X 977-3
COP* 3
Hi. HBT.
OF THE
NORTHWEST
WITH THE
HISTORY OF CHICAGO
[N TWO VOLUMES VOL. II.
BY
Rufus Bl an chard.
CHICAGO:
R. BLANCHARD AND COMPANY
169 RANDOLPH ST.
1900
77 Z 3 jr
V.
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME II.
The first link in the chain of our history was forged by Greece. Passing down through the uncoil of cen- turies, link by link, this chain can be traced through the civilizing process in Europe, which began, at first, in Greece ; but this process was far short of completion, according to our present standard, when America was discovered. Here an unoccupied field for its finishing touches was presented, and the work went on with accumulated force and timely speed.
The American colonists forged an advanced link in this chain when they astonished Europe by improvising new principles in national policy. That these princi- ples were an improvement on the old is proven from the fact that, in substance, they have been adopted by the leading nations of Europe.
In the westward course of empire the great North- west poses as the ideal type of the principles essential to our integrity as a Nation. This is the last link in the chain, none of which are missing, in the pages of history, from Greece, across the Atlantic; and from its rugged shores to the Northwest. Here it is our mission to reproduce, on our own soil, with improvements, all that is worth copying in Europe.
Chicago has begun this work here, and the records of this volume would be imperfect without their con- temporary history.
Prominent among them are the Armour Institute, the Field Columbian Museum, the Chicago University, the Academy of Sciences, the Yerkes Observatory, the Newberry Library, the John Crerar Library, the Art Institute, the Public Library, the Lewis Institute and the Chicago Institute.
(3)
4 Introduction.
They decorate our city, as the advanced student in science is decorated with a title. The inspiration of the people was the incentive to building them, and their founders honored the call. Each of them will be de- scribed by such persons connected with them, respect- ively, as are qualified to do it successfully and faithfully. No other city in the wide world, of Chicago's age, has ever been the beneficiary of such magnanimous gifts. These institutions are indispensable to the fame and credit of our city, in the estimation of the literati of the world and their kindred associations.
Other portions of this volume will be made up with things pertaining to our history, chosen according to the best judgment of the writer and his assistants, some of whose autographs may be seen at the end of Volume I, and others will appear at the end of Volume II.
Chicago, since its first discovery, has been identified with the growth of the whole country; it is now brought into relations with the whole world, not only by its tutelary institutions, but by the laws of commerce. So versatile are its interests, and its provisions to fulfill its obligations incumbent upon a great metropolis, that, without the aid of many persons familiar with the required knowledge of them, their history could not be written.
I thank such persons for this aid, and that posterity will thank them will be the conviction of the statistician and the book worm.
CHICAGO, January, 1900. RUFUS BLANCHARD.
THE PRESS OF CHICAGO.
In the club rooms of London, in the sixteenth cen- tury, old English ale stimulated gossip on the few topics of the day that excited public attention at that time — few, because inalienable allegiance to hereditary rulers, then the unchallenged policy of the state, had relieved the masses from responsibility as to anything but the bread and butter question, hence the small number of issues to discuss.
How blue blood found its way into the veins of ignoble skins to bait them with the food of the tree of knowledge can only be left to speculation, but it did, and begat a hybrid offspring that conceived the doc- trine of inalienable rights, in lieu of inalienable alle- giance.
Then the newspaper began to grow from seeds that this innovation had planted; but it grew slowly in England, its political soil having been exhausted for lack of rotation of executive crops, until the whig party made parliament' superior to the crown; then it grew faster.
In America a virgin soil was well adapted to its culture, and it grew as fast as settlements grew, and made its acorn planted here the monarch of the forest, like the oak.
Its field fills every avenue of thought — nothing es- capes its notice. Its pen of criticism is dipped in gall, if occasion requires it, and its approval fires the heart of the bright side of man. Every interest of the coun- try is amenable to the standard of the types, and the place that stands nearest to the center of power holds the helm in our hive of industry. This is Chicago, from
(5)
6 The Press of Chicago.
whose argus eye not a sparrow falls to the ground un- noticed.
Boston, New York, New Orleans and San Francisco are at the extremes; they may be shaken without the center being moved; but if any misfortune should hap- pen to Chicago, they might be put on short rations.
in the literature that comes within the sphere of editorial columns Chicago is conspicuous for sensation.
What is not prudent to advocate direct, at first can be told by implication, till it meets general approval, when it can be emphasized. Sensation is employed to do this, and to give effect to waves of sentiment that move the public mind, and here it is made the most of.
It is old fashioned to tell facts, only as fast as they materialize. Chicago anticipates them in sensational head lines. For this indiscretion, if it be such, she can afford to stand impeached ; but there are nice distinc- tions in this newspaper prerogative. The use of words must be scrutinized with care, and Chicago editors are experts in this art of producing results required by a considerate public that does its own thinking, and not even in, violation of partisan fads, infrequently puts vest pocket votes into the ballot box.
Sensational logic — to advocate what ought to be — is the highest aim of the Chicago editor, whether he does it by a flank movement or direct attack, for which ac- complishment geographical and moral reasons exist.
Our trading interests ally us to the Atlantic coast, and make it tor our interest to reciprocate an exchange of sentiment with Boston and New York on the lines of commerce and the friendly associations that go with them.
Fraternal relations with the south came, because Chicago editors were the first to extend the right hand of good-fellowship to it, and to honor the memory of their soldiers, whose graves are with us. This is a proof that we are the center of equilibrium for the whole country, and this responsibility tempers our logic with cosmopolitan grace and dignity.
4 ' Of him to whom much is given, much will be required," is our maxim.
The Press of Chicago. 7
The extreme west is our left wing, constantly being reinforced with mental athletes, who do honor to the central main body of our American army of civilians.
Hence Chicago editors are more cosmopolitan than those of any other city; they are forced to be by the inexorable laws of comity of interests. From this stand- point they have all they can do to write up live issues without meddling with dead ones or wasting thunder in hyperbole.
It is the country, or, better said, the Nation, that has given the Chicago press this high position. The oppor- tunity has been utilized by the press to become its honorable exponent. Its arena is versatile, its themes inexhaustible, its clientage universal, for who does not read a newspaper? Whose opinions are not modified by its influence ? Why, because they are the result of the public thoughts formulated into practicable theories, changeable only to suit the growing wants that environ us near, and far, bounded only by a nation's limits, that in peace or war are dependent on Chicago for table supplies, and on her politically strategic locality for nominating conventions for presidential elections.
The first veritable evidence of this was in 1860, when Abraham Lincoln was nominated by the repub- lican party for president. This party had suffered defeat in the previous presidential canvass, with its issue clearly defined, and it was a problem in the minds of able statesmen whether the turning point in the wave of excitement then present had passed or not. In this emergency the Chicago press came to the rescue, claiming that the prevailing sentiment north of Mason & Dixon's line was no transient impulse, but a necessary national policy; that the hour for decisive action had come, and the man to lead in it; and that man was Abraham Lincoln. When Fort Sumter was fired on, then the New York press put out the feeler, ' ' Wayward sisters, depart in peace"; the Chicago press, like a flame of fire, demanded resistance to the last extremity. When the next nominating convention for president came, it was an issue whether to compromise with the south or push the war. The latter policy prevailed more
8 The Press of Chicago.
through the influence of the Chicago press than from that of any other city. From that day on, the Chicago press has been foremost in national issues.
The press here is the organ of young, stalwart America in the plenitude of her might, and must be, as long as rivers and lakes — the forces of nature — are in alliance with the commercial forces centered here.
AXIOM. Chicago is the most American of all America.
When James Gorden Bennett, Thurlow Weed and Horace Greeley laid the foundation for the rising grand- eur and ultimate supremacy of the American press they were peerless in their calling and exemplary in their achievements. Their mantle of honor has fallen on no individual shoulders. It became the controlling spirit of American newspapers, and an inspiration which Chicago has secured within her toils, because she had the best opportunity to do it.
The following list of Chicago daily papers enjoy this privilege, and it is here given for the benefit of reference in futurity: Abendpost (German), Chicago Chronicle, Chicago Democrat, Dziennik Chicagoski (Polish), Chi- cago Evening Post, Freie Presse (German), Illinois Staats Zeitung (German), Chicago Inter Ocean, Chicago Jour- nal, Narod (Bohemian), Chicago Daily News, Chicago Record, Skandinaven (Norwegian- Danish), South Side Daily Sun, Svornost (Bohemian), Chicago Times- Herald, Chicago Tribune-, besides these The Economist, a weekly financial paper, deserves mention.
Editorial literature, now, is in the hands of many wri- ters, all of whom scrutinize and analyze the actions of men and nations according to one common standard; no single master mind, in this guild, holding a control- ling influence over the whole, but the whole holding the situation with a moral grip, acknowledging allegiance only to a well digested public judgment. If popular governments are right this is right. In London T/ie Thunderer holds the key to the celestial gate; in Chicago the gates are ajar.
CHICAGO CHARTERED AS A CITY.
FIRST MAYOR ELECTED.
The year 1836 had been one of remarkable prosper- ity to the little village of Chicago. Its population had grown to the astonishing number of 3820 (as es- timated), from a beginning of about 200 persons in 1833. Work on the canal had actually been begun and the harbor was in process of improvement, at the expense of the general government. Land specula- tors were rapidly buying up the lands, and that sys- tem of real estate speculation, which has since this period presented such fascinations to the speculative capitalists of the country, was now inaugurated. Under these auspicious beginnings, on the 26th of October, the town board took the necessary steps to take upon themselves the forms of a city. The pres- ident of the board of trustees invited the inhabitants of each of the three districts of which the town was composed, to select delegates to meet the board, to confer together on the expediency of applying to the legislature for a city charter. The meeting had place on the 25th of November, and resulted in the appoint- ment, by Eli B. Williams, the President of the board, of five delegates to draw up the charter, in form for presentation. Their names were Ebenezer Peck, J. D. Caton, T. W. Smith, Wm. B. Ogden, and Nathan H. Belles. On December 9th, this committee, through Mr. Peck, presented their charter to the board, and
(9)
io Charter Election.
after some amendments it was adopted, and on the fourth of March, the next year, 1837, the legislature of Illinois passed the bill approving the charter, and Chicago took upon herself the forms of a city. The next move was to choose a Mayor. The material for an able one, was not wan ting; but from its very excess the diffi- culty in making a choice was increased . Happily there were no spoils at stake and no rings to covet them.
The issue was defined by the two political parties, which then divided the country, on political economy. The whig party represented one, and the Democratic party the other. And here it may be pertinent to say that the separate policies of the two parties could not be accurately defined in theory, so as to be well under- stood at this day; but practically the Whigs repre- sented a policy, which embraced a liberal system of banking, protective tariffs, and an extensive system of public works, while the Democrats did not oppose this, entirely, but professed to guard against excesses in their propagation. The most of them went for me- talic currency only, or paper convertible at the will of the holder. John H. Kinzie was the Whig candidate for mayor, and Wm. B. Ogden the Democratic. Says Hon. John Wentworth: "Both were members of the old St, James Episcopal Church, both men of wealth for that time, and there was nothing in the character of either of the men to give either one any advantage over the other. It was a fair stand-up fight between the Whigs and Democrats. Men of each political par- ty wanted the city government to stand under its pe- culiar auspices". The contest was sharp and spirted, and great care was taken to provide against illegal voting. Young Wentworth was challenged on the grounds of his youth, and was sworn before being al- lowed to vote — a suspicion of the truth of which charge, he humorously says, he has since outgrown.
Mr. Ogden received 469 votes and Mr. Kinzie 237, showing a large majority of the citizens of Chicago to
Charter Election.
ii
be in favor of the democratic policy of the country, at which time, it is not too much to say, we were al most at a loss for any very vital issue. The total vote of the south division was 408, of the north 204, and of the west 97, and of the whole city 709.
ENLARGEMENT OF CHICAGO BY WARDS AND CITY LIMITS. BY JOHN A. MOODY, CHIEF CLERK IN CITY CLERK'S OFFICE.
In 1835, John H. Kinzie, GurdonS. Hubbard,Ebe- nezer Goodrich, JohnK.Boyer and John S. C. Hogan were constituted by the legislature of Illinois a body politic and corporate to be known by the name of the "Trustees of the Town of Chicago." The jurisdiction of the town extended over all that districts contained in sections nine and sixteen, north and south frac- tional section ten and fractional section fifteen, in township 39, N. R. 14 E. of the 3rd P. M., except that portion of fractional section ten occupied by the United States, for military purposes. The act creat- ing the town provided that the corporate powers and duties should be vested in a board of nine trustees, after the first Monday of June, A. D. 1835, on which date the term of office of the above named gentlemen expired. In the year following, the system of water works of Chicago was instituted by the act incorpo- rating the Chicago Hydraulic Company.
Two years after the incorporation of the town, on the 4th of March, 1837, the legislature enacted that "the district of country known as the east half of the southeast quarter of section thirty-three, fractional section thirty-four, the east fourth part of sections six, seven, eighteen and nineteen, all in township forty; also fractional section three, sections four, five, eight, nine, and fractional section ten, excepting the southwest fractional quarter of said section ten, occupied as a military post, untill the same shall be-
12 Wards City Limits.
come private property, fractional section fifteen, sec- tions sixteen, seventeen, twenty, twenty-one, and fractional section twenty-two, all in township thirty- nine, range fourteen, east of the third P.M.; being in the county of Cook and State of Illinois, should be known as the CITY OF CHICAGO."
It is impossible to give the boundaries above fixed by streets. There is a manifest error in the copy of the act which is on file in the office of the city clerk. The maps show that the sections six, seven, eighteen and nineteen, above mentioned, are in township thirty-nine instead of forty.
The territory was divided into six wards; of which the 1st and 2nd were in the south, the 3rd and 4th in the west, and the 5th and 6th in the north divis- ions, respectivelly. The government was vested in a mayor and twelve aldermen-two aldermen from each ward, except the third and fifth wards, which were en titled to but one alderman each, until the ann- ual election for the year 1839.
By the act of March 4, 1837, the school system of Chi- cago was first established; and by an act passed Mar. 1, 1839, additional powers were granted the common council for establishing and maintaining schools.
Within ten years from its incorporation, the new city felt that it did not contain territory enough, and that its original charter was insufficient for its prop- er government. On Feb. 16, 1847, a supplementary act was passed extending the limits so as to include all the territory bounded as follows :
Beginning at the intersection of 22nd street with the lake shore, thence west to Western avenue, thence north to North avenue, thence east to Sedgwick street, thence north to Fullerton avenue, thence east to the lake, thence southward, on the lake shore, to the place of beginning.
The city was also divided into nine wards of wnich the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th were in the south division.
Wards — City Limits, Taxation, Debt. 13
the 5th and 6th in the west, and the 7th, 8th and9th in the north division.
The city census taken in that year showed a pop- ulation of 16,859 persons. The valuation of the real and personal estate was, $5,849,170; the amount of revenue raised by taxation $18,159,01, and the float- ing liabilities $13,179,89.
In 1851, the various acts affecting the city were re- duced into one act, and additional powers were gran- ted, but the boundaries of the city were not changed.
In 1853, the city was by act of the general assembly divided into the divisions called north, south and west, the limits were also extended so as to include within the city all of sections 27, 28, 29 and 30, T. 39, * N. R. 14E., also those parts of 31 and 32 T. 40, R. 14, lying east of the north branch, and also the W. % of Sec. 33, 40, R.,14.
This extension made 31 st street the southern bound- ry, Western avenue from 31st street to North avenue and the north branch from North avenue to Fuller- ton avenue the western boundaries, and North ave- nue and Fullerton aveuue the northern boundaries.
The jurisdiction of the city was also extended over so much of the shore and bed of the lake, as lie within one mile east of fractional section 27.
The number of the wards was not changed, the ad- ded territory being annexed to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 7th wards.
The city census taken in 1853, showed a popula- tion of 60,652. The valuation was $16,841,831.00, and the bonded debt, $189,670.
In 1855 the sewerage system of Chicago was inaug- urated by the creation of aboard of sewerage commis- i oners, with such powers and duties as were deemed necessary to carry into effect its objects. The amended city charter, approved Feb. 15,th 1857, provided for the creation of an additional ward, the tenth, out of the territory in the West Division.
14 Wards — City Limits , Taxation, Debt.
By the revised charter of 1863, the city limits were ex- tended so as to include all of township 39, north range 14 east of the 3rd P. M., and all of sections 31, 32, 33 and fractional section 34, 40, 14, with so much of the waters and bed of Lake Michigan as lie within one mile of the shore, and east of the territory aforesaid. The street boundaries were Egan avenue (39th street) on the south, Western avenue on the west and Fullerton avenue on the north. The terri- tory was divided into sixteen wards of which the 1st to the 5th inclusive were in the south, the 6th to the 12th inclusive in the west, and the four remaining in the north division. Again in 1869, the general as- sembly ex"Lended the city limits on the west so as to include within it the terrritory lying north of the Il- linois & Michigan Canal, east of Crawford avenue and south of North avenue. The same act divided the city into twenty wards, of which six were located in the South Division, nine in the West Division and five in the North Division. The city then contained an area of at least thirty-five square miles with a popu- lation of 306,605 persons, an assessed valuation of $275,986,550.00 and a bonded indebtedness of over $11,000,000.00.
In 1870 it levied a tax of $4,139,798.70. In 1837 the tax levy was $5,905.15.
In 1875 the question whether the city should re- organize under the general incorporation act, was submitted to a vote of the people, and was adopted by a vote of 11,714 for, to 10,281 against.
Lest this vote may be taken as an indication of the number of voters in the city at that time, I desire to state here that at the last preceding general election for mayor, 47,390 votes were cast.
Under the provisions of the general incorporation law, the council divided the city into eighteen wards- five in the South Division, nine in the West Division, and four in the North Division.
Grade of Chicago Streets. 15
By virtue of various amendments to the charter, the city government was, at the time of reorganiz- ation, in the hands of many irresponsible boards.
Under powers given by the newr incorporation law, these boards were all abolished, and the departments governed by them reestablished on ordinances passed by. the city council. The machinery of the city government is now more simple and less expen- sive, considering the vastly greater business entrus- ted to it, than under any of the older charters. The mayor and aldermen practically control the entire city government.
The taxation per capita in 1837 was about 1.41; in 1847 about 9.83. The highest rate was in 1873, which was about 15.27.
GRADE OF CHICAGO STREETS.
The first houses erected in Chicago were built on spiles set into the ground, sufficiently elevated to fix the lower floor above the possibility of being flooded by excessive rains. Of course cellars or basement kitchens were not to be thought of. Later, when a better class of buildings were erected as business blocks, private grading up the streets in front of them began to be practiced, some of which grading may have been done by a street tax authorized by the corporation, but the first street grade was not es- tablished 'till 1855, as appears from the following letter from Mr. Moody, Ass't City Clerk.
R. BLANCHARD,
Wheaton, 111.,
DEAR SIR: I have looked up the question of grades of the city, as you request- ed. I find the first ordinance was passed in March. 1855. This established the grade of Lake street at about 8.62. The present grade of the street is 14 feet. My figures refer to the plane of low water of the Chicago river in 1847 as fixed by the canal commissioners, and mean 8.62 feet and 14 feet above that level. I find several other streets where the change is about the same. On the West Side the change is not so great, being originally established at a higher point. I es- timate the change at about three feet.
Yours truly JOHN A. MOODY.
The grade of the whole city is now sufficiently a- bove high water to admit of convenient basements, and is doubtless established on a permanent basis, never again to be changed.
ORIGINAL LIMITS
CITY OF CHICAGO
THORNTON Smj«i5!.
Table showing List of Mayors, Population, Valuation of Taxable Property, Amount of Taxes ai^d Public Debts.
|
Mayors. |
When Elected. |
Popula- tion. |
Total Valuation . |
Total Tax. |
Public Debt. |
|
William B. Ogden... .... |
May 2, 1837 March 6, 1838 March 5, 1839 March 3, 1840 March 5, 1841 March 7, 1842 March 7, 1843 March 7, 1844 March 5, 1345 March 3, 1846 March 2, 1847 March 7, 1848 March 6, 1849 March 5, 1850 March 4, 1851 March 2, 1852 March 14,1853 March 13.1854 March 8, 1855 March 10, 1856 March 3.1837 March 2, 1858 March 1, 1859 Morch 6, 1860 April 16, 1861 April 15, 1862 April 21, 1863 1864 April 18. 1865 1866 April 16, 1867 1868 Nov. 2, 1869 1870 Nov. 7, 1871 1872 Nov. 4, 1873 1874 1875 July 12, 1876 April 3, 1877 1878 April 1, 1879 1880 April 5, 1881 1882 April 3, 1883 1884 April 7, 1885 1886 April 5, 1887 1888 April 2. 1889 1890 April 7. 1891 1892 April 4, 1893 §Xov. 4, 1893 |
4,170 |
$ 236,842 235,896 94.«03 94,437 166,747 151.342 1,441,314 2.763,281 3,065.022 4,521,056 5,849,190 6,300,440 6,676,684 7,222,219 8,562,717 10,463,414 16,841,831 24.392.230 20,992,873 31.736,084 36,235,281 35.991,732 36,553,380 37,053,512 36,352,380 37.139,845 42.677.324 48.732,782 64,709,177 85,953.25(1 19S.026.844 230,247.000 266.920,01)0 275,986,550 289,746.470 283,197,43(1 312,072,995 303.705,140 tl73,764.246 tl68,037.178 tl48,409,148 t!31, 981,436 tll7.970.135 tll7,183,643 tl!9,151,951 tl25,358,537 t!32,230,504 tl 37,326,980 t!39,958,292 1-158.496,132 1-161,204,535 t!60,641,727 |
$ 5,905.15 8,849.36 I 4,664.55 4,721.85 10,004.67 9,181.27 8,647.89 17,166.24 11.077.58 15.825.80 18,159.01 22,051.54 30,045.09 25,270.87 63,385.87 76,948.96 135,662.68 499.081.64 206,209.03 396,652.39 572.046.00 430,190.00 543,614.08 573,315.29 550.968.00 564,038.06 853,346.00 974,665.64 1,294,183.50 1,719,064.05 2,518,472.00 3,223,457.80 3,990.373.20 4,262,961.45 2,897,564.70 4,262.961.45 5,617,313.91 5.466.692.54 5,108.981.40 4.046.805.80 4.013,410.44 3,778,856.80 3,776,888.19 3,899.126.98 4,136,708.38 4,227,402.98 4.540,506.13 4,872.456.60 5,152,366.03 5,368,409.76 5,602,712.56 5.723,067.75 |
|
|
Buckner S. Morris |
$ 9.996.54 7,182.25 6,559.63 12,387.67 16,372.01 12,655.40 9.796.35 10,691.27 16,045.41 13.179.89 20,339.3o 36,333.20 93,395 126,035 189,670 248,666 328,000 435,000 535,000 |
||||
|
B. W Raymond |
|||||
|
Alexander Lloyd |
4,479 |
||||
|
Francis C. Sherman |
|||||
|
Benjamin W. Raymond |
|||||
|
Augustus Garrett |
7,580 |
||||
|
Augustus Garrett |
12,088 14.169 16.859 20,033 23,047 28,289 48',666 60,652 75,000 80,000 84,113 |
||||
|
John P. Chapin |
|||||
|
James Cu rtis |
|||||
|
James H. Woodworth |
|||||
|
James H. Woodworth |
|||||
|
James Curtis |
|||||
|
Walter S. Gurnee Walter S. Gurnee |
|||||
|
Charles M. Gray |
|||||
|
Isaac L. Miliken |
|||||
|
Lev! D. Boone |
|||||
|
Thomas Dyer |
|||||
|
John Wentworth |
|||||
|
John C. Unities |
|||||
|
John C. Haines John Wentworth |
' 'l09',2% |
1,855,000 2,336,000 2.362,000 3.028,000 3,422.500 3,544,500 3,701,000 4,369.500 4,757,500 6,484,500 7,882,500 11,041,000 14,106,000 13,544,000 13,478.000 13.456.000 13,457.000 13.436.000 13,364,000 13.057.000 13,043.000 12.752.000 12.752.000 12,752,000 12.751,500 12,751.500 13,698500 12,588.500 12.588.500 12,561.500 |
|||
|
Julian S. Rumsey.. |
|||||
|
Francis C. Sherman |
138,186 ' 'l69'.353 178,492 200,418 |
||||
|
Francis C. Sherman Francis C. Sherman |
|||||
|
John B. Rice |
|||||
|
John B. Rice |
|||||
|
John B. Rice |
|||||
|
John B. Rice |
252.054 ' 30Y,605 |
||||
|
Roswell B. Mason lioswell B. Mason. . |
|||||
|
Joseph Medill . |
|||||
|
Joseph Medill |
367,396 ' '395,468 |
||||
|
Harvey D. Colvin Harvey D. Colvin |
|||||
|
Harvey D. Colvin |
|||||
|
Monroe Heath |
407,661 |
||||
|
Monroe Heath |
|||||
|
Monroe Heath |
436,731 ' 50Y.298 |
||||
|
Carter H. Harrison Carter H. Harrison |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrison . ... |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrison . . . |
560,633 |
||||
|
Carter H. Harrison |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrrison |
629,985 |
||||
|
Carf er H. Harrison |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrison. . .... |
693,861 |
||||
|
John A. Roche |
|||||
|
John A. Roche |
802,651 uos'.iio I.'438,bi6 |
||||
|
DeWitt C. Cregier. |
t201.104.019 t219,354,368 t256,599.574 t243 732 138 |
6.326.561.21 9,558,334.80 10,453,270,41 12,142.448.75 |
13,554.900 13,545,400 13,530.350 tl 8,515,450 $18,426,450 |
||
|
De Witt. C. Cregier |
|||||
|
Hetnpstead Wasjiburne . |
|||||
|
Hempstead Washburne. |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrison . |
1-245,790,350 |
11,810,950.69 |
|||
|
George B. Swift, pro tern |
|||||
|
John P. Hopkins |
Dec. 19, 1898 1894 April 5, 1895 1896 April 4, 1897 1898 |
1,567,727 |
1-247,425,442 |
12,267,643.62 |
$17,722.950 |
|
John P. Hopkins |
|||||
|
George B. Swift |
1 616 635 |
1243,476,825 t244.357,286 1-232,026,660 1220,966,447 |
14 239.685.13 12,290,145.21 12,939,333.10 12,207,906.82 |
$17,188.950 $17,078,950 $17,018,450 $16,922,450 |
|
|
George B. Swift |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrison |
|||||
|
Carter H. Harrison |
1,851,588 |
||||
{Includes World's Fair Bonds.
_. ., _.,, s _. the City of Chicago received from the
Treasurer of the Town of Chicago, in cash. $2.814.26. The city debt, as noted above, was compiled from the annual statements of 1838 to 1856, inclusive, as submitted by the Finance Committee of those years to the Common Council, and from 1857 to 1897. inclusive, from the annual statements of the City Comptroller. The above includes territories lately annexed. Tax rate, $5.59.
Arrival of the First Vessel At Chicago. 19
[From the Chicago Democrat of July 16th, 1834.]
ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST VESSEL THROUGH THE OPENING AT THE MOUTH OF THE CHICAGO RIVER.
"Our citizens were not a little delighted on Satur- day morning last by a sight as novel as it was beau- tiful. About nine o'clock their attention was arrested by the appearance of the splendid schooner Illinois, as she came gliding up the river into the heart of the town under full sail. The Illinois is a new vessel of nearly one hundred tons, launched this spring, at Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., is a perfect model of a schoo ner, and is commanded by Captain Pickering, who is one of the most enterprising and persevering seamen that navigates the lakes. Her topmast was covered with streamers, and her canvass was all spread to in- vite the gentle breeze. The banks of the river were crowded with a delightedcro wd , and as she reached the wharf of Messrs. Newberry and Dole, where she stop- ped, she was hailed with loud and repeated cheers. Her decks were immediately crowded by the citizens, all anxious to greet her gallant commander with a warm and hearty welcome. The draw-bridge was soon raised, and she passed on to the upper end of the town, and came to Ingersoll's wharf in front of the Weston Stage House. On her passage up the river more than two hundred of our citizens were on board. We hope we shall often greet Captain Pickering and his brethren of the lakes in the harbor of Chicago.
"On Monday night the schooner Philip, Captain Hone, from Lake Erie, also entered the river, and was engaged yesterday in discharging her cargo at the wharf of Messrs. Newberry and Dole."
2o Flood of 1849.
FLOOD OF 1849.
In March, 1849, after a two or three days heavy rain, which had been preceded by hard snow storms, the citizens of the town were aroused from their slumbers by reports that the ice in the Des- plains river had broken up; that its channel had be- come gorged with it; that this had so dammed up its waters as to turn them into Mud Lake; that in turn, they were flowing thence into the natural estuary, which then connected the sources of the South branch of the Chicago river with the Desplaines. These re- ports proved to be correct. Further, it was also rumored that the pressure of the waters was now breaking up the ice in the South branches; that the branch was becoming gorged, in the main channel, at various points, and that if something were not done, the shipping, which had been tied up for the winter a- long the wharves, would be seriously damaged.
Of course each owner, or person in charge, at once sought the safety of his vessel, added additional moorings to those already in use; while all waited with anxiety and trepidation the result of the totally unexpected catastrophe. It was not long in coming. The river soon began to swell, the waters lifting the ice to within two or three feet of the surface of the wharves. Between nine and ten A. M. loud reports, as of distant artillery, were heard towards the southern extremity of the town, indicating that the ice was breaking up. Soon, to these were added the sounds proceeding from crashing timbers, from hawsers tear- ing away the piles around which they were vainly fastened, or snapping like so much pack-thread, on account of the strain upon them. To these, in turn, were succeeded the cries of people calling to the par- ties in charge of the vessels and canal boats to escape ere it would be too late; while nearly all the males, and hundreds of the female population, hurried from
Flood of 1849. 21
their homes to the banks of the river to witness what was by this time considered to be inevitable, namely, a catastrophe, such as the city never before sustained. It was not long before every vessel and canal boat in the south branch, except a few which had been se- cured in one or two little creeks, which then connect- ed with the main channel, was swept with resistless force toward the lakes. As fast as the channel at one spot became crowded with ice, und vessels inter mingled, the whole mass would dam up the water, which, rising in the rear of the obstruction, would propel vessels and ice forward with the force of an e- normous catapult. Every lightly constructed vessel would at once be crushed as if it were an egg-shell; canal-boats disappeared from sight under the gorge of ships and ice, and came into view below it in small pieces, strewing the surface of the boiling water.
At length a number of vessels were violently precip- itated against Randolph street bridge, then a com- paratively frail structure, and it was torn from its place in a few seconds, forcing its way into the main channel of the river. The gorge of natural and artificial materials — of ice and wood and iron — kept on its resistless way to the principal and last remain- ing bridge in the city, on Clark St. This structure had been constructed on piles, and it was supposed would prevent the vessels already caught up by the ice from being swept out into the lake.
But the momentum already attained by the great mass of ice, which had even lifted some of the vessels bodily out of the water, was too great for any ordi- nary structure of wood, or even stone or iron to re- sist, and the moment this accumulated material struck the bridge, it was swept to utter destruction, and with a crash, the noise of which could be heard all over the then city, while the ice below it broke up with reports as if from a whole park of artillery. The scene just below the bridge, after the material
22 Flood of 1849.
composing the gorge had swept by the place just oc- cupied by the structure, was something that bordered on the terrific.
The cries and shouts of the people, the crash of tim- bers, the toppling over of tall masts, which were in many cases, broken short off on a level with the decks of the vessels, and the appearance of the crowds flee- ing terror-stricken from the scene through Clark and Dearborn streets, were sounds and sights never to be forgotten by those who witnessed them. At State street, where the river bends, the mass of material was again brought to a stand, the ice below resisting the accumulated pressure, and the large number of vessels in the ruck, most of which were of the best class, the poorer ones having previously been utterly destroyed, helping to hold the whole together. In the meantime several canal boats, and in one in: stance a schooner with rigging all standing, were swept under this instantaneously constructed bridge, coming out on the eastern side thereof in shapeless massesof wreck, in the instance of the schooner, and of matchwood in the instances of canal boats. Pres- ently the ice below this last gorge began to give way, clear water appearing, while a view out into the lake showed that there was no ice to be seen. It was then that some bold fellows armed with axes, sprang upon the vessels, thus jammed together, and in dan- ger of destruction.
Among the foremost and most fearless were: K. C. Bristol, of the forwarding house of Bristol & Porter; Alvin Calhoun, a builder, brother to John Calhoun, founder of the Chicago Democrat newspaper, and fa- ther of Mrs. Joseph K. C. Forrest, Cyrus P. Bradley, subsequently Sheriff, and Chief of Police, and Darius Knights, still an employe of the city. These gentle- men, at the risk of their lives succeeded in detaching the vessels at the Eastern end of the gorge, one by one, from the ruck, until finally some ten or twelve
Flood of 1849. 23
large ships, relieved from their dangerous positions, floated out into the lake, their preservers proudly standing on their decks, and returning with salutes, the cheers of the crowd on shore. Once in the lake, the vessels were secured, in some cases by dropping the anchors, and in others by being brought up at the piers by the aid of hawsers.
The .Democrat of the 14th, in its record of the event, says (speaking of the upper jam): "Below all this lies another more solid dam, composed of larger ves- sels, and consequently stronger material, wedged in so firmly as to defy extraction. ******* Thus is formed one of the most costly bridges ever constructed in the West, and the only one Chicago now boasts of. Crowds of persons were at the wrecks yesterday, and crowded the decks of the various ves- sels. Many ladies were not afraid to venture over this novel causeway, beneath which the water roared, falling in cascades from one obstruction to another, the whole forming perhaps the most exciting scene ever witnessed here."
The Journal of the same date gives the following: "The Eandolph street bridge and the schooner Mah- ala sunk at the mouth of the river yesterday togeth- er. * * The schooner Diamond, which was carried down the river yesterday, upon reaching the vessels wedged in near the lighthouse, was forced by the cur- rent completely under them, and came up on the oth- er side. She was not badly broken, and now lies bot- tom up between the piers. There were a number of persons on the canal boats which were swept into the lake. One poor fellow waved his handkerchief as a signal of distress, about ten miles out, during the afternoon, but there was no boat which could be sent to his assistance. * * * No mails left the city last night. All egress is prevented by high water and impassible state of the roads.
24 History of the River lunrwls of Chicago
HISTORY OF THE RIVER TUNNELS OF CHICAGO.
BY E. S. CHESEBROUGH.
WASHING TON STREET RIVER TUNNEL .
The first bridges across the Chicago River and its bran- ches were floating structures, popularly known as "tub bridges," which, when closed, did not allow the passage of vessels of any size. The next kind were similar to the present, turning on their centers, but placed so low as scarcely to allow a canal-boat to pass under them, and had to be opened for every tug or larger vessel. As the commerce of the city increased, the crossing of the river was more and more frequently interrupted, but the rights of navigation being considered then paramount to all others on the river, vessels could not be detained at all by the bridges, no matter how great the inconvenience to land travel or transportat- ion. At length, after a few bridges had been built more elevated above the water than the first, an or- dinance was passed requiring the tugs to lower their chimneys in passing them when they had no ves- sel in tow. This ordinance met with great opposition from tug-masters at first, so that for a day or two they refused to tow any vessels in or out of the river. But soon this reasonable requirement was acquiesced in, and consequently much relief was afforded to the passage of vehicles across the river. Notwithstand- ing this relief, however, the views which then obtained with regard to the unlawfulness of detaining vessels at all at the bridges, and the constantly increasing demands of commerce — both on the water and the land — seemed to make it imperative that one or more tunnels, for the passage of vehicles, should be con- structed under the river.
Among the earliest efforts for tunneling u nder the ri v- er was that of a company formed in 1853, at the head of which was Hon. Win. B.Ogden. Messrs. Wm. Good-
History ofthv River luntiels of Chicago. 25
ing, Ed. F. Tracy and Thos. C. Clarke proposed plans for the work; Mr. Clarke's was, for a structure princi- pally of wrought iron, which it was understood the company thought most favorably of, but no decided steps toward the carrying out of any plan were taken at first. A fterwards the elevation of the bridges, and the ordinance with regard to the tugs, having afforded so much relief to land travel, it was serious- ly doubted if any company could obtain a sufficient revenue to justify the construction of a tunnel under the river. Between the spring of 1864 and that of 1866, various projects were presented to the City Council, a nd most of them were referred to the Board of Public Works. A member of this Board, himself an en- gineer— Mr. J. J. Gindele— submitted a plan, which was referred to the City Engineer, with instructions to con- fer with other engineers on the subject, and report to the Board his views with regard to the best plan to be adopted. The City Engineer, after careful investi- gation of various projects, recommended a plan which was substantially Mr. Gindele's, adding to it a stronger roof and the sub-tunnel for safer drainage. The Board adopted this plan and proceeded to let the work, all necessary ordinances having been pre- viously passed by the City Council, which had, after much discussion, fixed upon Washington Street for the site.
The plan of this structure includes open approach- es at each end, two driveways and one footway under the river, and between the driveways and each open approach a large single archway or covered approach, which, togetherwiththe open approaches, are only for driveways, The footway out has entire- ly separate entrances, by means of a steep incline and stairway, near to and on each side of the river. The double arches under the river were adopted for safety, economy, and ease of grade. They are each 11 feet wide and 15 feet high, * with perpendicular sides.
* Above invert, or 13 feet above pavement.
26 History of the River Tunnels of Chicago.
The upper have three centres, and the inverts are seg- ments of 10 feet radius. The covered approach on each side of the river is contracted in the first 40 feet from the double-arched driveway, from a width of 23% feet, and height of 20% feet, to 19% feet width and 18 feet 10 inches in height, and continues so to the open approach. The footway is elevated under the middle of the river 5 feet above the driveway . It is 10 feet wide and 10 feet 10 inches high,f and otherwise shaped like the driveways. The thickness of the perpendicular wall or pier between the drive- ways is 2 feet; also that between the south driveway and the footway. The river section is 22^ feet long. The upper arches, inverts, piers and facings of abut- ments are all of brick-work laid in cement. The backs of the abutments are of rubble, laid in cement. The foundations are all of concrete. The abutments under the river a,re 7 feet thick. The arches and in- verts there are 22 inches thick. The spandrels of the upper arches are formed of rubble masonry, which is brought to a smooth upper surface, then coated with common lime mortar, and then covered with a coat- ing of asphalt mastic, made according to rules observ- ed by the United States engineers in covering case- ments. Over the mastic another layer of lime mor- tar, and then a flagging course of limestone 10 inches thick, was laid to prevent the dragging of anchors from injuring the masonry of the upper arches. This work was intended to be so strong, that if a vessel loaded with iron should sink upon the tunnel, the structure would not give way.
The arches of the covered approaches each side of the river are 30 inches thick on the sides a^d 22 in- ches on top. The abutments of these arches are 7 feet 2 inches thick at their bottoms, and diminished by steps upwards to 6 feet 7 inches. The invert is 18 inches thick ordinarily, 22 inches under the widest
t Above invert, or 8 feet above plank walk.
History of the River Tunnels of Chicago. 27
part. The upper portion of these arches was covered with a coating of mastic, less costly, and less carefully laid on than that under the river. The east covered approach is 310 feet long, and the west covered ap- proach is 402 feet long.
At the joining of the river portion of the tunnel on each side with the covered approaches, solid stone dock walls were run up to 8 feet above low water, and placed on lines that had been previously estab- lished for a comprehensive plan of widening and straightening the Chicago River and its branches. The estimated cost of this much-needed widening, and the difficulty of determining who should pay for it, have been so great as to prevent it from being carried out thus far, and the general desire for it seems to have diminished very much.
The retaining walls, on each side of the open ap- proaches, vary in thickness, at the base from 8% to 4 feet, and are everywhere on top 2 feet thick. Their faces are perpendicular and their backs are stepped up. The tops of these walls, and of the cross walls connecting them at the entrance to the covered ap- proach, are covered with neat coping, which is sur- mounted by a strong iron railing. These walls are of neat coursed rubble masonry, laid in cement. The east open approach is 272 feet long, and the west 320 feet, the total length of masonry in the tunnel being 1,526 feet.
The roadway has a grade of 1 in 16 between Frank- lin Street and the commencement of the double drive- way; then 1 in 42.86 to the centre of the river, the same between that and the commencement of the west covered approach; then 1 in 18.63 to Clinton street, the entire length being 1,608 feet. This road- way, thus far, has always been paved with wooden blocks, except a small portion, recently, under the river, where the blocks have been worn out in the ruts very rapidly, never keeping in order over two
28 'History of the River Tunnels of Chicago.
years after being laid.
The footway has a grade of 1 in 1 1.31 on the east side of the centre of the river to near the entrance house, where there is a level platform, then two flights of steps up to the surface on the east side of Market street. The grade west of the centre of the river is 1 in 12.08, with an entrance house and flights of steps on the east side of Canal street, similar to those at the other end on Market street.*
The work was first let to contractors, whose inex- perience led to a failure and re-letting. It was com- menced the second time July 25, 1867, by Messrs. J. K. Lake, Chas. B. Farwell, and J. Clark. Mr. Clark afterwards withdrew, and was succeeded by Mr. A. A. McDonnell. A formal opening of the tunnel by the Hon. J. B. Kice, then Mayor, took place Jan. 1, 1869, The entire cost of the work to the city, including all preliminary expenses, up to Oct. 31, 1869, was $512, 707.57.
Notwithstanding the pains and expense taken to make this work tight, it leaked considerably at first under the river, and in very cold weather became so blocked with ice as to be dangerous unless frequently cleared out. That leakage has very much diminished , and is not one-tenth as much now as at first. The leakage and frost affected the piers between the river arches so much as to make it necessary to renew port- ions of them about three years ago.
Actual experience in the use of this tunnel by the public shows that the passage of heavily loaded teams
*There is, from the centre of the river section and under the north driveway, a sub or drainage tunnel 5 feet in diameter, leading to a pumping well on the east side of the river, where there is a steam engine and pump.
The pier between the driveways under the river has eleven openings, 3 feet wide, for the passage of policemen and workmen. Similar passageways were made through the pier between the south driveway and the footway, supposing they might sometimes be of great service to the police, in case of attempts at robbery or violence, which were apprended by some, but these last mentioned passageways proved greater nuisances than benefits, and are practically closed. Robbery and violence, in the tunnel, occur no oftener, it is believed, than else- where.
History of the River Tunnels of Chicago. 29
through it is very small. This is not surprising when it is remembered that the total ascent from under the river to Franklin or Clinton street is 40 feet, while the total ascent, with no steeper grades, to either the Randolph or Madison street bridge, is only 8 feet. While it is possible for horses drawing heavy loads to pass over the short ascent by making strong efforts, it is impossible for them to overcome the long ones without frequent stops; hence they prefer to wait a few, and generally but a very few, minutes for a bridge to close. For the passage of light vehicles, this tunnel is considerably used, but not nearly so much as was originally expected, except when repairs became necessary to the bridges, or stoppages of ves- sels occur. With regard to foot passengers, many use the tunnel, but compared with those who cross at the bridges, the number is very small. WThile navigation is closed in the winter, very little use is made of the tunnel, except by those who drive rapid- ly in light vehicles, and do not wish to be hindred by horse-cars at the bridges. The footwray is sometimes preferred to the bridges in summer on account of its POO! shade, and in winter because of its protection from freezing winds. The footway has to be lighted by day as well as by night. The driveways require much less artificial light by day than by night. LASALLE STREET RIVER TUNNEL.
This structure is in most respects so similar to the one on Washington street, that only the differences will be mentioned. The total length from the begin- ning of the south open approach, a short distance north of Randolph street, to Michigan street, is 1,854 feet; the south open approach is 320 feet long, the south covered approach 510 feet, the river section 276 feet, the north covered approach 530 feet, and the north open approach 218 feet. The footway is 2 feet higher than that of the Washington street tun-
30 History of the River Tunnels of Chicago.
nel, which is a decided improvement. It is east of the driveways and has been utilized for the laying of the 36-inch water main, from the north pumping works, under the river. This main has been placed under the plank floor of the footway. This tunnel, as well as that on Washington street, has a great number of telegraph wires laid through it. The steep- est grade in the driveways is 1 in 20, and in the foot- way 1 in 14%. In order to avoid a steeper grade than 1 in 20 on the north open approach, and yet not make this approach extend north of Michigan street, and at the same time not interfere with the grade of Kinzie street, it was necessary to construct under this street girder-work with flat brick arches.
The greatest difference between this and the Wash- ington street tunnel is in the much freer use of asphalt, the two upper shells or courses of brick in the arches under the river being laid in it instead of in cement, with a most satisfactory result. On the faces of the abutments, under the river, where no asphalt was used, there is considerable moisture, but no dripping.
The entire original cost of this tunnel, including damages, was $566,276.48. The city was sued for damages to property by the south open approach, but the courts decided the city was not liable.*
*The contractors were Messrs. Robert E. Moss, George Chambers and Archi- bald I. McBean.
Mr. Wm. Bryson, assistant of the City Engineer, had the immediate charge of this and the Washington Street river tunnel, and afterwards of the new lake tunnel and its extension westward.
The West Chicago Street Railroad Tunnel. 31
THE WEST CHICAGO STREET RAILROAD TUNNEL,
UNDER THE CHICAGO RIVER, NEAR
VANBUREN STREET.
CONDENSED FROM A REPORT OF CHARLES V. WESTON,
ENGINEER-IN-CHARGE.
•
The accumulation of travel from the North and the West divisions of Chicago to its business centre in the South division grew rapidly, as the business of the city increased. To accommodate these conditions var- ious plans were suggested. The travel over the brid- ges interrupted, as it was, by the opening of them for commercial traffic made it necessary to tunnel the river, as a measure of relief. First, the LaSalle St. tunnel was built and next the Washington Street tun- nel, through both of which the Cable cars were allow- ed to lay their tracks, but these did not suffice to a- fford transportation for the persons wishing to go to and from their homes to the business centre morning and evening; therefore it was imperative to construct another tunnel wherewith to fulfill the purposes for which the first two had been built. This tunnel was exclusively a private enterprise to fulfill the mission of the system of the cable street car lines. The en- trance of the tunnel was located upon private proper- ty between south VanBuren and Jackson street; pass- ing under the Chicago river, under several large build- ings, and under the yards and tracks of the Pennsyl- vania R. R. Company near the Passenger Station of the Union Depot Canal Street.
Feb. 6th, 1890 active construction was begun by cof- fer-damming the river from the west side to its centre
The depth of the river at the side of the dam was 20 feet which made it a work of great care and expense, so great was the lateral pressure of the water. This half being completed the coffer-dam was removed so as to permit free navigation along the river where the
32 Ihe West Chicago Street Railroad Tunnel.
other half of the tunnel was being built, by a similar process. Contractors for this tunnel had to become responsible for the safety and security of allbuildings* adjacent to the excavations, necessary for the ap- proaches to the tunnel proper, immediately under the river.
In this responsibility it was optional, to either tear down the buildings and make new foundations forthcm when the tunnel was completed, or construct safe foun- dations for them by means of pilings, during the pro- gress of the work, of course, remunerating owners of said buildings, in either case.
On account of protracted litigation between the Tunnel Company and the various property owners a- long the line of the tunnel, it was impossible to pro- secute the work continously from any given point, but the entire tunnel and the approaches thereto were constructed in several sections, often remote from each other. The section in the west half of the river and one hundred feet inland was first constructed; then the east approach from the west building line of Franklin Street westwardly one hundred and forty feet was completed. Then followed the simultaneous construction of the section under the Pennsylvania Railroad yards, and that between the east dock line and the center of Market Street. The completion of these two sections was followed by the construction of the river section, in the east half of the river, which connected the sections previously constructed, mak- ing the completed work continous from the center of Market Street, east of the river, to the east curb wall in Canal Street, west of the river. Then followed the construction of the portion from the center of Mark- et Street eastward, to join the portion of the open approach which had been built westward from the west line of Franklin Street. The last section, which included the arch under Canal Street, and the entire west approach and portal, was then built, complet-
7he West Chicago Street Railroad Tunml. 33
ing the entire work. The time covered by construc- tion and delays was a little more than four years, or two years more than the time originally contemplat- ed.
Although the tunnel and approaches were built in this fragmentary manner, the joinings were perfect in alignment and grade, and no unequal settlement or deviation from the true section can be detected in the several joinings. This result, in a large measure, is due to the great strength of the centers, and to the fact that they were left under the completed arch with a sufficient time for the mortar to become thorough- ly set before striking. The last section of the arch built was the only case where the centering was re- moved soon after keying. The centers in this section were struck within twenty days after the arch was keyed; but there was no deviation from a true arch. As soon as practicable after any portion of the mason- ry of the tunnel was built, the trench over it was filled up in uniform layers, and the filling was rammed tho- roughly in place to bring the surf ace to its pro per level.
The tunnel is drained by means of a 12-inch pipe, laid on the invert, along the center line of the tunnel and its approaches, with brick man-holes for cleaning, a- bout 200 feet apart. There are also (in the land sec- tions only) vertical lines of drain-pipe back of the side walls. These vertical drains are 4 inches in dia- meter and about 50 feet apart. They are connected with the main drain, in the tunnel, by means of 4-inch cast-iron pipes. The cable tubes of the railways are connected with the main drain by short pipes, laid at intervals of 32 feet. All man-holes and wheel pits,in the cable tracks, are also connected with this main drain which discharges into a sump at the lowest part of the tunnel, near the center of the river. The sump is connected by a 20-inch drain pipe with sump-well at the north side of the tunnel, just east of the dock line, where a brick shaft 6 feet in diameter, reaching
34 Water Supply of Chicago.
to the surface of the ground, and occupying a recess formed in the side wall of the tunnel, contains a drain- age pump which raises the water and discharges it in- to the river above.
This tunnel cost $800,000 for actual construction, and |1,000,000 for property along the line and for legal expenses.
The contractors for the construction were Fitzsimons and Connell Company, and sub-let by themtoMessers. Joseph Downey & Co.; the latter firm being composed of Mr. Joseph Downey and General Charles Fitzsimons, of the Fitzsimons & Connel Company. These gen- tlemen had a great many difficulties to overcome, and met them with great courage and fortitude.
WATER SUPPLY OF CHICAGO.
TAKEN FROM COLBERT' S-HISTORY OF CHICAGO.
To supply the people of this fast growing city with water of sufficient puritj7 and in ample quantity, was a long vexed problem. In the days of the village and town the needed supply was drawn directly from the river, then unpolluted by the sewerage of a city, or taken from the lake. The latter was the principal source of supply after the township organization, when one of the citizens, whose name is not preserved, found it profitable to peddle water around the streets at so much per bucket full. In 1836, the year before the incorporation of the city, the State Legislature passed a law incorporating the "Chicago Hydraulic Company." The incorporators named in the bill were James H. Campbell, Gholsen Kercheval, R. A. Kinzie, R. J. Hamilton, H. G. Hubbard, David Hunter, Peter Cohen, E.W.Casey, G. S. Hubbard, G. W. Dole, J. H. Kinzie, W. Forsythe, and S. Wells. The capital stock was limited to $250,000. The water carts had it all their own way, however, for four years longer. Owing to financial difficulties following the panic of 183 7 the
Wafer Supply of Chicago. 35
company was not formed till 1839. It commenced operations in 1840. The company built a reservoir at the corner of Lake street and Michigan avenue on the ground now occupied by the Adams House, twenty-five feet square and eight feet deep, elevated about eighty feet above the surface of the ground, and erected a pump connecting it by an iron pipe with the Lake, laid on a crib -work pier, running into the lake about one hundred and fifty feet. This pump was worked by a steam engine of twenty-five horse power. The water was distributed to the citizens through logs bored at the "works," five inches for the main lines arid three inches for the subordinate ones. In 1842 James Long entered into arrangements with the Hydraulic Company to do all the pumping for the sup- ply of the city with water for ten years, without cost to the company, in consideration of the free use of the surplus power of their twenty-five horse power engine. In a letter read at the formal opening of the lake tunnel, Mr. Long thus refers to the difficulties of the primitive situation: "In winter the pipes on the pier would be disarranged by the heaving of the frost, and I had frequently to spend hours at a time to caulk up the joint by throwing on water and thus freezing up the cracks before we could make the pump avail- able. When the end of this pipe from the pier was first put down it was three or four feet below the sur- face of the lake, but in 1842-3 the lake had receded so far as frequently to leave the end out of water, par- ticulary when the wind blew from the south." But it was soon found that a large extension was needed. Long before the above named contract had expired the twenty-five horse power engine had become too small even without doing the extra work expected of it. On the 15 day of February, 1851, an act passed by the Legislature was approved by the executive of the State, giving existence to the Chicago City Hy- draulic Company, and John B. Turner, A. S. Sherman,
36 Water Supply of Chicago.
and H. G. Loomis,were appointed to constitute the first Board of Water Commissioners. They entered on the duties of their office on the 16th day of June fol- lowing Ten days later the Board employed William. J. McAlpine, an engineer of considerable reputation in those days, to make the necessary surveys for the works, and to report, with plans, for the purpose of enabling the Commissioners to carry the act into exe- cution. On the 24th day of October he submitted a plan which was subsequently adopted. It was based on the estimate that at the expiration of fifteen years the population of the city would be one hundred thou- sand souls. This calculation was thought,by very many, to be an extravagant one; but at the end of the time mentioned, October, 1866, the population was more than double that amount. The estimated cost of the works was about $335,500. The annual expense of running them was estimated at $ 18,000.
In April and August, 1852, two loans were effected with Messrs. Duncan, Sherma n & Co., of New York, bonds being issued to the amount of four hundred thousand dollars, bearing interest at the rate of six per cent per annum, and twenty five years to run.
The not amount realized from the sale of the bonds was f 361, 280. The work was almost immediately commenced, but the Board were very much impeded in their movements by an injunction issued at the in- stance of the Hydraulic Company. A committee of the Common Council had, during the preceding March, recommended that the city pay to the compa 113* thirty thousand dollars for its property and franchises, or fifteen thousand dollars for the franchise alone, but the company never intimated its willingness to accept the offer, and stood out resolutely to withstand any encroachments upon what had been heretofore an ex- clusive privlege. The difficulty was subsequently ar- ranged to the satisfaction of both parties. The work wa« proceeded with as rapid as the limited facilities of
Water Supply of Chicago. 37
that period allowed. The following is a brief sketch of the works as originally built: The works were lo- cated on the lake shore near Chicago avenue. A tim- ber crib, twenty by forty feet, was sunk six hundred feet from shore, and from this crib a wooden inlet pipe of thirty inches interior diameter, laid in a trench on the bottom of the lake, conveyed the water to the pumping well, which was placed under the engine house, and was twenty-five feet deep. The end of the inlet pipe was of iron, and made to bend down to the bottom of the well, acting like a syphon. The water flowed into the well by its own gravity, and* thence was forced by the engines into the mains, and thence into the reservoir in the South Division — the first built. It was conveyed thence to the distributing pipes in the various parts of the city. The engine house was built of brick in the modern Italian style. The main building was fifty-four feet front and thirty- four feet deep, with two wings, each forty-four by thirty-four feet. The main building was carried up two stories high, the wing one story. In the centre of the main building a tower was constructed, 14 feet square at the base, and 140 feet high, serving as a chimney for both boilers and a chamber for the stand- ing column. This column was of cast iron pipe, twen- ty-four inches in diameter, connected with the pumps and main pipes, and serving as a regulator in keep- ing up a uniform head of water in the reservoir. The engine was about two hundred horse power. There was also a smaller one kept for use in case of accident to the principal engine. In December, 1853, water was first pumped into the pipes to test them, and the first hydrant was opened on North Clark street, near the bridge. In February, 1854, water was first intro- duced into the houses.
The reservoir building was completed in November, 1854, and was located near the corner of Adams and Clark streets, two stories high, with a tank capable of
38 Water Supply of Chicago.
holding 500,000 gallons of water; the tank was de- signed to hold a night supply for 50, 000 inhabitants; the surface of the water was eighty-three feet above the level of the lake. Two other reservoirs were after- wards constructed for the other divisions of the city, viz: onSangamon street, near Monroe, and on Chica- go avenue, near Franklin street, and the distribution pipes were gradually thrown all over the city till at the close of the year 1862 there were nearly 105 miles of pipes laid, including mains. Since then about 90 additional miles have been put down, making a total of 195 Jineal miles in the city to the end of 1868.
Another decade had passed, and the growing nec- essities of the people became more and more pressing, and early in 1863 the matter became one of absorbing interest. The progress of the war was the national excitement; the raising troops was the State concern, and the quality of water which was, and the quantity which, in the future, could be delivered, was a local civic consideration which exercised the private citizen, public corporations, and municipal bodies.
Many suggestions were made, and many plans sub- mited for the remedy of theevil. Pipes along the lake shore; pipes out into the lake; filtering pipes along its margin; deep cuts from river to lake; fanning mills and Archimedean screws; pipes at Bridgport, and many other devices were all thought of. Some of them were tried, and all, in succession, were rejected as impracticable. All of these plans sought to cleanse the Chicago river from its accumulation of filth, and to provide an ample supply of pure drinking water. The sanitary condition of the city, good as it was, might be bettered by action, and the enterprise of the citizens would brook little delay which could be over- come by treasure and by invention. Public opinion at length compelled the Common Council to take ac- tion, and it joined with the Board of Public Works in completing a contract with Mr. Preston, Superinten-
Water Supply of Chicago. 39
dent of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, by which a portion of the water of the Calumet river should be diverted through the feeder and pumped into the riv- er, thus creating an artificial current, which should carry off the impurities of the stream. This was but a partial relief, and it could not be otherwise, for it availed us nothing when the canal was in disuse. Several schemes were next proposed, as follows: To divert the water of the Calumet and the Desplaines Rivers into the Chicago River by means of the feeder and the use of pumps. To this it was objected that the supply of water would be inadequate, while the adoption of the plan would involve the city in inter- minable and expensive chancery suits, the diversion of the current of the streams and of the canal seeming necessarily to encroach upon rights which had vested in the canal company, and in the owners of mill prop- erty and water privileges on the running streams.
A second plan suggested was to build a series of intercepting sewers, similar in their nature to those which have lately been erected in the city of London, for the purification of the river Thames. These, it was thought by some, could be constructed along the mar- gin of the river, as reservoirs for the filth passing within its borders, and from the sewers, the contents thus received being emptied into the lake, or distribut- ed over the country for purposes of agriculture. This suggestion had a theoretical value. The largest city of the world adopted it, at an enormous expense, but to the time of its consideration here, no results had been deduced which promised a certain or probable success. The expenditure of money would be very great, and the loss of time would be considerable, and on so great an experiment, which had not in itself a fair prospect of success, our people were unwilling to enter. The proposed ship canal had the appearance of being something feasible, but there was a IIJIITUT to its success. Tt needed congressional legislation,
38 Water Supply of Chicago.
holding; 500,000 gallons of water; the tank was de- signed to hold a night supply for 5 0,000 inhabitants; the surface of the water was eighty- three feet above the level of the lake. Two other reservoirs were after- wards constructed for the other divisions of the city, viz: onSangamon street, near Monroe, and on Chica- go avenue, near Franklin street, and the distribution pipes were gradually thrown all over the city till at the close of the year 1862 there were nearly 105 miles of pipes laid, including mains. Since then about 90 additional miles have been put down, making a total of 195 .lineal miles in the city to the end of 1868.
Another decade had passed, and the growing nec- essities of the people became more and more pressing, and early in 1863 the matter became one of absorbing interest. The progress of the war was the national excitement; the raising troops was the State concern, and the quality of water which was, and the quantity which, in the future, could be delivered, was a local civic consideration which exercised the private citizen, public corporations,and municipal bodies.
Many suggestions were made, and many plans sub- mited for the remedy of the evil. Pipes along the lake shore; pipes out into the lake; filtering pipes along its margin; deep cuts from river to lake; fanning mills and Archimedean screws; pipes at Bridgport, and many other devices were all thought of. Some of them were tried, and all, in succession, were rejected as impracticable. All of these plans sought to cleanse the Chicago river from its accumulation of filth, and to provide an ample supply of pure drinking water. The sanitary condition of the city, good as it was, might be bettered by action, and the enterprise of the citizens would brook little delay which could be over- come by treasure and by invention. Public opinion at length compelled the Common Council to take ac- tion, and it joined with the Board of Public Works in completing a contract with Mr. Preston, Superinten-
Water Supply of Chicago, 39
dent of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, by which a portion of the water of the Calumet river should be diverted through the feeder and pumped into the riv- er, thus creating an artificial current, which should carry off the impurities of the stream. This was but a partial relief, and it could not be otherwise, for it availed us nothing when the canal was in disuse. Several schemes were next proposed, as follows: To divert the water of the Calumet and the Desplaines Rivers into the Chicago River by means of the feeder and the use of pumps. To this it was objected that the supply of water would be inadequate, while the adoption of the plan would involve the city in inter- minable and expensive chancery suits, the diversion of the current of the streams and of the canal seeming necessarily to encroach upon rights which had vested in the canal company, and in the owners of mill prop- erty and water privileges on the running streams.
A second plan suggested was to build a series of intercepting sewers, similar in their nature to those which have lately been erected in the city of London, for the purification of the river Thames. These, it was thought by some, could be constructed along the mar- gin of the river, as reservoirs for the filth passing within its borders, and from the sewers, the contents thus received being emptied into the lake, or distribut- ed over the country for purposes of agriculture. This suggestion had a theoretical value. The largest city of the world adopted it, at an enormous expense, but to the time of its consideration here, no results had been deduced which promised a certain or probable success. The expenditure of money would be very great, and the loss of time would be considerable, and on so great an experiment, which had not in itself a fair prospect of success, our people were unwilling to enter. The proposed ship canal had the appearance of being something feasible, but there was a barriiT to its success. Tt needed congressional legislation,
42 Water Supply of Chicago.
of the Water Works, near the sight of the crib as at present located, the water, being thirty feet deep, was clear and cool. The earth was penetrated to the de- pth of thirty feet. Here was found a covering of sand and soft mashy clay, with a clay becoming more hard and compact as it was more deeply penetrated. On June 16th, of the same year, temperature of the water began to be tested. Its clearness was apparent, a small object was visible at a distance of eighteen feet, the water being thirty-six feet deep. On the surface the thermometer showed, at three o'clock of the 16th day of June, sixty degrees, and at the bottom fifty-one and a half degrees. These experiments continued to be carried on with the like result of exhibiting clay sub- stratum, the approach to the shore, however, show- ing a deeper alluvial deposit , composed mainly of sand.
After a careful discussion of the various methods which had been submitted, of securing the city a sup- ply of pure water, the Board of Public Works decided, early in 1863, to adopt the plan of carrying a tunnel out ui ider the lake. The necessary drawings and specifi- cations were at once made, and advertisements were issued inviting proposals for the doing of the work. Bids were opened on the 9th of September, 1 863, most of the parties submitting proposals being present at the opening. The bids, seven in number, ranged from $239,548 to $1,056,000, as follows: James Andrews, Pittsburgh, Pa, $239,548; Dull & Gowan, Harris- burgh, Pa, $315, 139; Walker, Wood & Robinson, New York, $315,000; Williams, McBean, Brown & Neilson, Chicago, $490,000; Hervey Nash, $40 per lineal foot; D. L. DeGolyer, Chicago, $620,000; William Baldwin, New York, $1,056,000.
The great disparity in bids arose from the difference of opinion which existed as to the character of the soil, some of the contractors thinking they would meet with sand and gravel in the course of the excavation,
Water Supply of Chicago. 43
while others, expecting that the soil would be uniform- ly of clay, made reservations, throwing the responsi- bility of meeting with another kind of soil upon the city. Messrs. Dull & Gowan,were the only contractors who made an unqualified bid,takingupon themselves all risks, and the contract was awarded to them. The Common Council granted authority for that purpose on the 5th of October, and ordered the issue of the necessary bonds. The time originally fixed for the completion of the work was November, 1865.
The point selected by the Board of Public Works for the commencement of the work was the lot occupied by the Pumping Works, at the east end of Chicago ave- nue, on the lake shore. It was originally proposed to sink one land and two to four lake shafts at inter- mediate points between the east and west end of the tunnel, the lake shafts to consist of cast-iron cylinders protected by hollow, pentagonal cribs. This propo- sal was based on the supposition that that number might berequimlto complete the tunnel in two years. It was subsequently found that the lake shafts could be omitted, and this part of the plan was aban- doned . The first ground was broken on St. Patrick's Day, March 17th, 1864, being two months after the time originally set, on account of the delay of the cyl- inders for the shore shaft, which were cast at Pitts- burgh . The inauguration cerem onies were of an inter- esting character, and were witnessed by about a hun- dred gentlemen, among whom were Mayor Sherman, Messrs. Letz and Rose, of the Board of Public Works; Mr. S. S. Hayes, the City Comptroller; Mr. E. S. Ches- brough, U. P. Harris, and majority of the members of the Common Council. The Mayor made a few re- marks appropriate to the occasion, and then they took pick and broke the ground amid the cheers of the company. Each of the gentlemen then took a shovelful of earth and placed it in a wheelbarrow, which was taken outside by Mr. Go wan.
44 Wafer /Supply of Chicago
After breaking ground the shore shaft was sunk on the site of the present pumping works. Tt was origin- ally intended to construct the shaft wholly of brick, running it down from the surface of the ground to a depth of fifteen feet below the level of the lake, but the fact that a shifting quicksand had to be passed through compelled them to abandon that plan of op- eration. The contract was deviated from, and the contractors were authorized to run down an iron cyl- inder of the same dimensions as the center of the crib, as far as the bottom of the sand bed, about twenty- six feet. This cylinder is nine feet in diameter, inside, and two and a quarter inches thick. Itwrasputdown in four sections of about nine feet in length.
From the shore shaft the tunnel extends two miles out in a straight line at right angles with the shore, pointing about two points to the north of east. The clear width of the tunnel is five feet, and the clear height, five feet and two inches, the top and bottom arches being semi-circles. It is lined with brick ma- sonry eight inches thick, in two rings or shells, the brick being laid lengthwise of the tunnel, with tooth- ing joints. The bottom of the inside surfaces of the bore a,t the east end is sixty-six feet below7 water level, or sixty-four feet below city datum, and has a gradual slope towards the shore of two feet per mile, falling- four feet in the whole, to admit of it being thoroughly emptied in case of repairs, the water being shut off at the crib by means of a gate. The work has been laid in brick eight inches thick all around, well set in ce- ment. The lower half of the bore is constructed in such a manner that the bricks lie against the clay, while in the upper half the bricks are \vedged in between the brick and the clay, thus preventing any danger which might result from the tremendous pressure which it was feared might burst in the tunnel.
The tunnel as now constructed will deliver, under a head of two feet, 19,000,000 gallons of water daily;
Water Supply of Chicago. 45
under a head of eight feet, 38,000,000 gallons daily, and under a head of eighteen feet, 57,000, 000 gallons daily. The velocities for the above quantities will be one and four-tenths mile per hour, head being two feet; head being eight feet, the velocity will be two and three-tenths miles per hour, and the head being eighteen feet the velocity will be four and two-tenths miles per hour. By these means it will be competent to supply one million people with fifty seven gallons each per day, with a head of eighteen feet.
The excavations were commenced immediately af- ter the ground was broken. With regard to the char- acter of the work, the material met with in the pro- cess of excavation was stiff blue clay throughout, so that the anticipation of the contractors in this re- spect was fulfilled. The soil was found to be so uni- form that only one leakage of water through the tun- nel ever occured, and that only distilling through a crevace at the rate of a bucket full in five minutes. This occurred in September, 1865. The work-men left in dismay, but soon returned and repaired the crevice. . From that time no accident of any impor- tance occured to hinder the progress of +he work, with the exception of one or two slight escapes of gas, which resulted in nothing more serious than the singe- ing of a workman's whiskers. Several stones, from the size of an egg upwards, were met with, but very few in comparison- with the great mass of clay.
The only fault to be found with the clay was, that it contained too much calcareous matter to make good brick.
The contractors claimed to have lost money on the work. They had calculated on being able to make their own bricks on the ground, but for the reason above stated they were obliged to procure bricks else- where. They pleaded too, for increase of renumerati- on on the ground that they took the work when gold was at 125. They really signed the contract, how-
46 Water Supply of Chicago.
ever, when gold was 160. The matter was ultimately referred to the Committee on Finance, and upon their report being presented a lengthy argument was held on the legality of the appropr iat ion , and the propriety of making it, the contract having been entered into by the city in good faith and the contractors being advised as to the price of gold. Thebill for an appropriation passed, but was vetoed by the Mayor at the next coun- cil meeting, and was subsequently reconsidered by the council and laid on the table. The contractors were, however, at one time authorized to draw a larger per- centage upon their estimates than was provided for in the contract, amounting perhaps to about $25,000, and some $40, 000 was allowed them in shape of extras for work not specified in the contract, while no deduc- tions were made from the price originally agreed upon, for the omission of the intermediate cribs which were found to be unnecessary.
On the 25th of July, 1865, the giant crib for the east end of the tunnel was launched, in the presence of Governor Oglesby and a large concourse of citizens, and after being towed out, in safty, two miles from the shore, was there sunk.
It is forty feet and half high, and built in pentagon- al form, in a circumscribing circle of ninety eight and a half feet in diameter. It is built of logs one foot square, and consists of three walls, at a distance of eleven feet from each other, leaving a central pentagonal space having an inscribed circle of twenty-five feet, within which is fixed the iron cylinder, nine feet in diameter, running from the wrater line to the tunnel, sixty-four feet below the surface and thirty-one feet below the bed of the lake at that point. The crib is thoroughly braced in every direction. It contains 750,000 feet of lumber, board measure, and 150 tons iron bolts.
It is filled with 4,500 tons of stone and weighs 5,700 tons. The crib stands twelve feet above the water line, giving a maximum area of 1,200 feet which
Water Supply of Chicago 47
gan be exposed at one sweep to the action of the waves, reckoning the resistance as perpendicular.
The outside was thoroughly caulked, equal to a first class vessel, with three threads in each seam,the first and last being what is called "horsed." Over all these there is a layer of lagging to keep the caulking in place and protect the crib proper from the action of the waves. A covered platform or house was built over the crib, enabling the workmen to prosecute the work uninteiTuptfMlby rain or wind, and affording a protection for the earth brought up from the excava- tion, and permitting it to be carried away by scows, whose return cargoes were brick for the lining of the tunnel. The top of the cylinder was subsequently covered with a grating to keep out floating logs, fish, etc. A sluice made in the side of the crib was opened to let in the water, and a lighthouse is intended to be built over all, serving the double purpose of guarding the crib from injury by vessels and of showing the way to the harbor of Chicago.
The first brick was laid at the crib end on the 22d of December, 1865, and on the last day of the year the workmen began to excavate from that end, at which time they had already 4,825 feet done from the shore. From that time the work progressed steadily and with few interruptions of any consequence. In the early part of November, 1866, when within a few feet of meeting, the workmen met for the first time writh sand pockets, which caused leakage, and delayed the final blow till December 6th, when the last brick (which was a stone), was laid by Mayor J. B. Rice, iri the presence of the Aldermen, city officials, and as many other prominent citizens as could be packed in- to the tunnel within hearing distance.
Still another delay was experienced in the construc- tion of the conduits to the new pumping works, and it was not until Monday, March 25th, 1867, that the water was let into the tunnel to flow7 through
48 Description of the Xew Lake luniiel.
the water pipes and hydrants of the city. On that day the new water works were formally inaugurated by the laying of the corner stone of a new tower, sit- uated about half a block west of the old tower, and since completed to a total height of 130 feet, standing on a base of twenty-four feet square.
The total cost of this the first lake tunnel to the city, including extras, preliminary examination, sup- ervision, etc, was $437,845. The total water debt of the city was $2,483,000 in April, 1868.
DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW LAKE TUNNEL.
BY E. S. CHESBROUGH.
Tn consequence of the unprecedented growth of the city, and the more than corresponding increase in consumption of water, and the dread that existed even then of extensive conflagrations, the city council directed the Board of Public Works, in 1869, to take immediate action in reference to the further wants of the city. The Board reported the result of their in- vestigations under date of October 15th, the same year; and recommended the construction of an addi- tional tunnel to start from the same crib as the old one, to run parallel with it to the old pumping works; thence under the city in a straight line to some point on the South Branch, not further east than Halsted St., nor further west than Ashland Ave.; the diameter of the tunnel to be seven feet, and its estimated capac- ity 100,000,000 U. S. gallons in twenty-four hours.
Owing to protracted discussion in the city council, and vetoes of the mayor, and a subsequent injunction upon the proceedings of the Board of Public Works in relation to the letting of this work, its commence- ment was delayed until July 12th, 1872. The western end was fixed on the west side of Ashland Ave., just south of Blue Island Ave., where the pumping works
Chicago Water Tunnels and Intake Cribs. 49
could be supplied with coal either by rail or by vessel.
In the construction of the new tunnel no serious difficulties were encountered except at two points — at the crib and near Polk St. Each of these took several months to overcome, the one at the crib at an entire cost of about $10,000 to the city, and the one at Polk St. at a cost of about as much more, including dam- ages to property caused by the settling of ground above the tunnel.
The masonry in the tunnel was made about eleven inches thick. Its total length is six miles, and it is connected by a short cross or branch tunnel with the North Side pumping works, which immediately upon the completion of the new lake tunnel, received great relief, the water in the wells rising six or seven feet higher than it usually stood before.
The estimated combined capacity of the old ancl the new lake tunnels is 150, 000,000 U.S. gallons daily.
The actual consumption of water has increased very greatly with the increased facilities for furnishing it, so that more pumping power is already demanded, and a new tunnel is considered a necessity in the not very distant future.
CHICAGO WATER TUNNELS and INTAKE CRIBS IN LAKE MICHIGAN.
Prior to 1867 the water supply for the pumping station at Chicago Avenue was taken from an inlet basin (constructed in 1854-5) on the shore line about 500 east of the centre line of the present Lincoln Park Boulevard (formerly Pine Street). On the I7th of March, 1864, work was commenced on the first water tunnel, which is 5 feet internal diameter and extends from a shore shaft located in the rear of the Chicago Avenue pumping station, east and slightly northly, two miles to the lake shaft in the two mile crib, the work being com- pleted and celebrated with appropriate public ceremonies on March 25th, i867. The total cost of tunnel and crib was $457,844.95.
SECOND LAKE and FIRST LAND TUNNEL.
Work upon a new 7 foot diameter tunnel running parallel to the original 5 foot tunnel, from a shaft in the rear of the Chicago Avenue pumping station, to a new shaft in the two mile crib, was commenced on July I2th. 1872. Work on the shore section of the 7 foot tunnel connecting the above lake tunnel with the new pumping works on Ashland Avenue near 22nd Street was commenced in July, 1873. This land tunnel runs southwesterly from a shaft in the rear of the Chicago Avenue pumping station 3-92-100 miles to a shaft in front of the West Side pumping station on Ashland Avenue. The Lake section was com- pleted on July 7th, 1874, and the final connection on shore to lake section was made about February ist, 1875, when the water was let in.
The lake section cost $411,510. 16, the land extension $545,000.00. Total cost $956,510.16.
Chicago Water Tunnels and Intake Cribs.
FOUR MILE LAKE TUNNEL CRIB and LAND SYSTEM.
The Four mile crib is situated four miles off shore in Lake Michigan (from Peck Court). Tunnel commencing at shaft in Park Row and connecting with shaft in crib. I/and tunnel has two sections, one starting at shaft in Park Row and connecting with shaft in Indiana Avenue in front of I4th Street pumping station. The other section extends northerly to Peck Court shaft, thence to shaft in Cen- tral pumping station. In Jefferson Street a by-pass is constructed from this tun- nel to the old 7 foot land tunnel.
The lake system consists of two 6 foot tunnels running from shaft in Park Row about 12,000 feet, connecting with 8 foot tunnel to shaft in four mile crib. Total length of lake and land tunnel is 5-3114 miles. Total cost of construction of land and lake tunnel, by-pass, crib and breakwater is $1,526.143.68. Work commenced in 1887, completed in 1892.
NORTH SHORE INLET EXTENSION CONSTRUCTED DURING 1887-88. North shore tunnel extends from shaft at North pumping Station and extends east to breakwater. Extension to North Shore Inlet from breakwater crib to shaft at two mile crib (off Chicago Avenue) was constructed from 1895-1896- 1897. Diameter of tunnel is 7 feet. Total cost of construction is $259,832.41,
LAKE VIEW TUNNEL AND CRIB.
Lake View crib is situated in Lake Michigan two miles off shore at the foot of Montrose Boulevard. Tunnel extends from shaft in pumping station to shaft in crib. Total cost of construction of tunnel and crib, is $530,097.63. Work commenced in 1800, completed in 1896. Tunnel diameter 6 feet.
HYDE PARK TUNNEL AND CRIB.
Hyde Park crib is situated in Lake Michigan about two miles off shore (at 68th street). A 7 foot tunnel connects crib with pumping station, also a five foot tunnel from station extends and connects with 7 foot tunnel about 5000 feet from shore, also a 6 foot tunnel to a submerged intake about 4500 feet from shore. Work was commenced in 1897. Total cost of tunnel and crib construct- ed is $727, 471.33.
NORTH EAST LAKE TUNNEL AND CRIB.
Crib is situated in Lake Michigan 2-1 1|2 miles off shore at foot of Oak Street. Lake tunnel connects with shaft in Crib from shaft at shore in Oak Street. Tun- nel is 10 feet in diameter.
SECTION No. 1 — Land tunnel commenced at shaft ft. ofOak Street, thence in a southwesterly direction to Green Street and Grand Avenue, connecting with shaft in Green Street — diameter 10 feet.
SECTION No. 2— Commences at Green Street and Grand Avenue and extends in a southwesterly direction and connects with shaft in pumping station at Central Park Avenue and Filmore street. Diameter 8 feet. SECTION No. 3— Commences at Green street and Grand avenue and extends in northwesterly direction to shaft in pumping station at Spring- field avenue and Bloomingdale Road Diameter 8 feet. Total distance of land and lake tunnel 12 1-4 miles. Cost of tunnel and crib construction, including pumping stations and ma- chinery, is $4,000,000.00.
The northeast lake tunnel was commenced in 1896 and completed in 1899. Sections 1, 2. 3 of land tunnel system commenced in 1895 and completed in 1900. Above furnished by John H. Spengler, Assistant City Engineer, Chicago.
52 Horse- Railroads of Chicago.
HORSE-RAILROADS OF CHICAGO.
BY AUGUSTINE W. WRIGHT.
August 16, 1858, an ordinance passed the Common Council of Chicago, granting permission to Henry Fuller, Franklin Parmlee and Liberty Bigelow, with such other persons as might thereafter become asso- ciated with them, to lay a single or double track with turnouts, side-tracks and switches, to be operated by horse-power, along the following streets, provided said tracks should not be laid writhin twelve feet of the sidewalk, except on curves. On State street, from Lake to the then city limits; Ringgold place, State to Cottage Grove avenue; on the latter to the then city Imits; Archer road from State to then city limits: Madison from State to the then city limits. These privileges were to be forfeited unless the construction of one of said railroads should be commenced before November 1, 1858. This company was incorporated under the title of the Chicago City Railway, and the act approved Feb. 4, 1859. Work was begun within the time specified on State street, and ground broken by Henry Fuller, in front of Garrett Block, near Ran- dolph, with appropriate ceremonies. The first spike was driven by Gov. Bross, thus inaugurating our horse railway system.
By May 1, 1859, a single track was completed from Madison to Twenty-second street, on State, and two horse-cars were run every twelve minutes. In the summer of 1859, the track was extended on Twenty- second and Cottage Grove avenue to Thirty-first,and just before the United States Fair opened in the fall of 1859, cars were run every six minutes, as far as Twenty-second street.
During this time the track on Madison street was laid to "Bulls Head" — Ogden avenue.
At the same time like privileges were granted \V. B.
Hor se-Kailr oads of Chicago. 53
Ogden, John B. Turner, Charles V. Dyer, James H. Ilees and Volentine C. Turner, by the name of the North Chicago City Railway for the North Division. The company was authorized to lay a single or doub- le track, commencing at the intersection of Clark and North Water, thence north on Clark to Green Bay Road, along latter to present or future city limits; on Division from Claris to Clybourne avenue, on lat- ter to Racine road, thence on the same line to north- ern city limits; on Michigan from Clark to Rush, on Rush to Chicago avenue, thence on Green Bay road to Wolcott, thence to Elm, west on Elm to Clark; also on Wells from North Water to Division, on latter to Sedgwick, north on Sedgwick to Green Bay road; al- so on Chicago avenue from Rush to River. This company commenced running its cars in August, 1859, on Clark between North Water and Fullerton avenue, and on Chicago avenue between Clark and North Branch of the river. At that time ('lark street was planked, and the first track was laid by spiking a "center bearing" rail directly upon the street planks, and putting an additional thickness of plank in the horse path.
The track was laid double to Division street arid a single track of "T" rail extended from the latter point to Fullerton a, venue. The first car was purchased from Eaton, Gilbert & Co., of Troy, N. Y.
May 23, 1859, the Common Council passed an or- dinance authorizing the Chicago City Railway Com- pany to extend its tracks as follows: On Lake from Market to western city limits; on Randolph from State to Lake, at Union Park; on Desplaines from Lake to Milwaukee avenue, and along latter to pres- ent or future city limits; on Canal from La,ke to Polk; on Harrison from Canal to Southwestern plank road; on Market from Lake to Madison; on Wells from Ran- dolph to Polk, and on Polk to Canal, south on Canal to Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad; on Clark
54 Hor *e- Railroads of Chicago.
from Kandolph to Polk, west on Polk to Wells; on Van Buren from State to Southwestern Plank Road; on Harrison street from Canal toBlue Island avenue, and along latter to intersection with Cottage Grove. Randolph street track had to be completed within three months from State to Union Park, Lake street same time, South Wells to Polk, and Van Buren street line in eighteen months, Canal and Blue Island with- in one year. Others as soon as practicable, unless or- dered to be done sooner by the Common Council. February 21, 1861, E.P. Ward, William K McAllister, Samuel B. Walker, James L. Wilson, Charles B. Brown, Nathaniel P. Wilder, and their successors, were incor- porated as the Chicago West Division Railway Com- pany, and authorized "to acquire, unite and exercise any of the powers, franchises, privileges or immuni- ties conferred upon the Chicago City Railway Compa- ny upon such terms and conditions as might by con- tract between the said railway corporations be pre- scribed."
The aforementioned grants covered 70 miles, 1,960 feet of horse railroad tracks, for a city of less than, 90,000 inhabitants, and evidenced a "far-sightedness'* and faith in the ultimate growth of the city, which is proverbially one of the characteristics of Chicago's wide-awake citizens, and they have never yet had cause for complaint, for day by day, week by week, month by month, and year by year our city continues a growth that is the wonder of all nations.
The charters require the company operating the road to keep eight feet in width whentliprpis a single track and sixteen feet in width when the track is doub- le, in as good repair and condition as the balance of the street, and limits the fare to five cents for any distance.
The level surface of the ground upon which this city is built, in conjunction with wide streets, is favorable to street railways, but the bridges over the river pre-
Horse- Railroads of Chicago. 55
sent great and growing impediments to communi- cation. A recent count at Clark street bridge, showed that between hours of 7 a. m. and 7 p. m., 32,467 vehicles crossed, while the bridge was swung 84 times.
WEST DIVISION RAILWAY. J. RUSSELL JONES, President ; JAS. K. LAKE, Superintendent.
Number of miles run in, 1879 4,524,009
Number of trips in, 1879 645,466
Number of men on pay-roll in 1879 1,200
Number of horses owned in 1879 2,103
Number of miles of single track in 1879 67 Am 't expended repairs of Sts. and track, 18 78 |93896
Number of cars starting every hour 1 50
CHICAGO CITY RAILWAY. S. B. COBB, President; C. B. HOLMCS, Superintendent.
Number of miles run in, 1879 3,029,500
Number of horses now owned 1,396
Number of miles of single track 44
Number of regular cars starting every hour 73
NORTH CHICAGO CITY RAILWAY.
V. C. TURNER, President; M. W. Squires, Superintendent.
Number of miles run in, 1879 1,720,031
" " " " 1860 167,561
Number of trips in 1879 273,031
" " "I860 41,890
Number of men on pay-roll 400
Number of horses now owned 910
Number of miles of single track 27
Number of regular cars starting every hour 60 Total number of horses owned by the three
divisions in 1879 4,409
Total number of miles of single track
operated by three divisions 138
Total number of cars starting every
hour by the three divisions 283
The foregoing is a concise history of the introduction of street car transporta- tion in Chicago.
56 rlhe Associated Press
Passing over a brief period of extending horse car lines, let us note the advent of a new method of trans- portation — the cable driven by a local steam power.
The first cars on this new plan commenced running in January 1882 on state street from Randolph to 39th street under a franchise from the Chicago City council of the previous year. This was a great saving of expense incurred by the use of horses and satisfied the public better because it ensured greater speed.
Cars propelled by electricity were next to be consid- ered especially as this plan of moving cars could be utilized better and cheaper on latteral lines as feeders to cable lines.
In April 1894 an ordinance was passed by the City Council for the introduction of this new power, accord- ingly these power houses were soon erected — one at California ave, Western ave, and Hawthorn ave, from which the electric force is generated wherewith to pro- pel the entire system of trolley lines of the City, as well as those that extended beyond the limits, their com- bined energy is rated to be equal to about 30,000 horse power, conduces and distributes in currents along the wires suspended over the tracks of their res- pective lines. Frequent flashes of light along the rails of the road bed nightly gives a picturesque reminder of their force equipped from nature by art.
THE ASSOCIATED PRESS.
Like many other useful inventions, the association of the newspaper literati for accumulating and dis- seminating news was of American origin. New York was the threshold for the advent of English news-paper literature in America at its earliest date, and, here as a consequence, were called into being the first news-
The Associated Press. 57
papers to represent the expanding interests of Ameri- ca, patterned from the London press.
These papers were the Courier, started in May 1827, merged with the Enquirer in 1829,under title of The Courier and Enquirer and later under the title of The Journal of Commerce. William Culleii Bryant — an early Editor; The New York Sun, Moses Y. Beach Editor, began in 1833, and The New York Herald James Gordon Bennett, Editor in 1837. Soon after- wards Thurlow Weed and Horace Greeley were asso- ciated together, in the establishment of the New York Tribune. The above mentioned Editors were not the first in America; but were well qualified to introduce here a standard of excellence, in that pro- fession, which has ever since been the aim of newspa- per men. The writer well remembers their grand inspiring faces, all of which he saw when a young lad.
David Hale of the Journal of Commerce, and Mr. Bennett of The Herald began an arrangement by which the papers of New York combined their efforts to obtain news at their mutual expense for their mu- tual use. The result was that the above listed papers together with various papers in other cities appointed a joint agent to collect news for the use of each in this co-operative association, was known by the name of The New York Associated Press, which was formed in the winter of 1848—9. The business of this asso- ciation which was the first one framed in America or any other country, soon grew to be large. Papers in outside cities bought news of it, as a necessity to keep abreast of the times.
Pittsburg, Cincinnati and Chicago; all then in their infancy, were the patrons of the New York Associa- tion, paying an annual tribute to it, till the inevitable decrees of western enterprise relieved them from this subordinate position in the Newspaper fraternity. The first step in this direction was the establishment of the Western Associated Press (a Michigan corpor-
58 The Associated Press.
ation organized in 1865) which acted as a corpora- tion with the New York Associated Press.
The New England Associated Press followed, and later, the New York State, the Philadelphia and the Baltimore papers had associations of their own.
All of these associations had contracts with the New York Associated Press, by the terms of which they exchanged news with the New York Associated Press and paid that organization an annual bonus. Thus, the New York Associated Press became, for this coun- try, a great clearing house for the news of the world.
Powerful as this organization was, certain papers started and grew into influence independent of it, who ultimately joined their interests together and organized a rival news gathering concern. First, it was the National Associated Press, then the Ameri- can Associated Press, and finally the United Press.
These rival associations were fostered by a rival tel- egraph company, and all of these rival associations were modeled upon the New York and New England Associated Presses. While the so-called Associated Press (meaning thereby the alliance existing be- tween the New York Associated Press, the New En. gland Associated Press, the Western Associated Press the New York State Associated Press, the Philadelphia Associated Press and the Baltimore Associated Press) was strong and commanding, while the rivals were fi- nancially weak, when one or two wealthy men, members of it, offered to advance the needed means if they could be secured by stock in the corporation.
This was assented to, and very soon the control of the company passed practically into the hands of two or three men. Meanwhile the New York Associated Press and its dependent associations were not harmo- nious in business relations. About the year 1870,the Western Associated Press, principally, as well as some of these tributary associations grew restive
They did not want to continue to be simply tributa-
The Associated Press. 59
ry to the New York association for the reason that they wanted an equal voice in the character of the news to be gathered; moreover they wanted equal terras with the New York association as to the expense of gathering news; they having hitherto been charged exorbitant rates for it. In 1882 the Western Asso- ciated Press severed its relations with the New York association papers, sent its own agents to London and to Washington and began a competitive service. This competition soon outrivaled the New York asso- ciation, and the latter proposed a compromise, and terms were soon negotiated for an alliance. The Eastern organization naming two members, the Western naming two, of a joint executive committee to control the details of the business, which was an amalgamation of the two associations. A fifth man on this executive committee was taken from New York while the general manager was taken from the west. This plan of working together continued for ten years.
In 1887 the United Press made a secret agreement with the executive committee of the Associated Press, the result of which was a practical union of the two organizations. The Associated Press was in the na- ture of a co-operative organization; that is, its mem- bership, particularly the Western Associated Press, extended to every paper of importance: they were all shareholders in it. The United Press was started originally on the same plan, and by the sale of stock in its treasury and by virtue of the arrangement with the Associated Press, the United Press stock was soon in the hands of a few who owned sufficient stock to control it and they sold at a nominal price some of this stock to the executive committee of the Asso- ciated Press. It became a dividend-paying stock at once, for this reason: that the terms of the agreement between the United Press and the Associated Press had provided that The Associated Press re-
60 The Associated Press
port should be given to the United Press in ex- change for its report. The United Press then found itself in a position where it had no expense for gather- ing news, but simply drew its revenues, and it was a money-making venture. This subtility was discover- ed, in 1891, and steps were immediately taken to re- pudiate the whole arrangement. Then open warfare between the United Press and The Associated Press resulted. Naturally, those members of the executive committee who were repudiated by their fellow mem- bers, went into the United Press, left the Associated Press, and undertook to destroy it. In 1892, the Charter of the Western Associated Press being about to expire "The Associated Press" as at present exist- ing, was organized under an Illinois charter, by mem- bers of the old organization. This at once assumed the proportion of a national organization, and be- came steadily stronger until in 1897-so many papers had forsaken the United Press and joined the Asso- ciated Press that the United Press was obliged to go out of business. The radical difference between the United Press and The Associated Press should be borne in mind. While the former was distinctly a money making enterprise, designed to pay dividends on its stock, which was in the hands of three or four men, The Associated Press was a mutual organiza- tion whose stock is held by many persons, none of whom may hold more than eight shares, and each of whom must be the proprietor of a paper on the mem- bership roll of The Associated Press, whose object is the collection and distribution of the news of the world.
The scheme of organization of The Associated Press, for administrative purposes, consists of General Mgr. with headquarters here, and Assistant General Mgr. with his office in New York; f o ur Supts. ; a Supt. of di- vision residing in New York, with a division consisting of the New England and middle states and West Vir-
Tlie Associated Press. 61
ginia, called the eastern division; a superintendent residing at Washington in the District of Columbia, managing the southern division, which comprises the District of Columbia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi and Louisiana; a superintendent resident of the cit}7 of Chicago, managing the central division, comprisingthe states of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illi- nois, Wisconsin, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Arkansas, Kentucky, Texas, and Oklahoma and Indian Terri- tories, a superintendent, resident of San Francisco, managing the western division, comprising the states of Arizona, California, Wyoming, Oregon, Colorado, Montana, Washington, Idaho, Nevada, Utah and the territory of New Mexico and Arizona. .
There are about 650 salaried employees of The Associated Press, and probably about the same num- ber of men on space rate who are scattered all over the country. There is a list maintained, practically in each office of The Associated Press in the United States, of men who are on call at different points. They may not be used except at long intervals. Their names are on file, and in a local emergency they are called upon for news which they gather and file at the nearest telegraph office to the nearest general correspondent of The Associated Press. Besides this each member's contract obligates him to furnish the association with the news of his vicinity. In practice, there is at each point where there is a paper a salaried or unsalaried representative of the association who puts the news in shape and files it.
For the purpose of gathering foreign news it now has correspondence with the foreign news agents — the Renter, Havas, Wolf, and the different agencies all over the world. It has contract relations with Reuter and Havas, which cover Great Britain and her colonies, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Portugal,
62 The Associated Press.
and some parts of South America; with the Wolf Agency of Berlin, which covers Germany, Austria, and Hungary; with the Stefanie Agency which covers Italy; with the Nordisches Telegram Bureau, which covers Russia; with the Norsky Telegram Bureau, which covers Norway; with the Svenska Telegram Bu reau, covers Sweden; and with the Agence de Constan- tinople, which covers Turkey. The way they operate is this: Take for instance, the Stefanie Agency. It gath- ers all the news of Italy into Rome, and redistrib- utes it to all the cities of Italy. Then it sends its budget of news to London and also to Paris, and receives from each of these places a budget, which it, in turn, also distributes to the different cities of Italy. The Associated Press does the same. It has Walter Neef in London, and Count WTolf VonSch- ierbrand in Berlin. All the news that comes into the Wolf Agency at Berlin, Von Schierbrand sees, and makes up a budget, and telegraphs it to London. Renter gets his budget from his different European agencies, and Walter Neef and his staff look overReu- ter's dispatches and send to America whatever may be of interest here. This in turn is sent to papers in the United States. Reuter has his agent in the New York Associated Press office, looking over its dispatch- es and sending back whatever may be of interest to Europeans. By this means there is a perfect system of exchange of news by The Associated Press all over the world. Then for Canada it has an exchange ar- rangement with the Canadian Pacific railway by which that company gathers all of the news on its line and delivers it to The Associated Press at four points in this country — Bangor, Buffalo, Detroit, and Seattle. And the association delivers its news to them at these points for use in Canada.
The news of the United States chiefly originates in Washington and New York the great news centres of this country. The Associated Press has a resident
The Associated Press. 63
bureau in each of these cities as well as at other im- portant pointspreparing the news and transmitting it by means of leased wires, or by one of the telegraph companies into the general system. The leased wires form a network across the continent from St. John, N. B.; to Seattle, Wash., and San Diego, CaL, and Duluth, Minn., to New Orleans, Galveston and City of Mexico. The total mileage of this leased wire sys- tem is; day wires 9, 345 miles; night wires 20,461 miles. From various points along the trunk lines the report is sent to interior cities, and at several of the larger of them the whole report, is condensed sufficiently for news paper columns, and filed (as a "pony" report) with one of the telegraph companies for delivery to papers in neighboring towns and smaller cities which could not afford, nor handle the "full service". At leased wire points, The Associated Press supplies its own telegraph operators who receive the incoming report in typewriting, making one or more carbon copies according to the number of papers at that point taking the service. In the larger offices many copies of the received report have to be struck off , and in several offices, now, use is made of a device whereby the <>]>tjrntor sitting before his key, cuts a stencil on a waxed sheet placed in his typewriter by means of which many copies of the report can be very quick- ly made. These copies are sent to the various papers (in Chicago by a pneumatic system) and distributed to the various editors whose duty it may be to re-file the matter for some particular section of the country or to cut it down for "pony" report points. The members of The Associated Press contributes a large quantity of the news thus handled by furnishing the local representative of The Associated Press their proofs, but in addition whenever special occasion re- quires it the association's own reporters are sent out to report specific events, and they telegraph the news they get to the nearest office of the association. Spe-
64 2hc Associated Press.
cial men are employed at different places to gather market reports, to cover Wall Street and the produce markets and men at the different seaports report the arrival and departure of boats. Alliance is had also with many press associations which gather local news, and organizations that are formed to co-operate in the business of gathering news of particular localities.
For instance, there is the City Press Association of Chicago, an organization effected for the purpose of gathering routine local news; a copy of its report is furnished The Associated Press every day, and any- thing of general interest to the country is taken from it, and transmitted to members of the associations City Press Associations are also established in New York and other cities. In short The Associated Press aims to avail itself of every known means of getting valuable news in which discretion must necessarily be used to give facts as they are and not as partisans or extreme opinionated men would wish them to be given. For instance a Christian Endeavour Conven- tion or a prize fight must be reported with fidelity.
The millions of newspaper readers throughout the wrorld do not hold The Associated Press responsible for any thing more than to give them a manifest of the worlds cargo of enterprise in the arts of peace; its standard in morals; its evolutions in public opin- ions; its progress in science; its wars and its diplomacy — all without special pleading. Special advocacy must be found only in the Editor's columns.
This organization is composed of a body of men who are deaf dumb and blind to the sentimentality or the immobility of the world. Their occupation has rounded up their character to an im- partial judgment of all mankind whose actions they mirror forth as an object to behold.
Albeit, it may be pertinent to sa}' that the Editors themselves have learned to be cosmopolitan; the most exalted of whom are not jingoes, but as their
Tlie City Press Association. 65
sphere ofini'luenceextends, feel a consciousness that their responsibilities enlarge, and the writer feels warranted in saying, that it is not without pride that the intelligent Editor sees his opinions omthe great issues of the world quoted.
The Associated Press has now about 700 members and some 2,500 daily and weekly papers are served through minor agencies. Though the bulk of the papers getting The Associated Press service are in the United States there are upwards of fifty scattered through the various provinces of Canada, and also papers in Mexico, Cuba and Porto Rico.
The annual revenues of The Associated Press, which are derived from assessments levied upon the news- papers served, exceed f 1,900,000, while the number of words daily received and transmitted at each of the more important offices is over 50,000, or the e- quivalent of thirty-five colums of average newspaper.
THE CITY PRESS ASSOCIATION.
With the growth of the City of Chicago beyond the limits indicated by Fullerton avenue, Thirty-ninth street and Western avenue; and with rapid accessions to the population of the suburban towns the news- papers, in their desire to secure all the local as well as general news, were confronted by a difficult pro- blem. Perhaps no city in the western continent pre- sents the same demand for a large and active force of reporters in the down town district as does Chica- go and as the news territory widened in area and spread out to the north and west and south in a de- gree which precedent in other cities would not seem to warrant by even the rapid increase of population it was next to impossible to maintain and control in
66 TJie City Press Association.
a single newspaper office a reportorial force large en- ough to cover the field.
This state of affairs created the City Press Associa- tion which at first contracted to cover for all the newspapers such events in the outlying districts as all needed and all could use without political or oth- er coloring. The reports so secured by one reporter were "manifolded", several copies being by an ingen- ious process made at one writing, and one copy sent to each of the newspapers.
The plan worked well and the system grew. The association took up work in each of the suburbs and then branched out more widely until at the present time it has men in all departments of the municipal and federal government and in almost every center where the local news of the day is liable to be found.
It aims at accurate, uncolored reports, a plain report of the news of the day. It does not give the bias of criticism, politics or policy to any matter it col- lects and does not enter into competition with the des- criptive writers on the newspapers. For these reasons the association does not handle politics, the drama, society (except in a limited way) or labor. Its re- port, small at first, has grown to about 50, 000 words or about 35 newspaper columns daily, far more than the limits of space permit any one newspaper to use.
In another way the City Press Association is of use to the newspapers. In events of great importance, such as the opening of the World's Columbian Expo- sition, the Autumn Festival, the Trust conference it takes up the routine work, furnished a full report of the proceedings, stenographic transcripts of speeches and the minor details, giving the newspapers a basis on which to make up their accounts and leaving their men free to prepare the introductions, make com- ments and write descriptive matter.
In election times the Association takes charge of the work of collecting and compiling the returns and
The City Press Association. 67
with a large force of clerical help and the exercise of a system which would be impossible were each news- paper endeavoring to collect the same material for itself, is able to give figures from the City of Chicago and Cook County, undoubtedly the most difficult territory in the country to handle, earlier than they are given from any other great city in the United States.
The Inter Ocean, after the national election in 1896, contrasted this advantage with those elections when "it had been impossible for any one newspaper to cover the entire city" and when faulty returns made a complete report impossible on the morning succeed- ing the election. By the work of the association, it said, all this was changed: "In no previous election, no matter how small, has such speed been secured. In no other city is the United States were the pat- rons of the newspapers afforded accurate news, with the official figures, at so early an hour."
The association, which is a stock corporation, was organized in August of 1890 by the following news- papers: Tribune, Inter Ocean, Herald, Daily News, Staats Zeitung, Evening Journal and Evening Post. Its first board of directors and officers were: William Penn Nixon (Inter Ocean), president; W. K. Sullivan, (Evening Journal), vice-president; Victor F. Lawson (Daily News), secretary and treasurer; James W. Scott (Herald), R. W. Patterson (Tri- bune), Washington Hesing (Staats Zeitung )and C. McAuliffe (Evening Post). The active manager was John F. Ballantyne, then recently managing editor of the Morning News, and one of the most pop- ular and best trained newspaper men in Chicago. He began the service of the association August 3, 1890, establishing his offices on the second floor of the old Western Union building at LaSalle and Wash- ington streets where the Stock Exchange now stands. The first executive committee of the association re-
68 The City Press Association.
mained the same, practically, ever since, Mr. Nixon having been annually reelected president and Mr. Lavvson continuing as secretary and treasurer. The present vice-president and third member of the executive committee is H. H. Kohlsaat (Times-Her- ald) and the present board of directors includes: R. W. Patterson, W. H. Turner and C. M. Faye.
The bureau idea in Chicago antedated the present organization, however. April 17, 1880, J. T. Sutor established what he termed the Metropolitan News Service in which he began to show what might be done in the way of "covering" routine matters. His prospectus showed that each month in Chicago there were over one hundred and fifty meetings of various societies and clubs to which the newspapers nearly all sent reporters and he began by undertak- ing to look after these. Within a few weeks he had broadened his work to include "justice courts," which at once brought him into the wide field of routine news, and then he began to co\er "railroad routine." All of this was of assistance to the newspapers and within a year he had business enough to quit repor- torialwork himself and employ six or eight men. Among these were George R. Wright and John M. Russell, young students at the old Chicago University. Wright and Russell entered into the work with spirit and determination and in 1882 the City Press Asso- ciation was their personal property, Mr. Sutor hav- ing retired. The office then and for eight years after was at 162 Washington street, the present site of the Times-Herald building. Under the management of Wright and Russell the field of the association grew into, practically, that which the present association was organized to cover; twenty-five reporters were of- ten employed and the character of the work made it a valuable adjunct to any news service.
When, in 1890, most of the news paper publishers determined to establish an association of their own,
The City Press Association. 69
the patronage left for the then existing association was very little. The Times, The Globe and the Even- ing Mail were not members of the new association and on the patronage of these the old association con- tinued a curtailed service for some time. A. S. Leckie and H. L. Sayler, who was employed by Wright and Russell secured the control of the older association and a year later the two associations were amalgam- ated, Mr. Leckie and Mr. Sayler assuming charge of the single association April 26, 1891 and Mr. Ballan- tyne withdrawing. The management has been the same ever since. Two years later the association re- moved to the Western Union building at Clark and Jackson streets where it was installed in commodious rooms on the same floor with the Associated Press which has always been one of its patrons. From this place the most elaborate and first wholly success- ful system of pneumatic tubes operated in this coun- try was installed to connect the association offices with the offices of various newspapers and branch offices of the association in the City Hall. Using its cooper- ative ideas, the association not only transmits its own report to its members in this way — an almost in- stantaneous service — but also forwards the full report of its neighbor the Associated Press, and the Western Union telegrams intended for the newspapers. The service of the association at present calls for nearly (50)employe« of all kinds and is continuous; the office is never closed and there is no hour when men are not on picket duty for the Chicago newspapers.
THE GREAT FIRE OF 1871.
"A voice is ringing in the air,
A tale is trembling on the wire, The people shout in wild despair:
'Chicago is on fire/ "*
In the year 1871 A. D., and the year 38 of the ex- istence of Chicago as a city, on the 7th, 8th and 9th of October, occurred the great fires. They mark an episode in Chicago history, never to be forgotten. The official census of the city for 1870 was 298,977. Its population at the time of the fires, one year later, at a prudent estimate, may be set down eight per cent more, making 322,895. A small portion only of these were born here. They had been drawn hit her by those incentives which the locality offered for spec- ulation, not only in the rise of real estate, but in the facilities which the place offered as an emporium for the sale of every kind of merchandise, to supply the increasing wants of the great Northwest in the build- ing up process in which she was then, and must still for many years, be engaged, before she will have tak- en upon herself the conditions of political and social maturity.
The extra stimulus which the war had given to the increase of business in Chicago had subsided, and a lull in that impulsive haste that had long been a dis- tinguishing feature here, had settled upon the city. The volume of staple business was without diminu- tion, the real estate market was firm, and the demand for this important auxiliary to wealth was healthy; but yet there was evidently an undercurrent mani- fest, in moneyed circles, signifying that prices of it would not soon again advance, at least, by any eccen- tric movement. After the war was over, a general expectation followed that prices for everything would
* "The Fall of Chicago," a poem written by Mrs. S. B. Olsen, while the fire was burning, and published in a pamphlet.
(70)
The Great Fire of 1871. 71
fall immediately, and as one, two, three and four years had passed without any serious reduction, eith- er in goods or real estate, the people of Chicago had begun to believe that no such destiny was in store for them. Such was the feeling in the spring of 1871.
The latter part of the summer and autumn follow- ing passed without rain in the entire North west. The whole country was so exhausted of moisture that ev- en the night refused her customary allowance of dew on the vegetation, and the grass was crisp beneath the feet of the hungry cattle of the pasture. The earth was dry as ashes to the depth of three feet, and the peaty bogs of the marsh were as combustible as the contents of the furnace. Southern winds prevail- ed, bringing warmth without moisture, and fanned the forest into universal tinder. Even the summer's growth of the prairie would feed a flame in places where it had not been grazed down or mowed. Chica- go was not unlike the country around in dryness, and, unfortunately, the well-built buildings of stone and brick which composed her central portions were partly surrounded by cheap wooden buildings, char- acteristic of all Western cities of sudden growth. It was among these that a fire broke out a little before ten o'clock on the night of October?, 1871, on Clinton street, near its crossing of Van Buren street, two blocks west of the river. Owing to the inflammable character of the building where it began, and the strong wind that blew directly from the south, it quickly spread to adjacent buildings, and ere it could be ex- tinguished, burnt over the area lying between Van Buren street on the south, Clinton on the west, Adams on the north, and the river on the east, except one or two small buildings on the outermost corners of the blocks.
This was the largest fire that had ever visited Chica- go up to this date.
The next evening, Sunday night, October 8, about
72 The Great Fire of 1871.
the same hour, a fire broke out six blocks south of the first fire, in a cow stable on the north side of De- Koven street, a little east of Jefferson. The account at the time attributed it to the kicking over of a kerosene lamp by a cow, while its owner, a woman named O'Leary, was milking her, and in the turmoil of the hour, this theory was accepted as veritable truth, published in the newspapers, and even in some of the books giving the history of the fire, but no evi- dence can be found to sustain it, while, on the contrary' the following statement would go to disprove it, or, at least, involve the cause of the fire in mystery. On the folio wing morning, (Monday), Clinton S. Snowden then city editor of the Chicago Times, and E. L. Wake- man, manager of the Louisville Courier-Journal for Chicago, while the fire was yet consuming the buildings in the North Division, visited the scene where it started. Here they found a large crowd of excited men speculating on its cause, and here was the hut of O'Leary, with doors and windows barred, while her cow stable, where all the crowd supposed that the fire originated , was red uced to ashes . The two sight-seers now determined to force a passage into the O'Leary hut, and to this end pried up one of the back windows with a board and entered the premises.
They found Mrs. O'Leary in a fearful state of sus- pense least she should be arrested as an incendiary, but somewhat under the influence of stimulants to brace up her courage for the occasion. She solemnly denied any knowledge of the cause of the fire, and if she knows its cause, without doubt she will carry the mysterious burden while she lives. The above cir- cumstances are stated because they describe the first interviewing of Mrs. O'Leary, and both of the gentle- men ' were well-known journalists of Chicago.
Their statement accords with the following, from the foreman of the first engine company on the ground, which is here inserted as official:
7 he Great fire of 1871. 73
CHICAGO, November 14, 1880.
Mr.Kufus Blanchard, Dear Sir: — In compliance with your request as to the origin and condition of the great Chicago fire, I would state, that being the first officer at the fire, that I received an alarm from the man in the watch-tower of engine company No. 6, one minute in advance of the alarm given by the watch- man in city hall tower. On my arrival at the fire, which was in the alley bounded by Jefferson, Clinton, Taylor and DeKoven streets, I discovered three or more barns and sheds on fire.
I connected to the nearest fire plug, located on the corner of Jefferson and De Koven streets, and went to work. As to which barn the fire originated in, I could not say.
As to the fire not being checked in its northward progress, I would state in explanation, that pre- vious to the great fire of 1871, watchmen were sta- tioned in the city hall tower, to keep a lookout for fires; and if a fire was discovered by either of the men, he called the operator on duty in the fire alarm office, located on the third floor below the watch-tower, and instructed him what box to strike.
On the evening of Oct. 8, 1871, the watchman on duty in the city hall tower, discovered the fire, and ordered the operator to strike a box located one mile southwest from the fire, which he should have located one mile northeast, and which would have brought the first alarm engines instead of the second, which responded to the alarm given by watchman, the first alarm engines remaining at their respective houses.
In conclusion, I would state that the above are facts.
WILLIAM MUSHAM, Foreman of Engine Co. No. 6.
What might have been its cause, there is no reason- able suspicion that it was the result of incendiarism.
74 The Great Fire of 1871.
Before the strong south-westerly wind which was then blowing, it penetrated diagonally across block after block, at first cutting a swath about 80 feet wide, gradually increasing in width in passing through the cheap wooden buildings in its track, leaving behind a fiery wake, making slow but sure inroads, laterally on both sides. At 11: 30 it had reached the open ruins of the previous night's devastations. Though up to this time the utmost exertions of the firemen were un- availing against the progress of the flames, it was hoped that the broad space burnt the night before would arrest the northern progress of the fire, and the river its eastern progress. But by this time it had attacked the planing mills and various manu- factures of lumber along the west side of the river, be- tween Taylor and Van Buren streets, and a living- mass of fire, covering a hundred acres of combustibles, shot up into the clouds, lightingup the midnight hour with a sheet of fla.me, which dashed hope of arresting its career to the ground. At one bound the wind car- ried burning brands, not only across the river, but even to Franklin Street. These newly kindled fires immediately spread, and the South Side was ablaze; and now it assumed proportions that exceeded in magnitude its intensity thus far. The whole South Division was now thoroughly alarmed, it being evident that not only the entire business area of the city must burn, but nearly the entire North Division lay in the track of the destroyer in its irresistible pro- gress before the wind. Still a ray of hope was left to the North-siders, and to the owners of the Tribune building also, which was supposed to be fire proof. This hope was dispelled two hours later, as will ap- pear from the following account, written in Sheahan & Upton's History, from notes as they viewed the scene from the upper windows of the Tribune building: "About one o'clock, a cloud of black smoke rose in the south-west, which, colored by the lurid glare of
The Great Fire 0/1871. 75
the flames, presented a remarkable picture. Due west another column of smoke and fire rose, \vhile the north was lighted with flying cinders and destructive brands. In ten minutes more, the whole horizon to the west, as far as could be seen from the windows, was a fire cloud with flames leaping up along the whole line, just showing their heads and subsiding from view like tongues of snakes. Five minutes more wrought a change. Peal after peal was sounded from the Court House bell. The fire was on La Salle street, had swept north, and the Chamber of Commerce began to belch forth smoke and flame from windows and venti- lators. The east wing of the Court House was alight: then the west wing; the tower was blazing on the south side, and at two o'clock the whole building was in a sheet of flame. The Chamber of Commerce burned with a bright steady flame. The smoke in front grew denser for a minute or two, and then burst- ing into a blaze from Monroe to Madison streets, pro- claimed that Farwell Hall and the buildings north and south of it were on fire. At 2.10 o'clock the Court House tower was a glorious sight. At 2.15 o'clock the tower fell, and in two minutes more a crash announced the fall of interior of t he building. The windows of the office were hot, and the flames gave a light almost dazzling in its intensity. It became e\ i- dent that the whole block from Clark to Dearborn, and from Monroe to Madison, must go; that the block from Madison to Washington must follow; Portland Block was ablaze, while every-thing from Clark to Dearborn, on Washington street, was on fire. At 2:30 the fire was half-way down Madison street; the wind blew a hurricane; the firebrands were hurled a- ong the gr ound with incredible force against every- thing that stood in their way. Then the flames shot up in the rear of Reynold's block, and the Tribune building seemed doomed. An effort was made to save the files and other valuables, which were moved into
76 The Great Fire of 1871.
the composing room, but the building stood like a rock, lashed on both sides by raging waves of flame, and it was abandoned. It was a fire proof building; and there were not a few who expected to see it stand the shock. The greatest possible anxiety was felt for it, as it was the key to the whole block, including Me Vicker's Theatre, and protected State street and Wa- bash and Michigan avenues, north of Madison street. When the walls of Keynolds' Block fell, and Cobb's building was no more, the prospects of its standing were good. Several persons were up-stairs and found it cool and pleasant—quite a refreshing haven from the hurricane of smoke, dust and cinders that assail- ed the eyes.
"Meanwhile the fire had swept along northward and eastward. The Briggs House, the Sherman House, the Tremont House, had fallen in a few min- utes. The bridges from Wells to Hush street were burning; the Northwestern Depot was in a blaze, and from Van Buren street on the south, far over into the north side, from the river to Dearborn street, the whole country was a mass of smoke, flames and ruin. It seems as if the city east of Dearborn street and to the river would be saved. The hope was strength- ened when the walls fell of Honore's noble block with- out igniting that standing opposite. The vacant lot to the south seemed to protect it, and at seven o'- clock on Monday morning the whole of the region designated was considered saved', no fire being visible except a smouldering fire in the barber's shop under the Tribune office, which being confined in brick walls, was not considered dangerous. Every effort was made to quench it, but the water works had burned, and the absence of water, while it announced how far north the flames had reached, forbade any hope of quenching the fire below.
There was one remarkable turning point in this fire, in which everything was remarkable; and that
The Great Fire of 1871. 77
was at Madison street bridge, where every one expect- ed to see the fire re-cross to the west side, and corn- men ce upon a new path of destruction. Directly a- cross this bridge were the Oriental Flouring Mills, which were saved from destruction by the immense steam force pump attached to the mill, by which a powerful stream of water was thrown upon the exposed property, hour after hour. This pump undoubtedly saved the West Division from a terrible conflagration, for if the Oriental Mills had burned, the combustible nature of the adjoining buildings and adjacent lum- ber yards would have insured a scene of devastation t o.o heart-sickening for contemplation.
The scene presented when the fire was at its hight in the South Division, is well nigh indescribable. The huge stone and brick structures melted before the fierceness of the flames as a snow-flake melts and dis- appears in water, and almost as quickly. Six-story buildings would take fire, and disappear for ever from sight, in five minutes by the watch. In nearly every street the flames would enter at the rears of buildings, and appear simultaneously at the fronts. For an in- stant the windows would redden, then great billows of fire would belch out, and meeting each other, shoot up into the air a vivid quivering column of flame, and poising itself in awful majesty, hurl itself bodily several hundred feet , and kindle new buildings. The intense heat created new currents of air. The general direction of the wind was from the southwest. This main current carried the fire straight through the city, from southwest to north-east, cutting a swath a mile in width, and then, as if maddened at missing any of its prey, it would turn backward, in its frenzy, and face the fierce wind, mowing one huge field on the wrest of the North Division, while in the South Division it also doubled on its track at the great Un- ion Central Depot, and burned half a mile southward in the very teeth of the gale — a gale which blew a per-
78 Zhe Great fire of 1871.
feet tornado, and in which no vessel could have lived on the lake. The flames sometimes made glowing- diagonal arches across the streets, traversed by whirls of smoke. At times, the wind would seize the entire volume of fire on the front of one of the large blocks, detach it entirely and hurl it in every direc- tion, in fierce masses of flame, leaving the building as if it had been untouched — for an instant only, how- ever, for fresh gusts would once more wrap them in sheets of fire. The whole air was filled with glowing cinders, looking like an illuminated snow storm. At times capricious flurries of the gale would seize these, flying messengers of destruction and dash them down to the earth, hurrying them over the pavements with lightning-like rapidity, firing every-thing they touched. Interspersed among these cinders were lar- ger brands, covered with flame, which the wind dashed through windows and upon awnings and roofs, kind- ling new fires. Strange, fantastic fires of blue, red and green, played along the cornices of the buildings. On the banks of the river, red hot walls fell hissing into the water, sending up great columns of spray and exposing the fierce white furnace of heat, which they had enclosed. The huge piles of coal emitted dense billows of smoke which hurried along far above the flames below. If the sight was grand and over- powering, the sound was no less so . The flames crack- led, growled and hissed. The lime stone, of which ma- ny of the buildings were composed, as soon as it was exposed to heat flaked off, the fragments flew in every direction, with a noise like that of continuous discharg- es of musketry. Almost every instant was added the dull, heavy thud of falling walls, which shook the earth. But above all these sounds, there was one other which was terribly fascinating; it was the steady roar of the advancing flames — the awful diapason in this carnival of fire. It was like nothing so much as the united roar of the ocean with thehowlof the blast
The Great Fire 0/1871. 79
on some stormy, rocky coast.
