Gold,' a novel, London, 1854, 8vo. He was also the author of a tra- gedy, ' Timoleon,' which was acted in Edin- burgh at the Theatre Royal, and published; it reached a second edition in 1852. [Register of Biography, 1868.]
JAMESON, WILLIAM C/U 689-1 720), lecturer on history at Glasgow University and presbyterian controversialist, was born blind, but, being educated at the university of Glas- gow, he ' atteaned to great learning, and be- came particularly well skilled in history both civill and ecclesiastick ' (Munimenta Univ. Glasff., Maitland Club, ii. 363). He may possibly be the William Gemisoune who was a student in December 1 676 (ib.) On 30 May 1692 the senate, taking into consideration the blindness and great learning of Jameson, who had no estate to subsist by, allowed him two hundred merks Scots for two years, for which he was to give instruction ' according to his capacity' in civil and ecclesiastical history under the direction of the faculty (ib. ii. 363). From December 1692 he delivered a public
prelection on civil history once a week in. Latin (ib. ii. 364). He is sometimes de- signated as lecturer, sometimes loosely as professor of history. In 1696 the univer- sity increased his annuity to 400/., on the promise of a committee of visitation that the government would shortly relieve them of the burden. It was not, however, till 1705 that the promise was fulfilled (ib. ii. 388). In 1705 Jameson wrote of his long sickness and indisposition (Cypriamis,Pref.) In the Wodrow MSS. (Advoc. Library, Jac. vi. 27, quoted in W. J. DUNCAN'S Notices of the Literary History of Glasgow, Maitland Club, 1831) there is a note that, till the be- ginning of 1710, there had for many years, been no public prelections in the university of Glasgow excepting some discourses by Dr. Robert St. Clare and Jameson. Another William Jameson entered the university of Glasgow in 1720, and in 1727 he or a name- sake, ' historise studiosus,' was placed on the roll of electors of the lord rector (Munim.)
Jameson published at Edinburgh in 16891 ' Verus Patroclus ; or the Weapons of Quaker- ism the weakness of Quakerism.' Accord- ing to the dedication to the Earl of Dun- donald, its publication had been prohibited in May 1689 by Dr. Monro [q. v.], principal of Edinburgh University and inspector of the press, unless all mention of popery was. omitted. In the bitter literary controversy be- tween episcopalians and presbyterians which raged for over twenty yeara after the expul- sion of Monro and others from Edinburgh University, and turned upon the position of the apostolic and patristic bishop, Jameson vehemently maintained the presbyterian view. In 1697 he published at Glasgow ' Nazian- zeni querela et votum justum (Greg. Naz. Orat. 28); the fundamentals of the Hierarchy examined and disproved,' in reply to Monro and Bishop John Sage [q. v.] His attack in this work upon the authority of the epistles of St. Ignatius drew a ' Short An- swer'from Robert Calder [q. v.] in 1708. Jameson's next book, 'Roma Racoviana et Racovia Romana, id est Papistarum et So- cinistarum in plurimis religionis suss capiti- bus plena et exacta harmonia,' appeared at Edinburgh in 1702. In 1705 he interfered in the controversy between Gilbert Rule, Monro's successor as principal of Edinburgh University, and Bishop Sage over the Cypri- anic bishop, with his ' Cyprianus Isotimus/ Edinburgh, 1705. In 1708 Jameson published at Edinburgh ' Mr. John Davidson's Cate- chism,' with a controversial discourse pre- fixed. In 1712 appeared also at Edinburgh ' The Sum of the Episcopal Controversy/ Jameson ' doubted not that the Spirit of
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God had a peculiar view to Scotland, when he says by Isaiah, " I will make an everlast- ing Covenant with you," &c.' In a second edition of this diatribe (Glasgow, 1713) he seems to claim as his 'A Sample of Jet-black Prelatick Calumny,' Glasgow, 1713. His last known book Avas ' Spicilegia Antiquita- tum ^Egypti, atque ei vicinarum gentium,' Glasgow, 1720, a premature attempt to har- monize sacred and profane history.
[Munimenta Universitatis Glasguensis, ed. Cosmo Innes ; Prof. W. P. Dickson's Address to the Classes of the Faculty of Theology, Glasg., 1880, p. 11 ; Brit. Mus. Cat. ; Cat. Advoc. Libr. Edinb. ; J. P. Lawson's Hist, of the Scottish Episcopal Church from 1688, pp. 185, 214 ; au- thorities in text.] J. T-T.
JAMESON, WILLIAM (1796-1873), botanist, born in Edinburgh on 3 Oct. 1796, was son of William Jameson, a writer to the signet. In 1814 he attended the university classes of Thomas Charles Hope [q. v.] and Robert Jameson [q. v.] in chemistry and natu- ral history, and obtained his diploma from the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. In 1818 he became surgeon on a whaling vessel visiting Baffin's Bay and botanising on Way- gat Island (Memoirs of the Wernerian Nat, Hist, Soc. iii. 416). On his return he, in 1819, attended lectures on mineralogy and made pedestrian visits to Ben Lomond and Ben Lawers. In 1820 he made his second voyage to Baffin's Bay, visiting Duck Island in lat. 74° north, and in the same year he sailed as surgeon for South America. While on the voyage to Lima in 1822, he kept a meteoro- logical journal en route (ib. vi. 203), and, deciding to remain in Peru, practised at Guayaquil until 1826, when he removed to the better climate of Quito. He practised medicine there for a year, and in 1827 be- came professor of chemistry and botany in the university. In 1832 he was appointed assay er to the mint, and in 1861 director ; and in 1864 the Ecuadorean government appointed him to prepare a synopsis of the flora of the country. Of this two volumes and part of a third were printed in 1865, under the title ' Synopsis Plantarum Quiten- sium,' but the work was never completed. While in Ecuador he married, was converted to Catholicism, and in recognition of his scien- tific eminence was created by Queen Isabella a caballero of Spain. In 1869, on his way home to Edinburgh, he visited three sons •who had settled in the Argentine Republic. In 1872 he left again for Ecuador, but was seized with fever soon after his return to Quito, and died there on 22 June 1873.
Jameson long corresponded with Sir Wil- liam and Sir Joseph Hooker, Balfour, Lindley,
Sir William Jardine, Reichenbach, and An- derson-Henry, and sent home many new species of plants, among which species of anemone, gentian, and the moss Dicranum bear his name. A genus of ferns described by Hooker and Greville is also called Jame- sonia. In addition to his papers in the ' Me- moirs of the Wernerian Society,' the ' Com- panion to the Botanical Magazine,' Hooker's ' London Journal of Botany,' the ' Journals ' of the Linnean and Royal Geographical so- cieties, and the ' Transactions of the Edin- burgh Botanical Society,' Jameson's only important work is ' Synopsis Plantarum Quitensium,' Quito, 1865, 8vo.
[Trans. Eot. Soc. Edinburgh, 1873; Royal Soc. Cat. of Scientific Papers.] G. S. B.
JAMESON, WILLIAM (1815-1882), botanist, born at Leith in 1815, went to the high school at Edinburgh, and then pro- ceeded to study medicine at the university, where his uncle, Robert Jameson [q. v.], occupied the chair of natural history during half a century. Having passed his examina- tions in 1838, he was appointed to the Bengal medical service, and on his arrival at Cal- cutta he was temporarily installed as curator of the museum of the Asiatic Society of Ben- gal. After serving at Cawnpore, in 1842 he was appointed superintendent of the Saharun- pore garden, in succession to Dr. Hugh Fal- coner. He energetically advocated the cul- tivation of tea in British India, and under the patronage of the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie, he succeeded in procuring plants and distributing them in various parts of India. To his services the subsequent de- velopment of Indian tea-planting was largely due. He retired on 31 Dec. 1875, and came home, where he died 18 March 1882.
[Proc. Linn. Soc. 1882-3, p. 42; Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinb. xiv. (1882) 288-95.] B. D. J.
JAMESONE, GEORGE (1588P-1644),
portrait-painter, born at Aberdeen, probably in 1588 (BTJLLOCH, George Jamesone, p. 32), was second son of Andrew Jamesone, master mason, and his wife Marjory, daughter of Gilbert Anderson, merchant, one of the ma- gistrates of the city. After having practised as a portrait-painter in Scotland, he, accord- ing to a generally accepted tradition, which derives some corroborative evidence from the style of his painting, studied under Rubens in Antwerp, and was a fellow-pupil of Van- dyck. Probably the pictures of the 'Sibyls 'and the ' Evangelists ' in King's College, Aber- deen, are copies from continental originals which he executed at this period. He is stated by Kennedy to have returned to Scot-
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land in 1620. His portrait of Sir Paul | Menzies of Kilmundie in Marischal College, Aberdeen, is dated in that year, and his bust- portrait of the first Earl of Traquair at Keith Hall is inscribed 1621. He speedily acquired a large practice as a portrait-painter, and many of the most celebrated Scotsmen of the time were among his sitters, including James VI and Charles I, Dr. Arthur John- ston (1623), Robert Gordon of Straloch, George, fifth earl Marischal, Sir Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston, the great Marquis of Montrose, the first Marquis of Argyll, and Lady Mary Erskine, countess Marischal (1626). On 12 Nov. 1624 Jamesone married Isabel Toche, in June 1633 he visited Edin- burgh on the occasion of the coronation of Charles I, in August he was entered a bur- gess of that city, and shortly afterwards he started for Italy in company with Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy. Four religious sub- jects in the chapel of the Scots College, Rome, attributed to his brush, may have been pro- duced at this period. On his return to Scot- land he executed for Sir Colin many portraits of royal personages and of members of his family, both from the life and from older originals. These works are now divided be- tween Taymouth Castle and Langton House, Duns, Berwickshire. He also executed a curious ' Genealogical Tree of the House of Glenorchy,' a work, signed and dated 1635, still preserved at Taymouth Castle. Accord- ing to his correspondence with Sir Colin, now in the Taymouth charter-room, his price for bust-sized portraits was twenty merks, or with a gold frame 201. Scots, and he engaged to turn out sixteen portraits within a period of three months. During his later years he pursued his art chiefly in Edinburgh. The latest of his dated works is an unknown por- trait at Yester, Haddingtonshire, inscribed 1644 ; and in the latter part of that year he died, and was' buried in the churchyard of Greyfriars, Edinburgh.
All Jamesone's sons predeceased him, and he is now represented only in the female line. From his second daughter, Marjory, were de- scended John Alexander and John Cosmo Alexander, the artists, stated by Bulloch to be her son and grandson, but more probably her grandson and great-grandson (see review of Brydall's ' Art in Scotland ' in Academy, 28 Dec. 1889). Mary, his third daughter, married as her second husband James Gregory (1638-1675) [q. v.], her second cousin.
Portraits attributed to Jamesone are in the possession of nearly all the old families of Scotland, but only a small proportion of these bear the characteristics of his work. His genuine productions are rather thinly
and delicately painted, and show various re- current mannerisms, such as a tendency to> portray the sitters with curiously elongated noses drooping at the end, narrow faces with pointed chins, and sloping shoulders.
Portraits of Jamesone, by his own hand, are in the possession of the Earl of Seafield, Cullen House ; and Major John Ross, Aber- deen. At Fyvie Castle, Aberdeenshire, there is a family group of the artist with his wife and child. This was engraved by A. W. Warner for Walpole's ' Anecdotes,' ed. Wor- num.
[Bulloch's George Jamesone, 1885 ; Catalogues of Edinburgh Loan Exhibitions, 1883-4; Pen- nant's Tour in Scotland, ed. 1772; Walpole's Anecdotes, ed. Wornum ; and an examination of Jamesone's -works ip Scottish collections.]
J. M. G.
JAMIESON, JOHN, D.D. (1759-1838), antiquary and philologist, born in Glasgow in March 1759, was son of an anti-burgher minister. He entered Glasgow University at the age of nine, and after passing through the curriculum and completing the necessary course in theology, he was licensed to preach in 1781, and shortly afterwards appointed minister to a congregation in Forfar. Here he remained sixteen years. His evangelical and polemical writings attracted attention,, and he was called to Edinburgh by the Nicol- son Street congregation of anti-burghers, be- coming their minister in 1797. He became widely known and respected for his scholar- ship and social worth, and to Sir Walter Scott in particular he was ' an excellent good man, and full of auld Scottish cracks ' (Life of Scott, vi. 331). He was deeply gratified in 1820 by the union of the closely related sects, the burghers and the anti-burghers, a consummation largely due to his own sugges- tion and guidance. In 1830 te retired. He died in Edinburgh on 12 July 1838. In recognition of his ability and attainments Jamieson, after replying to Priestley in 1795, received from the college of New Jersey the degree of D.D. His other honours include membership of the Society of Scottish Anti- quaries, of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, of the Antiquarian Society of Boston, United States, and of the Copenhagen Society of Northern Literature. He was also a royal associate of the first class of the Literary Society instituted by George IV.
He married at Forfar Charlotte Watson, daughter of Robert Watson of Shielhill, Forfarshire. He outlived his wife and four- teen sons and daughters, his second son dying after brilliant promise at the Scottish bar (^Noctes Ambrosiance, iv. 201).
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Jamieson's chief work, the ' Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language,' ap- peared, with an elaborate preliminary dis- sertation, in 2 vols. 4to,inl808. While Jamie- son was in Forfar an interview with the Danish scholar Thorkelin had suggested this work. His special knowledge and great in- dustry enabled him,with Ruddiman's glossary to 'Gavin Douglas' as a basis, to complete it almost single-handed. He prepared a valu- able abridgment in 1818 (this was reissued in 1846 with a prefatory memoir by John John- stone), and by further diligence and perse- verance, aided by numerous volunteers, he added two supplementary volumes in 1825. The work (reissued with additions in 1840), while somewhat weak in philology, is gene- rally admirable in definition and illustration, and evinces a rare grasp of folklore and im- j portant provincialisms. The introductory j dissertation, ingeniously supporting an obso- lete theory regarding the Pictish influence on the Scottish language, has now a merely antiquarian interest. The revised edition, 1879-87, by Dr. Longmuir and Mr. Donald- son, with the aid of the most distinguished specialists, has a high philological as well as literary value.
Jamieson's other works were : 1. ' Soci- nianism Unmasked,' 1786. 2. ' A Poem on Slavery,' 1789. 3. ' Sermons on the Heart,' 2 vols., 1791. 4. ' Congal and Fenella, a Metrical Tale,' 1791. 5. ' Vindication of the Doctrine of Scripture,' in reply to Priestley's * History of Early Opinions,' 2 vols., 1795, displaying ample knowledge and argumenta- tive skill. 6. ' A Poem on Eternity,' 1798. 7. ' Remarks on Rowland Hill's Journal,' 1799. 8. ' The Use of Sacred History,' 1802, a scholarly and suggestive work. 9. ' Im- portant Trial in the Court of Conscience,' 1806. 10. ' A Treatise on the Ancient Cul- dees of Iona/1811, published, through Scott's active generosity, by Ballantyne (Life of Scott, 11. 332). 11. 'Hermes Scythicus/ 1814, expounding affinities between the Gothic and the classical tongues.
Apart from juvenile efforts Jamieson like- wise wrote on such diverse themes as rhe- toric, cremation, and the royal palaces of Scotland, besides publishing occasional ser- mons. In 1820 he issued in two 4to volumes well-edited versions of Barbour's ' Bruce ' and Blind Harry's ' Wallace,' which Scott com- mended to his friends (Life of Scott, iii. 132). Posthumous ' Dissertations on the Reality of the Spirit's Influence,' published in 1844, had only a moderate success. Jamieson prepared extensive autobiographical notes, from which others have drawn, but they have not been published.
[Memoir by John Johnstone prefixed to his edition of the Diet. ; Tail's Edinburgh Mag. August 1841 ; Memoir with posthumous Disser- tations; revised Memoir in Diet., vol. i. 1879; Chambers's Eminent Scotsmen.] T. B.
JAMIESON, JOHN PAUL, D.D. (d.
1700), Roman catholic divine and antiquary, was born at Aberdeen, and brought up in the protestant faith, but afterwards turned Roman catholic, and in 1677 was admitted into the Scots College at Rome, which he left in 1685, being then a priest and D.D. He was nominated to the chair of divinity in the seminary of Cardinal Barbarigo, bishop of Padua, but he soon returned to Rome, where he resided until he was sent back to the mis- sion in 1687, when all the Scottish priests abroad were required by special orders from James II to return to their native country. He was stationed first at Huntly, began a new mission at Elgin in 1688, and died at Edin- burgh on 25 March 1700.
During his residence in Rome he tran- scribed, at the Vatican and elsewhere, original documents for use in a projected ' History of Scotland,' which he did not complete. Some of these documents he bequeathed to Robert Strachan, missionary at Aberdeen, and the remainder were deposited in the Scots Col- lege at Paris. According to Nicolson's ' Scot- tish Historical Library,' he brought from Rome copies of many bulls and briefs, made extracts of the consistorial proceedings of the church of Scotland from 1494 to the Reformation, wrote critical notes on Spotis- wood's 'History' and on the printed 'Chro- nicle of Melros,' made remarks on ' Reliquiae Divi Andreae' by George Martin of Cameron, and compiled a ' Chartulary of the Church of Aberdeen.' He discovered in the queen of Sweden's library at Rome the original manu- script of the 'History of Kinloss' by John Ferrarius, and communicated his transcript of that work to many of his learned country- men.
[Innes's Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of the Northern Parts of Britain, ii. 578 ; Keith's Hist, of the Church of Scotland, Appendix ; Michel's Les Ecossais en France, ii. 322 ; Nicol- son's Scottish Historical Library, 1786, pp.29, 64, 74, 134 ; Stothert's Catholic Mission in Scot- land, p. 567.] T. C.
JAMIESON, ROBERT (1780 P-1844), antiquary and ballad collector, born about 1780, was a native of Morayshire, and was early appointed an assistant classical teacher at Macclesfield, Cheshire. There he designed a collection of Scottish ballads illustrative of character and manners, and he was engaged upon it for several years after 1800 both in
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England and while teaching in Riga. Writing to the ' Scots Magazine ' in 1803 he announced the early completion of his work, mentioning at the same time his indebtedness to the friendship of Sir Walter Scott, whose ' Border Minstrelsy ' omitted ' much curious and valu- able matter ' which he had collected (Border Minstrelsy, i. 81). He published in 1806 two volumes entitled 'Popular Ballads and Songs, from Tradition, Manuscript, and scarce edi- tions, with Translations of similar Pieces from the antient Danish Language and a few Ori- ginals by the Editor.' Returning to Scotland in 1808 Jamieson became, through Scott's influence, assistant to the depute-clerk-regis- ter in the General Register House, Edinburgh, and he held the post for thirty-six years. He died in London, 24 Sept. 1844.
Scott, who held a high opinion of Jamieson, emphasized (ib. i. 82) his discovery of the un- doubted kinship between Scandinavian and Scottish story, ' a circumstance,' he adds,
* which no antiquary had hitherto so much as suspected.' Like Scott's 'Minstrelsy,' Jamieson's ' Ballads ' worthily preserve oral tradition, many of them being transcripts from recitations of an aged Mrs. Brown in Falkland, Fifeshire ; they give spirited and instructive versions of northern ballads ; they are annotated with scholarship and taste ; and in the original section Jamieson's lyrics
* The Quern Lilt ' and ' My Wife's a winsome wee thing' secure for him a place among minor Scottish singers. In addition to his 4 Popular Ballads ' Jamieson was, together with Henry Weber and Sir Walter Scott, responsible for the ' Illustrations of Northern Antiquities ' (Edinburgh, 1814, roy. 4to), and in 1818 he prepared a new edition of Ed- ward Burt's ' Letters from the North ' (Lon- don, 1818, 2 vols. 8vo), to which Scott again contributed (Life, iv. 220).
[Archibald Constable and his Literary Corre- spondents ; Eogers's Scottish Minstrel ; J. Grant Wilson's Poets and Poetry of Scotland.] T. B.
JAMIESON, ROBERT (d. 1861), phi- lanthropist, was a successful London mer- chant, who sought to civilise Africa by open- ing up its great rivers to navigation and com- merce. His schooner, the Warree, went to the Niger in 1 838. In 1839 he equipped at his own expense the Ethiope, whose commander, Cap- tain Beecroft, explored under his directions several West African rivers to higher points in some instances than had thenbeen reached. Narratives of these explorations were pub- lished by Jamieson and others in the 'Journal of the Royal Geographical Society' (cf. Journal, 1838, pp. 184, &c.) When the Mel- bourne ministry, in 1841, resolved to send
the African Colonisation Expedition to the Niger, Jamieson denounced the scheme in two ' Appeals to the Government and People of Great Britain.' The expedition broke up, through disease and disaster, in September 1841, and on 25 Oct. most of the surviving colonists were rescued by the Ethiope. Jamieson pointed out the fulfilment of his prophecies in a ' Sequel to two Appeals,' &c., London, 1843, 8vo. In 1859 he published ' Commerce with Africa,' emphasising the insufficiency of treaties for the suppression of the African slave trade, and urging the use of the land route from Cross River to the Niger, to avoid the swamps of the Delta. In 1840 he was offered, but declined, a vice-presidency of the Institut d'Afrique of France. He died in London on 5 April 1861.
[Gent. Mag. 1861, i. 588; Proceedings of the Koyal Geographical Society, 1860-1, p. 160.]
J. T-T.
JAMIESON, ROBERT, D.D. (1802- 1880), Scottish divine, son of a baker in Edin- burgh,was born there on 3 Jan. 1802. He was educated at the high school, where he carried off the chief honours, and matriculated at Edinburgh University, with the intention of studying for the medical profession. Before he had completed his course, however, he decided to devote himself to the ministry ; for that purpose he entered the Divinity Hall, and was licensed as a preacher on 13 Feb. 1827. Two years afterwards he was pre- sented by George IV to the parish of West- struther, in the presbytery of Lauder, and entered on that charge on 22 April 1830. There he remained till 23 Nov. 1837, when he was translated to the church of Currie, in the presbytery of Edinburgh, to which he was presented by the magistrates of that city. At the time of the disruption of 1843 he made strenuous efforts to prevent a schism, on the ground that the reforms demanded might be accomplished without imperilling the exist- ence of the established church. When Dr. Forbes, minister of St. Paul's, Glasgow, who was one of the disruption leaders, resigned his charge, Jamieson was appointed his suc- cessor by the magistrates of Glasgow, and was admitted as minister on 14 March 1844. The university of Glasgow conferred the degree of doctor of divinity upon him on 17 April 1848. For many years Jamieson took a pro- minent part in ecclesiastical business, and in 1872 he was unanimously chosen moderator of the general assembly. He continued to occupy his place as minister of St. Paul's until his death on 26 Oct. 1880. Jamieson specially charged himself with the oversight of young men studying for the ministry, and
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his students' class exercised an important influence throughout the church.
Jamieson married in 1830 his cousin, Eliza Jamieson, and had three sons and three daugh- ters. The eldest son, the Rev. George S. Jamieson, is at present (1892) minister of Portobello.
The principal works of Jamieson were :
1. ' Eastern Manners illustrative of the Old and New Testaments,' 3 vols., 1836-8.
2. 'Manners and Trials of the Primitive Christians,' 1839. 3. 'Accounts of Currie and of Weststruther for the New Statistical Account,' 1840. 4. Revised and enlarged edition of Paxton's ' Illustrations of Scrip- ture,'1849. 5. ' Commentary on the Bible,' 1861-5, in conjunction with Edward Henry Bickersteth, now bishop of Exeter, and Prin- cipal Brown of Aberdeen.
[Scott's Fasti, i. 147, 537 ; Glasgow Herald, 27 Oct. 1880; private information.] A. H. M.
JAMIESON, THOMAS HILL (1843- 1876), librarian, born in August 1843 at Bonnington, near Arbroath, was educated at the burgh and parochial school of that town, and afterwards (1862) at Edinburgh High School and University. "While still at college he acted as a sub-editor of ' Chambers's Ety- mological Dictionary,' and subsequently be- came assistant to Samuel Halkett [q. v.], librarian of the Advocates' Library. In June 1871, on Halkett's death, Jamieson was ap- pointed keeper of the library, and the work of printing the catalogue passed into his care. In 1872 he wrote a prefatory notice for an edition of Archie Armstrong's ' Banquet of Jests,' and in 1874 edited a reprint of Bar- clay's translation of Brandt's ' Ship of Fools,' to which he prefixed a notice of Sebastian Brandt and his writings. In 1874 he also privately printed a ' Notice of the Life and Writings of Alexander Barclay.' The fire which occurred in the Advocates' Library in the summer of 1875 roused him to exertions beyond his strength, and he died at 7 Gilles- pie Crescent, Edinburgh, on 9 Jan. 1876, aged only 32. He married, on 11 June 1872, Jane Alison Kilgour, by whom he left two chil- dren.
[Scotsman, 10 Jan. 1876, pp. 5, 6; Edinburgh Courant, 10 Jan. 1876, p. 4.] G. C. B.
JAMRACH, JOHANN CHRISTIAN CARL (1815-1891), dealer in wild animals, son of Johann Gottlieb Jamrach, a dealer in birds, shells, and the like, was born in Ham- burg in March 1815. He came to England and was always known here as Charles Jam- rach. About 1840 he became a dealer in wild animals, carrying on at first a business which
a brother had established in East Smithfield, but he very soon moved to Ratcliff High- way, to what is now 180 St. George's Street East. Here he greatly enlarged his busi- ness, and practically acquired a monopoly of the trade in wild animals in this country ; he supplied all the travelling menageries and the Zoological Gardens, and was widely known among naturalists. His establishment in Ratcliff Highway excited much curiosity and furnished materials for innumerable newspaper articles. As time went on he found it profitable to import large quantities of Eastern curiosities, and in later years his trade in animals suffered from competition. Jamrach died at Beaufort Cottage, Bow, on 6 Sept. 1891. He was a strong, courageous man, as was shown in his single-handed struggle with a runaway tiger in 1857, of which Frank Buckland wrote a description. A print of Jamrach is in the ' Pall Mall Bud- get'for 10 Sept. 1891. He married, first, Mary Athanasio, daughter of a Neapolitan ; secondly, Ellen Downing; and thirdly, Clara Salter. He left issue by his first two wives.
[Private information ; Times, 6 and 9 Sept. 1 891 ; Buckland's Curiosities of Natural History, 1st ser. pp. 231, &c.] W. A. J. A.
JANE or JOHANNA (d. 1445), queen of Scotland, was the daughter of John Beau- fort, earl of Somerset. Her mother was Mar- garet, daughter of Thomas Holland, second earl of Kent [q. v.], and niece of RichardjII, who became after her first husband's death Duchess of Clarence. James I, king of Scot- land [q.v.], when a prisoner at Windsor, saw her walking in the garden of the castle, fell in love at first sight, and wrote the story of his love in the ' Kingis Quair.' The mar- riage, which suited the English rulers, and was made one of the conditions of his release, took place at St. Mary Overv Church in Southwark on 12 Feb. 1424. In the follow- ing month the married pair proceeded to Scotland, stopping at Durham, where the hostages for James were delivered, and they reached Edinburgh before Easter. On 21 May they were crowned by Bishop Wardlaw at Scone. Their marriage was happy. [For Jane's children see under JAMES I OF SCOT- LAND.]
