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A Directory of Crocodilian Farming Operations

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A Directory of Crocodilian Farming Operations

Répertoire des élevages de crocodiliens

Una guia de criaderos de cocodrilos

R.A. Luxmoore, J.G. Barzdo, S.R. Broad and D.A. Jones
Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit

IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, UK.

1985
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

A joint publication of the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
U.K. and the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Lausanne, Switzerland.
1985.

The publishers acknowledge the financial support of the International
Fur Trade Federation in the preparation of this report.

© International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources 1985

ISBN 2-88032-809-8

Printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge.

Cover photo:WWF/Gerald Cubitt. Mugger Crocodiles Crocodylus palustris
at breeding station in Sasan Gir, Gujarat, India.

Cover design by James Butler

The presentation of material in this document and the geographical
designations employed do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of IUCN or CITES concerning the legal status of
any country, territory, or area, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.

CONTENTS

Introduction 1
Introduction Francais 11
Introduccion Espagnol 23
Tables 35
CITES Resolutions 41
Australia Northern Territory 51
Australia Queensland 55
Bangladesh 59
Bolivia 60
Botswana 61
Brazil 62
Brunei 63
Burma 64
Cameroon 65
Chad 66
China 67
Colombia 71
Costa Rica 72
Cuba 73
Ethiopia Us
France 76
Greece va)
India 78
Indonesia General Information 81
Indonesia Irian Jaya 84
Indonesia Java 91
Indonesia Sumatra 93
Indonesia Kalimantan & Mentawai 94
Israel 95
Italy 97
Ivory Coast 98
Jamaica 99
Japan 100
Kenya 101
Madagascar 103
Malaysia 106
Mali 109
Mauritius 110
Mexico a
Mozambique 15
Nepal 116
Pakistan 118
Papua New Guinea 119
PNG Commercial ranches 122
Philippines 129
Rwanda 131
Senegal 132
Singapore 133
South Africa Cape Province 136
South Africa Natal 111

South Africa Transvaal 142

Spain

Sri Lanka
Suriname
Taiwan
Tanzania
Thailand

Togo

Uganda

United States
United States
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Western Samoa
Zambia

General
Louisiana
Florida

Zimbabwe General
Zimbabwe The Operations

References

146
147
148
149
151
152
157
158
159
162
170
182
183
184
185
187
Toa
197

INTRODUCTION

Crocodilians have long been exploited commercially for their
skins which attract a high price. Until relatively recently the demand
for skins was met exclusively from the hunting of wild populations,
but in the last few years a great expansion has taken place in the
farming of crocodilians. The earliest so-called "farms" were
undoubtedly for the purpose of public display, more in the nature of
zoos, and many today still fulfil this role. However farming for the
commercial production of skins is increasingly being practised. Some
farms also sell crocodile meat and, as in Taiwan, this may
occasionally provide the major source of income.

The reasons for the rise in popularity of the farming of
crocodilians are difficult to assess, but they undoubtedly include the
reduction in the supply of wild skins. In part this has been due to a
decline in wild populations through over-hunting, persecution and
habitat destruction, but legal controls may have been more important.
Chief amongst these is the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The majority of
crocodilians are in Appendix I of CITES (see Table 1) which means that
nearly all commercial trade between party nations is prohibited unless
the specimens derive from captive-bred populations. Since the
Convention came into force, in 1975, the efficacy of the controls on
trade has been increasing as more countries have become party to the
Convention and as enforcement procedures have improved. The demand for
the higher value "classic" crocodilian skins, especially those of
Crocodylus niloticus and Crocodylus porosus, has remained high and, as
other legal sources of skins have been shut off, farming appears to
have prospered.

This directory of crocodilian farming operations was compiled
partially to assist in the enforcement of CITES controls, by
identifying captive-breeding operations and so-called "farms" which
are not breeding crocodilians, and also to ascertain the extent of
farming so that its effect on crocodilian conservation can be
assessed. It attempts to list all commercial crocodilian farms, giving
details of their stock, production, breeding success and husbandry.
The survey was designed primarily to locate commercial farming
operations but large conservation-orientated crocodilian-breeding
centres have also been included, partially because some may develop
into commercial farms in the future. Proposed plans for commercial
farming have also received attention for the same reason. In this
directory the term "farm" has been used to denote any operation
rearing crocodilians in captivity; it therefore includes both ranches,
which obtain stock from the wild, and captive-breeding operations.
Crocodilians are kept, and regularly breed, in zoos around the world,
but these have not been considered.

It must be stressed that the listing of a farm in this
directory does not in any way imply that the farm meets’ the
requirements of CITES for recognition as a captive-breeding operation.
This function is fulfilled by the register of such operations

Introduction

Maintained by the CITES Secretariat, as explained in the following
section.

CITES controls on trade

Because CITES controls are so important to the understanding of
the farming of crocodilians, and because so much confusion surrounds
their interpretation, the following section is provided as a summary
of the requirements in relation to trade in crocodilian products.

All trade involving countries party to the Convention is
subject to the terms of the Convention unless it involves products
acquired prior to the Convention's coming into force or unless the
country holds a reservation for the species involved, in which case it
is treated as a non-Party. Countries currently holding reservations on
crocodilians are shown in Table 1. Other countries, notably Italy and
France, have held reservations in the past, but these have now been
withdrawn.

All crocodilians are afforded protection under the Convention
by being listed in either Appendix I or Appendix II.

Appendix I lists those taxa which are threatened with
extinction which are, or may be, affected by trade. Virtually all
international trade in these species is prohibited unless’ the
exporting Party grants an export permit. This may only be done if the
trade is not detrimental to the survival of the wild population and if
a permit has been issued by the importing Party stating that the
animals or products are not to be used for primarily commercial
purposes. There are few exceptions to this, the major éne being if the
animals traded derive from populations bred in captivity in accordance
with the conditions described below. Such animals are treated as being
in Appendix II.

Appendix II lists those taxa in which trade must be subject to
strict regulation in order to prevent them, or similar species in the
list, becoming threatened with extinction in the future. Trade is
therefore permitted only when the exporting country issues an export
permit indicating that the trade is not detrimental to the survival of
the wild population.

Countries which are party to the Convention must treat
non-party states more or less as if they were also Parties. In other
words, if a trader in a party state wants to import a species in
Appendix II from a non-Party then he must obtain a CITES-equivalent
export permit.

Captive-breeding

The conditions under which specimens of an Appendix I species
may be considered "captive-bred" were defined at the CITES Meeting in
San José, Costa Rica, in 1979 and are set out in CITES Resolution
Conf. 2.12. Briefly these state that:

2

Introduction

1. Animals may only be traded as captive-bred if they are born
in captivity and are the offspring of parents which mated in captivity
(or a "controlled environment").

2. The parental breeding stock must be (i) obtained in a
manner not detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild;
(ii) maintained without augmentation from the wild population except
for occasional introductions for the purposes of genetic improvement;
and (iii) managed in a manner which has been demonstrated to be
capable of reliably producing second generation captive-bred offspring.

It should be noted that second generation offspring do not
actually need to have been produced on the farm provided it is using a
husbandry technique which has been demonstrated elsewhere to have been
capable of producing such offspring.

Register of captive-breeding operations

These regulations are open to abuse by unscrupulous dealers who
merely collect animals from the wild and sell them, claiming that they
were captive-bred. There is therefore a need for an authoritative
register of approved operations which are producing captive-bred
Appendix I species. This need was recognised at the CITES Meeting in
Gabarone, Botswana, in 1983 when a Resolution (Conf. 4.15) was adopted
recommending that commercial trade in cantive-bred Appendix I species
should only be permitted from operations which are registered with the
CITES Secretariat. Registration is achieved when the CITES Management
Authority in the country of origin reports to the Secretariat details
of the farm (specified in CITES Notification to the Parties No. 233,
13 October 1983) and confirms that it complies with conditions set out
in Resolution Conf. 2.12. At the date of going to press there are only
five registered operations breeding Appendix I crocodilians, one in
Madagascar, one in Queensland, Australia, one in Thailand, and two in
South Africa.

Ranching

It has been recognised that some populations of species in
Appendix I have recovered as a result of conservation, and are now no
longer endangered. They may be capable of sustaining a controlled
level of exploitation, and indeed may even benefit from it. A
procedure was therefore recommended at the CITES Meeting in New Delhi,
India, in 1981, whereby populations of species in Appendix I which
would benefit from ranching could be transferred to Appendix II (Conf.
3.15). Ranching is defined as the rearing in a controlled environment
of specimens taken from the wild, for the purposes of trade. In order
to be eligible, the ranching scheme must be beneficial to the wild
population and the products of it must be marked so that they may be
distinguished from the products of other populations of the same
species in Appendix I.

It should be noted that, as there is potentially a continuous
interchange between the ranch-reared and wild populations in the

3

Introduction

country, they are treated identically in the eyes of CITES and may
both be traded. It is up to the local Management Authority to set
regulations which differentiate between ranch-reared and wild-caught
products. However a Resolution adopted in 1985 (Conf. 5.16) now
requires that any conditions specified in the original ranching
proposal must be observed by all Parties trading in specimens from the
ranched population. Thus since the Australian proposal for ranching C.
porosus states that the sale of skins from animals which have not been
kept on a ranch for at least one year is prohibited, other Parties
should not accept imports of such skins.

The population of C. niloticus in Zimbabwe was transferred to
Appendix II in 1983 as a result of a ranching scheme, and the
population of C. porosus in Australia was transferred in 1985 under a
similar scheme.

A further Resolution was adopted at Buenos Aires in 1985 on the
trade in ranched specimens which recommended, among other things, that
ranched products should not be exported to non-Parties nor to Parties
holding reservations on the ranched species, and that imports of
ranched products should not be accepted from such states. Some of the
ramifications of this are that exports of ranched C. porosus skins
should not be permitted from Australia to Singapore, as it is a
non-Party, nor to Japan, as it has a reservation on this species.

The Meeting at Buenos Aires, Argentina, was notable for a
change in the procedure for transferring, from Appendix I to Appendix
II, those species which had been listed in Appendix I before the
agreement of scientific criteria for so doing, and which could
withstand some exploitation. The new procedure involves the setting of
a quota for each country wishing to trade in these species, in
conjunction with an approved management plan. Under this procedure,
the populations of C. niloticus in nine African countries listed in
Table 2 were transferred to Appendix II with the quotas indicated. The
population of C. porosus in Indonesia was transferred to Appendix II
with an annual quota of 2000 skins, although in this case the
population is still endangered (204).

Ranching programmes have many advantages over direct harvesting
in that they permit a greater offtake from a given wild population,
they produce higher quality skins and they are easier to police. They
are, however, more difficult to set up and are more capital-intensive.
It is therefore ironic that the developments at Buenos Aires have
removed some of the economic advantages of establishing ranching
programmes for Appendix I species, in that their potential markets are
now restricted, while the quota system for transferring populations to
Appendix II is permitted greater flexibility of marketing.

METHODS
The survey was undertaken during 1983 and 1984. The CITES
Secretariat sent a Notification to all CITES Parties of the need to
register all commercial captive-breeding operations involving Appendix

4

Introduction

I species. The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit also approached the
wildlife management authorities of non-CITES governments. Contact was
made with members of the SSC Crocodile Specialist Group, with
crocodile farmers associations and with other individuals
knowledgeable on the subject. Wherever possible, questionnaires were
sent to the farms themselves requesting details of their stocks,
breeding, wild capture, commercial production and husbandry. The
results presented in this paper are drawn from the responses to these
enquiries and also from published and unpublished material and press
reports. In the directory the results are arranged by country.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The countries and species mentioned in the text are listed in
Table 3, which also indicates where commercial operations are found.
The species most widely farmed are C. niloticus and C. porosus: this
partially reflects their widespread distribution, but also the value
of their skins, as they are both highly esteemed by the skin industry.

The numbers of the main species kept on commercial farms are
shown in Table 4, where it can be seen that Alligator mississippiensis
is probably the most numerous species although C. niloticus and Cc.
porosus are kept in similar numbers, and the data on these species are
less complete. The total number of farms is shown on Table 5 together
With other data relating to their production. There are thought to be
other farms, for instance in Singapore and Malaysia, for which details
were not obtained. Of the 152 farms known in 1985 fewer than 20 were in
existence in 1974, and all the indications are that the rapid growth is
continuing. The total crocodilian stock of 161 603 is also evidently
growing. Recruitment from the collection of wild animals and captive
breeding is running at some 72 000 a year.

As would be expected from such a young industry, skin production
is relatively low while farmers are apparently attempting to build up
their stocks. Prior to 1979 when the farms in Papua New Guinea started
production the only appreciable quantities of skins being sold from
farms originated in Zimbabwe. This survey has shown that at least
14 769 farm skins were marketed in 1983/84. If it is assumed that the
Majority of the recruitment to farm stocks is to be slaughtered in four
years time, then production might rise to 60 000 by 1989, although it
is unlikely that the growth will be so fast.

Finances

Although legislative controls on hunting wild crocodilians
undoubtedly play an important part in generating favourable conditions
for the establishment of farms, the factor which will ultimately
determine their continued survival is their financial success.

Commercial companies are understandably reluctant to release
their accounts for scrutiny, and so it is difficult to assess their
profitability. In addition most farms are currently in the development
phase and would consequently be expected to be in negative cash balance

5

Introduction

until they reach full production. As a starting point it therefore
seems reasonable to examine first the oldest-established farms.

One of the oldest farms in the world is the Samutprakan farm in
Thailand. In 1983 this was said to have a stock of some 30 000
crocodilians, but produced only 200 skins. It could clearly not have
been financially viable purely on skin sales, but the operation derives
the major part of its income from tourists and claims to be self-
financing on this basis.

The farms in the USA similarly have a poor stock/production
ratio, although they also sell meat as well as skins which may help to
boost their profits. Some farms generate additional income by selling
livestock to other farmers and some also rely partially on tourist
income. A recent analysis (96) suggested that value of an animal at
slaughter was US$200-300 while production costs including feeding,
labour and hatchling acquisition, were US$85-110. This gives a
calculated profit, after allowing for a 10% mortality, of US$80-192 for
each animal. Set against this are the capital investment costs,
estimated to be US$50 000-200 000 (40), the interest on which would be
worth some US$5000-20 000 a year for four years, before any production
took place. On the most pessimistic estimates a farmer would therefore
need to sell 345 animals merely to pay off his interest before starting
to recoup any of his initial investment.

The growth in the number of farms in the USA was slow until 1982
and it has been suggested that the chief reason for farming was an
interest in alligators, which could be indulged only by _ rich
individuals not unduly interested in swift profits (123). However the
rapid increase in the last two years in the number of farmers,
particularly in Florida, suggests that substantial profits are
expected, if not yet realised. This may be associated with the
increasing availability of hatchlings from wild-collected eggs from
Louisiana Rockefeller Refuge and, particularly, the Florida supplement
programme.

The farms in Zimbabwe also benefit from a _ state-run egg
collection programme and Magnusson (123) attributes their apparent
profitability to cheap labour and a plentiful supply of cheap protein
food for the crocodiles, both of which he suggests may decline in the
future. Several of these farms also derive a substantial part of their
income from tourists and the sale of curios (179).

The crocodile ranching industry in Papua New Guinea provides a
model which other countries are attempting to emulate and which
contributes the bulk of the world production of farmed skins (Table 5).
Although many of the small farms initially established have been
discontinued, those that survive are apparently capable of running at a
profit, almost exclusively on skin sales (85). An analysis of the
proposed ranching industry in Australia, also using C. porosus,
estimated that total acquisition and rearing costs per hatchling were
A$35-55 to a slaughter size of 5-6 ft (1.52-1.83 m), at which point the
skins were valued at A$150-180 (192).

6

Introduction

It is clear that the captive-breeding of crocodilians requires
more money, both in terms of the running costs of maintaining
broodstock and in the initial capital outlay required to install
breeding facilities, than the rearing of wild-caught eggs or young.
Magnusson (123) has pointed out that the majority of the financially
successful operations depend on wild populations of crocodilians for
the bulk of their rearing stock. It is therefore slightly surprising
that the farms in Zimbabwe and the USA are breeding increasing
quantities of their own stock, and breeding is being investigated more
seriously in Papua New Guinea. One possible explanation is that many
captive-breeding operations rely, at least partially, on tourist
income. Indeed the needs of tourists and of breeding facilities are
similar, both requiring large, mature animals and semi-natural ponds;
and the large sums invested in new tourist-orientated farms indicate
that the financial backers, at least, anticipate making money from this
type of venture.

Crocodilian farming and its impact on conservation

Controversy has raged over whether or not the farming of
crocodilians may be desirable on conservation grounds. The arguments
for and against farming may be summarised as follows:

Diversion of trade

Given that there is a market for crocodilian products which
otherwise would be supplied by hunting wild populations, the
availability of the same products from farmed stock may meet some of
the demand and reduce the need for hunting. Whether this works in
practice or whether farmed products merely add tc the size of the
market, iS open to debate. The chief effect is likely to be economic,
by reducing the price of skins and thereby reducing the profit margins
of hunting to unacceptable levels. This effect is particularly marked
where the hunting operation is poorly managed and the wild population
is nearing “commercial extinction". Farmed skins tend to be of higher
and more uniform quality than wild-caught ones which gives them a
competitive advantage in the market, although they may consequently
command a higher price.

In contrast it has been suggested that if illegal trade has been
successfully reduced by control measures, public demand will also drop.
Any renewed stimulation of the market by the introduction of farmed
products will increase the demand once more and possibly renew hunting
pressure on the wild populations. This effect is likely to be greatest
where trade has virtually ceased, in general for species in Appendix I.

Both arguments are affected by the relative sizes of the
supplies of farm-raised and wild-caught skins. International trade in
crocodilian skins has recently been reviewed by Hemley and Caldwell
(94) who found that trade in the major species, excluding Caiman
crocodilus, reported to CITES was at least 82 000 a year although they
cautioned that this was certainly an under-estimate. Farm production of
12 000 skins is already a significant proportion of this market, and
its importance is destined to increase. However, the major trade is

7

Introduction

undoubtedly in C. crocodilus skins, some 700 thousand reported annually
to CITES with the true trade figure probably being in excess of a
million (94). Taiwan is the only country farming this species in large
numbers, primarily because the low commercial value of the skins means
that farming is not economic unless other products can also be
marketed. It is therefore unlikely that farming will ever supply a
significant proportion of the world market for C. crocodilus, or for
crocodilian skins as a whole, unless trade in wild-caught caiman skins
is drastically curtailed.

Control of trade

Control of illegal trade in the products of endangered species
is rendered more difficult by introducing legally acquired farmed
products into the market. This problem has been addressed by the CITES
Resolutions on both captive-breeding (Conf. 2.12) and ranching (Conf.
3.15) which recommend that the products be adequately marked to
distinguish them from products of wild-taken animals. However it is
still feared that unscrupulous traders may use farms as a front for
disposal of illegally acquired, wild-caught skins, either directly from
the farm or on re-export from an intermediate country. Several
countries with crocodilian farming industries have elaborate licensing
and inspection procedures designed to prevent this, but allegations of
"laundering" illegal skins have certainly been levelled at some farms.
This directory may be helpful in countering this problem as it has
attempted to ascertain current stocking levels and breeding success.
Any so-called farmed skin production in excess of known capacity or
from countries not known to have farms should require further
investigation.

Effects on wild populations

If a species has become depleted or even endangered in the wild,
captive rearing may provide protection for a significant proportion of
the population. If breeding can also be achieved, the population can be
augmented until ultimately it may be possible to reintroduce
captive-bred stock to the wild. Several crocodilian breeding operations
have undoubtedly achieved this, notably with Crocodylus moreletii, C.
intermedius and Gavialis gangeticus, but these are all conservation
operations and not intended to be commercial. The only commercial
operation currently using a seriously endangered species, Crocodylus
siamensis, is the Samutprakan farm in Thailand. The Zapata Swamp farm
in Cuba also breeds Crocodylus rhombifer and C. acutus but the degree
of commercial involvement of this farm is not known. However it is by
no means certain that reintroductions of farmed stock would be
desirable because of genetic alteration, either through artificial
selection or hybridization. Both the Samutprakan Farm and the Zapata
Swamp farm already have substantial populations of hybrid animals.

Captive-breeding is seldom completely independent of the wild
population and the capture of wild animals is often necessary, if not
for direct rearing, at least for the acquisition of breeding stock.
Thus even captive-breeding operations usually result in a net drain,
albeit small, on the wild stock. A fully developed ranching operation

8

Introduction

removes far more animals from the wild but, even if reintroductions are
not carried out, one of the chief prerequisites for approval of a
ranching scheme under the provisions of CITES Resolution Conf. 3.15 is
that it should, on balance, be beneficial to the wild population,
although this only affects those species in Appendix I.

Habitat and species preservation

Crocodilians have in the past been persecuted as vermin, and
their swampy habitat is frequently destroyed to make way for "more
productive" forms of land use. The demonstrable ability of crocodilians
to generate income may help to promote the conservation of healthy wild
populations. This is particularly so with ranching, where the whole
operation depends on the maintenance of a wild breeding stock, but to a
much lesser extent captive-breeding farms may encourage the
conservation of wild stock for periodic genetic enhancement. The
Maintenance of a wild population of crocodilians necessitates the
preservation of their habitat, which benefits the other organisms in
the same environment. The financial incentive of crocodilian
exploitation therefore also reduces the economic pressure for wetland
reclamation.

Cultural preservation

Crocodilian ranching techniques can be adapted to conditions of
village technology suitable for integration in the culture and economy
of rural communities. The ranching programmes in Papua New Guinea and
Northern Australia have the declared objectives of providing employment
for indigenous peoples. Alternative schemes for the generation of
income frequently entail far greater technological input and social
disruption.

Genetic mixing and disease risk

Other potential disadvantages include the accidental
introduction of non-indigenous species or distinct genetic races from
escapes, and the spread of disease from farm to wild stock.

THE OUTLOOK

In most countries that host a crocodilian farming industry it
appears to be growing, in terms of the number of farms, the number of
animals and the production of skins. The technical problems of farming
have largely been surmounted, but whether this growth continues or
whether the industry collapses will depend on its long-term financial
Viability. One factor which is of importance to the conservation of
crocodilians is the relative reliance on wild-caught animals
("ranching") and on captive-breeding. The total number of animals being
bred on farms appears to be increasing, and may now account for some
40% of recruitment to farm stocks each year. At first sight this might
seem to be encouraging but this requires further consideration.

Captive-breeding has played an important role in the
conservation of several seriously depleted crocodilian species, but
these have mostly been non-commercial operations. Commercial

9

Introduction

captive-breeding, as discussed earlier, does less to further
conservation, and it should not be seen, as it often is, as an
alternative to habitat conservation. Ranching, on the other hand, may
be far more beneficial as it requires the maintenance of a healthy wild
population and the habitat which supports it (123). In essence it is
little different from a controlled harvest of larger animals for skins;
in the USA and Papua New Guinea the two types of exploitation run side
by side. Ranching has some advantages over a direct harvest as it may
be easier to regulate, particularly if, as in Zimbabwe, the USA and
Australia, the collection of eggs is carried out entirely by Government
staff or under their close control. The maintenance of a separate
ranched stock also provides a degree of insurance in the event of an
environmental disaster or breakdown of effective control of harvesting,
owing, for instance, to political instability.

The cause of crocodilian conservation may therefore best be
served, not by a cessation of all wild harvesting and a development of
farming, but by the implementation of effective management plans for
wild populations, involving ranching, direct harvest, or a combination
of the two. The success of any such management plan is entirely
dependent on thorough background research to determine existing
population levels, and on the ability to conduct the exploitation in a
controlled manner. The high levels of illegal trade in crocodilian
products (94) suggests that the current degree of control is far from
adequate in many parts of the world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funds for this survey were generously provided by the
International Fur Trade Federation and IUCN. This survey would have
been quite impossible without the willing assistance and co-operation
of the numerous correspondents who replied to letters and filled in
questionnaires. Their help has been credited wherever possible in the
references, and the authors would here like to express their gratitude.

10

INTRODUCTION

Les crocodiliens sont exploités pour le commerce de leurs peaux
qui atteignent des prix élevés. Jusqu'a une époque relativement
récente, la demande de peaux était satisfaite exclusivement par la
chasse des populations sauvages mais, ces derniéres années, 1'élevage
des crocodiliens s'est fortement étendue. Les premiéres "fermes",
selon l'appellation qui leur est donnée, ont sans aucun doute été
crées 4 l'intention du public, ayant davantage la nature de zoos, et
nombre d'entres elles continuent de jouer ce _ rdle. Cependant,
1l'élevage pour la production commerciale de peaux est de plus en plus
pratiqué. Certaines fermes vendent aussi de la viande de crocodile
et, comme a Taiwan, ceci peut parfois fournir la principale source de
revenu.

Les raisons de cette popularité accrue de 1'élevage des
crocodiliens sont difficiles a @évaluer, mais elles comprennent
certainement la réduction apparue dans 1l'approvisionnement en peaux
sauvages, Ceci est dl, en partie, au déclin des populations sauvages
du fait d'une chasse excessive, de la persécution et de la destruction
des habitats, mais les contrdles exercés en application des lois
pourraient avoir une plus grande importance encore. En tete de
ceux-ci se trouve la Convention sur le commerce international des
espéces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d'extinction (CITES).
La majorité des crocodiliens sont inscrits A l1'Annexe I de la
Convention (voir Tableau 1), ce qui signifie que presque toutes les
transactions commerciales entre les pays Parties sont interdites, 4a
moins que les spécimens proviennent de populations élevées en
captivité. Depuis l'entrée en vigueur de la Convention, en 1975,
l'efficacité des controles du commerce s'est accrue, car davantage de
pays en sont devenus Parties et les procédures d'exécution se sont
améliorées. La demande de peaux "classiques" de crocodiliens les plus
précieuses, tout spécialement celles des espéces Crocodylus niloticus
et Crocodylus porosus, est restee forte et, les autres sources
limitées de peaux ayant été fermées, 1'élevage parait avoir prosperé.

Ce répertoire des @levages de crocodiliens a été @laboré, en
partie, pour faciliter l'exécution des controles CITES, en identitiant
les élevages et les soi-disantes "fermes" qui ne procédent pas 4 la
reproduction, et aussi pour déterminer l'importance de 1l'élevage, en
vue d'évaluer ses effets sur la conservation des crocodiliens. 2 |
tente d'établir ume liste de toutes les fermes commerciales de
ecrocodiliens et donne des informations détaillées sur leur cheptel,
leur production, leur réussite en matiére de reproduction et sur les
techniques d'élevage. L'enquete a @té congue, en premier lieu, afin
de localiser les élevages commerciaux, mais les grands centres de
reproduction de crocodiliens orientés vers la conservation y ont aussi
été inclus, notamment parce que certains pourraient devenir des
@élevages commerciaux 4 l'avenir. Pour la méme raison, l'attention a
également été portée sur les projets d'élevages commerciaux. Dans ce
répertoire, le terme "ferme" est utilisé pour désigner tout élevage,
au sens le plus large du terme, en captivité (soit la détention
pendant au moins une certaine période); il comprend donc les ranches
dont le cheptel a été prélevé A l'état sauvage et les @levages qui

a

Introduction

pratiquent la reproduction en captivité. Des crocodiliens sont gardés
dans des zoos du monde entier, ow ils se reproduisent, mais ils n'ont
pas été pris en considération.

Il faut souligner que 1'inscription d'un @levage dans ce
répertoire n'implique en aucune fagon que la ferme satisfait aux
exigences CITES qui lui permettraient d'étre reconnue en tant
qu'élevage en captivité. Ce rdle est rempli par le Registre des
établissements pratiquant 1l'élevage en captivité tenu par le
Secrétariat CITES, ainsi qu'il est expliqué dans la section suivante.

Controles CITES du commerce

Etant donné l'importance des contrdles CITES pour comprendre le
pourquoi de l'élevage des crocodiliens et en raison de la confusion
qui régne au sujet de leur interprétation, la section qui suit est
rédigée en tant que resumé des exigences relatives au commerce des
produits de crocodiliens.

Tout le commerce qui concerne des pays Parties a la Convention est
soumis aux dispositions de celle-ci, A moins qu'il ne se rapporte 4a
des spécimens acquis avant que la Convention soit entrée en vigueur ou
a moins que le pays ait formulé une réserve a l'égard de l'espéce en
question, auquel cas ce pays est considéré comme un Etat non-Partie.
Les pays qui ont formulé des réserves a l'égard de crocodiliens sont
mentionnés dans le Tableau 1. D'autres pays, notamment l'Italie et la
France, avaient des réserves dans le passé, mais elles les ont
maintenant retirées.

Tous les crocodiliens bénéficient d'une protection au titre de la
Convention, car ils sont inscrits soit a l'Annexe I, soit a 1'Annexe
Ele

A l'Annexe I sont inscrits les taxons menacés d'extinction qui
sont affectés par le commerce, ou qui pourraient l'étre. Pratiquement
tout le commerce international de ces espéces est interdit, Aa moins
que la Partie exportatrice délivre un permis d'exportation. Ceci ne
peut se faire que si le commerce ne nuit pas a la survie de la
population sauvage et si un permis a été délivré par la Partie
importatrice qui déclare ainsi que les animaux ou les produits ne
seront pas utilisés a des fins principalement commerciales. I1 ya
quelques exceptions, la principale concernant le commerce d'animaux
provenant de populations @élevées en captivité conformément aux
conditions décrites ci-dessous. Ces animaux sont traités comme s'ils
étaient inscrits a 1'Annexe Il.

A l1'Annexe II sont inscrits les taxons dont le commerce doit étre
soumis 4 une réglementation stricte ayant pour but d'éviter qu'eux, ou
des espéces semblables de cette meme annexe, ne deviennent menaces
d'extinction 4 l'avenir. Le commerce n'est donc permis que lorsque le
pays d'exportation délivre un permis d'exportation, ce qui signifie
que le commerce ne nuit pas a la survie de la population sauvage.

12

Introduction

Les payS qui sont Parties 4 la Convention doivent traiter les
Etats non-Parties plus ou moins comme s'ils étaient aussi. des
Parties. En d'autres termes, si un commergant d'un Etat Partie
souhaite importer une espéce de 1'Annexe II d'un Etat non-Partie, il
doit obtenir un document équivalent au permis d'exportation CITES.

Elevage en captivité

Les conditions dans lesquelles des spécimens d'une espéce inscrite
a l'Annexe I peuvent étre considérés comme “élevés en captivité" ont
été définies lors de la session CITES de San José, Costa Rica, en 1979
et elles sont présentées dans la résolution CITES Conf. 2.12. En
bref, elles sont les suivantes:

Ve Des animaux ne peuvent étre commercialisés en tant que
spécimens élevés en captivité que s'ils sont nés en captivite
et sont les descendants de parents s'étant accouplés en
captivité (ou dans un "environnement controlé).

Qe Le stock parental doit étre (i) obtenu de fagon a ne pas
nuire @ la survie de l'espéce 4 l'état sauvage; (ii)
maintenu sans augmentation a partir de la population sauvage
a l'exception d'apports occasionnels aux fins d'amélioration
génétique; et (iii) gérés d'une maniére ayant apporté la
preuve qu'elle permet de produire de fagon sre une
descendance de deuxiéme génération.

Il convient de remarquer qu'il n'est pas nécessaire de produire
une descendance de deuxiéme gé@nération dans 1'établissement, A
condition que les techniques qu'il applique aient fourni la preuve,
ailleurs, qu'elles permettent de produire une telle descendance.

Registre des établissements pratiquant l'élevage en captivité

Des commergants peu scrupuleux peuvent abuser de ces
réglementations en prélevant simplement des animaux a4 l'état sauvage
et en les vendant en prétendant qu'ils ont été @levés en captivité.
Il est donc nécessaire d'avoir un registre faisant foi des é@levages
agrees qui produisent des spécimens d'espéces de l'Annexe I @levés en
captivité. Ce besoin fut reconnu a la session CITES de Gaborone,
Botswana, en 1983, ow une résolution (Conf.~4.15) a @té adoptée pour
recommander que les transactions commerciales touchant les espéces de
l'Annexe I @levées en captivité ne soient autorisées que pour des
établissements enregistreés aupres du Secrétariat CITES.
L'enregistrement est effectif lorsque l'organe de gestion CITES du
pays d'origine a transmis au Secrétariat des informations détaillées
au sujet de la ferme (information précisées dans la notification aux
Parties No. 233 du 13 octobre 1983) et a confirmé qu'elle respecte les
conditions présentées dans la résolution Conf. 2.12. A la mise
sous presse de ce répertoire, seuls cing établissements @levant des
crocodiliens inscrits A l'Annexe I avaient @té enregistrés, un 4a
Madagascar, un au Queensland, Australie, un en Thailande et deux en
Afrique du Sud.

18

Introduction

Elevage en ranch

Le fait a @té admis que certaines populations d'espéces inscrites
aA 1'Annexe I se sont reconstituées, par suite de mesures de
conservation, et qu'elles ne sont plus menacées d'extinction. Elles
peuvent 6tre 4 méme de supporter un niveau d'exploitation controlé et,
il est vrai, peuvent meme en profiter. C'est pourquoi, une procédure
a @t@ recommandée lors de la session CITES de New Delhi, Inde, en
1981, procédure par laquelle des populations d'espéces inscrites 4
l'Annexe I, qui pourraient profiter des effets de 1'élevage en ranch,
pourraient étre transférées 4 l'Annexe II (Conf. 3.15). L'élevage en
ranch est défini comme étant 1'élevage dans un environnement controlé
de spécimens prélevés 4 l'état sauvage, en vue de les commercialiser.
Pour pouvoir @tre agréé, l'élevage doit étre favorable a la population
sauvage et ses produits doivent @tre marqués, afin qu'il soit possible
de les distinguer des produits d'autres populations, de la meme
espéce, inscrites a 1'Annexe I.

Il convient de noter que, @tant donné qu'un @échange continuel
existe potentiellement entre les populations @élevées en ranch et
vivant a l'état sauvage dans le pays, elles sont traitées de fagon
identique aux yeux de la Convention et peuvent toutes deux faire
l'objet d'un commerce. Il appartient 4 l'organe de gestion local
d'@laborer les réglementations qui permettent de faire la différence
entre les produits provenant d'animaux @levés en ranch et d'animaux
sauvages. Cependant, une résolution adoptée en 1985 (Conf. 5.16)
demande maintenant que toutes les conditions précisées dans la
proposition originale d'élevage en ranch soient observées par toutes
les Parties faisant commerce des spécimens de la population @élevée en
ranch. Ainsi, @tant donné que la proposition australienne relative 4a
l'élevage en ranch de C. porosus stipule que la vente de peaux
d'animaux qui n'ont pas été détenus dans un ranch pour au moins un an
est interdite, les autres Parties ne devraient pas autoriser
l'importation de telles peaux.

La population de C. niloticus du Zimbabwe a été transférée 4
1'Annexe II, en 1983, sur la base d'un programme d'@élevage en ranch et
la population australienne de C. porosus l'a été, en 1985, sur la base
d'un programme du meme genre.

Une autre résolution a été adoptée A Buenos Aires, en 1985, au
sujet du commerce des spécimens @élevés en ranch. Elle recommande,
entre autres, que les produits provenant d'@élevages en ranch ne soient
exportés ni vers des Etats non-Parties ni vers des Parties ayant
formulé des réserves 4 l'égard des espéces faisant l'objet d'un
@élevage en ranch, et que les importations de ces produits en
provenance de tels Etats ne soient pas acceptées. Certaines des
ramifications de ce qui précéde font que les exportations de peaux de
C.°porosus @levés en ranch ne devraient pas @tre autorisées par
l'Australie si elles étaient destinées & Singapour, qui n'est pas
Partie, ou au Japon, qui a formulé une réserve & l'égard de cette
espéce.

14

Introduction

La session de Buenos Aires, Argentine, fut remarquable, en ce sens
que la procédure pour le transfert, de l'Annexe I A 1'Annexe II, des
espéces ayant été inscrites 4 l'Annexe I avant 1l'adoption des critéres
scientifiques prévus a cet effet et qui, de toute évidence, peuvent
supporter un certain niveau d'exploitation, y a été modifiée. La
nouvelle procédure prévoit 1l'établissement d'un quota pour chaque pays
souhaitant commercialiser ces espéces, dans le cadre d'un plan de
gestion agréé. En vertu de cette procédure, la population de C.
porosus de 1'Indonésie a été transférée 4 1'Annexe II avec un quota de
2000 peaux. Les populations de C. niloticus des neuf pays africains
Mentionnés au Tableau 2 ont aussi été transférées § 1l'Annexe II avec
les quotas indiqués.

Les programmes d'élevage en ranch ont de nombreux avantages par
rapport a l'exploitation directe, car ils permettent des prélévements
plus importants dans une population sauvage donnée, ils produisent des
peaux de meilleure qualité et, avec eux, il est plus facile de
s'assurer que la réglementation est appliquée. Cependant, il est plus
difficile de les mettre sur pied et ils exigent davantage de
capitaux. I1 parait donc paradoxal que les décisions prises 4 Buenos
Aires aient @liminé certains des avantages économiques des programmes
d'élevage en ranch d'espéces inscrites a l'Annexe I - leurs marchés
potentiels sont maintenant réduits - alors que le systéme de quotas
pour le transfert de populations 4 1'Annexe II bénéficie d'une plus
grande flexibilité en ce qui concerne la mise des produits sur le
marché.

METHODES

L'enquéte a été effectuée en 1983 et 1984. Le Secrétariat CITES a
envoyé une notification 4 toutes les Parties 4 la Convention au sujet
de la nécessité d'enregistrer tous les établissements pratiquant
l'élevage en captivité, A des fins commerciales, d'espéces inscrites 4
l'Annexe I. L'Unité de surveillance continue du commerce de la faune
et de la flore sauvages a pris contact également avec les autorités
competentes en matiére de gestion de la faune sauvage des
gouvernements des Etats non-Parties. Des contacts ont aussi ete
établis avec les membres du Groupe de spécialistes des crocodiles de
la CSE, avec des associations d'éleveurs et avec d'autres
personnalités connaissant le sujet. Chaque fois que possible, des
questionnaires ont été envoyés aux fermes elles-mémes en vue d'obtenir
des informations détaillées sur leur cheptel, sur la reproduction, sur
les captures 4 l'état sauvage, sur leur production commerciale et sur
leurs techniques d'élevage. Les résultats présentés dans ce document
sont tirés des réponses 4 ces requétes, et aussi de matériels publiés
et non publiés et de rapports de presse. Dans le répertoire, les
résultats sont présentés pays par pays.

RESULTATS ET DISCUSSION

Les pays et les espéces mentionnes dans le texte sont énumérés au
Tableau 3, lequel signale également 1'emplacement des é@établissements.

15

Introduction

Les espéces les plus largement élevées dans les fermes sont C.
niloticus et C. porosus: ceci est, en partie, le reflet de leur
repartition @étendue, mais aussi de la valeur de leurs peaux, puisque
toutes deux sont hautement estimées par l'industrie du cuir.

Les effectifs des principales espéces détenus dans des fermes a
vocation commerciale sont présentés au Tableau 4, ot l'on peut voir
qu'Alligator mississippiensis est problablement l'tespéce la plus
abondante, bien que C. niloticus et C. porosus atteignent des
effectifs du meme ordre de grandeur, les données sur ces espéces @tant
pourtant moins complétes. Le nombre total de fermes est indiqué au
Tableau 5, ensemble avec d'autres renseignements relatifs a leur
production. On pense qu'il existe d'autres fermes, par exemple a
Singapour et en Malaisie, mais aucune information a leur sujet n'a pu
@étre obtenue. Sur les 152 fermes connues, en 1985, moins de 20
existaient en 1974 et tout porte 4 croire que cette extension rapide
se poursuit. Le cheptel en crocodiliens de 161'603 ' s'accroit
évidemment aussi. L'augmentation du cheptel du fait de la capture
d'animaux sauvages et de la reproduction en captivité atteint environ
72'000 tétes par an.