Great calamities always develop latent passions, e- motions. and traits of character, hitherto concealed. In this case, there was a world-wide difference in the manner in which men witnessed the destruction of all about them. Some were philosophical, even merry, and witnessed the loss of their own property with a calm shrug of the shoulders, although the loss was to bring upon them irretrievable ruin. Others clenched their teeth together, and witnessed the sight with a sort of grim defiance. Others, who were strong men, stood in tears, and some became fairly frenzied with excitement, and rushed about in an aimless manner, doing exactly what they would not have done in their cooler moments, and almost too delirous to save their own lives from the general wreck. Of course, the utmost disorder and excitement prevailed, for nearly every one was in some degree demoralized, and in the absence both of gas and water, had given up the entire city to its doom. Mobs of men and women rushed wildly from street to street, screaming, gestic- ulating and shouting, crossing each other's paths, and intercepting each other as if just escaped from a mad house. The yards and sidewalk of Michigan and Wabash avenues for a distance of two miles south of the fire limit in the South Division, were choked with household goods of every description — the contents of hovels and the contents of aristocratic residences, huddled together in inextricable confusion. Elegant ladies who hardly supposed them selves able to lift the weight of a pincushion, astonished themselves by dragging trunks, and carrying heavy loads of pictur- es and ornamental furniture for a long distance. Some adorned themselves with all their jewlery, for the pur- pose of saving it, and struggled along through the crowds, perhaps only to lose it at the hands of some ruffian. Delicate girls, with red eyes and blackened faces, toiled hour after hour, to save household goods.
8o The Great Fire of 1871.
Poor women staggered along with their arms full of homely household wares and mattresses on their heads, which sometimes took fire as they were carry- ing them. Every few steps along the avenues were little piles of household property, or, perhaps, only a trunk, guarded by children, some of whom were weep- ing, and others laughing and playing. Here was a man sitting upon what he had saved, bereft of his senses, looking at the motley throng with staring, vacant eyes; here, a woman, weeping and tearing her hair and calling for her children in utter despair; here, children, hand-in-hand, separated from their parents, and crying with the heart-breaking sorrow of childhood; here a woman, kneeling on the hot ground and praying, with her crucifix before her. .One family had saved a coffee-pot and chest of draw- ers, and raking together the falling embers in the street, were boiling their coffee as cheerily as if at home. Barrels of If quor were rolled into the streets from the saloons. The heads were speedily knocked in, and men and boys drank to excess, and staggered about the streets. Some must have miserably perish- ed in the flames, while others wandered away into the unburned district, and slept a drunken sleep upon the sidewalks and in door-yards. Thieves pursued their profession with perfect impunity. Lake street and Clark street were rich with treasure, and hordes of thieves entered the stores, and flung out goods to their fellows, who bore them away without opposition. Wabash avenue was literally choked up with goods of every description. Every one who had been forced from the burning portion of the division had brought some articles with them, and been forced to drop some, or all of them. Valuable oil paintings, books, pet animals, instruments, toys, mirrors, bedding, and ornamental and useful articles of every kind, were trampled under foot by the hurrying crowds. The streets leading southward from the fire were
The Great Fire 0/1871. 81
jammed with vehicles of every description, all driven along at top speed. Not only the goods which were deposited in the streets took fire, but wagon loads of stuff in transit, also kindled, and the drivers were o- bliged to cut the traces to save the animals. There was fire overhead, everywhere, not only on the low, red clouds, which rolled along the roofs, but in the air itself, filled with millions of blazing fagots, that carried destruction wherever they fell. Those who did rescue any thing, from the burning buildings, were oblig- ed to defend it at the risk of their lives. Expressmen and owners of every description of wagons, were extortion- ate in their demands, asking from twenty to fifty dollars for conveying a small load a few blocks. Even then there was no surety that the goods would reach their place of destination, as they were often followed by howling crowds, who would snatch the goods from the wagons. Sometimes, thieves got possession of vehicles, and drove off with rich loads of dry goods, jewelry, or merchandise, to "out-of-the-way places."
As early as three o'clock, on the morning of the 9th, the fire attacked the North Side. It has riot been def- initely known where it first began, but it is certain that the Water Works, a mile distant from any por- tion of the blazing South Side, were among the first buildings visited; and their speedy destruction, cutting off the water supply, all hopes of extinguishing the fire fled. Two large elevators on the north bank of the river were also in flames immediately afterwards, and the wretched inhabitants living east of Franklin st., beheld with dismay the approach of the destroyer both in front and rear. Suddenly the entire popula- tion seized the most valuable things they could carry, and fled, either to the lake shore, or westward across the river, or directly before the pur suing enemy, north- wardly out Clark or Wells Street. Says Mr. Colbert: "A terrible panic ensued. There was sudden scream- ing and dashing about of half-clad women, gathering
82 'Hie Great fire of 1871.
up such valuables as could be suddenly snatched. There was frantic rushing into the streets and shout- ing for vehicles. ' There was anxious inquiry and anon distressed cries for absent protectors — a large portion of the men being on the far side of the river, and in many cases unable to reach their homes. Then there was a pell-mell rush through the streets, some of the wild faces pushed eagerly in this direction and others quite as eagerly in the opposite; and children scream- ing; and shouts resounding; and brands falling in showers; and truckmen running each other down; and half drunken,wholly desperate ruffians peering into doors and seizing valuables, and insulting women; and oaths from lips unused to them, as hot as the flames which leaped and crackled near by; and pray- ers from manly breasts where they had slumbered since childhood; and every other sign of turmoil and terror."
Those who took refuge on the sands of the lake-shore, found it a treacherous asylum. There was no escape to the northward, for the narrow passes, farther in that direction, were a sweltering current of hot air pouring over the crested margin of the lake, like the vomiting of a furnace. Meantime the heat soon began to be almost insupportable where they were, and in this extremity, art places, they were forced into the shallow water of the lake to protect themselves from burning, till they could be rescued in boats.
By four o'clock in the afternoon of the 9th, the fire had burned out. Its progress against the wind on the South Side was arrested by the efforts of private citizens and a small military force under Gen. Sheridan; but on the North Side it burned as long as buildings stood before it, and died away on open prairies for want of fuel.
In its early stages, after the flames had crossed the riv- er, and were rapidly devouring the business p ortion of the city in the South Division, Lind Block, on the west
1 he Great Fire of 1871. 83
side of Market Street, between Randolph and Lake, bty dint of great exertion on the part of some tenants, successfully resisted them. The well known house of Fuller & Fuller occupied the central portion of this block; and in reply to the writer's inquiry how it was saved, Mr. O.F. Fuller stated that while the fire was burning on the West Side, and approaching towards them, they took the precaution to provide an abund- ant supply of water on each floor of their premises, and constantly applied it to the most exposed portions of the building when the fire reached their inmediate vicinity, having previously cut away wooden signs or any other combustable material outside. During the greatest heat the outside walls of the block were too hot to bear the hand on, but still every man re- mained at his post inside on eacn floor, subject to the order of a sentinel, whose business it was to call them away if the building ignited. Three times a retreat was ordered, under an impression that combustion had taken place, but happily this impression was a false alarm, growing out of the lurid glare from adja- cent flames, reflected from the windows of the building', and each time the men returned to their posts, where they continued to ply water to the heated windows, while it was raging.
"Fire to right of them, Fire to left of them, Fire in front of them."
Said Mr. Fuller: "The fire, viewed from roof of the Lind Block, at this time, presented phases of thrilling- interest. At two o'clock a.m., Market street and the approaches to Lake and Randolph street bridges were crowded with loaded vehicles hurrying to the West Side, and this retreat grew into a stampede when the Garden tity hotel, and the buildings on the East side of Market street, from Madison to South Water,
84 The Great Fire 0/1871.
ignited. After burning fiercely for but a brief space of time, they fell in quick succession in the general
rum.'
The next morning when the light of the sun was piercing through the smoke and flames that now en- shrouded the entire business portion of the South Di- vision, there stood Lind Block, a solitary relic of its former grandeur. Beyond it, toward the East, the eye could catch transient glimpses of many a grim old ruin in its ragged deformity, amidst the accumu- lating clouds of smoke that rose to the sky in dissolv- ing forms, and told the tale of destruction. Besides Lind Block in the South Division, the house of Mahlon B. Ogden, in the central track of the fire in the North Division, was saved, while all else around it was left in ashes.
Mr. Ogden, shortly after the fire, informed the writer that he remained in his house as long as he could without being surrounded by fire, when he, with his family, retreated with the crowd; but that he kept the roof of his house cov- ered with wet carpets while he was in it, and it be- ing in the inside of a square, with trees all around, as if by a miracle, it did not burn.
No attempt will here be made to record personal incidents of the fire. These are almost infinite, and their records may be found in the several large vol- umes published immediately after the fire, but the fol- lowing account of the action of the city authorities, taken from the Report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, is an historical document which shows the elastic force of the people of Chicago, in their prompt- ness to grapple with the duties before them:
"The homeless people of the South Side were forthe most part received into the abodes of their more for- tunate neighbors, or taken to the hearts and hospi- talities of those to whom a day before they were utter strangers, without formalities or ceremonies, for a
The Great Fire 0/1871. 85
kindred sorrow which had left no human interest un- touched had done its work.
"Those of the North Division had betaken them- selves for the night to the sands of the lake shore, to Lincoln and other parks, and the prairies. Comparatively few had found shelter for the night.
* 'Those of the West Division who were left homeless were for the most part sheltered in churches and school-houses, and on the prairies northwest of the city. Comparatively few of those who had fled before the flames, had tasted food since early Sunday evening, and hunger came to them to add its terrors to those of exposure, and in many instances a/ppre- hension of death.
''Then came the greatest terror of all, the con- sciousness of the fact that families had been separated; husbands and wives, parents and children were miss- ing. The flight had been so rapid , and in alldirections the thoroughfares had been so obstructed, and in* some cases utterly impassable, by the crowding of vehicles and masses of people, and the city itself a wave of fire — it is no marvel that under these circumstan- ces, thousands for the time were lost sight of, and be- came lonely wanderers, and that hundreds perished in the flames.
"The seeds of permanent or temporary disease sown, the bodily suffering and mental anguish endured, can never have statistical computation, or adequate de- scription.
"The bodies of the dead, not less than three hundred in number, who perished in the flames, were given in- terment at the county burying ground.
"The city authorities were prompt, in their endeavors to bring order out of the chaos which, in some meas- ure, we have assayed to describe. The Mayor tele- graphed to neighboring cities, first of all, for engines to help stay the ravages of the fire, and for bread to feed the homeless and destitute."
86 1 he Great Fire of 1871.
A council of city officers was held, who issued and signed the folio wing, which was the first proclamation from the Mayor and Government:
PROCLAMATION.
WHEREAS, In the providence of God, to whose will we humbly submit, a terri- ble calamity has befallen our city, which demands of us cur best efforts for the preservation of order and the relief of suffering:
Be it known, That the faith and credit of the city of Chicago are hereby pledged for the necessary expenses for the relief of the suffering.
Public order will be preserved. The police and special police now being ap- pointed will be responsible for the maintenance of the peace and the protection of property.
All officers and men of the Fire Department and Health Department will act as special policemen without further notice.
The Mayor and Comptroller will give vouchers for all supplies furnished by the different relief committees.
The headquarters of the City Government will be at the Congregational Church, corner of West Washington and Ann streets.
All persons are warned against any act tending to endanger property. Per- sons caught in any depredation will be immediately arrested.
With the help of God, order and peace and private property will be preserved. • The City Government and the committee of citizens pledge themselves to the community to protect them, and prepare the way for a restoration of public and private welfare.
It is believed the fire has spent its force, and all will soon be well. R. B. MASON, Mayor. GEORGE TAYLOR. Comptroller.
(By R. B. MASON.)
CHARLES C. P. HOLDEN, President Common Council. T. B. BROWN, President Board of Police. October 9, 1871,2 p. m.
Promptly following the above proclamation, and growing out of the exigencies of the day, or the hour, as it came, others were issued; and no better account of the action of the municipal government can be giv- en than that which is contained m these several offi- cial papers, and therefore, without comment, which would be needless, the text of these proclamations, which in some instances were only fly-sheets, is herein given.
BREAD ORDNANCE.— NOTICE.
CHICAGO, October 10, 1871.
flhe Great Fire of 1871. 87
The following ordinance was passed at a meeting of the Common Council of the city of Chicago, on the loth day of October, A. D.. 1871:
AN ORDINANCE.
Be it ordained by the Common Council of the City of Chicago: —
SECTION 1 . That the price of bread in the City of Chicago for the next ten days is hereby fixed and established at eight [8] cents per loaf of twelve ounces, and at the same rate foiloavesof less or greater weight.
SEC. 2. Any person selling or attempting to sell any bread within the limits of the City of Chicago, within said ten days, at a greater price than is fixed in this ordinance, shall be liable to a penalty of ten [10] dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as other penalties for violation of City Ordinances.
SEC. 3. This Ordinance shall be in full force and effect from and after its passage.
APPROVED OCTOBER 10, 1871.
Attest: R. B. MASON, Mayor.
C. T. HOTCHKISS, City Clerk.
MAYOR'S PROCLAMATION- ADVISORY AND PRECAUTIONARY.
1. All citizens are requested to exercise great caution in the use of fire in their dwellings, and not to use kerosene lights at present, as the city will be without a full supply of water for probably two or three days.
2. The following bridges are passable, to wit: All bridges (except Van Buren and Adams streets) from Lake street south, and all bridges over the North Branch of the Chicago River.
3. All good citizens who are willing to serve are requested to report at the corner of Ann and Washington streets, to be sworn in as special policemen.
Citizens are requested to organize a police for each block in the city, and to send reports of such organization to the police headquarters, corner of Union and West Madison streets.
All persons needing food will be relieved by applying at the following places:-
At the corner of Ann and Washington; Illinois Central Railroad Roundhouse.
M. S. R. R. — Twenty-second Street station.
C. B. & Q. R. R.— Canal Street Depot.
St. L. & A. R. R.— Near Sixteenth Street.
C. & N. W. R. R.— Corner of Kinzie and Canal streets.
All the public school-houses, and at nearly all the churches.
4. Citizens are requested to avoid passing through the burnt districts until the dangerous walls left standing can be leveled.
5. All saloons are ordered to be closed at 9 p. m. every day for one week, under a penalty of forfeiture of license.
6. The Common Council have this day by ordinance fixed the price of bread at eight [8] cents per loaf of twelve ounces, and at the same rate for loaves of a less or greater weight, and affixed a penalty of ten dollars for selling, or attempt- ing to sell, bread at a greater rate within the next ten days.
7. Any hackman, expressman, drayman, or teamster charging more than the regular fare, will have his license revoked.
88 I he Great Fire of 1871.
All citizens are requested to aid in preserving the peace, good order, and good name of our city.
Oct. 10, 1871. • R. B. MASON, Mayor.
In addition to the action of the city authorities, Lieut. General P. H. Sheridan, whose military head- quarters were here, at the earnest request of Mr. Mason, the Mayor, and many prominent citizens of Chicago, consented to declare martial law for the pre- servation of order throughout the city, as well as to protect from fire what remained of it, and on the llth of October a proclamation was issued by him to this effect. Two days previous to this, while the fire was still spreading on the North Side, he had ordered a company of frontier soldiers from Fort Lea venworth, Kan., to be sent by rail to Chicago, and as soon as they arrived they were detailed, in squads of about twenty each, to guard the various places along the outer edge of the burnt district that needed protection. Throughout the South Division burnt, were many bank vaults still buried beneath heated bricks and stone, in an uncertain condition. At night the sol- diers detailed to guard these were quartered on the premises of Messrs. Fuller & Fuller, which had been saved from the general wreck as already told. And in conversation with Mr. Fuller, the informant of the writer, as to the fidelity with which they executed their trust, the praise which he gave these noble sol- diers should not be omitted. They were strictly tem- perate, many of them teetotalers, and some of them old weather-beaten* veterans, as noble in sentiment as they were brave and faithful, and an honor to the country in whose service they had enlisted. The debt of gratitude which Chicago owes them challenges this acknowledgement.
The extent of the fire may be summed up in the following statement, which has been carefully taken from various records of the event: On the West Side, the burnt district measured 194 acres, and the num-
The Great Fire of 1871.
89
ber of burnt buildings was about being of an inferior class.
500, most of them
In the South Di- vision 460 acres were burned over, on which stood 3,650 buildings, which constituted substantially, the banks, wholesale stores, hotels and the general heavy business blocks of the city included, with many of its first-class private dwellings; added to which was a dis- trict in the south- west portion, where many poor people lived. In the North Division 1,470 acres were
burnt over, and 13,300 buildings destroyed, leaving but about four per cent of the buildings standing in the entire division, and those of the poorest class. The total number of acres burnt over was 2,124, and of buildings destroyed about 17,450. About 100,000 people were rendered homeless, which included guests at hotels and boarding-houses. Of these, some thou- sands were gathered in squads on the prairies outside the city on the morning of the 9th, and not a few made the earth their bed on the night of the 10th. Every train of railroad cars that left the city for sev- eral days was loaded to its utmost with fugitives. The most of them had no means wherwith to pay
90 2 he Great Fire of 1871.
their fare. In such cases, the railroad companies, with exemplary generosity, carried them free till the Belief and Aid Society had organized, to make provis- ion for the sufferers. On the 20th relief began to come in from the country towns near by. Never before had their sympathies been so awakened. Mothers, in their imagination, heard little children crying for bread on the open prairie, and saw whole families ly- ing on the ground, bereft of everything but natural claims on humanity, the next trains that went to the city were loaded with free bread, milk, blankets, and such other things as the body stands most in need of wrhen stripped of everything but its wants.
To detail all the means used to relieve the immedi- ate wants of the victims would be inconsistent with time, and space to record them. It was one of those great waves that roll over mankind, bury ing them so deep beneath its crest as to drown out selfishness for the time, and open an unfrequented path to many hearts. Dormant passions and affections were awak- ened into being, that else might have slumbered and died ere they had blossomed into life and beauty.
Like a flash, the cry of distress went through the world, and gathered force as it traveled. News of the destruction of armies in one great chasm of death had been told before till recitals of such events palled upon the senses; but this was a great social disaster, visited upon effeminate grace and beauty, quick and sudden, dashing ambition to the ground, and withering life's sweetest hopes; sundering the dearest associations and robbing the heart of home treasures, so highly prized by the most refined people.
From St. Louis, Cincinnati, Detroit, New York, Boston, and nearly all the large cities of the United States, and from many cities in England, Germany and France, came prompt relief. The most of the cash sentfrom these places was taken into the custody of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, and by them
The Great Fire 0/1871. 91
dispensed to the sufferers with as provident a care as could have been expected under such a pressure.
The amounts contributed from the world, (the great field of charity for this occasion), was $4, 820,148. 16. Of this amount $973,897.80 was from foreign coun- tries. The number of lives lost in the fire can never be told. It has been estimated to exceed 300. The charred remains of many were found, but no such number as this.
The amount of property destroyed in the fire, by a careful estimate by Elias Colbert, was $196,000,000. Not more than one-fourth of this was covered by in- surance, and of the amounts insured, not more than fifty per cent was paid, some insurance companies not paying more than ten per cent, while others paid in full.
The heads of families and business portion of the hundred thousand victims of the fire may be divided into several classes. The portion of them whose wealth was in stocks or bonds had lost nothing but their ink-stands and writing-desks, and the opportuni- ties now offered for speculation, seemed to give prom- ice of an abundant harvest out of the situation. Of the merchants who hadJboth capital and credit yet in reserve, to begin anew, a prospect opened for busi- ness perhaps never before equaled. To thos£ mer- chants who had lost everything, little consolation could come, and yet many of these, availing them- selves of an untarnished reputation, immediately be- gan again on credit, and not a few of them made a success of it. Out of the recoil that came from such an overwhelming calamity, quickly sprang up a buoy- ant feeling in the minds of everyone. No timid coun- sels prevailed. Redivivus was the watchword. Dimen- sion stone, brick, mortar, lime, marble, red sand- stone, granite, cement, iron pillars, girders, floor tile, sand, glass, joist, scantling and boards were at a pre- mium. Autumn hung on into the winter months,
92 the Great Fire of 1871.
and fire-proof buildings sprang up rapidly amidst the desolations of the burnt district. The rebuilding of the burnt district was a wonder of no less magni- tude than the fire itself. The business portion of the city presented not only the appearance of newness, but the buildings were of the most approved pattern of architecture and convenience. Meantime, while these were in course of construction, every empty place on the West Side, and far out in the South Di- vision, was rented at high figures, and frequently might be found the most enterprising merchants doing business in some dingy, cavernous quarters on the West Side, that for years before the fire had grown moldy for want of tenants. For several months, Canal street, between Lake and Madison, was the center of business. Here the newspapers set up their presses, and by dint of courage and resolu- tion to be found nowhere outside of Chicago, soon re- produced their respective sheets, undiminished in size and unctious with grit. All the while capital flowed into Chicago, and the building mania was at fever heat. Nobody seemed to think it could be overdone. They did not stop to consider that the improved class of buildings which were being substituted for the old ones would afford convenience and room for a greatly increased amount of business. Add to this the extra room for business where private houses had been burnt, close by the business portions of Chicago, which would never be replaced, on account of their proximity to the turmoil of a commercial em- porium, and it is not strange that an unnecessarily large area was left open for the wants of business. These conditions caused a temporary lull in build ing up the burnt district after the work had been going on two years, for which reason there were still (1881) many vacant lots where the moldering walls of old buildings, burnt in the fire, stand as reminders of the event; but no great length of time can now transpire till the recent increasing demand for more stores and offices, as well as a demand beyond the present supply for private dwellings, will not only fill up vacant lots in the burnt district, but enlarge the area of the city.
'Ihe Great Fire of 1871.
93
FIRST BUILDING IN BURNT DISTRICT.
94 Ihe Railroad System of the Nortliivest.
THE RAILROAD SYSTEM OF THE NORTHWEST.
Cheap and expeditious transportation over-land, by means of railroads, has not yet been long enough in use to determine, practically, what changes in the great world of progress, are destined to grow from it, or rather what new elements of aggrandizement and accumulation of wealth and influence are to come from it. Dating from the earliest historical records, as they faintly glimmer through the uncertainty of Orientalism, we find the Phoenicians, about 700 years before the Christian era, bringing wealth and fame to their nation by means of their commerce, in which branch of industry they were, as far as known, the world's pioneers.
Their country was situated at the western extrem- ity of the Mediterranean Sea and the northeastern extremity of the Red Sea, which locality gave them a. great advantage over any other people in the distri- bution of their merchandise. This stimulated their manufacturing interests, as well as their fine arts and scholastic sciences; and for several centuries this peo- ple, though their whole country was not larger than the State of Illinois, represented the intelligence and handicraft of the world.*
Southern Europe, including the Ancient Britons, paid tribute to them in the purchase of their fabrics, and learned of them and the Arabians,t the elements of commerce.
For this proud position they were indebted to their natural channels of communication with the outside
* Heroditus defines their territory as a belt of land about 50 miles wide, along the eastern extremity of the Mediterian, and runs their boundary south of this extreme end, to the northeastern extremity of the Red Sea, which he called the Arabian Gulf. Thence he runs it to the eastern delta of the Nile, about 60 miles above its mouth, thence along its meanders to the sea.
t The Arabians inhabited the country between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
7 he Railroad System of the Northwest 95
world, afforded by the two great seas that reached their territory from two nearly opposite directions.
That the Phoenecians have not held their original high position, till the present day, is due to the later discoveries by which the ocean could be navigated , thereby giving any other nation, which had a sea- coast an equal advantage with them.
By further comparison with Orientalism, we may quote Byzantium, a city of the Bosphorus. Had Romulus and Remus laid the foundation of the Eter- nal City here, instead of at Rome, this empire would have had a more enduring grip upon the domain of Europe, even than it did have.
Just before the decline of this colossal power, Con- stantine, its emperor, removed its seat of government to this place, and changed its name from Byzantium to Constantinople, which was A. D. 328.
Constitutional forms of government, and the emoluments that grow out of them were then un- known, but, even without them the power of Rome lingered here, in its dotage, till the fourteenth century, when this city was conquered by the Mahomedans; and the last vestige of Roman power was gone.
For many centuries this strategic spot had been the sport of superstitious and dynastic claims, not based on the civilizing influences of our present age. All around it, near and far, were vengeful clans (not nations) bound to take a hand in the wreckage of Rome, when distribution, instead of concentration of national force seemed to be the spirit of the age. This is why Constantinople did not become the great metropolitan center of the world's commerce: All it lacked, to make it such, was an intelligent purpose and harmony to execute this purpose; for no other spot in the Eastern hemisphere offered so good facil- ities for such a result as this, situated as it was near the extremity of a sea that intervened between two continents.
g6 The Railroad System of the Northwest.
Let us turn from this scene to the center of a new continent, where Chicago poses at the extremity of the chain of Lakes, that rest on the great plateau of the North West, connected with the sea, both on the South and on the East by navigable waters. It seems as if this spot had been held in reserve, un- known to mankind, till a young nation sprang into existence to utilize it, as away s tat ion, on the western path of Empire. No contra vailing conditions can set limits to its growth. The world that buy sits pro- ducts is its field, and the states that surround it, its protection.
The rise and fall of Empires is its horn-book of study, in order to reproduce their grandeurs on the broader platform required by the present age of improvement.
Here we may begin on the present grade of the worlds knowledge, and bring its appliances to our assistance. The appliances most necessary to us are the railroad system that centre at Chicago. We are in the direct path between Western Europe and the Asian Coast: the most important trunk lines of rail- roadsinthe United States and Canada egntmnghere.
The British channel has saved England from for- eign foes, and made it possible for London to become the largest city of the world, but this same bulwark has severed such railroad connections as have con- tributed to make Chicago the wonder of the age. Let us compare the latter with that venerable and peerless city that stands on the "fatal island'' as Napoleon called it.
The arithmetical increase in London for the past fifty years, in wealth and numbers has been greater than that of Chicago; but the proportionate increase of the latter during this period, has been far the great- est.
Had a people like jJnglishmen or Americans pos- sessed Constantinople and a circumference of one thousand miles around it, at the dawn of constitu-
Ihe Railroad System of the Northwest. 97
tional governments, London would never have out- rivalled it, because its geographical advantages were wanting to do it.
Chicago did not make her debut as a candidate for urban fame, till science and jurisprudence had come to her aid, and if she does not succeed in becoming as much greater than London as her str ategic locality is superior to hers, it will be because the American people are inferior to English people.
Our mother country has honored us with an un- written law of alliance, in everything tha.t constitutes the corner stone of transcendent power, vital to the security of human rights; and this law brings with it the tributes of the British Empire to Chicago — the great dispensatory of the worlds necessities in this practical age. To say less than this would not be doing justice to the position she holds, in the zone of national greatness.
The largest trees of the forest are those which were planted on its virgin soil, and this rule applies to Chi- cago itself, including all her transporting, manufac- turing and trading facilities; so conveniently spread out on the face of nature to be developed by the pio- neer spirit of the American people. These conditions have come upon us with a driving force behind them, in soil and in the geographical disposition of the con- tinent, whose navigable waters conserve the destinies of this favored spot.
Let us now consider the part our Railroad System must inevitably take, in the coming rivalry of the great powers of the world, for that kind of supremacy that Europe has for the past century disguised under the misnomer — "Balance of Power/' Under this spe- cious pretence, these powers have been min imized to the four represented by London, St. Petersburg, Ber- lin, and Pads. This reduction has been brought a- bout more by commerce than by war.
That Chicago and her transportation system are
98 The Railroad System of the Northwest.
the eontroling factors, in these evolutions now going on, which are destined to concentrate wealth and power, till its limit is reached there can be no doubt. Catherine II, of Kussia saw it, when shesummoned a council to meet at Berlin to stop the war to subdue the American colonies, and later, Eussia foresaw from our first national existence, that the United States was to be the great power of the world; and consistent with this conviction never lost an oppor- tunity to show friendship to us: Napoleon saw it when he sold Louisiana to us, and in the bitterness of his spirit, exclaimed, "I have given to England a maritime rival that will some day humiliate her pride," England, from behind her bulwark of con- servatism— her weakest point, saw it when she said to Europe, hands off, at the opening of our Spanish war. Perhaps the last few years of trade balance, a- gainst her have been an object lesson to teach her this. In summing up, we may say, the Monroe doc- trine has gone to the tomb of the Capulets, for want of a field on which to brandish its sword. "Survive the fittest," will be the motto in the Eastern hemis- phere, in the centralizing process now going on with accelerated speed, as years go round.
All the while, commerce rounds off the tangent points of human character, fraternizes the human race into good fellowship, stimulates education, in doing which, it calls into being an army of school masters. These happy results are manifest here, where they guarantee the unity of our nation, and win the respect of the world by binding the East, the South and the West together into a unity of interests.
Ever since prehistoric ages, when Asia, the mother of nations peopled Europe, the center of progress, in artisanship, has been moving westward. The dis- covery of the western hemisphere accelerated this movement till its clinmx was reached, the central seat of which is the great North West and from this
7he Railroad System of the Northwest.
99
focus the far reaching and world wide railroad system, together with ocean navigation, can transport the cereals to London as cheaply as the same could be sent there from the north of England. This assertion may be startling, but the railroad officers of Chicago are the vouchers of the writer for its truth. By this sweeping change the English farmer has been ruined, partly by it, and partly by other unfavorable condi- tions as to supply from other sou ires which have low- ered prices. One of the effects upon the English gov- ernment, produced by this falling off in her agricul- tural interests, has been to make it cling to her finan- cial advantages which have made England the worlds brokers. If she is no longer the man with the hoe she is the man with the pen behind one ear, and the gold dollar in his pocket. Pending the possibly tran- sient conditions of Europe now in the process of incu- bation, the United States can repose on her agricultur- al laurels, made effective by her transcontinental tran- sportation facilities, spreading its influence over tjie far east along the frequented track of commerce.
WELLS STREET DEPOT, CHICAGO & NORTH WESTERN R' Y
ioo Ihe Chicago & North Western Raihvay.
THE CHICAGO & NORTH WESTERN RAILWAY.
Looking back upon the changes that have marked the progress of the world, we wonder that they could not have been anticipated. Thus it is; that we wonder why capitalists should have been chary about invest- ing in stocks wherewith to build a railroad west from Chicago. When the "venture" was first thought of conservatism said "don't do it"; the pioneer spirit said go ahead. The latter prevailed, and January 16th, 1836 (ere Chicago had received her charter as a city) the Galena and Chicago Union Rail Road Com- pany was chartered by the state and Messrs. Town send and Mather of New York and their associates were given the pri v ilege of making it a horse or steam Rail Ro ad as* they saw fit and constructing branches to it, as feeders. By the terms of the charter three years were allowed in which work should be commenced on the road; in order to comply with which requirements, the com- pany began construction in 1838. Its capital stock was $100,000 with the right to increase it to $1,000,- 000. William Bement, Thomas Drummond, J.C.Good- hue, Peter Semple, J. B. Turner and J. B. Thompson Jr. were. authorized, as commissioners, to receive sub- scriptions to the stock.
The work began on Kinzie St. near the crossing of Canal St. by George Bassett contractor, who remained in the service of the company until his death, several years later.
Whether the object of this beginning was to fulfill the time limit of t^e charter, or not, is not known to the writer, but whatever the incentive might have been , the work was abandoned and nothing more done until 1846, at which time, Wm. B. Ogden, John B.Turner and Stephen Gale, purchased the charter of the origi- nal grantees, the consideration for which being $10,-
The Chicago & North Western Railway. 101
000, in stock of the company paid down, and a like ammount given on its completion to Fox River.
A preliminary survey was made, and the work put in charge of Richard P. Morgan. The next year, on the 5th of April, a Board of Directors was appointed, and books were soon opened for subscription to the stock, here fresh difficulties came up, many thought the road would injure retail trade in Chicago (which was all she then had), by facilitating the transportation of goods to country merchants, and the latter feared that their trade would suffer by such quick and easy access to Chicago as the road would give to the farm- ers. Despite these difficulties, through the efforts of Benj. W. Raymond and John B. Turner, in their suc- cess in negotiating loans in New York and the reluct- ant home subscriptions to the stock, the road was finally completed to Harlem Dec. 30, 1848 and to Cottage Hill (now Elmhurst) the next year.
Mr. Ogden and Mr. Turner next proceeded to obtain the right of way necessary to continue the road to Fox river in doing which, they called on Warren Wheaton living on his government land claim, in a lonesome cabin. Mr. Wheaton is still living at the same spot where they called on him. He is the only survivor of the men mentioned above, connected with the history of this road thus far. Messrs. Turner and Ogden had met but little encouragement from the set- tlers immediately east of this place, then with out a name. Not that the inhabitants objected to the road , but they showed a disposition to avail themselves of the occasion to get a round price for land needed for its construction. Instead of taking any such advan- tage, Mr. Warren Wheaton and his brother Jesse were in full sympathy with the representatives of the road, offoving them the right of way gratis, and Mr. Warren Who'll on invited the two gentlemen to dinner. Whether it was this dinner (which was doubtless a good one) or the free gift of land or both combined
IO2 The Chicago & North Western Railway.
that induced the managers of the road to put a sta- tion here, and name it Wheaton, will never be known; but certain it is that no amount of finessing, or sub- tlety on the part of rival localities, which immediate- ly ensued, could change the firm purposes of Messrs. Turner and Ogden. They were true to their first love, and impervious to all influences brought to bear up- on them to change the track of the road. Where ap- athy had existed but a short time before the people now awakened to the importance of the subject.
The next necessity was to build the road to the Fox river; if not to accommodate the public, to get the stock stipulated for as already told. The grading was soon completed and the iron rails pur- chased but the means and the credit of the company were exhausted, and how to get the ties was the quan- dary. Edward W. Brewster who owned a large farm on Fox river, well timbered with oak now came to the rescue. He offered to let the company cut ties free, on condition that it would give a life pass to him- self and family; which offer was gratefully accepted, and annual passes were sent to the generous donor thereafter. On one occasion Mr. Brewster had to call for the pass. Yes! Father Brewster we'll pass you as long as you live but we didn't expect you'd live so long was the pleasant reply. A few years later the C. & N. W. R'y. Company passed his remains and the funeral cortege from Wheaton to Rose Hill, where they now rest after an honorable record of ninety- three years. The writer superintended the funeral.
In 1852 the road was completed to Elgin running on the ties furnished by Mr. Brewster, strap rails had been used as far as this place, but were now substi- tuted for T rails 18 feet in length.
When this road was first chartered the chief places on the Mississippi above St. Louis were Fort Madison, Galena and Fort Snelling, near the present St. Paul. Of these Galena was the oldest and most important
Ilie Chicago & North-Western Railway. 103
in a commercial point of view owing to the lead mines there; hence the reason for its name being ap- pended to the title of the first rail-road running- west from Chicago; and to this point its terminal was fixed by charter. In 1853 Rockford and Belvidere were both reached, and Dec. 10, 1855 a branch road was completed to Dixon.
Previous to 1854 this company had built a branch line from Belvidere 111. to Beloit on the border of Wisconsin, a distance of 21 miles, and soon thereafter had leased the Madison and Beloit K. R. a yet unfin- ished road running to Madison Wis. a distance of 47 miles which road had been incorporated by the Wis- consin legislature Aug. 19, 1848 the line of which was to intersect Janesville, Madison and LaCrosse, thence to a point on the Mississippi river near St.- Paul, Minn, and also from Janesville to Fond-du-Lac, Wis. On Feb. 9, 1850 the name of this road was changed to the Rock River Valley Union R. R. Com- pany. The line from Janesville had not been pushed by the Galena Company, as the people had been . led to believe it would be, and as a result of the dissatis- faction a charter was approved by the Governor of Illinois on February 12, 1851, incorporating "The Illinois & Wisconsin Railroad Co.," with power to build a railroad from Chicago north to the Illinois state line, and to consolidate with any railroad in Wisconsin. March 10, 1855, this last named line was, by act of legislature of Wisconsin authorized to be consolidated with the Rock River Valley Union Railroad Co., and was authorized to take such name for the new company as the Board of Directors might see fit. On March 31st, 1855, this consolidation was perfected, and the consolidated company was named The Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac Railroad Co. This is the origin of the first portion of the present Wisconsin division of Chicago & North-Western Rail- way.
iO4 The Chicago & North-Western Railway.
"The object of the Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du- Lac Railroad Co. from the beginning, was the exten- sion of their line from Janesville northwest via Mad- ison and La Crosse to St. Paul, and from Janesville north along the valley of Rock river to Fond du Lac, and to the great iron and copper regions of Lake Superior." Within four years it built a line from Chicago 70 miles to the Wisconsin state line at Sha- ron. The Rock River Valley Union Railroad Co. had built 30 miles of its road from Fond du Lac south- ward towards Minnesota Junction, Wisconsin. The consolidated company proceeded as fast as possible to close up the gap between the two pieces of road and completed it in 1859, thus forming a continuous line from Chicago via Janesville and Watertown to Fond du Lac, 176 miles. By Acts of February 12 and 28, 1857, of the Wisconsin legislature, the Wis- consin & Lake Superior, and the Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac Railroad Cos. were authorized to con- solidate, and on March 5, 1857, the companies were consolidated and retained the name of the Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac Railroad Co. In February, 1859, in Illinois, and in March (and October), 1859, in Wisconsin, the legislatures authorized the reorgan- ization of the company, and on June 6th, 1859, a new company was organized, under the name of Chi- cago & North- Western Railway Co., to which was passed all the franchises and rights of the then bank- rupt Chicago, St. Paul & Fond du Lac Railroad Co.
THE BEGINNING OF THE NORTH-WESTERN.
Here, then, is the real beginning of the northwest- ern portion of the present corporation that is now known as the Chicago & North- Western Railway Co. On April 10, 1861, this Company was authorized by the legislature of Wisconsin to build a line from Fond- du Lac via Fort Howard or Green Bay to the north line of Wisconsin, at the Menomonee river. During
Ihe Chicago & North-Western Railway. 105
1859 the road was completed to Oshkosh (194 miles); in 1861 to Appleton, 20 miles further north; and in 1862 the line was extended to Fort Howard (Green Bay), forming a line 242 miles long. In 1862-3, The Kenosha, Rockford & Rock Island Railroad, running from Kenosha, Wisconsin, westwardly, was complet- ed, 72 miles, to Rockford, 111., where it formed a junc- tion with the Galena & Chicago Union Railroad, and to prevent its falling into the then unfriendly hands of the Galena & Chicago Union Co., it was purchased, in 1863; by and in 1864 was consolidated with the Chicago & North- Western Railway Co., and operated as its Kenosha division.
THE PENINSULA RAILROAD.
To secure the business of the upper Peninsula of Michigan, The Peninsula Railroad Co. was organized in 1862, and was authorized to build a railroad from Escanaba, Michigan, on Little Bay De Noquet, to Marquette, Michigan, on Lake Superior. Work was commenced in 1863, and the road was completed to the Jackson Mines, at the village of Negaunee, Michi- gan, where (12 miles from Marquette) it formed a junction with the Marquette, Houghton&Ontonagon Railroad. In October, 1864. the Peninsula Railroad was consolidated with the Chicago & North- Western Railway, and was designated "The Peninsula Divi- sion."
The total milage of the roads owned by the Galena & Chicago Union Railroad Co. at the time of the grand consolidation was 324 miles. Its completed leased lines were 251 miles.
In 1861-2, the earnings of the Chicago & North- Western Railroad were only $849,719.27, and in 1862-3, $1.083,054.05.
In order to prevent rivalry between the above roads and the extra expense attending it the stockholders of both companies finally consented to the consolida-
io6 The Chicago & North Western Railway.
tion, and on June 2, 1864, it was virtually effected, carried out; and on February 15, 1865, was approved and ratified by legislative enactments. The new cor- poration retained the title The Chicagfo& North- West- ern Railway Company.
About this time the directory of the Company, to secure its interests, and to prevent its falling into hostile hands, found it was essential to obtain control of a line from Chicago to Milwaukee, and The Chicago & Milwaukee Railroad was secured. This railroad connecting the cities of Chicago and Milwaukee was commenced at each end at about the same time, but under two corporations— The Illinois Parallel R. R. Co., afterwards changed by the act of the Illinois leg- islature of February 3, 1853, to The Chicago & Mil- waukee Railroad Co. The Illinois Parallel R. R. Co. was incorporated February 17, 1851, building the line from Chicago northward to the Illinois state line, 45 miles; and the Green Bay, Milwaukee & Chicago Railroad Co., incorporated March 12, 1851, building the line southward from Milwaukee to the Illinois state line, 40 miles. The title of this company was changed in 1857 to The Milwaukee & Chicago Rail- road Co. Both lines were completed in 1855, and run in connection until June 5, 1863, when they were consolidated, under the name of the Chicago & Mil- waukee Railway Co. This corporation came under the management of the Chicago & North- Western Railway Co., by perpetual lease, May 2, 1866, but af- terwards was consolidated with the Chicago & North- Western Ry. Co.
At the close of the eighth fiscal year of Chicago & North- Western Railway, it had under its control, by absolute ownership or perpetual lease, 1,152.4 miles.
In October, 1867, the Winona & St. Peter Railroad, a line under construction westwardly from Winona, Minn., and of which 105 miles were built, became, by purchase of the entire capital stock, the property of
The Chicago & North Western Railway. 107
the Chicago & North- Western Ry. Co., and has since then been operated as a proprietary road. The Chi- cago & North- Western Company also bought theLa- Crosse, Trempealeau & Prescott Railroad — a line be- ing built from Winona Junction, Wisconsin, three miles east of La Crosse, Wisconsin, to Winona, Minn- esota. The Omaha & California line of the Chicago & North- Western Kailway was opened to the Missouri river, opposite Omaha, in April, 1867.
During the eleventh fiscal year the Winona & St.- Peter Railroad was completed to Janesville, Minneso- ta, making 121 miles finished from Winona. The La- Crosse, Trempealeau & Prescott Railroad was also finished this year. Total miles of operated line, 1,186.
By a series of consolidations and purchases the Chicago and North Western Railroad Company con- tinued their lines to Negaune Michigan near Mar- quette on the southern shores of Lake Superior, at various points through the rich mineral districts, al- so to Duluth and West Superior at its western extrem- ity. By the same process St. Paul and Minneapolis were reached; at which places railroad connections with Winnepeg in Manitoba and also connections with the Northern Pacific Railroad are made.
The North-Western system has lines of its own con- struction to Oakes, North Dakota, Gettysburg, Pierre and the Black Hills, South Dakota, and to Caspar Wyoming. In Nebraska it has built roads to Lincoln its capital to Hastings and Superior. It owns a road from Chicago via Clinton to Council Bluffs, Iowa, with many feeders to the north and south of it in this state.
The following shows the mileage of the North- Wes- tern system.
Chicago & North- Western Railway 5,386.43
Clrgo, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Ry. 1,537.76
Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Ry. .. .1,407.95
Total, February 1, 1900 ...8,332.14
io8 The Chicago & North Western Railway.
A BRIEF FINANCIAL STATEMENT.
We copy from the Annual Report for the fiscal year ending May 31, 1898, the following interesting figures:
The gross earnings for the year were the largest in the history of the company, amounting in all to $36,- 050,561.05, being an increase over the earnings of the previous year of $5,073,317.57 or 16.38 per cent.
The results for the year in detail are as follows:
Average Mileage Operated, 5,070.78 Miles.
From Passengers $ 7,256,299.23
Freight 27,035,105.39
' * Express, Mail and Miscellaneous 1,759,156.43 Total Gross Earnings $36,050,561.05
OPERATING EXPENSES AND TAXES.
Operating Expenses (62.81 per cent
of Gross Earnings) $22,643,879.31
Taxes (3.06 per cent of Gross Earnings 1,102,605.75
Total $23,746,485.06
Net Earnings 12,304,075.99
Less Interest on Bonds, etc. etc., Net.. . 7,005,211.65
Net Keceipts $5,298,211.34
Compared in detail with the previous year the37 were as follows:
1896-7. 1897-8.
Average Miles. Average Miles. Increase.
5,030", 5,070-,
Passenger Earnings $ 6,963,578.31$ 7,256,299.23
$ 292,720.92 Freight Earnings 22,236,612.19 27,035,105.39
$4,798,493.20 Express, Mail and Miscel. 1,777,052.98 1,759,156.43
Dec. 17,896.55
Totals $30,977,243.48 $36,050,561.05
$5,073,317.57
The Chicago £ North-Western Railway. 109
This financial statement is of the Chicago & North- Western Railway proper, and does not have any ref- erence to the roads that it owns, and that forms the North- Western System. The yearly earnings of the roads omitted, equal about twelve or thirteen mil- lion dollars for the year 1898.
PRESIDENTS OF THE GALENA & CHICAGO UNION RAILROAD CO.
Theophelus W. Smith, Elected July 3, 1836
William B. Ogden, Elected Feb. 17, 1846
John B. Turner, Elected June 5, 1851
Walter L. Newberry, Elected June 1, 1859
William H. Brown, Elected June 4, 1862
John B. Turner, Elected June 1, 1864
PRESIDENTS OF THE CHICAGO & NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY.
W. B. Ogden, . . . From June 7, 1859 to June 4, 1868
Henry Keep, From June 4, 1868 to Aug., 1869
A. Mitchell, From Sept. 1, 1869 to June 3, 1870
John F. Tracy, ..From June 3, 1870 to June 19 1873
Albert Keep, From June 19 1873 to* June 2, 1887
Marvin Hughitt,From June 2, 1887 — still in office
* On this date Mr. Keep was elected Chairman of the Board of Directors and still holds that position.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
Perry H. Smith, From June 7, 1859 to April 7, 1869 Henry R.Pierson From April 7, 1869 to June 30, 1870 M. L. Sykes, From June 301870— still in office
Being the first railroad starting out of Chicago it had the advantage of the most direct entrance into the heart of the city from the west, which may with no impropriet3T, be called an endowment of nature.
In making up this historical sketch many of the earliest persons associated with the construction of the road have been interviewed, some of whom are not now living, and the writer acknowledges obliga- tions to the company, for furnishing maps, drawings, and views, also a detailed history of the road just published, portions of it have been copied verbatim.
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SURVEY OF THE PROPOSED LINE
GALENA & CHICAGO UNION R. R.
CHIC,
CONVENTION OF 1860.
(COPIED FROM HISTORY PUBLISHED IN 1879.)
Two opposing forces grew into antagonism in the United States within the memory of middle aged men now living.
This antagonism that had been gathering force dur- ing a generation in its progress, had gradually obliter- ated party lines, and substituted an issue on a real principle in political economy for the old one which had existed between the whigs and the democrats.
The old issue grew out of an honest difference of opinion on financial questions, such as tariff, banking and public improvements ; the whigs being the ambi- tious and progressive element, and the democrats claim- ing to be the cautious regulators to apply the brakes upon hasty and ill digested legislation. But at the time when the new issue came into existence the old one had lost its national character, and become effete. The new issue was on the subject of slavery, and despite all efforts on the part of statesmen, as well as di- vines, to bury it beneath some plastic subterfuge, it came up in 1856 in its naked proportions, at the Phila- delphia convention which nominated Fremont as can- didate for president of the United States, to represent the principles of the new party. The issue that now divided the country practically involved the existence of slavery. Financial questions were lost sight of, and had little or no part in it.
It was the first time in the history of the country that an issue had grown up in the popular heart exempt
(113)
114 Convention of 1860.
from any other but conscientious principles as to what policy should best promote justice, as well as national honor. The situation in the United States at that time resembled that of England when the commonwealth displaced the reigning dynasty on a religious question. It was the higher law in both cases that the new party was contending for, and in both it was the first time that either country, by the force of public opinion only, succeeded in establishing a moral tribunal by which to overturn the majesty of legal forms.
No one will deny that this was the case in England in the days of Cromwell, and the proof that such was the case in the United States in the political campaign of 1860 is found in the fact that after the war which followed it, the constitution had to be changed to com- ply with the changes it had wrought. The attempt to compass the desired end, brought to light in 1856 at the Philadelphia republican convention, the first of its kind, proved a failure.
The moral sense of its advocates was deeply wounded, but they bore the humiliation in silence, with no letting down of their purposes ; on the contrary, they gathered strength as the time drew near for an- other trial in 1860. And now no prestige, no favorit- ism, no conventional forms or local rights must stand in the way of the fulfillment of the great popular voice that transcended everything. In vain may history be searched for such a sublime episode when so complete a submission was made to a principle as the Chicago convention of 1860 personified. It is doubtful if Chi- cago is ever again destined to such honors as fell upon her when she was selected as the most appropriate place for this convention. It was a compliment paid to the moral sense of her rising mind, to the magnanimity of her national policy, to her immunity from local prejudice, to her bold and original conceptions, and to her youthful and impulsive force, so essential to the success of the work which the convention were about
Convention of 1860. 115
to undertake. More than all this, it was a proof that her interests were locally interwoven with every part of the United States, not only by the physical forces of nature, but by the fraternizing influences that grow out of them through the channels of commerce.
As soon as the selection was made prompt action was taken by Chicago's leading citizens to make prep- aration for the occasion commensurate with its impor- tance. The first thing to be done was to provide a place for its sessions, and to this end a new and origi- nal plan was proposed. It was to erect a building on purpose. The proposal was received with favor so universal, that by voluntary subscriptions, the bulk of which was not over ten dollars from each giver, the building was erected. It consisted of an immense au- dience room arranged like an amphitheatre, whose roof was supported by numerous upright posts. It was christened the Wigwam.
The convention was unlike any that had ever pre- ceded it. Beneath the noisy demonstrations that always accompany such gatherings, like the froth that floats upon the surface of deep waters, was a silent force, the offspring of that kind of philosophy which might be called evolutionary in its character ; a philo- sophy that accepts things for what they are worth, and not for what they appear to be ; a philosophy that sees the sublimest truths in simple formula, and beholds a di- rect road to national grandeur, unobstructed by the vagaries of partisans ; a philosophy that could be chari- table without complicity, discreet without being ex- clusive, prudent without being intolerant, conservative without a letting down of principle, and more tenacious for substance than for theory. Who could fill such a measure? Who could step into the arena impervious to the shots of envy, hatred and malice destined to be hurled against him from an old party whose long lease of power had confirmed it in its defensive measures of extreme constitutional rights?
116 Convention of 1860.
Horace Greeley was then a potent force in the new party. All eyes were turned to him, and no doubt ex- ists that, had he given Mr. Seward his hearty support from the first, he would have been elected as the nomi- nee at the first balloting of the convention. Every in- fluence that the ingenuity of Mr. Seward's friends could suggest was early brought to bear upon Mr. Greeley, in his behalf, but the venerable printer was impervious to any pressure that could be brought upon him. He did not oppose Mr. Seward, but the fact that he had not advocated his cause, added to the fact that the Press and Tribune, the Journal and the Democrat, of Chi- cago, had from the first been earnest supporters of Abra- ham Lincoln as the nominee, prevented hasty action in the convention, and held back the party leaders in abeyance to public sentiment. In the hands of the latter, Mr. Lincoln's nomination was assured, for the convention dared not disobey its mandates. Besides this, the very atmosphere of Chicago was charged in his favor by a subtle and irresistible force, before which all other pretensions vanished, and when the day set for the opening of the convention arrived, an impres- sive circumspection reigned throughout the hall, and even extended its influence into the broad open air of the streets outside; for among the many thousands gathered there, were a goodly number whose maturity of intellect rose above the average mind, and leavened the whole lump with a full measure of gravity appro- priate to the occasion. The convention commenced its sittings on the 16th of May, 1860, and continued till the 19th. It was composed of 466 delegates, 234 of whom were necessary for a choice. On the third ballot Lin- coln received 354 votes, which result was announced to the audience, and loud and long continued cheers from them sufficiently vouched the action of the delegates by unmistakable signs of enthusiasm. Hannibal Ham- lin, of Maine, was nominated on the next ballot for vice-president by 367 votes. The news flew to every
Convention of 1860. 117
part of the country, and the presidential campaign opened with an enthusiasm on the part of the new party, and firmness on the part of the old, never before witnessed.
The results of the republican victory which fol- lowed are sublime beyond description, and sad beyond measure, and will never be forgotten in the history of the world.
A careful study of them, while it reveals the frail- ties of over-reaching ambition on the part of those who raised their arm against the government, also reveals the unwelcome truth that posterity's teeth will be set on edge by the public debt, incurred in the inevitable war which followed. Mr. Lincoln's untarnished record in it has turned all his political enemies into friends of his measures and his memory, and convinced the world that greatness is less the result of notoriety than nat- ural good sense. The creatures of vain ambition stood appalled before his unpretentious power, that with a simple helm overturned the work of the forum, and de- molished whatever stood in the way of the sense of the nation, of which he was the faithful representative.
His life and his death were an ever living proof that justice is the only thing that can save a nation in times of peril, and his exemplary administration of public affairs has made it possible for historians to write his eulogy without being accused of partisanship.
No president of the United States should come short of this high standard of statesmanship which, if universally practiced, would be a safeguard against the disgraces of partisan strategy and the dangers of dis- union, as well as the moody discontents of anarchy. Simple justice is all the people want, in default of which revolution, sooner or later, will bring it with fearful retribution for future contentions.
That Mr. Lincoln's administration was statesman- like and not partisan, is demonstrated by the fact that at his untimely death, one of the best representatives
118 Convention of 1860.
of the southern confederacy, Alexander H. Stephens, said: "That is the heaviest blow the south has yet received. ' '
Had his life been spared, it is fair to assume that the problem of reconstruction would have received a magnanimous solution more consistent with political economy than was possible without his counsels. He who knew how to improvise useful material to build up his own cause out of those opposed to him, might have turned the popular tide of the south after the war in favor of the Union by those modifying arts that melted away opposition to the forms of law and order which he had reduced to simple elements. As an example of his easy way of overcoming opposition, the following circumstance, which has never before been made pub- lic, is here related. When Mr. Lincoln was in a quan- dary as to whom he should give the chief command of the Union forces, he consulted an old friend on the im- portant matter, and while conferring together, Mr. Lincoln proposed to give the chief command of the Union forces to Douglas, on the ground that his indom- itable energy and superior capacity would insure suc- cess against the foe, and convert enemies in the north into friends. This measure was opposed by the adviser of Mr. Lincoln, on the ground that if successful, Mr. Douglas might use his prestige in a spirit of rivalry against the administration. This consideration had no weight with Mr. Lincoln, who still favored the promo- tion of Mr. Douglas to the position.
Seeing he could not turn his purposes, his adviser admonished him of the fact that, inasmuch as Mr. Douglas was then dangerously sick at Chicago, it would be prudent to wait till he had recovered before appoint- ing him to the position, lest in the event of his death, the friends of Mr. Douglas would say that an empty honor had been conferred upon him, which it was cer- tain he never could live to enjoy. This consideration had its desired effect, and Mr. Lincoln concluded to let
Convention of 1860. 119
the appointment rest, to await the result of Mr. Doug- las' sickness. Within two weeks from that time he died.*
There may be some at this time who honestly dep- recate the war, and aver that the national debt will entail more evils upon the white race than can be com- pensated by the liberation of the colored race ; but even these do not censure Mr. Lincoln, or hold him responsible for any national griefs, for by his own record he is shown to have been willing to save the Union, either with or without slavery, and his tardy issue of the emancipation proclamation till it became a sine qua non, as to public confidence in the ability of the north to conquer the rebellion, sufficiently demon- strated his broad national conservatism, as well as his fidelity to the Union. Such a happy combination of all the statesmanlike qualities so necessary to guide the tangled mazes of our civil war, could not have grown into being under New England culture ; not but what she had men superior to Mr. Lincoln in any one gift, but in vain may we look there for those matchless virtues, which western pioneer training, western broad gauge statesmanship and universal good fellow- ship has added to their already munificent inheritances from the east, and for which an everlasting debt of obligation is due her.
The west is the child of the east, and as the parent in the maturity of age takes pride in the transcendent genius of a son, so the east beholds the zenith of im- perial power graduating westward as new fields for national grandeur are unfolded in that direction, quickening into activity generous purposes, in propor- tion to her accumulating resources.
*The authority for this is a statesman living-, whose advanced years are his apology for not allowing- his name to appear, lest it might subject him to inquisitive interviewing-. He says, however, that if necessary to sustain the veracity of the writer he will waive the objections and give his name to the public as voucher for the statement. [The Hon. Ebenezer Peck was the gentleman to whom the author was indebted for this information. His death having- removed the injunction, his personality may now be disclosed. — Ru- FUS BLANCH ARD, Chicag-o, June, 1900.]
120 Convention of 1860.
Mr. Lincoln was the incarnate type and model of the combined virtues of the western citizen ; and where on the face of the great world of progress can his equal be found, in his full rounded up character, defi- cient in nothing which could bring strength to the nation by securing the services of the working bees, and not the drones, in its great hive of industry?
Both of the Napoleons have made their mistakes, plain to be seen by all, for which they have paid the penalty. Cromwell's rule with all its grandeur, if blended with Lincoln's charity, would have secured the full indorsement of the Massachusetts colony (which it never received), and would have warded off the recoil, which, at his death, replaced the old dynasty. Bismarck, for want of Lincoln's charity, has of late entangled Germany in a threatening religious issue, besides having challenged a hostile antagonism in France, that cost the nation millions annually to de- fend themselves against.
The policy by which even wise England conquered Napoleon at the expense of their national debt,* has long since been acknowledged by her best statesmen to have been a mistake, and it is not too much to say, would never have had place, if the conservatism of Abraham Lincoln had prevailed in the English parlia- ment at the time. By comparing notes with the world, while we as frontierers can make but a pitiful show in
*As a proof of this the following' extract from a letter from Rt. Hon. John Bright, member of parliament from Birmingham, to the author, is quoted. It is dated One Ash, Rockdale, April 8, 1880.
" As to the wisdom of parliament at the end of the last and the beginning1 of the present century, I suspect there was no such thing as wisdom in those times in the British parliament, or in the councils of the king. And now the time is past, and little good can come from the discussion of the good or bad of what parliament then did."
The author agrees with the distinguished British statesman that no good can come from discussing the above question. But an allu- sion is here made to it by way of comparing notes between the pol- icy of England and America in the contracting of their respective national debts, and the author takes this occasion to thank his honor- able correspondent for the frank expression of his opinion as above, though it censures the past policy of his government. Not every American statesman would be equally ingenuous.
Convention of 1860. 121
science or art, yet in that kind of natural good sense which our conditions have introduced into political economy, we have claims worthy of consideration ; and it is not too much to say that the genius of Lin- coln, as the representative of them, has crowned the west with imperishable laurels. It has also proven the elastic tenacity of the west, a bond essential to the preservation of the Union in times of peril, and Chicago to be the pivot on which the hinge turns. Under this responsibility the City of the Lakes rests in her majesty of power, not to be challenged, but utilized in the great fraternity of states, to which Chicago extends her right hand in that broad gauge spirit of good fel- lowship, for which she has a high reputation.
Reckless partisan leaders have no hand in this fel- lowship. The general interests of the country are the last things they care for, for they live on the offal of venality, and in proportion as political vices accumu- late, their services are in demand to carry them, like millstones about their necks, till corruption has reached the limit which the good sense of the nation will bear. Then comes the recoil. New men and new measures are brought to the front in the more forcible but less noisy strength of justice. Strong vices stimu- late into life equally strong virtues, to repair spolia- tion, and in no place in the country can these virtues find an equally available field for action, as in the great center whose relations and associations are divided and shared from every direction, and whose charities are broadened into a national conservatism too flexible to be severed, and too tenacious to be conquered. Such is now the proud position of the great northwest in years that have passed. And let it never be forgotten that she is the cradle of the new national policy, which every American citizen now indorses, and that this policy was the fruitage of the broad fields for agricult- ure that nature so invitingly spread for free labor in the west, outrivaling the time serving policy of slave
122
Convention of 1860.
labor, and changing1 petty partisan disputes in our national councils into grander issues, more worthy the minds of American citizens.
With truth it may be said that the issues that di- vided the country into two nearly equal parts before this convention divide it no longer. What at least one political party then considered only a side issue, every political party now looks upon as a national issue, involving vital principles of public policy, now settled on the only permanent basis which "manifest
destiny" pointed out. Viewed as such, it becomes a legitimate theme for the historian, and if left out of history, the treatment of all or any other points on political history would be in vain .
Next to the question of slavery the question whether we are a solid nation, or a confederacy of states whose integrity is subject to the caprices of any single one, has been settled.
The political history of the United States would be incomplete without a record of those events which
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
123
gave birth to a new party whose power transcended the two parties who had ruled the policy of the coun- try, in a conservative spirit, ever since the downfall of the old federal party.
Mr. Washburne drove the entering wedge of disin- tegration into the most dominant of these parties, and made a chasm into which the republican party entered, and evolutionized the policy of the nation. Mr. East- man has made a record of it, true to the facts, and it will enhance the value of this record to give a brief
sketch of the lives of both. Elihu Benjamin Wash- burne was born in Li vermore, Me., September 25, 1816. His grandfather, Israel, descended from Francis Cook, one of the "Mayflower" colonists of 1620, was an officer in the American revolution. He may be called a self- made man, his education having been begun on the broad face of nature on his father's farm. His first introduction before the public was through the columns of the Kennebec Journal as an editor. Soon afterward he entered a law school at Harvard, and began the practice of law in 1840.
124 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
Subsequently he settled in Galena and was elected to congress in 1853, representing1 Illinois in that body sixteen years. His sphere of statesmanship broadened by his responsibilities during this period, so as to make him the actor on a new stage, as told by Mr. Eastman in the following- pages— and here it should be stated, that no other one has the material from which to write it as well.
Mr. Washburne was minister to France during1 the Franco-German war of 1871, and remained in Paris dur- ing the remarkable siege of that city.
He died in Chicago October 22, 1887.
Zebina Eastman was born in North Amherst, Mass., September 8, 1815. When nineteen years of age he became one of the proprietor's of the Vermont Free Press, June 7, 1834. In 1837 he became associated with the veteran abo- litionist, Benjamin Lundy, in publishing the Genius of Universal Emancipation.
In 1842, invited by several, abolitionists of Chicago, James H. Collins, Dr. C. V. Dyer, H. L. Fulton, S. D. Childs, Calvin De Wolf, N. Eositter, Rev. F. Bascom, L. C. P. Freer, J. Johnston and others, he removed to Chi- cago and started the Western Citizen, which became not only the leading anti-slavery organ of the northwestern states, but also one of the leading papers of Chicago. He ivas assisted by his friend Hooper Warren.
In 1850 Mr. Eastman was appointed delegate for Illi- nois to the World'1 s Peace Congress at Frankfort, Germany. This was an important epoch in his life. His philan- thropic heart took in all reforms which he thought would benefit mankind. The question of peace among men was at that time much discussed, and plans for the abolition of war and strife and the settlement of international disputes by arbitration ivere being promoted on both sides of the Atlantic.
In 1861 he was appointed consul to Bristol, England, by President Lincoln, which position he held eight years.
He died in the village of May wood, III., June 14, 1883. Mr. Washburne made some appropriate remarks at his fu- neral, which was attended by many friends who loved him.
HISTORY OF THE ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION,
AND THE GROWTH OF THE LIBERTY
AND REPUBLICAN PARTIES IN
THE STATE OF ILLINOIS.
BY HON. Z. EASTMAN.
I have been requested to write for this work some passages of history bearing upon the late agitation of the anti-slavery question in the west, and its effects upon the fate of the nation. It is superfluous to state that it is a favorite doctrine of our people, that ours is a government of liberty ; that liberty is the great boast of the nation, and the object and end of the struggles of our forefathers in making this country an asylum of the oppressed of all lands, and achieving finally national independence. Consequently, when the form of government first began to take shape, it was upon this declaration, which it was assumed was a self-evi- dent truth, "that all men were then equal, and are en- dowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty and the pursuit of happi- ness."
The patriots of the revolution, who achieved their independence, were doubtless sincere believers in this truth. They had no mental reservations, that is, the most of them ; and believed that the doctrine applied to black men and slaves, as well as to white men.
They did not say, and they did not mean, that white men, when they combined to make a new government, were then equal, etc. , as a distinguished senator from Illinois once stated they meant to say.
(126)
126 The Anti-Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
It was very consistent with this doctrine of the fathers of the revolution, that when the nation had re- ceived the bequest of a large area of territory which was by nature free from slavery, they should have taken special pains to guarantee that state of freedom for all future time. Negro slavery, they said, had been forced upon the colonies by the policy of the mother country; and as it was found existing in all the original territories, they could see no other way but to leave it to time and Providence for its extirpation. But wher- ever the nation began new it would keep itself clear of this admitted curse. The nation had no territory of its own. It was all made up of the areas of the provinces or colonies that had entered into the confederation which was formed to secure national independence. After the treaty of Paris in 1783, the United States be- came territorial owners of the country intervening be- tween the colonial settlement and the Mississippi river. Consequently, the states which held territory outside of their administrative limits ceded such territory to the nation as a body capable of inheriting and of hold- ing such an estate. And therefore Connecticut and Virginia relinquished their jurisdiction over the vast regions of wild and uncultivated lands in the north- west, which they held by virtue of their colonial char- ters. Virginia ceded the larger part in a state of nature. Land unoccupied by civilized man, though full of the wealth of the forest and the mine, is as valueless as the waves on the ocean. So the Virginia territory of the northwest was money-valueless to the state if it re- mained without population. Without impoverishing herself she gave to the nation the vast territory, and in so doing she gave it an empire. But she coupled with the gift the condition that it should be kept free forever from that curse of slavery which already was then be- ginning to prey upon her own vitals. Thus originated the ordinance for the government of the northwest territory, which was passed by congress in 1787, as the
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 127
condition of receiving- the donation of the territory from Virginia. Art. VI of the said ordinance provides: "There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servi- tude in the said territory otherwise than in the punish- ment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted. ' '
On the passage of this clause of the ordinance, finally rested the fate of the nation. It was originally insisted upon (it is said) as a political and economical measure — that to give to the land a marketable value, for the settlement of free and independent laborers and owners of the soil, it should be kept free from slavery. Whatever the motive, it has proved to have been in the largest degree profitable and wise, and a controlling policy in the fate of the nation. It was in this sphere, and in the area of the northwest territory, that the problem was solved that finally delivered the nation from the incubus of slavery. The consecration of the northwest to freedom by the state, of Virginia became the nucleus of the power that delivered the nation. The story of this achievement, to a large extent yet unwritten, except in the acts of men, is to form the chapter of history we are about to write.
The northwestern ordinance, so called, was the ratification of the deed of cession for the territory lo- cally defined as "lying within the United States, north- west of the Ohio river," and it declares that there should be formed in the said territory not less than three and not more than five states. And in the terri- tory were organized, as population rapidly increased, the five states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. It then embraced all the territory within the boundaries of the United States lying outside of special jurisdiction, for the southern Atlantic states claimed that their boundaries extended to the French and Spanish possessions at the west and south. In this "earlier and better day," we see that the policy was to make all national territory free, and not divide it, as
128 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
the Missouri compromise indicated, into half free and half slave ; or make it all slave, as the repealers of the compromise evidently intended.
Besides the exclusion of slavery from the territory we may judge the tone of the times and the character of the instrument from such clauses as these: "All fines shall be moderate ; and no cruel or unusual punish- ment shall be inflicted. No man shall be deprived of his liberty or property, but by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land. Should public exigencies make it necessary * * to take any person's prop- erty, or demand his particular services, full compensa- tion shall be made." And better still: "Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good gov- ernment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." There ought to have been good government on such a charter. To this northwest territory, under the im- pulse of freedom, came rapidly an energetic and intelli- gent population, making homes and civil society on the fertile lands, which probably surpassed any other equal area on the face of the earth. It became the empire to which the moral and political power of the nation con- centrated.
But there was a strong impulse to emigrate from the slave states to this region, as well as from the northern states, which were fast throwing off the rem- nants of the slave system that had clung to them. Many of the people of the south came to the northwest to get rid of slavery, but they often retained the pre- judices in which they had been educated. There was, however, a strong feeling among the early settlers that the slavery prohibition was acting detrimentally to the growth and development of the country of the north- west, a section to which all eyes were turned, as since they have been turned to the lands beyond the Missis- sippi and the Pacific coast. There was not always ab- solute faith in free labor in conflict with slave labor.
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 129
There were many dissatisfied persons, who held public meetings and memorialized congress to obtain a removal of the restriction for a limited time, that southern planters might be induced to move into the territory with their slaves. A sort of quasi slavery was introduced in the name of apprentices, which gave a slave code to Illinois, in spite of the slavery prohibition clause. So good a man as Wm. Henry Harrison was made president of a convention at Vincennes, Territory of Indiana, in 1804, the object of which was to promote territorial interests by obtaining a modification of this organic law. We see now what was gained by holding fast to the right thing, against the popular drift and a short sighted policy. The slavery prohibition clause was the vital element in the prosperity of the north- west, when the tide of population finally had set in this direction.
But there were many who had been trained in the notion that slavery was the only element of prosperity at the south, who were constantly harping on that one string: "Let slavery be introduced into the north- west. " At so late a time as 1839 and 1840, after the mur- der of Lovejoy, and when the state was loaded down by weight of debt and depression of business, there were men of influence who declared there was no other way for the state to be delivered from its ' ' Slough of Despond," but to call a state convention and alter the constitution, so that slavery might be legally intro- duced. It was the thought of some that there could be no prosperity unless some one did the work of another for nothing. In much earlier times there were promi- nent men in this state who persistently held to such views, and they were carried into political action to that extent' that the supporters of this policy were de- fined as the ' ' slave party. ' '
The territorial legislature of Illinois seemed to favor the measure, but it produced a partial reaction, so that an anti-slavery delegate, Jonathan Jennings,
130 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
was elected to congress, who retained his place until Illinois was admitted as one of the states of the Union, in 1818. In 1824 the question of the admission of slavery came up so prominently in what was called the convention issue, which was to call a convention to alter the constitution to admit slavery, that it became a marked chapter in the history of Illinois. Gov. Coles was distinguished as an anti-slavery man on this ques- tion. He had moved into the state from Virginia, had emancipated his slaves, and settled them on land near Edwardsville. It required a vote of two-thirds of the legislature to call a convention for the people to vote to alter the constitution. And so strong was the slavery party in the state that they lacked only one vote of getting the constitutional two-thirds in favor of the measure at first; and by a legislative trick this one was at last gained, and a vote of the people for the con- vention was authorized; but in August, 1824, it «was voted down by the people by a majority of 1,800 in a vote of 12,000.*
On such a slender thread as this did the fate of the state and the nation hang, as the truth of history shows.
There was in 1824, in consequence of these schemes for slavery, a strong contesting anti-slavery party in Illinois. This was after the passage of the Missouri compromise, in 1820, and when there had come a re- lapse in the anti-slavery feeling everywhere else in the country.
Benjamin Lundy was at that time printing in Tennessee the first anti-slavery newspaper ever is- sued. The slavery question was then 'generally ad- mitted to be a matter to be determined by the people of the slave states for themselves. From Lundy 's ef- forts came the agitation of modern abolitionism. It took on a new and more energetic phase, when Garri-
*Mr. Washburne's"Life of Gov. Coles" gives a vivid picture of this contest.
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 131
son, a disciple of Lundy's, started his Liberator at Boston, in 1830. Those who took interest in the anti- slavery discussion that grew out of the Missouri com- promise in 1820 looked upon this convention question in Illinois as one of national importance — should the apostasy of the Missouri question lead to the abroga- tion of the northwestern ordinance ? and shall the whole territory northwest of the Ohio river be given up to slavery by a vote of the people, on the primitive squat- ter sovereignty assumption, in spite of the Missouri compromise?
It was during the time that these apostate settlers were proposing to repeal this restriction clause in the ordinance, and after the slavery question was being agitated in Illinois, that Thomas Jefferson wrote his famous letter, in 1814, to Gov. Edward Coles, on the condition of the slave and the hopes of his emancipa- tion. He says : " The love of justice, and the love of country plead equally the cause of these people ; and it is a moral reproach to us that they should have plead so long in vain. * * * From those of the former generation who were in the fullness of age when I came into public life, which was while our controversy with England was on paper only, I soon saw that nothing was to be hoped. * * * I had always hoped that the younger generation — receiving their early impres- sions after the flame of liberty had been kindled in every breast, and had become, as it were, the vital spark of every American, in the generous tempera- ment of youth, analogous to the motion of their blood, and above the suggestions of avarice — would have sympathized with oppression wherever found, and proved their love of liberty beyond their own share of it. * * * Yet the hour of emancipation is advanc- ing in the march of time."
Hardly thirteen years had passed away before this anti-slavery party of Illinois seemed to have perished, or the men leading in it taking opposite sides, when
132 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
the question came up on new issues. Hooper War- ren, who had been the single newspaper editor who opposed the convention, was almost the only man alive of the old associates, who ranked himself with the modern abolitionists. Rev. John M. Peck, who had been an active opponent of the introduction of slavery into Illinois, was active in opposition to modern aboli- tionism, and was regarded as pro-slavery, and was en- gaged as editor of the Southwestern Baptist Banner — a newspaper that was completely acceptable to a de- nomination that owned one of their preachers as a slave, and to a church where one of the female mem- bers sold a brother Baptist, and contributed the avails of the sale of the brother's flesh and blood to buy the plate for the communion service. But still the truth seemed to be left in the land, like the leaven, to bring the dead mass to life again; and emancipation went marching on with time.
About ten years after this convention project was settled, Rev. E. P. Lovejoy was found in St. Louis, editing a religious newspaper, in which, under the privileges of the free press, he claimed the right to dis- cuss the subject of slavery as a moral question.
That right was denied him, and he was driven out of St. Louis, and he sought a city of refuge in Illinois, at Alton. Here he claimed only the same right, not to be an abolitionist, but the freedom of the press to dis- cuss slavery as freely as any moral question. And that right was again denied him in Alton by the voice of the populace, but not by the law. One press after another was destroyed, he still persisting in standing by his rights.
In the month of November, 1837, he was killed by a mob, and in thirteen years after the state had de- liberately decided to stand for the liberty that was guaranteed her in the ordinance for her government, she gained the unenviable title of being the Martyr State, by suffering one of the truest men that ever
The Anti-Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 133
lived, to die for the very cause that she had made alive. There were very few people in the state to raise any voice of condemnation against this outrage. Devout men carried Love joy to his burial, and a brother minister made a prayer over his grave, at which only were pres- ent, for fear of the mob, but one or two faithful friends and relatives. A cluster of brother ministers of the new school Presbyterians and Congregationalists, and pious members of these churches, stood by him in his conflicts for the freedom of the press, and lamented him when dead, and had their zeal for the same cause inspired by his example. Every important town in the state seemed emulous of the example of Alton. It 'was the exultant boast of the people of Illinois, in 1837, that no abolition newspaper could be permitted on her soil. Abolitionism, a "word covered o'er with shame," al- ways meant, and only meant, the freedom of the slave — that emancipation, which Jefferson so hopefully saw advancing in the march of time.
Soon after the murder of Lovejoy, there was a meeting called in Chicago — not to sympathize with the cause of abolitionism, but to condemn this assault on the constitutional right of the freedom of the press. It was called to be held in the Saloon building, a small public hall on the corner of Clark and Lake streets, on the third floor, and the meeting was held not without fears that it would be broken up by a mob. There was an abundance of caution used in the calling and holding of the meeting, to avoid any collision ' ' with the fellows of the baser sort." Rev. F. Bascom, of the First Pres- byterian church, Dr. C. V. Dyer, Philo Carpenter, Robert Freeman, Calvin De Wolf, and some few mem- bers of the Baptist and Methodist churches, were the leading spirits of this meeting. A watch was set to give seasonable warning of any approach of a mob, should any one be sent upon the track of these devout men, mourning for Lovejoy, and endeavoring to give voice to a right minded public opinion. But there was,
134 The Anti-Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
happily, no demonstration of mob violence. The meet- ing was not a large one, but probably fully represented the interest which Chicago then took in the fate of Love- joy; the city was at least saved from the disgrace of a mob. It was not then presumed that an abolition press would have fared any better in Chicago than it had at Alton. The public were not prepared to tolerate any such newspapers.
This was the first anti-slavery meeting, if it may be called such, held in Chicago, of which there is any recollection. The men who were present became promi- nent afterward in the anti-slavery history of Chicago. The men who were willing to be known as abolitionists, soon after this event, were mainly a nucleus that formed around the First Presbyterian church, embrac- ing a few individuals who were Methodists or Baptists ; but in almost every instance they were professing Christians, who were led to take a stand by the death of Love joy. Here was the beginning of that anti- slavery sentiment that became a power in Chicago, and made that city distinguished throughout the coun- try, as one that proved itself a law abiding community by sheltering and protecting the fugitive slave against illegal arrest.
A few months after the death of Love joy, the peo- ple of the west saw this announcement in G. D. Pren- tice's Louisville Journal: "Benjamin Lundy, the Quaker and anti-slavery pioneer, is about to go to Illi- nois to succeed Lovejoy in printing an abolition news- paper. ' ' Prentice had known of the career of Lundy, and was personally friendly. It was then said that Lundy, the non-resistant Quaker, who was known as a prudent though a fearless man, was the only person the merciless people of Illinois would let live in their midst as the publisher of a newspaper that opposed slavery, and it was very doubtful if even he could find a place for the rest of the soles of his feet in the prairie state. But during the year 1838, Lundy,
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 135
according1 to promise, made his appearance in Illinois. The last compliment paid him before he left Philadel- phia was the burning of all his worldly effects by the mob in Pennsylvania hall. He had only a subscrip- tion book to begin his publication with in Illinois. The Genius of Universal Emancipation, a paper which had been printed for years, in different cities and states, now hailed from Hennepin, but was really printed at Lowell, La Salle county. The notable thing1 about this paper for our purpose in this connection, was that it carried upon its frontlet this motto : ' ' We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal," etc. This was the motto and the plat- form of Lundy's journal ; the paper was for the restora- tion of the doctrines of the Declaration of Independ- ence in 1776.
We can better understand this line of argument, in history, by referring to the character of the anti-slavery agitation, as carried on by different sects in different sections of the country. The anti-slavery movement was largely an emanation of the religious sentiment. Leading men in it were usually professing Christians and largely developed in the line of personal piety and human benevolence. There were a few persons who were earnest abolitionists who were avowed unbe- lievers, and probably from a logical inference growing out of the fact that the majority of the professing Christians of the country pretended to believe that the Bible authorized slavery, making God the author of that abominable system of iniquity. But slavery in all its aspects was very largely a political institution. It was created by law; it must be abolished by law. There was no class of abolitionists that proposed the removal of slavery by the political power of the nation. It was universally regarded as a state institution, and it was a perversion of the facts and a misrepresentation of the position of the agitators, the assertion that there
136 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
was any purpose to meddle with slavery by an undue exercise of legal authority.
It was a movement for a moral appeal to the slave- holders to action, of themselves, for their own salva- tion. Therefore the fact should be remembered that many of the active abolitionists were among and from the slaveholders of the south ; and a sad thing it was for the people there that they drove such men from their midst. The abolition party was divided up into sects ; some were for carrying that reform mixed up with other good measures, such as woman suffrage, land reform and temperance. Some were for making it a political question, carrying it to the polls, as they said ; others were not for soiling the reform in the muddy waters of politics. Garrison stands forth as a leader, but he was not for voting at all, and declared for " no union with slaveholders," in church or state. The voting abolitionists formed a political party in 1840, and nominated James G . Birney, formerly a slave- holder, for the presidency.
But this section was again divided into other sects. Some were only free soil ; some merely against the extension of slavery, and the Gerrit Smith section was the very antipodes of the Garrisonian section. They believed in the unconstitutionality of slavery, and would have had it smitten down by a decree of the United States court. Garrison's special characteristic was his repetition of Elizabeth Heyrick's English propagandism of immediate and unconditional emanci- pation, as in opposition to gradual emancipation, on the logical inference that slavery, being a sin, should be immediately forsaken by profession of repentance. Great stress is laid on Garrison's work for originating this doctrine in this country, and giving it, as it was said to do, the great moral power that carried it through to success in emancipation. But the virtue of this claim is much over-rated. Garrison did not orig- inally preach it, nor was it finally carried to comple-
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 137
tion in the ending of slavery. Emancipation came through the madness of the slaveholders and the use of the war power, in judgment without repentance.
But there were anti-slavery people among all these sects, excepting the non-resistants, who believed in the saving power of the Declaration of Independence. They believed in the necessity of continuing to admin- ister the national government on the principles of the Declaration of Independence, and that failing to do so, all political parties had gone into a state of apostasy. The reform in Illinois, particularly, was propagated on this basis. Anti-slavery men here were trained to be so, on the truths of the Declaration of Independence. They were never divided or troubled with the divisions that characterized the east, under the stringent lead of Garrison, Gerrit Smith or Greeley. They fellow- shiped all these, but followed the lead of none of them. They were working for a genuine liberty party to administer the government on the constitution as it is under the Declaration of Independence. It is neces- sary that this explanation and distinction be under- stood, as we proceed further in this hitherto unwritten history.
Benjamin Lundy, the pioneer, as we have said, when he came to Illinois, set up the banner of the Declaration of Independence on the ground of the ordinance of '87.* He had always held up that banner. It was always the motto of his paper. Lovejoy's Alton Observer was in no sense a political paper ; it was a Presbyterian religious journal, claiming the right to discuss slavery as a moral question. The liberty party of 1840 was not formed when Lundy came to this state ; he died the year before its organization. Lundy favored such a party in politics, based upon the motto of his paper. His Genius, through many difficulties, was only irregularly published. He lived only to set up that banner, to become the nucleus of a new party,
*For history of his ordinance see pp. 256 to 261, Vol. I of this work.
138 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
and one which at last should triumph in the nation. His leading idea was armed with ten-fold more force than Garrison's immediatism or Gerrit Smith's uncon- stitutionally of slavery. It was for going1 back to fun- damental truths, and putting all things right from the beginning. He died leaving his banner flying, and his mantle to be worn by others.
His newspaper was continued with a partial change of name, by Hooper Warren and Z. Eastman, the writer of this sketch. But the motto and the prin- ciples and objects continued. Mr. Warren was then an old man, and had been the editor of the only anti-slavery paper in Illinois, the Edwardsville Spectator, at the time of the convention question. Mr. Eastman was a young man, and had never acted with any then formed political party, but whose youthful aspirations and hopes had been, while residing in New England, for the formation of a political organization delivered from the national apostasy, which should administer the govern- ment on the doctrine of the fathers — the natural equal- ity of all. He had advocated such a party while asso- ciated with Mr. Lundy in his Genius.
In 1840 a Birney presidential ticket was formed in Illinois, in the rural region of Farmington, Fulton county, by those who had stood by Love joy at his death. It received at that election only 144 votes, only one of which was counted in Cook county, and the honor of that one count lies between two votes cast in Chicago, one by the late Dr. C. V. Dyer, and the other, Calvin De Wolf. The successor of Lundy's journal, the Genius of Liberty, did not appear till after the election of 1840, but it advocated the continuation of the Liberty party in opposition to a large portion of friends who had co-op- erated with the anti-slavery society. The Illinois anti- slavery society had been formed at Alton, just before Lovejoy's death, and was one of the steps that led to the hostility that was manifested against the abolitionists, and the organization was cemented by his blood. Annual
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 139
meetings of this society continued to be held and officers elected, but many persons who had supported it were opposed to the formation of an anti-slavery party in pol- itics, and they turned back and walked no more with the followers of Lovejoy.
Warren and Eastman's Genius was printed on Lundy's press, in La Salle county, till 1842, and it had succeeded in establishing landmarks in all sections of the northwest. The only other journal of the kind then printed in the west was the Philanthropist, at Cin- cinnati. An informal committee of the anti-slavery peo- ple of Chicago, who had made up their minds that they should no longer vote with the old political parties, a majority of whom were of the First Presbyterian church, under the pastorate of Rev. F. Bascom, invited Mr. Eastman to remove with his newspaper to Chicago- Dr. Dyer was the party commissioned to extend this invitation. As the result of it the Western Citizen was started as the organ of the new Liberty party for the northwest in 1842. That journal made the platform of this party in the introduction which appeared in its first number, as follows:
In political affairs our object is simply to carry out the' principles of the Declaration of Independence. We stand on the same ground where Washington, Jefferson, Franklin and other honored patriots stood before us. We wish to save this nation from the evils an the curse of slavery, and from the political degeneracy which has fallen upon us through the influence of a departure from the first principles of liberty. If the objects which were sought to be obtained by the political reformation in the time of the revolution were then worthy of pursuit, they are equally so now; and we shall notecase to urge the importance of them upon the people.
We are firm in the belief that it is impossible to sustain a free gov- ernment by the administration even of good laws without the preva- lence of correct public opinion, grounded upon morality and proper allegiance to the Supreme Ruler of the Universe.
We shall endeavor to establish these truths by presenting them clearly, forcibly and fearlessly, and in a spirit of meekness and kind- ness. On their accomplishment we see no reason why our government should be overturned, our constitution trampled under foot, or the Union dissolved : or why the church organizations should be destroyed, or the ministry be annihilated. We wish it distinctly to be understood that our course is reformatory and not destructive.
When Mr. Lincoln had been elected to the presi- dency, eighteen years after this declaration of princi-
140 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
pies was written, a copy was transmitted to him, calling his attention to them as the fundamental principles of the republican party, which had triumphed in his elec- tion, and he responded in recognizing their application, and inviting a special interview with the writer in re- gard to them.
In May, 1842, at the time when arrangements had been made for establishing the Western Citizen, the last anniversary meeting of the Illinois anti-slavery society was held in Chicago, and the first liberty state conven- tion was held, which, as a political organization suc- ceeded the other as a mere moral society. This state convention laid down a platform of principles, and is- sued an address to the people. One resolution gives the gist of its doctrines :
That freedom or slavery is the great question of this age and country — one which must be met, discussed and settled on fair, just and consistent principles, before prosperity can be expected again to smile on our land.
We can understand now the application of these truths and warnings, and how much better it would have been for the nation had they been heeded.
The convention put in nomination Major C. W. Hunter, of Alton, for governor, and Frederick Collins, of Adams county, for lieutenant-governor. These were the first candidates of that initiatory party.
The Western Citizen was put into the hands of Mr. Eastman as its editor and publisher. By his invita- tion, Ichabod Codding, whom he had known at the east, left Connecticut and came to Illinois to become the leading orator for the liberty party. Chief Justice Chase has described Mr. Codding as being the most eloquent speaker he ever heard from the platform. The labors of Codding, as a speaker, were very effective in building up the cause. Owen Lovejoy became a co- worker with this party at this convention, giving up with some reluctance the society formed at his brother's martyrdom. James H. Collins, a prominent lawyer of Chicago, who had some time before been
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 141
converted to religion and abolitionism, at that time gave in his adhesion to the liberty party, then formed, as the party of his future political life. L. C. P. Freer and Calvin DeWolf, Philo Carpenter, and most of the men since prominent in that reform, identified them- selves with this new party. Dr. C. V. Dyer was prob- ably the most active of the Chicago reinforcements. He procured the place of meeting, which was in Chap- man's hall, a building occupying the ground of the new bank building on the southwest corner of Ran- dolph and La Salle streets, west of the log jail, on the public square. This convention was the beginning of the organization of abolitionism in Chicago, that be- came nationally known for its earnestness and thor- oughness, and locally recognized for its association with the underground railroad, and had a marked effect on the politics of the state, and ultimately the fate of the nation. Its projectors builded wiser than they knew. After this convention the liberty party always pat candidates in nomination for every state election ; and candidates for congress were brought out as fast as the principles of the party gained ground in congressional districts. As the conflict for its idea went on, the contest was intensified by the political issues that were coming up in the nation, growing out, in part, of the moral agitation that was going on in the land.
Then came the annexation of Texas, for the pur- pose of extending the area of slavery, followed by the Mexican war, as the result of that national robbery; then the acquisition of a vast extent of territory, and the contest that came of it, as to its fate in regard to the extension of slavery into it; the Wilmot proviso, the Nebraska and the Kansas bills, squatter sov- ereignty and the contest for freedom in Kansas, which brought old John Brown to the front; these, all sup- plemented by the passage of the fugitive slave law, and the repeal of the Missouri compromise, bringing
142 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
down these events of this exciting agitation till 1854, on which period hangs a new dispensation. During this time the liberty party was looming up in power and in importance. It was the only party that was capable of grappling with the events that were preg- nant with the fate of the nation.
It was a time of political and moral commotion, unparalleled in the history of the nation. It was the period of intense agitation of the slavery question in every respect. The democratic party had said in its platform that it would resist this agitation, and then went on and furnished fuel for the agitation. The whig party in its platform said it would discoun- tenance this agitation, and then gave countenance to the agitation that was aimed against the principles of this little liberty party. And in Illinois this little party became the most thoroughly organized and con- centrated political combination ever before known in this state, and probably not since equaled in intensity and efficiency. In 1852 it numbered 10,000 votes, and held the balance of power in a majority of the congres- sional districts. The voters were all readers of their organ, the Western Citizen, which through all the changes and modifications of free soilism, conscience- whiggery and independent democracy, and American- ism, remained true to its one idea: the liberty party to preserve the government, as the successor of the party of 1766, that had formed the nation.
This national agitation brought two important men of Illinois to the front as national men, namely, Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham Lincoln. They were leading men, representing opposite principles and antagonistic elements on the issue. Into the area of the consecrated freedom of the northwestern ordinance came the con- flict of the ideas which should rule the fate of the nation, and these men in the order of events seemed to be the representatives of the struggle of these ideas for the ascendency. But the liberty party was the
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 143
only organization that was prepared to meet the emer- gency.
Previous to 1852, the state of Illinois was regarded as one of the most solidly democratic states in the Union. The people were only allowed to send to con- gress one opposition member, called whig, at each con- gressional election. And this opposition influence came from the conservative Henry Clay school of poli- tics, that had overflowed from Kentucky into the in- terior of Illinois, overlapping the area of Egypt, which was always democratic. This conservative whig influ- ence sent a Lincoln, a Baker and a Yates to congress at different elections, as the single opposition repre- sentative. And Stephen A. Douglas, a native of Ver- mont, seemed to have made himself the demi-god of the state, as fully as John C. Calhoun was of South Caro- lina. The state was, of course, earnestly in support of all the measures of the democratic party, and these measures were being artfully manipulated to bring Douglas prominently before the public as a national man, with an impetus in the direction of the presidency.
Mr. Lincoln, as an attorney a"nd an honest man, and of genuine, progressive conservatism in politics, had grown into great esteem with the people of all parties. He had won in congress some reputation to his damage as a politician, by his opposition to the Mexican war. Douglas was the leader of the debate through the senate, of the principles on the platform in the state, and was mainly responsible for the squatter sovereignty theory of governing the territories, as well as for the repeal of the Missouri compromise, and was one who was known as an advocate of the fugitive slave law. These measures put the whole country in a state of ferment. Mr. Douglas took the stump in their favor, while Mr. Lincoln was known to be op- posed to them.
In 1852 the fugitive slave law abomination had been passed; the repeal of the Missouri compromise
144 The Anti-Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
was a measure pending. The liberty party maintained an unbroken front in its organization. The democratic party was feeling the disrupting influences of its iniqui- ties from free-soilism, yet apparently growing stronger in its sin by the concentration of all the rowdy forces of the nation in its favor, and the prospective coming of the solid south on the slavery question. The whig party was sensibly weakening, from the protest of the conscientious whigs and the higher moral plane on which the party stood. There were signs of disruption and the formation of a new party on the distinct issues which the democrats had made for their party lines.
Thinking men of the liberty party realized that they were in possession of a balance of power, as be- tween these two weakening forces, -which might be used effectually for the advancement of their principles and objects. The state was despotically democratic under the lead of Douglas, who had even then an eye on the presidency. The party had every member of congress, excepting Richard Yates, who had been elected by a small majority. The liberty party now knew by the numbering of their votes that they had it in their power to turn the scale in favor of the weak- ening whig party, or let the power remain with the democrats. In the election of 1852, they stood by their colors on the presidential vote, and gave to John P. Hale nearly 10,000 votes. But enough of them, under the advice of their leaders, and the indirect influence of the Western Citizen, so diverted their votes to con- gressmen, who they knew were pledged to their prin- ciples and against Douglas' pet doctrines, that they secured the election of several whigs to congress, and independent democrats, so that the state was at once taken out of the hands of the democrats, and their arrogant power in Illinois was broken. It was at this election and by this policy that Hon. E. B. Washburne was first elected to congress. Who now can measure the consequences that grew out of that choice?
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 145
Mr. Lincoln was made the candidate of the whig party in the winter of 1854, against the re-election of Gen. Shields to the senate. The liberty party vote had contributed to the election of a so called whig delegation lin congress. A large number of free soilers and independent democrats had contributed to the same result. In the state legislature the free soil- ers and liberty party held the balance of power. It was thought that it was asking a little too much that they should be required also to magnify the old whig party, by giving their power to the senate also, as they would have done had Mr. Lincoln been elected by their votes, and it would have been accounted a whig party triumph instead of a triumph of the people, and the liberty party would have been held responsible for selling out to the whigs. They had to study the art of using their power and keeping it. For this reason Mr. Lincoln did not receive the support of this class of representatives, as Mr. Washburne and Mr. Norton had received that class of votes ; but the independent and liberty vote was given to Lyman Trumbull, and he was elected senator, and Mr. Lincoln reserved for a higher position. It was a most fortunate thing, indi- cating wise political management, that Mr. Lincoln was not elected senator at that election. The repub- lican party was informally organized in 1854, consum- mated in the nomination of Fremont in 1856. The lib- erty party, holding to its principles, was only merged into the republican after this date.
The repeal of the Missouri compromise soon fol- lowed this election, and Mr. Douglas seemed to vainly hope to recover his lost popularity at home, by the success of this measure, and the double-sided view that seemed, to some extent, to be taken of it at the north and south — at the south as a measure for the-ex- tension of slavery beyond its original boundary line ; at the north as favoring the extension of liberty be- yond the line of its former restriction. Mr. Douglas'
146 The Anti-Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
artful insinuation of the act was that if it was origi- nally wrong to pass that compromise, it was now a long deferred right to repeal it. But the moral sense of the nation interpreted it otherwise. It was looked upon, along with the Dred Scott decision, as treading down the last barrier against the supremacy of the slavery power. This repeal put the antagonistic forces more directly in battle array.
The senatorial question was the great question of Illinois in the year 1858. Mr. Douglas was already on the stump in defense of his measures, which he had pressed upon the nation through the senate. Mr. Lin- coln, who was regarded as his natural competitor and opponent, had been prompt to volunteer to reply to Douglas' introductory speeches. The unusual practice was resorted to by the new party of republicans, of holding a state convention for the nomination of a can- didate for senator, and Mr. Lincoln was cordially put in nomination. The question was not to be determined by their votes, but by the votes of the representatives in the state legislature. Therefore, in the canvass representatives were selected in view of settling the senatorial succession, whether it should be Douglas, a democrat, or Lincoln, a republican. It was well under- stood that in Mr. Douglas' case it would settle more than the senatorial question; with him it was also a nomination for the presidency. With Mr. Lincoln it was only a contest with this champion democrat for the senatorship, but more in the contest than on anything else, for the prospect of defeating Mr. Douglas on his own ground did not seem very brilliant. The debate which followed between Lincoln and Douglas was one of the most important political debates that ever oc- curred in this country. Mr. Douglas had already become a national man through the strength of his character and genius. Mr. Lincoln was not well known beyond his own state, but at home well known as a keen debater, and a match in logic and argument for his opponent.
The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois. 147
Mr. Lincoln was nominated as a candidate for the senate at the convention at Springfield June 17, 1858. At the close of the convention he struck the keynote of the debate on the issues of the day, in the opening paragraph of his speech. It has since been numbered with others of the remarkable historical and prophetic utterances of that wonderful man. It is the famous declaration that this Union could not permanently en- dure half slave and half free.
In this canvass Mr. Lincoln held seven joint de- bates with Mr. Douglas, and made innumerable speeches on other occasions. Mr. Douglas' character and posi- tion was well known throughout the nation, and he was regarded as the foremost champion of the measures which characterized the slave policy, and one of the ablest debaters of the country. The originality and freshness of Mr. Lincoln's speeches, his terse and homely style, the pertinence of his illustrations, and his inimitable humor, attracted to him public attention ; and the debate had hardly closed before he became equally known throughout the nation, and the eyes of the public were upon these two men as the most promi- nent political personages of the country. Mr. Douglas used to say, rather sneeringly, during the debate, that Mr. Lincoln was after his place — meaning the senator- ship. Mr. Lincoln never shrank from the imputation that he was the republican candidate for that office. The result was that Mr. Douglas carried a majority of the representatives; there were in the senate fourteen democrats and eleven republicans, and in the house forty democrats and thirty-five republicans — making a majority on joint ballot of eight for Mr. Douglas — the close vote of Madison county even turning the scale; but Mr. Lincoln had a plurality of more than 4, 000 in the popular vote. Mr. Douglas kept his place, and got his coveted nomination to the presidency, but the nomination of a divided party.
Mr. Lincoln seemed to have been inspired for the
148 The Anti- Slavery Agitation in Illinois.
mission to which he was called. He doubtless received his early impressions for political reform from the motto that was ever before him in the anti-slavery newspapers which he read, and the constant reiterated teachings of the little liberty party that was leading his destiny: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights," etc. This was the chord of harmony in his soul, 'to which every sentiment and every action of his being vibrated. Therefore in his debate with Douglas we find him con- stantly harping upon that chord.
In the platform of the convention at Chicago, which put Mr. Lincoln in nomination for the presidency May 16, 1860, is this declaration: "That the maintenance of the principle promulgated in the Declaration of In- dependence, and embodied in the federal constitution [now repeating the celebrated motto of liberty] is es- sential to the preservation of our republican institu- tions; and that the federal constitution, the rights of the states and the union of the states must and shall be preserved." For that end was Mr. Lincoln called to the head of the nation.
After his election, going from his humble home at Springfield, to which he never returned alive, on his way to enter into the presidency, he was beset on his way by plots for his assassination, but was turned aside by invitation to Philadelphia to a flag raising over In- dependence hall, where the Declaration was signed eighty-four years before; and on that occasion he gave utterance to these remarkable words:
I have often inquired of myself what great principle or idea it was that kept the confederacy so long together. It was something in the Declaration of Independence, giving liberty not only to the people of this country, but hope to the world for all future time. It was that which gave promise that in due time the weights should be lifted from the shoulders of all men, and that all should have an equal chance. * * Now, my friends, can this country be saved upon this basis? If it can I will consider myself one of the happiest men in the world if I can help to save it. But if this country cannot be saved without giving up that principle, I was about to say I would rather be assassinated upon this spot than surrender it.
THE CHICAGO RIVER AND ITS BRIDGES.
The entire southern extremity of Lake Michigan is one continuous waste of drifting- sands. At no place are to be found rugged shores where deep rivers empty the surplus floods of extensive water sheds, but, on the contrary, the water shed of the western shore of the southern portion of the lake is a narrow belt along its immediate margin. Except the Calumet, the Chicago river is its principal channel, and, small and insignifi- cant as this stream is, it has a history, a mission and a destiny never equaled by any other small stream, ex- cept, perhaps, the river Thames, on whose bank the largest city in the world has been built. Fortunately the economic forces of nature gave a depth to the Chi- cago river sufficient to float large vessels, thus making it available for the commercial wants of a great city; and the peculiar features of this stream, with its two branches uniting into one from opposite directions, have imparted to it the substantial uses of an artificial canal, traversing the business portions of a large city, for the purpose of facilitating the trans-shipment of the cereals of the northwest, as well as the other heavy materials of our commerce. So marked is the convenience of this natural channel for this purpose, that perhaps it is not too much to say that had an artificial canal been built for the purposes for which the river is used, it could hardly have been planned to suit the convenience of trade better than nature has fashioned it for us; and here it should not be forgotten that, owing to the dimin- utive water shed of the river, a uniform height of sur-
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150 The Chicago River and Its Bridges.
face is secured, with scarce two feet variation between high and low water, which condition greatly facilitates the transfer of grain, and perfects facilities for the ele- vator system for which Chicago is famous.
As the city began to grow along the banks of this stream, something besides the birchbark canoe or the dugout was required for crossing it, especially as vehicles drawn by horses were coming into use; and, in 1832, Mark Beaubien, who was not fond of hard work, but was willing to sit at the receipt of custom in a ferry boat, and wait the long hours of the day to secure the fees of the occasional traveler across the river, established a ferry at the fork. The main land- ing was on the South Side, from which passengers could be ferried over to either the North or West Side.
It was stipulated that residents of Cook county should be passed free, and consequently Mr. Beaubien's fees came from strangers who were passing through the place or had taken up a temporary residence there- His ferry boat consisted of a scow which he purchased of Mr. Samuel Miller for $65, and he gave bonds in the sum of $200 for the faithful performance of his duties, James Kinzie signing as his voucher. But any hopes of a permanent income from this ferry were soon frustrated; for the same year it was established (1832) a bridge was built across the north branch on Water street, and one across the south branch between Randolph and Lake streets, at which place it stood till 1840. The latter cost $486.20, the whole of which was raised by subscription, the Pottawattomies contribut- ing $200 toward it, which proved them to be pioneers in Chicago thrift and improvement. The first bridge across the main river was built at Dearborn street, the precise date of which cannot be ascertained, but it was probably in 1833. It was a bone of contention between the north and south divisions, on what ground has not come within the knowledge of the writer; but it is certain that as a compromise the council board of the
The Chicago River and Its Bridges. 151
town caused it to be removed in 1835, and established it on Clark street, which official act, probably growing out of some ambitious private interests of property holders in the early days, has made Clark, instead of Dearborn street, a great thoroughfare filled with stores for miles in extent. In 1847 Wells street bridge was built by private subscription, Walter L. Newberry being the principal contributor. The Randolph and Madison street bridges were built the same year, whether by private subscription or with the city funds is not known, as .those early records of the city were destroyed in the great fire. The three last were float- ing bridges, swinging from a pivot on one shore by means of a leverage attached to a capstan, around which coiled the rope that drew the bridge open for vessels to pass, and closed after them. These clumsy contrivances, however, were only to remain a few years. First the Clark street and next the Randolph street floats gave way to the late pivoted style of bridges, whirling from a pier in the center of the river, and in 1857 the Madison street float also was substi- tuted for an iron bridge on the late plan, the first of its kind built of this material introduced into Chicago.
The next improvement was to locate the bridges so that tugs, barges and canal boats could pass under them, which requisition was forthwith ^adopted except in some cases of bridges for horse car and railroad tracks. There are now (1900) sixty bridges for pedes- trians' use, sixteen for steam railroad tracks and three for elevated road service.
THE CHICAGO RELIEF AND AID SOCIETY.
BY E. B. MCCAGG.
The Chicago Relief and Aid Society was incorpor- ated February 16, 1857, its objects, as declared in its charter, being- to provide a permanent, efficient and practical mode of administering and distributing the private charities of the city of Chicago; to examine and establish the necessary means for obtaining full and reliable information of the condition and needs of the poor of the city ; and to put into practical and effi- cient operation the best system of relieving and pre- venting want and pauperism therein. It is required by its charter to make a report once a year to the city council of its doings, with a statement of its receipts and expenses, verified under oath, and also to report such information as it may have acquired concerning the condition and wants of the poor of the city. It is managed by a board of directors, selected from promi- nent business and professional men of the city, who give it personal attention, and attempt, in a philo- sophical manner, to so administer charity as not to in- jure, or to do the least injury possible to, the recipient and to society. Understanding well that pauperism is dangerous to touch, and cannot be left alone, they are endeavoring to deal with it in a prudent, rational and discerning manner, and to discourage all indiscriminate giving without investigation.
It has been their effort, not to take the place of that kindly sympathy which leads us to help our suffer- ing neighbor whose wants are assuredly known, nor
The Chicago .Relief and Aid Society. 153
the considerate and delicate solicitude of religious or other benevolent fraternities for those immediately within their own jurisdiction and charge, but outside of these to aid the general public in this branch of its duties with system, and by an organization so com- plete that if the whole community would work through it, that portion of the charitable work of the city within its province would be done with method, and none duplicated. The society is supported wholly by voluntary contributions, and administers its charity in the way which in each case seems most advisable.
It owns the building in which its offices and rooms are established, and has been in successful operation for over twenty years.
The whole theory of its management is that char- ity is not a matter of feeling, but judgment ; as was tersely stated by a writer in one of our magazines not long since, that, ' 'each case must be examined, put on trial and disposed of on its merits" ; that general in- formation must be had, from time to time, of the num- ber of unemployed persons in the city, and of the de- mand for labor, and particular information of the char- acter and antecedents of each applicant, and of the reasons why aid is needed ; that a discrimination must be made between those who are helpless from misfor- tune and those whose misery arises from their own de- fault, and that to aid the willingly idle man or woman, or any one who can help himself, is in the highest de- gree hurtful to the person aided and to society at large. Its more immediate duty has been to extend aid to that class of worthy and industrious poor who, by reason of sickness, accident, loss of employment or of property have fallen temporarily behind, and to res- cue them from the danger of permanent pauperism by timely assistance; to extend a helping hand to widows with dependent children, to aged and infirm people partly able to help themselves, and to single women when work suddenly ceases, and above all, to so do its
154 The Chicago Relief and Aid Society.
work that the public may at all times have at its doors an efficient agent to distribute its charities, and, as far as may be, to prevent the injurious and wasteful re- sults of indiscriminate giving.
It employs paid and experienced visitors, under the immediate direction of a qualified and able super- intendent ; it makes careful inquiry into and keeps a record of each case, discriminating in favor of those in whom habits of temperance and industry give promise of benefit from the aid furnished, not embracing in the sphere of its operations such as are the proper subjects for the poorhouse or the action of the county officers ; and so accurate is this record, and so method- ical the manner in which it is kept, that actual expe- rience proves that, for some years past, out of every hundred applications the superintendent has been able to give the antecedents of at least seventy-five of the applicants. It is a record of the meritorious poor of the city, and of a very large number of those whose ap- plications should be denied. It has now on this record the names of over 50,000 persons, and the special facts affecting each case.
Its value as an organization was tested by the wide- spread destitution and want caused by the great fire of 1871. Possessing the confidence of the public, the city authorities turned over to it, for management and dis- tribution, the contributions of money and property so freely sent at that time to aid the suffering people of this city, and it speedily brought order, method and di- rect and perfect supervision to the enormous burden thus thrown upon it. Economy was sought in every way. After the first few days, in which relief was necessarily indiscriminate, systematic and reasonably assured efforts were made to defeat imposition; to search out and aid needy sufferers; to withhold encour- agement to idleness and to guard against extravagant or injudicious distribution. Besides the distribution of the articles of property that came under its control, it
The Chicago Relief and Aid Society. 155
has disbursed of this fund over $5,000,000 in money, and the magnitude of its operations is evidenced by a summary of its work, or part of i't, for the first eighteen months after the fire. In this period it aided 39,242 families, numbering 156,968 persons, and it distributed during the same period 50,000 tons of coal, 16,449 bed- steads, 28,961 mattresses, 77,645 blankets, 10,855 com- fortables, 15,429 stoves, 77,000 pairs of shoes, 137,994 pieces of men's clothing, 165,000 pieces of women's clothing, and 107,000 pieces of children's clothing, and fuel, food and furniture in proportion. Carpenters, masons, tinners, book binders, locksmiths, tailors, shoemakers and workmen in almost every branch of mechanical industry were supplied with tools; ma- chinery of various kinds was furnished; surgeons, den- tists and engineers were provided with instruments of their respective callings; sewing women were aided in obtaining sewing machines, 2,353 of these being paid for in full, and 2,065 in part, by the society; 9,000 houses were built and furnished, and over $600,000 was distributed among the various charitable institutions, that had been either burned or seriously crippled — the resources of their patrons having been cut off; and money was granted in various amounts to aid appli- cants in the re-establishment of such business or me- chanical employment as seemed to afford a sufficiently assured prospect of yielding a support to them and their families. Some waste was, in the beginning, inevitable. The task was immense — not only the aged, the sick, the infirm, children and women, but men, weary, hun- gry, houseless, cold and in despair, were suddenly thrown upon the hands of the society. The city was speedily districted, registration was resorted to at the outset, a complete staff was organized, visitors were employed, inspectors were appointed, relief stations were established, a full report was required daily from each district, and the several superintendents met the executive committee daily to make or hear suggestions,
156 The Chicago Relief and Aid Society.
to answer criticisms, to report progress and suggest improvements, if possible, in the working machinery. A general inspector made frequent examinations, and a committee of complaints was always ready to hear complaints and, if well founded, to apply the remedy. The endeavor was to reduce to the smallest possible percentage injudicious or unnecessary relief, and to ex- tend aid to all who were justly entitled to it.
For the fiscal year of 1878 it expended $45,620, and aided a small fraction over 1,600 families^ containing in the aggregate over 13,700 men, women and children. Of these families 1,045, or about two-thirds, received aid only once, 310 twice, 150 three times, so that but a few over 100 were aided more than three times; and for the fiscal year of 1879 it expended $35,193.48, and aided a somewhat larger number of families, containing 18,584 persons. Of these families 1,003 received aid but once, 365 twice, and 160 three times.
This, however, shows but a small part of its work. It cares for the sick, buries the dead, aids needy per- sons seeking employment to obtain it, and carefully and fully investigates, in the course of each year, hundreds of applications for aid which it refuses, because exami- nation proves them unworthy.
It grew out of the belief on the part of a number of gentlemen of the city who had given time, thought and active aid to outdoor relief, through voluntary and only quasi definite organizations, that the means adopted were inefficient and for many reasons unsat- isfactory; and an experience of twenty and more years has fully justified the conclusion they reached that this kind of charity should be administered as a merchant does his business, with system, under proper checks and balances, and by keeping a record of each applica- tion for aid and of the facts developed by the examina- tion made into the condition, character and circum- stances of the applicants.
The article by Mr. McCagg gives a very correct and
The Chicago Relief and Aid Society. 157
comprehensive statement of the purpose and work of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society.
It still continues to work in the same manner and upon the same lines, adopting all necessary measures to keep up with the increasing population and the best les- sons of experience, as developed in forty years of prac- tical relief work.
It expends about $35,000 per annum. It operates a wood yard, where temporary employment is given to an average of 3,800 single men per annum, who are thereby enabled to earn meals and lodgings while they look for a better job.
It also furnishes a limited amount of work, usually one week at a time, for men with families, paying in cash every night. These men usually earn from sev- enty-five cents to $1.50 per day.
It owns 214 beds in the various hospitals, also rights in perpetuity for a number of women and children in the Home for the Friendless. It also owns twenty-two rooms in the Old People's Home. It furnishes free information concerning applicants to all who wish to consult its records. It carefully investigates every case and seeks to do the best in its power for all appli- cants without regard to nationality or religion. It is the only society in Chicago for the administration of general relief. It is in hearty sympathy with all soci- eties, and cheerfully co-operates with them and often supplements their efforts to improve the poor.
It employs no solicitors, depending upon the annual contributions of those who appreciate its work.
It earnestly requests all citizens to refrain from giv- ing anything to beggars and strangers, and to refer all applicants to this society, where they will be properly treated and the result reported to the reference.
It has an endowment sufficient to cover all running expenses, so that every dollar contributed goes directly to the relief of worthy poor.
C. G. TRUSDELL, General Superintendent.
THE CHICAGO FIRE DEPARTMENT.
The first authentic record of any organization in Chicago for protection from fire is a notice, the original of which is still in existence, from the secretary, J. J. Gillupy, of the Washington Volunteer Fire Co., to one of its members for a called meeting, and dated January 8, 1833.
In August of that year Chicago was incorporated as a town, and in November Benj. Jones was appointed fire warden. In September, 1834, an ordinance was adopted by the town board of trustees, by which the town was divided into four wards, and fire wardens for each appointed as follows: First ward, Wm. Worthing- ton; second ward, Ed. E. Hunter; third ward, Samuel Resique; fourth ward, James Kinzie. These wardens were charged with the duty of enforcing the fire ordi- nance previously passed, and of directing in their respective wards the operations of the men who re- sponded to the alarm of fire. On October 7, 1835, an appropriation for the purchase of some primitive fire apparatus was made, at which time Hiram Hugunin, the president of the town board of trustees, was elected chief of the embryonic fire department. On the same date (October 7, 1835) the Pioneer Hook and Ladder Co. was organized by the principal citizens.
On November 4 following, the town board adopted a lengthy ordinance creating a fire department, with chief engineer, two assistants, four fire wardens (in addition to town trustees, who were ex-officio fire wardens) and "such fire engine men, hose men, hook
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The Chicago Fire Department.
159
and ladder men, and ax and saw men as may from time to time be appointed by the board of trustees. ' ' Stringent rules governing the companies which were organized, or might organize, were adopted, and the refusal of any citizen to obey the orders of the chief or his assistants or any of the fire wardens in case of fire, was punishable with a fine of $5.
On December 12, 1835, the first engine company, called "The Fire King," was organized. The first officers were S. G. Trowbridge, foreman; Alvin Cal- houn, assistant foreman; A. D. Hamilton, secretary;
CHICAGO'S FIRST FIRE ENGINE.
H. G. Loomis, treasurer, and Ira Kimberly, steward. About this time Chicago's first fire engine was pur- chased, $894.38 having previously been appropriated for the purpose, payable in two annual installments. Soon after an engine house was built, located in the public square on La Salle street. In February, 1836, Hiram Hugunin, who had acted as chief engineer for about six months, resigned, and Geo. W. Snow was appointed to the position, which he held for one year, and was succeeded by John M. Turner, foreman of Hook and Ladder Co. No. 1. On December 11, 1837, the second engine company was organized as the Tradesmans', but soon afterward changed to Metamora, No. 2. For convenience, we append, in tabular form, the record of
160 The Chicago Fire Department.
the organization of the various companies composing the fire department until the present paid system dis- placed the old volunteer organization:
ENGINE COMPANIES.
NAME. WHEN ORGANIZED. FIRST FOREMAN,
Fire King- December 12, 1835 S. G. Trowbridge.
Metamora December 11, 1837
Niagara November, 1844 Geo. F. Foster.
Red Jacket November, 1846 F. T. Sherman.
Excelsior " A.S.Sherman.
Garden City August, 1849 Chas. Morton.
Lawrence September, 1850 Matthew Conley.
Waubansia December, 1851 Frank Hathaway.
New England February, 1854 W. B. Bateham.
Washington January, 1855 John Shanks.
Wide Awake January, 1856 Geo. Ross.
Neptune February, 1856 H. Beebe.
Red Rover January, 1857 T. E. Courtney.
Torrent March, 1857 John M. Lambin.
Northern Liberty December, 1858 Conrad Folz.
HOSE COMPANIES.
Philadelphia January, 1845 J. B. Johnson.
Hope October, 1850 S.O.Eames.
Lone Star December, 1851 L. Meyer.
La Fayette September, 1855 M. W. Powell.
Liberty December, 1856 Jno. B. Dickey.
Lady Washington. . . . January, 1856 John R. Clark.
HOOK AND LADDER COMPANIES.
Pioneer October 7, 1835 —
Rescue November, 1855 L. Warwick.
Empire March, 1857 A. Reary.
The following is a correct list of the various chiefs of the volunteer fire department, together with their terms of service: Hiram Hugunin, 1835, six months; George W. Snow, 1836, one year; Jno. M. Turner, 1837, one year; Alexander Lloyd, 1838, one year; Calvin Cal- houn, 1839, one year; Luther Nichols, 1840, one year; A. S. Sherman, 1841-2, two years; Stephen F. Gale, 1843-6, three years; C. E. Peck, 1847-8, two years; Ashley Gilbert, 1849, one year; C. P. Bradley, 1850-1, two years; U. P. Harris, 1852-3, two years; Jas. M. Donnelly, 1854, one year; Silas McBride, 1855-7, three years; Dennis J. Swenie, 1858, one year.
Very soon after the great Water and Lake street fires in October, 1857, the question of having steam fire engines and a paid department began to be agitated, and in February, 1858, the first steamer was purchased,
The Chicago Fire Department. 161
and named "The Long John." In December of the same year a full company was commissioned by the city authorities to be regularly paid for their services. Gradually additions were made under the paid system, several of the companies reorganizing under the new order of things, but not until the latter part of 1859 were the last of the volunteer organizations disbanded, and the change made complete.
Various improvements were introduced into the department, new companies organized and equipped, the fire alarm telegraph introduced (in 1865), and the department rendered very efficient under the succes- sive management of Chief Engineers D. J. Swenie, U. P. Harris and Robert A. Williams, down to 1870-1, at which time the department consisted of seventeen en- gine companies of nine men each, three hook and lad- der companies, six hose companies and one hose eleva- tor, the available working force being upwards of 200 men. Of the great fire of 1871, we need not speak here, as it is treated elsewhere in these pages. Among the results of the fire, however, as affecting the fire department, were a more careful organization and stricter discipline of the force, an increased water sup- ply and the extension of the fire limits in 1872, within which the erection of frame buildings was forbidden. This ordinance was amended in 1874, making the fire limits, with the above restrictions as to character of buildings, co-extensive with the limits of the city.
The chiefs of the paid department have been: D. J. Swenie, 1859; U. P. Harris, 1859-68; R. A. Williams, 1868-73; M. Benner, 1873-79, succeeded by the present incumbent, D. J. Swenie, 1879-99.
In 1875 the board of fire commissioners was abol- ished and the fire department placed under the direct control of a fire marshal, responsible to the mayor and common council of the city.