A gratuity to the masons building the palace of Linlithgow, and a gift of the master- ship of the hospital of Mary Magdalene, near the same town, to her chaplain, point to it as Jane's favourite residence in Scotland. She received grants for her annuity from the burgh customs, and in the second parliament of the reign the clergy were enjoined, after the Eng- lish custom, to pray for her along with the
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king in a set collect. In the chapel of St. John the Baptist, built by James near the parish church of Corstorphine, three chap- lains were endowed to pray for her soul and that of her husband.
At the king's tragic death in 1437 she played a memorable part, interposing her body, ac- cording to one account, to save him, and being herself wounded in the struggle, though ac- cording to another she was saved from in- jury by the interposition of a son of Sir Robert Graham. This unconscious fulfil- ment of the lines in the ' Kingis Quair,'
And this floure, I can saye no more
So hertly has unto my help attendit,
That from the deth her man sche has defendit,
has been often noticed, but the original meaning was only that her love saved him from captivity or from despair. To her energy is generally ascribed the rapid punishment of his murderers, who were executed within forty days. James had taken the precaution, not •unusual in those times, to make the leading nobles swear allegiance to the queen as well as to himself, and she held for a short time the practical regency of the kingdom and custody of the young king, James II [q. v.] In the parliament of 1439 her guardianship of the infant king and his four unmarried sisters was confirmed, but Archibald, earl of Douglas [q. v.], was made regent or king's lieutenant. In the contest for the person of the king between Crichton and Livingstone, the queen actively sided with Livingstone [see under JAMES II]. Before 21 Sept. 1439 Jane mar- ried Sir James Stewart, the Black ' Rider,' or Knight of Lome, and at that date obtained a dispensation on three different grounds within the forbidden degrees of consanguinity and affinity. It was necessary to find a protector -against Crichton and Livingstone, who had now united, and kept forcible possession of her son ; but on 3 Aug. she and her husband were surprised and violently attacked in Stir- ling Castle by Livingstone. Her husband and Ms brother were committed to a dungeon in the castle, and Jane herself was removed to some other stronghold. On 4 Sept. she signed an agreement with Livingstone, by which she surrendered the custody of the king till his majority, gave up her dowry for Ms maintenance, and the castle of Stirling for his residence. The release of her husband and his brother explains how this deed was extorted. By the Knight of Lome Jane had three sons: John Stewart of Balveny (d. 1512) [q. v.], created Earl of Atholl by James II ; James Stewart (d. 1500 ?) [q. v.], earl of Buchan, called < Hearty James ; ' and Andrew, who became bishop of Moray. In
VOL. XXIX.
the midst of the continued troubles of the minority of James II, Jane died on 15 July 1445, at Dunbar, where she had been under the protection or in the custody of Patrick Hepburn of Hailes. She was buried beside her first husband in the Carthusian convent at Perth. The Knight of Lome survived, and seems to have taken refuge in England. Her devoted attachment to James is the principal fact in Jane's life. Her children, especially her son, respected her memory. A portrait, perhaps authentic, engraved in Pinkerton's ' Iconographia/ presents regular features and a pleasing expression.
[Bowers's continuation of Fordun ; Account of the Death of James I, published by the Mait- land Club ; Brief Chronicle of Scotland, pub- lished by Mr. Thomas Thomson ; see also Ex- chequer Eolls, the Great Seal Register, and the Scottish Documents in the English Records, vol. Hi., edited by Bain.] JE. M.
JANE SEYMOUR (1509 P-1537), third queen of Henry VIII, was eldest of the eight children of Sir John Seymour of Wolf Hall, Savernake, Wiltshire, by Margaret, daughter of Sir John Wentworth of Nettlestead, Suf- folk. Her mother's family claimed a distant relationship to the royal family (cf. Notes and Queries, 1st ser. vii. 42, viii. 104, 184, 251). Of her brothers, Edward became pro- tector in Edward VI's reign and Duke of Somerset, and Thomas, known as the admi- ral, was created Lord Seymour of Sudeley. According to court gossip, and the inscrip- tion on a miniature by Hilliard at Wind- sor, Jane was born about 1509. Her birth- place was probably her father's house of Wolf Hall. Some tapestry and bedroom furniture which she worked there while a girl came into the possession of Charles I, who gave it in 1647 to William Seymour, marquis of Hertford, a collateral descendant of Jane. Five years later the marquis compounded with the parliament for retaining it by a pay- ment of 60/. (cf. Wilts. Archceolog. Mag. xv. 205), but it is uncertain if it is still in exist- ence. Jane has been very doubtfully iden- tified by Miss Strickland with the subject of a portrait in the Louvre, which claims, ac- cording to the same authority, to represent one of the French queen's maids of honour, although the inscription fails to supply her name. It seems possible that the picture referred to is really the portrait of Anne of Cleves, which had not been identified in the Louvre catalogue when Miss Strickland wrote. Her theory of identification has, how- ever, led her to the otherwise unsupported conclusion that Jane in her youth was, like Anne Boleyn, maid of honour to Mary, queen of Louis XII of France (Henry VIII's sister).
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It is certain that shortly before Catherine of Aragon ceased to be queen, Jane was attached to Catherine's household in England as lady- in-waiting. She was subsequently placed in the same relations with Catherine's suc- cessor, Anne Boleyn (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, xi. 32). Chapuys, the em- peror's ambassador at Henry VIII's court, describes her in 1536 as ' of middle stature and no great beauty,' and of pale complexion, a description which her authentic portraits fully justify. But Chapuys, like other ob- servers of the time, commends her intelli- gence. On 10 Sept, 1535 Henry VIII paid a visit to her father's house, Wolf Hall, and she doubtless helped to entertain him there. From that date he paid her marked atten- tions, and Queen Anne's miscarriage early in the following year was attributed by the court-gossips to the jealousy excited by the king's treatment of Jane (ib. x. 103). In February 1535-6 it was stated that Henry made her costly presents (ib. x. 201), and Anne's irritation was proportionately in- creased. In April, while Jane was at Green- wich, Henry sent her a purse full of sovereigns and a letter making dishonourable proposals. Jane returned the letter unopened, together with the purse, discreetly remarking that her honour was her fortune, and that she could only receive money from Henry when she married (ib. x. 245). Meanwhile Anne's enemies found in Henry's avowed attach- ment to Jane a means of bringing the queen to ruin. Sir Nicholas Carew and others urged Jane in her interviews with Henry to point out to him the invalidity of his mar- riage with Anne, and to withstand all his dis- honourable suggestions unless he was ready to make her his wife. Henry soon agreed to accept her terms. And it was largely owing to his anxiety to set Jane in Anne's place that legal proceedings were taken against the latter on the ground of her adultery and incest. While arrangements for Anne's trial were in progress, Jane, in order to avoid compromising situations, stayed with her brother Edward and his wife in Cromwell's apartments, where the king undertook to see her only in the presence of her friends ; and she was subsequently taken to a house belonging to Sir Nicholas Carew, seven miles from London, where she lived in almost regal splendour. Before 15 May — the day of Anne's trial — Jane removed to a house on the Thames within a mile of Whitehall, and there Sir Francis Bryan brought her word of Anne's condemnation a few hours after it was pronounced. Henry himself fol- lowed in the afternoon. Four days later Anne was beheaded. As soon as Henry
learned the news, he visited Jane, and on the same day Archbishop Cranmer issued a dispensation for the marriage without pub- lication of banns, and in spite of the relation- ship ' in the third and third degrees of affinity ' between the parties (ib. x. 384). Early next morning Jane arrived secretly at Hampton Court, and there her betrothal with the king* formally took place (FRIEDMAN??, Anne Bo- leyn, ii. 354). The story that the marriage ceremony was performed on the day after Anne Boleyn's execution in a church near the house of Jane's father in Wiltshire, and that a wedding banquet was given in an out- building on the estate, is uncorroborated by the evidence of contemporary correspondence (Letters and Papers, x. 411 ; see drawing of the building in Wilts Archceolog. Mag. xv. 140 sq.) The eight days following the be- trothal may, however, have been spent in Wiltshire. The pair arrived in London from Winchester before 29 May, and the marriage was privately celebrated on 30 May in ' the Queen's Closet at York Place ' (Letters and Papers, x. 413-14). Jane was introduced to the court as queen during the ensuing Whit- suntide festivities. She was well received, and courtiers curried favour with the king by congratulating him on his union to so fair and gentle a lady. Mary of Hungary wrote to Ferdinand, king of the Romans, that she was ' a good imperialist ' (ib. x. 400), and she showed invariable kindness to the Princess Mary, whom she was successful in reconcil- ing to Henry (cf. WOOD, Letters of Illustrious Ladies, ii. 262-3). Miles Coverdale, just before the publication of his Bible, printed the initials of Jane's name at the head of the dedication across the name of Anne, to whom with Henry it was his original in- tention to inscribe his work. On 8 June Paris Garden was given her. Cromwell de- scribed her to Gardiner in July as ' the most virtuous lady and veriest gentlewoman that liveth' (Letters and Papers, xi. 17). She paid a visit with the king to the Mercers' Hall (29 June), went with him through Kent in July, was hospitably entertained at the monastery of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, and accompanied her husband on a hunting expedition in August.
Parliament had in July vested the succes- sion to the throne in Jane's issue, to the ex- clusion of the Princesses Mary and Elisabeth. But it was soon reported that she was not likely to bear children. Her coronation was fixed for Michaelmas, but the ceremony was delayed, and, although her name was intro- duced by Cranmer's orders into the bidding prayer, rumours went abroad that it would not take place at all unless she became a mother.
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Jane's friendship with the Princess Mary seemed to show that Jane had little sym- pathy with the Reformation. Luther boldly described her as 'an enemy of the gospel' (ib. xi. 188), while Cardinal Pole declared she was ' full of goodness ' (STRYPE, Memorials, I. ii. 304). On the outbreak of the northern insurrection, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, Cardinal du Bellay learned from a London correspondent that Jane begged the king on her knees to restore the dissolved abbeys, and that he brusquely warned her against meddling in his affairs if she wished to avoid her predecessor's fate (Letters and Papers, xi. 346, andcf. xi. 510). Apparently the hint had its effect. On 22 Dec. the king and queen rode in great state through the city of London, and in January she rode on horse- back across the frozen Thames. In March the welcome news arrived that she was with child (ib. vol. xii. pt. i. p. 315). Henry treated her thenceforth with increased consideration, but her delicate constitution rendered it de- sirable that she should remain in compara- tive seclusion. Her coronation was again deferred. Prayers were said at mass for her safe delivery (Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. i. 186), and in September she took to her cham- ber at Hampton Court. Henry had just completed the banqueting hall and entrance to the chapel there, and had had her initials intertwined with his own in the decora- tions. On Friday, 12 Oct., she gave birth to a son, Edward, afterwards Edward VI, and on the same day signed (with the words 'Jane the Quene') a letter announcing the event to Cromwell and the privy council (cf. Cotton MS. Nero C. x. 1 ; Letters and Papers, vol. xii. pt. ii. p. 316). The report that the CaBsarian operation was performed in her case was an invention of the Jesuit Nicholas Sanders. Her health at first did not cause anxiety, but the excitement at- tending the christening of the boy enfeebled her, and owing, it was said, to a cold and to improper diet, she died about midnight on Wednesday, 24 Oct., twelve days after her son's birth (cf. FULLER, Church Hist. ed. Brewer, iv. Ill n. ; STKYPE, Memorials, ii. 473). Henry, who was present, showed genuine sorrow, and wore mourning for her, an attention which he paid to the memory of no other of his wives. An old ballad on her death proves that his people shared his grief (cf. BELL, Ancient Poems of the Peasantry of England). Jane's body was embalmed and lay in state in Hampton Court Chapel till 12 Nov., when it was removed with great pomp to Windsor, and buried in the choir of St. George's Chapel (Letters and Papers, vol. xii. pt. ii. pp. 372-4). Henry's
direction that he should be buried at her side was faithfully carried out, but the rich monument which he designed for her tomb was not completed, and the materials ac- cumulated for it were removed from the chapel during the civil wars.
Jane's signature of ' Jane the Quene ' is appended to two extant documents — to the letter announcing her son's birth, already noticed, and to a warrant assigned to October 1536, and addressed to the park-keeper of Havering-atte-Bower for the delivery of two bucks (see Cotton MS. Vesp. F. iii. 16). Ca- talogues of her jewels, lands, and debts owing to her at her death are among the British Mu- seum Royal MSS. and at the Record Office (Letters and Papers, vol.xii.pt. ii. pp. 340-1).
A sketch of Queen Jane, by Holbein, is at Windsor. Replicas of a finished portrait (half-length) by the same artist are at Wo- burn Abbey and at Vienna. The Woburn picture was engraved in a medallion by Hollar and also by Bond for Lodge's ' Por- traits ; ' the Vienna picture was engraved by G. Biichel. Copies of the painting belong to Lord Sackville, the Society of Antiquaries, the Marquis of Hertford, Sir Rainald Knight- ley, and the Duke of Northumberland. A miniature by Hilliard is at Windsor. A portrait of the queen also appeared in Hol- bein's portrait group of Henry VIII, his father, mother, and Jane, which was burnt in the fire at Whitehall in 1698. A small copy is at Hampton Court.
[Miss Strickland's Lives of the Queens of Eng- land, vol. iv. ; Froude's Hist. ; Friedmann's Anne Boleyn ; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, vols. x-xii. ; Canon Jackson on the Seymours of Wolf Hall in Wilts Archseol.Mag. xv. 40 sq. ; in- formation kindly supplied by George Scharf, esq., C.B., F.S.A., and Lionel Cust, esq., F.S.A.]
S. L.
JANE (1537-1554), queen of England. [See DUDLEY, LADY JANE.]
JANE, JOSEPH (fi. 1600-1660), con- troversialist, was sprung of an old family which had long been influential in Liskeard, Cornwall. His father was mayor there in 1621, and in 1625 Jane represented the borough in parliament. In 1625 he was himself mayor of Liskeard, and in 1640 was again returned to represent the borough in the Long parliament. He was a royalist, and followed the king to Oxford in 1643. Next year he was one of the royal commis- sioners in Cornwall, where in August 1644 he entertained Charles I in his house. During 1645 and 1646 he was in correspondence with Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Claren- don, on the state of the royalist cause in Cornwall. On the failure of the same cause
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Jane lost his estates, and had to pay a heavy composition. Remaining true to his prin- ciples, in 1650 and again in 1654 he was named clerk of the royal council (Clarendon State Papers; Calendar, passim). He also undertook to answer Milton's 'EiKoi>oKXa<7r7jj in a work ' EiVwi/'AxXao-Tor ; the Image Un- broken, a Perspective of the Impudence, False- hoode, Vanitie, and Prophaneness published in a libel entitled " EiKoi/ojrXao-rrjr against Etucwi/ Bao-iXuei)," ' published in 1651 (without place) (Athena Oxon. iv. 644). It is a some- what feeble and tedious answer to Milton, and takes his paragraphs in detail. Writing to Secretary Nicholas in June 1652, Hyde said ' the king has a singular good esteem both of Joseph Jane and of his book.' Hyde shared this high opinion of the man, but doubted whether the book was worth trans- lating into French, the better to counteract the effect of Milton's, as had been proposed. Jane's son, William, is separately noticed.
[Boase and Courtney's Bibl. Cornub. i. 268; Courtney's Parliamentary Representation of Cornwall, p. 252 ; Nicholas Papers, Camd. Soc. ; Todd's Milton, i. 115 ; Masson's Life of Milton, iv. 349.] M. C.
JANE or JANYN, THOMAS (d. 1500), bishop of Norwich, was born at Milton Ab- bas. Dorsetshire, and educated at Winchester School, where he became a scholar in 1449. He proceeded as a scholar to New College, Oxford, and became a fellow there in 1454, and subsequently doctor of decrees, and com- missary of the chancellor (an official corre- , spending to the later vice-chancellor) in i 1468. Thomas Kemp, bishop of London, nephew to Archbishop Kemp, appears to have become Jane's patron, and gave him much preferment. The first benefice con- ferred on Jane was Burstead in Essex, 9 April 1471, and in the same year he was ap- pointed prebendary of Reculverland in St. Paul's Cathedral, which he exchanged for that of Rugmere in 1479-80, and that for Brownswood in 1487. In 1480 he became archdeacon of Essex. He had resigned Bur- stead and his fellowship in 1472, when he was appointed by Ann, duchess of Exeter, Edward IV's sister, to the chapelry of Foul- ness, and by the prior and convent of the Cluniac monastery of that place to the vicar- age of Prittlewell ; he resigned the vicarage in 1473, and the chapelry in 1481-2. In 1479 he was presented by the prior and con- vent of St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield, to the vicarage of St. Sepulchre's, Snow Hill, but resigned it after a few months' tenure. In 1484-5, the living of Saffron Walden having fallen to Bishop Kemp by lapse, Jane re- ceived that benefice. In 1494-5 he obtained
a seat in the privy council, and in 1497 he was appointed canon of Windsor and dean, of the Chapel Royal. Two years later Jane became bishop of Norwich, and was conse- crated by Archbishop Morton on 20 Oct. 1499. He died in September 1500. He is stated to have paid the pope the enormous sum of 7,300 golden florins in fees on his appointment. The only public event assigned to his short episcopate was the burning of one Babram for heresy, but the date is not absolutely certain (FoxE, i. 829). Hewas a benefactor to New College, and contributed to the building of St. Mary's Church, Oxford.
[Wood's Athenae Oxon. ii. 681, 745; Kirby's Winchester Scholars, p. 66 ; Newcourt's Reper- torium, i. 72, ii. 118,273,474,626; Lansdowne MS. 9784.] E. V.
JANE, WILLIAM (1645-1707), divine, son of Joseph Jane [q. v.], was born at Lis- keard, Cornwall, where he was baptised on 22 Oct. 1645. He was educated at West- minster School, elected student of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1660, and graduated B.A. in June 1664, M.A. in 1667, and D.D. in November 1674. After his ordination he was appointed lecturer at Carfax Church, Oxford. He attracted the notice of Henry Compton, who became canon of Christ Church in 1669, and when Compton was created bishop of Oxford in 1674 he chose Jane to preach the sermon at his consecration, and appointed him one of his chaplains. In 1678 he was made canon of Christ Church, and was further presented by Compton, then bishop of Lon- don, to the rectory of Wennington, Essex. In 1679 the prebendal stall of Chamberlains- wood in St. Paul's Cathedral and the arch- deaconry of Middlesex were conferred on him. In May 1680 he was made regius pro- fessor of divinity at Oxford. This rapid promotion was due to his businesslike cha- racter and energy rather than to any marked ability or scholarship. In July 1683 he gave an example of his dangerous dex- terity by framing the Oxford declaration in favour of passive obedience, and in the heat of his loyalty committed the university to opinions which were as unreasonable as they proved to be impracticable. He re- ceived his reward in the deanery of Glouces- ter, in which he was installed on 6 June 1685. He resigned the archdeaconry of Middlesex in 1686, but kept his canonries of Christ Church and St. Paul's till his death. In November 1686 Jane was summoned to represent the anglican church in a discus- sion which was held with some Roman catholic divines in the presence of James II, with a view to the conversion of the Earl of Rochester [see under HYDE, LAITKEXCE, EARL
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OF ROCHESTER], Jane did not take much part in the disputation, which was mostly left to Rochester himself (MACAULAY, Hist. ch. vi.) But he was too staunch an anglican to enjoy this position, and changed his opinion about passive obedience as soon as it could be done with safety. When James II's cause was hopeless, Jane sought William of Orange at Hungerford, and assured him of the adhe- sion of the university of Oxford, hinting at the same time his willingness to accept the vacant bishopric of Oxford in return for his service in procuring this sign of devotion (BiRCH, Life of Tillotson, p. 188). William paid no heed to this suggestion, and Jane was disappointed. The fact that the framer of the Oxford declaration should be so ready to disown its principles occasioned a shower of epigrams, by which Jane is best known. The Latin form of his name, Janus, gave a good opportunity to the wits (cf. KENNETT, Hist. iii. 413, and Gent. Mag. for 1745, p. 321).
The disappointment combined with the epigrams to cure Jane of his whig tendency, and he set to work to regain the confidence of his old friends. He was put upon a com- mission of divines who were appointed, at the suggestion of Tillotson and Burnet, to revise the prayer-book, with a view to the comprehension of dissenters, which Wil- liam III was anxious to promote. In the first session of the commission (21 Oct. 1689) Jane opposed the entire removal of the Apocrypha from the calendar. In the second session he supported Sprat, bishop of Roches- ter, in protesting against the legality and ex- pediency of the commission, and ceased to attend its meetings (' William's Diary,' in Parliamentary Returns for 1854, 1. 95-6). The results of the deliberations of the com- mission were to be laid before convocation, and the Earls "of Rochester and Clarendon went to Oxford to devise with Jane a scheme of opposition. When convocation met on 21 Nov., Jane had organised his party, and engaged battle on the question of the elec- tion of a prolocutor. Tillotson was the can- didate of one party, Jane of the other, and Jane was elected by 55 votes to 28 (Lui- TRELL, Brief Relation, i. 607). He empha- sised the meaning of his victory when he was presented to the president of the upper house by ending his speech with the words, ' Nolumus leges Angliae mutari ' (KENNETT, Hist. iii. 591). After this the comprehen- sion scheme was allowed to drop. On Jane's return to Oxford he found another oppor- tunity of defending the church by framing the decree in 1690 which condemned the ' Naked Gospel ' of Arthur Bury [q. v.] Jane
had now little hopes of preferment from William III, and in 1696 it was rumoured that he was to be removed from his profes- sorship and other preferments, because he had not signed the ' Association for King William ' (LUTTRELL, iv. 150). On Anne's accession Jane again hoped for a bishopric, and it is clear from Atterbury's letters that there was a desire to get rid of him in Ox- ford, where much of his work as a teacher was discharged by Smalridge as his deputy. Atterbury did his best to secure Jane's re- moval, but could suggest nothing better than the deanery of Wells, which was, however, given to another (ATTERBURY, Correspond- ence, iii. 95, 286-7, iv. 398). As some com- pensation, and probably with a view to make it easier for Jane to resign his professorship, Bishop Trelawney appointed him, in February 1703, to the chancellorship of Exeter Cathe- dral, which he exchanged for the precentor- ship in May 1704. Jane, however, preferred to hold his professorship to the end. He re- signed the precentorship of Exeter in 1706, and died on 23 Feb. 1707 in Oxford, where he was buried in Christ Church.
Jane was a clerical politician of a low type, and had not much grasp on the principles which he professed to support. Calamy says of him : ' Though fond of the rites and cere- monies of the church, he was a Calvinist with respect to doctrine ; ' and the pleasantest thing recorded about him is the kindliness which he showed at Oxford to the ejected presbyterian, Thomas Gilbert [q.v.] (CALAMY, I Own Life, i. 275). Jane was a poor lecturer, and it was difficult for him to get an audience. Hearne says that in his later years he was ' given to good living, and was intemperate I and niggardly (Collections, ed. Doble, i. 237). The only writings published under Jane's name are four sermons : (1) on the consecra- tion of Henry Compton, London, 1675 ; (2) on the day of the public fast, before the House of Commons, London, 1679 ; (3) on the public thanksgiving, before the House of Commons, Oxford, 1691 ; (4) before the king and queen at Whitehall, Oxford, 1692. Besides these Wood ascribes to him ' The Present Separation Self-condemned,' London, 1678, a pamphlet against a sermon of Wil- liam Jenkyn, on the ground that Jenkyn's answer, ' Celeusma, seu Clamor ad Theologos Anglite,' 1679, attributes the authorship to | Jane. But Jenkyn's words are : ' Authore aut saltern approbatore quodam Jano,' and : are founded solely on the fact that Jane, as ' chaplain to Bishop Compton, gave his im- 1 primatur to the book. Similarly, Wood puts down to him ' A Letter to a Friend, contain- ing some Queries about the New Commis-
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sion/ 1689 ; but Lathbury (Hist, of Convo- cation, p. 326) says that his copy, which came from the collection of a nonjuror, was ascribed by its owner to Sherlock. Again, three letters written to Dr. Wallis, criticising his views about the doctrine of the Trinity (1691),are signed ' W. J.' In the 'Biographia Britannica' (s. v. ' Sherlock,' note O) 'W. J.' is identified as Jane, and Hunt (Reliyious Thought in England, ii. 206) accepts the identification. Flintoff, in his edition of Wallis (Eight Letters on the Trinity, p. 251), is more cautious, and thinks that if Wallis's correspondent was William Jane, there is nothing to show that he was the same person as the Oxford professor. It is noticeable that in the ' Biographia ' the writer is called Mr. William Jane, whereas the professor was Dr. Wallis clearly did not recognise his correspondent, and it is difficult to sup- pose that he would not have identified the initials and handwriting of a brother pro- fessor, or that Jane would have adopted so transparent a disguise if he had wished to remain anonymous.
[Boase and Courtney's Bibl. Cornub. i. 269-70; Wood's Athense Oxon. iv. 643 ; Le Neve's Fasti, i. 413, 444; Birch's Life of Tillotson, pp. 188-98; Life of Humphrey Prideaux, pp. 55-6 ; Wal- lace's Anti-Trinitarian Biography, i. 210 ; Syl- vester's Reliquise Baxterianse, iii. 177; Tanner MSS. 31.31, 24.96, 38.59; Kennett's Collec- tions, Lansdowne MS. 987, f. 185; Prideaux's Letters (Camden Soc.), p. 69 ; Kennett's Com- plete Hist. iii. 552. 590-1 ; Macaulay's Hist. ch. xiv. ; Lathbury's Hist, of Convocation, pp. 321- 328.] M. C.
JANEWAY, JAMES (1636P-1674), nonconformist divine, fourth son of William Janeway, and younger brother of John Jane- way [q. v.l, was born about the end of 1636 at Lilley, Hertfordshire, of which his father was curate. About 1655 he entered as a student at Christ Church, Oxford, and gra- duated B.A. on 12 Oct. 1659. He left the university at the Restoration, and lived in the house of Mrs. Stringer at Windsor, as tutor to her son George. Calamy includes him in his list of ' ejected or silenced' minis- ters, but furnishes no evidence that he had entered the ministry prior to the Uniformity Act of 1662. He seems to have first acted as a nonconformist preacher in London during the plague year, 1665, when several con- venticles were opened. On the indulgence of 1672 a meeting-house was built for him in Jamaica Row, Rotherhithe, where he became very popular. After the withdrawal of the indulgence his meeting-house was wrecked by a band of troopers, but rebuilt on a larger scale. On two occasions Janeway escaped
arrest. There was a tinge of religious melan- choly in his character, and, like others of his family, he became consumptive. He died unmarried on 16 March 1674, ' in the 38 yeare of his age,' according to a contemporary print, and was buried on 20 March in the church of St. Mary, Aldermanbury, near the grave of his brother Abraham. Funeral ser- mons were preached by Nathaniel Vincent and John Ryther. The portrait in Palmer's ' Nonconformist's Memorial,' 1803, iii. 511, is idealised from the emaciated visage which appears in an early print.