Comme on peut s'y attendre pour une industrie aussi jeune, la
production de peaux est relativement faible, les fermiers essayant
apparemment de constituer leur cheptel. Avant 1979, alors que les
fermes de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée commengaient 4 produire, les
seules quantités appréciables de peaux vendues par des fermes
provenaient du Zimbabwe. Cette enquéete a montré qu'au moins 14'769
peaux de ferme avaient &té mises sur le marché en 1983/84. Si l'on
prend pour hypothése que la plus grande partie de l'accroissement du
cheptel des fermes est destiné 4 l'abattage dans un délai de quatre
ans, la production pourrait atteindre 60'000 peaux vers 1989, bien
qu'il soit peu probable que la croissance soit aussi rapide.

Finances

Bien que les controles exercés sur la chasse aux crocodiliens, en
vertu de l'application des lois, jouent sous aucun doute un role
important en créant des conditions favorables a l'établissement de
fermes, le facteur qui, en fin de compte, déterminera leur avenir est

leur succés financier.

Les compagnies commerciales, on peut le comprendre, rechignent a
ouvrir leurs comptes pour permettre une étude et, ainsi, il est
difficile d'évaluer leur rentabilité. De plus, la plupart des fermes
se trouvent actuellement en phase de développement et l'on peut donc
s'attendre 4 ce que leur bilan reste négatif tant qu'elles n'auront
pas atteint leur pleine production. Pour commencer, il parait donc
raisonnable d'examiner de prime abord les fermes les plus anciennes.

L'une des fermes les plus anciennes du monde est celle de
Samutprakan, en Thailande. En 1983, on disait qu'elle disposait d'un
cheptel de 30'000 crocodiliens, mais elle n'a produit que 200 peaux.
Financiérement, il est @vident qu'elle ne pouvait survivre du produit
de la seule vente des peaux, mais 1l'établissement tirait la majortié

16

Introduction

de ses revenus des touristes et elle prétendait s'autofinancer de
cette fagon.

Les fermes des Etats-Unis d'Amérique, elles aussi, présentent un
Mauvais rapport cheptel/production, bien qu'elles vendent aussi bien
de la viande que des peaux, ce qui devrait contribuer Aa augmenter
leurs benéfices. Certaines fermes créent d'autres sources de revenu
en vendant des animaux vivants a d'autres fermes et certaines comptent
aussi sur les revenus produits par le tourisme. Une analyse récente
(96) indique que la valeur d'un animal a l'abattage est de US$
200-300, alors que les frais de production, comprenant 1l'alimentation,
le travail et l'acquisition de nouveau-nés, atteignent US$~85-110.
Cela donne un bénéfice calculé de US$ 80-192 par animal en tenant
compte d'une mortalité de 10%. A coOté de cela, il y a les frais du
capital investi, estimé entre US$ 50'000 et US$ 200'000 (40), dont les
intérets seraient de l'ordre de US$ 5'000 a US$ 20'000 par an pendant
quatre ans avant l'entrée en production. Sur la base de l'estimation
la plus pessimiste, un fermier devra donc vendre 345 animaux, pour
payer ses intéréts, avant de commencer 4 récupérer son investissement
initial.

L'augmentation du nombre de fermes, aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique,
était lente jusqu'en 1982 et on a pensé que la principale raison
poussant 4 l'élevage résidait dans l'intérét porté aux alligators,
lequel ne pouvait provenir que de personnes aisées et non intéressées
a la realisation de bénéfices rapides (123)% Cependant,
l'augmentation accélérée du nombre de fermes, ces deux derniéres
années, en Floride en particulier, donne a penser que des profits
substantiels peuvent @étre espérés, s'ils n'ont encore été réalisés.
Ceci peut étre 1ié A l'augmentation du nombre de nouveau-nés, issus
d'oeufs recoltés A l'état sauvage, disponibles et provenant du
Louisiana Rockefeller Refuge et, tout particuliérement, du programme
spécial de la Floride.

Les fermes du Zimbabwe benéficient aussi d'un programme officiel
de récolte d'oeufs et Magnusson (123) attribue leur rentabilité
apparente au fait que la main d'oeuvre est bon marché et que
l'approvisionnement en aliments protéiniques pour les crocodiles est
peu colteux et abondant, éléments qui pourraient tous deux, selon lui,
se réduire A l'avenir. Plusieurs de ces fermes tirent aussi une part
importante de leurs recettes du tourisme et de la vente de souvenirs
(179)<

En Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, l'élevage en ranch des crocodiles
constitue un modéle que d'autres pays tentent d'imiter et qui
contribue a l'ensemble de la production mondiale de peaux provenant de
fermes (Tableau 5). Bien que de nombreuses petites fermes installées
initialement aient disparu, celles qui se maintiennent sont
apparemment capables de réaliser un benéfice, presque exclusivement
sur la vente des peaux (85). Une analyse de l'élevage en ranch en
Australie, qui concerne aussi C. porosus, estimait les frais totaux
d'acquisition et d'élevage par animal 3 A$ 35-55 pour une taille 4
l'abattage de 5-6 ft (1,52-1,83 m). A ce stade, la valeur des peaux

@tait évaluée a A$~150-180 (192).

17

Introduction

Il est @évident que l'élevage en captivité des crocodiliens
requiert davantage d'argent, tant en ce qui concerne les frais
courants de garde du stock reproducteur que les capitaux nécessaires 4
la mise en place des installations de reproduction, que 1l'élevage 4
partir d'oeufs ou de jeunes prélevés a l'état sauvage. Magnusson
(123) a mis en évidence le fait que la majorité des @établissements qui
ont obtenu des résultats financiers favorables dépendent des
populations sauvages pour la plus grande partie de leur cheptel. I1
est donc quelque peu surprenant que les fermes du Zimbabwe et des
Etats-Unis d'Amérique fassent de plus en plus d'élevage 4 partir de
leur propre cheptel et que la reproduction soit envisagée de plus en
plus sérieusement en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée. Ceci peut trouver une
explication dans le fait que de nombreux établissements dépendent, en
partie tout au moins, des recettes fournies par le tourisme. Une
similarité existe véritablement entre ce qui est nécessaire pour
Satisfaire les touristes et ce qui l'est pour pratiquer la
reproduction, soit des animaux adultes et de grande taille et des
bassins semi-naturels; et les sommes importantes investies dans les
nouvelles fermes orientées vers le tourisme montrent que les
investisseurs espérent, 4 tout le moins, gagner de l'argent en prenant
ce genre de risque.

L'élevage des crocodiliens et ses effets sur la conservation

Le fait de savoir si l'@élevage de crocodiliens est souhaitable du
point de vue de la conservation a donné le jour Aa une controverse
animée. Les arguments en faveur et contre l'élevage sont résumés
comme suit:

Diversion du commerce

Etant donné qu'un marché existe pour les produits de crocodiliens
et qu'il serait autrement approvisionné par la chasse exercée sur les
populations sauvages, la mise @A disposition des mémes produits 4
partir d'animaux @levés dans des fermes pourrait satisfaire une partie
de la demande et réduire la nécessité de chasser. La question de
Savoir si cela se passe ainsi dans la pratique ou de savoir si les
produits des fermes n'augmentent pas simplement les dimensions du
marche peut étre discutée. L' effet principal devrait
vraisemblablement @tre d'ordre économique: en réduisant le prix des
peaux, on réduit les marges bénéficiaires fournies par la chasse A des
niveaux inacceptables. Cet effet est particuliérement marqué 14 ou la
chasse est mal gérée et la population sauvage proche de 1'"extinction
commerciale". Les peaux d'élevage tendent a étre de meilleure et de
plus uniforme qualité que les peaux sauvages, ce qui leur donne un
avantage concurrentiel sur le marché, bien qu'elles puissent, de ce
fait, se vendre a un prix plus élevé,

En contrepartie, on a émis l'hypothése que si le commerce illicite
a @t@ réduit avec succés grace aux mesures de contrdle, la demande de
la part du public se réduira également. Toute nouvelle stimulation du
marché du fait de l'introduction de produits de fermes augmentera la
demande une fois de plus et renouvellera peut-étre la pression, due A
la chasse, s'exergant sur les populations Sauvages. Cet effet devrait
probablement @tre plus grand 14 ot le commerce a pratiquement cessé,

18

Introduction

soit en régle générale en ce qui concerne les especes inscrites 4
1'Annexe I.

Les deux arguments sont influencés par l'importance relative des
approvisionnements en peaux provenant des fermes et en peaux d'origine
sauvage. Le commerce international des peux de crocodiliens a
récemment fait l'objet d'une étude par Hemley et Caldwell (94) qui ont
trouvé que celui des principales espéces, 4 l'exception de Caiman
crocodilus, ayant fait l'objet de rapports CITES atteignait au moins
82'000 animaux par an, bien qu'ils attirent l'attention sur le fait
qu'il s'agit certainement d'une sous-estimation. La production
fermiére de 12'000 peaux constitue déja une part importante de ce
marché et cette importance s'accroitra. Cependant, la majeure partie
du commerce concerne sans aucun doute C. crocodilus, puisque les
rapports CITES portent sur 700'000 peaux par année et que le nombre
réel est probablement supérieur au million (94). Taiwan est le seul
territoire sur lequel cette espéce est @élevée en grands nombres et
cela surtout parce que la faible valeur commerciale des peaux signifie
que l'élevage n'est @conomiquement rentable que si d'autres produits
peuvent aussi étre commercialisés. Il est donc peu probable que
1'élevage produise un jour une part importante du marché mondial des
peaux de C. crocodilus, ou des peaux de crocodiliens dans leur
ensemble, a moins que le commerce des peaux de caimans Sauvages ne
soit drastiquement restreint.

Controle du commerce

Le controle du commerce illicite de produits d'espéces menacées
d'extinction est compliqué par l'introduction sur le marché de
produits fermiers acquis légalement. Ce probléme a @té abordé par les
résolutions CITES sur l'élevage en captivité (Conf. 2.12.) et sur
l'@élevage en ranch (Conf. 3.15) qui recommandent le marquage approprié
des produits, afin qu'ils puissent 6tre distingués des produits
provenant d'animaux prélevés 4 l'état sauvage. Cependant, on peut
toujours craindre que des commergants sans scrupules fassent usage de
l'existence des fermes pour disposer de peaux sauvages illégalement
acquises, soit directement a partir de la ferme, soit par le biais de
réexportations A partir de pays tiers. Plusieurs pays ayant des
@élevages de crocodiliens ont @élaboré des procédures en matiére de
permis et d'inspection dont le but est de prévenir ce genre
d'activité, mais des allégations de "“blanchissage" de peaux illicites
ont certainement été formulées a l'égard de certaines fermes. Ce
répertoire peut étre utile pour contrer ce probléme, puisqu'il tente
de fournir le niveau réel des stocks actuels et de faire état des
réussites effectivement obtenues en ce qui concerne la reproduction.
Toute production de peaux dites fermiéres qui dépasse la capacité de
production reconnue ou qui provient de pays qui n'ont pas la
réputation de disposer de fermes devrait faire l'objet d'une enquéte
complémentaire.

Effets sur _ les populations sauvages

Si une espéce voit ses effectifs diminuer ou si elle devient
menacée d'extinction A l'état sauvage, l'élevage en captivité peut
avoir un effet protecteur pour une partie importante de la
population. Si la reproduction peut aussi étre assurée, la population

19

Introduction

peut @6tre accrue jusqu'au point ot il peut @tre possible de
réintroduire des animaux reproduits en captivité dans la nature.
Plusieurs @tablissements pratiquant la reproduction de crocodiliens
sont sans aucun doute parvenus 4 ce stade, notamment avec les espéces
Crocodylus moreletii, C. intermedius et Gavialis gangeticus, mais il
s'agissait toujours d'établissements orientés vers la conservation et
sans intentions commerciales. Le seul établissement commercial
utilisant actuellement une espéce sérieusement menacée d'extinction,
Crocodylus siamensis, est la ferme de Samutprakan en Thailande. La
ferme des marais de Zapata Aa Cuba pratique aussi la reproduction de
Crocodylus rhombifer et de C.-acutus, mais on ne sait pas 4 quel point
cette ferme est concernée par le commerce. Cependant, il n'est~-en
aucune fagon certain que les réintroductions d'animaux fermiers soient
souhaitables, A cause de leur altération génétique due soit a une
sélection artificielle soit a l'hybridation. La ferme de Samutprakan
et celle des marais de Zapata possédent dé@éja des cheptels substantiels
d'animaux hybrides.

L'élevage en captivité est rarement totalement indépendant de la
population sauvage et la capture d'animaux sauvages est souvent
nécessaire, sinon pour les @lever directement, du moins pour
l'acquisiton du stock reproducteur. Ainsi, meme les établissements
assurant la reproduction en captivité ont pour conséquence un drainage
net, bien que réduit, sur les effectifs sauvages. Un @levage en ranch
en plein développement préléve beaucoup plus d'animaux dans la nature,
mais, meme s'il n'est procédé 4 aucune réintroduction, l'une des
principales conditions pour l'approbation d'un programme d'élevage en
ranch au titre de la résolution Conf. 3.15 est qu'il devrait, en
contrepartie, profiter Aa la population sauvage, cela ne concernant
toutefois que les espéces inscrites 4 1'Annexe I.

Protection de l'habitat et des espéces

Dans le passé, les crocodiliens @étaient persécutés en tant que
vermine et leur habitat marécageux est souvent détruit afin d'ouvrir
la voie a une utilisation des sols "plus productive". La capacité des
crocodiliens, qui a @té démontrée, de créer un revenu peut aider a la
promotion de la conservation de populations sauvages saines. Ceci
s'applique en particulier 4 1'élevage en ranch, pour lequel l'ensemble
de l'opération dépend du maintien d'un stock reproducteur sauvage;
mais, dans une moindre mesure, les fermes pratiquant la reproduction
artificielle peuvent encourager la conservation d'effectifs a l'état
sauvage aux fins d'améliorations génétiques périodiques. Le maintien
d'une population sauvage de crocodiliens est conditionné par la
préservation de leur habitat, lequel est favorable a d'autres
organismes du meme milieu. Ainsi,. laberaiit financier de
l'exploitation des crocodiliens réduit aussi la pression économique
qui s'exerce en faveur de l'asséchement des zones humides.

Protection culturelle

Les techniques d'@élevage en ranch des crocodiliens peuvent étre
adaptées aux conditions d'une technologie villageoise permettant leur
intégration dans la culture et l'économie des communautés rurales.
Les programmes d'@levage en ranch de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée et
d'Australie septentrionale ont pour objectif déclaré de fournir des

20

Introduction

emplois aux indigénes. D'autres programmes visant A la réalisation
d'un revenu entrainent fréquemment des effets technologiques largement
plus importants et provoquent une dislocation sur le plan social.

Mélange génétique et risque de maladie

Les autres inconvénients potentiels comprennent 1'introduction
accidentelle d'espéces non indigénes ou de races génétiquement
distinctes parmi la population sauvage, parce que des animaux se sont
@échappés de la ferme, ainsi que la dissémination de maladies.

PERSPECTIVES D'AVENIR

Dans la plupart des pays qui aarbritent des @élevages de
crocodiliens, il apparait qu'ils augmentent en nombre et en nombre
d'animaux, et que la production de peaux s'accroit. Les problémes
techniques posés par l'élevage ont &té surmontés, dans une large
Mesure, mais quant 4 savoir si cette croissance se poursuivra ou si
cette industrie disparaitra, cela dépendra de sa rentabilité A long
terme. Le rapport entre le nombre d'animaux prélevés 4 l'état sauvage
("@élevage en ranch") et le nombre d'animaux reproduits en captiviteé
constitue un facteur important du point de vue de la conservation. Le
nombre total d'animaux reproduits dans des fermes semble s'accroitre
et pourrait représenter quelques 40% du nombre total d'animaux
s'ajoutant chaque année au cheptel de ces fermes. A premiére vue,
cela parait encourageant, mais mérite un examen plus approfondi.

La reproduction en captivité a joué un role important pour la
conservation de plusieurs espéces de crocodiliens sérieusement
réduites en nombre, mais il s'agissait le plus souvent d'opérations
non commerciales. L'élevage en captivité Aa des fins commerciales,
ainsi qu'on l'a vu plus haut, fait moins en faveur de la conservation
et ne devrait pas é@tre considéré, comme il l'est souvent, comme une
alternative a la conservation des habitats. L'@levage en ranch, par
contre, peut étre beaucoup plus favorable, car il requiert le maintien
d'une population sauvage saine et de Il'habitat qui l'abrite (123).
Dans le fond, il différe peu d'une exploitation controlée des grands
animaux pour leurs peaux; aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique et en
Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, les deux types d'exploitation sont conduits
cote a cote. L'élevage en ranch présente certains avantages sur la
récolte directe car il parait plus facile de le régulariser, en
particulier si, comme au Zimbabwe, aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique et en
Australie, la récolte des oeufs est entiérement effectuée par le
personnel gouvernemental ou sous son étroit controle. Le maintien
d'un cheptel @levé en ranch séparé donnerait aussi une assurance,
jusqu'a un certain point, au cas ou un désastre se produirait dans le
milieu naturel ou si le contréle effectif de la récolte était rompu en
raison, par exemple, d'une instabilité politique.

C'est pourquoi, la cause de la conservation des crocodiliens
pourrait é@tre mieux servie par la mise en place de plans efficaces de
gestion des populations sauvages, lesquels comprendraient l'élevage en
ranch, la reécolte directe ou une combinaison des deux, que par un
arrét total de l'exploitation a4 l'état sauvage et le développement de

Introduction

l'élevage en captivité. Le succés de tout plan de gestion de ce type
dépend entiérement d'une recherche de base minutieuse permettant de
déterminer les niveaux des populations existantes et de l'aptitude a
conduire l'exploitation de fagon contrdlée. Le niveau é@levé du
commerce illicite de produits de crocodiliens (94) donne a penser que
le degré actuel de contréle est loin d'étre adéquat dans de nombreuses
parties du globe.

REMERCIEMENTS.

La realisation de cette enquéte aurait été totalement impossible
sans l'aide et la coopération accordées par les tres nombreux
correspondants qui ont répondu a nos lettres et rempli les
questionnaires. Leur aide a été mentionnée chaque fois que possible
dans les références, mais les auteurs souhaitent leur exprimer leur
gratitude ici-méme. Les fonds nécessaires 4 la réalisation de cette
enquéte ont été généreusement fournis par l1'International Fur Trade
Federation et par 1'UICN.

22

INTRODUCCION

Los cocodrilos se explotan en forma intensiva para la
comercializaciédn de sus pieles las cuales alcanzan precios muy
elevados. Hasta hace poco tiempo, la demanda de pieles se basaba
exclusivamente en la caza de las poblaciones silvestres, pero en los
Gltimos afios se ha notado un gran incremento de criaderos de
cocodrilos. Los primeros de ellos, denominados "granjas", estaban
destinados, sin ningin lugar a dudas, al piblico en general, mas bien
en el sentido de zoolégicos, y muchos de ellos aun conservan ese
caracter. Sin embargo, la cria para la produccién comercial de pieles
se practica cada vez mas. Algunas granjas venden también carne de
cocodrilo y, en Taiwan, este fin provee algunas veces la fuente
principal de ingresos.

La raz6n de este aumento de popularidad de la cria de cocodrilos
es dificil de evaluar, pero tiene que ver ciertamente con la reducci6én
registrada en el aprovisionamiento de pieles silvestres. Este aumento
se debe en parte, a la declinaciédn de las poblaciones silvestres
debido a la caza excesiva, a la persecucién y a la destrucci6én del
habitat, pero el control relativo a la aplicacién de las leyes podria
tener una importancia aun mayor. La principal de ellas es la
Convenci6n sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de
Fauna y Flora Silvestres (CITES). La mayoria de los cocodrilos estdn
incluidos en el Apéndice I de la Convencién (ver Cuadro I), lo que
Significa que todas las transacciones comerciales entre los paises
Partes estan prohibidas a menos que los especimenes provengan de
poblaciones criadas en cautividad. Desde la entrada en vigor de la
Convenci6n, en 1975, la eficacia de los controles comerciales ha
aumentado, debido a que un mayor naimero de paises son ahora Partes de
la Convenci6n y también a que se ha registrado una mejora en los
procedimientos de aplicacién. La demanda de pieles "clAsicas" de
cocodrilos mas solicitadas, especialmente las de Crocodylus niloticus
y Crocodylus porosus, se mantiene a un nivel alto y, como las otras
fuentes de pieles se han cerrado, las operaciones de cria en granjas
parecen haber prosperado.

Esta Guia de criaderos de cocodrilos fue elaborada, en parte, para
facilitar la aplicaci6n de los controles CITES, identificando los
criaderos y las denominadas "granjas" que no realizan la reproduccién
de cocodrilos, y también para determinar la importancia del criadero,
con miras a evaluar sus efectos sobre la conservacidn de los
cocodrilos. También trata de establecer una lista de todas las granjas
comerciales de cocodrilos y ofrece informaciones detalladas de sus
stocks, produccién, logros en materia de reproducci6n asi como sobre
las técnicas de cria. La encuesta fue elaborada, en primer lugar, con
el objeto de localizar los criaderos comerciales, pero también se han
incluido a los grandes centros de reproducciédn de cocodrilos
orientados hacia la conservacién, en parte porque algunos de ellos
podrian transformarse en futuros criaderos comerciales. Por esa misma
razon, se tuvieron también en cuenta los proyectos de criaderos
comerciales. En la presente Guia, la palabra "granja" se utiliza para
designar cualquier criadero en cautividad, en el sentido mas amplio
del término (es decir también la detencién durante por lo menos un

23

Introduccion

cierto periodo); comprende entonces a los criaderos cuyo plantel fue
obtenido de la naturaleza y a los criaderos que practican la
reproducci6n en cautividad. Los zoolégicos del mundo entero poseen
cocodrilos que se reproducen, pero no se los ha tomado en
consideraci6n.

Cabe sefialar que la inclusién de un criadero en la presente Guia
no implica de ninguna forma que la granja satisfaga las exigencias de
CITES relativas a su reconocimiento como cria en cautividad. Esa
funci6n la realiza la Secretaria CITES por medio del Registro de
establecimientos que practican la cria en cautividad, segin la
explicaci6én ofrecida en la seccién siguiente.

Controles CITES del comercio

Debido a que los controles CITES son muy importantes para
comprender la cria de cocodrilos y a la confusién que reina al
respecto de su interpretaci6én, la siguiente secciédn resume las
exigencias relativas al comercio de productos de cocodrilos.

Todo el comercio concerniente a los paises Partes de la Convenci6én
se halla sometido a las disposiciones de ella, siempre que no se trate
de especimenes adquiridos antes de que la Convencién haya entrado en
vigor o a menos de que el pais haya formulado una reserva con respecto
a la especie en cuesti6én, en ese caso, ese pais eS considerado como un
Estado no Parte. Los paises que formularon reservas con respecto a los
cocodrilos se mencionan en el Cuadro I. Otros paises, como por ejemplo
Italia y Francia, habian formulado reservas, pero actualmente las han
retirado.

Todos los cocodrilos gozan de protecci6dn de acuerdo con la
Convenci6n ya que se hallan incluidos en el Apéndice I o en el
Apéndice II.

En el Apéndice I se hallan incluidos los taxa amenazados de
extinci6én que estan o podrian estar amenazados por el comercio. En la
practica, el comercio internacional de esas especies se halla
prohibido, siempre que la Parte exportadora no emita un permiso de
exportaci6én. Esto solamente puede hacerse si el comercio no perjudica
a la supervivencia de la poblacién silvestre y si la Parte importadora
emiti6 un permiso declarando que los animales o los productos no seran
utilizados con fines primordialmente comerciales. Existen algunas
excepciones, la principal concierne al comercio de animales que
provienen de poblaciones criadas en cautividad de acuerdo con las
condiciones indicadas mas abajo. Esos animales son tratados como si
estuvieran incluidos en el Apéndice II.

En el Apéndice II estan incluidos los taxa cuyo comercio debe
estar sometido a una reglamentaci6n estricta con el objetivo de evitar
que ellos, o las especies similares incluidas en ese mismo Apéndice,
no esten amenazadas de extinci6édn en el futuro. Por lo tanto, el
comercio esta solamente permitido cuando el pais de exportaci6én emite
un permiso de exportaci6n que indica que el comercio no perjudica a la
supervivencia de la poblacién silvestre.

24

Introduccion

Los paises Partes de la Convenci6én deben tratar a los Estados no
Partes casi como si estos fueran Partes. En otros términos, si un
comerciante de un Estado Parte desea importar una especie del Apéndice
II de un Estado no Parte debe obtener un documento equivalente al
permiso de exportaci6n CITES.

Cria en cautividad

En la reunién CITES de San José, Costa Rica, 1979, se definieron
las condiciones por las cuales los especimenes de una especie incluida
en el Apéndice I pueden ser considerados como "criados en cautividad",
las cuales se especifican en la resoluci6én CITES Conf. 2.12.
Resumiendo, esas condiciones son las siguientes:

ala Los animales pueden solamente ser comercializados como
especimenes criados en cautividad si nacieron en cautividad y
si descienden de padres que se reprodujeron en cautividad (o
en un "medio controlado").

Ze El stock parental debe ser (i) obtenido sin perjudicar la
supervivencia de la especie al estado silvestre; (ii)
Mantenido sin incrementos provenientes de las poblaciones
silvestres, excepto aquellos aportes ocasionales con fines de
mejoramiento genético; (iii) administrados de forma que se
pueda ofrecer la prueba de que ese stock permite producir en
forma segura una descendencia de segunda generaci6én.

Conviene sefalar que las granjas no necesitan producir descendencia de
segunda generaci6dn siempre que las técnicas que se aplican hayan
ofrecido la prueba, en otro sitio, de que se puede producir ese tipo
de descendencia.

Registro de establecimientos que realizan cria en cautividad

Algunos comerciantes poco escrupulosos pueden abusar de esas
reglamentaciones simplemente obteniendo animales del medio silvestre y
vendiéndolos pretendiendo de que fueron criados en cautividad. Por lo
tanto es necesario establecer un registro efectivo de los criaderos
reconocidos que producen especimenes de especies del Apéndice I
criados en cautividad. Esta necesidad fue reconocida en la reuni6én de
CITES de Gaborone, Botswana, en 1983, donde se adopt6 una resolucién
(Conf. 4.15) que recomienda que las transacciones comerciales
relativas a especies del Apéndice I criadas en cautividad esten
solamente autorizadas para los establecimientos registrados por la
Secretaria CITES. El registro se hace efectivo cuando la Autoridad
Administrativa CITES del pais de origen comunic6 a la Secretaria
informaci6én detallada con respecto a la granja (informacién que se
especifica en la notificaci6n a las Partes No. 223 del 13 de octubre
de 1983) y cuando confirm6 que se _ respetan las condiciones
especificadas en la resolucién Conf. 2.12. Al momento de la impresién
de esta Guia, sdlo se habian registrado cuatro establecimientos que
crian cocodrilos incluidos en el Apéndice I, uno en Madagascar, uno en
Queensland, Australia, uno en Tailandia y el f&ltimo en Transvaal,
Sudaéfrica.

Introduccion
Cria en granjas

Se ha reconocido que algunas poblaciones de especies incluidas en
el Apéndice I se han reconstituido debido a las medidas de
conservaci6én, por lo que ya no se encuentran mas amenazadas. Estas
poblaciones pueden soportar un nivel de explotacién controlado y
pueden por lo tanto beneficiarse de ello. Por tal motivo, se recomend6
un procedimiento en la reunién de CITES de Nueva Delhi, India, 1981,
por el cual algunas poblaciones de especies incluidas en el Apéndice I
que podian gozar de los efectos de la cria en granjas podian ser
transferidas al Apéndice II (Conf. 3.15). La cria en granjas se define
como la cria en un medio ambiente controlado, de especimenes obtenidos
de la naturaleza, con miras a su comercializaci6én. Para que sea
reconocido, el criadero debe favorecer a la poblacién silvestre y sus
productos deben ser marcados para que puedan ser diferenciados de los
otros productos provenientes de otras poblaciones de la misma especie
incluidas en el Apéndice I.

Conviene sefmalar que, dado que existe un intercambio potencial
continuo entre las poblaciones criadas en granjas y aquellas que viven
al estado silvestre en el pais, se las trata en forma similar desde el
punto de vista de la Convenci6én y ambas pueden ser objeto de comercio.
Corresponde a la Autoridad Administrativa local elaborar las
reglamentaciones que permitan diferenciar los productos provenientes
de animales criados en granjas de aquellos provenientes del medio
natural. Sin embargo, en 1985 se adopt6 una resoluci6én (Conf. 5.16)
que solicita que todas las condiciones establecidas en la propuesta
original de cria en granjas sean respetadas por todas las Partes que
realizan comercio de especimenes de la poblacién criada en granjas. De
esta forma y dado que la propuesta australiana relativa a la cria en
granjas de C. porosus estipula la prohibici6n de vender pieles de
animales que no se encuentran en una granja desde hace por lo menos un
afio, las otras Partes no deberian autorizar la importaciones de dichas
pieles.

La poblaci6én de C. niloticus de Zimbabwe fue transferida al
Apéndice II en 1983 sobre la base de un programa de cria en granjas y
la poblaci6én australiana de C. porosus fue transferida en 1985 sobre
la base de un programa del mismo tipo. db
En 1985, en Buenos Aires se adopt6 otra resoluci6én con respecto al
comercio de especimenes criados en granjas. La misma recomienda, entre
otras cosas, que los productos provenientes de cria en granjas no se
exporten hacia Estados no Partes ni hacia Partes que hayan formulado
reservas con respecto a las especies que son objeto de una cria en
granjas, y que no se acepten las importaciones de productos
provenientes de esos Estados. Algunas connotaciones de lo que precede
hacen que Australia no deberia autorizar las exportaciones de pieles
de C. porosus criados en granjas si su destino es Singapur, que no es
Parte, o Jap6n que ha formulado una reserva con respecto a esa especie.

La reuni6én de Buenos Aires, Argentina, fue notable en el sentido

de que se modificé el procedimiento para transferir del Apéndice I al
Apéndice II, de las especies que fueron incluidas en el Apéndice I

26

Introduccion

antes de la adopcién de los criterios cientificos a tal efecto y que
evidentemente pueden soportar un cierto nivel de explotacién. El nuevo
procedimiento preve el establecimiento de un cupo para cada pais que
desea comercializar esas especies, dentro del marco de un plan de
Manejo reconocido. Por medio de este procedimiento, la poblaci6n de C.
porosus de Indonesia fue transferida al Apéndice II con un cupo de
2000 pieles. Las poblaciones de C. niloticus de los nueve paises
africanos mencionados en el Cuadro 2 también fueron transferidas al
Apéndice II con los cupos indicados.

Los programas de cria en granjasS poseen numerosas ventajas con
respecto a la explotaci6n directa, ya que permiten capturas mas
importantes de una determinada poblaci6n silvestre, producen pieles de
mejor calidad y, con ellos, es mas facil asegurarse que se aplica la
reglamentacién. Sin embargo, es mas dificil aplicarlos y necesitan
capitales mas importantes. En consecuencia parece paradojico que las
decisiones tomadas en Buenos Aires hayan eliminado ciertas ventajas
econémicas de los programas de cria en granjas de especies incluidas
en el Apéndice I - sus mercados potenciales son actualmente menores -
mientras que el sistema de cupos para la transferencia de poblaciones
al Apéndice II goza de una mayor fiexibilidad en lo que respecta a la
disponibilidad de los productos en el mercado.

METODOS

La encuesta fue efectuada en 1983 y 1984. La Secretaria CITES
envi6éd una notificacién a las Partes de la Convencién con respecto a la
necesidad de registrar todos los establecimientos que realizan la cria
en cautividad con fines comerciales de especies incluidas en el
Apéndice I. La Unidad de Vigilancia continua del Comercio de Fauna y
Flora Silvestre también tom6 contacto con las autoridades competentes
en materia de manejo de fauna silvestre de los gobiernos de los
Estados no Partes. También se establecieron contactos con los miembros
del Grupo de Especialistas de Cocodrilos de la CSE, con las
asociaciones de criadores y con otras personalidades que conocen el
tema. Siempre que fue posible, se enviaron cuestionarios a las granjas
mismas con el objeto de obtener informaciédn detallada sobre sus
stocks, la reproduccién, la captura al estado silvestre, su producci6én
comercial y sus técnicas de cria. Los resultados presentados en este
documento provienen de las respuestas a eSas encuestas, y también de
materiales publicados y no publicados y de informes de prensa. En la
Guia, los resultados se presentan por pais.

RESULTADOS Y DISCUSION

Los paises y las especies mencionadas en el texto se enumeran en
el Cuadro 3, el cual indica también donde se encuentran los
establecimientos. Las especies m&s intensivamente criadas en granjas
son C. niloticus y C. porosus: estoes, en parte, el reflejo de su
amplia distribucién, pero ademas el valor de sus pieles, ya que ambas
son muy estimadas por la industria del cuero.

27

Introduccion

Los efectivos de las principales especies que se encuentran en las
granjas de tipo comercial se presentan en el Cuadro 4, donde se puede
ver que el Alligator mississippiensis es probablemente la especie mas
abundante, aunque C. niloticus y C. porosus alcanzan efectivos del
mismo orden de tamanho, los datos sobre esas especies son sin embargo
bastante incompletos. El n&mero total de granjas se indica en el
Cuadro 5, junto a otras informaciones relativas a su produccién. Se
cree que existen otras formas, por ejemplo en Singapur y en Malasia,
pero no se ha podido obtener ninguna otra informacién. De las 152
granjas conocidas en 1985, menos de 20 existian en 1974 y todo indica
que esa raépida expansién continua. El plantel de cocodrilos de 161.603
evidentemente también aumenta. El aumento del plantel debido a la
captura de animales silvestres y a la reproducci6dn en cautividad
alcanza aproximadamente 72.000 cabezas por ano.

Como es de esperar con una industria tan jéven, la producci6én de
pieles es relativamente baja, los criadores tratan aparentemente de
constituir sus planteles. Antes de 1979, mientras las granjas de Papua
Nueva Guinea comenzaban a producir, las Gnicas cantidades apreciables
de pieles vendidas por las granjas provenian de Zimbabwe. Esta
encuesta demostr6 que por lo menos 14.769 pieles de granja habian
entrado en el mercado en 1983/84. Si se considera la hipétesis de que
la mayor parte del aumento del plantel de granjas esta destinado a la
matanza en un plazo de cuatro afios, la produccién podrian alcanzar
60.000 pieles hacia 1989, aunque es poco probable que el aumento sea
tan rapido.

Finanzas

Aunque los controles ejercidos, sobre la caza de cocodrilos en
virtud de la aplicaci6én de las leyes juega sin ninguna duda un papel
muy importante creando condiciones favorables al establecimiento de
granjas, el factor que, en fin de cuentas, determinara su futuro es el
éxito financiero.

Las compafiias comerciales, se lo puede comprender, no estan muy
dispuestas a mostrar sus cuentas para permitir un estudio y, de esta
forma, es dificil evaluar su rentabilidad. Ademas, la mayoria de las
granjas se encuentran actualmente en una etapa de desarrollo y por lo
tanto se puede esperar que el balance sea negativo hasta que no se
alcance la plena producci6n. Para comenzar, parece entonces razonable
examinar primeramente las granjas mas antiguas.

Una de las granjas mas antiguas del mundo es la de Samutprakan en
Tailandia. En 1983, se decia de que disponia de un plantel de 30.000
cocodrilos, pero solamente produjo 200 pieles. Financieramente es
evidente que ella no podia solamente sobrevivir del producto de la
venta de pieles, el establecimiento obtenia la mayor parte de sus
ingresos de los turistas y pretendia autofinanciarse de esa forma.

También las granjas de los Estados Unidos, presentaban una mala
relaci6n plantel/producci6én, aunque ellas venden también carne y
pieles, lo que deberia contribuir a aumentar sus beneficios. Algunas
granjas crean otras fuentes de ingresos vendiendo animales vivos a

28

Introduccion

otras granjas y algunas cuentan también con los ingresos producidos
por el turismo. Un andlisis reciente (96) indica que el valor de un
animal en el matadero es de US$200-300, mientras que los gastos de
producci6én, que comprenden la alimentacién, el trabajo y la
adquisici6n de recién nacidos, alcanzan US$85-100. Esto ofrece un
beneficio estimado de US$80-192 por animal tomando en cuenta una
mortalidad del 10%. Ante &sto el costo del capital invertido, estimado
a ser US$50.000-200.000 (40), cuyo interés tendria wun valor de
US$5000-20.000 al afio por cuatro afios antes de que ninguna produccién
tomara lugar. Con las estimacidnes mAs pesimistas, un granjero
necesitaria pues vender 345 animales solamente para pagar el interés
autres de recuperar su inversi6én inicial.

El aumento del nimero de granjas en los Estados Unidos de América
fue lento hasta 1982 y se creyd que la causa principal en favor de los
criaderos residia en el interés que existia con respecto a los
aligatores, el cual podia solamente provenir de personas ricas y no
interesadas en la obtenci6n de beneficios raépidos (123). Sin embargo,
el aumento acelerado del niémero de granjas durante estos dos iéltimos
afios, especialmente en Florida, hace pensar que se pueden esperar
ganancias substanciales, si es que ya no se han obtenido. Esto puede
estar ligado al aumento del nimero de recién nacidos, eclosionados de
huevos recogidos en la naturaleza, disponibles y provenientes del
Louisiana Rockefeller Refuge y especialmente del programa especial de
Florida.

Las granjas de Zimbabwe gozan también de un programa oficial de
recoleccién de huevos y Magnusson (123) atribuye su aparente
rentabilidad al hecho de que la mano de obra es barata y a que el
aprovisionamiento en alimentos ricos en proteinas para los cocodrilos
es poco costoso y abundante, ambos elementos podrian, segin ese autor,
disminuir en el futuro. Varias de esas granjas también obtienen una
parte importante de sus ingresos del turismo y de la venta de
recuerdos para el turista (179).

La cria en granjas de cocodrilos en Papua Nueva Guinea constituye
un modelo que otros paises tratan de imitar y que contribuye al
conjunto de la produccién mundial de pieles provenientes de granjas
(Cuadro 5). Aunque numerosas pequefas granjasS inicialmente instaladas
ya han desaparecido, las que se mantienen son aparentemente capaces de
realizar un beneficio, casi exclusivamente sobre la venta de pieles
(85). Un andlisis de la cria en granjas en Australia; que concierne
también C. porosus, estimaba los gastos totales de adquisicién y de
ceria por animal a A$35-55 para un tamafio de matadero de 5-6 piés
(1,52-1,83 m). A este nivel, el valor de las pieles estaba evaluado a
A$150-180 (192).

Es evidente que la cria en cautividad de cocodrilos requiere mas
dinero, en lo que respecta a los gastos corrientes y de conservacién
del stock reproductor, que el capital inicial necesario al
establecimiento de las instalaciones de reproducci6n, que la cria a
partir de huevos o de juveniles obtenidos al estado silvestre.
Magnusson (123) ha indicado que la mayoria de les establecimientos que
logran un éxito financiero son aquellos cuyos stocks de crianza

29

Introduccion

dependen en su mayor parte de las poblaciones silvestres de
cocodrilos. Por lo tanto, es un poco soprendente que las granjas de
Zimbabwe y de los Estados Unidos de América realizan cada vez mas
crias a partir de sus propios planteles y la reproduccién es tratada
cada vez mas seriamente en Papua Nueva Guinea. Esto puede explicarse
por el hecho de que numerosos establecimientos dependen, por lo menos
en parte, de los ingresos provenientes del turismo. Existe una
verdadera semejanza entre lo requerido para satisfacer a los turistas
y lo requerido para practicar la reproducci6n, es decir animales
adultos y de gran tamafo y piletones seminaturales; y los importantes
capitales invertidos en las nuevas granjas orientadas hacia el turismo
demuestran que los financistas esperan, finalmente, ganar dinero al
hacerse cargo de ese tipo de riesgo.