During the succeeding ten years from 1879 to 1889 the uniformed force of the department had increased
162 Tlie Chicago Fire Department.
to 638 men, forming forty-four engine companies, four- teen truck companies and one chemical company. The annexation of 1889 added twelve engine companies, seventeen hook and ladder companies, five hose com- panies and one chemical company.
On September 1, 1885, the iron tug "Alpha" was chartered and fitted up as a fire boat, and assigned to duty in the lumber district. The following year this tug was replaced by the purchase of another, which was christened the "Chicago," better adapted to the work contemplated, and a new boat, the "Geyser," was built by the department, specially adapted for fire duty, which was located at the foot of La Salle street.
In 1890 the " Yosemite" was added to the fleet and the ' ' Chicago ' ' was transferred to South Chicago.
In 1898 a fourth boat, the "Illinois," constructed of steel, was built and placed in service.
The statistics of the department on the first day of September, 1899, were as follows : Engine companies, including one double company and four fire boats, 86 ; hook and ladder companies, 27, and hose companies, 1, with a total force of 1,126 men. The value of depart- ment property was : Buildings, $684,300 ; land, $361,- 575; apparatus, $933,510; total, $1,979,385. The annual expense of operating the department is $1,500,000.
D. J. SWENIE, Fire Marshal.
THE ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL.
Immediately after the peace of Paris, in 1783, the Ohio river began to be utilized as a thoroughfare by which the Americans began their pioneer advances into the great west for settlements. The lakes, as a channel of communication to reach it, were not then thought of, nor could they have been traversed for this purpose if they had, for the British held possession of the whole northern frontier till 1796, as already stated in foregoing pages. These conditions gave the coun- tries along the waters of the Mississippi and its tributa- ries a great advantage over the borders of the northern lakes in the start ; and even as late as 1850 the- supe- riority of the Ohio river and the Mississippi, as far northward as St. Louis, over the lakes as stimulators to the growth of cities, was demonstrated by the vig- orous growth of Cincinnati, Louisville and St. Louis, while Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit and Chicago were far behind them, with no hope, unless it were apparently a visionary one, of ever reaching them in numbers and wealth.
That this popular decision has been overruled by a fair rivalship between the two local interests, is due first to the stimulus imparted to Chicago by the Illi- nois and Michigan canal, and, contingent upon it, the matchless railroad system which centers at the place. As early as 1822, congress, with intelligent forecast, granted to the state of Illinois the right of way across the public lands from Chicago to La Salle for the loca- tion of this canal, having the year before obtained a
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164 The Illinois and Michigan Canal.
strip of land by treaty from the Indians for this pur- pose, as already told in preceding pages.
A belt of land ninety feet wide on each side of the canal for its use was at the same time donated by con- gress to the state of Illinois. In 1827, through the efforts of Daniel P. Cook, in the house of repVesenta- tives, and Senators Kane and Thomas, in the senate, alternate sections of land five miles wide on each side of the canal were donated to the state of Illinois by the United States, the proceeds from the sale of which were to be applied to the construction of the canal, by which the waters of Lake Michigan should be con- nected for navigable purposes with the Illinois river.*
Wm. F. Thornton, Gurdon S. Hubbard and Wm. B. Archer were appointed canal commissioners, with power to locate its route, and then proceed to the ex- ecution of the work. The first thing to be done was to survey the route; and to further this purpose, the commissioners had a meeting at Vandalia, and ap- pointed Wm. Good ing as chief engineer; but as he could not commence work at once, it was agreed that Mr. Hubbard should employ some other one to act in his place until he could assume its responsibilities. Accordingly, Mr. Hubbard returned to Chicago and engaged the services of Mr. E. B. Talcott, who, with a force of engineers under his direction, commenced the survey at once; and by May 1, 1836, Mr. Hubbard, with his assistance, was able to present complete plans for the work to Governor Duncan for approval. Two plans were presented ; one for the canal as it now is, and one of less dimensions. The former was decided on, after several meetings of the full board, and to Mr. Hubbard and Mr. Talcott belongs the credit of first
*As a condition of this donation, it was stipulated that govern- ment goods or troops were forever to be transported on the canal free of toll; and a few months after it was finished troops and muni- tions for the Mexican war were transported free, agreeable to the conditions, thereby giving the work a national character.
H. M. SINGER, then Supt. of Repairs.
The Illinois and Michigan Canal. 165
making it. The following month (June), contractors were advertised for; and the next month (July), on the 4th, the ceremony of turning the first sod was duly celebrated in the usual unctuous spirit of Chicago citizens. Work commenced immediately thereafter, and under the administration of the board was pushed as rapidly as their means from the sale of land would admit.
Up to January, 1839, there had been expended $1,400,000. The state then became embarrassed and matters grew worse until 1841, pending which time the State bank of Illinois having failed, the state itself could not pay the interest on her bonds, and repudiation seemed inevitable. As a consequence, the progress of her extended system of public works, including the canal, was suddenly arrested.
A quiescent period in Chicago's ambition succeeded this untoward event; but in the fall of 1842, the follow- ing gentlemen met in council to devise some plan by which to complete the canal and reap the expected benefits from it, which had, as yet, only been in antici- pation. Arthur Bronson, of New York; Wm. B. Og- den, Justin Butterfield and Isaac N. Arnold, of Chicago, constituted this council, who, it is not too much to say, had the whole northern part of the state at their backs, besides the bondholders of the state itself. At this meeting Mr. Bronson suggested a plan for completing the canal, and making it a source of revenue instead of a disgraceful wreck of fortune, as it now threatened to prove unless prompt action was taken to impart new life into it.
The proposition was to offer to the bondholders the canal and its revenues when finished, including its landed equities, as securities for additional advances to finish it. The plan was timely and simple, and only required the sanction of the state, the bondholders being willing to make the necessary advances under an assurance that they should control the proceeds of the
166 The Illinois and Michigan Canal.
canal and its immunities till they were paid; and Mr. Butterfield drew up the necessary bill to be submitted to the legislature to bring the scheme into effect. Simple and politic as it was, it must be canvassed by public opinion before the legislature would act on it; and to bring it understandingly before it, Mr. Arnold addressed the people of Chicago, explaining its feat- ures, and Mr. Wentworth, through the columns of the Democrat, advocated its feasibility and necessity, and Michael Ryan, a state senator from La Salle county, also advocated the measure. When the bill came be- fore the legislature, Mr. Arnold was one of its mem- bers, and, as chairman of the committee on finance, had charge of the bill in the house. The influence of Thos. Ford, the governor, happily was in favor of it. If it had not been, it would not have passed, for the opposition in the southern part of the state, particu- larly along the Wabash river, was strong against it, and it was by but a slender majority that this important measure became a laW, amended by some prudential modifications, among which was a provision for the ap- pointment of two trustees by the bondholders and one by the governor, whose business it was to see that all moneys received should be applied to the completion of the work and faithful execution of the trust confided to the bondholders. Capt. Wm. H. Swift, late of the United States army, and David Leavitt, president of the American Exchange bank of New York, were ap- pointed in behalf of the bondholders, and Jacob Fry in behalf of the state.
Work was now resumed on the canal, and under the able and honest administration of these trustees it was finished April 19, 1848, and on May 1, 1871, the last dollar of the canal debt was paid, and the canal itself, with its unsold lands, together with nearly $100,000 surplus in the treasury, was given up to the state. That this successful measure rescued the state from repudiation was the opinion of the ablest financiers of
TJie Illinois and Michigan Canal. 167
that period, and that it gave the city of Chicago a solid foundation on which to lay her financial dimension stone has never been questioned by any one.
But few j^ears ago every well informed citizen of Chicago was familiar with all these events, but now a new generation has grown up, or come to the place, to whom the whole matter is only a history of the past.
The original design was to make the canal a deep cut, sufficiently below the level of Lake Michigan to enable boats to pass from it to the Mississippi river, by way of the Illinois.*
That this design was not carried out, at first, was owing to the embarrassed credit of the state, as already seen, but the grand original- conception has never yet been lost sight of by the representative men of national interests; and in 1862 Mr. Arnold, who then repre- sented Chicago in congress, introduced a bill to fulfill it. His bill was substantially a proposition to the gen- eral government to aid the state of Illinois in complet- ing the work. It was referred to a committee on mili- tary affairs, of which Francis P. Blair was chairman, which reported unanimously in its favor.
The next year, on June 2, 1863, a great convention was held in Chicago, to bring this important measure, which had now assumed national proportions, promi- nently before the public. The call was signed by Ed- ward Bates, attorney general of the United States, and ninety-four members of the House of representatives. The rebellion was then raging in its, as yet, unbroken power. The Mississippi riverwas blockaded, and how to break through the net work of rebel batteries that frowned upon its channel was an unsolved problem. In this
*With this end in view the deep cut was originally made part way through the lime rock which underlay the surface of the summit, but was abandoned as too expensive. The relinquishment of this plan made it necessary to supply the canal from the Calumet river, instead of Lake Michigan, which was done by means of a dam and feeders. During low water this stream was insufficient, and a steam pump was then resorted to, to supply water from the south branch of the Chicago
168 The Illinois and Michigan Canal.
extremity it was argued that if the waters of the great lakes were connected with those of the Mississippi so as to afford a passage for gunboats such a facility for con- centrating force into the heart of the south would give the north a great advantage. That the want of this con. necting link in navigating the interior was sensibly felt at this time is evident from the large attendance at the Chicago convention, the number there from other states than Illinois being estimated at 5,000. Among them was Hannibal Hamlin, who at the afternoon session of the first day was made president of the convention, to whom Hon. Chauncey Filley, mayor of St. Louis, pres- ident pro tern., relinquished the position with which he had been honored while organizing the convention.
On taking the chair, Mr. Hamlin addressed the convention in his usual vein of wisdom, setting forth its objects and approving them. A committee was appointed, composed of men from several states, to prepare a memorial for presentation to congress, to urge upon that body the necessity of the work. This committee met in New York the following October, and prepared the memorial in accordance with their in- structions. It was presented to congress during its following session, and passed the house of represen- tatives, but was defeated in the senate. Meantime, as the city of Chicago grew, its citizens began to cast about for some better means of sewerage than their slight elevation above the lake had yet afforded. The river was an inky pool of stagnant water, with change- able hues of oily scum, floating lazily on its surface, and the stench arising from it was sometimes almost insupportable. The fishes had long since deserted it, and lest man should desert its banks something must be done to purify the stream. The only way to do this was to produce a current in it, and this current could only be made by deepening the canal so as to make a declination through the summit, and thence into the valley of the Illinois river. To this end the common
The Illinois and Michigan Canal. 169
council of the city of Chicago, February 16, 1865, passed an act to contribute $2,500,000 for the purpose of deep- ening the canal, on condition that the amount expended should be vested in a lien upon it and its revenues, after the original canal debt should have been paid.
The work was promptly pushed through to com- pletion by the employment of a heavy force, and in July, 1871, the entire excavation was finished, and the waters of Lake Michigan found a southern outlet through the south branch of the Chicago river by re- versing its course, thence through the deepened canal into the Illinois river. The Chicago river through these artificial means became an estuary, and as the waters of the lake flowed through it, it became much improved.
Soon after the Chicago fire of 1871, the state con- vened an extra session of the legislature, and passed an act to refund the money, with interest, which the city of Chicago had expended in deepening the canal. This was done in a spirit of charity toward the city to relieve her from her then embarassed condition, when she had so many public institutions to rebuild.
The increased dimensions of the canal made it sixty feet wide at the surface, thirty-six feet wide on the bottom, and a depth sufficient to insure six feet of water in the canal at the lowest water. To secure this depth the excavation was made 6r6 A feet below the lake level at lowest water. There is reported at the time of writing this article (April, 1880) from six to eight feet of water in the canal from Lockport to Chicago, the depth varying according to the action of the wind on Lake Michigan, although the lake is now unusually low. Heavy winds vary the height of the lake for short periods, but independent of this cause there is a vari- ation in the level of the lake of about four feet from causes not yet known. The lake level was established by the trustees of the canal in 1847, from which to establish canal levels through the summit. This point
170
Table of Datum.
became the base of city levels for recording the fluctu- ations of the lake surface, and was adopted by the sewerage commissioners and the board of public works as the base or datum of city levels. It was llyW feet below the water table on the southwest corner of the central building of the court house, destroyed by the fire of 1871.
It was also established on the Lind block, north- west corner of Market and Randolph streets, which still stands as a monument of a turning point in the great fire, as well as an old water mark. Since the fire other marks have been established at various places.
The following table shows the elevation of Lake Michigan above or below Chicago datum from January, 1854, to February, 1880, in feet and hundredths. From the fact that this datum was established at a very low stage of the lake, almost all the records since are above city datum. Those below are distinguished by the prefix of a dash.
TABLE SHOWING MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN WATER IN LAKE.
MICHIGAN ANNUALLY, PROM 1854 TO 1899, BOTH
INCLUSIVE, IN FEET.
|
YEAR. |
MAX. |
MI.N. |
MEAN. |
YEAR. |
MAX. |
MIN. |
MEAN. |
|
1854 |
1 83 |
1877 |
3.56 |
1.04 |
2.31 |
||
|
1855 |
3 45 |
0 15 |
1.56 |
1878 |
3.14 |
0.51 |
2.00 |
|
1856 |
3 56 |
0 42 |
1 60 |
1879 |
2.51 |
—0.49 |
1.06 |
|
1857 |
4 35 |
0 60 |
2 42 |
1880 |
2.81 |
—0.99 |
1.16 |
|
1858 |
4 69 |
1 33 |
2 00 |
1881 |
3.01 |
—2.19 |
1.26 |
|
1859 |
4 45 |
1 31 |
2 98 |
1882 |
3.01 |
—0.99 |
2.00 |
|
1860 |
3 53 |
1 30 |
2 54 |
1883 |
3.81 |
—0.99 |
2.10 |
|
1861 |
4 40 |
1 20 |
2 56 |
1884 |
3.31 |
—0.01 |
2.24 |
|
1862 |
3 80 |
0 70 |
2.50 |
1885 |
3.71 |
—0.01 |
2.48 |
|
1863 |
3 30 |
— 0 80 |
2.10 |
1886 |
4.41 |
0.01 |
2.64 |
|
1864 |
2 80 |
— 0 40 |
1.57 |
1887 |
3.11 |
0.01 |
1.96 |
|
1865 |
3 66 |
— 1 08 |
1 30 |
1888 |
3.01 |
0.01 |
1.30 |
|
1866 |
2 50 |
0 00 |
1 07 |
1889 |
2.51 |
—0.79 |
0.77 |
|
1867 |
2 60 |
— 0 41 |
1 49 |
1890 |
2.21 |
—0.99 |
0.63 |
|
1868 |
2 58 |
— 1 00 |
1 01 |
1891 |
1.61 |
—2.39 |
0.05 |
|
1869 |
2 13 |
0 41 |
1 13 |
1892 |
1.30 |
—3.60 |
—0.17 |
|
1870 |
3 25 |
— 0 30 |
2 09 |
1893... |
1.00 |
—1.30 |
—O.LIO |
|
1871 |
2 80 |
—0.40 |
1.77 |
1894 |
1.80 |
—1.80 |
0.50 |
|
1872 |
1 80 |
— 0 74 |
0 81 |
1895 |
0.63 |
—1.24 |
—0.49 |
|
1873 |
2 73 |
— 0 76 |
1.40 |
1896 |
0.00 |
—1.70 |
—0.58 |
|
1874 |
2 80 |
0 20 |
1 67 |
1897 |
1.60 |
—1.30 |
0.33 |
|
1875 |
3 01 |
— 0 34 |
1.45 |
1898 |
1.09 |
—1.25 |
0.47 |
|
1876 |
4.31 |
0.34 |
2.65 |
18^9 |
2.10 |
—1.50 |
0.53 |
The Illinois and Michigan Canal. 171
The material for the following history of the canal has been obtained from Gurdon S. Hubbard, E. B. Tal- cott, William Thomas, superintendent of the canal, Isaac N. Arnold, H. M. Singer and F. G. Saltonstall, while these men were living, all of whom have been of- ficially associated with the canal, and are familiar with its growth from its first beginning.
CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL.
While it is true that the drainage of what is called the sanitary district of Chicago is an indispensable necessity to promote the health of the city, yet the ul- terior objects may be far reaching, in a financial and even a national point of view, continuing more so as the city advances in population and wealth.
The drainage canal begins where Robey street crosses the south branch of the Chicago river, its southern terminus being at Lockport, a distance of 28.05 miles, at which place the controlling works of the canal are located. Below Lockport the flow of the drainage canal unites with the waters of the Des- plaines river, down its onward course through the city of Joliet.
There were many physical conditions bearing on the construction of this canal. The Desplaines river, whose flow paralleled it in its entire length, presented almost insurmountable difficulties to overcome. In its water shed was nothing but surface drainage, without springs or any other permanent source of supply; hence, in severe droughts the river was almost lost in the sand, and only stood in shallow pools above or below sand bars, while in times of high water the lowlands along its banks were inundated. These inconstant conditions made it necessary to excavate the drainage channel independent of it, in order to do which a new river channel had to be made, thirteen miles in length, the object of this river diversion being to prevent its surplus waters from flooding the canal. It was not
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Chicago Drainage Canal. 173
until 1889 that by an act of the legislature of Illinois the sanitary district of Chicago was formed, and not until September 3, 1892, was the work begun to carry out the objects of this enactment. The sanitary dis- trict comprises all that part of Chicago north of Eighty- seventh street, added to which are about forty square miles west of the city limits, all of which territory is adjudged to be benefited by the improvement, and all the lands lying within this district are subject to taxa- tion to defray the expenses of the drainage canal. The limit of taxation by the first enactment was one-half of 1 per cent, but by an amendment in 1895 this power was increased to \\ per cent for a period of three years. In 1897 the legislature extended this rate of taxation for two years more, which included the year 1899. The trustees of the canal are elected by popular vote, in- dependent of the municipal government of Chicago. They may issue bonds to the extent of 5 per cent of the taxable property of the drainage district, providing such bonds do not exceed $15,000,000. The total ex- pense of the construction of the canal up to January 1, 1900, including every item, amounts to $33,525,691.20.
It has a flowing capacity of 300,000 cubic feet of water per minute, with a current in its smallest section at a rate of one and a quarter miles per hour. In its maximum section, provision is made for flow of 600,000 cubic feet per minute, this copious flow being necessary to purify the waters below by dilution. This calcula- tion has been made on a scale sufficient to fulfill the requirements of a city of 3,000,000 inhabitants.
From Robey street to Summit, 7. 8 miles, the channel is 110 feet wide at the bottom and 198 feet at the water line. From Summit to Willow Springs, 5.3 miles, 202 feet wide at bottom and 290 feet at the water line. From Willow Springs to the walled and rock cross-sec- tion, 14.95 miles, to Lockport, the channel is but 160 feet wide at bottom and 162 feet at top.
174 Chicago Drainage Canal.
This immense labor and the expense attending it has been the result of Chicago ambition and energy combined, without assistance from the national govern- ment, or even from the state of Illinois, except by leg- islative enactments.
Only the first objects of the canal have thus far been accomplished, which were to dispose of the sewer- age of Chicago and purify the river ; to do which the twenty-two feet depth of the canal was necessary, being less expensive than to broaden it through the rock cut, for this purpose. If the canal is to be made available for navigation, the Desplaines river, from Lockport to its confluence with the Illinois river, and the latter stream, must be made navigable by slack water dams, or other means, to the Mississippi river.
Sixteen feet depth of water will be the limit of the requirements for navigation on these streams, that being all that the Mississippi river can afford, even after the government improvements of this river have been completed.
The whole work has, from the beginning, been under the charge of the following civil engineers :
Lyman E. Cooley, appointed February 1, 1890; resigned December 10, 1890. William E. Worthen, appointed December 17, 1890; resigned April 21, 1891. Samuel G. Artingstall, appointed May 6, 1891 ; resigned January 16, 1892. Benezette Williams, appointed Jan- uary 16, 1892 j resigned June 7, 1893. Isham Randolph, appointed June 7, 1893, still in office September, 1900.
j. s. c. HOGAN'S STORE, WHERE THE FIRST CHICAGO
POST OFFICE WAS KEPT. From an Original Painting Taken by FERNANDO JONES.
THE SECOND BUILDING WHERE THE CHICAGO POST OFFICE WAS KEPT.
THE CHICAGO POSTOFFICE.
Letters were first brought to Chicago by the annual arrival of a vessel at the fort, or by some chance traveler who came to the place through the wilderness, and later by government mail carriers, who brought the mail to the fort from Detroit, Fort Wayne or St. Joseph, about once a month. These were the only ave- nues through which the outside world could be heard from till 1831, up to which time no postoffice had been established, and private persons were dependent on the courtesy of the commander of the fort for the receipt of letters. Jonathan N. Bailey, an Indian trader, was the first postmaster appointed to act here, and on March 31, 1831, opened his office* on the east bank of the Chicago river, just north of the present Lake street bridge, in a log store, where John S. C. Hogan sat at the receipt of custom. The official duties of Mr. Bailey were very light, the mail arriving at-intervals of one or two weeks, and the dozen letters and as many more newspapers it contained were quickly handed out to their eager expectants, when no farther work was nec- essary till another mail came.
At the breaking out of the Black Hawk war, for some cause, possibly through fear of cholera, he moved with his family to St. Louis, and John S. C. Hogan, the proprietor of the store, who was his son-in-law, became his successor, November 2, 1832. There are yet, in 1900, a very few of the earliest settlers who retain a distinct recollection of receiving their letters in his
*See government records at Washing-ton.
(1T5)
176 Chicago Postoffice.
scanty quarters, where his attention was divided be- tween his official duties and dealing out sugar, tea or tobacco by the pound, or gaudy fabrics to the tawny customers, who were at first his main dependence for income. In 1834 he moved his store and postoffice to the corner of Franklin and South Water streets, where he held the position till March 3, 1837, subsequent to which time he went to Booneville and died in 1868. His successor was Sidney Abell. By this time the amount of postoffice business had increased to a great extent, not only as a delivery of Chicago letters, but as a distributing office to points west, and the former scanty quarters being inadequate to the wants of increasing business, the office was removed to the south side of Clark street, a little south of Water street, and a salary of $4,000 per annum was allowed him. He retained the office till 1841, when President Harri- son appointed Wm. Stuart his successor — the same who was the editor of the Chicago American. He retained the office during President Tyler's administration, sub- sequent to which time he went to Binghamton, N. Y., where he died. James K. Polk was the next president of the United States, and Hart L. Stewart was his appointee for the Chicago postoffice during his term, from 1844 to 1848. He was the first presidential ap- pointee. The postmasters preceding him were ap- pointed by the postmaster-general.
Mr. Fillmore, who took the presidential chair after the death of Mr. Taylor, appointed Geo. W. Dole as postmaster, who retained the position till the election of Franklin Pierce in 1852, who appointed Isaac Cook to the position in the spring of 1853. The location of the office had been removed to the east side of Clark street, across the alley from the Sherman house. From there it was removed across the street to the south side of the same alley, and over it was the office of the Chicago Tribune. Thence it was removed to Nos. 82 and 84 Dearborn street.
Chicago Postoffice. 177
On the accession of James Buchanan to the presi- dential chair in 1857, Wm. Price was appointed post- master. He retained the office but a few months, when, owing to the deadlock between Senator Douglas and the administration on the validity of the Lecomp- ton constitution in Kansas, and kindred toils, it was deemed necessary to remove him, which was promptly done, and Mr. Cook, who was a friend to Buchanan's measures, was restored to his position, which he retained till the election of Abraham Lincoln in I860,* who appointed John L. Scripps, whose editorship of the Chicago Tribune is still fresh in our memories. Mr. Scripps, on account of ill health, declined an appoint- ment under Mr. Lincoln's second term, and Samuel Hoard was appointed as his successor. He retained the position till President Johnson took the executive chair, made vacant by Mr. Lincoln's death, when Robt. A. Gillmore was appointed, but was accidentally drowned in the year 1867, and Frank T. Sherman was appointed to fill the place during Mr. Johnson's term. On the accession of General Grant to the presidency in 1869, Francis A. Eastman was appointed to the place. He resigned in 1873, and Gen. John McArthur was appointed by General Grant to the place, who took pos- session of the office February 14, and held it till March 10, 1877, at which time Hon. F. W. Palmer was ap- pointed to the position by President Hayes.
At the great fire of 1871 it is worthy of remark that while nearly all private property in the burnt dis- trict was destroyed, the mail was all saved by dint of hard work, not exempt from danger to the employes of the departments. It was established on the northwest
*Previous to this time Hon. John Wentworth, when representa- tive to congress in 1853, had obtained at the first session of the thirty- third congress in the civil and diplomatic appropriation bill, approved August 4, 1854, the first appropriation for the Chicago postoffice in the following words: "For the accommodation of the custom house, postoffice, United States courts, and steamboat inspectors, a building of stone, 85x60 feet, sixty feet in height from the foundation, to cost not more $88,000." And it is worthy of mention that this is the only building whose walls survived the great fire of 1871.
178 Chicago Postoffice.
corner of State and Sixteenth streets, from where, after two months, it was removed to the Wabash ave- nue Methodist church, corner of Harrison street, where it remained till the fire of 1874, when it again fled before the devouring element — saving all the mail — establishing itself at the postal station, corner of Washington and Halsted streets, in the west division, and no interruption was caused by this fire in the de- livery of letters. These quarters were retained about a month, when the office was established in the Honore building, corner of Dearborn and Adams streets, where it remained till fire again invaded their quarters, Jan- uary 4, 1879, when they, with all the mail saved, took flight to the northeast corner of Washington and State streets, in the basement of the Singer building, where it remained till April 12, 1879, at which time the office was established in the government building, occupying the square between Adams, Jackson, Clark and Dearborn streets.
The expenses of the office in 1836 were $300, and its commissions the same year were $2,148.29. Ten years later, in 1846, the expenses were $5,234.39, while the receipts were $7,228.51. Ten years later, in 1856, the expenses were $41,130.56, and the receipts $65,- 804.51.
Since the fire, beginning with 1872, the total amount of money order transactions received and paid out have been as follows: For 1872, $7,937,751.20; 1873, $10,632,069.08; 1874, $14,507,431.83; 1875, $14,741,- 446.65; 1876, $12,930,824.88; 1877, $13,157,085.33; 1878, $15,598,765.14; 1879, $16, 892, 975. 92; 1880, $18,366,974.56; 1881, $18,993,585.86; 1882, $19,925,812.56; 1883, $20,331,- 223.62; 1884, $20,169,101.34; 1885, $19,975,030.52; 1886, $19,917,186.72; 1887, $19, 495, 136. 20; 1888, $19,257,063.02; 1889, $18,793,515.06; 1890, $19,338,771.82; 1891, $20, 396,- 166.90; 1892, $22,003,175.94; 1893, $23,609,126.10; 1894, $25,512,426.24; 1895, $30,127,376.62; 1896, $31,150,655.32; 1897, $39,822,460.86; 1898, $50,476,215.72; 1899, $61,742,-
Chicago Postoffice. 179
824.76. The sale of stamps, stamped envelopes and postal cards for the same period has been as follows: For 1872, $715,010.27; 1873, when postal cards were first introduced, $788,006.29; 1874, $840,388.48; 1875, $970,886.47; 1876, $955,417.70; 1877, $953,148.08; 1878, $1,006,352.10; 1879, $1,074,237.62; 1880, $1,347,724.26; 1885, $1,955,123.75; 1890, $3,318,989.45; 1895, $4,867,- 432.08; 1899, $6,347,320.21.
Mr. Palmer remained postmaster through the ad- ministration of President Garfield and his successor, Chester A. Arthur.
Grover Cleveland was the next president, and ap- pointed S. Corning- Judd as postmaster, May 5, 1885, who held the position until November 19, 1888, when Walter C. Newberry was appointed by Mr. Cleveland to take his place. He held it until the election of Ben- jamin Harrison to the presidency, who appointed James A. Sexton as postmaster, April 6, 1889, who held the position until the second term of Mr. Cleveland. Washington Hesing was then appointed postmaster by him, November 25, 1893.
Wm. McKinley was next elected as president, and on March 19, 1897, appointed Chas. U. Gordon as post- master, who is the present incumbent.
The present location of the postoffice is on Michi- gan avenue, at the head of Washington street, where it will remain until the new government building, now in course of construction, is completed.
The great Chicago fire marked the beginning of an increase in the growth of the city, hitherto unknown. Improved methods in every department of commerce came into use, and the postoffice service kept abreast of them. New responsibilities had to be provided, far too numerous for historical detail.
The delivery and collections of mail were materi- ally improved in 1899. The number of collections was increased to 2,051 daily throughout Chicago. The de-
180 Chicago Postoffice.
livery service was increased to 3,577. The carrier force was increased to 1,500 carriers.
The clerical force was increased to 1, 289. All told, the Chicago postoffice has 2,789 employes.
The receipts for the postal department for the fiscal year ending- June 30, 1900, were $6,609,218.72; the expenditures for the same year were $2,591,219.77.
"Not a sparrow falls to the ground but is noticed by the department. " If a person makes any complaint, either with or without cause, it goes into the postoffice records. But to the credit of the department be it said that only a small percentage of them are well founded. In 1899 there were 1,289 letter carriers and 1,500 clerks in the department, and it is an extremely rare thing when any one of all this number commits an indiscretion for which he loses his place.
No commercial house, large or small, can make so good a showing — a proof that public service can be honestly and economically performed under a proper system of tutelage.
REMINISCENCES OF H. O. STONE.
He was the father of H. O. Stone, now a well known citizen of Chicago. The elder Mr. Stone gave these records to his son in 1869, who has furnished them for this work. They are of a historical charac- ter, as to the rugged pioneers of Chicago, a race of men now only living in history — nor can they be repro- duced, for want of the conditions to do it. Mr. Stone was descended from good old English stock, planted in western New York, when that locality was called the far west, peopled by hunters and bold, dashing adven- turers who had prophetic inspiration into the future destiny of the great interior. The war of 1812 fired the savage heart of the entire frontier. He armed himself with a scalping knife and a rifle to take a hand in the general melee in favor of his father from over the wave, who had never tried to drive him from his hunting grounds, which the Americans had done; but the Indian did not stop to consider that his British father had no incentive for doing such a thing. Though born in England, Mr. Ebenezer Stone did not hesitate to practically swear allegiance to America by enlisting to fight on her side in this war. In this service he was sometimes brought in contact with Indians on the war path, some of whom licked the dust under the un- erring aim of his rifle.
This venerable pioneer, Ebenezer Stone, at last came to Chicago, and died in 1845 at the home of his son, H. O. Stone, father of the present H. O. Stone {now living). There are still persons living who re-
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182 Reminiscences of H. 0. Stone.
member the old versatile tin trunk peddler, who traveled from house to house in the country with two tin trunks, one on each side, depending from the end of a shaft fitted to the shoulders. These trunks were filled with such trinkets as constitute the stock of a thread and needle store of our day, and Mr. H. O. Stone was one of this class of itinerant merchants. Previous to this occupation he had worked at shoe making, tanning and several other industries, and later he became a builder and repairer of boats on the Lack- awanna canal, also a bowsman on the New York and Erie canal.
Next we find him at Clinton, Mich., where he en- tered eighty acres of government land, settled down to farming, having married Jane Ann Lowry, of Erie, Pa., in 1833 in Detroit, Mich. Soon after this he was drafted to fight Black Hawk under Gen. Joseph Brown, whom his father and brother were under during the war of 1812. They met 700 Pottawattomie warriors near Niles, Mich. , who were in full war dress and war paint. General Brown called out a whole regiment of about 1,000 armed men, which almost depopulated the vicinity of men subject to draft. The Pottawattomies offered to join them, but while they were parleying, a message came that Black Hawk had been conquered at the battle of Bad Axe, Wisconsin, when they were discharged. Mr. Stone then returned to his farm, but as the price of wheat was only thirty-one cents per bushel, payable in dry goods (not groceries), he sold out, sent his family back to Erie, Pa., and started for the far west. His destination was unsettled, but he had decided on three objective points, Chicago, Gales- burg, 111., or Galveston, Tex., reaching Chicago by wagon part of the way over prairies, and part of the way by lake from Michigan City, and stopping over at a way station called Baileytown. The only hotel here was built of logs, where the meals were good, but the lodgings were on shelves patterned after steamboat
Reminiscences of II. 0. Stone. 183
berths. Prairie hay instead of mattresses was used, and for covering1 but two Indian blankets, though the weather was very cold. This was called Mrs. Bailey's hotel, which was a fair pattern of all the western hotels at that time. Mrs. Bailey also had one hotel west of Chicago at a place called Berry's Point.
The stage was filled with Chicago merchants re- turning from New York or Detroit. The latter, being a depot for Indian goods, was a more important place than Chicago. Among the passengers were J. S. C. Hogan, first postmaster of Chicago, and Henry King, of the firm of Jones, King & Clark, hardware and stove dealers. The Chicago merchants were stylish in their dress and liberal in their expenditures for drinks, which gave Mr. Stone an impression that business was good in Chicago. He arrived there in the evening of Janu- ary 11, 1835, and stopped at the corner of Lake and Wells streets, where Mark Beaubien kept a hotel. He now became a citizen of Chicago, and business was the imperative question. To this end he concluded to buy land, and made application to a Yorkshire Englishman named Blanchard to purchase a lot. Mr. Blanchard's price for the lot he wanted was $60. Hoping to get it cheaper, he delayed the matter a day when, to his sur- prise, Mr. Blanchard raised the price of his lot $10. Not purchasing the lot at that time, the price was raised $10 for each day's delay till it increased to $90, when he concluded to purchase it. The lot was located on the school section, and he had to wade through water three feet deep to get to it, which showed he had great faith in the future of Chicago. He had but $60 left, and to recuperate his finances he took a job of cutting the timber for the north pier on the north branch of the Chicago river, receiving $16 a month and board in the woods, finishing the work March 1. Dur- ing this time he made the acquaintance of J. D. Caton, then a justice of the peace, office on Dearborn street, who subsequently became a judge of a Chicago court,
184 Reminiscences of H. O. Stone.
a gentleman well known and respected by a large circle of business men in Chicago. The purchase of land claims offered a good chance for speculation at that time, and he, in partnership with a man named John Rogers, engaged in that business. For this pur- pose they hired a few half breed Indians to take them to Milwaukee in a wagon with provisions for three months, camping out each night and cooking their food in the open air before a camp fire. Three days of this toilsome journey brought them to Milwaukee, where a trading post was kept by Mr. Juneau, after whom a county in Wisconsin was subsequently named. Here Mr. Stone and his companion slept on the floor in the same room with several traders and trappers. There was but one house in Milwaukee at that time besides the trading post. Not wishing to stop here, they started northward the next morning on a trail through the dense forest through a deep snow. They had their own team, consisting of two Indian ponies purchased of Mr. Juneau, and hired an Indian to accompany them. In this way they traveled fifteen miles the first day, when night overtook them. They staked out their ponies, built a fire, cooked their supper and, wrapped in their blankets, slept soundly until morning, when they arose, built the necessary camp fire and cooked their breakfast. The Indian then started for the ponies, but only one of them could be found, the other having returned home. Their1 capricious Indian guide not wishing to continue with them any longer, blacked his hands with charcoal and made some hideous hiero- glyphics on his cheeks, and making a grunt started back to Milwaukee.
In this emergency Mr. Stone took one-half of the goods, and with the remaining pony started northward on the trail, leaving Mr. Rogers to watch the other half, consisting of tools, guns, provisions, etc.
The next night he reached Sack creek, and camped with a half breed. Next morning he returned by the
Reminiscences of H. O. Stone. 185
same route he came to where he had left Mr. Rogers, finding him safe at his lonely post with all the goods.
The two now started northward together, and reached a place called Waubun in three days, at which place Mr. Stone made a claim at the mouth of a river where a saw mill had been built, being the first one in that desolate wild. Brown and Payne were the pioneer owners of it.
The next June Mr. Stone started for Chicago to attend the first great land sale by the government, to be held on 16th and 17th at that place. Here he sold his Chicago lot at auction for $348, for which he had paid $90 a few months before, John Bates, auctioneer.
Mr. Stone then commenced a business for which Chicago has ever since been noted — grocery and provi- sion store on North Water street, buying his goods in New York. Soon after opening his store he went to northern Wisconsin to attend a government land sale June 16, 1836, where the land claims that he, with Mr. Rogers, had made were to be sold, together with claims of many other parties ; but he did not succeed in buying his claims, as a pool of rich bankers had bought them, paying for them and for all other claims in the vicinity sixty cents an acre, which was much higher than Mr. Stone could afford to give. After the sale was over Mr. Stone, together with the company of bankers and other speculators, started back for Chicago, loaded down with camp equipage and provisions. In this com- pany were William Jones, George Smith, the famous Scotch banker, Erastus Brown, Alexander Fullerton and Alonzo Huntington. For the next twenty-seven years he kept his store running, during which time in May, 1839, he made the first shipment of wheat east, consisting of 780 bushels in bags, on C. M. Reed's steamers, for which he received seventy cents per bushel. He was in Chicago during two Indian pay- ments, when 7,000 Indians camped on the adjacent prairies. At that time Captain Baxter, of Fort Dear-
186 Reminiscences of H. O. Stone.
born, with a few men captured Ash Cabway and son for killing an unknown man and shooting Mr. Lyman. These victims had spent the night in a wigwam of In- dians, where they were betrayed and shot, a very un- usual thing at that time. The Indians had a trial, but through the influence of Juneau, of Milwaukee, were not convicted. This is all Mr. Stone says of the tragedy. There might have been some extenuating circumstances about the matter, not known to Mr. Stone, but it shows the summary manner in which crimes might be either punished or compounded at that time.
EARLY COMMERCE OF THE LAKES.
The initial step to build up Chicago, from the first, was to provide cereals to an eastern market, that nature produced in abundance in the country surround- ing this favorite spot. The great chain of lakes, at which she stood at the extreme limit, were an avail- able highway for this purpose. Mr. Oliver Newberry, who had early been known under the sobriquet of Ad- miral of the Lakes, was quick to see this, and prompt to execute plans to make the most of the situation by building docks at Buffalo, Detroit and Chicago, and also a fleet for lake service. He had served in the war of 1812 against England, during the first part of which France under Napoleon was fighting the same power, and consequently an indirect ally to America. This made our soldiers look upon Napoleon as our friend, as well as the -friend of humanity. Mr. Newberry shared this sentiment, and consistent with this conviction named five of his vessels in honor of our august ally, as he considered Napoleon. These names were Napo- leon, Marshal Ney, Prince Eugene, Austerlitz and Marengo, thereby associating the pioneer commerce of Chicago with a patriotic compliment due France, the first friend of our nation.
Their first warehouse was ouilt at foot of Clark street on the river, thus introducing the warehousing system in Chicago. Mr. George Dole was then con- nected with him as a partner.*
*See on p. 19 of this volume a picture of this warehouse, with an article from the Democrat of July 16, 1834, on this first arrival of the Newberry vessel.
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188 Early Commerce of the Lakes.
His vessels and steamers touched at Green Bay, where the firm was Newberry & Goddel, at Sturgeon Bay and Milwaukee, where Alexander Mitchell was his agent, and at Racine, Kenosha and Waukegan.
A majority of the early settlers of the states of Wisconsin and northern and central Illinois came with their families and effects on his vessels, and yet recall his generosity and forbearance if short of food or freight money. His vigor, energy and enterprise were a great factor in the early and rapid settlement of the agricultural districts of those states from 1826 to the advent of railways after 1850.
Oliver Newberry was born at Windsor, Conn., in 1789, removed to Oneida county, New York, in 1804 with his father, entered the army in 1812, was dis- charged in 1814, settled in Ohio at once, and in 1816 opened a grocery and ship chandlery in Buffalo, and in 1822 removed to Detroit, where he established a ship yard, mercantile warehouse and docks and, as contrac- tor of Indian and military supplies for the government post and agencies, accumulated the capital to carry out his many schemes for the improvement of trans- portation on the lakes.
. Oliver. Newberry died a bachelor in 1860, aged seventy-one years, leaving a record of probity, energy and executive ability sufficient to accomplish his am- bitious purposes, which have become historical.
In the conduct of his great enterprises he bought land in Chicago and established his younger brother, Walter L. Newberry, here. Walter acquired much of this property, and became a partner in the house as Newberry & Dole, changed to Dole, Rumsey & New- berry, then Rumsey Bros., and still, after seventy years, represented by the Rumseys on our Board of Trade.
Walter L. Newberry became a banker under the firm name of Newberry & Burch — then one of the founders of the Merchants' Loan and Trust Co., an or-
Early Commerce of the Lakes. 189
ganizer, director and president of the Chicago & Galena and the Dixon & Fulton Air Line railroads, now the great North- Western Railroad Company.
As president of the school board, the Chicago His- torical Society and an early city alderman he was a faithful servant of the people, and by will endowment that magnificent monument to his memory, the New- berry Library, was given to Chicago. -
Walter Cass Newberry, now an honorable citizen of Chicago, was a nephew and protege of Oliver Newberry, born at the Newberry homestead in Oneida county, in 1835; came to Chicago in the interest of his uncle's shipping in 1853; in 1858 was recalled to Detroit, and became a member of the firm soon after attaining his majority. As joint executor, administered his uncle's estate, and in 1861 went into the Union army, and from a private, under six intermediate commissions, was dis- charged with the rank of a brigadier general. Return- ing to Chicago after the war, he became a railroad con- structor, merchant and warehouseman. He served the government as postmaster of the city he had seen grow from 50,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants.
He was elected to congress from the North Side district, and has served the people in any capacity for improved government and advanced citizenship when called upon.
It will thus be seen that the Newberry s have been a factor in Chicago's greatness, among other pioneers who honor the records of her early days.
THE FIELD COLUMBIAN MUSEUM.
The logical sequence of a great exposition is a great museum. The South Kensington museum, of London, was the sequel of the World's Fair of 1851, the first of the great international expositions. The National museum at Washington received its most important impetus and its largest accessions from the Centennial Exposition of 1876. While none of the national museums of Paris rests distinctively upon any one of the French international expositions, those of the Louvre, of Cluny, and of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers have constantly gathered accessions from these sources.
Purely commercial exhibits, shown at expositions, are usually prepared for immediate practical service, have a present convertible value, and are the property of individuals who expect from them immediate and future profit. When the exposition closes, these exhi bits resume their place among the active assets of their owners. But a large proportion of the most interesting and instructive exhibits have no such commercial value. They were prepared simply to demonstrate or illustrate some element of the condition or progress of a people or of the world. Their mission is not to promote exchanges, to induce people to buy or sell. It is to teach science, history and art, and the economics of human life. They are records of achievements, not of promises to be fulfilled. They are not militant, but triumphant.
Many of them were prepared especially for exposi- tion uses, and their fitness for purposes of instruction
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remains unimpaired long after the occasion which called for their production has passed away. No small part of the value of their exhibits comes from their aggregation, and from the skill which has added to their efficiency by accurate classification and scientific arrangement. Every student knows, and every visitor sees that great loss would follow the distribution of material gathered from the four quarters of the globe at an unstinted outlay of thought, labor and capital, expended upon a universal international exposition.
These facts were patent to all those whose wisdom conceived and whose energy promoted the World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893. It was well understood that other opportunities would develop when the Exposition had finished its course. It was, however, natural that, in the earlier days of the enter- prise, interest should be concentrated upon questions which bore upon the making of the Exposition, even to the exclusion of others which concerned the gathering of the aftermath.
If the illusion exists in any mind that the idea of a museum was suddenly born or quickly realized, it should at once be dispelled, for the project was seriously con- sidered as early as 1890. At various times and by different persons it was discussed in public and in private with more or less definiteness of purpose. The first public expression upon the subject is believed to have been made in a communication from Prof. Freder- ick W. Putnam, of the Peabody Archaeological museum, at Cambridge, Mass., printed in the Chicago Tribune in May, 1890. On two occasions, in the same year, Professor Putnam, whose position and experience gave weight to his utterances, spoke in favor of a museum, and in November, 1891, upon the invitation of the Hon. William T. Baker, he addressed the Commercial club upon this subject.
In April, 1891, Mr. George Brown Goode, of the
National museum, at Washington, in conversation with
192 The Field Columbian Museum.
Mr. James W. Ellsworth, a member of the board of directors of the Columbian Exposition, recommended the immediate appointment of a committee to foster a museum organization. From the date of the interview with Professor Goode, Mr. Ellsworth became an active advocate of a museum, as the outgrowth of the Expo- sition. At that time he was a member of the committee of foreign affairs of the Exposition Directory. Presi- dent Baker was the chairman of this committee, and with Mr. Ryerson, Mr. Lefens, Mr. Higinbotham and others early enlisted in this work of promotion. In out- lining the foreign work, for which appropriations were frequently sought from the directory, this committee constantly kept in view the ultimate establishment of a museum.
This purpose was especially indicated by purchases made abroad for the equipment of the archaeological and transportation departments. Mr. William Eleroy Curtis, of Washington, D. C. , was commissioned to make an exhaustive collection of documents, paintings and other matter commemorative of the discovery of the western continent by Columbus. His labors resulted in the construction of a building representative of the ancient convent of La Rabida, and the filling it with a remarkable and unique collection of historical material, gathered in Europe, the West Indies and South America. The reception of these articles, on their arrival, caused a difficulty with the treasury department at Washing- ton. The government had no authority to import them free of duty, and could not permit their entry under the general exemption law that had been passed for the benefit of the Exposition, unless they were sent at once from the port of entry to Chicago in bond. This disposition of the articles was not practicable, because no place had yet been provided at Chicago which could be accepted as a bonded warehouse. Accordingly an organization was effected at Washington, under the style of the Columbian Historical Association, to take
The Field Columbian Museum. 193
advantage of the general provisions of the law autho- rizing the free admission of goods imported for the use of scientific societies. Of this association Professor Putnam was elected president; Professor Wilson, of the Smithsonian Institute, vice-president; William E. Curtis, of the Latin- American Bureau of the Exposi- tion, secretary and treasurer. Members of the direc- tory of the Exposition contributed, personally, a con- siderable sum of money to provide the association with funds, and the money thus raised was unquestionably the first expended in the interest of the museum. The general expenses of the Columbian Historical Associa- tion were paid from the government appropriation for the department of state.
About the time of the formation of this important auxiliary, Representative Robert McMurdy, of the Hyde Park election district, introduced, in the Illinois state legislature, a bill providing for the establishment of museums in public parks, and stipulating the con- ditions and methods of their administration. The measure was popular, and became a law in June, 1892. Later in the year, through the instrumentality of Robert McMurdy, Samuel C. Eastman and Francis A. Riddle, the question of accepting the provisions of this law was submitted to the people of the three park districts of Chicago, and the vote thereupon was almost unani- mously in the affirmative.
The active agitation of the museum idea was renewed by a letter published by S. C. Eastman in the Tribune in July, 1893, followed by a series of .strong editorials in the Herald. All the Chicago journals were also zealous friends of the museum, and in every way stim- ulated public interest in this cause. As a result of this public discussion and of numerous private consulta- tions, James W. Scott introduced, at a meeting of the directors of the Exposition, a resolution providing for the appointment of a committee of three to devise a method of confirming public sentiment, to this end,
194 The Field Columbian Museum.
through an organization of its citizens. This com- mittee, consisting of George R. Davis, Harlow N. Higinbotham and James W. Scott, was appointed August 11, 1893. It promptly issued a circular calling a meeting of public spirited citizens, to be held at the Administration building of the Exposition, "to adopt measures in immediate aid of the project to establish in Chicago a great museum that shall be a fitting memorial of the World's Columbian Exposition and a permanent advantage and honor to the city."
Accordingly, on the evening of August 17, 1893, a public meeting, attended by about a hundred of the prominent citizens of Chicago, was held in the office of the director general in the Exposition grounds. Direc- tor General Davis presided, and S. C. Eastman acted as secretary. The first proposition was to enlarge the scope of the Columbian Historical Association. This was opposed on the ground that it was incorporated in Washington. The second suggestion was to operate under the charter of the Academy of Sciences in the city of Chicago. This was opposed, especially by Mr. Higinbotham, who spoke very earnestly in favor of a new and strong organization, independent of educa- tional institutions, locality, creed or calling, strong enough to stand alone, and large enough to take in everything. This, suiting the temper of the meeting, prevailed, and George E. Adams, Emil G. Hirsch, John A. Roche, Carter H. Harrison, Samuel C. Eastman, A. C. Bartlett, Alexander C. McClurg, Robert McMurdy and C. Fitzsimons were appointed as a committee to take the steps necessary to incorporate a museum.
Mr. McClurg afterward withdrew, and Edward E. Ayer was appointed in his place. At the same meeting the director general and the chiefs of the departments of the Exposition were requested to organize for the solicitation of contributions of exhibits.
Up to this time various names had been suggested for the museum: The Museum of Antiquities, Columbus
The Field Columbian Museum. 195
Memorial Museum, World's Exposition Memorial Mus- eum, Columbus Museum of America, Chicago Colum- bian Museum, etc. August 21 the citizens' committee, above referred to, in preparing their application for articles of incorporation, adopted as a name: "The Columbian Museum of Chicago." At this same time names of incorporators were selected to the number of about sixty-five, and of trustees, of which the following is the list :
Charles B. Farwell, John C. Black, Frank W. Gun- saulus, George E. Adams, Matthew C. Bullock, Emil G. Hirsch, Edward E. Ayer, Daniel H. Burnham, Charles L. Hutchinson, Owen F. Aldis, George R. Davis, John A. Roche, Allison V. Armour, James W. Ellsworth, Edwin Walker.
The application for a charter was forwarded to Springfield, September 16.
Robert McMurdy, of this committee, prepared and sent to the Illinois delegates in congress a joint resolu- tion instructing the treasury department to admit free of duty all goods intended for museums or educational institutions. The resolution was promptly passed the following week.
The director general and chiefs of departments met September 4 to outline their work on the grounds, and appointed an executive committee to prosecute the canvass for exhibits for the museum. Of this com- mittee the director general was chairman, Prof. Fred- erick W. Putnam, vice-chairman; S. C. Eastman, secretary, and Frederick J. V. Skiff, William E. Cur- tis and Selim H. Peabody the other members. At a subsequent meeting Mr. Curtis withdrew, and Willard A. Smith was appointed in his place. The executive committee took up actively the work assigned to it; the zeal of the chiefs, in this behalf, was so great as to interfere seriously with their duties as Exposition officials, but the sentiment was so unanimous, and the interest in the projected museum so intense, that
196 The Field Columbian Museum.
encouragement was nowhere lacking to do anything deemed necessary to aid the cause. Letters were writ- ten and sent in every direction, circulars were dis- patched everywhere, portions of the grounds were made into districts and personal appeals were made by the officers and attaches of every department of the Exposition. Meetings of the executive committee were held frequently, and members of the committee were in constant communication with the trustees of the new museum corporation. Meanwhile, the cor- poration had organized, by the election of Edwin Wal- ker, chairman; S. C. Eastman, secretary, and the appointment of committees on finance, by-laws and exhibits.
The finance committee — Messrs. Ayer, Adams, Ells- worth and Black — began at once the important and delicate task of securing the funds necessary to endow the museum, or, at least, in some measure to guarantee that, eventually, funds would be forthcoming, suffi- cient to justify the contributions of exhibits that were being solicited. As the middle of October approached nothing tangible in the shape of endowment had resulted from the efforts of the finance committee, and a period of discouragement came upon many of those at work for the museum. Up to this time the only available funds had been advanced by individual mem- bers of the committee. Nothing but the faith and devo- tion and courage of a few men prevented the disinte- gration of the preliminary organization and the regret- ful abandonment of the enterprise. In this dilemma Marshall Field stepped into the arena and surprised the friends of the museum and the community by his offer of $1,000,000 if half as much more could be raised from other sources. This amount was soon raised, George M. Pullman and Harlow N. Higinbotham each contributing $100,000, Mrs. Mary D. Sturges, of Lake Geneva, $50,000, and Edward E. Ayer giving his anthropological collection, valued at $100,000.
MARSHALL FIELD.
The Field Columbian Museum. 197
Many others made donations of lesser amounts, whose names have been published in the reports of the mu- seum and whose influence was appreciated.
Upon this assurance of financial security every cloud of discouragement vanished. Confidence in the suc- cess and permanence of the museum was renewed. A spirit of emulation was aroused among exhibitors, American individuals and corporations, and especially in foreign and state commissions, and contributions were enlarged upon the scale of the endowment. The many valuable department collections that had been in danger of ruinous distribution, at once became the unquestioned property of the museum, and, by common agreement, the different educational -institutions dis- continued their efforts to secure contributions in their own behalf, and united in working for the museum.
In the Evening Post of September 14, A. W. Manning, writing upon the supposition that the Exposition would declare a dividend upon its capital stock, suggested that the holders of such stock contribute the same to the museum. November 1 the finance committee issued a circular to stockholders soliciting donations, the first to respond being L. C. Stebbins with fifty shares. The stock donations have amounted to more than $1,500,000, upon which a dividend of 10 per cent has been received.
During the month of November the museum corpora- tion appointed Ralph Metcalf as its representative on the Exposition grounds, and this gentleman opened offices in the then partly deserted Administration build- ing, and co-operated actively with the executive com- mittee of chiefs. The museum committee on exhibits, consisting of Messrs. Adams, Ayer and Ellsworth, made quite extensive purchases shortly after the close of the Exposition, including the collections from Paraguay, Peru, Java, Samoa and the Hagenbeck material. The first large purchase made was that of the Ward collec- tion of natural history, for which $95,000 was paid.
198 The Field Columbian Museum.
On November 18 it was formally determined to mass the donations of exhibits in Fine Arts hall. With this end in view, all the committees interested in the articles, collections or exhibits, either donated or purchased, con- centrated their efforts preparatory to a general removal. On December 7 Frederick J. V. Skiff, chief of the department of mines and mining" of the Exposition, accepted temporary charge of affairs. With him a number of gentlemen, including Edward E. Ayer, James W. Ellsworth, Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, of the Chicago University, and Professor Putnam met in Fine Arts hall, and determined in a rough way the preliminary installation plan of the museum. About 4 o'clock in the afternoon tHe first load of material for the museum was placed under the roof of that building.
From this general account of what transpired from the initiation of a movement for a museum, up to the beginning of the work of installation, it will be seen that, while few great public acts and little unified labor were apparent, so many men, each in his own field, and largely by his own volition, were sincerely enlisted in the movement, that there was a generous and energetic co-operation - in gathering material, in making pur- chases and securing funds. Thus the growth of the museum was contemporaneous with the progress of the Exposition.
Now began the task of gathering the vast amount of material from every part and corner, every stretch and recess of the vast area of the Exposition grounds, from the Midway Plaisance, from the Wooded island, from the Forestry building to the Fisheries building. Hun- dreds upon hundreds of tons of exhibits, collections and objects of every character, whether more or less desirable, were gathered under the broad shelter of the Fine Arts building. Then began selection, arrange- ment, re-arrangement, alteration and elaboration. Gradually, hall by hall, the building was emptied of the exhibits for whose display it was originally erected,
The Field Columbian Museum. 199
and as the objects of art departed, a mass of material poured in, heterogeneous in character and immense in extent, objects from the remotest lands and from the most diversified climes. Out of these began to grow a sequential and systematic exposition of wonderful and instructive objects gathered from every quarter of the globe.
A temporary allotment of space permitted at first but a rough classification. The winter was consumed in dividing, determining and listing the material that had been received. The many collections, carefully and judiciously purchased by the trustees and by the department chiefs furnished a broad foundation upon which a correct organization could be made. Gaps in the continuity of subjects were in a large degree obviated, so that at an early day from one end of the museum to the other could be traced, almost without a break, the living and instructive story of nature, of man and of his works; thus presenting features which could be found nowhere else in the world.
On January 3, 1894, the board of trustees was re- organized, and the following persons constituted members : Harlow N. Higinbotham, Edward E. Ayer, Norman B. Ream, Norman Williams, George E. Adams, Edwin Walker, Owen F. Aldis, Martin A. Ryerson, Huntington W. Jackson, Cyrus H. McCormick, Watson F. Blair, George Manierre, William J. Chalmers, George R. Davis, Arthur B. Jones.
Edward E. Ayer was elected president, Martin A. Ryerson, vice-president, Ralph Metcalf, secretary (who afterward resigned, and was succeeded by George Manierre), and Byron L. Smith, treasurer. Harlow N. Higinbotham was made chairman of the executive committee, and Frederick J. V. Skiff was chosen director-in-chief.
May 1, 1894, the installation of the museum was sub- stantially finished, if such a process can ever be deemed finished. On the 21st, by a unanimous vote, the trust-
200 The Field Columbian Museum.
ees decided to name the institution " The Field Columbian Museum."
The museum was dedicated June 2, 1894, with appro- priate ceremonies.
The building in which the collections of the museum are now installed was erected to contain the exhibits of fine arts at the World's Columbian Exposition. It occupies a central position in the northern area of Jackson park; and its southern facade overlooks a sheet of water called the North pond. The main struc- ture consists of two naves crossing centrally, 100 feet wide, 70 feet high, and respectively 500 and 350 feet long, the naves of which are surrounded by galleries. Their intersection is crowned by a dome which reaches a height of 125 feet. The four angular spaces, formed by the naves, are occupied by structures of a little less altitude, filling out the rectangle of the axis of the naves. At a little distance from each of the northern angles stands an annex, 200 by 120 feet, connected to the main building by a corridor.
The total floor area of the buildings is about six acres, divided into eighty halls, with rooms for studios, laboratories and storerooms. Light in exhibition rooms is obtained wholly from above. The walls are of brick covered with staff, having the effect of white marble and giving to the broad structure an appear- ance of solidity and durability. It was designed by Charles B. Atwood, after a Spanish model in the Grecian Ionic style. By many it was deemed the most sym- metrical, harmonious and completely beautiful of all the magnificent structures which gave to the World's Columbian Exposition its renown as an unrivaled architectural dream.
The great museums of the world have usually been developed by a steady growth, gathering impetus slowly during long periods of time. Never before has such an institution sprung so suddenly into a full and vigorous existence. Within a few weeks the museum
The Field Columbian Museum. 201
became the beneficiary of a princely donation of $1,500,- 000, of a spacious edifice erected for exposition pur- poses and emptied of one class of exhibits just when it was needed to shelter another, and the residuary lega- tee of the most extensive and complete Exposition yet gathered in the history of the world. In one brief month were united exhibits, building and funds, each entirely insufficient by itself, but each the binding link which united the other two into a completely organized and efficient whole.
The great commercial exhibits were soon distributed and returned to the sources whence they had been col- lected. Magnificent they were, grand, costly, power- ful, but in every case made for a purpose, to do some- thing, and they merely paused by the way to show in themselves the world's progress in the art of subduing herself. The great throbbing engines, the luminifer- ous dynamos, the queenly locomotives, each followed by her train of palaces, the tremendous enginery of ' war, terrible in silence, the monster tube, peering with Cyclopean eye into the remotest heavens; and the myriad other exhibits of which those named were only the more notable types, all had enjoyed a jubilee rest, and thenceforth were to be chained down to some fitting work of daily recurrence. Only when they are worn out, or are superseded by other structures or inven- tions, illustrative of yet further progress, when they have come to show to a new generation of men what their forefathers knew and achieved, will these objects find a place as landmarks of the past.
Few exhibits came from the departments of machin- ery or electricity ; from modern transportation or man- ufactures; from fine arts, the exhibits of which were mostly loaned or for sale ; from education, out of which grew numerous pedagogical collections ; nor from hor- ticulture, her exhibits being mostly of a perishable nature, as were many of those in agriculture.
202 The Field Columbian Museum.
In certain directions funds had been expended liber- ally by private donors, by the Exposition authorities, and by the government of the United States, for the collection and preparation of exhibits to fill some place in the Exposition, and by these means important results had been secured. All such collections naturally gravitated to the Field Columbian Museum.
The department of agriculture, of which William I. Buchanan was chief, was an immense storehouse crowded with museum material. The commissioners of foreign countries, and those representing the states of the Union, had without exception exploited exhibits of the agricultural resources of their several countries ; and all were delighted at the prospect of keeping together in Chicago a fitting presentation of the col- lection which had cost them so much effort and thought. From Russia, Japan, Corea, Ceylon, Siam and various parts of India, from Mexico, Central America and all the states of South America came complete sets of material, illustrating the great staples that form the most important factors of the world's commerce.
Particularly true was this of the collections of tim- bers and other forest products gathered in the Forestry building. It is no extravagant assertion to claim that never have the world's stores of beautiful and durable woods, adapted to the uses of human needs and genius, and of fruits, gums, resins and all similar forest prod- ucts been found in such generous abundance as in the stream flowing from the Forestry building to the Field museum. Nor was the museum grasping of the wealth thus offered to it. Machinery driven by electric power was installed, and the material was divided and gener- ously distributed to many other institutions of like pur- poses of usefulness. Any enumeration of even the principal collections thus utilized would become tedious. The assemblage of the material was skillfully conducted by Dr. Charles F. Millspaugh, since the curator of bot- any in the museum.
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The account of the collections in this department should not omit to mention the loan from the United States department of agriculture of a complete collec- tion of tobaccos, cottons, fiber plants, Alaskan woods and a series of forest trees.
These collections from the department of agriculture furnish the museum with an extensive and varied bo- tanical equipment, representing a wide geographical distribution.
The department of mines, mining and metallurgy has, in addition to the exhibits that spontaneously grav- itated thereto, three special exhibits, promoted by its own agents from funds provided by the Exposition directory. These exhibits are unique in character, broad in design and remarkably complete in execution.
The first is an exhaustive account of the mineral combustibles of the United States. Its foundation consists of a map of the country, prepared upon a scale of ten miles to the inch, and laid horizontally upon plate glass. By this map is shown, first, the general physical aspects of the country, its mountains, plains, rivers, etc. ; second, the positions and extent of all fields of coal of economic value, anthracite, semi-bitu- minous, bituminous and lignite, shown by areas colored black; third, the markets supplied by these coal fields, and the great lines of transportation by which their products are distributed.
Second, a collection of coals, lignites and cokes was prepared, representing every coal producing county in the country.
Third, a series of coal samples was shown in wall cases surrounding the plate glass map, each being num- bered to correspond with numbers placed on the map. With each sample are statistics as to quality of coal, obtained by careful chemical analysis, thickness of seam, output of mine, etc.
The scheme was executed with satisfactory results, and conveys a comprehensive account of the geographic
204 The Field Columbian Museum.
distribution and characteristics of the economic mineral. The map illustrates many interesting1 facts concerning the relations of the coal fields to each other, to lines of transportation and distribution, to the great centers of industry, and to their bearing on the future develop- ment of new manufacturing or industrial regions. The samples and their accompanying data were obtained at the cost of much labor and application. Specially pre- pared blanks were sent to all the mine owners of the country, and the data returned were carefully compiled and edited. The samples were trimmed to cubes of uniform dimensions, and arranged by states, so that coals of any locality could be readily found. The col- lection is similarly installed in the halls of the museum.
The second collection included the building and ornamental stones of the United States. A special cir- cular, distributed among quarry men in the principal stone producing regions, explained the scope of the proposed exhibit, and described the method in which the specimens should be prepared. They were to be trimmed in 4-inch cubes, showing the natural fracture and the different varieties of dressing, as sawn, planed, ribbed, tooled and polished. Most of the samples came as contributions; some were loaned. Special data were obtained for the samples, showing the location of quarry, the character of the stone, the trend of strata, chemical analysis, and physical test as to crushing load, resistance against frost, etc. Aseries of transparencies, illustrating, on a large scale, the microscopic structure of typical stone specimens, was prepared especially for this exhibit by George P. Merrill, of the National museum at Washington, author of a work on the build- ing and ornamental stones of the United States. This collection of building stones is now in possession of the Field Columbian Museum.
The third of these special collections presents an exhibit of the metallurgy of the precious and base metals, comprising separate monographic exhibits of
The Field Columbian Museum. 205
each of the metals of economic importance, illustrating the progress of the metal from the ore as it left the mine to the production of various manufactured articles from the simple metal and from its various alloys.
The steps represented were:
First. — Concentration samples, or mine metallurgy, showing the ores after the various steps of stamping, milling, separating, etc.
Second. — Reduction samples, showing the transfor- mations produced by chemical processes, by roasting, smelting, etc.
Third. — Application samples, showing the combina- tion of metals in alloys adapted to various uses in the arts.
Fourth. — Samples showing the results of test treat- ments, made to determine malleability or ductility or power to resist, tension, compression, torsion, etc., required to meet the severe demands of modern engi- neering.
The scheme was completed by a collection of dia- grams of metallurgical processes, and of pictures and models of the appliances in actual use. The collections were both contributed and loaned, and most of the owners of private exhibits cordially donated their material to the museum.
Mention should also be made of the iron and steel exhibit from the German section, of Stumm Bros, and of the very elaborate and complete exhibit of petro- leum and its products made by the Standard Oil Co., of New York.
In the department of anthropology had been col- lected extensive exhibits illustrative of the archaeo- logy and ethnology of America, the work of the chief, Prof. Frederick W. Putnam, of Harvard university, and a large corps of assistants, conducted with energy for two or three years. The exhibit was originally planned by Professor Putnam with the purpose of assembling from the American field — one of exceptional
206 The Field Columbian Museum.
richness — a vast number of anthropological objects representing its aboriginal American peoples. He had in mind, also, the value such collections would have for permanent exhibition, and this, no doubt, furnished the inspiration which led him to hope that a great anthropological museum might be established ulti- mately in Chicago.
Special collections were made for this department, under the direction of Professor Putnam, by com- missions sent out for the purpose, or by collectors resident in the field. Agents were sent to the Orinoco river, to Ecuador, Bolivia, Chili, Peru, Paraguay and other South American countries. An important series of casts of Central American ruins was obtained. Ethnological material was sought in Mexico and Southern California, and from the rich fields of Alaska. The tribes of Indians living within the territory of the United States and Canada furnished a large quota of much value. The rich treasures left by the, so called, mound builders in Hopewell, Ohio, were opened, under the direction of the department, especially for the Ex- position, and were supplemented by others from New Jersey, Michigan and Ohio.
The department of transportation exhibits was planned with a view of showing, not only the most approved methods of transportation in use at the present time, but also the gradual steps by which the present high degree of perfection has been attained.
A light two-wheeled vehicle, believed to be a Scythian racing chariot, was exhumed from an Egyptian mummy pit, and is now in a Florentine museum. The perfection of its workmanship is remarkable, and cer- tainly indicates that the historical accounts of ancient vehicles are not overdrawn. In the museum of the New York Historical Society there is also an Egyptian wheel. With these exceptions, no known relics are in existence. An exact replica of the first was made in Florence, and is now in the Field Columbian Museum. From the
The Field Columbian Museum. 207
same place came, also, a copy of a child's toy boat, found in an Etruscan tomb. Since the close of the Exposi- tion a boat sufficiently large for the conveyance of merchandise, in use on the Nile four and a half centu- ries before the beginning of the Christian era, has been exhumed from an Egyptian tomb above the pyramids some distance from the river, and is now one of the most ancient and most cherished exhibits in the Field Columbian Museum.
The examples named are, it is believed, the only remains known of ancient vehicles. The museums of the world contain, however, numerous specimens of ancient and mediaeval bits, spurs, etc., exhumed from tombs or found on battle fields, some of which were loaned to the Exposition, but could not be retained for the museum..
Among the most interesting of existing rude forms of transportation were those of the American continent. From Alaska came canoes, dog sleds, etc. ; from South America, canoes, donkeys, llamas, sedans and pack out- fits for men and beasts ; from Mexico, rude carts, mule litters, saddlery, etc. ; from Brazil, aboriginal canoes, rafts and jangadas. A valuable collection of various water craft, sedan chairs, palanquins and models illus- trating transportation was made through the agency of consuls on duty in all parts of the world. Foreign governments also contributed liberally to this phase of the Exposition.
The railway division of this department was entirely novel and without precedent. Covering as it did a period of scarcely a century, it nevertheless presented many phases of the development of this form of trans- portation which have already passed into oblivion, and are to the public of to-day no better known than if they had existed in the reigns of the Pharaohs. The exhibit was skillfully planned and thoroughly worked out at very considerable cost. It was undertaken in time to save many valuable relics which soon would have disap-
208 The Field Columbian Museum.
peared. Here could be traced the successive steps in the development of the permanent way, from a tram- way of rough stones to a perfectly graded, ballasted and ironed continuous railway track ; the growth of the locomotive, beginning with a sealed copper kettle and culminating in machines of the swiftest and strongest ; most of the intermediate steps having been redeemed from the scrap yards of the older railway corporations ; and the growth of the railway vehicle, from a simple box, that would carry a dozen passengers, to the pala- tial Pullman of latest elegance ; cars for carrying cattle, horses and fowls ; for climbing mountains, for working in forests and mines ; tank cars for oil ; mail cars ; refrigerator cars for fruits and fresh meats ; express cars and baggage cars. There were automatic brakes, pneumatic gates, electric block signals ; there were time cards, tariff lists, way-bills, tickets and passes.
The department of art left few indices of its own suc- cess with the Field Columbian Museum, for the reason that the plans of the museum did not provide for development in that direction, and because what of art did remain found a more fitting home at the Art Insti- tute, an organization which had already outgrown its adolescence, before the building of the Exposition, and which in various ways enjoyed timely and substantial assistance from that enterprise.
In the decoration of its stately edifices the builders of the Exposition used freely sculpture, as well as archi- tectural design. All the great buildings were a Torned with many original and beautiful objects in every phase of plastic art. Every pinnacle and coign of vantage bore its nymph or its hero, its guardian angel or its group of sirens or Solons. Many of the statues were of gigantic proportions, made so purposely because they were to occupy lofty positions at a distance from the eye of the observer, and because it was needful that they conform to the grand scale of the buildings they adorned. Some of the Exposition statuary was removed
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to other places. Most of the pieces perished in the final conflagration.
A considerable number of the pieces were repro- duced in dimensions suited to near .observation, and these are gathered in the central rotunda of the museum build- ing. Although not cast in bronze nor cut in enduring marble, but molded in perishable plaster, these statues deserve to be carefully preserved, being all that remains to illustrate the exuberant plastic art of the great Exposition. They include the Columbus by St. Gaudens and his pupil; the Republic by French; figures by Bitter, Martiny, Kraus and Waagen, and animals by Kemys, French and Potter.
The contents of a great museum arrange themselves in distinctly recognized groups, which are, neverthe- less, differentiated with difficulty, and often overlap each other, just as the kingdoms of nature constantly interlace. A single criterion divides the aggregation into two realms. In one we decipher the history of nature ; in the other is written the history of man. In the one we deal with a series of natural reactions. The relations of cause and effect are multifarious, yet relatively simple, and everywhere uniform. In the other realm a series of relations appears, but infinitely more difficult of apprehension, because complicated by motives, impulses and ideas not subservient to laws of like simplicity and uniformity. The laws of nature never vary ; those of human actions are infinitely vari- ant and divergent. Water became solid and then fluid in the remotest geologic ages just as it does to-day. The bee's cell always conforms to a constant formula. Men's dwellings, ships and locomotives vary infinitely. They who refer to science as if restricted to a dis- cussion of natural phenomena err greatly; a subtler and more profound scientia discusses the more infin- itely varied phenomena of human activities.
The fullest conception of a grand museum includes both phases of these contrasted ideals. The bronzes
210 The Field Columbian Museum.
from Pompeii, the collections of ceramic products, the statuary which perpetuates the glories of the Court of Honor, the Columbian relics, all belong- on the historic side. Their proper study involves the highest science.
The familiar subdivision of nature's products as mineral, vegetable and animal, serves to indicate to the popular view the principal divisions of that side of the museum which illustrates natural history in the departments of mineralogy, geology, botany, palaeon- tology, zoology and anthropology. In each of these departments the museum authorities have caused foun- dations to be laid with a broadly liberal and apprecia- tive care. The collections illustrate the facts concern- ing the form of the earth's crust and the objects found therein; the vegetables which thrive upon its surface, and the animals that live, directly or mediately, upon the vegetation.
Mention has been made of the collections in the department of mineralogy, illustrative of its economic side, in decorative and building stones, coals, petrol- eums and metallic ores. The decorative stones, marble, verde antique, alabaster and onyx represent many no- table European quarries. They are cut in slabs and polished. Four-inch cubes, variously wrought and sub- jected to the most strenuous practical tests, represent the best known quarries of building stones in the United States. The petroleums include samples from every oil well in the United States, with the sands from which they are drawn, accompanied with data graphi- cally shown, and illustrations of the processes and products of refinement.
A remarkably complete collection of gems and pre- cious stones, installed in Higinbotham hall, contains specimens of nearly every known variety, in crystals, cleavages or rolled grains, and in the finest cut exam- ples. Many of the objects are of world wide repute and of historical interest, diamonds, sapphires, aqua marines, topazes, etc. The examples of quartz and
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quartz cutting are not surpassed, and are accompanied with cut amethysts, opals and moonstones. There is a collection of cameos and intaglios, fine examples of the glyptic art, many of them cut as long ago as the year 500 A. D. Among the stones used are red jasper, carnelian, onyx, chalcedony, sardonyx and smoky quartz.
Installed with the gems, and worthy of note in the same connection, is the very complete Tiffany collec- tion of ^India jewelry. Many of the pieces are very old, representing the jeweler's handicraft as practiced in India for more than 2,000 years, and adapted to be worn upon various parts of the human body. This col- lection contains :
First. — Objects made from unalloyed gold, set with precious stones, and embellished with richly colored enamels. These jewels were worn by the higher caste only.
Second. — Silver jewels, finely wrought, worn by the lower castes.
Third. — Base metal jewelry, worn by the lowest castes.
The precious and economic metals are illustrated, from the forms in which they occur in nature, whether as native metals or as mineral ores, tractable or re- fractory, through all the processes by which the metals are reduced and prepared for economic uses. The illus- trations include models of the mills for the preparation of ores, smelters for their reduction and machinery for their further manufacture.
Non- metallic minerals and fictile materials are rep- resented with equal thoroughness.
The purely scientific side of science has not been neglected, the subdivisions being marked by notable examples, crystalline and amorphous, accompanied with carefully compiled statements of their crystallo- graphic and chemical relations. The section of lithol- ogy contains more than 15,000 specimens of the stand-
212 The Field Columbian Museum.
ard size, 4x3x1 inch, supplemented with a large num- ber of polished slabs.
The museum contains one of the fullest American collections of those substances of extra- tellurian origin known as aerolites, aerosiderites, etc., gathered by the earth from the unreckoned myriads of like substances traversing the intersidereal spaces.
The sections of structural and dynamic geology demonstrate by diagrams and models the processes of upheaval, depression and erosion, shaping the contours of the lands and the outlines of the seas, as those pro- cesses are now operating and have wrought in the suc- cessive periods of the world's geologic history.
The department of botany is one of the foremost in the museum, both as to the magnitude of its collections and the thoroughness of its organization. It occupies the whole of the wide galleries and the numerous alcoves surrounding the four main courts and the rotunda of the building. For light and convenience of arrange- ment the conditions could hardly be improved.
As has been already shown, the foundation of this department was the immense mass of valuable material inherited from the World's Columbian Exposition. The same cause determined, largely, the character of the collections. Gathered as they were for public display, the contributions from each field were chosen to attract and hold the attention of a lay observer rather than of one versed in the intricacies of botanical science. Hence the more than usual prominence given to ex- hibits of an economic and practical character. Hence the showing of forestry and its products, of fibers and their uses; of agricultural staples, as cotton, tobacco, hemp and all cereal grains; of teas, coffees, spices, gums, resins, oils, tan barks, dye stuffs and other things, familiar or rare ; the product of field and forest, of orchard and grove.
After the mineral, the vegetable; after the veg- etable, the animal. The sequence began in the deep seas,
MONOGRAPH — NORTH AMERICAN FORESTRY.
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while the continents were yet islands. The earth is one vast sepulchre. The rocks are full of the remains of plants and animals, of which even the races were long since extinct. The student of organic life must seek his earlier data in that ancient library, whose volumes, locked in the rocks, he must learn first to open, then to decipher. Of some volumes the editions are so large that any museum, even any private collector, may secure a representation, as of trilobites or crinoids, fishes or fern leaves, limited in volume only by the capacity of his cases. Of other forms originals are unique ; and as only now and then a library may pos- sess an original Dante or Milton, so only a single museum may enjoy a glyptodon or a dinotherium, while the others must be content with casts. Of both originals and casts the Field Columbian Museum has a collection arranged stratigraphically, in which the student may read, as from a book, an account of the progressive characteristics of life, from the earliest geological eras ; for the realms of palaeontology and of zoology are separated by no broader line than that which divides yesterday from to-day. The bull which was mired in a swamp, last week, is as certainly a geolog- ical object as is the mastodon, mired in the same swamp, perhaps a thousand years ago ; or the titano- therium which perished many thousand years before that, perhaps in a similar manner.
The plan of the arrangement of the palaeontology is, first, stratigraphical ; second, biological, the fossils of each epoch being placed in accordance with their rank in the scale of being.
The departments of the museum which have received the largest accessions since its opening are those of zoology and anthropology. Usually, in each season several expeditions have been sent into the field for the collection of material, at the charge of the museum management, or of its wealthy friends, under the immediate supervision of some member of its staff.
214 The Field Columbian Museum.
These excursions have varied in their range from the regions of the neighboring states to those as remote as Alaska and eastern Africa. Much valuable material has been secured in this way from Yucatan and Mexico; from the Indians in the mountain parts of the United States and upon the northwest coast, and from many nearer regions. The most important expedition, taking into account the time occupied, the distance traversed or the results secured, was that made to eastern and central Africa in the summer of 1896, by Prof. D. G. Elliot, curator of the department of zoology. Profes- sor Elliot entered Somali Land, in eastern Africa, from the coast, extended his search for large game far into the interior, and returned to the sea coast in the vicinity of Aden. The proceeds of the expedition were several hundred skins of large and rare mammals, of birds, reptiles, etc., with many skeletons, casts and other material of taxidermic value.
These specimens, with many others, have given opportunity of displaying species by groups, in which appear the young and adult of both sexes, mounted in the positions which they would naturally assume in their own homes, and surrounded by their usual acces- sories. As examples of such groups may be cited musk oxen, from the snows of northern Greenland; orang- utangs and proboscidean monkeys, playing and fight- ing amid tropical foliage; wild asses, oryxes, lesser koodoos, Walter's gazelles, and leopards, in African habitats; guanacos, from South America and panthers, from the Rocky mountain regions. Besides these groups there are typical specimens of nearly every family of animals known to science.
The group of ornithology is the only zoological group which has, thus far, been assigned to a special curator. The system of arrangement admits of the isolation of others whenever occasion may require. In this group, as in others, the outline of classification is well filled, while the accessions, constantly gathering, readily find
Tlie Field Columbian Museum. 215
their places. Among the birds, as among1 the mammals, a large beginning has been made in the preparation of what may be called monographic exhibits. As is well known, the plumage of some species of birds varies greatly, not only because of sex, but with age, season and habitat. A complete series, which it may take many patient years to acquire, will show these variations, together with the nest, often only a feeble apology for one, as found on the ground, in a bush, in the hollow of a tree or lost among the stones of a desert beach.
Anthropology, covering a wide field in the develop- ment of the human family, and furnishing a vast range of materials available for museum purposes, naturally became an important feature in the young museum. The founders were fortunate in securing at the outset extensive collections representing many widely separ- ated portions of the world.
The great group illustrating the carrying industries has already been referred to. Other exhibits illustrat- ing interests of special importance to civilized man, such as ceramics, textiles, leathers, jewelry, etc., have been gathered into a department of industries. In another direction, the fine arts, particularly painting and sculptures, might well be segregated. The indus- tries and the fine arts being thus separately provided for, there would remain a department to which should be referred whatever relates to the progressive move- ments of primitive peoples, through all the stages which brought them to the fuller light of a generous civilization.
The location of the museum, in proximity to the cen- ter of the North American continent, imposes upon it a peculiar obligation to take a prominent part in secur- ing from the tribes of red men, now rapidly disappear- ing, everything that can illustrate the history and the character of those indigenous races.
A brief enumeration will indicate the recognition of this obligation, and the steps taken in its fulfillment.
216 The Field Columbian Museum.
Among the important collections which have a direct bearing- upon the subject are the generous gift of Mr. Edward E. Ayer, illustrative of American ethnology, valued at $100, 000, as already stated: houses, totem poles and utensils from the Haida Indians of Alaska; Eskimo material from North Greenland, Alaska and Eastern Siberia; casts of sculptured ruins in Yucatan; illustra- tions of the villages, homes and employments of the Zuni, Hopi and other dwellers upon the mesas in the arid regions of Arizona and vicinity; collections from the Hopewell mounds of Ohio, from New Jersey, the southern states and Canada; collections from Peru, Colombia, Paraguay and British Guiana.
Some of this vast array of valuable material was shown at the Columbian Exposition, some has since been added by gift, much has been gathered by the work ing staff of the museum in vacation and other ex- cursions. To the enumeration may be added casts of Chaldeo-Assyrian antiquities, originals from Egypt, ethnographic material from islands of the Pacific ocean, from all parts of eastern Asia and from Africa.
In this account of the museum much has been omit- ted, and all has been condensed . It is not possible to give more briefly an adequate conception of the magnificent enterprise which, at the outset, stepped into the front rank among the great museums of the world. Its scheme is ample. Its methods accord with the best museum practice. With its present and increasing facilities it will continue to confer inestimable benefits upon the citizens and, particularly, the youth of the metropolitan city of Chicago.
Science is served by the museum through the original work of its staff, performed upon its collections, and made known by its publications.
The general public is served by the museum through its collections, open constantly for study or amusement, by its popular lecture courses, and also by its publica- tions. The halls of the museum are open to the public
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365 days in the year, on Saturdays and Sundays with- out charge. Many thousands of free tickets are issued each year to the children of the public schools of the city, through their superintendents, and teachers with their classes are always welcome. During the five years since the opening of the museum the average attendance has been more than 250,000 per annum.
During each season two or more courses of lectures, of six to ten lectures in each course, are given at the museum by members of the staff or other noted scien- tists, upon scientific subjects of popular interest, to crowded audiences, admitted without charge. The lec- tures are usually illustrated with transparencies pre- pared in the museum.
Publications are issued, not at stated periods, but whenever suitable material has been prepared by some of the staff. The museum maintains its own printing office. Forty-one papers have been printed and dis- tributed to the officers and members of the Association, and to other scientific and educational institutions. The issues are classified as- follows:
Historical, two papers; geological, six papers; bo- tanical, four papers; zoological, fifteen papers; anthro- pological, five papers ; ornithological, two papers ; reports, four; miscellaneous, three.
The library contains 10,000 books and 11,500 pam- phlets, which may be consulted freely by visitors to the museum. The whole number of museum articles en- tered in the catalogue of accessions is 181,492. The productive endowment is $702,000. The income for the year ending September 30, 1899, from all sources, was $63,506.
The membership of the Field Columbian Museum, organized as a society, consists of the following :
Corporate members 65 '
Patrons 5
Honorary members 4
Life members 81
Annual members . . 415
218 The Field Columbian Museum.
The officers for the current year, ending September 30, 1900, are : Harlow N. Higinbotham, president and chairman of the executive committee ; Martin A. Ryer- son, first vice-president ; Norman B. Ream, second vice- president ; George Manierre, secretary ; Byron L. Smith, treasurer.
The museum staff consists of the following : Fred- erick J. V. Skiff, director ; G. A. Dorsey, curator, department of anthropology ; S. C. Simms, assistant curator, division of ethnology ; C. P. Millspaugh, cura- tor, department of botany ; O. C. Farrington, curator, department of geology; H. W. Nichols, assistant cura- tor, department of geology ; Elmer S. Riggs, assistant curator of palaeontology ; D. G. Elliot, curator, depart- ment of zoology ( except ornithology ) ; S. E. Meek, assistant curator ; C. B. Cory, curator, department of ornithology ; Elsie Lippincott, librarian ; D. C. Davies, recorder.
The Field Columbian Museum, with Chicago's other great educational endowments, its university, its libra- ries, its institutions and its schools of art and science, gives to this city an eminence as a conservator of the most exalted humanities, fully consonant with her un- rivaled commercial position.
MODEL OF THE MOON.
THE YERKES OBSERVATORY OF THE UNI- VERSITY OF CHICAGO.
The establishment of the Yerkes Observatory is due to the liberality of Mr. Charles T. Yerkes, who up to the present year (1899), was for a long time at the head of the systems of city railway transportation in the west and north divisions of the city of Chicago. In October, 1892, after consultation with Prof. George E. Hale and President Harper, of the University, Mr. Yerkes gave the order for the 40-inch lens, then unfinished, in the possession of Alvan Clark, of Cambridgeport, Mass., and for an equatorial mounting for the same, to be con- structed by Messrs. Warner & Swasey. The mounting was prominent among the exhibits at the great World's Fair in 1893. Mr. Yerkes also agreed to pay for the erection of a suitable observatory building. The plans for the same were prepared by Professor Hale in 1893 and 1894, and the work of construction was begun in April, 1895, under the direction of the architect, Mr. Henry Ives Cobb. The operations of building, mount- ing and adjusting were completed in October, 1897, when the work of the observatory was formally inaugu- rated by a numerously attended congress of leading astronomers, an excursion party composed of many prominent citizens of Chicago and vicinity, and appro- priate dedicatory exercises. The total cost to Mr. Yerkes is understood to have been $66,000 for the big lens, $55,000 for the mounting, $45,000 for the dome and rising floor, $3,000 for a stellar spectrograph, and anunstated sum paid by him for the erection of a power house. The 30-foot dome on the southeast tower cost $7,000. The 26-foot dome on the northeast tower for- merly belonged to the Kenwood Observatory, the entire equipment of which, including the 12-inch telescope, solar spectroscope, concave grating spectroscope, astronomical clock, minor instruments, tools, machin- ery, etc., was given to the University of Chicago by Mr. William E. Hale, for use in the Yerkes observatory. Other instruments which have been constructed are a 3i-inch transit telescope, a photoheliograph attached
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220 The Yerkes Observatory.
to the large instrument, a spectroheliograph for photo- graphing the solar prominences and faculse, a Michel- son interferometer, an interpolating machine, a micro- meter for measuring photographs of stellar spectra, apparatus for enlarging photographs of stellar spectra, a large spherometer, and various bolometers and acces- sory apparatus. In the optical laboratory a grinding machine, constructed in the instrument shop, has been used by Mr. Ritchey in making a 60-inch glass speculum for a reflector. Also an equatorial mounting has been constructed in the observatory workshop for a 24-inch reflecting telescope, with mirror by Mr. Ritchey. And Miss Catherine Bruce has made provision for supplying a photographic telescope of ten inches aperture to be mounted in a small building on the observatory grounds. The steel tube of the big "Yerkes" telescope is sixty-four feet long. Its center of motion is some 240 feet above the surface of Lake Geneva, and about 1,200 above the sea level. Its astronomical position is now being accurately determined. Approximately it is in north latitude 42° 34' 15", and longitude 5h. 54m. 14s. west from Greenwich. It is thirty-eight miles west from Lake Michigan, one-third of a mile from the shore of Lake Geneva, and more than a mile distant from the nearest railroad track. The site comprises an area of fifty- , three acres, which was donated by Mr. John Johnston. The region is one where the mean annual cloudiness is small for this part of the United States. It has nearly the minimum of dust, and is not likely to be disturbed by the establishment of factories, while the summer residences on the shore of the lake are well removed from the site of the observatory. The nature of the soil is such that almost the minimum of ground vibra- tion is secured, and the site is not appreciably affected by atmospheric disturbances due to the small lake, as the prevailing winds at the observatory do not blow across much water surface. Hence the atmospheric conditions are really good. They compare well with those in the neighborhood of any other observatory in the United States, with the possible exception of those in California and Arizona. Experience shows that they are about as good as could be desired for work on the sun, which necessarily has to be prosecuted in the daytime, and which hitherto has formed the princi- pal subject of Professor Hale's investigations; while those of the night part of the twenty-four hours are
The Yerkes Observatory.
221
somewhat less good, for which reason the higher power magnifying eye pieces cannot be used quite so often as wished for. The principal difficulty of the present seems to be in the heavy wall of the tower under the big dome, which renders the equalization of external and internal temperature a slow process, causing annoy- ing air currents near the object glass. Otherwise the steadiness of seeing is superb, and the mechanism which moves the telescope to make it keep pace with a star, is almost perfect in its action.
The following are the magnifying powers of the dif- ferent eye pieces with which the big telescope is furnished; 230, 280, 350, 400, 700, 940, 1,340, 1,700,
THE YERKES TELESCOPE.
2,080, 2,680 and 3,750. When the latter is employed the field of view is only twenty-eight seconds of arc in diameter, which is less than sufficient to show the whole of the disc of Jupiter at once, to say nothing of the moon. After allowing for loss of light, etc., as one has to allow for the loss of power by transmission through machinery, the highest effective gain that is possible with the Yerkes instrument, assuming perfect atmos- pheric conditions, is that the observer could see the moon through the telescope about as well as he could see it with the naked eye at a distance of 100 miles. For the planet Mars the corresponding naked eye dis- tance would be about 15,000 miles. From this it is easy to infer that the telescope will have to be vastly increased in power before any man can reasonably
222 The Yerkes Observatory.
hope to deal with the question of life on the moon, otherwise than in the most generally inferential way, while the difficulty in the case of any one of the planets is vastly greater. And there is very little ground for hope that the difficulty ever will be overcome, at least optically. The Yerkes telescope is the largest refract- ing instrument in the world, its aperture of forty inches being one-ninth greater than that of the Lick, and nearly two and one-sixth times that of the Dearborn instrument, which was the greatest refractor in the world at the time it was brought to Chicago in 1866. One of forty-eight inches aperture is being constructed in France for the World's Fair at Paris, but that will be far inside the above noted limits of possi- bility for the study of life conditions on the lunar sur- face. And it may be added that the advantages to be gained by a further increase of size are highly prob- lematical. Besides the trouble of manipulation and the loss of light by passage of the rays through greater thickness of glass, there is the important fact that the cure for chromatic aberration, which was invented by Dollond a century and a half ago, is not an absolute corrective for the big refractors that can be made now. There is a scattering of rays in the direction of the axis. In the Yerkes telescope the rays in the ultra violet portion of the spectrum come to a focus a at point which is fully six inches further from the object glass than is the point at which the yellow rays focus, and there is not any known means of obviating this diffi- culty, which increases with the area of the object lens. It is impossible to tell what will be done at the Yerkes Observatory in the future. One may draw an inference from the following synopsis of what already has been accomplished, which is abstracted from a paper kindly furnished by Director Hale:
' ' Professor Burnham has employed the big telescope two nights in the week in the measurement of double stars, with the special purpose of preparing a catalogue of his own stars for publication. He has measured about 1,000 pairs, and discovered a few new doubles.
' ' Professor Barnard has measured a number of double stars, including the most difficult pairs known, and determined the periods of several of the variable stars discovered by Professor Pickering in the cluster known as Messier 5. He has also triangulated the stars in several clusters by an extensive series of micrometer
Tfie Yerkes Observatory. 223
measures. During the summer of 1898 he made a series of measures of the diameters of Venus and Mercury, and was unable to find any traces of the linear markings recently described by several observ- ers, though the vague markings seen by him at Mount Hamilton were visible through the Yerkes glass. He has frequently observed the fifth satellite of Jupiter, discovered by him in September, 1892, and determined its period of revolution to be llh. 57m. 22.652s. He has measured the satellite of Neptune many times, taken a large number of measures of the position of the little planet Eros, which at times comes nearer to the earth than any other body except the moon and meteoroids, has studied the markings on the surfaces of Jupiter and Saturn, and made many measures of positions of comets and nebulag, with dimensions of the latter.
"During the last three years Professor Barnard has made a large number of photographs of stars and nebulae with portrait lenses of various dimensions, some of these being taken for the purpose of testing trial lenses so as to secure the best type of portrait lens for the Bruce photographic telescope. He and Messrs. Ritchey and Ellerman observed the Leonid meteors the night of November 14, 1898. They deter- mined the greatest hourly rate (105) to be between three and four o'clock A. M., and the position of the radiant to be 9 h. 56 m. of right ascension, and 24° of north declination. Since July, 1898, Professor Frost has devoted most of his observing time to determining the velocities of stars in the line of sight. Some important improvements in the apparatus for perform- ing this work are being made as the result of these experiments.
"Director Hale, assisted by Mr. Ellerman, has studied the spectrum of the solar chromosphere, and discovered a large number of bright lines that are new to the observer, including the bands due to carbon vapor. They have made a number of experiments in photographing the sun, and hope by the close of this year to be systematically at work with a large spectro- heliograph which is nearing completion in the work- shop of the observatory, made from designs by Director Hale. These gentlemen have undertaken a photographic study of stars of Secchi's fourth type, and found it possible to use a dispersion train of three prisms, even with the faintest of the stars, which range
224 The Yerkes Observatory.
down to less than the eighth magnitude. They have measured several hundred lines in the spectra, and the radial velocity has been sufficiently well determined to permit the wave lengths to be corrected for motion. A study of the photographs has led to the conclusion that these stars of the fourth type contain bright lines, and that there can be no doubt of an intimate connection between stars of the third and fourth types. Mr. Ellerman has obtained spectra of Jupiter and Saturn, the latter affording the best of evidence that the heavy Saturnian atmosphere is far less dense or altogether lacking on the rings. Professor Wadsworth has pho- tographed the spectra of several double stars, includ- ing some photographic binaries, for the purpose of determining the relative displacement of lines that are common to both 'spectra. He also has published a series of papers dealing with the optical theory of the telescope and other instruments, and these investigations have led to important developments of the theory of the resolving power of spectroscopes.
"During the summer of 1898, Dr. E. F. Nichols, of Dartmouth College, made an important study of heat radiation from the stars. The sensitiveness of the radiometer used by him was such that a deflection of one-tenth of a millimeter corresponded to the heat that would be received from a candle fifteen miles away, if there were no loss by atmospheric absorption. He obtained deflections of six times this quantity for the heat radiation from Arcturus, and a little less than half that from Vega. Mr. J. A. Parkhurst, of Marengo, 111., devoted several nights to observations of variable stars, and was able to set an upper limit to the minimum magnitudes of nine variables. Satisfactory photo- graphs of the moon have been obtained with the aid of the great Yerkes telescope, though the instrument is not intended for photographic work."
The staff of workers at the Yerkes Observatory in June, 1899, included George E. Hale, director; S. W. Burnham and E. E. Barnard, astronomers; E. B. Frost, astrophysicist; Ferdinand Ellerman, assistant, and G. W. Ritchey, optician. Prof. F. L. O. Wadsworth has accepted the directorship of the Allegheny observatory. No permanent endowment has been secured for the observatory, but Miss Catherine W. Bruce, of New York, has given $15,000, to be used in paying the salary of one member of the staff for a term of years.
COMMERCIAL HISTORY OF ILLINOIS.
No nation or state ever rose high in the scale of civilization whose commercial relations with the outside world were lim- ited, and it may with truth be said, that nations rise in wealth and grandeur almost in proportion as they barter, buy and sell with other nations.
The progress of Illinois, in this direction, has been marked by many a change in the varied history of the country. Buf- falo hides were the first articles of merchandise ever shipped from the Illinois country; and the export of these began about 1720. They were sent down the Mississippi river to New Orleans, which had then just been laid out as a French vil- lage. A few years later wheat, flour, and other agricultural productions followed in the same channel. The French fur traders came into Northern Illinois as early as the winter of 1674-5,* and bought furs of the Indians for the Canada trade.
Shortly after the English took possession of Illinois in 1765, the British board of trade took the subject under consider- ation of turning the trade of their French subjects, here, away from the French of New Orleans to the lakes and the St. Lawrence river, but nothing was ever done to accomplish such a result; probably owing to the friendly relations be- tween the French and the Indians and the unfriendly rela- tions between the English and the Indians.
Spain purchased Louisiana of France in 1762, which country then included the territory west of the Mississippi river and New Orleans on its east bank. Shortly after the peace of Paris, in 1783, Spain closed the navigation of the
*See Marquett's Journal, written in " Chicag-ou," lt>7r>, translated by J. G. Shea, and first published, in Eng-lish, in Dawson's Historical Mag-., New York.
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226 Commerce of Chicago.
*Mississippi river against the commerce of the west, which cut off her only available channel of communication with the sea, for the whole of Northern Illinois was a desolate wild, and the shores of Lake Michigan could not be reached by the French of Illinois except by a long- overland route across the prairies, over which neither roads had been built, nor had streams been bridged.
In 1795 Spain agreed by treaty, negotiated October 27th by Thomas Pinkney on the part of the United States, to yield to the latter power the free navigation of the Mississippi ;f but her procrastinating policy in relinquishing her forts on the banks of this stream, at Natchez and other places, delayed its fulfillment till the Spanish government retroceded Louisiana to the French in 1800, by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso. This treaty was not published to the nations till two years later, the next year after which Louisiana was purchased of the French by the United States, the treaty for which was ratified by congress October 21st, 1803.
From this time onward till the water craft of the lakes had reached Chicago, as common carriers, which was in about 1835, the export trade of Illinois went to New Orleans with- out hindrance, and even from this later date (1835) to the era of railroads, the Mississipi river was a more important chan- nel of trade to the State of Illinois than the lakes. Meantime the new motive power, destined to transcend both of the original channels of trade, was slowly and surely approaching the state from the Atlantic coast across the intervening country, studding its broad plains with towns in its course, and multiplying its wealth.
The legislature of Illinois was composed of men of am-
*When England conceded the Mississippi river as the western bound- ary of the United States, at the peace of 1783, she also transferred to the new government her rights of navigating this stream. When this treaty was signed at Paris, it was done without the knowledge of the Spanish minister, who claimed, for his government, all the territory between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi. Spain thus balked in her ambition to secure the valley of the Mississippi to herself, was smart- ing under the sting of having been humiliated by the able diplomacy of American statesmen, which was one of the causes of her waywardness in excluding the Americans from navigating the Mississippi. Her excuse for this course was that England had transferred a claim to which she herself had no right, which was perhaps true, but it was in vain that the Spanish government protested against the new order of destiny that the fortunes of war had brought.
fSee Treaty of San Lorenzo el Real, Am. State Papers, 1795.
Commerce of Chicago. 227
bitious purposes, from the first, and this spirit seemed to gather strength as other states to the eastward set the example of building- canals, and particularly railroads.
The first official act here in this direction took place Janu- ary 28th, 1831, at which time an act was passed by the gen- eral assembly for the survey of a route for a canal or railroad in St. Clair county. *Other plans for public transportation by means of canals, slack water navigation and railroads, were subsequently chartered by the state, some of which were premature, while others showed the wisdom and forecast of their architects. Of the latter sort the Galena & Chicago Union and the Illinois Central railroads were examples — the first as the pioneer east and west line through the state, and the last as the pioneer north and south line from the southern extremity of the state to its great commercial emporium on the lakes and to its northwestern tangent.
THE RAILROADS OF CHICAGO.
List of Railroads that enter Chicago on their own tracks August 1st, 1900, with date of their entrance into this city.
Several of these Railroads had been operated for years before they were built into Chicago. Belt lines and Railroads that do not extend beyond Cook County are omitted, as also are omitted roads owned or controlled but 'not operated by the parent road.
Many of these roads have direct connection with other lines tending towards Chicago but have no tracks of their own entering the city.
Passengers can be ticketed from Chicago to all points in the United States by the admirable coupon system of tickets in universal use.
ttalena & Chicago Union Railway Co.— Entered Chicago in the Fall of 1848. Consolidated June 2nd, 18C4, with other Companies under the title of the Chicago & North- Western Railway Company.
Michigan Central .... May 21st, 1852.
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern . May 22nd, 1852.
Illinois Central .... October, 1856.
*See paper read by W. K. Ackerman before the Chicago Historical Society, February, 1885.
228
Commerce of Chicago.
Chicago, Burlington and Qtiincy . Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific- . Chicago and Alton . . Pitts., Ft. Wayne and Chicago . Pitts., Cincinnati and St. Louis . Chicago and Eastern Illinois Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Baltimore and Ohio
Wabash
New York, Chicago and St. Louis
Grand Trunk ....
Chicago Great Western
lie hi so n, Topeka and Santa Fe .
Wisconsin Central
Erie
May 20th, 1864. Oct. 1st, 1852. 1857.
Nov. 10th, 1856. March , 1856.
Oct. , 1869.
Jan. 9th, 1882. February, 1873. Nov. 17th, 1874. March 23rd, 1880. Oct. 22nd, 1882. Feb. 12th, 1880. Sept., 1887. Sept. 17th, 1887. July, 1886. April, 1883.
METHOD OF TRAVEL PREVIOUS TO THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS.
S. W Corner Lake and Dearborn Streets.
HISTORY OF THE CHICAGO TRIBUNE.
BY PROF. ELIAS COLBERT.
The Chicago Tribune, like all the great newspapers of the United States, had a very contracted and humble origin. Its existence began on Thursday, June 10, 1847, in the third story of a building on the southwest corner of La Salle and Lake streets, a single apartment being sufficient for the counting room, printing office, and editorial "sanctum." The men who stood spon- sors for it at its birth were James J. Kelly, John E. Wheeler and Joseph C. K. Forrest. Messrs. Wheeler and Forrest were the principal writers. Mr. Kelly had been associated for two years previously with Thomas A. Stewart, as publishers of a weekly paper called The Gem of the Prairie, which was continued until 1849 as the weekly edition of the Tribune, and then separately till 1852. The Weekly Tribune, as a distinct issue, dropped out of existence in August, 1887.
The new paper was independent in politics, with free soil leanings. The name is reported to have been suggested by Mr. Forrest, and readily adopted by Mr. Wheeler, who previously had been on the staff of the paper " founded by Horace Greeley." Four hundred copies, worked off on a hand press, one of the pro- prietors acting as pressman, was the extent of the first edition of the Chicago Tribune. That was not far from being in the same proportion to the number of inhabit- ants of the city as an issue of 45,000 would be to-day.
The Tribune soon underwent a complete change of ownership. Mr. Kelly withdrew two weeks after the
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230 History of the Chicago Tribune.
date of the first issue, and his interest was taken by Thomas A. Stewart. September 27 of the same year Mr. Forrest retired, drawing out his original invest- ment of only $600, which had been advanced by Jonathan Y. Scammon. From that time till August 23, 1848, the Tribune was conducted by Messrs. Wheeler and Stewart. Then Mr. John Locke Scripps purchased a. one-third interest, and the firm name became Wheeler, Stewart & Scripps. May 22 of the next year, 1849, the office was entirely destroyed by fire, but the loss was nearly covered by an insurance for $2, 100, and publication was resumed two days later. Several removals followed, and December 6, before a permanent location was secured, the publishers had completed arrangements for receiving news dispatches from New York, this mark- ing a long step forward in the history of Chicago jour- nalism. In May, 1850, the establishment was removed to the Masonic building, No. 173 Lake street, and the Tribune began to be prosperous. It was enlarged to the dimensions of 28x40 inches, and had a daily circula- tion of 1,120 copies.
On June 30, 1851, Mr. Wheeler sold his interest to Thomas J. Waite, who became the business manager, but died of cholera August 26, 1852, his interest being taken by Henry Fowler. June 12, 1852, Mr. Scripps, who had been for some years the leading editorial writer, sold his one-third interest to a party of promi- nent whigs, and General William Duane Wilson assumed the editorial management, while Mr. Stewart took charge of the local news column. About this time the establishment was removed to No. 53 Clark street, in the Evans block, opposite the Sherman house, where the Tribune was conducted as an active free-soil paper, and supported General Scott for president. March 23, 1853, General Wilson sold out his interest to Henry Fowler & Co., the company being Timothy Wright and General J. D. Webster, and Mr. Stewart became the editor. The following July Mr. Fowler retired, on account of
History of the Chicago Tribune. 231
failing health, and T. A. Stewart & Co. were announced as the publishers. In November they began to take the Associated Press dispatches, which in those days " did not amount to much, though they were about as good as the best." In January, 1855, the paper was enlarged to ten columns to the page, making it, as conceded by its rival contemporary, The Chicago Democrat, "the largest daily in the west, except one or two in St. Louis." The size was, however, reduced back to its former dimensions under a new management a few months later.
June 18, 1855, Mr. Joseph Medill, coming to Chi- cago from Cleveland, Ohio, purchased a one-third inter- est in the Tribune, and July 21 Mr. Stewart announced through the paper his retirement from the position of editor and publisher. About the same time Dr. Charles H. Ray, who had become editorially connected with the office the preceding April, bought a one-quarter interest. Mr. Timothy Wright now took the lead, Wright, Medill & Co. being announced as the pub- lishers. A few months later Mr. John C. Vaughan, who had been associated with Mr. Medill on the Cleve- land Leader, joined the firm, which then became Vaughan, Ray & Medill, the two first named being the editors, and Mr. Medill acting in a managerial capac- ity. The paper was reduced in size, as previously mentioned, but it gained enormously in circulation and power. July 1, 1855, its circulation was stated as about 1,440 daily and 1,000 weekly. Three months later it had risen to 3,000 daily, 5,000 tri-weekly, and 4,500 weekly, the expansion necessitating the putting in of a new steam press of the Hoe pattern in place of the old "Northrup," and in connection with this change the Tribune introduced the first copper faced type that was ever used in Illinois. A little later Alfred Cowles was taken into the firm, which became Ray, Medill & Co. on the withdrawal of Mr. Vaughan March 26, 1857. From this onward the paper pros-
232 History of the Chicago Tribune.
pered well through the "flush times" that preceded the panic of 1857, and then it suffered severely, in com- mon with about all the business interests of Chicago and the whole west.
Three months after his retirement from the Tribune Mr. Scripps joined William Bross, subsequently alder- man and later lieutenant governor of this state, in pub- lishing the Democratic Press, the first number of which was issued September 16, 1852, at No. 45 Clark street. For a time the new paper was strictly " conservative democratic," but after the passage of the Kansas-Ne- braska bill it became free soil, and at the organization of the republican party it earnestly supported that party. The Democratic Press is entitled to the post mortem dis- tinction of having paid special attention to the then infant manufactures and commerce of the city. Its statistical articles, compiled by Mr. Bross, formed the beginning of the series which has constituted the well known Tribune annual review for many years past.
The panic of 1857 played havoc with the finances of both the Tribune and the Democratic Press, and the pro- prietors concluded to join their forces, this being all the easier as the two papers had occupied almost pre- cisely the same ground politically. The consolidated paper was named the Press and Tribune, the junction dating July 1, 1858. That title was retained till Octo- ber 25, 1860, when the word Press was dropped, the then re-adopted title of the paper being the same that it bears to-day. The consolidation was the means of effecting a great saving in expenses, but it did not enable the proprietors, Scripps, Bross, Spears, Ray, Medill and Cowles, to avert the threatened bank- ruptcy. They were forced to assign in the following November, and obtained an extension of three years on their indebtedness, which, 'however, was all paid off in the first twenty-one months. During this time Mr. Scripps was the senior editor, and he held the position till his appointment as postmaster at Chicago by Pres-
History of the Chicago Tribune. 233
ident Lincoln, March 28, 1861 About the end of 1858 the company removed its office to No. 51 Clark street, and the paper was published from that stand till the removal to the present location on the southeast corner of Dearborn and Madison streets in May, 1869.
The Tribune Company was formally incorporated by a special act of the legislature February 18, 1861, the incorporators being John L. Scripps, William Bross, C. H. Ray, Joseph Medill and Alfred Cowles ; with William H. Rand as a stockholder. The capital stock was placed at $200,000, and has not been increased since then, though the selling value of the same has long ranged in the millions. (A large block of it sold on the basis of $1,000,000 as long ago as Octo- ber, 1874, when Mr. Medill purchased from Messrs. White and Cowles enough to give him the controlling interest, which he retained to the time of his death, March 16, 1899, and that sale was made under the heavy depreciation of values which followed the panic of 1873). March 2, 1861, on the organization of the company under the charter, Mr. Scripps was elected president and Mr. Cowles, secretary ; and Dr. Ray be- came editor-in-chief when Mr. Scripps took the position of postmaster a few weeks later. November 20, 1863, Dr. Ray retired, and Mr. Medill was editorial superin- tendent from that date till August 1, 1866. Horace White, who had been connected with the paper ever since 1856, first as reporter and later as Washington correspondent, succeeded as editor-in-chief, having purchased the interest of Mr. Scripps, shortly before the latter died, September 21, 1866. Mr. White held the office till October, 1874. Under his administration the Tribune supported General Grant for the presidency in 1868, but switched off to the advocacy of free trade doctrines, and supported the nomination of Greeley for presidential candidate on the opposition ticket in 1872, the result being a great loss of income and influence, owing to wide-spread dissatisfaction among republicans
234 History of the Chicago Tribune.
who had indorsed the course of the paper in its early advocacy of the principles of their party, the election of Lincoln, and a vigorous prosecution of the war for the suppression of the rebellion. Messrs. Medill and Bross protested against the" radical change of policy, but were powerless in the matter, as Messrs. White and Cowles controlled a bare majority of the stock. This was '" the reason why " Mr. Medill insisted in the sum- mer of 1874 that those two gentlemen must sell to him enough to make his interest a controlling one, or take the alternative of whatever consequences might ensue from his selling out entirely. From October 9 of that year till his decease, March 16, 1899, Mr. Medill was the owner of a little more than half of the stock of the company, and editor-in-chief of the paper. He became president of the company on the death of Governor Bross, who had occupied that position from the date of the retirement of Mr. Scripps, during which time Mr. Medill was vice-president. In his will he intimated it to be his desire that his stock in the Tribune Company should be held as a unit by his descendants (two daugh- ters and their children) for the next twenty-one years.
Mr. Robert W. Patterson, the husband of Mr. Medill's youngest daughter, was secretary and treas- urer of the company from the demise of Mr. Cowles in December, 1889, to the death of Mr. Medill. Follow- ing the latter event, Mr. Patterson was elected president of the company and editor-in-chief of the Tribune, and the position of secretary and treasurer was taken by Mr. Alfred Cowles, son of the man who had occupied the place from 1861 to 1889. Mr. George P. Upton, the dean of the editorial force, has been vice-president since January, 1890.
In May, 1869, the Tribune Company moved into a new building which it had constructed on the site it now occupies, the lot being 120 feet on Madison and 72 feet on Dearborn street. The structure was of Joliet stone, four stories in height, and cost $225,000. It was
History of the Chicago Tribune. 235
supposed to be "fireproof," and for that reason was uninsured, but went down (or up) in the terrible heat of the great fire of October, 1871. The publication of the paper was resumed Wednesday, October 11, from a temporary home at No. 15 South Canal street, and on the first anniversary of the fire the Tribune was issued from its present building of five stories in height, which had been erected by the company at a cost of $250,000. December 1, 1897, and subsequently, the company purchased the buildings occupying the sev- enty-two feet next adjoining on the south, and took a lease of the ground from the board of education, the whole being school property. This makes a total lot of 144 feet on Dearborn by 120 feet on Madison, which the company will improve at a cost of not less than $400,000, and perhaps considerably more, on plans which were not decided on at the time this sketch was written. The extension is needed to provide for the still increasing business of the company, the mag- nitude of which, perhaps, may be inferred from the unparalleled fact that the advertising for the year ending with December, 1899, footed up the enormous aggregate of 18,929 columns, which cost the adver- tisers a total of $1,119,793.
Besides absorbing the Gem of the Prairie early in its career, and the Democratic Press more than forty years ago, the Tribune took in, by consolidation with its weekly edition in 1856, the Western Citizen or Free West, which had been published by Zebina Eastman, and July 24, 1861, took on the subscription list and good will of the Chicago Democrat, the publication of which had been commenced November 26, 1833, by John Calhoun and continued by "Long John" Wentworth, till his old enemy, J. Y. Scammon, forced him to "give up" as the only means of escaping the payment of heavy damages for libel. It may be of interest to some readers of this sketch to be informed that the alleged "libel " consisted in the publication of a cartoon repre-
236 History of the Chicago Tribune.
senting a number of ''wildcats" in convention, the face of one of the said "cats " being a fair likeness of Mr. Scammon, the banker, and that the term "wild- cat" was used in those days to designate bank bills, the redemption of which was not regarded as very well secured. By this absorption of the Democrat the Tribune became the direct successor to the first news- paper ever published in Chicago. Furthermore, as no one who was engaged in editorial or reportorial work on any Chicago newspaper "before the war" of the rebellion is now connected with any other newspaper than the Trttnine, the writer feels justified in speaking of the press of those early days in the following language, which substantially is a reproduction of words written by him for the jubilee number of the Tribune, published June 10, 1897, on the fiftieth anni- versary of its first issue :
The Chicago Tribune — and of course this is true of the other papers of that day — was, previous to the out- break of the war, a much more primitive affair than the crudest attempt at a newspaper now published in this city. And it would have been so if abundant capital and journalistic talent had been available, which was not the case. There existed neither the demand nor the means for the publication here of what now would be called a good newspaper. There was no wish for such a thing till the southern states undertook to secede, and volunteers began to rush forward to the defense of the Union. Then those of the people who remained at home wanted the news, and wanted it at the earliest possible moment. In addition to the great interest they felt in the progress of the struggle as a whole, they were intensely anxious for the wel- fare of friends and loved ones who had gone to the front. Each of many thousands of families in this sec- tion had a brother, a son or a father in the ranks, and their members wished for the fullest information ob- tainable in regard to the movements of small as well as
History of the Chicago Inter Ocean. 237
large bodies of troops. With a vast increase in cir- culation of the paper the merchants saw it to be to their interest to advertise as they never had done be- fore, and this enabled the Tribune to send out corre- spondents and pay for the use of the telegraph wires to an extent not previously dreamed of as possible. Then, wide fluctuations in the values, first of the bills issued by private banks, and afterward of the national cur- rency, with a vast development of speculation in stocks and produce, made it absolutely necessary for thou- sands to read the daily paper who previously had read only a weekly or none at all. And so was born the journalism which to-day has grown up to a lusty man- hood; for when once the people found their "new felt want" supplied, the appetite simply grew with what it fed on. The death of Mr. Medill has removed the last one of the men who controlled the newspapers of Chi- cago during the formative period, and very few of those who were privileged to assist them are left behind. It needs not here to speak of the living, further than to state that the management of the Tribune practically is in the same hands now as for several years past, and there is no room to doubt that it will continue to be, to quote from the closing paragraph of the sketch written by the late Governor Bross for the first edition of this work, "one of the most influential, prosperous and powerful journals in the nation." It is, in fact, one of the very few really great newspapers of the world.
THE CHICAGO INTER OCEAN.
BY WM. H. BUSBEY.
The first number of the Daily Inter Ocean was issued March 25, 1872. The founder was Mr. J. Young Scammon, an old, highly esteemed and public spirited citizen, who, realizing that there was a demand for an uncompromising republican daily, purchased the Associated Press franchise of the Republican, which
238 History of the Chicago Inter Ocean.
had been wrecked in the disastrous fire of 1871. To keep the franchise alive, Mr. Scammon continued the publication of the Republican until all arrangements were perfected to start the new daily, with new men, new type and new machinery.
The republicanism of the initial number of the Inter Ocean was of the most stalwart order, the propri- etor indicating the spirit of the paper in the crisp declaration: " Independent in nothing ; republican in everything. ' '
Mr. Scammon went into the enterprise with char- acteristic zeal and energy, and calling to his assistance a number of practical and experienced men, soon made the Inter Ocean a political power, not only in the city and state, but throughout the northwest.
Its radical republicanism and its devotion to the party it professed to represent were made so manifest during the presidential campaign of 1872 that it at once secured an influence in the party not equaled by many journals of much longer standing. The erratic course of other journals claiming to be republican also contributed much to the success of the new venture, and the circulation of the paper increased rapidly.
Mr. Scammon continued to be sole proprietor of the Inter Ocean until the spring of 1873, when the Hon. F. W. Palmer, of Des Moines, Iowa, bought a large interest and became editor-in-chief. Under his man- agement the paper prospered until the panic of 1873 prostrated the affairs of the country and caused the financial embarrassment of Mr. Scammon, the principal proprietor. In the fall of 1875 the corporation, under pressure of large indebtedness, was compelled to sell the paper to a new organization. This transfer placed the Inter Ocean under the control of William Penn Nixon, who had been for some years the business manager.
Notwithstanding the great depression of tne times, the paper was put on a firm footing by the infusion of
History of the Chicago Inter Ocean. 239
new capital and the introduction of new and improved machinery, and entered upon a new era of prosperity. Through all its vicissitudes the Inter Ocean maintained its political integrity, constantly gaining in influence and circulation until the aggregate circulation of the several editions was probably larger than that of any other political paper in the country. The Inter Ocean was the first newspaper in the United States to perfect and use a folder, or machinery for cutting, pasting and folding, attached to the press. This contrivance was the invention of Mr. Walter Scott, at that time super- intendent of the Inter Ocearis mechanical department. The Inter Ocean was the first newspaper in Chicago to print cable dispatches from London. It was also the first daily newspaper in Chicago to use illustrations.
From 1873 to May 1, 1880, the Inter Ocean was published at 119 Lake street. The establishment was then moved to more commodious and convenient quarters, in the new Inter Ocean building, 85 Madison street, and, May 1, 1890, to the still larger Inter Ocean building at the corner of Madison and Dearborn streets. In May, 1891, Mr. H. H. Kohlsaat bought a controlling interest in the Inter Ocean, and became the publisher. In May, 1894, Mr. Kohlsaat sold his interest to Mr. William Penn Nixon, who remained in control of the paper as editor and publisher until November 15, 1897, when Mr. Charles T. Yerkes purchased a controlling interest. Under the reorganization, Mr. Nixon was continued as publisher, and Mr. George Wheeler Hin- man was made editor-in-chief and manager.