Janeway published, besides four single ser- mons, 1671-5 : 1. ' Heaven upon Earth,' &c., 1670, 8vo; 1677, 8vo. 2. 'A Token for Chil- dren . . . Account of the Conversion, holy and exemplary Lives and joyful Deaths of several young Children,' &c., 1671, 8vo ; 2nd part, 1672, 8vo (this extraordinary collection has been frequently reprinted, and still enjoys a reputation). 3. ' Invisibles, Realities . . . the Holy Life and . . . Death of Mr. John Janeway,' &c., 1673, 8vo (with commendatory epistles by Richard Baxter and others [see J ANEW AT,' JOHN]). 4. ' The Saints Encourage- ment,' &c., 1673, 8vo. Posthumous were : 5. ' Legacie to his Friends . . . instances of . . . Sea-dangers and Deliverances,' &c., 1674, 8vo, 1675, 8vo (portrait ; edited by Ryther). 6. ' Saints' Memorials ; or Words Fitly Spoken/ &c., 1674, 8vo (edited by Edmund Calamy, Joseph Caryl, and Ralph Yenning).
[Funeral Sermons by Vincent, 1674, and Ry- ther. 1674; Wood's Athense Oxon. (Bliss), iii. 1006; Fasti, ii. 218; Calamy's Account, 1713, p. 838; Calamy's Continuation, 1727, ii. 962; Wilson's Dissenting Churches in London, 1814, iv. 346 sq. ; Urwick's Nonconformity in Hert- fordshire, 1884, pp. 658 sq.] A. G.
JANEWAY, JOHN (1633-1657), puri- tan, second son of William Janeway, and elder brother of James Janeway [q. v.], was born on 27 Oct. (baptised 4 Dec.) 1633 at Lilley, Hertfordshire, where his father was curate (1628-38). He was a precocious scholar. His father taught him Latin, and in 1644 he became a scholar at St. Paul's School, London, under John Langley, and read Hebrew at the age of eleven (GAEDINEK, Reg. St. Paul's School, p. 43). In 1645 he read mathematics, first at Aspenden, Hert- fordshire, of which his father had become curate, afterwards in the house of ' a person of quality ' in London. In 1646, after pass- ing a brilliant examination, he was elected a foundation scholar at Eton. He spent three months at Oxford for mathematical tuition under Seth Ward [q. v.], afterwards bishop of Salisbury, returning to Eton with the repute of a mathematical and astronomical genius.
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In 1650 he was elected first scholar of that jear at King's College, Cambridge, his elder brother William being elected sixth; he, however, changed places with his brother (HARWOOD, Alumni Eton. p. 247). He was •elected fellow of his college in 1654.
Janeway's religious impressions date from 1652, when he came under the influence of a puritan fellow-student. From this time he •devoted himself to the fostering of evan- gelical piety, especially among his own rela- tives. He left Cambridge in consequence of the illness of his father, who had been rector of Ayot St. Lawrence, Hertfordshire (1644- 1646), and was now rector of Kelshall, Hert- fordshire. On his father's death in 1654 he returned to King's College, where for some time there had been ' a private society ' for religious exercises and theological discussion. As the other members left the university, Janeway gave himself to solitary study, thus injuring his health. Benjamin Whichcote [q. v.], then provost of King's College, recom- mended him as tutor in the family of ' Dr. Cox,' i.e. Thomas Coxe, M.D. [q. v.] After & short trial he found the work too heavy, and went for country air to stay with his mother and elder brother at Kelshall. He does not seem to have been ordained, but he preached twice in 1656. He fell into a rapid consumption, and died unmarried at Kelshall in June 1657. He was buried in Kelshall Church; a memorial tablet was placed in 1823 on the south wall of the chancel by John Henry Michell, then rector. Of his seven brothers (all of whom died under forty), William (b. 1631) succeeded his father (19 Oct. 1654) as rector of Kelshall, was •ejected in 1662, and seems afterwards to have lived at Buntingford, Hertfordshire ; Andrew (b. 1635) was a London merchant ; James is separately noticed; Abraham was a preacher in London, where he died of consumption in September 1665.
[James Janeway's Invisibles, Realities, &c., 1673, deals mainly with his brother's religious experiences, and the chronology of the events o1 his last years is confused and uncertain. This account, somewhat abridged, is reproduced in Clarke's Lives, 1683, pp. 60 (bis) sq. ; other abridgments are in Middleton's Biographia Evangelica, 1784, iii. 362 sq. ; Brook's Lives of the Puritans, 1813, iii. 271 sq. ; and Cox's Hist, of the Janeway Family, prefixed to James Jane- way's Heaven upon Earth, 1847 ; Calamy's Ac- count, 1713,p.370;Calamy'8Continuation, 1727, i. 530, ii. 964; Cussans's Hertfordshire, 1874: Urwick's Nonconf. in Hertfordshire, 1884, pp, 124, 563 sq., 658 sq.,729 sq., 758 sq., 797 sq., gives valuable data, but confuses the elder with the younger William Janeway, as Calamy had done in his Abridgment, 1702, p. 278.] A. G.
JANIEWICZ, afterwards YANIE- WICZ, FELIX (1762-1848), violinist and omposer, was born at Vilna in Lithuania >n 1762. He travelled in Europe, visiting Haydn and Mozart in Vienna about 1784, and spending three years in Italy. He made bis debut as a violinist at a Concert Spirituel, Paris, in December 1787, and was described in the 'Mercure de France' as a pupil of Jarnowick (Giornovichj). Janiewicz was immediately recognised by the Parisians as an artist of high rank. For a short time he enjoyed the pension of a musician on the establishment of Mile. d'Orleans; but on the outbreak of the revolution he left France for London.
Janiewicz played at Corri's house in Lon- don in January 1792, and at Growetz's con- cert on 9 Feb., giving a benefit concert in the same month. He performed his violin concerto at the Saloman concerts of 17 Feb. and 3 May (for Haydn's benefit). During several seasons Janiewicz played in London, visited the provinces and Ireland as a violinist, and conducted the subscription concerts in Man- chester and Liverpool. He was one of the original members of the London Philhar- monic Society, and in the first season (1813) was one of the leaders of the orchestra. For a time he kept a music-warehouse at 25 Lord Street, Liverpool, and married Miss Breeze of that town in 1800. In 1815 he went to Edinburgh. He retired after 1829, and died at 84 Great King Street, Edinburgh, on 21 May 1848, aged 86.
Janiewicz was not only a brilliant soloist, but an excellent leader and a conductor of conspicuous ability. His style of playing was solid, yet full of expression, and his skill in octave passages admirable.
Janiewicz published: 1. ' Six Divertimentos for Two Violins,' London, 1800 ? 2. ' Sonata for the Pianoforte, with Accompaniment for the Violin,' in which is introduced Handel's ' Lord, remember David,' London, 1800 ?
3. ' Go, youth belov'd,' song, Liverpool, 1810?
4. ' Polish Rondo for Pianoforte,' Liverpool, 1810 ? and many adaptations.
[Mercure de France, 1788, p. 37 ; Pohl's Haydn in London, p. 39 ; Parke's Musical Memoirs, p. 151 ; Kelly's Reminiscences, i. 230 ; Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 30, iv. 685 ; Caledonian Mercury, 25 May 1848.] L. M. M.
JANSSEN or JANSEN, BERNARD (Jl. 1610-1630), stonemason and tombmaker, a native of Holland, was in all probability a pupil of Hendrik de Keyser, the great sculptor and tombmaker at Amsterdam. He is sometimes described as an architect and the designer of Northampton (afterwards North-
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umberland) House at Charing Cross, built for Henry Howard, earl of Northampton [q. v.], and of Audley Inn (now Audley End) in Essex, built for that nobleman's nephew, Thomas Howard, first earl of Suffolk [q. v.] It is more probable that he was only the master mason who carried out the designs of Moses Glover [q. v.l in the former case and of John Thorpe [q.v.j in the latter. In 1615 he and Nicholas Stone [q. v.] were engaged on the tomb of Thomas Sutton in the Charterhouse, and they executed other commissions jointly, including a tomb for Sir Nicholas Bacon and his wife in Redgrave Church, Suffolk. It would appear that Stone contributed the portrait figures. The same artists were em- ployed between 1617 and 1620 to erect in the church at Bergen-op-Zoom in Holland a monument to Marcel Bax, governor of that town. Bax's widow, who had married Sir David Balfour, an English commander, gave the commission. This church was totally destroyed in the bombardment of 1745. In 1626 Janssen designed the triumphal arch erected by the members of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars, on the accession of Charles I. Janssen is described as a native of South- wark. There resided at the same date in the parish of St. Thomas the Apostle, South- wark, near the Globe Theatre, GEKAERT J AXS- SEX or GERARD JOHXSON (_/?. 1616), who was also a tombmaker, and possibly Bernard's brother. He is noteworthy as having exe- cuted in 1616 the portrait bust of Shakespeare in the church at Stratford-on-Avon. In 1593 it was stated that a tombmaker of the name (see Diary of Sir W. Dugdale, edited by W. Hamper, appendix) was a native of Amster- dam, had lived twenty-six years in England with a wife named Mary, and was father of five sons and one daughter, all born in Eng- land. If not identical with the designer of Shakespeare's bust, he was no doubt his father, and perhaps father also of Bernard Janssen.
[Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, ed. Wor- num ; Messager des Sciences et Arts de la Bel- gique, 1858, p. 93; Moens's Reg. of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars ;Halliwell-Phillipps's Out- lines of the Life of Shakespeare.] L. C.
JANSSEN, SIR THEODORE (1658?- 1748), director of the South Sea scheme, was born in France about 1658. His father, Abraham Janssen, was the youngest son of Baron de Herz, who made himself prominent on the popular side during the rising against Spain in the Netherlands, and was finally captured and beheaded by the Duke of Parma. Janssen came to England in 1680 with a for- tune of 20.000/., received from his father ; en- gaged in trade so successfully as to increase this to 300,000/., and was naturalised in
1685 (Hist, MSS. Comm. llth Rep. ii. 300). He was of service to the governments of King William and Queen Anne. William knighted him, and Anne made him a baronet on. 11 March 1714, at the special request of the elector of Hanover, afterwards George I. The same year he was elected M.P. for Yar- mouth. In South Sea days he became a director of the company, but on the collapse was a loser of 50,000/. It was part of Wai- pole's relief plan to make scapegoats of the directors, and Janssen was forced to hand over about a quarter of a million of money, ' near one-half real estate.' Part of this was the manor of Wimbledon, which he had bought in 1717, and which was now sold to- Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, for 15,000£r He was also expelled the House of Com- mons, and was committed to the keeping of the sergeant-at-arms in 1721. In theChauncy MS. of Pope's ' Moral Essays ' (epistle iii., ' On the Use of Riches ') he is mentioned in the lines : —
"When still we see the dirty blessing light
On such as Bl — n, Ja — n, W — rd, and Kn — t;
i.e. Bladen (who married Janssen's second daughter, Barbara), Janssen, Ward, and Knight. The reference to Janssen in the ' Dunciad,' iv. 326, and ' Satires,' vii. 88, is to- a son, a notorious gambler (see Elwin and Courthope's edition).
Janssen died at Wimbledon 22 Sept. 1748, and was buried in the churchyard there. He was married to Williamsa (d. 1731), daugh- ter of Sir Robert Henley of the Grange in Hampshire, and sister of Anthony Henley [q. v.] He had a large family. His three eldest sons — Abraham (d. 1765), Henry (d. 1766), and Stephen Theodore, lord mayor of London (d. 1777) — were successively baro- nets. On the death of the last, in 1777, the title became extinct. A tract by Sir Theodore Janssen, entitled ' General Maxims in Trade
Sirticularly applied to the Commerce bet ween reat Britain and France,' appeared in 1713. It was reproduced in substance as part of vol. i. of ' The British Merchant,' edited by Charles King in 1721, and reprinted in vol. xiii. of the ' Somers Tracts.'
[Gent. Mag. September 1748, p. 428 ; London Mag. 1748, p. 429 ; Burke's Extinct Baronetage, p. 281 ; Historical Register for 1721, pp. 49 and 221; Lysons's Environs of London; Brayley's Surrey; Sloane MS. 4310, f. 427.] F. W-T.
JANSSEN(JONSON)VAN CEULEN, CORNELIUS (1593-1664 ?), portrait- painter, is usually stated to have been born in London about 1 594. He is in all probability identical with Cornells Jansz, son of Cornells, who was baptised at the Dutch Church in
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Austin Friars on 14 Oct. 1593. From another entry in the same register we learn that his mother's name was Johanna. The family sur- name seems to have been Van Ceulen. Jans- sen was practising as a portrait-painter in Lon- don in 1618, and for the next twenty years was the fashionable depicter of the court nobility and gentry in England. He dwelt in the Blackfriars for some years, but in 1636 he went to reside with or near a Dutch merchant, Sir Arnold Braems, at Bridge, near Barham Down, close to Canterbury. During his resi- dence there he painted numerous portraits of the neighbouring families of Aucher, Digges, and Hammond. A portrait by him of Lady Bowyer, who was famous for her beauty, was especially noted by his contemporaries. Many families in England preserve portraits of their ancestors painted by, or attributed to, Cor- nelius Janssen. He signed his pictures most frequently in full, ' Cornelius Jonson [and occasionally Johnson] Van Ceulen.' Among his large family groups were those of the Rushout family, the Lucy family (destroyed by fire) at Charlecote, the Verney family, and Arthur, lord Capel, at Cassiobury. A portrait of Milton at the age of ten, attributed to him, is engraved in Masson's ' Life of Milton,' vol. i. Janssen's colouring was cool and subdued, and he was especially fond of black dresses and grey or deep brown shadows, but was extremely successful in his likenesses. He painted small portraits also, but apparently not miniatures. On the arrival of Vandyck in London Janssen's fame was somewhat overshadowed. The similarity in the style of some of their portraits has led to the pre- sumption that he was influenced by the more popular manner of Vandyck. It is not im- possible that Vandyck as the junior artist may have, on the other hand, based some of his portrait son the successful style of Janssen. The outbreak' of the civil war led to a further diminution of Janssen's practice. On 10 Oct. 1643 he obtained a warrant from the parlia- ment to leave England with his family, goods, and chattels. He crossed to Middelburg in Holland, where he resided a short time, and became a member of the Guild of St. Luke there. He then moved to the Hague, where he painted numerous portraits, including a huge group of the leading citizens of the town. Subsequently he went to Amsterdam, continuing to practice as a painter. He must have died in or before 1664, as his widow is mentioned at Utrecht in that year. He had married, on 16 July 1622, at the Dutch Church, Austin Friars, Elizabeth Beke of Colchester, and he left a son of the same name as himself, who practised, with less success, as a portrait- painter. A portrait by the son of William III
as a boy is in the National Portrait Gallery. Janssen's sister Clara was married on 27 Nov. 1604 at the Dutch Church, Austin Friars, to Nicasius Rousseel, and their son, Theodore Rpusseel (or Russell), resided many years with Cornelius Janssen in London. A por- trait of Janssen was engraved for Walpole's 'Anecdotes of Painting,' and it is recorded that Adriaen Hanneman [q. v.] painted a group of Janssen with his wife and son.
[Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting; Vertue's MSS. (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 23072, &c.) ; Im- merzeel's Levens en Werken der Hollandsche en Vlaamsche Konstschilders ; Obreen's Archief voor Nederlandsche Kunstgeschiedenis, vi. 171; Moens's Register of the Dutch Church, Austin Friars; Oud Holland, vol. viii. ; information from Dr. Abraham Bredius and George Scharf, esq_ C.B., F.S.A.] L. C.
JARDINE, ALEXANDER (d. 1799), lieutenant-colonel, captain royal invalid ar- tillery, entered the artillery as a private matross in March 1755, and was transferred to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, as a cadet in June 1757. (Promotion from the ranks to commissions in the artillery did not cease entirely until 1776.) Jardine passed out of the academy as a lieutenant-fireworker on 8 Feb. 1758, became a second lieutenant on 11 Sept. 1762, first lieutenant on 28 May 1766, captain-lieutenant on 28 April 1773, was transferred to the invalid establishment on 1 Nov. 1776, became captain in 1777, brevet- major in 1783, and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1793. While stationed at Gibraltar he collected a mass of valuable professional ob- servations, and presented them in 1772 to the Regimental Society, Woolwich, which he ac- tively helped to establish in 1772-5. These papers are now in the Royal Artillery Insti- tute (cf. Royal Artillery Institute Proceed- ings, vol. i.) When at Gibraltar in 1771 Jardine was sent by the governor, General Stephen Cornwallis, on a mission to the emperor of Morocco. Jardine's account of Morocco, with letters written during subse- quent visits to France and Spain, from Por- tugal in 1779, and from Jersey in 1787, were published by him under the title 'Letters from Morocco, &c. By an English Officer,' London, 1790, 2 vols. 8vo. Jardine died in Portugal on 16 July 1799.
[Kane's List of Officers Roy. Artillery (re- vised ed. Woolwich, 1869), p. 9; Proc. Roy. Art. Inst. vol. i. pp. xvii-xxxii ; Duncan's Hist. Roy. Artillery, London, 1872; biographical notices prefixed to Lefroy's Official Cat. Artillery Mu- seum ; Jardine's Letters.] H. M. C.
JARDINE, DAVID (1794-1860), his- torical and legal writer, born at Pickwick, near Bath, in 1794, was son of David B.
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Jardine (1766-1797), Unitarian minister at Bath from 1790, by his wife, a daughter of George Webster of Hampstead. The father died on 10 March 1797, and John Prior Estlin £q. v.] of Bristol edited, with a memoir, two volumes of his sermons. The son was called to the bar as a member of the Middle Temple (7 Feb. 1823), chose the western circuit, and became recorder of Bath. In 1839 he was appointed police magistrate at Bow Street, London. He died at the Heath, Weybridge, Surrey, on 13 Sept. 1860; his wife, Sarah, following him to the grave three weeks later {Gent. Mag. 3rd ser. ix. 446, 565).
In 1828 Jardine published an admirably compiled ' General Index ' to Howell's ' Col- lection of State Trials.' In 1840 and 1841 he communicated to the Society of Anti- quaries two papers of ' Remarks upon the Letters of Thomas Winter and the Lord Mounteagle, lately discovered by J. Bruce. . . . Also upon the Evidence of Lord Mount- eagle's implication in the Gunpowder Treason' {printed in ' Archseologia,' xxix. 80-110, and also separately). These formed the materials for an elaborate volume entitled ' A Narra- tive of the Gunpowder Plot,' 8vo, London, 1857. Jardine also edited from a manu- script in the Bodleian Library ' A Treatise of Equivocation,' 8vo, 1851, and translated F. C. F. von Mueffling's ' Narrative of my Missions in 1829 and 1830,' 8vo, 1855.
For the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge he selected and abridged from Howell's ' State Trials of England ' two vo- lumes of ' Criminal Trials,' 12mo, 1832-3 {in Library of Entertaining Knowledge). To the ' Lives of Eminent Persons,' in the Library of Useful Knowledge, published by the same society, he contributed a ' Life ' of Lord Somers. He wrote also: 1. 'A Read- ing on the use of Torture in the Criminal Law of England previously to the Common- wealth,' 8vo, London, 1837, which was de- scribed by Macaulay as ' very learned and ingenious.' 2. ' Remarks on the Law and Expediency of requiring the presence of Ac- cused Persons at Coroners' Inquisitions,' 8vo, London, 1846.
[Annual Eegister, 1860. p. 453 ; Law Mag. November 1860, pp. 198, 199; information from Jerom Murch, esq., and Albert Nicholson, esq. ; Estlin's Memoir of David B. Jardine.] Gr. G.
JAKDINE, GEORGE (1742-1827), pro- fessor of logic at Glasgow, was born in 1742 at Wandel in Lanarkshire, where his paternal ancestors had dwelt for nearly two centuries. His mother was a daughter of Weir of Birk- wood, in the parish of Lesmahagow. Jardine .was transferred in October 1760 from the
parish school to Glasgow College, and after passing with distinction through the arts and divinity courses, was licensed to preach by the presbytery of Linlithgow. In 1770 he went to Paris as tutor to the sons of Baron Mure of Caldwell, who obtained for him from David Hume introductions to Helvetius and D'Alembert. Soon after his return from France in July 1773, he failed to secure election to the chair of humanity at Glas- gow by a single vote, but in June 1774 was appointed professor of Greek and assistant professor in logic. In 1787 he became sole professor of logic. Jardine gave a more practical and less metaphysical turn to the teaching of his chair, established a system of daily examination, and bestowed infinite pains upon his classes, which rose from an average of fifty to one of nearly two hundred. He expounded his principles of teaching in his ' Outlines of Philosophical Education/ published at Glasgow, 1818 ; 2nd edit. 1825. His business powers restored the finances of the college to order. He was one of the founders in 1792, and afterwards for more than twenty years secretary, of the Royal Infirmary at Glasgow. For upwards of thirty years he was the representative of the pres- bytery of Hamilton in the general assembly. He retired from the chair of logic in 1824, and died on 27 Jan. 1827.
Jardine married in 1776 Miss Lindsay of Glasgow, whom he survived about twelve years. They had one son, John Jardine, ad- vocate, who held the office of sheriff of Ross and Cromarty, and died in 1850.
[Chambers's Biog. Diet, of Eminent Scotsmen, ed. Thomson (1868-70); Blackwood's Mag. March 1827.] J. T-T.
JARDINE, JAMES (1776-1858), engi- neer, was born at Applegarth, Dumfries- shire, on 30 Nov. 1776. Having shown great aptitude for mathematics at the Dumfries academy he made his way in 1795 to Edin- burgh, with a letter of introduction to John Playfair, professor of mathematics at Edin- burgh University from 1785 to 1805. He was warmly befriended both by Playfair and by Dugald Stewart, and obtained many ma- thematical pupils, including Lord John Rus- sell and Henry John Temple (afterwards Lord Palmerston). About 1806 he began, by Playfair's advice, to practise the profes- sion of a civil engineer, and soon found abun- dant employment. He introduced the Craw- ley water into Edinburgh, constructed the Union Canal, and, having been employed in 1809 to take a series of levels in the Firth of Tay, he was the first to determine, by obser- vations of the tides over a great extent of
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coast, the mean level of the sea. He did valuable work on the commission appointed in 1825 to determine the proportions borne by the old Scottish weights and measures to the imperial standard, and was subsequently engineer of the Dalkeith railway. 'All Jardine's works/ says Professor Rankine, ' are models of skilful design and solid con- struction.' Jardine died at Edinburgh on 20 June 1858. He was a friend of Stephen- son and Telford.
[Notice by Professor ~VV. M. J. Rankine in Imperial Diet, of Univ. Biog. vol. xii. ; Glasgow Courier, 24 June 1858 ; information kindly sup- plied by Professor Ball of Glasgow.] T. S.
JARDINE, JOHN (1716-1766), Scottish divine, son of Robert Jardine of Lochmaben, Dumfriesshire, was born 3 Jan. 1716. He was licensed by the presbytery of Lochmaben 7 Sept. 1736, was appointed to Liberton by George II, and was ordained 30 July 1741. On 26 July 1750 he received a call to Lady Tester's Church at Edinburgh, and on 24 April 1 7 54 was transferred to the collegiate or second charge of the Tron Church there. He was created D.D. by the university of St. An- drews 20 Nov. 1758, and became one of his majesty's chaplains in ordinary in September 1759, and one of the deans of the Chapel Royal in August 1761. He was made dean of the order of the Thistle in January 1763. On 30 May 1766 Jardine died suddenly while attending a meeting of the general assembly. He married Jean (<?. 1767), eldest daughter of George Drummond [q. v.], lord provost of Edinburgh. By her he left a son, Henry (afterwards Sir Henry) (1766-1851), some- time king's remembrancer, and a daughter, Janet, who married George Drummond Home of Blair Drummond. Jardine was a good preacher, and a man of great social qualities. He moved in the Edinburgh literary set of the time, was a member of the ' Select So- ciety' of 1759, and a friend of Home, Hume, and Dr. Alexander Carlyle, but is only known to have written a few articles in the first 4 Edinburgh Review,' which was founded, largely by his influence, in 1755.
[Scott's Fasti, i. 60, 62, 116; Annals of the General Assembly ; Cunningham's Church Hist, of Scotland ; Mackenzie's Life of Home, p. 14, &c. ; Anderson's Scottish Nation, ii. 568 ; Car- lyle's Autobiography, p. 238, &c.] W. A. J. A.
JARDINE, SIR WILLIAM, seventh baronet (1800-1874), naturalist, eldest son of Sir Alexander Jardine, sixth baronet, of Applegarth, Dumfriesshire, was born in Edin- burgh 23 Feb. 1800. After some education at home and at a school in York, he at the age of seventeen entered the university of
Edinburgh, taking both literary and medical classes. He studied natural history and geology under Professor Jameson, and ana- tomy under Barclay, Allan, and Lizars. He succeeded his father as seventh baronet in 1820. Jardine devoted himself especially to ornithology. His earliest publication (with Prideaux John Selby), ' Illustrations of Or- nithology,' gave him a high rank among zoologists. In 1833 he commenced the pub- lication of the 'Naturalists' Library,' a popu- lar scientific account of very many groups of the vertebrate kingdom, with coloured illus- trations. The series, which was very useful in its day, and may still be consulted with advantage, appeared at intervals of about three months until 1845, and fourteen vo- lumes, dealing chiefly with birds and fishes, were by Jardine. In addition he wrote many memoirs of naturalists as prefaces to vo- lumes by other writers. In 1836 he was pre- sident of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club. In 1837 he started at Edinburgh with Selby the 'Magazine of Zoology and Botany,' which became in 1838 the ' Annals of Natural His- tory,' and in 1841 the ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History.' He was also for some years a joint editor of the 'Edinburgh Philo- sophical Journal.' In 1860 he was one of the royal commissioners on salmon fisheries of England and Wales, and he was an active member of the British Association from its foundation. In addition to his wide ornitho- logical knowledge, Jardine knew many orders of vertebrates both as sportsman and natu- ralist ; he was also a good geologist and bo- tanist. He formed a valuable museum at Jar- dine Hall, and drew up a catalogue, the bird list containing six thousand species. He was an ardent fisherman and a good shot. He died at Sandown, Isle of Wight, on 21 Nov. 1874. In 1820 Jardine married Jane Home, daughter of Daniel Lizars of Edinburgh, by whom he had three sons and four daughters. After her death, in 1871, he married Hya- cinthe, daughter of the Rev. W. S. Symonds. Lady Jardine married in 1876 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker.