La cria de cocodrilos y sus efectos sobre la conservaci6én

El hecho de saber si la cria de cocodrilos es deseable desde el
punto de vista de la conservaci6n origin6 una animada controversia.
los argumentos en favor y en contra de la cria se resumen a
continuacién:

Desviaci6n del comercio

Dado que existe un mercado para los productos de cocodrilos que de
otra forma seria aprovisionado por la caza de las poblaciones
silvestres, disponer de esos mismos productos a partir de animales
criados en granjas podria satisfacer una parte de la demanda y reducir
la necesidad de caza. Puede discutirse la cuesti6n de saber si eso
ocurre en la practica o si los productos de las granjas aumentan
simplemente la amplitud del mercado. Normalmente, el efecto principal
deberia ser de orden econémico; disminuyendo el precio de las pieles o
reduciendo a niveles inaceptables el margen de ganancia ofrecido por
la caza. Este efecto es particularmente notable cuando la operacién de
caza es manejada pobremente y la poblacién silvestre se aproxima hacia
la “extincci6n comercial". Las pieles de criadero tienden a ser de
mejores y de calidad m&4s uniforme que las pieles silvestres, lo que le
ofrece una ventaja competitiva en el mercado, aunque puedan, por eso
mismo, venderse a un precio mas elevado.

Por otro lado se ha emitido la hipétesis de que si el comercio
ilegal se pudo reducir con éxito gracias a medidas de control, la
demanda del piblico también disminuira. Cualquier nueva estimulaci6én
del mercado debido a la introduccién de productos de granja aumentara
la demanda aun mas y renovara quizas la presién de caza sobre las
poblaciones silvestres. Este efecto deberia también ser mas importante
en los sitios donde el comercio ha practicamente cesado, en general
para las especies incluidas en el Apéndice I.

Ambos argumentos estan influenciados por la importancia relativa
de los aprovisionamientos en pieles provenientes de granjas y del
medio silvestre. Recientemente el comercio internacional de pieles de
cocodrilos ha sido estudiado por Hemley y Caldwell (94) que
encontraron que el comercio de las principales especies, excepto
Caiman crocodilus, mencionados en los informes CITES alcanzaron por lo
menos 82.000 animales por aflo, aunque sefalan que se trata ciertamente

30

Introduccion

de una subestimaci6én. La producci6én en granjas de 12.000 pieles ya
constituye una parte importante de ese mercado y esta importaci6én ird
en aumento. Sin embargo, la mayor parte del comercio concierne sin
ninguna duda a C. crocodilus, ya que los informes CITES indican
700.000 pieles por ano y que el niémero real es probablemente superior
al millén (94). Taiwan es el finico territorio en el cual esta especie
es criada en gran cantidad, principalmente porque el bajo valor
comercial de las pieles significa que el criadero es econdémicamente
rentable solamente si se pueden comercializar otros productos. En
consecuencia, eS poco probable que la cria produzca alguna vez una
parte importante del mercado mundial de pieles de C. crocodilus, o de
pieles de cocodrilos en su conjunto, a menos que el comercio de pieles
de caimanes silvestres disminuya en forma drastica.

Control del comercio

El control del comercio ilegal de productos de especies amenazadas
de extinci6n se complica por la introduccién en el mercado de
productos de granja adquiridos legalmente. Este problema fue tratado
por las resoluciones CITES sobre la cria en cautividad (Conf. 2.12) y
sobre la cria en granjas (Conf. 3.15) que recomiendan el marcado
apropiado de los productos, con el objeto de que puedan ser
distinguidos de los productos provenientes de animales obtenidos de la
naturaleza. Sin embargo, siempre se teme que algunos comerciantes sin
escrfpulos utilicen a las granjas para disponer de pieles silvestres
adquiridas en forma ilegal, ya sea en forma directa a partir de la
granja, © por medio de reexportaciones a partir de otros paises.
Varios paises que poseen criaderos de cocodrilos elaboraron
procedimientos en materia de permisos y de inspecci6én cuyo objetivo es
prevenir ese tipo de actividad, pero se han sefialado operaciones de
"blanqueo" de pieles ilegales realizadas por algunas granjas. La
presente Guia puede ser itil para evitar ese problema ya que se trata
de ofrecer un nivel real de los stocks actuales y de informar sobre
los éxitos efectivos obtenidos con respecto a la reproducci6n.
Cualquier produccién de pieles provenientes de granjas que sobrepase
la capacidad de producci6én reconocida o que provengan de paises que no
disponen de granjas deberian ser investigados.

Efecto sobre las poblaciones silvestres

Si los efectivos de una especie disminuyen o si se encuentran
amenazados de extinciédn al estado silvestre, la cria en cautividad
puede tener un efecto de protecci6n para una parte importante de la
poblacién. Si la reproduccién puede también asegurarse, la poblaci6én
puede aumentar hasta un punto en que puede ser posible la
reintroduccién de animales reproducidos en cautividad en la
naturaleza. Varios establecimientos que practican la reproducci6én de
cocodrilos han logrado sin lugar a dudas alcanzar ese nivel,
especialmente con las especies Crocodylus moreletii, Crocodylus
intermedius y Gavialis gangeticus, pero siempre se trat6 de
establecimientos orientados hacia la conservaci6én y sin intenciones
comerciales. El Gnico establecimiento comercial que utiliza
actualmente una especie seriamente amenazada de extincién, Crocodylus
siamensis, es la granja de Samutprakan en Tailandia. La granja de los

31

Introduccion

pantanos de Zapata en Cuba practica también la reproduccién de
Crocodylus rhombifer y Crocodylus acutus, pero no se conoce el nivel
en que esta granja esta concernida por el comercio. Sin embargo, no se
ha podido determinar si es de desear la reintroduccién de animales
provenientes de granjas, a causa de su alteraci6én genética debido a la
selecci6n artificial o a la hibridaci6én. La granja de Samutprakan y la
de los pantanos’ de Zapata ya poseen importantes planteles
substanciales de animales hibridos.

Muy raramente la cria en cautividad es totalmente independiente de
la poblaci6n silvestre y a menudo es necesario la captura de animales
silvestres, si no es para criarlos directamente por lo menos para
adquirir un stock reproductor. De esta forma, mismo los
establecimientos que aseguran la reproduccién en cautividad tienen en
consecuencia un drenado neto, aunque reducido, de los efectivos
silvestres. Una cria en granjas en pleno desarrollo captura muchos mas
animales de la naturaleza, pero, aunque no- realice ninguna
reintroducci6én, una de las condiciones principales para la aprobaci6én
de un programa de cria en granjas de acuerdo con la resoluci6én Conf.
3.15 es que deberia, como contrapartida, beneficiar a la -poblacién
silvestre, esto concierne solamente a las especies incluidas en el
Apéndice I. i

Protecci6n del habitat y de las especies

En el pasado, los cocodrilos eran perseguidos como animales
perjudiciales y a menudo sus habitats pantanosos se destruyen con el
objeto de abrir una via a una utilizacién del suelo "mas productiva".
La capacidad de los cocodrilos de producir fuentes de ingresos, que ya
se ha demostrado, puede ayudar a promover la conservaci6n de
poblaciones silvestres sanas. Esto se aplica en particular a la cria
en granjas, para la cual el conjunto de la operacién depende del
mantenimiento de un stock reproductor silvestre pero, en mucha menor
medida, las granjas que practican la reproduccién artificial pueden
alentar la conservacién de efectivos al estado silvestre con el objeto
de periéddicas mejoras genéticas. El mantenimiento de una poblacién
silvestre de cocodrilos se halla condicionado por la preservaci6én de
su habitat, el cual es favorable a los otros organismos que viven en
el mismo medio. En consecuencia, la atracci6n financiera de la
explotaci6én de cocodrilos reduce también la presién econémica que se
ejerce en favor del secado de las zonas himedas.

Protecci6n cultural

Las técnicas de cria de cocodrilos en granjas pueden ser adaptadas
a las condiciones de una tecnologia de pueblo para permitir la
integraci6én de la cultura y de la economia de las comunidades rurales.
Los programas de cria en granja de Papua Nueva Guinea y de Australia
septentrional declaran como objetivo el ofrecimiento de empleos a los
indigenas. Frecuentemente, otros programas que tienden a obtener un
ingreso provocan problemas a nivel social.

32

Introduccion

Mezcla genética y riesgos de enfermedades

Los otros inconvenientes potenciales comprenden la introducci6én
accidental de especies no indigenas o de razas genéticamente
diferentes en la poblacién silvestre, porque algunos animales se
escaparon de la granja, asi como la diseminaciédn de enfermedades,
propias a las granjas, a las poblaciones silvestres.

PERSPECTIVAS FUTURAS

En la mayoria de los paises que realizan operaciones de cria en
granjas de cocodrilos parece que estos establecimientos aumentan en
naimero asi como en cantidad de animales y que la producci6én de pieles
aumenta. Los problemas técnicos originados de la cria han sido, en
gran medida, solucionados, pero saber si este crecimiento continuara o
si esta industria desaparecera depende de su rentabilidad a largo
plazo. El niémero de animales silvestres capturados en la naturaleza
("cria en granjas") y el nimero de animales reproducidos en cautividad
constituye un factor importante desde el punto de vista de la
conservaci6n. El nimero total de animales reproducidos en las granjas
parece aumentar y podria representar el 40% del nimero total de
animales que se agregan anualmente al plantel de esas granjas. A
primera vista, esto parece alentador, pero merece un examen mas
profundo.

La reproduccién en cautividad tuvo un importante papel en la
conservaci6n de varias especies de cocodrilos seriamente reducidas en
nimero, pero se trataba a menudo de operaciones no comerciales. La
ceria en cautividad con fines comerciales, tal como se lo explica mas
arriba, no es tan beneficiosa para la conservaci6n, y por lo tanto no
deberia ser vista, como frequentemente es, como una alternativa a la
conservaci6n del habitat. En cambio, la cria en granjas, puede ser
mucho mas beneficiosa ya que requiere el mantenimiento de una
poblaci6én silvestre sana asi como del habitat que la alberga (123) En
esencia, difiere poco de una explotaci6én controlada de pieles de
grandes animales; en los Estados Unidos de América y en Papua Nueva
Guinea, los dos tipos de explotaci6én se llevan paralelamente. La cria
en granjas presenta ciertas ventajas sobre la recoleccién directa ya
que parece mas fAcil reglamentar, especialmente si, como en Zimbabwe,
Estados Unidos de América y en Australia, la recoleccién de huevos es
totalmente efectuada por personal del gobierno o bajo su estricto
control. El mantenimiento por separado de un plantel en granjas ofrece
también cierta garantia, en el caso de que hubiera un desastre en el
medio natural o en el caso de que se interrumpiera el control efectivo
de la recoleccién debido por ejemplo a la inestabilidad politica.

Por tal motivo, la causa de la conservaciOn de cocodrilos estaria
mejor servida si se estableciera un plan de manejo eficaz de las
poblaciones silvestres, el cual comprenderia la cria en granjas, la
recoleccién directa o una combinaci6n de ambas, en lugar del paro
total de la explotacién al estado silvestre y el desarrollo de la cria
en cautividad. El éxito de cualquier plan de manejo de ese tipo
depende totalmente de una investigaci6n de base minuciosa que permita

S15)

Introduccion

determinar los niveles de las poblaciones existentes y de la aptitud
para conducir la explotaci6én en forma controlada. El alto nivel del
comercio ilegal de productos de cocodrilos (94) hace pensar que el
grado actual de control dista mucho de ser el adecuado en numerosas

partes del mundo.
AGRADECIMIENTOS

Los fondos necesarios para la realizaci6n de esta encuesta fueron
generosamente ofrecidos por la International Fur Trade Federation y
por la UICN. La realizaci6én de esta encuesta no hubiera sido posible
sin la ayuda y colaboraci6n acordada por las numerosas personas que
respondieron a nuestras cartas y cuestionarios. Se hace referencia a
esa ayuda cada vez que es posible y los autores desean expresar aqui
mismo su inmensa gratitud.

34

Table 1 Species of crocodilian mentioned in the text, giving the English names
and status in the CITES Appendices.

= SSS eee eee

Scientific name

English names CITES Countries
Appendix which hold
reservations

(July 1985)

———— eee

Alligator mississippiensis
Alligator sinensis

Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis

Caiman crocodilus crocodilus
Caiman crocodilus fuscus
Caiman crocodilus yacare
Caiman latirostris
Melanosuchus niger
Paleosuchus palpebrosus

Paleosuchus trigonatus

Crocodylus acutus
Crocodylus cataphractus

Crocodylus intermedius
Crocodylus johnsoni

Crocodylus moreletii
Crocodylus niloticus

C. novaeguineae novaeguineae

C. novaeguineae mindorensis
(=Crocodylus mindorensis)
Crocodylus palustris

Crocodylus porosus

Crocodylus rhombifer
Crocodylus siamensis
Osteolaemus tetraspis
Tomistoma schlegelii
Gavialis gangeticus

American alligator II
Chinese alligator I
Rio Apaporis caiman I
Spectacled caiman II
Brown caiman LE
Yacare caiman II
Broad-nosed caiman I
Black caiman I
Dwarf caiman, Cuvier's II

smooth-fronted caiman
Schneider's smooth-fronted II

caiman

American crocodile I

African sharp-nosed it Austria,

crocodile Zambia

Orinoco crocodile I

Australian freshwater or II

Johntson's crocodile

Morelet's crocodile I

Nile crocodile I Botswana, Sudan
Zambia, Zimbabwe

(II in Cameroon*, Congo*, Kenya*,
Madagascar”, Malawi*, Mozambique’,
Sudan’, Tanzania’, Zambia’, Zimbabwet )

New Guinea crocodile II

Freshwater crocodile

Mindoro crocodile i

Mugger, marsh crocodile, E

broad-snouted crocodile

Estuarine crocodile, I Austria, Japan,

Saltwater crocodile Thailand
(II in PNG, Australiat, Indonesia*)

Cuban crocodile I
Siamese crocodile I
W. African dwarf crocodile I
False gharial, false gavial I
Gharial, gavial I

Thailand

* Subject to quotas
+ Ranching programmes

35

Table 2. Quotas of C. niloticus skins which may be exported from nine African
Parties where the populations have been transferred to Appendix II.

ee

Country Estimated population No. of
of C. niloticus animals
Cameroon 5 000 20
Congo 40 000 1 000
Kenya 40 000 150
Madagascar 30 000 1 000
Malawi 28 300 500
Mozambique 202 000 1 000
Sudan 250 000 5 000
Tanzania 74 000 1 000
Zambia 150 000 2 000

36

Table 3 Species of crocodilian kept in different countries. KEY: F: farmed on
a large scale, f: farmed on a small scale, c: conservation/research
Operations, s: mainly conservation but some sales may take place,

p: proposed operations, ?: status uncertain.

n Ol w 3
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Indonesia 4 \ Sa Ti LOCOS Ge nn nr mere eon Wa toberincs es | 4
Israel fe eseae | ict) eerie ale ascltlhs. ve Je) > OME score Cee lo See
Italy 5 ee te 2 ee TS a ee Ss Cems) RR ke pecs “SONS
PRORRNICOASt is s » © © 8 © ge, © «© f (© © © (ej see 2 © «6 Ofs
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Malawi ee aul rg 2 ag er Ais; pie eran fe ADT fer Mirel tegiee! pomtl-sy ) alartammnmn
Malaysia Oc ee oe Se ee ie, Se ehbzen) form NES vowel == eee
Mali tae eh en we ee ws SE kere ee ep | =o
Mauritius Pewee tS CORFE 2 «2° SM es. 8 © CEM Tehiciey pee) on) lod | erm se ee
Mexico EP RAE Not sia Koved ster oie AD) ie. = ene era Dieensiinmicadenenh ahaha Mo. opal e mean ann
Mozambique ee ct hates ce BRE ES few ee | Bap Sir ir, et Wolo -n ee
Nepal “ee ee ek ee rs, er) iC Nem Meee omer) lS!
Pakistan RR oie eg Sen |e et le ey Tet gre)! ho ie.) ee eee
PNG | >) | nnn ene eee me eT Se NO eam oe OS 8
PEER ISIGSME (SEES ns. es ee Mee a a Ry eee cca er ie
Rwanda Va eee A ae ees er Seer ane ame SM | ARS eg SS
W. Samoa ae eI EM A Re, ey ee eS ge ICE
Senegal Pe ee SE ee ie eee hie, te (Dota Met ier sees el ee ena mae
Singapore Me Ne ot cay asst \ ie pla led”! NeiguGbant (oh (ial Alaa ©n his tage °
DRPEMENERNCAMER Cis, an co) er hel et Se jet! yeoje Ea ieee” vehi UleAe VOU) sein [aie Cente mas
Spain Byeieycyrmeriyenageerast yeiany eee ene -ewamelernen se Diente mare mle epee rape Olnialannyte annotate
Sri Lanka Me Line store: os nel: ton | Sef SeN LU Sie oe acen cee 2 ws Vet at eek ana
Suriname eae Sie nai we.- (se, slot? wep ace” how Ve ke. oie) Commas ea eum eee
Taiwan DIMER A ea Ue) Rieter Keone “We ret, (Dl vey Paris ff - ier) Bante See
Tanzania 8° Wi A a ee ne A get Cy PR ChE ys, S08 C
Thailand See a 8 yer alesse hi ferk tery Shee qy ys) ENP Ee {Sey als ee
Togo Nene oe nal cs Pa ate’ flo? Ser Be Seren Os Ss Re fees
Uganda Eo A Seis adc samen Viel] ue, 0 C ge” fies (all Teh! mn ea es
USA RECince © Wiel Cl Giae cs. (SRiC ks a Ali! Cle CLC ears
Uruguay . Ee me meme ee ee RO eg Re YS
Venezuela EDR Ae OR rk ie ees ce) MEM Ne) veh Vie R SS Lisi er ah ate sey
Zambia ee ye te a ee Ne Fed log PR seni oP" rs) ie: AS See
Zimbabwe a Le oe AS eee ee eee Bo erie ie) Ole & foe ie ie ree

ee eee

Table 4 Approximate numbers of each species of crocodilian kept on commercial
farms in different countries. "?" indicates species is present, but
numbers unknown.

Co)
o
o
14) c n “A
dt =} “4 A od
= is) I nD aa
7) re) “4 Cc (0)
5 a af) © o
a = ° © = o
sd a ao > o a
uo} fe) -d ° ‘dA a
° . f= re n (3)
13) a
fo} n n n n
u 3 3 3 3 ©
oO eo a ao eo 5
(= Le) se) se] se) re)
© ° ° ° ° 7)
| 13) 16) 13) oO “A
mel ° ° ° ° =
oO i=) i=) wu wu (eo)
1S) 1S) tS) U0 iS) =)
Australia - - 6612 - - 4351 = -
Bolivia - ? - - = = = =
Botswana = - - 70 + - = = =
Burma - - - - = 900 + = =
Costa Rica - 100 - - = = os a
Ethiopia = - - ? - = = =
Greece - - - 150 - - = =
Indonesia - - - - 2000 + 1630 + 2 120 :
Israel 302 - - 209 - = = =
Kenya = = = 1509 - - - =
Madagascar = - - 454 - = = 2
Malawi - - - ? = = es at
Malaysia = = - - - 2385 + - 10
Mali - - - 34 + ~ = = a
Mauritius - - - 88 ~ = = ai
Mozambique - - - 32 =- = = =
PNG - - - ~ 21000 9000 - -
Singapore = = = = ? 6600 + - 24 +
South Africa - - - 2204 - = — 2
Suriname - ? - - = = a nas
Taiwan - 8000 - - - 300 - 15
Thailand 2 225 - - - 1755 7780 85
USA 49022 + - ~ = = = Ls =
Zambia - - - 2798 + = = = 2
Zimbabwe - - = 27704 = = £ =
TOTAL 49326 8325 6612 35252 23000 26651 7780 254

38

Table 5 Summary of most recent figures for the stock, annual production,
breeding and wild-collection of commercial crocodilian farms in
different countries. Where no production had definitely been recorded
the date of expected production is indicated.

Number Total Current Intake of Farm-bred
of farms crocodilian production eggs/juvs hatchlings
stock of skins from wild
Australia 5 10 963 100 7 500 ¢ 1 043
Bolivia 1 ? 0 - 0
Botswana 2 70 + 0¢ 2 000 © ?
Burma i! 900 + ob 465 2.4
Costa Rica 1 100 0 - -
Ethiopia i ? of ? 0
Greece 1 150) © 0 0 0
Indonesia 17 + 5 701 + ?,b ? 0
Israel 2, 511 0 0 180
Kenya 2 1 509 0 310 56
Madagascar a 454 ? 0 100
Malawi uf ? 0 ~ 0
Malaysia ige 2-395) + fs ? ?
Mali 1 34 + od - 0
Mauritius 1 88 0 0 0
Mozambique il 32 - 0 -
PNG 11 + 30 000 7 755 + 4 419 0
Singapore 5 + 6 600 + ? ? ?
South Africa 12 2 204 0¢ 137 51 +
Taiwan 35 8 600 2 000 - 2 000
Thailand af 10 568 200 0 3 085
USA 29 49 022 T S52 8 267 5 875
Zambia 4 2 798 + 2.4 9 025 + 0
Zimbabwe 6 27 704 2 890 + 14 000 13 440 c
TOTAL 152 + 161 603 + 14 796 + 46 123 + 25 830 +
ee ee ee ee
? Believed to occur, numbers unknown
- No information
@ Planned for 1983
b Planned for 1984
© Planned for 1985
d Planned for 1986
E Planned for 1988

Planned for 1989

Ree Dt
“Sr re ©
ies bes cee , ig
5 -

La ,

r | os | wen eran ee raat th BS Me
Tg Leia TELAe kp pene Fes Stead eG =DE NS, HT
ue aphid) Bat ne Tien boxy. oy ace th gia 2

Palicereeiag 3 2 re $48
eee: Pee apd tigen mr anemelnea lie S3 eS Ss, 2c cea t6%

om?

ee a Pee renee - 7
ee . ~ 7
. wn a {sa0T Tach ad

D eC le we Le ae .
se

sues

ie 2 v’ tz
ioe +"
ay, a
RE? al
y f
. LF >
es,
he
<a t
ote ed
« rad he é “
Bis’ t CF
pe ae
fae; :
[2 ee --

~

e: ey woh ® Sah af .

se ape —_ De:

norte stedeue

~~
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. ae) ’
»
=
"«
.
®
’ a t

Conf. 2.12) *

CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES
OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA

SECOND MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES
San Jose (Costa Rica), 19 to 30 March 1979

RESOLUTION OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES

Specimens Bred in Captivity or Artificially Propagated

CONSIDERING that the Convention provides for special treatment of
wildlife that are bred in captivity and plant specimens that are
artificially propagated;

RECOGNIZING the need for the Parties to agree on a standard
interpretation of those provisions;

RECOGNIZING also the need to apply these provisions in a way that will
not be detrimental to the survival of wild populations;

RECALLING that in the case of wildlife these provisions were intended
to apply only to captive populations sustained without augmentation
from the wild;

THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES TO THE CONVENTION

RECOMMENDS

a)

b)

that. the provisions of Article VII, paragraph 4, of the
Convention be applied separately from those of Article VII,
paragraph 5. Specimens of animal species in Appendix I bred in
captivity for commercial purposes shall be treated as if they
were in Appendix II, and shall not be exempted from the
provisions of Article IV by the granting of certificates to the
effect that they were bred in captivity or artificially
propagated;

that the term “bred in captivity" be interpreted to refer only to
offspring, including eggs, born or otherwise produced in a
controlled environment, either of parents that mated or otherwise
transferred gametes in a controlled environment, if reproduction
is sexual, or of parents that were in a controlled environment
when development of the offspring began, if reproduction is
asexual. The parental breeding stock must be to the satisfaction
of the competent government authorities of the relevant country:

i) established in a manner not detrimental to the survival of
the species in the wild;

a OEE ee

* This document was prepared after the meeting from document Com. 2.5
adopted after being amended. (Note from the Secretariat).

41

c)

d)

42

ii)

iii)

maintained without augmentation from the wild, except for
the occasional addition of animals, eggs or gametes from
wild populations to prevent deleterious inbreeding, with the
Magnitude of such addition determined by the need for new
genetic material and not by other factors, and

managed in a manner designed to maintain the breeding stock
indefinitely.

A controlled environment for animals is an environment that
is intensively manipulated by man for the purpose of
producing the species in question, and that has boundaries
designed to prevent animals, eggs or gametes of the selected
species from entering or leaving the controlled

environment. General characteristics of a controlled
environment may include but are not limited to artificial
housing, waste removal, health care, protection from
predators, and artificially supplied food. A parental
breeding stock shall be considered to be "managed ina
manner designed to maintain the breeding stock indefinitely”
only if it is managed in a manner which has been
demonstrated to be capable of reliably producing
second-generation offspring in a controlled environment;

that the term “artificially propagated" be interpreted to refer
only to plants grown by man from seeds, cuttings, callus tissue,
spores or other propagules under controlled conditions. The
artificially propagated stock must be:

i)

ii)

established and maintained in a manner not detrimental to
the survival of the species in the wild, and

managed in a manner designed to maintain the artificially
propagated stock indefinitely.

Controlled conditions for plants is under an environment
that is intensively manipulated by man for the purpose of
producing selected species. General characteristics of
controlled conditions may include but are not limited to
tilliage, fertilization, week control, irrigation, or
nursery operations such as potting, bedding, or protection
from weather; and

that the competent government authorities of countries exporting
live animals, parts and derivatives of specimens bred in
captivity of species listed in Appendix I endeavour, where
possible, to ensure that these be made identifiable by means
other than documentation alone.

Conf. 3.15 *

CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES
OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA

THIRD MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES
New Delhi (India), 25 February to 8 March 1981

RESOLUTION OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES

Ranching

CONSIDERING that the provisions of Article III of the Convention
control international commercial trade in specimens of species
included in Appendix I;

RECOGNIZING that this control of trade in species included in Appendix
I is intended to improve the status of their wild populations;

RECOGNIZING that as a result of this control, the population of
species included in Appendix I may vary between the countries in which
they occur in the degree to which they are endangered;

RECOGNIZING the importance of maintaining Appendix I protection in
those countries where the wild population is still endangered;

RECALLING that the terms of the Resolution on specimens bred in
captivity or artificially propagated (Conf. 2.12), adopted at its
second meeting (San Jose, 1979), do not allow the entry into trade of
specimens of species included in Appendix I which have been reared in
captivity following collection from the wild;

RECOGNIZING the desire of some Parties with successful programmes for
the conservation of certain species to restore those species into
international trade as soon as to do so is no longer detrimental to
the survival of their wild populations of those species;

THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES TO THE CONVENTION
RECOMMENDS
a) that populations of species included in Appendix I, which occur

within the jurisdiction of Parties, but which are deemed by the
Parties to be no longer endangered and to benefit by ranching (by

2 This document was prepared after the meeting from document Com.
3.12 adopted after having been amended. (Note from the
Secretariat).

43

b)

c)

d)

44

which is meant the rearing in a controlled environment of
specimens taken from the wild) with the intention of trade be
included in Appendix II;

that, in order to be considered by the Parties, any proposal to
transfer a population to Appendix II in order to conduct a
ranching operation satisfy the following general criteria:

i) the operation must be primarily beneficial to the
conservation of the local population (i.e., where
applicable, contribute to its increase in the wild); and

ii) the products of the operation must be adequately identified
and documented to ensure that they can be readily
distinguished from products of Appendix I populations;

that for obtaining approval for transfer to Appendix II of the
country's population, or a smaller geographically separate
population of the species involved, in order to conduct a
ranching operation, the Management Authority submit a proposal to
the Secretariat, such a proposal containing the following:

1) evidence that the taking from the wild shall have no
significant detrimental impact on wild populations;

ii) an assessment of the likelihood of the biological and
economic success of the ranching operation;

iii) assurance that the operation shall be carried out at all
stages in a humane (non-cruel) manner;

iv) asSurance that the operation will be beneficial to the wild
population through reintroduction or in other ways;

v) a description of the methods to be used to identify the
products through marking and/or documentation; and

vi) assurance that the criteria continue to be met, with records
open to scrutiny by the Secretariat, and that the Management
Authority shall include in its reports to the Secretariat
sufficient detail concerning the status of its population
and concerning the performance of any ranching operation to
satisfy the Parties that these criteria continue to be met;
and

that in order to be discussed at the next meeting of the
Conference of the Parties any proposal for amendment of the
appendices pursuant to this resolution be received by the
Secretariat at least 330 days before that meeting; the
Secretariat will consult with the Standing Committee in seeking
such appropriate scientific and technical advice to verify that

the criteria specified under b) and c) have been met; if in the
opinion of the Secretariat further information concerning the criteria
is required, the Secretariat shall request information from the
proposing Party within 150 days after receipt; thereafter, the
Secretariat shall communicate with the Parties in accordance with
Article XV of the Convention.

45

Conf. 4.15

CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES
OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA

FOURTH MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES
Gaborone (Botswana), 19 to 30 April 1983

RESOLUTION OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES

Control of Captive Breeding Operations in Appendix I Species

RECOGNIZING that under the provision of Article VII, paragraph 4, of
the Convention, specimens of species included in Appendix I which are
bred in captivity for commercial purposes shall be deemed to be
specimens of species included in Appendix II;

RECALLING that Resolution Conf. 2.12, adopted at the second meeting of
the Conference of the Parties (San Jose, 1979), precisely defines the
expression “bred in captivity";

AWARE that any exemptions may lead to abuses, notably from states
which are not Parties to the Convention;

CONSIDERING that a uniform implementation of the provisions of the
Convention is necessary for it to function well;

THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES TO THE CONVENTION

RECOMMENDS

a) that Parties provide the Secretariat with any appropriate
information on the operations occurring in their territories
which regularly breed in captivity, for commercial purposes,
specimens of species included in Appendix I to which Article VII,
paragraph 4, of the Convention applies, or, if appropriate, that
they inform the Secretariat that such operations do not exist;

b) that Parties strictly implement the provisions of Article IV of
the Convention with respect to specimens of species included in
Appendix I originating from operations which breed such specimens
in captivity for commercial purposes;

c) that Parties reject any document granted under Article VII,
paragraph 4, of the Convention, if the specimens concerned do not
originate from an operation duly registered by the Secretariat;

d) that comparable documentation granted under Article VII,
paragraph 4, of the Convention by states which are not Parties to
the Convention not be accepted by the Parties without
consultation with the Secretariat; and

46

aye

e) that Parties collaborate as much as possible on the Survey on

Farming and Ranching undertaken by the Wildlife Trade Monitoring
Unit (WTMU); and

REQUESTS the Secretariat to compile and update a Register of the
operations which breed specimens of species included in Appendix I in
captivity for commercial purposes, on the basis of the information

received from the Parties and other sources, and that it communicate
this Register to the Parties.

47

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e

Crocodilian farming operations

The following section reviews the status of crocodilian farming by
country. Countries are arranged in alphabetical order. Wherever
possible details of individual farms have been presented.

se
ae
ries

rs

ting:

POs tnd oginy
-*
‘3

‘=

7
=>

ea hha) A
MNS

ys wt a :

AUSTRALIA

Crocodile harvesting in the past has caused depletion of the
crocodile populations in Australia. The saltwater crocodile Crocodylus
porosuS was particularly severely affected and the species was
protected in 1971. As a result of protection the numbers increased and
in 1983 the Australian Council of Nature Conservation Ministers
(CONCOM) prepared a proposal for the fourth meeting of the Conference
of the Parties to CITES, at Gabarone, Botswana, to transfer the
Australian population of C. porosus to Appendix II Supported by a
ranching programme. This proposal was withdrawn prior to the meeting in
the face of opposition from the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group.
The proposal was rewritten after the collection of further information
on the status of crocodile populations and submitted to the fifth CITES
meeting, at Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1985, where it was approved.

The first crocodile farm was established in Queensland in 1973 and
achieved captive breeding shortly afterwards. In 1984 it became the
second farm in the world to be registered with the CITES Secretariat as
a recognised captive-breeding operation. A further three farms were
established in the Northern Territory and one in Queensland in the
early 1980s.

The Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, which
carries out much of the research on crocodile biology, has supervised
the wild-capture of the animals held on the three farms in the
Territory. It has organised trials to quantify a sustainable level of
annual harvest within specified management areas. A number of animals
have been removed from areas in which they were considered a potential
hazard to the public (51).

All stages of the farming process are subject to regulatory
control. Licences to farm are only granted to those with suitable
experience, and require prior submission of farm design, husbandry,
development and financial plans. Licensees are required to submit
monthly reports of stock and are subject to random spot checks by the
Conservation Commission. Permits are required to slaughter stock, the
dates of slaughter being specified, and serially numbered tags are
issued for all skins. Tag numbers are specified on permits for all
skins exported. The Conservation Commission keeps computer records of
all farms, which allows for checking of authorised stocks and skins at
all times (192).

A trial egg harvest for C. porosus has been proposed which would
involve the taking of 4000 eggs a year for three years from the
Northern Territory. These eggs will be supplied to the three farms in
the Territory. No harvest is planned for Queensland. Hatchlings
totalling 5% of the number of eggs collected must be made available for
release at one year old should this be required by the Conservation
Commission.

A trial harvest of up to 200 juvenile C. porosus (0.6-2 m) was
planned to assess the effect of this in comparison to egg harvest.

Experience with rearing C. johnsoni has shown that 90% survival to
Slaughter age is expected. Some problems with feeding in C. porosus
have resulted in survival falling to 50%, but the Edward River Farm in
Queensland has demonstrated 80% survival with a minor alteration to the
diet (192).

51

Australia

Both species have bred on farms and it is expected that 100 nests
of C. porosus will be laid on farms in 1984/85 (70 in Queensland and 30
in Northern Territory), equivalent to 5200 eggs. Less than 5% of the
eggs of later clutches are infertile although the percentage is higher
in first clutches (192).

All the farms are associated with enterprises which supply food at
Minimal cost. In 1984 Government economists re-assessed the long-term
financial viability of farms and found them favourable, even given the
prevailing depressed skin prices. The financial analysis assumed at
least a 5% return of raised juveniles to the wild. A trial harvest of
C. porosus eggs in 1983/84 showed that collection by helicopter and
incubation costs amounted to A$5 a hatchling, and that the cost of
raising each hatchling to a size of 5-6 ft was A$30-40. The skin of an
animal of this size was worth A$150-180 in 1984 (192).

Whitaker et al. (204) quoted the prices of dried meat and gall
bladders in Australia as US$15 kg-l and Us$245 kg-l respectively in
1985.

The operations

Northern Territory

NAME OF OPERATION
Crocodile Farm (N.T.) Pty Ltd
P.O.Box 4694
Farm Site
Darwin, N.T.
Director: Mr Michael Hannon.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1981 (51)
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

The stock of Crocodylus_ johnsoni and Crocodylus porosus held in
June 1984 (192) or December 1983 (51) was:

Species Hatchlings Juveniles Adults TOTAL

C. porosus 331 185 108 624 (192)

C. johnsoni 1089 1194 96 2379 (51)
* 2368 (192)

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm has not started production but expects to do so in 1985.
Trade is expected to involve the export of raw hides to Asian and
European markets (51).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The animals have been obtained as eggs, hatchlings and some adult
"problem animals', from the wild under the supervision of the
Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (51).
BREEDING

It was anticipated that C. porosus would produce up to 30 clutches
of eggs on this farm in 1984/85. At a mean clutch size of 52 this would
represent up to 1560 eggs (192).

52Z

Australia

OTHER INFORMATION

It was reported in 1983 that this farm was involved with the
tourist side of the industry (187). The farm has made a substantial
investment in tourist facilities from which some return is being
realised (51).

NAME OF OPERATION

Letaba Crocodile Rearing Station

P.O. Box 2351

Darwin N.T. 5794.

Operated by: Hilton D. Graham.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The operation was established in 1982 (51). In June 1983 the farm
was still under construction (88), but was in operation by late 1984
(92))h
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

The stock of Crocodylus johnsoni and Crocodylus porosus held in
June 1984 (192) or December 1983 (51) was:

Species Hatchlings Juveniles Adults TOTAL

C. porosus 172 49 0 221 (192)

C. johnsoni 1820 0 0 1820 (51)
7 1707 (192)

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm has not started production but expects to do so in 1985.
Trade is expected to involve the export of raw hides to Asian and
European markets (51).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

In June 1983 a small "nucleus" stock of crocodiles for Letaba
Crocodile Rearing Station was being held at Janamba Crocodile Farm
(88). All of the animals held were obtained as eggs, hatchlings and
some adult ‘problem animals', from the wild under the supervision of
the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (51).

NAME OF OPERATION

Janamba Crocodile Farm

Box 92

Humpty Doo

NT 5791.

The Director of the farm was Alistair Graham, but recent reports
Suggest that he no longer holds this post.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

November 1982

53

Australia

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

The stock of Crocodylus johnsoni and Crocodylus porosus held in
June 1984 (192) or December 1983 (51) was:

Species Hatchlings Juveniles Adults TOTAL

C. porosus 807 27 24 838 (192)

Cre dONNSOnl . sie oa 2589----- 0 2589 (51)
2389 (192)

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Skins are to be produced but production has not yet started (86).
It was expected to begin production in 1985 for export to European and
Asian markets (51).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The numbers of animals obtained from the wild up to mid-1983 were:

Adults Juveniles
1982 - 3300
1983 5 - (86)

Survival rate of hatchlings was 100% until unsuitable diet caused
a loss of nearly 9%, the problem is now thought to have been resolved.
In 1982 the operation was based on the harvest of hatchlings but in
1983 egg harvesting was to be tried as an alternative.

Regulations are set by the Government to control wild capture (86).
BREEDING

None reported up to 1983, but the farm plans to be self-sufficient
eventually.
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are kept in open-air enclosures with aquatic
vegetation; feeding is on a daily basis with a mixture of poultry, fish
and beef (86). The second partner in the operation runs a chicken farm
which provides ex-production birds as the main food supply for the
crocodiles (87).
FINANCES

The operation was financed by Mr Graham and a partner but is
expected to become self-financing after production has been under way
for a while (87).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research was carried out by Alistair Graham in collaboration with
the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (86).
OTHER INFORMATION

All wild animals in the N.T. remain the property of the Government
so that control of the resource is entirely in their hands. Regular
reports are made to the Government on all management activities, with a
view to publication (86).

54

Australia
Queensland

NAME OF OPERATION
Edward River Crocodile Farm Pty Ltd (formerly Applied Ecology Pty
Ltd)
Edward River, Cape York, Queensland 4871
Postal address:
P.O.Box 669
Cairns
Queensland 4870.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The operation started in 1973 and aimed to start production and
commercial operation in 1984 (134). The farm was registered with the
CITES Secretariat aS an approved captive-breeding operation for
Crocodylus porosus in November 1984.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus porosus, stock in 1980 (133):
Age Category (Years)

Source 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5 plus Total
Wild-caught - - - - - 75 75
Wild-taken Eggs/

Farm-raised 90 oat | 132 34 18 87 388
Farm-bred and

-raised 5 159 25 ~ - - - 184
Total 249 52 132 34 18 162 647

In 1983 the number of C. porosus was 1006, plus 627 hatchlings
(160).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation produces skins and live animals. In 1980 40 skins
were produced under licence as part of a feasibility study for
commercial production. When commercial production was envisaged in
1980, a figure of 3000 skins a year was the proposed output and this
figure remained the production target for commercial operations to
begin in 1984 (134). It is proposed that all killing and skinning
Operations will be carried out on the farm and thus the farm staff have
been instructed in the various skills required (133).