Under the new management, the Inter Ocean was conspicuous for its vigorous editorial policy and for its improved news service. It was one of the first news- papers in the United States to urge a resolute war policy in 1898, and through the Spanish- American war and the war in the Philippines was the zealous sup- porter and defender of the army and navy. It led also in the advocacy of the expansion policy, and undoubt-
240 History of the Chicago Chronicle.
edly exercised a greater influence in shaping the sentiment of the middle west than any other newspaper. It was "always American and always republican."
Among the things that gave the Inter Ocean in- creased prestige and influence was that throughout the Spanish and Transvaal wars it had a superior and exclusive foreign and domestic news service. In de- veloping and improving this, the Inter Ocean purchased the service of the New York Sun. As the Associated Press management had declared a boycott on the Sun, the Inter- Ocean became involved in a controversy with the Associated Press. The latter, in pursuance of its contention that the boycott was legal, cut off the press service without notice. The Inter Ocean made a fight for its rights and the case was carried to the Illinois Supreme court, where all the contentions of the Inter Ocean were sustained and all its rights and privileges in the Associated Press were restored. The question of damages was submitted to arbitrators, who awarded the Inter Ocean $40,500 as compensation for the arbi- trary withholding of the Associated Press service for more than two vears.
w
The circulation of the Daily Inter Ocean has in- creased under the new management 100 per cent. The weekly edition has the largest circulation of any politi- cal weekly in the west.
THE CHICAGO CHRONICLE.
BY CHARLES G. SEYMOUR.
On the purchase of the consolidated Times and Herald, for many years the democratic morning news- papers of Chicago, by a republican who announced his purpose to conduct the Times-Herald thereafter as a republican newspaper, the Chicago Chronicle Co. was organized for the purpose of publishing a demo- cratic morning daily and Sunday newspaper to occupy the field that had been abandoned. John R. Walsh, who had formerly been the principal owner of the
History of the Chicago Chronicle. 241
Herald, became largely interested in the Chronicle, and gave it its financial strength. Horatio W. Seymour was publisher and Martin J. Russell was editor, both of them being stockholders also in the new enterprise. The first issue of the Chronicle appeared May 28,
1895. It is probable that the Chronicle began business better equipped mechanically and financially than any other newspaper enterprise of which there is any record. It is published in a five-story building at 164 and 166 Washington street, of which it is the owner, and its plant is one of the largest in the United States. It has twenty -four typesetting machines, and its press work is done on six double Potter presses, each hav- ing an output of 20,000 eight-page newspapers per hour.
From its first issue the Chronicle was of regulation morning newspaper size, the issue being twelve pages ordinarily during the week, sixteen pages on Saturday and from forty to forty-eight pages on Sunday. Within seven months from the date of its first publication the edition of the Sunday Chronicle exceeded 100,000 copies, and it has been maintained at that and even a greater figure most of the time since.
While the Chronicle has been a powerful advocate of democracy it has never been an organ, and, owing to its sound money views, it was unable to snpport Mr. Bryan, the candidate of the regular democracy in
1896. Aside from the financial question, it has been in harmony with the democratic party, and it is the great newspaper of that political faith in the northwest.
Mr. Seymour, the publisher of the Chronicle, was formerly in the employ of Wilbur F. Storey, the owner of the Chicago Times, and later was connected in an editorial capacity for many years with the Chicago Herald, in which newspaper he was also a stockholder.
In one respect the six weeks during which the con- solidated Times and Herald abandoned their old time democratic faith and became republican, and the Chronicle came into existence, was the most novel and
242 History of the Chicago American.
interesting in the history of the Chicago press. It is certain that never before was an American city of 2,000,000 of people left without a democratic news- paper, and it is probable that such a circumstance never will arise again. If the defection of the Times- Herald was sudden and unexpected, the appearance and growth of the Chronicle was prompt and wonderful. Unlike every other great newspaper in the world, it was born great. It never was small. Its financial resources were large. Its equipment was extensive. Its field was open and undisputed. Its success was immediate and unquestioned.
As a matter of information, valuable chiefly to newspaper men of the future who may have curiosity on the subject, it may be stated that the Chronicle began business with a paid circulation of 35,000 copies, daily and Sunday, a larger number than many news- papers of long standing in various large American cities ever have obtained, and this was secured for its first paid edition, wholly without canvassing. It prop- erly represents and measures the field that was entirely abandoned to the new comer — that is, the number of people in Chicago and vicinity who, without solicita- tion, improved the first opportunity to buy regularly a newspaper of their own political faith. Canvassing and other energetic methods soon doubled this circula- tion for the daily Chronicle and trebled it for the Sun- day Chronicle.
The Chicago Chronicle Co. is officered as follows: A. W. Green, vice-president, and Horatio W. Seymour, secretary and treasurer. The same gentlemen con- stitute the board of directors.
THE CHICAGO AMERICAN.
This is the name of a new daily newspaper which
is an aspirant for public favor. It is independent
democratic in principles, published by W. R. Hearst,
edited by Andrew Lawrence. First issue, July 4, 1900.
History of the Chicago Times-Herald. • 243
THE CHICAGO TIMES-HERALD.
Foremost among' the clean, progressive and dis- tinctly modern newspapers of the country is the Chicago Times- Herald. This paper was formed by the absorp- tion of the historic Chicago Times by the young giant of journalism, the Chicago Herald, but the union of the two, so far as the Times was concerned, was nominal only.
The Times, at the meridian of the life of its founder, the late Wilbur F. Storey, was the greatest of the Chicago dailies. It was established in 1854, and at one time had an international fame. In 1895, after having passed through the hands of many different owners, it was amalgamated by the late James W. Scott with the Chicago Herald, but the consolidation did little more than to preserve the name of the Times, with all its associations and traditions of the earlier journalistic history of Chicago.
The Herald itself was founded in 1881 by Mr. Scott, who was one of the most ingenious and brillant news- paper men in America. The typographical beauty of the new paper became a proverb among the members of the craft, and this singularity of mechanical excel- lence has been fully maintained by the Times- Herald. In its tenth year the Herald was one of the most pros- perous and popular newspapers in the country.
Mr. Scott had not yet succeeded in readjusting the affairs of the new combination when he suddenly died in New York, but a few weeks after the first appear- ance of the Times- Her aid. This was the situation when, in April, 1895, Mr. H. H. Kohlsaat, formerly publisher of the Inter Ocean, purchased the entire property, and began to issue the Times-Herald in its present form and with its present policy.
When Mr. Kohlsaat installed himself as editor of Ms new journal he changed its policy from that of a democratic paper, with indeterminate notions upon the currency, to that of an independent republican paper,
244 . History of the Chicago Times-Herald.
with unequivocal and positive views concerning the important question of national finance.
He likewise altered the general tone of the publi- cation, infusing into its management his own concep- tions of a high grade newspaper, largely increasing the efficiency of the writing and counting room forces, and in other ways giving testimony in the columns of the Times-Herald to the new spirit animating the publication.
Mr. Kohlsaat secured the Times-Herald in good time to launch it into the forum of politics one year before the historic campaign of 1896, when the news- paper policies of the country were turned inside out, and the dividing lines between the parties were oblit- erated by the issue of free coinage of silver. From the first the attitude of the Times- Herald could be seen dis- tinct, clear and unwavering through the dissolving views that were cast on the .screen of public opinion through the stereopticon of the press. The Times- Herald wasfacileprinceps of sound money newspapers. Incidentally it stood for all the high principles of good government as they were conceived by its owner.
Among the other features developed in particular strength by this newspaper are its financial and com- mercial departments. Contrasted with this is the close attention it pays to those topics which interest the intelligent reader at large, such as science, religion and literature, thus combining qualities which distinguish it as a newspaper for the business man and the home. Its activity and enterprise in getting the news and its perfect freedom from cheap sensationalism are largely a reflection of the character of its editor and publisher.
The Times-Herald is as mechanically perfect as the limitations of practical journalism allow. The Times- Herald building, at 154 Washington street, is the most completely appointed newspaper building in the world. Its doors are open at all times to visitors, who will find an inspection of the premises and an examination into the processes by which a great daily is produced every
History of the Chicago Evening Post. 245
twenty-four hours a most gratifying- object lesson in this most interesting1 and vital industry.
HISTORY OF THE CHICAGO EVENING POST.
The first issue of the Chicago Evening Post appeared April 29, 1890. It was founded by the late James W. Scott, who believed there was room in Chicago for a high class evening newspaper — one that should be con- servative as well as enterprising, and, above all things, clean — and his wisdom has since been demonstrated. The literary excellence and superb news service of the Evening Post gave the paper a hold upon its readers that enabled it to sell for two cents when every other Eng- lish daily in Chicago — both morning and evening — dropped to a penny. The people who were in the habit of reading it wanted it, whether the cost was one or two cents, and this has given it a spirit of independ- ence greater than that seen in any other Chicago newspaper. Unaffected by the changing methods of its contemporaries, it maintains the even tenor of its way, for it has a patronage that cannot easily be taken from it.
Changes in the business and editorial policy of the Evening Post have been few and well considered. It has issued several special editions, when circumstances have seemed to warrant it, and they have invariably been successful. The memorial edition at the close of the Spanish-American war — in effect a tribute to the Illinois soldiers — was a good illustration of this, but perhaps the most noteworthy special issues have been the annual book numbers. The paper always has given particular attention to book reviews, and of recent years has issued special book numbers pre- vious to the opening of the holiday trade. These were an extraordinary success from the beginning. They are highly prized both by readers and publishers. The former were enabled to quickly learn the merits of the recently published books, and the latter could
246 History of the Chicago Evening Post.
ask no better opportunity to present their claims to patronage to the book buying public, for it is among discriminating readers that the paper has its circulation.
Since its first issue the Evening Post has had three homes. Its start in life was made at 128 Fifth avenue. Mr. Scott had been successful with the Herald, and he deemed the time ripe for the establishment of an even- ing paper that should especially appeal to the intelli- gent people. Most of the evening papers of that time were little more than bulletins of the day's goings, filled up with miscellany, and he desired to publish a news paper, one that would compare favorably in every respect with the morning papers. He chose for his managing editor Cornelius McAuliff, who had been his night editor on the Herald, and consequently had had an extended and valuable newspaper experience. Mr. McAuliff conducted the paper through the early trials that all journalistic ventures encounter (although they were fewer than usual in this case) and remained with it until Herman H. Kohlsaat bought both publications in 1895. Meanwhile a change had been made from 128 Fifth avenue to 164 Washington street. An old build- ing standing there had been purchased and remodeled, and it continued to be the home of the Evening Post until sold to the Chronicle when the latter paper was established.
Mr. Kohlsaat came into possession of the two papers that had belonged to Mr. Scott in April, 1895, and about May 1, of that year, he invited Mr. McAuliff to the managing editorship of the Times-Herald and in- stalled Samuel T. Clover, who had been business man- ager of the Evening Post, as managing editor of his evening paper. A little later the paper was transferred to the Times-Herald building, from which it has been published ever since. Under the general management of Mr. Kohlsaat, the editor-in-chief, and the direct super- vision of Mr. Clover, the features that have so greatly added to the popularity of the Evening Post were estab-
History of Die Freie Presse of Chicago. 247
lished and developed. It neglects no legitimate depart- ment, but it gives special attention to those that appeal most strongly to the intellectual, financial and solid business interests. It has proved itself the home paper, presenting all the news, and yet devoid of sensational- ism, enterprising, attractive typographically, of liter- ary excellence and conservative in the sense that its aim is above all things to be reliable and to eliminate those features that make a man hesitate to take a paper home with him. The book numbers, to which reference has been made, were first published and have since grown in importance under the present management, and in addition particular attention has been given to educational matters. The paper also has a large staff of special writers, which materially adds to its interest and attractiveness.
DIE FREIE PRESSE OP CHICAGO.
BY MAX EBERHARDT.
The first number of the Freie Presse was issued in Chicago July 2, 1871. It was then published as a weekly, and was in sympathy with the liberal wing of the republican party, and subsequently proved a very keen and able advocate of the movement which, as we all know, resulted in the nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. The great fire, which occurred not many months after the paper had been started, interfered with the issue of but one number. The paper was pub- lished as a weekly until February 5, 1872, when it began to be issued as a daily and weekly, besides hav- ing a separate issue on Sunday. Though started with- out the aid of much capital, its rapid growth and success as a ready spokesman, and an unflinching advo- cate of a broad, liberal policy within the republican party, are but evidence of the energy and perseverance which Mr. Michaelis has devoted to the business and editorial management of the paper. It is now being published by the German American Publishing Co., and employs 108 persons in its various departments.
248 History of the Chicago Journal.
It still maintains its position as an independent repub- lican newspaper, and provides a larger number of Ger mans with reading matter than any German newspaper concern in the country. The Freie Presse is entirely free from debt, and its business is managed on a sound financial basis, and with a view to a ready and strict discharge of all its obligations. It is one of the many enterprises in the city of Chicago which testify to the rapid growth, not only of the western metropolis, but of the entire northwest.
During recent years the paper, in point of politics, •has followed a more independent course. It had be- come dissatisfied with the policy and management of the republican party. More recently the Freie Presse supported the democratic party in local and national elections.
HISTORY OF THE CHICAGO JOURNAL.
It was away back in the days when Chicago had a village government and about 4,000 people that the spirit of the early settlers demanded a daily paper, and the Chicago Journal was born. This publication was built upon the failure of others. With its very first period of success and permanency, it was identified with that plucky and gifted family of Wilsons, in which name and ownership it has carried good tidings and bad to the ever increasing population of Chicago and the middle west, lo! these nearly sixty years.
The whig spirit of primitive Chicago first found expression through the Chicago American, in 1839. This gave way to the Express, in 1842. On April 20, 1844, that paper was sold to the coterie of pioneers who began the publication of the Chicago Journal April 22, 1844.
The Henry Clay campaign was on at the time, and Polk, the rival candidate, was supported by the Morn- ing Democrat, the organ of John Wentworth. Here began the great political career of the Chicago Journal.
History of the Chicago Journal. 249
It has hammered democracy ever since, and put a cap sheaf on its political services by its brilliant support of the republican ticket and leaders in the campaign of 1900, 'just closed.
But that period of the Chicago Journal's existence around which centers the greatest fascination for the student of history covers the years from its founding up to 1850. Those were the days of the pioneers. Those were the days of plank roads over the sloughs in Chicago. During that period the Illinois and Michi- gan canal was constructed. It was in that period that the first locomotive was brought to Chicago by a lake schooner. Then it was that the first tele- graph line connected Chicago with Detroit and New York. In this period the Chicago Board of Trade was organized. Then it was that Chicago first attempted to build water works. In those years the ferries be- gan to give way to bridges over the Chicago river. Then it was that the foundations of the Chicago public school system were laid. In that period Chicago passed through its first terrible scourge of cholera. With all of these questions the Chicago Journal had a part. It was the champion of every improvement of the Chicago of the 40' s, and no man can tell how much of the best in all that makes the greater Chicago of 1900 may be traced to the clear headed policy of the Chicago Journal during that formative period.
During the decade from 1850 to 1860 the Chicago Journal widened its influence, while it met with the loss of one of the guiding minds of its earlier career. The Journal advocated the annexation of Hawaii early in the 50' s. In 1853 it branded the act of the legislature in prohibiting immigration of free negroes to the state as the "grossest law that defiles our statute books." It was late in the 50's that the Journal became the early and vigorous champion of the republican party, then struggling for existence. Then and there its fearless editors and publishers proclaimed for protection and
250 History of the Chicago Journal.
for civil liberty, and for nearly forty years its pages have been constant1 in their support of men and meas- ures represented by republican platforms. It was Charles L. Wilson, editor of the Journal, who intro- duced in the Illinois convention this resolution: " Re- solved that Abraham Lincoln is the first, last and only choice for United States senator in place of Stephen A. Douglas." It was on Mr. Wilson's suggestion that the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates were arranged. It was through the Journal editor's personal influence that William H. Seward was induced to come west and aid in the election of Abraham Lincoln. It was through the columns of the Chicago Journal that Chi- cago and the west got first intimations of the ap- proaching civil war.
The war period of the 60' s formed another distinct epoch in the Chicago Journal's history. President Lin- coln recognizing the Journal influence, appointed its brilliant editor, Secretary of Legation to the Court of St. James, London. The inimitable Benjamin F. Taylor became chief war correspondent at the front. His writings in the Journal columns gave him world wide fame, and no publication west of the Ohio river was so close to the homes and hearts of the western people.
The Journal, like all other Chicago papers, lowered its price from five cents to two cents back in the 80's. Later, with nearly all others, it became a one-cent paper. But its character was not changed except to modernize and popularize the paper, which continued to hold the choicest patronage of Chicago merchants, and to be constantly read by thousands who had been friends and patrons before the fire, before the war, even before many of the present generation were born. To-day the Chicago Journal is bright, clean and forcible, and is found on the right side of every public question. Like wine, it appears to improve with age.
When the Chicago Journal was established in 1844 the staff consisted of the following : The editorial com-
History of the Chicago Journal. • 251
mittee — J. Lisle Smith, William H. Brown, George W. Meeker, J. Y. Scammon and Grant Goodrich, assisted by J. W. Norris and Richard L. Wilson as office editors and business managers. After the election, which resulted in the defeat of Mr. Clay, Richard L. Wilson purchased the controlling interest in the Journal, and was its editor-in-chief until 1849, when he was ap- pointed postmaster of Chicago by President Taylor. But he again resumed his editorial duties after his removal by President Pilmore, the firm name being Richard L. and Charles L. Wilson. Richard L. Wilson died in December, 1856, and his brother, Charles L., became sole proprietor. The staff was then made up as follows : Andrew Shuman, associate editor ; George P. Upton, city and commercial reporter, and Benjamin F. Taylor, literary editor.
In 1861 President Lincoln appointed Mr. Wilson secretary to the American legation at the court of St. James, London, and between this date and 1864 the paper was managed by John L. Wilson, an older brother. From 1864 until 1869 the two brothers conducted the Journal jointly, when John L. retired in favor of Col. Henry W. Farrar, his son-in-law, who was on General Sheridan's staff, while the latter had his headquarters in Chicago.
When the great fire of 1871 proved so disastrous to Chicago the Journal building, with most of its contents, was burned. But with true western enterprise its pub- lishers rented a small job office on the west side of the river, and that evening, October 9, Chicagoans read their paper at the usual hour, the Journal being the only paper to come out. Another fire destroyed the Journal on December 1, 1883, and again the Journal was pub- lished at the regular time without any assistance from the outside, though much was offered.
The Journal was among the first to materially assist in rebuilding the heart of the business district following the great fire. By April, 1872. it had its six-story mar-
252 History of the Chicago Journal.
ble front building at 159 and 161 Dearborn street, ready for occupancy. This was its home for nearly a quarter of a century. In 1895 the Journal occupied quarters at 120 Fifth avenue while a new and larger home was erected. In 1896 the paper was moved into the new Journal building at 160 and 162 Washington street, its present home. This twelve-story marble and stone structure, side by side with the elegant Times-Herald building, is one of the finest newspaper sites in the west.
Charles L. Wilson died in March, 1878, in San An- tonio, Tex., and the controlling interest of the Journal passed into the hands of his widow and daughter. A reorganization of the firm then took place, with An- drew Shuman, who was lieutenant-governor of Illinois from 1876 to 1880, as president and editor-in-chief, and Henry W. Farrar, business manager.
On March 1, J. R. Wilson, a nephew of Charles L., leased the property. Later he became principal owner and publisher, having associated with him Mr. Shuman as editor-in-chief and W. K. Sullivan as managing editor. In 1888 Mr. Shuman retired. Shortly after- ward Mr. Sullivan gave up editorial management, to accept the consulship to the Bermuda islands, by ap- pointment of President Harrison. He was succeeded by George Martin. Later Slason Thompson succeeded Mr. Martin, and he continued until 1896.
In 1895 the Journal was purchased by the Evening Press Co., composed of George G. Booth and James E. Scripps, of Detroit, and Ralph H. Booth, of Chicago. George G. Booth became president and treasurer, and Ralph H. Booth, secretary and manager. In 1897 W. H. Turner was placed in charge of the property, re- maining as general manager until 1900. In September of that year James E. Scripps was elected president, and Ralph H. Booth, secretary and treasurer of the company. Mr. Booth took active charge of the paper as publisher.
History of the Illinois Staats Zeitung. 253
THE ILLINOIS STAATS ZEITUNG. BY PHIL H. DILG.
The rapid growth of Chicago is not exemplified in a better way than by the increase in wealth, in influence and in political power of the press of Chicago. Where but less than a generation ago the press, if it be even worthy of that name, was of doubtful existence and of no importance whatever, the press of to-day compares most favorably in stability and in standing with that of any city in the world.
This is not only the case with the English press, but it is also the case with the German press, of which the Illinois Staats Zeitung r, the exponent of the princi- ples of the German- Americans of the northwest, is the representative.
The Illinois Staats Zeitung was founded in the spring of 1848, by Robert Hoeffgen, the entire capital invested amounting to $200.
Mr. Hoeffgen was assisted by an apprentice, who received seventy-five cents per week. In those days it was incumbent upon the proprietor of the newspaper, not only to direct the general management, but to do nearly, if not all, the work.
At first the Illinois Staats Zeitung appeared as a weekly, thus enabling one man to do all the work. Mr. Hoeffgen collected the advertisements and solicited subscriptions, set his own type, ran his own press, and, having completed his paper indoors, started out upon the street with his entire edition under his arm. to dis- tribute the same to his subscribers. It might be cited as an example worthy of emulation at the present time, when the price of paper is agitating the minds of pub- lishers, that subscribers were requested to send in rags to pay for their subscriptions, these in turn being traded to the dealer in print paper. In this way the rags were saved, and the publisher always received more for his paper in rags than he would have got in cash.
254 History of the Illinois Staats Zeitung.
In the fall of 1848, Dr. Hellmuth then being the editor, the Illinois Staats Zeitung was the only German newspaper in the United States to discover in the Buffalo platform the principles upon which afterwards was founded the Republican party. The county of Cook gave Van Buren a majority of 1,200, no little credit of which is due to the Illinois Staats Zeitung for its stanch and unswerving advocacy of the principles laid down in that campaign. After the presidential election, Arno Voss was the editor, who was succeeded in 1849 by Herman Kriege, and in 1850 Dr. Hellmuth again assumed the editorial management. Under his charge the paper appeared twice a week until August 25, 1851, when Geo. Schneider became connected with the paper, who changed it into a daily, with but seventy subscrib- ers, its weekly list being only a little over 200.
In 1853 the circulation of the Illinois Staats Zeitung had increased to 300, which necessitated the employ- ment of the three carriers, one of whom is still to- day in the employ of the company. Within the same territory where formerly there were but 100 subscrib- ers, now there are 3,400. In 1854 the number of sub- scribers had increased to 800.
Geo. Hillgaertner was at this time associated with Geo. Schneider.- As the Illinois Staats Zeitung was the first German paper to discover the cardinal principles of the republican party in the Buffalo platform, so it was the first to oppose the Nebraska bill, and to begin the determined opposition to Douglas. It was mainly in- strumental in leading the Germans into the republican party, and, in 1856, w.as using its utmost endeavors in behalf of Fremont. In that ever memorable campaign between Lincoln and Douglas, in 1858, no paper did more for the success of Mr. Lincoln than the Illinois Staats Zeitung^ because the Germans held the balance of power.
From this time on began to develop the influence of the Illinois Staats Zeitung. It has been often felt in
History of the Illinois Staats Zeitung. 255
the common council, the legislature, but especially in political movements in Cook county, for more than once has it been opposed by the entire Anglo-American press, and yet has carried the day.-
In 1861 Mr. Wm. Rapp became editor of the Illinois Staats Zeitung. In the same year Mr. Lorenz Brentano bought out Mr. Hoeffgen's interest and assumed the editorial management. In the following year Mr. George Schneider sold his interest to Mr. A. C. Hesiiig. Messrs. Brentano and Hesing were associated together until 1867, when Mr. A. C. Hesing purchased Mr. Brentano's interest. In this year Mr. Herman Raster was engaged as chief editor, which position he filled until his death, on July 25, 1891, when Mr. William Rapp became his successor.
The great fire in 1871 claimed the Illinois Staats Zeitung as one of the victims. Its loss was total, yet it was among the first of the Chicago dailies to appear, and that, too, within forty-eight hours after the fire had ceased. Preparations were soon made for perma- nent quarters. On March 10, 1873, the present impos- ing structure, on the northeast corner of Washington street and Fifth avenue, was completed and occupied. The cost of the same, with machinery, presses, etc., amounted to nearly $300,000.
After having moved into its new commodious quar- ters, the Illinois Staats Zeitung developed itself more and more into an organ of great political influence, which was particularly demonstrated during the mem- orable municipal campaign of 1873, when, in opposition to Mayor Medill and to his strong enforcement of Sun- day laws, especially obnoxious to the German- Ameri- cans, Mr. A. C. Hesing organized the so called people's party and gained a glorious victory by electing Mayor Colvin with an overwhelming majority.
In national politics the Illinois Staats Zeitung, almost without exception, was on the winning side in support-
256 History of the Economist.
ing those presidential candidates who proved to be the choice of the people.
On March 31, 1895, the paper suffered a severe loss by the death of Mr. A. C. Hesing, who had been the leading spirit of the business for so many years. Only two and a half years later, on December 17, 1897, his son, Washington Hesing, who had succeeded him as president of the company, was also suddenly taken away, after which sad event Mr. William Rapp became president of the company.
January 1, 1894, Mr. Joseph Brucker, one of the foremost German journalists of the country, was added to the editorial staff of the paper. After the demise of Mr. Washington Hesing, Mr. Brucker became manag- ing editor, and he has from that time on been to a con- siderable degree instrumental in shaping the political course of the paper. In 1898 a reorganization of the Illinois Staats Zeitung Co. took place by the election of the present officers, with the Hon. Judge Theodore Brentano, a son of the late Mr. Lorenz Brentano, as president.
THE ECONOMIST.
The Economist, published every Saturday morning, represents the financial, commercial and real estate in- terests of Chicago, and aims to present to its readers all of the world's economic happenings that have any considerable significance.
The first number of this publication was issued October 20, 1888. Its founder was Clinton B. Evans, whose previous experience was that of financial editor of the Chicago Tribune for five years and before that a worker for ten years in various positions on the Republican, of Springfield, Mass., a newspaper made famous by Samuel Bowles. Among his associates in the editorial conduct of the Economist have been H. W. Culbertson, J. H. McEldowney, F. A. Vanderlip and Will Payne. Mr. Vanderlip is well known as assistant
History of the Economist. 257
secretary of the treasury under Lyman J. Gage, and Mr. Payne has won credit as a writer of novels. The proprietorship of the paper is in a corporation, a ma- jority of the stock being owned by Mr. Evans.
The Economist has grown with the growth of Chi- cago. Starting with sixteen pages, it has run up at times as high as fifty-four pages in its regular issue, though the usual measure is thirty-two pages. Its size is determined by the size of current events in its field. The late Moses P. Handy, one of the most prominent journalists of his time, once stated that the Economist was the only weekly newspaper he ever heard of that undertook to compete with daily newspapers in reporting news. It is the practice of the office to pub- lish special issues whenever news of commanding im- portance in its line requires. At the close of every year an Annual Number is delivered to subscribers, which sets forth the leading events of the past twelve months, with description of the status of economic affairs the world over. The " Investors' Manual " is a volume published during the spring, which deals with the finances of corporations.
The Economist is in the main divided into five departments — the general description of the world's economic affairs under the head of "The Business Situation" and other editorial articles, "The Grain and Provisions Market," "Money and Securities in Chicago," "General Investment News" and "The Real Estate Market." The correlation of facts, price quotations, statistical tables, sharp news announce- ments and occasional expression of opinion character- ize these departments, and from time to time interest- ing specialties of one sort and another are presented. The Economist maintains close relations with the lead- ing makers of business events, and has had a good measure of success in its effort to give to the public the best in the way of thought and achievement that class has produced. To its advertising columns noth-
258 History of the Economist.
ing is ever knowingly admitted which is out of line with legitimate purpose and method. " Bucket shop " advertisements are always refused.
The economic history of Chicago can be pretty satisfactorily read in the files of the Economist for the past twelve years; and indeed the principal business events of the world during that time are recorded there. The tides in Chicago have been powerful — too buoyant in their flow and desolating in their ebb. The growth of the city's business is without parallel in history, and this has created in many instances an extravagant presumption that any undertaking is bound to succeed. The city's markets for agricultural products are per- haps the central point in its business, but its railroad interests are on a great scale, and in general merchan- dising, magnitude and rapid growth have been its dis- tinguishing characteristics. Financial interests of vast proportions have grown up. The tables of bank statistics will be examined by the historical student with much satisfaction. The capital and deposits handled by these institutions have piled up so rapidly that in the past twelve years Chicago has passed from the status of an inconsequential interior town to' that of a cosmopolitan city, lending its money in two hemi- spheres.
Successful and widely known financial weeklies are very few, because the finances of the world are, and ever must be, controlled but by few persons, while the diversified moral, political and religious sentiments and ambitions of the world are held within the toils of an army of advocates. In Chicago, with the dailies devoting so much attention to financial subjects, the field appeared to many at the outset to be nearly barren. Whether there was such a field or the Econo- mist created it, the journalistic and pecuniary success of the paper has justified its existence.
Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record. 259
HISTORY OF THE CHICAGO DAILY NEWS
AND THE CHICAGO RECORD. The first copy of the Chicago Daily News was issued December 23, 1875. It was the first one-cent newspaper published in Chicago. The founders of the new publi- cation were Melville E. Stone, Percy Meggy and Will- iam E. Dougherty. The latter two gentlemen soon became discouraged over the prospects of the strug- gling sheet, and sold their interests to Mr. Stone, who in turn sold the entire property to Victor F. Lawson. Later, Mr. Stone again acquired a third interest in the property, and the two owners directed all their energies to making the News a success. They accomplished their purpose. Mr. Stone conducted the editorial depart- ment, while Mr. Lawson managed the business affairs of the paper. Each was a genius in his own line, and the effect of their joint efforts was that the paper be- came a phenomenal success.
The purpose of the founders of the Daily News was to establish a paper the price of which should be the lowest unit of American coinage, so that no one could get below them in price; then to make it just as good in point of news as any higher priced paper in the city; to let its price alone carry it to the lower classes of society, and make its tone as high as that of any paper, feeling assured that its price would take care of the lower classes, and relying upon its tone to give it char- acter among the better classes. Their idea, in brief, was to give a five-cent paper for one cent; and they believed there was a fortune in it. The ideal they had in view for the Daily News involved other radical changes. All the other Chicago papers mixed their ad- vertising and news matter, running them together all through the papers. This they felt was an annoyance to every reader, and they purposed that as the chief mission of a paper was to print the news, the first page and the choice positions should be devoted exclusively to news matter, and that all advertising should be given
260 Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record.
a second place, as of secondary consideration. The policy was to give the most important piece of news the first place on the first page, the next news in im- portance the next place, and so on until the news col- umns were filled; then to begin with advertising, and run through to the end. From the first the rule was absolute that nothing should be published in the Daily News, as news or editorial, which should in effect be advertising, and that no advertising should appear under any circumstances which did not bear upon its face some indication of its character. The line be- tween advertising and news matter has always been drawn in the sharpest possible way in the Daily News. When the paper was started on this line, the critics said it wouldn't work. Every advertiser in Chicago had been taught that the choice place for his adver- tising was on the first page, and all the other papers gave display advertising on the first page. The adver- tisers were accustomed also to having their wares written up as news matter at $1 a line, and they liked that sort of thing. " You cannot go in and revolution- ize this business," said the critics, "and make any money out of it."
The projectors of the Daily News went ahead, however, and the result showed at once that they had made no mistake. Very soon the public saw the justice and wisdom of their position, and the advertising col- umns became crowded.
The policy of giving one man his advertising at one rate and another at a different price was also con- sidered detrimental, and uniform rates were estab- lished, which were not to be varied from under any cir- cumstances.
It was their theory, too, that the value of advertis- ing depended chiefly upon the circulation, and that an advertiser had as much right to know the extent of the circulation of the newspaper which he was patronizing as any citizen has to know the quality or grade of any
Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record. 261
piece of dry goods that he seeks to purchase. It was for this reason that when the circulation of the News was less than 10,000 copies an affidavit was published every day giving1 the exact figures. This practice has been continued through all the years since the establishment of the paper. The circulation has fluctu- ated, sometimes fallen and sometimes risen, but the affidavit has remained there, showing exactly what it was. Some question at first was raised as to the truth of these affidavits, but no man who was interested in the subject held his doubts very long. Every one who cared to could come to the office, examine the books, see the paper printed and satisfy himself.
• From the very beginning it was determined that the Daily News should be made as good a newspaper as any competitor, regardless of any difference in price that might exist. With this end in view, the Chicago Evening Post was purchased in 1878, in order to acquire its franchise in the Western Associated Press. The purchase was made for the sole purpose of obtaining the news facilities of the paper. That put the Daily News on an equal footing with any afternoon paper in the country, making it the only evening paper in the United States having a membership in both of the rival press associations. Then correspondents were secured all over this country and several in Europe. The Daily News received the first actual special cablegram ever delivered to any newspaper in the city of Chicago, and during several years paid the Western Union Telegraph Co. more money for special telegrams than any other afternoon paper in America.
A number of episodes in the early history of the paper contributed to establish its reputation for enter- prise.
Very early in its career it was found that a con- temporary was stealing its dispatches. By the publica- tion of a bogus dispatch in November, 1876, the offend- ing sheet was convicted and publicly exposed.
262 Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record.
Three months later, at midnight, the boiler which furnished steam for the machinery exploded, almost wrecking the building. Before daybreak a portable engine and boiler was in place, and that afternoon the editions were run off as usual.
The great railroad riots in the summer of 1877 were covered by the local department of the Daily News in a fashion that had no precedent in the history of western journalism. A corps of reporters mounted on horseback, we.nt through the riotous district and telegraphed the situation hour by hour and almost min- ute by minute. Some of them were even disguised as rioters; and one at least fell into the hands of the police because he was in the front ranks of the mob.
The following year the failure of a savings bank furnished a fresh opportunity for a display of enterprise. The collapse of the State Savings Institution and the escape of C. D. Spencer was seized upon and made the most of. When the police department utterly failed to follow the fugitive or learn his whereabouts, the Daily News took up the case", traced him through Canada to Europe, and finally sent a man who -after months of search found and interviewed Mr. Spencer.
It was the Daily News also that made the search for Avery Moore, the defaulting west town collector, and found him in the wilds of western Canada, disguised and engaged as an operative in an oil well.
In the' fall of 1879, when the Irish members in the British house of parliament began their agitation and laid the foundation for the Land League, their leader, Charles Stewart Parnell, was induced to send a long cablegram explaining his motives and those of his associates, as well as their expectations, to the readers of the Daily News.
In 1880, when General Grant, after his tour around the world, reached his home in Illinois and was accorded a reception, the Daily News secured from the governors of all the states and territories, as well as from the
Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record. 263
leading1 men north and south, congratulatory telegrams which were published on the day of General Grant's arrival in Chicago.
On March 20, 1881, the Morning News was founded, and in June, 1882, the directors of the Associated Press admitted it to membership in that organization.
An innovation inaugurated by the Daily News was that of editing news matter, particularly telegraph, in strict accordance with its news value instead of printing in full the stories received from correspon- dents. Quality rather than quantity was the object held in view. All the matter received by telegram is carefully edited, and it very frequently happens that the man in charge of the telegraphic news at night edits three times as much into the waste basket as he does into the columns of the paper.
During the first six months of the history of the Daily News its circulation averaged about 4,000 copies a day. At the end of the year the average had grown to 10,000. The yearly averages since that time have been as follows: 1877, 22,037; 1878, 38,314; 1879, 45,- 194; 1880, 54,801; 1881, 64,870; 1882, 66,680; 1883, 75,115; 1884, 88,306; 1885, 99,005; 1886, 113,615; 1887, 125,225; 1888, 128,676; 1889, 134,059; 1890, 132,957; 1891, 142,- 022; 1892, 164,175; 1893, 192,491; 1894, 200,885; 1895, 202,496; 1896, 204,724; 1897,222,595; 1898 275,514; 1899, 259,562; 1900 (to November 30) 276,176.
The first copies of the Daily News were printed on an ordinary Cylinder press, the separate sheets of paper being fed in by hand after having been wet over night. Then a " four-feed " machine was introduced, the type being carried on a cylindrical iron frame, and the sheets of paper being .fed in at four different places by boys. This was succeeded by one of the first web presses built. Nine quadruple Hoe presses and one Hoe sextuple are now required to print the paper's daily issue. Each of the quadruple presses is capable of producing 24,000 16-page papers an hour, folded and
264 Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record.
counted. Besides this, they can .print with equal facil- ity 10, 12 or 14-page papers. The present capacity of the entire battery of ten presses is 240,000 10-page papers an hour. Within a year, however, all of these presses will have been enlarged to the sextuple size, which will double their capacity for the production of 10 or 12-page papers. Each will then be capable of turning out 48,000 10 or 12-page papers an hour, giving a combined capacity on these sizes of 480,000 an hour. About seventy tons of paper and nearly three barrels of ink, each barrel containing 420 pounds, are consumed daily by the plant, including the consump- tion of paper and ink for the morning paper, now known as the Chicago Record, as well as that of the Daily News. Sixty men are regularly employed to operate the presses and the engines which drive them, and additional help is frequently employed. In the stereotype room from 480 to 500 plates are made every day. The composing room is equipped with twenty- eight Mergenthaler linotype machines. A total force of about 155 men are employed in this department and the co-ordinate department for the setting of display advertisements. The total number of employes on the pay roll for all departments exceeds 800, not including 123 cable correspondents abroad nor the numerous cor- respondents scattered throughout the United States.
Two great public enterprises of a philanthropic nature, carried out by the Chicago Daily News, deserve mention. The chief is the fresh air fund and sanitarium for sick babies established on the lake front in Lincoln park in 1887, and with the co-operation of the public, maintained ever since. In June, 1887, the Daily News made a study of the causes of the enormous increase in the mortality rate among infants and children in July and August, as compared with that of the other months of the year. The experience of 1,300 practicing phy- sicians was obtained, and with substantial unanimity they attributed the increase more largely to the impure
Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record. 265
air of the tenement house district in summer than to any other cause; and with a like unanimity they insisted on pure fresh air as the first essential for infantile health and life during the summer months.
Out of this grew the Daily News fresh air fund. Over $100,000 has been contributed by the public and expended by the Daily News since this movement was begun. Each year the amount received and expended has been larger, and hundreds of thousands of infants, children, mothers and sewing girls have shared in its benefits. The Daily News has always paid all the ex- penses of office service, the cost of stationery, etc., and furnished its employes without salary to carry on the good work. Three distinguished citizens of Chicago audit the accounts of the sanitarium yearly and vouch for the fact that all the money received has been ex- pended in the most economical and useful way.
In June, 1888, the Daily News tendered the board of education of Chicago the annual income of an invest- ment of $10,000, such income to be expended in procur- ing suitable medals to be awarded each year under the auspices of the board, for essays on " American Patri- otism " by pupils of the Chicago grammar and high schools. The purpose, as stated in the letter to the board, was to ' ' stimulate interest in the study of patri- otic literature by the pupils of the public schools, to the end that familiarity with the causes that led to the founding of the American republic and with the motive which inspired the struggles and sacrifices of its fathers may develop a higher standard of American citizenship. "
It is also worthy of mention that the Daily News has provided amply for the welfare and amusement of the thousands of newsboys who sell or help to distribute the papers. One of the largest rooms in the building is devoted to them. Here is a gymnasium with rings and turning bars, climbing ropes and punching bags, space enough to accommodate nearly 1,000 boys at one time, and every modern appliance, from a restaurant
266 Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record.
in the corner to a theater stage and scenery and cur- tains, where innocent amusement can be given. The Daily Neios Newsboys' Band was organized late in 1897, and is now beyond doubt one of the finest boys' bands in the United States. It is a military band of forty-two pieces, fully equipped and uniformed. The Daily News paid all the expenses and gives the boys all the receipts of the numerous entertainments at which their services are in demand. There is also a Newsboys' Fife and Drum Corps, an entirely separate organization, organ- ized in 1894. Still another organization is a newsboys' military company called the Zouaves. All the boys in this organization are handsomely uniformed at the expense of the paper.
In March, 1881, the issue of a morning edition was begun, under the title of the' Morning News. The price was two cents. The new venture was successful from the start, and in 1893 the title was changed to the Chicago Record. Its career has been one of unusual brilliance. Like the Daily Neivs, the Record is a non- partisan newspaper. Measures and men are viewed in its columns invariably from the standpoint of the inter- ests of all the people — never from that of the interests of any particular political party. It is distinctively a family newspaper. It caters to the family circle. It prints the news — the news a discriminating public wants —and it prints also the varied literature, interesting, instructive, humorous, practical, that the interests of different members of the household demand. Its for- eign service includes in its scope the entire civilized world. One hundred and twenty-three staff corre- spondents of the Chicago Record are scattered through- out the world outside of the United States. Seventy- two are located in the important cities of Europe. Eighteen are in Asia — seven of these in China and Japan; four are in Africa — three of them in South Africa; six are in Australia and New Zealand; eight in
Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record. 267
South America; five in the West Indies and ten in Canada and Mexico.
It is a rule of both the Record and the Daily News that there shall be no expression of opinion in the news columns proper. No reporter is permitted, under any circumstances, to express any opinion; it is his business simply to relate facts. The expression of opinion is all relegated to the editorial columns. Both papers have always maintained an independent position politically, though always taking an active interest in public questions, sometimes with one party, some- times another, but oftener for the better element of both.
Their moral tone has been the subject of special care. Early in the history of the office a rule was made which has always been maintained and is still operat- ive, couched in these words: "Nothing shall appear in the columns of the paper which a young lady cannot read with propriety aloud before a mixed company."
Since 1888 Victor F. Lawson has been sole proprie- tor of both papers, Mr. Melville E. Stone having retired in that year. Mr. Lawson was born in Chicago Septem- ber 9, 1850. He was educated at Philips academy, Andover, Mass. On his return to Chicago he took personal charge of his father's estate, and continued thus occupied until he bought the Daily News.
THE foregoing history of the Chicago daily news- papers at the opening of the new century will increase in value with each succeeding decade, and multiply in value at the opening of the next century. Chicago is now the commercial center of North America, and the combined daily circulation of its newspapers is about the same as that of New York. No human vision can peer into futurity sufficiently to forecast what influence the Chicago press, 100 years hence, is destined to ex- ercise. One hundred years ago, the church held the press in abeyance to its teachings. Now the scale is
268 Chicago Daily News and the Chicago Record.
turned. The press influences the church more than it influences the press. The forum retains power through its approval. The church changes more in practice than in theory. The forum changes in both alike. The press is the exponent of all these changes, and pro- claims them before the tribunal of public opinion. The press is an important factor in directing public opinion into progressive and national channels. Everybody reads a newspaper seven days in a week, except a very few who eschew the Sunday issue. To read a news- paper is to be taught by it, to a greater or less degree. Church goers only get a lesson once a week, while a minority, who never attend church, learn nothing from clerical teachings except through the newspapers. The press is almost always charitable to every religion, re- porting its teachings with fidelity to the sentiments taught, leaving its merits or demerits to a discriminat- ing public. This spirit of fairness makes the press the genius and guiding star of our age, indispensable to every person wishing to be well informed.
THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD.
Every stage of human progress has been marked by conflict, both in political and religious impulses. These impulses go in waves of thought, like the star of empire, from east to west. I now propose to rescue from oblivion the history of the wave of thought in favor of freedom that terminated the slavery issue in the United States, in the arena of the pen and the forum, at which termination the arbitrament of the sword began.
If slavery was constitutional it certainly was un- natural and could not live without special legislation; nor could it be prolonged without friction in the body politic of the nation. American slavery began on the James river, in Virginia, in 1619, at which time a Dutch vessel brought in a cargo of slaves, and sold them to the colonists, which was done by the connivance of the British government. Although certain planters pur- chased and employed the'se slaves, the assembly of Vir- ginia saw danger in the future from their introduction, and petitioned to the British throne, in 1772, to stop this importation, using language as follows: " We are encouraged to look up to the throne and implore your majesty's paternal assistance in averting a calamity of a most alarming nature. The importation of slaves into the colonies from the coast of Africa hath long been considered as a trade of great inhumanity; and under its present encouragement we have great reason to fear will endanger the very existence of your majesty's dominions."
270 The Underground Railroad.
No notice was taken of this petition by the crown, from which it is manifest that slavery was forced upon the colonists by the mother country. Even while the first crude thoughts of the American revolution were revolving in the minds of our fathers, an anti slavery society was formed by the Quakers at Sun tavern in Philadelphia, April 14, 1775. An abolition society was formed in Virginia the same year, and met four times, but owing to the revolutionary war did not meet again till 1784, the next year after peace. Benjamin Frank- lin was president of this society, and Benjamin Rush secretary. In 1787 Patrick Henry and John Jay also lent their influence in favor of abolition. In 1827 there were 136 abolition societies in the United States, 106 of which were in slave holding states.
Many of the latter were the result of Benjamin Lundy's efforts, who was the main connecting link be- tween the old societies, formed previous to the revolu- tion, and the more modern abolitionists, who revised the work which they had begun, and carried it on amidst a storm of abuse, not exempt from danger. Mr. Lundy was a Hicksite Quaker, born in New Jersey, January 4, 1789. In 1821 he commenced the publica- tion of the Genius of Universal Emancipation, an anti- slavery newspaper, at Mount Pleasant, Ohio. This paper he removed to Tennessee, where it was continued till again removed, next time to Baltimore, in 1825, and afterward to Philadelphia, where it was destroyed by a mob in 1837. Previous to this time he had trav- ersed the whole country, issuing transient numbers of his paper, also anti-slavery pamphlets, and had held personal interviews with such men as Arthur Tappan, Ichabod Codding, William Lloyd Garrison and other philanthropists.
Mr. Garrison received his impressions against slavery from Mr. Lundy, and it may truly be said, that after his death his mantle of honor fell upon Mr. Garri- son's shoulders, at least, in the part taken by the Bos-
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tonians in this conflict. Zebina Eastman united his efforts with Mr. Lundy • in the publication of the Genius the year after its removal to Lowell, 111. , in 1838, where Mr. Lundy died August 22, 1839, and the responsibilities of the paper were left alone with Mr. Eastman, after but a brief alliance with his modest but illustrious friend. Says Horace Greeley of Mr. Lundy: "Thus closed the record of one of the most heroic, devoted, courageous lives that has ever been lived on this con- tinent."
Mr. Eastman continued the abolition campaign in the west through the columns of the Genius, assisted by Hooper Warren till 1842, when he was invited to go to Chicago by James H. Collins, Dr. C. V. Dyer, H. L. Fulton, S. D. Childs, Calvin De Wolf, N. Rossiter, Rev. F. Bascom, L. C. P. Freer, J. Johnston and others, to start the Western Citizen. It became the leading anti-slavery organ of the western states under his editorship, assisted by his old friend, Hooper Warren, who remained with him during the publication of that paper.
To preserve the chain of connection between the early advocates of abolitionism and later workers in the cause, brief sketches of them are here inserted :
Edward Coles was born in Virginia in 1786. He inherited from his father a large plantation, well stocked with slaves ; but he inherited from nature the true spirit of humanity as well as generosity, and under its inspira- tion he sold his plantation and liberated his slaves, giving to each 160 acres of land in Illinois, to which state he removed in 1819. He became the second gov- ernor of Illinois, after a most desperate struggle in the gubernatorial canvass to make it a slave state. The issue was whether to change the constitution of Illinois so as to admit slavery, his influence being against the change, and his cause triumphed. He died in Philadel- phia in 1868.
272 The Underground Railroad*
William Lloyd Garrison, born in Newburyport, Mass. , December 12, 1804, was fined and imprisoned for a "libel" against slave catchers, but released by Arthur Tappan, who paid his fine. January 1, 1831, Mr. Garrison issued the first number of the Liberator, and was dragged through the streets of Boston with a rope around his neck, for his abolition utterances. The governor of Georgia offered $5,000 for his head. He died in Boston May 24, 1879.
Benjamin Franklin Wade, born in Springfield, Mass., October 27, 1800. He rose to great distinction in the United States senate, and earned the title, ' ' Hon- est Ben Wade." DiedMarch20, 1878, at Jefferson, Ohio.
William Goodell was a supporter of Gerrit Smith's doctrine of the unconstitutionality of slavery. Died at Janesville, Wis. , in 1879.
Joshua Leavitt, born in Massachusetts, was a prominent leader in the formation of the liberty party of 1840, which was the germ of the republican party of 1860, in Massachusetts. He died at Brooklyn, N. Y., January 16, 1873.
William Ellery Channing, born at Newport, R. I., April 7, 1780. In 1841 he published a book on abolition- ism, which had a wide circulation. He died at Ben- nington, Vt, October 2, 1842.
Elijah Parish Lovejoy, martyr to the freedom of the press and the freedom of the slave, was born in Albion, Me., November 9, 1802. Went to St. Louis in 1827, became editor of the St. Louis Observer, a Presby- terian weekly, was required by the proprietors of that paper to be silent on the subject of slavery; instead of doing which he boldly claimed the right of free speech and free press. He was mobbed in St. Louis and St. Charles, Mo., after which he bought the paper and removed it to Alton, 111., where three presses were destroyed by violence. On the night of November 7, 1837, while, by the mayor's orders, defending the fourth press, he was shot by an armed mob.
• The Underground Railroad. 273
Owen Love joy, younger brother of Elijah, was born in Albion, Me., January 6, 1811, was elected to congress in 1856, and died while a member of that body in March, 1864, in Brooklyn, N. Y.
James G. Birney, born at Danville, Ky., February 4, 1792. He was the abolition candidate for president of the United States in 1840. He died at Perth Amboy, N. J., November 20, 1857.
Philo Carpenter was born in Massachusetts Feb- ruary 27, 1805, where he remained tilling the soil on
his father's farm till his majority was reached. Both his grandfathers were in the revolutionary war. An earlier ancestor was William Carpenter, who came from Southampton, England, to Weymouth, Mass., in 1635. Mr. Carpenter received a good common school education, supplemented by a few terms at an academy in South Adams, Mass. He arrived in Chicago in the summer of 1832. The peculiar circumstances attending his arrival may be found in Vol. I of this work. The Black Hawk war was then creating great alarm throughout the country ; but the cholera was creating
274 The Underground Railroad.
a greater alarm. This epidemic did not prevent his mingling among the troops at Fort Dearborn. He hav- ing clerked in a drug store, was partially qualified to administer to their wants from his stock of drugs and medicines which he brought with him to Chicago. He organized the first temperance society here soon after his arrival ; and in conversing with him some years ago he told the writer of this sketch that he presented the temperance pledge to Indian Robinson, who signed it, and, consistent with this action, drew a flask of whisky from his pocket and emptied it on the ground. Mr. Carpenter was an uncompromising advocate of the abolition of slavery from the first. His home was ever a free hiding place for fugitives, whence he piloted them by night to Canada-bound vessels. When the abolition question first came up in the Presbyterian church, of which he was a member, nearly one-half of the church voted against the agitation of the slavery question. The Presbyterian synod had the authority to control the action of the church even against the majority of its members, and this majority were dispos- sessed of the use of the church in which to advocate abolition doctrines ; but -this division of the church gave way to the principles of freedom in after years. Much of Mr. Carpenter's life may be found in connection with other abolitionists spoken of in this article. He died in Chicago, August 7, 1886.
Milton Smith was born in Cazenovia, N. Y., Jan- uary 27, 1810. He came to Illinois in 1835, and identi- fied himself at once with the anti-slavery movement. In his profession as a minister of the gospel he often risked his life by the boldness of his anti-slavery utter- ances, as well as in personal encounters with slave hunters. On one occasion he narrowly escaped being thrown overboard from a boat on the Ohio river, for having advocated the anti-slavery cause. At his home, near Bloomingdale, 111., he frequently secreted fugitive slaves, making great sacrifice of time and expense in
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275
conveying them stealthily in the night to Chicago, to steamers that carried them to Canada. He died at Wheaton, 111., March 17, 1878.
Calvin De Wolf was born in Braintrim, Pa., in 1815, on his father's side descended from colonists who came from Holland and settled at Lyme, Conn. His mother was descended from Edward Spalding, who settled in Chelmsford, Mass., in 1633. Mr. De Wolf was a self-taught man, having paid his own way by manual labor at Grand River Institute, Ohio, where he
became proficient in the higher branches of mathe- matics and in Latin. He came to Chicago in the fall of 1837. After teaching school two terms, he entered the office of Spring & Goodrich, to study law. In 1843 he was admitted to the bar and commenced practice, in which profession he continued up to 1854, when he was elected justice of the peace. He was one of the found- ers of the anti-slavery society in 1859, and was one of those who helped to found the Western Citizen, edited by Zebina Eastman.
The attempt to introduce slavery into Nebraska is still fresh in the minds of many at this day. Stephen
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F. Nuckolls was one of the slave colonizers, but a young slave named Eliza, unwilling to become a subject of his designs, made her escape and found her way to Chicago. Nuckolls, the master, followed her, and in his attempt to capture her, was arrested and brought before Judge De Wolf, on a charge of riotous conduct. He was locked up a few hours, during which time the abolitionists sent the woman on her road to Canada. Nuckolls commenced suit in the United States court and obtained an indictment against Mr. De Wolf, George Anderson, H. D. Hayward and C. L. Jenks for aiding a negro slave to escape from her master. The question now came up whether slaves could be held, according to the constitution, in Nebraska. The de- fendants held that the woman was not lawfully a slave in Nebraska, on which ground a movement was made to quash the indictment. This motion never came to trial, but in 1861 the case was dismissed by authority of Hon. E. C. Larned, United States district attorney, after having been pending ever since 1858, the date of Eliza's escape. Mr. De Wolf died in Chicago, Novem- ber 21, 1899.
Gammiel Bailey, born in Mount Holly, N. J., 1797, was founder of the National Era at Washington, the paper that first gave to the world "Uncle Tom's Cabin." He died on a passage from Europe in 1859.
John G. Whittier, born in Haverhill, Mass. , Decem- ber 17, 1807. This noted Quaker poet was the friend of both Lundy and Garrison, and united his efforts with them till slavery was abolished. He died in 1892.
Arthur Tappan was born in Connecticut May 22, 1786. He was a merchant in New York. Founded the Emancipator, and helped to found Oberlin college. He died July 23, 1865.
Charles Sumner was born in Boston, Mass., Janu- ary 6, 1811. He succeeded Daniel Webster in the United States senate in 1851, which place he retained until his death, March 11, 1874, at Washington, D. C.
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His arguments in favor of the abolition of slavery were too logical to be answered bywords; instead of attempt- ing to do which Mr. Brooks, a southern senator, made a savage attack upon him with a cane on the floor, of the senate. Mr. Sumner was one of the commissioners to settle the Alabama claims.
Mrs. Lucretia Mott, of Quaker parentage, was born on Nantucket island in 1793. Her education was re- ceived in the schools of Boston till fourteen years of age, at which time she was placed in a Friends' board- ing school in New York state, where she remained until she became an assistant teacher. She was a natural orator and forcible writer, which, together with her associations with Benjamin Lundy, Wm. Lloyd Garri- son, Wendell Phillips, Lydia Maria Childs and others, had well fitted her for the conspicuous part she took in the cause of human freedom, as well as in other benevo- lent reforms. While she learned much from them, she gave as much in return as she received. Even the great Garrison took his first lesson in elocution from this gifted woman. While on his return from a Balti- more jail, confined there for abolition utterances, charged with resentment for his persecutions, he called on Mrs. Mott in Philadelphia, who obtained permission for him to deliver an abolition address in the Green street church, where Mrs. Mott had begun to preach. He pulled out his manuscript and went through with it. Says Mrs. Mott, ' ' It was, of course, a very strongly written production, but delivered without animation." She, being an orator, knew how it should be done, and said to her young friend: " William, if thee expects to set forth thy cause by word of mouth, thee must lay aside thy paper and trust to the leading of the Spirit." Garrison profited by this advice, given in kindness, of which his future fame as an orator gave good evidence. Mrs. Mott died at her home near Philadelphia in 18-80.
Lydia Maria Childs was born in 1802. She edited the National Slavery Standard, and was the author of a
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famous book, entitled, " An Appeal for Africa. " Her literary style was a model of elegance. She died in 1880.
Charles F. Torrey, born in Scituate, Mass., 1813, was editor of the Tocsin of Liberty, published in Albany, and was arrested in Maryland for running1 off slaves, convicted and sentenced to Baltimore state prison for life, and died in prison May 9, 1846, one year after his sentence. He was called the martyr Torrey.
Salmon P. Chase was born in Cornish, N. H. , Jan- uary 13, 1808. He was one of the founders of the liberty party, was governor of Ohio in 1855, and was appointed secretary of the treasury by Lincoln in 1861 During his secretaryship he was chiefly instrumental in establishing the greenback system. The fourteenth amendment to the constitution was among the last of his public acts. He died at the residence of his daughter, Mrs. Wm. Hoyt, New York, May 7, 1873.
Joshua R. Giddings was born in Athens, -Pa., October 6, 1795. He earned a reputation for consist- ency and honesty in his long public life, during which time he was unceasing in his opposition to slavery. He was made consul at Montreal by Lincoln, where he died May 27, 1864.
Gerrit Smith, born in Attica, N. Y., 1798. He gave his money freely to aid fugitive slaves, was a firm advocate of temperance as well as abolition of slavery. He died in New York, 1874.
Elihu Burritt, the learned blacksmith, was born in New Britain, Conn., December 8, 1811. He was as remarkable for his love of humanity as for his great learning. He always pleaded the cause of abolition through his logical pen. He died at the place of his birth in March, 1867.
Wendell Phillips was born in Boston in 1811. He was, to use John Adams' forcible expression, "a flame of fire" in the cause of abolition. The style of his
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oratory was a model to be aimed at, but rarely, if ever, to be equaled. He died in 1884.
Jane Grey Swisshelm, born in Pittsburg, Pa., December 6, 1815, was descended from the old Scotch reformers and also from Lady Jane Grey, the nine days' queen of England. In 1848 she established the Pitts- burg Saturday Visitor, devoted to abolition and other reforms. She took the lecture field with great success, making emancipation of the negro one of her chief points. She died in 1884.
Hooper Warren, a native of Windsor, Vt. , was asso- ciated with the celebrated Governor Coles in his opposi- tion to slavery, and also with Zebina Eastman, in the publication of the Genius of Liberty, as told in fore- going pages. He died at Mendota, 111., in 1864.
Jonathan Blanchard, a native of Vermont, took strong anti-slavery ground when he, a young man, started out in life armed with a college diploma and an uncompromising spirit toward slavery. He was early associated with the abolition movement, and was out- spoken as to the impolicy of slavery, when Henry Ward Beecher, his associate, stood on neutral ground, under the wing of his venerable father, Dr. Lyman Beecher, of Cincinnati. He was president of Knox college, at Galesburgi 111., and later of Wheaton college, in Wheaton, 111., where he died May 24, 1892.
Ichabod Codding was born in Bristol, N. Y., Sep- tember 23, 1810. He came to Illinois in 1842, by invi- tation of Z. Eastman, who wished the assistance of his forensic power in the anti-slavery movement. He died at Baraboo, Wis., June 17, 1866.
William Henry Seward was born in Florida, Orange county, New York, May 16, 1801. He early took strong ground as an anti-slavery advocate. He was appointed secretary of state by Lincoln in 1861. The term "irrepressible conflict," was original with him. He died at Auburn, N. Y., October 10, 1872.
Theodore Parker, born at Lexington, Mass., in
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1812, was no time serving orator, but was a bold advo- cate of truth as he saw it. He was emphatic in his protest against the fugitive slave law, and delivered a lecture on its issue in Federal hall, Boston, when the cor- ridors of the hall were filled with United States sol- diers. He defied the mob, and declared that he would march out between the files of the soldiers when he had closed his speech. He died at Florence, Italy, May 16, 1860.
John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States, was born in Quincy, formerly Braintree, Mass., July 11, 1767. His convictions were always strong and uncompromising with every principle that impaired. the liberties of any man, without distinction of color. He was a friend of Lundy, Giddings and other philanthropists. "This is the last of earth," were his dying words when suddenly stricken down in the halls of congress, February 23, 1848.
Cassius M. Clay, born in Kentucky, 1811. Edited the True American, an anti-slavery paper, at Lexington, Ky., at the time of intense excitement. He defended his press against a mob with his rifle, but the mob after- ward took advantage of his prostration on a bed of sickness, seized his newspaper establishment and shipped it out of the state. Mr. Clay is still living at his home in Kentucky.
Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H., Feb- ruary 8, 1811. He had published several papers pre- vious to the New York Tribune, in which paper his edi- torials teemed with statesmanship, political economy tempered with philosophy, to an extent that made the rowdy element of the country give him "in derision" the epithet of "the philosopher." His able pen was always against slavery, for which reason his paper had no circulation south of Mason and Dixon's line. He was one of the principal fathers of the republican party, but when he ran for president against Grant he was defeated. He died November 29, 1872.
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The foregoing list of persons were the most promi- nent representatives of the issue that, step by step, had deepened the chasm between slavery and freedom. These men were not conservative, but radical. The incentives which actuated them were not selfish, but patriotic. The underground railroad between the United States and Canada was the result of their teachings. Chicago was its storm center of the west, and Chicago men were conductors on this covert line. There were several lines on this road, all tending toward Canada as a common goal. Lines ran by the sea coast from Charles- ton, S. C. , to Boston ; from Richmond, Va. , Washington and Baltimore to Philadelphia and New York; from Maryland through Pennsylvania to such towns in New York state as were under the watchful care of Gerrit Smith; from Pittsburg to Buffalo, and from the western portions of Virginia to Cleveland; from Kentucky and the states south through Ohio to Cleveland; also a line from Cincinnati to Sandusky; all these having faithful agents to conduct the fugitives safely across the Canada line.
In Illinois were two prominent lines, the first of which was called the Lovejoy line, operating at various points northwardly; the other was a line from St. Louis via Alton and Springfield on this route to Chicago, the grand central depot of the western system; and it re- mained such from 1839 to 1861. The St. Louis and Alton line, after it had been in operation a few years, was called the Hunter line, because Major Charles W. Hunter, of Alton, had established many small stations in Illinois as feeders to it. Erastus Wright, of Spring- field, was his earnest co-worker. The zeal of the latter in' the cause made him sometimes overstep the bounds of discretion, in which cases Abraham Lincoln, then a young lawyer, defended him before the courts. From Springfield, where the fugitives had been placed under the care of Mr. Wright, the line diverged into branches, through Tazewell, Woodford and Livingston counties,
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receiving accessions of passengers as they went north- ward. St. Louis, Quincy, Springfield and Galesburg were the stations on this line, at each of which places were able men who found a way to keep its operations so secret that the law could get no grip on them. One of the means of conveying fugitives on this line was to put them in an open wagon covered with loose hay. The drivers of such wagons armed themselves with rifles and traveled only in the night.
Meantime the exodus from slavery became more and more general, and at the Chicago end of the line Dr. Dyer, Philo Carpenter, Dr. Kennicott, Dan. David- son, Deacon Johnson, L. C. P. Freer, Calvin De Wolf, Allan Pinkerton and others had an accumulation of work on their hands. The slave hunters were not less active ; the whole state of Illinois was corralled for fugitives, the hunters being bold and defiant, offering liberal rewards for assistance, while the underground railroad men were subtle and determined ; the former under the regime of law, the latter under the palladium of justice. Nor were Ihe streets of Chicago exempt from these rival forces ; but sometimes their ' ' fine work" bordered on the comical. A case of this kind occurred November 14, 1842. Edwin Heathcock was the slave by heredity, according to the black code, and was properly advertised the required six weeks to be sold at public auction if no master had come forward to claim him and pay charges for arrest, etc. What made this case more interesting was the fact that Heathcock had a good standing in the community and in the church. Mr. Eastman has told the story well, as follows: " The selling of a Methodist brother in good and regular standing, as a piece of property, was not con- sidered altogether proper by some, even those who were not regarded as the contemptible abolitionists. Abo- litionists were becoming already numerous in Chicago, and it is not probable that they would have allowed so important an event as a slave sale to go unnoticed.
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Consequently, late on Saturday night Calvin De Wolf, who was then a student of law with Grant Goodrich, came into my printing office, and the sale on Monday became a topic of conversation. It was thought not best to let the opportunity pass without giving due notice to the citizens of Chicago, in order that there might be a sufficient number of persons present at the sale to fairly test the value of a man on the auction block. It did not pass. De Wolf held an oil lamp at the case, while, after I had set up the heading, I set in bold faced type a hand bill in these words : A Man for Sale.
" On Monday morning, at 10 o'clock, Sheriff Lowe will sell at or near the jail, to the highest bidder, Edwin Heathcock, now confined for being free, to pay the legal expenses for holding him on suspicion of being a slave. The solid men of Chicago are requested to be present and witness the first man sale in our county.
" This was locked up and put on the press, and while De Wolf stood behind and played the part of roller boy I printed off fifty copies of the bill. We then, at 12 o'clock Saturday night, sallied up Clark street, along the line to be traversed by the church goers on the mor- row, posted these bills on the fences around the public square, up past the long, low Presbyterian church on the right, the equally low Methodist on the left, be- tween Washington and Madison streets, and on the board fences along and beyond the houses of B. E. Heacock, Star Foote, Tuthill King, P. F. W. Peck, Robert Freeman, Joseph Meeker, etc., on both sides of Clark street, so that the sober, if not the solid, men should have full notice of the Monday morning sale as they went to and fro to church, for the people of Chi- cago at that time were famous church goers.
"Through the Sabbath day these bills received some marks of spite, such as a thrust through them, or a tobacco quid spattering their faces. But they did their work, and, at the appointed hour, a crowd of peo- ple were present to witness Lowe's slave sale. The
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sheriff, after stating the obligations imposed on him by the statute (the second section of the act of January 7, 1829, referring to free negroes, etc.), proceeded in the discharge of his duty.
" The sheriff: ' I am to hire out Edwin Heathcock to the highest bidder for one month. How much is bid for Edwin Heathcock?' No bid. 'How much, gen- tlemen, for Edwin Heathcock? ' Still no bid. ' How much shall I have for Edwin Heathcock for one month? He is to be hired out for one month; how much is bid? How much? ' And so for some time he solicited a bid. The sale was interrupted by some one inquiring of the sheriff if the person who became the purchaser would be held responsible for his return at the expiration of the month. ' No other responsibility will be assumed than what is required by the statute. Nothing is bid. Is there no one who will hire Edwin Heathcock? If nothing is bid I shall have to return him to the county jail.' At this announcement the coldness of the audi- ence seemed to relax; and after a few more invitations to improve the opportunity to make a speculation, a voice was heard from one of the upper windows offer- ing twenty-five cents for Edwin Heathcock for one month. ' Twenty-five cents is bid. Do I hear any more than twenty-five cents — twenty-five cents — going. Gentlemen, I shall hire him out for twenty-five cents, if no more is bid. Going — going — for twenty-five cents, only twenty-five cents — going — going — going — gone, for twenty-five cents. Edwin Heathcock is hired out to Mahlon D. Ogden for twenty-five cents. '
" Mahlon D. Ogden held up the shining silver quar- ter between his thumb and finger, and tendered the sum to the sheriff. ' Now, ' said Mr. Ogden to his new purchase, ' Edwin, you are my man. I have purchased you for twenty-five cents. Go where you like. ' The announcement was responded to by cheers from the crowd. Sheriff Lowe acted as if he felt that he had got happily through with an unpleasant duty, and said
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that he wanted his fellow-citizens to understand that he was but the agent of the law, and only doing1 what it commanded."
Aurora and Downer's Grove were both near stations to Chicago, the latter place under care of J. P. Blod- gett.
None of these persons connected with the under- ground railroad ever crossed Mason and Dixon's line to entice slaves from their masters. Each one had his own duties assigned to him, and enough to do to fulfill them. But there were some exceptions to this rule. Occa- sionally overzealous abolitionists would venture into the "enemy's country" to entice slaves away, in most of which cases they were caught and sent to state prison, sometimes for life. The fugitives generally came through their own innate desire for liberty. They traveled, not by public roads, but across fields, forests and swamps, lest they should be intercepted by patrol- men on the highways. The north star was their only guide. It was always safe for them to apply at slave quarters on any plantation, where they were secretly fed, but not housed.
Up to the time of the passage of the fugitive slave law, some of the runaways, feeling comparatively safe in the state of Illinois, settled down and engaged in various employments; but when this enactment became a law, the underground railroad men took immediate steps to place them beyond the Canada line for safety; in doing which a great accumulation of passengers was gathered at the depots for transportation. Sometimes whole train loads were shipped, a good general account of which is told in succeeding pages by Mr. Nathan Freer, son of L. C. P. Freer. Other accounts from persons now living will also be inserted in this article, which will shed side lights on this struggle, while they serve to corroborate statements already made.
At that time there were two celebrated steamers plying from Chicago around the lakes, the " Great West-
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era, ' ' commanded by Captain Walker, and the ' ' Illinois, ' ' commanded by Captain Blake. Both of these captains had the reputation for generosity and courage for which sailors are noted, and all the agents of the underground railroad knew that their respective steamers were safe places in which to stow away fugitives, because these runaways, disguised as firemen, would work with all the more zeal on their free passage to Canada. These captains never knew what was going on in the coal hole, nor did they know anything of the character of the passengers. If they were rich they paid their fares ; if they had no money, they could not be thrown overboard ; the worst they could do would be to put them off at the next landing ; withal, they never carried them beyond Detroit for any consideration. Here they were landed, but always on the Canada side. It is not strange that these captains were suspected of running their steamers in connection with the underground railroad. They were competitors for the white travel- ing public from the south via St. Louis and the Illinois river. In the saloons of these steamers there might be the slave masters from one of the southern states, with wives and daughters, reveling in the luxury of a northern summer trip, while one or more of their run- away slaves were firing up the boat in the hold below. The masters were happy in the plenitude of their power, but the slaves were happier in their assurance of freedom.
Pending this state of things, a suspicion was appar- ent among the southern people that these captains were guilty of carrying fugitive slaves to Canada; and to cir- cumvent them they sent a spy to Chicago. This Paul Pry had a thorny path to travel. He soon learned that four slaves were run off in Captain Walker's steamer, with the knowledge of the captain. He had also learned that Dr. Dyer had sent slaves on his boat; but any attempt on his part to obtain a legal hold upon the im- pervious doctor or other abolitionists in this business
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was made too intricate, by the uncertainties of a legal process, to be successful, and he was obliged to aban- don the mission on which he had been sent.
BLACK LAWS OF ILLINOIS.
In 1720, when little was known of the mineral re- sources of the Illinois country, an opinion prevailed that gold and other precious metals abounded in this unknown region. At the mouth of the Okau river, now the Kaskaskia, was a thriving French settlement, in which Philip Francis Renault was a leading spirit. The lead mines of Galena had already yielded profits to its pioneer workers, and if the country around was as rich in minerals as Galena was in lead, slave labor could be profitably employed to develop this new in- dustry; accordingly Renault at his own expense pur- chased and imported 500 negro slaves from St. Do- mingo. Not long after their arrival it was found that there were no mines to be worked, in consequence of which some of them were deported to work the Galena mines; and the remainder were purchased by the set- tlers to till the soil. These, slaves were composed of both sexes, and some of them married after the fashion of slave marriages; but by the ordinance of 1787, slavery could not exist in the northwest territory, and they became free. When Illinois became a separate territory in 1809, a law was passed requiring persons of negro blood to procure a certificate of their freedom, without which if found ten miles from home any white person could arrest them, bring them before a justice, and cause them to be punished with thirty-nine lashes on their bare backs. There were various other penalties inflicted upon negroes, according to the whimsical advocates of slavery, who were important factors in the Illinois legislature; but they were gen- erally a dead letter on the statute book. Any attempt to execute them produced a turmoil, a notable instance of which is told- by Mr. Eastman. He says: "The first time I ever had any knowledge of 'The Black
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Code ' was when I took my first dinner in Chicago, at the old Tremont house, in 1839. I heard at the head of the table some loud and pronounced talking, from which came the expressions that the poor fellows were badly treated, and that it was a shame for civilized people to have such a law. What was it? Why, they said, the darkies of the city had all been taken up to the court house and put under bonds for their free- dom." Continuing, Mr. Eastman says: "If the servants had escaped from their masters they had to be advertised as runaways." This black code re- mained on the statute book until John Jones, a well known colored citizen of Chicago, went to Springfield, in 1864, with a petition to which he had procured a long list of signers, asking that, since his race had been made free, all the laws that made distinction on account of color should be repealed. The petition was granted.
During this exciting prelude to the civil war, one fugitive case came up that involved international law. A slave named Anderson made his escape from St. 'Louis to Illinois, was protected at Alton, whence he was sent to Canada on the underground railroad. Before arriv- ing at Alton he was pursued by his master, but in the chase the master was killed by the runaway. The inter- vention of the United States government was invoked by the governor of Missouri, to return this fugitive by virtue of the extradition treaty between England and America. After a careful consideration of the case the British refused to return him, on the ground that said killing was justifiable homicide, slavery not being recognized in Canada as a legal institution, on which issue the case hinged.
L. C. Paine Freer, abolitionist and underground railroad operator, was descended from liberty loving ancestry, both on the paternal and maternal side. His father was of French Huguenot extraction, and born at New Paltz, N. Y., in the well known colony of French Huguenots. His mother was of the New England fam-
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ily of Paines, distinguished in the early history of our republic. He arrived in Chicago in 1836, fully in sym- pathy with anti-slavery sentiments, and rapidly acquired influence with the abolitionists of Chicago and the northwest. During the period of the greatest activity of the underground railroad he was very prominent in the work; and his home was open not only to colored speakers, but also to the humble fugitive from slavery. He encountered personal danger on more than one occasion, as he was forced to oppose armed court offi-
cials and slave owners, the former with legal warrants. There was a standing reward in one slave state for his head. On one occasion he and a party on horseback chased some slave catchers nearly across the state of Illinois, but unsuccessfully. On another occasion a party of slave catchers were in town for the purpose of returning to her master a light colored woman who had resided in Chicago a number of years. Mr. Freer and three others (undoubtedly Dr. C. V. Dyer and Cal- vin De Wolf were of the party) disguised themselves so
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that they looked very dangerous; and repairing to the hotel where the slave catchers were, bustled right up to where the latter were talking, and pulling out sav- age looking knives, took seats alongside, and while they used their weapons freely on the chairs, they exclaimed to each other that such was the way they used slave catchers. It soon became too hot for the latter, and they adjourned to a passageway up stairs. Mr. Freer's party followed them, and they took to their rooms. The pursuers, now seating themselves m chairs outside the room doors, continued the persecu- tion. Before midnight the slave catchers had left the city without the woman. •
One of Mr. Freer's last acts in the cause of free- dom was to call a meeting at his office soon after the civil war had begun, at which meeting funds were raised to send a train load of fugitive slaves from Chi- cago to Canada. The party left from the Michigan Southern depot one pleasant Sunday afternoon. Many of them having resided in Illinois since their escape from slavery, now forced to leave their associations here, the sight was painful in the extreme. Mr. Freer's wife, Esther Marvie Freer, was always in full sympathy with his acts in the " great cause, " and assisted him to the extent of her opportunities. Mr. Freer died in Chicago April 14, 1892.*
t SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. BY GEORGE SCHNEIDER.
The exact history of slavery in this country has not been written, and the man for whom this work is reserved may not be born yet.
At the beginning of the history of this republic, slavery had a legal existence in nearly every state and section, and the importation of slaves belonged to the legitimate commercial enterprises.
Judge Northrup, of Syracuse, N. Y., who wrote the history of slavery in New York state, deserves great
*The foregoing sketch of Mr. Freer was furnished by his son, Mr. Nathan Freer.
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credit and praise for his work. This is only the begin- ning of exact history writing. The next thing in order should be the history of the slave trade carried on by such seaport towns as Bristol, R. I.
Slavery, and the importation of slaves had a national existence, and the institution declined for the reason that it did not continue to be profitable from a commer- cial standpoint. But the slaves did not all come from Africa and were not all black, but a very lucrative trade was carried on from Europe. Wars and religious per-
secutions had driven thousands of poor homeless people to the seaports of northern Europe, and ship owners from America found them there and placed them under contract for their passage money to America, to remain for a certain number of years in servitude. They were carried to American ports, and in Maryland, Charleston and New Orleans they were sold in the open slave mar- ket, and in many cases were mixed with the negro slaves. The children of these unholy unions were, un- der the laws, considered as slaves, and brought the highest price under the hammer as servants of a higher class. Cases of this kind of slaves occupied the courts
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of Baltimore and New Orleans up to the 50's. In the north, one state after another abolished slavery, and a limitation was placed to its extension by the Missouri compromise. The thinking men of the southern states perceived that in order to save the institution, and with it the political, social and industrial status of the south- ern states, it became an absolute necessity to give it a national character again. The times were favorable to this great aim of the southern statesmen. Both the great political parties of the country had become sub- missive to the dictates of the south, and even the com- mercial, financial and, to some extent, the religious organizations of the north appeared to be anxious and willing to satisfy the demands of the imperious slave holders. In the state of Connecticut a mob destroyed a school kept by a white teacher for the instruction of colored children, and at Alton, 111. , the printing estab- lishment of a paper, which had not sanctioned the slave laws and slavery, was destroyed by a mob, and its pro- prietor killed. The parole in the north was, ' ' Peace with the south at any price," and the writer of this heard in the legislature of the state of Illinois an after- ward senator of the United States and a great Union general, defend human slavery.
A man known as an abolitionist was considered as not belonging to good society, and was uniformly treated with contempt. Even the great Lincoln appeared at that time to be sensitive when, in public debate, the word "abolitionist " was thrown at him. This was the state of society in the Union, when, at the dictates of the south, congress passed the fugitive slave law, with all its horrors, and made, through it, the north the hunting ground of fugitive slaves.
For the first time there was an awakening of pub- lic conscience in the north, and a fierce agitation com- menced.
At this time Europe had been shaken by the up- rising of the masses against the oppression, and a great
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struggle began, more especially in Germany, for the unification of the thirty-six states of Germany to an empire under a national legislature. This revolution- ary movement was defeated, and the flower of the youth of Germany had to emigrate and seek new homes in this country. They were almost all masters of the pen, and naturally took charge of the papers printed in the German language, and with hardly any exception opposed slavery and all its enactments. A new ele- ment had appeared in the political parties of the north and even in some parts of the south, like St. Louis, Baltimore, Louisville, Wheeling, W. Va., etc., with which the leaders of the south had not reckoned, The old abolitionists became emboldened, and the fugitive slave law was openly opposed.
This was the time when the so called underground railway was organized. The great route commenced at the Ohio river, with Cincinnati as one of the prin- cipal starting points, and with stations through Indiana and northern Illinois, Chicago became naturally the great station where the fugitives found a resting place and received their outfits for their transit to Canada. The writer has no list of the honored names of these agents. But among the men who were the most active and self-sacrificing at Chicago, I would name Dr. Dyer, L. C. P. Freer, Zebina Eastman, Calvin De Wolf, Philo Carpenter, Allan Pinkerton, the founder of the de- tective firm now carried on by his sons, Mr. Kennedy, the city marshal as the chief of police at that time, Mr. Isbell, a colored barber, William H. Brown, a fearless opponent of the introduction of slavery in the state of Illinois, Dr. Aaron Gibbs and Mr. George Schneider, then editor of the Illinois Staats Zeitung, the German daily paper. There were, of course, many others whose names have escaped the writer's memory.
There were stations in the principal cities of Michigan to the borders of Canada. The organization was kept up to the time of the outbreak of the civil
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war, and will always form a very interesting chapter in the history of the country.
The fugitive slaves found good homes in Canada. To the credit of the Canadian people, it may be said there never had been any lynching, and the descend- ants of these fugitive slaves received, as it seems to be, a good common school education. We find many of them at the present time working as waiters, barbers and porters in northern summer resorts, and they all appear to be well behaved and ready with the pen.
I would say, for comparison, that the colored people emerging from slavery have reached as good a point of civilization, and even better than the serfs in Russia, who have been liberated by Emperor Alexander II.
CHARLES VOLNEY DYER, M. D.
Dr. Dyer was born in Clarendon, Vt., June 12, 1808. His father was Daniel Dyer, a lineal descend- ant of William Dyre, first secretary of Rhode Island, and Mary, his wife, the Quaker martyr. Dr. Dyer's mother was Susan, daughter of Gideon Olin, and sister of Judge Abraham Olin. Of Mary Dyre, or Dyer, Governor Winthrop, in his journal, dated 1638, says : "A fair woman of a very proud spirit"; and she herself said in Boston at her trial : ' ' My life is not accepted nor availeth me in comparison of the lives and liberty of the truth." Although once reprieved from death on condition that she would not return to Massa- chusetts, she did go back to succor her oppressed co- religionists, the Quakers, and suffered death for so doing. The blood of the martyrs is said to be the seed of the church ; in this case it proved the germ of relig- ious liberty, for within a year after her death Charles II caused the abolition of the death penalty for Quakers.
All honor and praise to the women and men
Who spoke for the dumb and the down trodden then ;
I need not to name them ; already for each
I see history preparing- a statue and niche.
Thus sang Lowell in praise of the early sufferers in the anti-slavery cause. Is it not true that they per-
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petuated the traits of their ancestors, and are the words not as applicable to Mary Dyer as to the people of our age?
Dr. Dyer came to Chicago in August, 1835, from Newark, N. Y., where he had been practicing medicine since his graduation at Middlebury College in 1830. He at once identified himself with the public active life of the place, for he was a candidate for state representa- tive the following year; he was ineligible, however, because he had not lived a year in the state. In
1836 he was elected clerk, but resigned at once. In 1838 he was commissioned surgeon at Fort Dearborn, where his oldest child was born. He married, in 1837, Louisa Gifford, sister of James Talcott Gifford, the founder of Elgin, 111. Both Dr. and Mrs. Dyer were identified with the anti-slavery cause, and the earliest recollections of their children are of visits from Owen Lovejoy and other prominent abolitionists. A tract which was widely circulated in those days consisted of
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Whittier's poem, " The Yankee Girl, " and an address to the women of America, written by Mrs. Dyer. After the death of the martyr Love joy, it was felt that there ought to be a mouthpiece for anti-slavery sentiments in Washington, and Dr. Dyer was chairman of the com- mittee to establish the National Era, with Gamaliel Baily as editor and Whittier and Phelps (?) as assist- ants.
Dr. Dyer was a warm friend of President Lincoln, and was appointed by him the first judge from the United States in the mixed court for the suppression of the slave trade, an international tribunal holding its sessions in Sierra Leone.
He was a man of fine literary taste and a wonder- ful memory, and those who were privileged to meet him abroad will remember him as the rarest of cicerones. Every possible association, literary or historical, with the spot he was visiting, seemed to be at his command, and he illuminated all with his ready wit. One evening spent with Charlotte Cushman in Rome stands out in the memory of the writer, when the doctor and his hostess told stories and sang songs to each other for two hours. He characterized the inclination of the tower of Pisa as "a mechanic's lean." She told of her visit to the White House, when she went over to America to act for the sanitary commission fund (pay- ing all her expenses and giving the entire proceeds to the fund — this she did not tell, but we knew it), and of how she seated herself where she, the finished actress, might see with amusement the awkward gait of the ungainly "rail splitter." "The tall form appeared in the door, hands outstretched and eyes beaming a wel- come, and utterly unconscious of anything except the grateful welcome he was bearing, he traversed the length of the rooms with the most regal and majestic tread that I have ever seen." Dr. Dyer was in Rome when the sad news of Lincoln's assassination came, and was chosen to deliver the address to the American
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colony there on the occasion of their memorial meet- ing. He was also invited to speak at a banquet held in Florence in the same year on the 600th anniversary of Dante's birth, which the doctor did through an inter- preter, and when he mentioned Abraham Lincoln and himself choked with emotion, every one present rose to his feet and bowed his head in silence.*
In interviewing Mrs. Mary Jones, widow of the late John Jones (colored), her words are herewith re-
ported verbatim, the better to express her recollections of the eventful period of the anti-slavery issue :
About the time we came to Chicago, 1845, there were three girls who escaped from slavery in Missouri, who came here in a wagon covered in straw, which was late in the fall, and they remained here until navigation opened, and then they were sent on to Canada.
At one time Dr. Dyer told a slave in front of the oldTremont house: "You don't belong to anybody. Go about your own business. " His master heard what the
*The material for the foregoing- sketch was furnished by Stella Dyer, loving- daughter of Dr. Dyer.
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doctor said, and he rushed up and struck him, which caused a fight, and in the disturbance the doctor broke his cane over the slave owner's head, and after that friends of the doctor made him a present of a fine gold headed cane, w.hich is now in the Historical Society.
The fugitive slave law was passed on a Saturday night, and on Sunday, after the law had been passed, the friends of freedom chartered cars enough to send every fugitive slave from here and around the country, out of this country into Canada. They went out and loaded up the cars at what I believe was then called the Sherman street station, and I remember at that time, a man came along who looked as if he might do a great deal of fighting, and he told the slave owners and friends, "if they would bring one man at a time he would not leave one of them." The men who got these cars together, what few I now remember, were Charles V. Dyer, Zebina Eastman, John Jones, L. C. P. Freer, Calvin De Wolf, Henry Bradford, Mr. Bridges, Louis Isabell, H. O. Wagner and others.
The first time I ever met John Brown he came to our house one afternoon with Fred Douglas, and they sat up until late and John Brown stayed ail night. Mr. Douglas said he was a nice man, and Mr. Jones wanted to know if I could make some provision for him to stay all night, that he did not want to send him away, and he remained all night. I told Mr. Jones I thought he was a little off on the slavery question, and that I did not think he was right, and that I did not believe he could ever do what he wanted to do, and that somebody would have to give up his life before it was done. The next morning I asked him if he had any family. He said: "Yes, madam, I have quite a large family, be- sides over a million other people I am looking out for, and some of these days I am going to free them, if I live long enough." I thought to myself, How are you going to free them? Well then, after that time, until he went to Kansas, he dropped into our house most any
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time, generally in the morning1, and stayed until long in the afternoon.
He would talk about the slavery question, about war, and say what might be done in the hills and moun- tains of Pennsylvania ; and Mr. Jones would say : ' ' Why, Mr. Brown, that is all wind, and there is nothing to it ; and besides, you would lose your life if you un- dertook to carry out your plans." And I remember how Mr. Brown looked when he snapped his finger
and said : " What do I care for my life?" He spoke low and distinctly, and said, with a snap of his finger : " What do I care for my life, if I can do what I want to do — if I can free these negroes?" But Mr. Jones told him that he did not believe his ideas would ever be carried out. During the several times that he was com- ing to our house, and in these talks, I remember that he also said to Mr. Jones : "I tell you what you do, Mr. Jones ; you lay in a supply of sugar, corn, coffee and cotton, because I am going to raise the £rice of it" meaning, of course, that he expected to stop slavery,
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and that more would have to be paid for raising these articles.
After being in Kansas awhile, he came on here with thirteen slaves. One morning some one rang the bell, and Mr. Jones went down and answered the bell, about daylight, and I heard several men talking. I had been reading about how many men he had around him, and I said to my husband : "I do not want John Brown's fighters. I am willing to take care of him, but not his fighters," and told him that he would lay himself liable, but he said : "They are here, and I am going to let them in." I don't know how many, but four or five of the roughest looking men I ever saw. They had boots up to their knees, and their pants down in their boots, and they looked like they were ready to fight , but they behaved very nicely, and I came down- stairs right away. But Mr. Brown said: "Now, Mr. Jones, if you will give my men a little bite, as they have had nothing to eat, we will go away from you, and won't be heard of any more to-day ; and just give them a little bite of something." So we did, and Mr. Jones came downstairs and we all had breakfast ; so then Mr. Brown went away, or started, and I asked him if he would not have some more coffee, and he said: " Yes, I will take a little more coffee, because I ate very little dinner yesterday, and will have some more coffee. ' ' That shows he had system in all things. Sure enough, these men went away and my husband left, and nobody was left at the house but John Brown and I ; and by and by a boy came to the door — I think he was a train boy who peddled books on the train — and asked for Mr. Jones. I told him he was not in. He said the conductor told him to come to Mr. Jones and see where he was, be- cause he said all the people who came in this morning were suspicious looking people and had negroes with them, and the conductor thought they were going to take the negrbes down to Missouri and sell them, and he did not want it that way I did not say to him that John
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Brown was in the house, but I kept that a secret ; and I did not tell him that I knew about these men, because I did not ; but I told him where to go to find the anti- slavery people — Mr. Freer and Dr. Dyer. What he wanted was some one to look after these slaves and see that they were not sent to Missouri. He said there was a very suspicious white man who had these negroes,, and it was supposed they intended to take them to Missouri, while the negroes believed they were going to be taken to Canada. But the boy left, and by and by I answered the door again, and there was Mr. Pinker- ton, whom I had met before, and I began a conversation with him. And just at that time the fugitive slave law was in force, and altogether it made me feel a little nervous, as I did not know whether he was on the right side or not. But he spoke, and said: "This is Mrs. Jones, I believe, ' ' and said : "Is John Brown stopping with you?" I thought the truth was the best, any- how, and asked him to come in, and did not know what the result might be. But as soon as he saw John Brown I knew they were friends, and Mr. Pinkerton was on the right side ; and so they were very friendly together and were very glad to see each other. Mr. Pinkerton said he had been to see the slaves Mr. Brown had brought in, and he said they were going to be looked after. " I am going to get money enough to send these negroes out of the city," he said ; "Mrs. Jones will take good care of you to-day," and of course I said "Yes." And then their anti-slavery friends came up to see John Brown, and Dr. Dyer suggested giving him a suit of clothes and said that would be a good disguise for him. Dr. Dyer, Mr. Freer, and I do not know how many, were there ; and one man, whose name I cannot remember, was about the same size as John Brown, and he went down in town and fitted the clothes on himself, because they did not want to send John Brown down in town. He brought them to John
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Brown, and I guess John Brown was hung in these same clothes.
One of the girls which I told you about, that came here from Missouri covered with straw, is now living in Chicago. They were all sent away from Chicago. One got married and died, and I do not know what be- came of the other; but one drifted back to Chicago. Her husband had been in the war, and she came here to see if Mr. Jones could identify her to get a pension, and she had four girls. One of the girls lived with us for five years, and went to school and was accepted as a teacher.
MR. RUFUS BLANCHARD :
My Dear Sir. — Replying to your favor of the 19th inst. , I herewith inclose you a picture of my father, the late Allan Pinkerton. Concerning his standing with the abolitionists in the early days in Illinois, I would state my father came to this country in 1842; he was a native of Glasgow, Scotland, was married to Joan Crafrae, and sailed the day after his marriage from Glasgow; he was shipwrecked at Sable island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and eventually rescued with the other passengers and landed at Montreal, and from there went to Detroit, and from Detroit overland to Chicago. He was by trade a cooper, and for a short time worked in Chicago, as a cooper, then moved farther west to the Scotch settlement of Dundee, Kane county, 111., where he established a cooperage business, in company with his brother Robert Pinkerton, and there all of his children were born, with the exception of his youngest daughter, Joan, now Mrs. Win. J. Chalmers, of Chicago. The settlers around Dundee were mostly Scotch, and were almost entirely abolitionists. He very soon be- came identified with the abolitionists of Chicago, headed by Jas. H. Collins, Dr. Dyer, Calvin De Wolf and other people of that class; and my earliest recol- lection goes back to the house in which I was born — a
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small farm house at the top of the river in Dundee, with a one-story brick store adjoining1, and a large cooper shop in the rear. In this cooper shop there were employed a number of white men, and at least a half dozen runaway slaves who had escaped from bond- age, who had made their way that far north, and who had been sent out through the underground railway to a settlement where they were taken in hand by my father, and there they learned their trade as coopers. Some of these people, I believe, are still living, although they would be very old men now.
My father took out his citizenship papers shortly after his arrival, and soon after became a citizen of the United States. He was appointed deputy sheriff in Kane county, and from his position as deputy sheriff, on account of his success in breaking up several gangs of horse thieves and counterfeiters which then infested the country, he was appointed to a similar position in Chicago. He came to this city as deputy sheriff under, I believe, Wm. L. Church, who was then the sheriff. On arriving in Chicago he became actively identified with the workings of the underground railway and the abolitionist party in Chicago; in fact, he became a leader among them, and many an unfortunate slave escaping from bondage passed through his hands to other agents of the under- ground railway, until they were safely landed in Canada.
I recollect — it must have been in 1859 or 1860— when the family resided on Adams street, on the pres- ent site of the general offices of the Burlington rail- road, of my father saying to me that he wanted me to go with him in the evening; he led me through what was then known as Wells street, but now Fifth avenue, to the corner of Polk street, then we turned east to the center of the block between Sherman and Wells streets, where there was a small mill, owned by an old negro named Wagner. This mill was simply grinding cracked
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wheat and cereals of that kind, and the business was quite a small one. In this house were gathered a num- ber of white men and a number of negroes. I recollect distinctly that the white men were bearded and rough looking chaps, some of whom wore overcoats made of blue blankets, and all had the appearance of what we would now call a western man. The meeting that they held was a very secret one,, and before we left there my father told me to take a good look at the old man, who appeared to be the leader of the white men and negroes in the house. He explained to me that the old
man was John Brown, that Brown was a greater man than Napoleon ever dared to be, and as great a man as Washington. This remark impressed me greatly, and my father further told me that these people had been driven out of Kansas by a number of ruffians, and were fleeing to a place of safety in Canada, and that he had to go to raise some money for them. There was a local republican convention in session at the time, and in those days republicanism had not reached the stage which it reached a couple of years later, when Lincoln became the candidate for president. My father went to the convention and insisted that a subscription be
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raised for the purpose of getting these men safely out of Chicago and into Canada. There was some difficulty in raising the money, but he declared that unless the money was paid over to get these men out of town he would march the whole crowd down to the conven- tion hall and allow the United States marshal to take them into custody. This threat had its effect, and $300 or $400 was raised, and that night the whole crowd, headed by John Brown, was sent out of town en route to Canada. This must have been, I think, in 1858 or 1859. At any rate, the next I heard of Brown was the attack that he made on Harper's Ferry.
The picture which I send you in connection with this matter, is a copy of a picture which was given by John Brown to my father shortly after his (Brown's) arrival in Canada, and previous to the attack on Har- per's Ferry.
To the day of his death my father retained his strong abolitionist principles; and during the time he was chief of the secret service in Washington he was enabled to be of great benefit to numerous refugees or contrabands, as they were called, who were fleeing from servitude in the south. WM. A. PINKERTON.
RUFUS BLANCHARD:
Dear Sir. — As you requested of me, I give, herein, some of my early recollections of anti-slavery doings in Chicago. I commenced the study of law in the office of Calvin De Wolf at 71 Lake street in the summer of 1846. Dr. C. V. Dyer occupied the same suite of offices. Dr. Dyer was at that time recognized as the leading spirit among the anti-slavery people of this part of the state, and our office might reasonably have been desig- nated as "The Chicago depot of the underground rail- road." James H. Collins, who stood at the head of the Chicago bar, had his office nearly opposite, and next to Dr. Dyer was recognized the most devoted and energetic friend of the colored man. L. C. Paine Freer, S. D.
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Childs, Daniel Davidson and his brother Orlando and Seth Paine were leading spirits.
Zebina Eastman was then editing- and publishing the Citizen, an abolition paper. Among the incidents of these times which I have bright in my mind, are the following:
One night a number of runaway slaves were brought in, and slept on the floor of the front office. I occupied the rear room of the suite as my sleeping room. Quite early in the morning they were taken to another place, and their butternut clothes were exchanged for others, less conspicuous in Chicago, and their slave names were exchanged for new ones. It was quite the habit to give runaways, thus newly born into liberty, some of the most distinguished names in American history. Shortly after they had left, the United States marshal for this district came to the office and demanded admittance; said there were some runaway slaves in our office, and he had a warrant for their arrest. I told him there were no slaves there, and refused to let him in. He insisted that he knew better, and said if I did not open the door he would break it down. After delaying him as long as I thought it safe to do so, considering the well being of the door, I opened the door and allowed him to sat- isfy himself that what I had said was true — that there were no runaway slaves there.
The marshal seemed to think we would endeavor to send the runaways to Canada by a steamer that was to sail that morning. The steamer was lying at the foot of State street, behind Peck's warehouse, and so having first examined the steamer, and finding there were no runaways stowed away, stationed a number of deputies on the dock to prevent their being taken aboard. By this time the matter had got noised about the city, and a large crowd was gathered on the dock to see what would happen. What did happen was that the runaways all got aboard without the marshals know- ing it, and this is the way it was done: A number of
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negroes, employed upon the boat, were put in a line with the white help, and set to wooding the boat from a pile at the east end of the warehouse, a very con- venient place for our purpose. The runaways were brought down one by one and slipped into the line of wooders in place of colored men who were slipped out until all were aboard and safely stowed away. I do not remember the name of the boat or of the captain, but he was an expert in that line of business. The run- aways were safely landed in Canada in due time.
About the same time an old negro, who had lived in Chicago for a number of years, was kidnapped and carried off into slavery. He was taken from Chicago by team to La Salle and thence by steamer to St. Louis. La Salle was at that time the head of a line of steam- boats running regularly between that place and St. Louis. The supposed kidnappers were Chicago men, and were arrested, but for want of proof they were discharged.
Mr. MacDougall, afterward United States senator from California, defended the kidnappers.
One of the most exciting incidents was that in con- nection with the arrest and trial of a negro alleged in the warrant to be a "copper colored negro." The trial was before Geo. W. Meeker, a United States com- missioner, and it took place in the United States court room, in the old "Saloon" building, on the southeast corner of Clark and Lake streets. Mr. Meeker was a whig, and not very much in sympathy with slave catch- ing; withal he was said to possess considerable policy and shrewdness. At his request Henry A. Clark, a strong democratic young lawyer, sat on one side of him and I on the other, as he said, to take notes of the evidence. I do not remember that he consulted our notes, and I suspected at the time that he did not care so much for our notes of the evidence as he did to learn, through us, what might be taking place outside of the court room. I cannot say what he learned through
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Mr. Clark, but he learned through me, at an opportune time, that there were in the room a body of some fifty men well armed and determined that if he ordered the negro to be taken back into slavery, he would be taken out of that room by force.
I do not remember that I knew any of these men. Their leader was Allan Pinkerton, who at that time was carrying on coopering business at Dundee, and who afterward became the noted detective — the head of the Pinkerton detective agency. The marshal had sus- pected that there might be violence, and had a dozen deputies seated immediately behind the prisoner, ready for any emergency. The controversy in the trial turned upon the identity of the prisoner, whether he answered the description of ' ' copper colored. ' ' The commissioner finally found that he was not ''copper colored," and ordered his discharge. In an instant, and before the claimant or marshal fairly knew what had been done, the prisoner was seized and hustled out of the court room, and conveyed to a place of safety, while the way of the marshal and his deputies was so blocked that they could not even get out of the room until all traces of the negro were lost.
Another interesting incident took place before Jus- tice of the Peace Kircheval. His office was in the two- story wooden building on the east side of Clark street, just north of Lake. It was approached only by a stair- way leading from the sidewalk to the second story. Kircheval was a strong pro-slavery man, knew but little law, and had the reputation of deciding his cases accord- ing to his prejudices, with little regard to law or justice if a fugitive was brought before him under the fugitive slave law. The room was crowded with spectators ; even the stairway was filled, and the sidewalk in front of the building. After the case had proceeded for a while, the excitement of the trial and the bad air cre- ated by the crowd very naturally suggested to the jus- tice fresh air and refreshments, which were found in a
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neighboring" saloon, to which his honor, the prosecuting lawyers and the constables, except one who was left to guard the prisoner, repaired. The trial was never re- sumed, for during the absence of the court the prisoner was seized, passed over the heads of the crowd and down the stairway to where some persons in waiting ran him down Clark street, whence he disappeared, and was not afterward recaptured.
There were a number of trials before Judge Drum- mond, of the United States circuit court, for inter- ferences with the slave pursuers, but as I did not take any personal interest in these trials I do not remember the particulars well enough to give any account of them.
Immediately following the repeal of the Missouri compromise act, there was a great meeting held in the State street market hall. It was at this meeting that Edwin C. Larned made the speech which gave him his reputation as a great popular speaker, and it was at this meeting that Isaac Cook, familiarly called Ike Cook, rushing onto the stand at the close of Mr. Larned' s speech, greatly excited, commenced his answer with, " Truth squashed to earth will rise again, by God, you cannot stop her." The laughter and ap- plause were so tumultuous, Mr. Cook was unable to proceed, and after a while concluded to leave the rest of his speech unsaid.
The driving out of the ' ' free state settlers ' ' from Kansas by the border ruffians, and the appearance of a large number of refugees in Chicago in 1856, gave rise to a great public meeting here, and the formation of the local Kansas committee. I am unable to give the names of the members of the committee, except Isaac N. Arnold and Dr. John Evans. I was added to the committee after it was organized. This committee did something in the way of sending emigrants (properly armed to protect themselves) into Kansas. The border ruffians having practically closed the Missouri river to
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free state emigrants, they had to be sent through Iowa. I went to Iowa City as the agent for this committee, and fitted out the first company of emigrants that went by that route. As there was then no railroad beyond Iowa City, these emigrants had to be conveyed across the state of Iowa into Nebraska, and thence into Kan- sas by teams purchased for that purpose.
It was at the suggestion of this Chicago committee that a convention was held at Buffalo, which organized a national Kansas committee. This convention was
composed of probably 500 delegates, and was one of the most notable, -on account of the personnel of its mem- bers, I have ever known. Governor Reeder, then late governor of Kansas, presided. The national Kansas committee was composed of one member from each state, except that Illinois had several members. Abraham Lincoln was a member from Illinois. He did not act, however, but designated W. F. M. Arny to act in his place. Gen. J. D. Webster, of Chicago, was vice- president ; Geo. W. Dole was treasurer, and I was sec-
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retary of the committee, and we three constituted the executive committee and carried on the business of the committee from Chicago. Our office was in the Marine bank building, northeast corner of Lake and La Salle streets. It was this executive committee that con- ducted the Kansas campaign on the part of the north from the time of its appointment, in 1856, until Kansas was made a free state, and it was this committee that threw into Kansas, in the spring of 1857, the large body of free state settlers who gave to their cause the big majority at the subsequent elections.
HARVEY B. KURD.
When anti-slavery agitation first began, its advo- cates were accused of wishing to array the north against the south to dissolve the Union. They were stigmatized as man stealers, freedom shriekers, lunatics, and other opprobrious epithets were applied to them. Pending this transitory stage of state policy, philo- sophical minds penetrated the ultimatum of this con- flict; and with prophetic words declared that it would not end till all the slaves were set free. The political leaders of both the democratic and whig parties looked upon it as a transient ebullition of sickly sentiment- ality, soon to be eliminated from the body politic ; and when Buchanan ran against Fremont, in 1856, and was elected president, on a slavery issue, the slavery party believed that the whole question was settled, never again to be resurrected. It is not strange that partisan politicians might arrive at such a conclusion, for they were neither statesmen nor philosophers. But this illusion was dispelled by the enthusiasm that nomi- nated Abraham Lincoln at Chicago in 1860, as candidate for president of the United States.
The slave interest was now at bay. Heroic meas- ures were necessary to circumvent the abolition senti- ment -which had assumed such formidable proportions, backed by solid men in the north. To do this they held a nominating convention at Richmond, Va., and
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chose John C. Breckenridge on a defiant slavery issue as candidate for president of the United States. They themselves now became the advocates of dissolution of the Union, as they despaired of protecting slavery under it. Chicago was the place where the plan for this evolution in favor of freedom was improvised, and here the machinery was set in motion wherewith to execute these plans. Abraham Lincoln was the instru- ment on whom its responsibilities devolved. His statesmanship, though terminating in a tragic death,
ZEBINA EASTMAN.*
crowned the cause of freedom with a halo of glory, and the American nation with strength.
*Hon. Zebina Eastman, during his long- and eventful career, made up a scrap book containing the principal incidents of the great conflict between slavery and freedom. This scrap book is now in possession of his son, Sidney C. Eastman, which he kindly loaned to the writer to assist him in making up the foregoing history.
OLD MACKINAW IN 1818.
TAKEN FROM THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF GURDON S. HUBBARD.
On this island lived old voyagers, worn out with the hard service incident to their calling, with their families of half-breeds.
A few only of the inhabitants engaged in trade. Mrs. Mitchell, an energetic, enterprising woman, the wife of Dr. Mitchell, a surgeon of the English army, and stationed at Drummond's island, had a store and small farm. Michael Dousman, Edward Biddle and John Drew were also merchants, all depending on trad- ing with the Indians.
These merchants, to a very great extent, were under the influence of the American Fur Co. , purchas- ing most of their goods from them, and selling to them their furs and peltries. This island was the headquar- ters of the American Fur Co., and here I first learned something of the working and discipline of that mam- moth corporation, and took my first lessons in the life of an Indian trader, a life which I followed exclusively for ten consecutive years. Here, also, was located Fort Mackinaw, at that time garrisoned by three or four companies of United States troops. The village had a population of about 500* mostly of Canadian French and of mixed Indian blood, whose chief occu- pation was fishing in summer and hunting in winter. There were not more than twelve white women on the island, the residue of the female population being either all or part Indian. Here, during the summer months, congregated the traders employed by the fur company,
(313)
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bringing their collections from their several trading posts, which extended from the British dominions on the north and the Missouri river in the west, south and east to the white, settlements, in fact to all the Indian hunting grounds, so that when all were collected they added 3,000 or more to the population.
The Indians from the shores of the upper lakes, who made this island a place of resort, numbered from 2,000 to 3,000 more. (Their wigwams lined the entire beach, two or three rows deep, and, with the tents of the traders, made the island a scene of life and animation). The voyagenrs were fond of fun and frolic, and the Indians indulged in their love of liquor, and, by the exhibition of their war, medicine and other dances and sports, often made both night and day hideous with their yells. These voyageurs were all Canadian French, and were the only people fitted for the life they were compelled to endure, their cheerful temperament and happy disposition making them con- tented under the privations and hardships incident to their calling.
At the time of our arrival all the traders from the north and the great west had reached the island with their returns of furs collected from the Indians during the previous winter, which were being counted and ap- praised, and the profit or loss of each ** outfit" ascer- tained.
All of the different outfits were received into a large warehouse, where they were assorted into various classes or grades, carefully counted, packed and pressed for shipment to New York to John Jacob Astor, the president of the company.
Mr. Matthews had the general management of the fur warehouse, and on arrival assumed the charge. After a few days I was ordered to report to him, and then commenced my first instructions in the fur trade.
It was my business to make a second count in or- der to verify the first. The first count was entered on
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 315
a book not seen by me, and if mine corresponded with it, the furs were placed in a frame, pressed, marked and rolled into the shipping wareroom. If, however, my count did not agree with the first, I was required to make a second count; and if there was still a discrepancy, a third person was called upon to recount them. This work took about two months, the working hours being from five o'clock in the morning to twelve noon, and from one to seven in the afternoon; and, as I was obliged to maintain a stooping posture, was severely fatiguing.
About 100 voyageurs were detailed to assist in this business, and were kept under strict discipline. Most of them were experienced, and were generally con- tented and happy, each working with a will, knowing that Mackinaw fatigue duty came but once in four years, and that if they lived through the succeeding three years, their time at headquarters could be spent in comparative ease and comfort.
A party was also organized to cut wood on Bois Blanc, and bring it in boats to the island for the use of the agents and employes who remained there; this party consisted of about twenty-five picked choppers, under the charge of one of the clerks detailed for that purpose. Another party was employed in lyeing (hull- ing) corn, and drying and putting up for the use of those remaining on the island, and for supylying the various outfits soon to leave for their trading posts.
The daily ration issued by the commissary to a mess of from six to ten men consisted of one pint of lyed or hulled and dried corn, with from two to four ounces of tallow, to each man; and this was all the food they received, except that on Saturday flour was given them for Sunday pancakes. It would seem that this was a very short and light ration for healthy, hard working men, but it was quite sufficient, and generally more than they could consume. It was invariably liked by them, and it was found that they could endure
316 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
more hardships on this than on a diet of bread and meat.
Those who came from Canada, their first season, and who were called mange-du-lard, or ' ' pork-eaters, ' ' were usually much dissatisfied and angered with this ration, as on the voyage up they were fed on pork, pease and hard bread, and the change was anything but agreeable to them. They were, however, soon laughed out of it by the old voyageurs, who told them that many of them would be thankful for even that be- fore they returned from their winter quarters.
The company had a yard in which were made and repaired their own boats, and where were manufact- ured traps, tomahawks and other articles from iron. Other parties of the men were detailed to assist the mechanics in this work.
Most of the clerks were assigned to duty either in charge of the different gangs of men or in the wholesale and retail stores and offices. Prom these duties the heads of outfits were exempt.
The force of the company, when all were assembled on the island, comprised about 400 clerks and traders, together with some 2,000 voyageurs. About 500 of these were quartered in barracks, 100 lived in the agency house, and the others were camped in tents and accommodated in rooms of the islanders.
Dances and parties were given every night by the residents of the island in honor of the traders, and they, in their turn, reciprocated with balls and jollifica- tions, which, though not as elegant and costly as those of the present day, were sufficiently so to drain from the participants all the hard earnings of the winter previous.
In each " brigade," or outfit, was to be found one who, from superior strength or bravery, was looked upon as the "bully" of that crew of voyageurs, and who, as a distinguishing mark, wore a black feather in his cap.
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 317
These "bullies" were generally good fighters, and were always governed by the rules of fair play. It was a rule, and was expected, that they should fight each other; hence it was not an uncommon thing to see a fight. The vanquished one gave up his black feather to the conqueror, or shook hands with him, and they both joined with the lookers on in a glass of beer or whisky as good-naturedly as though nothing unpleasant had occurred.
The majority of the inhabitants of the island were of mixed blood — Canadian and Indian — and those who were of pure blood, and were heads of families, had In- dian wives. Their children, though uneducated, were unusually bright and intelligent, and fond of finery, dancing and other amusements. There were a few of the half-breeds who had received a common education, either in English or French, which was generally of little use to them, as they were mostly too lazy or too proud to earn a livelihood.
Among the Indian or part Indian women who were or had been married to white husbands were found some of great intellectual capacity, who carried on an extensive trade with the Indians, one of whom was the Mrs. Mitchell before referred to; she had a store and a farm, both under excellent management, and her chil- dren had been well educated in Canada. This woman's husband was a Scotchman and a surgeon in the English army, and while the island of Mackinaw was in posses- sion of England he was stationed there ;* removing after- ward to Drummond's island, he rarely visited his fam- ily, though only fifty miles distant. He was a man of strong prejudices, hated the "Yankees," and would hold no social intercourse with them.
Mrs. Mitchell was quite the reverse, and being rather partial to the "Yankees," treated them with great consideration; she was a fine housekeeper, and
*After the treaty of Paris of 1783 which closed the war of the American Revolution', the British kept possession of Mackinaw Island till 1796, at which time they evacuated the island.
318 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
owned one of the best houses on the island; she was fond of good society, very hospitable, and entertained handsomely, conversing in French and English, both of which she spoke fluently.
. Another of these women was Mrs. Lafromboise, who also traded with the Indians in the interior, usually up the Grand river of Michigan; her daughter was highly educated, and married the commanding officer at Fort Mackinaw.
Mrs. Lafromboise could read and write, and was a perfect lady in her manners and conversation; she was a widow, her husband, who was a trader, having been shot and killed by an Indian on the Mississippi river; she took his place and business and accumulated con- siderable money. She was afterward employed on a salary by the American Fur Co.
Mrs. Chandler, a sister of Mrs. Lafromboise, was also noted for her ladylike manners and many Christian virtues. Her husband was an invalid and her daughter a widow. This daughter was also highly educated and was considered the belle of Mackinaw; she afterward married Mr. Beard, a lawyer of Green Bay, Wis.
It was my good fortune to be received into these excellent families as a welcome visitor, and they all took an interest in me and my welfare, calling me their " boy clerk. " My leisure evenings were passed with them, much to my pleasure and advantage. From them I received much good advice, as well as instruc- tion in the method of conducting trade with the In- dians, which was of much benefit to me in my after life as a trader.
It was also my good fortune to form the acquaint- ance of Mr. Deschamps, who was an old man and the head of the "Illinois outfit."
Mr. Deschamps had been educated at Quebec for a Roman Catholic priest, but, refusing to be ordained, he, at the age of nineteen, engaged himself to Mr. Sara, a fur trader at St. Louis, and had devoted many
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 319
years of his life to the Indian trade on the Ohio and Illinois rivers. When the American Fur Co. was organ- ized he was engaged by them and placed in charge of the "Illinois brigade," or outfit.
It was the policy of the American Fur Co. to mo- nopolize the entire fur trade of the northwest; and to this end they engaged fully nineteen- twentieths of all the traders of that territory, and with their immense capital and influence succeeded in breaking up the bus- iness of any trader who refused to enter their service.
Very soon after reaching Mackinaw and making returns, the traders commenced organizing their crews and preparing their outfits for their return to winter quarters at their various trading posts, those destined for the extreme north being the first to receive atten- tion. These outfits were called " brigades."
The "brigade" destined for the Lake of the Woods, having the longest journey to make, was the first to de- part. They were transported in boats called "ba- teaux, ' ' which very much resembled the boats now used by fishermen on the great lakes, except that they were larger, and were each manned by a crew of five men besides a clerk. Four of the men rowed while the fifth steered. Each boat carried about three tons of mer- chandise, together with the clothing of the men and rations of corn and tallow. No shelter was provided for the voyageurs, and their luggage was confined to twenty pounds in weight, carried in a bag provided for that purpose.
The commander of the "brigade" took for his own use the best boat, and with him an extra man, who acted in the capacity of " orderly" to the expedition, and the will of the commander was the only law known.
The clerks were furnished with salt pork, a bag of flour, tea and coffee, and a tent for shelter, and messed with the commander and orderly.
A vast multitude assembled at the harbor to wit- ness their departure, and when all was ready the boats
320 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
glided from the shore, the crews singing some favorite boat song, while the multitude shouted their farewells and wishes for a successful trip and a safe return; and thus outfit after outfit started on its way for Lake Su- perior, upper and lower Mississippi, and numerous other posts.
The "Wabash and Illinois river outfits" were al- most the last, and were speedily folio wed by the smaller1 ones for the shores of Lakes Huron and Michigan, and which consisted of but from one to three boats.
I was detailed to the Fond-du-Lac (Lake Superior) " brigade," and a week or so before its departure was relieved from duty at the fur warehouse.
About this time I received a letter from my father, written at Erie, Pa. , in which he informed me that he and my brother were there on their way to St. Louis, and that they had waited there a week looking for the fur company's vessel, which it was expected would touch there on her way from Buffalo to Mackinaw, upon which they hoped to obtain passage, and thus visit me, and if they found.no way of proceeding to St. Louis from there, they would return on the vessel to Erie; but fearing she had passed, and being uncertain whether they should find me on the island, they had reluctantly concluded to continue their journey by way of Cincinnati.
I had before this been told by Mr. Deschamps that he made a trip every fall to St. Louis, with one boat, to purchase supplies of tobacco and other neces- saries for distribution among the various traders on the Illinois river; and as he had seemed fond of Hie, and possessed my confidence, I went immediately to him with my letter, thinking to advise with him, and, per- haps, to send by him an answer to my father. After hearing my story, he delighted me by saying: "Would you like to go with me, if it can be so arranged?" to which I answered affirmatively, and begged for his in- fluence and efforts to that end.
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 321
A Mr. Warner, a fellow-clerk from Montreal, had already been detailed to accompany Mr. Deschamps' " brigade."
" Now, " said Mr. Deschamps, " if you can get Mr. Warner to consent to an exchange, I think I can get Mr. Crooks' permission; I can see no objection to it, and as I am the party mostly interested, I think it can be arranged with him ; you must first, however, obtain Mr. Warner's consent, and then I will see what I can do."
So off I started, letter in hand, to see Warner, not daring to hope for success ; but to my surprise I found he preferred going north to south, and would gladly make the change. I reported to Mr. Deschamps, and he, seeing my anxiety, took my letter .and went im- mediately to Mr. Crooks, who gave his consent, and with it an order to the bookkeeper to change the names in the details; you may feel certain that I felt much re- joiced at my good fortune. Thus my desire of finding my father in St. Louis was the probable cause of an en- tire change in my destiny, for, instead of being located in the cold regions of the north, where my friend War- ner froze to death that winter, my lot was cast in this beautiful state.
During my stay at Mackinaw I had made the ac- quaintance of John H. Kinzie, a clerk of about my own age, and our acquaintance had ripened into an inti- macy. He had entered the service of the company that spring, and was stationed permanently at Mackinaw, and was not to be sent into the Indian country. His father then resided at Chicago, and I had learned of the great hospitality of the family, and of the high es- teem felt for them by all who knew them; and as I had also been told that we should make a stop of a week or more at Chicago, there to make our arrangements for crossing our boats and goods to the Desplaines river, I gladly accepted letters of introduction which he kindly proffered me, to his father and family.
322 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
Through my intimacy with John, I had become quite familiar with the appearance of the Kinzie family and their surroundings. J knew that Fort Dearborn was located at Chicago, then a frontier post; that it was garrisoned by two companies of soldiers, and that on my arrival there I should for the first time in my life see prairie; and I felt that my new detail was to take me among those who would be my friends, and was happy in the thought. ______
FIRST YEAR IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY — MARQUETTE CROSS — CHICAGO — FORT DEARBORN.