Jardine wrote: 1. 'Illustrations of Or- nithology' (with Prideaux John Selby), 4to, Edinburgh, 1830, 2 vols. 2. ' Life of Alexander Wilson, Ornithologist,' prefixed to Wilson's ' American Ornithology,' 1832 ; another edition, 1840. 3. ' The Naturalists' Library,' edited by Jardine, Edinburgh, 1833- 1845, 40 vols. 8vo. He wrote the volumes dealing with monkeys (vol. ii.), felinse (vol. iii.), pachyderms (vol. ix.), ruminants (vols. x. xi.), humming-birds (vols. xiv. xv.), sun- birds (vol. xvi.), gallinaceous birds (vols. xx. xxi.),the perch family (vol. xxix.) 4. ' Galen-
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dar of Ornithology,' 1849. 6. ' The Ichnology of Annandale, or Illustrations of Footprints impressed on the New Red Sandstone of Corncockle Muir,' Edinburgh, 1853, fol. 6. ' Memoirs of H. E. Strickland ' (his son- in-law) [q.v.], London, 1858, 8vo. 7. 'British Salmonidse,' Edinburgh, 1861, 2 parts, fol. 8. ' The Birds of Great Britain and Ireland, with Memoirs of Sir R. Sibbald, W. Smellie, J. Walker, and A. Wilson,' London, 1876, 4 vols. 8vo. He also edited editions of White's ' Selborne,' and of II. E. Strickland's ' Ornithological Synonyms,' 1855.
[Nature, vol. xi. 26 Nov. 1874 ; Proc. Eoy. Soc. Edinb. ix. 207.] OK T. B.
JARLATH or IARLAITHE (424-481), Irish saint, third archbishop of Armagh, was born at Rath-trena in the east of Ulster. His father was named Trien, and was of the Dal Fiatach, the race of Fiatach the Fair, which furnished kings to Ulster for the seven hundred years preceding the Norman inva- sion. He was born a pagan, was baptised in childhood, administered the last sacrament to St. Benan, and after Benan's death became archbishop of Armagh in 464. He died on 11 Feb. 481.
[Colgan's Acta Sanctorum Hib. ; Eeeves's An- tiquities of Down, Connor, and Dromore, p. 352 ; Annals of Ulster, ed. Hennessy, i. 25.] N. M.
JARLATH or IARLATH (/. 540), Irish saint, was a native of Connaught, where both his father Lugh and his mother Mong- finn were well descended. In the reign of Tuathal Maolgarbh, king of Ireland 533-44, he started on a journey with the intention of founding a church and religious community in some suitable place. Before he reached the frontier of Connaught his chariot-wheels were broken, and he took the accident as a divine indication of the proper - site for his church, which he built at Tuam-da-gualann. It was the first bishopric founded in Con- naught, and still retains the primacy of that province. The town now known as Tuam, co. Galway, grew up around his church, and his relics were long preserved there in a chapel called Serin. His obit is celebrated on 26 Dec., but no ancient life of him is extant.
This saint is sometimes confounded with the Jarlath (424-481) [q. v.], third arch- bishop of Armagh. Colgan is clear that they are distinct. O'Clery seems no less clear, but it is a suspicious circumstance that O'Clery derives the archbishop of Tuam from the Clan Rudhraighe, a family of Ulster closely allied, and in later times united, with the Dal Fiatach, from whom the Archbishop of Ar- magh was descended.
[Felire of (Engns, ed. Stokes, p. 18 4 ; Colgan's Acta Sanctorum Hib. ; Martyrology of Donegal, Dublin ed., 1864, p. 349.] ' N. M.
JARMAN,FRANCES ELEANOR, sub- sequently TERNAN (1803 P-1873), actress, the daughter of John Jarman and Maria Motter- shed, whose acting name before her marriage was Errington, is said to have been born in Hull in February 1803. Her mother, a mem- ber of Tate Wilkinson's company in York and an actress of merit, made her first appearance in Bath as Lady Lucretia Limber in ' Policy,' 10 Dec. 1814. In the same season the name of Miss Jarman appears on 23 May 1815 to the character of Edward, a child, in Mrs. Inchbald's 'Everyone has his fault.' Genest, who mentions Miss Jarman's name only in the cast, says ' she acted very well.' She had previously for her mother's benefit recited Southey's 'Mary, the Maid of the Inn.' Many juvenile parts, including the Duke of York, Myrtilla in the ' Broken Sword,' &c., succeeded. On 12 Dec. 1817 she was Bel- lario in ' Philaster,' and ' acted very prettily,' according to Genest, who adds that she was still very young and ' the part was rather too much for her.' Agnes in the ' Orphan of the Castle ' followed on 7 Nov. 1818, Selina in the ' Tale of Mystery' on 12 Dec., and Betsey Blossom in the ' Deaf Lover' on 6 Jan. 1819. During this and following seasons she played among other parts Cicely Copsley in 'The Will,' Miss Neville in ' Know your own mind,' Juba in ' The Prize,' Orasmyn in 'The ^Ethiop,' Perdita, Marchesa Aldabella in ' Fazio,' Lady Grace in the ' Provoked Husband,' Jacintha in the ' Suspicious Hus- band,' Jeanie Deans, Tarquinia in ' Brutus,' Statira in ' Alexander the Great ' (to the Alexander of Kean), Lady Teazle for her benefit, Geraldine in the 'Foundling of the Forest,' Rebecca in ' Ivanhoe,' Miranda, Julia in ' The Rivals,' Ophelia, Juliet, Louison in ' Henri Quatre,' Cordelia to the Lear of Young, Virginia, Mrs. Hardcastle, and Cherry in the ' Beaux' Stratagem.' During the season of 1820-1 she was ill, which fact, Genest says, ' cast a damp on several plays,' and she only recommenced to act for her and her mother's benefit on 19 March 1821, when she played Violante in ' The Wonder ' and Fiametta in the 'Tale of Mystery.' In the following season she was quite recovered, and added to her repertory Amy Robsart in ' Kenil- worth,' Sophia in the ' Road to Ruin,' Letitia Hardy, Julia in ' Two Gentlemen of Verona,' and was the original Lady Constance Dudley in Dr. Ainslie's ' Clemenza, or the Tuscan Orphan,' 1 June 1822. On 20 Oct. 1822 she made, under Harris of Drury Lane, as Letitia Hardy in the 'Belle's Stratagem/
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her first appearance at Crow Street Theatre, Dublin. She is said to have possessed a pleasing and expressive countenance, a grace- ful and dignified carriage, and a voice re- markable for its sweetness and exquisite modulation. She Avas a good singer, and sprang into immediate popularity. She acted in various Irish towns, and had a narrow escape from an abduction. On 7 Feb. 1827, as Juliet to the Romeo of C. Kemble, she made at Covent Garden her first appearance in Lon- don. So disabled by nervousness was she that her performance was almost a failure. Lady Townley, Mrs. Oakly, Mrs. Beverley in ' The Gamester,' and Juliana in 'The Honeymoon ' followed, and did little to enhance her repu- tation. The critic of the 'New Monthly Magazine,' presumably Talfourd, devotes two columns to her performance of Juliet, Lady Townley, and Mrs. Beverley, praises her ap- pearance, notes an absence of provincialisms and mannerisms, and calls her in tragedy picturesque rather than passionate. As Imo- gen, 10 May 1827, which proved her best tragic character, she advanced in public favour. On 22 May 1827 she was the origi- nal Alice in Lacy's adaptation, ' Love and Reason.' In the following seasons she was seen as Lady Amaranth in ' Wild Oats,' Des- demona, Beatrice, Belvidera in 'Venice Pre- served,' Leonora in 'The Revenge,' Portia, Lady Anne in ' Richard III,' Camilla in ' Fos- cari,' Perdita, Isabella, Fanny in the ' Clan- destine Marriage,' Lydia Languish, Mrs. Hal- ler, and Mrs. Sullen, and enacted original characters in various now-forgotten plays. As Amadis in Dimond's ' Nymph of the Grotto,' 15 Jan. 1829, she made a success such as induced Madame Vestris, by whom the part had been refused, vainly to re- claim it.
Miss Jarman's first appearance in Edin- burgh took place on 3 Nov. 1829 as Juliana in ' The Honeymoon.' She was, in Scot- land, the original Isabella in Scott's ' House of Aspen,' 17 Dec. 1829, and also played Desdemona and other parts. By Edinburgh literary society she was well received. Chris- topher North, in the ' Noctes Ambrosianae,' besides praising her acting, says that she was ' altogether a lady in private life.' In Edinburgh she met Ternan, an actor 'for- cible rather than finished,' a native of Dublin, -who in 1833 had played in Dublin Shylock and Rob Roy. She married him on 21 Sept. 1834, and the following day started with him for America. In the course of a three years' tour she visited with success the prin- cipal cities from Quebec to Mobile. She afterwards played in Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Liverpool, Dublin, and Birmingham, and was
engaged in 1837-8 by Bunn for Drury Lane. In 1843 she was with her husband in Dublin. In October 1855 she played at the Princess's Paulina in Charles Kean's revival of the 'Winter's Tale,' and soon afterwards took part, with Charles Dickens and other literary celebrities, in the representation at Man- chester, in the Corn Exchange, of the ' Frozen Deep ' of Wilkie Collins. After quitting the stage about 1857-8 she returned to it again in 1866 to take the part of blind Alice in the representation by Fechter at the Lyceum of the ' Bride of Lammermoor.' She died at Oxford in the house of one of her married daughters in October 1873. More than one of her daughters obtained reputation as actress or vocalist. On 10 June 1829, for Miss Jarman's benefit, a sister, Miss Louisa Jarman, made, as Eglantine in the ' Nymph of the Grotto,' her first appearance.
[Information from private sources ; Oxberry's Dramatic Biography, new ser. vol. i. ; Actors by Daylight ; Genest's Account of the Stage ; Dib- din's Hist, of the Edinburgh Stage ; Hist, of the Theatre Royal, Dublin, 1870; Forster's Life of Dickens.] ' J. K.
JARRETT, THOMAS, D.D. (1805- 1882), orientalist, born in 1805, was edu- cated at St. Catharine's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1827 as thirty- fourth wrangler, and seventh in the first class of the classical tripos. In the following year he was elected a fellow of his college, where he resided as classical and Hebrew lecturer till 1832. In 1832 he was presented by his college to the rectory of Trunch in Norfolk. In 1831 he was elected.to the pro- fessorship of Arabic at Cambridge, and held the chair till 1854, when he was appointed regius professor of Hebrew and canon of Ely. He died at Trunch rectory on 7 March 1882. As a linguist Jarrett was chiefly remark- able for the extent and variety of his know- ledge. He knew at least twenty languages, and taught Hebrew, Arabic, Sanskrit, Per- sian, Gothic, and indeed almost any language for which he could find a student. He spent much time in the transliteration of oriental languages into the Roman character, accord- ing to a system devised by himself; and also in promulgating a system of printing Eng- lish with diacritical marks to show the sound of each vowel without changing the spelling of the word.
He published in 1831 an 'Essay on Alge- braic Development,' intended to illustrate and apply a system of algebraic notation sub- mitted by him to the Cambridge Philoso- phical Society in 1827, and printed in the third volume of their ' Transactions ; ' in 1830, ' Grammatical Indexes to the Hebrew
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Text of Genesis ; ' in 1848, a ' Hebrew-Eng- lish and English-Hebrew Lexicon ; ' in 1857, ' The Gospels and Acts so printed as to Show the Sound of each Word without Change of Spelling,' a work which was in- tended to illustrate his ' New Way of Mark- ing Sounds of English words without Change of Spelling,' published in 1858; in 1866. an edition of Virgil with all the quantities marked; in 1875, ' Nalopakhyanam,' or the Sanskrit text of the Story of Nala translite- rated into Roman characters ; and in 1882, the 'Hebrew Text of the Old Covenant printed in a modified Roman Alphabet.' He had besides prepared transliterated editions, which were never published, of the Rama- yana, the Shahnamah, and the Koran.
[Brit. Mus. Cat. ; information from Professor CowelL] E. J. K.
JARROLD, THOMAS (1770-1853), phy- sician, born at Manningtree, Essex, on 1 Dec. 1770, was educated at Edinburgh, where he is said to have taken his degree of M.D,, though his name does not appear in the published list of graduates. He was in practice at Stock- port, Cheshire, in 1806, and soon afterwards removed to Manchester, where he died on 24 June 1853. He was buried at the Congre- gational Chapel, Grosvenor Street. He was twice married, his first wife Susanna dying on 12 March 1817, aged 51, and the second at Norwich in 1886, aged 91. His son, Edgar T. Jarrold, died at New York on 25 Feb. 1890.
Jarrold published : 1. ' Dissertations on Man ... in answer to Mr. Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population,' Stockport,
1806, 8vo, pp. 367. 2. ' A Letter to Samuel Whitbread, M.P. ... on the Poor's Laws,'
1807, 8vo, pp. 32. 3. ' Anthropologia, or Dissertations on the Form and Colour of Man,' Stockport, 1808, 4to, pp. 261. 4. < An Inquiry into the Causes of the Curvature of the Spine,' 1823, 8vo. 5. ' Instinct and Rea- son philosophically investigated, with a view to ascertain the Principles of the Science of Education,' Manchester, 1836, 8vo, pp. 348. 6. ' Education of the People,' pt. i., Manches- ter, 1847, 8vo. He was a member of the Man- chester Literary and Philosophical Society, and in 1811 contributed to its ' Memoirs ' a paper on 'National Character' (2nd series, ii. 328).
[Earwaker's Local Gleanings, i. 137, 143 ; Cheshire Notes and Queries, new ser. iii. 154; Allibone's Diet, of Authors, i. 955 ; communica- tions from his daughter, Mrs. T. Jarrold of Nor- wich, and Mr. W. I. Wild.] C. W. S.
JARRY, FRANCIS (1733-1807), first commandant of the British Royal Military College, born in France in 1733, is stated by
the French war office to have entered the Prussian army, and to have become a cap- tain and engineer therein at dates unknown, major 28 Oct. 1763, colonel 30 March 1790. The German war office, however, can find no trace of any officer of the name in the records of the Prussian army (foreign office letter, 14 Oct. 1890). According to Sir Howard Douglas [q. v.], and other officers associated with him at a later date in Eng- land, Jarry was one of the twelve military officers whom Frederick the Great of Prus- sia claimed to have personally instructed in quartermaster-general's duties. After the seven years' war, in which he is said to have received several severe wounds, Jarry (it is stated) was placed at the head of the mili- tary school at Berlin, and retained the post till Frederick's death in 1786. Once he re- signed after a quarrel with the court ; but the king could not spare him, and recalled him.
Jarry is said to have entered the service of France at the invitation of General Du- mouriez, who described him as ' one of the cleverest officers in any service' (Ls MA.K- CHANT, p. 118 ; Evidence of Sir H. Douglas before Select Committee on Military Educa- tion, 1855). He was created a chevalier of the order of St. Louis 19 June 1791; was admitted colonel and adjutant-general in the French army 6 July 1791, and became mar6- chal de camp 27 May 1792 (verified extract from the Archives Administratives, Ministere de la Guerre, dated Paris, 17 Feb. 1891). He was employed in the French army, serving under Marshal Luckner against the Austrians in 1792, and he incurred the displeasure of the national government by burning part of the suburbs of Courtrai, on the ground that they furnished shelter to the Tyrolese riflemen, on 29 June 1792 (cf. Ann. Register, 1792, pt, i. pp. 410 et seq.) He left the French service 16 Aug. 1792.
Jarry arrived in London with other French emigrants after the return of the Duke of York's army in 1795. He became acquainted with the third Duke of Portland, and was a sort of military mentor to one of the duke's sons, Lord William Henry Cavendish Bentinck [q. v.] He was soon recognised as a man of eminent talent in his profession and full of interesting anecdote. A year or two later, at the suggestion of General John Gaspard Le Marchant [q. v.], then junior lieu- tenant-colonel 7th light dragoons, he was en- gaged to deliver tactical lectures to voluntary classes of young officers at ahouse in High Wy- combe, Buckinghamshire, which was hired for the purpose (Evidence of Sir H. Douglas be- fore Select Committee). George Murray of the
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3rd guards, afterwards Wellington's quarter- master-general in the Peninsula, Henry Ed- ward Bunbury [q. v.], the fifth lord Aylmer, and Richard Bourke [q. v.] were among the students there. But Jarry soon found that the rudimentary knowledge of military science in the British army was too small to enable all his pupils to profit by his instruction, and recommended the formation of mathematical and fortification classes (ib.~) Early in 1799 Isaac Dalby [q.v.l was appointed professor of mathematics, and two emigres of the Ecole Polytechnique teachers of fortification, and the establishment, which had the approval of Sir Ralph Abercromby and other officers of distinction, acquired a semi-official status (ib.) In January 1801 a parliamentary grant of 30,000^. was voted for the establishment I of a ' royal military college,' to consist of I two departments, a senior at High Wycombe i and a junior at Marlow, both of which were subsequently removed to Sandhurst. Of the former, which was to consist of thirty officers to be instructed in general staff duties, par- ticularly those of the quartermaster-general's department, Jarry was appointed command- ant 4 Jan. 1799. The assemblage of so many young officers solely for purposes of instruc- tion was without precedent in the British army. Jarry was a man of high professional ability, of easy and refined manners, and the most unassuming disposition ; but his lean, bent form and many eccentricities exposed him to persecution at the hands of some idlers among his - pupils. Among the prac- tical jokes indulged in by them was the de- struction of all the models made by Jarry with his own hands , for instruction in field- works. Cookery and gardening were his special hobbies. At the time of the peace of Amiens his position appears to have been so uncomfortable that he thought seriously of returning to France (cf. letters in Addit. MSS.~) He was appointed inspector-general of instruction 25 June 1806, and died, after a tedious and painful illness, on 15 March 1807, aged 75. After some delay, pensions of 100/. a year each were given to his widow and daughters, who were left wholly unpro- vided for.
Jarry's treatise on the ' Employment of Light Troops in the Field,' which was trans- lated and published by order of the Duke of York in 1 803 , and four small treatises on ' Out- post Duties and the Movement of Armies in the Field ' are catalogued in the British Mu- seum under Jarry, 'John.' Some of his let- ters and papers are preserved among Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 33101 and 33109-12 ; they throw no light on his military career.
An engraved portrait of Jarry appears in
Sir Denis Le Marchant's 'Memoirs of Major- general Le Marchant,' 1841, p. 116.
[The fullest Account of Jarry is in Sir Denis Le Marchant's Memoirs of Major-general Le Marchant, London, 1841, of which only a small number of copies were printed. See also Ann. Eegister, 1792, pt. i. ; Parl. Papers; Accounts and Papers, 1810, vol. ix., Military Enquiry Royal Military College ; Eep. Select Committee on Military Education, 1855; Evidence of Sir Howard Douglas; Life of Sir H. E. Bunbury (privately printed) ; Brit. Mus. Cat. of Printed Books, under 'Jarry - — ,' nnd 'Jarry, John ;' Add. MSS. ut supra; Gent. Mag. Ixxi. 954, Ixxvii. 285.] H. M. C.
JAR VIS, CHARLES (1675 P-1739), por- trait-painter and translator. [See JERVAS.]
JARVIS, SAMUEL (J. 1770), organist and composer, blind from his birth, had les- sons on the organ from Dr. Worgan, and be- came organist to the London Foundling Hos- pital and to St. Sepulchre's, city of London.
Among his compositions are ' Six Songs and a Cantata for the Harpsichord, Violin, and German Flute ; ' air, ' On Felicia,' with bass ; and ' Twelvv Songs, to which is added an Epitaph for Three Voices,' edited after the composer's death by his pupil Groom- bridge.
[Diet, of Music, 1827, i. 389.] L. M. M.
JARVIS, THOMAS (d. 1799), glass- painter. [See JERVAIS.]
JAY, JOHN GEORGE HENRY (1770- 1849), violinist, son of Stephen Jay of Leyton- stone, Essex, possibly the ' eminent dancing- master ' referred to by Hawkins (Hist. Music, iii. 853 n.\ was born on 27 Nov. 1770. He studied the violin and composition on the continent, returning to England in 1800. Jay matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1809, and obtained the degree of Mus. Doc. at Cambridge in 1811. He settled in London as professor of music, and died at Chelsea on 29 Aug. 1849. His chief publica- tions were : 1. 'Phantasie and Two Sonatas for Pianoforte,' London, 1801. 2. ' Waltzes for Pianoforte, with Flute accompaniment, the Second Set, Op. 22' (1820?) 3. Song, ' How oft at eve,' with flute and pianoforte accompaniment, 1846. 4. Hungarian duet.
[Diet, of Music, 1827, i. 390 ; Foster's Alumni Oxonienses, ii. 744; Grad. Cant. ; Times, 31 Aug. 1849, p. 7; Grove's Diet. ii. 32.] L. M. M.
JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), dissenting minister, the son of a stonecutter and mason, was born at Tisbury, Wiltshire, on 8 May 1769. In 1783 he was apprenticed to his father, and worked with him in the erection
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of Fonthill Abbey for William Beckford. On the recommendation of the presbyterian minister of Tisbury, who noticed his studious disposition, Cornelius Winter, a dissenting minister of Marlborough, received him as a pupil. Jay studied with much earnestness, and when about sixteen was sent by his master to preach in the neighbouring vil- lages. On leaving Marlborough in 1788 he preached a series of discourses for the Rev. Rowland Hill at Surrey Chapel, London, when large crowds came to hear ' young Jay, the boy preacher.' He ministered for some time at Christian Malford, near Chippenham, and then removed to the Hotwells, Clifton, where he officiated in Hope Chapel, which be- longed to Lady Maxwell. On 30 Jan. 1791 he was ordained pastor of Argyle Independent Chapel at Bath, and held the office for the remainder of his life. In Bath his popularity as a preacher grew very great. His style was simple, his manner earnest, and his voice remarkably good. For many years he sup- plied the pulpit of Surrey Chapel, London, for six weeks at a time. Some of his writ- ings had a large circulation. 'The Mu- tual Duties of Husbands and Wives,' 1801, ran to six editions ; ' Morning Exercises in the Closet,' 1829, went to ten editions ; and ' Evening Exercises,' 1831, was also well re- ceived. He resigned his pastorate on 30 Jan. 1853, and by unwise interference in the choice of his successor caused a disrupt ion in his con- gregation. On 27 Dec. 1853 he died at 4 Percy Place, Bath, and was buried in Snow Hill cemetery on 2 Jan. 1854. He married, first, on 6 Jan. 1791, Anne, daughter of the Rev. Edward Davies, rector of Batheaston; she died 14 Oct. 1845. His second marriage, at the age of seventy-seven, on 2 Sept. 1846, was to Marianna Jane, daughter of George Head of Bradford ; she died 4 Feb. 1857, aged 76.
John Foster calls Jay the prince of preach- ers; Sheridan styles him the most natural orator whom he had ever heard ; Dr. James Hamilton speaks of hearing him ' with won- der and delight,' and Beckford describes his mind as ' a clear, transparent stream, flowing so freely as to impress us with the idea of its "being inexhaustible.'
Between 1842 and 1848 Jay published a collected edition of his writings in 12 vols. His principal separate publications, other than those mentioned, were : 1. ' A Selection of Hymns for Argyle Chapel,' 1797. 2. ' Ser- mons,' 1802-3, 2 vols. 3. ' Short Discourses to be read in Families,' 1805, 2 vols. 4. ' An Essay on Marriage,' 1806. 5. ' Memoirs of -the Rev. Cornelius Winter,' 1808. 6. 'A Selection of Hymns,' 1815. 7. 'The Do-
mestic Minister's Assistant, or Prayers for Families,' 1820. 8. ' The Christian contem- plated in a Course of Lectures,' 1826. 9. 'Ser- mons preached at Cambridge,' five parts, 1837. 10. ' Final Discourses at Argyle Chapel/ 1854. Jay also printed upwards of thirty single sermons, besides contributing prefaces and recommendations to many works.
[The Pulpit, by Onesimus, 1809, i. 223-31; European Mag. January 1819, pp. 5-8, with portrait ; The Pulpit, 1824, i. 436, 455, with portrait; The Jubilee Memorial, 1841 ; Dyer's Sketch of Life of W. Jay, 1854 ; Autobiography of W. Jay, ed. by G. Bedford and J. A. James, 1854, with portrait ; Wallace's Portraiture of W. Jay, 1854 ; Kecollections of W. Jay by his son, Cyras Jay, 1859, with two portraits ; Wil- son's Memoir of W. Jay, 1854, with portrait; Taylor's National Portrait Gallery, iv. 107-8, with portrait ; Couling's History of Temperance Movement, 1862, pp. 314-15; Major's Notabilia of Bath, 1879, pp. 64, 196; Congregational Year- ; Book, 1855, pp. 219-21.] G-. C. B.
JEACOCKE, CALEB (1706-1786), ora- tor, born in 1706, carried on the business of a baker in High Street, St. Giles's, London, and became a director of the Hand-in-Hand fire office, and a member of the Skinners' Company. He frequently attended the Robin Hood debating society, Butcher Row, Temple Bar, where it is said his oratory often proved more effective than that of Edmund Burke and others who acquired celebrity in the House of Commons. To this society Gold- smith was introduced by Samuel Derrick at a time when Jeacocke was president. Struck by the eloquence and imposing presence of Jeacocke, who sat in a large gilt chair, Gold- smith thought nature had meant him for a lord chancellor. 'No, no,' whispered Der- rick, who knew him to be a baker, ' only for a master of the rolls' (FoKSTER, Life of Gold- smith, 1888, i. 287-8). Jeacocke died on 7 Jan. 1786, in Denmark Street, Soho ( Gent. Mag. vol. Ivi. pt. i. pp. 84, 180). He was author of ' A Vindication of the Moral Cha- racter of the Apostle Paul against the Charges of Hypocrisy and Insincerity brought by Lord Bolingbroke, Dr. Middleton, and others,' 8vo, London, 1765.
[Prior's Memoir of Edmund Burke (1826), i. 127 ; will registered in P. C. C. 26, Norfolk.]
G. G.
JEAKE, SAMUEL (1623-1690), puri- tan antiquary, born at Rye in Sussex, on 9 Oct. 1623, probably belonged to one of the many French protestant refugee families who settled in that place at the close of the six- teenth century. The name, written also Jake, Jaque, Jeakes, and Jacque, points to a
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French origin. Samuel's father was a baker. His mother, a woman of decided piety, was daughter of the Rev. John Pearson of Peas- marsh, Sussex ; she died 20 Nov. 1639. In 1640 Samuel severed his connection with the es- tablished church, and was appointed minister of a conventicle — apparently belonging to the antipsedobaptists. He afterwards became an attorney-at-law at Rye, and in 1651 was made a freeman and common, or town, clerk. This office he resigned, or was deprived of, after the passing of the act of 1661, exclud- ing dissenters from municipal corporations. As a sectarian preacher, Jeake came into frequent collision with the authorities. He was prosecuted before the privy council in 1681, and his meeting-house was shut up. Next year he was again delated, under the Five Miles Act, and, being brought to Lon- don, remained there till 1687, when the tole- ration which James II extended to the dis- senters enabled him to return to Rye. There he remained, ' and spake in the meeting till his death' on 3 Oct. 1690 (cf. Rye parish register). He married in 1651 Frances Hart- ridge of Pembury, Kent, and by her had three •children, of whom Samuel (see below) sur- vived him.