Live animals have been sold to zoos, for research and to other
crocodile farms.

Live animal production 1980-83 (134):

Year Number of animals Destination

1980 5 Zoos

1981 10 Zoos

1982 35 Zoos and research

1983 20 Breeding stock for another farm

In 1980 40 skins were sold to destinations in Australia, France,
Singapore and Italy. All live sales have been within Australia. All

55

Australia

specimens and skins are accompanied by required state and/or federal
permits (134). The first commercial export of 100 skins to Singapore
took place in 1984.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The farm had received many wild-caught animals up to 1979. The
operation was originally established primarily as a conser vation-
-orientated project; so most of the animals were eventually released
back into the wild. In 1979 wild capture ceased and the operation
became a closed cycle (134).
BREEDING

C. porosus have been bred on the farm for a number of years. The
breeding stock of about 100 females is kept separate from the rearing
pens and eggs are hatched in an artificial incubator.

Breeding success 1980-83 (134):

Year Number bred Number survived
in captivity. 30 days.

1980 179 140

1981 302 267

1982 591 561

1983 769 741

1984 1043 -

The survival rate to 30 days has therefore increased from 78% in
1980 to 96% in 1983.

It is anticipated that 70 clutches of C. porosus eggs will be laid
on the farm in 1984/85. At a mean clutch size of 52 this would
represent 3640 eggs (192).

HUSBANDRY

The large breeding crocodiles are kept in a natural enclosed
lagoon covering about 20 ha with a water area, when full, of 13 ha.
Hatchlings after incubation are kept in tanks in a large shed until
they start to feed. From the tanks the young crocodiles are then
transferred to a series of 16 pens all with continuously flowing water.

The crocodiles are moved through the series of pens as they grow,
until an age of 2-3 years when they are moved to ‘'finishing'
enclosures. These enclosures are 2.2 ha each with l-ha water areas, and
house the animals until they reach optimum size of belly skin width
40 cm and 1.5 m body length (about four years of age). The creek
systems are drained and swept out six times a week, whereas the
enclosures are permanent water areas. Bore water is pumped into all
enclosures in the dry season.

The breeding lagoon animals are fed once a week, those in the
finishing enclosures five times a week, and those in the rearing pens
six times a week, on a variety of foods including wild-pig, scrub
cattle and fish, with a vitamin and mineral supplement (134).

FINANCES

The farm is run by a private company (Edward River Crocodile Farm
Pty Ltd) owned and funded by the Australian Government through the
Department of Aboriginal Affairs. In 1984 the operation was not
self-financing (134).

56

Australia

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research is carried out by Professor Gordon Grigg, of Sydney
University, who visits each year for 3-4 weeks with some of his
post-graduate students (134).

In the past there have been other research workers including Steve
Garnett of James Cook University of North Queensland who looked at
various components of the farming operation (133).

OTHER INFORMATION

The operation changed from Applied Ecology Pty Ltd to Edward River
Crocodile Farm Pty Ltd on 1 July 1983. Applied Ecology used to be
involved with a number of projects associated with wildlife management
and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, but this
involvement has now ceased.

The farm was established primarily as a conservation measure but
later shifted emphasis to researching the viability of crocodile
farming and the development of a commercial farm (13). It is hoped that
as soon as production, processing techniques and markets are firmly
established, the farm will be handed over to the Edward River
Aboriginal community. The operation should provide direct employment
for at least 15 Aborigines and would form the basis of the community's
first major income-producing enterprise. (16)

NAME OF OPERATION
Koorana Crocodile Farm
M.S.F. 76, Rockhampton Mail Centre
Rockhampton
Queensland 4700.
Operated by: John Lever.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus porosus WaIaL

Crocodylus johnsoni 148 in June 1984 (192)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Production had not started by 1984, but is expected to involve
skins and by-products such as gall bladders and ‘musk glands'. The
skins are to be exported to French tanneries (161).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Crocodylus_porosus: native animals are collected after being
declared rogue by the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Crocodylus johnsoni: 200 animals (60 adults and 140 juveniles)
were removed from the wild under permit in conjunction with a
Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service research programme. It
Was expected that no further introductions from the wild would be
necessary and that the operation would become a closed cycle (122).

Four C. johnsoni and two C. porosus have been obtained from other
captive stocks. In July 1983 the farm was reported to be negotiating
with Edward River Crocodile Farm to purchase 30 female C. porosus (161).
BREEDING

The C. porosus were put together for mating in 1983 for the first
time (122). It is not known whether successful breeding occurred.

57

Australia

HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are held in 25 concrete tanks with wire enclosures,
7 dams (reservoirs) and one lake. All of the crocodiles are fed fish
and poultry (122).
FINANCES

The operation is financed by a private individual and was not
self-financing in 1983 (122).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research was planned in conjunction with the Queensland National
Parks and Wildlife Service and the Capricorn Institute for Advanced
Education (122).

58

BANGLADESH

General Information:

In 1982 Whitaker (198) proposed the establishment of a central
crocodile hatchery and nursery and four model crocodile demonstration
ranches. The main species involved would be Crocodylus porosus and
Gavialis gangeticus. Breeding would be carried out on an experimental
basis. The major part of the operation would involve taking C. porosus
eggs from the wild in the Sunderbans and rearing them for skin trade
and release to the wild. It was proposed that the system should be
established by the Sunderbans Forest Department with the central
hatchery situated at Dhangmari, Sutar Khali, Chandpai and the four
model demonstration farms at Khulna, Dacca, Chittagong and Sythet
(198). As far as is known no steps had been taken to implement the
proposal by 1985.

The plan was to rear C. porosus to 1m for release to the wild and
to 1.75 m for cropping. The central hatchery would supply 6-months to
l-year-old crocodiles to the Demonstration farms. The Demonstration
farms' eventual output would be 250 skins a year, plus a number of
yearlings for restocking the Sunderbans. Crocodylus palustris and G.
gangeticus are considered unsuitable for this sort of ranching in
Bangladesh because of their low populations. However, the Central
Hatchery would hatch and rear some C. palustris from eggs collected at
Bagerhat, near Khulna. The Dacca model demonstration farm would also
hatch and rear some G. gangeticus from eggs collected at Rajshahi.

A study of wild living crocodiles would need to be undertaken to
establish a management scheme for Sunderbans crocodile populations and
for identifying areas for restocking with farm-reared animals (198).

In Bangladesh in 1982 it was estimated that there was a total
captive population of three C. porosus, five G. gangeticus and three C.

palustris (197).

59

BOLIVIA

ASICUSA (Asociacion de Curtidones de Cueros de Saurios), based in
Cochabamba and comprising four companies, Tomy, Alligator, Dorado and
Moxos, all involved in the tanning and processing of caiman skins in
Bolivia, was reported in 1982 to be establishing a crocodilian farm in
Bolivia (46). In 1983 it was claimed that the stock included 2000
crocodilians comprising Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, Caiman crocodilus
yacare, Melanosuchus niger and “another species of Caiman" (47).
However Quaino, Director of "Moxos" Alligator Ranch, Casilla Correo No.
44, Trinidad-Beni, stated that his ranch was only in a very preliminary
phase and contained only Caiman _crocodilus_in 1983 (151). It is
extremely unlikely that any breeding has taken place on any farm in
Bolivia. A report in 1982 stated categorically that no breeding had
occurred at that stage (46).

60

BOTSWANA

Two farms for Crocodylus niloticus are reported to have been
established since 1983 in Botswana:

NAME OF OPERATION

Okavango Swamps Crocodile Farm (Botswana) Pty Ltd

P.O.Box 448, Maun.

Managing Director: John J. Seaman.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

January 1983
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus niloticus:

In 1983 the farm held 70 adult breeding crocodiles, 80% of which
were male.

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

It is hoped to sell live animals to other farmers and zoos.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

70 adult crocodiles have been captured in local drought areas where
they were thought to be under threat. It was anticipated that in 1984
there would be another severe drought and facilities were being built
to cater for a larger number of crocodiles. It was planned to collect
2000 eggs a year over the following three seasons. It was also planned
to reinstate 5% of the l-m sized crocodiles into the wild (162).

A number of crocodiles were caught in 1984 at Lake Ngami which was
badly affected by the drought. Several nuisance crocodiles have been
obtained after complaints of attacks on livestock or humans (144).
BREEDING 2

The crocodiles had just started breeding in 1983. It was hoped that
the breeding stock could be built up to 300 over the next three years
(162). Successful breeding was also reported in 1984 (144).

HUSBANDRY

The animals are kept in near-natural pools in a typical Okavango
back-water area. Water access is from a main stream nearby. There is a
dual perimeter fence made of reeds. The pens are 45 m long and 40m
Wide covered two thirds by water of varying depths with islands and the
natural vegetation (162). A temperature-controlled building is used for
rearing hatchlings (144).

The crocodiles are reported to stop feeding for four months in the
winter when the temperature falls below 20°C (144). They are fed on
donkey meat and catfish (162).

FINANCES

It is intended that most of the income will be obtained from the
sale and export of live animals. Tourists are also admitted to the farm
(144). The operation was not self-financing in 1983, being supported by
private investment (162).

The farm employs 53 local people (144).

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research is planned in conjunction with the Rockefeller Refuge,

Louisiana, USA (162).

=== * === ¥ ===¥*¥ ===

Another farm was reported to have been established in Botswana in
1984 by Mike Slogrove, the owner of a crocodile farm in Transvaal,
South Africa (54).

61

BRAZIL

No commercial crocodilian farming has taken place in Brazil but
I.B.D.F. (Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal) has
initiated some experimental farming of Caiman _crocodilus. One breeding
centre operated by I.B.D.F. outside Manaus, the Centro Experimental de
Criagao em Cativeiro de Animais Nativos de Interésse Cientifico e
Economico (CECAN), formerly held small numbers of Caiman crocodilus and
Paleosuchus trigonatus but these have since been disposed of.

Melanosuchus niger is kept in small numbers only by zoos and
research institutes.

NAME OF OPERATION

An experimental farm has been set up in Pantanal about 150 km from
Pocone, Mato Grosso. The project is managed by:

Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal (1.B.D.F.)

Ed. Palacio Desenvolvimento, 12°

70.000 Brasilia-DF
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Caiman crocodilus yacare: numbers unknown
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1981
OTHER INFORMATION

The aim of the project is to evaluate the possibility of caiman
ranching in the Pantanal. Eggs are collected from the wild, incubated
and hatchlings are to be released later. Few results are available as
yet.

There is also some experimental work with capybara at the farm

(154).

62

BRUNEI

A combined fish and crocodile farming operation (Crocodylus
porosus?) is under consideration. A feasibility study was being carried
out in 1984 (43).

63

BURMA
Only one crocodile farm is known to exist in Burma:

NAME OF OPERATION

The People's Pearl and Fisheries Corporation Crocodile Farm

( PPFC)

Thaketa, Rangoon.

Operated by: The Government of the Socialist Republic of the Union
of Burma (63).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1978
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus porosus: about 900 were held in 1980 (63).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The main aim of the farm is to produce skins but it is thought that
in 1983 no animals had reached marketable size (158).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Young animals are taken as hatchlings or yearlings from the eastern
side of the Irrawaddy Delta where the PPFC has set up a number of
collection centres. There is evidence that the total recruitment of
crocodiles was being taken by the PPFC in the Tawbaing Chaung area
(63). From 1978 to 1983 an average of 465 hatchlings were obtained from
the wild each year (158).
BREEDING

The farm is intended to be self-sustaining when its breeding
programme is fully established. Successful breeding was expected by
1983 (63). The farm has recently been successful in inducing nesting
but most of the stock of hatchlings continues to come from the
remaining wild population in the Irrawaddy Delta (158).
HUSBANDRY

Young animals are kept in a series of tanks and there is a 1.5-ha
breeding/nesting enclosure (158).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research is to be carried out by U. Aung Moe, under the direction
of U. Than Nyunt (farm manager), with possible help from an FAO
consultant, in an honorary capacity, if necessary. The proposed
research is into food quality and quantity required for maximum growth
rates (63).
OTHER INFORMATION

The crocodile farm is a large, modern, commercial enterprise
modelled on farms in Thailand and Singapore (62). The PPFC has also
proposed to turn Meinmahla Kyun, an island of some 50 square miles in
the Irrawaddy Delta, into a "crocodile sanctuary’ where
re-introductions from the the crocodile farm would supplement the
remaining wild population and provide the basis for eventual sustained-
-yield harvest (158).

The farm was reported to be in need of technical and development
assistance in 1984 (201).

64

CAMEROON

A French/Belgian concern is reported to be planning a crocodile

farming project in the Cameroon with the intention of exporting skins
as):

65

CHAD

An experimental programme to evaluate the possibilities of
crocodile farming (Crocodylus niloticus) was undertaken from 1972 to
1973 under the auspices of the Centre Technique du Cuir, Lyon (119).
The farm was situated at Djimtilo, a vilage near Lake Chad, and funding
was partially supplied by the Centre Technique Forestier Tropicale
(CoD Sree iy 45 bis Avenue de la Belle Gabrielle, 94130
Nogent-sur-Maine, France (119). Although much valuable information was
obtained during this experiment, it was not intended to be a commercial
proposition but merely to assess the possibilities of breeding
crocodiles under controlled conditions. It is understood that the
experiment was discontinued in 1973 (188).

An experimental crocodile farm was reported to have been started
in 1943 but since the "recent disturbances" it is believed to have been
abandoned (43).

66

CHINA

A substantial investment has been made in alligator ranching/
farming by both national and local authorities in China. There is a
growing number of operations, mainly intended as conservation measures,
but there is considerable potential for sale of live animals or
products derived from them (189). There are unconfirmed reports that
sales of alligators may have taken place (29).

Huang Chu-Chien (98) names five operations managing Alligator
sinensis:

Name of operation Number of adults Number of juveniles
Anhui Xuancheng farm 100 plus 380
Chekiang Anchi farm 3 -
Chekiang Changhsing farm 7 -
Chekiang Ningpo zoo 3 11
Shanghai zoo 10 27

The first of these is the only one operating on a large scale at
the moment.

NAME OF OPERATION

Xiadu Commune Tree rarm

Xuancheng County, Anhui Province.

Operated by: Forestry Bureau, Anhui Province.

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Alligator sinensis: The station held about 90 individuals, mostly
adults, in July 1981 (89). By summer 1982 Huang reported some 130-140
animals on the farm (190). In 1983 he reported the presence of over 100
adults and 380 juveniles (98).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Chinese alligators are not known to be used for food or skins
(190), but there are unconfirmed reports of commercial sales from this
farm (29).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Peasant excavations of alligator dens are frequent in mountainous
areas of Anhui Province. Animals captured are sold to dealers who, in
turn, try to sell them to zoos or to the alligator farm.

Local residents are being encouraged to bring alligators that they
capture to the farm rather than kill them or sell them elsewhere. The
farm will pay in excess of one yuan a pound (US$1.32 kg-l). Alligator
eggs are also bought at one yuan each. It is reported that even eggs
that have been rotated, and so are probably dead, are bought (190).

Local workers are also asked to inform farm personnel of the
presence of nests containing eggs within their communes (89).

BREEDING

No captive breeding is known but wild-collected eggs are
incubated. Over 200 wild-taken eggs were incubated in 1981:
approximately 40 hatched of which 24 survived until hibernation in
October; 18 survived the winter but all died before the summer of 1982
(190). In 1983 300 alligators were sucessfully hatched (201).

HUSBANDRY

In 1981 the farm consisted of two triangular concrete pools with

sloping bottoms, c. 10 m x 10 m x 15 m (curved side), the maximum water

67

China

depth being 2m but not constant; several ‘natural type' pools dug
straight into the earth, each containing four to seven adult female
alligators, and measuring approximately 4m x 5m x 3m deep but
providing no cover for the alligators; and a large circular pool 30m
in diameter with a circular central island 20 m in diameter and stocked
with 60 adult alligators and several turtles (Chinemys reevesi). The
large circular pool has concrete walls and a mud bottom, with a maximum
water depth of 1m. The island has 0.3-m concrete pipes placed around
its periphery in which the alligators shelter; it was also planned to
plant the island with bamboo (190).

The farm has no natural alligator habitat and no natural water
supply above ground (190), but a large natural enclosure was scheduled
for completion in 1984 (201).

The alligators are fed several times a week on locally available
freshwater fish and live ducklings (190).

FINANCES

The farm receives financial support from the Ministry of Forestry
in Central Government (189).

OTHER INFORMATION

The farm covered an area of 89 ha in 1981 but there were plans to
increase this to 3335 ha (190).

==

NAME OF OPERATION

"Wan" Production Unit

Cheunghing County (=Changhsing?)

Chekiang Province.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Alligator sinensis: 10 adults (23).
HUSBANDRY

The farm covers a total area of 500 acres of groves of bamboo and
trees. Two acres of ponds have been fenced off as a production unit
(23).
FINANCES

The farm receives limited financial support from the Provincial
Forestry Bureau (189).

NAME OF OPERATION

Ling Fung Temple Plantation,

Ankut County (=Anchi?),

Chekiang Province.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Alligator sinensis: more than 10 alligators (23).
HUSBANDRY

The farm covers 50 acres of bamboo groves, 1.2 acres of ponds and
70 acres of paddy fields and open space (23).
FINANCES

The farm receives limited financial support from the Provincial
Forestry Bureau (189).

68

China

OTHER INFORMATION
Another farm is planned at Yeehing Caves, Kiangsu Province, for
the purpose of tourist viewing (23).

NAME OF OPERATION

Shanghai Zoo

Shanghai.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Alligator sinensis
BREEDING

There has been considerable success in breeding Yangtze
alligators. Five adults have had clutches of eggs ranging in size from
8 to 41. Eggs are laid early in the morning over a period of about
30-40 minutes. Incubation lasts 67-83 days.

12 young were hatched in 1980 and 7 in 1981 (191).
HUSBANDRY

Growth rate varied with the feeding regime. Of three groups of
young, the fastest-growing group reached 60 g in one month, 270 g after
a year and 800 g after two years. Comparable figures for the slowest-
-growing group were 24 g, 65 g and 230g

Adults were fed on fish and waste from a slaughter-house (23).

=== *==--—%*---*-=—

NAME OF OPERATION

Ningpo Zoo

Chekiang Province.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Alligator sinensis
BREEDING

The Zoo has bred from one pair of adults. Eggs were laid on 12
August 1982, and after artificial incubation the first hatched on 21
October. After five days there were a total of 9 with a mean weight of
29.5 g and length of 20 cm (23).

saa *¥ === % ===*¥ ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Beijing Zoo

Beijing.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Alligator sinensis: over 30 adults (23).
BREEDING

A single egg was laid in 1982 but it was hoped that breeding in
Outdoor pools would start in 1983 (23).
HUSBANDRY

The enclosure was reported to be extremely over-crowded in 1981,
and barely suitable for 10 animals (191).

69

China

NAME OF OPERATION
Swato Crocodile Farm.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
Prior to 1981 (191).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Unknown
OTHER INFORMATION
Charoon Youngprapakorn of Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Thailand
reports having given assistance in the establishment of this farm (211).

70

COLOMBIA

No commercial crocodilian breeding operations exist in Colombia,
but there are two (formerly three) breeding centres for conservation or
Scientific purposes.

NAME OF OPERATION
Estacion de Biologia Tropical
Roberto Franco Station
Villavicencio (Meta)
Apartado aéreo 22-61.
Operated by: INDERENA (Instituto de Recursos Naturales y del
Ambiente).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus intermedius: two pairs (127).
Caiman crocodilus: 17 animals.
Paleosuchus palpebrosus: 12 animals.

Paleosuchus trigonatus: 5 animals.
BREEDING

C. crocodilus and P. palpebrosus have both bred several times at
the station.
OTHER INFORMATION

The operation is an outstation of the National University, in
Bogota, and carries out studies on the biology of crocodiles and
turtles, with the aim of applying the information gained to
conservation (128).

NAME OF OPERATION

Los Cocos Breeding Station

Salamanca Island.

Operated by: INDERENA (Instituto de Recursos Naturales y del
Ambiente).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus acutus: 30 were reported to be maintained in 1980, 3
adults and 27 juveniles.
BREEDING

A breeding programme exists but up to 1980 had yet to achieve
results. Eggs were laid in 1977 and 1978 but did not hatch (126).

=== 2 === 2 = — *———

NAME OF OPERATION

Cienaga Grande Management Station

Cienaga Grande.

Operated by: INDERENA (Instituto de Recursos Naturales y del
Ambiente).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Caiman crocodilus fuscus
OTHER INFORMATION

Apparently only a few animals were kept at the station, which does
not seem to be operating any longer. Of these some were stolen by local
residents who sold them in Baranquilla, and the rest escaped during a
flood (126).

71

COSTA RICA

A commercial farm was being set up in the country in 1984 by a
commercial company acting in conjunction with the Ministry of
Agriculture. They had a stock of about 100 young animals, probably
Caiman crocodilus, ranging from hatchlings to about three years old
(153).

72

CUBA

There are no commercial crocodile farms in Cuba but there is one
large conservation-orientated operation at Laguna del Tesoro. A second
conservation operation was established more recently at Tasajera, also
in the Zapata Swamp. There are reports that some skins are sold from
the farms.

NAME OF OPERATION

Centro de Cria de Cocodrilos

Laguna del Tesoro (Treasure Lagoon)

Zapata Swamp.

Operated by: Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera,

Direccion Ramal de Acuicultura.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1965 (92)

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

The total adult population was about 1000 in 1981 of which about
80% were Crocodylus_rhombifer, 5% were Crocodylus_acutus and 15%
hybrids of these two species.

There were also about 5000 immature crocodiles of a similar species
composition; these were made up of about 2500 from the 1981 hatch, 1500
produced during 1979 and 1980, and 1000 of older age groups (64)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Some of the large crocodiles have been slaughtered for hides (185),
meat is sold locally and skins are exported (92). Considerable
quantities of skins of unknown source are said to be exported from
Cuba, especially to the German Democratic Republic (188).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The local populations of both species were moved to the operation
to ensure their survival (185). Over the years almost 36 000 C.
rhombifer have reportedly been removed from wild populations and placed
on experimental farms (130).

BREEDING

The two species have inter-bred in the past, but recently attempts
have been made to keep the two stocks apart. The breeding (and
presumably mating) seasons of the two species show little overlap which
must reduce inter-breeding. Female hybrids are certainly fertile but
the fertility of the male hybrids is unknown (64). Most eggs are laid
on iSlands in the lagoons. Up to 25 eggs are collected from each nest
and hatched in incubators (92). Some eggs are hatched in semi-natural
conditions, buried in soil in a hatching enclosure (64). When the young
are born they are removed to rearing pens before being put back into
the lagoons. It is reported that the mortality of the C. acutus young
is much higher than that for C. rhombifer (135).

In 1981 eggs were collected from 600 nests. The mean clutch sizes
were C. rhombifer 35 eggs, C. acutus 48 eggs, and hybrids 42 eggs. The
hatching rate for all groups was similar and averaged 46%. The total
number of young hatched was about 10 000 (64).

HUSBANDRY

The farm covers an area of 15 ha and includes breeding pens,
rearing pens, brooding pens, infirmary pens and administrative
buildings. It has a workforce of 23 people. Most of the adult
crocodiles are kept in a large (8 ha) breeding pen, but there is also a
smaller breeding pen containing only C. rhombifer, selected as having
the best specific characteristics (64).

73

Cuba

The animals are fed fish and scraps from a cattle slaughter-house
and some rotted fruit (92). Small crocodiles are fed on fish 10-12 cm
long three to five times a week; adults are fed twice a week. Freezer
facilities are not available, the food being obtained locally and
brought by truck as required (64). The young grow at about 1.5 ft
(0.46 m) a year, and reach adult size at about 7 years (92). They are
kept in small lagoons with natural vegetation and are separated by age
class to prevent the older animals from killing the young (135).
Mortality is high during the first year of life but decreases
thereafter (64).

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

There are no details of published research but many of the details
quoted by Ottenwalder (135) are translated from:

Anon (1979). Cienaga de Zapata, paraiso al Sur: reservorio de flora

y fauna. Prisma Latinoamericano, July.

Garrido, O. (1980). Los vertebrados terrestres de la Peninsula de

Zapata. Poeyana, 203: 1-49.

OTHER INFORMATION

The operation was set up to preserve the two species involved. Some
of the C. rhombifer were moved to the Tasajera operation to breed pure
individuals of the species (185). It is hoped to release pure-bred C.
rhombifer into Zapata Swamp (92).

Up to 200 tourists a day, mostly from Havana, visit the farm but no
entrance charge is made (64).

sas ¥ === === %*¥ ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Tasajera

southwest of Zapata

Habana Province.

Operated by: Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera,

Direccion Ramal de Acuicultura.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Thought to be 1978 or 1979 (135).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus rhombifer
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation seems to be conservation-orientated.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The animals were transferred from the farm at Laguna del Tesoro in
order to breed pure captive C. rhombifer as the number of crocodiles
produced at Laguna del Tesoro that were pure-bred was not thought to be
sufficient (185).

74

ETHIOPIA

In 1981 a proposal was put forward for a crocodile farm, expected
to grow from pilot phase to producing about 20 000 skins a year within
five years. Farming of fish, rabbits, rodents and fowl as food was
considered. No further progress is known (43).

In 1983 the FAO provided assistance to a crocodile management
programme. Funds were made available in 1984 for a Government pilot
rearing station at Arba Minch near Lake Abaya. Fishery wastes and
associated culled wildlife were to be used as food. Construction was
under way in 1984, and it was hoped to increase production to 1500
skins a year in five years (43).

The farm covered an area of 3 ha and was surrounded by a fence 2 m
high. It included a block of 50 ponds for hatchlings, and incubation
facilities were also planned. Suitable nesting sites around Lake Abaya
had been surveyed and it was hoped to collect the first batch of eggs
for hatching on the farm in 1985 (58).

75

FRANCE

It was reported in 1985 that experiments were to be conducted to
test the feasibility of rearing crocodilians in Provence using thermal
effluent from a C.E.A. nuclear power station at Bolléne, near Avignon.
It was planned to conduct growth trials using “young crocodiles"
(Caiman crocodilus? Melanosuchus niger?) imported from "Guyana" (French
Guiana?). If these proved successful financial backers would need to be
sought. The nearby tanneries of Annonay or Saint-Chamond were mentioned
as being potentially interested (99).

76

GREECE

Plans for a crocodile farm were reported in 1984 but recent
information suggests that progress may have been delayed.

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocodos

Rhodian Crocodile Farm Ltd

Tris Area P.O. Box 331.85100

Rhodes.
The farm is to be situated at Kalavarda on the north coast of Rhodes
and is a subsidiary of:

Clal Crocodile Farms Ltd

5 Druyanov Street

Tel-aviv 63143.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Building was expected to start in 1984 but was delayed by
bureaucratic problems. The first crocodiles were to be obtained in 1985
(153))):
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus niloticus: about 150.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation is intended primarily as a tourist attraction but
skins will also be produced. (153).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All the animals were to be purchased from farms in Zimbabwe in
March 1985 (153). =
BREEDING

Breeding is planned when the stock is mature (153).
HUSBANDRY

Breeding stock are to be kept in outdoor display ponds but there
are also to be some indoor ponds for rearing juveniles (153).
FINANCES

The operation intends to derive a large part of its income from
tourists (153).
OTHER INFORMATION

The Ministry of Agriculture in Greece is co-operating in the
establishment of this farm.

at

INDIA

General Information

The Government of India initiated a Crocodile Breeding and
Management Project as a conservation measure in 1975 with preliminary
surveys being undertaken in 1974. The project operated until 1982 on
advice from a UN/FAO Chief Technical Adviser with finance from UNDP
(89).

The project involves collecting eggs from the wild, incubating them
and rearing the hatchlings up to a size at which they can be released.
Thirty-four crocodile rehabilitation stations have been established
throughout the country comprising 13 specially created sanctuaries and
a further 21 National Parks or other sanctuaries, covering a total area
of 20 399 km2. Crocodiles have been released in the majority of these
areas. The numbers. of each species handled under the scheme are given
below (167):

Eggs Hatchlings Animals

handled handled released
Gavialis gangeticus 6000 4000 1185
Crocodylus porosus 2500 1700 408
Crocodylus palustris 9000 6000 502

Captive rearing or breeding schemes for crocodilians in India (167).
X - species reared; A - breeding attempted; B - breeding successful

G. gangeticus C. porosus C. palustris

Port Blair Andaman Nicobar . x .
Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh X Xx B
Nagar junasagar : . . x
Mutta Bihar . ° A
Sasan Gir Gujarat ° ‘s x
Banarghatta Karnataka A = B
Neyyar Kerala ° . X
Peruvannamuzhy y ° ° »4
Deori Madhya Pradesh xX . °
Tadoba Maharastra . ° A
Dangamal Orissa ° B .
Nandankanan Me B A B
Ramatirtha : . . B
Tikerpada Me Xx ° B
Kota Rajasthan X < X
Amaravati Tamilnadu “ Fy B
Hogemnakal ys . - A
MaSinagudi a e = X
Madras ~ ° - B
Sathanur M . . B
Katerniyaghat Uttar Pradesh xX ° A
Kukrail i xX . A
Bhagabatpur West Bengal e .

78

India

More than 2000 eggs a year are collected for captive hatching by
different state crocodile projects in India (89).

Captive rearing or breeding is being attempted at the locations
listed below. Sites at which breeding has been attempted or successful
are indicated. All of these schemes have been established since 1975.
Captive breeding has also been achieved at five zoos and at the Madras
Snake Park (167).

The rehabilitation schemes which have taken place within India have
shown the potential of C. palustris as a subject for commercial
utilization through farming or free-range sustained-yield exploitation
(89). Following clearance from the Indian Bureau of Wildlife, a
proposal was under consideration in 1984 for the experimental farming
of C. palustris under closed-cycle conditions (167).

Selected operations:

NAME OF OPERATION

Amaravathi Crocodile Farm.

One of two main crocodile rearing centres (the other being Sathanur
Reservoir) of the Tamilnadu Forest Department is at Amaravathi
Reservoir, where Crocodylus palustris has been bred since 1983.

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus palustris: about 600 reported (70).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Currently an experimental commercial operation to assess. the
feasibility of crocodile farming: it is hoped to commence production by
1990 (165).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Eggs are collected from Dhuvanam area of the Amaravathi Reservoir
and taken to the farm to be hatched and reared. 15 nests are known in
the wild in this area (70).

BREEDING

The farm has a breeding stock of 8 adults, which produced 5 nests
in 1983. This stock is from the 1975/76 wild-caught females. A low
hatching percentage of 20-30% is thought to be due to the intense heat
in the hatchery (70).

HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are reared in concrete ponds which are being altered
as they are thought to be too shallow. Water comes chiefly from a
percolation well.

FINANCES

The farm was set up by the Tamilnadu Forest Department.
OTHER INFORMATION

After the success of the Rehabilitation Programme of Gavialis
gangeticus and Crocodylus palustris, the Government of India decided to
make a start with crocodile farming (131). The current operation is a
pilot project investigating the commercial viability of crocodile
farming in India. It is likely that several of the other Indian states
will also set up farming and ranching operations once the wild
population is established (197).

A proposed crocodile farm site of the Tamilnadu Forest Department
is in Kilikudi Village, near Kallanai about 10 km from Tiruchirapalli.
In 1974 the proposed area was described as follows: “at the proposed

79

India

site is a three to four acre (1.2-1.6 ha) pond, 6-10 m deep. About 20
crocodiles are believed to be naturally resident and breeding there,
where they are protected and regularly fed by the Forest Dept. At
night, they move between the pond and the Grand Anicut of the Coleroon
River, about 300 m away." (193)

=s=*¥ === % ===%* ===

NAME OF OPERATION

The Madras Crocodile Bank Trust

Vadanemmeli Village, Perur P.O.

Mahabalipuram Road

Chingleput District

Madras-603 104.

Managed by: Romulus Whitaker.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

In 1975 an Indian Government/FAO/UNDP project was started, to
rehabilitate wild populations of crocodiles. Madras Crocodile Bank
Trust was set up as an offshoot of Madras Snake Park (a non-government
trust) in 1975, with help from the World Wildlife Fund (197). The
Crocodile Bank Trust is situated about 40 km South of the Madras Snake
Park. In 1977 the Trustees agreed to set up the Madras Crocodile Bank
as an international bank to establish a gene pool of every species of
crocodilian. This received the approval of the IUCN/SSC Crocodilian
Specialist Group in 1978 (202).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus palustris: 8 breeding females, 1100 immature (201)

Crocodylus porosus: 1 breeding female, 48 immature (202)

Caiman crocodilus: 4 breeding females, 109 immature (202)

Gavialis gangeticus
Alligator mississippiensis

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

This is a conservation operation. 465 C. palustris were supplied to
State rehabilitation programmes from 1976-1982 (202).
BREEDING

The following breeding success has been achieved at the Madras
Crocodile Bank (202):
Years No. of No. of eggs Hatching

nested females produced percentage
C. palustris 7 8 2433 63
C. porosus 2 i 106 46
C. crocodilus 3 4 341 33

The C. palustris have been reported to produce two clutches of eggs
within one breeding season, the size and hatching success of the second
clutch being similar to the first (199).

FINANCES

Income from the entry fees of 25 000 visitors a month makes the
Crocodile Bank financially self-sufficient. Crocodiles supplied to
State projects and National Parks are paid for on the basis of their
feeding and maintenance costs alone, at no profit (197).

80

INDONESIA

General Information

Crocodiles have been exploited in Irian Jaya for some time and
there is evidence that the wild populations have declined through
Over-hunting (142). At the fifth meeting of the Conference of the
Parties to CITES in 1985 a proposal was approved whereby the Indonesian
population of Crocodylus porosus was transferred from Appendix I to
Appendix II with the imposition of a maximum annual quota of 2000 skins
and provision that they should all be tagged.

A survey was carried out in late 1984 which ascertained that
considerable hunting was still occurring in spite of the ban which was
Supposed to have been in force since 1980 and that several thousand
skins annually were being illegally exported from Irian Jaya. Many
local crocodile populations had been wiped out and most of the others
were severely depleted. Crocodylus porosus was particularly severely
affected as it occurs in the larger, more accessible waterways than
Crocodylus novaeguineae (204).

It is the expressed aim of the Government to institute a farming
programme similar to that of Papua New Guinea (61), and a scheme was
initiated in 1980 when legislation protecting the wild population was
enacted. The project is being carried out under the title ‘Crocodile
conservation and industry development in Irian Jaya', involving a
number of consultants, which started with a survey in October 1984 for
an initial period of four months (143). The purpose is to promote the
conservation of crocodiles by utilizing them as a resource to benefit
the indigenous communities. The primary aim is to establish the most
suitable areas to set up collecting farms, determine the numbers of
crocodiles that will need to be collected, investigate the economics,
and recommend appropriate legislation. It is proposed that skin
exporters will only be able to obtain live crocodiles from collection
farms, and that strict quotas will be set for the exploitation (34).

Farming was started in 1976, but the Government stopped further
expansion until the ability of wild stocks to support a farming
industry had been assessed. The system relies on the capture of young
crocodiles from the wild, and rearing them until they are large enough
to slaughter. In 1980 there were 4000-5000 crocodiles on farms in Irian
Jaya. The farms were reported to be of varying size and were, on the
whole, poorly managed and uneconomic. Most of the farms started because
the Government obliged all companies wanting to export skins, to
operate a crocodile farm. Therefore economics have not been of prime
importance, but rather the farms have been established to comply with
Government regulations. However, by 1980 it had been realised that
farms would have to be more efficient as the wild population would not
Support indiscriminate hunting indefinitely. At that time it was found
that management was poor on the existing farms, that pen design and
general health of the crocodiles was only fair and that there was a
great need for management training and advice (121).

The next survey, conducted in late 1984, reported a_ total
population of 4051 crocodiles on 12 major farms in Irian Jaya but with
no indication of the species composition. The survey concluded that the
survival of the crocodile population depended on the establishment of
an adequately controlled ranching programme. Initially it was

81

Indonesia

recommended that the scheme should be confined to C. novaeguineae, as
the C. porosus populations were too severely depleted to Sustain any
exploitation. Three large rearing farms should be established in
Merauke, Jayapura and Sorong, each to house 5000-10 000 crocodiles. A
scheme to buy 7000-10 000 young C. novaeguineae annually from villagers
and take them to about 25 collecting farms should be established, and
the villagers should be given shares in the farms to provide them with
a long-term interest. Resources of trash fish available were assessed
to be adequate for such a scheme (101).

Everywhere in the Mamberamo delta and along the river up to
Kasonoweja (Pioniersbivak) local people were reported in 1979 to keep
crocodiles in often very dirty enclosures fenced by corrugated iron
(112). Scattered small-scale enclosures were also mentioned in 1984
(101). Skins of crocodiles reared by the villagers are often bought by
the local government employees who then sell them to the large trading
companies. The main centres for crocodile hunting in the area are
Merauke, Jayapura, and Serui on the island of Japen (112).

Most of the skins exported go to Singapore; in 1980 the average
skin size exported was 15.5 inches (38 cm) belly width; of these skins
10% were Crocodylus porosus and 90% Crocodylus novaeguineae (121).

The prices quoted in Paris in 1984 for salted skins were US$9 and
US$12 per inch belly width (US$3.54 and US$4.72 cm-l) for Cc.
novaeguineae and C. porosus respectively. It was estimated that the
sale of by-products could increase the value of each crocodile by a
further 30% (101).

According to official figures in the proposal submitted to the
fifth CITES Meeting (32) the annual totals of skins exported from 1980
to 1983 were 4953, 200, 360 and 1180 . There are indications that the
true level of exports was considerably higher than this (101). It has
been reported that rearing farms are “obliged to release to the wild
habitat at least 10% of their rearing products, and they are obliged to
develop themselves fully into breeding farms" (32). There is no
evidence that any deliberate releases have taken place and no breeding
taking place on farms in Irian Jaya (143), although limited breeding
has been reported in Java. The survey in 1984 concluded that none of
the farms in Irian Jaya was commercially viable, and that the most of
the skins exported were from the wild (101).

A list of 15 registered crocodile farming companies was supplied
by the Director General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation in
1984, 12 in Irian Jaya and 3 in Sumatra (157):

Le C.V. Kiman Raya, Jl. Raya Mandala 14, Merauke, Irian Jaya.
De P.T. Wana Nusantara, Jl. Raya Mandala, Merauke, Irian Jaya.

3. P.T. Buma Kumawa, Jl. Izak Telussa 16, Fakfak, Irian Jaya.

4, C.V. Doom, Jl. Trikora, Sorong, Irian Jaya.

De C.V. Sinar Asahan, Jl. Sam Ratulangi, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.

6. C.V. Skyline Raya, Jl. Pembangunan 11, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.

De C.V. Sinar Moy, Jl. Burung Kakatua 5071 Remu, Sorong, Irian Jaya.
8. C.V. Bintang Diai, Jl. Kalibaru Apo 37, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.

SE C.V. Jaya Abadi, Jl. Raya Mandala, Merauke, Irian Jaya.

10. P.T. Jaya Agung, Jl. Raya Mandala, Merauke, Irian Jaya.

ll. cC.V. Manturi, Bintuni, Manokwari, Irian Jaya.