The time of our departure soon arrived, and about' noon on the 10th of September, 1818, our "brigade" left the harbor in twelve boats.
Mr. Deschamps took me^ in his boat, and led the way, with his fine, strong voice starting the boat song, in which all the crews heartily joined.
The people on the shore bid us a "God speed" and joined with us in the hope for our safe return the next season.
The islanders, more than any one else, regretted our departure, as what few of the traders remained would go in a few days and leave them to the monot- ony of their own sorroun dings, even the Indians hav- ing mostly departed for their hunting grounds.
Some of our boats were crowded with the families of the traders, the oldest of whom was Mr. Bieson, a large, portly, gray-headed man, who was then about sixty years of age, and for more than forty years had been an Indian trader on the Ohio, Mississippi and Illinois rivers. His wife was a pure-blooded Potta- wattomie Indian, enormous in size — so fleshy she could scarcely walk. Their two daughters were married and lived at Cahokie, a small French town opposite St. Louis. Mr. Bieson had a house and some property at Opa (now Peoria), but had been, with all the inhab- itants of that place, driven off* by the United States
*For account of this attack, see Volume I of this work, page 423.
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 323
troops, under command of General Howard, in the year 1813, and a fort was there erected, which was called Fort Clark. The town of Opa and Fort Clark were situated at the foot of Lake Peoria, on the Illinois river, where now stands the flourishing city of Peoria. The inhabitants of Opa were suspected (wrongly, I think) by our government of being enemies, and of aid- ing and counseling the Indians in giving assistance to Great Britain, and this was the cause of General How- ard's action in compelling them to vacate. Un- doubtedly some of them favored the British, and were paid spies, but a large majority opposed the Indians in siding -with the British, and counseled them to act neutrally and attend to their hunting.
Among the others who had with them their fam- ilies were Messrs. Bebeau, of Opa, and Lefrombois, Bleau and La Clare, all of whom had Indian wives; and, in fact, there were but three or four single men in the party. Those having families messed by them- selves, while the single men clubbed together. Mr. Deschamps was fond of good living, and our mess of five was well provided for, having such meats, fish and wild fruits as were presented to us by the Indians when we met them on the shore of Lake Michigan.
It was the custom of the Indians to present the head man of an expedition with the best they had, ex- pecting to receive in return salt, powder or something else of value to them. The choice parts were retained by Mr. Deschamps for his own table, and the balance distributed among the traders.
The traders were all provided with small tents, but the only shelter given to the men was what was af- forded by the boat tarpaulins, and, -indeed, no other was needed, the camp fires being sufficient for warmth during the night. No covering but their single blan- ket was required, unless the weather was stormy.
The boats progressed at the rate of about forty miles per day under oars, and when the wind was fair
324 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
we hoisted our square sails, by the aid of which we were enabled to make seventy or seventy-five miles per day. If the wind proved too heavy, or blew strong- ahead, we sought an entrance into the first creek or river we came to, and there awaited a favorable time to proceed. If caught by a storm on the coast, when a shelter could not be reached, we sought the shore, where our boats were unloaded and hauled up on to the beach out of reach of the surf. This was a hard and fatiguing labor, and was accomplished by laying down poles on the sand from the edge of the water. The men then waded into the water on each side of the boat, and by lifting and pushing as each large wave rolled against it, finally succeeded in landing it high and dry on the shore. The goods were then piled up, resting on poles, and covered over with the tarpaulins, which were raised to the leeward by poles, so as to form a good shelter for the men and protect them from wind and rain. Sometimes we were compelled to remain thus in camp for four or five days at a time, waiting for the storm to subside, and during this time many games were indulged in, such as racing, wrestling and card playing, and all were jolly and contented; sometimes varying the monotony by hunting or fishing.
Our journey around Lake Michigan was rather a long one, having occupied about twenty days. Nothing of interest transpired until we reached Marquette river, about where the town of Ludington now stands. This was the spot where Father Marquette died, about 140 years before, and we saw the remains of a red cedar cross, erected by his men at the time of his death to mark his grave; and though his remains had been re- moved to the mission at Point St. Ignace, the cross was held sacred by the voyageurs, who, in passing, paid rev- erence to it by kneeling and making the sign of the cross. It was about three feet above the ground, and in a falling condition. We re-set it, leaving it out of the ground about two feet, and as I never saw it after,
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 325
I doubt not that it was covered by the drifting- sands of the following winter, and that no white man ever saw it afterward.
We proceeded on our voyage, and on the evening of September 30, 1818, reached the mouth of the Calumet river, then known as the " Little Calumet," where we met a party of Indians returning to their villages from a visit to Chicago. They were very drunk, and before midnight commenced a fight in which several of their number were killed. Owing to this disturbance we re- moved our camp to the opposite side of the river and spent the remainder of the night in dressing ourselves and preparing for our advent into Chicago.
We started at dawn. The morning was calm and bright, and we, in bur holiday attire, with flags flying, completed the last twelve miles of our lake voyage. Ar- riving at Douglas grove, where the prairie could be seen through the oak woods, I landed, and, climbing a tree, gazed in admiration on the first prairie I had ever seen. The waving grass, intermingling with a rich profu- sion of wild flowers, was the most beautiful sight I had ever gazed upon. In the distance the grove of Blue island loomed up, beyond it the timber on the Desplaines river, while to give animation to the scene, a herd of wild deer appeared, and a pair of red foxes emerged from the grass within gunshot of me.
Looking north, I saw the whitewashed buildings of Fort Dearborn sparkling in the sunshine, our boats with flags flying, and oars keeping time to the cheering boat song. I was spellbound and amazed at the beautiful scene before me. I took the trail leading to the fort, and, on my arrival, found our party camped on the north side of the river, near what is now State street. A sol- dier ferried me across the river in a canoe, and thus I made my first entry into Chicago, October 1, 1818.
We were met upon landing by Mr. Kinzie, and as soon as our tents were pitched, were called upon by the officers of the fort, to all of whom I was introduced by
326 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
Mr. Deschamps as his boy. I presented my letter of introduction to Mr. Kinzie, and with it a package sent by his son. In the afternoon I called at Mr. Kinzie 's house, and had the pleasure of meeting1 his family- consisting1 of Mrs. Kinzie; their eldest daughter, Mrs. Helm; their youngest daughter, Maria, now the wife of Major-General David Hunter, of the United States army, and their youngest son, Robert, late paymaster of the United States army, all of whom extended to me a cordial welcome. As I had so recently seen John, and had been so intimate with him, I had much of interest to tell them.
I was invited to breakfast with them the next morn- ing, and gladly accepted. As I sat down to the neat and well ordered table for the first time since I left my father's house, memories of home and those dear to me forced themselves upon me, and I could not suppress my tears. But for the kindness of Mrs. Kinzie I should have beaten a hasty retreat. She saw my predicament, and said: ' ' I know just how you feel, and know more about you than you think ; I am going to be a mother to you if you will let me. Just come with me a moment." She led me into an adjoining room and left me to bathe my eyes in cold water. When I came to the table I noticed that they had suspended eating, awaiting my re- turn. I said to Mrs. Kinzie : u You reminded me so much of my mother I could not help crying ; my last meal with her was when T left Montreal, and since then I have never sat at a table with ladies, and this seems like home to me." Mr. Kinzie's house was a long log cabin, with a rude piazza, and fronted the river directly opposite Fort Dearborn.
FORT DEARBORN.
Fort Dearborn was first established in 1804, on the south bank of the Chicago river , near where it then dis- charged into Lake Michigan.
It was evacuated August 15, 1812, by Capt. N. Heald, First United States infantry, who was then in
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 327
command, and it was on the same day destroyed by the Indians.
It was rebuilt on the old site in June, 1816, by Capt. Hezekiah Bradley, Third United States infantry, and occupied by troops until October, 1823, when it was again vacated and left in charge of Alexander Wolcott, Indian agent.
Reoccupied, October 3, 1828.
Troops again withdrawn, May 20, 1831.
Reoccupied, June 17, 1832.
Again vacated, July 11, 1832. „
Reoccupied, October 1, 1832.
And finally abandoned, December 29, 1836.
I have been unable to find from the records of the war department by whom this post was originally es- tablished, but find it to have been commanded, after its. re-establishment, by officers as follows:
Capt. Hezekiah Bradley, Third United States in- fantry, from June, 1816, to May, 1817.
Brev. Maj. D. Baker, Third United States infantry, to June, 1820.
Capt. H. Bradley, Third United States infantry, to January, 1821.
Maj. Alexander Cummings, Third United States in- fantry, to October, 1822.
Lieutenant-Colonel McNeil, Third United States in- fantry, to October, 1823.
Fort not garrisoned from Oct., 1823, to Oct. 3, 1828.
Capt. John Fowle, Fifth United States infantry, from October 3, 1828, to December 21, 1830.
Lieut. David Hunter, Fifth United States infantry, to May 20, 1831, when the troops were withdrawn.
Maj. William Whistler, Second United States in- fantry, from June 17, 1832, to July 11, 1832, and from October 1, 1832, to June 19, 1833.
When I first saw Fort Dearborn it was a stockade of oak pickets fourteen feet long, inclosing a square of about 600 feet.
328 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
A block house stood at the southwest corner, and a bastion in the northwest corner about 100 feet from which was the river.
In the first fort an underground passage was con- structed from the bastion to the river's edge, but this was not kept open during the occupancy of the second, but was kept in condition to be speedily reopened should occasion ever require it.
The officers' quarters were outside of the pickets, fronting east on the parade, and was a two-story build- ing of hewn logs. , A piazza extended along the entire front on a line with the floor of the second story, and was reached by stairs on the outside.
The first story was divided into kitchen, dining and store rooms, while the second story was in one large room. The roof was covered with split clapboards about four feet long.
The soldiers' quarters were also of logs, and similar to the officers', except that both stories were finished off and divided into rooms.
In the northeast corner was the sutler's store, also built of logs, while at the north and south sides were gates opening to the parade ground.
On each side of the south gate were guardhouses, about ten feet square.
The commissary storehouse was two stories in height, and stood east of the guardhouse and south of the soldiers' quarters.
The magazine was constructed of brick and was situated west of the guardhouse, and near the block house. The stockade and all the buildings were neatly whitewashed and presented a pleasing appearance.
West and a little south of the fort was the military barn, adjoining which, on the east, was the fort garden, of about four acres, which extended so as to front the fort on the south, its eastern line of fence connecting with and forming a part of the fidd extending south about half a mile.
Old Mackinaw in 1818. 329
Adjoining this fence on the east was the only road leading from the fort in either direction. The south line of the garden fence extended to the edge of the river, and a fence from the west end of the barn ex- tended north to the river, so that the fort was wholly inclosed by fence from river to river. The inclosure between the stockade and the outer fences was covered with grass and adorned with trees and shrubbery.
The well was in the outer inclosure and near the south gate, while about 200 feet from the north gate was the river, a stream of clear, pure water, fed from the lake.
On the east side of the fort the river was from 400 to 500 feet from the pickets, and a part of this distance was a low, sandy beach, where rude wash houses had been constructed, in which the men and women of the garrison conducted their laundry operations.
Just east of the road, and adjoining the fence run- ning east to the river, was the ' 'Factor House, ' ' a two- story, squared- log structure, inclosed by a neat split picket fence. This building was occupied from 1804 to about the year 1810 by a Mr. Jonett, United States factor, and by the west side of the road, adjoining the government garden, in a picket fence inclosure, was the grave of his wife. At the second construction of the fort he was succeeded by John Dean.
For a distance of a quarter of a mile from the "Fac- tor House" there was no fence, building or other ob- struction between the government field fence and the river or lake. Another house of hewn logs stood 1,200 or more feet from the road, and back of it flowed the Chicago river, which, as late as 1827, emptied into Lake Michigan at a point known as "The Pines," a clump of 100 or more stunted pine trees on the sand hills about a mile from the fort. On the edge of the river, directly east of this house, and distant about 400 feet, stood a storehouse of round logs, owned by the Ameri- can Fur Co. and occupied by its agent, Mr. John Craft,
330 Old Mackinaw in 1818.
who erected it. This house was surrounded by a rail fence, and after the death of Mr. -Craft was occupied by Jean Baptiste Beaubien.
Adjoining this storehouse on the south was the fort burying ground. The east line of the government field extended to about this point, and thence west to the south branch of the river. These, with the addition of a log cabin near the present Bridgeport, called ' ' Hardscrabble, ' ' a cabin on the north side occupied by Antoine Ouilmette and the house of Mr. Kinzie, com- prised all the buildings within the present limits of Cook county.
Between the river and the lake, and extending south to ' ' The Pines, ' ' was a narrow strip of sand formed by the northeast winds gradually forcing the mouth of the river south of its natural and original outlet at Fort Dearborn.
In the spring of 1828 the Chicago river had a strong current caused by flood; and, taking advantage of this, the officer commanding at the fort ordered some of his men to cut a passage through the spit of land at the commencement of the bend and parallel with the north side of the fort. It was the work of but an hour or two to dig a ditch down to the level of the river, and the water being let in, the force of the current soon washed a straight channel through to the lake fifteen or more feet deep; bu,t the ever-shifting sand soon again filled this channel, and the mouth of the river worked south to about where Madison street now is.
To Captain Fowle, however, are we indebted for the first attempt to make a harbor of the Chicago river.
The officers amused themselves with fishing and hunting; deer, red fox and wild fowl were abundant. Foxes burrowed in the sand hills and were often dug out, brought to the fort and let loose upon the sand bar formed by the outlet of the river. They were then chased by hounds, men being stationed so as to prevent their escape from the bar. These fox hunts were very
Old Mackinaiv in 1818. 331
exciting1, and were enjoyed by Indians and whites alike. None of the officers were married, and as the sutler's store furnished the only means of spending their money, they were forced to be frugal and saving. They were a convivial, jolly set.
Fort Wayne, Ind., was the nearest postoffice, and the mail was carried generally by soldiers on foot, and was received once a month. The wild onion grew in great quantities along the banks of the river, and in the woods adjoining the leek abounded, and doubt- less Chicago derived its name from the onion, and not, as some suppose, from the (animal) skunk. The In- dian name for this animal is chi-kack, for the veg- etable, chi-goug; both words were used to indicate strong odors.
What is now known as the North Branch was then known as River Guarie, named after the first trader that followed La Salle. The field he cultivated was trace- able on the prairie by the distinct marks of the corn hills.
SETTLEMENT OF ILLINOIS.
BY J. GILLESPIE.
It is difficult to draw a distinct line of demarcation between the different epochs, that is the French, the pioneer and the permanent settler's. They run into each other and become to a considerable extent blended, still in order to present a record of the early history of this state, they must be regarded as distinct eras. The object of the settlement of the French here was two- fold; one was to extend the theater of church opera- tions, the other was for commercial purposes. The first adventurers were ecclesiastical dignitaries, and they located missions wherever they went. Kaskaskia was the center of their field in this region. Afterward the government of affairs was placed under Crozat and the Company of the Indies — to subserve the commer- cial purposes. % The people who were sent out were used as auxiliaries to these ends. They were located in villages to which were attached common fields of several miles extent, and each settler had his strip or arpent of land for cultivation, which was somewhat like a mathematical line, all length and no breadth. The residences of these settlers were clustered in the village within sound of the church bell or the violin of the musician. When these communities became over- crowded a new colony was established similar to the first, and so on. The control of affairs was entirely in the hands of the ecclesiastics. All marriages were authorized and solemnized by them. All entrances into, and exits from this world were under their peculiar
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Settlement of Illinois. 333
supervision. Conveyances of property and settlements of controversies were noted by and effected through their instrumentality. Grants of land and the regula- tions for their subdivision were ostensibly made by the king of France. But the real power was in the hands of the priesthood, but it seems to have been exercised by them with scrupulous regard to justice and to the satisfaction of the people. These people through the influence of the church and their natural amiability were kept on good terms with the aborigines. They had no ambition to found an empire, but were willing to live and die as Frenchmen in the service of their religious teachers. They had no desire for change. The country afforded them all they needed in the way of subsistence, and their civil and religious government was all they desired, but their hearts were in la belle France. The French colonies were mere municipalities, and they did not consider themselves as Americans, but as Frenchmen residing on this side of the Atlantic. This was the first stage of European settlement in the valley of the Mississippi. In 1763, the French posses- sions were ceded to England, but at that time no attempt had been made to establish English settlements on the great river. During the revolutionary war, the expedition of Gen. George Rogers Clark was fitted out by Virginia and succeeded in wresting these French settlements from England. The conquest of the coun- try, so far as the French people were concerned, was an easy task. The English military commandants had made themselves exceedingly obnoxious, and any change was looked upon by the people as for the bet- ter. It is true a considerable number of the French crossed the river into Spanish territory and settled in St. Genevieve, Corondolet and St. Louis. The govern- ment of Virginia could not pay her troops in money, and she provided that the soldiers under Clark should each be entitled to a tract of land in the conquered country in payment for their services. The country being rich
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beyond anything they had ever thought of, most of them settled here upon their lands, and they were fol- lowed by their acquaintances who likewise settled in the country. The troops under Clark, although in the service of Virginia, were nevertheless gathered up about the falls of the Ohio where Louisville now stands, and were composed of Virginians, Kentuckians, Ten- nesseans, North and South Carolinians, and the people who followed them were from those states. These peo- ple differed toto ceolo from the French. They considered themselves as Americans, and hardly knew that they were descended from English stock. They were Indian haters and Indian fighters, and had fewer compunctions of conscience for killing an Indian than they would have for killing a wolf. They were not contented with a narrow strip of land in a common field, like the Frenchman. Nothing less than a big farm isolated from neighbors would suit them. They cared nothing for the protection or company that villages afforded ; each man generally depended upon himself and his trusty rifle for protection. It is true, they assembled in squads to pursue Indian marauders, but generally they lived in solitude, except their families; they possessed greater individuality than any people on earth. These American settlers recognized no authority but that of law, and if they were beyond its reach they made it for the occasion. They had their regulating societies for punishing law breakers, before whom every offender was brought and duly charged, and no man was pun- ished without having an opportunity of being con- fronted with the witnesses againt him, and presenting his defense, if he had any. Generally he had a patient hearing and an impartial decision. These people had no priests like the French to expound the laws; they were natural government makers. Any one of them might be called upon to preside over the deliberations of one of these regulating companies. As soon as government was extended over them they settled down
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into law abiding" citizens. In 1783, Virginia ceded her rights in the northwestern territory to the United States, stipulating for the preservation of the rights of the old French inhabitants, and of her soldiers under Clark, which the government scrupulously carried out; and for the purpose of inviting settlers, an act of con- gress was passed giving to heads of families, who should settle in the country and reside a certain length of time, a tract of land. When the country was surveyed there were three classes of titles to lands, the location of which was not accurately known, to wit: The old French claims, then the military rights under the Vir- ginia regime, and lastly head rights under the act of congress. The government of the United States after the survey of the lands directed the land officers at Kaskaskia to take proof and make report as to the location of the above claims, and they appear as claims and sw*veys in our records as confirmed by congress to the settlers or their assignees, and are principally situated in the counties of Madison, St. Clair, Monroe, Randolph and Peoria. The early American emigrants located generally in the neighborhood of the French settlements, which extended along the river from Kas- kaskia to Cahokia, and the big mound in Madison. The southern part of Illinois was first settled by the Ameri- cans, as the current set in from the southwestern states. People generally emigrate upon the parallel of latitude in which they are raised, as nearly as prac- ticable. The emigration from the slave states extended about as far north as the latitude of Springfield, the wealthier going north and the poorer keeping down south. The Americans I have been speaking of I would class as the pioneers, although a large majority of them became permanent settlers. A great many of these people left the south to get rid of slavery, but many favored the institution and wished to see it introduced here. The state could not be admitted into the Union with a constitution repugnant to the ordinance of 1787,
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which forever prohibited it in the northwestern terri- tory; but many believed that after the admission the constitution could be changed and slavery admitted, and as the settlers were mostly from the south it was thought a majority would favor it. In 1823, a terrific effort was made to adopt a slavery constitution, but it was signally defeated by southern people. Here, in 1823, the great battle of slavery was fought and won by people from the slave states. If Illinois had then enlisted under the pro-slavery banner Indiana would have followed suit, and these two states (or even Illi- nois) on the side of the south at the breaking out of the rebellion would have made the result, to say the least of it, doubtful. All honor to the men who de- feated slavery here in 1823. They builded more wisely than they knew. About 1830 the current of emigration began to set in from the northern states to northern Illinois. Since then the history is known to all men, and I need say nothing about it. I have endeavored to distinguish the epochs in the history of our state' into the French, the pioneer and the permanent — three distinct eras, especially as to social conditions which may with no impropriety be called the childhood, the youth, and the manhood of our state.
THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO
TRUSTEES- 1900 -1901
MARTIN A. RYERSON SAMUEL M. NICKERSON WILLIAM T. BAKER ADOLPHUS C. BARTLETT JAMES H. DOLE JOHN J. MITCHELL ALBERT A. SPRAGUE SAMUEL E. BARRETT CHAUNCEY J. BLAIR STANLEY MCCORMICK WM. D. KERFOOT,
City Comptroller (Ex-Offlcio)
MARSHALL FIELD HENRY H. GETTY CHARLES D. HAMILL CHARLES A. COOLIDGE EDWARD E. AYER JOHN C. BLACK JOHN J. GLESSNER CHARLES L. HUTCHINSON BRYAN LATHROP R. HALL MCCORMICK CARTER H. HARRISON,
Mayor (Ex-Offlcio)
OFFICERS
CHARLES L. HUTCHINSON, President JAMES H. DOLE, Vice- President
LYMAN J. GAGE, Treasurer N. H. CARPENTER, Secretary
WILLIAM M. R. FRENCH, Director
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
CHARLES L. HUTCHINSON JAMES H. DOLE ALBERT A. SPRAGUE
CHARLES D. HAMILL JOHN C. BLACK MARTIN A. RYERSON
WILLIAM T. BAKER
ART COMMITTEE
CHARLES L. HUTCHINSON MARTIN A. RYERSON
JAMES H. DOLE
R. HALL MCCORMICK
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THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO.
It is a remarkable fact that a school of art practice, including work from the human figure, was established in Chicago in 1866 — earlier probably than in any other city in the country except New York and Philadelphia. The society of which this class was the nucleus, was soon organized into the Chicago Academy of Design, an association of artists, which continued its active career, with many vicissitudes, until about 1882. For a considerable period it played a valuable part, and was the only important art center in the city. About 1878 an effort was made to promote the prosperity of the Academy of Design by adding to the artist mem- bership a board of trustees composed of business men; but in the course of a year difficulties arose, connected chiefly with former obligations of the academy, and the business trustees resigned, and formed an organi- zation called at first the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts, subsequently (1882) changed to the Art Institute of Chicago.
The Art Institute was incorporated May 24, 1879, upon the application of Marshall Field, Murry Nelson, Charles D. Hamill, Ferd. W. Peck and George E. Adams, for "the founding and maintenance of schools of art and design, the formation and exhibition of col- lections of objects of art, and the cultivation and extension of the arts of design by any appropriate means." Its first president was George Armour, and at the expiration of his term of office of one year, L. Z. Leiter held the position for two years. He was
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succeeded by Chas. L. Hutchinson, who has been re- elected each succeeding year, and to whose energy, business ability and artistic judgment the success of the institution has been in a great measure due. Wm. M. R. French, the present director, has had charge of the school and museum, and Newton H. Carpenter, the secretary, has been in the business department from the beginning. The following persons have been trustees during the whole history of the institution: C. L. Hutchinson, James H. Dole, Wm. T. Baker, N. K. Fairbank and S. M. Nickerson.
For three years the Art Institute occupied rented rooms at the southwest corner of State and Monroe streets. From the beginning an art school was main- tained, and the school is, therefore, now in its twenty- second year. Occasional exhibitions were also given. In 1882 property at the corner of Michigan avenue and Van Buren street, 54x172 feet, occupied partly by a three-story building, was purchased, at a cost of $45,- 000. The considerations which led to the selection of this locality have been justified by experience. The fine situation upon the lake shore and proximity to the heart of the city are overwhelming recommendations both of the former and present sites of the museum. During 1882 a substantial brick building, 72x54 feet, containing exhibition galleries and school rooms, and fronting upon Van Buren street, was built upon a part of this property. Up to this time the Art Institute had come into possession, by purchase or gift, of a very few good pictures, marbles and casts. During
1885 a collection of casts of antique sculpture, costing about $1,800, was imported and placed upon permanent exhibition. The cost of these purchases and improve- ments was met by subscriptions, membership dues and issue of bonds secured upon the property. In 1885 twenty-six feet of adjacent land was purchased, and in
1886 and 1887 a beautiful brown- stone building, 80x100 feet and four stories high, Romanesque in design, and
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planned by John W. Root, architect, was erected, oc- cupying the southwest corner of Michigan avenue and Van Buren street. This building was opened Novem- ber, 1887. During the next five years the building was outgrown, and in 1892 the property was sold for $425,- 000 to the Chicago club, the present occupant. By this time the Institute had not only become possessed of valuable collections of casts of sculpture, pictures, metals, antique vases, etc., but had gained the favor of the community. It was prepared, therefore, to take advantage of the opportunity offered by the Columbian Exposition to obtain a footing upon the lake front.
By city ordinance, passed in March, 1891, permis- sion was given for the erection of a building upon the lake front, opposite Adams street, to be used for the world's congresses during the Columbian Exposition, and afterward to be permanently occupied by the Art Institute, the building to be the property of the city of Chicago. Between February, 1892, and May, 1893, the present museum building was erected after the plans of Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, architects. The Art Institute thus, in effect, made a gift to the people of the city of the money expended by it upon the build- ing— about $450,000— and gained a public character very advantageous for the public service at which it aims.
An injunction, issued May 31, 1892, restraining the city from erecting any building upon the Lake Front park, was dissolved upon a rehearing, June 23, mainly upon the ground that the legislature of Illinois, by an act of 1890, had authorized the city to permit the erec- tion of buildings connected with the Columbian Expo- sition upon the lake front, and to retain some of them permanently. By this decision the Art Institute became firmly established in its rights upon the lake front.
Among the conditions under which the Columbian Exposition made an appropriation of $200,000 for the
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THE ART INSTITUTE — MAIN ENTRANCE.
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building" were the following' : That at least $500,000 should be expended upon the building1; that the build- ing should be controlled by the Exposition for the use of the world's congresses from May 1 to November 1, 1893; and that it should contain rooms and appliances suitable for the meetings of the world's congresses. The cost of the building to date has been about $785,000.
The Art Institute came into full possession of the building, November ] , 1893.
The building is built of Bedford limestone, thor- oughly fireproof, and may be described as in style Italian Renaissance, the details classic, and of Ionic and Corinthian orders. The front is eighty feet back from Michigan avenue, the building 320 feet long, the wings 170 feet deep, with projections which make the whole depth 208 feet. The rear and center are not yet built. It was planned with great care for exhibition purposes, and there are few better buildings in exist- ence for the exhibition of pictures and fine art objects, as regards lighting, accessibility, simplicity of arrange- ment and convenience of classification. A view of the building and plans of the main floors accompany this description.
The ownership of this building is vested in the city of Chicago, while the right of use and occupancy is vested in the Art Institute so long as it shall fulfill the purposes for which it was organized, shall open the museum free to the public on Wednesdays, Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays, shall make the mayor and comptroller of the city ex-officio members of the board of trustees and shall conform to some other simple con- ditions.
During 1897 a lecture room, in accordance with the original plans of the building, was built, and presented to the institution bv Charles W. Fullertonas a memorial
.^
to his father, Alexander N. Fullerton. This room seats 500 persons, and is a model lecture room, as regards
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MONUMENTAL STAIRCASE AND DOME. [Proposed; from Architect's Drawing.]
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SONG OF THE LARK— Jules Breton.
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PORTRAIT OF A GIRL— Eeinlrmult.
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comfort in seating, ventilation, acoustic properties and tasteful adornment. A library building- of the most beautiful and commodious description, also embraced in the plans, is almost completed, through the generosity of Martin A. Ryerson, and will be occupied in the autumn of 1901.
The accessions to the collections during the last six years have been numerous and important, so that the Art Institute now ranks, as an art museum, among the first three or four in the country.
Mrs. Henry Field has committed permanently to the Art Institute the entire collection of paintings which belonged to her husband, the late Henry Field, a former trustee of the Art Institute. This collection comprises forty-one pictures, and represents chiefly the Barbizon school of French painters, including Millet's well known "Bringing Home the New-born Calf," Jules Breton's "Song of the Lark," Troyon's "Re- turning from the Market " and fine examples of Rous- seau, • Corot, Cazin, Constable and Daubigny. The collection is placed in a separate room, known as the Henry Field Memorial Room, and held in trust by five trustees, appointed by Mrs. Field. Mrs. Field also authorized the trustees to order from Mr. Edward Kemeys, the sculptor of animals, two monumental bronze lions, to stand upon the flanks of the great external approach of the museum. These lions were unveiled May 10, 1894.
In 1890 the dispersion of the choicest works of the famous Demidoff collection of works by old masters, which had been withheld from a sale at which most of the collection was sold in 1880, furnished an opportun- ity through which the Art Institute secured thirteen works by old masters, chiefly of the Dutch school, some of them famous examples of the artists by whom they were painted. The reception of these pictures marks an epoch in the artistic growth of the city. The collec- tion contains five examples of portraiture, which are
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PORTRAIT— Franz Hals.
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THE VIDETTE — Meissonier.
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representative of Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck, Frans Hals and Holbein; "The Guitar Lesson, " by Terburg, and "A Family Concert," by Jan Steen, which are admirable works of these artists; a landscape by Hob- bema, which may be counted among his masterpieces; " The Jubilee," by Van Ostade, a work of the highest merit, and creditable examples of the work of Teniers, Ruysdael and Adrian Van de Velde.
The museum has also been gradually accumulat- ing valuable paintings by purchase and gift. Among the American painters represented are Chase, Hitch- cock, Alex. Harrison, McEwen, Dannat, Inness, Vedder, Pearce and Davis. In 1898 a fine collection of about sixty paintings, which had for some time been exhibited in the galleries, was bequeathed to- the Institute by Albert A. Hunger, a life-long citizen of Chicago. Among works of the highest merit this collection contains Meissonier's " Vidette "; "The Bathers," by Bouguereau; "Just before Sunrise," by Corot; de Neuville's "A Piece in Danger"; Detaille's " Reconnoissance " ; Jacquet'& "Queen of the Camp"; "Springtime and Love," by Michetti, and Munkascsy's "The Challenge." Ge- rome, Rosa Bonheur, Van Marcke, Fromentin, Vibert, Roybet, Charlemont, Zimmerman, Achenbach, Jacque, Schreyer, Troy on, Courbet, Isabey, Makart and many other leaders of the modern world of art are repre- sented.
The Art Institute also keeps up important loan collections, and holds passing exhibitions, so that the exhibition of pictures is very extensive.
The collection of reproductions of sculpture is also very large and comprehensive. A great proportion of it is the gift of Mrs. A. M. H. Ellis, who has put it, under the name of her former husband, as "The El- bridge G. Hall Collection." In accordance with the wishes of the donor, it includes only full-sized fac- similes of original works of sculpture. It includes not
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TEUCER — Thornycroft.
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only classical, but Renaissance and modern sculpture, the contemporary collection being the most important in America. Among modern sculptors represented are Dubois, Mercie, Barrias, Cain, Chapu, Falguiere, Ro- din, Fremiet, Thornycroft, St. Gaudens, Bartlett, French, Potter, etc. The French government sent to the Columbian Exposition, as a part of the national exhibit, an extensive historical collection of archi- tectural casts, reproduced from collections in Paris, destined to become at the end of the Fair a part of the permanent collection of the Art Institute. This re- markable collection, which is unsurpassed in its kind, either in quality or extent, is now installed, as far as room permits, in the galleries of the Art Institute, but a considerable part of it is stored away.
Another element in the sculpture collection is the gallery of reproductions of the antique bronzes of the Naples museum, 109 fac-similes of the most famous statues, busts, tripods, statuettes, lamps and other objects found at Herculanaeum and Pompeii. This collection was the gift of H. N. Higinbotham. They were purchased through the fine art department of the Columbian Exposition, and are certified by the director of the Naples museum to be perfect reproductions.
Another department, which has already attained importance, is that of original Egyptian antiquities. Through the interest of Mr. Getty, Mr. Ryerson and Mr. Hutchinson accessions have been made of typical Egyptian objects of great rarity and value, sufficient to form a collection respectable in quantity, and more than respectable in quality. There is also a very care- fully collected and adequately representative collec- tion of classical antiquities, Greek vases, figurines, lamps and fragments, and marble Roman remains, both sculptural and architectural. Other fields of art are represented by collections of embroideries, tapestries, painted fans, textiles, etc., presented by the society
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THE OLD CASTLE MICHEL.
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of ladies called the Antiquarians of the Art Institute, and of musical instruments, armor, etc.
In the summer of 1900, Mr. and Mrs. S. M. Nicker- son presented to the museum of the Art Institute their splendid private collection of jades, crystals, paintings, etc. , and fitted up two galleries for the permanent instal- lation of the collection.
The library is a well established department, con- nected both with museum and school. It contains at present not more than 2,400 volumes, but it is strictly confined to fine art, and includes many valuable works. In it is kept the great collection of large carbon photo- graphs, known as the Braun autotypes, 16,000 in num- ber, including reproductions of the paintings, drawings and sculpture of most of the well known galleries of Europe. These are the gift of Dr. D. K. Pearsons. The library is open at all times to members and students, and is practically a free public library upon Wednesdays and Saturdays, open days of the museum. It has the prospect of large extensions soon.
The school of instruction in art practice has always been a vital part of the Art Institute. It includes well organized departments of painting, sculpture, dec- orative designing and architecture. Excellent accom- modation has been secured by building a series of low skylighted studios in the rear of the main building, and the students enjoy the full use of galleries, library, lecture room, etc. It has grown to be the most com- prehensive and probably the largest fine art school in the United States. There are 500 regular day students, about 300 evening students, and 350 normal and ju- venile students. The whole enrollment is about 2,000 a year, and the number of instructors about seventy. This school is wholly self-supporting, earning and ex- pending about $40,000 per annum. The most ad- vanced branches are taught, and distinguished teach- ers from a distance are called in from time to time. Diplomas are given upon the completion of prescribed
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courses. The histor\r and theory of art, as well as practice, are made subjects of instruction.
The Art Institute is without endowment, except a bequest of $75,000 received from Mrs. E. S. Stickney, during 1898, and a beginning of a life membership fund, now about $12,000. It has never had any assistance from city or state except permission to build upon pub- lic land. Its support is derived from membership dues, door fees, tuition fees and voluntary gifts.
The trustees have steadily aimed at making the in- stitution self-supporting, if possible, from the regular sources of income, chiefly membership dues, door fees and tuition fees.
The Art Institute is in the fullest sense an institu- tion conducted for the public good. Without a dollar of assistance from the city, save the permission to build upon the lake front, its managers have erected a museum building and gathered a collection which com- mands the respect of all competent judges, and which is the subject of pride and satisfaction to all right minded citizens. The art school has grown to be one of the very foremost, both in the number of students and the standard of excellence. The fine galleries are open absolutely free to the public more than 160 days every year, and upon other days not only the members and their families, numbering more than 10,000, but public school teachers, to the number of 4,600, and all professional artists are freely admitted. Classes study- ing art are admitted free at all times under easy condi- tions. Public school children are admitted with their teachers to certain exhibitions. The reference library is practically open to every student of art. A continual series of exhibitions, lectures and activities connected with art is kept up, whereby the torch of artistic culture is kept burning in the community.
In short, the trustees have established and main- tained a public museum and school of art of the highest
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ALICE — Chase.
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character, not only without large private gifts of money, but without any kind of governmental aid.
Mr. T. B. Blackstone has since left $25,000.
Mrs. Maria Sheldon Scammon (the widow of John Young Scammon), who died April 28, 1901, bequeathed to the Art Institute a tract of land of the value of about $50,000, of which the proceeds are to form the founda- tion of lecture courses upon art, primarily for the benefit of students, preferably by persons of distinc- tion not already connected with the Art Institute, to be known as "The Scammon Lectures."
W. M. R. FRENCH.
THE-ARTINSTITYTE' •OF -CHICAGO
Captain Meriwether Lewis was mur- dered and robbed while on his way to Washing- ton, D. C.. by Joshua Grinder, October 11, 1809. in what is now the county of Lewis, Tenn.
It was rumored at this time that he committed suicide, but doubtless this orig- inated in the east, where he was known to be of a hypochondriac disposition, but which affliction had entirely disappeared with his active, out-of-door life in the west. It was a theory, groundless and cruel, that even the perpetrators of the crime did not stay to urge in their own defense. In erecting the only monument in this broad land that stands to the memory of the great explorer, the state of Tennessee recognized the value of local evidence over groundless theory.
The monument was built at the cost of $500, appropriated by the general assembly of Tennessee in 1848. Its base is of uncut sandstone, surmounted by a plinth of Tennessee marble, on which were cut the inscriptions. Above this rises the marble shaft, about twelve feet in height, roughly broken at the top, emblematic of the violent and un- timely end of a glorious career. Five years before erecting the mon- ument the general assembly passed an act creating the county of Lewis. The introductory clause of the act read as follows: "In honor of Captain Meriwether Lewis, who has rendered distinguished serv- ices to his country, and whose remains lie buried and neglected within its limits." The new county was carved out of four others cornering near the grave, in near a circle with it as a pivotal point.
Of him Thomas Jefferson said: " His courage was undaunted: his firmness and perseverance yielded to nothing but impossibilities. A rigid disciplinarian, yet tender as a father to those com- mitted to his charge. Honest, disin- terested, liberal, with a sound under- standing and a scrupulous fidelity to truth."
VERNE S. PEASE, in The Southern Magazine, February, 1894.
THOMAS JEFFERSON, IN 1803, AT THE AGE OF SIXTY. First Published in McClure's Magazine.
OREGON.
Oregon, though now one of the great states of the Pacific northwest, yet is within the toils of Chicago's commerce. How this came about forms one of the most interesting chapters of American history, with which Chicago's history is interwoven. Three nations have laid claim to the Oregon country, as it was first called, which embraced the territory along the Pacific coast from the forty- second parallel, northward, to the parallel of 54° 40'; being the southern limits of the Russian possessions, which that power owned by virtue of priority of discovery by Behring, the celebrated Russian navigator, after whom Behring Straits were named. Spain claimed this country on the ground that Juan de Fuca, in 1592, discovered and entered the straits which bear his name, and that Bruno Heceta sailed along this coast in 1775. The English claims rested on the voyages of Meares in 1786, and later, on those of Vancouver in 1789, along the coasts and into the Straits of Fuca. The claims of the United States, which came in last, transcended all these in the princi- ples of national rights, especially as to priority of interior exploration as against England.
At St. Petersburg, April 5, 1824, Russia having relin- quished any right which might accrue to her south of 54° 40', the question of ownership to the coast south of that parallel was left open to negotiation to the other powers just named. France never set up any claim west of the Rocky Mountains, which range was the western limits of Louisiana, an undisputed title to
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which had been vested in France by virtue of La Salle's exploration of the Mississippi river to its mouth in 1682. This immense country had been ceded by France to Spain in 1763, the orders for the surren- der of which were issued at Versailles, April 21, 1764. Spain held possession of it till, by the secret treaty of San Ildefonso, October 1, 1800, she retroceded it to France, and the latter power sold it to the United States in 1803. By treaty with Spain in 1819, that power made a deed of cession to the United States of any territory on that coast she had hitherto laid claim to, north of the forty-second parallel, at the same time ceding Florida to the United States for a consideration of $5,000,000. Mexico won her independence of Spain in 1821, at which time this parallel became the bound- ary line between Mexico and the United States. The former power confirmed this line in 1828. This treaty was very timely and fortunate for the United States, as a defined issue with England could now be made with- out complication with any other nation; for previous to this treaty, as far as priority of discovery was concerned, Spain had the advantage of any other country.
Now came a contest between Great Britain and the United States for this immense empire, slumbering in obscurity, inhabited by savage tribes of Indians, some of them hitherto unknown to civilization. The claims
of the United States rested, first, on the explorations of Robert Gray, who sailed from Boston on September
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30, 1787, with two vessels, the "Washington" and the "Columbia," under the patronage of J. Barrell, S. Brown, C. Bulfinch, J. Barley, C. Hatch and J. M. Pintard. Their destination was the northwest coast of America, by doubling Cape Horn. The object of the expedition was to establish trade relations, which it did to the entire satisfaction of the proprietors; but these objects were insignificant compared to the na- tional character destined to grow out of it. The ex- pedition arrived at the mouth of the Columbia river in 1792; up which stream Captain Gray with difficulty sailed over the sand bar at its mouth, and made his way along its meanders till the snow capped peak of Mount Hood became visible. He named this river the "Columbia," after the vessel which he had the honor of command- ing, in the service of its proprietors; but in the sub- limer service of America, as history shows it to have been. He returned to Boston by a western passage around the world. No American vessel had circum- navigated the world before, and to him belongs the dis- tinguished honor of first carrying the stars and stripes on such a voyage.
The next link in the chain of these great events was the purchase of the French province of Louisiana, as already stated, April 30, 1803, for $15,000,000; added to which were the cancellation of certain Ameri- can claims for spoliation on the high seas. This pur- chase was a timely check upon England, who certainly would have wrested this province from France, had not Napoleon, then in power, sold it to the United States, which prevented such an inevitable humiliation to both countries. Had it not been for this sale, British America would have been our northern boundary, as it now is ; and our western boundary, from the head waters of the Mississippi, along its bank to the Gulf of Mexico, crossing the river so as to include New Orleans. Let it not be forgotten that France, in ] 778, made a treaty with the United States, the first article
372 Oregon.
of which guaranteed the independence of our republic ; and, twenty-five years later, sold Louisiana to this republic, giving it the key to an empire from ocean to ocean. All hail to our sister republic ! Spain was deeply wounded by the transfer of this province to a power with whom she had been in rivalry from the first ; but her protest to this transfer had no weight with Napoleon, who had no love for Spain, as evidenced by his having annulled the old alliance between France and that nation, called the " Family Compact. "
Thomas Jefferson, when secretary of state under Washington, in 1792, had proposed to send an expedi- tion up the Missouri, for the purpose of securing the fur trade with the Indians; and when he became presi- dent of the United States, even before Louisiana had been purchased, he took measures to send an exploring expedition to the Pacific coast. For this purpose the services of Meriwether Lewis, a captain in the regu- lar army, and afterward private secretary to President Jefferson, and Capt. William Clark, were secured by Jefferson to explore the Missouri river to its sources, thence to cross the divide of its watershed, and find some stream that led to the Pacific. They had a command of forty-four men, a few of whom were to accompany the expedition no farther than the head- waters of the Missouri. A few days after President Jefferson had given Captain Lewis his instructions as commander of the expedition, news of the conclusion of the treaty for the cession of Louisiana reached the United States, and without further delay the expedition started. Their route lay up the Missouri river, as far as they could go with their boats, thence across the divide to the headwaters of the Columbia river, with horses purchased from the Indians. From the head- waters of boat navigation on the Columbia river they navigated this stream to its mouth, arriving at Cape Disappointment, situated on its north bank, November 15, 1805, where they remained till March 26, 1806.
Oregon. 373
Previous to their departure from St. Louis, President Jefferson had given Lewis and Clark authority to pur- chase necessary supplies for the return of the expedi- tion, either across the country or for passage in vessel around Cape Horn for the whole company, but thanks to the good management of the commanders of the expedition, there was no necessity for using this authority, and they commenced their return, up the Columbia river to its sources; thence across the divide to the headwaters of the Missouri river; thence down that stream to St. Louis, arriving there September 23 same year, their return thus having been by the same route on which they had advanced into the unknown two years before.
In 1811 John Jacob Astor established a fort, which he named Astoria, on the south bank of the Columbia river, ten miles above its mouth. This fort was cap- tured by the British, and named Fort George, during the war of 1812, but was restored at the treaty of Ghent, in 1814, after which it became a permanent point of American occupation under its original name, and as such, an evidence of American ownership.
Much has been said and written on international law, the binding force of which is a resort to arms if diplomacy fails; there is an unwritten law of nations that priority of discovery, exploration and occupation is an acknowledged national title to lands thus discov- ered, explored and occupied. On this 'basis rested the title to the Pacific coast between the parallel of 42° on the south to the parallel 54° 40' on the north. Both England and America based their claims on this prior- ity, as above stated, controlling which was a boundary line between the two nations, on the north, which was established in a preliminary way when Astoria was re- stored to the Americans by the treaty of Ghent.
At this time the forty-ninth parallel was first men- tioned between the American and British commission- ers, but at the treaty of Utrecht, negotiated in 1713,
374 Oregon.
between Great Britain on one side and Spain and France on the other, the forty -ninth parallel was as- sumed to be the dividing- line between the French province of Louisiana and the British possessions to the north. Some historians have denied the binding force of that treaty in establishing the line of the forty-ninth parallel, but that this demarkation began here, no one who studies the intricate meshes of this question can doubt. In the debates at the ratification, in the British house of commons, on the Ashburton treaty, mention was made of a map which had belonged to the late King George III, made by Mr. Faden, the king's geographer, after the peace of 1783. This map had hung in the king's library during his lifetime, and subsequently in the foreign office; but it had disap- peared about the time of the Ashburton treaty. On it was written, in the handwriting of King George III, 4k This is Oswald's line," referring to a red line on the forty-ninth parallel, immediately above these words. Mr. Richard Oswald was one of the British commission- ers who negotiated the provisional treaty of peace of 1782 between England and America. In 1843 Sir Rob- ert Peel and Lord Aberdeen showed this map to Ed- ward Everett, United States minister to the court of St. James. On it was the red line, as fixed at the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
Mr. Rush and Mr. Gallatin acted on the part of the United States, and Mr. Goulburn and Mr. Robin- son, on the part of Great Britain, at the first English and American negotiations on the forty-ninth parallel. The American plenipotentiaries proposed that a line should be drawn from the northwestern extremity of the Lake of the Woods, thence to the forty-ninth parallel, which might be to the north or the south of that point, and that a dividing line between the two nations should be on this parallel to the Pacific ocean. Subsequently, in running a line from this point on the Lake of the Woods to the forty-ninth parallel, it was
Oregon. 375
found that this parallel was about a degree to the southward, hence that tangent point running into the Lake of the Woods on all accurate maps of the United States, showing its northern boundary. This line ran substantially along the ridge dividing the northern watershed from the Mississippi watershed. It was a natural boundary, never questioned by either nation, as far as the Rocky mountains.
When the issue as to the ultimate ownership of Oregon became a matter of discussion between Great Britain and the United States, certain principles in our political and financial statecraft hinged upon these final negotiations.
The Hudson Bay company had been chartered by King Charles II in 1669, whose limits on the south had never been defined ; but whose ambitions in that direction were in rivalry not only with the American Fur company, but with American settlements as they tended westwardly. This opulent company had a strong influence with the British cabinet ; on the other side, American emigrants to this country had an equally strong influence with the American congress. Here was a collision -of interests that must be settled by diplomacy to prevent violence between the emigrants of the two respective countries. According to Gray's history of Oregon, some emigrants from America had already been killed by agents from the Hudson Bay company. Under this strain, the two governments con- cluded a treaty October 20, 1818, agreeing that emigrants from each country should be allowed to settle in the disputed territory for the space of ten years. Pending this joint occupation, the Hudson Bay company, through their advantages of wealth and a large force of fur hunters, gained almost complete possession of the dis- puted territory, to the exclusion of the American fur hunters and trappers. The first object at which they aimed was to convince the outside world, and especially the people of the United States, that this country was
376 Oregon.
useless for agricultural purposes, a task which contin- ued to grow more and more hopeless in proportion as American settlers emigrated to the country.
Mr. Rush, when minister to England, in 1824, received a proposition from the British government that the line of separation between the two govern- ments should be on the forty-ninth parallel, from the Lake of the Woods westward to the northeasternmost branch of the Columbia; thence down that river to the sea, substantially the same line as had been considered by Mr. Rush and the British commissioners in 1814, but not agreed to. In reply to this proposition the Amer- icans demanded the line of the forty-ninth parallel through to the Pacific coast. Mr. Gallatin, plenipo- tentiary to the British court, under instructions from his government, did not accept this proposition, although the British declared they would not settle the boundary on any other line. Under these circum- stances, after much diplomatic caviling on the part of the British, both nations, by convention, August 6, 1827, agreed to extend the terms of the joint occupation indefinitely, with a proviso that either nation should be at liberty to abrogate the agreement by giving one year's notice. As there was at this time an increasing disposition on the part of the American people to emi- grate to Oregon for the purpose of permanent settle- ment, this temporary compromise of the issue was considered to be prudential and wise, as the sequel proved. The Americans, through their minister, Mr. Rush, had made no claim north of the parallel 49°, which line had already been conceded by the British. The plenipotentiary from the United States, Mr. Gallatin, had substantially acceded to this line, but denied the claim of the British, of the Columbia river as the boundary from its termination to the sea.
And now came the real tug of war, the issue being divided in responsibility between the people and the government on the American side, while on the British
Oregon. 377
side the responsibility was shared, practically, between the Court of St. James and the Hudson Bay company. These conditions augmented the interest felt by each nation, and from this time onward the Americans had the advantage, inasmuch as the strong hold they had on the territorial question grew out of the desire of the American pioneer to advance into the western wilds for the purpose of farming, while the Hudson Bay company's strongest incentive was to reap a harvest of furs, with but a remote prospect tending toward agricultural development. Political conditions, the missionary spirit in harmony with the pioneer spirit, had deep root in the destiny of Oregon. Greenhow, in his "History of Oregon," page 361, says: "In 1835, Mr. Parker, a Pres- byterian minister from Ithaca, N. Y., proceeded by way of the Platt and the South Pass to the mouth of the Columbia, and thence returned to the United States; and from his reports, Messrs. Spalding, Gray and Whit- man were sent by the American Board of Foreign Mis- sions to prosecute the objects of that society in the Oregon regions. Other missionaries, with their fami- lies and friends, soon followed them, and formed settle- ments at various points, in all of which schools for the education of the natives were opened; and a printing press was erected at Walla Walla, on which were struck off the first sheets ever printed west of the upper Missouri, north of Mexico. Meantime congress con- tinued to discuss the Oregon question, especially as to the necessity of abrogating the treaty of joint occupa- tion. From this discussion those wishing to emigrate to Oregon felt confident of the protection of their gov- ernment; and under this assurance nearly 1,000 men, women and children formed a caravan, consisting of about 200 wagons and a large number of horses and cattle, at Westport, Mo., June, 1843. From this point they started up the Platte river, thence through the South Pass across the Rocky mountains, their destina-
378 Oregon.
tion being- the Willamet valley, where they arrived with slight loss the following- October."
April 3, 1842, Lord Ash burton arrived at Washing-ton, as plenipotentiary from Great Britain, to settle the boundary line between British America and the United States, Mr. Webster, secretary of state, acted in be- half of the United States on this question. Although it was generally expected by the people of the United States that they were to define the boundary westward to the Pacific, they did nothing more than to establish a boundary between the two countries, starting from where the forty-ninth parallel intersected the Lake of the Woods, thence southeastwardly by the waters con- necting this lake with Lake Superior, thence east- wardly through the center of the entire chain of lakes and their connections, till the source of the St. Law- rence river was reached, thence down that stream to where it intersects the northern line of the state of New York. From this point the present northern boundaries of New York, Vermont and New Hampshire had already been established; but the boundary be- tween Maine and New Brunswick, in Canada, which had remained in doubt ever since the treaty of 1783, was now defined by the Ashburton-Webster treaty, made at Washington August 9, 1842, and ratified by Great Britain October 13, and proclaimed at Washington by the president of the United States, November 10, same year.
Congress now no longer hesitated to give the required year's notice of abrogation of the treaty of
To show the English opinion at that time on the Oregon ques- tion, it is pertinent to quote from the Edinburgh Review, of July, 1843, which says: " However the political questions between England and America as to the ownership of Oregon may be decided, Oregon will never be colonized overland from the United States. * * * The world must assume a new face, before the American wagons make plain the road to the Columbia, as they have done to the Ohio. * * Whoever, therefore, is to be the future owner of Oregon, its people will come from Europe."
Oregon. 379
1827, which was done April 27, 1846, as a necessary link in the chain of negotiations. The American peo- ple were always sensitive on great national issues. The purchase of Louisiana had whetted their appetite for more territory to the west, and it cannot be said, that this appetite was morbid, as it had international law as well as justice back of it. The time had now come when the arts of diplomacy were exhausted. No more evidence could be brought to bear upon the question, and it must be apparent to every judicial mind that the British had none on which to base a claim for territory south of the forty-ninth parallel. Mr. Polk, then president of the United States, had de- manded 54° 40' as the line. The English had never demanded anything south of the Columbia river. Negotiations had progressed by piecemeal, and now seemed to culminate on the forty-ninth parallel. On the part of America the line of 54° 40' was relinquished by the advice of Mr. Benton, Mr. Calhoun and Mr. Webster, each of whom took strong ground in favor of negotiation to prevent war. Although Mr. Polk agreed to this concession, it was done with apparent reluctance. It was an abandonment of the ground on which the presidential canvass that had elected him had been conducted. It was a proof that partisan ties must give way to patriotism; for, when we examine the evidence on both sides, it must be confessed that the claims of America north of the forty-ninth parallel were not superior to those of Great Britain, and per- haps not equal. In the settlement of this question, England, having yielded up her claim of the Columbia river, the issue between the two nations had been hon- orably negotiated to the satisfaction of the representa- tive men of each nation. The final treaty was executed at Washington, June 15, 1846. No former treaty between the United States and any foreign power had ever been negotiated under such a crucial test as to international rights as this, and none, since the days
380 Oregon.
of the American revolution, in which the people had taken so much interest.
James Buchanan acted on the part of the United States, and Richard Pakinham on the part of England. It was ratified at London, July 17, 1846, and officially proclaimed at Washington, August 5, 1846.
THE TREATY,
"The United States of America and her majesty the queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, deeming it to be desirable for the future wel- fare of both countries, that the state of doubt and uncertainty which has hitherto prevailed respecting the sovereignty and government of the territory on the northwest coast of America lying westward of the Rocky or Stony mountains, should be finally termi- nated by an amicable compromise of the rights mutu- ally asserted by the two parties over said territory, have respectively named plenipotentiaries to treat and agree, concerning the terms of such settlement ; that is to say, the president of the United States of America has, on his part, furnished with full powers James Buchanan, secretary of state of the United States, and her majesty the queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland has, on her part, appointed Right Honorable Richard Pakenham, a member of her majesty's most honorable privy council, and her majesty's envoy extraordinary and minister plenipoten- tiary to the United States, who, after having communi- cated to each other their respective full powers, framed in good and due form, have agreed upon and concluded the following articles :
ARTICLE I.
"From the point on the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude, where the boundary laid down in existing treaties and conventions between Great Britain and the United States terminates, the line of boundary be- tween the territories of her Britannic majesty and those
Oregon. 381
of the United States shall be continued westward along the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude to the middle of the channel which separates the continent from Van- couver's island, and thence southerly through the mid- dle of said channel and of Fuca straits to the Pacific ocean; provided, however, that the navigation of the said channel and straits, south of the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude, remain free and open to both parties.
ARTICLE II.
"From the point at which the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude shall be found to intersect the Great Northern branch of the Columbia river the navigation of the said branch shall be free and open to the Hud- son's Bay Company, and to all British subjects trading with the same, to the point where the said branch meets the main stream of the Columbia, and thence down the said main stream to the ocean, with free access into and through the said river or rivers; it being understood that all the usual portages along the line thus described shall in like manner be free and open. In navigating the said river or rivers, British subjects, with their goods and produce, shall be treated on the same footing as citizens of the United States; it being, however, always understood that nothing in this article shall be construed as preventing, or intended to prevent, the government of the United States from making any reg- ulations respecting the navigation of the said river or rivers not inconsistent with the present treaty.
ARTICLE III.
"In the future appropriations of the territory south of the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude, as provided in the first article of this treaty, the possessory rights of the Hudson's Bay Company, and of all British sub- jects who may be already in the occupation of land or other property lawfully acquired within the said ter- ritory, shall be respected.
382 Oregon.
ARTICLE IV.
"The farms, lands and other property of every description belonging to the Puget's Sound Agricul- tural Co. , on the north side of the Columbia river, shall be confirmed to the said company. In case, however, the situation of those farms and lands should be con- sidered by the United States to be of public and polit- ical importance, and the United States government should signify a desire to obtain possession of the whole, or any part thereof, the property so required shall be transferred to the said government at a proper valua- tion, to be agreed upon between the parties.
ARTICLE V.
"The present treaty shall be ratified by the presi- dent of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the senate thereof, and by Her Britannic Majesty; and the ratifications shall be exchanged at London, at the expiration of six months from the date hereof, or sooner if possible.
"In witness thereof, the respective plenipotentia- ries have signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seals of their arms.
"Done at Washington, the fifteenth day of June, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty-six. JAMES BUCHANAN.
RICHARD PAKENHAM."
It is claimed by some historians that Marcus Whit- man visited Washington while the consideration of the final treaty as to the national boundary line was pend- ing ; and, furthermore, that in an interview with Mr. Tyler, then president of the United States, and Daniel Webster, secretary of state, it was agreed that if Mr. Whitman would lead a caravan of wagons, as he pro- posed to do, across the Rocky mountains, it would be good evidence that this chain of mountains was not that great insurmountable barrier of nature which would make Oregon valueless to the United States. Consist-
Oregon. 383
ent with this premise, the signing of the treaty was to be held in suspense till this feat was accomplished; and that Mr. Whitman was the promoter and leader of that caravan which started from Westport, Mo., June, 1843, and that the success of the caravan deter- mined the president to demand the forty-ninth parallel as the boundary.
Oliver W. Nixon, editor of the Chicago Inter Ocean, in his book entitled, " How Marcus Whitman Saved Oregon," has given an exhaustive account of every circumstance pertaining to this theory. It is written in his graphic style, and imparts great interest to the record of events on which it treats.
The peaceful settlement of the Oregon question was a grand example of the candor which marked the diplomacy of both the nations interested, from 1818 to 1846. Much animadversion had been ventilated through the newspapers of both countries; but the spirit of justice shown by the diplomats of each was equal to the occasion. Had either nation been aware of the immense value of the country in dispute, the issue might have had a different termination. It was fortu- nate they were not, otherwise blood and carnage might have tarnished the pages of Anglo-American history for the third time. The conclusion of the Oregon treaty was the last link in the chain that had, step by step, brought under the stars and stripes the fairest portions of North America. The power of Spain had vanished as America had advanced westward, the reason for which was that her political tyranny, as well as religious intolerance, were not suited to the wants of the pioneer spirit, so jealous of liberty, and so able to maintain it, as were the American people.
The transfer of Louisiana from France to the United States was the result of the most fortuitous political conditions, prevailing with the powers inter- ested, that history ever recorded. No expectation had ever been entertained of the possibility of acquir-
384
Oregon.
ing this province, except the portion of it below the thirtjr-first parallel which included New Orleans, until the opportunity of doing so was sprung upon Robert R. Livingston, our envoy to France. Barbe Marbois, Napoleon's minister of the treasury, had been author- ized by Napoleon to make a direct proposition to Mr. Livingston, our envoy to France, to purchase Louisiana in its entirety, which meant to include the whole province.
For years much buncombe talk had been venti- lated among the people of Kentucky, of seizing New Orleans by force, for the purpose of insuring the
ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON.'
free navigation of the Mississippi river. Now that Napoleon was entirely willing to sell it, the strained relations between Spain and the United States would be dispelled at a single stroke of the pen, and an empire acquired. Mr. Livingston had no authority from his government to make this purchase; but James Monroe had been appointed by Jefferson to assist him in any negotiations pending between France, Spain
Oregon. 385
and the United States. The negotiations were con- ducted on the part of Napoleon by Marbois, and on the part of the United States by Mr. Livingston, till Mr. Monroe arrived, when the bargain was consummated. This bargain, though humiliating to Spain, placed an embargo on any further action on her part. Even after this, there were unusual conditions attending the transfer of the province.
As already stated, Spain had sold Louisiana to France, but the transfer of authority had not yet been made , and the whole province was still under the Span- ish crown. In this exigency, the French government gave orders that both transfers of authority should take place at New Orleans at the same time, so as to expedite the surrender to the United States before England could intervene. Accordingly, on November 23, 1803, at a conference between the French and Span- ish officials at New Orleans, the transfer of authority, in form, was agreed upon. The Spanish troops were drawn up in solemn lines, and in presence of the public, the commissioners representing France and Spain for- mally proclaimed the transfer. The Spanish colors were lowered, and the French colors were raised. This French authority continued only twenty days, when their colors were lowered, and the stars and stripes took their place. December 20, 1803, the American troops marched into New Orleans, and the French pre- fect sadly announced :
"In conformity with the treaty I put the United States in possession of Louisiana and its dependencies. The citizens and inhabitants who wish to remain here and obey the laws are from this moment exonerated from the oath of fidelity to the French republic."
The last hope of Spain on the continent of North America vanished. France was satisfied, because she had done a friendly act to the United States at the ex- pense of England. England accepted the situation with disguised tranquillity.
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Geology formed the land, the ocean, the seas and the lakes. It is the father of geography, which is in turn, the father of history. Rivers have the same heritage, physically, but the stream of time has a sublimer one. A higher thought cast upon it is immor- tal. Columbus cast a thought upon this stream, and a new world was mirrored before the old. Our nation confronts it to day, as we may say, with a single bound over the four centuries that intervene. No wonder that this nation was quickened into a sense of venera- tion for the name of Columbus when the fourth century came around since his discovery, without which it could not have existed. Instead of North and South Amer- ica, the western continents, in justice to the memory of Columbus, should have been named North and South Columbia. Let us here review the causes and conditions which led to this misnomer :
NAMING AMERICA.
During the reign of Henry VII of England, John Cabot, an Italian, and Sebastian, his son, sailed under direction of the English court from Bristol, and on June 24, 1497, came upon a coast of the continent of North America, between 56° and 58°. He named it Prima Vista (first sight, of the western continent, it may be inferred, was his belief, as it was well known to him that Columbus had discovered islands in the western hemisphere). The above date precedes that of Colum- bus' discovery of South America, and whether it was an island or a continent that was first seen is a matter
(J8ti)
World's Columbian Exposition. 387
of indifference, as to the merit of the originality in the principle involved.
Cabot did not stain his record by unjust preten- sions, and magnanimously acknowledged this truth by claiming only a secondary place to Columbus, who, as he wrote, '"''had done a thing more divine than human, to saile by the west into the easte where spices grow, by a map that was never knowne before.'1'1
He was the first to express doubts as to the lands discovered being the Asiatic coast. Others might have speculated and doubted, but all the theories on the sub- ject, and all the maps published previous to 1515, and many later than that, were based on the supposition that the newly discovered lands belonged to the Asian coast.
Western discoveries had four classifications, Quat- tuor Navigationes. Those of Columbus consisted of the West India islands, of which was Cuba, at first sup- posed to be a part of the Asian coast, and the northern coast of South America.
But Americus claimed to have discovered it also, and among the various accounts of discovery, real and pretended, at that time, it is fair to assume that Amer- icus' discovery of this coast, or at least his report of it, was regarded by many as original.
The discovery of Cabot, far to the north, was called the second division.
That of Cortereal, a hardy Portuguese mariner, made still farther to the north in 1500, in which he discovered the entrance to Hudson Bay ; and supposed it to be an inlet leading to Cathay, China, was called the third division.
The fourth division was the discovery of Americus Vespucius, on the South American coast, just alluded to, which, although known to have been later than that of Columbus on the same coast, or, as some historians aver, was not made at all ; nevertheless, it was hon-
388 World's Columbian Exposition.
ored with the appellation of the fourth quarter of the New World, and believed to be genuine by many.
Up to this time none of the discoverers had given names which included all the lands they had visited, but designations of them had been descriptive.
The St. Die Pamphlet. — The first publication to give a general name to any of the different discoveries was a small tract, first published in 1507, at the college of St. Die in Lorraine, a province on the Rhine, ceded to Germany by France in 1870. It was a work on geog- raphy, claiming to keep up with the rapid accessions to its extended field in those days. In this pamphlet was the first published account of the voyages of Americus ; but whether it appeared in the first edition of it, or in one or two years later, is a question. The writer pre- faces the account by saying : ' ' But now that those parts have been more extensively examined, and another fourth part has been discovered by Americus (as will be seen in the sequel], 1 do not see why ive should rightly refuse to name it America, namely, the land of Americus or America, after its discoverer, Americus, a man of sagacious mind.'1''
Here was the fatal spark that kindled the burning flame of injustice to the memory of Columbus. The very obscurity of the source whence it came, perhaps, was what prevented a protest against it in time to stop the progress of its stealthy appearance on maps, and the use of it until too late to make a change.
Ptolemy"1 s Geography. — Improvements on Ptolemy's geography, especially in his maps, multiplied at this time.
In one of these, by Stobniza, of Cracow, of 1512, •he says :
" And lest I had expended labor on Ptolemy alone, I took care also to make known certain parts of the earth that were unknown to Ptolemy himself, and to other of the more ancient writers, which, by the wanderings of Ameri- cus Vespucius, were brought to our notice. Likewise
World's Columbian Exposition. 389
towards the west, beyond Africa and Europe, is a great part of the earth which they call America, from Americus, its discoverer. ' '
AMERICA.
Americus claimed to have made four voyages to the New World, and there is abundant evidence that he wrote an account of them, and sent it to the College of St. Die, one or more of whose professors were old time friends of his. That this college should feel grateful for such a contribution to their pamphlet from the graphic pen of Americus, was quite natural, and it is but fair to suppose that the professors really believed that Americus saw terra firma before Columbus, his account coming first in his claim, as to his four voyages.
That Columbus saw the coast before he did has clearly been proven, and whosoever else was ignorant of this fact at the time, Americus could not have been. But this false claim being made by others without his protest, is the limit of his impeachment, there being no proof that he connived at placing his name on maps, nor was it foreseen by any one, at first, that the whole of these new discoveries would ultimately be designated by one general name.
Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, who was always tenacious in the defense of his father's reputation, was aware of the contents of the St. Die pamphlet, and made no objections to it, although Las Casas, whose sense of justice was always keen, wondered that he did not.
That Americus had ever been on good terms with Columbus (his father), is to be presumed by their cor- respondence, at least as no contravailing evidence has come to light.
But the strangest part of this fatal misnomer is yet to be told, or rather speculated upon, which is, how the name thus locally applied at first, and even as such unjustly, was ultimately made to cover the two conti- nents of the western world.
390
World's Columbian Exposition.
The name America first appeared on Schoner's globe of 1520, fac-similes of which have been repro- duced in several works on American history. The North American locality of this map is a conjectural drawing-, and named Cuba, which shows that its projector was
behind the record, Cuba having been sailed around, and proven to be an island in 1508. The name America appeared on several other maps soon afterward, some of whose projectors protested against this injustice. The name of Columbus had been clouded by a lack
World's Columbian Exposition.
391
of official patronage. He had died in comparative obscurity. Americus stood high in popular favor, not
\\ Rl C A
t, \ J
MERCATOR'S MAP.
only on account of his literary associations, but of his connection with a commercial house in Seville of great
392 World's Columbian Exposition.
wealth and influence, that furnished outfits for explor- ing- expeditions. Under these time serving- influences his name received a momentum that sent it beyond the limits whence justice could recall it.
In 1541, the first globular map of the celebrated Mercator came out, the western part of which is here- with produced. It was the first radical chang-e from the old (but grand for its time) system of Ptolemy. On his, Mercator's, map, the name America appeared, half on North and the balance on South America.
Mercator's map was the first that showed the two continents connected together without intervening inlets. It delineated the general contour of both, with a reasonable approximate to correctness.
Ptolemy was one of the greatest of all geographers of ancient date. He was born at Pelusium, on the Nile, in the first century. His name would indicate that he was of Macedonian origin. He said: "The whole of the globe which the earth and the water comprises is divided into 360 degrees. ' ' In his book entitled ' ' Great Construction," he gave the position of 1,022 fixed stars, placing the earth in the center of them. His system of astronomy was the accepted one, till that of Coper- nicus had substituted it in the sixteenth century.
The four centuries since Columbus' discovery have been marked with evolutions among European nations, both painful and humiliating for them to look back upon. In- vain they tried to transfer their governments, their religion and their social status to the new world, but only one of them has been successful in doing this, and she only in proportion as she toned down and hewed off the tangent points of her home system to meet the requirements of the American aim. By this policy she retained British America, which even in its loyalty to Brit- ish rule is, nevertheless, a living monument of ob- ligation to the United States for having taught her a lesson on the rights of man, which has been the guiding
World's Columbian Exposition. 393
star of England's ship of state over the great ocean of her dominions ever since. Her ingenuousness in ac- knowledging this not only fraternizes the two nations, but adds force and power to each. The French revo- lution of 1789 and Napoleon's career, that grew out of it, were directly traceable to the American revolution, and likewise the Mexican revolution of 1810 to 1821, as well as the exploits of Bolivar, the Washington of South America, whose genius inspired the continent with ambition to be free at about the same time. If our celebration of an event that wrought all these changes had been attempted at the expiration of the third century, it would have been a failure, for we were then in childhood's growing pains, an unfledged eagle. Chicago was an unknown wild, and where else could such a celebration have been made a success than at this metropolis, in the pathway of western empire, as soon as the schoolmaster of time had given it a brief training ? Here the pioneer spirit lived and grew till it created a peerage that challenged respect, and here an unwritten law declared that the Columbian Exposi- tion should be located.
This law was our voucher for success from the be- ginning to the end, and Chicago possessed the spirit of this law. Her very existence was due to it, and the foundation of her future growth was allied to it, con- jointly with her central position. The great issues of national policy, sprung upon the world by Columbus' discoveries, had been practically solved by an object lesson in the great west. The hour had come for its celebration, and the place to celebrate it.
Pending the discussion that newspapers in every section of the country took part in, the claims of Chi- cago, New York, St. Louis and Washington were con- sidered by their respective advocates. But while these cities were considering, Chicago not only advocated her claims at the earliest opening of the issue, but was the first to take official action to make them effective.
394 World's Columbian Exposition.
The credit of first conceiving the project of the Columbian Exposition belongs to the late J. W. Scott, then editor of the Chicago Herald, who submitted his views to Mayor Cregier. They called in E. F. Cragin, well known as an efficient organizer, and sent him to Thomas B. Bryan for consultation and co-operation. This consultation in Mr. Bryan's office resulted in his drafting, on request, the resolutions adopted by the citizens' meeting, August 1, 1889; and, as an initial step to the great undertaking, these resolutions were telegraphed throughout the United States. This meet- ing was held in pursuance of a resolution of the city council, adopted July 22, the preceding month, instruct- ing the mayor, De Witt C. Cregier, to appoint a citizens' committee of 100 (which was subsequently increased to the number of 250) to impress upon the public mind the advantages of holding the Exposition in Chicago, and present to the country Chicago's supe- riority as a location over other places in competition.
At that meeting an executive committee was appointed, consisting of the following persons :
DeWitt C. Cregier, Chairman.
William Penn Nixon. Samuel W. Allerton.
Frank Lawler. George M. Pullman.
Lambert Tree. Ferdinand W. Peck.
Robert W. Patterson, Jr. Otto Young.
Andrew McNally Edwin Walker.
William J. Onahan. Victor F. Lawson.
John B. Carson. Franklin H. Head.
Joseph W. Fifer. Edward T. Jeffery.
John Q. Adams. Edward F. Cullerton.
Abner Taylor. Charles B. Farwell.
J. Irving- Pearce. Charles H. Schwab.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. Rollin A. Keyes.
Robert A. Waller. Leroy D. Thoman.
Jesse Spalding. Frederick S. Winston.
Samuel S. Gregory. George M. Bogue.
Richard Prendergast. Everitte St. John.
Solomon Thatcher, Jr. George E. Adams.
Arthur Dixon. John McGillen.
Edward F. Cragin. William E. Mason.
Charles L. Hutchinson. William C. Seipp.
Lyman J. Gage. Robert Lindblom.
John R. Walsh. James W. Scott.
George R. Davis. George O'Neill.
William D. Kerfoot. Marshall M. Kirkman.
Shelby M. Cullom. Joseph Medill. Thomas B. Bryan.
World's Columbian Exposition. 395
The first step taken by this committee was to form a company with a capital of $5,000,000, divided into 500,000 shares of $10 each. August 14, 1889, commis- sioners were authorized by the secretary of the state of Illinois to take subscriptions to the stock of this com- pany, which was officially named World's Exposition of 1892. De Witt C. Cregier, Ferdinand W. Peck, George Schneider, Anthony F. Seeberger, William C. Seipp, John R. Walsh, and E. Nelson Blake were these com- missioners.
What had been done thus far was only planting the seed, to be cultivated into a vigorous growth sufficient to outrival the efforts of other cities contend- ing for the prize, especially New York. This under- taking might have seemed impossible to any one but a Chicagoan, whose towering ambition soared above the impossible, as New Yorkers thought. In vain they pleaded that foreign visitors would hesitate to travel far into the interior to visit the Exposition, the suc- cess of which would be doubtful for want of means.
Chicago answered these arguments by energetic measures to influence public sentiment throughout the middle and western states in her favor; and in this labor the commercial interests of these states worked in alliance with such a hypothesis, owing to her central location. Although states to the eastward were in favor of New York, yet, after a careful consensus of public opinion, it was manifest that the contest was narrowed down, and was close between New York and Chicago.
Four cities were championed before a large com- mittee of the United States senate, on January 12, 1890, the hall and corridor crowded with congress- men and citizens to hear the debate, which elicited intense interest, and was reported in the press of the entire country.
New York was represented by over one hundred of her chief citizens, men of greatest political prominence
396 World's Columbian Exposition.
and of enormous wealth, counting hundreds of millions of dollars of individual ownership. Several of her famous orators advocated her claims, chief among them being Chauncey M. Depew. Mayor Cregier in- troduced Thomas B. Bryan and E. T. Jeffery as Chicago's champions, the former replying directly to the argument of Mr. Depew at the same session of the committee, and the latter, Mr. Jeffery, following with an admirable presentation of pertinent statistics. From the government's publication of Mr. Bryan's speech, a few passages are here given:
" The proceedings here remind me of an anecdote that is told of a southern community where there were two colored churches, and both were about to have a fair — just as we are competing for a fair — and finally there was an agreement entered into between the representatives of the rival churches that if one gave up to the other the holding of the fair the party releasing its claim should be entitled to a pew in their own church, to be cushioned at the other's expense. When the white people attended their baptisms and weddings they wanted to provide a special place for their entertainment, and one pew to be set aside was the acme of their ambition. That agreement was cordially entered into and carried out. After the pew had been set aside and the congregation had assem- bled, the colored clergyman ascended the pulpit and said:
" 'Bredren, on dis occasion dere will be no hymns, no sermon, but de whole congregation will jine me in the de little lines I has wrote for dis occasion :
Glory hallelu-yoo; We's got de pew — We's got de pew.'
"When a certain Atlantic steamer arrived at its dock in New York recently, that great city joined— aye, the whole of Manhattan island joined — in the grand acclaim, ' We has got Depew; we has got Depew! '
World"1 s Columbian Exposition. 397
"Up to that instant there had been apathy, and indifference and languor and inertia, but from that in- stant the inspiration came, and the wonderful assem- blage here is the greatest evidence of the result. But, sir, carrying out the analogy, they ought to give us the fair, and keep Depew. [Laughter.]
" The selected site in New York has physical obstructions, avenues cut through it in all directions. It has difficulties of unevenness. It requires a vast expenditure of money to purchase and tear down build- ings, and it requires the expenditure of a vaster sum to blast out its rocks.
"It needs professional dynamite to blow up the constitution of the state, to occupy the site legally for an exposition. I know that I reflect some legal minds of New York city when I say this. I know it requires an act of condemnation to occupy some of that land, and by the right of eminent domain for individual enterprises. I know more, that one gentleman in this room, in this distinguished body from New York, followed the announcement of the selection of that site with a deliberate and true report, and to what effect ? That it was utterly unsuited ; that it was, physically, almost an impossibility to use it for the purposes indicated; and he gave figures to show that throughout the entire domain, so selected, there was not room enough for the erection of a machinery hall of adequate proportions and capacity. But how the blandishments of the distinguished orator of New York could change the physical conditions of that ground is more than I am able to say. The New York Times gave, at length, the article of the then critic of the site, and pronounced him as skilled an expert in real estate matters as any other man within that municipality.
"Grounds to the extent of one or two or six or ten hundred acres, on our broad plains, in and around Chicago are at our service. There is not a house to
398 World's Columbian Exposition.
buy, and not a rock to blast. Not $1 of rent to pay out of this guarantee fund. Throughout the length and breadth of this land there can be found no city of ade- quate population and adequate resources that can pre- sent to the congress of the United States such plans and such adaptability of ground to the purposes of the great Exposition as can Chicago. [Applause.] . . .
"And here again I listened with intense interest to the speech on that subject by the gentleman who ad- dressed you in reference to the agricultural advan- tages of location at New York, led by that distin- guished ' friend of the grangers, ' of whom I can only say Chicago is very proud, and- whom she would have been willing to have elected to preside over all the granges of the United States.
" Now, what are the facts in regard to the farmer ? It was my privilege a short time ago, as delegate to the St. Joseph convention, to talk among the farmers of the west. They had assembled there from several states. What did they say ? I will tell you what they said: ' We have been treated most abominably at every great fair held in this country. '
" And I would like to ask that gentleman how long has it been since there has been an agricultural exposi- tion in New York ? Some gentleman said, 'Two cen- turies and a half ago,' but that is beyond my time. That wonderful agricultural state (New York) has per- mitted centuries to pass without a single suitable rep- resentation of that interest. Does Chicago act likewise ? Chicago and St. Louis circles were handled delicately by Mr. Depew this morning. He has a very happy faculty of insinuating and driving in the needle so dex- terously that no man complains, but it stings just the same. [Laughter.] I saw a smile playing on his coun- tenance as he drove in his points. I know he is very adroit in handling these matters.
"Mental adroitness sporting over disjointed facts and fallacies reminds me of the squirrel sporting over the
World's Columbian Exposition. 399
top of a ramshackle fence; the agility we admire, but not the fence.
" What is the truth ? The farmers of this country overwhelmingly want Chicago, and I speak advisedly, for I have watched the agricultural journals of the coun- try on that subject, and they want the fair at Chicago; and why ? Simply because in the magnificence of New York's appropriation for the agricultural exhibit, as I had occasion lately to say, they devote to it ten acres, and any strong, spirited, high mettled animal of the west would paw the earth and snort his contempt for such a pitiful appropriation.
" Ten acres for this magnificent agricultural site ! What for ? New York ? No! What for ? For the vast domain of America ? Oh, yes; South America and Mexico as well. Ten acres ! !
"Answering this suggestion for making ample pro- vision for the most extensive farm and stock exhibits, the New York official circular of the world's fair com- mittee attempts to turn it into ridicule. Chicago, while projecting an exposition on the grandest scale possible for this country, embracing the fine arts and the most delicate products in every department of human skill, is not unmindful of the most ancient and the most use- ful of all the vocations of man. Nor does she propose to stint such rural exhibitors, as at the New York ex- hibition of 1851, and, indeed, at all exhibitions hitherto; but, on the contrary , offers hundreds of acres for those exhibits alone. Doubtless there may be some dainty souls who dread to encounter ' country bumpkins and mammoth pumpkins,' and yet who are partial only to live stock such as snub-nosed pugs, with ribboned necks and heads pillowed in their masters' laps in frescoed chambers.
" But the people prefer to see the live stock such as Webster loved, and Clay loved, and Grant loved; su- perb horses, with arched necks, flashing eyes and fault- less forms, sniffing the morning air and neighing, as if
400 World's Columbian Exposition.
in consciousness of nobility of blood, and flying like the wind over broad fields under the canopy of heaven.
"And yet, even he (Webster) as well as ninety-nine hundredths of plain, sensible people of this country, came within the scathing of the New York World's committee, for he was wont, to my certain knowledge, ' to sit upon his front steps, ' and the Healy portrait shows his wife1' opening the door for him.'
' He knew whose gentle hand was at the latch Before the door had given her to his eyes.'
' 'As I passed a moment since through yon Supreme court room, the bust of John Marshall recalled the his- toric fact that he was noted for 'primitive simplicity.7 He, doubtless, sat on his front steps; and then sat on the bench of that great tribunal, first made illustrious by his unerring and luminous decisions.
"Who of us does not recall the misgivings expressed as to Grant's rapid promotion because he had once ' driven his own wood cart in the west? ' Granted, and he mounted a chariot of glory worthy of a Cassar. He commanded the mightiest host that ever trod the earth; and still more, he commanded himself. When roaming over the world as a private citizen, he pre- served his imperturbable self-possession, and received in quiet dignity the willing homage of the peoples and potentates of the earth.
"And yet another son of the west occasioned doubt ; for I well remember the gloom of the New Yorkers in the Chicago wigwam at the defeat there of their can- didate by 'a western backwoods lawyer,' Abraham Lincoln. He, too, had 'large hands and large feet/ but also a large heart and a large brain, whence issued words of surpassing eloquence, of tender pathos, of patriotic warning, that rank among the sublimest of all human utterances. Having emancipated a race, and saved the Union, he fell a martyr to liberty, and went among the stars. . . .
World's Columbian Exposition. 401
' ' Mr. Depew admits that whatever else New York has, she has not civic pride. And precisely her want, and Chicago's possession in an eminent degree, of that citizen virtue emphasizes the merits of the latter's candidacy for the fair, and furnishes an assurance, if in her charge, of its magnificent success. When listen- ing to him just now, and realizing that when he opens his mouth he opens a casket rich in jewels of rhetoric .and wit, it occurred tome that if the blocks of wit quar- ried from his brain could be converted into blocks of marble, the feet of New York's Goddess of Liberty would not have so long wearied for the want of a ped- estal, nor her eyes so long strained for a glimpse of the Memorial Arch and the Grant Monument. ' '
While this decision of congress was pending, a million ambitious spirits held their breath. George R. Davis and Edwin Walker, with other distinguished Chicagoans, remained in active charge of. the cam- paign. Under these influences congress gave a verdict in favor of Chicago; which act was approved by the president of the United States April 25, 1890, entitled, "An act providing for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Chris- topher Columbus, by holding an international exhibi- tion of arts, industries, manufactures and the products of the soil, mine and sea, in the city of Chicago, in the state of Illinois."
It grew to be a landmark in Chicago's growth. The whole city became a beehive of industry, — strange faces and costumes appeared in our streets. Archi- tects, contractors and decorators multiplied, and speculation was at flood tide. A single voice seemed to inspire everybody. The Exposition must excel any ever tried before, was the motto. The pioneer spirit was aroused, and pride was stimulated. Eastern conservatism had called us upstarts; now was a chance for recoil. But with all this excitement prudence took the reins, and able men gave direction to the
402 World's Columbian Exposition.
enthusiasm of the forces at their disposal. Otto Young, D. K. Hill, and others too numerous to name, had pushed the work of personal subscriptions to aid the cause, till over 28,000 persons had taken shares in the enterprise, in sums varying from $10 to $100,000 each. The corporation that had been formed, just before the favorable decision of congress, was com- posed of nearly 30,000 stockholders, small and large, as subscribers to its capital stock. A call for the meeting of them at Battery D, on the lake front, was made April 10, 1890. Mayor Cregier was chosen chair- man, and James W. Scott secretary. To complete this organization, a board of forty-five directors was chosen, consisting of the following persons:
Owen F. Aldis. Cyrus H. McCormick. Samuel W. Allerton. « Andrew McNally.
William T. Baker. Joseph Medill.
Thomas B. Bryan. Adolph Nathan.
Edward B. Butler. Robert Nelson.
William H. Colvin. John J. P. Odell.
Mark L. Crawford. Potter Palmer.
DeWitt C. Cregier. J. C. Peasley.
George R. Davis. Ferdinand W. Peck.
James W. Ellsworth. Erskine M. Phelps.
John V. Farwell, Jr. Eugene S. Pike.
Stuyvesant Fish. Martin A. Ryerson.
Lyman J. Gage. Anthony F. Seeberger.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. Charles H. Schwab.
Charles L. Hutchinson. William E. Strong.
Edward T. Jeffery. Charles H. Wacker.
Elbridge G. Keith. Edwin Walker.
Rollin A. Keyes. Robert A. Waller.
Herman H. Kohlsaat. John R. Walsh.
Marshall M. Kirkman. Charles C. Wheeler.
Edward F. Lawrence. Frederick S. Winston.
Thies J. Lefens. Charles T. Yerkes. Otto Young.
Two days later, April 12, this board met at the Sherman house, of which Edwin Walker was chosen chairman. At this meeting committees on finance and by-laws were appointed, and at a meeting of the same board, on the 30th following, Lyman J. Gage was chosen president, Thomas B. Bryan, first vice-presi- dent, and Potter Palmer, second vice-president. On May 6, following, the board elected William J. Acker- man, auditor, and Anthony F. Seeberger, treasurer.
World's Columbian Exposition. 403
The secretary's office was only temporarily filled, until July 11, when Benjamin Butterworth was elected. Mr. Gage, the president, appointed committees as follows:
COMMITTEE ON FINANCE.
Ferdinand W. Peck, Chairman. Elbridg-e G. Keith. John R. Walsh.
John J. P. Odell. Otto Young.
COMMITTEE ON GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS.
DeWitt C. Cregier, Chairman. Owen F. Aldis. Potter Palmer.
George R. Davis. Eugene S. Pike.
Joseph Medill. Charles H. Schwab.
COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION.
Edwin Walker, Chairman.
William T. Baker. George R. Davis.
William H. Colvin. Frederick S. Winston.
COMMITTEE ON NATIONAL AND STATE EXHIBITS.
Erskine M. Phelps, Chairman.
Samuel W. Allerton. Edward T. Jeffery.
John V. Farwell, Jr. Anthony F. Seeberger.
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN EXHIBITS.
William T. Baker, Chairman.
James W. Ellsworth. Thies J. Lefens.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. Martin A. Ryerson.
COMMITTEE ON CATALOGUE AND PRINTING.
Rollin A. Keyes, Chairman.
Mark L. Crawford. Cyrus H. McCormick.
Herman H. Kohlsaat. Andrew McNally.
COMMITTEE ON TRANSPORTATION.
Stuyvesant Fish, Chairman.
Marshall M. Kirkman. William E. Strong.
J. C. Peasley. Charles C. Wheeler.
COMMITTEE ON FINE ARTS.
Charles L. Hutchinson, Chairman. James W. Ellsworth. Robert A. Waller.
Potter Palmer. Charles T. Yerkes.
COMMITTEE ON MACHINERY AND ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES.
Adolph Nathan, Chairman.
Edward B. Butler. Robert Nelson.
DeWitt C. Cregier. Charles H. Wacker.
COMMITTEE ON WAYS AND MEANS.
Otto Young, Chairman.
Edward B. Butler. Edward F. Lawrence.
William H. Colvin. Cyrus H. McCormick.
Stuyvesant Fish. Andrew McNally.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. Adolph Nathan.
Rollin A. Keyes. Charles H. Wacker.
Herman H. Kohlsaat. Robert A. Waller.
The stockholders of the Exposition held a special meeting June 12, 1890, and changed its name from "World's Exposition of 1892" to "World's Columbian Exposition." This was done to conform to the act
404 World'1 8 Columbian Exposition.
of congress, authorizing the Exposition to be held in 1893. At the same meeting the capital stock was increased from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000. These com- mittees were elected to superintend the various depart- ments of which the Exposition was to consist. An act of congress provided that the time and place of holding the Exposition should be determined before the Executive should issue an invitation to foreign nations to participate therein; and that notice should be given him that the World's Columbian commission had pro- vided grounds and buildings for its use, and also that $10,000,000 had been subscribed to be expended for its purposes.
It was necessary to settle this matter promptly, but, to the disappointment of the friends of the Expo- sition, a controversy sprang up as to where it should be located, owing to a rivalry of interests between real estate owners of the vacant lands around Washington and Jackson parks, and the owners of property in the heart of the city. The former interest won the victory, and the entire South Park system was handed over to the Exposition company, but not without various legal difficulties to be settled, in order to modify the original chartered rights accompanying the grant of the parks for free public use. The delay occasioned by this issue at one time assumed a serious aspect, lest it should not be settled in time to make preparation for the erection of the buildings for the large number of departments of the Exposition; but when it was settled both rival interests harmonized together and worked for the best good of the Exposition. It was now imperative that the committee on grounds and buildings should act promptly, and in order to facilitate, as well as hasten the completion of their labors, the board of directors created a construction department, of which Daniel H. Burnham was chief, John W. Root became architect, Abram Gotlieb engineer, and Olmsted & Co. landscape architects. The designs of the buildings were the next
World's Columbian Exposition. 405
thing's to be improvised. To insure this important requisition in a style in keeping with the high standard on which the Exposition was based, a board of consult- ing1 architects was selected from leading men in that profession. This board entered upon their work with commendable zeal. Foreign talent was also enlisted in the work from New York, Boston and other places. The estimated cost of all these buildings, including the preparation of the grounds, to May, 1893, was $16,075,- 453. This estimate was made with great care, and could not be minimized, therefore the only thing to be done was to hew to this line; and it must be confessed that the various committees, who had taken such im- mense responsibilities upon themselves, had made a heavy draft upon the enthusiasm of the public, as well as the financial element that was to pay the bills. But any misgiving or wavering on their part would whelm the whole fabric in ruin. Fortunately no such signs were shown. The dredging and filling, which must precede the building, was begun February 11, 1891, and continued without intermission till the "White City," as the whole when finished was called, was completed, but not without many changes, modifications and dilem- mas frequently coming to the surface as the laborious months and years rolled on to the limit of preparation. During this period of uncertainty the counsels of Henry B. Stone, Lyman J. Gage and others were of essential service, not to say indispensable, to the suc- cessful solution of the troubles that beset the path of progress of the work before them. August 18, 1892, a council of administration was created to meet new exigencies that came up as the completion of the build- ings was near at hand, when the practical work of the Exposition had to be planned out. All that had been done up to this time would have been a waste of money and labor without executive action from the president of the United States. By act of congress, as already stated, he could not invite foreign nations to participate
406 World' }s Columbian Exposition.
in the Exposition till $10,000,000 had been raised, and plans and specifications of the building's had been ap- proved; to meet which conditions $5,000,000 more must be raised. Although the state of Illinois had, by consti- tutional change, made it legal for the city of Chicago to bond the city for $5,000,000 to the stock company of the Exposition, $6, 000, 000 or $7,000,000 more were necessary to pay for work already contracted for, leaving still a deficit. Many ways were now considered for raising more money, none of which seemed possible, until a souvenir coin was thought of. This last expedient was submitted to congress, which body, after much hesi- tating, finally voted a sum of $2,500,000 in silver half- dollars, with an emblematic design, so as to enhance their value as a memorial heirloom of the Exposition, the price of which was fixed at $1 each: and from their sale the company expected to realize $5,000,000 as soon as they could be sold after being issued from the mint. In addition to this measure, $5,000,000 in 6 per cent debenture bonds were thrown on the market, made payable by the Exposition company, at their option, after May 1, 1893, but not later than January, 1894.
Neither of these two plans had entirely fulfilled the expectation of the company, in the amount of ready money required, till extra efforts had been made to get the banks and railroad companies to raise more funds. James W. Ellsworth now ably advocated this measure to the various railroad companies, and sold them bonds to the amount of $850,000. Several banks of Chicago also advanced money to the Exposition company, taking the souvenir coins that still remained unsold as collateral security. Neither the banks nor the rail- road companies would have invested with such doubt- ful collaterals, had not the necessities of the case demanded the venture, in order to make a success of the Exposition. They did it while its fate trembled in a balance between hopeless despair and unparalleled grandeur.
World's Columbian Exposition. 407
At an annual meeting of the stockholders of the company on the date fixed by the by-laws, first Satur- day in April, 1891, the following' additions were made to the board of directors : C. K. G. Billings, Isaac N. Camp, William J. Chalmers, Robert C. Clowry, George B. Harris, Egbert Jamison, William D. Kerfoot, Milton W. Kirk, William P. Ketcham, Alexander H. Revell, Edward R. Ripley, A. M. Rothschild, George W. Saul, George Schneider, James W. Scott, Bernard E. Sunny, Hempstead Washburne (mayor), John C. Welling. An equal number of the original board retiring, Lyman J. Gage resigned the presidency, William J. Baker being elected to succeed him. Mr. Gage had first accepted the presidency of the Exposition, out of a willingness on his part to make personal sacrifices for its good. The time had now come when its success was assured, and he resigned, owing to the pressure upon his time, of other duties. His administration was one of the highest efficiency, ascribable in a great measure to his signal ability. Mr. Baker, his successor, now appointed the following committees :
COMMITTEE ON FINANCE.
Ferdinand W. Peck, Chairman.
Lyman J. Gage. Elbridge G. Keith.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. John J. P. Odell.
COMMITTEE ON GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS.
Edward T. Jeffery, Chairman.
Lyman J. Gage. George W. Saul.
William P. Ketcham. Charles H. Schwab.
Edward F. Lawrence. Robert A. Waller.
COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION.
Edwin Walker, Chairman.
Egbert Jamieson. Erskine M. Phelps.
Ferdinand W. Peck. Frederick S. Winston.
COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE. William D. Kerfoot, Chairman.
Isaac N. Camp. Edward £. Lawrence.
William P. Ketcham. Thies J. Lefens.
COMMITTEE ON MINES, MINING, FORESTRY AND FISH.
Charles H. Schwab, Chairman.
William J. Chalmers. Bernard E. Sunny.
Robert Nelson. John C. Welling.
COMMITTEE ON PRESS AND PRINTING.
James W. Scott, Chairman.
Edward B. Butler. Alexander H. Revell.
Milton W. Kirk. George Schneider.
408 World's Columbian Exposition.
COMMITTEE ON TRANSPORTATION.
Marshall M. Kirkman, Chairman. George B. Harris. George W. Saul.
Edward P. Ripley. John C. Welling.
COMMITTEE ON FINE ARTS.
Charles L. Hutchinson, Chairman.
James W. Ellsworth. Martin A. Rverson.
Potter Palmer. Charles T. Yerkes.
COMMITTEE ON LIBERAL ARTS.
Robert A. Waller, Chairman.
Isaac N. Camp. Egbert Jamieson.
Charles L. Hutchinson. Alexander H. Revell.
COMMITTEE ON MACHINERY AND ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES.
Robert C. Clowry, Chairman.
C. K. G. Billings. Bernard E. Sunny.
Robert Nelson. Charles H. Wacker.
COMMITTEE ON MANUFACTURES.
Harlow N. Higinbotham, Chairman. Adolph Nathan. Erskine M. Phelps.
Elbridge G. Keith. A. M. Rothschild.
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN EXHIBITS.
Martin A. Ryerson, Chairman.
James W. Ellsworth. Herman H. Kohlsaat.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. Thies J. Lef ens.
COMMITTEE ON WAYS AND MEANS.
Lyman J. Gage, Chairman.
Edward B. Butler. Edward F. Lawrence.
William J. Chalmers. Adolph Nathan.
Harlow N. Higinbotham. Edward P. Ripley.
William D. Kerfoot. George Schneider.
Milton W. Kirk. Charles H. Wacker.
Herman H. Kohlsaat. Robert A. Waller.
Notwithstanding all these preparations, and the large sums invested in them, Chicago, on the extreme western verge of political as well as commercial forces, had been regarded by the eastern world as a doubtful aspirant for the honors that had decorated the brows of London, Paris and Vienna, when even New York and Philadelphia had been patronized by Europe with but a frugal hand. Owing to this want of confidence in our virgin attempts to honor the occasion with regal dignity, jurisprudence must be thrown into the scale, a mantle of honor must depend from men bred in busi- ness, but not without the native culture and qualifica- tions that have never been found wanting when a test came which was vital to the honor of Americans. To this end a commission was appointed to visit northern Europe, consisting of the following persons:
Woi'ld's Columbian Exposition. 409
William Lindsay, a member of the commission from Kentucky, and afterward United States senator from that state; A. G. Bullock, member of the com- mission from Massachusetts; Ferdinand W. Peck, chairman of the committee on finance of the board of directors; Moses P. Handy, chief of the department of publicity and promotion; and Benjamin Butterworth, secretary and solicitor general of the World's Colum- bian Exposition, who was unanimously chosen by his colleagues, president of the commission.
In July, 1891, they sailed, and visited the principal governments on the Continent, not omitting many com- mercial companies. On account of the official action which the United States government had already taken abroad, for the same purpose, together with the earnest enthusiasm of the commissioners, tempered with can- dor, a general friendliness to our cause was secured, and liberal contributions of material, in the way of manufactures, curiosities, sculpture, paintings and all the wealth of art with which the old world was en- dowed, were promised. These treasures came to Chi- cago in greater profusion than had hitherto been known to be exhibited at any World's Fair preceding it. Here it may not be improper to say that the press of Europe was enjoying a relief from war's alarms; "balance of power" problems and hostile speculations as to polit- ical possibilities took a back seat, while the arts of peace came to the front; and he who would do anything to substitute " war's wrinkled front" for them would be set down as an enemy to mankind by those inter- ested in the work now in preparation for the fraternal jubilee at Chicago.
Southern Europe had not yet been visited, and to occupy this field in behalf of the ends and aims of the Chicago enterprise Thomas B. Bryan and Harlow N. Higinbotham were selected. Mr. Higinbotham, when alone in London, held an interview with the lord mayor, and was tendered a banquet at the Mansion
410 World's Columbian Exposition.
House, and addressed a meeting1 of the Society of Arts at that great metropolis. Arriving" at Rome, the commis- sioners secured audiences with the Premier, Rampolla, and with King Humbert himself, besides many other persons of note, who were addressed in French by Thomas B. Bryan (that language being best understood by them), all of whom manifested a friendly interest in the cause advocated by these able exponents of Amer- ican progress; for this was the real key note to the ques- tion at issue, and these advocates were qualified to rep- resent it. In order to finish the work so auspiciously begun, the commissioners visited Florence, Naples and Palermo (where an exposition had just been opened by King Humbert), at which places success attended their efforts; but Mr. Higinbotham then returned to Chicago before all their work could be finished, leaving to Mr. Bryan the mission to the pope. Few persons, if any, could have been chosen so well qualified to execute this delicate business. The Chesterfieldian suavity of Mr. Bryan reached the inner temple of his Holiness, and he obtained an autograph letter from the pope, which was translated and published in many languages throughout Europe, as a pontifical indorsement of the Exposition. Mrs. Bryan, who accompanied her husband to Europe, was granted an audience by Queen Margherita, and this pleasant interview was rewarded by the contribution to the Exposition of Queen Mar- gherita's remarkable collection of old laces.
On the return of Mr. Higinbotham from Europe, February, 1892, he was elected vice-president.
Mr. Bryan was appointed commissioner at large, and visited other European courts.
The labors of the directors had greatly increased, in responsibility, and it became necessary to organize various committees, to make arrangements and plans in detail, for the dedication of the Exposition, to be held in October, 1892, and for its opening, in 1893.
World's Columbian Exposition. 411
The following1 were the committees of the board for the year 1892:
COMMITTEE ON FINANCE.
Ferdinand W. Peck, Chairman.
Lyman J. Gage. Harlow N. Higinbotham.
Elbridge G. Keith. John J. P. Odel! .
COMMITTEE ON GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS.
Henry B. Stone, Chairman.
Robert C. dowry. William P. Ketcham.
Edward F. Lawrence. Charles H. Schwab.
Lyman J. Gage. Eugene S. Pike.
COMMITTEE ON LEGISLATION.
Edwin Walker, Chairman.
Ferdinand W. Peck. Benjamin Butterworth.
Frederick S. Winston. Arthur Dixon.
COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE.
William D. Kerfoot, Chairman.
Isaac N. Camp. George Schneider.
Thies J. Lefens. Washington Porter.
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN EXHIBITS.
Thies J. Lefens, Chairman.
Charles H. Wacker. Harlow N. Higinbotham.
James W. Ellsworth. Charles Henrotin.
COMMITTEE ON TRANSPORTATION.
Edward P. Ripley, Chairman.
John C. Welling. Charles H. Wheeler.
Henry B. Stone. Charles H. Chappell.
COMMITTEE ON FINE ARTS.
Charles L. Hutchinson, Chairman. Elbridge G. Keith. Charles T. Yerkes.
James W. Ellsworth. Eugene S. Pike.
COMMITTEE ON WAYS AND MEANS.
Harlow N. Higinbotham, Chairman.
Adolph Nathan. Edward F. Lawrence.
Charles H. Wacker. William J. Chalmers.
Robert A. Waller. William D. Kerfoot.
George Schneider. Edward P. Ripley.
Milton W, Kirk. Andrew McNally.
Edward B. Butler. Washington Porter.
COMMITTEE ON MINES, MINING, FORESTRY AND FISH.
Charles H. Schwab, Chairman.
John C. Welling. Robert Nelson.
William J. Chalmers. Arthur Dixon.
COMMITTEE ON PRESS AND PRINTING.
Alexander H. Revell, Chairman.
Milton W. Kirk. Edward B. Butler.
Benjamin Butterworth. George Schneider.
COMMITTEE ON THE LIBERAL ARTS.
James W. Ellsworth, Chairman.
Isaac N. Camp. Alexander H. Revell.
Robert A. Waller. George P. Englehard.
412 World's Columbian Exposition.
COMMITTEE ON ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL AND PNEUMATIC APPLI- ANCES.
Robert C. Clowry, Chairman.
Robert Nelson. C. K. G. Billing's.
Charles H. Wacker. Charles L. Hutchinsoh.
COMMITTEE ON MANUFACTURES AND MACHINERY.
John J. P. Odell, Chairman.
Adolph Nathan. A. M. Rothschild.
Andrew McNally. Paul O. Stensland.
SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON CEREMONIES.
Edward F. Lawrence, Chairman.
Charles T. Yerkes. Charles H. Schwab.
Charles H. Wacker. William D. Kerfoot.
Charles Henrotin. Alexander H. Revell.
James W. Ellsworth.
We now come to the rounding up, to use a meta- phor, of the labors and results that the various com- mittees had brought into a state of probation only; to provide for such questions as might arise from unexpected conditions, growing out of rival interests or a conflict of authority, which was the problem that the friends of the Exposition saw the necessity of settling without delay; for the time to have every thing in readiness for the dedication of the buildings appeared short. Said Mr. Stone, the chairman of the committee on grounds and buildings: "The Exhibition is about to break in." The board of reference and control of the directory and the commission now evolved a plan to create a council of administration, composed of two directors and two commissioners.
Up to this time the board of directors and the board of commission had the entire responsibility of managing all the affairs pertaining to the Exposition. As they were composed of equal numbers, a deadlock was liable to occur unless perfect harmony prevailed between the two boards. The object in constituting the council of administration was to prevent such a fatal dilemma. Harlow N. Higinbotham and Charles H. Schwab were chosen to represent the directory in this council. George G. Massey, of Delaware, and J. W. St. Clair, of West Virginia, were chosen to represent the commission. At the first meeting of this council Mr. Higinbotham was made chairman. This council
World1 s Columbian Exposition. 413
had absolute power to control all matters of general administration, but not power to expend moneys, except when duly appropriated by the board of direc- tors. Practical work was wanted at its hands, not per- functory ; success was the ultimatum at which it aimed, and was reached on time by making the most of the energy under its supervision, represented by an army of workers. If its duties were onerous, incentives to action were correspondingly developed to master the situation. The plan on which it was to act was em- bodied in a compact adopted by the committee of conference, August, 1892.
The date for the dedication of the buildings was fixed by the council of administration to take place October 21, 1892, instead of October 12, according to the act of congress.
For this change there were two reasons. First, courtesy to New York (which city had made provision for a naval display in her harbor, urged that Chicago should, out of deference to her, postpone her day of dedication lest it might interfere with the official attendance of persons whose presence at each place was desirable. Besides this, it was appropriate that the Chicago dedication should take place on the anni- versary day when Columbus first beheld the land of the western hemisphere, which would be the 26th, in the Gregorian calendar, which date corresponded with the 12th, in the Julian calendar, used in Columbus' time.
DEDICATION OF THE BUILDINGS.
The committee of ceremonies, on the part of the board, consisted of the following persons: Edward F. Lawrence, chairman, Charles H. Schwab, William D. Kerfoot, Charles T. Yerkes, Charles H. Wacker, Charles Henrotin, Alexander H. Revell. The dedication of the Exposition buildings six months before the inaugura- tion was done to make known to the world the immense preparations for the event. The ceremonies began
414 World's Columbian Exposition.
with a national salute fired at sunrise. The board of directors of the World's Columbian Exposition, the board of lady managers, and the distinguished guests in carriages, formed in line on Michigan avenue oppo- site the Auditorium, whence they were accompanied by military escort to Twenty-ninth street. Here they were joined by Vice-President Morton, who acted in behalf of the president of the United States, and President Palmer, of the commission; thence they moved south to Wash- ington Park, where 15,000 United States troops and militia companies of several states, all on parade for review, marched past the distinguished guests who formed the procession. It then moved to Jackson Park by way of the Midway Plaisance to the Manufact- ures building on the Fair grounds. A luncheon was now served to 70,000 persons. When the ceremonies were about to commence, a large crowd had gathered outside of the gates. Attention of Mr. Higinbotham being called to this, he ordered the gates thrown open to all who desired to enter.
The march of the procession had been placed under the charge of Major-General Nelson A. Miles, U. S. A., whose duties had been admirably executed in bringing so large a number of people to the grounds without detention or accident. Now all the responsibilities attending the occasion were assumed by Mr. Higin- botham, who had been made president of the Colum- bian Exposition and chairman of the council of admin- istration in the preceding month of August.
The dedicatory ceremonies were opened with the " Columbian March," composed by Prof. J. H. Paine, of Cambridge, and rendered by the Columbian orchestra and chorus. After a prayer by Bishop Fowler, the introductory address was made by the director general, George R. Davis. Hempstead Washburne, mayor of Chicago, gave the address of welcome and a tender of the freedom of the city to Vice-President Morton, and to the representatives of foreign nations.
Worlds Columbian Exposition. 415
The "Columbian Ode," written by Miss Harriet Mon- roe, was read by Mrs. Sarah LeMoyne, and selec- tions from it, set to music by George W. Chadwick, were sung by the Columbian chorus. The director of works, Daniel H. Burnham, tendered the buildings to President Higinbotham, and presented to him the master artists of its construction in an appropriate address. President Higinbotham responded to this address and presented to the master artists the medals made in recognition of their services. During the presentation the chorus rendered Mendelssohn's "To the Sons of Art."
Mrs. Potter Palmer, president of the board of lady'managers, then made an address on the achieve- ments of the board. President Higinbotham then tendered the buildings to Hon. Thomas W. Palmer, president of the World's Columbian commission, who, in turn, presented them to Lev'i P. Morton, Vice- President of the United States, who formally dedicated the buildings in an address, closing with the following words: "In the name of the government of the United States, I hereby dedicate these buildings and their appurtenances, intended by the government of the United States for the use of the Columbian Exposition, to the world's progress in arts, in science, in agricul- ture and in manufacture. I dedicate them to humanity. God Save the United States of America ! " The " Hal- lelujah Chorus," from Handel's "Messiah," was then sung, following which the dedicatory oration was delivered by Hon. Henry Watterson, of Kentucky. At the close of this oration the Columbian chorus and orchestra rendered the " Star Spangled Banner." Chauncey M. Depew, of New York, delivered the Colum- bian oration. The ceremonies were concluded with prayer by His Eminence, Cardinal Gibbons, archbishop of Baltimore; the chorus, "In Praise of God," by Beethoven, and the benediction by the Rev. Henry C. McCook, of Philadelphia. A national salute was
416
World's Columbian .Exposition.
fired by the artillery as the ceremonies came to a close.
When large bodies of humanity unite their enthus- iasm in one direction, and the end desired is in sympa- thy with love of country, the impressiveness of the scene is sublime ; neither the romancer nor the dram- atist can fully describe it ; nor can the pen of history do more than give a measured record of it. It can say the dedication of the Columbian Exposition is done, physically, but its inspiration lives in the eyes of those who saw it, and will live in the patriotic heart of every true American citizen for a generation.
The opening of the Exposition was set for May 1, 191 days ahead, with the storms of winter intervening. The prospect was ominous, not to say alarming ; but the honor of Chicago, as well as that of the whole coun- try, was at stake. Perseverance and energy had many times been -severely tested, but the end was not yet reached, nor would it be till the White City was ready for visitors, with every attendant at his post. During the last two days of April the grounds were cleaned up, the exhibits placed in view, except the few still in picking cases, which were concealed; so that on the following morning, May 1, the whole scene looked inviting for visitors.
The following table is a list of Expositions, from the time of the World's Fair in London, 1851, down to the time of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.
|
Year. |
Place. |
Number of Exhibitors. |
Number of Visitors. |
Acres. |
Numb'r of Da3'sOpen |
|
1851 |
London |
15,500 |
6,039,195 |
13 |
144 |
|
1855 |
Paris |
23,954 |
6,162,330 |
22.1 |
200 |
|
1862 |
London |
28,653 |
6,225,000 |
25.6 |
171 |
|
1867 |
Paris |
52,200 |
9,238,967 |
31 |
217 |
|
1873 |
Vienna |
42,584 |
7,254,687 |
56.5 |
186 |
|
1876 |
Philadelphia |
60,000 |
9,910,966 |
236 |
159 |
|
1878 |
Paris |
40,366 |
16,032,725 |
100 |
191 |
|
1889 |
Paris |
55,000 |
28,149,353 |
173 |
183 |
|
1893 |
Chicago |
* * * * |
27,539,521 |
645 |
183 |
World's Columbian Exposition.
417
A GENERAL SUMMARY OF AREA OF GROUNDS. BUILDINGS.
|
Square Feet. |
Acres. |
Square Feet. |
Acres. |
|
|
Main: Administration |
51,456 |
1.18 |
||
|
Agriculture. |
589,416 |
13.53 |
||
|
Art |
261,073 |
5.99 |
||
|
Electricity . |
265,500 |
6.09 |
||
|
Fisheries . . |
104,504 |
2.39 |
||
|
Government |
155,896 |
3.57 |
||
|
Horticulture • • • |
237.956 |
5 46 |
||
|
Machinery |
796,'686 |
18.28 |
||
|
Manufactures. |
1,345,462 |
30.88 |
||
|
Mines |
246,181 |
5.65 |
||
|
Transportation |
704,066 |
16 16 |
||
|
"Woman's. |
82,698 |
1.89 |
||
|
4Q/IH QQA |
||||
|
Minor .... |
1,630,514 |
37.43 |
||
|
State |
450,886 |
10.35 |
||
|
Foreign |
135,663 |
3 11 |
||
|
Concessions (Midway build- in fg booths etc ) |
801,238 |
18 39 |
||
|
Miscellaneous . ... |
317 699 |
7 29 |
||
|
Total |
8,176,894 |
187.69 |
GROUNDS.
|
Square Feet. |
Acres. |
Square Feet. |
Acres. |
|
|
Lawns and Hards: General lawns |
4,957,141 |
|||
|
Water lawns |
141,859 |
|||
|
Yards |
2,141,386 |
|||
|
Waterways |
2,630,105 |
lob.Zl 60.37 |
||
|
Roads & walks (beach, brick, asphalt, plank, macadam) . |
11,146,184 |
255.88 |
||
|
Piers: Casino |
411,282 |
|||
|
Naval |
283 843 |
|||
|
li(\K I OC |
1 £ O^ |
|||
|
Total . . |
21.711.800 |
498.14 |
SUMMARY.
|
Square Feet. |
Acres. |
|
|
Buildings |
8,176,894 |
187 69 |
|
Lawns |
7,240,386 |
166 21 |
|
Water |
2,630,105 |
60.37 |
|
Roads . ... |
11,146,184 |
255 88 |
|
Piers |
695,125 |
15 95 |
|
Total |
29,888,694 |
686.10 |
418 World's Columbian Exposition.
STATE AND FOREIGN BUILDINGS.
STATE,
Square Feet. Square Feet.
Arkansas 5,985 Missouri 5,824
California 59,948 Montana 7,092
Colorado 5,064 Nebraska 7,3lL
Connecticut 4,512 New Hampshire 5,464
Delaware 4,904 New Jersey 4,360
Florida 9,394 New York 20,416
Idaho 4,090 North Dakota 3,604
Illinois 92,388 Ohio 1 1,544
Indiana 13.672 Pennsylvania 16,948
Iowa 19,120 Rhode Island 2,872
Joint Territories 4,040 South Dakota 7,068
Kansas 15,176 Texas 6,756
Kentucky 7,740 Utah 4,606
Louisiana 3,800 Vermont 4,608
Maine 4,370 Virginia 7,300
Maryland 7,032 Washington 24,544
Massachusetts 7,064 West Virginia 7,401
Michigan 17,800 Wisconsin 9,OS8
Minnesota 7,848
FOREIGN.
Square Feet. Square Feet.
Brazil 13,448 Guatemala. 13,016
Canada 5,008 Hayti 9,622
Ceylon 7,217 Japan 8,180
Colombia 2,544 New South Wales 4,864
Costa Rica 6,696 Norway 1,120
East India 4,976 Spain 6,608
France 11,728 Sweden 12,552
Germany 17,288 Turkey 2,592
Great Britain 5,712 Venezuela 3,392
Number of state buildings 37
Number of foreign buildings 18
Total 755
The great day for the opening- of the Exhibition, May 1, 1893, had now come. The ceremonies attend- ing it were held in the Court of Honor. To add to the dignity of the occasion Mr. Cleveland, president of the United States, ascended the platform at 11 o'clock. Vice-President Stevenson and other members of his cabinet were by his side. The duke of Veragua, lineal descendant of Christopher Columbus, together with the members of his family, the diplomatic corps, members of congress, directors of the Exposition, members of the Columbian commission and the board of lady man- agers, members of foreign and state commissions and officers and chiefs of departments of the Exposition and their ladies were present at this impressive scene.
World's Columbian Exposition. 419
The order of exercises was as follows:
1. Music, "Columbian March" for orchestra, John K. Paine.
2. Prayer. Rev. W. H. Milburn, Washington, D. C.
3. Poem, " The Prophecy," by W. A. Croffut, Washington, D. C.
4. Music, orchestral overture to "Rienzi," Wagner.
5. Address by the director general.
6. Address by the president of the United States.
7. Starting of machinery, during which time the " Hallelujah Chorus" (Handel), was performed.
8. Official reception of the president of the United States and the officials of the World's Columbian Commission and of the World's Columbian Exposition by the various foreign commissions, in the building for Manufactures and Liberal Arts.
President Cleveland now arose to speak. He was received with great enthusiasm. After his speech he pressed the key of the electric attachment that set the great engine of 2,000-horse power in motion. Imme- diately streams of water sprang up from the electric fountains, every flag was flung to the breeze, shrill whistles of the lake craft rent the air, cannons boomed, and enthusiastic cheers from the vast multitude added volume to this sonorous din of harmonious discord that terminated these formalities.
The fruition of Chicago's ambition, as well as her financial obligations, were now about to be realized; but it may truly be said that the minds of the friends of the Exposition were agitated with anxiety lest an existing money panic should diminish the sale of tickets; hence the receipts for the first month, May, were looked for- ward to with earnest hope. They averaged $37,510 per day for gate money. The total from all sources during the month was 8583,031. The total receipts for June were $1,256,180. This improvement was encouraging, as it afforded means to make payments on floating debts and reduce pressing obligations. The dedication and opening services of the Exposition had more than realized the expectations of those responsible for its success, and of all who took pride in it; but a cloud came over the scene at this critical moment. Eight days after the opening, the Chemical National bank of Chicago failed. It had a branch in the administra- tion building, in which over $60,000 were deposited by
420 World's Columbian Exposition.
exhibitors. Jt would have been fatal to the credit and success of the Exposition to have subjected them to any loss by this failure. To provide against this discredit- able showing the following gentlemen made good the deficiency by subscription :
Erskine M. Phelps. Ferdinand W. Peck. Norman B. Ream.
Edward B. Butler. Arthur Dixon. William T. Baker.
Byron L. Smith. Otto Young-. Charles H. Schwab.
Thies J. Lefens. John W. Doane. John J. Mitchell.
Andrew McNally. Washington Porter. Edward F. Lawrence.
George H. Wheeler. Elbridge G. Keith. Martin A. Ryerson.
H. N. Higinbotham. William J. Chalmers. George M. Pullman.
Charles L. Hutchinson. William D. Kerfoot. George Schneider.
Frederick S. Winston. Adolph Nathan. Edwin Walker.
Albert A. Sprague. Herman H. Kohlsaat. Charles H. Wacker.
Milton W. Kirk. Robert A. Waller. John J. P. Odell.
Lyman J. Gage. Melville E. Stone.
The work of construction and preparation was now finished, the amount paid out for which was $17,869,- 421.94 ; but so stupendous had been the plans to carry out the extravagant requirements of Chicago's ambition, that to liquidate all the debts still due to contractors and other claimants required over $4,000,000 more. The bonded and floating debts alone of the Exposi- tion were about $8,000,000, with but five months more in which to liquidate them. The prospect that this could be done was not encouraging ; but the public, fortunately, did not know the dark side of this picture.