Jeake was a nonconformist who adhered to no one of the great denominations of his time ; he disliked the presby terians as heartily as he disliked the church, and he spoke con- temptuously of the independents as ' Babell, from the differences that have happened among the master-builders.' He wrote vo- luminously upon theological controversy, .astrology, and antiquarian subjects, but pub- lished nothing himself. While town-clerk, he bought for one guinea the whole collec- tion of statutes referring to the Cinque ports, which belonged to the borough of Rye. This was the foundation of his magnum opus on * The Charters of the Cinque Ports, two An- cient Towns, aJid their Members. Translated into English, with Annotations, Historical and Critical, thereupon. Wherein divers old Words are explain'd, and some of their an- cient Customs and Privileges observ'd,' com- pleted in 1678, but not printed until 1728. The book has long enjoyed a high reputation (HORSFIELD, Sussex, i. 500). A translation of Charles it's charter to the Cinque ports, published for the mayor and j urats of Has- tings (1682), is also attributed to Samuel Jeake the elder.
Jeake dabbled in alchemy, and made an •elaborate calculation of his own horoscope. He had a large library, valued at 145 J. 5s. 1 Id., and compiled a catalogue (Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. v. 134). Remains of a storehouse built by him, and of a curious horoscope on
VOL. XXIX.
the front, still exist in Mermaid Street, Rye. Jeake's ' Logisticelogia, or Arithmetic Sur- veighed and Reviewed. In Four Books, etc., by Samuel Jeake, Senior,' was published in London in 1696, fol., edited by his son.
JEAKE, SAMUEL, the younger (1652-1699), astrologer, the only surviving son, born at Rye 4 July 1652, was educated by his father, early became an astrologer, and kept a careful diary, which is still extant. Like his father, he was a nonconformist, and suffered persecution, especially in 1685. By trade he was a wool- stapler and general merchant, but through life was a hard student and given to preach- ing. He died at Rye 23 Nov. 1699. He mar- ried a girl of thirteen, Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Hartshorne, formerly master of Rye grammar school, and by her left several chil- dren. His widow afterwards married one Tucker. Samuel Jeake, his third child (6. 3 June 1697), known as ' Conjuror ' or ' Coun- cellor' Jeake, attained notoriety by an at- tempt to construct a flying machine, and other fantastic schemes. He went to Ja- maica, practised at the bar there, and was living in 1746.
The Jeake MSS. are preserved at Brick- wall, Northiam, Sussex. Extracts from them have appeared in the ' Sussex Archaeological Collections.'
[Holloway's History of Rye ; Sussex Archaeol. Collections, vols.iv. v. ix. xii. xiii. xvi. andxxxi. ; Nichols's Lit. Anecd. ix. 700.] E. H. M.
JEAN, PHILIP (1755-1802), miniature- painter, was born in Jersey in 1755. He served in the navy, but during the cessation of naval hostilities he practised as a miniature- painter, and finally adopted that profession. He was a frequent exhibitor at the Royal Academy from 1787 to 1802, and was patron- ised by the Duke of Gloucester, whose por- trait he painted in miniature, as well as those of the duchess and her children. Some of his miniatures were engraved. Jean also painted portraits in oils, and in this man- ner executed a full length of Queen Char- lotte. He lived many years in Hanover Street, Hanover Square, London, but died at Hempstead in Kent, on 12 Sept. 1802, " 47.
[Redgrave's Diet, of Artists ; Royal Academy Catalogues.] L. C.
JEANES, HENRY (1611-1662), puritan divine, son of Christopher Jeanes of Kings- ton in Somerset, was born at Allansay in the same county in 1611. He became in 1626 a commoner of New Inn Hall, Oxford, where, as Wood says, ' pecking and hewing continually at logic and physics,' he became
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' a most noted and ready disputant.' He I graduated B.A. 3 June 1630, and proceeded , M.A. 14 May 1633 ; he was incorporated at > Cambridge in 1632, and later removed to Hart Hall, Oxford. On 5 Aug. 1635 he was presented by Sir John Windham to the rec- j toryofBeerCrocombe andCaplandin Somer- set, and he obtained soon afterwards the ' vicarage of Kingston. During the early part ^ of the civil war he and his family took refuge | at Chichester, where they were kindly re- ceived by the citizens (dedication to one sec- tion of A Second Part of the Mixture of Scho- lastical Divinity), but later he received the rectory of Chedzoy, near Bridgwater. Here he instructed private pupils, among them being George Bull [q. v.], afterwards bishop of St. Davids. Jeanes died at Wells in Au- gust 1662, and was buried in the cathedral. He was, according to Wood, ' a scholastical man, a contemner of the world, generous, free- hearted, jolly, witty, and facetious.'
Jeanes wrote: 1. 'Treatise concerning a Christian's Careful Abstinence from all Ap- pearance of Evil . . .' Oxford, 1640; another edition 1660. 2. 'The Worke of Heaven upon Earthe . . .' an expanded sermon, Lon- don, 1649, 4to. 3. ' The Want of Church Government no warrant for a totall omission of the Lord's Supper,' London, 1650, 4to, dedicated to Colonel John Pyne ; another edition, with a reply to Francis Fulwood, Oxford, 1653, 8vo. 4. ' A Vindication of Dr. Twissefrom the Exceptions of Mr. John Good- win in his Redemption Redeemed,' Oxford, 1653, fol. Appended to Twisse's ' Riches of God's Love . . . consistent with His Absolute Hatred ... of the Vessels of Wrath.' 5. ' A Mixture of Scholasticall Divinity with Prac- ticall,' Oxford, 1656, 4to, in several parts. This work Dr. Hammond criticised in his ' 'Eicrevf<TTfpov,' to which Jeanes replied in 1657, while Hammond replied again in 1657, and was supported by William Creed in his ' Refuter Refuted,' 1659. Jeanes replied to Hammond a second time in 1660, and to Creed in 1661. 6. ' Treatise concerning the Jndifferency of Human Actions,' Oxford, 1659, 4to. 7. ' A Second Part of the Mix- ture of Scholastical Divinity,' Oxford, 1660, 4to, printed with the second reply to Ham- mond and ' Letters on Original Sin.' 8. ' Of Original Righteousness, and its Contrary Concupiscence,' Oxford, 1660, 4to, directed against Jeremy Taylor. 9. ' Letters between Jeanes and Jeremy Taylor on the subject of Original Sin,' Oxford, 1660, 4to.
Jeanes is wrongly supposed to have been the author of the reply to Milton's ' Icono- clastes ' (1651), entitled ' The Image Un- broken,' by Dr. Joseph Jane [q. v.]
[Wood's Athense Oxon. ed. Bliss, iii. 455, &c.r iv. 490 ; Wood's Fasti Oxon. ed. Bliss, i. 453, 469 ; Palmer's Xonconf. Mem. ii. 585 : Heber's edit, of Jeremy Taylor's Works : Weaver's Somer- set Incumbents ; Masson's Milton, iv. 349; Cotton- Mather's Essays to do Good.] W. A. J. A.
JEAVONS, THOMAS (1816-1867), en- graver, born in 1816, obtained some repute- in the finished school of landscape-engraving in vogue about 1840. His most important work was an engraving of ' Dutch Boats in. a Calm,' executed for the ' Art Journal ' in 1849, from the picture by E. W. Cooke, R.A., in the Yernon Gallery. He engraved other plates after S. Prout, W. F. Witherington, £c., for the illustrated works produced at this time. He subsequently retired to AVelsh- pool, North Wales, where he lived some yearsr and died 26 Nov. 1867.
[Bryan's Diet, of Painters and Engravers, ed. R. E. Graves ; Redgrave's Diet, of Artists.]
L. C.
JEBB, JOHN, M.D. (1736-1786), theo- logical and political writer, eldest son of John Jebb, D.D., dean of Cashel (d. 6 Feb. 1787), by Ann, daughter of Daniel Gansel of Donnyland Hall, Essex, was born in Ireland (Munk says in London) on 16 Feb. 1736. His father was an intimate friend of David Hartley, the philosopher. Samuel Jebb, M.D. [q. v.], was his uncle. Jebb was partly edu- cated at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, and was admitted pensioner at Trinity College, Dub- lin, in 1753. On 9 Nov. 1754 he matricu- lated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and gradu- ated B.A. in January 1757, being second wrangler. In 1760 he proceeded M.A., and was elected fellow in 1761. He took holy orders (deacon 1762, priest 1763) ; in 1764 was instituted to the rectory of Ovington, Norfolk (a university living) ; and married on 29 Dec. of the same year (see ad fin.) He continued his connection with Cambridge as a lecturer on mathematics, and in January 1768 and again in 1770 he was an iinsuc- cessful competitor for the chair of Arabic against his first cousin, Samuel Hallifax [q. v.] In November 1768 he began lectures on the Greek Testament, in which his uni- tarian views were soon manifested, and in 1770 the authorities of several colleges pro- hibited the attendance of undergraduates. Shortly afterwards he was instituted to the rectories of Homersfield and St. Cross and vicarage of Flixton, Suffolk. In 1771 he joined in efforts for the removal of subscrip- tion at graduation. He took an active part (1771-2) in promoting the 'Feathers peti- tion ' for the abolition of clerical subscrip- tion [seeBLACKBrEXE,FEA^cis, 1705-1787].
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On two occasions (5 July 1773 and Octo- ber 1774) he brought forward resolutions in the senate house for annual public ex- aminations of all undergraduates. Paley and Edmund Law supported him, Samuel Halli- fax strongly opposed ; the grace for a com- mittee was carried in 1773, but the plan was shelved ; in 1774 it was rejected by a small majority. In September 1775 he resigned his preferments on conscientious grounds, and permission to continue his lectures on the Greek Testament was refused him. Theo- philus Lindsey [q. v.] wished to secure him as his colleague at Essex Street Chapel, Lon- don. He decided, however, on the advice of his cousin, Sir Richard Jebb, bart., M.D. [q. v.], to take up medicine as a profession. He left Cambridge in September 1776; after visiting Blackburne at Richmond, Yorkshire, came to London; studied at St. Bartholo- mew's Hospital ; attended the anatomical lectures of Charles Collignon, M.D. [q. v.] ; obtained the degree of M.D. from St. An- drews on 18 March 1777 ; and was admitted licentiate by the London College of Phy- sicians on 25 June 1777.
He began practice in London in February 1778 at Craven Street, Strand, and suc- ceeded very well, though his radical politics stood in the way of his election as physician to a London hospital. As a Westminster elector he canvassed for Fox in 1780, but ceased to be one of his followers after the coalition with North in 1782. He worked with John Cartwright (1740-1824) [q. v.] for parliamentary reform and universal suffrage. He deserves remembrance as a prison philan- thropist. He held Priestley's views on the per- son of our Lord and on ' philosophical neces- sity,' and helped to found in September 1783 a society ' for promoting the knowledge of the scriptures.' Jebb wrote the prospectus, ob- tained the adhesion of his father, and of Edmund Law, then bishop of Carlisle, and contributed to the society's two volumes of ' commentaries and essays.' He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 25 Feb. 1779. During his last illness he studied Anglo- Saxon. He died of decline on 2 March 1786, and was buried in Bunhill Fields. He mar- ried, on 29 Dec. 1764, Ann, eldest daughter of James Torkington, rector of Ripton-Kings, Huntingdonshire, by Lady Dorothy, his wife, daughter of Philip Sherard, second earl of Harborough, but had no issue. Paul Henry Maty [q. v.], who had undertaken to write Jebb's life, describes him as ' the most per- fect human being ' he had known. His por- trait was painted by Hoppner, and an en- graving by J. Young forms the frontispiece to his work on prisons (vide infra).
His ' Works,' 1787, 3 vols. 8vo, were edited, with ' Memoirs,' by John Disney, D.D. [q.v.] The following are his chief pieces : 1. ' A Short Account of Theological Lectures . . . a New Harmony of the Gospels,' &c., 1770, 8vo. 2. ' The Excellency of ... Benevo- lence,' &c., 1773, 8vo. 3. 'A Proposal for . . . Public Examinations in the University of Cambridge,' &c., 1774, 8vo. 4. < A Short Statement of ... Reasons for . . . Resig- nation,' &c., 1775, 8vo. 5. ' Select Cases of ... Paralysis,' &c., 1782, 8vo. 6. ' Let- ters ... to the Volunteers of Ireland on . . . Parliamentary Reform,' &c. [1782], 8vo. 7. ' Thoughts on the Construction and Polity of Prisons,' &c., 1786, 8vo (portrait). In conjunction with Thorpe and Wollaston he edited ' Excerpta qusedam e Newtoni Prin- cipiis,' &c., 1765, 4to. The notes signed ' J.' in Priestley's ' Harmony of the Evangelists,' 1780, 8vo, are by Jebb.
AUN JEBB, wife of the above, whose maiden name was Torkington, born on 9 Nov. 1735 at Ripton-Kings, shared all her husband's interests and wrote ably dn his side. Under the signature of ' Priscilla ' she contributed to the ' London Chronicle ' (1772-4) a series of letters which Samuel Hallifax [q. v.] tried to stop, and which drew from Paley the re- mark, ' The Lord hath sold Sisera into the hand of a woman.' She was very small in stature, and her complexion was ' pale and wan,' but she was an animated talker, and her tea-parties were famous. She died on 20 Jan. 1812, and was buried beside her husband.
[Memoirs, by Disney, 1787; Munk's Coll. of Phys. 1878, ii. 309 sq. ; Nichols's Lit. Anecd. viii. 114, 571, ix. 659 ; Rutt's Memoirs of Priest- ley, 1832, i. 165,204, ii. 109; Belsham's Me- moirs of Lindsey, 1812, pp. 135 sq., 177; Dyer's Hist, of Univ. of Cambridge, 1814, i. 124 sq. ; Monthly Eepository, 1836, p. 474; Turner's Lives of Eminent Unitarians, 1840, ii. 82 sq. ; Spears's Record of Unitarian Worthies, 1877, pp. 281 sq. ; Memoirs of Mrs. Jebb, by G. W. M. (George William Meadley), in Monthly Reposi- tory, 1812, pp. 597 sq., 661 sq.] A. G-.
JEBB, JOHN, D.D. (1775-1833), bishop of Limerick, younger son of John Jebb, alder- man of Drogheda, by his second wife, Alicia Forster, was born at Drogheda on 27 Sept. 1775. His grandfather, Richard Jebb, came to Ireland from Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where the family had been settled for several generations. His father's circumstances be- came embarrassed, and Jebb at two years old was entrusted to his aunt, Mrs. M'Cormick. In 1782 he returned to his father at Leixlip, co. Kildare, and went to school in the neigh- bouring village of Celbridge. His elder bro- ther, Richard (see below), succeeded in 1788
s2
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to the estate of Sir Richard Jebb, M.D. [q. v.], who undertook the cost of his education. At the Londonderry grammar school he formed a lifelong friendship with Alexander Knox [q. v.] In 1791 he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he obtained a scholarship. He
him to his chair, but he was still able to use his pen. He removed to East Hill, near Wandsworth, Surrey. A lingeringjaundice attacked him in 1832. He died unmarried on 9 Dec. 1833. He was a writer of sound and varied learning, a churchman of strong
lived with his brother, who on their father's j convictions and broad sympathies; inconjunc- death (1796) gave him 2,000/. He was a ! tion with Knox he was a pioneer of the Ox- member of the Historical Society, and, by j ford movement, which began about the date
the part which he took in its proceedings, acquired readiness in public debate. In Fe- bruary 1799 Matthew Young, bishop of Clon- fert, ordained him deacon. In July 1799 he obtained through Knox the curacy of Swan- linbar, co. Cavan, and was ordained priest in the following December by Charles Brodrick, bishop of Kilmore. In 1801 he graduated M.A., and in December of that year was in- stituted by Brodrick, archbishop of Cashel, to the curacy of Mogorbane, co. Tipperary. In 1805 he became Brodrick's examining chaplain.
Jebb visited England with Knox in 1809, and made the acquaintance of Wilberforce and Hannah More. In the course of the summer he was instituted to the rectory of Abington, co. Limerick, where Charles For- ster, his biographer, was his curate. In 1812 he was thrown from a gig and dislocated his left shoulder, an accident made more serious by the unskilfulness of a village bonesetter. He was in London in 1815, and again in 1820, when he published his 'Essay on Sacred Literature,' which made his name. At the close of 1820 he became archdeacon of Emly, and in February 1821 accumulated the de- grees of B.D. and D.D. During the disturb- ances which followed the famine of 1822 his is said to have been the only quiet parish in the district, and this owing to his personal
of his death. John Henry Newman, in letters dated between 1833 and 1836, expressed his sympathy with Jebb's views on daily services and frequent communions, but it is an ex- aggeration to credit him with suggesting to Newman, Pusey, and Keble the line of thought which is associated with their names (cf. Pro- fessor Stokes in Contemp. Ret\ August 1887, and Dean Church in Guardian, 7 Sept. 1887). He was a fellow of the Royal Society.
He published, besides a sermon in 1803 : 1 . ' Sermons,' &c., 1815, 8vo ; reprinted 1816, 8vo, 1824, 8vo, 1832, 8vo. 2. < An Essay on Sacred Literature,' &c., 1820, 8vo ; 2nd ed. 1828, 8vo ; also 1831, 8vo. 3. ' Practical Theo- logy,' &c., 1830, 8vo, 2 vols. 4. ' Biographical Memoir ' prefixed to ' Remains of William Phelan, D.D.,' 1832, 8vo, 2 vols. Posthumous was : 5. ' Thirty Years' Correspondence be- tween . . . Bishop Jebb . . . and Alexander Knox,' &c., 1836, 8vo, 2 vols. He edited Townson's ' Practical Discourses,' 1828, 8vo ; Burnet's ' Lives of Rochester and Matthew Hale,' 1833, 8vo; part of Knox's 'Literary Remains,' 1834-7, 8vo, 4 vols. ; and made a selection from practical writers under the title ' Piety without Asceticism,' 1831, 8vo.
JEBB, RICHAKD (1766-1834), Irish judge, born at Drogheda in 1766, was the bishop's elder brother. While a student at Lincoln's Inn he inherited, in 1787, the property of his
exertions. He was rewarded in December cousin, Sir Richard Jebb, M.D. [q.v.] ; he was 1822 by the bishopric of Limerick, Ardfert, ! called to the Irish bar in 1789. He sup- and Aghadoe, vacated by the translation of ported the union, and published ' A Reply Thomas Elrington, D.D. [q. v.] to a Pamphlet entitled "Arguments for and
Jebb raised the standard of examination against an Union," ' 1799, which attracted for candidates for orders, adopting a maxim attention, and led the English government from the puritan divine, Anthony Tuckney to offer him a seat in the united parliament, [q. v.], ' They may deceive me in their god"- j but this he declined. He was appointed
liness ; they cannot in their scholarship.' On 10 July 1824 he made a speech in the House
successively king's counsel, and third and second serjeant, and in December 1818 fourth
of Lords on the Tithe Commutation Bill, justice of the Irish court of king's bench. He
which AVilberforce described as ' one of the most able ever delivered in parliament : ' it
was a firm, although humane and impartial, judge. He died suddenly at his house at
was a very powerful defence of the position Rosstrevor, nearNewry, on 3 Sept. 1834. He
of the Irish establishment. In 1827 he was married Jane Louisa, eldest daughter of John
seized with paralysis at Limerick, and inca- Finlay, M.P. for Dublin, by whom he had
pacitated for active duty. He left Ireland five sons and a daughter (Gent. Mag. 1834,
altogether, and devoted himself to literary pt. ii. p. 532). Canon John Jebb (1805- work, residing chiefly at Leamington, War- wickshire, with Forster, his chaplain, as his
companion. A second stroke in 1829 confined
1886) [q. v.] was his eldest son.
[Life and Letters, by Forster, 1836, 2 vols. ; Wills's Lives of Illustrious Irishmen, 1817, vi.
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425 sq. ; Mant's Hist, of the Church of Ireland, 1840, ii. 787 ; Newman's Letters (Mozley), 1891, i. 440, 470 ; see also art. infra KNOX, ALEXAN- DER.] A. Gr.
JEBB, JOHN, D.D. (1805-1886), canon of Hereford, eldest son of Richard Jebb, Irish judge [see under JEBB, JOHN, 1775-1833], and nephew of Dr. John Jebb [q. v.], bishop of Limerick, was born at Dublin in 1805. He was educated at Winchester and at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating B.A. in 1826, M.A. in 1829, and B.D. in 1862. Having held for a short time the rectory of Dunerlin in Ireland, he was apppointed pre- bendary of Donoughmore in Limerick Cathe- dral, 1832, and instituted to the rectory of Peterstow, near Ross, Herefordshire, 1843. He was appointed prebendary of Preston Wynne in Hereford Cathedral in 1858, and was prselector from 1863 to 1870, when he was appointed canon residentiary. ' A Literal Translation of the Book of Psalms,' 2 vols., which he published in 1846, brought him some reputation as a Hebrew scholar and he was appointed one of the revisers of the Old Testament, but soon resigned the post in the belief that the plan proposed by his colleagues involved unnecessary change of the author- ised version. He died at Peterstow on 8 Jan. 1886.
Besides numerous sermons, pamphlets, and contributions to the church papers, Jebb's chief works are : 1. ' The Divine Economy of the Church/ 1840, 12mo. 2. 'The Church Service of the United Church of England and Ireland, being an Enquiry into the Litur- gical System of the Cathedral and Collegiate foundations of the Anglican Communion/ 1843, 8vo. 3. ' Three Lectures on the Cathe- dral Service of the Church of England,' Leeds, 1845, 16mo. 4. 'A Plea for what is left of the Cathedrals, their Deans and Chapters, their Corporate Rights and Ecclesiastical Utility,' 1862, 8vo. 5. ' The Rights of the Irish Branch of the United Church of Eng- land and Ireland considered on Funda- mental Principles, Human and Divine,' 1868, 8vo.
[Times, 13 Jan. 1886; Athenaeum, 1886, i. 104 ; Men of the Time, 12th edit. p. 583 ; New- man's Letters, ed. Mozley, ii. 21 6 ; Cotton's Fasti Eccl. Hib. i. 412-13; Annual Register; Brit. Mus. Cat.] T. S.
JEBB, SIR JOSHUA (1793-1863), sur- veyor-general of convict prisons, eldest son of Joshua Jebb of Walton in the county of Derby, by his wife Dorothy, daughter of General Henry Gladwin of Stubbing Court in the same county, was born at Chesterfield on 8 May 1793. After passing through the
Royal Military Academy at "Woolwich he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the royal engineers on 1 July 1812. He was promoted first lieutenant on 21 July 1813, and embarked for Canada in the following October. He served with the army under the command of General de Rottenburg on the frontier of Lower Canada until the summer of 1814, when he joined the army of Lieu- tenant-general Sir George Prevost in the United States, and took part in the cam- paign of the autumn of 1814. He was pre- sent at the battle of Plattsburg, 11 Sept. 1814, and was thanked in general orders. He returned to England in 1820, after a lengthened service in Canada. He was sta- tioned at AVoolwich and afterwards at Hull until December 1827, when he embarked for the West Indies. He was promoted second captain on 26 Feb. 1828, and was invalided home in September 1829. Having recovered his health he was sent to Chatham. lie was appointed adjutant of the royal sappers and miners at Chatham on 11 Feb. 1831, and promoted first captain 10 Jan. 1837.
In 1837 inquiries conducted in America by William Crawford (1788-1847) [q. v.] led to the adoption of the ' separate system ' of prison discipline. Jebb was appointed surveyor-general of prisons, in order to pro- vide the home office with a technical adviser on the construction of prisons. He was em- ployed in designing county and borough pri- sons, and was associated with Crawford and the Rev. Whitworth Russell, inspectors, in the design and construction at Pentonville of the ' Model Prison.' Jebb continued to do military duty, and was quartered at Bir- mingham until he was seconded on 20 Sept. 1839, and his services entirely devoted to civil work.
On 10 March 1838 he had been appointed by the lord president of the council to hold inquiries on the grants of charters of incor- poration to Bolton and Sheffield, and on 21 May of the same year he was made a member of the commission on the municipal boundary of Birmingham. On 23 Nov. 1841 he received a brevet majority for his past services, and on 29 June of the following year he was made a commissioner for the government of Pentonville Prison.
The evils of the system of transportation led to the adoption of a progressive system of prison treatment at home. Commencing with a period of strict separation at Penton- ville, the convicts were passed to one of the prisons specially constructed with a view to their employment upon public works. For this purpose Jebb designed the prison at Portland. Similar prisons were subsequently
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erected at Dartmoor, Chatham, and Ports- mouth.
In 1844 Jebb was appointed a member of a royal commission to report on the punish- ment of military crime by imprisonment. The commission recommended the establish- ment of prisons for the exclusive reception of military prisoners, and to be under the super- vision of an officer to be termed inspector- general of military prisons, who should also supervise provost and regimental cells. Jebb was appointed to this office on 27 Dec. 1844 in addition to his other duties, and since that date it has been held by the officer at the head of civil prisons, who has always been an officer of royal engineers.
Jebb was promoted lieutenant-colonel on 16 April 1847. On 1 May 1849 his appoint- ment as commissioner of Pentonville prison was renewed. In 1850 a board, called the directors of convict prisons, was formed to replace the various bodies which had hitherto managed the different convict prisons. Jebb was appointed chairman of this board, and under his government the progressive system was adopted generally and developed. Having served ten years uninterruptedly in the civil employment of the state Jebb had, in ac- cordance with regulations, to return to mili- tary duty, or retire from the army. He chose the latter alternative, and quitted the mili- tary service on full pay retirement on 1 1 Jan. 1850. He subsequently received the honorary rank of colonel on 28 Nov. 1854, and of major- general G July 1860. He was made a K.C.B. for his civil services on 25 March 1859.
In 1861 and 1862 he served on commissions appointed to consider the construction of embankments of the river Thames, and of communications between the embankment at Blackfriars Bridge and the Mansion House, and between Westminster Bridge and Mill- bank. He died suddenly on 26 June 1863.
Jebb was twice married ; first, on 14 June 1830, to Mary Legh, daughter of William Burtinshaw Thomas, esq.,ofIIighfield,Derby- shire, who died in 1850, and by whom he had a son, Joshua Gladwyn, and three daughters ; secondly, on 5 Sept. 1854, to Lady Amelia Rose Pelham, daughter of Thomas, second earl of Chichester, who survived him.
His principal works are : 1. 'A Practical Treatise on Strengthening and Defending Outposts, Villages, Houses, Bridges,' £;c., 8vo, Chatham, 1836. 2. ' Modern Prisons : their Construction and Ventilation,' with plates, 4to, London, 1844. 3. ' Notes on the Theory and Practice of Sinking Artesian Wells,' 4to, 1844. 4. ' Manual for the Mili- tia, or Fighting made Easy : a Practical Treatise on Strengthening and Defending
Military Posts, &c., in reference to the Du- ties of a Force engaged in Disputing the Advance of an Enemy,' 12mo, London, 1853.
5. 'A Flying Shot at Fergusson and his " Perils of Portsmouth," " Invasion of Eng- land,'" &c., 8vo, pamphlet, London, 1853.
6. ' Observations on the Defence of London, with Suggestions respecting the necessary Works,' 8vo, London, 1860. 7. 'Reports and Observations on the Discipline and Manage- ment of Convict Prisons,' edited by the Earl of Chichester, 8vo, London, 1863.
[Corps Eecords; Home Office Records; Por- ter's History of the Royal Engineers.]