12. Fa. Giat Maju, Jl. Pemuda Nabire, Irian Jaya.

13. Alian Ruswan, Jl. Ampelas 1-A, Medan, Sumatera Utara.

14. C.V. Stock Borsuma, Jl. Kartini 4-A, Palembang, Sumatera Selatan.

Indonesia

15. C.V. Reptil Corporation, Jl. H.Z. Arifin Dalam No. 116~A, Medan,
Sumatera Utara.

It was reported that three of the registered farms (presumably
numbers 1, 2 and 4) in Irian Jaya were not operational in 1984, but
other farms were reported to be in existence (101).

The total number of crocodile farms in Indonesia is thus thought
to be in excess of 17 farms, comprising something over 12 in Irian
Jaya, three in Sumatra, one in Java, one in the Mentawai Islands and
possibly a few in Kalimantan.

83

Indonesia

Irian Jaya

The following operations were described in surveys of Irian Jaya
conducted in 1980 and 1984, the species involved were C. porosus and/or
C. novaeguineae. There is some confusion of identifying the individual
farms and relating them to those listed above.

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: P.T. Buma Kumawa.

Jl. Izak Telussa 16, Fakfak, Irian Jaya (157).

Located at: Sarmi, Jayapura District (101) (see no. 3 in list?)
P.T. Buma Kumawa was given an address in Fakfak by the Director Gereral
of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (157), but the company was
reported to be operating a farm in the Jayapura district in 1984 (101).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

60 animals were kept in 1984 (101).

saa *ee=*e==%===

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Sinar Asahan.

Jl. Sam Ratulangi, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.

Located at: Sentani. (see no. 5 in list)

(C.V. Sinar Asahan formerly operated a second farm in the Jayapura
district, see below).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was reported to be operating in 1978 (101).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In 1978 the stock was reported to be 1165 (101). 350 animals were
kept in 1980 (121), but only 260 in 1984 (101).
TRADE

Between November 1976 and November 1977 C.V. Sinar Asahan (an
export firm) sold 15 828 inches (40 293 cm) of hide to Singapore (112).
It is not known whether this was from wild-caught animals or from farms.
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles were kept in 8 ponds of concrete and iron with
concrete feeding platforms. The water was changed by natural flow into
the swamp. Management was reported to be fair and the stock looked
healthy in 1980, but there were problems with theft of crocodiles (121).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Skyline Raya.

Jl. Pembangunan 11, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.

Located at: Jayapura. (see no. 6 in list)
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

800 animals were kept in 1980 (121). By 1984 the stock had
increased to 2000 (101). It was hoped that the operation would
eventually expand to 10 000 animals (121).

84

Indonesia

TRADE

It was claimed in 1980 that the farm did not buy skins (121).
HUSBANDRY

The diet consists of chicken offal from an adjoining poultry
production operation. The farm was reported to have a good layout with
concrete and brick pens. Breeding was planned and the level of
Management was described as "fair" in 1980 (121).

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: C.V. Sinar Moy.
Jl. Burung Kakatua, 5071 Remu, Sorong, Irian Jaya.
Located at: Sorong (see no. 7 in list)
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
7 animals were kept in 1984 (101).

=== *% === %===*===

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: C.V. Bintang Diai.
Jl. Kalibaru Apo 37, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.
Located at: Dabra (see no. 8 in list)
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
43 animals were kept in 1984 (101).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Jaya Abadi.

Jl. Raya Mandala, Merauke, Irian Jaya.

Located at: Okaba, Merauke. (see no. 9 in list)
The company was reported to own another farm at Kepi with approximately
100 crocodiles in 1980 (121).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was reported to be operating in 1978 (101).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In 1978 the stock was reported to be 352 (101). 417 animals were
kept in 1980, 70% C. novaeguineae and 30% C. porosus (121). In 1984 the
stock was not inspected, but was estimated to be about 400 (101).
HUSBANDRY

In 1980 the farm was reported to be poorly managed and to have
experienced thefts (121).

85

Indonesia

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Jaya Agung.

Jl. Raya Mandala, Merauke, P.O. Box 223, Irian Jaya.

Located at: Kimaam (101), (Kumbis, P. Dolok (121)?) Merauke. (see
no. 10 in list)
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Established in 1976 (121), although it has been reported that this
farm had been authorised by the Government to breed crocodiles as early
as 1974 (42).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In. 1978 the stock was reported to be 200 (101). 300 animals were
kept in 1980, 40% C. novaeguineae and 60% C. porosus (121). In 1984 the
stock was not inspected, but was estimated to be about 600 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles were kept in well designed pens of earth and
concrete/brick in 1980; management was fair (121).

esas *%s==% e==%===

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: Fa. Giat Maju.

Jl. Pemuda Nabire, Irian Jaya.

Located at: Nabire, Paniai District. (see no. 12 in list)
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

19 animals were kept in 1984 (101).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: P.T. Pengkaran Rakyat,

Located at: Sikari, Jayapura. Irian Jaya.
This farm was apparently not registered with the Director General of
Forest Protection and Nature Conservation in 1984 (157).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In 1984 the stock was not inspected, but was estimated to be about
400 (101).

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: C.V. Nikmat.
Located at: Merauke. Irian Jaya.
This farm was apparently not registered with the Director General of
Forest Protection and Nature Conservation in 1984 (157).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
In 1984 the stock was reported to be 187 (101).

86

Indonesia

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: Fa. Modan Baru,
Located at: Sorong. Irian Jaya.
This farm was apparently not registered with the Director General
Forest Protection and Nature Conservation in 1984 (157).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
In 1984 the stock was reported to be 15 (101).

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: Toko Sulawesi,
Located at: Kaimana, Fak Fak. Irian Jaya.
This farm was apparently not registered with the Director General
Forest Protection and Nature Conservation in 1984 (157).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
There was no record of this farm in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
In 1984 the stock was reported to be 25 (101).

s== * === * === *F ===

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: C.V. Siola Jaya.
Located at: Jayapura. Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

of

of

200 crocodiles were kept in 1980, and the farm hoped eventually to

house 2000 animals (121). There are no indications that this farm
continuing to operate in 1984 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The animals were kept in small concrete pens. Management level
reported to be poor and the crocodiles were unhealthy (121).

sas *%e==%===% ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Siola Jaya.

Located at: Mudie. Irian Jaya.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

97.6.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

2000 crocodiles were kept in 1980. The farm hoped to expand
5000 animals (121). There are no indications that this farm
continuing to operate in 1984 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The ponds were constructed of plastic covered by iron wood.

was

was

to
was

The

farm employed 10 permanent labourers and 140 contract hunters for skins

and live crocodiles (121).

87

Indonesia

NAME OF OPERATION

Operator unknown.

Sentani, Jayapura, Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

100 animals were kept in 1980 (121). There are no indications that
this farm was continuing to operate in 1984 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles were brought from Mamberamo. They were fed with
fish (tilapia) which had to be purchased. Management was reported to be
poor (121).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Sinar Asahan.

Jayapura, Irian Jaya.
This is the second of two farms operated by C.V. Sinar Asahan reported
in 1980. The company was reported (101) as operating only one farm in
1984, at Sentani, Jayapura (see above).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

250 animals were kept in 1980, mainly C. novaeguineae (121). There
are no indications that this farm was continuing to operate in 1984
(101).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Skins. The farm bought young crocodiles at 5- to 8-inch (13- to
20-cm) belly width and slaughtered them at a belly width of about 12
inches (30 cm) 18-24 months later (121).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

These came from local wild populations. In October 1977 the farm
received 200 young crocodiles from the Mamberamo area (112).
HUSBANDRY

The pens were made of brick and concrete, management level was
described as fair. The diet consisted of fish which was purchased
locally (121).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: a resident army officer.

Kimam, Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

25 animals were kept in 1980 (121). There are no indications that
this farm was continuing to operate in 1984 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles were kept in a 'back-yard pond', the water being
changed only when it rained. Management was reported to be poor. Food
was purchased from local villagers (121).

88

Indonesia

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Bangun Jaya.

Merauke, Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

50 animals were kept in 1980. The owner hoped to expand to 500-600
animals (121). There are no indications that this farm was continuing
to operate in 1984 (101).
TRADE

It was claimed in 1980 that the farm did not buy skins (121).
HUSBANDRY

The farm had concrete-walled pens capable of accommodating 1000
crocodiles but claimed to have been limited by the Government.
Management was reported to be fair (121).

=== *% === *===*===

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: C.V. Sumber Usaha.

Merauke, Irian Jaya.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as "only new" in 1980 (121).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

230 animals were kept in 1980, 503 Cc, novaeguineae and 50% C.
porosus (121). There are no indications that this farm was continuing
to operate in 1984 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles were kept in brick pens. The water supply from a
well was "insufficient". Mortality rate was 5-7%, management reported
to be fair (121).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: Roger Fidelis.

Sorong, Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

85 animals were kept in 1980 (121). There are no indications that
this farm was continuing to operate in 1984 (101).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The crocodiles were collected from the Vogelkop area.
HUSBANDRY

The farm was built to accommodate 600 crocodiles. The diet
consisted of chicken offal and fish. Management was reported to be good
and the crocodiles healthy. Water was supplied by tidal ebb and flow
te2 1).

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: P.T. Pabnuamakmur.

Sorong, Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

115 animals were kept in 1980, mainly C. porosus (121). There are
no indications that this farm was continuing to operate in 1984 (101).

89

Indonesia

HUSBANDRY

The operation was run in conjunction with a poultry and pig farm.
There were 12 pens with space for 600 animals. Management was reported
to be good and the crocodiles healthy (121).

sao *¥===*%¥ ===%* ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Operated by: Aken Tjong Min Liang,

Merauke, Irian Jaya.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

30 animals were kept in 1980 (121). There are no indications that
this farm was continuing to operate in 1984 (101).
HUSBANDRY

The operation was not thought to have potential owing to the
expense of purchasing food and water. Management was reported to be
poor but the crocodiles were healthy (121).

90

Indonesia

Java

There are a few rearing farms in the vicinity of Jakarta, which
are dependent on eggs and young taken from the wild. Very little
breeding takes place on these farms (112).

Details of one farm at Yayasan were given in 1980 when it was
reported that relocation was being considered (121). It is thought that
this may now have been achieved and that the new farm is located at
Pluit, North Jakarta. Details of both sites are given:

NAME OF OPERATION

Jakarta Crocodile Farm

Yayasan, Jakarta, Java.

Operated by: Lukman Arifin.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1959
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In 1980 it was reported that 500-600 crocodiles were being held,
including 120 Tomistoma_schlegelii, some C. porosus and C._siamensis
(121).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation derived income from tourists and from sale of live
animals. No details of skin production were obtained (121).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

90% of the animals were obtained from Sumatra and Kalimantan. They
were purchased at 40-70 cm length but the smallest of these usually
died (121).
BREEDING

In 1978 large numbers of eggs were laid but few hatched and none
Survived two weeks. In 1979 the eggs laid were transferred to
artificial nests but only 15 hatched; several of the hatchlings died
and the remainder were being kept in an open plastic bucket and were
looking week. They had deformities indicative of incorrect nest
temperatures. It was reported that the owner's knowledge of crocodile
biology was not sufficient to succeed with crocodile propagation. It
Was thought that the farm would have to be relocated in order to
Succeed with a breeding programme, as the existing facilities were
inadequate (121).
HUSBANDRY

The ponds were of insufficient depth and much fighting occurred.
The nesting boxes were too small and contained little nesting material.
Breeding C. porosus and C. siamensis were being kept together under
crowded conditions (121).
FINANCES

The farm was open to the public and claimed to have an attendance
of 4000 a week (121).
OTHER INFORMATION

The stock was thought to have great potential for breeding and
production, however both the management and conditions in 1980 were
unsuitable (121).

91

Indonesia

It was reported that a new crocodile farm had been created at
Pluit, North Jakarta (24). It is not clear whether this replaced the
farm at Yayasan, but this is thought to be the case as it was also run
by Mr Arifin:

NAME OF OPERATION

? Crocodile Farm

Pluit, North Jakarta, Java.

Operated by: Mr Arifin.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was planned by and received approval from the Governor in
1976 (24).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In 1984 there were reported to be 500 crocodiles at the farm,
species unknown (24).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation derives income from tourists and provides displays,
such as wrestling with crocodiles and snakes. Food is also sold, snake
sate, obon made from snakes and monitor lizards, and various medicinal
preparations for the treatment of skin diseases and irritations (24).
BREEDING

The farm was reported to be used for crocodile breeding (24).
HUSBANDRY

The farm has a total area of 2 ha, and was reported to be
extremely overcrowded. 9 crocodiles had already died of disease in

1984. The water in the ponds was said to be "brackish", and funds were
not available to rectify this (24).

FINANCES

The new farm was reported to be receiving fewer visitors than the
old farm and it was suggested that the whole farm needed upgrading if
it were to provide a worthwhile recreational facility (24).

The farm was opened with the assistance of the Jakarta
administration as part of the Pluit Environmental Development Project.
OTHER INFORMATION

The farm also keeps other species, including snakes, which are
used in the displays (24).

92

Indonesia
Sumatra

The Director General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation
listed three farms in Sumatra (numbers 13-15 in the list) in 1984
(157). Details were acquired of a farm near Medan, which probably
corresponds with number 15.

NAME OF OPERATION
A crocodile farm is located at a village 12 km from Medan:
Desa Asam Kumbang
Kecamantan Pasar Lima
Medan
North Sumatra.
Managed by: Mr Lo Than Muk.

A breeding licence for three years was granted to C.V. Reptil
Corporation, Medan, on behalf of the farm in 1981 by the Direktorat
Jenderal Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian Alam. Renewal of the
licence was delayed in 1985 until further clarification of details of
the farm was obtained (169).

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm started in 1959 in Jalan Gurami, with 12 crocodiles, but
when the stock increased to 200 the farm moved to a new, larger site
(36).

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus porosus: 1138 (including 311 females "in nature")
Tomistoma schlegelii: 12 (169)

The farm was reported to have 200 breeding females in 1985 (36).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm is reported to sell skins (36).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

No animals have been obtained from the wild since 1975, and all
new stock is bred on the farm (169).
BREEDING

Breeding is reported to have first occurred in 1979 when 200 eggs
were hatched. It is reported that the 200 breeding females now produce
"a minimum of 6000" hatchlings a year (36). These figures seem unlikely
to be correct.

The maximum hatching success is reported to be 80% (169).
HUSBANDRY

The farm covers an area of 0.539 ha, comprising (169):

Earth pond for mature females 900 m2
Cement pond for mature females 750 m2
Cement pond for young 230 m2
Earth breeding pond 2437 m2
Housing and other 1073 m2

Food is obtained from one shrimp enterprise, 20 poultry farms and
C.V. Reptil Corporation in Medan (169).
FINANCES

The farm has been open to tourists since April 1983 (169).
Entrance fees were Rp300 for adults and Rpl50 for children in 1985.
300-400 people visit the farm on Sundays (36).

93

Indonesia
Kalimantan

When the wild population became too scarce to support hide
hunting, owing to over-exploitation and habitat destruction, eggs and
young were captured for rearing in farms in Kalimantan, Java and
Singapore. A number of these farms were in operation in Kalimantan at
Samarinda on the Mahakam River, and at Tanjung Redeb on the Berau
River, and at Bandjarmasin. Most of these farms were closed by the
mid-1970s because the growing rarity of the wild crocodiles made it
difficult to secure the eggs and young needed (112).

Mentawai Islands

A rearing farm for eggs and young taken from the wild was reported
at Sikakap on Pagai Island (112).

94

ISRAEL

In 1985 there were two crocodilian farms in Israel, but one of the
companies, which has crocodile-farming interests in several countries,
intended establishing other farms in the country in the future.

NAME OF OPERATION
Alligator Farm
Hammat Gader Hot Springs
Hammat Gader
D.N. Rammat Hagolan 12480.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
August 1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock in 1983 (49):

Alligator MiSSisSippiensis: 302
Crocodylus niloticus suchus: 4
Osteolaemus tetraspis osborni: 3

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation in 1983 was run solely for tourists but it was
intended that live sales to zoos and commercial operations would take
place in the future.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

In 1981 120 A. mississippiensis were obtained from a farm in
Florida. four 0. tetraspis and four C. niloticus were subsequently
obtained from the University of Tel-Aviv (48).
BREEDING

The initial stock of alligators is reported to have come from
farm-bred alligators making the stock born on this farm, in effect,
second generation captive-bred. However A. mississippiensis has not yet
been bred through two generations on the farm. The farm incubator has a
capacity of over 300 eggs (49).
The numbers of A. mississippiensis bred in 1982/83 were as follows:

Year Number bred Number survived 30 days

1982 4 4

1983 184 180 (49)
HUSBANDRY

The animals are kept in one large pond (4000 m2) divided into
three sections, five small concrete pools (each 1.5 m3) and a
hothouse with seven pools. The large pond is surrounded by 5000 m2 of
grass and contains a natural swampy area. It has a constant flow of
spring water at 28°C. Even on the coldest nights the temperature in the
large pool was not found to fall below 20°C and in the small pools it
Was in excess of 25°C. This is sufficient to prevent the onset of
Winter dormancy and the animals were found to be eating 60-70% of their
Summer diet during the winter. The animals are fed 50% poultry, 30%
beef and 20% fish, the proportions varying with availability, at about
8% of body weight each week (48).

FINANCES
The operation is self-financing as part of a large tourist complex.

95

Israel

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Results were presented at the 6th working meeting of the IUCN/SSC
Crocodilian Specialist group (See 48).

Research is carried out by the farm staff, in co-operation with
the University of Tel-Aviv. 10% of the eggs are given to the University
for research, after which the hatchlings are returned to the farm.

OTHER INFORMATION

The farm is situated in a region of warm springs in the vicinity
of the Yarmuk river. There are plans to expand the population of
alligators and eventually to sell excess stock of one-year-olds, to
commercial operations. The operators would also like to increase their
range of species and to attempt breeding of other species (49).

NAME OF OPERATION

Clal Crocodile Farms Ltd

5 Druyanov Street

Tel-Aviv 63143.

General Manager: Shlomi Ranot.
The farm is situated at Kibbutz Ganshmuel, 60 km North of Tel-Aviv and
5 km from the coast.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The first crocodiles were obtained in November 1984.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Stock in 1984 (153):

Crocodylus niloticus: 5 adult males

40 immature males (2 m, 5 yr-old)
160 immature females (2 m, 5 yr-old)

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation intends to produce skins eventually but also admits
tourists. It is hoped to supply breeding stock which may be used by
other farms to be set up in Israel by the company. The animals at
present on the farm should breed in 1986, in which case the first skin
production would be in 1989 (153).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All the animals were purchased from farms in Zimbabwe in November
1984. It was hoped to obtain some additional hatchlings from the same
source (153).
BREEDING

The breeding stock should be mature in 1986 (153).
FINANCES

The operation intends to derive a large part of its income from
tourists (153).
OTHER INFORMATION

Clal Crocodile Farms Ltd owns other crocodile farms in Kenya and
Greece, and intends setting up a total of 7 farms in other countries,
including the Caribbean and Israel.

96

ITALY

Only one crocodilian farm is reported to have Operated in Italy,
but it is now thought to have closed down.

NAME OF OPERATION

Compagnia Internazional Allevamento Animali Esotici (C.I.A.A.E.)

Commune di Presicce

nr. Brindisi

Provincia Di Leceo.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1980. No recent information regarding this farm has been received
and it is presumed to be no longer in existence.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Claimed to be “Caiman latirostris originating in Colombia" (147),
however this species does not occur in Colombia (89) and no captive
sources are known; so the animals must either have originated elsewhere
or be of a different species, probably Caiman crocodilus.

There were 406 surviving caiman in January 1981 (147),

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Skins were reported to be provided to the Italian leather industry.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The entire stock originated in Colombia, supplied by a reptile
dealer named Simon Daza, of Baranquilla. In December 1980 3000 animals
were imported to Italy for the farm, and a further 1500 were due to
arrive on 20 April, 1981 from the same source (147).

BREEDING

None. =
HUSBANDRY

The farm was surveyed by A.C. Pooley in January 1981. The 3000
caiman which were to form the initial farm stock left Colombia during
the Colombian summer period all packed in one crate, suitable for only
1000 animals at the most, and arrived in Italy during the Italian
winter when temperatures were around 0°C. About 1500 animals died
before reaching the farm. Between the last week of December 1980, and
the second week of February 1981 a further 1094 animals died, probably
due to Salmonella poisoning and fungal disease. The remaining 406
animals were still being kept in poor conditions at the time the farm
was surveyed and it was estimated that 100-150 were on the verge of
death. It was suggested to the Managing Director of the firm, Senor
Lili del Saudia, to postpone the further order of caiman from Colombia
(147).

The animals were reportedly kept in ponds which were “overcrowded,
unsanitary, Stagnant, surrounded by faeces-laden sand, and with
insufficient heating". They had been fed on a diet of fatty mince and
were suffering from malnutrition (147).

PINANCES

The operation was privately financed, with backing from the Italian

reptile leather industry (76).

97

IVORY COAST

In 1980 a consultant was engaged by the firm FGU-Kronberg
Unternehmensberatung GMB Kronberg, F.R. Germany, to advise on the
potential for crocodile farming in the Ivory Coast in connection with
the German Wildlife Project. Interest centred on Crocodylus niloticus
and Crocodylus_cataphractus. Surveys revealed severe depletion of
crocodile populations which were not thought capable of sustaining
commercial ranching schemes at that stage. It was recommended that a
pilot scheme at Abidjan Zoo be expanded to develop husbandry techniques
for commercial farms in the future, and to supply crocodiles for
restocking. In 1981 the zoo held 7 Osteolaemus tetraspis, 4 Crocodylus
niloticus and 3 Crocodylus cataphractus (52).

Nile crocodiles are also kept in a moat surrounding the
presidential palace in Yamoussoukro. It is not known whether any
breeding has taken place there.

98

JAMAICA

There is reported to be one crocodilian farm in Jamaica, primarily
orientated towards tourists:

NAME OF OPERATION
Swamp Safari, situated about 20 miles East of Montego Bay.
The farm is owned by the Tourist Board of Jamaica but is held on a
five-year lease by a commercial company, Cherokee Enterprises.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
About 1970
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus acutus: approximately 50 in 1984,
BREEDING
22 young were hatched in 1984.
OTHER INFORMATION
The farm is primarily a tourist attraction but commercial
production is apparently under consideration (153).

99

JAPAN

The Atagawa Tropical Garden and Alligator Farm, Shizuoka, Japan,
is a long-established display farm holding a very wide variety of
crocodilian species. It is situated in a area of thermal springs which
are used to heat the crocodile ponds (100). It acquired five Crocodylus
johnsoni from the Northern Territory of Australia in 1984 at which time
its stock also included Crocodylus porosus and Gavialis gangeticus
(27). Eight captive-born Crocodylus moreletii, one of the few species
missing from the collection, were supplied by the Atlanta Zoological
Park, USA, in 1984 (33). The farm caters purely for tourists and, so
far as is known, does not engage in skin sales (100).

100

|
:

KENYA
There are two crocodile farms in Kenya, both situated near Mombasa:

NAME OF OPERATION

Baobab Farm Limited

P.O. Box 90202

Mombasa.

Managing Director: R.D. Haller.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm is primarily concerned with arable crops, domestic stock
and fish (tilapia) culture (91), as part of a rehabilitation project to
reafforest a worked-out limestone quarry. In 1975 crocodile hatchlings
were introduced as part of the ecosystem (43).

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus niloticus: 9 adults
600 hatchlings in 1984 (43).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

In 1977 the Government of Kenya passed a law forbidding the sale
of most wild animal products in the country. This has prevented the
farm from operating commercially. Crocodile farming is being developed
for future production when allowed. This would probably be based on
skin production (116).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The original stock were wild-caught as hatchlings in 1975. Of
these, 9 adults survived in 1984. Since 1982, eggs have also been
collected from the wild (43):

211 in 1982,

685 in 1983, and

60 in 1984 (43).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are kept in tanks of water supplied by run-off from
the fish tanks. The pens range from 20 to 600 m2 with natural or
artificial ponds and are surrounded by concrete walls or diamond-mesh
fences.

Tilapia of non-commercial size which are discarded by the fish
farm, or carcases from the livestock section are provided as food (43).
BREEDING

The captive-reared adults have bred since 1982; 9 young were
hatched in 1982 and 13 in 1983 but all failed to survive. 25 hatched in
1984 and two of these survived for 30 days. It was hoped to supplement
the breeding stock with some wild-caught nuisance animals (43).

The following success with the hatching of wild-collected eggs has
been reported (43):

Eggs Eggs Survived
collected hatched 30 days
1982 211 198 189
1983 685 542 505
1984 60 56 52

FINANCES
The company is a subsidiary of Bamburi Portland Cement Co. Ltd and
all research is funded by a grant from the parent company.

101

Kenya

Some income is obtained from tourism as part of a larger Nature
Trail complex which was opened in 1983 (43).

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research is conducted by R.D. Haller & J.D. Balarin on feeding
rates, grading, pathology, pen design, breeding and social behaviour as
well as census surveys of the wild population (43).

Balarin, J.D. (1982). The suitability of farm-reared fish (Tilapia
spp.) as a food for juvenile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus).
Proceedings of the IUCN/SSC_Crocodilian Specialist Group Meeting,
Victoria Falls.

OTHER INFORMATION

The initial three-year pilot phase of the farm was completed in

1984, Permission was being sought to be allowed to trade commercially.

sss % ss %===% ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Mamba Village, Kenya Crocodile Farm Ltd

PO Box 85723

Mombasa.

Organiser: Clal Crocodile Farms, Israel.

The crocodile farm is located in a 20-acre (8.1-ha) disused quarry at
Nyali, north of Mombasa.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Probably late 1983 (170).

The first phase of construction, comprising a tourist centre and
aquascape of 1-2 ha of ponds was completed in 1984 when the venture was
opened to tourists (43).

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus, target stock of 20 000 by 1986 (28).

The original stock of 650 in 1983 (28) has been supplemented by
hatchlings in 1984 believed to amount to some 250-300 (43).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Full production, once achieved, should be 3000 skins a year with a
value of about US$70 000 (28).

The venture is also intended to cater for tourists (170).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The original stock of 650 crocodiles was trapped along the Tana
River in a three-month exercise (28). Crocodiles were reported to be
being trapped from Garsen to Wenje in 1984 (124). The company holds a
licence from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources to
collect eggs, and has a monopoly in this respect (153).

HUSBANDRY

The animals are kept in concrete ponds, surrounded by wire mesh.
Some adult animals were present in 1984 in addition to 400-500
juveniles of about 40 cm length (170).

BREEDING
About 250-300 eggs are believed to have hatched in 1984 (43).

102

MADAGASCAR

Only one crocodile farm is known to exist in Madagascar. This was
the first farm to have been registered with the CITES Secretariat as a
recognised captive-breeding operation.

NAME OF OPERATION

Elévage de crocodiles d'"Antsobolo"

Antsobolo

Ampanotokana Ambohidratrimo

Madagascar.

Director: M. Charles A. De Lanessan.
This farm has also been referred to as the "Mahitsy Crocodile Farm".
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was set up in 1969 and started commercial production in
1974.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus niloticus In April 1983 the farm held a total of 454
crocodiles divided by size as follows:-

Over 2.5m 5
1.5-2.0 m 52
1.0-1.5 m 116
0.7-1.0 m 124
Less than 0.7 m 157 (50)

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Crocodiles are killed at about 3.5 years of age. About half the
skins are tanned in Madagascar for use in the manufacture of goods. The
remainder are used for taxidermy. None is reported to be exported (14),
however the Madagascar CITES annual reports list the export of 4, 20
and 29 skins of captive-bred C. niloticus for the years 1981, 1982 and
1983 respectively. The small quantities involved suggest that these may
have been trade samples.

In 1985 live crocodiles were supplied to a new farm in Mauritius
(164).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The original stock was taken from the wild in the form of young
animals less than one year old. These have been raised to form a
captive breeding stock. In 1980 the capture of wild animals ceased (50).
BREEDING

It took about 10 years to produce the first captive-bred
generation in 1980 (72). About one hundred juveniles are now hatched on
the farm each year and it is hoped that this figure will improve as the
breeding stock continues to mature (50).

Breeding since 1980:

1980 39 from 1 female

1981 109 from 8 females

1982 76 from 2 females (72)
HUSBANDRY

Total area 1300 m2. This includes 700 m2 of ponds, and
600 m2 of open space divided into 8 enclosed areas of pond and open
land (72).

Gravid females are separated from the rest and the eggs are
collected. They are then put in another pen, with sand banks, to hatch
(14).

103

Madagascar

The hatchlings are fed on frogs and insects. Dog meat, which is
readily available locally, is the main food for adults. Feeding has
been reduced from three times a week to twice a week to reduce sickness
and diarrhoea (14).

Water supply is from a permanent creek. The temperature is low
owing to the high altitude, and so the water is allowed to flow over an
area of flat concrete to warm it up, apparently by as much as 10°C,
During the winter the crocodiles hibernate in tunnels in the earth side
of each pen for up to four months (14).

FINANCES

The operation is self-financing from the sale of skins (72).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

General research into improvement of the operation is carried out
by the Director, Charles De Lanessan.

OTHER INFORMATION

National legislation forbids the export of skins unless they are

from captive-bred animals (72).

104

MALAWI

A proposal submitted to CITES in 1985 suggested that controlled
hunting of Crocodylus niloticus in Malawi was preferable to a ranching
scheme, however one pilot project was reported to be in existence (30).
This crocodile farm was started at Mangochi in 1981, but it has not so
far obtained a licence to trade (43).

Mr Khalid Hassan was reported to be trapping crocodiles in 1984 on
the Shire River for a proposed farm on Lake Malawi (183).

105

MALAYSIA

There are believed to be 7 crocodile farms in Peninsular Malaysia,
one in Sabah and about three or four in Sarawak. The native Crocodylus
porosus population is thought to be essentially extinct in the
peninsula (112).

Peninsular Malaysia

The Government Department of Wildlife and National Parks supplied
the following information about farms keeping Crocodylus_ porosus;
stocks of Crocodylus porosus held in 1984 are indicated. The first of
these farms is the only one which may be undertaking breeding.
Tomistoma schlegelii are not used commercially.

Tulin Enterprise 264
Jalan Pondok Upeh

Balik Pulau

Pulau Pinang

Chuah Teong Chew 181
No: 30, Main Road

Simpang Taiping

Perak, West Malaysia

Kok Cheong Be 54
@ Kuck Aik Leng

No: 16 Jalan Menggala

Matang, Taiping

Perak

Lean Kim Huat a
30 Jalan Telok Kertang

Matang, Taiping

Perak

Hasan Basri b. Ismail 19
Bt. 8, Jebong Kiri

Matang, Taiping

Perak

Chong Kew Meng 13
Bagan Sg. Pulai

Sabak Bernam

Selangor

Ang Kok Leong 12
222, Kg. Baru

Jenjarum, Kuala Langat

Selangor

106

Malaysia

Sabah

Eggs and young of C. porosus are taken from the wild for rearing in
Sabah and Singapore hide farms, but the wild populations are so reduced
that this trade has decreased in recent years (112). One rearing farm
(see below), located just outside Sandakan, Sabah has been rearing C.
porosus for export since about 1970 (14). Following a_ survey a
crocodiles in Sabah in 1984, Whitaker (200) recommended the
establishment of an exploitation project including a Government
research farm at Sepilok, encouragement of private investment to
develop large commercial farms, and initiation of an egg-collection
project involving local people.

NAME OF OPERATION

Chai mei Hwa Crocodile Farms

P.O. Box 633

Sandakan

Sabah.
Owner: Chai Yau Look.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

About 1970
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. porosus: 1035 individuals in 1984 (7).

These included 6 adults and a further 40 which would mature within
the next few years (200).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The crocodiles are reared for their skins and for meat which is
marketed locally (7).

Since 1978 skins have been sold to a dealer, Mr Tan, for export to
Singapore and Japan. Meat is also exported to Hong Kong (14).

A total of about 2000 skins have been cropped in the last 15 years,
30% of which were males and 70% females. Since the Government ban on
collection of animals from the wild, all cropping has ceased and the
stock is being saved for breeding (200).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The original crocodiles were wild-caught but this is now illegal
Wie
BREEDING

In 1984 the crocodiles had not yet bred, but a breeding programme
had been initiated with a 30-m diameter pen containing four females and
two males (200).

HUSBANDRY
The crocodiles are kept in an enclosure with an area of 1000 f£t2

(93 m2) containing a natural pond. The pool has a maximum depth of
15 £t (4.6 m) and is 30-40 ft (9-12 m) in diameter. In 1978 an unknown
epidemic killed over 200 crocodiles, mostly juveniles (14).
OTHER INFORMATION

The owner informed Mr Andau that young crocodiles are smuggled in
from Kalimantan, Indonesia (7).

107

Malaysia
Sarawak

Rearing farms exist which raise wild C. porosus hatchlings. About
10 Tomistoma schlegelii are also thought to be present in the farms,
the skins of which will probably eventually be sent to Singapore (89).

There are reported to be three or four farms run by families in the
area (117). Two operations are described:

NAME OF OPERATION

? Crocodile Farm

Pedada Road

Sarawak.
Operated by the Wong family.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. porosus: over 100 are kept (117).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The crocodiles are raised for skins and meat. Skins are sold to a
merchant in Singapore to be made into handbags belts and shoes. Meat is
sold locally, and is considered a delicacy in the area (117).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Animals are obtained from local fishermen (117).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are raised to a length of around 4m on a diet of
pig livers, intestines and chicken meat (117).

ssa *%e==%ae==%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Owner: “Johnson" Jong Joon Song
P.O. Box 670
Kuching
Sarawak.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. porosus: 100 hatchlings and 600 "full-grown" animals (207).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Skins are sold to Hong Kong and Europe.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

It was hoped that increased breeding success in 1985 would obviate
the need to purchase crocodiles (207).
HUSBANDRY

The main breeding pen is 100 ft long (30 m) and contains 50 adults
(200). The hatchlings are fed on prawns. There are at least three
farmhands (207).
BREEDING

Breeding has been achieved since 1981, a total of 21 nests having
been laid from 1980-83. In 1983 7 females laid eggs but only two
clutches produced young. Considerable effort has been directed towards
developing breeding and incubation techniques and careful records are
kept of reproductive data (200).

Initially the hatching success was low, in the region of 20%, but
this increased to 85% in 1983 (207).
FINANCES

Annual expenditure is in the region of M$80 000 and the farm is
still running at a loss (207).

108

MALI

A private company named Mali Reptiles plans to operate a crocodile
farm near Bamako, in Mali, involving Crocodylus niloticus but the farm
had not reached commercial status in 1983. A small pilot-scale farm has
been operated since 1979 with 34 C. niloticus captured from Ségou. The
erocodiles are held in ponds with feeding installations and provision
for cleaning the water. Research carried out since 1980, with FAO
co-operation, has shown the project to be viable. Projected production
is between 1000 and 3000 skins by 1986. The farm is financed by a
private grant of MF90 000 000 put up by European partners (159).

109

MAURITIUS
The first crocodile farm started operation in Mauritius in 1985.

NAME OF OPERATION
Bioculture (Mauritius) Ltd
Senneville
Riviére des Anguilles
Mauritius.
Owner: Mr Owen Griffiths.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1985
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 7 February 1985 (164):
Crocodylus niloticus: Breeders 5
4 yr-old 21
3 yr-old 15
0-2 yr-old 47

TOTAL 88

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

It is hoped to harvest 300 skins a year after three years,
eventually increasing this output (164).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The original stock was obtained on 7 February 1985 from the Mahitsy
Crocodile Farm in Madagascar (164).
HUSBANDRY

The original capacity of the farm in 1985 was for 250 animals, but
it was hoped to increase this to 2000 (164).

110

MEXICO

There are two Government departments in Mexico which are involved
in the setting up of crocodilian farms, the Secretaria de Pesca and the
Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE). Between them they
operate a total of seven breeding centres, with others planned. There
is one farm operated by the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Sobre
Recursos Bioticos (INIREB) and two private farms. So far as is known,
none of the farms is yet producing skins commercially, although this is
clearly the ultimate intention. The Secretaria de Pesca generally only
involves itself in commercially related ventures.

A farm in Chiapas, the original funding for which was partially
provided by the World Wildlife Fund, was forced to close because of oil
pollution (118).

The Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre, a division of
SEDUE, has also expressed an interest in starting a farm for Crocodylus
acutus in Quintana Roo and for Crocodylus moreletii in Yucatan (118).

It was reported that the Mexican Government had established farms
for Crocodylus moreletii in Veracruz (22), but Lazcano-Barrero (118)
doubts that farms have ever existed in that state.

NAME OF OPERATION
Municipio de Acapetahua
Chiapas.
Operated by: Secretaria de Pesca.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS —
Crocodylus moreletii (95).
In 1984 the farm was reported (118) as containing mostly Crocodylus
moreletii and "a few caimans".

S==*%5==*===*%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Municipio Temaxcal
Presa Miguel Aleman
Oaxaca.
Operated by: Secretaria de Pesca.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus moreletii: only a few animals (95).

NAME OF OPERATION
Municipio del Centro
Ejido de Buenavista
Tabasco.
Operated by: Secretaria de Pesca.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus moreletii: approximately 200 adults (95).

Vii

Mexico

NAME OF OPERATION

Lazaro Cardenas

Located in the estuary of the Rio Balsas, Michoacan.
Operated by: Secretaria de Pesca.

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Believed to be Crocodylus acutus (95).

ss=*%S==% ===* ===

NAME OF OPERATION
Municipio Ciudad del Carmen
Ciudad del Carmen, "El Fenix"
Campeche.
Operated by: Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE),
Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre.
(This farm was recently transferred from the control of the Secretaria
de Pesca).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus moreletii: approximately 200 adults (95).

NAME OF OPERATION
Lagunas de Chacahua
Municipio Tututepec-—Juquila
Oaxaca.
Operated by: Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE),
Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus moreletii: approximately 43 adults (95).

sea *ae=*e==% ===

NAME OF OPERATION
Laguna Coyuca
Municipio Acapulco
Guerrero.
Believed to be operated by: Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia
(SEDUE), Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to be "very recent" in June 1985 (95).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus moreletii (95).

NAME OF OPERATION
Selva Lacadona
Chiapas.
Operated by: Instituto Wacional de Investigaciones Sobre Recursos
Bioticos (INIREB).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to be "planned" in 1984 (118) and "operating"
by June 1985 (95).

112

Mexico

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus moreletii and Crocodylus acutus (95).
OTHER INFORMATION

The farm plans to breed Crocodylus acutus and Crocodylus moreletii
for commercial and conservation purposes, and will be managed by the
rural people of the Lacadon Jungle. It will also serve as a tourist
attraction and research centre. Funding is being supplied by INIREB,
the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia and the Secretaria de
Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (118).

NAME OF OPERATION

Cuernavaca

Morelos.

The farm is privately owned (95).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus moreletii (95).

sao*e==*%s==%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Cancun
Quintana Roo.
The farm is privately owned, and is supported by the National Bank,
SOMEX, who have made an initial investment of 60 million pesos (95).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was reported to be "projected" in June 1985 (95).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus moreletii: when operational, it is anticipated that this
Will be the largest crocodilian farm in Mexico (95).

===*===*==—F==—

NAME OF OPERATION
San Felipe Bacalar (?)
Quintana Roo.
Operated by: Centro de Investigaciones de Quintana Roo (CIQRO).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was reported to be "projected" in June 1985 (95).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus moreletii (95).

sss %===*%===%* ===

NAME OF OPERATION
Municipio Tecoman
Laguna de Alcozahue
Ejido Cofradia de Hidalgo
Colima.
Operated by: Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE),
Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to be "in project" in June 1985 (95).

alike

Mexico

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus moreletii and Crocodylus acutus (95).

saa *%e==%===%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Municipio de San Blas,
Laguna "El Tanque",
Ejido "La Palma",
Nayarit.
Operated by: Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE),
Direccion General de Flora y Fauna Silvestre.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to be "in project" in June 1985 (95).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus acutus (95).