Bodies of men associated together to accomplish a great public enterprise must necessarily be made up of varieties of character, corresponding to the magnitude of their undertaking. If one man had the power of control of the whole^management of this undertaking, the chances of cross-purposes would be minimized, pro- viding this autocrat -was a man of discrimination and clean cut methods of execution, and providing, also, he was a technologist in every branch of artisanship nec- essary for the service ; but the Columbian Exposition, in its multifarious waves of human energy, whetted to a keen edge by four hundred years of progress, dating from the event it celebrated, could not be entirely under abeyance of one, though even a master mind, in detail.
World's Columbian Exposition. 421
Subordinate boards and committees consisting of ex- perts in their respective responsibilities must be con- structed. These boards and committees, now in full force, had given form and authority on which to build a historical monument worthy of America. Though it is natural that such an idea should originate in Chicago, situated as it is on the western verge of this progress that had grown out of Columbus' discovery, yet, conservatism still had doubts of her ability to make a success of it. And here it is impossible to say too much in praise of such men as had devoted their time with this object in view, often leaving scanty hours for sleep. They had an army of cormorants on their trail, determined to make the most they could by exorbitant charges for services ; and to do so, taxed the gener- osity of the promoters of the exhibition to the utmost limit. There were also jealousies to settle among a class who could play the artist or the Shylock ; but the foremost point to be considered was how to get an ade- quate return for the immense expenditures already involved, how to bring honor instead of disgrace to Chicago.
August 17th, 10 per cent on the Exposition bonds were paid.
During the first three months the receipts of the Exposition had been $4,230,979.89; the expenses for the same time being $1,822,672.37, leaving a balance of $2,408,307.52 to be applied on the floating debt. The most pressing obligations had been discharged. The bonded debt was $4,444,500. The payment of the first installment called for $444,450. The receipts for August were $2,337,856.25, expenses, $569,798.12, leav- ing a balance of $1,768,058.13. From the receipts of Chicago day, October 9th, and from those of the pre- vious months, the remaining bonded indebtedness, amounting in all to 81,565,310.75, was paid.
To increase the interest in the Exposition a list of special days, in an honorary sense, was observed. These
422 World's Columbian Exposition.
days consisted of compliments devoted to foreign countries, to different states of the Union, to various mechanical trades and artisanship, to literary days. For instance: Poets' day, Military day, Veterans' day, Patriotic day, Independence day, in which the old Liberty Bell revived the remembrance of our revolu- tionary fathers and the Declaration of Independence. But of all these days none called forth so great an attendance as Chicago day, which, being observed on the anniversary of her great fire, appealed to the emotions of her citizens, who took pride in the rebuild- ing of the burnt city. The paid attendance on that day was 716,880. Every means of transportation from a radius of more than 100 miles was taxed to its utmost limit. It is doubtful if ever before an event had oc- curred in the United States that called forth three- fourths of a million persons.
October 11 the directors gave a banquet to the commissioners of foreign nations represented at the Exposition, for which great preparations were made, intending to make it the crowning social event of the Exposition. President Palmer was also honored with a banquet at the Auditorium, at which all the great interests of the Exposition were represented. The directors' banquet, held in Music hall, had an immense attendance. A committee, consisting of Messrs. Walker, Henrotin, Ellsworth, Scott, Revell and the president and director general were appointed to take charge of this entertainment. At this banquet, after a salutation by President Higinbotham, the following toasts were given:
"President of the United States and Rulers of Other Nations." Response- by -Thomas W. Palmer, president of the World's Columbian Commission.
"The Birth of the Exposition." Response by Lyman J. Gage, ex-president of the World's Columbian Exposition.
"Design of the Exposition." Response by Daniel H. Burnham, director of works.
World's Columbian Exposition. 423
"Great Britain and Her Colonies. . . Response by Florence O'Driscoll, M. P., Royal British Commissioner.
"Illinois.." Response by Governor John P. Alt- geld.
"The German Empire." Response by Dr. Max Richter, imperial representative commissioner.
"City of Chicago. " Response by Mayor Carter H. Harrison.
"The French Republic." Response by Edmond Bruwaert, consul-general and acting commissioner- general.
"The Development of the Exposition." Response by W. T. Baker, ex-president World's Columbian Exposition.
"The Russian Empire." Response by C. Ragousa- Soustcheosky, acting commissioner-general.
"The Kingdom of Spain." Response by E. Dupuy de Lome, minister plenipotentiary and royal commis- sioner-general.
"The Closing Days of the Exposition." Response by George R. Davis, director-general World's Colum- bian Exposition.
"The Austrian Empire." Response by Anton von Palitschek-Palmforst, imperial royal consul and com- missioner-general.
"The Kingdom of Italy." Response by Marquis Enrico Ungaro.
"The Executive Commissioners of the States of the Union." Response by Edward C. Hovey, vice-pres- ident National Association of Executive Officers.
"The Future Influence of the Exposition." Re- sponse by Harlow N. Higinbotham, president World's Columbian Exposition.
Preparations had been made for closing ceremonies October 30, 1893, in Festival hall, equal to the grandeur of the occasion; but on Saturday night, the 28th, the citizens of Chicago and the officers of the Exposition
424 World's Columbian Exposition.
were startled by the death of the mayor of Chicago, Carter H. Harrison, at the hands of an assassin. This changed the character of the entire closing scenes, and when the people gathered, October .30, instead of joy and festivity, a sense of sorrow was omnipresent. President Palmer came forward and said:
"As all present know, it had been the intention to follow out in every detail the elaborate and impressive programme of exercises that had been prepared. It would have been enhanced and enriched with music, with festivities, and with the firing of cannon. It had been intended to bring- these exercises to a close at sunset by the fall of the gavel simultaneously with the salute of artillery; but all this has been changed. Only the firing of the gun and the lowering of the flag will signify the end of the World's Columbian Exposition at sun- set. And now then, in obedience to the provision of the act of congress creating this Exposition, I declare the World's Columbian Exposition officially closed."
Dr. Barrows, after brief remarks, gave the bene- diction in solemn words to the immense audience, who had risen to their feet in reverence for the occasion. They then filed out of the hall, while Beethoven's " Funeral March " was being rendered with impressive effect.
The amenities of social life lie at the foundation of law, morality, religion, love of country and love of everything we hold dear. Fairs and expositions are the handmaidens of these amenities, necessary to rep- resent them, to stimulate them to action. Local fairs might be tarnished with a jingo spirit, but world expo- sitions must be broader, more comprehensive, more charitable; they must embrace the ethics of human rights, according to the estimation of philosophers and statesmen. In the ways and means of promoting them the financial question must be incidental and subor- dinate to the incentives and principles.
In old countries, where conservatism prevails uni- versally, world expositions are handicapped by the deeply worn ruts of allegiance to time-worn prejudices, conceits, opinions and customs; but the citizens of a young nation think and act more in accordance with natural law and the natural rights of man; an immacu- late tablet is unfolded to them on which to write, inde-
World's Columbian Exposition. 425
pendently, whatever is needed to conserve the wants of its people. This is why the World's Columbian Ex- position at Chicago was a greater success than any world's exposition ever held before. This success was not due to superior financial resources, but to the en- thusiasm of Chicago citizens, in alliance with the pride of the nation. Nations decline in power and cease to exist when the amenities of social life cease to animate their ruling powers sufficiently to make them adminis- ter blind and even handed justice to their respective subjects. Young nations take their places and chant their requiem.
Every world's fair hitherto held has given an im- pulse to whatever could impart life and light to the subjects of the nation that held it, as well as to the dif- ferent peoples who patronized it.
As a landmark, as an educator, as a school of tech- nology, as a school of natural history, as a decorator with the highest degrees in the temple of fame for arti- sans and literati, the Columbian Exposition reached the highest record of any which had preceded it. Future generations will make an archeological study of it, from which to mark the stage of human progress of the world at that time, not only of its most enlightened peoples, but of its most barbarous tribes — grand and opinionated in their personality, whether from the Polar regions, the South Sea islanders or the inhabitants of the dark continent. Here they came with their native habits and costumes, their guttural tongues and their sharply defined religious tenets. All these were shown at a single view.
The Olympic games were the pride of Greece — Greece, the fountain of our civilization. They marked a chronology, just preceding the Christian era, and some of our grandest classic literature bears date of the Olympic period. Though these games were de- signed for physical development, they taught a princi- ple, akin to the teachings of the immortal Jefferson, in
426 World's Columbian Exposition.
the Declaration of Independence. Crowned heads ran foot races with the humblest subject. Here was the doctrine, "All men are born free and equal," reduced to practice. The Olympic games constituted an expo- sition, to amuse and instruct. They made progress in this direction; they would have made more if the world had been in- the enjoyment of the printing press, and of other appliances of our present system of education.
The hiatus between the Olympic period and our era was marked with many a recoil from the grandeur of Grecian civilization. Once and again Europe was buried in ignorance and superstition. Evolution succeeded evolution as the centuries rolled on, till science finally took the lead, and made a steady advance. The present civilization of Europe and America is the result.
The World's Exposition of London, 1851, closed with a yacht race, in which all nations were invited to participate. The silver cup which Queen Victoria offered to the winner became a national heirloom to- the United States, being a graceful and deserved com- pliment to the American sailor; and should England ever win it back, the honor of the United States will rise to a still higher scale by her graceful return of the cup as an acknowledgment of England's successful rivalry. This friendly challenge for speed in sailing craft is cited as an instance of the comity of nations, and the benefits to the world which grow out of exposi- tions. To enumerate all the friendly rivalries in every department of national and world known prov- erbs and hypotheses that grew out of the World's Columbian Exposition, would be impossible.
Its wide range of exhibits in all the arts of peace, and even of war, have inspired a love of the beautiful, an ambition to excel, a desire to deserve praise; each exhibitor in his respective sphere, that must prove a lasting benefit to America in every profession, and in every department of mechanical ingenuity, as well as in advanced thought in morality and religion, which
World's Columbian Exposition. 427
latter subject was so charitably dealt with by the Con- gress of Religions.
HAPPY, PROUD AMERICA!
You have excelled the world in your "manifest of cargo" of its most precious gems of thought, tri- umphs of art, and models of machinery, wherewith to keep all mankind alive with action.
Of the many portraits painted of Columbus, none has the proofs of authenticity, except Gunther's, the one herewith presented.
Sir Antonio Moro's three-quarter life portrait of Christopher Columbus, owned by Charles F. Gunther, Chicago, was executed about 1543 or 1545, from a miniature originally done for the court of Spain. This portrait was done at this court for Margaret, regent of the Netherlands, and the duke of Alva, who was ambitious to form a collection of portraits of a historic character for his palace, the Spaniards then being in possession of .the Netherlands. The great navigator undoubtedly sat for the miniature from which it was executed. The painting was the first exhibit to arrive in Chicago for the World's Fair. The fact that it was executed for royalty is proven by the golden crown that surmounts and honors the frame. The execution of the portrait is in the style of the old masters, Velazquez and Rembrandt, and is remarkable for its coloring and life-like appearance. The frame spoken of above, which was made at the same time as the portrait, is fully as interesting as the canvas. It is fashioned with superb skill, and is a grand mass of intricate carving. It is gilded, and on the top there are the coat-of-arms and quarterings of Columbus, the islands, the anchor, the sword and caravels.
Unusual importance and value is attached to this portrait from the fact that Moro was one of the masters of his time, and that so great and talented an admirer as Washington Irving, after searching throughout Europe, and also during his long residence
428 World's Columbian Exposition.
in Spain as United States minister to that court, and known to be a great lover of Spanish history and tradition, on which he has written many volumes, settled upon this picture and placed it as a frontis- piece in his revised life (1850) of Christopher Colum- bus. Irving's search for a portrait for this purpose was by no means a short one. He had access to all the public and private libraries of the kingdom, which were freely opened to him, and it was Moro's famous work that honored that of Irving. The great author in speaking of the painting, says: "The pro trait of Columbus prefaced to the present volume, is from a beautiful picture painted by Sir Anthony Moro for Margaret, Governess of the Netherlands. It was brought to this country about the year 1590, and has been in possession of one family until very recently, when it was purchased by Mr. Cribb, of King street, Covent Garden, London. The characteristics of the mind and features of Columbus are so forcibly depicted in this picture, that no doubt can remain but that it is a true and perfect resemblance of the great navi- gator. ' '
All other portraits have a mythical history, with no positive foundation for their alleged authenticity.
Upon examination of the majority of the alleged portraits of Columbus, it will be seen that all of the artists in executing these works, had for their Colum- bus ideal a face and form with the plasticity of the priest, poet, writer, musician, or man of some other sedentary occupation. Not one of them possesses the characteristics so strong in Moro's work. In fact this portrait admirably portrays the face and form of a sailor, the features of a man full of vigor and am- bition. The face is handsome, robust, daring; one of determination and zeal, and the only one in which any artist seeking Columbus honors has brought out the characteristics of a true born sailor and navigator, such as Columbus was.
World's Columbian Exposition. 429
The Gunther Columbus is one of the few portraits upon which the name of the subject appears. Painted under the finish on the upper left hand corner of the panel is the inscription of "Ch. Columbo," from the brush of Moro.
This portrait was painted by one of the greatest masters of his time, who painted for the Emperor Charles V, at the court of Philip II, of Spain, and later at the court of England, where he was knighted by the crown. It is conceded that an artist of his reputation and position would never have painted a fictitious portrait of the great navigator, and placed the sub- ject's name upon it, nor would it have been passed upon or accepted by any of his associates, were it not a good likeness of the subject. Although Colum- bus had not the halo of heroism and glory around him then that the mantle of subsequent ages has clothed him with, his fame had spread, and when this portrait was executed (a few years after his death) there were many people yet alive who knew him per- sonally. From these facts it will be seen that the idea of Moro painting anything but a correct portrait of Columbus would be the height of absurdity, placing the artist in the light of an impostor. Moro's life as a master was of the highest standing.
DEATH OF COLUMBUS.
His death occurred at Valladolid, May 20, 1506. Very little general interest was manifest on the occa- sion. He was interred at the place of his death, and his remains were deposited at Seville, but the date of removal is uncertain, though known to be previous to 1509, whence they were removed to St. Domingo, according to some authorities in 1536, but certainly previous to 1541. This removal was to fulfill a request from Columbus himself, that his last resting place should be in the land that he had discovered. In 1795, owing to a French conquest of part of St. Domingo, permission was asked and granted to remove the remains
430
World's Columbian Exposition.
to Havana, and this was carried into effect, as was supposed, but in 1877 unmistakable evidence was brought to light that the remains of Christopher Columbus still repose in the vault of the Cathedral at St. Domingo, those removed to Havana having been the remains of another member of the Columbus family, mistaken for them.
List of persons who subscribed to the stock of the World's Columbian Exposition to the amount of $1,000 or more:
Chicago Mall Iron Co Dewey C P & A B Chicago Wilmington & Dexter \Vlrt
Ver Coal Co Diamond Match Co
Blatchford E W & Co Chicago National Bank Diamond Prospeet'g Co Bliss Bullard & Gorniley Chicago Telephone Co Dlckason L F Boal C T Stove Co Chicago Box Co Dletz John L
Abbey Henry E Adams Geo E Adams Isaac E Adams WH Adams L & Co
Adams & Spauldlng
Adams & Westlake&Co Bogue & Hoyt
Best Russell & Co Bigelow Bros Blatz Valentine Blatchford E \V & Co
Booth A Packing Co Howman Dairy Co Boyden Geo G Boyle Wm M Rradner Smith & Co Bradley C D Kradman J W & Co
Adams & Westlake Ajax Forge Co Alaska Fur Co Albert Dickenson Co Aid is Owen F Aldrlch W H & Co Allan Line Royal Mall
Steam
Allen Berry & Co Allen W D Co Allerton Samuel VV Allyn Arthur W Alston Mnfg Co American Exchg Nat'l
Bank
American Meter <~o
American Straw B'rd Co lender Co Aiuor. Tube and Iron Co Bryan Thos B Ames & Frost Co Bucklen HL E
Andrews A H & Co Buehler Jno Arend&Co Bullock M C Mfg Co
Arnhelm Benj Bunte Bros & Spoehr
Armour & Co Burnham E
Arm's Pal. Horse Car Co Butler Bros Arnhelm Louis Butler J W Paper Co.
Arnold Bros Cahn Wampold & Co
Artlngstall Sam'l A Callaghan & Co Ascher Bernard & Co Callahan A P
Cinny J W Clark Robt
BremneTD F Baking Co Clark RatTen & Co ISrewster Edw L & Co Clement Bane & Co Brown Jno J Clow Jas B & Son
Brockway & McKey Cochran J L Brooks&RossL'mberCo Coeth«ll E L Brooks P C Conn J II
Brooks Shepherd Colvin W H
Browning King i Co Colby J A & Son Brunswick Balke Col- <'omyne Stone Co Com Natl Bank
Chicago Auditorium Dixon Arthur Ass'n Doane J W & Co
Chicago White Lead & Doggett Bassett & Hills Oil Co Co
Chicago Wood Furn Co Dolese & Shepard
Donahue & Henneberry Doremus A F Dovenmuehle H F C &
Son
Drake Parker & Co Dreyer E S & Co Drovers Journal Dun lap R & Co Durand H C & C Dwlght J N Eagle Laundry Co Earl A Wilson
Eaton & Prince Eckhart & Swan Eggleston Mallette
Brownell & Co Elsenstard Bros Electric Co Excelsior Co
Channon H & Co
Atlas National Bank Atwood FM Auditorium Hotel Co Austrian Wise & Co Averill A J Ayer Ed E Bach L
Badenoch Bros Batrd & Bradley Baker Wm Earnhardt Bros &
Spindler ^ ..c.m,uu *.
Bartholomae & Roeslng Chanute O Barnes F J Barrett M L Barker S B Barrett S E Mnfg Co Bass J H Bass Perkins Bass M H Bauer Julius & Co Bauer & Hill Bavarian Brewing Co Beck Aug & Co Biedler J
Beiermeister * Spicer Belfeld Jos & Co Belford Clarke A Co Belding Bros & Co Bennett V I Bennech F Berry John
Cooke Brewing Co Coon & Co Corbin May & Co Corper & Nockin
* .iiK.n.ui .TV . Coulter A & Co
Cameron Amberg & Co Counselman Chas Carsley & East Mnfg Co Coyne F S Carson Pirie Scott & Co Crane Elevator Co Carpenter Geo B & Co Crane Bros Mfg Co Carslaw J W D Cass Geo W Castro D Central Mfg Co Chambers J B & Co Chandler & Co Chapln & Gore
Chicago Consolidated
Bottling Co
Chicago Stamping Co i.nuj .-.c..*> ( hicago Rubber Works Daily Skandinavian Chicago Varnish Co Dake Baking Co Chicago City Ry Co Dallemand & Co
Chicago Gas Trust Co Davis Chester B Chicago Pkg & Prov Co Davis Will J Chicago Stove Works Davies Mrs M E Chicago Fire ProoflngCo Davidson & Son Chicago Kef Wureh. Co Dawson Martin Co Chicago Carpet Co Dean Bader & Co
Chicago Herald Deiter Philip
Chicago Times Deimel R & Bro
Chicago Btise Ball Club Delaney & Murphy Chicago Forge & Bolt Co Dennehey Chas Chicago Fringe Works Dennehy Chas Chicago Paper Co Detroit Stove Works
Chicago Cot. Organ Co Dewes F J Brewing Co
Com Exchange Bank Contra Costa Calif. Co Cont Natl Bank Congdon C B
Conkey VV B r. irn i ir v. u r^jtucioiui v. \>
Cook Lyman Smith & Co Elithorpe Air Brake Co Elliott F P & Co Ellsworth Jas W Emerlch Chas & Co Emery Geo A Estey & Camp Eureka Land Co Eureka Laundry Co Evening Journal
, ExcelMor Iron Work
Crame & Tarbell
Cregier Dewitt C
Crerar Adams & Co
Cribben Sexton & Co
Crllly D F
Cuddnhy John
Cummings Andrew
Cummlngs E A & Co
Cummlngs F D
Curtis H C & Co
Cutter & Crossette
Dally N
Fair The
Fairbanks N K & Co
Fa Ik Jung .<fc Borchert Brewing Co
Falker & Stern
Farwell J W & Co
Karrar Arthur
Farson Leach & Co
Fargo C H & Co
Farnum I P
Fay C N
Fay J A & Co
Felsenthal Gross & Miller
Felsenthal Bros & Co
Felix & Marston
Ferrler P H
Field Benedict & Co
Field Marshall
Fiedler A B & Sons
Fils & Oppenhelmer
First National Bank
Fisher W & Co
Ms* D B & Co
Fitch M J Paper Co
Fitz Simon s& Con nell Co
Flower Smith A: Mils- grave
World's Columbian Exposition.
431
Fortune Bros Brew Co Forman Bros Ford J S Johnson & Co Franks J
Franks Ticket Agency Fraser & Chalmers Krankenthal thai & Co
French & Potter Co Jfreie Presse Friedman J & Co
Kuppenneimer B & Co Moller & Kohl Lamie John Monheimer & Co
Lane Bridge & Iron Wks Moore Will H Lansing & Sickler Moorhead McClean Co
Lapp & Flershem MorgenthauBauIand Co
Lamed Walter C Morper Dernber* & Co
Freaden- Hlbbard Spencer Bart- LassigBridge&lronWks Morrlll & Co G H lett & Co Lathrop Bryau Morris Henry
Helssler & Junge Henderson C M & Co Henneck C & Co Uenrotln Chas Henry Geo W Herr Hlero B
Fuermann Brewing Co Higglns & Kurber
Hibernian Bankg Asso- Law Robt
elation Lawler K1 R
Hide & Leather Natl Bk Lawrence E V
Htrsh Elson & Co Hoerber J L Brg Co Hogan M A Holly Mfg Co Hooker U M & Co Hooley R M Horton Gilmore &
McWilllatus Hosmer* Fenn Hoyt W M Hoyt W M & Co Hughes Lltho Co Humiston Keeling Co Huston A C Hutcliinson C L Huylers
Hyman Berg & Co Hyman R VV jr & Co Illinois Paper Cc
Letter L Z Leland Hotel Leonard H U & Co Leopold Bros & Co Levi H C Levy B S
Leyenberger Chas Libby McNeil & Libby
Fuller & Fuller Co
Fullerton C W
Gage Bros & Co
Gage L J
Gahan & Byrne
Gardner H H & Co
Gates Iron Works
Gay lord K
George Milton
Gerts Lombard & Co
Giles Bros & Co
Giles W A
Gillespie P F
GUlett E W
GlmbPl M & Son
Godfrey & Clark
Goes & Quensel
Goldle \Vm & Sons
Goldschmidt Morris
Goodrich Transporta- Illinois Staats-Zeitung ander
tlon Co Co Lord .Owen & Co
Goodyear Rubber Co Illinois Steel Co Lowenstein L & Co
Gora Geo P & Co Illinois Terra Cotta Ludlow Geo W & Co
Gorham Mfg Co Lumber Co Lyon Tbos R
Goss Printing Press Co Illinois Trust & Savings Lyon & Healy
Gottfried Brewing Co Inter Ocean The McAvoy Brewing Co
International Bank McClurg A C & Co Isham Lincoln & Beale McCormick Cyrus H McCormick W G McCoy Wm McDowell & Co McEwan Peter
Morris John Co The Morris Nelson & Co Morrisson Pluuimer& Co Morse F E & Son Morse Mitchell &
Williams
MouJton J T & Son Mullen & Co MungerG M &Co M 11 ii son Chas Belting Co Murray Owen
Libby Prison War Mus- Nathan Herman Co
earn
Lincoln Ice Co Lindblum Root Link Belt Much Co Lipman C List Edward Lloyd Evan Lobdell E L & Co Loeb A & Bro Lombard Joslah L
National Bank of Amer National Bank oj1 Ills National Tube Wks Co Neeaham Chas A Neemes J C Newberry Geo G & Co Newberry Sig Wareh Co Newman Bros Nixon W K Nonatuck Silk Co
Gottlieb A
Gradle & Stroz
Gravel Roofers Exch Jacobs B F
Greene M F Jacobs Wm V
Greenfelder Florsheim Janiieson £ Co
& Co Jeffens W G
Greenlee Bros & Co Jevne C & Co
Grey Clark & Engle Johnson A J
Griesheimer M Johnson Chair Co Griffin Wheel F'ndry Co Joues J M W
Griswold Palmer & i_o Juergens & Anderson
Grommes & Ullrich Junk Magdalena Mrs
Gros S E Kaestner Chas & Co
Grossman H Kahn Bros
Longlay Lowe & Alex- Norris Allister B F & Co North Chicago St Ry Co Northern Trust Co Northwestern Brg Co Northwestern Natl Bk Northwn Parlor suit Co Norton Bros Norton & Worthington Noyes L W
Obermann J Brewing Co Ottield & Furber Ogden Sheldon & Co. Onahan W J Oreman L E & Co orr & Lockett Osburne Bros & Burgett Ostung Wm Pabst Brewing Co
Guhansen Jno
Gunther C b" Katsche Oswald
Guthnian Carpenter & Kean S A & Co
Telling Keeley Brewing Co
Gutta Percha & Rubber Keeney & Kim ball
Mfg Co Ketioe & Co
Hafner Schoen Furn Co Keith Edson & Co Hale Elevator Co Keith Bros & Co
Uallissy 1 P Kellogg Chas P & Co
Hannah Lay & Co Kennedy K A & Co
Hamilton Merryman Co Kent S A
McEwen John McGill Jno A McKenzie Geo N McLaughlin W F & Co McLennan J A McNeil & Higgins Co McVoy Jno & Co Maas Baer & Co
Page M E & Co Palmer Kuller.& Co Palmer House Co Patterson Thos E
Kahn Schoenbrun & Co MacVeaghFrankiin&Co Payne Leroy
Hammond Geo H Han ford PC Hannah & Hogg Harding Geo F Hargin & Co Harkin 1 M Harlan A W Harper W H Harrington & King Harris N W & Co Harris & Co Harrison Carter H Hart Bros Hart J
Kerfoot W D & Co Kern Chas
Madlener F Magdatina Junk Mallory VV S & Co Maloney Tim Maltby H W Manasse L Mandel Bros Mannheimer Lepman
&Co
Marder Luce & Co Marlnet & Henriehs Murkley Ailing & Co
Kertlng Lithograph Co Marks C W
Ketcham J P & Bro Kimball C P & Co Kim ball Geo V Kimball W W & Co Kimbark S U King Bros
King Henry W & Co King & Andrews Co Kinsley H M Kirchoff & Niobai th Kirk Jas S & Co
Hart Schaffner & Marx Knickerbocker Ice Co Harvey Squire T & Son Knickerbocker J J
Harvey T W
Hasterllk Bros
Hately Jno C
Hayes P D & D
Haynes N B
Headen & McIIealy
Heath JtMilllganMfgCo Kranz John
Hedenuerg Jno W Krause J M
Heegaard Wm H & Co Kresl Chas
Heisen C C Kuh Nathan & Fischer
Knight & Leonard Co Knight & Marshall Knights G H & Co KolUsaat Ernest W Kohlsaat H H Kohn Bros
Payne Leroy & Co Peabody Hou^hteling
& Co
Peabody & Co Peacock C D Peale R S Pearce J Irving Peck P F W Estate of Peiree L II Peninsular Stove Co Peshtigo Lumber Co Phelps Dodue & Palmer Phelps Outfitting Co Phillips H Phillipson & Co Pickards, Brown & Co Pierce Jonas J Pike Eugene I Pioneer Fire Proof C Co Piper H I'itkin & Brooks Place D S
Plamondon A Mfg Co Plows & Co Poole Bros
Price Baking Powder Co Prior Wm A Proby Walter & Co Pullman GeoM Putnam Clothing House
Marse E Martin Wm Maxwell S A & Co Mayer Engle & Co Mayer Straus & Co Mayo Graf <$. Co Mead & Coe Merchants' Loan &
Trust Co
Merchants' Natl Bank Meridan Brittania Co Merlgold W A & Co Merriam Collins & Co Merz Gottlieb Met Natt Bank Michigan Stove Co Miller Bros
Miller Fred Brewing Co Quan J & Co Milligan H J yuan W J
Mills D W Raeder Henry
Miner Real & Co Hand McNsilly & Co
Mix Ira J & Bro Rath bone Sard & «. o
Moe Charles & Co Rathbourne Joseph & Co
432
World's Columbian Exposition.
Rawhide Mfa Co Raymond C L Raymond Lead Co Ream W B Reid Murdoch & Co Rend W P Revell Alex H Rew Henry C Reynolds Win C Rice J ames H & Co Rinn Philip & Co Rissar A K & Co Rlter & Conley Roddin B V & Co Rogers H W & Bro
Spaulding & Merrlck Speigel & Co Sperry Electric Co Spitz Landauer & Co Spoffard Geo W Sprague Smith & Co Sprague Warner & Co
Roper & Baiter Cigar Co Sproehnle & Co
Roth McMahon & Co
Rothschild Bros
Rothschild E & Bro
Rothschild Schroeder
Rowe Bros
Rubel & Penglase
Ruehl Brewing Co
Ruhstrat Gall & Co
Smyth John M Strauss Ulleman & Union Restaurant
Snow & Dickinson Guthman Union Stock Yards &
Sohie Lumber Co Streeter Bros Transit Co
South Branch Lmbr Co Strobel C L Union Trust Co
South H a 1st c(i IronWks Studebaker BrosMfgCo United States Brg Co Spalding&Co Sullivan M J U S Bxp Co
Spaulding A G & Bro Sutter Bros U S Natl Bank
Spaulding Lumber Co Sweet Dempster & Co Upman Frank
Swift & Co
Tansell R W •
Taylor Geo H & Co
Tebbetts & (iarland
Tennis O B & Co
Thatcher A T
Thomas & Hayden
Thomas & Hess
Thome M.
Thompson Wm
Spry John Lumber Co
Stanley H P & Co
Stanley P E & Co
Stanton & Co ectric Co
Staver H C Mfg Co Thomson & Taylor
Stein Bros Spice Co
Stein Manheimer & Co Thorwalt & Hoehling
Steinmetz & Eilenberger Title Gar & Guar Co
Van Inwagen J Van Schaack Peteri Son Vierling F C Vierling Robt & L, Wacker & Birk Brg Co Wakeneld Rattan Co Walker E Walker Geo C Walker Hy H Walker Jas H & Co
Steinway Wm Stenson Jas & Co Stern Hy
Steuben Co Wine Co Stevenson Robt & Co
Sawyer Goodman & Co Stinckon & Kacllsh
Scammon J Young Mrs Stinson James
Schaaf Adam St. John Marsh Co
SchaBner Herman & Co Stockton Jos & Co
Schimpferman WH &Co Stone Cutters Ass Jour- Tuohy J W & Co
Schlesinger & Mayer neymen Turkington Wm
Schlessinger Chas&Sons Storey & Clark Organ Co Turner & Bond
Thomson - Houston El- Walker Oakley & Co Waller Edw C Wanamaker & Brown Ward M & Co Warren W H Washington Ice Co Washington Park Club Watkins & Fuller Lum- ber Co
Weaver Henry Webbs Ticket Agency
Tobey Furniture Co Tosetti Ernst Brg Co Towle Mfg Co Trainor Jno W Trainor J W Treat C P Tree Lam bert Tribune Co
Schlitz Jos Brg Co Schmidt K G Schnadig Bros & Co Schneider E & Co Schoellkopf Henry Schoenhofen P Brg Co Schroeder Louis Schweyer John & Co Seaverns Geo A Seeberger A F Seigel V & Bro Seipp Brewing Co Selz Schwab & Co Shailer & Schnlglan Shay T J & Co Shayne J T Sheldon G W & Co Sherman Marr&Higgins Shire A
Shoe & Leather Review ShourdsStorey A Kaspar Stdway L B Siegel Cooper & Co Silurian Mineral SpgsCo Sllverman Lazarus Silverman & Opper Simon L & Co Simons S Singer & Talcott Stone
Co. The
Sioux Falls Granite Co Sklnkle J W Slack Chas H Slater Hlllman & Co Smith Adam Co Smith Byron L Smith Edward G Smith Geo K Smith Jas P & Co Smith R P & Sons Smith T B Smith Wm Sooy
Storm & Hill Tyler & Hippach
Straiton & Storm Umbdenstock M & Co
Stratton & Storm Underwood & Co
Straus Bros Union Bag & Paper Co
Strauss Goodman Yon- Union Ice Co dorff & Co Union Natl Bank
ARMS OF COLUMBUS
Webster & Counstoek
Mfg Co
WeighleyBulkleyA Fray
Troy Laundry Mach Co Wetr&CraigMfgCoThe Weiss Geo A Wells M 1) & Co Wells &Nellegar Co Weniberg E & Co West Chicago St Ry Co Western Electric Co Western Paving and
Supply Co Western Bank Note and
Engraving Co Western Wheel WTks Wheeler S H White Dental Mfg Co
TheSS Whittle E O Wight Fire Proofing Co Wilbeck H Co Wilde Jas Jr & Co Will & Roberts Williams Geo H & Co Willing Hy J Willoughby Hill & Co Willoughbv & Robie Wilson Brds Wilson Wm J Wineman M Winslow Bros Co Winston F H Wisley Allen B Wittmeyer Bros Wolf I
Wolf & Periolat Fnr Co Wolff L Mfg Co Woodcock & Loring Work Bros & Co Wright Haughey Wyckoff Seamans &
Benedict Yondorf Bros Young Otto Mrs Young Otto & Co Young & Knrrell Dia- mond Stone Sawing Co
The Yourt Jno H
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS
TO
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.
PAGE.
GUNTHER'S COLUMBUS . . ... . 434
LYMAN J. GAGE . . . . V . . 435
HARLOW N. HIGINBOTHAM . . . . '. 436
HEMPSTEAD WASHBURNE . . . . . 437
CARTER H. HARRISON, SR. . ^ . . . . 438
MRS. POTTER PALMER . . . . .., . 439
THOMAS B. BRYAN -. . . . i ' .• 440
ADMINISTRATION BUILDING ... . . . : . 441
MACHINERY HALL . . . . 7 . . . 442
AGRICULTURAL BUILDING . . . . . 443
HORTICULTURAL BUILDING . . . . . . 444
TRANSPORTATION BUILDING . . . , . . 445
MANUFACTURES AND LIBERAL ARTS BUILDING . . 446
ART PALACE . . . . . . 447
WOMAN'S BUILDING 448
434
World's Columbian Exposition.
GUNTHER'S COLUMBUS.
World's Columbian Exposition. 435
LYMAN J. GAGE.
436 World's Columbian Exposition.
HARLOW N. HIGINBOTHAM.
World's Columbian Exposition. 437
HEMPSTEAD WASHBURNE.
438 World's Columbian Exposition.
CARTER H. HARRISON, SR.
World"1* (Columbian Exposition.
439
MRS. POTTER PALMER.
440 World's Columbian Exposition.
*
THOMAS B. BRYAN.
- •-;•• • " _
THE WORLD'S CONGRESSES
OF THE
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.
The World's Congresses of 1893 were first publicly proposed September 20, 1889 ; the first session was opened May 15, 1893, and the last was held October 28 of that year.
The beginning of the organization was the forma- tion of an executive committee of ten, which held its first meeting October 15, 1889. As the plans developed, the need of a larger organization was seen, and Octo- ber 30, 1890, "the World's Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893" was organized to arrange and conduct the proposed series of interna- tional congresses.
October 21, 1892, the inaugural ceremonies of the World's Congresses were held in connection with the dedication of the buildings erected for the Material Ex- position, which was held at Jackson park, at the south end of the city of Chicago.
Prominent among the possibilities that grew out of the World's Columbian Exposition was the World's Con- gress of Religions. It could not have sprung into being at any other gathering of large bodies of people that had ever assembled before, at any other time or place, because the materials necessary to compose it would have been wanting. Hitherto the world had not been ready for it. Rivalry and antagonism had ever been omnipresent among all religious teachings, and such teachings 'had been, and still are, the accepted founda-
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tion of jurisprudence, which, in turn, had been and still is the principal foundation of constitutional as well as despotic governments. The inspiration that gave thought and form to this congress had the same source that distinguished the World's Columbian Exposition from all others that had preceded it. The parliaments of religions were the chief of these characteristics.
Charles Carroll Bonney, under these auspicious in- fluences, was the first to formulate plans wherewith to utilize the material at hand for a series of international congresses. The thought of the world's congresses of 1893 originated with him. He first voiced his ideas of such a gathering in the Statesman's Magazine for October, 1889, in the following words:
"The crowning glory of the World's Fair of 1893 should not be the exhibit there to be made of the ma- terial triumphs, industrial achievements and mechani- cal victories of man, however magnificent such displays may be. Something higher and nobler is demanded by the progressive spirit of the present age. In con- nection with that important event of the world all government, jurisprudence, finance, science, literature, education and religion should be represented in a con- gress of statesmen, jurists, financiers, scientists, litter - ati, teachers and theologians, greater in numbers, and more widely representative of all peoples and nations and tongues than any assemblage which has ever yet been convened."
Under the authority of the directory of the Colum- bian Exposition, the first Religious Congress of the World that consistently represented all shades of belief was organized October 30, 1890, and received the endorsement of the United States government. Charles Carroll Bonney was made president, Thomas B. Bryan, vice-president, and Lyman J. Gage, treasurer.
The congresses were held in what was called the Permanent Memorial Art Palace, erected through the co-operation of the city of Chicago, the directory
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of the Exposition, and the management of the Art Institute of Chicago. The city contributed the site, consisting of a portion of the Lake Front park, on the shore of Lake Michigan, near the heart of the city, and about six miles north of Jackson park ; the Exposition directory furnished $200,000, and the Art Institute $400,000 for the building erected. It contains thirty- three halls, besides committee rooms and storage rooms, and there were also built, between the wings, two temporary auditoriums, calculated to seat 3,000 persons each. There were occasions when it was estimated that 4,000 persons were crowded into each of these auditoriums, the northerly of which was called the Hall of Columbus, the other the Hall of Washing- ton. Of the smaller halls in the permanent building, twenty were used for meetings, and the remainder for the other purposes of the congresses. These halls were seated to accommodate from 100 to 600 persons each.
There were times when the whole building was crowded, and it was claimed that 12,000 persons were in simultaneous attendance on the sessions of the various congresses.
In order to classify, and conduct the proposed series of international congresses, 2,170 persons were divided into 214 organized local committees. Mixed committees of men and women were not appointed ; but in all cases suitable for the participation of women, a committee of women was appointed to act in co-opera- tion with the committee of men. These committees of women constituted what was called the woman's branch of the World's Congress Auxiliary. The gen- eral officers of the Auxiliary were a president, a vice- president, secretary and treasurer; and the woman's branch had also its own president and vice-president.
To these local committees of organization were adjoined what were called advisory councils, which consisted of eminent persons selected from the various participating countries, to advise and assist the commit-
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tees of organization in selecting writers and speakers for the different congresses, and in perfecting the plans for them. The aggregate membership of these advisory councils was 14,528. The chairman of each committee on organization was the director of the congress com- mitted to its charge, and Mr. Bonney, the president of the Auxiliary, was the general director of the whole series of the congresses.
As finally settled, the World's Congress work was divided into twenty departments and 224 general divi- sions, in which congresses were held. These, in their numerical order, were as follows :
I, Woman's Progress, 25 divisions; II, Public Press, 6 divisions; III, Medicine and Surgery, 6; IV, Temperance, 12; V, Moral and Social Reform, 15; VI, Commerce and Finance, 10; VII, Music, 9; VIII, Litera- ture, 9; IX, Education, First Series, 17, Second- Series, 16; X, Engineering, 9; XI, Art, 5; XII, Government, 7; XIII, General Department, 1, besides 4 held out of their regular order and here transferred to their proper places; XIV, Science and Philosophy, 13; XV, Social and Economic Science, 4; XVI, Labor, 1; XVII, Re- ligion, 46 (of which the marvelous Parliament of Re- ligions was the chief); XVIII, Sunday Rest, 1; XIX, Public Health, 1; XX, Agriculture, 11.
The programmes also show 125 sections, of which 29 were of the nature of the general divisions.
These congresses held 1,283 sessions, aggregating 753 days. The printed programmes show 5, 978 addresses delivered or papers read, including 5,454 formal con- tributions, 131 addresses of welcome, 176 addresses of response, and 217 agricultural reports. But these are much less than the actual number, for many papers and addresses were admitted after the programmes were printed, and were inserted in the corrected pro- grammes used by the presiding officers.
A carefully prepared alphabetical index shows 5,822 speakers and writers whose names appear on the
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printed programmes, including1 368 cases in which the name of the paper to be read, or subject discussed, is not given. These participants in the congresses rep- resented all the continents of the world, and ninety- seven nations, states, provinces, territories and colo- nies, besides each of the states and territories of the American Union, making a total of 147 actually represented.
In the cases of 2,005 of the 5,822 names given in the printed programmes, the residence of the contributor is not given, but the tables compiled show the differ- ent occasions on which the 3,817 speakers and writers whose places of residence appear, took part in the congress proceedings. This extremely interesting exhibit is as follows:
Europe 803, Asia 104, Africa 41, North America 2,770, South America 48, Australasia 39, Pacific Islands 12. The places represented and the number of entries are: Algeria 5, Angola 1, Arabia 1, Argentine 7, Ar- menia 1, Asia Minor 1, Australia 8, Austria 35, Bavaria 5, Belgium 19, Bohemia 7, Brazil, 6, British Guiana 4, Bulgaria 5, Burmah 1, Canada 39, Cape Colony 3, Cey- lon 6, Chile 1, China 14, Colombia 3, Congo 3, Corea 1, Costa Rica 4, Cuba 3, Curacoa 2, Denmark 17, Ecuador 3, Egypt 15, England 200, Finland 7, France 99, French Congo 1, Germany 112, Great Britain 113, Greece 11, Guatemala 1, Hanover 1, Hayti 3, Holland 16, Hon- duras 1, Hungary 2, Iceland 5, India 31, Ireland 10, Italy 52, Jamaica 2, Japan 28, Johore 3, Liberia 4, Mad- agascar 1, Manitoba 3, Mexico 23, Monaco 1, New Brunswick 2, New Hebrides 2, New South Wales 19, New Zealand 1, Nicaragua 2, Northwest Territories (Canada) 1, Norway 9, Nova Scotia 1, Ontario 30, Orange Free State 3, Paraguay 4, Persia 3, Peru 3, Poland 3, Portugal 7, Quebec 15, Roumania 3, Russia 39, Sandwich Islands 7, Saxony 1, Scotland 41, Siam 4, Siberia 1, South Africa 3, South Australia 3, Spain 13, Straits Settlements 2, Sweden 33, Switzerland 20, Syria 7, Transylvania 1,
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Trinidad 2, Tunis 1, Turkey 11, United States of Amer- ica 2,641,« Uruguay 3, Venezuela 9, Victoria 6, Wales 4, Wurtemberg 1. The representation of the United States was as follows: Alabama 20, Alaska 2, Arizona 7, Arkansas 19, California 113, Colorado 34, Connect- icut 50, Delaware 3, District of Columbia 127, Florida 11, Georgia 35, Idaho 7, Illinois 350, Indiana 85, Indian Territory 1, Iowa 59, Kansas 39, Kentucky 26, Louis- iana 24, Maine 31, Maryland 55, Massachusetts 236, Michigan 125, Minnesota 78, Mississippi 11, Missouri 97, Montana 8, Nebraska 28, Nevada 2, New Hamp- shire 16, New Jersey 48, New Mexico 4, New York 307, North Carolina 19, North Dakota 5, Ohio 140, Oregon 11, Pennsylvania 156, Rhode Island 21, South Carolina 19, South Dakota 14, Tennessee 49, Texas 29, Utah 5, Vermont 6, Virginia 21, Washington 14, West Virginia 6, Wisconsin 66, Wyoming 2.
This list embraces, in round numbers, only about two-thirds of the papers and addresses. It should, therefore, be borne in mind that the actual representa- tion of the several countries was really much larger than here appears.
The persons who made addresses to these various congresses, or sent papers to them to be read, repre- sented in the fullest measure the intellectual forces of their various countries, as to their progress in art, science, jurisprudence, morality, philosophy and relig- ion. These addresses and papers read were untram- meled by advocacy of any special form of government or religion. Their incentive was to build up, not to tear down; to harmonize the noblest efforts of emi- nent men, to promote the general good of all mankind. The rules of the congresses forbade special pleading, approval or censure; but, if they had not. most, if not all, of these persons were possessed of qualifications sufficiently refined to make this rule unnecessary. This immense congress Could not have been governed by ordinary parliamentary rules, because it was not
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held as a debating society, to be governed by rules of order. No one had the right to speak, of his own volition in the congress in which he appeared. Only persons whose names were announced on the programme had the right to be heard.
This parliament was an honor to Chicago. It was a proof that tolerance and freedom of thought are in its air. Some clergymen in America made an unavail- ing protest against it, but this protest was only a ripple on the great ocean, that is now surging and rolling with waves of liberal thought throughout the world.
Volumes would be required to give all the impor- tant truths brought to light by these congresses; but the synopsis of the teachings of the Parliament of Religions, which appeared as an editorial in the Chi- cago Tribune during its closing week, is so comprehen- sive that it will, in part, supplv a voluminous report of it.
Says the Tribune: "There have assembled in this parliament the representatives of all the prominent religious sects of the world. Christians — Protestant, Catholic and Greek ; Hindoos, Buddhists, Brahmin sects, Jainists, Shintoists, Tendaists, Shingenists, Con- fucianists, Mohammedans, Hebrews, Parsees, Ger- man Idealists, Swedenborgians, Quakers, Theosophists, Christian Scientists, the Salvation Army, members of various societies of psychical research and others, rep- resenting offshoots of different faiths, have met in har- mony and submitted statements of their beliefs. The importance of this parliament consists, first, in the fact that a clear statement of belief has been made by those who are authorized to do so, and, secon^, in the fact that those whom we have been accustomed to call heathens are not so much heathens as we imagined. Under some of the religions lies the clear idea of divin- ity. Under all lies the clear idea of morality. In a general way it has been made apparent that Buddhism, Mohammedanism and Christianity are the three univer-
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sal ethical religions, starting from basic principles and representing not the sentiments of this or that nation, but the aspirations of the heart of humanity. Islam- ism, the offshoot of Judaism and Christianity, acknowl- edges the absolute sovereignty of one supreme God, to whom man owes obedience. It has its angels, its judg- ment day, its resurrection, its rewards and punish- ments. Buddhism works out the problem of final sal- vation from the miseries of existence through the agency of self-renunciation and successive reincarna- tions. At the head of Christianity stands the God who must be worshiped in spirit and in truth.
"But these three ethical forms of religion are not all which have sprung from the banks of the Nile and the Euphrates. The proceedings of the parliament have shed a clear light upon them and numerous others, and have furnished volumes of information which may be summarized briefly. Buddhism has been specially for- tunate in its expositors. Its fundamental teaching is universal sympathy with all mankind and animal kind, oneness of life, usefulness of life, humanity and wis- dom in perfection, reincarnation, the enjoying or suf- fering in this life of what has been done in past lives, and by gradual development the ultimate absorption in Nirvana, ' In the sense of a Supreme God, ' said one of the speakers—
' ' ' Buddha says that there is no such being ; accept- ing the doctrine of evolution as the only true one, with the corollary, the law of cause and effect, he condemns the idea of a creator. But the Supreme God of the Brahmins and the minor gods are accepted. But they are subject to the law of cause and effect. '
"China comes to the parliament representing three great forms of religion, Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. The first two are very similar. Taoism is the original Chinese religion in its latest develop- ments, while Confucianism claims to be a restoration of the old faith in pure forms. The latter is the most
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interesting- of the three. It recognizes no Supreme God. All gods are supreme, each in his own domain, and their name is legion, for the spirits of the deceased are all- worshiped. Confucianism is based not upon divinity, but upon humanity, man being considered the product of heaven and earth. By following the will of the former, man will become perfect, and it is the perfect man that is the dream of Confucius. But of a supreme being, of a heaven, of a future life there is little trace in this religion, which literally swarms with spirits.
" Hindooism has many gods, but there is one su- preme ' God above all gods, that One alone who has upheld the spheres,' as the Veda puts it. Hindooism was well defined by one of its representatives:
" 'The Vedas teach that the soul is divine, only held under bondage of matter, and perfection will be reached when the bond will burst, and the word they use is therefore mutki — freedom from death and mis- ery. This bondage can only fall off through the mercy of God, and this mercy comes on the pure. So purity is the condition of His mercy.'
" In a word, the whole struggle of their system is to become perfect and divine, to reach God and to see God. ' This reaching God, seeing God, becoming per- fect, even as the Father in Heaven is perfect, ' consti- tutes the religion of the Hindoos. When the body dies the Hindoo believes he still will go on living, for the human soul is eternal, perfect and infinite, and ' death means only a change of center from one body to another.' Reincarnation, salvation by action and the unity of the all are fundamental principles in the Hin- doo's creed.
" The Parsee is a monotheist. He has but one God, described by Zoroaster as ' true, lucid, shining, all-perfect, all-powerful and all-wise,' ruler of both the material and immaterial. He believes in the immortal- ity of the soul. He has his heaven (vashishta-ahu), his hell (achishta-ahu) and a bridge between heaven
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and this world (chinvat), where a man's soul has to pre- sent a collective account of the actions done in the past life. He worships fire, but not as a god. In the eyes of the Parsee fire is the most perfect symbol of the deity, ' on account of its purity, brightness, activity, subtlety and incorruptibility.' Shintoism, one of the old faiths of Japan, proclaims that all animals and men are born of one heavenly deity, each with its own mis- sion, hence love to all is a binding feature of its creed. The Brahmo-Somaj is an offshoot from Hindooism. It has given up the Hindoo scriptures as the infallible law, and finds the truth in all scriptures. It has ap- proximated closely to the Christian belief, and its God is the God of the Bible. It aims at perfection even by rigid asceticism and sacrifice. Perhaps the most clearly agnostic creed presented in the parliament was that of the German idealists, who aim at reaching per- fection in this life, because there is no certainty of any other or of any God.
"This is but a necessarily hasty sketch of some of the Oriential religions. It is needless to character- ize Protestantism or Judaism in any of their forms, still less to particularize the Chirstian science, theo- sophical or psychical dogmas which are not part of established religions. What will the outcome be ? First, the adherents of all religions will understand each other better, and will recognize that morality underlies every faith, and that all are searching for the truth, though in different ways. Second, while no de- nomination will yield its distinctive tenets, yet all the denominations, meeting together for the first time, may have found sufficient in common to engender a broad and generous toleration, and forever suppress the antagonisms and persecutions of fanaticism. Third, the parliament of religions may and should bring these followers of various creeds so near each other that Christians shall recognize there are no longer pagans and heathens, at least among the Orien-
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tal religionists, but that they are all standing upon the same plane of morality and humanity, and that if the fatherhood of God not yet has been clearly recognized by all as the Christian recognizes it, the Christian at least has something to learn from the Parsee, the Buddhist, the Brahman and the Confucian, of the brotherhood of man."
The first congress was opened May 15, 1893, and the last session of the series was held October 28, 1893. The newspapers and magazines of the United States and Europe, which best represented the intelligence and liberal spirit of the age, teemed with eulogium of the auxiliary congresses, and the manner in which they had been conducted.
Professor F. Max Muller, in tne Arena, pronounces it as one of the most memorable events in the history of the world.
Emilio Castelar, in the Independent, writes: "From the beginning of the world, until to-day, history has never recorded an event so momentous as the union under one roof and one leadership and for one purpose, of the clergy of the world, representing its chief religions."
Archbishop Ireland, said:
"Patiently, energetically, zealously, for three years President Bonney has talked and acted for these congresses. I have seen him at all times the master of the situation, and while bringing these congresses through such a wonderful success, he has always had the tact to please every one. No individual American or foreigner crossed the threshold of this palace with- out going away satisfied that American courtesy is not inferior to that of the highest civilized nation in the world."
Dr. Boardman, of Philadelphia, said "that these congresses were the crown of the Exposition, and that the Parliament of Religions was the diamond in that crown."
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"In the World's Fair work," said the Chicago Herald, "there is one man — Charles Carroll Bonney - whose conduct has been a combination of sweetness and light. That he has so borne himself as to win the regard of every one is the highest tribute that can be paid him. He is to-day looked upon as a per- sonal friend by men of nearly every land beneath the sun."
"At the closing session of the Parliament of Religions, ' ' says the Inter- Ocean, ' ' Dr. Barrows pre- sented PresidentjBonney as the one to whom its marvel- ous success was chiefly due. It was a great moment, the culmination of a great achievement, and when Mr. Bonney came forward the vast audience stood up, waved their hats and handkerchiefs, and poured upon him a flood of gratitude."
Mr. Bonney then addressed the audience as fol- lows:
"Worshipers of God and Lovers of Man: The clos- ing words of this great event must now be spoken. With inexpressible joy and gratitude I give them utterance. The wonderful success of this first actual congress of the religions of the world is the realiza- tion of a conviction which has held my heart for many years. I became acquainted with the great religious systems of the world in my youth, and have enjoyed an intimate association with leaders of many churches during my maturer years. I was thus led to believe that, if the great religious faiths could be brought into relations of friendly intercourse, many points of sympathy and union would be found, and the coming unity of mankind in the love of God and the service of man be greatly facilitated and advanced. Hence when the occasion arose it was gladly wel- comed, and the effort more than willingly made.
"What men deemed impossible, God has finally wrought. The religions of the world have actually met in a great and imposing assembly; they have con-
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ferred together on the vital questions of life and immortality in a frank and friendly spirit, and now they part in peace with many warm expressions of mutual affection and respect.
"The laws of the congress forbidding controversy or attack, have, on the whole, been wonderfully ob- served. The exceptions are so few that they may well be expunged from the record and from the memory. They even served the useful purpose of timely warn- ings against the tendency to indulge in intellectual conflict. If an unkind hand threw a firebrand into the assembly, let us be thankful that a kinder hand plunged it in the waters of forgiveness and quenched its flame.
HINDOO RETORT COURTEOUS.
"If some western warrior, forgetting for the mo- ment that this was a friendly conference and not a battlefield, uttered his war cry, let us rejoice, that our Orient friends, with a kinder spirit answered: Father, forgive them, for they know not what they say.
"No system of faith or worship has been compro- mised by this friendly conference; no apostle of any religion has been placed in a false position by any act of this congress. The knowledge here acquired will be carried by those who have gained it as a precious treasure to their respective countries, and will there, in freedom and according to reason, be considered, judged and applied as they shall deem right.
"The influence which this congress of the re- ligions of the world will exert on the peace and the prosperity of the world is beyond the power of human language to describe. For this influence, borne by those who have attended the sessions of the parlia- ment of religions to all parts of the world, will affect in some important degree all races of men, all forms of religion, and even all governments and social in- stitutions.
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" And now farewell. A thousand congratulations and thanks for the co-operation and aid of all who have contributed to the glorious results which we celebrate this night. Henceforth the religions of the world will make war, not on each other, but on the giant evils that afflict mankind. Henceforth let all throughout the world who worship God and love their fellow-men, join in the anthem of the angels:
Glory to God in the highest!
Peace on earth, good will among men! "
CATHOLIC BISHOP'S PRAYER.
At the close of President Bonney's speech, Rabbi Hirsch led the great audience in the universal prayer. Bishop Keane then said a prayer of benediction.
The audience, led by the chorus, sang "America." In the meantime the foreign delegates, led by Dr. Barrows, passed into the Hall of Washington, where the closing solemnities of prayer and benediction were repeated. Thus came to an end the first great parlia- ment of the religions of the world.
YOUNG MEN'S ASSOCIATION.
In the history of all large cities physical conditions are the first things to be recorded, for these are the superstructure of the whole. In no disrespectful sense, they are the mud-sills of the edifice.
" The foot ordained the dust to tread."
These physical conditions are as necessary to the fulfillment of the ultimate aim of human amenities as the trunk of a tree is to the production of fruit on its branches. Science, literature and art are brought into being, and human affections sharpened into activity by the first means used, whereby mankind may live, and grow, and multiply.
That Chicago was a genial atmosphere for all this, and that her canal and the ambition of her early citizens, who had more to hope for than to lose, were an assur- ance of their fulfillment, has since been demonstrated by the growth of the higher branches of industry begun here, such as books, periodicals, schools and universi- ties, constituting the fruit that grows on such trunks, as railroad and warehouse interests, banking and trading interests, and stock, bond and money interests. These latter are the servants of the mind, subject to the whim- sical dictation of passion; the magnanimity of man's noblest nature or the self-sacrificing policy of the miser.
The first population of Chicago was composed largely of young men, who, thanks to their inheritance, felt the need of something above the grade of corner lots, and to this end, as well as through a laudable
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ambition to do something for posterity, they took early measures to secure the means of intellectual improve- ment to themselves and others by establishing read- ing rooms. As early as 1838 the Hon. Mark Skinner, Judge Hugh T. Dickey and others were instrumental in starting a reading room; but from the small number of subscribers obtained it was found that the yearly ex- pense to each member was $10. This could not be, and was not long sustained, but abandoned for want of funds. In 1840 two other young men, Major Seth T. Otis and Dr. Sidney Sawyer, both from the city of Albany, in the state of New York, were foremost in advocating and discussing with the citizens a plan for a reading room and lectures at a trifling expense to each member, by bringing into such an association all the mechanics in the city, as well as merchants and their clerks, and all professional men. These young gentlemen had be- longed to such an association in Albany, and believed the thing could be done in Chicago on a smaller scale. Judges Dickey and Skinner and William B. Ogden and others gave it their approval, and, January, 1841, Walter L. Newberry, Mark Skinner, Hugh T. Dickey, Peter Page, Walter S. Gurnee, Dr. Sidney Sawyer, Will- iam L. Church and others met at the common council rooms of Chicago to establish a reading room and or- ganize a young men's association. It was decided that an effort in /this direction should be made, and if 100 subscribers were obtained at a tax of $2 annually to each, the Association should be started upon that basis. Judge Skinner drew up the subscription paper, and each person present signed it, and it was left with Major Otis to see how many subscribers he and other volun- teers could obtain.
Then commenced the canvass through the mud and slush of early Chicago. Notice was given through the papers that the subscribers were to have a meeting. It took place on February 6 in a building on Clark street, near where the Sherman house now stands. Nearly
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every subscriber was present; much satisfaction was expressed, and cheers were raised when Mr. Otis hung across the chairman's desk the long1 subscription paper of 200 names, and put a package of $400 cash into his hands as the result of the canvass. This was double the requirement, and all were jubilant, and, when the chairman asked, "What is your pleasure, gentlemen?" a member moved that the $400 cash on hand should be considered as initiation fees, etc., used in fitting up a room for the use of the Association. It was carried unanimously, and a tax of $2 per annum was voted to sustain the Association, which was very properly called "The Young Men's Association." A constitution was adopted, in which the objects of the Association were declared to be to establish and maintain a reading room and library; to procure literary and scientific lecturers, and to promote the intellectual improvement of its members. The first election, says Mr. Page, was a novelty, and made from policy an object of much interest and amusement to the citizens. There were five tickets in' the field — the Regular, the Opposition, the Lawyers', the Respectable and the Whole Hog ticket —which last was headed by a full picture of this animal. The regular ticket prevailed, and Walter Newberry was chosen president; Mark Skinner, vice-president; Hugh T. Dickey, corresponding secretary; Leroy M. Boyce, recording secretary, and Walter Vail, treasurer. The managers were: Charles R. Starkweather, Peter Page, Walter S. Gurnee, Francis S. Howe, Norman B. Judd and Charles Sturtevant. A reading room was fitted up in the second story of Scammon's building, southeast cor- ner of Clark and Lake streets, under the supervision of Peter Page, and was supplied with the principal news- papers and periodicals of the time, and the Association was pronounced a success.
In the spring of 1841 a ball was given by its man- agers at the Lake house, on the North Side, for the benefit of the library fund, and here were gathered
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the true representatives of Chicago — promise for future advancement in the higher walks 'of life. The object was a literary one, and of course the blandish- ments of the ball lent an additional charm. Under this double incentive the ladies turned out in effective force, notwithstanding that the mud in the streets was axle deep.
Frink and Walker's stagecoaches plowed through it with their fair charge, and made the enterprise a social as well as utilitarian success. Those days were too early for the professional lecturer to come to Chicago, but this deficiency was satisfactorily sup- plied by home talent. Hon. Mark Skinner began the course with a lecture before the Association on, "Finance and the Illinois School Fund"; Dr. Sawyer followed on "Mesmerism"; Major Otis on "True Mercantile Character"; Dr. Brainard on "Physi- ology," and other members of the Association on sub- jects of interest in that day. The nucleus for a library was provided for by a selection of books presented by Walter L. Newberry, April 24, 1841; which was soon enlarged by donations from S. Lisle Smith, William B. Ogden, W. H. Clark, Dr. Sawyer, and other citizens and members of the Association.
The Association soon afterward occupied larger and pleasanter quarters in the old saloon building, corner of Lake and Clark streets. From thence it was removed to Warner's block, on Randolph street. From thence to 95 Washington street, from thence to Port- land block, and from thence, in 1867, to Metropolitan block, corner Randolph and La Salle streets, where it remained till the great fire of October 9, 1871. Ever since the Association had been established, it had served the purposes for which it had been inaugu- rated, satisfactorily to its founders and the people of Chicago; but an increase of books to supply the liter- ary wants of this growing city was pressing. A good source of income to the Association was through public
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lectures, and great efforts were made to secure the best talent for this service. In this respect, it may be interesting to state that in the spring of 1861, the celebrated Wendell Phillips was engaged to lecture at Bryan ball, under the auspices of the Association, on slavery and the war. The war issue had not yet been decided by the sword, and there was a kind of nondescript element that opposed the sentiments of which Mr. Phillips was so able an exponent. George S. Bowen was then President of the Association, and it was due to his prudential action (in providing seventy- five policemen to preserve order in the hall) that riotous opposition was prevented. At the end of the year, by his good management in securing the services of popu- lar lecturers, the indebtedness of the Association, amounting to over $5,000, was paid, and a balance was left in the treasury of nearly $2,000.
The Young Men's Christian Association had already been well organized, and placed on a permanent footing.
The names of these two organizations being so similar, some confusion arose as to the identity of each. To prevent this, early in 1868 Bryan Lathrop introduced- a bill in the library board to change the old name from the Young Men's to the Chicago Library Associa- tion. His bill having received the sanction of the library board, he procured an act of the legislature of Illinois, authorizing this change of title, hence the name, Chicago Library Association, became officially recognized thereafter. Since Mr. Bowen's administra- tion the high character of the lecture course was sus- tained, but at no time after that period was there any large balance in the treasury; and as already stated, an increase of the number of volumes in the library was necessary to keep the literary and financial interests of the city abreast with each other.
An abstract from the report of November 22, 1871, the next month after the great fire, will explain the situation. Thomas D. Lowther, at the request of cer-
468 Chicago Library Association.
tain life members and subscribers to the library, made a report * to William Bross, the president, showing the extent of the losses and the available means wherewith to reorganize and reproduce a new library, as follows: ' ' The value of our burned library, as stated by the ex- president, Chas. C. Bonney, in March, was estimated at $42,470; number of books, over 30,000. The usual insurance of $15,000 had been suffered to expire for want of funds. The debts of the Association were $3,200. The assets were $70; a life members' fund of $1,100, and a Thomas B. Bryan fund of $250, both held in trust for specific uses. By consent these funds were distributed, and gave a dividend of over 50 per cent to creditors. Its other effects were between 300 and 400 books saved from the fire by being in the homes of members; 200 or 300 volumes of the very valuable re- ports of British patents then awaiting our order (with cash) to be bound by our binder in London, and a small number of books that had already been collected by A. H. Burgess and associates in London, ' to replace, ' as he said, ' our burned library ... as a mark of sympathy now, and a keepsake and token of true brotherly kindness forever.' Notwithstanding the cheering prospect presented by Mr. Burgess, of a British gift library, it was still a question whether the old Chicago Library Association should be revived, and, if so, how. The report proceeds: 'Wise men are be- ginning to agree that every metropolitan city needs a public library, supported by taxation, for many reasons besides the obvious one of supplementing and complet- ing our common school system of education. ' As a consequence, one or more bills to authorize public libraries had been brought before the legislature of Illinois, at the time of the fire. To these efforts much credit is due for bringing public opinion up to the taxa- tion point.
*See page 84, " Memorials of the old Chicago Library and the Advent of the New Chicago Public Library." Edited, 1878, by T. D. Lowther.
Chicago Library Association. 469
The report further suggested, "That should any enabling act for this purpose fail to be passed in the legislature, the old Association might unite with the Michigan Avenue Library Association," which had sprung into existence after the fire, and had already obtained from booksellers and sympathizers in eastern cities, in the name and for the use of destitute Chicago, several thousand books, to which collection, as to a pub- lic property, many of our own citizens had contributed.
In order to understand the real situation, it will be necessary to refer back to the financial condition of the old library previous to the fire. For several years before the fire of October, 1871, the receipts of the Chicago Library had been less than its expenses. A crisis had been averted only by donations from its friends. The. retiring president, Chas. C. Bonney, presented at the annual meeting, March 27, 1871, sev- eral plans for securing to the library a sufficient and stable support. Judge W. W. Farwell offered to give to ithe Association commodious rooms, rent free for ten years, provided $15,000 in cash were raised to meet its necessities. On this basis $3,000 were then and there pledged by Governor Bross, E. L. Brown and Thomas D. Lowther; -but the outlook was not promis- ing. Every scheme proposed seemed to its members inadequate to the growing wants of the future great city. There was good hope of getting a public library supported by taxation, and for that they preferred to wait and work.
At the annual election, March 2, 1871, an effort was made by members of the Young Men's Christian Association Library (of 6,000 volumes) to absorb the Chicago Library Association (of 30,000 volumes), by uniting them and electing a ticket favorable to such a union; but this attempt miscarried, and the old Library Association continued its work alone in its own broader mission, as it had begun. April 1, 1871, ex-Governor Bross was chosen president, six months later the
470 Chicago Library Association.
library was burned, and just one year after, on April 1, 1872, the Chicago Public Library was established by order of the city council.
So nearly total had been the destruction of the old Chicago Library by this conflagration, and so complete the discouragement of the members of the Association, that Mr. Lowther, finding none of its officers willing or able in that time of general distress to attend to its affairs, consented to give up his usual southern residence for the winter and undertake the work (which he de- scribed as a self-condemnation to hard labor for the next six months) of investigating its affairs and prospects, and report on the question of its resuscitation ; and, if it could not be revived, bury it decently. This was the way Mr. Lowther came to be receiver for the old library and an important promoter of the new.
As an initiatory step to this end, at his own expense he sent the old librarian, John Robson (him- self an Englishman), to London, to solicit from the commissioner of patents a renewal to us of the several hundred volumes of their very valuable reports, which were burned, uninsured, as the possession of these im- portant and rare books alone would be equal to a found- ation for any library. The series consisted of 3,000 vol- umes. The report concluded by saying that, " If the legislature does its part, and the proposed library bill becomes a law, Chicago would probably possess within a year a magnificent library, aggregating 20,000 vol- umes, which our large hearted British brethren had begun to gather up for us, to replace the one lost; but, in case the legislature should fail us, and the friends of the Chicago Library Association should determine to resuscitate it, an attempt might again be made to obtain enough funds for that purpose by stock sub- scription of our citizens." No action on this report was taken, the members choosing to await events.
After the destruction of all the libraries of Chicago by the fire of 1871, Mr. A. Hutton Burgess, of London,
Chicago Library Association. 471
proposed and advocated in the newspapers of London, November 1 and 3, 1871, and in the .New York papers, December 6, same year, the giving of a free library to Chicago, to replace its loss. This project found favor with the Anglo-American Association (of which Thomas Hughes, M. P. a former friend of America, was presi- dent), which firms then made an appeal to the authors, publishers, scientific societies and literary institutions of Great Britain for donations of books for the free library, in the following circular :
CIRCULAR.
(Distributed by the Anglo-American Association.)
CHICAGO NEW LIBRARY.
MR. T. HUGHES, Q. C., M. P., 9 OLD SQUARE, LINCOLN'S INN, CHAIRMAN ; SIR JOHN ROSE, K. C., M. G., 1 BAR- THOLOMEW LANE, E. C., HON. TREASURER; MR. A. HUTTON BURGESS, 136 STRAND, HON. SECRETARY.
. .
The gift by the people of England of a new library to Chicago is- intended to be a mark of sympa- thy now, and a token of that sentiment of kinship which, independently of circumstances and irrespec- tively of every other consideration, must ever exist between the different branches of the English race.
' ' Accordingly, while the home literature of the present day and of the last 100 years will form an im- portant portion of the new library, the characteristic feature of the gift will consist in sending to the Ameri- cans, works of the preceding thirteen centuries, which are the common inheritance of both peoples.
" While, therefore, authors, publishers and book- sellers are invited to co-operate in furnishing a com- plete collection of modern works in all departments of literature — general and professional — the public gener- ally, and especially the owners of large private libra- ries, the heads of societies, and the representatives of
472 Chicago Library Association.
distinguished and historic names, are invited to send donations of old books of all sorts, and of money for purchasing- rare works, so as to give completeness to the gift as a national act.
' ' Donations of books addressed, ' Chicago New Library.' will be received at No. 136 Strand, London, W. C. ; or they may be forwarded direct to the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, where the collection is being arranged and stored. Donations of money to be sent to the honorable treasurer. Every book will bear the donor's name, and a list of all donations will be ulti- mately printed and copies will be sent to Chicago."
Among many hundreds of donations already re- ceived or announced are those from :
H. M. The Queen. Messrs. Longmans Co.
The Duke of Argyle. The Marquis of Lome.
The Lords Corn's of Admiralty. Proprietors of the Law Reports.
The Proprietors of the Athe- Sir John Lubbock, Bart,
nasum. Messrs. Macmillan & Co.
The British Museum. Mr. John Murray.
The University of Cambridge. The University of Oxford.
The Camden Society. Sir F. Pollock, Bart.
Mr. Carlyle. Sir R. Palmer, M. P.
The Com. of Council on Education. The Patent Office.
Lord Alfred Churchill, M. P. The Religious Tract Society.
Mr. Disraeli, M. P. Lord Romily — the Record Office.
The Archbishop of Dublin. The Social Science Association.
Early English Text Society. Messrs. Smith, Elder & Co.
Mr. Evelyn. Mr. Herbert Spencer.
Mr. Forster, M. P. Dr. William Smith.
Mr. Furnival, M. A. Professor Tyndall.
The Royal Geographical Society. Mr. Tennyson.
Mr. Gladstone, M. P. Sir Chas. Trevelyan, Bart.
Lord Houghton. The Royal United Service Insti- Earl of Kimberly, Colonial Office. tution, etc.* Sir C. Lyell, Bart., F. R. S.
Under this appeal books began ,to come in until certain members of the American colony in London assumed that, "begging of books" was inconsistent with the independence of Chicago, and positively hu- miliating. Upon this hypothesis our British friends ceased from their (reported thankless) endeavors, and stored the books already donated (some 600 volumes
* Publishers and others who may wish to communicate with au- thors or friends on the subject are informed that copies of this circu- lar and printed labels for easy exhibition of autographs can be had on application at 136 Strand London, W. C.
Chicago Library Association. 473
only) in the Crystal Palace, subject to our order. The British Museum presented all its publications; the University of Oxford, the publications of the Univer- sity Press, of which about 250 volumes were elegantly bound, and were stamped with the University seal. The commissioners of patents gave a complete set of the British patents; the master of the rolls, a set of the Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain, and Calen- dar of State Papers, and many of the most prominent writers in the kingdom gave their works. The rela- tives of deceased authors, as Lord Macaulay and Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, donated complete sets of their writ- ings; Her Majesty the Queen gave "The Early Life of the Prince Consort," inscribed with her autograph, and bearing this book plate:
PRESENTED TO THE CITY OF CHICAGO
Toward the formation of a free library, after the great fire of 1871, as a mark of English sympathy,
BY HER MAJESTY, THE QUEEN VICTORIA.
A similar book plate, with the name of the donor changed, was placed in nearly all the gifts. But there was, until January, 1872, no library to receive these books, and no law of our state under which a free public library could be organized.
Meantime and before this misrepresentation, our librarian, Mr. Robson, was not idle in London. He reported to Mr. Lowther that the sympathy felt in England for our loss was sincere, and that donations of books might with little effort be secured, if he were commissioned authoritatively to collect; whereupon, early in December, a resolution was passed by the Chicago Library Association, empowering him by let- ter from its president, ex-Governor Bross, and others, to receive donations of books, " In the name of the old library, if revived, or of any new free public library that might be established, into which the old one would be merged." Furnished with these credentials and a pledge from Mr. Lowther to raise the necessary
474 Chicago Library Association.
funds, Mr. Robson — as soon as the "Hughes collect- ing " (as it was called) was suspended and prematurely closed — prepared an appeal for books, by a circular intended to be sent to literary and other societies of Great Britain; but before this was done news came to him that the creation of a free public library for Chicago was then assured; and a few days later he received from Mr. Lowther an official letter, obtained by him from the mayor of Chicago, giving Mr. Robson authority to receive in the name of Chicago the prom- ised collection of books.
The following is a copy of the letter : "MR. JOHN ROBSON, LATE LIBRARIAN CHICAGO
LIBRARY :
"Sir: It is understood here that you are operating in London, obtaining contributions of books for the Chicago library, lately destroyed by fire, or for the new free ' ' City Library, ' ' into which it may be merged.
"It is also understood that Thomas Hughes, M. P., and associates, Anglo-American, have — with a wise forecast and a large liberality that do honor to the British nation — already gathered for the free library, to be founded in Chicago, a considerable collection of books, which are now in the Crystal Palace, Lon- don, and elsewhere, awaiting transportation to this country.
"We have no further information as to the plans of these gentlemen, whether they purpose forwarding the books direct to Chicago, or whether they would prefer to deliver them to an agent appointed by us to receive them in London, .when their generous labors in our behalf shall finally be closed.
"If, on proper inquiry delicately made, you shall ascertain the latter to be the fact, you are hereby authorized to receive the books for the city of Chicago whenever they shall be presented. We will then pro- vide for their shipment home, and -make what feeble
Chicago Library Association. 475,
acknowledgments we can for the kindness and spon- taneous munificence of the donors.
"CHICAGO, January 12, 1872.
"JOSEPH MEDILL, Mayor."
When the credentials were shown they were held to be a quasi-sanction by the citizens of Chicago of what had been erroneously styled, "A begging of books"; and then all opposition ceased. Mr. Hughes and associates, taking a correct view of the improved situation, decided to resume the abandoned work. They saw the advantage of co-operation, felt the necessity for help, and finding our librarian, Mr. Robson, emi- nently capable and zealous, they complimented him and us by inviting his assistance in their work. The former machinery was again set .in motion. The fol- lowing appeal, inclosing a new circular from the Anglo- American Association, was printed and distributed:
CIRCULAR.
"LONDON, 136 Strand.
" Sir: With this you will receive a circular relative to the English gift of books to the free public library of Chicago, United States, which is to replace those destroyed at the great fire, October, 1871. The representative of the mayor and citizens of Chicago is now in London, on library business, and we wish the gift so complete that we can hand it over to him before his return. We shall, therefore, feel obliged if you will assist us in our efforts to make it worthy of the country by kindly adding your donation.
"We remain, yours sincerely, "T. HUGHES, Chairman. "A. HUTTON BURGESS, Hon. Secretary."
Thenceforward most of the great labor of seeking and getting in the gift books was done by Mr. Robson, the librarian of the old Chicago library, as the collector under the Anglo-American Association of contributions to our new public one, we furnishing the man and means to carry through their grand scheme with what
476 Chicago Library Association.
measure of success it had, by putting- to their fullest use their prestige, name and influence. Each seemed necessary to the other. " If it had not been for you, ' ' said Mr. Hughes to Mr. Robson, " I don't think we should have got another hundred books, all told." Some remuneration for Mr. Robson's services and at- tendant labors was paid by subscription of the follow- ing citizens of Chicago :
Thomas D. Lowther, $51.25 ; E. S.' Evarts, $15 ; E. L. Brown, $50; Doggett/Bassett & Hills, $100 ; R. T. Crane, $25 ; W. H. Lotz, $2 ; Furst & Bradley, $25 ; O. W. Potter, $50 ; E. C. Larned, $25 ; Goodwin & Towle, $15 ; Joseph Medill, $20 ; L. L. Coburn, $15 ; J. L. Chapin, $5 ; N. S. Bouton, $50 ; L. L. Bond, $10 ; Thomas Hoyne, $5; Charles Hitchcock, $15; Wm. Chisholm, $15; A. B. Meeker, $50; J. M. Walker, $50 ; Western Railroad Association, $100.
Sometimes the persistence of Mr. Burgess or the personal influence of Mr. Hughes was found necessary in order to obtain books that were desired, but gener- ally the contributions were voluntary, and almost any- thing could be got for asking ; and between January and April, through the joint efforts of Burgess, Rob- son and Hughes, more than 6,000 volumes had been added to the 600 first gathered for the British gift library to Chicago. The Anglo-American Association voted £200 for the purchase of books otherwise unat- tainable.
Among the many early responses received by Mr. Hughes, the following are quoted :
"CHELSEA, November 12, 1871.
"Dear Hughes : Forgive me that I have not sooner answered your friendly, cheery and altogether pleasant little note. I suppose Burgess would have told you my objection to the project — that it seemed to me super- fluous, not practical by the methods he proposed (for the gift of all the books of living authors will go for very little in such an enterprise), and third and worst,
Chicago Library Association. 477
that it wore on the face of it. a visible pick and thank kind of character — a thing greatly to be avoided, both at Chicago and here. These objections do not vanish on reflection, but, on the contrary, gather weight. Nevertheless, if you and the literary world feel nothing of the like, and the project take fire and go on, it con- tinues certain that my poor contribution of a copy of my books shall not by any means be wanting. Believe me always yours with regards, T. CARLYLE."
"HUGHENDEN MANOR, November 10, 1871.
"'•Dear Mr. Hughes ' Our friends at Chicago, so far as English authors are concerned, have a free library which no conflagration can destroy. I fear they may smile when they receive our offerings in this fashion ; but mine, if you wish it, shall be made.
" Faithfully yours, B. DISRAELI."
It is eminently just that Mr. Disraeli's good natured hint, that America had refused copyright to English authors, should accompany his donation.
The news of the intended generosity of our British brethren was received with grateful enthusiasm. The moment was opportune for effecting our long cherished purpose, and steps were promptly taken for the estab- lishment of a public library. George S. Bowen, who had been a former president of the Chicago Library Association, called a public meeting for January 8, over the signatures of twenty- eight representative citizens. This call was drawn up January 5, 1872, by George S. Bowen, E. C. Larned and Rev. Dr. Ryder, who had met by appointment for consultation on the subject of a free library. The next day Mr. Bowen obtained a few fitting signatures, and also obtained the consent of Mayor Medill to preside.
The call was as follows :
"A FREE PUBLIC LIBRARY.
"The following correspondence will 'be read with general interest:
478 Chicago Public Library.
' ' HON. JOSEPH MEDILL, MAYOR OF CHICAGO :
"The undersigned respectfully request that you call a public meeting- of the citizens of Chicago, with reference to the establishment of a free public library in Chicago, to be held at Plymouth church, corner of Wabash avenue and Eldridge court, on Monday the 8th hist., at 7:30 P. M., and that you would preside over said meeting.
George S. Bowen. C. M. Henderson.
Philip Wadsworth. C. C. P. Holden.
Henry M. Shephard. Rev. W. H. Ryder.
Gilbert A. Smith. T. D. Lowther.
Wirt Dexter. Isaac N. Arnold.
N. K. Fairbank. Rev. W.A. Bartlett.
C. G. Hammond. A. H. Winslow.
E. C. Lamed. O. S. Hough. N. S. Bouton. Horace White. Charles L. Wilson. William Bross. Marshall Field. Enos Brown.
L. Z. Leiter. Simeon Farwell.
W. E. Dog-gett. John K. Harmon.
F. A. Eastman. C. H. McCormick.
At this meeting a committee was appointed to prepare for such legislation. The committee reported, January 20, -the draft of a free library law, which was subsequently enacted by the legislature, and approved March 7, 1872. The common council passed an ordinance establishing the Chicago Public Library, which was signed by the mayor, April 1, 1872. The state law authorized a tax for the support of the library not exceeding one-fifth of one mill per cent on the taxable property of the city.
Thomas Hoyne, Willard Woodward, Herman Ras- ter, Robert F. Queal, Samuel S. Hayes, Elliott An- thony, Daniel L. Shorey, James W. Sheahan and Julius Rosenthal were appointed, April 8, as the first board of directors, and Thomas Hoyne was made president of the board.
The collection of books was immediately stopped, and Mr. Robson employed by the new board to ship the books on hand. The books from England soon began to arrive, and storage was secured for them in the "Iron Tank," which was attached to the temporary
Chicago Public Library. 479
city hall building, on the corner of Adams and La Salle streets. This tank had been used as a distributing reservoir for the South Division, and stood on a masonry foundation thirty-five feet high. The lower portion was converted into fireproof vaults. Donations of books were also received from Chicago citizens.
January 1, 1873, a reading room was opened in the third story of the city hall, adjacent to and connected with the tank. Mr. W. B. Wickersham, who had been appointed secretary, July 20, 1872, was placed in charge. October 25, 1873, William F. Poole was appointed librarian, and assumed his duties January 1, 1874, holding that position till August 1, 1887, when he resigned to take charge of the Newberry library. Frederick H. Hild, the present librarian, was appointed to take his place, and assumed his duties Octo- ber 15, 1887. Mr. E. F. L. Gauss was appointed assist- ant librarian.
March 16, 1874, more commodious rooms for the library were secured on the southeast corner of Wabash avenue and Madison streets, where the circulating de- partment was opened to the public May 1, 1874, with 17,355 volumes. Citizens of Chicago, by registering their names and depositing a certificate of guaranty, signed by a responsible person, to secure their safe return, could draw books. This guaranty required re- newal every two years.
May 27, 1875, the library was removed to thfi south- west corner of Dearborn and Lake streets, where it remained until May 2^, 1886, when it again found new quarters in the fourth story of the city hall, to accom- modate its 120,000 volumes. Here it remained until its removal, September, 1897, to its permanent home in the new Public Library building.
The last official act of the old Chicago Library Association took place March 9, two days after the free library bill became a state law; when Mr. Lowther brought together a quorum of the officers of the Chicago
480 Chicago Public Library.
Library Association, which, on motion of Gen. J. D. Webster, voted to the new public library all the books the old library still possessed or were entitled to, namely, the 300 or 400 volumes which were afloat in members' hands; the 250 volumes (about) of the British specifications of patents, then at our binders in London, and some 600 books which were stored subject to our order in London when the work of collecting had been suspended.
The Chicago Public Library, as it now is, grew out of the efforts of public spirited citizens of Chicago, whose incentives were to decorate our city with the insignia of literature. Some of these men are still liv- ing, venerable with years, and held in honor by their fellow-citizens. The public will delight to honor them. Every man who. assisted in the organization and mainte- nance of the Young Men's Association, afterward called Chicago Library Association, as well as American and British donors of books and money, after the fire of 1871, helped to found an institution, out of which grew the present Chicago Public Library — the pride of our city, the delight of bookworms, the great educator of the public, and at this date (1901) the largest circulating library in the world.
The circulation of the four largest libraries in the world, in 1896, was as follows:
Birmingham', England 818,312
Boston Public Library 847,321
Manchester, England 975,944
Chicago Public Library 1,172,586
When everything was ready to consider the erec- tion of a public library building, the first thing to be obtained was a suitable site. Dearborn park was the* most convenient and the best adapted to all its require- ments of any other that could be found, and the possi- bilities of this spot for its erection had been considered for many years by public spirited persons.
As early as 1833 a bill was introduced in congress (supposed then to be vested with authority) to secure
Chicago Public Library. 481
permission to use this park for a public library build- ing and soldiers' memorial hall, and other purposes of a public nature; this bill failed to pass. Like efforts were made at subsequent congresses, without success; committees were appointed by both library and soldiers' interests, who visited Washing-ton, in the hope of ob- taining the coveted plat of ground. But in 1888 the United States Supreme court rendered its decision in what is known as the "Lake Front" case, with the effect of vesting the title to Dearborn park, not in the United States, but in the state of Illinois (and in the municipal corporation, as its agent), for public purposes.
Acting under this decision, the Illinois legislature, on June 4, 1899, gave the Soldiers' Home, of Chicago, permission to erect a memorial hall on the north quar- ter of Dearborn park, and on May 19, 1890, an ordinance of the city of Chicago was passed, and on June 2, 1891, an act was passed by the legislature, and approved, under which authority the directors of the Chicago Public Library were authorized to purchase the inter- ests of the Soldiers' Home, and to erect and maintain a public library on the entire park. Immediately after the passage of the ordinance — that is, on or about June 14, 1890 — the library board, through its president, John G. Shortall, upon information received by him that an adverse occupation might be looked for, determined to take actual possession of the land, and had the whole park fenced. This timely action undoubtedly saved several years of occupation to the library, and avoided the cost of possible litigation. On July 14, 1890, a "consent" to the use of the park by the library was drawn up by the president, who undertook, on behalf of the board, the obtaining of the signatures of the abutting owners. This was accomplished through the summer and autumn of 1890.
The Soldiers' Home was an institution very popu- lar among the people. It originated during the civil
482 Chicago Public Library.
war, and has ever since been distributing' thousands of dollars a year among the families of needy soldiers.
As a compromise of these conflicting interests, the managers of the Soldiers' Home voted unanimously in favor of the proposition advocated by Thomas B. Bryan, who had been their president for some thirty years, as he still is, to convey their quarter of the square to the library trustees, in consideration of a spacious Memorial Hall being appropriated to the ex- clusive use of the soldiers, for the space of fifty years at a nominal rent, after which, the right, title and use of said Memorial Hall shall revert to the Directors of the Chicago Public Library. This lease bears date January 1, 1898. That elegant hall is one of the most impressive features of the splendid edifice, and a very appropriate tribute to the veterans, who delight in the privileges so enjoyed in their declining years. The records show the deed of the ground from the Soldiers' Home, signed by Thomas B. Bryan, presi- dent. Ground was broken for the new building July 27, 1892, and the corner stone laid Thanksgiving day, 1893.
The entire cost of the building was $2,078,954.01. It was dedicated Saturday, October 9, 1897. Monday, October 11, 1897, the library, with all its departments in working order, was thrown open to the public. The entire number of volumes on May 31, 1898, was 235,385, showing a net increase of 14,649 volumes over the number reported at the close of the previous year.
The entire number of volumes in the library on May 31, 1901, was 272,276, an increase of 13,778 vol- umes over the number reported at the close of last year. The total number of volumes entered in the accession catalogue was 21,854, of which 18,910 were purchased, 1,958 were donated, and 986 were acquired by binding periodicals from the reading rooms. There were also added 1,702 pamphlets, making the number of unbound pamphlets now on hand 49,805.
Chicago Public Library. 483
There were deducted during the last year from the total number of volumes in the library the following items : Books worn out and withdrawn from circula- tion, 7,424; books lost and paid for, 394; books un- accounted for in the annual inventory of 1899-1900, 203 ; books not recovered from delinquent book bor- rowers in 1899-1900, 55.
The amount expended for books was $19,867.04.
CIRCULATION OF BOOKS.
The aggregate circulation of books in all depart- ments of the library was 2,318,579, distributed as follows :
Home circulation (main library) 608,421
Home circulation (delivery stations) 1,164,320
Reference department *336,103
Room for art books 29,529
Patent department 99,160
Bound newspapers 4,128
Branch reading" rooms .' 76,918
Total circulation of books 2,318,579
The circulating department was open for the deliv- ery of books on 302 week days, fifty-two Sundays and nine holidays. The entire home circulation was 1,772,741 volumes, an increase of 22,966 over the pre- vious year. The daily average week day circulation was 5,813, against a daily average of 5,769 reported last year. . The average Sunday and holiday issues numbered 284. The largest number of books issued on any one day was 10,005, on February 23, 1901 ; the smallest number was 4,424, on September 12, 1900.
The amount received for fines from delinquent book borrowers was $7,131.19.
DELIVERY STATIONS.
During the past year the number of free delivery stations in operation was increased from sixty to sixty- five. Of these, twelve are located in the North Divi- sion, twenty-six in the South Division, and twenty- seven in the West Division of the city. The number of
*Does not include use of books kept on open shelves accessible to the public.
484 Chicago Public Library.
books drawn from the various stations for home use was 1,164,320, comprising nearly 66 per cent of the entire home circulation. The increase over the previous year was 20,929 volumes.
The amount expended for "compensation of keepers of delivery stations and for the transportation of books was $19,319.65, an average cost of one and sixty- five hundredths cents for each book circulated.
CLASSIFICATION OP THE CIRCULATION.
The classification of the books issued for home reading, showing the number and percentage of each class, is as follows :
Volumes. Per Cent.
English prose action 801,279 45.20
Juvenile literature •. . . 507,713 28.64
History and biography 111,151 6.27
Geography and travels 53,891 3.04
Sciences and arts 94,487 5.33
Poetry and drama 24,819 1.40
Miscellaneous 56,373 3.18
Foreign languages 123,028 6.94
Total .' 1,772,741 100.00
REFERENCE DEPARTMENT.
The number of recorded visitors to the reference room was 121,709, to whom were issued 336,103 volumes from the stacks. No record was kept of the number of books consulted from the open shelves in this room. The average number of readers in the reference room at the close of each hour from 9 A. M. to 10 P. M. was sixty-six. The largest attendance in the room was at 4 o'clock p. M., the average number of readers present at that hour throughout the year being 112. In the room for art books, 8,668 readers consulted 29,529 volumes.
PATENT REPORTS AND PUBLIC DOCUMENTS.
The number of visitors to the patent department was 24,124, who consulted 88,690 volumes of patent office records and 8,745 public documents. There were also consulted in this department 4,006 volumes of bound newspapers and l,72«r> volumes of scientific mag- azines. Of books for the blind, 858 were circulated for home use and 122 were used in the library.
Chicago Public Library. 485
READING ROOM.
The average attendance in the reading room at the close of each hour of the day, from 9 A. M. to 10 p. M., was 195. The maximum average of attendance was at 3 o'clock P. M. throughout the year, numbering 273 readers. It was impossible to keep a record of the use of periodicals and newspapers, as all the more popular serials are now kept on open racks in the room, where they are directly accessible to readers.
The entire number of serials on file was 1,102. The amount expended for newspapers and periodicals for all the reading rooms was $4,388.11.
BRANCH READING ROOMS.
The aggregate attendance at the six branch read- ing rooms was 204,821. The issues of periodicals num- bered 190,028, and the issues of books 76,918. The average attendance on Sundays and holidays was sixty- six.
REGISTRATION.
The total registration during the two years ending May 31, 1901, was 80,616. During this period there were canceled for various reasons 5,507 cards, leaving the number of two-year cards which entitle the holders to draw books for home use at 75, 109. The classifica- tion of the registration by sex shows that 41,967 cards were issued to males and 38,649 to females. The total registration of the year was 40,407. There were issued at the various delivery stations 24,316 cards.
ADMINISTRATION.
There are now employed in all departments of the library service 208 persons. The amount expended for salaries was $135,678.76.
BINDING.
There have been sent to the various book binders who have contracted to do work for the library 28,052 books, of which 19,978 were newly bound or rebound, and 8,074 were resewed in the old covers. The attend- ants in the binding department repaired 66,634 books;
486 Chicago Public Library.
5,819 books were repaired at the binderies. The total number of books relabeled during the year was 127,095. The amount expended for binding was $10,331.31.
ANNUAL INVENTORY.
The annual inventory was taken in the usual man- ner without closing the library. The result showed 192 books unaccounted for. Of the 291 volumes re- ported missing in the previous inventory, eighty-eight have since been found.
Hitherto the branch libraries of the Chicago Public Library have been placed in rented rooms in various parts of the city, convenient to the reading public; but through the generosity of Mrs. Blackstone, widow of the late T. B. Blackstone, a beautiful building, costing $100,000, is to be erected at the intersection of Forty- ninth street, Lake and Washington avenues, to be known as the "T. B. Blackstone Memorial Branch Library." This munificent gift will accommodate the citizens of the entire southern portion of the city.
The board of directors of the Chicago Public Library gratefully accepted this donation at its meet- ing October 24, 1901, extending thanks to Mrs. Black- stone. If similar branch libraries could be erected in other portions of the city remote from the main library at Dearborn park, it would greatly increase the ad- vantages and usefulness of the library as it now is. It is to be hoped that Mrs. Blackstone's generous example will be imitated by other public benefactors.
PUBLIC SURVEYS.
In 1783 the United States took her place in the family of nations.
She had. conquered, by the sword, an immense in- heritance of nature, which lay spread out on her west- ern border, in forest and prairie, like an unwritten page to be filled up.
The appliances of civilization were to be introduced here, and the grandeurs of the old world reproduced, on a new and improved plan.
The old seignorial rights of landlords over their tenantry had not been recognized in the new order of things, which the American revolution had brought into requisition in the new nation.
One of the foundations on which this nation must stand was private ownership of the soil, and agreeable to this premise, instead of surveying the new country in large feudal estates, our present system of public land surveys was adopted by congress as the best manner of securing individual rights to small parcels of land.
It began in the territory of Ohio in 1785, only two years after the peace of Paris had sheathed the sword between the American colonies and the mother country.
The first step to be taken was to run a line due north from the Ohio river to Lake Erie. This was called the first principal meridian. The second meri- dian was run from the Ohio river north through Indiana and Michigan.
The third meridian was run from the Ohio river, where Mound City now is, north through the central portions of the state of Illinois, thence through Wis- consin.
The fourth meridian was run north from the con- fluence of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, thence through western Wisconsin.
(487)
488
Public Surveys.
As public surveys progressed westwardly, meridi- ans were run, in like manner, at convenient distances apart, till the Pacific coast was reached, the last one of which passed near the city of Portland, Ore.
From each of these meridians what are called base lines, being- east and west lines, forming- right angles with the meridians, were run.
Along these base lines what are called ranges were designated, at intervals of six miles apart, and num- bered either east or west from their meridians.
The meridians are numbered at intervals of six miles, thus laying out the whole country into six-mile
GOV'T TOWNSHIP CONTAINING 36 SECTIONS, 640 ACRES.
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squares, which were originally called government town- ships, but latterly called towns, to distinguish them from civil townships created by state authority.
The civil townships are generally composed of a single government town, but when physical or political conditions make it necessary, they contain more than a government town, as, for example, Downer's Grove, DuPage county; or less, as Cicero, Cook county.
The government towns are subdivided into square miles, called sections, making thirty-six in each town, and numbered as in the diagram herewith presented.
Every square mile in the surveyed portions of the United States can be described by its meridian number,
Public Surveys. 489
its range number and its section number, no two of which have the same description.
Sections contain 640 acres, and each is subdivided into quarters, 160 acres; quarters of quarters, forty acres; and quarters of quarters of quarters, ten acres.
These smaller subdivisions are described in convey- ing small parcels of land by deeds.
Deeds of land are described by township numbers, range numbers and section numbers.
Blocks in citiesjare numbered and divided into lots, each of which is recorded, as parts of a section, in its respective township and range.
There are fifteen ranges in Illinois, east of the third meridian, the fifteenth being fractional, as it con- sists of but two sections until the Indiana line is reached ; and all the lands in these ranges are de- scribed, in deeds, as east of the third meridian, and numbered as per the meridian number and range in which they lie.
Fractional sections occur along the entire margin of Lake Michigan, and also along the margin of large lakes as well as along the shores of large rivers.
The old Indian boundary line, which passes diago- nally from the southwest into the southern portion of the city, has caused intricacy in the transfer of lands, inasmuch as it has made diagonal offsets necessary, some of which it is difficult to assign to any given sec- tion. This line was run in 1816, which, with another line twenty miles distant from it to the northwest, and parallel with it, enclosed a strip of land from the Illi- nois river to the lake, which was ceded to the United States by the Ottawas, Chippewas and Pottawattomies August 4, 1816, for the purpose of enabling the Illi- nois and Michigan canal to be built.* The inducement by which the Indians were persuaded to sign this treaty was on the ground that the canal would be free to them for canoe navigation.
*For the details of this treaty see Volume I, page 491 ,of this work.
490 Public Swveys.
This strip of land was surveyed previous to 1832, as will be seen by looking- at the map herewith pre- sented, which is a copy of a government map issued from the treasury department December 12, 1837, by Levi Woodbury, secretary of the treasury.
According1 to Mr. Woodbury 's annual report of 1836, estimates were submitted to congress for surveying the tract of land lying between the third principal meridian and Lake Michigan, extending southwardly about five townships in width from the northern boundary of the state. It will thus be seen that settlements had been made around Chicago for many miles previous to the public survey of these lands. These early settlers made pre-emption claims to the lands on which they settled by plowing a furrow around such lands, and when surveys were finally made and the lands came into market, they bought the lands at government price. Warren Wheaton, an esteemed citizen of Du Page county, Illinois, is still living (1901) on ! his original claim made in the above mentioned manner. Hon. C. B. Farwell, well known in Chicago, assisted in survey- ing the lands in the neighborhood of Rockford, and when such lands came into market and were offered for sale at the land office in charge of them, no one but the original claimant dared to make a bid on such lands. To have done so would have endangered his life. This rule held good as to the claims of original settlers who had "squatted" on unsurveyed public lands every- where. It was an unwritten law of the early sei, tiers, and seldom, if ever, transgressed.
The entire city of Chicago lies within the govern- ment townships numbered 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41, as numbered on the third principal meridian, and within ranges, or base lines, XII, XIII, XIV and XV.
It will be observed that offsets occur on vari- ous east and west township lines; for example, see township line along the northern limits of Niles, Elk- grove, Maine, etc., in Cook county.
Norrthboundaay of the State of Illinois.
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kThe townships which were subdivided and returned before June of the year 1832 are marked "OS."
The townships which have been subdivided and returned and alto- gether or in part paid for since the commencement of June, 1832, are marked "RS."
Those which have been subdivided since that period and returned) but have not yet been sanctioned by the Surveyor General are marked "N S."
This mark "X" on the boundary lines and in the interior of town- ships designates the exterior lines and subdivisions of which the field notes have been permanently recorded in this office.
This mark "0" designates the lines and townships of which the field notes have been both permanently recorded in this office and copied for the General Land Office at the city of Washington.
Public Surveys. 491
These were necessary for corrections wherewith to preserve the sections, as nearly as possible, in square shape.
As the lines running north must converge as they approach the pole, at given intervals, a less number of base lines must be plotted, the farther north surveys proceed, in order to conform to the rotundity of the earth's surface.
The thirteen old colonial states are surveyed by metes and bounds, according to the old English sys- tem. All the states added to the Union since our independence have been surveyed on our new and improved plan, except Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. Kentucky was originally included in the Virginia col- ony, which parent state had sent a hardy race of pioneers like Boone, McAfee and Harrod there, and made large grants of land to them, thus introducing the old instead of the new system of land surveys. Tennessee was included in the original charter of North Carolina, and jurisdiction over it was not given to the United States till 1790, at which time large grants had been made to private individuals.
Texas was originally settled by Mexico, and did not come into possession of the United States till 1848, at the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, at which time large portions of the state had been settled and sur- veyed by metes and bounds.
The meridians on which our public surveys are based are independent of the geographical meridians of the earth's entire surface.
May 20, 1785, congress passed an act for the sur- vey of our public lands under direction of Thomas Hutchins, the geographer of the United States, from which date our system of surveys began, and it is fair to assume that the whole plan of them was the work o a special committee, or a committee of the whole, in congress.
The surface of the earth is divided up by parallels
492 Public Surveys.
of latitude and longitude, the former running east and west around the globe at a distance of 1° apart. The latter run from the north pole south across the equator to the south pole, also 1° apart.
A degree is sixty geographical miles in length at any part of the globe, but geographical miles, extend- ing east and west at the equator, decrease in length all the way from the equator to the pole, at which place they concentrate to a point.
The length of a degree is the same on meridian lines in all parts of the globe, as can be seen by looking at a map of the world; 360° constitute the circumfer- ence of the globe, but lines representing them on maps are placed 10° apart, and while both parallels and meridians are straight lines, on the earth's sur- face they have to be curved on maps, the better to represent a spherical surface on a flat surface.
On globes both run straight.
The English reckon longitude from Greenwich, the Spanish from Madrid, the French from Paris and the Americans from Washington since about 1840; but longitude is also reckoned from Greenwich here, in order to make descriptions, based on English records, coincide with ours.
The old colonial charters and grants to American colonists were limited and measured, to a large extent, by geographical meridians and parallels, at which time no other measurements of lands seemed necessary or practical, as private ownership of lands was then un- dreamed of.
The old feudal tenures of Europe were described by geographical lines only. Neither Spain. Portugal nor Great Britain ever made any public surveys of any countries in North, Central or South America to which they held national claims. No public surveys have ever been made in Africa by any nation. Much of this dark continent is still in possession of its aborigines.
THE CHICAGO MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL.
This school owes its existence to the Chicago Commercial Club, an association of prominent business men, whose monthly meetings are devoted to the dis- cussion of social, civil and political questions. To this body of thoughtful and observant men the subject of education early commended itself as of vital import- ance to the welfare of the commonwealth. The need of something more than, and different from, the usual grammar and high school education was fully recog- nized.
At a meeting of this club held March 25, 1882, it was resolved to raise a sum of $100,000 to establish a manual training school. The money was raised, and the same evening a committee was appointed to draft a plan for the organization of the school. This com- mittee reported December 30, 1882. The Chicago Manual Training School Association was formed, con- sisting exclusively of members of the Commercial Club. The following trustees were elected: E. W. Blatchford, president. R. T. Crane, vice-president. Marshall Field, treasurer. William A. Fuller, secretary.
John Crerar, John W. Doane, N. K. Fairbank, Edson Keith, George M. Pullman.
June 9, 1883, Dr. H. H. Belfield, at that time prin- cipal of the North Division High School, was elected director.
The object of the school is thus stated in its charter:
" Instruction and practice in the use of tools, with such instruction as may be deemed necessary in mathe- matics, drawing, and the English branches of a high school course. The tool instruction, as at present contemplated, shall include carpentry, wood turning,
(493)
494 The Chicago Manual Training School.
pattern making1, iron chipping- and filing, forge work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add to the foregoing from time to time, it being the intention to divide the work- ing hours of the students as nearly as possible equally between manual and mental exercises."
The site of the school, the northwest corner of Michigan avenue and Twelfth street, was purchased March 28, 1883. The corner stone was laid with appro- priate ceremonies September 24, 1883, and the school opened its doors to pupils February 4, 1884.
It was intended that the course of the school should be three years, since it was believed that the essentials of a high school curriculum, with five hours per week of drawing and ten hours a week of shop work, could be thoroughly accomplished in that time. This belief was well founded. About 50 per cent of the graduates of this school have entered technological schools abund- antly well equipped for their work. Twelve of the class of '93 were fitted for the sophomore class of Sibley college, Cornell university. The acceptance by the technological schools of the shop work and drawing of manual training school graduates as an equivalent, wholly or in part, of similar work demanded by the school of technology for the degree or E. E. or M. E., saves much time to the students possessing it. Dur- ing the sixteen years of the school's existence its gen- eral purpose has been maintained . without essential change. As the pedagogical value of manual train- ing became recognized, the optional study of Greek was added, that boys desiring to prepare for classical colleges might have the benefit of drawing and shop work.
The technical skill of boys when directed by com- petent and enthusiastic teachers is well illustrated by some of the products of the school. Besides two dozen or more steam engines, from 6 to 10-horse power each,
The Chicago Manual Training School. 495
the pupils have made three sensitive drills, a large drill press, a dozen and a half speed lathes, a pattern maker's gap lathe, weighing 1,500 pounds, and many other arti- cles in wood, iron and steel. The tower clock, with 60-inch dial, Westminster chime, etc., in use for years, was designed and built by pupils.
The drawing includes free-hand machine and architectural. About 50 per cent of the graduates of the school go directly into business. The others, as has been said, enter college, chiefly in engineering de- partments. Over 160 college degrees are known to have been conferred upon graduates, and about 140 others are now in college.
On July 9, 1897, the school was presented by its trustees, with the unanimous approval of the Chicago Manual Training School Association, to the University of Chicago. Its legal ownership is now vested in a board of nine trustees, elected by and from the board of trustees of the University of Chicago. This trans- fer of ownership is commemorated by a handsome bronze tablet, placed in the vestibule of the school, which reads as follows:
"The Chicago Manual Training School, the first independent school of this character in the United States, was founded by the Commercial Club, of Chi- cago, was incorporated April 10, 1883, the corner stone of its building, corner of Michigan avenue and Twelfth street, was laid September 24, 1883, and regular school exercises began February 4, 1884.
" The school was designed to give instruction and practice in the use of tools, in mathematics, drawing, modern languages and the English branches of a high school course.
"That, during the fourteen years of the existence of the school, it has instructed over 1,600 pupils, of whom 603 have been graduated, that it has caused the establishment of many similar institutions — and, espe- cially, that it has secured the incorporation of this sys-
496 The Chicago Manual Training School.
tern of education into the public schools of this city and of many other cities, is evidence to the founders of the school that it has successfully accomplished the pur- pose for which it was organized . In the belief that the usefulness of the school will thereby be enlarged and its perpetuity secured, the membership of the Associa- tion has been, by unanimous action, so changed that the administration of the school, with its building, grounds, equipment and the endowment (a bequest of the late Mr. John Crerar) has been this day intrusted to a membership composed of trustees of
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
BOARD OF TRUSTEES, 1896-97.
E. W. Blatchf ord, president. John M. Clark, vice-president. Marshall Field, treasurer. William A. Fuller, secretary. John W. Doane, Christoph Hotz, Edson Keith,
H. H. Porter, George M. Pullman. July 9, 1897. Henry H. Belfield, director."
Mr. Crerar 's bequest was $50,000. It will be noticed that Messrs. Blatchford, Field, Fuller, Doane, Keith and Pullman were members of the original board of trustees. Messrs. Crerar, Keith and Pullman were members of the board at the time of their death.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences is believed to have the honor of being organized at an earlier date than any other scholarly body now existing in Chi- cago. In the year 1856 a small circle of enthusiastic gentlemen united in a society for the promotion of scientific investigation, and adopted the name, "The Chicago Academy of Natural Sciences." These, the original members of the Academy, were : James V. Z. Blaney, Nathan S. Davis, Sr., James W. Freer, C. A. Helmuth, Hosmer A. Johnson, Edmund Andrews, Henry Parker, J. Young Scammon, Franklin Scammon, Richard K. Swift, Joseph D. Webster, Eliphalet W. Blatchford and Henry W. Zimmerman. To this list many other names were soon added, and the new society grew and developed rapidly.
A definite organization was completed at a meeting held January 13, 1857, in the office of Dr. Edmund Andrews, and the following officers were elected:
President, Professor James V. Z. Blaney.
Vice-presidents, Dr. Nathan S. Davis, Sr., Captain Joseph D. Webster.
Secretary, Dr. Hosmer A. Johnson.
Recording secretary, Dr. Henry Parker.
Treasurer, Col. R. K. Swift.
Curator and librarian, Dr. Edmund Andrews.
The need of funds soon became apparent, and sub- scriptions to the extent of about $1,500 were readily obtained. A room was rented in a building located at the southeast corner of Clark and Lake streets, a few cases were procured, and the foundation of a mu- seum was laid. This favorable beginning, however, was of short duration, for the financial crisis of 1857 and 1858 left but few of the subscriptions in a condi- tion for collection. The society was unable to pay the
(497)
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 499
salary of a curator or to increase its museum accom- modations. The publication of transactions had been planned, but this, the most ambitious wish of the members, was necessarily postponed. However, a few of the members worked on the cabinet in their leisure hours, and interesting monthly meetings were sustained.
In the year 1859, under the provisions of a general law, the society was incorporated under the name, " The Chicago Academy of Sciences," and at a meeting held April 26, of that year, it adopted the following resolution :
WHEREAS, A majority of the members of the Acad- emy, acting in accordance with a vote of the Academy, have incorporated themselves under the title of The Chicago Academy of Sciences; therefore,
Resolved, That this Academy do now resolve itself into the above named corporate body, and transfer to the same all its members, property and interests.
Renewed activity and interest was the result of this reorganization. Much of the stimulus to this activity, as in the earlier period of the society, was furnished by Mr. Robert Kennicott, a young naturalist of great promise. He, with Dr. Edmund Andrews, had placed in the museum the larger number of the many thousand specimens already on exhibition. About this time Mr. Kennicott joined a scientific expedition to northwestern Arctic America. In the year 1862, after an absence of three years, he returned, bringing an abundant supply of material in all the departments of natural history and ethnology.
The expenses of this expedition, defrayed by the Smithsonian Institution, and by several residents of Chicago, were materially lessened by the unprecedented liberality of the officers of the Hudson Bay Co., acting both as officials and as individuals. The expedition was undertaken with the understanding that the Smith- sonian Institution should be the first beneficiary, but that any other institution that Mr. Kennicott should designate, and which would suitably provide for their
500
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
reception and care, should also have a full series of the specimens. Mr. Kennicott naturally desired that this series should have a home in Chicago, and designated the Academy as the second beneficiary.
In the winter of the years 1863 and 1864 the affairs of the museum began to assume a more definite form. The value of the collections already offered, and the readiness of the Smithsonian Institution to fulfill its agreement as to duplicates and to add much other ma-
EZRA B. MCCAQG.
terial from its abundant stores, induced several promi- nent citizens of Chicago to undertake the founding of a permanent and more extensive museum of natural and applied sciences in this youthful metropolis of the central west.
Professor Louis Agassiz, of Harvard University, ac- cepted an invitation to address a meeting of those in- terested. This meeting was held February 22, 1864, at the residence of Mr. Edmund Aiken. Both the lecturer
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 501
and the occasion aroused great enthusiasm. A subscrip- tion paper was started, to which the names of about 125 persons were soon appended, each agreeing to give the sum of $500. The leading spirits in this movement were J. Young Scammon, George C. Walker, Ezra B. McCagg,Eliphalet W. Blatchford and Daniel Thompson.
The gentlemen present at this informal gathering, stimulated by the enthusiasm of Mr. Kennicott, adopted the following resolutions:
Resolved, That the creation of a museum of the natural sciences for the increase and diffusion of knowledge is highly desirable, and especially so at the present time, in order to secure to this city the large and valuable collection now apparently within its reach.
Resolved, That a committee be appointed to devise ways and means and to act as trustees of any funds that may be raised for the accomplishment of this object.
Resolved, That the committee above designated consist of J. Young Scammon, Ezra B. McCagg, George C. Walker, Edmund Aiken, Daniel Thompson, Eli- phalet W. Blatchford, Henry G. Loomis, William E. Doggett and two others whom they may name.
The success of this committee was extraordinary, and the generosity of Chicago's citizens was amply demonstrated, for only a very few weeks of soliciting were required to obtain the large list of subscribers already mentioned.
This movement was distinct from the work of the Academy; but on April 13, 1864, by an amendment to its constitution, the committee, acting as trustees of the fund, was made the board of trustees of The Chi- cago Academy of Sciences. The subscribers to the museum fund were made life members, with all the privileges of membership.
On June 10, 1864, the board of trustees of the museum fund adopted the following resolution, which had been proposed by a committee at a previous meeting:
Resolved, That the purposes of our temporary organization having been accomplished, the board of
502
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
trustees of the museum fund be and the same is hereby merged in and consolidated with the board of trust- ees of The Chicago Academy of Sciences, and the officers of this board be and the same are hereby declared to be the officers respectively of said board of trustees of The Chicago Academy of Sciences, and that they hold their respective places as such officers sub- ject and according to the provisions and regulations heretofore adopted by this board, so far as the same are applicable; and that upon the adoption of such
J. YOUNG SCAMMON.
resolution this board of trustees be merged in the board of trustees of The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
At a meeting of this new board of trustees of the Academy, held June 10, 1864, the trust imposed upon it by the constitution of the Academy was unanimously accepted, and the following officers were elected:
President, J. Young Scammon.
Vice-President, William E. Doggett.
Secretary and Treasurer, George C. Walker.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 503
This action completed the consolidation of the museum fund and The Chicago Academy of Sciences, and all the property and effects of the two organiza- tions became vested in this board of trustees.
No words can better show the bright outlook of the Academy at this time than the following quotation from the records: "The committee, to whom was referred the subject of the disposition of the funds of this Association, would respectfully recommend that subscription notes and money to the amount of $50,000 be set apart and securely invested, as paid in, as a permanent fund, the income from it to be used for the payment of the current expenses of the Association. The remainder of the subscriptions will not be sufficient to meet the estimated expenditures for the next three years; but the committee think that additional sub- scriptions may be safely relied upon within that time to meet those expenditures. "
Rooms were secured in the Metropolitan block, and the cases and other property of the Academy were removed to them from their old quarters. New cases were also constructed to contain the additional collec- tion received from the Smithsonian Institution.
In order that the interests of the Academy might be placed upon a firmer foundation, and its property vested in the board of trustees, it was deemed neces- sary to obtain a new charter. Application was made to the state legislature, early in the year 1865, with the result that the following enactment was adopted :
WHEREAS, An Association has heretofore been formed in the city of Chicago, called "The Chicago Academy of Sciences," the object of which is the increase and diffusion of scientific knowledge by a museum, a library, by the reading and publication of original papers and by such other suitable methods as shall from time to time be adopted;
Now, therefore, in order to encourage and promote the above declared objects of the said Association:
SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois, represented in the General Assembly: That
504 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
J. Young Scammon, George C. Walker, Horatio G. Loomis, Daniel Thompson, Edmund Aiken, Ezra B. McCagg, Eliphalet W. Blatchford, William E. Doggett, Robert Kennicott, Edmund Andrews, Hosmer A. John- son, Oliver F. Fuller, James W. Freer, William Bross, James V. Z. Blaney, Belden F. Culver, and their asso- ciates and successors forever, are hereby declared and created a body corporate by the name and style of "The Chicago Academy of Sciences," and by that name shall have perpetual succession, shall be capable in law to contract and to be contracted with, sue and be sued, implead and be impleaded, within all courts of competent jurisdiction; may receive, acquire and hold real and personal property and effects, and may sell and dispose of the same at pleasure; may have a common seal, and alter the same at their pleasure; may make such constitutions, regulations and by-laws as may be requisite for its government and for carrying out the objects of the Association, and not contrary to the laws of the land, and may alter the same at their pleasure.
SEC. 2. The constitution and by-laws of said Association, now in operation, shall govern the cor- poration hereby created until regularly altered or appealed by the Association; and the present officers of said Association shall be officers of the corporation hereby created until their respective terms of office shall regularly expire or be vacated.
SEC. 3. All the money, property and effects of said "The Chicago Academy of Sciences" shall be held and managed by, and the title thereto, as also the title to all the real estate owned or to be owned by said Academy of Sciences, shall be vested in the boarcl of trustees, from time to time, being as provided in the constitution of said Academy of Sciences; and all contracts and conveyances of said Academy of Sci- ences, to be binding, shall be executed by the president and secretary of the board of trustees.
SEC. 4. This act shall be a public act, and shall be in force from and after its passage.
ALLEN C. FULLER,
Speaker of the House.
WM. BROSS,
Speaker of the Senate.
Approved February 16, 1865. RICHARD J. OGLESBY.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
505
In March of the year 1865 the Western Union Telegraph Co. planned an expedition to survey along the northwest coast of North America for the purpose of establishing' a route for a telegraph line intended to connect this continent with Asia by crossing the Behr- ing Straits. The company very generously offered to naturalists the opportunity to conduct scientific inves- tigations in a country at that time scarcely known, and
WILLIAM BROSS.
nearly inaccessible. Mr. Kennicott, who had been elected the curator of the Academy early in the pre- vious year, with other young naturalists afe his asso- ciates, eagerly availed himself of the unusual facilities thus granted. The outfit for scientific investigation and collecting, costing about $1,000, was furnished by the Academy.
On March 21, 1865, Mr. Kennicott sailed from New York on the steamer "Golden Rule," and made his first
506 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
stop at Nicaragua. While crossing the isthmus, con- siderable collecting was done, and many interesting and valuable specimens were gathered. The remarka- ble energy of Mr. Kennicott, always apparent, was most marked at this time, and he was unanimously chosen by his associates as captain of the voyage. Continuing their journey, the party arrived at San Francisco on April 25. While there, Mr. Kennicott was notified of his election to the office of ' ' Director of the Academy." This action of the board of trustees
ROBERT KENNICOTT.
was taken at a meeting held April 7, 1865. He tele- graphed his acceptance of this added honor.
From this expedition, so auspiciously begun, and so successfully conducted, Mr. Kennicott never returned to resume the duties of his office. He died very suddenly, and while alone, May 13, 1866, on the banks of the Nulato river, amid the eternal solitudes of that remote and desolate region.
In his death the Academy and science lost one of their most devoted followers — one who from early boy- hood had pursued his investigations with ardor and
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 507
enterprise, ever regardless of the necessarily attendant dangers and privations. An enthusiastic, successful and indefatigable worker in the Academy from its very beginning, it is fitting that a few words regarding his characteristics should be quoted from one who knew him: "None who ever saw him will forget his high spirits, which were always contagious, and the energy with which he followed his favorite pursuit of animated nature brought a glow to his cheek. Seeing him full of life, fun and irrepressible energy, it was impossible to resist an impulse of admiration; and one of his bitterest opponents and rivals on this expedition confessed, long afterward, that one glimpse of Kennicott in the field gave him a totally new and different opinion of the man. 'If I had known him sooner,' said he, 'we should have been always friends.' '
Notwithstanding the great loss sustained in his death, the Academy reaped a substantial harvest from this enterprise.