R. H. V.
JEBB, SIR RICHARD, M.D. (1729- 1787), physician, son of Samuel Jebb [q. v.], was born at Stratford, Essex, and there bap- tised 30 Oct. 1729. He entered at St. Mary Hall, Oxford, in 1747, but being a nonjuror could not graduate in that university, and proceeded to Aberdeen, where he joined Ma- rischal College and graduated M.D. 23 Sept. 1751. He took rooms in Parliament Street, London, and was admitted a licentiate of the College of Physicians, 24 March 1755. He was physician to the Westminster Hos- pital from 1754 to 1762, when (7 May) he was elected physician to St. George's Hos- pital. He went to Italy to attend the Duke of Gloucester, and became a favourite of George III, who granted him a crown lease of 385 acres of Enfield Chase. He built a small house upon it, enclosed it with a fence, and kept deer. In 1771 he was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians, and in 1774 he delivered the Harveian oration, and was censor in 1772, 1776, and 1781. He was created a baronet on 4 Sept. 1778, and was F.R.S. and F.S.A. In 1768 he had already been obliged by private practice to resign his hospital appointment, and in the three years 1779-81 his fees amounted to twenty thou- sand guineas. In 1780 he was appointed physician to the Prince of Wales, and in 1786 to the king. He was fond of convi- viality and of music. Wilkes and Churchill the poet were his friends, and he paid for the education of Churchill's son. Before he at- tained much practice he made no unworthy efforts to become prominent, and when his practice was large his patients sometimes complained that his manner was not suffi- ciently ceremonious. His professional repu- tation was high, and some disparaging re- marks of John Coakley Lettsom [q. v.], who knew him, are obviously the result of in- ability to appreciate his abilities. In June 1787, while attending two of the princesses, he was attacked by fever. He was attended
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by Dr. Warren [q. v.] and Dr. H. 11. Rey- nolds [q. v.], but died at 2 A.M. on 4 July 1787 at his house in Great George Street, "Westminster. He was tall and thin, as may be seen in his portrait by Zoffany, which bangs in the reading-room of the College of Physicians of London. He was buried in the west cloister of Westminster Abbey.
[Munk's Coll. of Phys. ii. 291 ; Foster's Alumni Oxon. ; Gent. Mag. vol. Ivii.] N. M.
JEBB, SAMUEL, M.D. (1694 P-1772),
physician and scholar, born about 1694, pro- bably at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, was second son of Samuel Jebb, a maltster. His eldest brother, Richard, settled in Ireland, and became the founder of the Irish family of Jebb. Another brother, John, became dean of Cashel, and was father of Dr. John Jebb [q. v.], the Socinian. Samuel Jebb was edu- cated at Mansfield grammar school, and be- came a sizar at Peterhouse, Cambridge, on 15 June 1709, aged 15. He graduated B.A. in January 1712-1 3 (.Rey. of Peterhouse). Hewas intended for the church, but, having joined the nonjurors, was unable to take orders. According to Nichols (Lit. Anecd. i. 160), lie remained at Cambridge at least till 1718. On leaving Cambridge he became librarian to Jeremy Collier in London, and occupied him- self with literary work. Possibly the death of Collier, in 1726, had something to do with his change of profession ; for on the advice of Dr. Mead he commenced the study of medicine, attending Mead's private practice, and also learning chemistry and pharmacy of Mr. Dillingham, a well-known apothecary of Red Lion Square. He took the degree of M.D. at Reims on 12 March 1728 (MtTNK), and set up in practice as a physician at Stratford-le-Bow, where, while successfully following his profession, he continued his literary Avork. He did not become licentiate of the College of Physicians till 25 June 1751 (ib.~) A few years before his death he retired with a moderate fortune to Chester- field, Derbyshire, where he died on 9 March 1772. About 1727 he married a relative of Mrs. Dillingham, the apothecary's wife, and left several children, one of whom was the physician, Sir Richard Jebb [q. v.]
Jebb was a learned physician, and a very painstaking scholar. His literary produc- tions were chiefly editions and translations, and he published no original work on medi- cine. His most important literary enterprise was his edition of Roger Bacon's ' Opus Majlis' ('Roger! Bacon Opus Majus nunc })rinium ed. S. Jebb,' Lond. 1733, fol. ; re- printed Venice, 1750), the fruit of three years' labour, undertaken at the instigation
of Dr. Mead, to whom it is dedicated. As the first edition of Bacon's work, it is a most valuable contribution to the history of science [see BACOJf, ROGEK]. His most important classical work, which, however, is not highly spoken of by modern scholars, was an edition of the works of Aristides, the Greek rhetori- cian. In 1720 he issued proposals for its pub- lication in 4 vols. 4to. It ultimately appeared in 2 vols. 4to ('^Elii Aristidis Opera Gr. etLat. recensuit S. Jebb, Oxonii,' vol. i. 1722, vol. ii. 1730), with introduction, collation of manu- scripts, and notes. He published in 1725 a collection of sixteen historical memoirs re- lating to Mary Queen of Scots in Latin, French, and Spanish (' De Vita et rebus gestis Maria3 Scotorum Reginre qua3 scriptis tradidere autores sedecim,' 2 vols. fol. Lon- don, 1725). In the same year he issued, anonymously, ' The History of the Life and Reign of Mary Queen of Scots,' London, j 1725, 8vo, a rather dry narrative. A similar work, evidently a companion volume, ' The Life of Robert, Earl of Leicester, the fa- vourite of Queen Elizabeth,' London, 1727, 8vo, is also attributed to him. He edited the posthumous work of Dr. Hody (' Humph. Ilodii de Grsecis illustribus lingua? Graecse . . . instauratoribus '), with a dissertation on Hody's life and writings, London, 1742, 8vo. In 1722 he commenced a classical perio- dical, ' Bibliotheca Literaria, being a collec- tion of Inscriptions, Medals, Dissertations,' &c., intended to appear every two months. Ten numbers were issued from 1722 to 1724. Jebb's own contributions were anonymous. His other publications were : 1. A transla- tion of the reply by Daniel Martin, pastor of the French church at Utrecht, to a tract by Emlyn on a theological point, 8vo, Cam- bridge (?), 1718; London, 1719 (NICHOLS, Lit. Anecd. i. 160) ; not in British Museum. 2. ' Sancti Justini Martyris cum Tryphone dialogus, ed. S. J.,' 1719, 8vo. 3. ' Joannis Caii De Canibus Britaniiicis, . . . De Pro- nunciatione Grreca3 et Lathue linguae, etc., ed. S. J.,' 1729, 8vo.
[Nichols's Literary Anecdotes, i. 160, 436, 480, viii. (additions) 366; Nichols's Literary Illustra- tions, v. 398; Munk's Coll. of Phys. 1887, ii. 179.] J. F. P.
JEEJEEBHOY, SIR JAMSETJEE
(1783-1859), philanthropist, was born at Bombay 15 July 1783. He was the son of poor parents, natives of Nowsaree, a small town in the state of Baroda. In 1799 he acted as clerk to his cousin, Merwanjee Ma- neckjee, a merchant, on a voyage to China. On 1 March 1803 he married Awabaee Fram- jee, daughter of Frarnjee Pestonjee, a Bom-
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bay merchant, who was also engaged in trade with China. As partner of his father-in-law he made four more voyages to China. On the return voyage from Canton in 1804 the ship in which he sailed formed one of the fleet of merchantmen under the command of Sir Na- thaniel Dance [q. v.], which put to flight a squadron of French ships of war under Ad- miral Linois. During a subsequent voyage he was captured by the French and carried to the Cape of Good Hope. After losing all his property and suffering many hardships he obtained a passage in a Danish vessel bound for Calcutta, and returned to Bombay in 1807. From this time his mercantile transactions met with extraordinary success, and by 1822 he had gained a fortune of about two crores of rupees (2,000,000/.) At this period commences that long series of public benefactions which has made his name famous. In 1822 he released all the prisoners detained in Bombay gaol, under the authority of the small cause court, by satisfying the claims of their creditors. In 1824 and 1837 he sub- scribed large sums to relieve the sufferers from destructive fires at Surat, a -id to restore the buildings destroyed ; and in 1828 he gave to his co-religionists, the Parsees of Bom- bay, Poona, and Gujarat, large endowments to provide for the proper performance of their religious ceremonies. The hospital in Bombay which is known bv his name was founded by him in 1840, and in the same year he endowed schools in Bombay, Surat, Odepore, Nowsaree, Broach, and other places. In 1845 was completed the enormous cause- way which connects Mahiin with Bandora. This work had been contemplated by the go- vernment, but had been deferred because of the expense. It was undertaken by Jeejee- bhoy at the suggestion of his wife, who was moved by the frequent casualties in the sea passage between the two places. The ex- tensive waterworks at Poona,the dhai-masala, or home of rest for poor travellers, at Bom- bay, and many other philanthropic and edu- cational institutions are due to the liberality of Jeejeebhoy. As a reward for these ser- vices he was knighted on 2 May 1842, and "was further created a baronet of the United Kingdom on 6 Aug. 1857. He distinguished himself by his loyalty during the mutiny, and by the large contributions which he afterwards made for the relief of the sufferers in India. He died on 14 April 1859, and was succeeded in the baronetcy by his eldest son, Cursetjee, who in 1860 assumed the name of his father, in accordance with a sta- tute which ordained that every succeeding holder of the baronetcy should take the name of Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy.
On the elder Jeejeebhoy's elevation to« knighthood theParsee community of Bombay presented an address to him, and subscribed fifteen thousand rupees to establish a fund for the translation of useful works from all languages into Gujaratee. To this sum he- hitnself added three lacs of rupees, and the interest of the whole amount, called the Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Translation Fund, is now annually devoted to such translations.
[Bombay Gazetteer, 15 April 1859 ; Burke's Peerage; The First Parsee Baronet, by Cowcrjea Sorabjee Nadir.] E. J. R.
JEENS, CHARLES HENRY (1827- 1879), engraver, son of Henry and Matilda Jeens, was torn at Uley in Gloucestershire on 19 Oct. 1827. He was instructed in en- graving by John Brain andWilliam Great- bach, and some of his earliest independent employment was on postage-stamps for the English colonies. Jeens was one of the en- gravers engaged on the ' Royal Gallery of Art,' edited by S. C. Hall, 1854, and exe- cuted a number of plates for the ' Art Jour- nal.' About 1860 he became associated with Messrs. Macmillan & Co., for whose ' Golden Treasury ' series and other publica- tions he produced many beautiful vignettes and portraits, among the latter a series of ' Scientific Worthies/ issued in the periodical ' Nature.' In 1863 he completed for the- Art Union of London the plate commenced by Shenton from Dicksee's ' A Labour of Love,' and one of his latest works was 'Joseph and Mary,' after Armitage, published by the same society in 1877. Other note- worthy plates were Romney's ' LadyHamilton with the Spinning-wheel ;' Millais' ' Reverie ;* the 'Head of a Girl,' after L. da Vinci,- pre- fixed to Mr. W. II. Pater's 'Studies in the History of the Renaissance ; ' and ' The Queen and Prince Consort fording the Poll Tarff,' after C. Haag, engraved for the queen's ' Journal of our Life in the Highlands,' 1868. Jeens' small plates are finished with admir- able care and delicacy, but his larger works lack breadth and colour. He died, after a. long illness, on 22 Oct. 1879. A volume of proofs of his vignettes is in the print room of the British Museum.
[Art Journal, 1880 ; Athenaeum, 1 Nov. 1879; Men of the Reign, 1887; information kindly furnished by the rector of Uley; Bryan's Dic- tionary, ed. Graves, 1886.] F. M. O'D.
JEFFCOCK, PARKIN (1829-1866), mining engineer, son of John Jeffcock of Cowley, Derbyshire, by his wife Catherine (nee Parkin), was born at Cowley Manor 27 Oct. 1829. Although at first intended.
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for Oxford and the church, he was articled in 1850, after some training at the College of Civil Engineers, Putney, to George Hun- ter, a colliery viewer and engineer of Dur- ham. Making rapid progress in his profes- sion, he in 1857 became partner of J.T. Wood- house, a mining engineer and agent of Derby, and took up his residence in 1860 at Duffield, near that town. He greatly distinguished himself in 1861 by the bravery he displayed in attempting to rescue the men and boys confined in a coal-pit at Clay Cross during an inundation. In 1863, and again in 1864, he examined and reported on the Moselle coalfield, near Saarbriick. On 12 Dec. 1866 he learned, while at his house at Duffield, that the Oaks Pit, near Barnsley, was on fire ; he went thither at once, and with three others descended to make a complete ex- ploration of the mine. One of the party returned to the surface to send down volun- teers, but Jeifcock remained below directing such life-saving operations as could be car- ried on during the night of 12 Dec. Before further help arrived on the morning of the 13th a second explosion had killed Jeffcock and, with a single exception, the whole band of volunteers, thirty in number. The mine was sealed down, and Jeffcock's body was not recovered until 5 Oct. 1867, when it was buried in Ecclesfield churchyard. A church, named St. Saviour's, built as a me- morial of Jeft'cock at Mortomley, near Shef- field, was completed in 1872 at a cost of
[Parkin Jeffcock: a Memoir by his brother, the Eev. John T. Jeffcock, 1867, 8vo, with por- trait; Guardian, 2 Jan. 1867; Hunter's Hallam- shire, xliii. 44J ; notices in Derby Mercury, 19 and 26 Dec. 1866 ; information kindly supplied by the Kev. J. T. Jeffcock.] T. S.
JEFFERIES. [See also JEFFREY and
JEFFREYS.]
JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887), novelist and naturalist, was born at Coate Farm, near Swindon in Wiltshire, on 6 Nov. 1848. His father, the son of a miller and confectioner, was a small farmer, and appears to have possessed the independence of cha- racter and keenness of observation so remark- able in his son. He was educated partly at Sydenham, Surrey, partly at a school in his neighbourhood, and at sixteen justified the character he had obtained of a restless, un- settled lad, by running away to France with a friend, with the intention of walking to Moscow. The difficulties they naturally en- countered made them change their destina- tion to America, where they would at least understand the language of the inhabitants ;
but although they proceeded to Liverpool, and expended all their money in securing berths, the discovery that they had no funds left to> pay the expenses of living during the voyage sent them back to Swindon. Jefferies re- mained for a time at home, and read widely, especially delighting in ' Faust.' His re- markable traits of character attracted the notice of Mr. William Morris, proprietor of the ' North Wilts Advertiser,' who encou- raged him to write descriptive sketches for his journal. Under the auspices either of Mr. Morris or of Mr. Piper, editor of the ' North Wilts Herald,' JefFeries learned short- hand. He became a regular reporter on the ' Herald,' and local correspondent for a Glou- cestershire paper. He planned and partly wrote novels and tragedies, and, notwith- standing severe illnesses in 1867 and 1868r had by 1870 saved sufficient money to under- take a trip to Belgium, addressing verses by the way to the Prince Imperial, then a refugee at Hastings. He found himself out of em- ployment on his return, and was temporarily estranged from his family. But the remune- ration he received for a piece of local family history, ' The Goddards of North Wilts,' pub- lished in 1873, seems to have enabled him to marry in 1874, and to publish, partly at his own expense, his first novel, 'The Scarlet Shawl.' Like its successors, 'Restless Hu- man Hearts' (1875) and ' The World's End ' (1877), it proved a failure. His next novel, 'The Dewy Morn,' though greatly superior to its predecessors, could at the time find no publisher. He had, however, gained access to influential magazines and newspapers, to which he contributed excellent papers on rural life and scenery. A letter of his to the 'Times' on the circumstances of the agri- cultural labourer also attracted great atten- tion ; it is reprinted in Mr. Besant's biography of him. About 1876 he removed to London. In 1877 he definitively took rank as a popular author by his ' Gamekeeper at Home,' a re- print of a series of remarkable papers origin- ally contributed to the 'Pall Mall Gazetter' He had, indeed, while interpreting nature as a poet, studied her as a naturalist, not only accumulating facts with minute observation, but registering them with almost painful ac- curacy in the diaries of which Mr. Besant has given specimens. His love of details and his power of eliciting poetic beauty from them are even more strikingly exhibited in his next book, ' Wild Life in a Southern County' (1879), which also originally ap- peared in the form of articles in the 'Pall Mall.' Here, returning to his native Wilt- shire, he establishes himself on the summit of a down, and works from this' centre in
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ever widening circles until the whole rural life of the district, animal and human, and all the local features of inanimate nature, and the new world created by the interfusion of the two, are depicted in an exquisitely tinted and infinitely varied landscape with figures, provided by the unity of its plan with a definite and appropriate frame. This co- herence renders ' Wild Life' greatly superior to his later works of the same description, .such as ' Round about a Great Estate,' ' The Life of the Fields,' ' The Open Air,' &c. With the exception of ' Red Deer,' 1884, a •description of Exmoor, where unity of locality again conduces to unity of interest, these are too desultory, although the individual de- scriptions are as beautiful and accurate as ever. Fortunately he felt a call to combine the novelist with the naturalist, and, com- pressed in the mould of fiction, the profusion of his observations and imagination acquired something like artistic unity. 'Bevis' (1882) is the idealisation of his own childhood. It is a beautiful book, but is greatly surpassed in creative originality by its predecessor, 'Wood Magic' (1881), which is founded on the idea of a world of animals speaking and reasoning, displaying in their ways and works all the passions of mankind, among whom a boy, the sole human personage, moves some- what like the chorus of a Greek tragedy. The last chapter, the 'Dialogue of Bevis and the Wind,' is one of the finest prose poems in the language. The conception of ' After London ' (1885) is no less striking. England, forsaken by most of her inhabitants, has in great measure relapsed into aprimitive wilder- ness. London is a poisonous swamp; the Thames a vast lake ; forests, infested by wild beasts and a malign and dwarfish race, over- spread most of the country ; the remnants of the ancient people, though practising the virtues of hunters and warriors, yet dwell in ignorance and fear ; and amid all this dark- ness new light dawns by the inspiration of a youth of genius. As ' Bevis ' idealises the scenes and incidents of JefFeries' infancy, so 'The Story of my Heart' (1883) idealises the feelings and yearnings of his youth ; it is hardly what the lad really thought, but embodies all he was to think when he should have intellectually come to man's estate. The one fixed point in it is its intense pan- theism. These four books, with ' Wild Life,' give Jefferies his abiding place in English literature. The novels of country life which he produced during the same period, ' Greene Feme Farm' (1880), 'Amaryllis at the Fair' (1887), though full of admirable descriptions and shrewd observation, are deficient in cha- racter and construction.
In 1881 Jefferies was attacked by a painful malady, necessitating four operations within the twelvemonth. Unable to write during the whole of this time, and compelled to maintain his family and defray medical ex- penses out of his savings, he found himself on his recovery almost reduced to destitution. Scarcely did his circumstances appear to be improving, when he became the victim of a wasting and painful disease. An over- strained feeling of independence prevented his resorting to the Literary Fund, and he was compelled to maintain his family by in- cessant writing, chiefly on the scenes and pleasures of country life, for, though he de- clared that he knew London quite as well and cared for it quite as much, this work paid best and was the intellectual capital readiest to his hand. For the last two years he was unable to hold the pen, and his productions were dictated to his wife. He died at Goring in Sussex, where he had fixed himself after short residences at Brighton and Crow- borough, on 14 Aug. 1887. The sympathy aroused when the circumstances of his death became known found expression in the be- stowal of a pension upon his wife, and in the erection of a monument to his memory in Salisbury Cathedral. A bust has also been, placed in the Shire-hall, Taunton.
Like George Borrow, with whom he has much in common, Jefferies is a writer of a perfectly original type, and at the same time intensely English. Much of his best work may be rivalled or surpassed, but he is un- paralleled, unless by Shelley, for the fusion of the utmost intensity of passion with its utmost purity, and for the eloquent expres- sion of the mere rapture of living, of the joy of existence in fresh air and clear light amid lovely landscape. His reasoning power was not great, and he shows at times traces of the wilful ness and narrowness of the merely self- educated man. While in good health he was a man of splendid presence, with something of the gamekeeper and the poet combined. His reserve and the fewness of his personal intimacies are to be attributed partly to a taint of distrustfulness inherited from his peasant ancestors, partly to his constant pre- occupation with his own thoughts and his tenacious struggle for existence.
[Besant's Eulogy of Eichard Jefferies, 1888; Lord Lymington in National Review, 1887; Ed- ward Garnett in Universal Eeview, 1888.1
K. G.
JEFFERSON, SAMUEL (1809-1846), topographer, was born atBasingstoke, Hamp- shire, on 8 Nov. 1809. After residing for many years at Carlisle, first as a bookseller's
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assistant, and afterwards in business for him- self, he acted for six months as assistant to Mr. Bell, bookseller in Fleet Street, London, and was afterwards engaged in writing for Sharpe's ' London Magazine.' He died on 5 Feb. 1846 in the Caledonian Road, Penton- ville, leaving a widow, a native of Wigton in Cumberland, a son, and four daughters.
Jefferson published : 1. ' The History and Antiquities of Carlisle,' 1838. 2. 'Guide to Naworth and Lanercost,' 1839. 3. ' The History of LeathWard,' 1840. and 4. 'History of Allendale Ward above Derwent,' 1842, parts of a projected description of the county at large, divided into volumes corresponding to the several wards. 5. ' Guide to Carlisle,' 1842. He edited with prefaces and notes a series called the ' Carlisle Tracts,' a collection of tracts relating to the history of the city and county (8vo, Carlisle, 1839-44).
[Gent. Mag. new ser. xxv. 546-7.] G. G.
JEFFERY, DOROTHY (1685-1777), known as DOLLY PENTREATH, Pentreath being her maiden name, was born at Mousehole in Mount's Bay, Cornwall, in 1685, but no entry of her baptism can be found in the parish register. It is said that until the age of twenty she could speak no English. From an early age she was a fish-seller or back jowster, i.e. an itinerant fish-dealer, who carried the fish in a cowall, or basket, on her back. She married a man called Jeffery. When, in 1768, Daines Barrington went to Cornwall to make inquiries concerning the Cornish language, which had almost died out, he was ultimately taken to Mousehole and introduced to Dolly Pentreath, who addressed him in the Cornish language. Some other women told him that they understood it, although they spoke it indifferently. Bar- ringtoii made no public statement about this fact until 1772, when he wrote into Corn- wall, inquiring if Dolly Pentreath were still living, and Dr. Walter Borlase sent for her to come to Castle Horneck. She there re- ported herself to be eighty-seven, talked Cor- nish readily, was very poor, and was main- tained partly by her parish and partly by fortune-telling and gabbling Cornish. In 1776, and again in 1779, Barrington sent papers ' On the Expiration of the Cornish Language ' to the Society of Antiquaries, and in them gave an account of Dolly Pentreath. She died at Mousehole, and was buried at Paul on 27 Dec. 1777, but the church register does not give her age. In 1860 Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte erected a monument to her memory on the wall of Paul churchyard. This monument was removed in 1882 and placed over her grave. Some time after her
death a report was circulated that she had been a centenarian, and Mr. Thomson, an engineer at Truro, to encourage this belief, wrote the following epitaph in the Cornish tongue : — •
Coth Doll Pentreath cans ha deau Marow ha kledyz ed Paul pleu Na ed an Eglos gan pobel bras Bes ed Eglos-hay, coth Dolly es,
which has thus been translated : —
Old Doll Pentreath, one hundred aged and two, Deceased and buried in Paul parish too : — Not in the church, with people great and high, But in the churchyard doth old Dolly lie.
The statement that Dolly Pentreath was the last person who could speak Cornish is an error.
[Archseologia, iii. 278-84, v. 81-6; Peter Pin- dar's Lyric Odes to the Academicians, 1785, Odexxi. ; Polwhele's Cornwall, 1806, v. 16-20 ; Universal Mag. January 1781, pp. 21-4, -with portrait ; [Cyrus Redding's] Illustrated Itinerary of Cornwall, 1842, pp. 125-7-, "with portrait; Boase and Courtney's Bibliotheca Cornubiensis, i. 271 ; Jago's Ancient Language and Dialect of Cornwall, 1882, pp. 8-12, with portrait.]
G. C. B.
JEFFERY, JOHN (1647-1720), arch- deacon of Norwich, was born of humble parentage o'n 20 Dec. 1647 in the parish of St. Laurence, Ipswich. After passing thro ugh Ipswich grammar school he was sent in 1664 to Catharine Hall, Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1668, M.A. in 1672, and D.D. in 1096. He was ordained to the curacy of Dennington, Suffolk, where he assiduously studied divinity. The parishioners, impressed by his preaching, unanimously elected him to the living of St. Peter Mancroft in Nor- wich in 1678 (BLOMEFIELD, Norfolk, 8vo ed., iv. 189). His blameless life and great learn- ing soon won for him the regard of Sir Thomas Browne and the chief citizens of Norwich. Sir Edward Atkyns, lord chief baron, who then spent the long vacations in Norwich, gave him an apartment in his house, took him up to town with him, and intro- duced him to Tillotson, then preacher of Lin- coln's Inn. Tillotson often engaged Jeffery to preach for him. In 1687 he became rec- tor of Kirton and vicar of Falkenham, Suf- folk, and on 13 April 1694 Tillotson, then archbishop of Canterbury, made him arch- deacon of Norwich (LE NEVE, Fasti, ed. Hardy, ii. 481). He died on 1 April 1720, and was buried on the 5th in the chancel of St. Peter Mancroft. He married, first, Sarah (d. 1705), sister of John Ireland, apothecary, of Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, by whom he had a son and four daughters j and
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secondly, in 1710, Susan Ganning (d. 1748), by whom he had no issue. Jeffery was an enemy of religious controversy, alleging ' that it produced more heat than light.'
His portrait, engraved by Anthony Walker after the painting by L. Seeman, is prefixed to his ' Collection of Sermons and Tracts ' (1751).
His chief writings are : 1. ' Religion the Perfection of Man,' I2mo, London, 1689. 2. ' Proposals to the reverend Clergy of the Archdeaconry of Norwich concerning the reformation of manners and promoting the interest of true religion and virtue,' 8vo, Norwich, 1700. 3. 'The Religion of the Bible; or a Summary View of the Holy Scriptures, as the Records of True Religion,' &c., 8vo, Norwich, 1701. 4. 'Select Dis- courses upon divers important subjects,' 8vo, London, 1710. His shorter works are in- cluded in 'A Complete Collection of the Sermons and Tracts written by ... J. Jeffery,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1751.
Jeftery published from his friend Benja- min Whichcot's manuscripts four volumes of ' Several Discourses,' 8vo, London, 1701-7 ; ' The True Notion of Peace in the Kingdom or Church of Christ/ 8vo, London, 1717; and ' Moral and Religious Aphorisms,' 8vo, Lon- don, 1703, an edition of which appeared in 1753, 8vo, London, with large additions by Samuel Bath, D.D. He also edited a posthu- mous piece by Sir Thomas Browne, which he called ' Christian Morals,' 12mo, Cambridge. 1716.
[Memoirs in the Complete Collection by S. Jones; Birch's Life of Tillotson, pp. 326-7; Blomefield's Norfolk, 8vo edit., iii. 641 ; Cole MS. 5873, f. 7.] G. G.