114

MOZAMBIQUE

Interest was expressed in developing a ranching programme for
Crocodylus niloticus in Mozambique in 1981, and a pilot hatchery and
hatchling pond was established at Marromeu. 7 nests were collected in
December 1981, but the hatchery has potential for at least 30 nests
(1500 eggs) (196). This farm was still operating on a small scale in
1984 (31).

A proposal was submitted to develop a ranch at Mungari Camp,
Marromeu, utilizing waste meat and offal from mammal culling operations
in the Zambezi Wildlife Utilization Area which totals 2.5 ta month,
and should be sufficient for 2000 animals. A second ranch at Cubo
village, Messingir, was proposed initially with 200 animals, but
building up to 2000. This would utilize waste from the Tilapia and
Clarias fishery in Messingir Reservoir (196). Captive-breeding
Operations for certain birds, reptiles and frogs were also being
considered (175).

The ranching programme was still in the proposal phase in 1984,
only one crocodile rearing station being reported at that time (31).
The farm, EMOFAUNA Crocodile Farm, had 32 three-year-old crocodiles and
had not collected any eggs in 1984. Previously the farm had held up to
800 crocodiles, and future expansion was still planned (176).

115

NEPAL

There are no commercial crocodilian farms in Nepal, but there is a
large breeding centre for gharial in the Royal Chitwan National Park.

NAME OF OPERATION
Gharial Breeding Farm
Royal Chitwan National Park
Kasara, Chitwan
Nepal.
Senior Warden: T.M. Maskey
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1979
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Gavialis gangeticus: 255 animals in 1983 (125).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
The Gharial Breeding Farm is not at present a commercial operation,
however future commerce does not appear to have been ruled out.
Production of G. gangeticus for release to the wild can be
summarised thus:

Year Place of release Age Number

1981 Narayani River 3 yrs 50

1982 Narayani River 3 yrs 50

1983 Narayani River 3 yrs 50

1983 Koshi River 3 yrs 42 (125)

All of the animals released are tagged and some have been fitted
with radio telemetry collars to allow monitoring (89).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All of the animals have been obtained from the wild. The eggs are
collected within Nepal.

Number of eggs obtained 1979-81

1979 543

1980 350

1981 150 (125)
BREEDING

The animals do breed at the farm, however the main source of
animals is from the hatching of wild-obtained eggs. A hatch rate of
approximately 50% has been achieved.

Number of eggs hatched and survival of hatchlings, 1979-81

Year Number hatched Number survived
30 days
1979 294 200 683
1980 187 140 75%
1981 64 30 46% (125)
HUSBANDRY

For the first year hatchlings are kept in the hatchling pools of
size 2m x 2m x 0.5 m. They are next moved to the yearling pool of
size 4m x 4m x 1m. The pools are concrete and have a running water
supply.

The animals are fed daily on locally available fish (125).

116

Nepal

FINANCES
The sponsors for the operation are His Majesty's Government of
Nepal, the Frankfurt Zoological Society and the Smithsonian Institution.
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS
Research is carried out by T.M. Maskey.
Some results of the operation have been published:
Maskey, T.M. and H.R. Mishra (1981). Conservation of Gharial in
Nepal. In Majpuria, T.C. (Ed.) Wild is beautiful. pp. 185-196.
Maskey, T.M. (1982). Progress report on Gharial conservation
project in Nepal. (Official memo).
Mishra, H.R. and T.M. Maskey (1982). Zuruck in die Flusse. Tier,
Die Internationale Zeitschrift fir Tier, Meuch und Natur, June.
OTHER INFORMATION
This operation is at present purely conservation orientated (125).

It was estimated that there were a total of 250 captive G.
gangeticus and 10 captive C. palustris in Nepal in 1982 (197).

a7

PAKISTAN

Interest in a crocodile conservation/management programme was
expressed (201), and a Government plan to breed crocodiles and
gharials in the Punjab and Sind was being considered for 1984 (163).

In 1979 Mr S. Aftab Alam acting for IGUANA (2), a leather company
of Pakistan, stated that the company intended to set up a commercial
breeding programme involving Crocodylus palustris and Gavialis
gangeticus, and that advice had been sought from WWF headquarters. The
farm was planned to follow the pattern of Samutprakan, Thailand, but
would not be started until a similar project, of greater priority to
the company, involving Varanus griseus (desert monitor) had been
established (3).

Address:
IGUANA
(Manufacturers of Reptile Skins and Leather Goods,
Suede Wear and Footwear)

Noor Estate

Main Drigh Road

Karachi 8

PAKISTAN

The Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives stated, in
1983, that IGUANA had not implemented their pian to breed Varanus and
were unlikely to start breeding crocodiles (163).

The estimated total number of captive C. palustris in Pakistan in
1982 was 50 (197).

118

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Most of the information in the Papua New Guinea section of this
report was provided by Martin Hollands.

In the mid-1960s the Government of Papua New Guinea became
concerned about the future of the crocodile industry in the country.
In only two decades, unrestricted skin hunting had reduced the readily
accessible populations to the extent that the harvests of both
Crocodylus _porosus and Crocodylus novaeguineae had tailed off
dramatically. Further indications about the state of the industry came
from the size of skins exported; despite there being a marked
preference for large skins the average size exported was down to below
8 inches (203 mm) in belly width.

This concern led to the introduction of the Crocodile Trade
Protection Act (1966), which set a maximum size on skins which could
be traded, in an attempt to protect the remaining breeding stock. The
Government's Wildlife Division also adopted a National Policy on
Crocodile Farming, to try and substantially increase the potential
revenue to the rural people from a _ sustained-yield management
programme. This would be done by cropping at the readily-replaced
hatchling level, with captive rearing of these to a commercially
acceptable size. It was envisaged that the killing of wild crocodiles
for their skins would slowly be replaced by the establishment of
hundreds of small village crocodile ranches.

Although the implementation of a ranching network, if somewhat
different from that originally proposed, is progressing well, with
nearly 30 000 crocodiles now on ranches, it will be a number of years
before ranched skins comprise the bulk of the trade of Papua New
Guinea. However the harvesting of both skins and live crocodiles is
now conducted in a controlled manner, with a monitoring programme to
assess its impact. During the 1970s and early 1980s Papua New Guinea
had been exporting a sustainable annual harvest of 15 000-35 000 Cc.
novaeguineae skins, and 7 000-11 000 C. porosus skins. This earns the
country approximately US$2 million a year.

Papua New Guinea now has a diverse, and somewhat confusing, range
of crocodile ranching operations. These range from small village pens,
which might never hold more than 25 animals, to large commercial
ranches with up to 15 000 which are still expanding. To appreciate the
reasons for these, and to understand their respective roles it is
necessary briefly to review the development of crocodile ranching in
Papua New Guinea.

The original concept was that ranching would be on a village
level. Virtually every village in crocodile areas would have a small,
"bush material" pen, and feed a hundred or so crocodiles on fish. To
encourage the development of these village operations the Government
built a number of demonstration ranches in appropriate areas of the
country. These would be used as models for village ranches, and as
bases for extension work on crocodile husbandry, pen construction,
skinning and skin treatment. Realizing the enormity of the task the
Government requested, and received advice from the IUCN SSC Crocodile
Specialist Group, and considerable assistance from the United Nations.

Between 1975 and 1979 considerable effort was put into the
Village ranching programme. At its peak there were approximately 200
Village ranches operating, with a total stock of 8000 animals. However
it soon became apparent that locating the rearing operations in the

119

Papua New Guinea

crocodile swamp areas had numerous problems, particularly ensuring a
year round food supply, and siting the pens so that water is available
in the dry season, without flooding in the wet season. It was realized
that if village people were to be encouraged to keep crocodiles it
would be necessary to develop a back-up rearing system, to which
villagers could readily sell their animals when necessary. The opening
of two large-scale commercial operations was therefore encouraged for
development as the final rearing point for surplus village stock.
These ranches were set up to utilise the large volume of cheap feed
available as waste from the country's main poultry operations. Their
location and available funding would allow many management’ and
husbandry problems encountered in village operations to be overcome.

It was therefore essential to develop a live-purchase system
capable of safely moving large numbers of small live crocodiles from
villages to these commercial ranches. The basis of this network was to
be the Government demonstration ranches, already built in the right
places. These ranches took on the extra duties of acting as collection
centres, and extensive patrols gave the village people the chance to
sell stock they did not wish to rear themselves. By Government control
of the price system it was ensured that prices of live animals were
kept high enough to encourage hunters to spend their time trying to
catch livestock instead of just skins. These Government ranches would
continue buying stock until they had 300-400 crocodiles between about
50 and 90 cm total length. Representatives of one of the commercial
ranches would then fly in a light aircraft to collect these. Specially
designed cardboard tubes and boxes allowed the efficient loading of
the animals, and their transport with extremely low mortality.

A number of private ranches also started selling direct to the
commercial ranches. Some of these existed solely by catching and
selling stock; others rear some stock and sell off any surplus. As
feed is a greater constraint than crocodile availability, in virtually
all places a “combined operations" ranch is the ideal. All live
crocodiles brought in to these by outsiders can be purchased, hence
helping the intended shift to ranching; those not too big to be kept
on the available food are reared to culling size, any surplus is sold
to the large commercial ranches. The Government is actively
encouraging the development of these "midi-ranches" at abattoirs and
fish plants throughout the country. The two already established at
such localities are running very successfully; other operations in
this category run well on locally-caught fish.

The details of the operations, included at the end of this
section, only cover ranches involved in rearing; village ranches are
not detailed, and operations which only sell live crocodiles are
excluded. Skins both from ranches and the wild are sold through
licensed exporters, and all shipments are checked and tagged by
Government inspectors. Other crocodile products may only be sold by
commercial ranches (97).

The total number of crocodile skins exported from Papua New
Guinea since 1976 from both wild harvest and farms is shown in the
following table. In 1983 farm production was running at about 10% of
the wild harvest but this seemed set to rise in the following two
years. C. porosus comprised 18% of all wild-caught crocodiles but 29%
of all skins exported from farms. This reflects the fact that it is

120

Papua New Guinea

preferentially kept on farms as it has a higher-value skin and it is
easier to keep.

Crocodile skins exported from Papua New Guinea from 1976 onwards.

C. novaeguineae C. porosus Total

Wild Farm Wild Farm Wild Farm
1976 23379 6257 29636
1977 26571 6618 33189
1978 30886 LST 38043
1979 34836 646 7442 184 42278 830
1980 27249 460 5717 80 32966 540
1981 14291 73 3915 366 18206 1097
1982 23259 1474 3923 927 27182 2401
1983 13786 1304 3155 301 16941 1605
1984 (Projected from farm stock flow) 5600
1985 ( ® ) 4000

In 1982 France imported 63% of all the skins exported by Papua
New Guinea, Japan imported 34% and Singapore 3%. In 1983 the
corresponding figures were France 37%, Japan 62% and Singapore 0.5%.

The Crocodile Trade (Protection) Act 1974 established very firm
controls over crocodile exploitation. Only citizens of Papua New Guinea
may hunt or kill crocodiles, and licences are needed to trade in them.
Traders must have lived in the country for at least two years and may
only trade within a specified area. A separate licence is needed to
export skins. Additional regulations were introduced in 1981 to control
farms and the sizes of crocodiles exploited. No crocodile with a belly
width greater than 510 mm may be traded or kept on farms, and
crocodiles of less than 180 mm belly width may only be traded live for
the purpose of stocking farms. Crocodile farms with more than 200
animals must acquire a licence, the conditions of which include
completing 6-monthly stock returns and notifying the authorities of the
outbreak of any disease (137).

The following summary details the numbers of live crocodiles
taken onto ranches from the wild (97).

Year C. novaeguineae C. porosus Total
1979 3 958 974 4 932
1980 7 669 2 141 9 810
1981 8 118 2 178 10 296
1982 8 602 25799 11 401
1983 2 518 14091 4 419
Total 30 865 9 993 40 858

121

Papua New Guinea
Commercial ranches

The large commercial ranches will be the final rearing station for
the bulk of ranched crocodiles in Papua New Guinea. Rather than
location being determined by crocodile distribution, the ranches are
located where there is a plentiful supply of cheap food. The two
already operating are in association with the countries two largest
poultry operations, one in Port Moresby and one in Lae.

Details of pen design, husbandry, feed consumption, mortality and
growth rates are in Melvin Bolton's "Crocodile Husbandry in Papua New
Guinea", available from the Crocodile Project, Box 2141 Boroko, Papua
New Guinea.

These ranches have now been granted permission to start breeding
programmes, and it is probable that the considerably easier supervision
of such large, centralised operations will allow them to be granted
special dispensations on the size of skins they can market; they are
already permitted to sell by-products, both domestically and for export
(97).

NAME OF OPERATION

Mainland Reptiles

P.O. Box 196

Lae

Morobe Province.

Operated by: Mainland Holdings Pty. Ltd
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Approved and established in August 1979.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

11 250 C. novaeguineae

3 750 C. porosus (97).
The total stock in March 1983 was 14 000 animals (78).

By early 1984 the number had risen to 15 000 (97).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Production is primarily aimed at skins but meat and other
by-products which may have a commercial value are being examined (97).
The meat cannot be sold locally as a Government licence is needed to
buy or own any crocodile, or part thereof. Crocodile meat in a dried
form is worth around S$23 kg-1! in Singapore, but as a 30-kg crocodile
yields only around 2 kg of dried meat this means crocodile meat is of
little economic significance to the ranch. The managers are
investigating the commercial possibilities of producing crocodile oil
for the perfume industry (84).

Skins produced (84, #85)

YEAR C. porosus C. novaeguineae DESTINATIONS
1980 0 15 Japan France
1981 318 250 Japan France
1982 459 804 Japan France
1984* 1279 6476 Japan France

* estimated figures. These are artificially inflated as few animals
were slaughtered in 1983 owing to the low price of skins (85).

122

Papua New Guinea

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Stock is mainly obtained from village type holding farms in the
Sepik River area of north-east Papua New Guinea. These farms catch
small crocodiles from the wild which are then transported by aeroplane
to Lae. Mainland Holdings stated in 1983 that they prefer animals
between 0.5 m and 1.0 m in length as these are easily transportable and
have a lower mortality rate once introduced to the farm than smaller
animals; 7% rather than 25%. Prices paid for these animals are
estimated on a Sliding scale according to size, the highest price being
paid for the 1.0-m animals. No extra is paid for animals over this
size. In 1983 surplus stock was also taken from other farms (84).

Numbers of juveniles obtained from the wild, 1980 to 1982

YEAR C. porosus C. novaeguineae TOTAL

1980 2469 5343 7812

1981 1159 4722 5881

1982 1813 3917 5730 (84)

1983 no details 1998 (97)
BREEDING

Breeding of C. porosus is intended. Breeding stock has been
selected from animals reared on the farm and it is hoped to have 300
breeding females by the end of 1985. Breeding had not taken place by
August 1983 (84). A breeding licence was granted in 1983. The
Government have also loaned the operation 28 C. porosus adults as
breeding stock. Selected rearing stock of C. porosus will also be kept
as breeders (97).

HUSBANDRY

The farm has at its disposal an area approximately 0.75 km2.
Stock is held in ponds and divided by size of animals. The animals are
fed on chicken offal from the adjoining poultry farm. At present total
food consumption by stock is about 10 t a week. Breeding stock is to be
kept in natural-type earth ponds with an initial male to female ratio
of 1:1. The entire stock is counted once every year, each animal being
Measured and its condition examined (84). Overall natural farm
mortality averages 4.5% a year (97).

FINANCES

The crocodile farm is run in conjunction with a large commercial
chicken farm. It is therefore not always possible to separate the costs
of the two enterprises adequately; however it is considered to be a
fully self-financing commercial venture.

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

A four-year study of growth and feeding trials is being carried out
and the results are to be published.

Research on the growth and feeding of crocodiles has been carried
Out by Mark Rose (84).

123

Papua New Guinea

NAME OF OPERATION

Ilimo Farm

P.O. Box 1885 Boroko

Port Moresby

N.C.D.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1979
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

In 1979 2423 animals were held on the farm (2). By early 1984 this
total was 5000: 3000 C. novaeguineae

and 2000 C. porosus (97).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Production is mainly of skins but also of meat, gall-bladders and
penes. Production of other by-products is being considered (97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All stock originates from wild-caught hatchlings (97) and has been
almost entirely supplied, at Government-controlled prices, through the
Government buying and redistribution schemes (115).
BREEDING

In 1983 a breeding licence was approved, and an initial breeding
colony of 17 females and 7 males was loaned by the Government. Selected
rearing stock will be kept for breeding (97).
HUSBANDRY

The farm is associated with the poultry industry and therefore has
an assured supply of minced and chopped chicken offal from the local
processing plant (97).

"Midi-ranches”

NAME OF OPERATION
Angoram Crocodile Farm
Angoram, East Sepik
Government of Papua New Guinea.
Previously a National Government demonstration, farm now operated
by the East Sepik Provincial Government (97).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1979
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

350 C. novaeguineae

150 C. porosus (97).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

A small number of skins are produced, the farm mainly sells live
animals to the commercial farms (97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus

1981 2161 406

1982 599 153
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are fed on fish which is purchased locally (97).

124

Papua New Guinea

NAME OF OPERATION

Boboa Crocodile Farm

Boboa, Lake Murray

Western Province.

Previously a National Government demonstration farm, now run
commercially by the provincial Government. It is proposed that the farm
be handed over to the local council when proved commercially viable
(97).

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1968
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. novaeguineae and C. porosus
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm sells approximately 250 skins a year, and some livestock
to the commercial farms (97).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS
All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus

1981 950 27

1982 583 12
HUSBANDRY

The diet consists of locally-caught fish (97).

NAME OF OPERATION

Baimuru Crocodile Farm

c/o Fish Plant

Baimuru

Gulf Province.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. novaeguineae and C. porosus
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm started production in 1984 of approximately 200 skins a
year. Livestock is sold to the commercial farms (97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus
1982 127 302
HUSBANDRY

The farm is part of a fish processing plant (97).
OTHER INFORMATION
Crocodiles on the farm have shown extremely high growth rates (97).

125

Papua New Guinea

NAME OF OPERATION
Kikori Crocodile Farm
Kikori
Gulf Province.
Previously a National Government demonstration farm, now
commercially by the provincial Government.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1977
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. novaeguineae and C. porosus
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
The farm produces 100 - 200 skins a year. Livestock is sold to
commercial farms (97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus

1981 163 599

1982 97 UT
HUSBANDRY

run

the

Food consists of locally-caught fish and waste from a small fish

plant (97).

NAME OF OPERATION
Maningulai Import/Export
P.O. Box 46
Angoram
East Sepik.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Approximately 1400 C. novaeguineae
Approximately 600 C. porosus (97)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
The farm will produce skins and sell livestock (97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus
1982 2232 616
HUSBANDRY

Diet consists of locally-bought fish. The operators are one
Papua New Guinea's main exporters of wild skins (97).

sao %*%s==%===*===

NAME OF OPERATION
Micro Enterprises
P.O. Box 995
Madang

126

of

Papua New Guinea

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1980
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Approximately 800 C. novaeguineae

Approximately 200 C. porosus (97)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm produces skins and sells livestock to the commercial farms
(97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus
1982 1921 ras}
HUSBANDRY

Food is obtained from a poultry operation. The company also deals
in wild-caught skins (97).

NAME OF OPERATION

Moitaka Crocodile Farm

Department of National Parks

P.O. Box 6601, Boroko

N.C.D.

The operation was a Government demonstration farm but is currently
run by the Department of National Parks as an educational/public
display facility and for research by the Crocodile Management Project
(97).

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Early 1970s
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. novaeguineae - adults and C. porosus - adults.

In 1979 a total of 1150 crocodiles were held on the farm (194).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm produced skins until 1982. There is no longer any
commercial production from the farm (97).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All stock was originally wild-caught. There is no input of animals
now (97).

BREEDING

Both C. novaeguineae and C. porosus were bred and reared at the
farm experimentally with the aim of improving rearing standards at the
Village level (194).

OTHER INFORMATION

A number of C. porosus reared at Moitaka were used for re-stocking
depleted wild stocks in Gulf Province. By January 1981, 43 C. porosus
from Moitaka had been released in Gulf Province for this purpose (59).

127

Papua New Guinea

NAME OF OPERATION
Pagwi Crocodile Farm
Pagwi
East Sepik Province.
An ex-demonstration farm.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1975
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Approximately 300 C. novaeguineae
Approximately 100 C. porosus (97)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
The operation produces a small number of skins, but mainly sells
livestock to commercial farms. A few breeding-size animals are kept
(97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
All animals are obtained from the wild (97):

YEAR C. novaeguineae C. porosus

1981 STS 384

1982 293 195
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are fed on locally purchased fish (97).
OTHER INFORMATION

The maximum holding capacity of the farm in 1982 was about 3000
animals (59).

NAME OF OPERATION

Urimo Crocodile Farm

East Sepik Province.

The operation is intended as a rearing station for East Sepik
provincial Government stock. It is owned by the provincial Government
(97).

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1983
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

350 C. novaeguineae

150 C. porosus (97)
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation will produce a few hundred skins a year and will
possibly sell livestock to commercial farms (97).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

In 1983 a total of 500 animals (detailed above) were obtained from
the Angoram and Pagwi farms (97).
HUSBANDRY

The food is obtained from a local abbatoir (97).

128

PHILIPPINES
At present there is one conservation-orientated operation breeding
crocodiles in the Philippines, but no authenticated commercial farms.
There is reported to be one private farm of unknown status. A Japanese
consortium has expressed interest in establishing a commercial farm.

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocodile Breeding Project

Silliman University Marine Laboratory

near Dumaguete City

Negros Island.

Operated by the Silliman University Environmental Centre in
conjunction with the Smithsonian Institution and the World Wildlife
Fund.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1980
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus novaeguineae_ mindorensis: 25 including two breeding
pairs and 11 hatchlings in September 1984 (4).

In 1982 the farm held an additional female C. n. mindorensis and
one Crocodylus porosus (5).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation iS an experimental project investigating conservation
techniques and the viability of commercial farming. At present there is
no commercial production.

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All of the crocddiles have been obtained from captive sources,
including both private collections and government projects on Mindanao
and Luzon Islands (20).

BREEDING

The first pair of adults was acquired in 1980. In 1984 a second
breeding pair was obtained (5); it was hoped that they would breed in
1985 (4).

One female C. n. mindorensis laid three clutches totalling 32 eggs
in 1981, however no surviving offspring were produced. In 1982 10 young
were produced from 33 eggs, and 7 in 1983 from 20 eggs. This represents
the first known captive propagation of this subspecies (5). Breeding
took place again in 1984 when 12 young were hatched from 25 eggs laid
(5). By September 1984 eleven of these were still alive (4).

HUSBANDRY

The animals are kept in two pens. One is used as a breeding pen
(15 m x 11.6 m), and has a large central oval pond (ll.l m x 3.8m x
1 m deep) with three small peripheral concrete ponds (5). The second
pen is used for holding the animals; insufficient depth of water makes
it unsuitable for breeding (20).

A second breeding pen measuring 14.5 x 6 m with equal areas of land
and water was built in 1984 (4).

The crocodiles are fed on locally caught and donated bats, cats,
rats, dogs, frogs and insects. The carcases of experimental animals
from the University are also used when available (20).

FINANCES

The Silliman University Environmental Centre, Smithsonian
Institution, the World Wildlife Fund and donations from government
agencies finance the project (20).

129

Philippines

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Areas of study include reproductive biology of the crocodile,
growth in captivity, distribution and status of wild populations,
feasibility of commercial crocodile farming and the use of crocodiles
as an additional component of fish farming.
OTHER INFORMATION

The operators are looking for additional crocodiles for the
breeding project. One of the objectives of the programme is to
establish sanctuaries for release of captive-bred crocodiles. The farm
is also being used as an educational base for crocodile conservation
(20).

Two three-year-old crocodiles were planned to be released in
Calauit Wildlife Sanctuary in late 1984 (4).

There are known to be a further 17 C. n. mindorensis in captivity
in the islands of Luzon, Cebu and Negros (5).

sea *%eaa*te==*% ===

An association of 50 Japanese companies that manufacture products
made from reptile skins has obtained financial support from the
Japanese Government to start a crocodile breeding project (35):

NAME OF OPERATION

Japan Crocodile Farming Institute in the Philippines (Palawan)
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Proposed for 1987 (35).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. n. mindorensis: It is intended to start initially with a stock
of 150 females and 50 males (26). (As the wild population is estimated
to be less than 100 (5) it is difficult to see where these would come
from. )

It is hoped eventually to breed 3000 crocodiles annually (35).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The aim of the project is to conserve the near-extinct crocodile
population in the area, eventually to re-introduce it to suitable areas
to produce a sustainable yield of crocodile products.

The Institute intends to train project personnel and local
residents in crocodile-farming techniques. The 6-year project is being
jointly negotiated between the Japanese and Philippine Governments (26).

sas *ese*===% ===

NAME OF OPERATION
Name unknown.
At San Ramon, Floridablanca, Pampanga.
Operated by: Mr Romeo Saldana.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1981.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus porosus: parental breeding stock of 28 animals.
OTHER INFORMATION
Reported in 1983 to be in initial stages (6).

130

RWANDA

In 1984 the Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux
reported having given approval to a private enterprise to establish a
wildlife farm utilizing crocodiles and several species of large mammals

(90). A pilot project farming Crocodylus niloticus was reported to be
in operation in 1984 (30).

131

SENEGAL

It was reported in 1983 that there was a proposal to establish a

crocodile (presumably Crocodylus niloticus) farm in Casamance and that
funds were being sought (77).

132

SINGAPORE

A survey of crocodile farming operations, carried out by
Internationaler Reptilleder-Verband E.V. established that there were
three crocodile farms in Singapore (74). However it is apparent that
there are considerably more than this; many small-time farmers, who
keep primarily pigs and chickens, feed the waste offal and carcases to
some crocodiles (120).

Many crocodile skin businesses keep or have kept young wild
crocodiles in back-yard enclosures, raising them until they are about
two years old. Some of these establishments kept as Many as 400
animals. The young animals were reported to be fed on a diet of shrimps
and small fish until about 2 ft (60 cm) long. They were then fed on a
diet of animal skins and intestines from abattoirs until they reached a
length of 4 ft (121 cm) when they were killed (Singapore Trade, June
1961, fide 12).

According to King et al. (112), Crocodylus porosus has been extinct
as a breeding resident in Singapore for over 30 years. The large number
of rearing farms flourishes in Singapore by importing eggs and young
from other Asian and Pacific areas. Stock is known to have been
imported from Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, and the
Philippines. Some limited breeding is done on the farms. Output from
these farms is expected to decline as surrounding stocks decline.

Whitaker (200) visited two farms in 1984 and confirmed the presence
of some Crocodylus novaeguineae. He asserted that "in general, claims
of breeding can be discounted though an occasional nest may be
produced". =

Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Crocadylus novaeguineae are both
reported to be raised for both meat and skins in Singapore (65).

The Operations

NAME OF OPERATION

Tan Moh Hong Reptile Skin and Crocodile Farm

or Singapore Crocodile Farm.

782/790 Upper Serangoon Road, Singapore - 19.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was established in 1945, and occupies a site of one acre
(0.4 ha) of residential land (37).

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A brochure produced by the farm shows photographs of Crocodylus
porosus and Tomistoma schlegelii (37).

A newspaper article mentions "sea crocodiles", “river crocodiles"
and "alligators", reportedly from South-east Asia (10). Total stock
approximately 600 (37).

Monitor lizards and pythons are also reported to be kept (37).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm is an integrated operation incorporating tanning and
Manufacturing facilities. Handbags, purses, wallets, belts, shoes and
Other souvenir items are produced. Crocodile meat is also sold, both as
a delicacy and for medicinal use. The crocodiles are slaughtered at 3-5
years old. The products are sold in a farm shop and are also exported
all round the world. Some whole skins are exported to F.R. Germany,
France, Japan and other countries (37).

Some of the skins processed on the farm are imported (10).

133

Singapore

In promotional literature the farm states that "sea crocs offer the
best skins. A handbag with the familiar sea croc markings of small
scales can cost as much as S$850, and river crocodile is next down the
'scale', oddly because the scales are larger. Then comes’ the
alligator." The farm sells belts from S$15 to S$95, and small
alligator wallets from S$24. (10)

The farm receives 300-400 visitors a day (37).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Some young reptiles are imported from Asian countries while most
are "bred locally” (37).

HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are kept in large concrete pools (10). The juveniles
are fed on prawns and mussels while the older animals eat pigs' lungs
and fish (37).

The farm is linked to a country farm outside Singapore where some
250 crocodiles are kept (10).

=== * ===% ===%* ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Singapore Crocodilarium Pte Ltd

730 East Coast Parkway.

Parent company: Kaiyo Reptile Pte Ltd.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1979
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Several hundred C. porosus are Maintained as are a few dozen
Tomistoma schlegelii (102).
BREEDING

A 9-year breeding programme was initiated in 1982 (174).
OTHER INFORMATION

The operation takes the form of ranching and has been operating for
several years (132). It is open to the tourists for exhibition of the
live animals and for sale of crocodilian skin products (102). Depending
on the success of the breeding programme, further similar farms may
also be set up (174). :

NAME OF OPERATION
544-C Lim Chu Kang Road,
Singapore (2470).
Owner: Mr Eng Gee Seng,
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
About 1975 (150)
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
The total stock was over 1800 in 1985. A photograph shows some
Crocodylus porosus (150).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Skins are sold to local manufacturers of leather goods. The price
was reported to be between S$100 and S$600 each (150).

134

Singapore

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The initial stock of 80 animals was obtained from Indonesia. In
1985 the farm was receiving about 50 young animals a month from
Indonesia (150).
BREEDING

No breeding had taken place prior to 1985, but it was under
consideration (150).
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are fed on chicken or pig offal, fish, prawns and
cockles (150).
OTHER INFORMATION

The farm also has about 600 pigs, some ducks and chickens (150). It
is in an area where the Government has announced the intention of
phasing out pig farms (120).

NAME OF OPERATION
Track 13
Punggol Road
Singapore (1954).
Owner: Mr Yang.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to be operating in 1980 (15).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS =
The total stock was about 1000 in 1980. A photograph shows some
Crocodylus porosus (15).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
Skins were sold to local tanners about twice a year. Total annual
production was about 400 in 1980 (15).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
Animals were obtained from Indonesia (15).
HUSBANDRY
The crocodiles were kept in 16 enclosures (15).
OTHER INFORMATION
The farm also had about 30 000 poultry (15).

A fifth farm is reported to exist in Singapore which is operated by
Leah Liang Joo. The farm started in 1970 with 60 crocodiles. By 1976
the stock had increased in size to 3000. Most of the crocodiles are
probably C. porosus although some are reported to have been obtained
from South America (208).

135

SOUTH AFRICA

The first crocodile farm in South Africa was established in 1968
outside Pretoria and has bred crocodiles regularly since 1970. From
1977 onwards several more farms were established around the country,
and in 1983 formed themselves into the South African Crocodile Farmers’
Association. In 1984 there were at least 12 farms with a total stock of
about 2200 C. niloticus, mostly juveniles obtained from farms in
Zimbabwe and South Africa. Breeding is planned at all farms but by 1983
had only occurred at three. The wild population of crocodiles in South
Africa is very low, and to survive indefinitely all farms must
therefore operate on a closed cycle. Many of the farms obtain income
from tourists and the sale of livestock but none, except the original
farm, anticipates being able to sell skins until at least 1988. It is
not clear whether the latter has yet done so.

Cape Province

NAME OF OPERATION

Cango Crocodile Ranch Pty Ltd

Private Box 559

Oudtshoorn 6620.

Director: P.H.S. Arnold.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was established in 1977 and since that date has acted as a
tourist interpretative centre but is not yet of commercial standing.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus niloticus: stock totals over 200 animals (39).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

In 1983 it was thought unlikely that this farm and others which
belong to the South African Crocodile Farmers' Association would be
able to produce skins before 1988 (38).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The farm was established in 1977 with a stock of 120 animals. One
of these was an adult male supplied by the then Rhodesian Parks Board
and the rest were reared from wild-taken eggs supplied by Spencer's
Creek Crocodile Farm, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. In 1978 a further five
wild-caught animals were obtained from the Rhodesian Parks Board. In
1979 60 ranched hatchlings were obtained from Sengwa Mouth Crocodile
Ranch, Zimbabwe (39). All stock obtained since then has been purchased
from the Natal Parks Board in the form of captive-bred juveniles of
wild-caught parentage, totalling 50 animals in 1981 and 100 in 1982
(38).
BREEDING

In 1981 6 crocodiles were bred on the farm and in 1982 13 were bred.
HUSBANDRY

Hatchling crocodiles are kept in tiled ‘environmental tanks' which
are temperature-controlled. Older/adult animals are kept in open air
enclosures, half land, half water, which have heated retreats for the
crocodiles.

The diet consists of liver, offal, and ostrich by-products.
FINANCES

The operation is self-financing. Some income is obtained from
tourists (39).

136

South Africa

NAME OF OPERATION
Glenashby Crocodile Ranch
Glenashby
P. Bag X 513
East London
Cape Province.
Director: Ivan A. Kirk.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1983
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. niloticus: 48 juvenile animals are kept.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
None as yet, production will eventually be of skins.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
The juvenile animals were obtained from Zimbabwe but it is not yet
clear whether they were from wild sources or from Zimbabwe crocodile
ranches.
BREEDING
A breeding programme is planned.
HUSBANDRY
The stock is held indoors in heated pools and is fed two or three
times a week.
FINANCES
The farm is privately financed by the operator (113).

=== *%===%===*===

NAME OF OPERATION

Stewart's Farm

P.O. Box 4

Nkwalini

Cape Province.

Director: G.R.C. Stewart.

This farm was registered with the CITES Secretariat as a recognised
Captive-breeding operation in August 1985 (101).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1979
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: total stock, 80 animals in 1983 (171).

215 in 1984 (101).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The first skins from the farm were exported in 1985 (101).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Three adult wild crocodiles have been caught in South Africa.

Captive animals have been obtained as follows (171):

Year Adults Juveniles
1981 25 0
1982 alt i133

3 BREEDING

It was reported in 1984 that some breeding had taken place. 27 out
of 29 eggs kept in an incubator hatched successfully (93).

137

South Africa

HUSBANDRY
Adult crocodiles are kept in open ponds. Juveniles are kept in hot

houses. The diet comprises chicken, fish and beef (171).

A new hothouse is being built with viewing facilities for tourists
(93).
FINANCES

The operation is said to be self-financing (171).

138

South Africa
Natal

NAME OF OPERATION

St Lucia Crocodile Centre

Private Bag

St Lucia Estuary

Natal 3936

Operated by the Natal Parks Board.

Director: D. Blake.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: main breeding enclosure contains 14 females, 5 males
and young of unknown sex.

Osteolaemus tetraspis: 1 pair.

Crocodylus cataphractus: 2 males, 1 female (54).
In mid-1983 the Centre had 9 female, 2 male and 6 juvenile c.

niloticus (148).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Over 400 live animals have been produced for sale to crocodile
farmers, at R20 each (148).

OTHER INFORMATION

St Lucia Crocodile Centre caters mainly for tourists, and is
orientated towards public education on crocodiles. It has a small
museum, a shop, aquaria and some live crocodiles.

Hatchling crocodiles are produced for restocking purposes and also
for sale to crocodile farmers.

The Centre has a research role with a brief to monitor crocodile
farming in Natal, and also to carry out investigations and produce
recommendations on crocodile populations with special reference to Lake
St Lucia. It has also functioned as an IUCN/SSC Crocodilian Specialist
Group breeding bank since 1975 (54).

saa *%ae=%===% ===

NAME OF OPERATION

River Bend Crocodile Farm

P.O. Box 245

Ramsgate 4285

Natal.

Director: N.H. Kelly.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

October 1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: total stock 117 animals in 1983 (111).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No products had been marketed by 1983 but it was planned that stock
would be killed for their skins from 1987 onwards.

Live animals have been provided to two parks (111).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Animals have been obtained from crocodile ranches in Zimbabwe and
from crocodile farms in South Africa (148). Stock has been obtained as
follows (111):

Year Adults Juveniles

1981 0 70
1982 2 0
1983 1 44

139

South Africa

BREEDING

A breeding programme is planned and it was hoped that stock would
first produce eggs in the 1983/1984 breeding season (111).
HUSBANDRY

The farm has large open breeding pools with five different levels
varying from 2 m to 2 cm deep and stocked with two species of fish.
Sand nesting areas are provided as well as shade, lawned area and
cement basking area. Indoor accommodation has under-floor and ceiling
heating and solar-heated water is provided for crocodiles under 1.5 m.
The stock is fed on fish and chicken; the animals kept outside are fed
one whole chicken rolled in bone meal each week (111).
FINANCES

The farm is self-financing, depending on tourists for income.
OTHER INFORMATION

Educational slide shows are offered to the public on open days. The
farm is a member of the South African Crocodile Farmers’ Association.
(111).

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocworld

Crookes Brothers Ltd

P.O. Renishaw

South Coast Natal, 4181.

Manager: A.C. Pooley.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

January 1984.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: a permit is held for keeping a total stock of 8500
crocodiles (149).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

It is envisaged that the first hides will be available for sale in
1987/88. Income will also be derived from a tourist complex (149).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

A permit has been granted to obtain 72 adult crocodiles (60 females
and 12 males) from Malawi during 1984. It was hoped to purchase 1500
hatchlings from commercial farms in Zimbabwe. Thereafter the farm will
be self-supporting (149).
BREEDING

A breeding programme is planned.
HUSBANDRY

The farm has four controlled-environment buildings to house up to
2000 hatchlings for the first year of life. The buildings are designed
to take advantage of winter sunshine, and are air-conditioned for the
hot summer weather. From one year until slaughter at about 3.5 years
the crocodiles will be kept in open stock ponds where they will be
regularly graded. Breeding ponds are laid out in areas of natural bush
with viewing paths and walkways for visitors. There is an incubation
room with capacity for 5000 eggs under controlled temperature and
humidity. A cool store has been built to contain up to 40 tons of food
(149).

140

South Africa

OTHER INFORMATION

Tourism will be an important aspect of the farm. A scenic drive has
been built from the main coast road and there will be a large
restaurant with a playground and curio shops; this complex should be
open by the end of 1984. Educational facilities are planned with a
lecture room and nature trails. There will also be wildlife exhibits,
possibly including some exotics.

In the longer term, fish farming is being considered, using the
effluent from the rearing ponds for catfish (Clarias spp.) and Tilapia
spp. The fish will eventually be fed to the crocodiles (149).

=== % === %===% ===

141

South Africa
Transvaal

NAME OF OPERATION

Croco Farm

De Wildt

near Pretoria, Transvaal.

Postal address: P.O. Box 18100, Hercules, 0030 Pretoria.

Director: Jan-Gerd Kuhlmann.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Project started privately in 1968 (114); became commercial in 1978.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: Total stock about 600-700 animals (182).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The purpose of the farm is to provide crocodiles for restocking
into game reserves, as well as for commercial use (114). Although some
reports indicate that crocodiles are released into South African rivers
(11), there appears to have been no release to the wild so far. A 1978
report indicated the aim of the farm to produce 2000 crocodiles a year
(9).

Crocodile products entering trade from the farm are marked to show
that they are not from wild animals (114).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The farm was established with 14 mature '‘'nuisance' crocodiles
caught in the Republic of South Africa under permit from the South
African Nature Conservation Division. This is the only stock gained
from the wild by the farm (114).