When Mr. Kennicott departed for the north the care of the museum was intrusted to Dr. William Stimpson, the secretary of the Academy, who was elected curator for one year. Dr. Stimpson studied under Agassiz, and had for years been in charge of the department of invertebrate zoology in the Smithsonian Institution. During this period he had made large col- lections of invertebrate animals from all waters, and had acquired such proficiency in this branch of natural history that he was recognized as the leading Ameri- can authority in this special line of research. The Smithsonian Institution deposited with the Academy a full series of the specimens that had been collected by Dr. Stimpson, including specimens of his types. They also paid him the rare honor of sending to the Academy a large collection of its own specimens for his determination.
November 12, 1866, Dr. Stimpson was elected direc- tor of the Academy, to fill the vacancy caused by the
508 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
death of Mr. Kennicott. These two were the only persons who have been elected to this high office.
The period from 1865 to 1871 was one of notable prosperity and success. During 1865 Dr. Stimpson twice visited Washington to select specimens at the Smithsonian Institution, and succeeded in obtaining very large collections in nearly all the branches of natural history. He also added largely from his private collections.
WILLIAM STIMPSON.
In October of that year it became evident to the board of trustees that they would soon have to provide more ample accommodations for the collections, which were being rapidly enlarged.
In December the trustees purchased ground at Thirtieth street, fronting on both Indiana and Prairie avenues. The depth of this lot on each of the avenues was 130 feet. At this time this area could be obtained at the very low figure of $35 a front foot, and it was thought that this would prove a good investment. It
The Chicago Academy, of Sciences. 509
was not the plan to build a home for the Academy on this property.
About this time the trustees of the Douglas estate offered to donate to the Academy the necessary land for a building" in the vicinity of the old University of Chicago, at Thirty-fourth street and Cottage Grove avenue. The following letter pertaining to this offer is of interest:
"CHICAGO, December 12, 1865. "To THE DIRECTORS OF THE CHICAGO ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES :
"Gentlemen. — The proprietors of the Douglas estate will donate to The Chicago Academy of Sciences as a location for that institution that portion of said estate described as follows : In block number one (as per plat), lots one to eighteen (1 to 18), inclusive, fronting on the University square, and also all the lots in the rear of these extending from alley to alley and fronting on Lyon avenue, being a piece of ground 215 feet front with a rear of 143 feet and a depth of 270 feet.
' ' Provided, that there shall be erected on said ground, within two years, a suitable building or build- ings for the use of said Academy of Sciences, and which building or buildings shall be occupied for the purposes of said Academy for not less than ten years after the completion of the same.
"Respectfully submitted,
"(Signed) R. GRIGG."
The board of trustees, before finally acting on this offer, decided to submit the proposition to the Academy. A majority of the members present at a meeting held December 12, 1865, voted to accept the offer. The dissenting members, however, formed so large a minority that the trustees decided to resubmit the proposition at a future meeting. The matter was again carefully considered at a meeting held April 10, 1866, and the following was adopted :
Resolved: That we recommend that, owing to the great distance of the proposed location at Cottage
510 Tlie Chicago Academy of Sciences.
ELIPHAL.ET W. BLATCHFORD.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 511
Grove from the center of the city, the offer of a lot at that place by the trustees of the Douglas estate be declined.
The Academy's board of trustees, acting on this recommendation, declined the gift.
On June 7, 1866, the collections and rooms of the society were seriously damaged by fire. The fire started in rooms of the Metropolitan block adjacent to those occupied by the Academy, but soon communicated with the museum hall. The collections, which were large and valuable beyond any moneyed compensation, were largely destroyed or seriously damaged.
Dr. Stimpson, in a report to the members, stated that, " Half the animals and birds were lost; the exten- sive collections of birds' nests and eggs were mainly consumed ; nearly all the insects were destroyed ; the dried crustaceans and echinoderms were all destroyed. The large herbarium was saved, with the exception of the plants of the northern Pacific expedition. The library was much damaged by water, but most of it was still in a condition to be used."
The Academy held $30,000 of insurance on its property. The making up of the proofs of loss involved a great deal of careful labor, and Mr. Blatchford and Dr. Stimpson deserved much credit for the able and faithful manner in which they performed the work. The damaged specimens, books and other property were taken to a room in a building, owned by Mr. Scammon and Mr. McCagg, at the corner of La Salle and Lake streets, where Dr. Stimpson devoted several months in an effort to preserve them, but the final result showed that comparatively little of the property was of value, and a considerable portion of the insurance was finally collected. Many of the specimens destroyed were ex- ceedingly valuable scientifically, and could not be re- placed, and were therefore a severe loss to the scientific world as well as to the Academy.
Feeling the importance of fireproof accommoda-
512 Tfie Chicago Academy of Sciences.
tions for the museum and library, the board of trustees decided to fit up the old quarters, in the repaired build- ing, only for temporary use. They repaired the old wall cases and caused to be constructed several new cases for the storage of specimens. The room was put in order for taxidermy and for the arranging and labeling of specimens as they were received. But little attempt was made to prepare exhibitions for the public, and only a few additional cases for this purpose were provided.
On July 20, 1866, the board of trustees purchased from the Catholic bishop of Chicago a lot with frontage of fifty-five feet on Wabash avenue. This lot was north of Van Buren street, and included Nos. 263 and 265. A brick dwelling was situated on the south forty feet of this lot. This building the board repaired, and raising the roof they added another story. This struc- ture was soon rented for a term of five years at an annual rental of $3,000. The portion of the lot not occupied by the building was reserved. Upon the rear of this it was the intention to eventually erect a fire- proof building which should contain exhibition, library and work rooms and a suitable hall for the meetings of the Academy and for lectures. The selection of this central site for its future home was pleasing to all the members of the Academy.
The question of location -having been settled, the board of trustees deemed it unwise longer to retain the property formerly purchased on Thirtieth street, and they therefore placed it in the market. In October, 1866, it was sold at a handsome advance over the pur- chase price, one-half to Mr. John W. Foss, and the remainder to Mr. Reuben P. Layton.
In the year 1867, at the request of the officers of the Smithsonian Institution, the Academy joined with them in sending Mr. Ferdinand Bishoff on an exploring expedition, for the purpose of conducting zoological investigations along the shores of the northern Pacific ocean, and of collecting specimens. The Academy was
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 513
to pay one-half of the expenses and to receive one-half of the results.
During the same year a complete set of the game birds of Illinois was prepared and sent as an Academy exhibit to the World's Fair, to be held in Paris. This collection was greatly admired by visitors to the fair, and was finally exchanged for a fine collection of mounted European birds.
The plans for the new building to be erected by the Academy on the rear of its Wabash avenue prop- erty 'were prepared early in this year, but they were not fully developed and accepted until late in the spring, and work on the building was not commenced until in June. The details incident to the erection of the building were under the supervision of a committee of the board of trustees, consisting of Daniel Thomp- son, Eliphalet W. Blatchford and George C. Walker. These gentlemen gave much time and attention to this work, and carefully watched the construction at every step. The architect was W. W. Boyington.
The building, which was fifty feet wide by fifty- five feet in depth, and about fifty feet in height, was reached from Wabash avenue by a court eighteen feet in width. The building 'was finished throughout and contained a basement, a ground story, and above this a museum hall, containing two galleries. There is an interesting note in the records of the Academy to the effect that the building "Was fireproof throughout, and that no expense was spared to guard against an- other loss by fire."
The museum hall was filled with well constructed exhibition cases of several suitable designs, which were "Moth and dust proof." The first floor was arranged for the secretary, office, library and meeting hall. The exterior of the building was plain but sub- stantial, no attempt being made at ornate display.
The building was completed in January, 1868, and the first meeting of the society held in the new hall
514 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
was the annual meeting' of that year on January 28. During the month of December, 1867, the collec- tions which had accumulated since the fire of June 7 were removed from the old quarters in the Metro- politan block and placed in the new museum.
The supposed fireproof character of its new home, which was unique at that time in the construction of museum buildings, led many institutions, as well as private individuals, to send large and valuable collec- tions to the Academy. This was especially true of the Smithsonian Institution.
During the year 1868 many specimens were received from the Bishoff expedition, and some, including birds and plants, from the Kennicott expedition of two years before. Previous to this time the museum had been opened only to members of the Academy, students of natural history and invited guests: but numerous requests were received, asking permission to visit the collections. It became evident that the general public was interested; and on November 9, 1869, the following resolution was adopted by the board of trustees:
Resolved, That the museum of the Academy, located in their building, be opened to the public every Saturday from 9 o'clock A. M. to 5 o'clock P. M. On other week days members of the Academy, students of the natural sciences and strangers in the city will be admitted upon application to the secretary of the building.
This step tended to popularize the Academy, and was thoroughly appreciated by the public. It was the stepping stone to a greater freedom and a more gen- eral invitation to all to visit the museum, and finally resulted .in throwing open the doors every day in the year, and all comers were admitted without charge. This rule holds to-day, and must continue in force so long as the Academy has a home in Lincoln Park.
Appreciating that the title, ''Academy of Sciences," was a broad one, and that in the limited number of meetings possible in each year time would not permit
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 515
the presentation of papers representing- the work of the numerous special lines of investigation, it was deemed advisable to so modify the constitution as to permit the organization of sections. In January, 1870? such an amendment was adopted, and a "Section of Microscopy" and a " Section of Botany " were formed.
Thus the Academy advanced step by step. Each monthly meeting1 showed an increased interest. It was evident that the affairs of the society were ably managed, and that a strong foundation had been estab- lished, upon which could be built a future valuablea like to the lay and to the professional seekers after scientific knowledge. During the last five months of the year 1870, 2,058 people visited the museum. This was a gratifying number for that period in the history of Chicago. At the close of that year the total member- ship of the society numbered 139 life, sixty-nine resi- dent and forty-six corresponding members.
At the beginning of the year 1871 a brilliant future seemed assured. Choice material constantly flowed to its care, and the enthusiasm of the members steadily grew under the wise guidance of Director Stimpson.
But the evidences of the prosperity of the Academy were not measured solely by these material elements. It had a large hold upon public esteem. It was popular to be scientific and to foster those things which would aid and advance the investigation of the truths of nature. The display of specimens and apparatus and discussions of new theories were welcomed in the homes of our citizens. Many soirees were held, and largely attended by representative people.
The act which perhaps did more than any other to establish a reputation for the Academy and give it a recognized place as a scientific institution among the older societies, European as well as American, was the publication of its first volume of transactions. This was a royal octavo volume, containing eleven valuable papers and 337 pages. It was beautifully illustrated
516 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
with thirty-four full-page plates and a number of text figures. The mechanical execution was above criti- cism. The papers represented original research, and were recognized as contributions of the highest value to science. The outlook was bright indeed, but the hopes and ambitions of all were doomed to disappointment, and the Academy was again destined to pass through severe trials.
On the night of October 9, 1871, the great fire, whose record is now a part of history, swept away a large part of the city of Chicago. The Academy's building was near the southern border of the burned • district, and time would have permitted the removal of its most valuable contents, but it seemed more danger- ous to remove them than to allow them to remain, as the building was considered fireproof. Those present at the museum closed every avenue of attack by the fire, removed from the walls whatever would readily burn, piled the library and valuable manuscripts upon the floor, and departed to a place of safety, expecting on their return to find everything safely preserved, but, like all the other fireproof buildings in the city, many of which were constructed in the most perfect manner to which human art had yet attained, it went down in a fiery furnace, the magnitude of which the world had never before seen, and in an intensity of heat which even stone and iron could not resist. The lesson taught by our great disaster is that no building, however admirably constructed, can be considered fireproof, unless it is also isolated.
In the minute book of the board of trustees there is the following record:
"On the 9th of October, 1871, in that great con- flagration1 which swept away all the better portion of Chicago, the Academy building, with all its valuable contents, was burned. Hardly a vestige remained. It was the work of years laid low in an hour, and we might truthfully say that in some instances it was the
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 517
destruction of all the results of the labors of a life- time. Many persons had labored faithfully for the Academy from its very organization. They had watched its steady growth month by month, and year by year, and felt a just pride in all it had accomplished. It was very dear to them, for their labor had helped to make it. Their work had been one for love of science, and they had acted from a heartfelt desire to benefit their fellow-man. In that building were the collections of the very founder of the institution, Mr. Robert Kennicott, who worked so faithfully, but died before he could see the great good he had done. There were also the collections, library, publications and valuable manuscripts of Dr. William Stimpson. His loss was beyond computation. It seemed as though all the labor of his life was gone. In a letter to the secretary he says in reply to some words of sympathy, he had, indeed, lost heavily — in fact his all — the product of days and nights of toil in many parts of the world for the past twenty years. He had looked forward to the publication of his own works by the government, and consoled himself with the thought that although he could not leave his children wealth, he could yet leave them this assurance, that he had nevertheless not been idle. But a fatality seemed to attend him. He had just completed, by his trip in August, the gathering in of all his materials — from his father's house, from Agassiz's, from Ilchester, and from the Smithsonian, just in time for the fire. 'But had I lost twice as much I shall never regret coming to Chicago, for I have found there noble and generous friends, not only to myself, but friends of science such as no other city in America can boast; and of more value to me than worldly possessions will be the memory of the friendly experiences I have had with yourself and the other trustees and the friends of the Academy, while we to- gether built up a monument which, though now leveled
518 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
with the dust, will long- live in scientific history. May our past be an earnest of our future.' '
As the record books of the museum were entirely consumed, a full statement of the losses cannot be made. No history of the Academy would be complete, however, without an enumeration of the more im- portant collections that had been placed in its care. Fortunately Dr. Stimpson was so familiar with the col- lections that he was able to spread on the minutes a very complete report of its past possessions. Some of these collections were of co much importance in the scientific world that even now inquiries are received asking- as to their whereabouts. They had formed the basis of publications, for many of the specimens were types. Even though the time had been so short since the organization of the Academy, there was far more in the museum and library than was gen- erally understood or even suspected, for the building- was filled from basement to attic with exhibits and specimens. The lack of room for the new accessions, which were constantly arriving, was so marked that the trustees had considered the necessity of acquiring a new location and the erection of a larger and more commodious building which should have a larger area for the ever increasing additions. Dr. Stimpson stated that, "The actual cost of the specimens, reckoning the cost of purchase or the expense of collection, was not less than $200, 000."
The following are among the valuable special col- lections lost in this catastrophe:
1. The state collection of insects, which contained a large number of types.
2. The William Cooper collection of marine mol- lusca, which was one of the most complete in this country.
3. The Florida collection, which very fully illus- trated the zoology of the Florida coast in all its depart- ments.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 519
4. The splendid series of specimens illustrative of the natural history of Alaska, collected in 1865 to 1869 by Bishoff and the naturalists of the Western Union Telegraph expedition.
5. The Smithsonian collection of Crustacea, un- doubtedly at that time the largest alcoholic collection in the world. This filled over 10,000 jars containing types of the species described by Prof. Dana and other American authors, besides hundreds of new species, many of which were described in manuscript lost by the same fire.
6. The invertebrates of the United States north Pacific exploring expedition, largely collected in the Japanese seas by Dr. Stimpson during the years 1853 to 1856. This collection included a large number of annelides, mollusks and radiates, many of which were undescribed except in manuscripts, which were also lost.
7. The Stimpson collection of marine shells, col- lected on the sea coast from Maine to Texas. This valuable collection represented the labor of twenty years. Nearly every species was illustrated by speci- mens from every locality in which it occurs, not only in our own shores, but also on those of Europe and the Arctic sea. There were about 8,000 separate lots of specimens.
8. The United States coast survey collection of deep sea Crustacea and mollusks, dredged in the gulf stream by Mr. M. Pourtales in the years 1867 and 1868. This collection had been sent to Dr. Stimpson for description.
9. A large collection of the tertiary fossils from Virginia and Alabama.
10. The Dr. Franklin Scammon herbarium, con- sisting of over 6,000 species of plants.
11. The Scammon collection of ancient Central American pottery and implements.
12. The Arctic collection of Robert Kennicott, made during the years 1859 to 1861. These, though
520 Ttie Chicago Academy of Sciences.
damaged by the fire of 1866, were still one of the most important collections of the museum.
The general collection contained about 2,000 mam- mals; 30 mounted skeletons, including two mastodons, an African elephant, sea otter and an elephant seal; 10,000 birds; 1,000 nests, with the eggs, and a great quantity of eggs without the nests ; 1,000 reptiles; 5,000 fishes, including many large sharks and rays; 15,000 species of insects and other articulates; 5,000 species of mollusks, with a large number of duplicates; 3,000 jars of radiates, including several hundred corals; 1,000 jars of mollusks in alcohol; 8,000 species of plants; 15,000 species of fossils and 4,000 minerals. Besides these there were 1,000 specimens illustrative of Amer- ican archaeology and ethnological collection, which embraced a very fine series of the clothing and imple- ments of the Esquimaux of the Anderson river, col- lected by Robert Kennicott and others, and presented to the Academy by the Smithsonian Institution.
The library contained about 2,000 volumes, and over 5,000 pamphlets and maps. Besides these, there were in the building and destroyed with it the library of the Audubon club; the valuable conchological library of Mr. George C. Walker, which included colored copies of the works of Sowerby, Reeve, Philippi, Dunker, Romer and Kuster, Martini, Chemnitz and others; the library of works on the marine invertebrates belonging to Secretary Stimpson, which practically included all the extant works on this subject.
A number of valuable manuscripts, representing the study and investigation of the various collections, were destroyed. Some of these were to be published by the Smithsonian Institution, and some through other sources. There were several hundred accurate drawings, illustrating different forms, which had been made at a considerable expense, and belonged to the manuscript reports.
As the building was considered fireproof, no insur-
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 521
ance was carried on either the structure or its contents. On the dwelling house there were two policies, each written for $5 ,000.
Thus in a few hours the Academy had lost all. Its buildings, its records, its valuable collections and its library were totally destroyed; yet ambition, hope, and above all, courage and will, still remained the domi- nant characteristics of its members. Within twelve days steps were taken looking toward its rehabilitation.
At a special meeting of the board of trustees, which was held October 23, 1871, and at which the future of the Academy was discussed, J. Young Scam- mon, Daniel Thompson and George C. Walker were appointed a committee on the disposition of the Wabash avenue property, and to consider the future location of the Academy building. Several offers of rooms, in which the Academy might establish a temporary home, were received. Before the last of the month of December, 1871, the debris on the Academy's lot had been removed, preparatory to improving it, provided no sale was made; and it was deemed wise to remain in that locality.
The first meeting of the members after the fire was held on the evening of October 21, 1871. At this meet- ing steps were taken to build up the collections, and several donations were announced. At the regular November meeting President John W. Foster spoke of the prospects and hopes of the members for the Academy's future. He was full of faith that the Academy, like the private interests that had suffered, would be speedily restored, and he predicted that in five years there would be built as good a building with as great a collection as that which was lost.
During the few years of its existence, vigorous and well directed exertion had established for the Academy a worthy reputation, which proved a most potent factor in its rehabilitation. The foreign and domestic societies which were its correspondents and
522 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
had received from it the important contributions to knowledge which it had issued, came to its aid with cordial and spontaneous assistance. These societies not only continued to send their exchanges, but in many cases gave complete files of their earlier issues, which under ordinary circumstances are obtained with exceeding difficulty. Thus the lost library was in a great measure restored. The museum also was simi- larly fortunate through the contributions of societies and individuals.
The kindness of societies and individual friends was constant and demonstrated that the Academy had not, after all, lost everything. The members were becoming reassured and the future again looked bright, when on May 26, 1872, its director and secretary, William Stimp- son, was removed from these offices by death. In the great fire, 'Dr. Stimpsonlost all the results of an earnest and prolific life. His extensive and unique collections had perished. The manuscripts in which they were described- and illustrated, and which represented the patient and accurate research of years, were gone. Always feeble, this blow was too much, and his health was still further undermined. After he had made his report regarding the losses sustained by the Academy, he was granted an indefinite leave of absence. He went to Florida hoping that a milder climate would, as it had done before, restore him to reasonably good health. From this trip he never returned, and passed away at the home of his friends in Ilchester, Maryland.
The death of the Academy's chief executive officer was indeed a great affliction. He had done more than any one else, with the exception of Robert Kennicott, to build up its scientific interests. It is seldom that a person is honored with three high offices at the same time in such an organization, but Dr. Stimpson was both director of the museum, a trustee for life and secretary of the Academy.
In the administration of its affairs during the few
The Chicago Academy of Science*. 523
years intervening since its organization he raised it, in the magnitude of its collections, to the fifth, and in certain departments, to the first in rank in the United States. He organized a system of exchanges which extended to distant and widely separated regions. He maintained a correspondence with kindred societies at home and abroad. He classified and arranged the materials gath- ered from every quarter of the globe into a harmonious system, of use both to the public and to the student. He was profoundly versed in many branches of natural science, and was one of a few in whom was combined ability as a collector of facts and specimens, with the power accurately to describe and classify what he had gathered. In his social relations he was kind and courteous, and, while ready at all times to impart in- formation, he was not obtrusive in his opinion. He loved science for its own sake, and all his labors were directed to its advancement.
A statement of the direct losses by the fire by no means includes all the misfortunes which the Academy had to bear because of that catastrophe. Shortly be- fore that time friends conspired together in its behalf. They entered into an agreement that they would build for it a new edifice, at a cost of $100,000. This project was fully ripe, even to the drawing of the plans, when the fire prevented its realization. These friends were: Eliphalet W. Blatchford, George C. Walker and Daniel Thompson.
Immediately after the fire the citizens of Chicago were aflame with the ambition to rebuild their city, and to make it more substantial and attractive than ever before. This same zeal was the controlling spirit that animated those who had so wisely guided the aft'airs of the Academy. They determined to rebuild the museum, and to erect upon the front of the property a handsome and commodious block suitable for business purposes. The funds controlled by the Academy were not sufficient for such a project. Therefore the board of trustees
524 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
borrowed the additional amount required, securing the lender by mortgage upon the whole property. They estimated that the income from the rents would provide a sinking fund by which the original indebtedness would be paid when it became due, besides furnishing in part the means of defraying the current expenses. Looking to the future, they expected that ultimately, after the cost of the building had been met and the mortgage released, there would be an ample and well secured en- dowment, and future prosperity would thus be assured. The plan proved disastrous, as the area of trade did not increase to such an extent as to include these premises, and the long continued financial depression, which be- gan in 1873, followed. The new building was unoccu- pied for a long time, and the income derived from it did not even pay the interest on the mortgage; so, after a term of years, by the processes of law, the whole property was lost.
When the Wabash avenue property passed from the ownership of the Academy, new friends appeared. It still had its collections and books, but its losses had a depressing effect on its members. Hope for the future was not entirely gone, but rested in the minds of only a few. In 1886, when the sale was finally forced, an offer was received from and an arrangement made with the managers of the Interstate Exposition, by which the collections were to have space for exhibition in their building, then situated in the Lake Front park, at the foot of Adams street, where the Art Institute now stands. For the privilege of having this attrac- tion in their building, the managers agreed to furnish an office for the curator, where the business of the Academy could be transacted. They also agreed to pay his salary.
The conditions under which the collections were placed during the next six years could hardly have been worse. They were subjected to grime, smoke and dust; to danger from fire and the untutored handling of a
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
525
thoughtless throng of visitors. Yet this asylum was the ! -only one available, and the kind purpose of the Exposition managers and of their secretary, Mr. John P. Reynolds, should not be forgotten, nor its value in the least deprecated, for they not only freely offered the best at their disposal, but paid annually the many expenses incurred in the care of the collections, which, except for this friendly aid, might have been scattered or destroyed, or at least stored where they would have been inaccessible. The library was packed and stored.
EDMUND ANDREWS.
In the spring of 1892 the Exposition building was torn down, and the trustees were forced to remove and store the collections. That the Academy was kept alive during this period of depression was due to the earnest and effective work of the president, Dr. Ed- mund Andrews, and the secretary, Dr. J. W. Velie. These two were the only active working officers, and Dr. Velie was the only one who devoted his whole time
526
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
and attention to its interests. The actively interested members were few, but these few had perseverance and still retained much of the old time ambition, and they believed in the future success of the Academy. There were reasons why it ought to continue to live. Dr. Velie stood stanchly by it through prosperity and adversity. He gathered for its collections in places near and remote ; he spent money from his own income in many instances, in order more perfectly to preserve
J. W. VELIE.
its interests; with his own hand, and without assistance, he mounted the materials gathered, and fitted them for proper display. For this work he possessed a rare gift, and was eminently successful in pleasing the pub- lic. He arranged the programs for the meetings and kept the museum in the best condition that the means and accommodations at hand would permit, and ulti- mately saved it from total destruction. To Dr. Andrews and Dr. Velie the Academy owes lasting obligations.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 527
This period of inactivity and depression lasted till the latter part of the year 1891, when the old interest and ambitions were aroused in the minds of many of the members. The cause of this renewed activity, when affairs seemed to have reached their most disas- trous limit, was a proposition made to the board of trustees by the University of Chicago. This offer included the proposal to remove the Academy's head- quarters and its property to the University campus and to unite its fortunes with those of the University. The overtures made by the University were in the fullest degree courteous, kindly in spirit and commendable in promise. The University offered in substance to fur- nish room for the collections and apartments for the meeting's and offices. They agreed to pay the curator's salary and the incidental expenses incurred in the care of the property. They gave assurance that the Academy's autonomy should be maintained ; that it should elect its own officers and have full control of its own property, thus preserving1 its own independent existence.
This plan was favored by some of the most faith- ful patrons of the Academy. They were men who had supported its tottering fortunes during long years of adversity, not merely by their countenance and influ- ence, but by constantly repeated pecuniary help, which aggregated large sums of money. They found in this plan the only hope for the perpetuating of an enter- prise which they had always held dear. Upon the advisability of accepting the proposition of the Univer- sity these friends, really the fathers of the Academy, were agreed. These views were adopted by the board of trustees and referred, before final action, to the members for a decision regarding the acceptance of the offer.
One of those who most strenuously favored the acceptance of this offer was Mr. George C. Walker, a trustee since its organization, and always a champion
528 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
of its work and welfare. Its interests were always foremost in his mind, and to him are due the sincerest thanks of its members, both past and present. The notable financial successes of the Academy throughout its history were largely due to Mr. Walker's efforts.
But the members felt that the movement, though not so intended, would result in the loss to the Acad- emy of its identity, and that gradually the members
GEORGE C. WALKER.
who were affiliated with other institutions would with- draw, while those connected with the university would remain. Thus, after no very long time, it would become merely a department of the university, or be entirely merged therein. The}?- also realized that Chicago was surrounded with a cordon of institu- tions of learning, all efficient, but different in import- ant respects, and to a certain degree antagonistic; and that these institutions were drawing about Chicago a great number of scholars, distinguished in their
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 529
varied scientific specialties, who would enjoy meeting- together on common ground in friendly intercourse, should there be established and maintained an arena in some central locality, where all might unite. They also believed that The Chicago Academy of Sciences,, because of its history, its traditions and the successes- it had achieved, its independence in spite of the misfor- tunes which it had suffered, because of what it was and what it could become, should be so ordered and administered that these elements could meet in its building and unite under its name. They believed that it should stand on neutral ground.
The members also advanced in opposition to the plan the long distance of the university campus from the center of the city. This argument was also- advanced as earnestly at the time the Douglas estate offered grounds on Cottage Grove avenue. The mem- bers present at the regular meeting of the Academy, when the proposition was submitted, voted against its acceptance, and the trustees acted in accordance with their expressed wish.
The result of this discussion was most satisfactory^ for it awoke the members from their lethargy. All1 began to seek some more satisfactory solution of the difficulties in which the Academy was involved. At the annual meeting of the year 1892 Dr. Selim H. Peabody was elected president. He had served as secretary during the period from December, 1875, to October, 1878, at which time he became a professor in the State University of Illinois. The meetings were well attended, and other organizations, such as the Chicago Chemical Society and the State Microscopical Society, expressed a desire to transfer their member- ship to the Academy. This union was perfected. A large number of worthy and working scientists applied for enrollment, so that within that year the list of active members was nearly doubled. The members, both new and old, were ready to form themselves into-
530 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
groups for the discussion of subjects along special lines. This is an age of specialists, and sections of microscopy, photography, entomology, chemistry, astronomy and physics, ethnology, pathology and geol- ogy were formed, and held regular monthly meetings. In fact, at no time in its history had the Academy shown a more vigorous life. This was the first result of the agitation concerning removal.
In the summer of the year 1892 an offer was re- ceived from the board of commissioners of the west park system to build a home for the Academy in Gar- field park, fronting on Madison street. This very promising offer was considered with favor by the board of trustees, but on consultation with legal authorities it was found that the law governing the actions of this board of commissioners would not enable them to make a contract which would protect the Academy in the ownership of its specimens and be binding on future boards appointed to control the affairs of the park.
About the same time the welcome intelligence was brought to the members that a Chicago family was animated with a generosity so wise and far seeing as to offer the means for building a permanent, secure and beautiful home for the Academy.
Mr. Matthew Laflin, who during a long and suc- cessful business career had been identified with the in- terests of Chicago, and who had grown up with it, seconded and aided by his sons, George H. Laflin and Lycurgus Laflin, had promised to give a generous sum of money toward this most noble purpose, under the fol- lowing conditions:
1. That the building should be fireproof.
2. That it should be erected on an appropriate site in Lincoln park.
3. That the museum should be opened to the pub- lic without charge.
4. That the plans for the building should be ap- proved by the family of the donor.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
531
5. That the building should be started in the year 1893 and completed in 1894.
The commissioners of Lincoln park indicated a willingness to enter into an agreement with the Acad- emy and Mr. Laflin, by which a plot of ground in the park should be designated for the occupancy of the building. At this point it was called to mind that several years before, the state legislature, at the in- stance of Mr. William C. Goudy, the attorney of and
WILLIAM C. GOUDY.
at this time president of the board of commissioners of Lincoln park, had enacted a law which gave authority to that board by which it might provide for the Acad- emy of Sciences within the territory over which they had control and enter into a perpetual contract. The commissioners also expressed a willingness to con- tribute to the expenses of construction, with the under- standing that they were to have within its walls rooms for their offices in perpetuity.
532 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
MAIN ENTRANCE TO THE ACADEMY'S BUILDING.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 533
Accordingly contracts were drawn and accepted by the three parties interested. The building was to cost $100,000, of which Mr. Laflin contributed $75,000, and the board of commissioners of Lincoln Park $25- 000. The contract specified that the building should be known as the Matthew Laflin Memorial, and should be occupied chiefly for the purposes of the Academy, a suite of apartments being set aside for the offices of the park authorities. The Academy was to have abso- lute and perpetual control of that part of the building devoted to its uses.
Appreciative recognition should be made here of the wise forethought of Mr. Goudy shown in the adjust- ment of these conditions, in which the interests of both the Academy and of the park were alike conserved. This wise and sagacious friend and counselor did not survive to see the building erected or the condi- tions of the contract fully operative. Mr. Goudv died April 27, 1893.
The site furnished for the building was most desir- able. It was situated on the west side of the park, opposite the opening of Center street. The building was designed by architects Patton & Fisher, upon lines suggested by the officers of the Academy. It was to be 132 feet in length by sixty-one feet in width, with a central portico in front forty feet in width and a projection of eleven feet. The style of architecture was to be Italian renaissance, the material buff Bed- ford limestone surmounted by a roof of red tile. The entrance was to be by a massive flight of stone steps, thirty-six feet in width, leading to a triple arch stone portico. On the first floor were to be the entrance hall, library and offices of the Academy and park commis- sioners. The great museum hall on the second floor was to be 55x128 feet in size, and surrounded on all sides by a gallery.
The corner stone of this edifice was laid October 10, 1893, in the presence of a large audience. Addresses
534
The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
were delivered by Mr. Robert A. Waller, president of the park board, Hon. John P. Altgeld, governor of the state of Illinois. Dr. Tarleton A. Bean, of the National museum, and Dr. Selim H. Peabody, president of the Academy.
As soon as progress in the finishing of the build- ing would permit, the collections, which had been stored near by since their enforced removal from the
A STUDY SERIES.
old Exposition building, were transferred to the new basement and there carefully examined, renovated and fitted for exhibition. This work was ably performed by Mr. Frank Collins Baker, the newly elected curator, who, during the years of his service, has placed the specimens in a most creditable form for the use of stu- dents, and for examination by the public.
The building was dedicated and opened to the public on the evening of Wednesday, October 31, 1894.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 535
The gathering of members and friends was addressed in the new and beautiful assembly hall, by Mr. Luther Laflin Mills, representing the Laflin family; by Dr. Thomas C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago;
YELLOW BILLED TROPIC BIRD.
by Dr. Sarah Hackett Stevenson, and Dr. Selim H. Peabody, president of the Academy.
The Academy's history may be divided into three distinct and interesting periods. Each period is marked by a series of successes and reverses.
The first period includes the time from the move-
536 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
ment to organize the parent society, "The Chicago Academy of Natural Sciences," 1856, to the date of the destruction of the Academy's property in the great fire, 1871. The second period dates from the fire, and closes with the opening of the Matthew Laflin Memorial build- ing, in 1894.
In the later days of the second period (1892) the Academy inaugurated one of the most important branches of its work. This, the " Natural History Sur- vey of Chicago and Vicinity," is of value both to the student of natural history and to the business man, for, when completed, it will have finished an investigation of both economic and purely scientific features of the area covered.
At the time of organization of the survey three general departments were decided upon: Geology and allied sciences, topography, zoology and botany. It was further decided that the work in the several divis- ions of these departments should be intrusted to men recognized as specialists, and published as bulletins and reports, which should be as nearly monographic as possible. Since the organization of the survey the work has been steadily progressing, and a large amount of data has been collected.
The area covered by the survey was known to be peculiar in two distinct systems of drainage, either of which might, under certain conditions, prevail over the other. As this peculiarity of the drainage is of great scientific interest, it was thought desirable to emphasize this by fixing upon the following boundaries: Begin- ning at the north line of Cook county and Lake Mich- igan, thence westward, coincident with the north line of Cook county to Kane county; thence southward along the east line of Kane and Kendall counties to the southeast corner of Kendall county; thence eastward, coincident with the south line of Cook county to the east line of Lake county, Ind. ; thence northward to Lake Michigan.
The Chicago Academy of Sciences. 537
These boundaries include an area of about forty- eight or fifty miles square, which, after deducting the approximate area of the lake covered portions, leaves nearly 1,800 square miles of land surface. It comprises all of Cook and Du Page counties, the nine north town- ships of Will county, and a portion of Lake county, Ind;
The importance of this survey will be appreciated when the rapid growth of the city of Chicago is con- sidered. The surface of the area is constantly changing,
PRESIDENT THOMAS C. CHAMBERLIN.
both because of the agency of man and of other forces. The numerous railroads centering here are constantly bringing new things to the soil, which, finding a con- genial climate, finally become a fixed part of our natural history. More important still is the recording of natural features that are being exterminated or effaced, and of which no indication will be left except in printed records. The historians of Chicago and its environments in future generations will have to depend
538 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
on the printed documents of the present for the indig- enous natural features.
The third period has begun, but is not yet closed. Since the Academy entered its new building its work has, with the exception of a few reverses, constantly advanced in value, both to its members and to the public. Its lectures and meetings have been well attended; its publications have increased in number and value, and its museum is open to the public every day in the year.
The following is a summary of the collections of the Academy :
Specimens.
In Mineralogy 5,000
" Paleontology 15,000
" Lower Invertebrates 2,500
" Mollusca 75,000
" Arthropoda 35,000
' ' Lower Vertebrates 300
" Ornithology 4,000
" Mammalogy 200
" Ethnology 1,000
138,000
The following are some of the special collections included in the above enumeration :
Species. Specimens.
W. C. Egan collection of local Niagaran
fossils - 200 5,000
W. C. Egan collection of paleozoic fossils - 1,200 7,000 John Walton collection of the genus
Cyprcea - 165 500
Andrew Bolter collection of insects - 4,000 10,000
Charles Sonne collection of coleoptera - 2,500 10,000 Frank M. Woodruff collection of local
birds - - 170 1,000
Frank C. Baker collection of local mollusks 175 5,000
Howard N. Lyon collection of mollusks - 10,000 William K. Higley collection of local
mollusks - - - - >•. .- 2,000
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539
J. H. Ferriss and J. H. Handwerk col- lection of local birds Francis S. Dayton collection of local birds Francis S. Dayton collection of local
birds' eggs
Charles M. Higginson collection of minerals Charles W. Johnson collection of diptera - J. W. Velie collection of Florida fauna. Skeleton of a mammoth.
Species. Specimens
300
1,000 364
625 500
600
LEANDER McCORMICK COLLECTION OF MAMMAL HEADS.
That this the successful third period of the Acade- my's history may never be closed unless it be by some marked and unusual achievement, is the earnest wish of all its members.
The following persons have served in the offices of president, secretary, trustee, director and curator:
540 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
PRESIDENTS.
Professor James V. Z. Blaney 1865-1861
Dr. Franklin Scammon 1862-1864
Dr. Edmund Andrews 1865
George C. Walker 1866-1868
Dr. Edmund Andrews 1869-1870
John W. Foster 1871-1873
Dr. Hosmer A. Johnson 1874-1875
Eliphalet W. Blatchf ord 1876-1878
Henry H. Babcock 1878-1881
William Bross 1882
Dr. Edmund Andrews 1883-1891
Dr. Selim H. Peabody 1892-1894
Charles M. Higginson 1895-1896
Dr. Thomas C. Chamberlin 1897-
SECRETARIES.
Major Robert Kennicott 1857-1864
Dr. William Stimpson 1865-1872
There was no secretary from the death of William Stimpson in 1872 to 1876.
Selim H. Peabody 1876-1878
J. W. Velie 1879-1891
William K. Higley 1892-1894
Frank C. Baker 1895-1897
William K. Higley 1898-
TRUSTEES.
J. Young Scammon 1864-1883
George C. Walker 1864-1898
Horatio G. Loomis 1864-1877
Daniel Thompson 1864-1868
Edmund Aiken 1864-1867
Ezra B. McCagg 1864-1883
Eliphalet W. Blatchf ord 1864-
William C. Doggett 1864-1876
Robert Kennicott 1864-1866
William Stimpson 1867-1872
Edwin H. Sheldon . . ... 1868-1891
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George H. Rumsey 1873
William C. Egan 1882-1897
Henry W. Fuller 1883
Nathaniel K. Fairbank 1883-1884
Benjamin W. Thomas 1883-1895
Edmund Andrews 1883-1894
Hosmer A. Johnson 1883-1891
Charles M. Higginson 1883-1899
Joseph Frank 1891-1892
James H. McVicker 1891-1892
Edward E. Ayer 1891-1893
John H. Long 1891-1895
Samuel J. Jones 1891-1899
Charles F. Gunther 1891-
Joseph R. Putnam 1892-
Ira J. Geer 1894-
Selim H. Peabody 1895-1896
Lyman J. Gage 1895-1896
Charles Dickinson 1895-1900
John Wilkinson 1896-
Louis E. Laflin 1896-
Charles S. Raddin 1898-
Charles E. Affeld 1899-
Ira J. Mason 1901-
DI RECTORS.
Robert Kennicott 1865-1866
William Stimpson 1866-1872
CURATORS.
Edmund Andrews 1856-1863
John M. Woodworth 1862-1863
Robert Kennicott 1864
William Stimpson 1865-1872
J. W. Velie (acting) 1873-1876
Selim H. Peabody 1876-1878
J. W. Velie 1879-1893
Frank C. Baker .... 1894-
WILLJAM KERR HIGLEY.
MATTHEW LAFLIN.
MATTHEW LAFLIN.
John Kinzie was the father of Chicago in a generic sense. Matthew Laflin is entitled to that distinction in a special sense, because he was the instrument by which so many of her permanent and useful industries have been built. He was born in 1803, in Southwick, Mass., being of Anglo- Scotch-Irish extraction. The genius of the bright New England lad drew its inspi- ration from other sources than Plymouth Rock. Econ- omy of pennies and of time, and a hardening of muscle with use, are omnipresent in that land, that Daniel Webster said was a good place in which to be born. There we find Mr. Laflin's endowment for a business life . His first venture was in the manufacture of powder, to make a market for which Chicago offered an inviting field, when work began on the Illinois and Michigan canal in 1837. It was then he came to this place and found a little mud clad village of 4,000 inhabitants which won his confidence, and here he cast his lot, and here, as well as at St. Louis, Milwaukee and Springfield, he established agencies for the sale of powder from his mills at Saugerties, New York. During the winter of 1838-39 he lived with his family in Old Fort Dearborn, thus associating himself with the mili- tary period of Chicago's history. His first venture of a speculative character was buying real estate, which soon made him a man of great wealth. He built the original Bull's Head hotel, on Ogden avenue and Madi- son street, as a resort for stock men, around which he built barns, sheds and cattle pens. This was the pioneer of the stock yards system, now so prominent a source of wealth in Chicago. In 1851 he established the first om- nibus line, running from Bull's Head to the State street market, then in existence, but abandoned four or five years later. The Bull's Head tavern was torn down
(543)
544 The Chicago Academy of Sciences.
in 1876, after having been used as an asylum for inebriates, called the Washington! an Home.
Mr. Laflin was a factor in starting the first system of water works in Chicago. It had been incorporated by the state in 1836, but the work of supplying the city with lake water was not begun till 1840. A reservoir for this purpose was built of pine lumber near the shore at the foot of Lake street, into which water was pumped from the lake and thence distributed by wooden pipes through the city. The power used for pumping was supplied by a flouring mill where the old Adams house was subsequently built, opposite the Illinois Central depot. He operated this system of water works for several years, until substituted by the pres- ent system, established by the city council and put into operation in 1854.
Mr. Laflin married in Canton, in 1827, Miss Hen- rietta Hinman, of Lee, Mass. ; they had three chil- dren, George and Georgiana, twins, and Lycurgus. His first wife died, and he afterward married Miss Catherine King, of Westfield, Mass. His second wife died in the winter of 1891, the family left then consisting of Mr. Laflin and two sons by his first wife, George H. and Lycurgus Laflin, both well known business men of Chi- cago, ever identified with its growing interest, both of whom have sons in the prime of life. Mr. Matthew Laflin, the venerable grandfather, died at his home May 20, 1897. He built his most enduring monument by erecting the building of the Academy of Sciences in Lincoln Park, which was the crowning work of his long and useful life.
RUFUS BLANCHARD.
ALASKAN MOOSE.
A CASE OF CORALS.
JOHN CRERAR.
THE JOHN CRERAR LIBRARY.
The John Crerar Library, the latest established of the free public libraries of the city, owes its existence to the bequest of the late John Crerar.
Mr. Crerar, for many years a prominent citizen of Chicago, was of Scotch ancestry, the son of John and Agnes (Smeallie) Crerar. Born in New York in 1827, he was educated in the schools of that city, and entered into business there, becoming a member of the firm of Jessup, Kennedy & Co. Coming to Chicago in 1862, he established the firm of Crerar, Adams & Co., dealers in railroad supplies, and accumulated a large fortune. At the time of his death he was a director of the Pull- man Palace Car Co., of the Chicago & Alton Railroad Co., of the Illinois Trust and Savings Bank, and presi- dent of the Chicago & Joliet Railroad Co. He was a member and trustee of the Second Presbyterian church, and gave liberally of his time and money to the work of his church. He was greatly interested in the charit- able institutions of the city, being a director of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society and of the Presby- terian Hospital, and vice-president of the Chicago Orphan Asylum. All of these and many others were liberally remembered in his will. He was equally prominent socially, and was a member of the Chicago, Calumet, Union, Commercial and Literary clubs.
Mr. Crerar died October 19, 1889. His will, dated August 5, 1886, was admitted to probate November 14, 1889, and its validity was finally established by a decision of the Supreme court of Illinois, rendered June 19, 1893. In this will specific bequests of more than $600,000 were made to relatives and friends, and of nearly 81,000,000 to charitable institutions and public purposes.
The fiftieth section of the will disposed of the remainder of the estate in the following words :
(545)
546 The John Crerar Library.
Recognizing the fact that I have been a resident of Chicago since 1862, and that the greater part of my fortune has been accumu- lated here, and acknowledging with hearty gratitude the kindness that has always been extended to me by my many friends, and by my business and social acquaintances and associates, I give, devise and bequeath all the rest, remainder and residue of my estate, both real and personal, for the erection, creation, maintenance and endowment of a free public library, to be called "The John Crerar Library," and to be located in the city of Chicago, 111., a preference being given to the South Division of the city, in as much as the Newberry Library will be located in the North Division. I direct that my executors and trustees cause an act of incorporation under the laws of Illinois, to be procured to carry out the purpose of this bequest; and I request that Norman Williams be made the first president thereof; and that, in addition to my executors and trustees, the following named friends of mine will act as the first board of directors in such corpo- ration, and aid and assist my executors and trustees therein, namely: Marshall Field, E. W. Blatchford, T. B. Blackstone, Robert T. Lin- coln, Henry W. Bishop, Edward G. Mason, Albert Keep, Edson Keith, Simon J. McPherson, John M. Clark and George A. Armour, or their survivors. I desire the building to be tasteful, substantial and fire- proof, and that a sufficient fund be reserved over and above the cost of its construction to provide, maintain and support a library for all time. I desire the books and periodicals selected with a view to create and sustain a healthy moral and Christian sentiment in the community, and that all nastiness and immorality be excluded. I do not mean by this that there shall not be any thing but hymn books and sermons, but I mean that dirty French novels and all skeptical trash and works of questionable moral tone shall never be found in this library. I want its atmosphere that of Christian refinement, and its aim and object the building up of character, and I rest con- tent that the friends I have named will carry out my wishes in these particulars.
The amount thus bequeathed was estimated at the time to be about $2,500,000, but it was hoped that im- provement in the business conditions of the country would materially increase this sum. These hopes have been amply realized, and in December, 1901, the total endowment, on a most conservative estimate, was $3,400,000.
The administration of the estate in the Probate court was closed July 13, 1894. Meanwhile the trustees of the estate had co-operated with the trustees of the Newberry estate in securing legislation which seemed needed for the better organization and administration of endowed libraries, embodied in "An act to encour- age and promote the establishment of free public libraries," approved June 17, 1891. Under this act the John Crerar Library was incorporated on October 12, 1894, and duly organized January 12, 1895. All of the
The John Crerar Library. 547
directors named by Mr. Crerar nine years before were living and present, and Norman Williams was elected the first president, as Mr. Crerar desired.
Mr. Williams gave much time and thought to the development of the library, and retained the presidency until his death in 1899. He was succeeded by Hunting- ton W. Jackson, who, both as trustee of the estate and as chairman of the committee on administration, had already proved his interest in the library, which was further manifested by a bequest of $1,000, notable as the first bequest received by the institution other than the one by which it was founded. His death followed too soon, in January, 1901, and he was succeeded by Hon. Peter Stenger Grosscup. Other deaths and re- movals from the city have changed materially the con- stitution of the board of directors, which in December, 1901, consisted of the following gentlemen: Marshall Field, E. W. Blatchford, Robert T. Lincoln, Henry W. Bishop, Albert Keep, John M. Clark, Frank S. Johnson, Peter Stenger Grosscup, Arthur J. Caton, Marvin Hughitt, Thomas D. Jones, John J. Mitchell, Leonard A. Busby and the mayor and comptroller of Chicago, ex officiis. The treasurer, William J. Louderback, and the librarian, Clement W. Andrews, were appointed in 1895 and have served to the present time.
The first act of the directors, after organization, was to declare that the whole amount of the bequest was not too large for the sufficient fund which they were required to reserve in order to provide, maintain and support the library for all time, and that therefore the endowment should not be encroached upon either for land, building or books, but that a building fund should be accumulated from the income. This fund in Jan- uary, 1902, amounted to nearly $400,000.
The second act of the directors was to determine the character and scope of the library. The trustees of the estate had prepared a list of the public libraries of the city, giving their character and size. The actual
548 The John Crerar Library.
and prospective development of the Chicago Public Library as a great lending librar}'-, and of the Newberry Library as a great reference library in certain fields largely influenced the trustees to suggest that the John Crerar Library be made a reference library, embracing such departments as were not fully occupied by any other existing library in Chicago, and that the number of departments be limited to such as the funds of the library could render complete and unique.
After a careful consideration of the whole subject the directors unanimously decided to establish a free public reference library of scientific and technical literature. This decision seemed to them to accord with the particular business activities by which the greater part of Mr. Crerar's fortune had been accumu- lated, to exclude naturally certain questionable classes of books which his will distinctly prohibits, and to favor the aim and object which it expressly points out. As personal friends, who had been acquainted with his wise and generous purposes, and with his civic patriot- ism and gratitude, they believed that he would surely have wished his gift to supplement, in the most effective way, the existing and prospective library collections of Chicago, and to be of the greatest possible value to the whole city.
Accordingly, a series of conferences with the trustees of the Chicago Public Library and the New- berry Library was held, and an elastic scheme for the division of the field was adopted. The special field of the John Crerar Library may be defined as that of the natural, physical and social sciences, and their applica- tions. It is the purpose of the directors to develop the library as symmetrically as possible within these limits, and to make it exceptionally rich in files of scientific and technical periodicals, both American and foreign.
The years 1895 and 1896 were fully occupied in the preliminary work of organization. A librarian was ap- pointed, a staff selected and temporary quarters secured
The John Crerar Library. 549
by leasing the whole of the sixth floor and later one- half the fifth floor of the Marshall Field & Co. building, 87 Wabash avenue. The suite consists of a reading- room, two stack rooms, directors' room and other rooms needed for the administration of the library. The reading room, accommodating nearly 100 readers, is fitted in dark oak. Around the walls is shelved a collection of 3,000 volumes, intended to include, be- sides general works of reference, the best works, both advanced and popular, on each important subject within the scope of the library, and a selection of other works especially interesting or much in demand. The room contains also the periodical alcove, with 1,500 periodicals currently received, and the public card catalogues. The latter contain the titles of all the books in the library, printed upon cards and arranged in three ways, alphabetically by authors, alphabetically by subjects, and classed by subjects. The last named arrangement is the one most consulted, and no pains have been spared to make it as full and accurate as possible. Its unusual fullness and also the triple arrangement, which is not known to be in actual use elsewhere, have been made possible by the printed catalogue cards. They have made possible also the distribution of the catalogue to seven other institutions, interested in its work. These catalogues are supple- mented by an extensive collection on bibliography, including card indexes to agriculture, botany, mathe- matics, photography and zoology.
April 1, 1897, the library was opened to the public, without formalities. Even before the fitting of the rooms was completed the purchase of books had been begun, and at the time of opening there were 15,000 volumes ready for use. and 7,000 more in prep- aration. On December 31, 1901, there were over 75,000. It is already a fair working library in most of the subjects within its scope, and is, indeed, much more than this in some, notably in American natural history, engineering, mathematics and ornithology.
550 The John Crerar Library.
The use of the library by the public has fully justified the action of the directors. Beginning with an average of eighty a day, the attendance has increased to more than 175, in spite of the fact that the library is so situated as to escape the notice of one seeking it, rather than to attract the attention of the passer-by. The recorded use, which does not include books from the shelves in the reading room, those read in the stack rooms, or periodicals read in the periodical alcove, has increased even more rapidly, and for 1901 was more than 40,000 volumes and periodi- cals. The total use is about three times that number.
In 1901 the directors took up the question of a permanent site, and decided that the greatest useful- ness of the library could be secured only by a central location. They therefore appealed to the state legis- lature and to the city council, for permission to erect a building on what is commonly known as the Lake Front. This permission was granted by the legislature in "An act to authorize the John Crerar Library to erect and maintain a free public library on Grant Park . .-» . " approved March 29, 1901, and by the city council in an ordinance passed March 18, 1901. The act provides that the library shall procure the consent of such abutting property owners as have the right to object. The site granted is the space bounded by Madison street, the Illinois Central railroad, Mon- roe street and Michigan avenue. The dimensions are approximately 400 feet front by 300 feet depth ; and it is proposed, as soon as the required frontage consents can be secured, to build a rectangular building of 300 feet frontage in classic style. The sketch plans pro- vide for the storage of about 1,000,000 volumes and the accommodation of about 500 readers, and for future extensions more than doubling this capacity. With such accommodations, and in such a locality, the library will undoubtedly enter at once upon a career of greatly increased usefulness. CLEMENT W. ANDREWS.
ILLINOIS UNDER THE FRENCH.
'Twas in the reign of Louis XVI of France that La Salle was appointed governor of the Illinois coun- try in 1682, the year in which La Salle had navigated the Mississippi to its mouth and named the entire coun- try Louisiana, in honor of the French king. La Salle sel- dom remained long at any one place, his time being occu- pied by exploring the new country or conferring with the governor of Canada, but to keep up a show of French authority in the Illinois country it was necessary that some one should constantly be on the spot to act as gov- ernor. This honor was conferred by La Salle upon Tonty, who was ever faithful, not only to the interests of France, but to La Salle himself.
And now began the official line of organized gov- ernment here, though there was nothing to govern at the time except a few zealous priests, who needed no restraint, and a large number of Indians whom no legal forms could restrain, added to whom were a score of fur traders, untractable and lawless as birds of passage> and almost as transient in their erratic wanderings.
The first thing to do was to build a fort, without which no authority could exist even in form. The site for this was chosen on what is now the summit of Starved Rock, near Utica, on the Illinois river. This was done in December, 1682, and christened Fort St. Louis. It proved a refuge of safety, around which the Illinois tribes gathered with confidence, and again the rich valleys which its heights overlook swarmed with Indian life, bidding defiance to Iroquois invasion from under the guns of French allies.
The cause of these invasions grew out of English rivalry in the fur trade. Dongan, the colonial gov- ernor of New York, furnished the Iroquois with the material wherewith to make them, and these defiant warriors were ever ready to do his bidding, for they
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552 Illinois.
were dependent on the English for guns and ammuni- tion, as well as many rude implements of civilization, of which they had been taught the use.* In like manner such Indians as were in alliance with the French espoused their cause against the English, and often made hostile incursions from Canada into the frontier English settlements adjacent. Governor Dongan's headquarters were at Albany, and from here he sent out men to intercept the trade of the French along the lakes, for even in this early day the western trade was a cov- eted prize between the French of the St. Lawrence and the English of the Hudson river. This trade has now multiplied a thousand-fold in value, and is chiefly secured to the Americans by the Erie canal and the various railroads that connect Illinois with the Atlantic seaboard.
The French settlements of southern Illinois were permanent and were the first substantial results of La Salle's discoveries and explorations, as well as the missionary labors of Marquette and others. Much uncertainty has hitherto existed as to the date of the commencement of these settlements, but the following which Mr. J. G. Shea has given to the writer will settle the question:
"THE MISSION OF THE IMMACULATE CON- CEPTION AMONG THE KASKASKIAS.
' ' This mission dates from September, 1673, when Father Marquette visited the Kaskaskias at their town on the upper Illinois river. It bore the name Kaskas- kia, and consisted of sixty-nine cabins.
" It was on the Illinois river, about six miles below the mouth of the Fox river. Having promised to return and establish a mission among them, he set out in November, 1674, wintered at Chicago, and on Easter, 1675, reached Kaskaskia, beginning the mission under the name of the Immaculate Conception. Finding his
*Doc. Hist, of New York.
Illinois. 553
malady increasing", he endeavored to reach Mackinac, but died on the way. Father Claude Allouez renewed the mission April 27, 1677, and continued it until La Salle's expedition reached Illinois. The Recollets began a mission at Fort Creve Coeur, but none at Kas- kaskia, and the mission there soon closed. Allouez subsequently returned, and was succeeded in 1690 by Father James Gravier, who established the mission on a firm basis about 1693.
"When the French began a settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi in 1699 several northern tribes prepared to go down and settle there. The Kaskaskias went to the Mississippi in 1700, but were induced to wait and settle at the present Kaskaskia. The mission and town retained the old name.
"THE MISSION AT CAHOKIA AND TAMAROA.
' ' This mission was founded about 1700 by Father Francis Pinet, but the next year the mission was trans- ferred from the Jesuits to priests sent from the sem- inary of Quebec. Rev. Mr. Burgur was the first. After a time they confined themselves to the care of the French settlers and left the Indians to the Jesuits. The Quebec priests remained at Tamaroa till the fall of French power."
Not long after the settlements of Kaskaskia and Cahokia, the circumstances of which have just been told by Mr. Shea, other French towns were established near by them, altogether constituting a thriving settlement midway between Canada and the settlements at the mouth of the Mississippi river. To protect them Fort Chartres was built, being finished in 1720. It was at that time the strongest fort in North America. Some relics of it still remain as a monument of French power in Illinois, but part of it has been undermined by the wearing away of the river bank, while much of the stone of which it was originally built has been appropriated
554 Illinois.
for private use. No hostile shot was ever fired against its walls, and if French power had been as invulnera- able against attack at her outermost limits as at this place she would have remained the great power in America till political revolution had wrought what for- eign foes were unable to do.
ILLINOIS UNDER ENGLISH RULE.
According to the definitive treaty of Paris in 1763 the French possessions of North America, east of the Mississippi river, fell into English hands, but the diffi- culties were so great, of taking possession of this immense country, that it was not until 1765 that the English assumed authority in it. This was done by Captain Sterling, who arrived on the ground Octo- ber 10, making his headquarters at Fort Chartres, when the English flag was raised and the French flag was lowered. The French population of the Illinois villages at this time was about 2,000, added to whom were about 500 slaves. From this date, to the period of the American revolution, the happy French of Illinois remained in quiet possession of their civil rights until General George Rogers Clark took possession of the country in the interests of the American government in 1778. English authority from that day ceased in the Illinois country. Phillipe Francois de Rastel, Cheva- lier de Rocheblave, a Frenchman, had been constituted its governor by the English in 1776, but his official authority was now suspended.
When Gen. Clark made the conquest of the Illinois country, Rocheblave was taken prisoner, and soon after- wards was sent east, under custody, to Patrick Henry, governor of Virginia. Here, if his own account could be believed, it was proposed to him to return to Illinois to govern the country in the interest of the Americans; claiming, also, that he resolutely withstood such flat- tering temptations. Previous to his having been made British governor of Illinois, he had a French command
THE OLD STATE HOUSE AT KASKASKIA.
NINNIAN EDJVAKDS, APRIL, :MTH, 1S09, CONVENED THE FIRST TERRITORIAL LEGISLATURE IN ILLINOIS IN THIS BUILDING. IT WAS THE FIRST BKICK HOUSE BUILT WEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES, THE BRICKS HAVING BEEN BROUGHT FROM P1TTSBURG. PA. BUILDING ON THE LEFT WAS USED FOR A HOTEL. A NATIONAL INTEREST IS FELT IN THIS VENERABLE RELIC, FROM THE FACT THAT LA FAYETTE PAID IT A VISIT IN 1X24, AND SALUTED HIS FRENCH BROTHERS WITH THAT LOVING ENTHUSIASM CHARACTERISTIC OF THE FRENCH.
Taken from nature by DAVID M. Mo LEAN just before it was undermined by the erosion of tlic Mississippi.
Illinois. 555
at St. Genevieve, on the Spanish side of the Mississippi river, in which capacity he was a very tenacious de- fender of his Catholic majesty, the king of Spain. Previous to this, in 1755, he was in the French and Indian army that defeated Braddock on the Mononga- hela. After he had been sent to Virginia as a prisoner of war, the blandishment of his manners secured for him a parole, and taking advantage of this parole, he coquetted, by letter or otherwise, both with the French and the English, and laid down plans for military ex- peditions, in favor of sometimes one and sometimes the other. That he was a brave soldier no one ever doubted. That he was treacherous in his allegiance to any nation is equally true.
ILLINOIS UNDER AMERICAN RULE. From the first the Americans had shown a firm pur- pose to retain the Illinois country, and, in accordance with this resolution, the General Assembly of Virginia, in October, 1778, made provision for the forms of a temporary government there, and the following year, on June 15, John Todd, a colonel under Clark, by author- ity of these provisions, issued a proclamation at Kaskas- kia, organizing the country into a county of Virginia, to be called Illinois county, and a fort was built the same year on the east bank of the Mississippi river, just below the mouth of the Ohio, to defend the country from the Spaniards. At that time Spain owned half of South America, Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, Florida and all the territory west of the Mis- sissippi river to the Pacific ocean, which latter she had purchased of France in 1761. She was the European power above all others that represented the intensified forms of feudalism and tyranny, bold, defiant and aggressive in her state councils and intolerant in civil and religious rights. The fires of despotism were consuming her vitals, and soon burnt out the materials wherewith to sustain her dogged and uncompromising
556 Illinois.
determination to crush the manhood out of her colonial subjects. The consequence was that her power went rapidly into decline when the portions of America over which her laws extended were brought into proximity and rivalry with the progressive spirit of young Amer- ica, as the sequel proved. To record the history of her attempts to extend her dominion over the Mississippi valley would fill a volume. All of them were abortive, for the reason that her government was behind the age of the progressive civilization that had been growing into maturity under liberal English law in America. This law, when extended over the French settlements, was hailed with welcome, for the reason that it deprived them of no natural right, and most of the inhabitants took the oath of allegiance to the state of Virginia under Todd's administration. He was killed at the battle of Blue Licks, in Kentucky, August 18, 1782, and was succeeded by Timothy Montbrun, a French- man.
Although Gov. Todd's administration began in the early part of the revolutionary war, he seems to have possessed the true American spirit in all his official acts, and his administration was in no wise different from what it would have been under the constitution of the United States, adopted in 1789.
From this period till the occupation of the country by St. Clair, no official records are extant of its govern- ment, and the inference is that during this hiatus no difficulties arose that could not be settled by the priest. It was during this interim that the first American set- tlement in Illinois was made. It was located in the present county of Monroe, and significantly named ' ' New Design. ' ' The names of these settlers were James Moore, Shadrack Bond, James Garrison, Robert Kidd and Larken Rutherford. The two latter were soldiers in Gen. Clark's army. In the summer of 1781 all these, with their families, had crossed the Alleghany mount- ains and embarked from Pittsburg on board of what was
Illinois. 557
then called an ark. When the mouth of the Ohio was reached, with many a heavy strain, they urged their ark up the current of the Mississippi to the shore oppo- site this settlement, debarked and set the first perma- nent Anglo-American stakes into the soil of Illinois.
These men were composed of a more inflexible material than the French. There was no sympathy between them and the Indians, and the consequence was that a hostile feeling ultimately grew up between each, which in time made it necessary to build a block- house as a refuge in the event of an outbreak.
On the 5th of October, 1787, Arthur St. Clair, a venerable revolutionary officer, was appointed gov- ernor of the entire country north of the Ohio river, which was designated as the Northwest Territory.* On the 9th of July the next year he arrived at Marietta, a settlement recently made at the mouth of the Mus- kingum river, and set the new machinery of govern- ment in motion. The first county was laid out with dimensions large enough to include all the settlements on the river, and named Washington county. About the 1st of June, 1790, the governor, with the judges of the superior court, descended the Ohio river to Cincinnati, Ohio, and laid out Hamilton county. A few weeks later he, with Winthrop Sargeant, secretary of the ter- ritory, proceeded to Kaskaskia and organized the set- tled portions of the Illinois country into one county, which, in honor of the governor, was named St. Clair county. All former official organizations here had been by authority of the state of Virginia, and had been transient in their character, but now the permanency of national authority had stamped its seal on Illinois soil. A court was established at Cahokia, and justices of the peace appointed for each of the adjacent vil- lages.
In 1795 settlements had increased so as to make
*For details of St. Glair's administration see Vol. I, page 264 and following pages.
558 Illinois.
the organization of another county necessary, and Ran- dolph county was laid out, occupying all of the terri- tory south of an east and west line drawn through the New Design settlement from the Mississippi to the Wabash river, St. Clair county occupying the territory north of this line, and Randolph that south of it.
By an act of congress, May 7, 1800, the Northwest Territory was divided, the present limits of the state of Indiana, together with those of Michigan, Wiscon- sin and Illinois, being set off and named Indiana Terri- tory. On the 13th of the same month William Henry Harrison was appointed governor, and John Gibson, the same to whom Logan made his celebrated speech,* was appointed secretary. The seat of government was fixed at Vincennes, at which place Harrison arrived January 10, 1801, and immediately organized the new government.
On the 3d of January, 1805, an election was held by order of Governor Harrison to elect representatives for the assembly at Vincennes. The legislature met July 29, 1805. Shadrack Bond and William Biggs were chosen to represent St. Clair county, and George Fisher Randolph county.
By an act of congress, approved January 11, 1805, Indiana Territory was divided, all that portion of it lying north of a line due east from the southern extremity of Lake Michigan being set off and named Michigan Territory. This only took from the Indiana Territory the portion of Michigan between Lakes Huron and Michigan, that portion of the present state of Michi- gan bordering on Lake Superior having been annexed to the state since that period, to offset for the loss of territory claimed by Ohio on her southern border. On February 3, 1809, Indiana Territory was again divided by setting off the territory of Illinois, embracing its present limits, together with the present limits of Wis- consin and the peninsular portion of Michigan. Ninian
See Vol. I, page 219.
Illinois. 559
Edwards was appointed governor, his commission bearing- date April 24, 1809. Nathaniel Pope was appointed secretary. The seat of government was fixed at Kaskaskia, at which place Governor Edwards assumed his official duties on the llth of the following June.
The machinery of the first grade of government was now put in practice. By it the governor and judges constituted the legislature.
By an act of congress May 21, 1812, the territory of Illinois was promoted to the second grade of gov- ernment. Up to this time every county and town officer had been appointed by the governor ; now they were to be elected by the people, but the right of suffrage was extended to those only who had paid a territorial tax.
Three new counties, Madison, Gallatin and John- son, were organized, making five in all, and an election was ordered in each to elect five members of the legis- lative council, seven representatives and one delegate to congress. Shadrack Bond was elected to the latter office, being the first one elected by the people for that position.
Illinois was admitted into the Union as a state in 1818, but even at that time, much of the northern por- tion of the state was unsurveyed government lands, the Indian titles to which had not been extinguished. The organization of counties in Illinois, as settlements progressed northwardly, has been recorded in forego- ing portions of this work, and also the removal of the Indians, to various reservations in the west.
560
Illinois.
To WHOM IT MAY CONCERN :
We hereby certify that the plat of the " Original Town of Chicago," as herewith shown in Blanchard's "History of Chicago, "is a fac-simile copy of a plat of said Original Town shown on page 13 of our Atlas of the City of Chicago, published September 1, 1884, except the lines, words and figures in red, showing the present dock lines of the Chicago river, which were not shown upon the original plat.
The recorded plat of the Original Town was des- troyed with other records of Cook county, in the great fire of October 9, 1871, and the plat in our Atlas was a correct copy of a plat forming part of an abstract of property in said Original Town, made by Messrs. Handy & Co., abstract makers, and belonging to the estate of the late Isaac N. Arnold.
We were familiar with the said recorded plat, and we believe the plat herewith shown of the Original Town of Chicago to be an accurate copy of said recorded plat, with the exception of the lines, etc., shown in red ink, indicating changes in the margin of the Chicago
river.
GREELEY HOWARD COMPANY,
Surveyors and Publishers of Atlases.
D espial nes
~3«|.4|f I • 1 Ml* PSJT-^T
S+a f e
s-t-.
FOR EXPLANATION SEE OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE SHEET.
THE IROQUOIS — THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE UNITED STATES.
Of the three nations who first began the settle- ments of North America, the Spanish was the first ; they settled at St. Augustine in Florida in 1565. The French was the next ; they settled at Port Royal (now Annapolis) on the Bay of Fundy in 1604, also at Quebec on the St. Lawrence river in 1608. The English settled at Jamestown on the James river in 1607, and at Ply- mouth in 1620. Of these nations the Spanish was the only one that disregarded the force and influence of the aborigines of the soil, making no attempt at any political alliance with them ; and it is doubtless due to this- hauteur and the intolerant disposition that pro- duced it, that Spain lost all her possessions on this continent soon after she came into juxtaposition with the French or the English colonists. Both of these two latter nations were circumspectful in their demeanor toward the natives, and each took early measures to form alliances with them. Neither of them at first had any knowledge of the vast extent and value of the great interior of North America. Fortunately for the Eng- lish, their interests became identified with the Iroquois confederacy from the first ; and unfortunately for the French, they became the enemies of this confederacy by having allied themselves to the Adirondacks and other tribes of Canada contiguous to their settlements, which tribes were enemies of the Iroquois.
The Dutch exploration of the Hudson river bears the date of 1609, and their first settlement at Fort
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562 Influence of the Iroquois on the United States.
Orange (now Albany) the date of 1615. From thence- forward there was an unremitting rivalry in the fur trade between the Dutch of the Hudson river and the French of the St. Lawrence river. When the English, under the duke of York, took possession of New Amsterdam (now New York) in 1664, and of the entire Hudson river country with this conquest, none of the conditions existing between the Iroquois confederacy and the Dutch were changed ; but, on the contrary, commercial relations consisting of an exchange of furs and peltries on one side and firearms and trinkets on the other continued the alliance of their interests, and strengthened their friendship. Pending this increasing friendliness between the English and the Iroquois, the French were almost constantly at war with this powerful confederacy ; sometimes to defend their Canadian allies and sometimes to defend even themselves from Iroquois invasion. One of the first acts of French hostility against the Iroquois had place soon after Champlain had settled Quebec in 1608, at which time he unwittingly consented to lead a party of his allies against their old time foes, the Iroquois, and met them the next year, 1609, on the banks of Lake Champlain, defeating them in battle, the Indian weapons — bows and arrows — being insufficient to match the firearms of the French. Later, in 1615, Champlain, at the head of a small company of French soldiers, joined some Hurons in an expedition against the Sene- cas, one of the five Iroquois nations south of Lake Ontario. Proceeding into the enemy's country to the neighborhood of Lake Canandaigua, he discovered a fort occupied by the enemy, which he attacked after some skirmishes with the enemy outside of its inclos- ure, accompanied with losses in killed and wounded on both sides. The French attack against this fort lasted three hours, and resulted in the wounding of a few French soldiers and more of the Huron allies. Cham- plain himself had received three painful, but not
Influence of the Iroquois on the United States. 563
dangerous, wounds, when the French and their allies retreated. This Indian fort was a masterpiece of workmanship for defense, so built as to shield its de- fenders from attack, its barricades being about thirty feet high. As will be seen in the picture of it, here- with presented, the French had built a platform on
ABORIGINAL IROQUOIS FORT.
trestle work as high as the fort, and twenty stalwart men carried this platform from where it was built to its walls. From its height, which commanded the inside ground of the fort, sharpshooters were stationed ; but the foes were concealed behind ingenious constructions of woodwork in the fort itself.
564 Influence of the Iroquois on the United States.
The most characteristic name ever given to the Iroquois confederacy was the ' ' Romans of the New World."
This confederacy first consisted of the Mohawks, the Onondagas, the Senecas, theOneidas, the Cayugas. In 1715 the Tuscaroras, a tribe from North Carolina who spoke the same language, were admitted into the confederacy. How this tribe, who were evidently of Iroquois stock, had wandered to that place is not known, but it is known that they had been hard pressed by the neighboring tribes in that vicinity, and naturally drifted toward their kinsfolk, the Iroquois, for protec- tion. They were admitted into the league as a con- stituent tribe on terms of equality and independence, except that they were not allowed to be represented in the general council of sachems.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION.
The Six Nations of the Iroquois, including the Tuscaroras, were subdivided into tribes, which were arranged in two divisions, and named as follows :
Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle.
Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk.
The Senecas had eight tribes, the Cayugas eight, the Tuscaroras seven, the Onondagas eight, the Oneidas three and the Mohawks three. By the original laws of the league, neither of these tribes could intermarry. Either of the first four tribes could intermarry with either of the last four. When a young man went to another tribe for a wife, the mothers of the lovers respectively must negotiate for the marriage. These laws made a still stronger bond in the league. Under them the husband and wife were of different tribes. The children always followed the tribe of the mother, who inherited the property of her deceased husband, and the value of this property, however small, must necessarily be entailed to a different tribe from that to which the deceased husband belonged. The son could not inherit his father's sachemship or wampum. These
Influence of the Iroquois on the United States. 565
laws of heredity strengthened the socialistic ties of the different tribes. They were strictly obeyed and could not be deviated from except under penalty of social ostracism. Divorces were seldom desired, but if any inharmony existed between married couples, the mothers of each party were expected to settle such differences. In case they could not be settled amicably either party was at liberty to break the marriage rela- tion without censure.
In their religion they had no word in their lan- guage which could express profanity to the Great Spirit (their deity), whom every one revered with pious adoration.
According to the best traditionary testimony, the Iroquois League or Ho-de-no-sau-nee was formulated by Da-ga-no-we-da, one of the wise men of the Onon- daga Nation. Under his eloquent tutelage he induced the wise men and chiefs of the Iroquois Nations to hold a ' ' Council Fire ' ' on the northern shore of Onon- daga lake, where after grave consultation the celebrated League was entered into. The object of this League was for mutual protection against other tribes. The principle involved aimed at an empire, wherewith to hold the "balance of power," not essentially different from the doctrine of the balance of power question which has prevailed for more than a century in Europe. At the formation of the League fifty men noted for their wisdom were appointed sachems (each tribe being rep- resented), with authority to make all political laws for the government of the entire Iroquois Nation. The sachemship was made hereditary, as well as the indi- vidual title. The ratification of the general council of all the sachems was necessary at the ceremony of in- vesting each with his title and confirming his authority. The sachems were of equal rank, but, like our own rep- resentative men in congress, their influence was com- mensurate with their political sagacity and eloquence. The power of the sachems was found insufficient to
566 Influence of the Iroquois on the United States.
answer the wants of the Nation, and some years after the founding of the League the office of "Chiefs" was instituted, whose authority was given them by the pop- ular voice according to merit, deserved for some act of bravery or for wise counsel. To the chiefs were assigned military expeditions and council in civil mat- ters when occasion required it. The council of sachems, at the "raising up of a chief," substituted a new name for his original name, appropriate to his qualifications. The orator "Red Jacket," when made a chief, was given the name ' * Sa-go-ye-wat-ha " — " Keeper Awake, ' ' in appreciation of his powers of eloquence, instead of his original name, " O-te-ti-an-i" — "Always Ready.'' The foregoing tribal relations to the entire League resemble the political status of the United States— the different tribes in their respective localities repre- senting the different states of the American Union, subject to congress and the United States senate. The states are governed by the constitution, which has to be guarded with tenacity to prevent infringement upon its provisions. An unwritten law among the Iroquois was their safeguard against the violation of their un- written constitution by tribes or individuals.
Ho-de-no-sau-nee (People of the Long House) be- sides the People of the Confederacy, was a term with the Troquois Nation that had a similar significance to the Iroquis Nation that the term Uncle Sam has to the people of the United States. Between the Hudson river on the east and the Niagara river on the west, and from the St. Lawrence on the north to the Susque- hanna on the south, the Long House, or the domains of the Iroquois tribes, was spread out and constituted the fairest portions of the entire country, as it was known in colonial times. The Onondaga Nation, being situated in central position, were made the keepers of both the council brand and of the wampum, by which the structure and principles of their government, and their laws and treaties were memorized (a retentive
Influence of the Iroquois on the United States. 567
memory was a requisite necessary in the sachem ap- pointed as keeper of the wampum). At stated periods, usually in the autumn of each year, the sachems of the League assembled in council, at Onondaga, to legis- late for the common welfare. Exigencies of a public or domestic character often led to summoning of their council at other seasons; but the place of session was not confined to Onondaga. It could be held in the territory of either of the Nations, under established usages.
Though the Iroquois brought the Delawares and other tribes to the south under temporary allegiance, yet their greatest force was employed to subjugate tribes to the west of them, especially the Illinois tribes, who had felt the weight of their avenging hand before the French came to their rescue. La Salle, in 1682, had persuaded the Senecas, by dint of much flattery and many presents, to allow him to build a vessel at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, wherewith to convey men and goods to the Illinois country. The same year Tonty, his lieutenant, built a fort on Starved Rock, for defense of both the French and the Illinois tribes against Iroquois invasion, which gave the Illinois tribes a respite from the visitation of their enemies; but the French never succeeded in establishing uninterrupted communication between Canada and the west suffi- ciently to prevent the English from getting the lion's share of the western fur trade through Iroquois inter- vention and protection. The ambition of the French during these and following years was to possess and control the St. Lawrence valley, the Mississippi valley and the region of the Great Lakes. The English, on their part, held the Atlantic seaboard and the Hudson river country with a firm grip. Their alliance with the Iroquois made them invulnerable, but this same alliance rendered French possessions precarious. This uncer- tainty prevailed till the French and Indian war began in 1755. It raged seven years. The French had in
568 Influence of the Iroquois on the United States.
their alliance the entire Indian tribes of Canada and the valley of the Mississippi, while the English relied upon the faithful Iroquois to help fight their battles. For years the issue trembled in the balance, till at last the conquest of Quebec, by General Wolfe, settled this stupendous question, and substantially gave the entire country to the English in 1760,
At the close of this war there was a strong effort made in the British cabinet to leave the French in possession of Canada and the Mississippi valley, assert- ing that the French power left here would be a con- stant menace to the English colonists; thereby insuring their loyalty to the mother country, in order to protect themselves from French aggression. Pitt, the great English statesman, would not listen to this unnecessary and timid policy, as he termed it, and insisted on driv- ing the French entirely out of North America, and establishing English colonial rule in its place.
During this eventful war, had the Iroquois fought in favor of the French instead of the English, the whole interior of the continent, embracing the coun- tries along the St. Lawrence river, the great chain of lakes and the Mississippi valley, including the Ohio river valley, must have remained in the hands of the French and remained indefinitely under French laws. Under this regime there could have been no revolt of the thirteen American colonies, at least for a cen- tury. There could have been no United States, no Great Republic to stimulate invention and introduce the re- forms which have startled the world during the last century. There would have been no WASHINGTON, no FRANKLIN and no LINCOLN.
WALTER L. NEWBERRY.
THE NEWBERRY LIBRARY.
The Newberry Library owes its existence to the public spirit and philanthropy of Mr. Walter L. New- berry, one of the earlier settlers of Chicago.
Mr. Newberry came of old New England stock, his earliest New England ancestor being Thomas New- berry, who came from Devonshire, England, and located in Dorchester, Mass., in 1630. After the death of Thomas Newberry, the surviving members of his family removed to Windsor, Conn., where they remained for several generations. Mr. Walter L. Newberry, the founder of the library, was born in East Windsor, Conn. , September 18, 1804. He was educated at Clinton, N. Y., where he fitted for admission to the Military Academy at West Point, to which he was appointed by President Andrew Jackson. At the time for passing his exam- inations, however, he was ill for several months. After recovering his health he was offered1 a position with his brother, Oliver Newberry, in a mercantile house at Buffalo, which he accepted, thereby surrendering his West Point commission. In 1828 he located in Detroit, Mich., and established a dry goods business there. Four or five years afterward, having in the meantime been reasonably successful in business, he made a trip around the Great Lakes with Gen. Lewis Cass and Will- iam B. Astor, in company with whom he purchased lands at several points in the western country, but especially in and around the small village of Chicago, to which he removed in 1833, and where he spent the remainder of his long, active and honorable life. He
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570 The Newberry Library.
was a large owner of real estate, the increasing value of which was the foundation of his great fortune, but he was also interested in commercial enterprises, and among other things was one of the founders of the Merchants' Loan and Trust Co. bank, of which he was a director almost constantly from the founding of the bank to the time of his death. He was also president and a director of the old Galena road, later a part of the North-Western railway system. He was always interested in educational matters, and was for many years a member of the Chicago board of education, was twice its chairman, and was one of the founders and for six years the president of the Chicago Historical Society.
His health becoming impaired, he visited Europe in the autumn of 1857, and finding the climate of southern France of great benefit, he spent his winters there up to the time of his death in 1868. On his way out in the latter year he died at sea. At the time of his death his family consisted of his wife and two daughters.
By his will he gave his property, substantially, to his wife and children ; but made a proviso in such will, by the terms of which, in case his two daughters died unmarried, one-half of his estate, upon the death of his wife, in case she survived the children, should go to found a free public library, to be built in the north division of the city of Chicago. The other half of his estate was to go to his nephews and nieces, one of whom was his namesake, now living in Chicago and a member of the board of trustees of the library estab- lished under the provisions of his uncle's will.
Both of his daughters died unmarried, whereby the provisions of his will in regard to a public library became operative. Under the provisions of the will the estate of Mr. Newberry remained in the hands of the trustees designated in the will until the death of Mrs. Newberry, which occurred over seventeen years after the death of her husband.
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The Newberrry Library. 571
Much credit has always been given in the matter of the library to Honorable Mark Skinner, who drew the will of Mr. Newberry and who was one of the trustees named in the will for his estate. When the will was drawn the two daughters were young women, so that the possibility of the founding of a library, under the will, seemed remote, but Mr. Skinner suggested the provision of .the will (in case the daughters died unmar- ried), which suggestion afterwards gave full force to the will, resulting in the establishment of an institution of great and constantly increasing public usefulness. In 1887 the trustees under the will commenced the pur- chase of books for the library, having designated as librarian Dr. William F. Poole, who was, at the time of his appointment, librarian of the Chicago Public Library, and had acquired a wide reputation by his work in that and other institutions, especially the Boston Atheneum, and by his publications in regard to the establishing, equipping and working of great libra- ries. The most notable work of this kind was his " In- dex to Periodical Literature," which made available the immense amount of valuable information embraced in its great field, which for want of an index had long remained almost inaccessible for the work of students.
The library first occupied temporary quarters on La Salle street; afterward a building was erected on the North Side, with the idea of containing the library for a few years, and being then converted into an apart- ment house, to be rented with the other property of the library, as a producer of income for the work of the institution. The books accumulated so rapidly that another building, also temporary in its nature, was erected on North State street, and this was the home of the library for several years until its removal to the capacious and convenient quarters which it now occu- pies. Shortly before its removal to the new building, the trustees, Mr. William H. Bradley and Mr. Eliphalet W. Blatchf ord .(Mr. Bradley having succeeded Judge
572 The Newberry Library.
Mark Skinner, as trustee, upon the resignation of Judge Skinner), organized under the laws of Illinois a corporation known as the Newberry Library, and des- ignated its board of trustees, being thirteen in number, two of whom were the trustees of the estate, and the others were the following citizens of Chicago:
George E. Adams.
Edward E. Ayer.
Daniel Goodwin.
Franklin H. Head.
Edward S. Isham.
Alexander C. McClurg.
Franklin MacVeagh.
Walter C. Newberry.
Lambert Tree.
Henry J. Willing.
John P. Wilson.
Messrs. MacVeagh and Goodwin subsequently re- signed from the board of trustees, and their places were filled by the appointment of Mr. George Manierre and Mr. Bryan Lathrop. Two additional vacancies were caused, one by the resignation of Mr. Wm. H. Bradley, and the other by the death of Gen. Alexander C. McClurg, which were filled by the appointments of Mr. Moses J. Wentworth and Mr. Horace H. Martin.
At the time of this writing, March, 1902, the news of the death of Mr. Edward S. Isham, one of the trustees and vice-president of the corporation from its organization, has been received. The vacancy caused by his death has been filled by the election of Mr. David B. Jones.
The entire block of land, which was formerly the homestead of Mr. William B. Ogden, was purchased by the trustees as the site for the library, and the perma- nent home of the library was erected thereon. At the present time the library contains about 227,549 volumes.
At the time when the property was turned over to the corporation its value was estimated at about
The Newberry Library. 573
$2,500,000. A considerable part of this is represented by the block of ground and library building, and a large part of the remainder consists, up to the present time, of unimproved property which produces no income, and is a burden by reason of the taxes which must be paid upon it from the income of the library. Its net income, therefore, available for library pur- poses is much less than would be expected from the magnitude of Mr. Newberry's gift.
A portion of the land was located upon the shore of Lake Michigan, and under the provisions of the various statutes providing for the extension of the Lake Shore Drive and the surrender on the part of the property owners of their riparian rights upon receiving the title to a certain amount of land originally covered by the water, the library received as accretion a large and valuable increase of its real estate. The library, however, was obliged to expend $100,000 to fill in the partly submerged portion of its property; and, as this made land has not yet become marketable at reason- able rates, these improvements have served to still further lessen the income of the library, although it is hoped that in the future the value of the property will make its improvement a wise investment. In addition to this the library has much other vacant property, some of it near the stock yards; but with the growth of the city this property can ultimately be sold out to good advantage or rented out under ground leases, and it is hoped that the increase in the value of its real estate may ultimately make the income-bearing portion of its property of a value of at least $2,500,000, the income of which should give to the library double its present available means and enable it to greatly increase its field of usefulness.
The library has also suffered a temporary increase in its operating expenses by reason of the plan upon which the library building was erected and the library organized, according to the views of Dr. Poole. Instead
574 The Newberry Library.
of the methods prevailing1 in most great libraries, of book stacks where all the books are stored and where the books are taken to a general reading room, the idea of Dr. Poole was to have different rooms for each of the chief literary departments. This arrangement, while it will ultimately probably be the best and most economical when the library reaches double or treble its present size, is expensive at the present time by reason of its requiring a greater number of attendants to serve the public, since each of the various depart- ments of the library is operated like an independent library, requiring attendants to serve the patrons of that especial department. With the increase in the size of the library and the number of visitors, the plans of Dr. Poole will doubtless be wise and judicious.
The principal -departments of the library are as follows: Medicine, bibliography, the museum, general reading room, philosophy, history, genealogy, music, art and letters, and science.
The department of genealogy, of town, county and state histories, is very large and is one of the most complete in the country, and is at present the most ex- tensively patronized. Great numbers of people visit these departments for the purpose of demonstrating their qualifications as members of the Colonial Dames, the Sons and Daughters of the American Revolution, and various other state and patriotic societies which have been organized to perpetuate the work of those who have been eminent in promoting the welfare and development of the nation in various ways.
The department of fish and fish culture is also especially well filled and organized.
The attendance upon the library and the increased number of books used give a constantly greater proof of the value of its work.
One of the special features of the library is the prospective addition of the extensive private library of Mr. Edward E. Ayer. This collection is the result of
The Newbewy Library. 575
twenty years' labor and the expenditure of a very large amount of money by Mr. Ayer. His idea in starting his collection was to get everything available which would throw light upon the character of the North American Indians. This work, however, calls neces- sarily for all the publications of the early settlers in every part of North America, as the writings of these settlers, and with them the writings of the early mis- sionaries, the Jesuit fathers and all the early explorers contain constant references to the character, manners and customs of the Indians. These to the writer of history are of almost priceless value, not only for what they show as to the Indian tribes, but of the work of the early colonists in every part of North America. Mr. Ayer's library is especially rich in the publications of the Jesuit fathers, and of the Spanish and French as well as the English settlements of North America. No thorough history of any part of North America can be written without reference to the volumes embraced in Mr. Ayer's library, and great numbers of these volumes can be found in few other libraries in the world. By the liberality of Mr. Ayer these books, while at the present time largely in the library at his residence, are catalogued in the Newberry Library and sent there at the call of any person wishing to consult such volumes.. There are several similar collections in England and the United States, of what are known under the general term, Americana, but Mr. Ayer's library contains sev- eral volumes which have been sought for many years in vain by the British Museum, as well as various other volumes not found in any of the similar libraries in America. A catalogue of Mr. Ayer's library is now in preparation, which will be completed in ten large volumes in the course of the next few years, and a sufficient number will be printed to supply other libraries and students of American history, and thus make the library available to a vast and constantly increasing audience.
576 The Newberry Library.
Mr. Henry Probasco, of Cincinnati, was one of the early and enthusiastic collectors of rare and valuable books in the United States, and his collection embraced many volumes which are now almost priceless, but which were collected by him when works of that char- acter could be obtained at much more moderate prices than at the present time. Mr. Probasco finally decided to sell his collection, and it was offered to the New- berry Library soon after its organization. Dr. Poole selected from Mr. Probasco's collection books which were purchased for about $40,000, and which at the present time would probably cost double that amount. They consist largely of rare and early publications. Copies of many of the earliest books printed can be found in this collection; also numerous volumes writ- ten before the days of printing in the careful and elabor- ate manner of the early manuscript volumes. Among the rare books are copies of the first four editions of Shakespeare, of which it is believed but one other complete set exists in the United States. The collec- tion is especially rich in beautiful illuminated manu- scripts written by the monks before the days of printing.
The number of visitors using the library for the year 1900 was as follows : Men, 51,294; women, 25,047; total, 76,341. And the number of volumes consulted, 126,612, indicating the great usefulness to students of the library in its various departments.
There will utimately be three very large libraries in Chicago, the Public, the Newberry and the John Crerar Libraries. Before the work of the Crerar Library was commenced the trustees of the John Crerar and Newberry Libraries and the librarian and officers of the Public Library held meetings for the purpose of avoiding unnecessary duplication of books in the various libraries. This was sought to be accom- plished by giving to each of the three libraries certain specialties, which would not be, except in a moderate degree, encroached upon by the other libraries. The
TJie Newberry Library. 577
Public Library, while embracing, of course, all the standard works of reference, like cyclopaedias, etc., and a great collection of general literature, has sub- stantially the exclusive field of fiction, and is, of course, much more popular in its character than the other libraries, not only from the fact of the character of its collection of books, but from the fact that it is a circu- lating library. The John Crerar Library has taken for its province what is grouped under the general name of Science — a large and extremely useful and valuable field. The Newberry Library has its special fields — history, the liberal arts, philosophy, music and gene- alogy. By thus subdividing the work the three libra- ries, so far as the general public are concerned, are like one great library, and a much larger number of books are rendered available for the use of students than did each library undertake to minister to the wants of all classes of readers.
One of the interesting features of the Newberry Library to visitors is a superb collection of portraits, which was donated to the library by Mr. G. P. A. Healy, one of the most eminent of American portrait painters. Mr. Healy had spent a large portion of his life in Europe, and had painted there, as well as in America, a very large proportion of the notable people who were living during the last half of the nineteenth century. He had the habit, when painting the portrait of an eminent man or a portrait which he considered especially suc- cessful, of asking the sitter to allow him to paint a duplicate for his personal collection. Of this collection of portraits Mr. Healy presented some fifty to the Xewberry Library, which are of great and increasing value, and very popular among the visitors to the library.
FRANKLIN HEAD.
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THE ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD.
The state of Illinois lies near the center of the great Mississippi valley, and may justly be called the hinge on which the financial interests of the abutting states around her turn. The citizens of this state saw this advantage not many years after the state had been admitted into the Union, in 1818; and as early as 1834 took measures to make the most of it by planning a system of internal im- provements, consisting of waterways and railroads, mostly for the benefit of the central and southern portions of the state. That these plans were both extravagant and prema- ture, the sequel has abundantly proven. The whole northern portion of the state was then unsurveyed and unsettled, except some beginnings around Chicago, Dixon and Galena; hence it was only the cities in the central and southern por- tions of the state whose commercial interests were supposed to be of sufficient importance to warrant the building of transportation lines to them. These lines were planned to secure the great trunk lines of travel, from east to west and from north to south, through the then moat populous por- tions of the state of Illinois, ignoring the cities along the bwders of the great chain of lakes.
The history of the Illinois Central railroad is so inter- looven loith the modern history of the state and this road has controlled the financial interest of the state to such an extent that it is a matter of great importance that it should be written in detail by some person who is thoroughly ac- quainted ivith every progressive step taken to build this road from start to finish. It is fortunate that such a man is still living to do this work truthfully and faithfully. Mr. C. C. P. Holden is this man, and to him is this duty assigned. RUFUS BLANCIIARD.
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The Illinois Central Railroad. 579
On February 27, 1837, the legislature authorized the expenditure of various sums for the purposes and objects stated:
Improvement of Great Wabash river $ 100,000
Illinois river 100,000
Rock river 100,000
Kaskaskia river 50,000
Little Wabash river 50,000
Great Western mail route from St. Louis to Vincennes 250,000
Central railroad, from Cairo to the Illinois & Michigan Canal \
Southern railroad from Alton to Mt. Carmel [• 1,600,000
Railroad from Alton to Shawneetown '
Northern Cross railroad, from Quincy to Indiana state line. . . 1,800.000
Branch of Central Hillsboro to Terre Haute 650,000
Railroad from Peoria via Mt. Carmel and Carthage to Warsaw 700,000
Railroad from Alton to Hillsboro to the Central railroad 600,000
Railroad from Belleville via Lebanon to intersect Southern
Cross railroad 150,000
Railroad from Blooming-ton to Mackinaw, in Tazewell county,
thence to Pekin 350,000
So great was the general confidence of the Illinois legislature, as well as the citizens of the state, that they made an appropriation of $250,000 to be paid out of the first proceeds of the internal improvement bonds, to be distributed per capita of the population of such counties as had no railroads and no navigable streams. But these brilliant hopes for the future were not to be realized. None of these improvements were ever fin- ished. The state was responsible for the construction and building of all of them, and had thus become so deeply involved in public debt that immigration had substantially ceased, not because Illinois farming lands were not desirable, but because property in the state was liable to be taxed to pay an overcrowded debt, from which no relief seemed at hand, and no income seemed possible. In December, 1842, the state debt was $15,187,348.71, while its population was but 487,929. The interest of this immense sum could not be paid, and through this default the collapse into which the state had fallen was now apparent to everybody. While despair stared the legislature in the face, a hopeful
580 The Illinois Central Railroad.
and brighter prospect came upon the financial horizon of Illinois, which was destined to bring relief and save the state from repudiation.
September 20, 1850, congress passed an act grant- ing the right of way and making a grant of land to the states of Illinois, Mississippi and Alabama, in aid of the construction of a railroad from Chicago to Mobile. The act further provided that the same right is hereby granted to the state of Illinois for the construction of a railroad from the southern terminus of the Illinois and Michigan canal to a point at or near the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, with a branch of the same to Chicago, on Lake Michigan, and another via the town of Galena, in said state, to Dubuque, in the state of Iowa. The Illinois legislature convened Jan- uary 6, 1851. In the message of Gov. August C. French to that body, he said in regard to the grant of lands in aid of the construction of a railroad, ' ' When these works shall be completed, extending as they will from the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi river to the terminal of the Illinois and Michigan canal, and by lateral lines to Chicago and Galena, it will present a magnificent thoroughfare along the center of the state for almost its entire length. It will become the great leading artery of the state and more than 500 miles in length, along which may pass to market its vast productions; connecting the upper Mississippi and the lakes with the lower Mississippi, it will be perceived how readily lateral lines may be successfully connected with it, and, when finished, present the most magnifi- cent system of state improvements on the globe."
Both houses took immediate action on the subject. The senate prepared a bill, which was passed by that body February 6, 1851, incorporating the Illinois Cen- tral railroad. The following day the house passed the same bill, approved by Gov. French February 10, 1851. And thus was the Illinois Central Railroad Co. incor- porated with the following incorporators and first board
The Illinois Central Railroad. 581
of directors, to wit : Robert Schuyler, George Griswold, Gouverneur Morris, Franklin Haven, David A. Neal, Robert Rantoul, Jr. , Jonathan Sturges, George W. Lud- low, John F. A. Sandford, Henry Grinnell, Leroy Wiley, William H. Aspinwall, Joseph W. Alsop, with Augustus C. French ex-officio director. There was a clause in the charter compelling the company to pay into the state treasury 7 per cent of its gross earnings. The company was practically to be a state railroad corporation, with its affairs watched over by the governor, who was by its charter an ex-officio director. The twenty-three senators and seventy-two members of the house who voted for the bill, with the governor who approved their acts, earned the lasting gratitude of the people of Illinois. The road has proved to be a fitting mon- ument to their far-seeing sagacity in our state's his- tory.
The contract with the Illinois Central Railroad Co. called for the building and equipment of a first- class railroad 706 miles in length, and as a guarantee of fulfilling it this company subscribed for $1,000,000 of the stock in said company, and deposited with the state treasurer of Illinois $200,000 in gold, to be re- funded to the Illinois Central Railroad Co. upon the full completion and operation of fifty miles of the rail- road to be constructed by said corporation, according to the provisions of the charter. Signed by John Moore, treasurer of Illinois, March 24, 1851.
After a general review of the state's condition its debt was found to be $16,627,509.91; the population of the state was 851,470. The government had sold, up to June 30, 1850, 15,489,066.62 acres, of which amount 4,529,518.62 acres were sold since September 30, 1839. This was the financial condition of the state as it was found, including its indebtedness, population and re- sources, by the Illinois Railroad Co. when it filed its bond and assumed the construction of the Illinois Cen- tral railroad, March 24, 1851.
582 The Illinois Central Railroad.
On March 22, 1851, the board of directors ap- pointed Roswell B. Mason, of Bridgeport, Conn., engi- neer in chief, with jurisdiction over the entire line. In a letter to the writer, dated October 12, 1883, Colonel Mason says: "I received my appointment as chief engineer of the Illinois Central railroad March 22, 1851, and entered at once upon the duty of selecting my assistants and making preparations for the journey to what was then considered the far off western coun- try. Leaving New York May 14, with a party of ten or twelve young men, we traveled by steamer to Albany, by rail to Buffalo, by steamer to Detroit, by rail to New Buffalo on the east side of Lake Michigan, and thence by steamer to Chicago, arriving May 19. My assistant engineers were appointed over the work as follows: N. B. Porter, from Chicago to Rantoul, headquarters, Chicago; L. W. Ashley from Rantoul to Mattoon, headquarters, Urbana; C. Floyd Jones, Mat- toon to main line junction and main line from Ramsay to Richview, headquarters, Vandalia; Arthur S. Orms- bey, Richview to Cairo, headquarters, Jonesboro; H. B. Post, Ramsay to Bloomington, headquarters, Decatur; T. B. Blackstone, Bloomington to Eldena, headquar- ters, La Salle; R. B. Provost, Eldena to Dunleith, headquarters, Freeport. Henry Bacon, after a few months, took the place of N. B. Porter, of Chicago. After seeing my assistants on their way to their several locations, I went by packet boat on the Illinois and Michigan canal from Chicago to La Salle, and then took a private conveyance to Cairo and back to Chi- cago. We traveled very nearly on the line of the road, as now located, south of La Salle through Bloomington and Clinton to Decatur, where I was joined by W. H. Bissell, who went with me to Cairo and part of the way back. South of Decatur we traveled substantially on the present line of the road, through Vandalia and near Richview and Jonesboro; but, owing to high water, we could not drive to Cairo, and went to Mound
The Illinois Central Railroad. 583
City on the Ohio river, and thence by steamer to Cairo. Owing to cholera, which then prevailed there, and what appeared to me a very fair prospect of being- drowned, we made a short visit, returning by steamer to Mound City; then followed back substantially on our route near Decatur; thence to Urbana, the expectation at that time being to have the Chicago branch leave the main line at some point between Decatur and Van- dalia. Going north from Urbana, we traveled over an unbroken prairie, almost .the entire distance to Chi- cago, with no settlement in view on the whole 128 miles, except at Spring Creek and Bourbonnais, until we came near Chicago, where we arrived in about one month from the time we left there, traveling by private conveyance between 700 and 800 miles. During the journey I met all my assistants except R. V. Provost, and found them well equipped and entering very heartily into a vigorous prosecution of their work. After spending a few days at Chicago, I went again by packet boat to La Salle, and thence by private convey- ance to Dubuque through Dixon, Freeport and Galena, meeting Mr. Provost at Freeport, who had his work well in hand, . . . returning to Chicago, where I spent several weeks. But during the summer and fall I visited different portions of the line several times, and was able to complete the location substan- tially and get my profiles and maps ready to take with me to New York late in the fall. On February 2, 1852, I went to Washington to deposit the map of our loca- tion with the commissioner of the land department, as required by law, and to get his approval of the selection and quantity of the land. This was not accomplished until March 14. While in Washington in the early part of March, I directed the work to be put under contract from Chicago to Calumet, in order to enable the Michigan Central railroad to reach the city. . . . Every effort was made to complete the work from Chi- cago to Calumet as soon as possible, and May 21, 1852,
584 The Illinois Central Railroad.
the first passenger train from Detroit entered Chicago, using the Illinois Central railroad track from Calumet to about Twenty-second street, and from thence by a temporary track over the prairie almost in a direct line to the east side of Michigan avenue, immediately south of Thirteenth street, where a temporary passenger depot was provided and occupied more than a year, until the road was completed to the present depot at the foot of Lake street. The only towns of importance on the main line were Galena, Freeport, Dixon, La Salle, Bloomington, Clinton, Decatur, Vandalia, Richview. Jonesboro and Cairo. Richview and Jonesboro were not immediately on the line, but within about one mile. We did not go through a single settlement on the branch, but passed near Urbana and Bourbonnais. With the exception of more or less timber in the imme- diate vicinity of the towns mentioned above, we passed over prairie from Galena to Big Muddy- river within about sixty miles from Cairo. This sixty miles was quite heavily timbered almost the entire distance. In going north on the Chicago branch from the main line we passed over patches of timber and prairie to a point a little south of Mattoon, and from there to Chicago it was entirely prairie, except for a short distance at Spring Creek and Kankakee. In going south from La Salle we soon came on to a prairie and traveled forty miles without seeing a house of any kind, and gener- ally there was scarcely any settlement between the towns mentioned above, which were from twenty-five to fifty and sixty miles apart. On the branch I think there was no settlement immediately on the line of the road from where it leaves the main line until within about twenty miles of Chicago. ... In June, 1852, the contract was let for grading the road from La Salle to Bloomington in the early part of 1853; and on the completion of the Rock Island road to La Salle a temporary bridge was constructed over the Illinois river, and a track laid from the foot of the plane to
The Illinois Central Railroad. 585
connect with the Rock Island railroad, making- a con- tinuous railroad track from Chicago to Bloomington. . . . During 1852 the entire line was put under con- tract, and was completed on September 27, 1856; but, owing to the few settlements, it was very difficult to get men, teams and supplies for them. Agents were sent to New York and to New Orleans to get men, and in some cases their fare was paid, with the promise of refunding it out of their work. But these promises were frequently entirely disregarded. Some men would >not even go on to the work, a few miles only from the steamboat landing; others would come on per- haps at evening and get their supper, lodging and breakfast, and start off next morning for other quar- ters; but, notwithstanding these drawbacks, many men were procured in this way. In the early construction of the road large supplies for men and teams came from St. Louis for the main line south of Decatur, and from Indiana for the Chicago branch. In many cases flour and other supplies were hauled nearly or quite 100 miles. . . . To give you some idea of the pleasure of traveling in Illinois at that early day, I will describe a trip made with David A. Neal, vice- president of the Illinois Central Railroad Co., in the fall of 1852. We went by packet boat on the Illinois and Michigan canal to La Salle; thence by steamer on the Illinois and Mississippi rivers to Cairo, arriving at St. Louis on the 14th, and Cairo on the 17th of November — a very comfortable journey. But our plan was to return by private conveyance near the line of the railroad to Chicago. Leaving Cairo on the 18th, we reached Vandalia on the 23d, and Decatur on the 25th, with our team nearly exhausted, and unable to go any further. The roads were so bad it was thought nearly impossible to get through; and it was deter- mined to go to Springfield, and then by railroad, which had just been completed to Alton, and then by the Illinois river and Illinois and Michigan canal to Chicago.
586 The Illinois Central Railroad.
We found it difficult to get a team to take us to Springfield; but an offer of $15 induced a liveryman to agree to take us through (about forty miles a day). Leaving Decatur Friday morning, November 26, we toiled through the mud, water and ice to a small town within twelve miles of Springfield, arriving there about dark, with our team tired out and entirely unable to go any farther. The train left Springfield Saturday morning at 8 o'clock, and an offer of $15 more induced a man, who had a good team, to agree to take us there in time for the train, or forfeit the $15, we agreeing to go at once, or let him fix the time of starting; he named 2 o'clock in the morning. So, getting a little rest, we were under way at 2 o'clock. It was then very cold, and ice of considerable thickness had formed on the water, cutting the horses' legs very badly to go through it, and in some cases the driver would go through on foot and break the ice before driving through it. We arrived at Springfield about twenty mintes before the train left. He earned his $15. We had a comfortable journey from there to St. Louis, where we stayed over Sunday, and took a steamer Mon- day morning for La Salle; thence by packet boat to Chicago, arriving there December 4, 1852.
" It was considerable time after the work was com- menced before a local treasurer was appointed to be stationed at Chicago, and in the meantime all the funds for the payment of the engineers and contractors passed through my hands, so that I carried large amounts of money to all parts of the road in my carpet bag. In going into the extreme southern part of the state, I went to St. Louis with my funds, or sometimes procured them by drafts on New York, and then secured a reliable police officer to go with me until I had dis- bursed them. But after a time I was relieved by hav- ing John B. Calhoun sent out to Chicago as local treas- urer. He was a competent, faithful, reliable man, and I am not aware that one dollar was ever lost or
The Illinois Central Railroad. 587
misappropriated during the construction of the road. There was an important reason for completing the main line of the road by January 1, 1856, and some months previous to that I was authorized to use every possible effort to complete it by that time, regardless of ex- pense. . . .. The work was finished within the time; but the contractors did not secure a very large bonus. Extra track layers were engaged and teams employed to cart iron a few miles in advance of the regular party, when the extra party would commence, and when the regular party reached that point, they would go on a few miles in advance of the extra party and commence again. So by this and various other methods the track was completed December 28, 1855, and a tele- gram was sent to New York announcing the completion of the main line of the Illinois Central railroad on that day.
"Engine No. 42, with four cars, was the first train to run over the high bridge at La Salle (August 21, 1854, at 5:30 p. M.).
"Engine No. 5 pulled the first train into Cairo (Au- gust 26, 1854). (Signed) ROSWELL B. MASON.''
.The writer has tried to show the financial and physical condition of Illinois at the time of the grant of lands by congress to the state, and a few years prior thereto. In 1850 the government was possessed of 19,- 989,025 acres, ceded to the state under the act of con- gress of September 20, 1850, leaving the actual number of acres still held by the government in the state 17,- 394,025. This was the time the Illinois Central rail- road began what, with no impropriety, may be called its relief work.
The school lands, which had been set apart for educational purposes by the government (being the six- teenth section in every township), amounted to about 984,977 acres, which, deducted from the 17,394,025 acres, would leave 16,409,048 acres held by the United States
588 The Illinois Central Railroad.
in Illinois. By reference to the map it will be seen where the bulk of these lands ceded to the Central rail- road lay. They were largely located in unsettled dis- tricts, along stretches of prairie wilds, from fifty to 100 miles sometimes intervening without a habitation. This cession comprised the alternate sections along the whole length of the line. Col. Mason, in locating the line, had sought the great open country, so far as prac- ticable, for a double purpose, namely, for the cheap con- struction of the road and to obtain the largest amount of lands in a compact body, keeping steadily in view the directness of the road between the objective points; starting in at the northwest corner of the state, at Dunleith.
It was late in the spring of 1852 that the company found itself ready to begin collecting and putting their lands in shape preparatory to founding and organizing a land department which would have the entire control and management of the landed interest of the company in their behalf. It was found to be an immense under- taking, second only to that which was to follow in the final disposition of the lands embraced in the grant. In looking over the situation they found that the state originally embraced within its limits 35,455,469 acres of government land, with less than one-half sold up to June 30, 1850, or 15,466,444 acres then disposed of. It found a state with 55,405 square miles of territory, with a population of 851,471, with its chief city, Chicago, bragging of a population of 29,963; and worse than all else, it found a state embarrassed with a debt (as al- ready told) of $16,724,171.41. In that early day not a railroad was crossed from Dunleith to Cairo, nor from Cairo to Chicago. Seven hundred and five and one- half miles was the length of the road without an inter- secting railroad.
The company, in erecting its stations, made them sufficiently large for the accommodation of a family, most of them with necessary facilities for housekeeping.
The Illinois Central Railroad. 589
They were thus built for the use of the station agents in particular. There was also built at each station a first-class (for that time) freight house, nearly opposite the station, on a side track. These stations were generally put in at an average of eleven miles apart on the main line, while on the branch the average was thirteen miles. There were nineteen of these be- tween Chicago and Centralia, and seventeen between Centralia and La Salle. The same ratio would hold good over other parts of the road, where the country was unsettled. Half of these stations were out of sight of any other improvement than the railroad and the appurtenances thereto, including the section houses for the men. By one unacquainted with the country at that time the foregoing improvements would have been looked upon as an extravagrant and unjustifiable outlay of the company's money — a useless expenditure in the wilderness. But those at the helm knew whereof they were hewing. There was a double purpose in view : The station agents must have a place in which to live; and other employes of the company must have an abid- ing place when caught out in these unsettled and wild regions. But another and all-important object was to have some attractions for the new comers, the emi- grants. The great prairies surrounding these stations had to be settled, and it was well that the company had the forethought to do everything on the broad gauge plan. Time has verified the wisdom of this measure. Besides all this the company provided for the spiritual wants of the settlers along the line, by employing a minister of the Gospel to go from town to town and preach to the new settlers at stated periods, thus form- ing a nucleus for churches.
In January, 1853, the railroad was completed from La Salle to Bloomington. The fourteen miles between Chicago and Calumet was also built, the Michigan Central train running into the city over it. Robert Schuyler was the president of the road, though
590 The Illinois Central Railroad.
David A. Neal, vice-president, attended to matters at the Illinois end of the line. As many of the approved plats of the lands had been received from Washington, Mr. Neal made immediate arrangements for getting the lands in shape, and thus have them ready for market. With this end in view he appointed John C. Dodge, of Chicago, land agent for the company. Mr. Dodge's past experience in the real estate business probably led to his appointment as the first land agent of the company. He appointed agencies, with the concurrence of Mr. Neal, at Freeport, Dixon, La Salle, Bloomington, Clin- ton, Richview, Jonesboro, Urbana and Kankakee, with agents to manage them.
All settlers living upon the lands that fell to the company under the grant of September 20, 1850, and prior thereto, had the right to prove up their claims, pay $2.50 per acre and take deed for their lands. The government price of these lands had been, up to the time they were withdrawn from the market by the act of congress September 20, 1850, $1.25 per acre.
July 28, 1853, William P. Burrall was elected president of the company. The vice-president, how- ever, continued to have charge of all matters pertain- ing to the lands of the company. The platting and listing of the lands had proceeded far enough to allow pre-emptors of its lands to prove up their claims at the various agencies, so as to entitle them to recogni- tion as soon as the land department was opened for business. The sales by pre-emption quickly followed.
With the close of 1854 there had been sold of mort- gage lands 47,280.39 acres for the sum of $481,006.82, while under the pre-emption act 102,577 acres, at $2.50 per acre, were sold for the sum of $255,693.70.
June 25, 1855, the trustees made a report to the state auditor, touching the pre-emption sales. The lands thus pre-empted were in forty-one counties. The following is their report :
The Illinois Central Railroad. . 591
"CHICAGO, June 25, 1855.
"To THE AUDITOR OF PUBLIC ACCOUNTS OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS:
"Sir. — Herewith you will receive a copy of the record of each tract of land heretofore sold to pre- emptioners under the 25th section of the act entitled 'An act to incorporate the Illinois Central Railroad Co., passed February 10, 1851.'
"These returns are made to your office in compli- ance with section 16 of said act. Respectfully yours,
JOHN MOORE, SAMUEL D. LOCKWOOD,
Trustees. ' '
This was the first report made by the trustees to the state authorities in regard to the great trusts placed in their hands.
May 11, 1855, Hon. Stephen A. Douglass pur- chased from the company 4,622 acres, in the Calumet region, at an average rate of $10 per acre on the usual terms.
All the special land agents appointed under the administration of John C. Dodge, both on the main line and Chicago branch, did a large business in the latter part of 1854, and fairly well through the year 1855.
The sales of all lands by the company up to Decem- ber 31, 1855, were 528,863.11 acres. Total cash received for lands up to December 31, 1855, $591,386.89. (Signed) GEORGE M. REED, Cashier. JOHN WILSON, Commissioner.
Acres.
Lands sold up to December 31, 1855 528,863.11
Lands on hand 2,066,136.89
Total 2,595,000.00
The general government had sold inside the fifteen- mile limit since the grant to the state, up to December 31, 1855, 3,000,000 acres. The census return for 1855 shows an increase in population in the counties adjacent
592 The Illinois Central Railroad.
to the Illinois Central railroad since 1850, of 250,000, and in the state since that date, of 500,000. The amounts of these sales illustrate and show the value of govern- ment lands along this line under the control of the Illinois Central railroad, and the effect of this control upon the finances of the state. The alternate sections still belonging to the government had equally increas- ing sales.
The years 1856 and 1857 were years of great specu- lation in Illinois Central lands. Those who knew the value of timbered lands, and of prairie lands according to their proximity to timber, bought intelligently. They bought for cash or on short time.
At the close of 1856 it was found that the company had sold :
Acres. Price.
For the year ending- December 31, 1856 336,347.90 $ 4,585,686.97
Total sales up to December 31, 1856 865,211.01 10,713,228.41
Lands on hand December 31, 1856 1,729,788.99
Total 2,931,347.90
Town lot sales for 1856 $39,159.31
With the close of 1857 there had been sold up to December 31, 1857, 335,722.77 acres, for $4,546,664.73. The sales were distributed among 3,440 purchasers, with an average of 97.56 acres each.
The sales of 1858, up to December 31, were 52,- 387.62 acres, for $610,969.67. The average per acre for this year's sales were $11.66. Almost a total failure of crops throughout the state had much to do with this depreciation. The year 1859, another poor year; heavy frosts in June and September. The sales for the year ending December 31, 1859, were 21,718.14 acres.
The next year, 1860, the sales of lands were 71,- 287.22 acres, to 1,050 purchasers, with an average num- ber of acres to each purchaser of 67.89 acres — a great improvement. The year 1861 was the year of the war. In April of that year Brig. -Gen. R. K. Swift, with his battery of artillery, was ordered to report at Cairo. The Illinois Central was called upon for the transpor-
The Illinois Central Railroad. 593
tation thence, which was promptly furnished. From that time until the close of the war the Illinois Central railroad was virtually in the hands of the government. Its entire outfit was at the service of the government, and the government used it. Seemingly, it was a con- fiscation of the transportation facilities of the road until the close of the war — all other shippers over the line had to give way in the interest of the general gov- ernment. Even the growers of corn on the Illinois prairies had to bide their time in order to get this cereal to market. The land department had very large amounts due it from farmers on the lands upon which they had built their homes. These farmers had arranged with the company to deliver ear corn at any station on the line of the road, at an agreed price per bushel, the company to furnish the cars to receive the corn; and here was where the shoe pinched. The corn came to the stations for delivery, even at the low rate fixed, when it was found cars could not be had. Uncle Samuel had them all in use. However, 1,860,000 bushels were received between August 1, 1861, and January 1, 1862; and 3,000,000 bushels were received and put in the bins built for the purpose at Burnside station. The com- pany had made every preparation for housing several million bushels; it bought the lumber and built the cribs. Many of the farmers' bins were filled to over- flowing with the product, but, for lack of cars at the principal shipping points, only a small portion of what the company expected to handle could be received. The farmers stood ready to deliver the corn, but the general government was monopolizing the entire traffic of the road in forwarding army supplies, munitions of war, together with great bodies of soldiers from the northwest and western states going to the front. Nevertheless, the 3,000,000 bushels mentioned above were credited to the farmers along the line of the Illi- nois Central road. It was patriotic in the railroad company and the farmers as well, that they cheerfully
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594 The Illinois Central Railroad.
submitted to this pecuniary inconvenience. The sales of lands, ending- December 31, 1861, were 102,109.22 acres, divided among" 1,402 purchasers, being an aver- age of 72.83 acres to each purchaser.
The sales for the year ending December 31, 1862, were 87,599.35 acres, for $972,664.76.
The sales ending December 31, 1863, were 221,518.05 acres, for $2,382,283.50.
The sales ending December 31, 1864, were 264,432.05 acres, for $2,898,980.01, to 3,501 purchasers. Collected during the year, $2,575,928.40; average, $10.96 per acre.
The sales ending December 31, 1865, were 155,056.82 acres, for $1,872,309.52 — $12.07 per acre. There were remaining unsold December 31, 1865, 998,069.36 acres.
The sales ending December 31, 1866, were 158,015.19 acres, for $1,683, 994. 16, divided among 2, 218 purchasers, average per acre, $10.65. The collections for the year were $2,056,205.80. The expenses for the department for the year were $106,616.90. John B. Calhoun was commissioner in 1866.
The sales for year ending December 31, 1867, were 203,532 acres, for $2,080,154.72. Collections during the same period, $3,166,264.37. Lands remaining unsold January 1, 1868, 710,453.28 acres.
The sales ending December 31, 1868, for the year were 207,008.37 acres, for $2,228,325.90. These pur- chases were made by 2,776 purchasers. Average price per acre was $10.76. Collections for year were $3,200,- 289.21. The total number of deeds issued up to close of year covered 1,124, 446. 86 acres of the original grant.
The sales for the year ending December 31, 1869, were 85,860 acres for $899,348.71, divided among 1,521 purchasers. Average per acre, $10.48. Collections for the year, $2,551,717.70.
The sales for the year ending December 31, 1870, were 60,858.23 acres for $625,991.90. Average per acre, $10.28. Deeds issued during year covered 264,- 872.93 acres. Total number of acres sold up to Decem-
The Illinois Central Railroad. 595
berSl, 1870, 2,179,390, of which 1,621,703.44 had been deeded. There were 415,610 acres remaining unsold.