JEFFERY, THOMAS (1700P-1728), nonconformist divine, born at Exeter about 1700, was a student at the nonconformist academy conducted by Joseph Hallett II (1656-1722) [q. v.], where James Foster [q. v.] and Peter King, first lord King [q. v.], afterwards lord chancellor, were fellow-stu- dents. Jeffery assisted the Halletts in their ministry for some years, and in 1726 he suc- ceeded James Peirce [q. v.] as colleague to the younger Hallett at the Mint Meeting, but he was shortly afterwards called to Little Baddow, Essex, where he remained until his return to Exeter, immediately before his premature death in 1728.
Jeffery is best remembered by the learned support which he gave to Chandler, AVhiston, Sherlock, and other opponents of Anthony Collins [q. v.], the deist, m a ' Review of the Controversy between the Author of a Dis- course on the Grounds and Reasons of the
Christian Religion and his Adversaries,' 1 725,. 8vo. Jeffery's ' True Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, in opposition to the false ones set forth in a late book' (i.e. Col- lins's ' Grounds/ &c.), which was written as early as 1725, is described by Leland (View of Deistical Writers, i. 119) as an ' ingenious treatise,' and by Collins himself as the work of an ' ingenious author.' Jeffery also wrote ' Christianity the Perfection of all Religion, Natural and Revealed/ 1728, 8vo. His works were praised by Dr. Kennicott, and Jeffery is described in Doddridge's ' Family Expo- sitor' as having ' handled the subject of pro- phecy and the application of it in the New Testament more studiously perhaps than any one since the time Eusebius wrote his " De- monstratio Evangelica.'"
[Biog. Brit. (Kippis), iv. art. ' Collins ; ' Wat- kins's Biog. Diet. (1807 edit.); Monthly Mag. xv. 146 ; Murch's Hist, of Presb. and Gen. Bap- tist Churches in West of England.] T. S.
JEFFERYS, JAMES (1757-1784), painter, born in 1757 at Maidstone, Kent, was son of William Jefferys (a. 1805), painter, who found much employment at Maidstone, and exhibited some paintings of fruit at the Society of Arts in London. There is a draw- ing by William Jefferys at Maidstone of his fellow-townsman, William Woollett [q. v.], the celebrated engraver, with whom young Jefferys was placed as pupil. He made great progress in drawing, and became a student of the Royal Academy, where in 1773 he ob- tained the gold medal for an historical draw- ing of 'Seleucus and Stratonice.' In 1774 he obtained a gold palette from the Society of Arts for an historical painting, and in 1775 was selected to receive the allowance granted by the Dilettante Society to enable an Aca- demy student to go to Rome. In 1773 and 1774 he exhibited some drawings and pictures at the Society of Artists. Jefferys remained four years in Rome, and on his return to London settled in Meard's Court, Soho. He painted a large picture of ' The Scene before Gibraltar on the morning of 14 Sept. 1782/ which he exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1783, and which was again exhibited at the European Museum in 1804. Woollett commenced an engraving of it, which he did not live to finish, but it was completed in 1789 by John Ernes [q. v.] Another picture by Jefferys of ' Orgar and Elfrida ' was en- graved in stipple by R. S. Marcuard. Jefferys died of a decline 31 Jan. 1784, at the early age of twenty-seven.
[Edwards' s Anecdotes of Painters; Redgrave's Diet, of Artists ; Sandb/s History of the Royal Academy.] L. C.
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JEFFERYS, THOMAS (d. 1771), map •engraver, carried on his business in St. Mar- tin's Lane, Charing Cross, London, and be- came geographer to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George III. He died on 20 Nov. 1771 (Gent. Mag. xli. 523). By his wife Elizabeth he left two sons and two daugh- ters (will registered in P.C.C.444, Trevor).
Jefferys published: 1. 'The Conduct of the French with regard to Nova Scotia . . . In a Letter to a Member of Parliament' [anon.], 8vo, London, 1754, translated into French in 1755, and answered by ' Le Sieur D. L. G. D. C.' in ' La Conduite des Francois justifiee,' 12mo, 1756. 2. ' Explanation for the new Map of Nova Scotia' [anon.], 4to, London, 1755. 3. ' A Collection of the Dresses of different Nations, antient and modern . . . after the designs of Holbein, Vandyke, Hollar, and others,' 4 vols. 4to, London, 1757-72, with descriptions in Eng- lish and French. 4. ' The Natural and Civil History of the French Dominions in North and South America . . . illustrated by Maps and Plans . . . engraved by T. J.,' 2 pts. fol. London, 1760. 5. 'A Description of the Maritime Parts of France,' oblong fol. Lon- don, 1761 , with maps and plans. 6. ' Voyages from Asia to America for completing the Discoveries of the North- West Coast of Ame- rica .~ . . Translated from the High Dutch of G. F. Mueller, with three new Maps . . . by T. J.,' 4to, London, 1761 ; another edit., 1764. 7. 'A Description of the Spanish Islands and Settlements on the Coast of the West Indies, compiled from authentic Me- moirs,' 4to, London, 1762. 8. 'A Geogra- phical Description of Florida,' in William Roberta's 'Account of the first Discovery and Natural History' of that country, 4to, Lon- don, 1763. 9. ' The great Probability of a North- West Passage ; deduced from Observa- tions on the Letter of Admiral de Fuentes . . . with three explanatory Maps by T. J.,' 4to, London, 1768. 10. ' The North Ame- rican Pilot . . . being a Collection of ... Charts and Plans . . . chiefly engraved by T. J.,'fol. London, 1775, a work issued under the auspices of Captain James Cook.
[Brit. Mus. Cat,] G. G.
JEFFREY. [See also GEOFFEEY.]
JEFFREY, ALEXANDER (1 806-1874), Scottish antiquary, born in 1806 near Lillies- leaf, Roxburghshire, was fourth son of a farm steward or bailiff, who belonged to the antiburgher branch of the secession church. He was a studious youth, but left school at an early age, became a solicitor's clerk at first in Melrose and afterwards in Edinburgh,
and was later an assistant in the town-clerk's office at Jedburgh. In 1838 he obtained admission as a practitioner in the sheriff court of Roxburghshire, and subsequently became the most popular and successful agent, especially in criminal cases, in the sheriff courts of Roxburgh and Selkirk. He lived at Jedburgh, and died there on 29 Nov. 1874. His wife had died in 1872.
Despite his professional industry Jeffrey was well read in general literature, and as an enthusiastic archaeologist was elected a member of the Scottish Society of Anti- quaries. In 1836 he published a history of Roxburghshire in an octavo volume. In 1853 he began rewriting it on a larger scale. The first volume of the new venture — his chief work — was issued in 1853, and the fourth and last in 1864. Although the works of the Record Commission published since dis- close information with which Jeffrey was not acquainted, his history, despite occasional defects in style and arrangement, is on the whole well written, and remains a recog- nised authority (cf. review in Edinburgh Re- vieiv, cxii. 489 seq., and ib. July 1887). To the ' Transactions ' of the Berwickshire Natu- ralists' Club, of which he was a member, he contributed two topographical papers on Jedburgh and Ancrum respectively. He also published a small guide to the scenery and antiquities of Jedburgh (12mo, n.d.)
[Scotsman, 30 Nov. 1874 ; private informa- tion.]
JEFFREY, FRANCIS, LORD JEFFREY (1773-1850), critic, born 23 Oct. 1773, in Charles Street, St. George's Square, Edin- burgh, was the son of George Jeffrey, depute- clerk in the court of session, by Henrietta, daughter of John Louden, a farmer near Lanark. The family consisted of Margaret (died in childhood) ; Mary, married, 21 April 1797, to George Napier, writer to the signet ; Francis ; John, who became a merchant, was settled for some years before 1807 in Boston, Mass., as partner of his father's brother, who had married a sister of JohnWilkes, and after- wards led a secluded life in Scotland ; and Marion, married, 7 June 1800, to Dr. Thomas Brown, a physician in Glasgow. She died in 1846. The father, a high tory, was sensible and respectable, but of gloomy temper. The mother, who was much loved by her family (the more so ' from the contrast between her and her husband '), died in 1786. Francis was healthy, though diminutive. He learnt dancing before he was nine, but was never good at any bodily exercise except walking. In October 1781 he was sent to the high school at Edinburgh, where his first master
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was a Mr. Fraser, teacher of Scott in the preceding and of Brougham in the succeed- ing class. After four yearsxunder Fraser he entered the class of the rector, Alexander Adam [q. v.], but showed no special promise. He studied at Glasgow during the sessions of 1787-8 and 1788-9, and formed friend- ships with the Greek professor, John Young, and the logic professor, John Jardine. His father forbade him to attend the classes of Millar, the most famous, but unfortunately most whiggish, professor of the time, and in after years blamed himself for allowing his son to be corrupted even by the contagion of Millar's indirect influence. His intellectual vivacity now began to appear; he distin- guished himself in a debating society, proposed to actSigismundain Thomson's ' Tancredand Sigismunda,' till the play was forbidden by the authorities, and wrote to his old rector Adam to propose a philosophical correspond- ence. He read and annotated systematically and practised himself carefully in composi- tion, writing essays, translations, and poems, from which his biographer has given many extracts. After leaving Glasgow he stayed at Edinburgh for a time, attending the law classes of Hume and Dick, but seeing few friends except his uncle, William Morehead (d. 1793), at whose house at Herbertshire in the county of Stirling he passed much time. One charm of the house was a good library, where Jeffrey extended his reading and self- culture. In September 1791 he went to Oxford and entered Queen's College, but dis- liked the place, found his companions un- congenial and dissipated, and left Oxford for good 5 July 1792. He managed at Oxford to get rid of his old Scottish, but acquired in its place an unpleasing English accent. A ' high-keyed accent and a sharp pronuncia- tion,'with 'extreme rapidity of utterance,' marred his oratory, though his peculiarities were afterwards softened (CocKBURy, i. 47 ; CAELTLE, Reminiscences, ii. 51). Jeffrey always retained a keen interest in Scottish xiniversities. In 1820 he was elected lord rector of Glasgow, and delivered an excellent address to the students, besides founding a prize on his retirement for the best Greek student (CocKBURN, i. 405). In 1849 it was finally settled that the prize should be a gold medal. He took part in the founda- tion of the Edinburgh Academy (1824), and was afterwards a director. While busied in 1833 with official duties he found time to secure the use of rooms in the college at Edinburgh for the students' societies.
Jeffrey now prepared himself for the Scot- tish bar, and attended law lectures in 1792- 1793. He became a conspicuous member of
the Speculative Society, where he made the acquaintance of Scott and many distinguished contemporaries. He attended the trial for - sedition of Thomas Muir, and never forgot the horror which it produced in him. He saw no society in Edinburgh as yet, and for a time hated the place. He continued to produce essays and to practise composition. His essays show great versatility and an early interest in serious questions. He •wrote criticisms upon his own performances as sharp as his criticisms upon those of other writers in the ' Edinburgh Review,' and probably received with more respect by the author. While at Oxford he told his sister that he should ' never be a great man, un- less it be as a poet' (ib. i. 69). He wrote a great quantity of verse and two plays. He once (ib. p. 71), it is said, went so far as to leave a manuscript with a publisher, but, on second thoughts, rescued it before it had been considered. He continued to versify until 1796, and in that year (ib. p. 95) was thinking of publishing a translation, in the style of Cowper's ' Homer/ from the ' Argo- nautics ' of Apollonius.
He was admitted to the bar 16 Dec. 1794. At this period the whole system of govern- ment and patronage in Scotland was in .the hands of the tories, administered chiefly by Henry Dundas [q. v.], afterwards Lord Mel- ville. Jeffrey had become a whig, his natural liberalism being encouraged by the influence of his genial uncle, Morehead, contrasted with the gloomy severity of his father. An essay upon ' Politicks,' written in 1793, shows him to have then been a ' philosophical whig,' and he steadily held to his principles, though disapproved by his father and a serious ob- stacle to any hopes of preferment. He got a few fees through his family connections, but at first made very slow progress. In 1798 he went to London with introductions to editors, including Perry of the ' Morning Chronicle,' and thought that he could make by literature four times as much as he could ever make at the bar. He returned, how- ever, without finding an opening, and amused his leisure by studying science, especially chemistry. He became a member, in com- pany with Brown, Brougham, Homer, and others, of a society called the ' Academy of Physicks.' He had intervals of depression, in which he despaired of success at the bar, and thought of moving to England or to India. He owed much to the encouragement of George Joseph Bell [q. v.], brother of Sir Charles Bell, both brothers being his friends through life. The marriage of his sister Marion in 1800 made his home life uncomfortable, and as he had not twenty
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guineas to spare lie engaged himself, in the beginning of 1801, to Catherine, daughter of the Rev. Dr. Wilson, professor of church history at St. Andrews, a second cousin of his own. His friends wished him to apply for the chair of history in the university of Edinburgh, vacated in 1801 by the resigna- tion of A. F. Tytler, but his whiggism made success hopeless. He married Miss Wilson on 1 Nov. 1801 ; she had no money ; his father was able to give little help, and he had not made IQOl. a year at the bar. The young couple settled in a third story flat in Buccleuch. Place, moving in May 1802 to an upper story in 62 Queen Street. His pro- fessional prospects began to improve, and he made some reputation (May 1802) by a speech before the general assembly. In the summer of 1801 he had stood for a reporter- ship of the court of sessions, a small office for which he was proposed by Henry Erskine. He was beaten on purely party grounds by a large majority. The contest led. to the ' soli- tary eclipse ' which ever obscured a friend- ship of Jeffrey. One of the judges, Sir Wil- liam Miller, lord Glenlee [q. v.], refused to support a whig, and a coolness ensued which lasted till 1826 (ib. i. 416). This disappoint- ment disposed Jeffrey to look for other em- ployment. His social qualities and his bril- liant talents had made him intimate with a circle of promising young men then resident at Edinburgh. Sydney Smith, Brougham, and Hornerwere the chief; and at a meeting in Buccleuch Place (on the third, not the ' eighth or ninth ' story) Smith's proposal to start a review (preface to SMITH'S Works) was ' carried by acclamation.' Jeffrey after- wards dedicated his collected essays to Smith as ' the original projector of the " Edinburgh Review." ' It is probable enough, as Cock- burn thinks (p*. 125), that the subject had been previously mooted, although first se- riously considered at this meeting. Jeffrey had already published some articles, and three appeared in the ' Monthly Review ' in June, July, and November, 1802 (the first two on White's ' Etymoligon,' the third on Southey's 'Thalaba').
The first number was prepared by the friends in committee, although Smith appears to have considered himself as editor. The confederates met at a ' dingy room off Willi- son's printing-office in Craig's Close ; ' Smith, who was very timid, insisting upon their re- •pairing singly, and by back approaches, to the office. They read proofs and copy in committee, but within a year the awkward- ness of this system led to the appointment of Jeffrey as responsible editor. Constable, the first publisher, agreed to take the risk, and
was allowed to have the first three numbers as a gift. He afterwards agreed to pay ten. guineas a sheet, ' three times what was ever paid before for such work ' (COCKBFRN, ii. 74), but the minimum was soon raised to sixteen guineas, and the average during Jef- frey's reign was (as he thinks) from twenty to twenty-five guineas. The editor was, by the first agreement, to have 501. a number (id. ii. 70). The ' Review ' made an instant suc- cess, to the surprise of Jeffrey, who, with characteristic pessimism, expected it to die soon, and meant to drop his own connection with it (ib. p. 129) after fulfilling his promises of support for the first four numbers. The first number appeared on 10 Oct. 1802 ; in July 1803 Jeffrey tells his brother that they are selling 2,500 copies (ib. ii. 74); in 1808 Scott put the circulation at 8,000 or 9,000 (to Gifford, 25 Oct.), and in 1814 Jeffrey told Moore (Moons, Diaries, ii. 40) that they printed nearly 13,000 copies. The success was due to the independence of the ' Review/ its predecessors having been always under the influence of publishers, and to the speedy substitution of the plan of handsome pay- ment of contributors for the original scheme of gratuitous service. This enabled it to- flourish when the singularly able group of young men who wrote the first numbers had dispersed. Thomas Brown and John Thomp- son took offence at some editorial liberties, and left the ; Review,' without, however, quarrelling with Jeffrey. Brougham claimed three articles in the first number; Jeffrey (CoCKBiTKN', i. 137) said that he was kept out by Smith from doubts of his prudence till after the third number, and told Macvey Napier (Correspondence, p. 433) that he did not come in till 'after the third number,, and our assured success.' Smith, Horner, Brougham, John Allen, and others, left Edin- burgh in a year or two. Jeffrey remained, continued to receive contributions, from the absentees, and naturally became the sole con- troller of the ' Review.' He used his powers of excision and alteration very freely, pro- bably too freely, and he allowed some con- tributors, especially Brougham, to go beyond the limits of what he personally approved ; but there can be no doubt that he was one of the best editors who ever managed a re- view, and under his rule it became indis- putably the leading organ of public opinion and the most dreaded of critical censors. Jeffrey, however, still considered the editing of the ' Review ' as subordinate to his pro- fessional career. On becoming definitely editor, he told Horner (11 May 1803) that it was known that he would ' renounce it as- soon as he could do without it,' and was.
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afraid of ' sinking in estimation ' by being ' articled to a trade that is not perhaps the most respectable.' His contributors equally regarded the ' Review ' as subsidiary to other pursuits.
Although Jeffrey and his associates were whigs, the ' Review ' did not at first take a strong political line. Scott's toryism did not prevent him from contributing several literary articles during 1803, 1805, and 1806. Al- though favouring Roman catholic emancipa- tion and opposing the war, it held so moderate a tone, that Scott advised Southey in Decem- ber 1807 to become a contributor. Southey declined on the ground of its politics, and (probably) also of its attacks upon the ' Lake poets.' Scott admitted, in reply, that the growing whiggism of the ' Review,' especially in regard to catholic emancipation, had given him some scruples. The publication of the •'famous' Cevallos article in No. 26 finally clinched the matter. This article, written, it seems, by Jeffrey himself, with some help from Brougham (see MACVEY NAPIER'S Cor- respondence, p. 308, for the evidence), ex- pressed utter despondency as to the English operations in Spain. Scott at once stopped his subscription to the ' Review,' and deci- sive measures were now taken for starting the 'Quarterly Review' in opposition. On 19 Nov. 1808 Scott wrote to his brother de- scribing a conversation in which Jeffrey had ' offered terms of pacification, engaging that no party politics should again appear in his " Review." ' After the publication of this letter in Lockhart's ' Life of Scott,' Jeffrey, on republishing his essays, declared in the preface that Scott must have misunderstood, and that he could never have made such an olier, because his contributors were too inde- pendent, and he had remembered to have told Scott that he had for six years regarded politics as ' the right leg ' of the ' Review ' {ib. p. 435). The truth is no doubt shown by a contemporary letter written by Jeffrey to Homer on 6 Dec. 1 808 (HoKNER, Memoirs, 1853, i. 464) to ask help ' in the day of need' caused by the threatened competition. He tells his correspondent to write anything, ' only no party politics, and nothing but ex- emplary moderation and impartiality on all politics.' The context shows that by ' party politics ' he did not mean whig politics, but only unfair and irritating methods of party warfare. The elastic term gave rise to a mis- understanding. Brougham told Napier ( Cor- respondence, p. 308) in 1839 that the Cevallos article had first made the reviewers con- spicuous as ' liberals.' All the inner circle of reviewers were whigs, and naturally gave a whiggish tone to the 'Review.' The
competition of the 'Quarterly' gave it a more distinctive party colour, especially as Brougham became its chief political writer. Jeffrey himself wrote very few political ar- ticles. He was at no time an enthusiast. Throughout life his natural despondency con- stantly showed itself. He was ' mortally afraid'of the war ' (COCKBURN, i. 234), and of revolution afterwards. Sympathising with whig principles, he thought their aristocra- tic tendencies dangerous, because such ten- dencies weakened their capacity for leading, and so controlling, the popular party. He dreaded Cobbett and the popular radicals as well as Bentham and the philosophical ra- dicals. He complained characteristically of Carlyle for being too much in earnest, and was regarded by the radicals as a mere trimmer (see the remarkable articles by James Mill in the first number of the Westminster Review, and J. S. Mill's account of it in his Autobiography). On the triumph of whig principles in the Reform Bill period, the ' Edinburgh Reviewers ' were inclined to take a little too much credit for their advo- cacy of the party creed. To say nothing of the general causes at work, this implied a considerable injustice to the radicals, whose advocacy had been far more thoroughgoing, and therefore exposed to much greater dan- gers. Neither Jeffrey nor his colleagues had ever ventured within reach of the law of libel.' It may, however, be said with equal truth that they introduced a far higher tone of discussion than had hitherto been known in periodical writing ; that they were honest in adherence to their own principles, and facilitated the spread of liberalism among the more educated classes. However timid poli- tically, Jeffrey always defended what he held to be just, and was hostile to every form of tyranny.
Jeffrey's professional progress was still slow. In 1803 he was inclined to accept a professorship of moral and political science in the college recently started at Calcutta. His income at the bar at this time was only 240£ (to Horner, 21 March 1804). He became an ensign in a volunteer regiment in 1803, with a strong conviction that an invasion was imminent, but showed so little military apti- tude, that he was never at home in his uni- form, and could hardly, according to Cock- burn, face his company to the right or left. He visited London in 1804, to enjoy his fame and see his friends, as well as ito seek recruits ; but he returned to Edinburgh with a fresh zest for the old home and the plea- sant society, which then included a large proportion of the literary celebrities of the day. He began to make his way, and his
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personal charm broke down the old preju- dices caused by his whiggism and his youth- ful impertinence. The death of his sister, Mrs. Napier, affected him profoundly, and on 8 Aug. 1805 his wife died. His letters on the occasion show the exceeding tender- ness of his nature. Their only child, born in September 1802, had died on 25 Oct. follow- ing. He was strongly attached to his sister's children ; but his home was now desolate. He stuck gallantly to his work, and went into society even more frequently, though with a sad heart. In 1806 he went to Lon- don, where, as he said himself, his indiffer- ence to life enabled him to act coolly in the duel with Moore. Moore had taken offence at an article upon his ' Epistles, Odes, and other Poems ' in the fifteenth number of the ' Review.' Jeffrey had condemned their im- moral tendency with a vigour which Moore resented as a personal insult. Jeffrey met Moore at Chalk Farm on 11 Aug. 1806. Both combatants were even comically ignorant of the practices of duellists. A friend from whom Moore had borrowed pistols gave in- formation to the police, and Bow Street run- ners took them in charge at the critical moment. Although Homer, who was Jeffrey's second, declared that the pistols had both been loaded, it was discovered at the police- office that there was no bullet in Jeffrey's pistol. Byron referred to this in ' English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,' erroneously giving the 'leadless pistol' to Moore. The two authors were bound over to keep the peace, and Jeffrey, who had taken a fancy to Moore on the field of action, made satis- factory explanations, which were followed by a complete reconciliation. In 1814 Jef- frey got some articles from Moore for the ' Edinburgh,' and wrote in affectionate as well as complimentary terms (see the account of the duel in MOORE'S .DiVm'es, i. 199-213). In 1825 Moore visited him in Scotland, and they preserved a cordial friendship.
Jeffrey's practice was now extending through all the Scottish courts, and he fre- quently appeared in appeals before the House of Lords. Though not a profound lawyer, he was a very effective advocate, especially be- fore a jury. He had an ' unchallenged mono- poly on one side ' (COCKBURN, p. 179) before the general assembly for twenty years from 1807. He was able to take singular liber- ties (ib. p. 183) before this ' mob of three hundred people ' ignorant of legal technicali- ties. They treated him as an honoured favourite, and though the fees were trifling, his general professional position was raised by his popularity with them. The introduction of juries for the trial of facts in civil cases in
YOL. XXIX.
January 1816 gave him a new field, and he was employed in almost every trial before the 'jury court' (ib. p. 240). In spite of an artifi- cial manner and a tendency to over-refinement, his sagacity — which was his 'peculiar quality ' (ib. p. 242) — his great memory for details, his skill in veiling his own sophistries and expos- ing other people's, his versatility and general charm gave him great power. He appeared in one or two political cases, as the trial of Maclaren and Bird for sedition in 1817, and the defence of some persons tried for sedition at Stirling in 1820, and, though unsuccess- ful, made able speeches. He won a more questionable reputation by obtaining acquit- tals of some reputed criminals. A curious account of his rescue of one ' Nell Kennedy,' of which he was rather ashamed, is given in Carlyle's ' Reminiscences ' (ii. 10-12).
In 1810 he moved from Queen Street to 92 George Street (CocKBUEN, i. 199), where he lived till (in 1827) he moved to his last house in 24 Moray Place (ib. p. 279). At the end of the year he received a visit from M. Simond, a French refugee, whose wife was a sister of Charles Wilkes of New York, a nephew of John Wilkes. The Simonds were accompanied by their niece Charlotte, daugh- ter of Charles Wilkes, with whom Jeffrey speedily fell in love. In 1812 he took a country house at Hatton, nine miles west of Edinburgh, where he spent part of three summers. Miss Wilkes had gone to her father in America, and in 1813 Jeffrey re- solved to follow her. The countries were at war. He suffered from sea-sickness, and na- turally was blind to the beauties of the sea, though singularly alive to beauty of land- scape. He left his clients to themselves, gave the ' Review ' in charge to two friends, and sailed from Liverpool in a ' cartel/ 29 Aug. 1813. He landed at New York on 7 Oct., married Miss Wilkes soon afterwards, and then made a tour to some large towns, conversing with the president (Madison) and James Monroe, the secretary of state, and patriotically defending the English claims which he had attacked in the ' Review.' He sailed from New York on 22 Jan. 1814, reaching Liverpool on 10 Feb. Jeffrey was ever afterwards a warm advocate of recon- ciliation with America. In 1815 he took Craigcrook, on the eastern slope of Corstor- phine Hill, three miles north-west of Edin- burgh, then an old keep with a disorderly kitchen-garden. He took great pleasure in improving the house and grounds, and there spent all his remaining summers. In 1815 he made his first visit to the continent; During the first years of the peace Jeffrey 'wrote many literary articles, but only one
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or two upon politics, especially one upon the state of the nation (art. 2, No. 64), ad- vising moderation in all parties. lie begun, however, to take some part in political meet- ings, especially in co-operation with Sir James Gibson Craig [q.v/] He spoke at a meeting for abolishing the income-tax in 1816, and was very effective at the ' Pantheon meeting' (19 Dec. 1820) in favour of a peti- tion for dismissing the ministry. From 1821 to 1826 he took an active part at public din- ners promoted by the Scottish whigs. A speech which he delivered (18 Nov. 1828) upon the combination laws, explaining the ' dangers and follies of unions and strikes by workmen,' was published as a pamphlet, and 8,000 copies speedily sold.
Jeffrey was now fairly in a position for preferment. Some offers were made to bring him into parliament in 1821. In 1827 he •was advised to try for an appointment to the bench, when he replied that four of his friends had superior claims. On 14 March 1829 he spoke at a meeting on behalf of Roman catholic emancipation, the last which he attended.