It is reported that 20 unsexed two-year-old crocodiles were
purchased from Binga Crocodile Farm, Zimbabwe in August 1976 (182).
BREEDING

All breeding has been from the original 14 crocodiles, which have
been breeding in captivity since 1970. The farm is now beginning to
breed third generation captive stock and is said to be a closed-cycle
operation (114).

HUSBANDRY

The farm covers 20 ha (145). Breeding crocodiles are kept in
landscaped concrete pools; eggs are hatched in incubators; hatchlings
are kept in nurseries under controlled conditions; and young crocodiles
are kept in hot-houses until they are ready for marketing (114). :
FINANCES |

The farm is privately financed by Jan-Gerd Kuhlmann (114).

saa *%e==%===%===

NAME OF OPERATION

Sabie Crocodile Farm

P.O. Box 1410

Pretoria 0001.

Director: Trevor C. Bond.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

May 1981

This farm and its stock were reported to be for sale in 1984 (54).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: in April 1983 stock totalled 444 animals, 12 adults,
394 juveniles and 38 animals under one year old.

142

South Africa

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation was not producing commercially in 1983. Production
will be based on skins. Skins produced on the farm will be marked to
indicate that they are from farmed animals.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Two animals were obtained under permit from the Kruger National
Park, onto which the farm borders, in March 1981.

Stock has been obtained from the Natal Parks Board, the Cango
Crocodile Ranch and Kariba Crocodile Farm in Zimbabwe as follows:

Year Adults Juveniles

1981 8 144
1982 4 250
BREEDING

In the 1982/1983 breeding season 38 animals were bred on the farm.
HUSBANDRY

The farm has earth-floored breeding pens skirted by concrete and
containing natural and concrete rearing pens which are scrubbed out
every 24 hours. Each pen type is surrounded by chain-link fence, has
flowing water and natural shade. Further shade is provided by large
cloths where necessary. The crocodiles are fed on meat provided by the
culling operation in the Kruger National Park.

FINANCES

The farm is a commercial enterprise, run by five partners.
OTHER INFORMATION

The taking of wild crocodiles in South Africa is controlled by the
Transvaal, Natal, Cape Province and Orange Free State Governmental
Administrations.

The breeding which occurred in 1982/1983 was the first captive
breeding to have taken place in the Transvaal.

Infertile or arrested eggs are blown and sold as curios. There are
tourist facilities and a shop. The farm is situated on the main road
near the Skukuza Gate of the Kruger Park, and is therefore well-placed
for attracting tourists (60).

NAME OF OPERATION
Crocodile farm
Post Locker 21
1565 Volkskas Centre
Pretoria 0002.
Director: H.O. Penzhorn.
This farm was registered with the CITES Secretariat as a recognised
captive-breeding operation in July 1985 (101).
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
February 1982
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. niloticus: total stock 200 in 1983 (140).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
It is thought that skins from the farm were exported in 1985 (101).

143

South Africa

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

No stock has been taken from the wild. The following stock has been
obtained (140):

Year Adults Juveniles

1982 0 100

1983 0 100
BREEDING

None by 1983 (140).
FINANCES

The farm is privately financed but was not self-financing in 1983
(140).

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocodile farm

Tzaneen (Farm Langbult)

Agatha

Transvaal.

Director: Milan Darazs.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

November 1982
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: a total of 36 animals were held in 1983; 3 adults and
33 juveniles (69).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

None by 1983 (69).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The stock has been obtained from Zimbabwe and from an aquarium in
Pretoria, South Africa (69). It is not yet clear whether the animals
from Zimbabwe are of ranch or wild origin.
BREEDING

There are plans for a breeding programme.
HUSBANDRY

The stock is held in three enclosures, each 20 m x 30 m and is fed
on fish and chicken (69).
FINANCES

The farm is privately financed (69).

S=a=*%===*===F% ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocgrove Farm

Box 112

Schagen 1204

Transvaal.

Director: Michael Slogrove.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1983
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: about 50 adults and sub-adults.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation was not producing commercially in 1983. Production
will be based on skins (168).

144

South Africa

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

About 50 animals, mainly females with enough males for breeding,
ean in the Caprivi strip (Namibia) and imported under permit

1 e

BREEDING

It is intended that breeding will take place.
HUSBANDRY

The farm has large open-air ponds, surrounded by concrete and
chain-link fence in which the broodstock are kept. It is intended that
eggs will be laid in the soil amongst natural vegetation surrounding
the ponds. Concrete rearing pens have been constructed to house any
hatchlings and there is also a new block of buildings including an
incubator room and food store (168).

=== *%===%==>=*===

NAME OF OPERATION

Lomati Estates

Malelane

Transvaal.

Director: P.J. Schoeman.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: 14 breeding females

6 breeding males
200 hatchlings
20+ production stock (82).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation was not producing commercially in 1985. Production
will be based on skins (82).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The broodstock was imported from Zimbabwe (82).
BREEDING

In 1984 approximately 200 hatchlings were produced from eggs laid
on the farm. About 500 eggs were laid in 1985 which were expected to
yield some 400 hatchlings (82).
HUSBANDRY

The broodstock is kept in an open pen of about 100 m by 30m
containing an artificial lake with a maximum depth of 2m. Breeding
cubicles are located around the perimeter wall, and are floored with
clean sand. The eggs are removed within 24 h of laying and are
incubated in polystyrene boxes filled with vermiculite. After hatching,
the young are transferred to circular corrugated iron tanks, about 2 Mm
in diameter, and kept at 30°C for about the first year of life. Later
they are moved to a hothouse with a transparent roof, where they are
kept in concrete pens with sloping floors. Each pen holds about 20
females which are being raised as broodstock. Water temperature is not
controlled and all heating is by natural sunlight.

Chicken carcases are provided as food, supplemented with vitamins
and minerals (82).
FINANCES

It is planned to slaughter the animals at about three years old
when they have reached a minimum of 30 cm belly width. Current skin
prices were estimated to be R100 to R150 in 1985 (82).

145

SPAIN

A company known as Iberia Enterprises Ltd. requested "as many
crocodiles as could be supplied" from the Natal Parks Board, Republic
of South Africa, for unspecified purposes in 1979. The request was
turned down. The species involved would have been Crocodylus niloticus.
The address of the company is:

Iberia Enterprises Ltd
Felipe Bertron y Giell
3 tda 4

Barcelona.
Directors: W. Martin Schutte; Roy Bates; Carmen Cano Canalis (146).

146

SRI_ LANKA

The CITES Management Authority reported in 1983 that there were no
farms or ranches in Sri Lanka, although there had been several attempts
to start such operations (71). The estimated total number of captive
-Crocodylus palustris in Sri Lanka in 1982 was 20 (197).

147

SURINAME

A caiman farm was reported to exist in Suriname in 1979 (155);
however no further confirmation of this farm has been found and its
continued existence must be considered as dubious:

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocodile Farm of Suriname, N.V.

Groningen, District Saramacca.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Caiman crocodilus: numbers unknown.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Skins were reported to be being exported, most likely to France,
but possibly to the Netherlands and Germany (155).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The animals on the farm were probably caught on the Coesewijne
River (155).

148

TAIWAN

The Taiwan Provincial Department of Agriculture and Forestry
supplied the following details of crocodilian farms in Taiwan (177, 178):

There are 35 farms in Taiwan, the first of which was established in
W976 (177).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
"South American short-mouthed caiman" (Caiman crocodilus): about 8000
"Indian sharp-mouthed crocodile" (Gavialis gangeticus): about 300
"SE Asia estuary crocodile and others" (Crocodylus porosus): about 300
CL7 7.)

Fuchs (79) reported that there were some Tomistoma schlegelii on
one farm, but Tsai (178) also confirmed the existence of some G.
gangeticus. There are unconfirmed reports that some Alligator
Mississippiensis were obtained from the USA during 1984 by Taiwanese
farmers.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Annual production from all farms (US$1 = NT$39):

Product Weight (kg) Value (NT$)
Skins 12 500 10 million
Meat 30 000 12 million
Other 7 500 8 million

Most of this is seld within Taiwan but some is exported to Japan and
Korea (177).

The meat is sold for food rather than medicinal use, except those parts
of the skeleton, blood, and male genitalia which have medicinal value. The
skin is processed for leather manufacture (178).

BREEDING

About 2000 hatchlings are produced each year on the farms. Each mature
female lays about 25-45 eggs with a hatching rate of 45% (177).

HUSBANDRY

Ponds are usually of concrete with a soil bottom and are surrounded by
brick walls.

Juvenile crocodilians under 10 inches (25 cm) are fed on small fish and
insects while larger animals are fed chickens and pig offal (177).

=== *¥ === ¥ === * ===
Fuchs (79) supplied the following details of a farm that he had visited:
NAME OF OPERATION
Taiwan Crocodile Ltd

Nr. 225 Shin Chung Road
Matou/Tainan

149

Taiwan

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Caiman crocodilus crocodilus: a total of 5200 are kept:
4800 3 months old, 0.3 m long.
80 1.5 years old, 1.2 m long.
320 7 years old, 2.4 m long.
Crocodylus porosus: a total of 30 one-year-old animals.
Tomistoma schlegelii: A total of 15 one-year-old animals.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
Skins and meat. The meat is worth US$26.7 kg71 including bones.
BREEDING
2700 eggs are laid each year on the farm with a hatching success rate
of 13% to 15%. It appears that 300 of the breeding stock were bred on the
farm.
HUSBANDRY |
The farm covers an area of 7500 m2 with two 60 m x 60m ‘natural
lakes; four 10 m x 10 m concrete ponds; two gas-heated greenhouses, each)
20 m x 10 m and containing twelve 2.5 m x 2.5 m concrete ponds. Crocodiles
are killed at two years old when they are about 1.5 m long and weigh about
15 kg. The crocodiles are fed on chicken and freshwater fish (79).

s=s= === F===*F ===

The following company wanted to purchase 1000 live hatchling
C. niloticus, from the Natal Parks Board, Republic of South Africa, fe
import to Taiwan in 1979; the purpose was unspecified.

The EHISN International Corporation,

6th Fl. Chinar Rebar Building,

372 Lin Sen Nurih Building, 372 Lin Sen Nurih Rd,

Taipei (146).

150

TANZANIA, UNITED REPUBLIC OF

One crocodile farm was established in 1981 but closed down within four
years for financial reasons. There are plans to establish another farm in
another locality where there is readily available cheap food (176). Details
of the original farm are given:

NAME OF OPERATION

Crocodile Farm (Tanzania) Ltd

Kondo Village

Kunduchi

P.O. Box 4382

Dar es Salaam
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus niloticus. Between 1200 and 1500 were kept (108).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Stock was obtained from the Ruvu and Rufiji Rivers, Tanzania. Prior tc
April 1983 80 adults and 1400 eggs had been taken from the wild.
OTHER INFORMATION

The farm sought advice on its establishment from crocodile farms in
India, Bangkok, Abidjan, and Spencer's Creek Crocodile Ranch, Zimbabwe
(108).

It was reported to have closed down in 1985 owing to a shortage of
cheap food for the crocodiles (176).

151

THAILAND

There is only known to be one crocodilian farm in Thailand. In 1985
this farm achieved regognition by the CITES Secretariat as an approved
captive-breeding operation for Crocodylus siamensis, Crocodylus porosus
and hybrids between the two. It is not yet (June 1985) an approved
breeding operation for the other Appendix I species kept (Tomistoma
schlegelii, Crocodylus rhombifer, Alligator sinensis).

NAME OF OPERATION
The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo Co. Ltd
777 Mou 4 Taiban Road
Samutprakan
Thailand.
Founder: Utai Youngprapakorn. General Manager: Charoon
Youngprapakorn.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
1950. Became commercial in 1960.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Over the years the total farm stock has been reported as follows:

Year Numbers

1972 U2e378 (282)
1973 Ps) 637 1¢202))
1974 U2RS EA e202)
1975 16 980 (212)
1976 20 300 (212)
1980 24 500 (173)
1983 30 000 (211)
1984 10 568 (172)

The age and species composition of the stock in 1984 was reported
to be (172):

Breeding stock Immatures Total
Male Female 1-5 yrs 6-9 yrs

C. siamensis PT5S7 iby ials: 3860 850 7780 *
C. porosus 290 540 510 415 1755
Hybrids 112 208 270 120 710
T. schlegelii 2 3 0 80 85
C. crocodilus 8 1 202 0 225
C. novaeguineae 2 3 0 0 5
A. sinensis iL il 0 0 2
A. mississippiensis 1 itt 0 0 2
C. rhombifer 0 0 4 0 4
TOTAL 10568

* Including 200 additional animals over 9 yrs old.

This represents a considerable reduction from the stocks of 11 700
Crocodylus_siamensis, 8550 Crocodylus_porosus and 4100 hybrid C.
siamensis x C. porosus reported earlier (173). Whitaker (203) reported

152

Thailand

170 T. schlegelii, of all sizes, in 1981. In 1982 the farm also had one

Caiman latirostris and one Paleosuchus palpebrosus (173).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The crocodiles are bred for meat, skins and teeth, and are a
tourist attraction. An average three-year-old CC, porosus weighs

10-18 kg. Of the average 14 kg, approximately 5-7 kg of meat is
marketable (173).

Crocodiles reared for skins are usually slaughtered at three years.
Between 1980 and 1982 skins were produced as follows (209):

Year No. of skins
produced
1980 1500
1981 900
1982 200 (few were slaughtered due to

low market price for skins)

The marked reduction in the total stock of crocodilians from 29 000
in 1983 to 10 568 in 1984 suggests either that the earlier figure was
incorrect or that substantial slaughtering or other mortality occurred
during 1983 and 1984.

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Sixty percent of the skins are processed and sold locally, mostly
to tourists, while the other 40% are salted and shipped abroad (173).
In 1974 the farm was-supplying 80% of the Thai crocodile skin trade.
The skins traded are not marked to show their origin (209). Early trade
used to be directed towards Europe alone, mostly France (211).

Of the skins produced on the farm in 1980, 700 were sold to France
and 800 to Japan, in 1981 400 to France and 500 to Japan, and in 1982
all the skins were sold to Japan (209).

The meat is sold locally, mostly to restaurants as a delicacy (for
US$5 kg-l); it is also used as a treatment for asthma (173). The meat
is sold fresh on the local market with the surplus being dried and sold
to Chinese tourists at the farm's shop.

The average value of a crocodile (skin plus meat) was about US$320
in 1983. The skin business has slowed down since mid-1982. It is
reported that the unprocessed skin of a three-year-old C. porosus sold
for about US$250 and the skin of C. siamensis sold for about 10% less
(173). A more recent report (1984) put the value of skins at US$90 each
C57)!

Other trade is in teeth, which can be used as an ingredient of Thai
medicine (210), and in live animals to zoos (209). Whitaker et al.
quote values of US$10 a kg for dried meat, US$15 for lacquered heads
and US$3 for feet in Thailand (204).

In 1980 only one crocodile, an albino C. porosus female, was sold
to a zoo, the Glady Porter Zoo, Brownsville, Texas. No crocodiles were
sold to zoos during 1981 or 1982 (210).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The operation began with 20 wild-caught C. siamensis in 1950.
According to Youngprapakorn (209) no animals (presumably of C.
Siamensis and C. porosus) have been taken from the wild since 1952. The
C. crocodilus, C. novaeguineae, A. sinensis, C. latirostris and P.
Palpebrosus were acquired through the efforts of IUCN/SSC Crocodile
Specialist Group, New York Zoological Society and the first working

153

Thailand

meeting of the IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group in 1971 (173).

Six Cuban crocodiles have been obtained through a dealer from a zoo
in Czechoslovakia (211).

BREEDING

In 1960 150 young were hatched; in 1970 the hatch was 3500 (12).
Between 1950 and 1972 the farm's crocodile population increased at
10-15% annually (40).

In 1975 the farm held a breeding herd of 1000 animals; by 1975 this
had increased to 3000. In 1976 the farm reported that 5740 eggs had
been laid in captivity, with a 60% hatching success (40).

C. porosus, C. siamensis and C. crocodilus are regularly bred
beyond second generation; T. schlegelii has bred to Fl (209).

In C. porosus hatch rate is 40-50%; in C. siamensis hatch rate is
50-60%. From 10-15% of hatchlings (or up to 30% according to Leather
magazine (12)) die in their first year, then mortality drops to below
5% (173).

Recent breeding (209, 210):
Number hatched Number survived

in captivity 30 days (* 1 yr)

C. porosus

1980 1200 1165 (209)

1981 1320 1280 (209)

1982 1410 1375 (209)

1984 399 365 (172)
C. siamensis

1980 3550 3515 (209)

1981 3670 3625 (209)

1982 3750 3730 (209)

1984 2050 * 1855 (172)
Caiman crocodilus

1980 16 14 (210)

1981 4 3 (210)

1982 7 6 (210)

1984 32 * 32 (172)
Tomistoma schlegelii

1980 15 12 (210)

1981 20 18 (210)

1982 22 20 (210)

The breeding success in 1984 was reported (172) to be:

No. of Eggs/clutch Hatchlings/clutch
clutches Max Min Mean Max Min Mean
C. siamensis 100 45 20 s2'65 41 0 20.5
C. porosus 17 55 26 40.5 47 0 21.5
Hybrids 17 58 30 44.0 53 23 3725
C. crocodilus 2 20 14 17.0 20 12 16.0

154

Thailand

HUSBANDRY

The total area of the farm in 1984 was 24.25 acres (9.81 ha) but
there was a further 8.08 acres (3.27 ha) available for expansion in the
future (172). Pond facilities were listed as follows:

Breeding ponds (172):

Ss

Dimensions (m) Water Land Species
area (ha) area (ha)

44.5 x 146 0.34 0.34 C. Siamensis
37 x 44 0.09 0.06 Hybrid

65 x 81 0.27 0.27 C. Siamensis
Dies -2 43 0.03 0.08 T. schlegelii
84.5 x 9 0.07 0.03 Cc. siamensis
12 x 12 0.01 0.01 C. crocodilus
36 x.) 39 0.05 0.10 C. porosus
73.5 x 60 0.30 0.15 C. porosus

Rearing ponds for immature animals (172):

Dimensions (cm) No. of ponds
200 x 200 60
1600 x 800 35
800 x 600 6
400 x 400 50
25 x 50 240
50 x 65 51
300 x 300 4
1000 x 500 i

Each pond is surrounded by a land area larger than the water area,
with areas of sand and grass and trees to provide shade. The breeding
ponds are 1.5 m deep, irregular in shape, with circulating fresh water.
Fish are dumped in adjacent feeding ponds at 18.00 hours every day.
These pools are cleaned out daily after feeding and any excess food is
removed (173).

In each breeding pool the sex ratio is one male to three females.
Crocodiles are fed on waste fish, but if the supply is inadequate it is
supplemented with chicken wings, legs and necks. The young do not feed
for the first 7-10 days but are then fed coarsely-chopped fish until
large enough to be fed on whole fish (173).

Around the breeding ponds are 150 roofless nesting stalls, each
with a drainage ditch and each approximately 4 x 4 m with a 60 x 60 cm
door facing the pool. Nesting material (dried grass and _ other
Vegetation) is provided for both C. siamensis and C. porosus, by
placing it in the stalls. Once the eggs are laid, the females are
chased out of the pens and all further care is carried out by the farm

135

Thailand

staff. The nest temperature is checked at regular intervals each day
and steps are taken to keep the temperature at 95-98°F (35-37°C). The
humidity is also monitored and kept as constant as possible. Upon
hatching, the young are placed in a concrete nursery pool 30 m x 2m
for 7-10 days. As the young animals grow they are moved to successively
larger tanks but are always kept in crowded conditions with others of
the same age (173).

FINANCES

The farm was opened to the public in 1969 and by 1971 was receiving
3000 visitors a week at a cost of 30¢ each adult, 15¢ each child, and
$1 for foreign tourists. The farm now receives about one million
visitors annually. Income also accrues from a gift shop, refreshment
stands, elephant rides, photographers with tame pythons, stands selling
fish to feed the crocodiles and assorted amusements. Some of the
first-year hatchlings that die naturally are stuffed and sold as
souvenirs (173).

The major continuing cost is food; approximately 4000-5000 kg of
waste fish are needed daily at a cost of US$0.20 kg-l (173).

OTHER INFORMATION

The farm was established with the following objectives (212) :-

a) Preservation of crocodiles;

b) Commercial production;

c) Tourism.

It is the only major farm in that part of the world producing
commercial quantities of crocodiles (40). Tiger, snake and lizard farms
are also planned by the farm (173).

Besides the crocodilians there are 48 other species of native and
exotic reptiles on show (173), as well as birds and mammals. Pythons
are kept in large numbers and are bred (211). Other species kept
include elephant, lion, tiger, leopard, chimpanzee, gibbon, deer,
bears, wild pigs, civets, wild cats and birds (57, 172). The animals
are reported to be kept in small, dirty pens (57).

"Leather' magazine (12) named Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, near
Bangkok, as the 'Gordon Choisy Crocodile Farm'. Gordon Choisy own a
leather tannery in Paris, France.

156

TOGO

rae

a1 Sy7/,

UGANDA

The Kajansi Fish Culture Station, 12 km south of Kampala,
introduced a crocodile-rearing programme, in 1959, as a conservation
measure. In 1984, 18 very large Crocodylus niloticus and a number of
smaller animals were being kept in neglected pens. The Station is in
danger of discontinuing its crocodile rearing as it cannot afford food
for the crocodiles (43).

158

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
General Information

The first records of "farming" alligators in the USA date from the
end of the last century when a few entrepreneurs started keeping
alligators as tourist attractions (40). Such operators continue today
and, in Louisiana, are now termed "exhibitors" to distinguish them from
"farmers" who are interested in the commercial products of alligators:
skins, meat and live sales. The first commercial farms started in
Louisiana, in 1954, but very few skins were produced (105). Farms were
later established in Florida but they developed at a slow rate, and it
was not until the summer of 1978 that they sold their first
captive-raised skins (40).

SPECIES AND NUMBERS

The only species of crocodilian which is farmed commercially in the
USA is Alligator mississippiensis. The table gives a summary of the
numbers of farms which have been in existence in Louisiana (LA) and
Florida (FL). Although the total numbers of farms in Louisiana has not
changed much, many individual farms have been put into liquidation and
new farms have started up. One farm is reported in Texas.

Ce

No. of Alligator Skins Nests on Hatchlings
farms stock harvested farms produced
1954 LA 6 - - = = (105)
1975 LA 8 8357 ~ 26 493 (105)
1976 LA 7 8261 - 42 713 (105)
1977 LA 9 9162 - 59 889 (105)
1980 LA 8 13000 - - 1500 (40)
FL 5 7000 - - 2500 (40)
1983 FL 12 - = = = (83)
1984 LA 9 16829 LTS 43 1800 (103)
FL 19 32193 738 335 + 4075 (67)

Many zoos and exhibitors keep a variety of other crocodilian
species, one of the most important conservation operations being for
Crocodylus_moreletii, which has been bred in large numbers by the
Atlanta Zoological Society. About 150 of these have subsequently been
released in Mexico. Other species which have been bred include
Crocodylus intermedius, Crocodylus siamensis, Crocodylus acutus,
Crocodylus niloticus, Crocodylus porosus, Crocodylus rhombifer,
Crocodylus cataphractus, Alligator sinensis, Caiman crocodilus,
Osteolaemus tetraspis and Paleosuchus trigonatus (186).

159

U.S.A.

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Harvesting of wild alligators takes place in Florida, Louisiana
and on a small scale in Texas. In 1983 the harvest in Louisiana
amounted to 16 154 alligators, 8% of the estimated population, and
produced 100 000 lb (45.5 t) of meat (195). The total skin production
from farms in the State in 1984 was 1113 (103). Total farm skin
production in Florida was 112 in 1983 but a further 1031 live animals
were sold (25). In 1984 a total of 738 skins were produced from farms
in Florida (67).

In 1981 there were more than 200 restaurants serving alligator
meat in Florida. Farm-raised meat was said to fetch a premium price
because of better processing and to have sold for US$10 a pound
($22 kg-l). Other by-products such as feet and heads as curios and
gall bladders and penes for the Far Eastern market were said to be
potentially valued at up US$20-50 per animal although with current
marketing practice US$5 would be a more reasonable sum (41). Whitaker
et al. (204) quoted more modest prices in 1985 of US$10 kg-1 for meat
and US$20 for lacquered skulls in the USA, with US$25 kg-1 for oil,
US$5 each for dried gall bladders and US$5 a pair of dried scent glands
obtainable in Hong Kong.

In Florida licences are issued to take “nuisance” alligators, and
up to 1980 about 2000 such animals were being taken each year (30). An
experimental harvest was initiated in 1981 on the Orange and Lochloosa
Lakes and, until 1984, an annual average harvest of 330 alligators
greater than 1.2 m in length was taken (96).

All trade in alligator products, whether farmed or wild-caught, is
strictly regulated. Skins and meat must be tagged or labelled with tags
issued by the State Authorities, and the killing and sale or processing
of products of alligators also require licences. Alligator
mississippiensis is listed on the US Endangered Species Act, and
tanners of alligator skins and buyers who wish to engage in inter-state
commerce of raw skins must hold a permit from the US Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS). The killing of alligators reared in captivity requires
a Federal farming permit from the USFWS. Full details of the stock held
and whether it derives from the wild or is captive-born must be
submitted with the permit application.

Health regulations are set in each State controlling the slaughter
and processing conditions for meat destined for human consumption.
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The Louisiana ranch stocks are being supplemented with wild-caught
animals during their first five to seven years of operation to help
them acquire breeding stock and expand their operations. The farms so
supplied must comply with specified standards of facilities and
planning. Some type of environmental chamber to house juvenile
alligators over winter must be available, and farmers must, if
required, return to the State live alligators of length 0.9m
representing 5% of the hatchlings supplied. Periodic inspections are
carried out, and farmers must submit annual reports of stock and
husbandry records (105). In 1984 Louisiana Rockefeller Refuge supplied
a total of 5050 hatchlings to farmers in the State, two-thirds of which
derived from wild-collected eggs, and the remainder from eggs laid in
captivity (103).

In Florida a programme to evaluate the impact of removing eggs and
hatchlings from the wild was initiated in 1981. This relies ona

160

U.S.A.

helicopter to locate the nests, directing ground teams in airboats to
make the collection. Using three boats, up to 1800 eggs have been
collected in an 8-hour period. Hatchlings are mostly collected at night
from boats. Collection costs in 1984 were about US$5 an egg and
US$7.32-12.86 a hatchling (96). At least 3217 hatchlings were supplied
to farmers in 1984 by this supplement programme (67).
BREEDING

In 1980 the five active Florida ranches were collectively
producing an average of 2500 hatchlings a year (40). In 1983 2635
hatchlings were produced from 6 ranches (25). In 1984 breeding took
place on 11 ranches, producing a total of 4075 surviving hatchlings.
These were derived from a total of 11 818 eggs laid, giving a mean
hatching succcess rate of 34% (range 0-81%). The mean number of eggs
per nest was 33.0 (67).

Only one of the Louisiana ranches was breeding alligators in 1984,
when it produced 1800 hatchlings (103).
HUSBANDRY

According to Ashley (40) an area of at least 10 acres (4.2 ha) is
needed for an alligator farm. Breeding ponds have to be constructed,
and wells and pumps adequate to maintain water levels are essential.
Concrete rearing pools capable of housing 500 to 1000 alligators of
each age class would also have to be constructed. Storage facilities,
freezers, coolers, food preparation areas, and skinning and handling
areas are also needed.
FINANCES =

Running costs for an alligator ranch were estimated in 1980 to
total between US$50 000 and US$200 000 over the first three years (40).

Based on average values of US$49.21 a linear metre for skins and
US$11.02 kg-l for meat, farmed animals were worth about US$200-300 at
slaughter in 1984. The costs of raising a hatchling to this size were
estimated to be US$75-100 which, assuming a 903 survival rate, gave a
profit of US$125 per animal. Very large wild-killed animals of 3.5m
have raised over US$1000 each (96). Ashley (41) gave a value in 1981 of
US$355 for each animal, comprising US$170 for a 17" (43-cm) belly-width
hide and US$175 for 25 lb of meat (US$15.4 kg-l).

161

U.S.A.
Louisiana

NAME OF OPERATION

Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, captive propagation project

Rockefeller Refuge, Grand Chenier, Louisiana.

Operated by: Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

In 1959 the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries
initiated an alligator research programme involving Alligator
mississippiensis, in two parts:

i) field studies on life history;

ii) a culture programme incorporating the facts derived from the
field study (considering reproductive activity, stocking density, food
requirements and social order).

The aim of the programme was to demonstrate the feasibility of
raising alligators in captivity (104).

The Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries controls all
alligator harvest and farming activities in the State. The Rockefeller
Refuge maintains incubation facilities to supply hatchlings to farmers.
In 1984 two-thirds of the hatchlings supplied to farmers in the State
derived from wild-collected eggs and one third from eggs laid at the
Refuge (103).

In 1976 an Alligator sinensis propagation programme was begun (107).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: about 200 broodstock were kept in 1978 (105).

A. sinensis: this operation is based on three mature alligators
(44).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The operation is a conservation project and does not produce
animals for trade (107). It does, however, supply the hatchlings from
wild-collected, artificially incubated eggs to farmers. In 1984 a total
of 5050 hatchlings were supplied to 9 farmers (103). The A. sinensis
offspring produced have been transferred to the New York Zoological
Park and the Texas Zoological Park at Houston (45).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

A. mississippiensis: This operation was based on wild-caught stock
and eggs. The eggs collected from the wild within 24 hours of being
laid or after the 4th week of incubation produced the greatest success
in the farm-incubation (104).

A. sSinensis: All of the animals were obtained from captive
sources. The original four adult alligators were from the New York
Zoological Park and the U.S. National Zoological Park (107).

BREEDING

A. _mississippiensis: The first farming efforts involved capturing
wild alligators and housing them in large breeding ponds. A stocking
rate of one male and one female in each pen (0.4 ha) produced
successful nesting. Attempts to keep several females with one male
resulted in fighting and mortality. Subsequent improvements to the pen
design to mimic natural conditions allowed higher stocking rates.
Multiple nesting of wild adult females was achieved only after small
isolation ponds were added to the breeding enclosures (104).

Use of wild-caught adults as breeders proved impractical because
they were found to require more space than animals reared in captivity;
but these animals did provide a source of eggs which later formed the

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basis for future breeding stock for a commercially acceptable breeding
programme (107).

Age at first nesting, for alligators raised in chambers for three
years then transferred to outside pens, was 5 years 10 months compared
to 9 years 10 months for wild animals, but reproductive success may not
be comparable until the captive-reared animals reach 10 years. The
fecundity, fertility and hatching success all increased with age. By
the fourth year of breeding the clutch size was approaching 39 eggs,
the average for wild nests. Egg fertility of cultured stock averaged
only 47% over three years, compared with 87.5% for wild-caught animals
reared in pens. Hatchability was also lower at 443% compared to 58% for
wild-caught animals (107).

Eggs were incubated at 29-33°C in trays, supported over water,
completely enclosed in natural nesting materials to aid degradation of
the eggshell (104). Hatching success was found to be best at a
temperature of 31-31.7°C (105).

A. _Sinensis: The operation had some trouble in producing offspring
at first but after a change in the diet, has had some success. In 1977
one hatchling was produced, however it died within six weeks. In 1979
four young were successfully raised and in 1980, 24 were raised. Over
this period the hatching success rate works out to be approximately 503
(45).

HUSBANDRY

Wild-caught adults were found to require 10 times more space than
Captive-reared animals. Stocking rates for captive-reared animals
ranged from 12-46 adults 0.4 ha-l. Juveniles up to three years of age
were kept in environmental chambers maintained at 29-32°C, Stocking
densities were held at 10m 2 for the first year and were then
reduced to 3.3 m-2 for older animals (107).

The feeding rate was 25% of body weight a week for the first year
reducing to 18% by the end of the third year. The alligators were fed
on fish (Micropogon undulatus) or nutria (Myocastor coypus). The
nutria-fed animals were 20% heavier and 3% longer on average than the
fish-fed animals, at the end of the study. Behavioural differences were
also observed, the nutria-fed animals being more active and aggressive.
On a fish diet 49.5% of the dry weight of food fed was converted to
body weight over a 33-month period. The feeding rate of adults in
Outside pens was approximately 6-7% of body weight a week (104).

Mortality of hatched animals was less than 5% for the three-year
Study (104).
FINANCES

In 1973-75 it was estimated that it cost US$20 to raise one
alligator to an age of 33 months. This included all running costs, but
excluded labour and capital outlay (107).

The A. Sinensis project is financed by the New York Zoological
Society (107).

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Researchers who have worked at Rockefeller Refuge include M.J.W.
Ferguson, from Manchester University, and V. Lance from Tourlane
University, New Orleans.

Results from the operation have been published in a number of
articles including those used as references here.

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U.S.A.

OTHER INFORMATION

The A. sinensis project was initiated in response to the decline of
the species in the wild and began with a pooling of adult specimens
already in the USA for propagation purposes. The Rockefeller Refuge was
chosen as the site for the captive-breeding project as this was seen to
be the closest possible substitute for the animals natural habitat
available in the USA. Production of offspring from the operation is
hoped to provide a source of animals for the captive population (45).

ses *%s==%===%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Cocodrie Farms
9034 S. Vignes
Baton Rouge,
LA. 70817.
Operated by: D.R. Keller.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The operation was established in 1977 and became commercial in 1980
(109).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 400 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
325 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
125 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
140 over 4 ft, including 9 breeding males and
33 breeding females

TOTAL 990 (136)
A. mississippiensis: in 1984 stock held before the harvest was 1215
immature and 42 adults (103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
The following numbers of skins have been produced on the ranch:

Year Skins produced Trade destination
1980 225 USA and Japan (109)
1981 250 Japan (109)

1982 200 USA and Japan (109)
1983 161 ? (136)

1984 200 ? (103)

All skins produced are tagged according to regulations set by the
Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries so they may be
distinguished as being from captive-raised animals (109).

Animals are also being kept for breeding purposes.

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All ranch stock has been obtained from the Louisiana Department of
Wildlife as juvenile animals which are raised at the Louisiana
Department of Wildlife Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier,
Louisiana (110). Numbers are as follows:

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Year Numbers of animals

1980 250

1981 375

1982 350 (109)

1983 400 (136)

1984 500 (103)
BREEDING

In 1983 and 1984 a total of 42 five-year-old alligators were being
kept to establish a breeding programme. As these animals mature and
begin to breed successfully the ranch should become self-sustaining
with regard to stock (110). During 1983 these animals first attempted
nesting. Four clutches comprising 113 eggs were laid, from which 14
young hatched (136).

HUSBANDRY

The adult animals are kept in a 1.5-acre (0.62-ha) ‘natural
habitat" enclosure enclosed by a 6 ft (1.83-m) chain-link fence. The
juveniles are kept in completely enclosed heated chambers measuring
10 ft x 32 ft (3.05 m x 9.75 m), with drains and a fresh water source
(109).

The alligators are fed mainly on non-oily saltwater fish but also
on red meat procured during the local trapping season (110).

FINANCES

The operation is privately financed and was not self-financing in

1983 (109). -

NAME OF OPERATION
Sauros Inc.
RTI Box 270A
Bell City
LA 70630.
Operated by: Emilie D. Perkins.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The operation was started in June 1979 and became commercial in
October 1981.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 1050 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
987 between 2 ft and 3 £t (0.91 m)
995 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
277 over 4 ft

TOTAL 3309 (136)

A. mississippiensis: in 1984 stock held before the harvest
totalled 3950, all immature (103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The ranch hopes eventually to produce alligator meat, skins and
teeth as commercial products, but as yet no animals have been killed.
Alligators are also kept alive for medical research, release to the
wild and to provide breeding stock for other alligator ranches. There
Was no production in 1980.

165

U.S.A.

In 1981 and 1982 the ranch produced the following:

Year Product No. of animals Destination of
involved product
1981 Live animals for
medical research. 52 Canada & USA
Live animals for
breeding stock. 400 USA
1982 Live animals for
medical research. 50 Canada & USA
Live animals for
breeding stock. 500 USA (141)
1983 ?
1984 Skins harvested 400 ? (103)

During the period 1980-82, the following live alligators were
released in Louisiana:

Year Age of animals Numbers of animals
released released
1980 2 years 35
1981 2 years 50
1982 1 year 100
2 years 50 (141)
1984 ? 50 (103)

SOURCE OF AMIMALS

Between 1980 and 1982 all stock was obtained from the Louisiana
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. This stock was captive-bred from
animals which had themselves been “bred in captivity” (141). The
numbers obtained are as follows:

Year No. of animals

1980 700

1981 1000

1982 1000 (141)

1983 1050 (136)

1984 1000 (103)
BREEDING

Breeding stock is apparently being built up on the ranch, but as
yet all the stock is too young to breed.
HUSBANDRY

The stock is kept in fibreglass tanks in heated buildings until
three years old and is then kept in fenced outdoor ponds designed for
breeding. The alligators are fed on the waste products of the local
fur trapping and fishing industries (141).
FINANCES

The operation is privately financed and is not yet self-financing.
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Breeding results will be published after the breeding programme
has been established.

Research work is carried out by the Louisiana Department of
Wildlife and Fisheries.

166

U.S.A.

OTHER INFORMATION

The ranch operates on a co-operative basis with the Louisiana
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and is being supplied with F2
hatchlings over a period of seven years after which the breeding stock
will have matured and the operation will become a closed-cycle (141).

=== * === %===*===

NAME OF OPERATION

General Delivery

Springfield, LA 70462.

Operated by: Leonard K. Coats
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The first hatchlings were obtained in 1984 (103).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 500 immature in 1984 (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

500 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in 1984
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were being harvested in 1984 (103).

=== *% === %===%===

NAME OF OPERATION
703 Thompson Drive
Hammond, LA 70401.
Operated by: Robert Kliebert.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 3200 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
3700 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
2400 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
1100 over 4 ft, including 52 breeding males
and 91 breeding females

TOTAL 10400 (136)

In 1984 the stock before the harvest was reported to be 300
adults and 7300 immature (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

300 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in 1984
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

408 skins were harvested in 1984 (103).
BREEDING

917 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 33 clutches. From these
700 hatched (136).

73 nests were laid on the farm in 1984, from which 1800
hatchlings were produced (103).

167

U.S.A.

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: George Bartmess.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The first hatchlings were obtained in 1984 (103).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
A. mississippiensis: 500 immature in 1984 (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
500 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
No animals were old enough to harvest skins in 1984 (103).

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NAME OF OPERATION
Louisiana Land and Exploration.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The first hatchlings were obtained in 1984 (103).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
A. mississippiensis: 500 immature in 1984 (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
500 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
No animals were old enough to harvest skins in 1984 (103).

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NAME OF OPERATION
10555 Barbara Drive
Baton Rouge
LA 70130.
Operated by: Steele B. McAndrews.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 995 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
125 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
332 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
319 over 4 ft

TOTAL 1771 (136)

In 1984 the stock before the harvest was reported to be
immature (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

1000 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

105 skins were harvested in 1984 (103).

saa %s==%===% ===

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: Robert Ferrington.

168

1984

1984

1772

1984

U.S.A.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The first hatchlings were obtained in 1984 (103).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
A. mississippiensis: 500 immature in 1984 (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
500 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in 1984
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
No animals were old enough to harvest skins in 1984 (103).

=== *===%===%==

NAME OF OPERATION
Operated by: Travis Barron.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The first hatchlings were obtained in 1984 (103).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
A. mississippiensis: 250 immature in 1984 (103).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
250 hatchlings were obtained from the Rockefeller Refuge in 1984
(103).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
No animals were old enough to harvest skins in 1984 (103).

The addresses of 10 other alligator breeders in 1983 are given
below. The first five are exhibitors and the remaining five
non-commercial, merely keeping alligators as a hobby (103):

its City of Alexandria Zoological Park, P.O. Box 71, Alexandria, LA
71301.