The sales for the year ending December 31, 1871 , were 48,927.31 acres. This was the year of the great fire in Chicago. The land office of the company, which was located at 48 Michigan avenue, had been built especially for its occupancy. In its construction great care was taken to make it as near fireproof as possible. It was a three-story stone, iron, brick and cement structure. Nothing had been left undone to make it in every respect a safe building for the valuable records which were to be inside its walls. But the fire of October 9, 1871, included everything in its path. Henry C. Freer, Street Bradley, Thomas Meagher, all three of the land department, early that morning, as by an impulse, hurried from their homes to the office of the land department, where they found John Moe, the night watchman, ready for active work. Freer and Meagher flew across the way to the general office. President John Newell and General Manager Joseph F. Tucker were already on the spot. The Freer party quickly told their errand. Their instructions were to save what they could by packing it into an empty car, fortunately standing on the track. To these four men the company were indebted for the safe removal of the following books of record to a car, which was at once hauled down to Sixteenth street and side tracked out of the fire's reach. John Moe had formerly bought land for a farm at Neoga station, and at this time was an employe of the land department. He was father of the late Bernt Moe, assistant land commissioner. Henry C. Freer and Thos. Meagher were both employes of the department. Street Bradley was book and paper sta- tioner of the company. They saved several cords of land department plat and record books. Among them were the official government record of all lands granted to the company, with field notes of each and every tract ; the sales books, in which had been copied every
596 The Illinois Central Railroad.
tract of land received from the government, showing in the same every sale that had been made by the de- partment up to that date; the town lot plats, with the record of every lot sold entered therein; the volumes of bound books showing in detail the sales to each and every purchaser, from the first sale made to date ; the books of the cashier's department, from its inception to date. Then there were great numbers of volumes of duplicate contracts showing condition of each tract of land sold on time, and indeed every book of record obtainable inside the office of that department, except some of the trustees' papers, which were in charge of Peter Dazzy, trustees' clerk, and in his safe for special safe keeping. They were all burned, while the safe, with a lot of silver plate stored in it, was melted.
The land department occupied their car at Sixteenth street until late in November, when it moved to Cen- tralia, where it transacted its business for nearly a year, returning to Chicago in 1872 and occupying the building which had been erected, partly for its use, at the old number, 48 Michigan avenue. Peter Daggy was then commissioner. The department had sold up to December 31, 1871, 2,228,317.31 acres, leaving unsold 366,682.69 acres, all of which has since been sold.
Charles M. Dupuy, John Wilson, A. E. Burnside, J. W. Foster, W. M. Phillips, J. M. Redmond, John B. Calhoun, P. Daggy, L. P. Morehouse, Ben Moe and E. P. Skene were the land commissioners from January 1,1855.
Col. Roswell B. Mason, chief engineer and builder of the road, appointed March, 1851, turned over to the company a completed railroad 706 miles in length, in 1856. The work where he left off was taken up by careful and skilled men. David A. Neal, in Colonel Mason's time, performed his part in the Herculean task with skill and fidelity. George Watson, John H. Done, James C. Clarke, S. J. Hayes, John C. Jacobs, L. H. Clark, John Newell, William Harper, C. A. Beck, Charles H. Comstock, and many others, under such
The Illinois Central Railroad. . 597
leaders as J. N. A. Griswold, Wm. H. Osborn, John M. Douglas, James C. Clarke and Stuyvesant Fish. Mr. Fish was elected president May 18, 1887, and still holds that office. Back in the '60's it was found that in order to make the road paying property for its stockholders, addi- tional feeders must be had for the main line, which was capable of handling much more business than naturally came to it from its own territory. With this end in view, the directory began looking around for tributary and other feeders with the following results: In Illi- nois, 1,276.47 miles; South Dakota, 14.95; Minnesota, 29.99; Iowa, 712.58; Wisconsin, 91.31; Indiana, 82.83; Kentucky, 506. 28; Tennessee, 252.38; Mississippi, 497. 13; Louisiana, 87.74; Alabama, 7.84; being a total mileage owned and controlled by it, outside its main line, of 3,559.50 miles, or a total mileage of both, of 4,265.50 miles. These roads are located in eleven states. To operate this great system requires 27,189 employes, which is the number now employed in the service of the company. Number of passenger cars now in use, 725; freight cars, 38,498; work cars, 462. Number of engines for all work, 891.
The charter of the company reserved to the state of Illinois, in lieu of taxes, 7 per cent of the gross receipts of the 706 miles of railroad originally built thereunder. The sum so paid has been this year (1901) $815,093, which, if capitalized at 3£ per cent, would give $23,288,371, as representing the proprietary inter- est of the state of Illinois in the Illinois Central rail- road. The total charter tax paid into the state treasury of Illinois, up to April 30, 1901, has been $19,209,320.79.
When this corporation came into existence, April 10, 1851, it found an impoverished state, with a state debt of more than $16,000,000. This debt has long since been paid, through this and other corporations, and to-day it is among the foremost states of the Union in wealth and population. The Illinois Central railroad has been the chief factor in bringing about this result.
POTTER PALMER.
Potter Palmer, the descendant of two old and dis- tinguished New England families, whose combined names he bore, was born in 1826, in Albany county, New York. His father was a prosperous farmer of standing and influence in the community, and he was the fourth of seven children. At the age of eighteen, having acquired a good English education, he left home and took a minor position in the combined store and bank of Durham, Greene county, New York. Meeting with encouraging success here, he moved, first to Oneida county, thence to Lockport, Niagara and finally to Chicago, where he arrived in 1862.
Having by this time saved up quite a little capital, he invested it in a dry goods house on Lake street, which, in an incredibly short time, he developed into the largest business of the kind west of the Alleghenies, having added to it a wholesale department.
While still a young man, having made a fortune and acquired a fine place in the business world, with the prestige of a successful career, he was obliged, by the advice of his physicians, to give it all up, and go to Europe for a needed change. This was a serious blow to a man of his energy and ambition, but he accepted it with courage and sold out his splendid business to two young merchants, Messrs. Field & Leiter.
Returning refreshed and reinvigorated, he did not go back into mercantile life, but began his career as an investor in Chicago real estate, and builder-up of the city of his adoption.
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Potter Palmer. 599
His first investment was in nearly a mile of front- age on State street, then a narrow, crooked] way, with shabby frame structures devoted to small and ignoble uses. After studying the situation, Mr. Palmer decided that the main trend of business would be north and south, rather than east and west, as it then was on Lake street, the main retail center. State street seemed the most central and natural channel for a future thoroughfare, and had already some lines of street cars. Seeing that it was capable of a grand des- tiny, he bought up all the property for sale as far as Twenty-second street, nearly a mile of frontage. The story of the years of persistent effort to increase the width of the street has been forgotten. It meant labor- ing with the city council to secure ordinances for the widening of the street in the face of opposition from other owners, many of whom were men of wealth and position, but who did not sympathize with the grand end aimed at, or who were not generous enough to give the few feet necessary from their lots to make the new and splendid thoroughfare, now such an inestimable boon in the congested heart of the city. After the ordinances were passed — for many were necessary, as only a few blocks could be acted on at a time, so fierce was the opposition, many owners refusing to follow the generous example of Mr. Palmer — he immediately moved back his buildings, gave from his long frontage the twenty feet required for the widening of the street and had it graded and paved ready for use.
It was only when the great fire swept away its buildings that many of the jogs and irregularities were removed which still defaced and clogged this artery of business. Mr. Palmer not only worked indefatigably for this wide and handsome street for the retail busi- ness of the Chicago of the future, but he opened the way to immediate realization by forcing the situation and building a succession of fine business houses (far surpassing any then existing in the city) on the new
600 Potter Palmer.
thoroughfare, and these the principal merchants were obliged to occupy because they could not afford to allow rivals to take possession of such splendid and better located quarters with superior facilities for busi- ness. As soon as his first building was completed, which was on the corner of State and Washington, it was at once leased by Field & Leiter at $50,000 a year, which was then much the highest rent paid in the city, and this corner has since become inseparably connected with this firm (later changed to Marshall Field & Co.). Ross & Gossage, the next largest dry goods merchants, occupied a store in the next block, and the other mer- chants quickly followed, without hesitation , as soon as buildings were ready for them. The evolution of the business center was immediately an accomplished fact. Chicago thus owes its largest business artery to the foresight of Potter Palmer, who had the courage and indomitable perseverance to undertake, entirely alone and unaided, this gigantic enterprise. In all his deal- ings with the city council, and with recalcitrant owners, no hint of unworthy methods tarnished the luster of his good name. Almost two millions of people — the present population of Chicago — are indebted to Mr. Palmer for his clear vision and his courage, and the immense increase in value of State street property, as well as for the architectural beauty of the street, the credit for which can be ascribed to him only.
A cruel fate for the second time intervened just as Mr. Palmer was beginning to reap the benefit of his enterprise. The great fire of 1871 destroyed the busi- ness portion of Chicago, and much of the residence district, and Mr. Palmer's thirty-two buildings were burned, many of which were only just finished, and were on a scale of expense and beauty which he thought commensurate with the future needs of the city.
Mr. Palmer lost no time in lamentation. His loy- alty to the city of his choice never wavered. His faith in the future of Chicago was unimpaired. With the
Potter Palmer. 601
loss of his building's (which were mainly uninsured, because his theory had been that it was cheaper to insure himself), and the entire sweeping away of his large income, his resources were crippled. Upon his land, which, when divested of its buildings, was valued at over $4,000,000, he borrowed from the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co., of Hartford, $1,700,000 (the largest individual loan ever made up to that time, and proving the esteem in which Mr. Palmer was generally held), wherewith to undertake the laborious task of rebuilding. The immediate demand for building mate- rials with which to reconstruct the destroyed city was so great that not only did prices rise greatly, but it was impossible for American firms to fill the orders for the structural iron required in the new buildings. In this emergency Mr. Palmer was made chairman of a committee to go to Washington and lay before congress a petition from the citizens of Chicago, asking that the duty on imported structural iron required in the rebuild- ing of Chicago should be done away with, and those materials admitted free of duty from foreign countries. After a little effort this legislation was secured, and Mr. Palmer had the gratification of bringing back to the desolated city the good news of sympathy and help extended to it by the congress of the United States.
Mr. H. H. Honore (father of Mrs. Palmer) was one of the original projectors who organized the scheme and secured the legislation to create the park system. Mr. Palmer, though now occupied in rebuilding, found time to take a prominent part in building up the South Park and boulevard systems. He was an active mem- ber of the South Park commission for many years, and aided in laying out and beautifying Jackson and Wash- ington parks and the connecting boulevards. These latter were soon extended to reach the west parks and Lincoln Park; and the whole system now forms one of the great ornaments of the city and affords pleasure grounds for its vast population.
602 Potter Palmer.
Lake Michigan furnished a sublime opportunity for putting in the finishing touches in the outlines of the new Chicago. The south shore was sure to be intercepted by large manufacturing plants, but the north shore seemed destined to be covered with pal- aces and villas, parks and pleasure grounds for public and private uses. A boulevard along the north shore would command access to all these beauties of art and nature combined, Lake Michigan on the east, with its grand panorama of water and sky, extending itself to where the sea meets the horizon. Mr. Palmer saw in such a frontage the possibility of a new and much needed residence section. He, accordingly, bought largely on the Lake Shore Drive and adjacent to it, all of which was then a portion of the lake covered by water, with a road extending on piles across its front. Mr. Palmer immediately employed dredges and pumped the pure lake sand from the bed of the lake into the vacant property, which was thus filled with absolutely clean and wholesome sand, and formed an admirable foundation for the structures which were to be erected. To the improvement of the Lake Shore Drive, building his own home upon it, and the development of the adjacent streets, Mr. Palmer gave the remaining years of his life. A charming resident district was created by the man who had the clear vision to perceive its natural advantages and the nerve to take upon his willing shoulders another herculean task, which, like the widening of State street, could only have attained its highest possibilities by being taken in hand in its immaturity, and pushed forward upon well organized plans until the end was attained and the general public could profit by the results.
While occupying himself with his own independent projects for the betterment of the city, Mr. Palmer was not narrow in his aims, but was always a liberal contributor to its institutions and charities. With all of the public institutions, before the fire, and most of
Potter Palmer. 603
them later, he was identified. He was the largest con- tributor to the permanent exhibition held for many years on the lake front, to the old Academy of Design which ceased to exist after the fire, also to the Academy of Sciences.
He was among those who helped to plan and carry into execution the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. He was elected one of the first vice-presidents when its board was organized, and was a member of its first board of directors. He was a member of the com- mittee of grounds and buildings, of its fine arts com- mittee, and a large investor in stock of the company. In his palatial home he had an art collection not sur- passed in grandeur in the United States. It consisted of curios, books, objects of virtu, precious stones and many things in the line of art, which had been accumu- lated in America and the Old World in the travels of Mr. Palmer and his wife.
His picture galleries have been, not only a center of art influence, but have been constantly thrown open for the benefit of charities, and for gatherings of inter- ested friends to organize and launch humanitarian and social projects of all kinds. Thousands of dollars, amounting probably to $100,000, have been raised for charities by entertainments given in this hospitable mansion, without mentioning the numberless times it it has been opened for art students and others. His special joy was to make his home beautiful and attract- ive, and he loved to dispense a consistent hospitality, and to make it a center of happy influences. There, with his family around him, whom he loved with an ideal affection, he peacefully passed away, leaving a void at the fireside which can never be filled.
MARK SKINNER.
Mark Skinner was born in 1813, at Manchester, Vt. His father, Richard Skinner (born at Litchfield, Coiin., 1778), was a lawyer of distinction in Vermont, having held at various terms the offices of prosecuting attorney, probate judge, a seat in the legislature, gov- ernor, member of congress and chief justice of the state. Frances Pierpont, the mother of Judge Skinner, was born in New Haven, Conn., in 1782. She was descended from John Pierpont, who settled near Bos- ton in 1640, the first of the name in this country. The subject of this sketch, Mark Skinner, graduated at Middlebury college in 1833, soon after which he spent one year at the New Haven law school. He came to Chicago in July, 1836, and was soon admitted to the bar, and formed a partnership with George A. O. Beau- mont, from Connecticut, with whom he continued in business until 1844. In 1840, he was city attorney for Chicago. In 1842, he was elected one of the board of school inspectors; in 1844, United States district attorney.
January 30, 1841, he with Walter L. Newberry, Hugh Dickey, Peter Page, Walter S. Gurney, who afterward became mayor of Chicago, and other public spirited citizens, organized the Young Men's Association, which ultimately grew into the Chicago Public Library as it now is. In 1846, Mr. Skinner was elected member of the general assembly, in which capacity he was appointed chairman of the committee on finance, and introduced the bill for funding the
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Mark Skinner. 605
state debt and paying it in full, dollar for dollar, which through his influence, passed the house and became a law. At that time it was a question whether to repudi- ate or to pay it, and preserve the credit of the state. This was a critical period in Illinois history, and too much credit cannot be awarded the committee for its action in this bill. Meantime it should not be forgotten that the Illinois Central railroad did much to relieve the state from this incubus.*
In 1847 Mr. Skinner formed a partnership with Thomas Hoyne, and was soon after elected judge of Cook county court of common pleas.
He was one of the charter members of the Chicago Historical Society, organized in 1856, and he was fore- most among them in his efforts to make it a success. He was very constant in his attendance at their meet- ings, and on these occasions the writer of this article calls to mind his earnest advocacy of introducing young blood into the society, for the purpose of carrying on the work after its early members had passed away. In this work it ought to be mentioned that J. Y. Scammon was his peer. Both of these gentlemen were foremost in their action to help in the building up of every literary or artistic institution that could benefit pres- ent and future generations. It is fortunate for Chicago that such men, and others who could be named, helped to found so many prominent institutions that now decorate our city. As previously told in this volume, it was due to Judge Skinner's legal acumen in draw- ing up the will of Mr. Newberry, that the provisions for the immense Newberry Library were made incon- testable. Judge Skinner was a warm friend of John H. Kinzie, at whose house he married Elizabeth Magill Williams, May 21, 1841, a cousin of Mrs. John H. Kinzie. Judge Skinner was one of the organizers of the Home of the Friendless, established in 1858, and its president in 1860-61. Mrs. Skinner was a member of its first
* See History of Illinois Central R. R, p. 578, Vol. II, of this work.
606 Mark Skinner.
board of directors. Both were zealous workers and liberal contributors to the support of the institution. Judge Skinner's most valuable service for his country was his connection with the Sanitary Commission dur- ing the war of the rebellion (in which his only living- son gave up his life). Judge Skinner was the first president of the western branch of this commission, and a member of its general board. His arduous labors in this work almost cost him his life, obliging him after some years of service, to resign on account of severe illness. This son, Richard Skinner, graduated from Yale college, New Haven, in 1862, and that summer entered the army, a second lieutenancy in the tenth regulars having been given him by Secretary Stanton, on a note from President Lincoln. He was with Gen- erals Hunter, Pope and Roberts, on staff duty till June, 1864, when he was ordered to join his regiment, which had been nearly decimated. He left Texas and reached Petersburg, Va., June 19, and three days later was shot in battle, dying in a hospital tent the day following. He had been brevetted a captain. His remains lie in the family lot at Manchester, Vt. Judge Skinner had a choice library, the collection of which dated from his arrival in Chicago, and continued to the time of his death. It consisted of a rare collection of Americana and general literature, all of which was selected with a judgment which could only come from an extensive knowledge of books. After the death of Mrs. Skinner this library was divided between his daughters, one half remaining in the home, 100 Rush street. His death occurred in Manchester, Vt., September 16, 1887, and his burial was from the house in which he was born. Mrs. Skinner survived her husband a few years. She died at Woodstock, Vt. (where she was spending a part of the summer), September 12, 1891, and was buried by her husband's side in Manchester.
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THE KINZIES.
In the spring of 1804 John Kinzie and his wife Eleanor Ly tie Kinzie, each mounted on a horse, threaded their way through the deep forests of Michigan, along a bridle track marked by blazes on the trees. This track led from Detroit to Chicago, passing through Charms (now Niles), Mich., an old French trading station. The whole effects of this newly married couple were lashed to the backs of their horses, includ- ing their first baby, for whom a swaddling pocket was made, and suspended to the horn of the saddle. In this pocket the baby was lulled to sleep by the motion of the horse. Each night they camped in the wilder- ness, and it is presumed they took good care that the wolves that howled around them should not get hold of "Johnny." On their arrival at Chicago, Mr. Kinzie purchased the French trading establishment of M. LeMai, which he improved from time to time, till it became the old Kinzie Mansion, as it was called in history, situated on the north bank of the Chicago river, opposite Fort Dearborn, close by where Rush street bridge now is. In this home the baby, John Harris Kinzie, spent his childhood till nine years of age, at which time the Chicago massacre of 1812 occurred, the details of which have already been told in Vol. I, of this history.
After the massacre John Kinzie and his family were sent to Detroit as British prisoners of war. The United States and England were then at war with each other, and in that war the Chicago massacre was,
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The Kinzies. 609
indirectly, executed on British account. Peace was restored by the treaty of Ghent, between United States and England, in 1814, and in 1816 John Kinzie with his family returned to Chicago. John Harris Kinzie, one of the subjects of this sketch, was then thirteen years old. Two years later, in 1818, he was taken to Mackinac by his father, and indentured to the Ameri- can Fur Co. for five years, during which period he made his home with Robert Stuart, at the same time having the social advantages and friendship of Ramsey Crooks and family, both families being old friends of the Kinzie family. Mrs. Stuart, a well educated woman, took great interest in young Kinzie, and in her evening instructions to him, orally and by means of books well selected, made up to him as good educa- tional privileges as boys have at the present day.
Mackinac was then the great commercial empo- rium of the northwest, the bulk of their commerce being trade with the Indians in furs. Chicago was an outpost, Prairie du Chien was another, and Mr. Kinzie was transferred to the latter outpost in 1824. Here, while employed by the American Fur Co., he became thoroughly conversant with the Winnebago language, and wrote a grammar of this language,* which, after his death, was presented to the Chicago Historical Society.
Meantime Gen. Lewis Cass, then governor of Michigan, having invited him to become his private secretary, he left the employ of the American Fur Co. to accept the position, and became a member of the governor's family in Detroit, and as an aide on the governor's staff was entitled "Colonel." While acting in this capacity he was stationed a part of the time at Upper Sandusky, Ohio, among the Wyandot
* Grammar of the Indian language may seem an impossibility to persons not acquainted with Indian literature; but Schoolcraft, from his thirty years' experience among the Algonquins, says that the Indian language is capable of as perfect analysis as the English or French language.
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610 The Kinzies.
and Huron Indians, branches of the Iroquois tribes^ Here he compiled a grammar of their language, which was essentially different from that of the Winnebagos, who belonged to the Algonquin division of the North American Indians.
In 1829 he was appointed government agent for the upper bands of the Winnebago Indians, making his headquarters at Fort Winnebago, near Portage City, on the Wisconsin river. Mr. Kinzie married, August 9, 1830, at the house of Judge Sanger, in Utica, N. Y., Miss Juliette Augusta Magill, daughter of Arthur William Magill, of Middletown, Conn., a prominent banker, and on the maternal side a great-granddaughter of Gov. Roger Wolcott. Mr. Kinzie took his bride to Fort Winnebago, where they remained until 1834, when they removed to Chicago with their first-born child, Wolcott, occupying a house called Cobweb Castle for two years, when they built the brick house on the corner of Cass and Michigan streets, in which he sub- sequently lived. This house was the birthplace of six more children, who, together with more than that number of adopted nephews, nieces and cousins, made a lively group of youngsters. Mr. Kinzie played the violin, attuned to Mrs. Kinzie's piano music. The tip- toe work of the boys and girls did the rest to furnish the fireside merriment of the long winter evenings. These recreations were far better to give character to youthful minds than the public shows of modern days.
Mrs. Kinzie became the authoress of "Walter Ogleby," "Waubun" and "Mark Logan." " Wau- bun," was a book well known among literary per- sons in the United States, and even in England to a large extent. The history of the Chicago massacre contained in it was detailed to her by eye-witnesses, which makes it authentic and above criticism. Its style has been approved by the best literary critics and reviewers. Mrs. Kinzie's classical education, her brill- iant conversational powers and personal attractions
The Kinzies. 611
made her home in Chicago the social center of litera- ture and art, where she was looked up to as a model to be imitated. She may truthfully be called the pioneer of art and literature in Chicago, as the writer well knows, who sometimes had the honor of being enter- tained in her home.
The Indians always had a keen sense of justice, and at Fort Winnebago they soon learned that Mr. Kinzie's dealings with them were frank, open hearted and friendly. It is not strange that they should have looked upon him as a man of superior intellect and sound judgment, especially as he was a man of com- manding figure, above six feet in height, with large dark blue eyes, dark hair, and made up in a way to inspire respect from both Indians and white people. Many present citizens of Chicago well remember Mr. Kinzie, among them the writer. He spoke thirteen dif- ferent Indian languages, which showed how extensively he had become acquainted with them and had won their confidence. They honored him with the same Indian name, Shaw-nee-aw-kee,* that they gave his father, whose memory was still fresh in their minds.
In 1834 Mr. Kinzie was made first president of Chicago under a village organization. In 1841 he was made registrar of public lands by President William Henry Harrison (Old Tippecanoe). In 1849 President Zachary Taylor appointed him receiver of public mon- eys and depositary, which office he resigned at the
* The following is a quotation from a letter written to the writer, by his daughter. Mrs. Nellie Kinzie Gordon : "My father had occa- sion to go, in the early 50's, to Prairie du Chien. The Mississippi boat stopped ' to wood' and, although there was no settlement, only a rough landing, my father, seeing some Indians on the bank, went ashore. He entered into conversation (in Indian) with a lad about sixteen years old, who grinned and seemed very delighted. My father said to him, ' Do you know who I am V ' ' You are Shaw-nee-aw-kee,' the boy replied. As my father had never seen the boy before, and had not been in that part of the country for twenty years, he was puzzled to find himself recognized. ' How do you know I am Shaw-nee-aw-kee? You never saw me before.' ' No.' answered the boy, 'but we have all been told about you in our tribe. We have a description of you, and we know you talk our language.' "
612 The Einz-ies.
opening- of the civil war, to accept the appointment by President Lincoln of paymaster in the army in 1861, with supervision of Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois, with rank of major and headquarters at Chicago. In 1864 he was made lieutenant colonel. During- this period his two eldest sons, John and Arthur, volun- teered in the civil war. John entered the navy. He was on the gunboat "Mound City" under Admiral Davis when the Confederate fort on White river, Arkansas, was captured. A shot of the enemy penetrated the boiler of the ' ' Mound City," and an explosion was the result, throwing ninety-seven men into the water, scalded and dying ; whereupon the Union forces sent a hospital boat to the rescue ; but regardless of the ordinary rules of war, the sharpshooters of the Confed- erate fort took deadly aim at the helpless victims, and shot many of them while struggling in the water. Young Kinzie was shot as he was being lifted into the boat. Hearing shouts of victory, he asked : u Have we taken the fort ? Then I am ready to die now." He drew his last breath at sunrise next morning, June 18, 1862. The other son, Arthur, was taken prisoner of war by General Forrest at Memphis, Tenn. He died at Riverside, 111., in the spring of 1902, leaving Mrs. Nellie Kinzie Gordon last survivor of the seven chil- dren. The cruel death of the patriotic son John gave his parents a shock from which they never recovered ; but Mr. Kinzie continued in his arduous labors till the spring of 1865, when his health began to fail and, obtaining a leave of absence, he started for a mountain resort in the east, accompanied by his wife, daughter, Mrs. Nellie Gordon, and son Arthur. As the train which carried them approached Pittsburg, a blind fid- dler came into the car asking alms. Mr. Kinzie put his hand in his pocket to get his purse. Before he had withdrawn it his head fell forward, and he expired instantly. His death took place June 21, 1865.
The Kinzies. 613
Mr. Kinzie was the last survivor of those who beheld the Chicago massacre. He belonged to the heroic age of Chicago's history. He had seen Chicago when it was but a defenseless fort, and had seen it as an Indian village. He had seen it as a metropolis of the fur trade. He had seen it when it had more Indian wigwams than houses for white people. He had seen it when temperance societies and public schools were not thought of here, and he lived to see it the great commercial emporium of the northwest. His death was universally lamented.
Mrs. Juliette A. Kinzie, his wife, died after a short illness September 15, 1870, at Amagansett, on Long Island, where she with her grandchildren and her daughter, Mrs. Gordon, were spending the summer. Her remains were brought to Chicago, and laid beside her husband and children in Graceland cemetery. IJer husband had helped build up Chicago in a material and moral way. She had been foremost in building it up in a literary and artistic way. There would be a chasm in Chicago history without brief biographies of Mr. and Mrs. John Harris Kinzie.
Their only daughter, Mrs. Nellie Kinzie Gordon, the last surviving member of their family, is now living in Savannah, Ga., the wife of Brig. -Gen. William W. Gordon, a native of Savannah. They were married in Chicago, December 21, 1857. General Gordon was made a brigadier-general by President McKinley, at the beginning of the Spanish- American war; he served under General Fitzhugh Lee, until he was appointed peace commissioner to Porto Rico, together with Maj.- Gen. John R. Brooke and Rear-Admiral Winfield S. Schley, by President McKinley, in July, 1898.
In a letter to the writer, Mrs. Gordon says : "My Grandmother Kinzie, who saved Mrs. Heald's life by secreting her in the bottom of the boat wherein the
614 The Kinzies.
Kinzie family were rescued, and my aunt, Margaret Helm (sister to my father), were in the thick of the fight in the Chicago massacre."
Mrs. Gordon inherited the true military and patri- otic spirit of the Kinzie family, and was foremost in planning for the comfort, and ministering personally to the wants of the sick soldiers in the southern camps during the Spanish war. She is yet in the prime of her usefulness, and a worthy representative of the founders of Chicago.
PRESIDENT WM. R. HARPKR
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
In 1890 the site of the present University was a tract of swamp land, comprising1 four city blocks, located between Fifty -seventh and Fifty-ninth streets and Ellis and Lexington avenues, in the city of Chicago. Across this tract there ran diagonally a little sand ridge, which was marked by a small grove of scrub oaks, which seemed to thrive despite the unfavorable environment. This tract was surrounded on all sides by prairie, desolate and uninviting. If there was any-' thing predominant it was sand, which appeared cropping out from the soil here and there, or in greater abund- ance where a street had been surveyed or a sidewalk planned.
In 1902 twenty stone buildings, with red tiled roofs, are to be seen; the buildings constructed of an Indiana limestone which, softening under the influence of the climate, quickly gives to the comparatively new build- ings an aspect of age not to be secured elsewhere except after many years. As a foretaste of what is to be expected when the plan of the founders is fully realized, there is one great portal of stone, barred by heavy iron gates, which prophesy the time when the University precincts will be entered only through such openings, being otherwise shut out from the busy world around. On top of this gateway are grinning gargoyles and fierce dragons — an element of mediaeval life transplanted into the midst of the great city of the prairies. The main entrance to the University grounds is from what is known as the Midway Plaisance, for
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616 The University of Chicago.
a short time an unsavory term, because it recalled the many freaks of the World's Fair of 1893, but now a part of the great South Park system of the city, which includes two great parks, with the Plaisance as a connecting link. Near by are pleasant homes and paved streets and concrete sidewalks — every one of these improvements being the work of less than ten years.
While these striking facts indicate the newness which marks the University of Chicago, yet there are some roots which are buried quite deep in the past. During the years 1857 to 1886 there was in the city what was called the Chicago University, an institution founded by the Hon. Stephen A. Douglas, who earnestly hoped that the principal city of his state might become the seat of a great institution of learning. Financial difficulties surrounded this University almost from its inception, and finally, after a heroic struggle, its trus- tees were compelled to close its doors in 1886, leaving behind a record of substantial work accomplished, as evidenced by a list of alumni, many of them men and women of prominence in the growing city. This " Old University,'* as it is called, had hardly closed its doors before efforts were begun to establish a new institu- tion, freed from the financial difficulties, but working substantially on the lines of the old. The alumni of the Chicago University felt the desirability of a revival of their Alma Mater, and when the plans for the new University of Chicago were first formulated, one of the conditions which were made by the trustees was that the alumni of the old Chicago University might be recognized as graduates of the new University of Chicago, if they made formal request for such recognition.
In addition to its collegiate basis in past history, there nourished between the years 1860 and 1892 what was known as the Baptist Union Theological Seminary, started as an adjunct of the Chicago University and
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established during the first years of its history, just across the street from the campus of the University proper. The institution afterward was located in Mor- gan Park, a suburb about fourteen miles away. This seminary had a large number of graduates, many of them leaders of thought and life in the Baptist denomi- nation, particularly in the west. As the existence of
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the old University was recognized in the conditions already mentioned, so it was early provided that if the new University were to be established in Chicago, the Baptist Union Theological Seminary should become the divinity school, and, furthermore, should be brought into close proximity with the institution by being moved from its suburban home to the University grounds.
618 The University of Chicago.
But while these elements of strength came from the past history, adding at once a large body of alumni upon whose interest the institution could count, it is nevertheless true that in its conception and develop- ment the University of Chicago is essentially a child of only ten years of age. The initial movement seems to have been made, as has already been stated, in connec- tion with the ending of the old University. Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of New York city, a prominent Baptist layman, who had long been known for his quiet and unostentatious gifts to education and religion, held a conference with Professor William R. Harper, of Yale University, in regard to the possibility of establishing a new college. Several locations were carefully con- sidered, but it was soon very clear to their minds that the seat of the institution should be Chicago, which gave every evidence of rapid growth and from its geo- graphical situation seemed to hold the key to the edu- cational situation of the west. This was in the year 1888, and the same year marked the organization of what was known as the American Baptist Education Society, a society formed in Washington in May, 1888, with the express purpose of establishing a college in Chicago, and also stimulating the friends of other Baptist institutions by conditional offers of money to them, the plan being for the society to offer to give a certain sum of money to an institution on condition that the friends of the institution would raise a similar amount before a given day. All the preliminary arrangements for the establishment of the University of Chicago, therefore, were under the direction of this society. The secretary was Mr. Fred T. Gates, who was early impressed with the importance of the great work which the society had undertaken.
After much conference, in 1889 a committee of nine prominent men was appointed to examine into the scope of the proposed institution, the location, the funds required for a substantial foundation, and the
T/ie University of Chicago.
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extent to which the Education Society could wisely co-operate in the undertaking-. This committee of nine was composed of Dr. William R. Harper, profes- sor of semitics and Biblical literature in Yale Univer- sity ; Dr. Alvah Hovey, president of Newton Theolog- ical Institution ; Dr. H. G. Weston, president of Crozer Theological Seminary ; Dr. J. M. Taylor, President of Vassar College ; Dr. E. B. Andrews, professor of his- tory in Cornell University; Hon. C. L. Colby, a promi-
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nent Baptist layman ; and Dr. Samuel W. Duncan, Dr. H. L. Morehouseand Rev. J. F. Elder, leading Baptist ministers. This committee gave the subject which was referred to it most careful consideration, and in 1889 made an elaborate report, which resulted in the adop- tion of a series of resolutions by the Education Society, that the proposed institution should be established. These resolutions had hardly been adopted when Mr. Rockefeller, on May 15, 1889, offered to give $600,000
620 The University of Chicago.
as an endowment fund for the new institution, pro- vided that 8400,000 in addition be secured from friends of the project, this additional money to be used in the purchase of land and the erection of buildings. When the committee of the Education Society took up the work of canvassing- it very quickly found the response so sympathetic that it was early seen that the plan to establish a college in Chicago would have to be aban- doned in favor of a wider one for the establishment of a university.
The subscriptions came so rapidly and in such large sums as to astonish those who had undertaken the work. It is doubtful whether in any educational movement in the world such large sums were raised so quickly, the climax coming when, on an appeal to the citizens of Chicago for money for the erection of build- ings for the institution, over $1,000,000 was secured within ninety days.
The institution was formally opened on October 1, 1892, no elaborate ceremony being held, but the routine work beginning after a very simple prayer service, into the spirit of which all who were present entered. A charter had been secured from the legislature ; Pro- fessor William R. Harper, of Yale University, had been elected president, and a staff of instructors, gathered from many institutions in the United States and in for-" eign lands, had been assembled. It would be uninter- esting to go into greater detail in regard to the prelim- inary history which was made during the years 1888 to 1892, but it will be sufficient to note that when the doors opened in October, 1892, 500 students were in attendance, and an endowment fund of several millions of dollars was provided.
It might have been expected that a committee of experienced educators, charged with the work of lay- ing the foundations of an institution of learning which had no traditions to curb it and which had promise
The University of Chicago.
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of a large endowment, would study carefully the exist- ing institutions of the world, and seek to select from those elements which time had proved to be valuable, omitting many things which had grown comparatively useless during the course of years. Looking back- ward over the decade, and comparing the preliminary announcements with the results, it is astonishing to note how carefully the plans were laid, and how prac-
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tical experience has shown the desirability of what in many cases was set forth as problematical only.
As a method of advertising the proposed institu- tion, and at the same time securing the criticism of the many hundreds of men and women in America who were engaged in educational work, the preliminary announcements were made through a series of bul- letins; one making the general announcements, another
622 The University of Chicago.
describing the proposed colleges of the University, another the graduate schools, another the academy, and others the divinity school, the University exten- sion, and the University press. The first of these bulletins, which contained the general announcements, proclaimed that the University was to be carried on under three general divisions: The University proper, the University extension work, and the University pub- lication work. The University proper was to consist of academies, colleges, affiliated colleges and schools, this latter term being an elastic one, providing for non-professional graduate instruction, as well as for instruction in theology, law, medicine, and for schools of engineering, pedagogy, fine arts, music and other branches of culture. The University extension work was to include regular courses of lectures given in groups of six or twelve, according to the plan which had been followed in England, and to some extent in the United States ; evening courses, where small groups of people were to meet under the direction of an instructor, this work approaching closely the work done in the daytime on the University grounds; and cor- respondence courses where, in such lines of investiga- tion as were suitable, instructions were to be given through the mails to students in any part of the world. The University publication work was to include the printing and publishing of all University announce- ments, and also the more dignified work of publishing special and technical periodicals devoted to the inter- ests of investigation along the lines of the principal departments of the University. This general plan thus announced has been carried out during the years of the University's history.
The American educational system is marked by certain familiar characteristics, which do not need description, and perhaps it will be as well to indicate in what respects the University of Chicago differs from the type of the ordinary American college. The most
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striking' characteristic, perhaps, is what is called the quarter system. While as a rule the college year is divided into three terms, familiarly known as the autumn, winter and spring" terms, the summer months being- given up to a long vacation, in the case of the University of Chicago it was decided at the beginning that the year should be divided into four quarters, beginning on the first day of July, October, January
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and April, and containing twelve weeks each, thus leaving a week between the closing of one quarter and the beginning of the next; and to meet the require- ments of those who might wish to attend the institution even for a shorter period, it was provided that the quarter should be divided into terms of six weeks each. The reasons for this change were obvious, it being felt that the long summer vacation was entirely dispro- portionate to the working year, and that it was econom- ically unjust to have a large educational plant closed
624 The University of Chicago.
for a fourth part of the time. There was another ele- ment which favored the adoption of the quarter system, and that was the widening of opportunity for the stu- dents, it being" felt that if credits in the institution were reckoned not according to college years, as under the old plan, but according to the number of studies taken, it would be possible for the student to attend one or two quarters of the year and spend the rest of the time working to secure means to pay for his education. In like manner it would be possible for the ambitious and earnest students to shorten the time for the college degree, the minimum of which under the old plan was four years ; so that the records of the University indi- cate that some students have been able to secure the bachelor's degree from the University by attending ten consecutive quarters, or two and one-half calendar years. While this latter plan is never recommended, and is exceptional, yet the possibilities are indicated by the cases which have actually occurred.
The bearing of the quarter system upon the mem- bers of the faculty is also notable, it being possible so to distribute the force of each department as to allow the instructors to take their vacations at different times of the year. Under the old plan the summer vacation was the only one possible ; under the quarter system, one teacher, who is interested in political science, is able to take a vacation during the winter time, thus going to Washington, to be present during the session of congress and to see the actual workings of the govern- ment of the United States. Another one may take a vacation during the winter quarter, owing to physical conditions, the climate of Chicago being too severe for him. Or another one may make a special trip to Europe during the spring, to accomplish some particu- lar end. The actual service demanded of an instructor is for three quarters only, but provision is made by which, if a teacher continues to give instruction during a longer period than nine months he is allowed either
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626 The University of Chicago.
to receive extra pay for this service, thus adding to the amount of his salary, or to accumulate vacations, which, under the proper adjustment in the department itself, may be taken at a given time, a member of the staff thus being able to spend six or nine months, or even a year in special study, at the same time receiving his salary and providing for the expense of his absence.
There are certain features of the system, however, which will appear at once ; the most striking of which is the entire absence of classes. The familiar terms, "Freshman," "Sophomore," "Junior" and "Senior" find no place in the curriculum of the University of Chicago ; and likewise, when the names of the students are printed they are not published in class sections, as in the ordinary institution. The result is that there is none of the class spirit which prevails in most American colleges, and the lines which are drawn there are entirely wanting. Friendships are formed on different foundations, and since the inevitable result of the quarter system is, that as students may begin at any time, they may finish at any time, there are graduating groups four times a year, and it is yet a question what the influence of the lack of class relationship may have upon the loyalty of the alumni body. To make up for the lack of classes, it has come to be an unwritten rule that students graduating at either the October, January, April or July convocation are counted as members of the class graduating in July.
The undergraduate body is divided into two. parts, those having eighteen credits or less being called jun- ior college students, and those having more than eighteen credits being called senior college students. After a like plan, the students of each college, junior or senior, are grouped into divisions, numbered from 1 to 6, these divisions being based upon the amount of credit which the student has upon the books of the University. These divisions most nearly approximate the ordinary college class lines.
77*6" University of Chicago.
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The government of the University is in charge of the various bodies whose names suggest the field of their jurisdiction. Thus there are several faculties, such as United Faculties, the Faculty of the Divinity
LOOKING ACROSS THE OJUADRANGLE OK THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO TOWARD GREEN HALL
School, the Faculty of the Junior Colleges, the Faculty of the Ogden Graduate School of Science. There are several boards, administrative in nature, such as the Board of Libraries, Laboratories and Museums; the
628 The University of Chicago.
Board of Student Organizations, Publications and Exhibitions ; the Board of Affiliations ; the Board of Physical Culture and Athletics (four student represent- atives being given seats). Two special bodies are the University Senate and the University Council, the former having jurisdiction in all matters affecting the educational policy of the institution, the latter having the same relation to the administrative policy. Each of the various faculties and boards has a meeting once a month. There is a special body called the Uni- versity Congregation, which promises to become of much power in the future. Membership in it is open to all of the teaching staff who rank above associate, to all doctors of philosophy of the University, and to a cer- tain number of alumni, elected each year by the mem- bers of the alumni association. The Congregation often has lively discussions, and frequently recom- mends action to the particular faculties concerned.
The members of the faculty of the University are classed according to title, the enrollment under each head according to the last annual register being, pro- fessors, 71 ; professorial lecturers, 16 ; associate or assistant professors, 64 ; instructors, 48 ; associates, assistants and others, 87 ; making a total of 286.
Besides affording opportunity for study during the summer as well as during the winter the University, by means of the University Extension, reaches out to thousands in their homes, who are unable to get the advantages given students in residence. This division of the work embraces lecture study and correspond- ence study. The first is carried on by peripatetic lecturers, who go from place to place, giving lectures in courses of six or twelve. These lectures are accom- panied by study features in the shape of syllabi, or outlines printed with references and suggestive notes, and by traveling libraries, or small collections of books, which bear upon the particular subject treated, for unlike the popular lyceum course of lectures, where
630 The University of Chicago.
perhaps six different lectures are given by as many individuals, the University Extension course comprises six lectures upon a particular topic or division of study given by one lecturer. About 25,000 persons avail themselves of this opportunity for contact with the University of Chicago each year, the " local centers " or groups of students of this kind being found in the states of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ken- tucky, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Missouri.
The correspondence study department carries the University into any part of the world. The lecture study plan is useful only where there is a sufficient constituency to warrant the outlay required for one or more courses. Usually there must be a hundred earnest members of a circle or center, to make both ends meet. The correspondence study method is dis- tinctly individual, and there are students enrolled for such work in almost every part of the globe. No other institution has made such provision for students out- side its walls, the annual amount appropriated for this object alone being 850,000.
A third form of University Extension was that of the class study department, through which it was planned to give instruction to small groups of students in Chicago, or its immediate vicinity, who are unable to attend classes on the University grounds, and who were obliged to find time for class work in the after- noon and evening or on Saturdays. This part of the general plan was carried out for several years under greater or less difficulties, many teachers finding in it opportunity for needed study. It was then merged with the work of the college for teachers, later known as the University College, which, upon an endowment given by Mrs. Emmons Elaine and in rooms in the heart of the city, has met with encouraging success.
The University of Chicago. 631
The extension of the University is to some extent advanced, likewise, by what is known as affiliation. In accordance with this idea various institutions have been brought into close relationship with the University, this relationship carrying1 with it recognition by the University of the work of the affiliated school, and under certain conditions recognition by University credits. The terms of affiliation of necessity differ with the different schools, but the attempt has been made to secure advantageous results for both sides, and so far apparently there has been little dissatisfac- tion with the plan. At the present time the following institutions sustain this relationship: Kalamazoo Col- lege, Kalamazoo, Mich. ; Des Moines College, Des Moines, Iowa; the John B. Stetson University, De Land, Fla. ; Butler College, Irvington, Ind. ; the Brad- ley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111. ; the Chicago Manual Training School; Rush Medical College, Chicago; the South Side Academy, the Harvard School, the Dearborn Seminary, the University School for Girls and the Kenwood Institute, the last six being in Chicago; the Rugby School, at Kenilworth, 111.; the Elgin Academy, at Elgin, 111. ; the Culver Military Academy, at Culver, Ind. ; the Frances Shiner Academy, at Mt. Carroll, 111., and Wayland Academy, at Beaver Dam, Wis.
Somewhat different from the affiliated institutions are the co-operating schools. In these the University requirements are closely followed, the examination papers are sent to the University for reading and cor- rection, and there is a certain degree of oversight secured by regular visitation by detailed officers of the University, whose judgment is supplemented by that of some other member of the faculty, who is assigned to a particular school as a sort of counselor. About 100 schools are under this relation of co-opera- tion with the University.
632 The University of Chicago.
The attendance of the students has steadily in- creased from the start, until in the year 1901-1902, 4,550 have been enrolled. The figures are the more impres- sive when it is remembered, that with the exception of the Divinity School, up to 1901 there were no professional schools attached to the University. A School of Law has been established, and, in conjunction with Rush Medical College, two years of medical instruc- tion are offered. When Dental School and School of Pharmacy and Technical School are added a much larger annual enrollment may be expected.
The usual student organizations are found, literary societies, religious societies and Greek letter fraterni- ties, the last class being represented by chapters of Delta Kappa Epsilon, Phi Kappa Psi, Beta Theta Pi, Alpha Delta Phi, Psi Upsilon, Sigma Chi, Phi Delta Theta, Delta Tau Delta, Chi Psi, Delta Upsilon, Phi Gamma Delta. There are various local organizations of a more or less ephemeral nature. There is a credit- able daily student paper, a literary monthly published by students, and an annual publication largely given up to student life.
The story of the material development of the University is one of extraordinary growth, namely: From 702 students in 1892-3 to 4,550 in 1901-2; from $1,539,561.76 of invested funds in 1892-3 to $9,165,126.14 in 1901-2; from $1,618,778.66 in buildings, grounds and equipment in 1892-3 to 86,000,000 in 1902, with a total property of $15,128,375.95; from 135 officers of instruc- tion in 1892-3 to 323 in 1901-2; from a budget of $109,496.68 for current expenses in 1892-3 to one of $944,348.26 in 1901-2.
This material development has been made possible by generous gifts, many of them made by citizens of Chicago. The principal benefactor has been Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of New York city, who has contributed to the University over $10,000,000. Of the many other large givers, special mention should be made of Miss
The University of Chicago. 633
Helen Culver, who contributed $1,000,000 to the increase and spread of knowledge of -the biological sciences ; Mrs. Emmons Blaine, who has given over $1,000,000 to establishing the School of Education, designed to increase the opportunity for the improved education of teachers ; Mr. Martin A. Ryerson, who built the Ryerson Physical Laboratory in memory of his father, and gave other large sums to the equipment ; Mr. Sydney A. Kent, who built the Kent Chemical Laboratory ; Mr. Charles T. Yerkes, who provided for the University the largest telescope in the world, and gave generously to the equipment of the observatory belonging to the University, situated at Lake Geneva, Wis., and which bears the name of its principal bene- factor ; Mr. Marshall Field, who gave largely to the general funds of the University ; Mr. Silas B. Cobb. who erected the building which bears his name ; Mr. George C. Walker, the donor of the Walker Museum and otherwise a generous giver to the University ; Mrs. Charles Hitchcock, who erected a dormitory for boys in memory of her husband, the late Charles N. Hitchcock ; Mrs. Caroline E. Haskell, who erected a building and endowed a lectureship in memory of her husband, the late Mr. Frederick Haskell ; Mrs. Eliza- beth G. Kelly, who built Kelly and Green halls for women ; Mrs. Mary Beecher, Mrs. Henrietta Snell and Mrs. Nancy S. Foster, who contributed the funds for the buildings which bear their names ; Mr. Adolphus C. Bartlett, who furnished the Bartlett Gymnasium in memory of his son, Frank Dickinson Bartlett ; Mr. Leon Mandel, who erected an assembly hall ; Mr. John J. Mitchell and Mr. Chas. L. Hutchinson. An especially notable gift was that of the executors and trustees of the estate of Mr. William B. Ogden, the first mayor of the city of Chicago, which has so far realized over $325,000, in recognition of which gift the trustees established the Ogden Graduate School of
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634 The University of Chicago.
Science. In addition to these large gifts, the Univer- sity has received evidence of the friendship of very many citizens of Chicago and vicinity, who have given smaller amounts to the advancement of its work. There has not been a day since the opening of the doors of the institution in October, 1892, when there has not been, to the observer, positive evidence of growth. Many features of the University are still in the process of organization ; changes are taking place rapidly and there is every reason to believe that the unexampled development of the ten years of the life of the institution will be continued in even more remark- able ways in the decade to come.
The total gifts to the University during the years 1892-1902 have aggregated more than $18,000,000.
FRANCIS W. SHEPARDSON.
A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY.
It is not an easy task to write the story of an edu- cational corporation that has grown for over fifty years as an oak grows. Much of the detail of its his- tory must necessarily seem trivial to those who have not shared the opportunities of education which it afforded, or to those who do not appreciate how the intellectual, moral and physical standards of men are raised, how learning is fostered, philanthropy is incul- cated, and civic virtue is stimulated by the association of men and women in university life, to which the university corporation ministers, with its trustees, its endowments, its teachers, its buildings, its books, its museums, its illustrative appliances, and, best of all, by its products of educated men and women.
It was on May 31, 1850, that the dingy law office of Grant Goodrich, over the hardware store of J. K. Botsford on Lake street near La Salle street, Chicago, was the scene of the gathering of a devoted company of men "for the purpose of establishing a University in Chicago under the patronage and government of the Methodist Episcopal church. ' ' There were present on that occasion Rev. Richard Haney, Rev. R. H. Blanch- ard, Rev. Zadok Hall, Grant Goodrich, Andrew J. Brown, John Evans, Orrington Lunt, Jabez K. Bots- ford and Henry W. Clark — three ministers of the Gos- pel, three attorneys, two merchants and one physician. There was, at that time, no institution of collegiate rank nearer than Galesburg, 111., the seat of Knox
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636 Northwestern University.
College. The only other college in the state was Illinois College at Jacksonville. It would be inter- esting to know the discussions that took place in the law office on Lake street; but whatever they may have been, they took the form of preamble and reso- lutions, ' ' WHEREAS, The interests of sanctified learning require the immediate establishment of a university, in the northwest, under the patronage of the Methodist Episcopal church; Resolved, 1. That a committee be appointed to secure a charter. 2. That a committee be appointed to secure the co-operation of contiguous conferences of the Methodist Episcopal church. 3. That a committee be appointed to see what amount of funds can be secured for the erection of buildings and endowment of said institution." After the lapse of three weeks of activity the draft of a charter was reported for submission to the state assem- bly. The corporation was styled, "The Trustees of Northwestern University," and the charter, as drafted and submitted, received the endorsement of the state legislature, and was duly signed and sealed by the officers of the state, January 28, 1851. It appointed A. S. Sherman, Grant Goodrich, Orrington Lunt, John Evans, J. K. Botsford. Joseph Kettlestring, George F. Foster, Eri Reynolds, John M. Arnold, Absalom Funk and E. B. Kingsley its first board of trustees, together with sundry members of Rock River, Wisconsin, North- ern Indiana, Iowa and Michigan annual conferences of the Methodist Episcopal church. The region repre- sented by the bounds of these conferences was the then northwest, and to it they proposed to minister in higher education.
The first meeting of the corporation, for purposes of organization, took place on June 14, 1851, and their first formal action was the election of Dr. N. S. Davis as trustee to succeed Eri Reynolds, one of the charter members who had died. They accepted the act of the legislature, divided their members into classes, and
EDMUND_JANES JAMES
638 Noi'thwestern University.
adopted a plan of operations looking- to the establish- ment of the college of liberal arts, with a president, who should be professor of moral and intellectual philosophy, a professor of mathematics, one of natural sciences and one of ancient and modern languages. A preparatory school was likewise contemplated in the city of Chicago, and steps were taken to raise the money for this purpose and to secure a site, $25,000 being the amount in mind for this latter purpose. It was firmly resolved, "That no debts should be con- tracted or money expended without the means be first provided," and congress was to be memorialized for a grant of lands to Northwestern University. Nothing ever resulted from this memorial. But the new trust- ees were not idle in other directions. They organized by the election of John Evans, M. D., as president, A. S. Sherman as vice-president, Andrew J. Brown as secretary, and J. K. Botsford as treasurer. These, with Grant Goodrich, Dr. N. S. Davis and George F. Foster, constituted the executive committee of the board. The committee on site for the preparatory school reported August 1, 1851, recommending the purchase of the property of the Universalist church in Chicago with a frontage of eighty feet immediately east of the Clark Street M. E. church on Washington street, at a price of $4,000, one-half cash and the bal- ance in three years at 6 per cent interest. On August 28 they raised their bid on this property to $4,800, and started a subscription for the purpose of securing the funds. Evidently there was a hitch in the negotia- tions, for they appointed Dr. Evans and Orrington Lunt to view other lots for the same purpose. That committee turned aside from the Universalist church property, and recommended the purchase of a lot about 200 feet square at the corner of La Salle and Jackson streets from P. F. W. Peck. This situation was a little remote; but being larger, it was deemed more desirable, and the purchase was consummated at a cost
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of $9,000. On September 22, 1852, the erection of a building- upon the property was authorized, to accom- modate 300 students; and on the same date a committee was appointed, consisting of S. P. Keyes, N. S. Davis and Orrington Lunt, to recommend a site for a colle-
ROBERT D. SHEPPARD
giate department of the University. The ambition and scope of these early founders is seen in a series of resolutions adopted at this meeting, appealing- to the Methodist people of the northwest not to multiply higher institutions of learning, but to concentrate
640 Northwestern University.
their effort upon a single institution, viz., the North- western University, and to make it a university of the highest order of excellence, complete in all its parts; and further, they asked from the legislature power to establish preparatory schools in different sections of the northwest, and to affiliate preparatory institutions already in existence. In October Rev. Philo Judson was employed to solicit subscriptions, and plans were directed to be drawn for the site on La Salle street.
Evidently the committee on site for the collegiate department had been stirring, for, as an outcome of the report of that committee, it was decided to be in- expedient to erect a preparatory department in the city of Chicago at the present time; the site, however, was good enough to keep, and in the years to come, as the site of the Illinois Trust and Savings Bank, would furnish valuable endowment for the fledgling college.
They likewise decided to elect a president of the institution at once, whose first duty should be to procure subscriptions and a plan for the establishment of an endowment for the University. At the meeting of June 23, 1853, Dr. Clark T. Hinman was unanimously elected the first president of the University, a man of zeal and tact, who was well nigh irresistible in his appeals to men to help. The scheme of raising money by the sale of scholarships was now devised. Perpetual schol- arships, which were to entitle the purchaser, his son or grandson, to tuition, were sold for $100 each. Trans- ferable scholarships were sold for $100, entitling the holder to $500 in tuition; and for $50, entitling the holder to $200 in tuition. One-half of the funds from these sales was to be used for purposes of instruction, and the other half for the purchase of lands, not to exceed 1,200 acres, as a site for the University, and the erection of buildings. They had great faith in the marketable quality of these scholarships, and that faith was justified when Dr. Hinman loaded his traveling
Northwestern University. 641
bag with them and. worked them off in the most aston- ishing manner upon all sorts of men in the city of Chi- cago and the country round about. In the short period of his service he disposed of $64,600 worth of them, while others, under the stimulus of his activity, sold
HENRY WADE ROGERS
$37,000 worth. Meanwhile the committee on site re- ported, recommending the purchase of 380 acres of land from John H. Foster, eleven miles north of the Chicago court house, on the lake shore, for $25,000, $1,000 to be paid down and the balance in ten years, at
642 Northwestern University.
6 per cent per annum interest. The proposition was accepted and the sale consummated. This was in August, 1853. In October they offered thirteen acres of their purchase for sale at $200 per acre, an advance of 300 per cent. February 3, 1854, they named the site of the University "Evanston," in honor of their presi- dent, Dr. John Evans, and proceeded to plat the town and offer lots for sale.
Garrett Biblical Institute had been founded by the munificence of Eliza Garrett, for ministerial education, and to this institution they offered a site at a nominal rent. This was in February, 1854. The offer" was accepted and an institution established on the campus of the University that was destined to make splendid history in theological education. Streets were graded; right of way was given to the Lake Shore Railroad Co. , and an acre of land, on condition that no intoxicating liquor should be sold thereon. The Billings farm, con- tiguous to their first purchase, consisting of twenty- eight acres, was bought for $3,000. Things were look- ing very hopeful, and in November, 1854, Abel Stevens, W. D. Godman and Henry S. Noyes were elected pro- fessors. The treasurer made his report June 21,. 1854. The assets of the University, in land and notes and subscriptions, were estimated at $281,915, with liabil- ities of $32,255.04. The Foster purchase had increased in value from $25,000 to $102,000, the Billings farm from $3,000 to $4,200, and the Peck purchase from $9,000 to $43,400.
The hopeful feeling and aggressive spirit of the founders of the institution was evidenced in a report made to the trustees June 21, 1854, wherein they offered devout praise to God and their sincere thanks to the founders of education for the present financial success and the future prospects of the University. They de- scribed the location at Evanston in glowing terms as "situated on the Chicago & Milwaukee Railroad, on the shore of Lake Michigan, eleven miles north of the
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city of Chicago, extending- nearly two miles on the shore, more than one-half of it covered with a young and thrifty forest in its natural state, affording the lovers of good taste every facility desirable for the most lovely residence in the country, a town has been laid out and named ' Evanston. ' The University build- ings will occupy the latitudinal center of the town and the highest point, covered with a beautiful grove and inclining at an angle of some thirty degrees toward the
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« * ' it .. .
DEARBORN OBSERVATORY
lake shore." They state that "the motives in select- ing the University site and in establishing the institu- tion have not been characterized by local prejudice nor a spirit of opposition to kindred institutions, but a de- sire to meet adequately the growing want in the north- west for a university of the highest grade, adapted to the country, to its increasing prosperity and the ad- vanced state of learning in the present age. Its loca- tion makes it central for the entire northwest, and the
644 Northiuestern University.
magnitude of the enterprise, by developing" the educa- tional resources of the country on a large scale, and by stimulating a spirit of honorable and generous rivalry, will benefit institutions of every grade and promote the cause of education generally to an incalculable degree. We very frankly, yet we hope not ostenta- tiously, aver our design of making an institution second to none and worthy of the country in which it is located, and its name ' Northwestern University. '
They then outlined their plan of college work. They stated boldly that they proposed to care for grad- uate instruction. While Rush Medical College was adequately doing the work of medical instruction, they declined, for the present, to enter that field. They pro- posed, however, at no distant day, to organize a de- partment of law, but immediate attention was proposed to a classical course of instruction in the college of liberal arts, a scientific course and an elective course. Fourteen departments, with a professor at the head of each, were promised, four of which were immedi- ately filled, with the hope of filling the remainder at the next annual meeting in March, 1855.
When the board met in March, 1855, Dr. Hinman was no longer with them. That eager spirit had suc- cumbed to the burden of his labors. He had undertaken to increase the endowment from scholarships to $25,000, and to secure $100,000 for the erection of buildings, including an astronomical observatory, a library, cabi- net, apparatus and other university fixtures. There is every probability that, with his rare faculty for reach- ing men, with his enthusiasm and tireless labor, he would have accomplished even more than he had under- taken; but his work ended all too soon, and, conscious of a great loss, the trustees met on March 15, 1855, to attempt to fill his place. At this session of the board the liberal policy of the institution was signalized by the grant of a large lot for the Evanston public schools. They had previously, in platting the town, set
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aside a number of parks for public use, together with the lake shore front from Davis street to University place, and, from time to time, without regard to sec- tarian lines, granted building sites for various churches. In June, 1855, it was decided that the formal open- ing of the University should take place at Evanston on November 1 of the same year, a building having been erected on Davis street near Chicago avenue, of suffi- cient capacity to contain rooms for six professors, a chapel, a small museum and halls for two literary socie-
FAYERWEATHER HALL OF SCIENCE
ties, with two rooms in the attic where, on a little oat- meal, a few aspiring students might board themselves, and compensate the University for their rent by ring- ing the college bell.
The liberal spirit of the institution was further evidenced at this meeting by the adoption of the report from the committee on professorships, declaring that in the election of professors in Northwestern Univer- sity the board of trustees would have reference to
646 Northwestern University.
character and qualifications alone; that is to say, that a professor need not necessarily be a Methodist. It was at this meeting that an amendment to their charter made by the last session of the legislature was ac- cepted, two items of which are of especial interest. One section of the amendment provided that no spirit- uous, vinous or fermented liquors should be sold under license or otherwise within four miles of the location of said University, except for medicinal, mechanical or sacramental purposes, under a penalty of $25 for each offense, to be recovered before any justice of the peace in the county of Cook. Section 4 of the amendment conceded the value of such an institution as North- western University to the commonwealth, and ordained that, "All property, of whatever kind or description, belonging to or owned by said corporation shall be for- ever free from taxation for any and all purposes. ' '
On June 15, 1855, Dr. J. V. Z. Blaney was elected to the chair of chemistry.
It was now apparent that it would be difficult to hold the entire territory of the northwest to the policy of a single institution, for the trustees were requested to permit canceling of notes taken in Iowa for the sale of scholarships, or to allow the notes and subscriptions to be transferred to the Iowa Wesleyan University. The request was not granted, but the tendency was noted for regions within their chosen district to localize in the matter of education.
In July, 1855, a movement was started by Dr. Evans, seeking to fasten upon the University the policy of withholding its property from sale, and exclusively re- serving it for purposes of lease. That far-sighted man saw clearly the value of the property for purposes of endowment, but overlooked the practical difficulty of prosperously maintaining a large body of land within a municipal corporation on such a basis. That resolu- tion, with the usual sagacity of the trustees, was laid upon the table.
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647
A temporary frame building- had been constructed on Davis street, corner of Chicago avenue, for the loca- tion of the infant college. There the trustees met in 1856. A college year had passed, with two instructors, compensated at $1,500 each per annum; an agent had been busy in the sale of lots and scholarships; a presi- dent was needed, and Rev. R. S. Foster, D. D., was elected at a salary of $2,000 per annum. Among the trustees elected that year appears the name of William B. Ogden, and among the professors elected was Daniel
A VIEW OF THE CAMPUS
Bonbright, as professor of Latin, then a young man acting as tutor in Yale College. A seal was now re- quired in connection with the execution of documents of the corporation, and a design was chosen consisting of an open book with radiating rays of light, encircled by the words, ' ' Northwestern University. ' '
Tentative steps were taken in 1856 to carry out the university idea by uniting Garrett Biblical Institute and Rush Medical College with the University, for the purpose of conferring degrees. The Northwestern
648 Northwestern University.
Female College had been founded in Evanston by W. P. Jones, and the similarity of name gave great umbrage to the trustees of the Northwestern University. A committee was appointed, requesting a change of name of the Female College, with threats of prosecution, but the Northwestern Female College lived on unmoved until, at a later date, it became the Evanston College for Ladies, and was finally absorbed by the University.
Dr. Foster, the president-elect, appeared before the trustees in July, 1856, and addressed them earnestly concerning the prospects of the institution. He evi- dently impressed upon them the necessity of college buildings and of a library, for they immediately resolved to prepare plans for permanent buildings, and to devote the salary of the president, for the coming year, to the enrichment of the library, he being permitted to con- tinue in the service of Trinity Methodist Episcopal Church, New York, until May, 1857.
The session of the trustees for 1857 gives out no sign of the embarrassment that was prevailing in the business world. They talked of starting a law school. They made preparations for a chair of natural science. They took steps to put the preparatory school in oper- ation, and devoted $1,000 to the purchase of philosoph- ical apparatus. The excess of assets over liabilities was reported as $315,845.30 — the results of the labors of four years of the corporate life of the University. The library had now grown to over 2,000 volumes. The museum had been started by the labors of Robert Ken- nicott, a young naturalist of national reputation, and the Smithsonian Institute agreed to make it a deposi- tory of surplus specimens for the northwest. In 1859 a collection of Roman coins was presented to the Uni- versity by Charles Cookson.
In the same year Henry S. Noyes, in addition to his duties as professor, was appointed agent of the University, to succeed Philo Judson. He had pre- viously been employed to collect incidental fees in
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college, and now, in the most painstaking way, he was to carry a burden of affairs of property and business detail that was to be of invaluable use to the institution.
The law school began to materialize in April, 1859, by the election of Hon. W. B. Scates and Henry G. Miller as professors of law. In June, 1859, on recom- mendation of the faculty, the degree of bachelor of arts was conferred upon Thos. E. Annis, Winchester E. Clifford, Samuel L. Eastman and E. I. Searls, and the degree of bachelor of philosophy on Henry M. Kidder.
ORRINGTON LUNT LIBRARY
These were to be the advance guard of the army of Northwestern graduates.
To stimulate the building of permanent buildings, Bishops Ames and Simpson made a proposition to donate $2,000 of a proposed $30,000 for that purpose. In 1858 John Evans followed with an offer of $10,000, and Philo Judson with $1,000. The terms of the offer were not met in time, and the subscriptions lapsed.
In 1859 Dr. Foster's library of 675 volumes was added to the University collection.
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650 Northwestern University.
In 1860 A. C. Linn, W. A. Lord, H. A. Plimpton, E. Q. Searles, W. C. Spaulding, F. A. Springer and H. L. Stewart received the degree of A.B., and W. H. H. Rawleigh the degree of Ph.B., and owing to the res- ignation of Dr. R. S. Foster, Prof. H. S. Noyes was elected vice-president and Dr. E. O. Haven was elected president, but declined to accept. Warren Taplin was appointed, in 1860, the first principal of the Academy. Prof. Godman resigned, on account of ill health, from the chair of Greek during the same year. In 1860 the trustees took steps to liquidate the debt contracted in the purchase of the site of Evanston and other indebt- edness, by setting apart $37,949.16 of securities there- for in the hands of J. G. Hamilton, trustee.
The existence of the war of the rebellion was re- flected in 1862 by the resignation of Dr. J. V. Z. Blaney, to enter the army. He was dismissed with regret, and from time to time numbers of the students followed into the service of the Union, among them Prof. Linn, Plimpton, Mac Caskey, Spencer, Haney and the Stro- bridges, the nucleus of a company with University officers, which was organized and marched away to the music of the fife and drum, seriously thinning the ranks of the students.
In 1862 Rev. N. H. Axtell appears as principal of the preparatory school, and the same year the honored name of Dr. Oliver Marcy appears as professor of natu- ral science. During this same year the trustees are in negotiations for the contribution of the site of a Bap- tist church building; indeed, all along, up to quite a late period, they practiced the policy of donating church sites and sites for public schools.
In 1863 authority was given to locate the Garrett Biblical Institute on the campus of the University, but it was not until 1866, or thereabouts, that the final ad- justment of property relations was made with the In- stitute, whereby, on payment of a nominal amount per annum, the Institute was permitted the use. of valuable grounds for its buildings.
Northwestern University. 651
In November, 1863, J. G. Hamilton announced that the trust had been accomplished and the University was free from debt. From this time onward earnest efforts were concentrated upon the need for University buildings. At almost every meeting1 of the board the matter was earnestly discussed. A permanent plan for arranging the buildings on the campus was devised in 1864, and the services of the eloquent Dr. O. H. Tiffany were secured, temporarily, in that year in the role of financial agent to secure funds for the University buildings.
In 1865 the name of Prof. Louis Kistler appears as professor of Greek, the appointment being a temporary one; it was made more permanent in the following year. The growing need for boarding accommodations for the students was earnestly pressed, which resulted in erecting a building called the club house, now located on Orrington • avenue, near Clark street — the University's first experiment in dormitories.
An appropriation was made during this year of $25,000, from the productive funds of the institution, for the erection of a main University building or what is now known as University hall. The cost of this building was to approximate $100,000. Dr. Tiffany's labors did not result very successfully in securing f unds^ and Dr. S. A. W. Jewett was now tried in the work of a financial agent, to see if funds could not be secured for the much needed building.
It was at this point that Orrington Lunt, in Sep- tember, 1865, donated a tract of 157 acres in George Smith's subdivision, adjoining Wilmette, which was later applied to the library endowment. The condi- tions of this donation involved a few financial obliga- tions on the part of the University, but they were gladly met in view of the prospective value of this en- dowment.
652 Northwestern University.
Plans for a University hall were adopted in Sep- tember, 1865, G. P. Randall being the selected archi- tect. The noble pile that now dominates the campus attests the good taste with which this first important building of the University was designed.
The items of trustee business are somewhat dreary reading; made up of transactions concerning the prop- erty of the University or ordinary repairs of one sort or another, the discussing of the problem of shore pro- tection, and devising ways and means for the enlarge- ment of property interests and the raising of funds. But all this is of exceeding importance, that the work of the college may proceed. The work of the college does go on during these years, somewhat impeded by the tendency of the young men to enlist in the army and serve their country's cause.
One incident of 1866 which shows how difficult it was for the trustees of that period to anticipate the University's development was the deed to the John Dempster heirs of what is known as Dempster's subdi- vision, which cuts the University campus in twain in the region of the big ditch. This property has largely been re-acquired at considerable advance upon the price at which it sold, in order that adequate room may be had for the development of the institution.
The donation to the Presbyterians of a site for their church followed in 1866, and in the same year the corporate name of the University was changed from Trustees of Northwestern University to Northwestern University. Other names were suggested, but the trustees clung tenaciously to the idea of a university for the northwest. The treasurer's report for that year shows assets to the amount of 8419,751.50, and subscriptions to the University building to the amount of $48,000.
The first honorary degrees given by the University were bestowed in 1866, when George W. Qureau, George M. Steele and George S. Hare were given the degree
Northwestern University. 653
of Doctor of Divinity, and Randolph S. Foster and Joseph Cummings were given the degree of Doctor of Laws.
A new name that was to be of great prominence and usefulness in the affairs of the University emerges in 1866, when David H. Wheeler was elected professor of history and English literature. In the same year Charles H. Fowler was elected president of the Uni- versity, only to decline the honor in the following year, before entering upon the service.
Great impatience was manifested in 1867 that the University hall should be pushed to completion. Mat- ters were looking much more hopeful. The income had been found sufficient to warrant the increase of salaries of the professors from $1,500 to $2,000, and within a year the assets of the institution had increased over $40,000. The building was now undertaken in a very cautious manner. It was to be built of Athens stone, and, with the discreetness that always characterized the trustees, they proposed to roof it over when they reached a point beyond which their available funds did not extend. H. B. Kurd proposed in this emergency, and the proposal was carried, that the building be com- pleted to the roof and enclosed before halting in the enterprise. Their hearts were stimulated by the an- nouncement made by Louis Kistler that one William Walker, of Kankakee, proposed to give the munificent sum of $30,000 to the University for this purpose. It was a cruel disappointment when it was discovered that Lord Walker had no foundation for the various and widespread benefactions with which he had been cheer- ing the hearts of the trustees of various institutions. The building of University hall went on, however.
T. C. Hoag, whose name was destined to be long associated with the business affairs of the University, and to whom a great debt of obligation is due for his painstaking and orderly management of affairs, became
654 Northwestern University.
agent in August, 1867. By June of that year $42,125 had been spent on the new building, and in computing the assets of the institution, they had risen to $703,714.08.
In 1867 the Chicago Medical College became an integral part of Northwestern University, and was, to some extent, enriched from the resources of the insti- tution. That consummation was brought about largely through the labors of that old time trustee, Dr. N. S. Davis, who was intimately associated with medical education in Chicago.
In default of a president, D. H. Wheeler was made the executive officer of the faculty. Professor Noyes having resigned the vice-presidency in 1867, on account of ill health, that honorable and hard working pro- fessor, who had carried so many burdens, both of in- struction and of financial management, was compli- mented by the trustees on his retirement from his position as vice-president; and the compliment was just, but still a poor return for the valuable labors of that accomplished and devoted man.
In 1868 the First Congregational church, of Evans- ton, was enriched by the University with a valuable building site. In the same year the name of Robert M. Cumnock appears as teacher of elocution, with the modest compensation of $3 per week. His services proved so acceptable that he was paid, the following year, $300 for such services as he rendered in connec- tion with the college students. He was destined to be one of the pillars of the institution, and to attain to wide fame, and bestow great credit upon the University. The names of Geo. W. Winslow and Robert Baird appear as instructors in that year in the preparatory school.
In the year 1869 a committee of citizens interviewed the trustees on the subject of taxation, and were given some very wholesome information by Grant Goodrich as to the services of the University in the creation of the town, and the rights of the institution under its charter.
Northwestern University. 655
The lease to Garrett Biblical Institute was put into form in 1869, as it now exists, and in that year the assets of the institution had swelled to $761,066.59. University Hall was now well nigh complete, and the formal dedication was designed for that year. It was thought essential that a president should be elected coincidently with the erection of the new building, and Erastus O. Haven was called to that post, with a salary of $4,500 per annum. The same year young women were admitted to the college classes; the medical school sent out its first class under the auspices of the Uni- versity, and the Schultze library, of 20,000 rare volumes, was purchased and donated by Luther L. Greenleaf to the University. The assets for that year are figured at $779,349, and the report of the president at the close of the first year of his service was full of encouragement and promise. The property on La Salle street had been leased, and the Pacific Hotel Co. organized, which gave promise of a considerable enhancement of income from that old investment of $9,000, which had been so tena- ciously retained.
August 23, 1872, Dr. Charles H. Fowler, now bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church, was elected presi- dent of the University; a man of rare eloquence and a magnetic leader, who brought to the work his char- acteristic energy, and set on foot many schemes for the enlargement of the work of the University.
In June, 1873, the Evanston College for Ladies was absorbed by the institution, and thereby it became co- educational. In the same year the University united with the University of Chicago in the establishment and maintenance of a law school, which was known as the Union College of Law, destined to become the sole property of the University, under the title of the North- western University Law School, after the extinction of the University of Chicago.
656 Northwestern University.
With the merging1 of the Evanston College for Ladies, the name of Frances E. Willard became associ- ated with the University as professor of esthetics. Dr. Herbert F. Fisk, likewise in 1873 became principal of the Preparatory School, a position which he has held with honor from that time.
The courses of the College of Liberal Arts were considerably amplified under the administration of Dr. Fowler, and a school of technology was planned, which, later, on failure of expected resources, had to be abandoned.
Dr. Fowler was called, in 1876, to the editorship of the Christian Advocate, and resigned the presidency. Oliver Marcy, professor of geology, was thereupon appointed acting president, a position which he held with credit to himself and honor to the University until 1881.
In June, 1876, the question of taxation of the Uni- versity property was raised, and was contested by the University in all the courts of the state, adversely to its claim of exemption under its charter. The question was then appealed to the United States Supreme Court, and the decision of the state Supreme Court was re- versed in the October term, 1878. At this time the total assets of the University were reckoned by the treasurer at $1,069,016.
In 1881 Joseph Cummings, the Nestor of educators in the Methodist Episcopal church, long-time president of Wesleyan University, was elected president, and for ten years, with his ripe powers and judgment, and with indefatigable zeal and industry, presided over the affairs of the institution, beloved by the faculty, revered by the students, and acknowledged by all as an ideal col- lege president of the old school. During his adminis- tration, namely in the year 1884, the Illinois School of Pharmacy became the property of the University, thereafter to be known as the Northwestern University School of Pharmacy, and the School of Dentistry was
Northwestern University. 657
established. Dearborn Observatory, the gift of James B. Hobbs, was erected at a cost of 825,000, and the valuable instruments that were formerly in the Dear- born Observatory in Chicago were installed, and nearly $200,000 was raised to liquidate the University's indebt- edness.
On the death of Dr. Cummings, Dr. Marcy was again called to the acting presidency, until the election of Dr. Henry Wade Rogers in September, 1890, contin- uing in that office for a period of ten years, which were characterized by marked development of the institu- tion in its courses of study and number of instructors, in the acquisition of the Woman's Medical School and the construction of some important buildings. The fruitage of the labors of the early founders of the Uni- versity had now become quite manifest in the enhanced income of properties which they secured with so much sacrifice and retained with such wise persistence.
In the summer of 1899 Dr. Henry Wade Rogers re- signed the presidency of the University, and Dr. Daniel Bonbright, professor of Latin, was elected acting president, an office which he administered with great satisfaction to the trustees, professors and students alike, until February, 1902, at which time Dr. Edmund Janes James was elected president of the institution. He had served the University of Chicago for a few years, in charge of the University extension work of that institution. The largest part of his career was spent at the University of Pennsylvania, in connection with the department of economics, where his enviable reputation as an educator and economic writer was made. His election was hailed with satisfaction by the friends of Northwestern University, and his ad- ministration, most auspiciously begun, gives promise of one of the most progressive and useful periods in the his- tory of the institution which he has been called to serve.
The business side of the institution has been cared for by such men as Philo Judson, J. G. Hamilton, W. H.
658 Northwestern University.
Lunt, T. C. Hoag and R. D. Sheppard, the present in- cumbent of the business office, to say nothing of the continuous labor of the devoted men who have given freely of their time and best attention in caring for the development of the institution and the guidance of its affairs during the long period of half a century now closing. From small beginnings it has acquired, by wise management and by the timely benefactions of such men as John Evans, Orrington Lunt and William Deering, and lesser givers, the property estimated in the last financial report at $6,000,000. It has minis- tered to the training of nearly 1,500 graduates from its College of Liberal Arts, 1,844 from its Medical School, 559 from its Woman's Medical School, 1,186 from its School of Pharmacy, 1,605 from its Dental School — in all over 8,000 alumni, which are its chief est wealth; and enrolled as students in its various halls of learning, both on its campus at Evanston and in its schools in Chicago, are nearly 3,000 students.
R. D. SHEPPARD.
HISTORY OF THE LEWIS INSTITUTE.
The Lewis Institute was opened to the public September 21, 1896. The institution was made possi- ble by the will of Allen C. Lewis, who died October 25, 1877, but the thought and care of many others have contributed to the enlargement of the original bequest, and to the success of the foundation under it. Much credit is due the trustees by whom the estate was care- fully invested and augmented, and to those upon whom rested the burden of organization, building and inaugu- ration.
In short, the Lewis Institute is a monument to an individual, but a monument which is the result of the careful building of willing hands directed by active minds intent upon carrying out not only the literal ex- pression, but the implied desires of the founder.
Allen C. Lewis was born in Sterling, Conn., in 1821. He came west in early life, engaging in business in Elgin, whence he removed to Chicago in 1853. While in Chicago he laid the foundation of his fortune chiefly by the purchase and location of land warrants. In 1867 his health failed and most of his holdings were transferred to real estate or securities of the new rail- ways which were then being built in the west. In com- mon with most western men of eastern origin, he was impressed with the vast resources of the country, with the great demands that would be made for their devel- opment, and with the certainty of the rapid increase of the population. Four or five years spent in Europe in a vain effort to recover his health gave him opportunities
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660 Lewis Institute.
to observe the conditions of the young men and women of the people, and the lack of trained skill which plays so great a part in the determination of their lives.
An elder brother, John Lewis, who died in 1875, left to Allen C. Lewis the greater part of his fortune, amounting to 8300,000. The will of John Lewis is a short, simple, direct document, a good index of the character of the man. While no statement is made as to the ultimate disposition of the bequest, .there is little doubt that it was intended as his contribution to a cause as dear to him as to his brother.
Allen C. Lewis died October 25, 1877, and his will was admitted to probate November 1. At the time of the bequest there were but three technical schools of any importance in this country. All of these were in the eastern states, but some of the western universities and colleges were beginning to announce technical courses. The need of such an institution was felt in Chicago, and the hope of a foundation by bequest was expressed frequently by the press. No one seems to have thought, however, of the source from which it would come. The gift of Mr. Lewis was as unexpected as it was welcome. While well known to many of the citizens of Chicago, Mr. Lewis had been for years an invalid ; he was naturally averse to publicity, and few persons knew the extent of his fortune or the plans he had formed for its disposition. The gift received the praise of the public for its magnitude, remarkable in that day; for the modest way in which it was made, and for the broad philanthropic lines which were laid down to guide the trustees in its management.
Mr. Lewis realized that the sum left by his will would be insufficient for the purposes which he desired to accomplish, and foresaw that changing conditions would, in all probability, modify the execution of the trust. Four distinct features appear in the conditions attending the gift. The first, and apparently the most
Lewis Institute. 661
important in the mind of Mr. Lewis, was a school which should develop the technical skill of young men, and especially young women, to such a point that their position as wage earners would be secure. This might be done best for a large class by means of a night school. The second and third objects were to be a ben- efit to the general public as well, and consisted of a library and reading room, and a course of public lectures to be determined by the needs of the commun- ity, but to be, preferably, along the lines of the work done in the school. The fourth establishment was to be made as soon as the estate would warrant it, and was to be a thoroughly equipped school of technology. Provisions were made for changes necessitated by varying conditions, and two sites belonging to the estate were suggested as possible locations for the institution.
The first trustees under the will were James M. Adsit, Henry F. Lewis and Hugh A. White. The estate at the death of Mr. Lewis amounted to about $550,000, and by the terms of his will the trustees were not to begin the work planned for them to do until the estate should amount to $800,000. John A. Roche was appointed a trustee in the place of James M. Adsit, who resigned, and George M. Bogue was appointed to the vacancy caused by the death of Henry F. Lewis. Mr. Bogue resigned, and the estate was in the hands of Mr. White and Mr. Roche. Careful investments had increased the amount to $1,400,000. Upon the death of Mr. White, Christian C. Kohlsaat and John McLaren were appointed, and the board thus constituted ar- ranged to carry out the provisions of the will. This board was especially well adapted for the work to be done. The members represented a broad knowledge of the manufacturing interests and needs of the city, inti- mate acquaintance with social conditions, due to long service in administrative and judicial positions, experi- ence in the management of large interests, and in the
662 Lewis Institute.
direction of the public school system of Chicago. Be- fore determining the character of the new institution, the trustees made an extended tour of the eastern states, inspecting institutions of technology, confer- ring with experts in technical education, and examin- ing buildings and courses of study.
A number of prominent citizens, chiefly from the west division of Chicago, were invited to meet the trustees at the Union League Club November 15, 1894, to discuss the subject, "What does Chicago expect of the trustees?" The answers to this question fell into two classes. Perhaps the majority of the speakers favored a school verging upon the trade school, while the others were in favor of a thoroughly equipped school of technology. All the opinions agreed in this — that the Institute should train the young man and woman to some particular trade, and thus enable them to secure steady and remunerative employment.
After the meeting of November 15, plans were received for a building suited to the purposes specified by the founder as these purposes were understood and interpreted by the trustees. These proposals were the subject of much careful thought and deliberation. Minute investigations were made of the special feat- ures of the several plans and their adaptation to the work of the school. Those of Henry Ives Cobb were selected, and in accordance with them the building was begun. Upon the completion of the building, the trustees, following the provisions of the will, elected Oliver H. Horton and Thomas Kane to their number, and selected William J. Chalmers, William R. Harper, Christoph Hotz, Albert G. Lane and Henry M. Lyman to constitute with themselves the board of managers.
In May, 1895, George Noble Carman, a graduate of the University of Michigan, prominent in western edu- cational circles, and at that time Principal of the Mor- gan Park Academy of the University of Chicago, was appointed director.
Lewis Institute. 663
Meanwhile the organization of the Institute had begun. The character of the community in which the Institute was located made it evident that work of the greatest variety would be called for. To confine the attendance to any particular class would be to limit the scope of the work, curtail the income of the school from tuition, and eventually, perhaps, injure most those classes which the Institute was designed especially to benefit. It was found possible to plan the work so that each class contributed something to the good of the whole, preserving the principles of personal independ- ence and democratic association.
The course of study as at first arranged, and at pres- ent continued, comprises three lines of work, known as the courses in Arts, Sciences and Technology. These cover a period of six years and include two years of college work, in addition to the four years of secondary work. The old term, secondary education, applied to courses and institutions midway between the primary school and the college, is in itself -misleading. The lim- its of the course are quantitative, and not chronolog- ical ; they are established also by the degree of devel- opment of the student and his or her power for individ- ual and original work. The endowment and equipment of Lewis Institute warrant the step thus taken, while time has shown that this was an advance movement in education likely to be followed in the future.
Another criticism of American education, and espe- cially of -American technical education, is that the broad foundations of general intelligence are neglected, that the specialist knows nothing but his specialty ; that he is, therefore, limited in many of his social duties. This criticism has been met to a great degree by a flexible course of study of wide range, easily adapted to the needs of individuals. Among the more important features are the long school day, limitation of the size of classes, possibilities of choice of subjects and the elimination of a fixed time required for the completion of a certain amount of work.
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664
Lewis Institute.
The possible school day was made eight hours in length, arranged in four two-hour periods, thus decreas- ing the hours of outside study and adding greatly to the capacity of the laboratories and shops. The maxi- mum of individual instruction was provided for by the limitation of the size of classes to about twenty-five students, while the system of electives made possible a course of study determined by the circumstances and necessities of the student.
The Institute grants but one degree, that in me- chanical engineering. The title of Associate is con- ferred upon students who receive the number of credits ordinarily comprised in the six year course, while certificates are granted students who complete respec- tively one-third and two-thirds of that amount.
Instruction is offered in the departments of Eng- lish, history, mathematics, mechanical and electrical engineering, physiography, physics, chemistry, biology, Latin, Greek, German, French, Spanish, domestic economy, and drawing and design. The question of extension is an important one in which safety of solu- tion lies rather in meeting than creating a demand. The table below shows the enrollment for each year in both day and night classes, and the number of mem- bers of the faculty each year in the day and night schools.
|
1896-97 |
1897-98 |
1898-99 |
1899-1900 |
1900-01 |
1901-02 |
|
|
Members of faculty and assist- ants, day and night classes. Students, day classes |
29 434 |
38 545 |
64 614 |
79 790 |
85 1,006 |
89 1,033 |
|
Students, night classes |
260 |
520 |
775 |
1,190 |
1,029 |
1 087 |
|
Total number of students |
604 |
1,065 |
1,389 |
1,980 |
2,035 |
2,120 |
The equipment of the Institute is ample and well adapted for the practical work undertaken ; the labora- tories are large and convenient , the shops, situated in a detached building, are provided with the necessary materials and tools. A new gymnasium, under the
Lewis Institute. 665
direction of an exceptionally competent instructor, pro- vides for class and individual work in physical train- ing1. The same instructor is also the director of school athletics. Various societies and musical organizations add to the social life of the school, and do much to form a healthy school spirit.
At the close of the first six years, which were nec- essarily more or less experimental, the Institute has established a firm basis for future growth, has inaugu- rated successfully some new ideas in general and tech- nical education, and is prepared to meet demands for further development and extension. The library and reading room contains 10,350 volumes and about 200 periodicals. These have been selected with a view to the present needs of the school and their place in what shall be ultimately a valuable reference library. A definite appropriation is made each year for additions to this collection, making the development possible along well defined lines of growth.
The students in the day classes represent all ranks of society. Among them are to be found not the great- est extremes of poverty or of wealth, but marked differ- ences which are lost sight of in the common interest of school work. The plan of the Institute has been, from the first, so to adjust the relations of school and pupil, that no deserving person, who has the cost of living provided, is deprived of an education through inability to pay the tuition. In many cases, also, students have found it possible to support themselves while doing their regular work. In addition to these provisions made by the trustees there are three scholarships, established by the bequest of Mrs. Hugh A. White. These scholarships are awarded by the terms of her will under the direction o'f Mr. McLaren, and give free tuition to their holders.
Practical work for young women has been begun in the departments of domestic science and drawing, looking forward to the almost unlimited possibilities of
666 Lewis Institute.
designing as applied to the different forms of pro- duction.
Lecture courses have been maintained each year, supplemented by numerous single lectures by experts in some special field closely connected with the scien- tific or technical work of the Institute.
One of the most successful features of the work is the night school, in which a merely nominal tuition is charged.
For the three years ending in December, 1902, over 1,000 students have been enrolled each year. The attendance is of the most varied character, including representatives of most of the trades and professions. Many of the students are present for two or three years in succession, and are seeking to attain some definite point in preparation for special work. Changes are frequent from the night to the day classes, and the opposite, according to the circumstances of the students.
The night school is favored by the hearty support of many of the largest manufacturing and commercial interests of Chicago.
This feature of the work is particularly gratifying to the management of the institution, not only from the standpoints of attendance and popular favor, but be- cause it exemplifies more than anything else the prac- tical idea of the founder, to extend help to those most willing to profit by it, and to afford opportunity for ad- vancement in the trades and mechanic arts, not to be obtained otherwise in the present conditions of indus- trial life. In addition to this work of a purely technical character, there are large classes in mathematics, pure sciences and the languages.
A spirit of intelligent appreciation and active co- operation in extending the work of the night school is shown by those who attend it, thus justifying the wis- dom and foresight of those who have been charged with the inception and management of the institution,
Lewis Institute. 667
and offering to others who are interested in matters of similar public advancement an opportunity to assist and further the work now established.
The number of courses offered at night is limited only by the demand for them and the equipment of the Institute. New courses are introduced as they seem to meet the needs of the changing industrial life of Chicago.
So far, then, the plan of Allen C. Lewis has been worked out in the past six years. The trustees are fully aware of the needs of the city and the institution, and feel deeply the weight of responsibility resting upon them in this formative period. The first elements of the foundation, a broad general education, with added technical skill of high grade, certainly are safe bases upon which to build.
CHARLES W. MANN.
ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
Armour Institute of -Technology first opened its doors to students in September, 1893, but the seed from which it grew was planted as early as June, 1874, when a mission school, supported by members of Plymouth Congregational church, was established on Thirty-first street, Chicago. Mr. Joseph Armour, brother of Mr. Philip D. Armour, was deeply interested in this Sun- day school and contributed to its support. Later it was moved to larger quarters at State and Twenty- eighth streets, and again to still larger rooms at Thirty-first and Butterfield streets, now called Armour avenue. Inspired by the growth of this mission, Mr. Joseph Armour left, in 1881, a bequest of $100,000 to found an institution which should have for its object the care and development of youth. Mr. Philip D. Armour was the executor of his brother's will, and not only made judicious use of his brother's bequest, but added largely from his own resources. As a result, the Armour Mission was founded. Not content with the breadth of work done by the mission, and guided by his own keen insight into the needs of the present generation, Mr. Armour broadened the lines of his work and founded Armour Institute of Technology.
When its doors were first opened, Mr. Armour associated with him as trustees his sons, J. Ogden Armour and Philip D. Armour, Jr., William J. Camp- bell and John C. Black. Rev. Dr. F. W. Gunsaulus was made president and Thomas C. Roney, dean of the faculty. Mr. W. J. Campbell died, and the
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Armour Institute of Technology. 669
president was selected to fill the vacancy. The death of Mr. Armour, following the death of his son, Philip D. Armour, Jr., was a severe loss. But the ideals of the founder were ably maintained by the widow and surviving son, who have amply provided for the needs of the Institute. The board of trustees is now constituted as follows : Mr. J. Ogden Armour, Mrs. P. D. Armour, Mrs. J. Ogden Armour, Mrs. P. A. Valentine, Mr. John C. Black, Mr. Simeon B. Chapin and Rev. Frank W. Gunsaulus.
The ideals of the institution to-day bear little re- semblance to the ideals set up in 1893. Actuated by a keen perception that what the young man of to-day needs is an exact knowledge of the facts of science and a practical skill in applying them to the needs of mankind, Mr. Armour founded the Institute to work out this idea. The ideals of the trade and the manual training school were soon passed by, as solving only a portion of the problem. At last the idea of a strictly high grade technical school became, in the minds of those who were shaping the policy of the Institute, the only solution of the problem. The aim of the Institute now is to furnish a strictly technical education of four years' duration in the lines of engineering, and to con- fer the degree of bachelor of science on its graduates, thus placing them at par with the regular college grad- uate.
The engineering work has grown to be the main feature of the Institute, and is embraced in the technical college. Here four-year courses in mechanical engineer- ing, electrical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering and architecture are offered, each leading to the appropriate degree of bachelor of science. In shaping these courses careful attention has been paid to securing a judicious balancing of the theoretical and practical. The chemistry, the physics, the mathemat- ics, the modern languages are all so co-ordinated with each other, and with the strictly technical work, that
670 Armour Institute of Technology.
the young engineer finds himself, after a course at the Institute, well able to advance in his chosen profession to the highest fields of usefulness.
There are to-day two opposite views as to the proper ingredients of an engineering course. One would exclude all but the purely technical; the other would include a portion of the humanities. The policy at Armour Institute of Technology is to follow the latter plan, and consequently logic, psychology, English, his- tory and economics have been introduced into the en- gineering courses. This plan has been adopted in order to develop the cultural side without detracting from the strictly technical. It is believed that students com- pleting these courses are no less educated, in the best sense of the term, than those who pursue the ordinary course in the classical colleges. The day is past when the study of science, either pure or applied, need give reasons for its existence. The burden of proof is no longer upon the scientist and the technical man. While it is not claimed that science and technology will give the same culture and polish that the classics or philosophy may give, yet it is claimed that they give a culture of their own equal to anything the classics can give. Absolute accuracy of thought, intellectual integrity, directness of purpose, and the mental exal- tation which comes with the close union of theory and practice, are virtues strongly characteristic of the student of technology.
Before the passage of the Morrill bill by Congress, July 2, 1862, schools of technology and applied science had a precarious existence. The provisions of the Morrill bill gave to the states public land for the en- couragement of agricultural and technical schools. The passage of this bill was the renaissance of technical education in the United States. Under its provision technical education became firmly established in almost every state of the Union. Following the establish- ment of state schools came the founding of private
Armour Institute of Technology. 671
schools, of which Armour Institute of Technology is the latest example. The education offered by the engineering departments of state institutions and by private technical schools was formerly regarded as a substitute for a classical education for such as had not the power to master the Greek aorist or to rise to an appreciation of Plato. But the work of these technical schools, as shown by the success of their graduates in holding positions of trust and responsibility, and their general high standing among men of affairs, has shown that young men trained according to the light of mod- ern science are fully as well equipped as the graduates of the classical college.
In any new movement like the one we are now considering difficulties are encountered which cannot be foreseen. It is a well known fact that in the ordi- nary course of affairs the demand for an article will bring about, in some way, the supply of that article. And in most affairs the regulation of demand and sup- ply can be safely left to private enterprise. But the history of technical education shows that the very op- posite principle has held true — the supply creates the demand. A broader intelligence than that of the mar- ket is needed to see not merely what the people do need, but what they ought to need. To this far-reach- ing intelligence on the part of Philip D. Armour and Rev. Dr. F. W. Gunsaulus is due the original founda- tion and consequent growth of the Armour Institute of Technology. They recognized that the ordinary work- ing of the law of supply and demand was here reversed, and that technical schools must first be founded and their product put upon the market in the form of scientifically trained young men before private enter- prise would understand the need it had for them. The battle has been a slow one, but it is well nigh over, and to-day the value of the scientific man in the mill, the manufactory, the electrical plant and on the rail- road is generally conceded, and the demand for his services is on the increase.
672 Armour Institute of Technology.
The technical college of the Institute is now under the charge of Dean Victor C. Alderson. G. F. Gebhardt is professor of mechanical engineering; I. J. Macomber, professor of electrical engineering; W. F. Shattuck, associate professor of architecture ; W. T. McClement, professor of chemical engineering, and Alfred E. Phillips, professor of civil engineering.
Leading to the technical college is Armour scien- tific academy, of which Howard M. Raymond is prin- cipal. The work in the academy is on the elective basis, so that each student may select just that com- bination of studies which will best fit him for his future work. No attempt at manual training, as such, is at- tempted in the academy, though much manual skill is acquired in the laboratories of physics and chemistry and in the drafting rooms.
The artistic side of education at the Institute is developed in a manner peculiar to itself. Frequent recitals of a high musical order are given to the stud- ents and their friends. Besides this, the Institute is fortunate in having in its president a connoisseur in art who believes in the constant daily and hourly influence of the presence of art upon the character and taste of the individual. Not only are the walls of the Institute building adorned by masterpieces owned by the Insti- tute itself, but not a day has passed since the first stud- ent entered its doors that there has not been in the corridor to greet him a fine painting from the brush of some master hand. These paintings are loaned by private owners, by dealers, by the Art Institute, and frequently by the artists themselves. Among the emi- nent artists whose works have been on exhibition are :
Munkacsy : ' ' The Two Families. ' ' Helberg : " The Missing- Manuscript." Leader : "Scene in Surrey, England." Leader: "Forest Scene, England." Cooper : " Sheep and Cattle." William Watson : " Scotch Sheep." Van Marck : " Cattle." John Constable : " The Old Mill." Francois Millet : " Roman Girl."
Armour Institute of Technology. 673
Joseph Israels : " Motherhood."
Artz : " The Fagot Gatherers."
Dante Gabriel Rosetti : " Marion Earle."
Rico : "Grand Canal, Venice."
Rehn : " Sunshower on the Atlantic Coast."
B. Plockhorst : " Madonna and Child."
Another means of general culture and develop- ment is the library of 15,000 volumes, under the charge of Mrs. Julia Beveridge, librarian. A well equipped gymnasium, under the charge of Henry B. Thomas, is the center of the athletic activity of the students. Ath- letic affairs are controlled by an athletic association composed of representatives of the college, the acad- emy and the faculty. Student societies are encouraged in all legitimate ways. They include chapters of the Phi Kappa Sigma and Delta Tau Delta fraternities, a technical society, a camera club, a glee and mandolin club and a branch of the college Y. M. C. A. The students publish The Fulci*um, monthly, and the Inte- gral, yearly.
As a whole, Armour Institute of Technology is but one of the sociological results of the scientific spirit of the century. It is an institution with ideals un- tramelled by local traditions. Its large and constantly increasing -number of students shows that it is supply- ing forms of education which are in urgent demand, which can be easily supplied by a new institution, but which are very slowly engrafted upon the long estab- lished curricula of older schools. No effort is made to duplicate good work done elsewhere. The ideals which come from close study and careful thought here have a place for unlimited expansion. With the highest ideals on the part of the president and board of trust- ees as an inspiration, with unlimited freedom in lecture hall and laboratory, the faculty have endeavored to make Armour Institute of Technology not only a con- stant protest against foolish education, but the epitome of the best thought and experience of this age. It might well be called a university of the twentieth century. VICTOR C. ALDERSON.
THE FUTURE OF CHICAGO.
Twenty-five hundred years ago Greece, the Ionian Isles, and the country around the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean sea, were all that were known of the world of literature and of history and of geography. Athens was then the great metropolitan center of the world's civilization, and this city may be considered as the pioneer in city building ; although Egypt ante- dates this period, yet she has left but feeble records to prove any obligations due her from medieval or modern science and art. Omitting the various lesser cities that intervened between Athens and Rome, the latter made an immense advance into the barbarian darkness of Europe by conquering the southern portions of that continent into the aegis of civilization as it ex- isted during the first century. During this period Rome was the great city of the world in a military and even in a commercial sense. Omitting the regime of the Franks, who built few large cities, let us consider London and Paris the immediate precursors of the American cities of New York, Boston and Philadel- phia. These three American cities were pioneers as commercial cities that had no grip upon the spiritual sentiment of the community or the state for support. Geography now allies itself to commerce to promote city building, and Cincinnati, Detroit, Chicago and St. Louis are the result. We have now before us a fair field of rivalry between the cities of the whole world as to future growth and grandeur ; and the city un- trammeled by commercial restrictions or religious
(674)
In 1893 Mr. Leiter gave his daughter Mary V., in marriage to the Hon. George Curzon, M. P. Subsequently Mr. Curzon was appointed Viceroy of British India, when this young Chicago bride became Vicereine, and, with her husband, is greatly beloved by their subjects and honored by the British government and nation.
The Future of Chicago. 675
tribute, and the most favored by geographical condi- tions will, in the near future, win the race. Of these four cities just mentioned, Chicago was the latest one started from nature's wilds, and up to 1860 was the smallest in numbers. Since that date she has grown rapidly and in a very brief space of time has left the others behind in population, and even in wealth. She is now the second city in America and, with New York, stands in open rivalry with London and Paris. Lon- don owes her greatness to her commerce on the high seas, protected by the British navy. Chicago, situated far in the depths of a continent, does not need such protection. The railroads that concentrate here are the avenues of her commerce, added to which are her partial commercial advantages through the great chain of lakes to the east, and her drainage canal to the Mississippi. No other city in the world has such a vast area of productive lands all around her and such facili- ties for extending her streets without crossing streams or without heavy grades. Both national grandeur and urban grandeur are appreciated in proportion as they excel and supersede. The great cities of Europe and America now have natural advantages pretty nearly balanced. National pride and ambition must decide the issue. If British progress! veness and ingenuity exceed American, London will ever, as now, be the largest city in the world. On the other hand, if Ameri- can progressiveness and ingenuity exceed British, either New York or Chicago will ultimately be the largest city in the world. On this latter hypothesis we have the issue narrowed down to New York and Chicago.
Which shall win the prize ?
PREHISTORIC CHICAGO.
Immediately after the treaty of Paris, of 1783, which guaranteed the independence of the United States, Washington, with characteristic forethought coupled with deep penetration, began to take meas- ures to provide against foreign aggression. With this end in view, in 1784, he wrote a letter to Benjamin Harrison, the newly appointed governor of the North- west Territory, urging upon him the necessity of bind- ing together all points of the Union, especially the west with the east, in order to prevent the formation of commercial and consequently political connections with either the Spaniards of the Ploridas, or the Brit- ish of Canada. To effect this he advised the survey of the Potomac and James rivers, and portages from them to the Ohio river at the mouth of the Muskingum, and also from that river to the sources of the Cuyahoga river, for the purpose of opening water communica- tions for the commerce of the Ohio and the lakes to the seaboard. In a letter to Richard Henry Lee, in the same year, he says : "Would it not be worthy of the wisdom and attention of congress to have the western waters well explored, the navigation of them fully ascertained and accurately laid down, and a com- plete and perfect map made of the country, at least as far westerly as the Miamis, running into the Ohio and Lake Erie, and to see how the waters of these communicate with the river St. Joseph, which empties
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GEORGE H. LAFLIN.
George Hinman Laflin, one of Chicago's oldest and most success- ful business men, is a native of Connecticut, born in Canton, Conn., January 19, 1828. His father was Matthew Laflin. His mother was Henrietta Hinman.
Mr. Laflin was the founder of the well known wholesale paper house of G. H. & L. Laflin, afterward Laflin & Butler, and now known as the J. W. Butler Paper Co.; Mr. Laflin himself retiring- from busi- ness in 1872.
Mr. Laflin has seen Chicago grow from an insignificant village to what it now is, the acknowledged metropolis of the West and the sec- ond city in the Union. He recalls with pleasure '' the early days " of
Chicago, and loves to recount his experiences as a member of the old "bucket brigade," which at that time constituted an important fac- tor in Chicago's volunteer fire department. He was also a member of the famous old Red Jack fire engine company.
Mr. Laflin was married on September 3, 1851, to Mary Minerva Brewster, who is a direct descendant of the famous Elder William Brewster.
Mr. Laflin came to Chicago in 1838, and lived in old Fort Dearborn, where his father had rented of Lieutenant Levansworth a house in the barracks. He has a very fine summer home in Pittsfield, Mass., where his children were born. He resides there six months in the year.
(57)
Late Editor Chicago Tribune.
Prehistoric Chicago. 677
into Lake Michigan and with the Wabash ; for I can- not forbear observing that the Miami village * points to a very important post for the Union."
In another letter to Mr. Lee, in 1785, he says : " However singular the opinion may be, I cannot divest myself of it, that the navigation of the Missis- sippi, at this time, ought to be no object with us. On the contrary, until we have a little time allowed to open and make easy the ways between the Atlantic states and the western territory, the obstructions had better remain, t There is nothing that binds one coun- try or one state to another but interest. ' '
From this letter it would appear that Washington attached more importance to the upper lake country and its connections with the James and Potomac rivers than to the lower Mississippi. From this view he took, it is evident that he knew nothing of the Chicago river and its easy portage to the Mississippi river by the way of the Illinois river, the success of which has but recently been achieved by the drainage canal.
The part Spain subsequently took in closing the mouth of the Mississippi against the commerce of the west raised a danger signal from another quarter. General Wilkinson, who had been appointed by Wash- ington to the command of the western army after the death of General Wayne, seeing the difficulties of the western people, particularly the people of Kentucky, in sending their produce to market, commenced intriguing with Spain to bring about a plan of a western independ- ent confederacy forming an alliance with Spain, which power was to grant to this confederacy a place of
* Near the present site of Fort Wayne.
t By these obstructions he meant the closing- of the Mississippi river ag-ainst the commerce of the west.
678
Prehistoric Chicago.
deposit at New Orleans and a highway to the sea by way of the Mississippi river. Spain took kindly to this proposition, as she considered this confederacy would be a bulwark to protect her Floridas and her Mexican
(MAP NO. i)
Map No. 1, taken from United States geological surveys, shows what Chicago was before the lake shore had receded to its present locality.
possessions, also her territory west of the Mississippi river. In accordance with these plans a city was laid out in prospect on the west bank of the Mississippi river, and, in compliment to Spain, was named New
The Vicinity of
CHICAGO
Beiitf a foe-Sim He of
JAMES H. REES
^ HAP OF THAT DATE.
Prehistoric Chicago. 679
Madrid.* This incipient city was destined, as Spain thought, to become the great metropolitan center of the immense west, and ample provisions were made, laying out public squares for state buildings and parks for pleasure grounds, and also public grounds for the erection of theaters and churches. Before the Ameri- can revolution Great Britain had made a conquest from Spain of the Floridas, and she had conveyed the same back to Spain, hence fears had arisen in the minds of American statesmen that Great Britain was to be rewarded for this with the island of New Orleans, as the city and its surroundings were then called; and in- asmuch as Great Britain had still retained possession of Detroit, various surmises as to her future policy were made, which, happily for America, never came to maturity, t All these plottings and counter-plottings did not take into account the part that Chicago was destined to play, simply because they were done and executed during the age of prehistoric Chicago, which never had a history till John Kinzie came there to set- tle in 1804. Spain, with unwarrantable ambition, had built an immense city on paper, wherewith to rival some site where Young America was destined to set his stakes, unhandicapped by political or religious intolerance, and this site was Chicago.
St. Louis was settled and had grown to a promis- ing village under the regime of Spain before these altercations between the United States and that power, as just told, had taken place, and history gives us no clue as to the reason why St. Louis instead of New Madrid was not then considered the most propitious place for the great Spanish city of the west. The fact
* Wilkinson was not the only traitor to America whose designs aimed at a western confederacy. Aaron Burr was equally guilt}-, but the part he took was more subtle and less systematic. His actions were confined to personal applications to those who he thought might favor disunion ; both of them were arrested and tried for treason.
fCol. George Morgan, of New Jersey, was the instrument b}- which this grant was procured from Spain.
680
Prehistoric Chicago.
that St. Louis is now an immense metropolis and that New Madrid is nothing shows the unwisdom of Spanish forecast at that time. Fifteen years later Louisiana was purchased from France by the United States,
(MAP No. 2}
Map No. 2 is also a government map. It shows Chicago many centuries later than Map No. 1, as this city was, even within the memory of men now living. The chief point of interest in this map is to show the lines of accretions. Both these maps are correct cartographic illustrations of previous geological conditions of Chicago.
Spain having ceded that province to that power in 1 801 by the treaty of San-Ildefonso, which cession included the entire territory west of the Mississippi and the island of New Orleans. The negotiations for this
Prehistoric Chicago. 681
purchase were executed at Paris by Robert Livingston and James Monroe on the part of the United States, and Barbe Marbois on the part of France. Had this purchase never been made, Chicago would have been near the western limit of the United States, and con- sequently but an outpost of the commerce of the coun- try, and St. Louis would have been on the eastern verge of whatever nation might own the country west of the Mississippi river.
Both of these cities have an equal interest in the centennial celebration which is to take place in 1904 at St. Louis, albeit St. Louis is the proper place to hold this celebration.
VALEDICTION.
During the years that I have been at work in writing the foregoing volumes, I have felt that, in a certain sense, I have been conversing with my readers; with many of whom (in Chicago] I have had the honor of a personal acquaintance. Much of this work is contemporary his- tory, and on that score will be more valuable than if written subsequently to the time when the events of which it treats transpired. So recent has been the time since Chicago has had a history, that only its beginning had to be taken by the writer from the records that preceded his oivn observa- tion and that of his friends whom he has interviewed. The first steps taken to build a city at the mouth of the Chicago river date from the time when General Wayne, who conquered ' ' Little Turtle, ' ' chief of the Miamis, and obtained from him a deed of land six miles square at the mouth of the Chicago river, " where a fort formerly stood, built by Durantaye in 1 785. ' ' This deed was obtained at the treaty of Greenville, June, 1795. (See Vol. I, p. 304-} Here is the foundation on which was built Chicago history. The building of Fort Dearborn, finished in 1804, was the first link in its chain. The advent of John Kinzie, ivho came to Chicago the same year, was the next. He died previous to the loriter^s advent to Chicago. With John H. Kinzie, his son; Gurdon S. Ilubbard, L. C. P. Freer, Isaac N. Arnold, Mark Skinner, C. C. P. Ilolden, Zebina Eastman and many others who came soon after John Kinzie, the 10 riter was famil- iarly acquainted, and has conferred with them as to the early history of Chicago. Chicago now contains, in round num- bers, 2,000,000 people, and the work done to bring Chicago up to this point has been mostly of a physical character. It is but a few years that artistic and educational influences have lent their aid to put on the Praxitelean touches to constitute a city worthy of its eastern progenitors. These touches consist of the University of Chicago, the North- western University, Lewis Institute, the Art Institute, Acad- emy of Sciences and Armour Institute. Tfiese are but pio- neers in the work of making Chicago what it ought to be, and what it surely will be when it takes upon itself the responsibilities that numbers and wealth and the present age of invention and higher standard of civilization will demand. Portraits which best represent the interests of education and the amenities of social life are herewith
Pnnt€cL RUFUS BLANCHARD.
CHICAGO, January, 1903.
L^L^^^^
GENERAL.
Anti-Slavery Agitation in
Illinois, 125
Armour Institute, .... 668 Art Institute, . . • . . .339
Ashburton-Webster Treaty, . 374
Associated Press, .... 56 Astoria Established by John
Jacob Astor, 373
Black Laws of Illinois, ... 289
Brown, John, in Chicago, . . 299
Cahokia, 553
Chicago Academyjof Sciences, 497
Chicago American, .... 242
Chicago & North-Western Ry. , 100
Chicago Chartered as a City, . 9
Chicago Chronicle, 240
Chicago Daily News and Record, 259
Chicago Evening Journal, . . 248
Chicago Evening Post, . . . 245
Chicago Fire Department, . 158
Chicago Inter-Ocean, .... 237
Chicago Library Association, 467 Chicago Manual Training
School, 493
Chicago Public Library, . . 478
Chicago Relief and Aid Society 152
Chicago River and its Bridges, 149
Chicago Times- Her aid, . . . 243
Chicago Tribune, History of, . 229
Chicago, The Future of, . . 674
City Limits of Chicago, . . 16
City Press Association. . . 65
Columbus, Death of , . . . . 429
Commercial History of Illinois 225
Congress of Religions, . . . 449 Datum, Table of, from 1854 to
1899, 170
Die Freie Pres.se of Chicago, . 247 Drainage Canal of Chicago, . 172 Early Commerce of the Lakes, 187 Evans, John, Founder of Evans- ton, 642
Field Columbian Museum, . 190 First Mayor of Chicago, Elec- tion of, 10
Flood of Chicago, 1849, . . 20
Garrett Biblical Institute, . 642 Grade of Chicago Streets First
Established, 15
Gray, Capt. Robert, Circum- navigates the Earth, . . 371 Gray, Capt. Robert, Sails up
the Columbia River, . . 371 Great Fire of 1871, .... 70 Horse Railroads, First in Chi- cago, 52
Illinois Admitted into the
Union as a State, . . . 559 Illinois and Michigan Canal, . 163 Illinois Central Railroad, . . 578 Illinois Organized as a Terri- tory, . . 558
Illinois Staats Zeitung, . . . 253
Illinois under American Rule, 555
Illinois under English Rule, . 554
Illinois under the French, . 551 Iroquois, The — Their Influence
on the United States . . 561
John Crerar Library, . . . 545
Kinzie, John, 608
Kinzie, John — His Autograph
Letter, 607
Kinzie, John Harris, . . . 609 Kinzie, John and Arthur — Sons
of John Harris Kinzie, . . 612
Kinzie, Mrs. Juliette Augusta, 610 Kinzie, Mrs. Nellie Kinzie Gordon — Daughter of John
Harris Kinzie, .... 613
Laflin, Mathew, 543
Lake Shore Drive Laid out. . 602
Lake Tunnels, Description of, 48 Lewis and Clark's Expedition
to the Pacific Coast, . . 372
Index.
GENERAL— CONTINUED.
Lewis Cass, Gen., .... 609
Lewis Institute, .... 659 Louisiana Purchased by the
United States, . . . .371 Louisiana Transferred from
France to the United States 385 Mackinac,The Commercial
Center of the Northwest, . 609
Mayors of Chicago, List of, . 17 Mission of the Immaculate
Conception, 552
Naming America, .... 386
Newberry Library, .... 569
Newspapers, List of, in 1900, . 8
North western University, . . 635
Old Mackinaw in 1818, ... 313
Oregon, 369
Oregon Boundary Established
by Treaty, 380
Palmer, Potter, 598
Park System, 601
Population of Chicago, . . 18
Postoffice in Chicago, . . . 175
Prehistoric Chicago, . . . 676
Press of Chicago, .... 6
Ptolemy 392
Public Debts of Chicago, . . 18
Public Surveys, 487
Railroads Entering Chicago on Their Own Track August
1,1900, 227
Railroad System of the North- west 94
Red Jacket, 566
Republican Convention of 1860, 113 Rocheblave, Governor of
Illinois under England, . . 554 Russia Relinquishes All Ter- ritory South of 52° 40' . . 369 School System of Chicago Established, ...... 12
Settlement of Illinois, . . . 333 Sewerage System of Chicago
Inaugurated, 13
Skinner, Mark, 604
Skinner, Richard, .... 606 Slave Sold at Auction in
Chicago, 283
St. Die Pamphlet, 388
State Street Widened, ... 599
Stone, H. O., Reminiscences of, 181
Taxes, 18
Todd, John, 555
Tunnels of Chicago, ... 24
Underground Railroad, . . 269
University of Chicago, . . 615
Utrecht, Treaty of, ... 373
Valediction, 682
Van Buren Street Tunnel. . 31
Wards and City Limits, . . 12
Washburne, E. B., .... 123
Water Supply of Chicago, . 34 Water Tunnels and Intake
Cribs, . 49
Whitman, Marcus, .... 382
World's Columbian Exposition 386
Yerkes Observatory, . . . 219
Young Men's Association, . 463
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Aboriginal Iroquois Fort, . . 563
Art Institute, . . . 342, 344, 345,
346, 347, 349, 350, 351, 353, 354, 355,
356, 357, 359, 360, 362, 363, 365, 366
Chicago Academy of Science, 498
Chicago in 1853, 112
Chicago Public Library, . . 486 Chicago University Buildings,
. . 617, 619, 621, 623, 625, 627, 629
Chicago's First Fire Engine, . 159 Early News and Periodical
Store, 560
Early Surveys around Chicago, 490
Field Columbian Museum, . 191 Field's Museum Views,
. 202, 207, 209, 211, 213, 215, 217 First Building in Burnt Dis- trict, 93
Index.
ILLUSTRATIONS— CONTINUED.
First Chicago Postoffice, . . 175 First Map of North and South
America, 391
Kaskaskia State House, . . 554
Lake Tunnels, 51
Main Entrance to Academy of
Science, 532
Map of Chicago and Vicinity
in 1851, 678
Model of the Moon, .... 219
Newberry & Dole Warehouse, 18
Newberry Library, .... 577
Newberry Library Views, .
....... 571, 573, 575
Northwestern University, . .
643,645,647,649
Seal of Chicago, 16
Stage Office, 228
The Art Institute of Chicago, 338 The First Passenger Station
in Chicago, Ill
World's Fair Illustrations, 441-449 World's Zone of Commerce, . 110
PORTRAITS.
Andrews, Edmund, . , . . . 525
Blatchford, Eliphalet W.. . 510
Bonney, Charles Caroll, . . 449
Bross, William 605
Brown, John, 299
Bryan, Thomas B. , . . . .440
Carpenter, Philo, .... 273
Chamberlain, Thomas C.. . . 537
Columbus, Christopher, . . 434
Crerar, John, 545
DeWolf , Calvin 275
Dyer, Charles V., .... 295
Eastman, Zebina, .... 312
Field, Marshall, 196
Freer, L. C. Paine, .... 289
Gage, Lyman J., .... 435
Gordon, Nelly Kinzie, ... 612
Goudy, William C., . . . . 531
Harper, William R., ... 614
Harrison, Carter H., Sr., . . 438
Higinbotham, Harlow N., . 436
Kurd, Harvey B., . . . . 310
James, Edmund Janes, . . . 637
Jefferson, Thomas, .... 368
Jones, John, 297
Kennicott, Robert. .... 506
Kinzie, John H., 609
Kinzie, Juliette A., . . . .610
Laflin, George H.. .... 676
Laflin, Mathew, 542
Leiter, L. Z., 676
Lewis, Allen C., . . . . . 659 Lewis, Captain Meriwether,
and Monument, .... 368
Lincoln, Abraham, .... 122
Livingston, Robert R., . . 384
McCagg, Ezra B. , .... 500
Medill, Joseph, 676
Newberry, Walter, .... 568
Palmer, Mrs. Potter, ... 439
Palmer, Potter, 598
Pinkerton, Allan 304
Ptolemy, Claudius, .... 390
Rogers, Henry Wade, . . . 641
Scammon, J. Young, . . . 502
Schneider, George, .... 291
Sheppard, Robert D. . . . 639
Skinner, Mark, 604
Stimpson, William, .... 508
Velie, J. W., 526
Walker, George C 528
Washburne, E. B., . . . . 123
Washburne, Hempstead, . . 437
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