On 2 July 1829 he was unanimously elected dean of the Faculty of Advocates, Sir John Hope, the solicitor-general, declin- ing to oppose him. He was so popular that the conservative majority did not care to use their power against him. He decided upon the election to retire from the ' Edinburgh Review,' of which Macvey Napier [q. v.] now became editor. His last article as a regular contributor appeared in October 1829, and he only wrote four others at considerable intervals.
Upon the advent to power of the whigs in 1830, Jeffrey received a reward for his long services to the party by the appointment to the post of lord advocate. He soon after- wards resigned the deanship, which on 17 Dec. 1831 was conferred upon his old opponent, Hope. His new office broke up Jeffrey's old mode of life, and was not without drawbacks. The income was about 3,000/. a year, but he had to obtain seats in parliament, which, be- tween December 1830 and May 1832, cost him about 10,OOOJ. (CoCKBTTRN, 'i. 307). He was first chosen for the Forfarshire burghs, but unseated from a flaw in the proceedings. He was then chosen (6 April 1831) for Lord Fitz William's borough, Malton, for which he was again elected in June after the dissolu- tion, having previously failed at Edinburgh, though a petition signed by 17,400 persons was sent to the town council on his behalf. After the passage of the Reform Bill he was elected at Edinburgh, 19 Dec. 1832— now for the first time an open constituency — receiv-
ing 4,058 votes, his colleague, James Aber- crombie, receiving 3,865, and his opponent, Forbes Blair, 1,519. The two successful can- didates were returned free of expense.
Jeffrey's parliamentary career was hardly a success, and his biographer's explanation substantially admits the facts. The lord ad- vocate had to discharge a number of duties involving much drudgery and troublesome detail. Entering parliament at the age of fifty-seven, and with little previous expe- rience of political warfare, he could scarcely acquire the art of debating. Though his speech on reform (4 March 1831) was praised by Mackintosh (Memoirs, ii. 479), and pub- lished ' at the special request of government,' and later speeches were received with re- spect, they seem to have been rather elegant essays than effective oratory. An affection of the trachea now and afterwards caused him much inconvenience, and he had to undergo a severe operation in October 1831. His .official position restrained him, and forced him to defend some points to which he was personally indifferent. He was entrusted with the Scottish Reform Bill in 1831 and 1832, and in 1833 with the Burgh Bill. This involved the discussion of innumerable de- tails and long wrangles in committees, and with the advocates of all manner of reforms or crotchets. He seems, however, to have been conciliatory and good-tempered. He was constantly afraid of some popular out- break, and disgusted with ' doctrinaire ' per- verseness. In 1831 he was too ill to return to Scotland, and passed the summer at Wim- bledon. He went out into London society, and in the spring of 1831 saw a good deal of his victim, Wordsworth, who met him in a friendly spirit. Worry and overwork oppressed him, as appears from Carlyle's ac- count in the ' Reminiscences,' and he began to desire his release. In May 1834 he was glad to accept a judgeship in the court of sessions, and received a farewell banquet from the Scottish members. He took his seat on the bench 7 June 1834, and became Lord Jeffrey.
Henceforward his judicial duties absorbed all his energies. He generally visited Lon- don in the spring, spending his winters at Edinburgh, and his summers at Craigcrook. He had always delighted in society. In 1803 he was one of the founders of the ' Fri- day Club,' of which Scott was also a member. Though political differences and reviews of Scott's poems in the 'Edinburgh' kept them at some distance, they were always on friendly terms as the heads of two different circles. The Friday Club lasted over thirty years. From 1840 to 1848 Jeffrey tried with some
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success to revive the old fashion of Edinburgh, suppers by opening his house on two even- ings a week. A vivid picture of his social charm and curious power of mimicry is given in Carlyle's ' Reminiscences ' (ii. 37). At Oaigcrook Jeffrey amused himself in his gar- den and by miscellaneous reading. lie was a sloven in regard to books, and had a ' wretched collection,' though in a 'moment of infirmity ' he joined the Bannatyne Club in 1826. Craig- crook received a final addition in 1835.
On 5 June 1841 he had a bad fainting-fit in court, followed by a long illness, whicli permanently weakened him. On 22 Nov. 1842 he was moved to the first division of the court of sessions. His judgments in the lower court were given in writing. He now sat with three colleagues, and cases were argued and judgments given in open court. Accord- ing to Cockburn, he was singularly patient, painstaking, and candid. His fault was over-volubility and mutability, which led him to interpose a ' running margin of ques- tions, suppositions, and comments ' through- out the argument. But his urbanity and openness of mind made him exceedingly popular, especially with the bar. On the dis- ruption of the church, Jeffrey sympathised •with the claims of those who formed the free church, and gave an opinion from the bench in their favour, which was overruled by the majority, and ultimately by the House of Lords.
His health weakened, but his character only mellowed, and he continued to rejoice in books, natural beauty, and, above all, in the society of his grandchildren. He fre- quently gave advice to young authors, and formed a special friendship with Dickens, the old ' Edinburgh ' reviewer melting into tears over the most sentimental passages of his friend's novels. He revised the proof-sheets of the first two volumes of Macaulay's his- tory, boasting of his skill as a corrector of the press. He was especially proud of his accu- racy in punctuation. He sank slowly, though retaining his faculties, and died on 26 Jan. 1850. On 31 Jan. he was buried very quietly in the Dean cemetery, near Edinburgh, at a spot which he had himself pointed out. A statue by Steel, bought by subscription among his friends, was erected to his memory in the outer house.
A portrait by Colvin Smith of Edinburgh, an engraving from which is prefixed to Cock- Imrn's ' Life,' is said to be the best likeness. There is a portrait in Kay's ' Edinburgh Por- traits ' (ii. 388), and a marble bust in the National Portrait Gallery, by Patrick Park. Carlyle (Reminiscences, ii. 14) describes his : delicate, attractive, dainty little figure . . .
uncommonly bright black eyes, instinct with honesty, intelligence, and kindly fire, rounded brow, delicate oval face full of rapid expres- sion, figure light, nimble, pretty though small, perhaps hardly five feet in height.' A de- scription of Jeffrey in court is in Lockhart's ' Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk ' (1819). Mrs. Jeffrey never recovered the shock of her hus- band's death, and died, 18 May 1850, at the house of her son-in-law, William Empson [q. v.], married on 27 June 1838 to her only child, Charlotte.
Jeffrey was a man of singular tender- ness, exceedingly sensitive, and so nervous as always to anticipate evil. He never lost a friend, and was most affectionate in his family, a lover of children, and chivalrous to women, with whom he liked to cultivate little flirtations. Mrs. Carlyle was one of his special friends. He was known for libe- rality to poor men of letters. He offered to settle an annuity of 1001. upon Carlyle, though he thought little of Carlyle's writ- ings, and lent him 1001. at a critical mo- ment [see other details under CARLYLE, THOMAS]. When Moore was in difficulties, Jeffrey made him an offer of 500J. (MooEE, Memoirs, ii. 138, iii. 350) ; and when Haz- litt was dying, Jeffrey answered to a re- quest for help by an immediate present of 50/. The sufferers under his critical lash naturally saw little of his finer qualities. Jeffrey had seated himself upon the critical bench with the audacity of a youthful judge, and, like other critics, discovered that fault- finding was easier than praise. The want of enthusiasm, which made him a despondent politician, prevented any real sympathy with the great literary movement of the time. He cared little for the romanticism or mysticism of Scott, Coleridge, Wordsworth, or Shelley. The code of laws which he administered was substantially the orthodox code of the pre- vious generation, and his fear of the ridicu- lous kept his real warmth of feeling in the background. At the end of his career he stated his conviction that Rogers and Camp- bell were the only two poets of his day who would win enduring fame. Such praises as he bestowed upon Scott, Byron, and Moore were carefully balanced by blame, and fol- lowed, instead of anticipating, the popular verdict. The more chilling and negative character of his crit ical j udgments h as lowered his fame till it is difficult to understand how not only Cockburn, but Carlyle, pronounced him to be the first of all English critics. Car- lyle compares him to Voltaire, whom he re- sembles in the brightness, vivacity, and ver- satility of his intellect. The essays, though little read, and marked by the defects of
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hasty composition peculiar to ephemeral lite- rature, are full of vivid and acute remarks, and frequently admirable in style. If he had been less afraid of making blunders, and trusted his natural instincts, he would have left a more permanent reputation,and achieved a less negative result. He was, however, a I fair opponent, and never condescended to the brutality too common in his time. Some im- putations made upon his personal fairness by Coleridge in the ' Biographia Literaria ' are sufficiently refuted by Jeffrey in the ' Edin- burgh Review 'for August 1817 (xxviii. 507- 512). Jeffrey's ' Contributions to the " Edin- burgh Review," ' a selection only, were pub- lished in four volumes in 1844 and 1853. They are reprinted in the sixth volume of 'Modern British Essayists,' Philadelphia, 1848. They include the essay on ' Beauty ' contributed to the 'Encyclopaedia Britan- nica.' Besides these, he published a pamphlet in 1804, defending himself against an absurd charge of having got up a riot in a lecture given by Thelwall at Edinburgh, and misre- presented Thelwall in the third number of the ' Edinburgh Review ; ' another pamphlet on catholic claims in 1808 ; his addresses at Glasgow on 28 Dec. 1820, 3 Jan. and 15 Nov. 1822 ; and his speech on the Reform Bill.
[Life of Lord Jeffre)', with a Selection from his Correspondence, by Lord Cockburn, 2 vols. 1852; Carlyle's Reminiscences, vol. ii. (1881); Froude's Life of Carlyle ; Macvey Napier's Cor- respondence, 1878 ; Homer's Memoirs, &c., 2nd ed. 1853 (a few letters); Moore's Diaries, &c. 1856 (letters in vol. ii.) ; Hazlitt's Spirit of the Age, 1825, pp. 303-22 ; Life of Sydney Smith, 2 vols. (letters to Jeffrey in vol. ii.); Gillies's Literary Veteran, 1851, i. 299-308 ; [Lockhart's] Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk, i. vi. vii. xxxiv. xxxv. ; Trevelyan's Life of Macaulay, i. 150-3, and elsewhere.] L. S.
JEFFREY or JEFFERAY, JOHN (d.
1578), judge, of an old Sussex family, was son of Richard Jeffrey of Chiddingly Manor, by Eliza, daughter of Robert Whitfield of Wadhurst. He was admitted a member of Gray's Inn in 1544, called to the bar in 1546, and was Lent reader there in 1561. In Easter term 1567 he became a serjeant-at-law, and on 15 Oct. 1572 a queen's serjeant. In the same year he represented the borough of Arundel in parliament. On 15 May 1576 he was ap- pointed a judge of the queen's bench, and was promoted on 12 Oct. 1577 to succeed Sir Robert Bell as chief baron of the ex- chequer. In the autumn of 1578 he died at Coleman Street Ward, London, and was buried under a magnificent tomb in Chid- dingly Church. He appears, according to
the character given of him in Lloyd's ' State Worthies,' p. 221, to have been a plodding and studious judge. He was twice married, first to Alice, daughter and heiress of John Apsley, by whom he had one daughter, Eliza- beth, who married Edward, first lord Mon- tagu of Boughton ; and secondly to Mary, daughter of George Goring.
[Foss's Judges of England; Dugdale's Ori- gines, p. 137, and Chron. Ser. ; Register of Gray's Inn ; Horsfield's Lewes, ii. 66 ; Collins's Peerage, ii. 14; Popham's Reports, p. 108 ; Lower's Wor- thies of Sussex ; Lower in Sussex Arch. Coll. vol. xiv. ; Dallaway and Cartwright's Sussex, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 207.] J. A. H.
JEFFREYS, GEORGE (d. 1685), or- ganist and composer, is said by Wood (Lives of Musicians, Bodleian MS.) to have been descended from Matthew Jeffreys, who gradu- ated Mus. Bac. at Oxford in 1593, composed music, and became vicar-choral of Wells Ca- thedral. Jeffreys was organist to Charles I at Oxford in 1643. From about 1648 till his death he held the post of steward to the Hattons of Kirby, Northamptonshire. Many of Jeffreys's letters, almost wholly dealing with the Hatton estates, and addressed to Christopher, second baron, afterwards first viscount Hatton [q. v.], and others are pre- served in the Hatton-Finch correspondence in the British Museum ; they cover a period of nearly forty years. From 1648 Jeffreys re- sided at Little Weldon in Northamptonshire, displaying great zeal in the interests of his master. In 1667 he was expected to con- tribute a horse to the muster, but declared himself exempt as not possessing 100J. In 1671 he obtained from Hatton a draft for a protection when ' our troublesome presby- terian parson ' maliciously set ' him down to be churchwarden.' His last letter, dated 11 May, complains of great pain, and he died before *12 July 1685.
Jeffreys's anthem, ' Erit gloria Domini,' is printed in the ' Cantica Sacra ' of 1672. He composed numerous anthems and motets, many of which are in manuscript in the Aldrich collection, Christ Church, Oxford. The library of the Royal College of Music is very rich in music by this composer, pos- sessing (1) an autograph collection (sixty- one numbers) of Latin and English motets and anthems, for one, two. and three voices, with basso continuo. The voice part of the motets for one voice is wanting. (2) An autograph collection (nineteen numbers) of Latin and English motets, anthems, &c., for four voices, with basso continuo. (These are probably similar to the British Museum Addit. MSS. 30829 and 17816, from which the cantus part is missing.) (3) 'Fourteen
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Songs for two Voices/ transcribed from Dean Aldrich's collection. (4) Motets for three voices, by Richard Dering and George Jeffreys, in separate parts, two-voice parts, and bassus continuus. In the British Mu- seum Addit. MS. 10338 is an autograph collection of Jeffreys's compositions, dating from 1630 to 1669. It contains scores of fantasies, part-songs, a morning hymn, com- posed ' at Mr. Peter Gunnings's motion,' May 1652 ; scenes from masques, songs made for some comedies ; ' Have pity, grief,' for a comedy sung before the king and queen at Cambridge, 1631 ; ' Lord, who for our sins,' ' made in the time of mv sickness,' October 1657.
Jeffreys's son, CHRISTOPHER (d. 1693), was elected as a king's scholar of "Westmin- ster to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1659, and was, according to his friend Wood, 'excel- lent at the organ and virginalls or harpsi- chord.' He proceeded B. A. in 1663 and M. A. in 1666. He afterwards journeyed in Spain, and his father made vain efforts to obtain him a post in the suite of an ambassador, thinking that ' the little music he hath ' might prove a recommendation. Christopher and his wife Anna continued to live in his father's house at Little Weldon, Northamptonshire, up to the latter's death in July 1685. Christopher died in 1693. His son George is separately noticed. A sister privately married in 1669 Henry Goode, rector of Weldon in 1684.
[Hawkins's Hist, of Music, ii. 582, 584, 680 ; Wood's Life, p. xxxv ; Grove's Diet, of Music, ii. 33 ; Cat. Sacred Harmonic Society's Library ; Brit. Mus. Addit. MSS. 29550-62 ; P. C. C. Administration Act-Book, July 1695.]
L. M.M.
JEFFREYS, GEORGE, first BARO* JEFFREYS of Wem (1648-1689), judge, born in 1648 at Acton, near Wrexham, Denbigh- shire, was sixth son of John Jeffreys, by his,wife Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Ireland, knt., of Beausay, near Warring- ton, Lancashire. The family name has been spelled in eight different ways ; in the patent of his peerage it appears as ' Jeffreys,' a form of spelling which he always used after- wards.
His father lived to a great age. Pennant saw his portrait at Acton House, taken in 1690, in the eighty-second year of his age (PENNANT, Tours in Wales, i. 385). Jeffreys had six brothers, the eldest of whom, John, was high sheriff' of Denbighshire in 1680. His third brother, Thomas, was knighted at Wind- sor Castle on 11 July 1686 ; was a knight of Alcantara, and lived the greater part of his life in Spain as English consul at Alicant and Madrid. His youngest brother, James,
became a prebendary of Canterbury in 1682, and, dying on 4 Sept. 1689, was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. This James was the grandfather of the Rev. John Jeffreys, D.D., prebendary of St. Paul's, who died on 20 Nov. 1798, in the eighty-first year of his age {Gent. Mag. 1798, vol. Ixviii. pt. ii. p. 1001).
While very young Jeffreys was sent to the free school at Shrewsbury, whence he was removed to St. Paul's School about 1659. There ' he applied himself with considerable diligence to Greek and Latin ' (GARDINER, Admission Registers of St. Paul's School, 1884, p. 51). In 1661 he was admitted to West- minster School, then under the rule of Dr. Busby, whom he afterwards cited as a gram- matical authority in Rosewell's trial (CoB- BETT, State Trials, x. 299). Jeffreys was an ambitious boy, and resolved that he would become a great lawyer. His father, how- ever, is said to have had a presentiment that his son would come to a violent end, and was anxious that he should enter a quiet and respectable trade. Having at length over- come his father's opposition, and being aided with pecuniary assistance from his maternal grandmother, Jeffreys was admitted a pen- sioner of Trinity College, Cambridge, on 15 March 1662. Leaving Cambridge with- out a degree he was admitted to the Inner Temple on 19 May 1663. During his stu- dent's days Jeffreys was more often at the tavern than in the Temple, though while in- dulging in dissipation he kept a keen eye to his own interest, and took especial care to cultivate the acquaintance of the young at- torneys and their clerks, whom he amused with his songs and jokes. The story that Jeffreys practised at the Kingston assizes during the time of the plague may be dis- missed as apocryphal. He was called to the bar on 22 Nov. 1668, and at first confined himself to practising at the Old Bailey and at the Middlesex sessions at Hicks's Hall, where, with the aid of the ' companions of his vulgar excesses,' his powerful voice and boldness of address soon gained him a large business. His legal learning was small, but his talent in cross-examination was great, and his language, though always colloquial and frequently coarse, was both forcible and per- spicuous. He lost no opportunity of ingra- tiating himself with the members of the cor- poration, and, through the influence of a name- sake, one John Jeffreys, alderman of Bread Street ward, who was no relation, he was ap- pointed common serjeant of the city of London on 17 March 1671. Jeffreys now commenced practice in Westminster Hall, and, seeing little prospect of further advancement from
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the popular party, to which lie bad hitherto belonged, began to cultivate fashionable so- ciety. With the aid of Chiffinch, page of the backstairs, Jeffreys obtained an intro- duction to the court, and in September 1677 was appointed solicitor-general to the Duke of York, receiving the honour of knighthood on the 14th of the same month. In January 1678 he was called to the bench of the Inner Temple, and on 22 Oct. was elected recorder of the city in the place of Sir William Dol- ben [q. v.] Although for a time disconcerted at the advantage taken by Shaftesbury of the Popish plot, Jeffreys, on being called on for his advice, recommended the court to outbid Shaftesbury in a pretended zeal for the protestant religion. Jeffreys took a prominent part in the trials of the persons charged with complicity in the plot, both as counsel in the king's bench and as recorder at the Old Bailey. He incited Lord-chief- justice Scroggs in his vindictive proceedings, and, while passing sentence after conviction, took every opportunity of insulting the pri- soners and of scoffing at the faith which they professed. For these services Jeffreys, on 30 April 1680, was appointed chief justice of Chester and counsel for the crown at Lud- low, in the place of Sir Job Charlton, and on 12 May following was sworn in as a serjeant- at-law in the court of chancery (London Ga- zette, No. 1511), taking as the motto for his rings 'A Deo rex : a rege lex.' For his over- bearing conduct as counsel he received a severe reproof from Baron Weston at the Kingston assizes in July 1680 (WoOLETCH, pp. 65-6; Hist. MSS. Comm. 7th Rep. p. 479), while his conduct as chief j ustice of Chester was severely commented upon in the House of Commons by Henry Booth (afterward second Baron Dela- mere), who declared that Jeffreys ' behaved himself more like a jack-pudding than with that gravity that beseems a judge ' (CHANDLER, Debates, 1742, ii. 163). In the struggle which arose from the delay in assembling parlia- ment Jeffreys took an active part on the side of the ' abhorrers.' A petition having been presented from the city, complaining that the recorder had obstructed the citizens in their attempts to have parliament summoned, a select committee was appointed to inquire into the charge, and on 13 Nov. 1680 it was resolved that ' Sir George Jefferyes by tra- ducing and obstructing Petitioning for the sitting of this Parliament hath betrayed the rights of the subject,' and that the king .should be requested to remove him ' out of all publick offices ' (Journals of the House of Commons, ix. 653). The king merely replied that ' he would consider of it,' but Jeffreys was ' not parliament proof,' and having sub-
mitted to a reprimand on his knees at the bar of the house, resigned the recordership on 2 Dec. 1680. Shortly after his resignation Jeffreys became chairman of the Middlesex sessions at Hicks'sHall. lie was foiled, how- ever, in his attempt to remodel the grand jury- by purging the panel of all sectarians. As counsel for the crown he took part in the prosecution of Edward Fitzharr is, Archbishop Plunket, and Stephen Colledge in 1681 , and on 17 Nov. in that year was created a baronet of the United Kingdom. After the failure of the prosecution against Lord Shaftesbury in No- vember 1681 Jeffreys entered heartily into> the scheme for destroying the popular go- vernment of the city, and did everything in. his power to push on the quo warranto by which the city was deprived of its charter. In November 1682 he obtained a conviction in the king's bench against William Dock- wray [q. v.J for an infringement of the Duke of York's rights to the revenues of the post- office. He took a prominent part in the pro- secution of William, lord Russell, for his share in the Rye House plot, and vehemently pressed the case against the prisoner (State trials, ix. 577-636). Though Charles had declared that Jeffreys had ' no learning, no sense, no man- ners, and more impudence than ten carted street- walkers,' and had hitherto demurred to his promotion to theoffice of lord chief justice of England (see letter of the Earl of Sunder- land, Clarendon Correspondence, i. 82-3), he subsequently withdrew his objections, and Jeffreys was appointed to the post on 29 Sept. 1683 (London Gazette, No. 1864). Elkanah Settle published a ' panegyrick ' on him im- mediately afterwards.
Jeffreys was sworn a member of the privy council on 4 Oct. 1683, and took his seat in the king's bench on the first day of Michaelmas term. In November he presided at the trial of Algernon Sidney for high treason (State Trials, ix. 817-1022). It was conducted with manifest unfairness to the prisoner, but though the illegality of the con- viction is unquestionable, the charge that Jeffreys admitted the manuscript treatise oa government to be read without any evidence that it had been written by Sidney beyond ' similitude of hands ' is unfounded (CAMP- BELL, Lives of the Chancellors, iv. 368). In June 1684 Jeffreys condemned Sir Thomas Armstrong, who had been brought to the bar of the king's bench upon an outlawry for high treason, and refused his claim to a trial, to which he was entitled by statute. Upon the prisoner exclaiming, ' I ought to- have the benefit of the law, and I demand no more,' Jeffreys brutally replied, ' That yon shall have by the grace of God. See that
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execution be done on Friday next, according to law. You shall have the full benefit of the law' (State Trials, x. 114). Burnet re- cords that soon after this trial Jeffreys went to Windsor, where Charles ' took a ring of good value from his finger and gave it him for these services,' remarking at the same time that as ' it was a hot summer and he was going circuit he therefore desired he would not drink too much ' (History of his own Time, ii. 423). In the summer of this year Jeffreys successfully induced several corporations in the north to surrender their charters (The Historian's Guide, 1690, p. 161), and it was upon his unconstitutional advice that James almost immediately after his ac- cession in February 1685 issued a proclama- tion that the customs should be collected and employed exactly as if they had already been granted to him by parliament (NoKTH, Life of Lord Guilford, p. 255). In May 1685 Jeffreys presided at the trial of Titus Gates, when he took the opportunity of paying ofi an old grudge against the prisoner by con- curring in passing a barbarous and excessive sentence upon him (State Trials, x. 1079- 1330).
Jeffreys was created Baron Jeffreys of Wem in the county of Salop on 15 May 1685, and on the 19th took his seat in the House of Lords (Journals of the House of Lords, xiv. 73). As no chief justice had ever been made a lord of parliament since the ju- dicial system had been remodelled in the thirteenth century, this was an exceptional mark of royal approbation. In the same month Jeffreys tried Richard Baxter [q. v.] on the charge of libelling the church in his 'Paraphrase of the New Testament,' and over- whelmed him with abuse. Jeffreys was now the virtual ruler of the city, while the lord mayor enjoyed no more than bare title, and the corporation "' had no sort of intercourse with the king but by the intervention of that lord ' (REEESBT, Memoirs, p. 308). He had also practically superseded the lord keeper in his political functions, and the whole of the legal patronage was in his hands. On 8 July 1685, two days after the battle of Sedgemoor, the commission was issued for the western circuit. It consisted of Jeffreys as president, and of four other judges, viz. Sir William Montagu, the lord chief baron, Sir Cresswell Levinz, justice of the king's bench, Sir Francis Wythens, justice of the common pleas, and Sir Robert Wright, baron of the exchequer. On 24 Aug. an order was issued from the war office to all officers in the west to furnish such soldiers ' as might be required by the lord chief justice on his circuit for securing prisoners, and to perform
that service in such manner as he should direct ' (MACKINTOSH, History of the Revo- lution, p. 17). On the following day the commission was opened at Winchester, where the only case of high treason was that of Alice, lady Lisle, the widow of John Lisle, sometime president of the high court of jus- tice (State Trials, xi. 297-382). Jeffre'ys's conduct of the trial was in the worst style of the times, but Burnet's account of it" is grossly exaggerated ; and though much may be said in favour of the justice of her con- viction, the execution of the death-penalty cannot escape condemnation. The commis- sion afterwards sat at Salisbury, Dorchester, Exeter, Taunton, and Wells. Bristol, which had an assize of its own, was the last place visited by the judges. The number of exe- cutions for high treason cannot now be as- certained with any precision, but there are good reasons for supposing that the num- ber of 320, as given by Macaulay, is very much in excess of the truth (INDEEWICK Side-Li(/hts on the Stuarts, p. 392). More than eight hundred rebels were bestowed upon persons who enjoyed favour at court to be sold into slavery, and many others were whipped and imprisoned. Jeffreys himself appears to have amassed a considerable sum of money during ' the bloody assizes,' chiefly by means of extortion from the unfortunate rebels or their friends. On his return from Bristol Jeffreys stopped at Windsor, where James, ' taking into his royal consideration the many eminent and faithful services 'which the chief justice had rendered the crown, pro- moted him to the post of lord chancellor on 28 Sept. 1085 (London Gazette, No. 2073). Jeffreys was installed in the court of chancery on 23 Oct., the first day of Michaelmas term, and at the opening of parliament on 9 Nov. following took his seat on the woolsack (Journals of the House of Lords, xiv. 73). On 18 Nov. he opposed the Bishop of Lon- don's motion for taking the king's speech into consideration, and insisted upon the legality and expediency of the dispensing power. He addressed the house in the same arrogant tone with which he was wont to browbeat both counsel and juries, and was compelled before the debate closed to make an abject apology for the indecent personalities in which he had indulged. On 14 Jan. 1686 Jeffreys as lord high steward presided over a court consisting of thirty peers whom he had selected for the trial of Henry Booth, second baron Delamere, for high treason (State Trials, xi. 509-600). On this occasion he seems to have behaved with some moderation, and Delamere ob- tained an unanimous verdict of acquittal. Shortly afterwards Jeffreys had a severe