2. Greater Baton Rouge Zoo, P.O. Box 60, Baker, LA 70704.

3. Audubon Park Commission, P.O. Box 4327, New Orleans, LA 70178.

4, Snake Farm, P.O. Box 96, LaPlace, LA 70068.

5. La Purchase Gardens and Zoo, P.O. Box 123, Monroe, LA 71201.

6. John Paul Crain, P.O. Box 118, Grand Chenier, LA 70643.

ie. Norman Perrilloux, 700 Glockner Ct., Mandeville, LA 70448.

8. Ernest Lile Jr., Star Route A, Box 411, Franklin, LA 70538.

9. Hazel Rottman, Star Route Box 206-A, Ponchatoula, LA 70454,

10. Ernest Winbourne, Gator, Inc., 4616 Beau Lac Lane, Metairie,
LA 70001.

169

U.S.A.
Florida

NAME OF OPERATION
Gator Jungle
26205 Hy 50
PO Box 209
Christmas
Florida 32709.
Operated by: H.W. Brooks.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The operation was established and became commercial in 1970.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 500 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
600 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
450 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
1970 over 4 ft, including 280 breeding males
and 200 breeding females

TOTAL 3520 (136)

The total stock at 31 December 1984 was 3947 A. mississippiensis
and 15 Crocodylus niloticus (67).

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The alligators are reared for their skins and meat. Some stock is
being reared for breeding purposes.

Skins entering trade, produced on the ranch, are marked by means
of tags attached to the hide so indicating that the hide is of ranched
origin. Alligator meat produced on the ranch is packaged in boxes
marked with seals.

No skins were sold in 1983 (136) or 1984 (67).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

A total of 200 juvenile alligators were taken from the wild in
1981 (62). A further 200 juveniles were acquired from the Florida Game
and Freshwater Fish Commission in 1983 (136) and 500 in 1984 (67).
BREEDING

Breeding has occurred as follows:

Year Number Bred in Number Survived
Captivity 30 Days

1980 861 860

1981 688 681

1982 300 280 (62)

1983 191 180 (136)

1984 147 ? (67)

A total of 21 clutches of eggs were laid in 1983, comprising 800
eggs (136). 657 eggs were laid in 1984 (67).
HUSBANDRY

The stock is kept in five lakes and ponds, and 45 concrete tanks.
FINANCES

The operation is privately financed.

170

U.S.A.

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research iS carried out by the Florida Alligator Farmers
Association and the University of Florida. The results of the
operation are published (62).

NAME OF OPERATION
CsTt Gator Farm
P.O. Drawer 1208
Keystone Heights
Florida 32656.
Operated by: Don R. Morgan.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The operation was established in June 1980, and was planned to be
commercial by September 1984.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 988 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
114 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
176 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
500 over 4 ft, including 72 breeding males
e and 157 breeding females

TOTAL 1178 (25)

2406 alligators were held on 31 December 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

It is intended that the operation will produce meat and skins as
well as animals for release to the wild (129).

This farm is allowed to harvest skins but no permit was applied
for in 1983 and no sales took place (25). 42 hides were sold in 1984
(67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Alligators have been obtained from the wild within the State of
Florida as follows:

Year Number obtained Number survived
30 days

1981 1000 995

1982 800 740 (129)

1983 1000 988 (25)

1984 ? 506 (67)

Capture is regulated by the Florida Game and Fish Department.

275 animals were obtained in 1980 from other alligator ranches
(129).
BREEDING

In 1982 15 young were bred in captivity and 150 wild-collected
eggs were hatched. The number of hatchlings to survive to 30 days from
the wild eggs was 148, mortality just over 1% (129).

In 1983 13 clutches of eggs were laid with a total of 205 eggs,
of which only one hatched (25).

In 1984 35 clutches were laid with a total of 1105 eggs, of which
122 hatched (67).

171

U.S.A.

HUSBANDRY

The alligators are kept in an environmentally controlled concrete
building, and also in lakes. They are fed all year (129).
FINANCES

The operation is privately financed and is not yet self-financing
(129).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Dr Paul Cardeilhac carries out research at the operation (129).

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NAME OF OPERATION
Froehlich's Gator Country
26256 E. Hwy 50
Christmas
FL 32709.
Operated by: Ed Froehlich.
This farm moved from 8900 W Lake Park Road, Lake Park, FL 33401 to
Christmas in 1983 (186).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 2000 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
1050 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
1500 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
1000 over 4 ft, including 68 breeding males
and122 breeding females

TOTAL 5550 (25)

The total stock at 31 December 1984 was 3845 alligators (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

The farm is allowed to harvest skins but the permit to sell skins
was not renewed in 1983 as no request was received. A total of 1031
live alligators were sold during 1983, 996 juveniles and 35 breeding
stock (25). No skins were sold in 1984 (67).

BREEDING

1389 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 46 clutches. From these
1053 hatched, of which 1000 survived until 31 December 1983 (25).

At Lake Park the broodstock was kept in two natural ponds,
several acres in size. In 1980 40 nests were laid, from which it was
hoped to hatch 800 young at an average hatching rate of 65%. Eggs are
removed from the nests and incubated artificially in trays containing
decomposing vegetation (30).

HUSBANDRY

At Lake Park hatchlings up to one year old were reared in
enclosed chambers measuring 5 ft x 6 ft x 14 in (1.52 m x 1.83 m x
0.36 m) with 100 in each. 100 two-year-olds were reared in each open
pen measuring 6 ft x 12 ft (1.83 m x 3.66 m), and 3- to 4-year-olds
are kept in larger pens, measuring 20 ft x 20 ft (6.10 m), again with
100 in each. Alligators reared in these pens were found to be more
easy to manage than those reared in natural pens (30).

It is not known what facilities are available at the new site at
Christmas.

Food is mostly mixed saltwater fish and chicken necks. Breeding
females are given vitamin supplements (30).

172

U.S.A.

FINANCES

In 1980 skins were selling at about US$7 a belly inch
($2.76 cm-l), and the meat, which was supplied to local gourmet
restaurants, at US$6 1b71 ($13.20 kg-l). A 6-£t (1.83-m) alligator
weighs about 80 lb (36 kg), half of which is meat. This therefore
fetched twice the value of the skin (30).
OTHER INFORMATION

Turtles (Trionyx spp.) were also being bred for the pet trade,
hatchlings fetching US$2 each (30).

=== *===*%===*===

NAME OF OPERATION
Rt. 1, Box 340
Bell
FL 32619.
Operated by: Joel W. Smith.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 597 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
480 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
542 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
2251 over 4 ft, including 158 breeding males
and 494 breeding females

TOTAL 3870 (136)

Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 4282 alligators (67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

No animals were acquired from captive sources during 1983 (25).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

118 skins were sold in 1983 (136) and 540 in 1984 (67).

The farm also sells alligator meat (166).
BREEDING

2104 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 57 clutches. From these
670 hatched, of which 665 survived until 31 December 1983 (136).

In 1984, 94 nests were laid, totalling 2777 eggs, from which 1023
hatchlings were produced (67).
OTHER INFORMATION

A few freshwater turtles are also kept at the farm (166).

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NAME OF OPERATION
Hunt's Alligator Breeding
Route 1, Box 25
Gator Farm Road
Bushnell
FL 33513.
Operated by: Clyde Hunt.

173

U.S.A.

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 1060 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
243 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
705 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
1331 over 4 ft, including 113 breeding males
and 178 breeding females

TOTAL 3339 (25)

Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 4026 alligators (67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

None during 1983 (25).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

65 skins were sold in 1983 (25) and 78 in 1984 (67).
BREEDING

2545 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 65 clutches. From these
768 hatched, of which 755 survived until 31 December 1983 (25).

In 1984, 49 clutches, totalling 2121 eggs were laid, from which
717 hatchlings survived (67).

All offspring are captive-bred and no eggs or hatchlings are
taken from the wild (186).

NAME OF OPERATION
Godwin's Gatorland, Inc.
Hwy 441 North
Kissimmee
FL 32741.
Operated by: Frank Godwin.
(The US Fish and Wildlife Service supplied a different address for
this operation in 1985: Gatorland Zoo, 14501 S. Orange Blossom Trail,
Orlando, FL 32821).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 996 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
777 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
857 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
90 over 4 ft
+ approximately 1000 breeding animals

TOTAL 3720 (25)

At 31 December 1984 the farm held a total of:
4181 A. mississippiensis
36 Crocodylus acutus
23 Caiman crocodilus
1 Crocodylus porosus

1 Crocodylus moreletii (67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

952 young were supplied by the Florida supplement programme in
1983 (25) and 788 in 1984 (67).

174

U.S.A.

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1983. The farm is allowed to harvest skins
but did not request a permit in 1983 (25). 78 hides were sold in 1984
(67).
BREEDING

1241 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 47 clutches. From these
55 hatched (25).

In 1984, 35 nests, totalling 1074 eggs were laid, from which 238
hatchlings survived (67).
HUSBANDRY

The breeding stock is kept in one large open pond, making an
accurate census impossible (25).

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NAME OF OPERATION
J. & M. Game Farm
PO Box 24
Kirby Thompson Road
Palmdale
FL 33935.
Operated by: James L. and Maduine Posey.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was established prior to 1983
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 1 less than 1 £t (0.30 m)
57 between 1 ft and 2 ft (0.61 m)
22 between 2 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
47 between 4 ft and 6 ft (1.83 m)
16 over 8 ft (2.44 m)

TOTAL 143 (25)

Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 367 alligators (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1983. The farm has no permit to harvest
skins (25).
BREEDING

252 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 6 clutches. From these
58 hatched of which all were surviving on 31 December (136).

In 1984, 7 nests were laid, totalling 277 eggs, from which 224
hatchlings survived (67).
HUSBANDRY

The breeding stock is kept in one large open pond, having an area
of about 0.5 ha. There is a separate l-ha rearing enclosure with a
Similar-sized pond.

An incubator constructed from a converted freezer truck is also
present (25).

175

U.S.A.

NAME OF OPERATION
Limestone Farms, Inc.
1419 Taylor Road
Brandon
FL 33511.
Operated by: John W. Evans & Mr Davis.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 91 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
34 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
0 over 3 ft
TOTAL 125 (25)
Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 124 alligators (67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All the animals were obtained from the Savage Alligator Farm

during 1983 (25).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
No permit to harvest skins was issued in 1983 as the farm was
(25).
BREEDING
None reported in 1983 (25) or 1984 (67).

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NAME OF OPERATION

357 S. Orange Street

Sebring

FL 33807.

Operated by: Steve Kackley.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Stock at 31 December 1983:

A. mississippiensis: 292 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)

116 over 6 ft (1.83 m)

TOTAL 408 (25)

Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 1074 alligators (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No permit to harvest skins was issued in 1983 as the farm was
(25).
BREEDING

41 nests were laid in 1984, totalling 1145 eggs, from which
hatchlings survived (67).

176

new

new

666

U.S.A.

NAME OF OPERATION

Howell Alligator Farm

Route 1, Box 1675

Plant City

FL 33566.

Operated by: John T, Howell.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Stock at 31 December:

A. mississippiensis: 230 in 1983 (25)

158 in 1984 (67)

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No permit to harvest skins was issued in 1983 as the farm was new
(25).
BREEDING

No breeding took place in 1984 (67).

=== *e==%===%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Swampy Farms (AKA Hilltop Farms) 2
PO Box 818
1107 West Main Street
Avon Park
FL 33825.
Operated by: Lawler M. Wells.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 30 June 1984:
A. mississippiensis: 172 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
939 between 2 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
713 between 4 ft and 6 ft (1.83 m)
206 between 6 ft and 8 ft (2.44 m)
189 over 8 ft

TOTAL 2219 (25)

Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 2689 alligators (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was issued
as the farm was new (25).
BREEDING

31 nests were laid in 1984, containing 1066 eggs, from which 377
hatchlings survived (67).

NAME OF OPERATION
Circle G Alligator Ranch
Route 3, Box 219
Bushnell
FL 33513.
Operated by: John F. Galvin.

177

U.S.A.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as “new" in 1983, and was probably
established in April 1982 (83).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 59 at 31 December 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was issued
as the farm was new (25).
BREEDING

No breeding took place in 1984.

=== *===%===%*===

NAME OF OPERATION
Nelson Fence Co.
Exotic breeders
755 South Little John Road
Inverness
FL 32650.
Operated by: Ron Nelson.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1984:
2 Paleosuchus sp.

2 Crocodylus acutus
3 Crocodylus niloticus

1 Crocodylus siamensis (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. The farm only intends to breed
animals for live sale (25).
BREEDING

No breeding took place in 1984 (67).

=== *%s==%===*===

NAME OF OPERATION
Flying "P" Ranch
PO Box 892, Hwy 471 North
Bushnell
FL 33513.
Operated by: George O. Parrot.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to exist prior to July 1983 (83).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. Mississippiensis: 673 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
0 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
0 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
70 over 4 ft, including 19 breeding males
and 51 breeding females

TOTAL 743 (136)
Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 1256 alligators (67).

178

————————

U.S.A.

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

453 hatchlings were obtained from the US Fish & Wildlife
Co-operative Research Unit in 1983 (136).

544 hatchlings were obtained from the State in 1984 (67).

107 hatchlings were obtained from another alligator farmer in
1983 (136).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was issued
(25).
BREEDING

299 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 8 different clutches.
From these 114 hatched (136).

In 1984, 26 nests were laid, totalling 1092 eggs, from which 292
hatchlings survived (67).

NAME OF OPERATION
Bonnie Farms
PO Box 313, Hwy 621 East
Lake Placid
FL 33852. s
Operated by: Joe Tillman.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
The farm was reported to exist prior to July 1983 (83).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Stock at 31 December 1983:
A. mississippiensis: 407 less than 2 ft (0.61 m)
0 between 2 ft and 3 ft (0.91 m)
0 between 3 ft and 4 ft (1.22 m)
131 over 4 ft, including 12 breeding males
and 22 breeding females

TOTAL 538 (136)

Total stock at 31 December 1984 was 1581 alligators (67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

175 hatchlings were obtained from the Florida Game & Fish
Supplement Programme in 1983 (136) and 879 in 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was issued
(25).
BREEDING

264 eggs were laid in 1983 in a total of 9 clutches. From these,
144 hatched of which 144 survived until 31 December (136).

In 1984, 16 nests were laid, totalling 369 eggs, from which 213
hatchlings survived (67).

179

U.S.A.

NAME OF OPERATION

Gomes Gator Farm

Route 1, Box 484

Riverview

FL 33569.

Operated by: Frank R. Gomes.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was reported to exist prior to July 1983 (83).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 53 at 31 December 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was
(25).
BREEDING

No breeding took place in 1984 (67).

sa=*%===%===% ===

NAME OF OPERATION

Ken's Land Clearing

2460 State Road 17 South

Avon Park

FL 33825.

Operated by: Ken Geiger.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 200 at 31 December 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was
as the farm was new (25).
BREEDING

issued

issued

No successful breeding took place in 1984, although one nest of

34 eggs was laid (67).

NAME OF OPERATION

Gator Jungle of Plant City

Route 2, Box 884

Plant City

FL 33527.

Operated by: Tracy Howell.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 365 at 31 December 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was
as the farm was new (25).
BREEDING

56 hatchlings were produced in 1984 from 101 eggs (67).

180

issued

OL LE CC ™—“—s~—

U.S.A.

NAME OF OPERATION

904 Lake Josephine Drive

Sebring

PL 33511.

Operated by: Edward E. (Gene) and Dennis R. Pella.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was described as "new" in 1984 (25).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 200 at 31 December 1984 (67).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins were sold in 1984. No permit to harvest skins was issued
as the farm was new (25).
BREEDING

No breeding took place in 1984 (67).

=a=*¥e==%===%===

NAME OF OPERATION

Gator Acres, Inc.

Rt. 2, Box 335-K

Gainesville

FL 32601 y

Operated by: Craig A. Lycan.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The farm was established in 1984 (205).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

A. mississippiensis: 110 at 31 December 1984 (67).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Broodstock was purchased in 1984 (205).
BREEDING

No breeding took place in 1984 (67).

saa *ee=%===*===

One farm was reported to exist in July 1983, by the Florida Game
and Freshwater Fish Commission (83) but not in 1984:

Savage Gator Farm, Route 1, Box 142, Arcadia, FL 33812.

Limestone Farms report having purchased livestock from this farm
in 1984 (25).

The address of a further farm was supplied by the US Fish and
Wildlife Service in 1985 (136):

Thomas A. Taylor, Gatorland Alligator Farm, Rt. 3, Box 27B, St
Augustine, FL 32084.

Texas
The address of one farm was supplied by the US Fish and Wildlife

Service in 1985 (136):
Warren Lynch, Star Rt. 1, Box 624-A, Rockport, TX 78382.

181

URUGUAY
A project involving the captive breeding of Caiman _latirostris for

conservation purposes was planned in 1977 (8) but has not so far been
implemented (1).

182

———E——————————————

VENEZUELA

Following excessive hunting, all crocodilians were protected in
Venezuela. However the Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales
Renovables (MARNR), encouraged by the recovery of wild populations of

Caiman _crocodilus, has recently proposed a possible multi-level

Management scheme for skin exploitation of this species. An
experimental scheme allows for a controlled harvest of caimans mainly
on private ranches, based on population estimates conducted by MARNR
(152). The means by which these estimates are produced and the level of
the harvest are under discussion.

It iS proposed that the population should receive continued
protection outwith the licensed harvest and several measures have been
Suggested to encourage the wild population. At the lowest level this
would involve the protection of nesting areas and ponds’ from
agricultural pressures. More active assistance could be provided by
constructing ponds in regions where they normally dry up in the dry
season, the relocation of threatened groups of juveniles, and the
control or exclusion of predators.

Other options under consideration are _ ranching, either by
collecting and incubating caiman eggs and releasing the juveniles, or
by rearing them to commercial size in captivity. The MARNR already runs
an experimental centre to investigate techniques of captive rearing. As
a result of this experience it recommended, in 1982, taking eggs from
the nests of wild crocodiles, and incubating them; raising the
hatchlings in 1m x 3m tanks, with 100 animals to a tank, for one
year; feeding the young on small fish, finely chopped meat and insects,
which would be attracted to the tanks at night by bright lights hanging
above. After one year the young caiman would be returned to semi-wild
conditions in the form of fenced-off natural lakes and rivers where
again they would be fed on fish and meat, The animals would be
harvested after three years for their skins, the meat being fed back to
the younger stock (17).

Two private ranches in the Llanos region, Hato Masaguaral and Hato
El Frio, have been keeping Crocodylus intermedius and have succeeded in
breeding them. Some hatchlings have been released to the wild, but this
is purely a conservation exercise, as the wild population is too low to
allow exploitation at present. Experiments have also begun on
collecting and incubating eggs of Caiman _crocodilus_to evaluate the
shbatsesth eedgasing juveniles, on the potential harvest of the wild

183

WESTERN SAMOA

According to a newspaper report in 1981, a West German proposed to
build a crocodile farm on the island (21). No more has been heard of
the proposal, but the Government Director of Agriculture and Forests
declared that there was no wildlife farming of any kind in 1983 (156).

184

ZAMBIA

There are up to four crocodile farms in Zambia, but only two of
these are operating on a large scale. The first was established in 1980.

NAME OF OPERATION

Kariba Crocodile and Fish Farms Ltd

P.O. Box 34284

Lusaka

Zambia.

Director: Mr G.J. Parker.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

Crocodylus niloticus: around 2000 crocodiles were held in 1984,
consisting of 800 two-year-olds, 800 one-year-olds and 400 hatchlings
(139).

The stock later in 1984 was reported to be 2273 animals (176).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

In 1982, 90 farm-raised crocodiles were expected to be ready for
marketing by the end of 1983 (18), however no commercial production
took place (138). It was hoped that the sale of skins to French tanners
would commence in 1985 (139).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

All stock has been obtained from the wild. Eggs have been collected
in Zambia under Government licence and hatched at the farm. The
Government controls the number of eggs allowed to be taken and the
areas from which this can be done. They then demand the release of 103%
of the stock after two years (138).

Eggs obtained from the wild and hatching success 1981-82

Year Number of eggs Number hatched Hatch rate
obtained

1981 1655 1417 86%

1982 880 794 90% (138)

The quota for the collection of eggs in 1984 was 4000 (176).

The operation hoped to be permitted to catch adult animals for
breeding purposes in 1984. The Zambian Government requires the
Operation to have suitable holding facilities prepared before they will
issue licences to capture adult crocodiles (139).

BREEDING

Breeding has not yet commenced on the farm as the rearing stock is
still immature (138), however there are plans to acquire a breeding
nucleus of 10 females and two males from the wild (176).

HUSBANDRY

The animals are held in concrete enclosures of approximately 60%
land and 40% water. They are fed on small whole fish, obtained from the
fishing aspect of the operation, and some goat meat (138).

The farm was reported to be experiencing difficulties with the
water system and hygiene in 1984 (176).

FINANCES

The operation depends upon the commercial fishery run in
conjunction with it on Lake Kariba, Zambia, for both income and feed
(138).

185

Zambia

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research is carried out by Gordon Parker mainly for the Zambian
Government. Nesting data are collected for Mr G.B. Kaweche, Chief
Research Officer of the Zambia National Parks and Wildlife Service, and
it is proposed that data on reproductive biology will be collected when
breeding starts (138).
OTHER INFORMATION

Eggs are collected from Game Management areas and Open Areas only
(138).

NAME OF OPERATION

The farm is located by Lake Tanganyika.

Director: Mr A. Carr.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

About 1980 (176)
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: around 500 crocodiles are held, - estimated from
photographs seen by K. Van Jaarsveldt (183).
PRODUCTION AND TRADE

No skins had been sold by 1984 (176).
OTHER INFORMATION

In 1985 the farm was reported to have serious management problems
and to be in danger of being closed down by the Wildlife Authorities
(176).

NAME OF OPERATION

Luangwa Crocodile and Safaris

P.O. Box 37542

Lusaka.

Directors: Mr K. ASherwood and Mr C. Beukes.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

1984
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: it was intended to collect about 5000 eggs to operate
along the lines of the farms in Zimbabwe (183).

The target is for a stock of 9000 crocodiles (176).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The farm had a quota to collect 5000 eggs and 25 adult breeding
crocodiles in 1984 (176).

sa= *¥ === ¥===*¥ ===

A farm owned by Mr A. Bowyer is reported to exist at Siavonga, on
Lake Kariba. In 1982 he obtained permission to collect 1000 eggs on the
Zambezi (206). The present status is uncertain, and the farm was not
mentioned by Tello in 1985 (176).

186

ZIMBABWE

General Information

Nile crocodiles have been ranched in Zimbabwe since 1965; there are
now six crocodile ranches in existence there. Three further ranches
existed previously but were all short-lived. Binga Ranch, Karoi Ranch
and Mini Crocodile Ranch were established at Lake Kariba in 1965, 1966
and 1967 respectively, but all closed within two years (66).

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
Crocodylus niloticus: In 1984 there were a total of 27 704 animals on
the ranches comprising 16 000 rearing stock, 11 466 hatchlings, 52
Mature males and 186 mature females (55).

Approximate figures for the total stock on farms in previous years
are given below (66):

Year Stock Year Stock
1967 1400 LOTT 9000
1968 2400 1978 -
1969 3700 1979 15500
1970 5000 1980 20000
1971 6000 1981 20000
1972 6600 ) 1982 24000
1973 7300 1983 28500
1974 7100

1975 9000

1976 -

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

In the 1981 season, 2890 skins were produced for export from
Zimbabwe (179). On projected hatching of juveniles in 1984/85 the
potential production in 1987/88 is 13 850 skins (55).

Approximately 10-34% of the animals over one year of age are
Slaughtered each year. Skin sales from farms can be expected to grow at
about 22% a year. In 1984 the industry was said to generate US$334 000
a year in foreign exchange (66).

Zimbabwe's annual report to CITES for 1983 reported the following
commercial exports of skins and live animals:

Quantity Product Destination
427 Live South Africa
66 Skins South Africa
25 Skins UK

860 Skins France

All exports are currently through the Crocodile Farmers Association
of Zimbabwe. When the Zimbabwe population of Crocodylus niloticus was
on CITES App. I the skins were marketed only in France. However,
enquiries about the purchase of products had come from the UK, F.R.
Germany, Switzerland, USA, Canada and Japan (179). The population was
transferred to Appendix II in 1983 and sales are now also made to other
countries.

The skins of animals ranched in Zimbabwe are tagged to show their
origin and the numbers of the tags on skins exported must correspond

187

Zimbabwe

with the record on the export permit; the records are also kept by the
Zimbabwe Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management. The
tags come in two parts which, once clipped together, cannot be reused.
Prior to issue the two sections are kept Separately, one kept by the
Crocodile Farmers' Association and one by the Department. Skins must be
tagged on a specified margin which is varied from time to time (66).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

Crocodile ranching was experimentally introduced into Zimbabwe with
the emphasis placed on collecting eggs from good breeding population
areas, artificially incubating them and rearing the hatchlings (40).
From 1967 to 1973 a total of 22 679 eggs were collected and 16 679 were
hatched, giving a mean hatching success rate of 73.5% (40). From 1979
to 1983 a total of 38 077 eggs were collected, hatching with a success
of 88.6% (66).

Eggs are normally collected in early November, 50-60 days after
laying, when they may be moved with less danger of damage. Experienced
collectors can distinguish between fertile and infertile eggs, and
collect only the former. This may explain some of the reported improved
hatching percentage. The eggs are incubated in moist vermiculite in
styrofoam boxes stored in a temperature-controlled shed at about 32°C.
Hatching usually occurs in late December (66).

The stocks come from "Government egg supplementary programmes" and
each ranch is annually designated an egg-collecting area and a number
of eggs that may be collected (180):

Egg-collecting Captive-breeding stock
Station Current Increase Total Females Males
quota

Binga 2500 - 2500 72 (40) 15 (10)
Kariba 2000 - 2000 62 (40) 20 (10)
Rokari 1000 1000 2000 (40) (10)
Sengwa Mouth 2000 500 2500 (40) (10)
Spencers Creek 2500 - 2500 -94 (30) 20

(figures in brackets "are from present capture programmes initiated
by National Parks and Wild Life Management and should be completed
before May 1983. Unbracketed figures are stock on hand currently
capable of breeding" in 1982 180) The capture programme will probably
not be completed until 1985 (182).

The captive-breeding stock comes from the ranches' own hatched
stock or from problem-animal control programmes. Every effort is made
by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management to capture
problem animals from the wild, and there are severe and strictly
enforced penalties for poaching and unauthorised killings. A maximum of
twelve crocodiles a year have been allocated to registered safari
hunting operations. The ranches provide a safe repository for wild
animals which have genuinely become a menace to humans and livestock
(179).

188

a a

Zimbabwe

The total numbers of eggs collected from the wild from 1979 to 1983
and the hatching success is given below (66):

Year No. No. Hatching

collected hatched success
1979 5279 4497 85.2%
1980 8079 7069 Bie5e
1981 8768 7879 89.9%
1982 10389 8943 86.13%
1983 10908 - 9961 313s

BREEDING

The ranches had breeding facilities involving 152 crocodiles and a
production of 3000 eggs in 1982. The hatching percentage and numbers
are expected to increase each year, however, to retain viability it is
necessary to supplement the breeding stocks with the collection of eggs
from the wild (179).

In 1984 there was a total breeding stock of 186 females which were
expected to produce 13 440 hatchlings in 1984/85 (55). Initially equal
numbers of males and females were kept but this was found to be
unnecesSary as each male can serve up to 20 females (66).

From 1979 to 1983 a total of 8828 eggs were laid at two farms,
which had an average hatching success of 72.7% (66).

HUSBANDRY

All five ranches operate under a closed incubation/hatchery
construction.

Hatchlings are removed to open pens, are graded by size and
condition and are housed in densities calculated to minimise stress.
Originally earth ponds were used but problems were experienced with
burrowing, and now most ponds are of concrete. In the first year of
life about 150-200 animals are kept in each pen, comprising two ponds
10-15 m long by 1.5 m wide by 60 cm deep. Later they are moved to
larger pens (ca 20 m by 8 m) with 75-100 animals in each. They are
initially fed on freshwater sardine known as kapenta (Limnothrissa

miodon) and later on elephant meat (supplied under special permit from

the Dept. of National Parks and Wild Life Management) to which is added
bone meal, vitamins and trace elements (66).

The animals are normally slaughtered at 2-4 years old at a length
of 1.5 m, when their belly skin is about 35 cm wide. Each animal is
shot in the head with a short .22 bullet. Eviscerated carcases are fed
back to the other crocodiles as no market has been developed for the
meat (66).

FINANCES

A financial analysis reported in 1982 that the average cost per egg
was US$2.49 for those collected from the wild and US$1.25 for those
laid on the farm. It was found that the cost of feeding one male and 10
females was US$457 a year, food consumption averaging at 5.6% of the
body weight a year (80).

Whitaker et al. reported that lacquered skulls and feet sold as
curios for US$10 and US$2.5 respectively. Back skins, for use in belt
Manufacture, were worth a further US$20 (204).

189

Zimbabwe

OTHER INFORMATION

Crocodile farmers in Zimbabwe must provide the Department of
National Parks and Wild Life Management with a monthly return of stock
on hand, hatchlings, deaths, killings, eggs collected and hatches.
Government policy requires that some suitably-sized crocodiles be made
available for reintroduction for conservation purposes. Originally this
was set at 10% of the eggs or hatchlings collected, but this was later
reduced to 5% (66). This availability "is in the form of crocodiles of
a size suitable for restocking denuded habitats, augmenting wild
populations, research or the meeting of international obligations"
(179). No return of stock took place from 1978 to 1984 and the
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management has waived its
right to its quota for these years (55). A total of 910 animals have
been returned to the wild under this scheme, and a further 30 used for
research or donated to other countries (66).

190

Zimbabwe
The Operations

NAME OF OPERATION

Binga Crocodile Farm

P.O.Box 16, Binga, Lake Kariba West.

Operators: K.R. & A. Van Jaarsveldt.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The ranch was established in August 1967 and became commercial in
1970 (184).
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus: the ranch on average holds a stock of around 4000
animals but this may increase annually to around 7000 as a result of
breeding, before decreasing as stock is slaughtered (181).

Stock held in January 1982 (19) Stock held in December 1982 (68)

Hatchlings 2137 Hatchlings 1865
Slaughter Stock 3715 Rearing 3622
Breeding Stock 30 Breeding 33
Total 5882 Total 5520

PRODUCTION AND TRADE

Product Date of Quantity Destination
production
Skins 1980 774 France (184)
Skins 1981 1414 France and Japan
(184)
Skins 1982 1039 France (184)
Live Animals 1982 Nil (68)

SOURCE OF ANIMALS
In 1982, 1865 hatchlings were produced from eggs of wild origin.
The ranch holds 6 problem animals which have been included as breeding
stock in the figures above (68). See also General Information, above.
Stock taken from the wild:

Date Adults Eggs Country of origin
1980 0 2047 Zimbabwe

1981 0 2491 Zimbabwe

1982 6 2058 Zimbabwe (184)
1983 - 2518 Zimbabwe (66)

Hatching success of the wild-taken eggs:

No. of eggs No. of hatchlings survived
Date hatched over 30 days
1980 1789 1757
1981 2145 2137
1982 1865 1803 (184)

BREEDING

Provision for breeding on the ranch was first made in 1982. A total
breeding stock of 33 animals (30 females and 3 males) exists; 27 six=
-year-old ranch-reared crocodiles, and 6 wild-caught animals purchased

191

Zimbabwe

from the National Parks. The breeding stock is held in _ separate
breeding pens (184).

The first breeding occurred on the farm in 1983 when a total of 60
eggs were laid (66).

See also General Information, above.
HUSBANDRY

The crocodiles are kept in two types of enclosures:

a) Conerete pools with cement feeding apron and areas of lawn grass,
enclosed by brick walls;
b) Natural earth ponds enclosed by sheet metal fencing.

Fresh food is provided to all pools in the form of freshwater
sardine and elephant meat (184).

Mortality of animals in excess of one year-old averaged 5% from
1981 to 1983. Hatchling mortality averaged 28.4% over the same period
(66).

FINANCES

Private (68).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research has been carried out by Dr C. Foggin, Veterinary
Department, Zimbabwe (184).

NAME OF OPERATION
Kariba Crocodile Farm (Pvt) Ltd
Nyodza River, Lake Kariba East.
Postal address: P.O.Box 55, Kariba.
Operators: K. Yates and Miss K. Sutherland.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
December 1965 (66)
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. niloticus:

Stock held in January 1982 (19) Stock held in December 1982 (68)
Hatchlings 1879 Hatchlings 1762
Slaughter Stock 3170 Rearing 3955
Breeding Stock 44 Breeding 41
Total 4093 Total 4758

PRODUCTION AND TRADE (68)

Product Date of Quantity Destination
production

Skins 1982 186 France

Live Animals: 1982

yearlings 240 South African croc.
farmers.

3 year-olds 40 South African croc.
farmers.

c. 15 year-olds 3 South African croc.
farmers.

192

————E————————

Zimbabwe

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

In December 1982 the ranch held five problem animals which have
been included in the breeding stock figures above (68).

Total numbers of eggs collected from the wild were as follows (66):

Year No. collected Hatching
success
1979 1323 89.4%
1980 2019 82.5%
1981 1847 Sila 7/2
1982 1687 76.7%
1983 1876 97.3%

BREEDING

In December 1982 the ranch held a breeding stock of 41 animals. Of
these, 36 were ranch-reared and five were problem animals (68).

Total production of eggs laid on the farm was as follows (66):

Year No. laid Hatching
success
1979 565 59.8%
1980 292 82.5%
1981 310 71.63%
1982 602 77.4%
1983 505 95.0%

HUSBANDRY

The animals are kept in enclosures surrounded by either cement
blocks or security fencing, with either earth or concrete ponds (68).

Mortality of animals in excess of one year-old averaged 1.4% from
1980 to 1983. Hatchling mortality averaged 30.9% over the same period
(66).
FINANCES

Private (68). Entrance fees paid by tourists to view the crocodiles
are an important part of the total income. Handicraft and curio shops
are supplied by local craftsmen (179).

NAME OF OPERATION
Game and Fishing (Pty) Ltd
P.O.Box 381, Marondera, Bumi River, Lake Kariba.
Operator: S.P. Grobler.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
November 1981
SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. niloticus:

Stock held in January 1982 (19) Stock held in December 1982 (68)
Hatchlings 997 Hatchlings 1487
Slaughter Stock 0 Rearing 900
Breeding Stock 0 Breeding 0
Total 997 Total 2387

193

Zimbabwe

PRODUCTION AND TRADE
The crocodiles are being raised for their skins, but by 1983 no
crocodile products from the ranch had entered trade (184).

SOURCE OF ANIMALS
Eggs taken from the wild.

Date Eggs Country of origin
1980 0 Zimbabwe

1981 1000 Zimbabwe

1982 2000 Zimbabwe (184)
1983 1889 Zimbabwe (66)

Hatching success of wild-taken eggs.

No. of eggs No. of hatchlings survived

Date hatched over 30 days

1980 0 0

1981 980 960

1982 1927 1846 (184)

1983 1791 (66)

See also General Information, above.
BREEDING

Some of the animals being reared are to be used for breeding
purposes.
HUSBANDRY

The animals are kept in enclosures with concrete ponds (68)
surrounded by 4 ft (1.2 m) high concrete walls (184). They are fed on
fish and game meat (184).

Mortality of animals in excess of one year-old averaged 2.0% from
1982 to 1983. Hatchling mortality averaged 16.4% over the same period
(66).

FINANCES

Private (68).
RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Research has been carried out by Dr C. Foggin, Veterinary
Department, Zimbabwe and R. Taylor (184).

NAME OF OPERATION

Spencer's Creek Crocodile Ranch (Pvt) Ltd

P.O.Box 18, Zambezi River, Victoria Falls.

Operators: R. Gee, S. Brown, D. Higgins.
DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

The operation started in July 1971 and became commercial in 1975.
SPECIES AND NUMBERS

C. niloticus:

Stock held in January 1982 (19) Stock held in December 1982 (68)

Hatchlings 3408 Hatchlings 1934
Slaughter Stock 1518 Rearing PAI/ 12)
Breeding Stock 75 Breeding 70
Total 5001 Total 4723

194

Zimbabwe

PRODUCTION AND TRADE (68)

Product Date of Quantity Destination
production

Skins 1982 128 France

Live Animals

(3 years old) 1982 128 South African croc.
farmers.

Live Animals

(12 years old) 1982 13 South African croc.
farmers.

Meat from the crocodiles is also utilised (81).
SOURCE OF ANIMALS
In 1982 593 hatchlings were produced from eggs of wild origin.
See also General Information, above.
Animals taken from the wild:

Year Country in which Form & number taken Survival rate
taken Adults Juveniles Eggs Adults Eggs
1980 Zimbabwe 3 0 1868 3 1569
1981 Zimbabwe 0 0 1296 0 1024
1982 Zimbabwe 1 0 748 ijl 688 (81)
1983 1053 (66)

900 animals were obtained from Sengwa Mouth Rearing Station in 1982.
BREEDING

The breeding stock consists of 41 ranch-reared animals and 29
problem animals (68).

Total production of eggs laid on the farm was as follows (66):

Year No. laid Hatching
success
1979 1341 69.8%
1980 1499 67.2%
1981 1895 72.6%
1982 1790 75.8%
1983 1819 74.3%

See also General Information, above.

HUSBANDRY

The ranch has rearing and breeding ponds; the rearing ponds are of
concrete and the breeding ponds are of earth and are positioned on a
Natural stream bed. The enclosures have cement-block walls and a
security fence (68). Mortality of animals in excess of one year-old
averaged 30.2% from 1980 to 1983. Hatchling mortality averaged 60.7%
over the same period (66).
FINANCES

Private (68). Entrance fees paid by tourists to view the crocodiles
are an important part of the total income. Handicraft and curio shops at
the ranch are supplied by local craftsmen (179).

s== *%S==*===%===

NAME OF OPERATION
Sengwa Mouth Rearing Station
Sengwa Mouth, Lake Kariba.
Operator: R. Van Der Riet.

195

Zimbabwe

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
October 1977.

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. niloticus:

Stock held in January 1982 (19) Stock held in December 1982 (68)
Hatchlings 11925 Hatchlings 3312
Slaughter Stock 4339 Rearing 5112
Breeding Stock 0 Breeding 83
Total 6264 Total 8507

PRODUCTION AND TRADE (68)

Product Date of Quantity Destination
production

Skins 1982 575 France

Live Animals 1982 900 Spencer Creek Croc.

(hatchlings) Farm, Zimbabwe.

SOURCE OF ANIMALS

The ranch holds ten problem animals which are included in the
breeding stock figures above (68).

The numbers of eggs collected and the hatching success are given
below (66):

Year No. collected Hatching
success
1979 2067 96.0%
1980 2145 96.9%
1981 2079 94.6%
1982 3854 85.9%
1983 3572 91.2%

See also General Information, above.
BREEDING
In December 1982 the ranch's breeding stock consisted of 73
immature, ranch-reared animals as well as the 10 problem animals (68).
See also General Information, above.
HUSBANDRY
Mortality of animals in excess of one year-old averaged 1.9% from
1980 to 1983. Hatchling mortality averaged 13.3% over the same period
(66).
FINANCES
Private (68).

=== *¥ eS % === %===

Basic details of a sixth farm were given by G. Child (66):

NAME OF OPERATION
McIlwaine/Harare area.
Operator: V.H. Bristow.

DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT
November 1983

SPECIES AND NUMBERS
C. niloticus:

196

16.

ith

18.

nS)

20.

Zr.

22%

23.6

24.

25%.

26.

Zils

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